Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/manufactureofpap01davi THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER: BEING A DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIOUS PROCESSES FOR THE FABRICATION, COLORING, AND FINISHING OF EVERY KIND OF PAPER; INCLUDING THE DIFFERENT RAW MATERIALS AND THE METHODS FOR DETERMINING THEIR VALUES; THE TOOLS, MACHINES, AND PRACTICAL DETAILS CONNECTED WITH AN INTELLIGENT AND A PROFITABLE PROSECUTION OF THE ART, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE BEST AMERICAN PRACTICE. TO WHICH ARE ADDED A HISTORY OF PAPER, COMPLETE LISTS OF PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS, LISTS OF AMERICAN MACHINES, TOOLS, AND PROCESSES USED IN TREATING THE RAW MATERIALS, AND IN MAKING, COLORING, AND FINISHING PAPER. BY CHARLES THOMAS DAVIS, AUTHOR OF THE " MANUFACTURE OF LEATHER," "A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS, TILES, AND TERRA-COTTA," ETC. ETC. v ILLUSTRATED BY ONE HUNDRED AND EIGHTY ENGRAVINGS. PHILADELPHIA: HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS, No. 810 WALNUT STREET. LONDON : SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE & RIVINGTON, CROWN BUILDINGS, 1SS FLEET STREET. 1886. r ^ * .y Copyright by CHARLES THOMAS DAVIS, 1886. Copyright by HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 1886. Gift of Samuel Hay Kauffmann 26 - - A -■: 1907 Collins Printi.no House, 705 Jayne Street. 11 -&qil / PREFACE. To tell the story of the manufacture of paper and descrihe con- cisely the processes employed in the various stages of paper- making, and give an account of all the known substances that have ever been used for the purposes for which we employ paper is by no means an easy task. At the present time, when books, newspapers, and other periodicals are issued to the world in numbers almost beyond calculation, certainly no apology is due for a dissertation on the manufacture of paper, on the score of the lack of importance of that article. The remarkable advance which has been made in the United States in all classes of manufactures during the past twenty years has excited alike the admiration and the envy of the civilized world, but in no industry has greater progress been made than in the fabrication of paper. The great ingenuity and intelligence of our people, coupled with an abundance of all the raw materials used in paper-making, have aided in developing that industry in this country to proportions entirely unknown in any other country on the globe. It was the writer's first intention to have devoted the book entirely to a description of the " practical" processes employed IV PREFACE. in paper-making in various parts of the world; and to this end he collected in the United States, Germany, France, Belgium, and Great Britain a large amount of so-called "practical infor- mation." But upon a reconsideration of the subject, and by the advice of some of the leading paper-makers in the United States and in Europe, he decided that the publication of such information would prove of little value to the paper trade, for the reason that paper-makers in the United States have little to learn from the paper manufacturers of Europe. The machinery and processes in use in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe are far behind those employed in the United States, consequently the author determined that the book should be confined almost exclusively to a description of the machines and processes em- ployed in the leading mills of this country. In order that such descriptions should not be too meagre the size of the volume has been materially enlarged over that at first contemplated. If American readers of the present volume complain that the author has described at length processes and machines which are already familiar to them through trade publications or otherwise, they should remember that such inventions are probably not so fami- liar to those engaged in paper-making in foreign countries whence a considerable proportion of the present edition of this book will go. On account of the importance of the acid or bisulphite pro- cesses for making pulp from wood, etc., the author has given considerable space to a description of such processes, and while he thinks the apparatus employed in working these processes is much too cumbersome and expensive for general use, he could PREFACE. V not on that account omit a description of them ; nor should he be held accountable for the defects in such processes, the aim in view being to present a description of the state of the art as it exists at the present time. It would, of course, be impossible, in a book the size of the present one, to describe all the processes and machines which have been invented and used in paper-making in the United States ; but the lists of patents which this volume con- tains give reference to the number and date of nearly all the inventions which have been patented in the United States since the year 1790 to the end of the year 1885, and copies of all patents issued subsequent to the year 1866 can be obtained, upon application to the Commissioner of Patents, at a cost of twenty- five cents each. Patents issued prior to the year 1866 require to be copied in manuscript, and the cost of such copies depends upon the number of words contained in the patent. CHARLES T. DAVIS. "Washington, D. C, 1114 Pennsylvania Ave., July 1, 1886. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. The History of the Manufacture of Paper. PAGE Alliance between the manufacture of paper and progress in civilization . J 7 Materials belonging to the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms used for records of human intelligence . . . . . . • .18 Clay and Terra-cotta used for bank notes, public records, etc., in Nineveh and Babylon ; Histories of Chaldea, Babylonia, and Assyria found on clay tablets ............ 1 9 Terra-cotta tablets in the British Museum ; The history of Creation and of the Flood found on terra-cotta tablets ....... 20 Egyptian papyri in the British Museum ; Description of the three forms of writing used by the Egyptians, Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and the Demotic 21 Characteristic differences of the works written with Hieratic and Demotic characters ............ 22 Form and size of the Egyptian papyri ; Depositories of cylindrical rolls of papyrus ; Introduction of papyrus among the Western nations aided by Alexander ; Description of papyrus ....... 23 Papyrus superseded by cotton paper ; Leather used, by the Israelites ; Probable invention of parchment ; Manufacture and present use of parch- ment ............. 24 Chinese use of the inner bark of the bamboo ; Origin of the word paper ; Modern materials used in the manufacture of paper; Other uses for paper than as a printing and writing material ..... 25 Uncertainty of the precise time of the introduction of modern paper ; "Rewards offered by M. Miserman and the Royal Society of Sciences at Gottingen for oldest manuscripts written upon rag paper ; Tract of Peter, Abbot of Cluny, A. D., 1122-50, giving the first mention of rag paper ............ 26 Paper from fibrous materials and cotton-wool made by the Chinese, in A. D. 152; Cotton paper and its manufacture made known to the Western world by the Arabs ; Materials used by the Chinese in manufacture of paper .............27 Vlll CONTENTS. Various titles applied to cotton paper in the Middle Ages ; Early use of cotton paper by the Arabians ; Remarks upon the existing samples of cotton-paper MSS. written in European countries . .... 28 Copies of statutes left by Empress Irene, in the eleventh or twelfth cen- tury ; Use of paper among the Greeks ; The oldest European documents on cotton paper ; Arabians introduce paper into Spain, in 704 . . 29 Valencia, Xativa, and Toledo, the primitive seats of cotton-paper industry in Europe; Introduction by the Crusaders, in 1189, of manufacture of cotton paper into France; Rapid development of the paper trade in France in the fourteenth century ........ 30 Superiority, during a long period, of French and Dutch papers ; Manufac- ture of paper in England ; First English paper patent . . . .31 Manufacture of paper in Italy after the fall of the Moorish power in Spain ; Establishment of paper-mills in Germany ...... 32 Arabians, in Spain, the first to mix rags with cotton pulp ; First manufac- ture of linen paper in Europe ; Discussion by James Yates as to the period and manner of the invention of linen paper .... 33 Specimens of linen paper described by Gotthelf Fischer, and by Schwand- ner 34 Uncertainty of the circumstances which led to the invention of linen paper; Remark by the Arabian physician, Abdollatiph, upon the sale of cloth found in the catacombs ......... 35 Abundant testimony that Egypt supplied all Europe with papyrus until near the close of the eleventh century ; Introduction of cotton paper into Europe in the eleventh century . . . . . . . .36 Superior facilities of the Egyptians for improvement in manufacture of paper; Extract from Petrus Cluniacensis . . . . . .37 Linen paper proved to be an Eastern invention, and first introduced into Europe by the Saracens of Spain ; Papers with and without water-marks 39 Varieties of paper and water-marks serve as a guide to approximating the periods of undated documents ; Peculiarities of rag paper at different periods of its manufacture ......... 40 Paper mills in Europe, in January, 1886 ; Enumeration of the countries in Europe according to their relative importance in paper manufacture ; Modern paper-mills in Japan, India, and Australia . . . .41 Comparative production of paper in Canada, South America, Cuba, and Mexico ; United States the greatest paper manufacturing country in the world ; Manufacture of paper in England ...... 42 Progress of paper manufacture impeded in the United States by industrial depressions, arising from financial complications ; First paper-mill in the American Colonies established by the efforts of William Bradford, one of the earliest printers .......... 43 CONTENTS. IX PAGE First paper-mill in the Colonies built by William Rittenhiiysen (William Rittenhouse) on Paper Mill Run, near Philadelphia ; Ivy Mill, in Dela- ware County, Pa., built by Thomas Willcox, .in 1727 ; Paper-mills in Massachusetts under an exclusive patent, in 1728 ..... 44 Difficulty of procuring suitable workmen causes the stoppage of the mill . 45 Paper-mill in Connecticut established by a State bounty in 1768 ; Paper- mills in America at the commencement of the Revolution . . .46 Invention of making paper of large size, by N. L. Robert, of Essonnes, France ; French bounty to aid the inventor ; Transfer of the machine to England 47 English patent to John Gamble for improvement of Robert's machine; Patent to Henry Fourdrinier for manufacturing paper of an indefinite length .48 History of the Fourdrinier machine ; Paper-mills' in the United States in 1810 ' . • . . .49 Value of paper produced in the United States in 1810; Importation of rags from Europe ; Development of American industry by the War of 1812; American patent system; Destruction of Patent-office by fire in 1836 . . ' 50 American patents for manufacture of paper; John Dickinson's invention patented in England, in 1809 ; Mr. Canson's improvement of the Four- drinier machine, in 1826 . . . . . . . . .51 U. S. patent to Thomas Gilpin, of Philadelphia, for paper-making machine, in 1816 ; Thomas Gilpin's mills on the Brandywine for the manufacture of wool, cotton, and paper ; Disastrous results to wool and cotton manufac- tures by English competition after the close of the war ... . .52 Paper cut from a continuous sheet sent by Thos. Gilpin to Philadelphia ; Poulson's "Daily Advertiser" the first publication printed upon it; M. Carey & Son's Historical Atlas of Lavoisne, printed on paper made by T. Gilpin, in 1821 53 Loss of Thomas Gilpin's mills by a flood, in 1822; Destination of the paper industry in Pennsylvania and Delaware by heavy importations of paper for want of proper protection; Tariff Act of April 26, 1816 ; Congres- sional use of paper imported from England and France .... 54 List of patents for paper manufacture issued by the United States, from 1820 to 1830 ........... 55 Encouragement to cylinder machines of American invention after 1822 ; Value of the machinery and paper-mill property stated at the convention of paper-makers, in 1842 . . . . . . . . .56 Keller's invention for grinding wood for manufacture of pulp ; Henry Voelter's improvement of the pulp-machine, patented in the United States ; Prejudice against wood-paper overcome by stratagem in Boston . 57 Superiority of wood-paper for rapid printing . . . . . .58 X CONTENTS. PAGE Great improvements in manufacture of paper since 18G0 .... 59 Comparison of decades 1830-1840 and 1840-1850; Advance in price of paper between 1850-1855 60 Census returns of 1860 of paper-making ; Paper as a substitute for cotton after the outbreak of the Civil War ; Prices of paper in 1862 . . 61 Decline in price of paper after 1865 ; Introduction of wood-pulp and large consumption of straw for newspaper ; New materials for manufacture of Manilla paper ; Large number of patents issued for paper-making from 1865 to 1885; Cheapening of paper production from 1870 to 1885 . . 62 CHAPTER II. Materials used for Paper — Micrographical Study of the Manu- facture of Paper — Cellulose — Determination of Cellulose — Recognition of Vegetable Fibres. Materials used for paper .......... 64 Micrographic study of the manufacture of paper ; Necessary qualities of fibres for paper-making ; Five classes of paper-making substances ; Cellu- lose an especially characteristic product of the vegetable kingdom . . 77 Hydrocellulose and oxycellulose, with their chemical characteristics . . 78 Determination of cellulose ; Muller's processes for . . . . .79 Improvement by Bevan and Cross upon Muller's processes ... 80 Recognition of vegetable fibres ; Filaments of cotton as shown by the micro- scope ; Distinguishing feature of cotton filament from all other vegetable fibres . 81 Linen or flax fibre as seen under the microscope ; Effects of caustic potash upon linen and cotton fibres ; Effects produced upon linen and cotton fibres and tissues by their immersion in oil . . . . .82 Distinguishing properties of New Zealand flax, hemp-fibre, sizal, and jute fibres 83 Examining fibres under the microscope ....... 84 CHAPTER III. Commercial Classifications of Paper — Sizes of Paper — Commercial Classifications of Paper-Making Materials. Classifications of papers and boards in the markets of the United States . 85 Sizes of papers ; News ; Machine finished book, white and toned . . 86 Sized super calendered book, white and toned ; Colored cover papers ; Ma- nillas; Flat writings ; " Linen" bank-ledger papers .... 87 Commercial classifications of paper-making materials ; Rags ; Classifications of rags as quoted in the markets of the United States and Great Britain . 88 CONTENTS. XI PAGE Classifications of rope, bagging and threads, shavings and old papers . . 90 Classifications of fibres, coir goods, gutta-percha, India-rubber, wastes, and wood-pulps ............ 91 Classifications of straw-pulp and Esparto grass ; List of chemicals, clays, minerals, rosins, etc., employed in paper-making 92' List of aniline dyes ........... 93 CHAPTER IV. Manufacture of Paper by Hand. Condition of paper-making at the beginning of the present century ; Use of hand-made writing paper in Europe ....... 94 Mouldiug of paper by hand ......... 95 Taking the paper from the mould, draining, sizing, and drying . . .96 Illustration of process for making paper by hand . . . . .97 Water-mark in hand-made papers ; Production of hand-made paper in the United States and in Great Britain . . . . . . .98 CHAPTER V. Disinfecting Rags — Purchasing Rags. Quarantine regulations for disinfection of rags ; Disinfection with sulphurous acid, or by boiling under pressure ........ 99 Parker's and Blackmail's apparatus for disinfecting rags and other fibrous substances while in the bale, illustrated with detailed description . .100 Beneficial results claimed by the patentees ] 05 Purchasing rags ; Frauds in baling of rags ; City and country rags ; Detec- tion of moisture in rags . . . . . . . . .107 Detection of jute in linen ; Destroying cotton in linen by use of concen- trated sulphuric acid . . . . . . . . . .108 CHAPTER VI. Sorting Rags — Sorting Waste Paper — Sorting or "Dry-Picking" Esparto— Machine for Facilitating the Sorting of Paper Stock. Cleaning the dust, sand, and other matters from the rags before sorting ; Sorting according to fibre and color . . . . . . .109 Classification of rags according to fibre and color ; Sorting waste paper . 110 Duty of sorters ; Testing of waste paper Ill Xll CONTENTS. PAGE Sorting or "dry-picking" Esparto ; Dry-picking a term used in contradis- tinction to wet-picking . . . . . . . . . .112 Machine for facilitating the sorting of paper stock ; Apparatus of Robert and Walter Moorhouse, Philadelphia, illustrated with detailed de- scription . . . . . . . . . . . .113 CHAPTER VII. Cutting Rags by Hand — Cutting Rags by Machinery — List of Pat- ents for Rag Cutters and Dusters — Cutting Wood for Chemical Fibre — Treating Wood before Grinding — Voelter's Machine for Cutting or Grinding Wood — List of Patents for Wood-Grinders — Corn-Husk Cutter. Cutting rags by hand ; Apparatus of Edgar D. Aldrich, of Pittsfield, Massa- chusetts, illustrated with detailed description . . . . .117 Manner of cutting rags by hand . . . . . . . .119 Precautions requisite in manufacture of fine paper . . . . .120 Cutting rags by machinery . . . . . . . . .121 Taylor's machine for cutting rags, illustrated with detailed description . 122 Baumann's rag-cutting machine, illustrated with detailed description . . 130 Coburn's machine for cutting rags, etc., or materials containing metallic and other substances, illustrated with detailed description . . . .133 Taylor's machine for separating metallic substances from paper stock, illus- trated with detailed description . . . . . . . .139 Other rag-cutting machines ......... 142 Sizes of the cut rags ; List of patents for rag-cutters and clusters issued by the government of the United States of America from 1790 to 1885 in- clusive ............. 143 Straw-cutters; Treatment of the straw . . . . . . .144 Cutting wood for chemical fibre ; Treating wood before grinding . . 145 Process of George F. Cushman, of Burnet, Vermont, for disintegration of wood fibres ............ 146 Voelter's machine for cutting or grinding wood and reducing it to pulp ; Condition of wood grinding prior to Voelter's invention . . . 148 Illustration and detailed description of Voelter's apparatus . . . 150 Operation of Voelter's machine ........ 158 Nature, etc., of the pulp produced by Voelter's method ; illustration and detailed description of a plant for producing pulp by the Voelter process 164 List of patents for wood grinders issued by the Government of the United States, from 1790 to 1885, inclusive 166 Corn husk cutter ; Apparatus of William A. Wright, illustrated with de- tailed description . „ . . . . . . . .171 CONTENTS. Xlll CHAPTER VIII. Dusting Rags — Wet Dusting — Waste-Paper Duster and Washer. PAGE Dusting rags ; The operation as generally performed . . . .175 Dusters consisting of a revolving drum with loose or swinging arms ; De- scription of rag dusting machines in use in England, Belgium, and other parts of the Continent and in the United States ; Combination of the "devil" and duster . . . . . . . ■ . . 176 The waste from dusting, etc. ; Mean waste in the dusting, according to Prouteaux ; Waste of rags from moisture, overhauling, cutting, and dust- ing . . . . . . . . . . . . .178 A machine for reducing the loss in cleaning cut rags; Apparatus of J. B. Hart and Emory H. Walker, illustrated with detailed description . .179 Wet dusting ; Combined washing or cleansing and boiling process ; Appa- ratus of W. E. Newton, illustrated with detailed description . . . 185 Waste-paper duster and washer ; Apparatus of Hiram Allen and Lyman S. Mason, illustrated with detailed description . . • . . 189 Combination of an automatic transferring device, with the dusting engine and pulping vat to avoid having a large pile of loose dry paper in the mill .193 Elevator for transferring loose papers into the circuit vat . . . .194 Temperature of the water in the pulping vat ; Use of solvent for dissolution of ink when printed papers are used . . . . . . .195 Transforming printed papers into clean, refined, and bleached pulp . .196 Preferable arrangement of the dusting engine with the pulping and wash- ing vats ; Arrangement for tearing apart folded papers, pamphlets, etc., sorting and freeing from dust . . . . . . . .197 Illustration and detailed description of the machinery . . . .198 List of American patents for rag dusters ....... 202 CHAPTER IX. Boiling Rags — Stationary Boilers — Revolving Boilers — Treating Colored Rags — Boiling Waste Paper — Boiling Straw — Boiling Esparto — Boiling Manilla and Jute — Boiling Wood — Soda Re- covery — Acid or Bisulphite Processes op Treating Wood — List of Patents for Preparing Cellulose from Wood by the Acid or Bisulphite Processes — List of Patents for Digesters with Lead Linings — List of all American Patents for Digesters for Paper Pdlp — Methods other than the Mechanical, Soda, and Bisulphite Processes for the Treatment of Wood. Boiling rags ; Importance of intelligent care in boiling .... 203. Objects to be gained by boiling ; Alkaline substances employed in boiling; XIV CONTENTS. PAGE Chemical substances ; Illustration of spherical boiler used in Europe and in the United States .......... 204 Use of lime and soda in boiling rags ....... 205 Solvent properties of water ; Pressure of steam for boiling rags ; Mixture of lime and soda ash .......... 206 Proportions of lime and soda used in Europe for boiling the various stuffs ; Preparation of the milk of lime . . . . . . . . 207 Introduction of sodarash into the boiler ; Caustic soda employed in boiling the different classes of rags ......... 208 Stationary boilers ; Illustration and description of a stationary boiler much used in Great Britain . . . . . . . . . .209 Revolving boilers . . . . . . . . . . .210 Boiler of George F. Wilson, illustrated with detailed description . . 211 Improved strainer for the blow-off of paper stock boilers ; Illustration of an ordinary rotary boiler, with detailed description . . . . .215 Strainer invented by Benjamin F. Mullen, illustrated with detailed descrip- tion . . . .217 Treating colored rags ; Course practically pursued by paper manufacturers in preparing their paper stock ; Patented process of George F. Wilson and Philip O'Reilley, with illustration of apparatus and detailed descrip- tion . 219 Operation of preparing the stock ........ 221 Use of permanganate of potash, and of the soluble salt of manganese . 223 Boiling waste paper ; Extraction of writing ink ; Tubs used for boiling waste paper ............ 224 Proper mode of conducting the boiling operation ; Distribution of the soda- ash solution ; Covering the iron tubs with wood or asbestos to prevent the escape of heat ; Treatment of the liquor after each boiling . . 225 Profitable use of waste steam from the engine ; Properties of the latent heat of steam ; Distillation in vacuo at a low temperature effects no saving in fuel ; Treating waste paper so as to make paper entirely therefrom . 226 Process patented by J. T. Ryan ........ 227 Other methods of treating waste papers ....... 228 Boiling straw ; Mellier's process for treating straw ..... 229 Burns' s process for treating straw ; Illustrations and detailed description of Burns' s vessel for boiling the straw ; Disintegrating machine, and station- ary grinding disk. . . . . . . . . . .231 Boiling coal tar with the alkalies employed in treating straw . . .235 Other methods of treating straw ; Treatment of corn leaves and stalks of oat, barley, wheat, and rye straw ........ 236 Boiling esparto . . . . . . . . . . .237 Statement showing the amount of caustic soda for boiling different varieties of esparto . " . . . . . . . ... 238 CONTENTS. XV PAGE Boiling Manilla and jute ......... 239 Conley's process for boiling and bleaching jute ; Preparatory operations . 240 Equivalents for standards of caustic alkali ; Two points of prime import- ance in this process ; Advantages claimed for this process . . .241 Other experiments in using jute in the manufacture of so-called white paper ; Boiling wood ; Chemically prepared wood-pulp ; Process of Sinclair and of Houghton 242 Difficulties encountered in boiling chipped wood with caustic soda at a high temperature; Use of bisulphite of lime, and of bisulphite of magnesia to prevent oxidation and weakening of the fibres ..... 243 Process patented by Dr. Mitscherlich, of Prussia, of preparing cellulose from wood ............ 244 Difficulty caused by the use of bisulphite ; Plan proposed by Putter and Kellner to overcome . ... . . . . . . 245 Objection to the cellulose obtained from wood by the acid processes ; Pure cellulose only obtained by exhaustion in an alkaline solution subsequent to the acid treatment ; Woods commonly used in the manufacture of "chemical wood-pulp;" Boiling with soda; Description of apparatus for cutting wood into chips ......... 24G Dahl's process of producing cellulose from wood, straw, esparto, or other vegetable matters, by boiling them under pressure in a hydrated solution containing sulphate of soda, carbonate of soda, soda hydrate, and sodium sulphide . . . . . . . . . . . .249 Defects of boilers for digesting wood by the soda process .... 252 Marshall's boiler for digesting wood by the soda process ; Illustrated with detailed description . . ' . . . . . . . . 254 Soda recovery ; Illustration of a Porrion, evaporating, and incinerating oven with detailed description ... . . . . . . .258 Acid or bisulphide process of treating wood ; Graham's method of treating wood and other fibrous substances for the production of fibre, for paper- making, etc., by the injection of sulphurous acid, either alone or in com- bination with potash, soda, magnesia, lime, or other suitable base in the form of a solution containing an excess of acid, into a closed or open vessel, or digester, during the operation of boiling .... 260 Mitscherlich' s processes of preparing cellulose from wood .... 263 Illustration and detailed description of Dr. Mitscherlich' s apparatus . . 264 Operation of Dr. Mitscherlich' s apparatus . . . . . .271 Francke's process of manufacturing paper-pulp from wood, esparto, straw, etc. 274 Francke's apparatus illustrated with detailed description . .. . . 277 Operation of Francke's apparatus ........ 285 Some of the defects of the acid or bisulphide process of treating wood . 289 Pictet and Brelaz's process of treating wood for conversion into paper-pulp, which consists in first subjecting the same to the action of a vacuum and XVI CONTENTS. to that of a sursaturated solution of sulphurous acid at a temperature not exceeding 212° F 290 Marshall's boiler for treating -wood for paper-pulp by the acid or bisulphide processes, illustrated with detailed description ..... 292 List of patents for preparing cellulose from wood by acid or bisulphide pro- cesses issued by the Government of the United States from 1790 to 1885 inclusive ; List of patents for digesters with lead linings to be used in the preparation of cellulose, issued by the Government of the United States from 1790 to 1885 inclusive 295 List of all patents for digesters for paper-pulp, issued by the Government of the United States, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive 296 Methods other than the mechanical, soda, and bisulphite processes for the treatment of wood-; Aussedat's process of treating wood; Description of the apparatus . ... • • • • • . . . 299 Machine for crushing wood invented and patented in France by Iwan Koechlin 302 Description of the mills used in France by Mr. Aussedat .... 303 Results from experiments made at the Onnonay Laboratory with steam ; Experiments made to bleach the more or less reddish pulp with hydro- chloric or azotic acids, and by fermentation of beer yeast . . . 304 Bachet-Machard process of disintegrating wood ..... 305 Results from the Bachet-Machard method ... . . . . 30G Percentage yield of pulp from esparto, and straw, and pine wood ; Classi- fication of the succedaneous pulps ; Treating wood with aqua regia ; Treating wood with ammonia, etc. . . . . . . .307 CHAPTER X. Washing Rags — Washing Waste Paper or " Imperfections" — Wash- ing Straw — Washing Wood-Pulp — Washing and Pouching Esparto — Wash- Water — List of Patents for Pulp-Washing and Straining. Washing rags ; The Hollander rag engine ...... 309 Illustration and detailed description of the principal parts of the rag engine used in the United States . . . . . . . . .310 Approximate waste from washing, boiling, and reduction of the rags to half- stuff 316 Washing waste paper or "imperfections" ; Stock designated as "imperfec- tions" . . . . . . . . . . . . .317 Difficulty experienced in re-pulping clippings and scraps of paper . . 319 Process of Charles Coon for repulping paper-stock . . . . 320 Ordinary method of bleaching ........ 322 Washing; straw . . . . . . . . . . .323 CONTENTS. XV11 PAGE Washing wood-pulp ; Treatment of mechanically- prepared and of chemically- prepared wood-pulp . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Washing and "pouching" esparto . . . . . . . . 325 Description of the poacher or " potching engine" ..... 326 List of American patents for washing engines ; Wash water . . . 327 Composition and characteristics of pure water ..... 328 Constituents of rain water and of spring water ..... 329 Constituents of river water ; Dr. Clark's soap test for hardness of water . 330 Determination of constituents and hardness of water; Qualitative examina- tion of water as to its admixtures . . . ... . . . 331 Danger of using apparatus containing chemical tests without a proper knowledge of chemistry ......... 332 A determination of hardness with alcoholic soap solution serves in most cases as a substitute for a quantitative analysis; Distinction between "total hardness," " permanent hardness," and " temporary hardness" . . 333 Standard soap solution ; Standard calcic chloride solution . . . 334 Clark's table of hardness ; Table of hardness in parts per 100,000 . . 335 Conversion of English degrees of hardness into German, and vice versa ; Purification of water to be used in making best qualities of paper . .337 List of patents for pulp washing and straining issued by the government of . the United States, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive ..... _ 338 CHAPTER XL Bleaching Powder — Estimation of Chlorine in Bleaching Powder — Preparing and Using the Bleaching Solution — Zinc Bleach Liquor- — Alumina Bleach Liquor — Draining — Sour Bleaching — Bleaching with Gas — Bleaching Pulp made from old Papers or Imperfections — Bleaching Straw — Bleaching Wood Fibre — Method for Bleaching Wood, Straw, etc — Bleaching Jute — Bleaching of Materials composed of Hemp, Flax, etc. — Bleaching Vegetable Tissues with Permanganate of Potash — Bleaching Paper Pulp by applying the Bleaching Agent in a Sprayed Con- dition — Bleaching in Rotaries — List of Patents for Bleaching Pulp. Bleaching powder ; Chemical constitution as given by different authorities 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 Chemical annotations upon bleaching powder . Precautions necessary in using bleaching powder Decomposition of bleaching powder .... Pattinson's statement of loss of strength of bleaching powder Estimation of chlorine in bleaching powder Preparation of a solution of bleaching powder to be tested B XV111 CONTENTS. PAGE Penot's method of testing the solution of bleaching powder; Preparation of the iodide of potassium starch paper; Preparation of the solution of arsenious acid ; Quantity of arsenious acid as given by Penot and by Presenilis ............ 348 Process of testing ........... 349 Preparing and using the bleaching solution ...... 350 Zinc bleach liquor . . . ... . . . . . . 352 Alumina bleach liquor . . . . . . . . ■ . . 353 Draining ............ 354 Illustration of Samuel Snell's improved tile strainer with description . 355 Saving the bleach liquor . . . . . . . . . . 356 Sour bleaching . . . . . . . . . . .357 Bleaching with gas . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Proportions of the ingredients to be used ....... 359 Bleaching to impart greater brilliancy to the stuff ..... 360 Bleaching pulp made from old papers or imperfections ; Bleaching straw . 361 Burns' s bleaching process for straw, etc. . . . . . . .362 A vertical section of Burns' s apparatus for bleaching illustrated with detailed description . . . . . . . . . .363 Bleaching wood fibre . . . . . . . . .364 Patented process of Goldsbury H. Pond ....... 365 Method for bleaching wood, straw, etc. ; Importance of cleansing stock which has been boiled in an alkaline solution, from all traces of alkali and glutinous matters before subjecting it to the action of chlorine . . 367 Important facts connected with bleaching with chlorine .... 368 Treatment of the pulp as it comes from the boilers, as practised in the best paper-mills ............ 369 Common cylinder wet paper machine with improvements, illustrated with detailed description . . . . . . . . . .370 Advantages claimed for this process over the old methods . . .376 Bleaching esparto ; Bleaching jute ; Results of investigations by Cross and Bevan 377 Remarkable properties of jute ; Bleaching by means of permanganate of potash . . . . . . . . . . . .378 Hypochlorites, the only available materials on a commercial scale ; Process for treating jute stock, recently patented . . . . . .379 Bleaching of materials composed of hemp, flax, etc. ; Process of Auguste Demeurs, of Belgium .......... 380 Advantages claimed for this process ; Bleaching vegetable tissue with per- manganate of potash, and neutralizing with oxalic acid, sulphite of sodium, and chlorine ; Process of John A. Southmayd ; The advantages claimed for it 382 Process for bleaching of hard spruce with modifications for other fibres . 383 CONTENTS. XIX PAGE Bleaching paper pulp by applying the bleaching agent in a pulverized or sprayed condition ; Process patented by Jean B. Fessy, of France . 385 J B. Fessy's apparatus illustrated with detailed description . . . .386 Bleaching in rotaries ; Apparatus of Harrison Loring, illustrated with de- tailed description . .......... 388 List of patents for bleaching pulp, issued by the government of the United States, from 1790 to 1885, inclusive 389 CHAPTER XII. Beating — Beating Engines — List of Patents for Pulp Engines and Bedplates. Beating 391 Methods of testing for chlorine . . . . . . . .393 Theory of the beating process . . . . . . . . .394 Testing the length of the fibre by the "proof " . . • . . . 395 It is possible to work a comparatively weak material into a reasonably strong paper by careful treatment in the beating engine . . . 396 " Antichlorine ;" Its preparation ........ 397 Hyposulphite of sodium prepared by treating tank waste liquor with sul- phurous acid ........... 398 Beating engines ; The Kingsland pulp engine, illustrated with detailed de- scription ............ 399 Usual construction of beating engines ....... 400 Advantages claimed for the invention of John Hoyt .... 401 Hoyt's beating engine, illustrated with detailed description . . 402 Operation of the engine .......... 405 Umpherston's beating engine, illustrated with detailed description . . 406 Advantages claimed for Umpherston's engine; Other pulp engines ; Li^t of patents for pulp engines and bedplates, issued by the United States, from 1790 to 1885, inclusive 408 CHAPTER XIII. Sizing — Engine Sizing — Bleaching Resin and Preparing Size there- from — Surface Sizing — Hard Sizing Paper in Process of Manu- facture — "Double-Sized" Paper — Tub Sizing with Benzine and Resin — Sizing the Surface of Printing Paper — Materials used in Sizing Paper — Waterproof Sizings for Paper. Sizing ; Sizing prior to the invention of paper-making machinery ; First attempts at sizing pulp in the beating engine . . . . .412: XX CONTENTS. Engine sizing ; Theory upon which it is based ; Substance commonly em- ployed ; Preparation of the resin soap • . . . . . .413 Injurious results from using too small a proportion of water ; Use of a solu- tion of soda-ash of greater specific gravity than that of the resin soap . 414 Proportions of resin to soda-ash ; Proportions of resin, soda-ash, and water as recommended by M. d'Arcet ; Present plan of preparing the resin soap 415 Usual proportion of resin to carbonate of soda ; Treatment of resin soap after being boiled ; Importance of running off the mother-liquor contain- ing an excess of alkali ; Remedy for imperfect dissolution of the resin ; Use of starch-paste for stiffening purposes . . . . . .416 Proportions of resin soap and starch paste generally used to each 100 pounds of dry pulp; Compai'ative values of " crystallized" and concen- trated alum ; Presence of iron under certain conditions not objectionable for ordinary purposes ; Objectionable feature of many of the concentrated alums and aluminous cakes . . . . . . . . .417 Use of acid alums for common papers ; " Lion alum ;" Aluminous cake . 418 Alum or aluminous cakes desirable for many kinds of colored papers ; Lit- mus paper employed to detect surplus of resin soap or sulphates in the pulp ; Practical experience always the best guide to determine the pro- portion of alum and other chemicals to be used ; Solutions should be strained before running them into the engine . . . . .419 Substitutes for resin in special mills ; Bleaching resin and preparing size therefrom ; Thomas Gray's patented process of preparing resin size . 420 Surface sizing or sizing in the sheet and in the web ; Materials used in making animal size . . . . . . . . . .421 Treatment of the materials ; Converting fat into an insoluble lime soap ; Sizing the paper ........... 422 Necessary precautions in drying the paper ; Preparation of size in large paper-mills; Preservation of the glue stock ...... 423 Objections to glue stock washing apparatus in common use ; Process of washing by W. A. Hoeveler's patent washing machine . . . 424 Best method of drying paper after it is tub-sized; Superiority of "loft dried" paper over that dried on the drying machine . . . .427 Hard-sizing paper in process of manufacture by administering vegetable and animal sizes successively to the web before it is dried upon the heated cylinders ; Composition and method of hard sizing paper, pa- tented by X. Karcheski . . . . . . . . .428 Karcheski's apparatus, illustrated with detailed description . . . 430 "Double-sized" paper . . . . . . . . . . 433 Tub-sizing with benzine and resin ; Sizing the surface of printing paper . 434 Materials used in sizing paper ; Alum . . . . . . 435 Testing alum for iron ; Henry Pemberton's porous alum .... 43G Laur's jiatent for manufacture of alum from bauxite . . . .437 CONTENTS. XXI 440 441 443 444 445 44G PAGE Alumina; Pearl alum ; Natrona porous alum ; Crystal alum . . . 438 Concentrated alum as a water purifier ...... False economy in the use of alum ....... Aluminium sulphate ; Donath's test of aluminium sulphate Lion alum ; Aluminous cakes ........ Resins ............ Starch; Stock for paper-maker's sizing Water- proof sizings for paper ; Siting and water- proofing paper with a com- pound consisting of water, soda, lime, lard or tallow, glue, bichromate of potash, and linseed oil ............ . 448 Sizing with a composition of soda-ash, carbonate of soda, resin, chloride of sodium, linseed oil, and silicate of soda . . . . . .449 Water-proofing building or sheathing paper with a composition consisting of resin, paraffine, and silicate of soda . . . . . . .451 Method of applying paraffine to paper and strawboard .... 452 Process of Warren B. How . . . . . . . • .453 Treating paper with ozocerite ; Process of Chas. A. Maxfield . . . 455 CHAPTER XIV. Coloring. Theory of coloring . . . . . . . . . . .457 Light ; Spectrum ; Primary colors ........ 458 Aniline colors ; Binary colors . . . . - . . . 459 Graduations of colors .......... 460 Mordants employed in paper coloring ....... 462 Red shades on paper ; Natural dye stuffs for red colors and shades . . 464 Varieties of red wood ; Red colors for paper ...... 465 To produce strong dye liquor from extract of Brazil wood . . . 466 Employment of Venetian red for delicate brown colors ; Commercial no- menclature of aniline red colors . . . . . . . .467 Azaleine ; Diamond magenta (Fuchsine) ; Rosaniline colors . . . 468 Coralline; Yellow shades on paper ........ 469 Mineral pigments ; Poisonous properties of salts used in coloring yellow . 470 Aniline yellow ; Blue shades on paper; Prussian or Berlin blue . . 471 Coloring not to be commenced until the sizing is completed ; Surplus of alum intensifies the blue color . . . . . . . .472 Preparation of Prussian or Berlin blue ; Berlin blue used only for low grade papers ........... 473 Use of ultramarine for coloring fine grades of paper ; Cobalt blue ; Pre- paration of sky blue; Aniline colors soluble in water only used by paper- makers ; Bleu de lumiere ; Bleu de Panne ; Bleu de Lyon . . . 474 XX11 CONTENTS. PAGE Bleu de Paris ; Phenol blue ; Blue rags for deep blue colored paper ; Blue- ing paper . . . . . . . . . . ..475 James Hogben's compound for giving the desired tint or color to paper in process of manufacture . . . . . . . . .476 Green shades on paper . . . . . . . . . .477 Brown shades on paper . . . . . . . . . .478 Violet shades on paper . . . . . . . . . . 480 Aniline violet ; Hoffman's violet ; Perkins's violet ..... 481 Parisian, rosaniline, and naphthaline violets ; Gray shades on paper . . 482 Aniline gray ; Black ; Aniline black ....... 483 Receipt for deep indelible black for paper used in manufacture of cheap pocket-books ; Bronze shades on paper ...... 484 Surface coloring ; Vegetable substances not always desirable for coloring paper ; Stains used for coloring paper after it is manufactured in order to prepare it for use in the fabrication of artificial flowers, etc . . . 485 Stains for glazed papers . .'. . . . .. . .487 Stains for Morocco papers . . . . . . . . .489 Stains for satin papers . . . . . . . . . .491 CHAPTER XV. Making and Finishing. Making and finishing of paper ; Interior view of a machine-room in a modern paper-mill containing a Fourdrinier machine . . . .495 Pulp purifying machine illustrated and described ..... 498 Stuff regulator for paper-making machines ; Cornelius Young's apparatus to regulate the flow of pulp, illustrated with detailed description . . 499 Automatic wire-guide for paper-making machines ; Apparatus of Thomas P. Barry, illustrated with detailed description ..... 505 Suction-box for paper-making machines ; Isaac Bratton's improvement in connection with suction-boxes, illustrated with detailed description . 514 Dandy-roll for paper-making machines ; D. McKay's invention illustrated with detailed description . . . . . . . . .518 Regulating the speed of the various portions of paper-making machines . 520 Marshall's improved plan of regulating the speed of paper-making machines, illustrated with detailed description . . . . . . .523 Drying cylinders . ' . . . . . . . . . 532 Roach's improved pipe-joint, illustrated with detailed description . . 533 Jaminson's improvement in steam- traps, illustrated with detailed descrip- tion ............. 535 Single cylinder machine . . . . . . . . . .537 CONTENTS. XX111 PAGE Calendering ; Leading paper through calender-rolls ; Richard Smith's pneumatic guide for leading paper through calender-rolls, illustrated with detailed description ......... 538 Operation . . . . . . . . . . 541 Cram's entering guide, illustrated with detailed description . . . 543 Operation .............. 545 Moistening the paper after leaving the driers before passing through the calenders ; Moistening the calender-rolls, Brewer's method; Steam con- densing doctor ........... 546 Frank Brewer's invention for moistening the calender-rolls, illustrated with detailed description . . . . . . . . . .547 Newton's invention for moistening the surface of cylinder rolls, illustrated with detailed description . . . . . . . .549 Preventing the burning or injury by heating of the paper or material of which the calender rolls are composed ; J. H. Frink's invention to prevent the paper or material of which the roller is composed from being injured by heating, and to keep the journal bearings at as uniform a temperature as possible, illustrated with detailed description ..... 551 Method for the easy removal and replacement of calender rolls . . . 554 George E. Marshall's invention of a stack of cylinder rolls, illustrated with detailed description .......... 555 Stripping sheets of paper from off the last roller of calendering machines ; John McLaughlin's invention of independent detachable fingers to strip the paper from the last roller, illustrated with detailed description . . 558 Plate calenders, still used in English and Continental mills . . . 5G0 Illustration of a plate calender . . . . . . . . .561 Cutting and rolling the paper ; Illustration of paper cutter, with detailed description ............ 562 Cutting water-marked paper ; Illustration of a single sheet paper cutter, with detailed description . . . . . . . ... 563 Best style of cutter adapted to cut the sheets directly off the machine . 564 Process of cutting the paper; Operation of the winder ; J. W. Jolly's driver for a paper winder . . . . . . . . .565 Defects in apparatus in common use for winding the cut- web of paper into rolls ; Manning's machine, illustrated with detailed description . , 566 Dangoise's machine for trimming, slitting, and rolling paper, illustrated with detailed description 569 Finishing paper; Preparation of the paper for the sales counter . . 572 List of patents relating to paper-making machines issued by the Govern- ment of the United States of America, from 1790 to 1885, inclusive . 573 XXIV CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVI. The Preparation of Various Kinds of Paper. PAGE Asbestos or amianthus paper; Leading localities for supply of asbestos . 579 Annual product of asbestos ; average price of asbestos .... 580 Preparation of carbolic acid paper ; Improved cigarette paper ; Colored paper for tying up bottles, etc. ........ 581 Cork-paper; Electro-chemical telegraph paper; Pouget-Maisonneuve's ; Emery paper; Edwards's apparatus for the manufacture of emery, sand, glass, and similar papers, illustrated and described .... 582 Water-proof emery paper ....... 583 Enamelled writing surfaces on pasteboard and paper ; Iridescent paper ; Imitation of mother-of-pearl on paper ....... 584 Leather waste. How prepared for use in the manufacture of paper ; Photo-lithographic transfer paper, and transfer color belonging to it . 585 Preserving papers ; Tar paper ; Tracing paper ; Tracing linen, and Trans- parent packing paper .......... 586 Making drawing paper transparent ; Transfer paper . . . . .587 To make water- proof paper transparent ; Peterson's water- proof paper ; wrapping paper for silverware. ......... 588 Writing, copying, and drawing paper, which can be washed . . . 589 Index . 591 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER CHAPTER I. THE HISTORY OF THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The origins of nearly all those arts which have been slowly developed and which have so largely contributed to the progress and civilization of man are surrounded with so much obscurity that it is not possible to treat their early history in a satisfactory manner, for the reason that all such explanations must be more or less hypothetical. But even in these times of rapid development in all branches of mechanics and the arts, we cannot entirely free ourselves from that irresistible law of our nature which impels us to seek acquaintance with primitive past events in connection with matters under discussion, not so much with a view to gathering practical ideas as from interest. Men have in all ages been proud of their own achieve- ments, and it is to this that we owe our present state of civilization. Labor and a certain amount of self-conceit are the basis of progress. If all men were willing that their experiences and obser- vations should pass unrecorded, there could be no progres- sion in the human understanding beyond a certain point. 18 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Men who have recorded their own thoughts and actions or those of others are the ones who have exerted the greatest influence for good or for evil in all ages. To have at one's disposal a plane surface upon which it is possible to delineate in more or less indelible and conven- tional signs the conceptions of the brain, has been a neces- sity which man has felt from the moment he emerged from the first stages of the savage state ; but before arriving at the present ingenious methods by means of which paper is manufactured, various primitive efforts to solve the problem have been made. The mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, each, in turn, have been utilized to supply man with a convenient substance upon which he could record the results of his studies or mark out his plans. The ancients used stone, clay, palm leaves, tablets of wax, of ivory, and of lead, linen and cotton tissues, guts, or skins ; also the interior barks of various plants. The skins of fishes and of snakes, and the shells of the tortoise and of the oyster have been in their turn used for the same purposes, and from them we derive the expressions of biblos, cordex, charta, etc , indicating the various substances used for writing upon. Stone has been largely employed, but clay is the most prominent mineral used in very ancient times for many pur- poses for which we now employ paper, and this is particularly true in regard to Assyria and Chaldea, in which countries almost every transaction of a public or private character was first written upon thin tablets of clay, or tiles, and then baked. HISTORY. 1 9 Clay was probably used for writing upon, more than 2000 years before Christ, but the prophet Ezekiel, who was among the captives near the River Chebar, in the land of the Chaldeans, is among the first to describe the use to which the clay tile was sometimes put for receiving draw- ings or portraying plans. In 596 B. C, Ezekiel was com- manded to make use of this common Assyrian practice at the time when the siege of Jerusalem was prefigured, the commandment being in the following language : " Thou also, son of man, take thee a tile, and lay it before thee, and portray upon it the city, even Jerusalem." — Ezekiel iv. 1. Bank notes, notes of hand, deeds of property, private transactions, public records, transcripts of astronomical observations, and many things of this character have been and can still be found in a good state of preservation among the ruins of ancient Nineveh and Babylon ; but they are not traced upon papyrus or parchment, but are in the inde- structible terra-cotta. The best histories of Chaldea, Babylonia, and Assyria come to us in this shape. There is something in these tablets of clay that forbids any desire on our part to dis- credit them. They seem to appeal to our practical under- standing, and the tendency to doubt them is not so strong as with some modern written histories. In the British Museum, in the Kouyunyik gallery, which contains the collection of bas-reliefs procured by Mr. Layard in 1849 and 1850 from the remains of a very extensive Assyrian edifice at Kouyunyik, possibly the palace of Sen- 20 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. nacherib, who commenced his reign 705 B. C, there are arranged in six table-cases along the middle of the room, a large number of Assyrian antiquities. One table-case con*- tains terra-cotta tablets referring to the language, legends, and mythology of the Assyrians, together with a selection of despatch or report tablets and letters. One series of these clay tablets is supposed to record the creation of the world. The first of the series gives an account of the first three days of the creation, in which it is stated that the Water-deep was the begetter of all the creatures then exist- ing, for there was not even a seed in the earth, and none of the gods had come forth. The remainder of the texts, which are extremely difficult to translate, refer to the cre- ating and placing of the heavenly bodies, the creation of creeping things, and of mankind instead of certain rebellious gods or angels, the war between the gods and Bisbistiamtu (the Water-chaos) and her servants, in which the latter were overthrown. Another tablet refers to the misfortunes of certain men who went forth and returned not, and mentions a flood. Three tablets, copies of the eleventh of the series entitled " The Record of Gistubar," are also of interest. This text contains the account of the flood, which is told to the hero by Umnapistim — the Babylonian Noah — who states that the gods within Suripak, a city on the Euphrates, determined to make a flood, and Umnapistim was commanded to build a ship, and to put within it all his property, the members of his family, and the beasts and cattle of the field. The coming of the flood, its abatement, the resting of the ship on the mountain of Nizir, and the HISTORY. 21 sending forth of a dove, a swallow, and a raven on the seventh day, are also told, together with the coming forth from the ship. The god Bel, however, was angry that all the race of mankind had not been destroyed ; bnt the god Hea appeased his wrath, the patriarch and his family were allowed to live, and the gods took him and his wife to a " remote place at the month of the rivers," supposed to be the region of the Persian Gulf. The Egyptian papyri in the British Museum are arranged in glass cases on the northwestern staircase, and they show the three forms of writing in use among the Egyptians: 1. The Hieroglyphic, in which all the characters or figures are sepa- rately and distinctly defined. 2. The Hieratic, in which the same characters are represented in what may be termed a running hand. 3. The Demotic, or Enchorial, a still more cursive form, in which the language of the common people was written ; it was principally employed in civil transac- tions during the Ptolemaic period, and continued in use to the third or fourth century of our era. The hieroglyphic character was in use in Egypt as early as the third dynasty, the date of which is placed about 4000 B. C. by some chronologists ; but no hieroglyphic papyri of that remote age are extant, and the oldest examples known appear to be of the eighteenth dynasty — about 1700 B. C. Hieroglyphic writing seems to have been employed almost exclusively for religious purposes, and the papyri written in it are Kituals, or the Book of the Dead, as it is called, a copy of which has been published by Professor Lepsius, under the title of ' Das Todtenbuch der Agypten,' 4to, Leipzig, 22 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 1842. The chapters of this book contained in the work of Lepsins are as old as the eleventh dynasty — about 2000 B. C. — and continued in use till the thirty-first dynasty — about 340 B. C. The hieratic or written form of the hieroglyphics appears first about the age of the fifth dynasty, and continued in existence till the first century of our era, when it became superseded for all purposes by the demotic. The entire ritual is rarely found in the hieratic character at an early period, portions only having been rarely transcribed into that character till the twentieth dynasty. Other religious works, however, appear in it as early as the eleventh dynasty, when the linen wraps of mummies were inscribed with ritu- alistic formulas. Other works occur in hieratic. A few papyri of later date contain the Shai en Sinsin, or the Book of the Respirations, i. e., the sighs or lamentations of Isis, containing extracts of portions of chapters in the Ritual, or expressions similar to them. The affairs of official and private life were written hieratic, and amongst the papyri exhibited are found literary compositions, scientific treatises, law documents, criminal police reports, registers or inventories of valuable or other objects. The demotic papyri consist of rituals, literary composi- tions, deeds of sale, contracts of marriage, all indorsed by witnesses. At an early period these witnesses were few in number, but as many as sixteen are found in later times. These deeds, which are dated in the regnal years of the monarchs at the time of execution, commence in the age of HISTORY. 23 Tirhakah, nearly 800 B. C, and run on till the end of the first century, A. D. The religious books continue, how- ever, until apparently about the end of 300 B. C. Letters, memoranda, and registers were also written in the demotic. The width of the Egyptian papyri rarely exceeded 15 inches, but their length sometimes, though rarely, extended to 150 feet. Papyrus, both before use and afterwards, was rolled up into a cylindrical roll, and, when opened for the purpose of reading, unrolled from the ends. Besides these methods, the papyri were occasionally placed in wooden figures, always colored black, of the god Osiris standing on a pedestal, either in the hollowed body of the god, or else in a place in the pedestal, covered by a small slip, the whole so carefully painted over as not to give any indication of the papyrus within. The Roman scholar, Varro, is indorsed by Pliny in the statement that the discovery of the use of papyrus was an incident in the victorious expedition of Alexander of Mace- don. But when we consider that Egyptian tombs plainly demonstrate that papyrus was used not only long prior to the time of Alexander, but also previous to any authentic historical account of Greece, it becomes manifest that Varro's statement is erroneous ; doubtless, however, the expedition of Alexander materially aided in introducing the papyrus among the western nations. Papyrus is an aquatic plant common in many warm coun- tries and especially in Egypt, and from the layer between the flesh and thick bark of this reed or flag the Greeks and the Romans obtained the paper which they used for a long 24 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. time. The strips or ribbons of different lengths obtained by peeling the interior of the bark were bleached in the sun, then spread open upon a table and covered crosswise by other strips ; then moistened with water and pressed, thus causing the adhesion of the strips by means of the vegetable mucilage naturally present in the bark. In this manner sheets were obtained which the Romans sized with a starch of fecula or flour. It is difficult to determine at exactly what time the use of Egyptian papyrus was entirely superseded by cotton paper, as the latter material could have been introduced only by degrees, and papyrus was also employed for special purposes long after the general introduction of cotton paper. Leather was used by the Israelites as a material to write upon. Parchment for writing upon with ink was probably invented by Eumenes, king of Pergamos, whence the name is derived. The parchment used by the Ionians in the time of Hero- dotus was coarser than that invented by Eumenes, and was probably painted upon with especially prepared pigments. The skins of sheep, lambs, and calves are principally em- ployed for the manufacture of parchment, and although the use of this material for common purposes has greatly dimin- ished of late years, still it continues to be extensively pro- duced for special purposes. For diplomas, parchment is even now almost exclusively employed. In addition to the materials which have been named, thin boards of wood covered with wax or some similar composi- tion, and plates of ivory and of metal, have also been used. HISTORY. 25 Most convenient materials were also afforded by the bark and the leaves of some species of trees. In the time of Con- fucius the Chinese wrote with a style or bodkin, on the inner bark of the bamboo. It is probably not desirable that we should further enlarge upon the mineral, vegetable, and animal substances previously named, and which have in times past been so extensively employed in lieu of the material which is now commonly known as paper. Our word paper is derived from the Latin papyrus, which is the Greek Ttdrtvpog, and the Egyptian papu, meaning a reed. Paper is now commonly made by machinery from cotton and linen rags, and also from wood, straw, esparto grass, and numerous other vegetable fibres, the material being reduced to a pulp and afterwards formed into a thin sheet which is subjected to pressure, and finally dried. The sheets of paper may be of greater or less thickness, width, and length, or the paper may be produced in indefinite lengths and formed into rolls. The finishing of the paper, with or without vegetable or animal size, of course depends upon the purpose for which it is to be employed. In addition to being the common material for printing and writing upon, and for bags, boxes, and wrapping, paper also finds numerous secondary employments, such as for toilet purposes, and is also manufactured into barrels, berry, and grape baskets, and pails, buckets, carpets, mattings, carwheels, collars, cuffs, curtains, dishes, elevator seats, and panelling, napkins, observatory domes, picture frames, roofing-felt, roof- ing-tiles, racing-shells, and twine, and in mechanical construe- 26 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. tion. Paper has also been used for journal bearings, pack- ing for steam engines, for belting, etc. A manufacturer in Breslau, Germany, is said to have built a chimney over fifty feet in height out of compressed paper blocks, used in place of bricks. Paper has also been used in place of wood in the manufacture of lead pencils. It is a source of much regret in tracing the origin of so valuable an art as that of the fabrication of modern paper that no accurate estimate can be formed as to the precise time of its adoption. In 1755 and 1763, in order to stimulate researches in this direction, the Royal Society of Sciences at Gottingen offered valuable premiums for that especial object, but the result sought to be accomplished was altogether unattained, and all such investigations, however directed, proved fruit- less. In 1762, M. Miserman offered a prize for the oldest manuscript written on rag paper. The different minutes of the proceedings of this competi- tion, printed at The Hague, in 1767, unite in admitting that paper of this kind was used prior to the commence- ment of the fourteenth century. In the tract of Peter, Abbot of Cluny (A. D. 1122-50), aclversus Judcecos, cap. 5, among the various kinds of books, we find the first mention of rag paper when he refers to such books as are written on material made " ex rasuris veterum pamiorurn." It has been thought probable that at this early period woollen cloth is intended; but of this point we shall have more to say later on in discussing the inven- tion of linen paper. The process of making writing paper HISTORY. 27 from fibrous materials, and, among other substances, from the wool of the cotton plant, reduced to a pulp, appears, according to the works of Mr. Stanislas Julien, to have been practised by the Chinese as early as the year 152 of our era. 1 But it was not until the commencement of the eighth century of. the Christian era that the art of manufacturing cotton paper became known to the western world, and this was accomplished through the Arabs, who, in 704, captured Samarcand, and there learned the method of using and making paper. The Arabs at once took up the manufacture of paper in 1 The raw materials which were used at first and which have continued in use, are the barks of trees (Morus, Broussonetia papyri/era), hemp, bamboo, straw, and old linen. The paper most used is obtained from bamboo stems chipped in small frag- ments. The fibres become disintegrated after a few weeks by means of lime- water, and are bruised energetically and the pulp is treated with an alkaline wash. The washed pulp is then made in sheets by means of moulds similar to those used for hand-made paper. After dessication in the air the sheets are dried upon heated plates. These sheets are used for letter paper, commercial books, and wrapping paper. Rolled up in cylindrical shape, and, provided it offers to the spark a part already carbonized, this paper will ignite and burn like tinder ; in this form it is used as lighting matches. In the north of China, where bamboo does not grow, they use the bark of broussonetia, care being observed to disintegrate the fibres very little, so that they will felt. By this method there are obtained large sheets, transparent enough, of a variable thickness, which are used for wrapping, and in the manu- facture of umbrellas and window-panes. The paper, improperly called rice paper, is obtained from the marrow of the Olrelia papyri/era. The operator rolls with the left hand the roll of marrow upon a plane surface, while with his right he engages, in an almost tangential direction, a thin and sharp blade in the marrow. By this equal and continuous rotatory movement he cuts a sheet more or less thin, more or less long. This paper, white and soft to the eye, is used in the manufacture of those colored designs which are produced in the shops of Canton. (Champion, L' Orient, Archives de l'industrie au xix. Siecle, t. v. p. 297.) 28 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Samarcand, and a thorough knowledge of the curious art rapidly spread through all their empire. Charta 1 Damascena is one of the titles which was applied in the Middle Ages to the cotton paper which was manufactured in large quantities at Damascus. The statement that cotton paper was early extensively adopted by the Arabs for literary employments is corrobo- rated by the numerous Arabic manuscripts written on paper during the ninth and tenth centuries. 2 Bombacinum was used at Rome in the tenth century. 1 In addition to being termed charta and papyrus, cotton paper was also known in the Middle Ages as charta bombycina, gossypina, cuttunea, xytina, Damascena, and serica; the latter title being probably suggested by its glossy and silken appearance. 2 The following, compiled from the 'Encyclopaedia Britannica,' may be instanced as a few of the earliest dated examples. The ' Gharibu l'Hadith,' a treatise on the rare and curious words in the sayings of Mohammed and his com- panions, written in the year 866, is probably one of the oldest paper MSS. in existence (Pal. Soc, Orient Ser., pi. {>). It is preserved in the University Library of Leyden. A treatise by an Arabian physician on the nourishment of the different members of the body, of the year 960, is the oldest dated Ai'abic MS. on paper in the British Museum (Or. MS. 2600, Pal. Soc, pi. 96). The Bodleian Library possesses a MS. of the 'Diwann l'Adab,' a grammatical work of 974 A. D., of particular interest as having been written at Samarcand on paper, presumably made at that seat of the first Arab manufacture (Pal. Soc, pi. 60). Other early examples are a volume of poems written at Bagdad, 990 A. D., now at Leipsic, and the Gospel of St. Luke, 993 A. D., in the Vatican Library (Pal. Soc, pis. 7, 21). In the great collection of Syriac MSS., which were obtained from the Nitrian desert in Egypt, and are now in the British Museum, there are many volumes written on cotton paper of the tenth century. The oldest two dated examples, however, are not earlier than 1075 and 1084 A. D. It may not be amiss to include in this note a few words regarding the extant samples of cotton paper MSS. written in European countries. Several which have been quoted by former writers as early instances have proved, on more recent examination, to be nothing but vellum. The ancient fragments of the Gospel of St. Mark, preserved at Venice, which were stated by Moffcr to be of cotton paper, by Montfaucon of papyrus, and by the Benedictines HISTORY. 29 The Empress Irene, wife of Alexes Commene, at about the close of the eleventh century or the commencement of the twelfth, in the statutes for regulating some religious houses at Constantinople, states that she had left three copies of these statutes, two on parchment and one on cotton paper (de Martin, ' Essais chimiques sur les arts et manufactures,' t. iii. p. 161). "Tolle pergamenam Grcecam, quce fit ex Jana 7iw^?"," are the words used by Theophilus, presbyter, who wrote in the twelfth century. 1 But notwithstanding this early reference to cotton paper by Theophilus, under the name of Greek parchment, paper probably was not used to any great extent in Greece, much prior to the second half of the thirteenth century, for there are no reliable Greek MSS. on paper which bear an earlier date than about the middle of that century. After the capture of Samarcand in 704, the Arabians transplanted the art of fabricating paper to Spain, and to of bark, are in fact written on skin. The oldest European document on cotton paper is a diploma of King Roger of Sicily, of the year 1102. The oldest known imperial deed on the same material is a charter of Frederick II., to the nuns of Goess in Styria, of the year 1228, now at Vienna. In 1231, however, the same emperor, on account of the liability of paper made from cotton to be affected by the damp atmosphere, forbade further use of paper for official documents, which were in future to be inscribed on vellum. In France the Liber plegiorum, the entries of which began with the year 1223, is made of rough cotton paper ; and similarly the registers of the Council of Ten, beginning in 1325, and of the Emperor Henry VII. (1308-13), preserved at Tunis, are also written on a like substance. The letters addressed from Castile to the English king, Edward I., in 1279 and following years (Pauli in Bericht. Berl. Akad., 1854), are instances of Spanish-made paper ; and other specimens in existence prove that in this latter country a rough kind of charta bonbycina was manufactured to a compar- atively late date. ' Encyclopaedia Brit.' 1 Schedula diversarum artium, 1, 23. 30 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the Moors, the credit of first manufacturing paper in Europe is undoubtedly due. Valencia and its neighbor Xativa, as also Toledo, the latter city being about forty miles distant from Madrid, were the primitive seats of the cotton-paper industry in Europe. When the Crusaders visited Byzantium, Palestine, and Syria, they became acquainted with the great convenience and the value of paper, and they carried back with them some knowledge of its manufacture. But it was not until after the fourth crusade that the first paper-mills were estab- lished in France, the art of making cotton paper being intro- duced in the year 1189, in the district of Herault. The French were a very energetic and cultured race, and as the Norman buildings of the twelfth century plainly show, they took excessive delight in construction ; their princes and nobles seem to have taken their greatest pleasure in dwelling in and constantly beautifying their magnificent castles. They did not care so much for feasting and high living as their English neighbors, but devoted their time and talents to the development of those arts and manufactures which contribute so greatly to the refinement of society. In the twelfth century new ideas everywhere appeared at once in France, and the people prosecuted their acquired knowledge and their own inventions with so much energy and skill that we are not surprised at the very rapid develop- ment of the paper trade in France during the fourteenth century, for she was not only soon in a position to provide for HISTORY. 31 her own wants, but also to supply all her neighbors. Troyes and Essonnes are the oldest centres of the paper industry in France. The great progress of France in paper manufacture stimu- lated the fabrication of paper in the Netherlands, and for a long period the French and Dutch papers were the best produced in Europe. That England was far less progressive in the manufacture of paper than either of the two countries which have been last mentioned, is incontestibly shown by the language of the English patent of John Briscoe, granted July 4, 1685, and which is for: "The true art and way of making English paper for writing, printing, and for other uses, both as good and as serviceable in all respects and as white as any French or Dutch paper." It seems almost incredible that no paper was made in England prior to the time of the Tudors, but such indeed seems to be the fact. A manufacturer by the name of Tait is stated to have operated a paper manufactory in Hertfort early in the six- teenth century, and a German named Spielman is said to have had a paper-mill at Dartford in 1588; but if paper was produced at these works it was undoubtedly of the common sort. In corroboration of the last statement we have the lan- guage of the first English patent for making paper granted as late as February 16, 1665, to Charles Hildegerd for "the way and art of making blew paper used by sugar bakers and others," and also the second English patent for paper granted 32 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. in January, 1675, to Eustace Barneby, for "The art and skill of making all sorts of white paper for the use of writing and printing, being a new manufacture and never practised in any ivay in any of our kingdoms or dominions" thus show- ing the incipiency in England of the manufacture of writing and printing paper. 1 After the fall of the Moorish power and the decline of the paper-making industry in Spain, the little town of Fabriano in the province of Ancona, in Central Italy, rose into promi- nence as a centre for the fabrication of fine paper. In 1340 a paper-mill was established at Padua, this was followed by one at Treviso, and then a little later other paper manu- factories were established in the territories of Florence, Bologna, Milan, Venice, etc. Southern Germany, even as late as the fifteenth century, imported most of its paper from the line of factories in Northern Italy. Italian workmen were, however, induced to aid in estab- lishing paper-mills in Germany, and the manufacture of paper was commenced in the latter country at an early date, and numerous mills were operated during the fourteenth century near Cologne and in Mainz, in the latter even as early as about 1320. Nuremberg did not possess a paper-mill until 1390; but Augsburgh and Ratisbon were places of early manufacture. 1 In regard to the early use of cotton paper in England for writing upon there is evidence that it was employed for registers and accounts even as early as 1309. The register of the Hustings Court of Lyme Regis, now in the British Museum, contains entries which commenced in the last-named year. But the appearance of the paper shows that it was without doubt imported either from Spain or from France. HISTORY. 33 The Arabians in Spain were the first to mix rags with the cotton pulp in the fabrication of paper, and in that im- ported into England from Spain at the commencement of the fourteenth century the threads of rags are plainly visible imbedded in the pulp. Linen paper was first made in Europe in the fourteenth century, but until about the middle of that century woollen fabrics probably formed a large percentage of the material from which the pulp was produced, but in individual in- stances this fact requires to be established by the assistance of the microscope. The period and maimer of the invention of linen paper are thus described in ' Trextinum Antiquorum,' by James Yates, M. A., Tart I. pp. 383-388 : " No part of the res dijrfo- rnatica has been more frequently discussed than the question respecting the origin of paper made from linen rags. The inquiry is interesting on account of the unspeakable import- ance of this material in connection with the progress of knowledge and all the means of civilization, and it also claims attention from the philologist as an aid in determin- ing the age of manuscripts. " Wehrs refers to a document written A. D. 1308, as the oldest known specimen of linen paper ; and, as the inven- tion must have been at least a little previous to the prepara- tion of this document, he fixes upon 1300 as its probable date. 1 Various writers on the subject, as Yon Murr, Breit- kopf, SchDnemann, etc., concur in this opinion. 1 ' Vom Papier,' pp. 309, 343. 34 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. " Gotthelf Fischer, in his essay on paper marks, 1 cites an extract from an account written in 1301 on linen paper. In this specimen the mark is a circle surmounted by a sprig, at the end of which is a star. The paper is thick, firm, and well grained; and its water-lines and water-marks (vergures et pontuseaux) may readily be distinguished. " The date was carried considerably higher by Schwandner, principal keeper of the Imperial Library at Vienna, who found among the charters of the Monastery of Gossin Upper Styria one in a state of decay, only seven inches long and three wide. So highly did he estimate the value of this curious relic as to publish in 1788 a full account of his discovery in a thin quarto volume, which bears the following title: ' Chartam linteam antiquissiman, omnia hactenus producta specimina setate sua superantem, ex cimeliis BibliothecEe AugustEe Vindobonensis, exponit Jo. Ge. Schwandner,' etc. The document is a mandate of Frederick II., Emperor of the Romans, entrusting to the Archbishop of Saltzburg and the Duke of Austria the determination of a dispute between the Duke of Carinthia and the Monastery of Goss, respecting the property of the latter in Carinthia. Schwandner proves the date of it to be 1243. He does not say whether it has any lines or water-marks, but is quite satisfied from its flexi- bility and other qualities that it is linen. Although on the first discovery of this document some doubt was expressed as to its genuineness, it appears to have risen in estimation with 1 This essay translated into French is published, by Jansen, in his ' Essai sur l'origine de la gravure en bois et en taille-douce.' Paris, 1808, tome i. pp. 357- 385. HISTORY. 35 succeeding writers ; and it is probable rather from inadvert- ence than from any deficiency in the evidence, that it is not noticed at all by Schonemann, Ebert, Delandine, or by Home. Due attention is, however, bestowed upon it by August Friedrich Pfeiffer, ' Uber Bucher-Handschriften, Erlangen,' 1810, pp. 39, 40. " With regard to the circumstances which led to the inven- tion of the paper now in common use, or the country in which it took place, we find in the writers on the subject from Polydore Virgil t© the present day nothing but con- jectures or confessions of ignorance. Wehrs supposes, and others follow him, that in making paper linen rags were either by accident or through design at first mixed with cotton rags, so as to produce a paper which was partly linen and partly cotton, and that this led by degrees to the manu- facture of paper from linen only. 1 Wehrs also endeavors to claim the honor of the invention for Germany, his own country ; but Schonemann gives that distinction to Italy, because there, in the district of Ancona, a considerable manufacture of cotton paper was carried on before the four- teenth century. 5 ? All, however, admit that they have no satisfactory evidence on the subject. " A clear light is thrown upon these questions by a remark 3 of the Arabian physician Abdollatiph, who visited Egypt 1 'Vom Papier,' p. 183. 2 ' Diplomatik,' vol. i. p. 494. 3 Chapter iv. p. 188 of Silvestre tie Saey's French translation, p. 221 of Wahl's German translation. This interesting passage was translated as follows by Edward Pococke, the younger. "Et qui ex Arabibus, incolisve Rifae aliieve has areas indagant, hajc integumenta diripiunt, quodque in iis rapienduin invenitur ; et conficiunt sibi vestes, aut ea chartariis vendunt ad conficiendam 36 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. A. D. 1200. He informs us ' that the cloth found in the cata- combs, and used to envelop the mummies, was made into gar- ments or sold to the scribes to maize paper for shopkeepers? This cloth was linen, and the passage of Abdollatiph is proof, which, however, has never been produced as such, of the manufacture of linen paper as early as the year 1200. " This account coincides remarkably with what we know from various other sources. Professor Tychsen, in his learned and curious dissertation on the use of paper from papyrus (published in the ' Commentationes Reg. Soc. Gottingensis Recentiores,' vol. iv. A. D. 1820), has brought abundant testimony to prove that Egypt supplied all Europe with this kind of paper until towards the end of the eleventh century. The use of it was then abandoned, cotton paper being employed instead. The Arabs in consequence of their conquests in Bucharia had learned the art of making cotton paper about the year 704, and through them or the Saracens it was introduced into Europe in the eleventh century. 1 We may therefore consider it as in the highest degree probable, that the mode of making cotton paper was known to the paper-makers of Egypt. At the same time endless quantities of linen cloth, the best of all materials for the manufacture of paper, were to be obtained from the catacombs. " If we put together these circumstances we cannot but perceive how they concur in illustrating and justifying the chartam emporeaticam." Silvestre de Sacy (Notice, etc.), animadverting on White's version, which is entirely different, expresses his approbation of Pococke's, from which Wahl's does not materially differ. 1 Wehrs, 'vom Papier,' pp. 131, 144, note. Breitkopf, p. 81. HISTORY. 37 statement of Abdollatiph. We perceive the interest which the great Egyptian paper-manufacturers had in the improve- ment of their article, and the unrivalled facilities which they possessed for this purpose ; and thus the direct testimony of an eye-witness of the highest reputation for veracity and intelligence, supported as it is by collateral probabilities, tends to clear up in a great measure the long-agitated ques- tion respecting the origin of paper such as we now com- monly use for writing. " The evidence being carried thus far, we may now take in connection with it the following passage from Petrus Cluniacensis : — " ' Sed cujusmodi librum ? Si talem quales quotidie in usu legendi habemus, utique ex pellibus arietum, hircorum, vel vitulorum, sive ex biblis, veljuncis orientalium pallidum, aut ex rasuris veterum pannorum, sen ex qualibet alia forte viliore materia compactos, et pennis avium vel calamis palustrium locorum, qualibet tinctura infectis descriptos? Tractatus adv. Judaeos, c. v. in Max. Bibl. vet. Patrum, torn. xxii. p. 1014. " All the writers upon this subject, except Trombelli, suppose the Abbot of Cluny to allude in the phrase '■ex rasuris veterum pannorum' to the use of woollen and cotton cloth only, and not of linen. But, as' we are now authorized to carry up the invention of linen paper higher than before, and as the mention of it by Abdollatiph justi- fies the conclusion that it was manufactured in Egypt some time before his visit to that country in 1200, we may rea- sonably conjecture that Petrus Cluniacensis alluded to the 38 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. same fact. The treatise above quoted is supposed to have been written A. D. 1120. The account of the materials used for making books appears to be full and accurate. The expression '■scrapings of old cloths' agrees exactly with the mode of making paper from linen rags, but is not in accordance with any facts known to us respecting the use of woollen or cotton cloth. The only objection I can sup- pose to arise to this view of the subject is, that, as Peter of Cluny had not when he wrote this passage travelled east- ward of France, we can scarcely suppose him to have been sufficiently acquainted with the manners and productions of Egypt to introduce any allusion to their newly invented mode of making paper. But we know that the Abbey of Cluny had more than three hundred churches, colleges, and monasteries dependent on it, and that at least two of these were in Palestine and one at Constantinople. The inter- course which must have subsisted in this way between the Abbey of Cluny and the Levant may account for the Abbot Peter's acquaintance with the fact, and I therefore think it probable that he alludes to the manufacture of paper in Egypt from the cloth of mummies, which on this supposition had been invented early in the twelfth century. 1 . " Another fact, which not only coincides with all the evi- dence now produced, but carries the date of the invention still a little higher, is the description of the manuscript No. 1 Gibbon says (vol. v. p. 295, 4to. edition), "The inestimable art of trans- forming linen into paper lias been diffused from the manufacture of Samarcand over the western world." This assertion seems to me entirely destitute of foundation. HISTORY. 39 787, containing an Arabic version of the 'Aphorisms of Hippocrates,' in Casiri's 'Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis,' torn. i. p. 235. This MS. was probably brought from Egypt, or the East. It has a date corre- sponding to A. D. 1100, and is of linen paper, according to Casiri, who calls it ' Chartacens.' " ' Cordices chartacei' i. e., MSS. on linen paper, as old as the thirteenth century, are mentioned not unfrequently in the catalogues of the Escurial, the Nani, and other libraries. " The preceding facts coincide with the opinion long ago expressed by Prindeaux, who concluded that linen paper was an Eastern invention, because 'most of the old MSS. in Arabic and other Oriental languages are written on this sort of paper,' and that it was first introduced into Europe by the Saracens of Spain." 1 In the first years of the fourteenth century the art of fabricating paper had become a truly European industry, and it, therefore, becomes manifest that it is of much prac- tical importance to seek to define the line of demarcation between the two classes of linen paper then made. The papers into which linen first entered as a constituent of the pulp may be described as water-marked and non- water-marked, the. first-named variety of paper making its appearance in the early years of the fourteenth century. The Oriental fashion was to make the paper without water-marks, and while instances of cotton paper of the Oriental pattern made in the first half of the fourteenth 1 Old and New Testament connected, part i., chapter vii., p. 393, 3d edition, folio. 40 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. century are extant, still they occur but seldom, if ever, in the north of Europe. The water-marks on paper have been partially investi- gated with a view to discovering the various channels in which the trade in paper of different nations travelled ; but up to this time there has been no thorough and systematic collection of water-marks and consequently no classifica- tion can now be made. The student will be greatly aided in fixing very approxi- mate periods to undated documents by acquiring a know- ledge of the different varieties of paper and of water-marks. " Rag paper of the fourteenth century may generally be recognized by its firm texture, its stoutness, and the large size of its wires. The water-marks are usually simple in design ; and being the result of the impress of thick wires, they are, therefore, strongly marked. In the course of the fifteenth century the texture gradually becomes finer and the water-marks more elaborate. While the old subjects of the latter are still continued in use, they are more neatly outlined, and, particularly in Italian paper, they are fre- quently inclosed in circles. ' The practice of inserting the full name of the maker in the water-marks came into fashion in the sixteenth century. The variety of subjects of water-marks is quite extensive. Animals, birds, fishes, heads, flowers, domestic and warlike implements, armorial bearings, etc., are found from the earliest times. Some of these, such as armorial bearings, and national, provincial or personal cognizances, as the imperial crown, the crossed keys, or the cardinal's hat, can be attributed to particular countries or districts, and the wide dissemination of the HISTORY. 41 paper bearing these marks in different countries seems to prove how large and international was the paper trade in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries." {^Encyc. Brit.') Some idea of the rapidity with which paper-making has been developed in Europe may be judged from the fact that at this writing (Jan. 1886) there are probably not less than three thousand five hundred paper-mills in Europe. Germany possesses by far the largest number of mills of any country in Europe, after which comes France, next Great Britain, then Austro-Hungary, Italy, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Holland, Norway, Switzerland, Belgium, Portugal, and Denmark, all following in regular order according to their present relative importance in paper manufacture. The paper-mills of Asia are few, and the aggregate of all of them would probably not be equal to the number of mills in the smallest paper-making country of Europe, which is Denmark, with about fifteen mills. In China there are probably no modern paper-mills. But Japan has several in operation, and, judging from the pro- gress shown in the machine-made paper on which are printed the first, second, and third statistical reports on agriculture published by the department of agriculture and commerce, Tokio, Japan, and which now lie before the author, he hazards the opinion that Japan will in the near future become a paper-making country of considerable importance. India is also rapidly developing her paper manufacture, and is probably abreast of Japan in this department. The Australasian Continent contains but few mills, Austra- lia of course leading. 42 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. On the Western Continent we find the Dominion of Canada producing paper in about the same quantity as Norway, which latter country occupies but an insignificant position among the paper-making countries of Europe. All the paper-mills in South America do not probably exceed in number those of Japan, and in Cuba and Mexico there are not more than two or three mills. But in the United States we find the greatest paper- manufacturing country in the world, and the great and re- lentless energy with which our country is developing her productions in excess of all other nations is shown in one instance in the strides which she has made in the fabrication of paper. We have already shown that the manufacture of paper for writing and printing upon was probably not under way in England prior to the year 1685, but it is probable that the fabrication of paper did not flourish in that country until after the year 1688, for in the ' British Merchant' of the latter year we find the statement that hardly any sort of paper except brown was made in England previous to the Revolution, and in 1689 Bohun, in his autobiography, says " paper became so dear that all printing stopped almost, and the stationers did not care to undertake anything." If England was not entirely dependent upon other nations her publishers would not have been reduced in 1689 to such dire straits as stated by Bohun to have existed. The first paper-mill was established in America in 1690, the mill being near Philadelphia, Pa., and thus we find the manufacture of paper to have commenced almost simulta- neously in America and in England. HISTORY. 43 But now, after the lapse of almost two centuries, we dis- cover that the United States possesses mills for the manu- facture of paper which exceed in number the aggregate of those in England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, with the addition of France, Belgium, Portugal, Sweden, Norway, and Holland. When we realize that this remarkable development has been made in spite of almost insurmountable obstacles and serious foreign competition, added to the drain upon our energies caused by the two wars with Great Britain, our own civil war, disastrous industrial depressions, and numerous financial panics, and complications in currency, it forcibly reminds us how surely and rapidly the great advance which our country is making in mechanics and the arts is unset- tling the commerce of the world. There are in this industry, as in all others, times of de- pression, but the natural facilities for obtaining the raw material, the great ingenuity of our people, added to the large home consumption of paper, with an increasing export demand, are certain to keep the United States in the posi- tion of the leading paper-producing country in the world. The art of printing was, of course, the immediate cause stimulating the manufacture of paper, and it was through the efforts of William Bradford, one of the earliest printers in the American colonies, that the first paper-mill was estab- lished on our soil. Bradford realized the advantage of having a constant supply of paper near at hand, and he, therefore, readily joined William Rittenhiiysen, who had emigrated from 44 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Broich, in Holland, in the project of starting a paper-mill in Roxborough, near Philadelphia. The location for the mill was selected on a small tributary of the Wissahickon, the pure water of the little stream, which is still called Paper Mill Run, making it very desirable for paper-making ; the abundant supply of cotton and linen rags in the neighbor- hood furnishing ample raw material for continuing the mill for a long time. The name of Rittenhiiysen in time became angli- cized into that of'Rittenhouse, which is now in common use. In 1710 and 1728 other paper-mills were established in Pennsylvania by relations and apprentices of Rittenhouse. In 1724, William Bradford made an effort to induce the council of New York to grant him an exclusive privilege for manufacturing paper in the province for the space of fifteen years, but was unsuccessful. But, in 1728, Bradford succeeded in establishing a mill in Elizabethtown, N. J., which was the first paper-mill in the State. In 1727, Thomas Willcox, a native of England, built the Ivy Mill, on Chester Creek, in what is now Delaware County, Pa., on land purchased from Wm, Penn. This property has remained continuously in this family, who are still manufac- turers of paper under the firm name of James M. Willcox & Co., the oldest existing commercial house in America, and who now have other mills on the same tract of land. Ivy Mill still stands, although it has not been used for several years. In the records of Massachusetts for 1730, there is an Act for the encouragement of the first paper-mill built in New England, passed September 13th, 1728, granting a patent to Daniel Henchman, Gillam Phillips, Benjamin Faneuil, HISTORY. 45 Thomas Hancock, and Henry Dering, for the sole manufac- ture of paper in the province for ten years. The granting of the patent was conditional upon the pro- duction of a stated quantity of paper yearly, until at the end of the third year and each year thereafter the total annual produce of the various qualities of paper described in the patent was not to be less than five hundred reams. The proprietors mentioned in the above Act soon erected a small paper-mill in Milton, afterward in the county of Norfolk, on a site adjoining the Neponset River. The master-work- man at the mill was an Englishman, by the name of Henry Woodman, under whose management very satisfactory quali- ties of paper were produced, samples of which were exhi- bited to the Court in General Term, in 1731, by one of the proprietors of the mill, Daniel Henchman, an enterprising bookseller of Boston. It is not probable that the mill at Milton suffered for the want of raw material, for in 1732 Ave find Richard Fry, of Cornhill, Boston, who was an agent for the mill, thanking the public for saving and selling him their rags, of which he had already received upwards of seven thousand weight. But on account of the scarcity of good workmen the mill was finally compelled to stop, and was afterward sold to Mr. Jeremiah Smith, who also for the lack of suitable workmen was unable to utilize his purchase. In 1760 the mill was again started by James Boies, of Boston, who became acquainted with a soldier by the name of Hazleton who was a practical paper-maker and a member of a British regiment then stationed in Boston. 46 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. It was not a difficult matter to obtain a furlough for Hazleton, who at once put the mill in proper condition and started it to work, his main assistant being Abijah Smith then living in Milton. But Hazleton was compelled to leave the mill and join the regiment when the latter was ordered to Quebec, and, like Wolfe, the private soldier received a mortal wound on the Plains of Abraham. A short interval then took place before another English- man by the name of Richard Clarke arrived from New York and again set the mill in operation. In a few years Clarke, who was an excellent workman, was joined by his son George, a young man of about twenty years of age, who also proved himself to be a good paper-maker. Hazle ton's assistant, Abijah Smith, developed into a good workman, and continued at the business until of an advanced age. In 1768 a paper-mill was established in Norwich, Conn., by Christopher Leffingwell, who was promised a bounty by the Legislature of 2d. per quire on all good writing paper and Id. per quire on all printing and common paper ; but this subsidy was withdrawn in 1770. When the American Revolution commenced, there were probably not more than an aggregate of fifty paper-mills in all the American colonies ; the produce of these mills was inadequate in quantity to supply the home demand, which made the price of paper very high. For a long time there was a great scarcity of rags, and as but little labor could be bestowed upon paper then made, the quality was very infe- rior, and these conditions continued until after the adoption of the Constitution. HISTORY. 41 While the manufacture of paper was being prosecuted under such difficulties in the United States, the important announcement was made in France that N. L. Robert, a machinist connected with Didot's paper-mill at Essonnes, had invented a machine for making sheets of paper of very large size, even twelve feet wide and fifty feet long. On account of the importance of Robert's invention, and the great influence which it afterwards exerted in building up our paper manufactures, we will here divert from an account of the history of paper-making in the United States, and follow the history of the Robert's machine. On the 18th of January, 1799, the government of France granted Mr. N. L. Robert a patent (No. 329) for fifteen years, for his invention for making paper by machinery, and during the same year a working model of the machine was constructed, but its work was not fully satisfactory. But the French government, appreciating the usefulness of Robert's invention, and realizing that its imperfections would be overcome by experience, granted him a bounty of 8000 francs. The experiments necessary for perfecting the machine were both troublesome and expensive, and on account of the difficulties in which France was then involved it became manifest that the machine could be better perfected in England. M. Leger Didot, of Essonnes, agreed to purchase the patent and model from Robert, and accompanied by John Gamble, an Englishman, Didot sailed for England. Some improve- ments were made on Robert's model by Didot before leaving France ; but on reaching England, Didot was fortunate in 48 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. securing the aid of a Mr. Bryan Donkin, a man of consider- able mechanical skill, and by means of the experiments and observations of the trio — Didot, Gamble, and Donkin — the invention of Robert was perfected. On April 2, 1801, a patent (No. 2487) was granted in England to John Gamble, for the improved invention of Robert, the title of the patent being "An invention for making paper in single sheets without seam or joining, from one to twelve feet and up- wards wide, and from one to forty-five feet and upwards in length." On June 7, 1803, a patent (No. 2708) was granted by the English government to John Gamble for " Improve- ments and additions to a machine for making paper in single sheets without seam or joinings, from one to twelve feet and upwards wide, and from one to fifty feet and upwards in length," and during the same year the first machine for making paper by machinery was successfully put in opera- tion at Frogmore, England. During the next year, 1804, the second paper-making machine was put in operation at Two Waters, England. In 1804 Messrs. Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier purchased the interest of Didot and Gamble in the improved Robert machine. Henry Fourdrinier on July 24, 1806, was granted a patent (No. 2951) for "The method of making a machine for manufacturing paper of an indefinite length, laid and wove ' with separate moulds.' " On August 14, 1807, an Act of Parliament was obtained for prolonging the term of certain letters patent assigned to Henry Fourdrinier and Sealy Fourdrinier for the invention of making paper by HISTORY. 49 means of machinery, and the machine described by John Gamble in the specifications of his patents (Nos. 2487 and 2708), with any other improvements added to it, was also fully described by diagrams. During the next year, 1808, John Gamble assigned to the Messrs. Fourdrinier all his right in the patents as extended by the Act of Parliament, thus making the latter gentlemen the sole proprietors of the patent for the only satisfactory paper-making machine in England, and in this manner the machine invented by Robert, and improved by Gamble, assisted by the skill of Didot and Donkin, came to be and continues to be known as the Fourdrinier machine. But let us now return to the history of paper-making in our own country. After the adoption of the Constitution a stimulus was given to manufactures, and, although rags continued to be scarce for many years, we learn from estimates of Isaiah Thomas that there were in 1810 about one hundred and eighty-five paper-mills in the United States, distributed and producing as follows : — Nc ». of mills. Value of products. Pennsylvania . ... . .60 1626,749 Massachusetts . 38 290,951 New York 28 233,368 Connecticut 17 82,188 Vermont 9 70,050 New Hampshire 7 42,450 Kentucky 6 18,600 Rhode Island . 4 52,297 Delaware 4 75,000 Virginia 4 22,400 Tennessee 4 15,500 Maryland 3 77,515 North Carolina 1 6,000 4 50 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. But as New Jersey is credited by Tench Coxe with pro- ducing paper in 1810 to the value of $49,750, Maine with $16,000, and Ohio with $10,000, it is probable that Mr. Thomas did not gather all the paper-mills into his estimate. The total value of all the paper produced in the United States in 1810 was therefore about $1,689,718. On account of the increased consumption of rags used for the manufacture of paper, the United States commenced in 1810 to import rags from Europe. It does not appear of record that our American inventors gave any great amount of attention prior to the war of 1812 to the matter of making paper by machinery. By Act of Congress of April 10, 1790, the first American patent system was founded ; but during the years from 1790 to 1812, our inventors confined themselves almost wholly to agricultural and commercial objects. Implements for tilling the soil and converting its products and machinery for navi- gation attracted most attention. The war of 1812, however, forced our people to attempt production in many branches of manufacture and industry heretofore almost wholly uncultivated, and the result was the most remarkable development of human ingenuity ever known to any age or country. It is a source of great regret that no well-preserved history of American inventions dating from this time is in existence, and that no classified list of models which were in the Patent Office at the time of the fire in 1836 can be obtained. The earliest date that can be reached is January 21, 1823, and that is only partially com- plete. HISTORY. 51 After the fire in 1836, the United States government advertised for the patents which had been issued prior to the conflagration, and in this way some copies of the earlier patents were received. The records of the United States Patent Office show that patents for manufacturing paper were issued to J. Biddis, May 31, 1794; C. Austin, December 14, 1798; and R. R. Livingston, October 28, 1799. T. Langstroth was granted a patent for a paper-mill May 1, 1804; J. Tatterson, Southampton, Long Island, N. Y., was granted a patent on December 7, 1805, for a machine for preparing and hacking tow for paper ; and a patent for a paper-making machine was issued May 8, 1807, to C. Kin- sey, of Essex, N. J. But there are no specifications or other descriptions of any of these early patents now extant. In 1809, Mr. John Dickinson invented and patented in England a new system of making paper in a continuous sheet by machinery ; the apparatus consisted of a cylinder the periphery of which was covered with a metallic cloth properly supported ; this cylinder revolved in a vat kept filled with pulp, in which the cylinder was half immersed. By a special system of suction a partial vacuum was created in the cylin- der, thus causing the pulp to adhere to the metallic cloth and thereby forming the sheet, which being immediately detached passed upon a cylinder covered with felting. Later, in 1826, Mr. Canson applied suction pumps to the Fourdrinier machine, causing a suction underneath the me- tallic cloth upon which the sheet is formed, uniting thereby 52 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. to that machine the only advantage of the Dickinson inven- tion. While the Fourdrinier and Dickinson machines were being perfected in England, American inventors were also working in the same line, and in corroboration of this state- ment we have the paper-making machine, which, on Decem- ber 24, 1816, was patented by Thomas Gilpin, of Philadel- phia, and, which, in 1817, was put in operation in the paper manufactory of Messrs. Thomas Gilpin & Co., their mill being located on the Brandywine. This machine was doubt- less suggested by Dickinson's invention, and was what is known as a cylinder machine, and it is stated that it would do the work of ten paper vats, and deliver a sheet of greater width than any other made in America, and of an indefinite length. The war with England gave a great impulse to all branches of manufactures, and Thomas Gilpin covered the water-power on the Brandywine with large structures for the manufacture of wool and cotton, in addition to those for the manufacture of paper, which continued in their previous perfection. The great reverses which, in a few years, befell the manufacturing establishments of the United States, pro- duced disastrous effects on these large works, and under the circumstances it seemed expedient to suspend them until better times should come. Thomas Gilpin determined in this emergency to augment the paper works. So far, in the United States, all such works had been conducted upon the ancient system ; but, in England, considerable advances HISTORY. 53 had been made by the introduction of machinery, which produced paper in an endless sheet. Every publication on this subject had been carefully noted by Mr. Gilpin, and availing himself of all the published drawings explaining the parts of the new machinery, he became convinced, by care- ful study, that he could construct a machine which, if not exactly similar to, or as perfect as those of England, would enable him to produce paper of an indefinite length, and of a merchantable quality. This effort on the part of Mr. Gilpin was attended with almost infinite trouble, but success crowned his efforts, and in February, 1817, he sent to Philadelphia paper cut from a continuous sheet. Poulson's 'Daily Advertiser/ a leading gazette of the city, was the first publication printed upon this paper. The enterprising firm of Mathew Carey & Sons, then the largest publishing house in the United States, were preparing an edition of the ' Historical Atlas of Lavoisne,' and the work appeared in 1821, printed on paper made by Thomas Gilpin's machine. Mr. Gilpin was greatly encouraged by the success of his experiment, and he continued for several years after the machine was set to work in 1817 to make successive im- provements, until it altogether superseded his other machin- ery, and promised a result not less valuable to the arts than remunerative to Mr. Gilpin for the years of anxious labor that the work had cost, and the large expense which he had incurred in perfecting the machine. But Mr. Gilpin, like many other pioneers, was not des- 54 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. tined to enjoy his well-earned reward, for, in the spring of 1822, the paper-mill and the valuable machinery were de- stroyed during a flood of unprecedented violence and mag- nitude, which occurred on the Brandywine. The thousands of dollars which had been expended by Mr. Gilpin in perfecting his machine was a small loss com- pared with the study of many years, the numerous experi- ments, and the many mechanical improvements which had in a few hours been rendered abortive by the fury of the flood. The failure of Congress to impose a suitable tariff on paper was a great drawback to the development of that industry in the United States after the close of the war of 1812. The heavy importations of paper from Europe, which commenced soon after the war was ended, and the greatly depressed financial condition of the country, caused the almost total destruction of paper manufacture in the States of Pennsylvania and Delaware. By Act of Congress of April 26, 1816, the rate of duty on paper imported into the United States after June 30, 1816, was to be fixed at thirty per cent. ; but in the year 1820 we find the paper-makers of the last named States with those of Maryland earnestly petitioning Congress for an increased tariff on paper, the paper-makers of Pennsylvania and Delaware stating that in their district there were seventy paper-mills with ninety-five A r ats in operation until the importations after the war, since which they had been reduced to seventeen vats. Congress itself was at this time using and continued for HISTORY. 55 some years afterwards to use paper imported from England and from France, but, under the continued criticism of the newspapers, paper made in tjie United States came finally to be used by Congress. We have seen on page 50 that the value of the paper produced in the United States in 1810 was $1,689,718. In 1820 the value was estimated at $3,000,000, thus showing a great increase in spite of the large importations of paper from Europe, and the widespread and deeply seated period of bankruptcy which had intervened. The period from 1820 to 1830 was not remarkable for progress in paper-making, either in the United States or in England. The following list of patents will convey an idea of what was accomplished in this line in the United States from 1820 to 1830:— Date. Name. Residence. Nature of Invention. May 14, 1822. J. Ames, Springfield, Mass. Paper-making machine. Sept. 1, 1822. J. Ames, Springfield, Mass. Paper sizing. Sept. 8, 1824. I. Burbank, Worcester, Mass. Manufacturing paper. April 12, 1826. G. Burbank, Worcester, Mass. Paper-making machi- nery. Feb. 28, 1827. J. White and L. Gale, IjTewburg, Vermont. Finishing paper. April 15, 1828. E. H. Collier, Plymouth Co., Mass. Making paper from " Ulvamarina." May 22, 1828. W. Magaw, Meadville, Pa. Preparing hay, straw and other substances for making paper. July 17, 1828. M. Haddock, New York, N. Y. Machine for making pa- per in the sheet. Sept. 11, 1828. M. T. Beach, Springfield, Mass. Machine for cutting rags for paper. Oct. 30, 1828. A. & N. A. Sprague, Fredonia, N. Y. Manufacturing paper from corn husks. Oct. 20, 1828. M. Hunting, Watertown, Mass. Top press roller for making paper. Jan. 13, 1829. W. Debit, East Hartford, Conn. Machinery for cleaning rags for paper-mills. 56 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Date. Name. Residence. Nature of Invention. Feb. 7, 1829. J. W. Cooper, Washingtown Twp., Pa. White paper from rags, straw, and corn husks. April 18, 1829. I. Sanderson, Milton, Mass. Cylinder paper machine. May 4, 1829. R, , Fairchild, Trumbull, Conn. Machine for manufactur- ing paper. Sept, 10, 1829. L. Bomeisler, . Philadelphia, Pa. Manufacture of white paper from straw. Efforts were made during the decade from 1820 to 1880 to introduce paper-making machinery from England ; but on account of the high price few orders were given for it. Cylinder machines of American invention met with some encouragement in the States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania after the year 1822, but for a long time they were very crude, and were used mostly for the lower grades of paper. In 1831 it was estimated that the quantity of paper manufactured in the United States during the year 1830 amounted to more than seven millions of dollars. From 1830 to 1840 there were no remarkable advances made in the manufacture of paper in the United States. Machinery was more commonly employed, the use of bleach- ing and other chemicals came to be better understood, and with the advances in its manufacture the price of paper declined, but its quality was better and the importations of paper gradually diminished while the exports increased. In 1842 a convention of paper-makers was held in New York City, and an estimate then made, placed the value of the machinery and paper-mill property in the United States at $16,000,000, and the value of the paper manufactured at $15,000,000 per annum. But there is great difference between the above estimate HISTORY. 57 and the census report for 1840, which places the value of all the paper manufactured in the United States during the year 1840 at 15,641,495 and the capital invested at $4,745,239. During the whole of the decade from 1840 to 1850 the importations of paper constantly increased while the exports did not average more than one-fourth of the imports of that material. In 1844 there was patented in Germany a machine for grinding wood for the manufacture of pulp. The inventor, Keller, sold the patent to the firm of Henry Voelter's Sons, who afterwards used the pulp in the manufacture of news paper. The Voelters made numerous improvements in Keller's invention, and a quarter of a century after it was patented in Germany by Keller this wood-pulp machine w T as destined to play an important part in the United States, when in response to the demand for the rapid printing of daily news- papers the web press was to come into use. The Voelters, Christian and Henry, made numerous improvements in the machine, Christian Voelter obtaining patents in various European countries, in France even as early as April 11, 1847. Henry Voelter patented his improvement on the pulp machine in Wurtemburg, Germany, August 29, 1856, and in the United States, August 10, 1858. Pearson C. Chenney, ex-governor of New Hampshire, has described the difficulty of introducing paper made from wood. In his testimony before the Senate Committee on Education and Labor, Mr. Chenney said : " When Mr. Russell built his mill at Franklin, those of us who were 58 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. engaged in the manufacture of paper and had no know- ledge of what could be done with wood supposed that his enterprise would ruin him. We supposed that his material would be more like sawdust or clay. Mr. Russell com- pleted his mills at Franklin, but after manufacturing the pulp, he could not find a paper manufacturer who would buy a pound of his wood pulp, because they did not believe in it — they had no faith in it, and he was compelled to buy a paper-mill in order to make a good test of it, which he did in Franklin, right beside his pulp-mill, and made the test, and a successful test, and showed a very good paper. After the paper was made he found great difficulty in selling it. The printers felt that they could not use it; they were afraid to use paper made from raw wood ; they were afraid it would injure their type or ruin it, and they declined to use it. His selling agents were the firm of Rice & Kendall, of Boston. They resorted to all sorts of devices to get this paper used, but they were finally obliged to resort to some- thing that did not appear on the surface, but seemed to be necessary in order to secure the introduction of the paper into use. They had an order from, I think the ' Boston Herald' for about 500 reams of paper. They were supplying that journal regularly from month to month, and, without saying anything as to the nature of the paper, they sent paper made from this wood ; the paper passed, and was used, and when the next order came and they delivered the regu- lar paper which they had been in the habit of sending before, the ' Herald' people came to Mr. Rice in some displeasure, and asked him why he could not send such paper as he had HISTORY. 59 sent the month previous. He told them that he could do so if they preferred it, and they said they did. They said that it worked very well — very much better than the other. So he told them that the next order they gave him he would send some of that paper. The next month he again delivered 500 reams of the wood paper, and that was used and gave great satisfaction. But I think they were using it for six months before they knew that it was wood paper. That established the use of that class of paper, and there was no trouble after that in selling it. The fact is that it absorbs the ink better and works much better for printing than other paper does, and works particularly well in rapid presses." • • If we compare the methods of manufacturing paper in the United States during the decade from 1840 to 1850 with those in use at the present time, the result will, of course, in many respects be greatly in favor of the present methods. But as the plants and products were small, wages low, and the margins of profits large, it was easier in those days to do business with a small capital than it now is with a large one. Forty years ago the present method of boiling rags in rotary boilers under pressure was not employed, the boiling- was then done in open kettles or tubs. Instead of working different grades of stock separately and uniting them in the beating engines as required, hard and soft stock was in those days commonly boiled and worked together; the proportions varying according to thickness, strength, and quality desired. The washing and beating engines then employed were small, 60 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. averaging from about one-fourth to one-eighth the size of those now used. Light, narrow, slow-running cylinder machines were almost exclusively employed. There was still considerable waste in the use of chemicals and loss in labor. Elevators from drainers to engine-room and from the machine-room to the loft were unknown, the paper being carried to the loft on men's shoulders. The almost general employment of the Fourdrinier machine in Europe and the numerous improvements which were made in paper-making in England from 1840 to 1850, added to the enforcement in 1843 of a new duty on rags, operated to check our exports and increase our imports of paper, and it is questionable whether any material advance was made in the quantity of paper manufactured in the United States during the last-named decade over that from 1830 to 1840. The year 1850 opened with a bright prospect for all branches of trade in the United States ; the new empire which was arising and following the discovery of gold on the Pacific coast, and the new markets abroad which were being opened for our grain and cotton acted as powerful stimulants to many branches of manufacture. It was not long before many of the paper-makers, espe- cially in Massachusetts, New York, and Connecticut, were compelled to enlarge their capacities, and the Fourdrinier machine came into more common use. Many old and narrow cylinder machines were removed and superseded by new and wider ones having steam dryers and other improve- ments. Larger beaters and washers were also introduced ; HISTORY. 61 but the demand for paper was greatly in excess of the supply, and notwithstanding the continued introduction of improved machinery the price of paper constantly advanced until about 1855. But on account of the large amount of capital which had been drawn into the business of paper-making the effects of competition were severely felt from 1855 to 1860, and the profits, especially on fine papers, were reduced below the average profits of other branches of manufacture ; an over- stocked market soon played sad havoc with prices, and the final result was that many mills were compelled to shut down. The census of 1860 showed that the State of Massachu- setts alone in that year produced paper to the value of $5,968,469 ; New York returned paper to the value of $3,516,276; Connecticut, $2,528,759; and Pennsylvania, $1,785,900. The decade from 1860 to 1870 was a memorable one in the annals of paper-making in the United States. The enormous rise in the price of cotton which immediately followed the outbreak of the civil war caused paper to be used for many purposes for which cotton had formerly been employed. Paper twine, paper collars, cuffs, and shirt fronts, are some of the new applications of paper which at once consumed very large quantities of the material. Early in 1862 the price of ordinary news paper ruled at 8 cents per pound, but before ten months of the year had passed the price was increased to 17 cents, and No. 1 print- ing was 30 cents, while all writing papers were 40 cents. 62 TBE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The prices of paper continued to increase, until in 1864 news paper sold at 28 cents per pound, and fine book paper at 45 cents. But in January, 1865, the price of common news paper, straw, etc., in New York City ranged from 20 to 22 cents per pound, and the price of good news paper, rag, was from 22 to 25 cents ; fair white book was 25 to 28 cents, and extra book from 28 to 32 cents. The average price for first class writing, folded, during 1865, was 52| cents per pound ; superfine writing, folded, 50 cents ; super- fine flats, 45 cents. Manilla wrapping paper ranged from 18 to 21 cents per pound during 1865. From 1865 to 1870 the price of all kinds of paper con- tinued rapidly to decline, and from 1870 to 1885 there remains but little to notice, excepting the introduction of wood pulp into paper-making, and the enormous consump- tion of straw, etc., for news paper. For Manilla paper, jute butts and threads, coming princi- pally from India, but partly from Dundee, are largely used in the United States ; old cordage, which is chiefly supplied by the shipping yards of England, is also largely employed in the manufacture of Manilla paper. During the twenty years from 1865 to 1885 the largest number of patents relating to paper making were issued by the government of the United States that has ever been known in the history of any country. The invention and employment of a large number of mechanical appliances and chemical processes have done much to stimulate and cheapen paper production, especially during the fifteen years just past (1870-1885), and many HISTORY. 63 manufacturers who have failed to keep fully abreast of the times have found their business absorbed by more enterpris- ing firms. Such results are only natural, but it is even ' more important in the future tlTan in the past that small manufacturers should be fully informed regarding all the improvements in the art, for, under the enormous output of paper from many of the large mills in this country, it is becoming a very serious question whether even mills of moderate capacity can afford to manufacture paper on the small margin of profit which produces a meagre but satisfac- tory dividend to the wealthy owners of the capital stock in the larger mills. However, such questions as the latter are matters which do not come within the province of this work, and we shall, therefore, not further discuss them in connection with the history of paper-making, but proceed in the following chap- ters to describe the various materials, processes, and appli- ances employed in the modern methods of manufacturing paper. 64 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. CHAPTER II. MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER — MICROGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER CELLULOSE DETERMINATION OF CELLULOSE RECOGNITION OF VEGETABLE FIBRES. During the past century the consumption of paper has increased in a much greater ratio than the supply of rags, and on account of the consequent advance in the price of the latter, numerous other raw materials have been em- ployed in the manufacture of the lower grades of paper. Cotton and linen rags continue to be employed for the higher class of writing and record papers ; but the pulps for news and cheap book papers are almost wholly pro- duced from wood, straw, esparto, corn stock, old papers, etc. It would be almost an impossibility to enumerate all the materials which have been used for the manufacture of pulp for paper ; but in the following list the author has arranged in alphabetical order all those paper-making substances concerning which he has acquired any information, through diligent research : — Materials Used for Paper. Abaca, same as Manilla hemp. {Ochra, Okra, Okro. Abutilon avicennce. Abutilon Bedfordianum, Hollyhock- tree. Abutilon Indicum, Indian mallow. Abutilon mollis, Hollyhock-tree. Soft-leaved abutilon. MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER. 65 Abutilon. strictum, Hollyhock-tree. Vined lantern llower. Abrasive cloth and paper, waste. Acacia. Acacia, Robinia Pseud- Acacia, wood of. Adam's Needle, Hibiscus heterophyllus. Sparmannia Africana. Yucca gloriosa. Adamsonia digitata, Baobab. .JEsculus liippocastanum, Horse-chest- nut, wood of. Agave Americana, Maguey. Agave, Agave Americana. Agave Americana, leaves of. Agave, Fourcroya gigantea. Agave Mexicana, Maguey. Agrostis spica venti, Bent-grass. Ailanthus, bark of. Alder, Alnus glutinosa, wood of. Alder-buckthorn. Same as Black alder. Alfa fibre. Alga marina. Alga% fresh- water. Alnus glutinosa, Alder, wood of. Aloe fibre. Aloes. Alpina magnijiea, Mulberry. Alsimastrum. Althea. Althea frutex, Cockle-burr. Ambaree. Amianthus. Amomum. Anacharsis. Ananassa. Ananassa Saliva, Pineapple. Animal excrement. Animal substances. Anona reticulator, Nona. Anonacece. Apocineai. Aporentype. Aralia papyrifera. Arrache. 5 Arrowroot, refuse stems and leaves of. Artemisia bark. Artemisia wood. Artichoke. Artiplex. Artocarpece. Arunda canspicua, Plume-grass. Arundinaria macrosperma. Asclepiadice. Asclepias. Ash, Fraxinus excelsior, wood of. Asparagus stalks, Asparagus officinalis. Aspen-tree, Populus trennda, wood of. Asthoder. Avena Sativa, Oats. Bagasse. Bagasse refuse- Bagging, old. Baldengera Arundinacia, Ftomenteau. Bamboo, Bambusa tlwnarsu, wood of. B ambus a arundinacea. Bambusa thornarsn, Bamboo. Bambusa vulgaris, Bamboo. Inner bark of. Leaves of. Young shoots of. Banana fibre and leaves. Banhinia racemosa. Baobab, Adamsonia digitata. Ileliconia gigantea. Strelitzia regina,. Bark of various kinds of woods, includ- ing resinous, etc. Bark of coniferous trees after extracting the resin. Barley straw. Barriala, Sida rhomboida. Bass wood. Bastard Cedar or Guazuma. Bean leaves and vines. Beans. Beech, Fagus sylvatica, wood of. 66 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Beet and mangel-wurzel root. Beets. Begonacece. Bent-gvass, Agrostis spica-venti. Berries. Betula alba, Birch, wood of. Betula Bhojpattra, Birch. Bhenda, Hibiscus esculentus. Bhurja (Birch), Betula Bhojpattra. Birch, Betula alba, wood of. Betula Bliojpatira. Black alder, Rhamnus Fragula,v/ood of. Blackberries. Black-moss, Tillandsia. Black reed (cutting-grass), Cladium radula. Blue cabbage stalks. Blue-rlag, Enodiura cceruleum. Blue-grass, Agrostis spica-venti. Ba j hme?'ia. Boehmeria vivea, China-grass (Rhea). Bombax. Bon-dhenras, Hibiscus Jlculneus. Bottle-tree, Sterculia diversifolia. Sterculia fcetida. Sterculia lucida. Sterculia repestris. Bowstring hemp, Sanseviera Zeylanica. Brachychiton acerifolium, Flame-tree. Bracken. Brake. Bran. Brank. Same as Buckwheat. Brazil-wood. Brazilian-grass. Brewery refuse. Bromeliacece. Bromelia Pinguin, Pineapple. Bromelia syloestris, Pineapple. Broom. Broomcorn. Broom-leaved tea-tree, Melaleuca genistifolia. Broom swamp. Broussonetia. Broussonetia papyri/era, Paper mul- berry. Brown-grass. Brown-hemp (see Sunn). Bryon. Buckwheat, Fagopyrum escidentum. Bulrush, Typha angustifolia. Burdock. Burlap bagging. Button- tree Buttonwood ;.} Same as Plane-tree. Cabbage. Cabbage stumps. Cactus. Calamus verus, Rattan, wood of. Calotropis gigantea, Yucca. Mudar. Camelina, Camelina sativa. Canadian poplar, Populus Canadensis, wood of. Canary-grass, Phalaris canariensis. Canes. Cannabis sativa, Kangra hemp. Canvas, old. Cardamom, refuse stems and leaves of. Carex, Sedge. Sedge-grass. Stems of. ( Gallingall Carex pseudo-cypher us, < rush. 1 Stems of. Carludovica palmata, Panama hat straw. n , \ Ja Sago-palm. Sanseviera Zebrina, J / Bowstring Sanseviera Zelanica, 4 hemp. (. Re-tree. Satin. Sawdust. Scirjpus fluviatilis, Club rush. Stems and leaves of. Scirjpus Icenstris. Scirpus palustris, Marsh rush. Scotch ferns. Screw pine, Pandanus utilis, stems and leaves of. Seacoast rush, Dianella latifolia. Dianella longifolia. Juncus maritimus. Juncus vaginatus. Sea-grass. Sea-mallow. Sea-weeds. Sea-wrack. (See Varec.) Secole cereale, Rye. Semite. Sedge, stalks and roots of. Sedge-grass, Carex appressa. Seed down of thistles. 74 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Seines, old. Seratula ervansis. Sesbania aculeala, Danehi. Dhonchi. Shavings. Ground. Paper. Wood. Shingles, old. Sida. Sida pulcJiella, Victorian hemp. Sida rliomboida, Barriala. Sida tilicefolia. Silk. Silk cocoon, refuse of. Silk plant, Asclepias. Silk, refuse. Sisal-grass, ) A . ■ . = ' > Agave Americana. Sisal-hemp, J Skins, pieces of. Slender sword-grass (Mat-grass), Lepi- dosperma flexuosa. Small-sheathed rush, Juncus vaginatus, stems and leaves of. Soft-leaved abutilon, Abutilon mollis. Solaneas. Solonaceas. Sorghum. Sorghum, refuse. Sorgo sucre, Chinese sugar-cane. Sotal tree. Spanish Bayonet, Yucca aloifolia. Spanish Broom, Macrocliola Tenacis- sima. Spanish-grass. Sparganium family. Sparmannia Africana, Adam's Needle. Sparlina cynosuroides, Cord-grass. Spartina juncea, Salt hay. Sparlium junceum, Spanish-broom. Spartium scoparium, Wheat. Spear lily, Doryanthes excelsa. Spindle-tree. Spruce, firewood of. Steins and leaves of — Coast rush, Juncus maritimus. Coast sword rush, Lepidosperma gla- diatum. Cyplierus lucidus. Cypherus sj). Dianella latifolia. Gahnia psiitacorum, Var. erythro- carpum. Giant lily, Agave, Fourcroya gigan- tea. ■ Jaggery palm, Caryota wens. Marica Northiana. Native bulrush. Native tussock-grass, Zerotes longi- folia. New Zealand flax, Phormium lenax. Pampas-grass, Arundo conspicuo. Scirpusfluviatilis. Screw pine, Pandanus utilis. Small-sheathed rush, Juncus vagi- natus. Swamp moss, Confeva sp. Tall palm lily, Cordyline indivisa. Tall sword rush, Lepidosperma cla- tius. Stems of — Carex appressa. . Carex pseudo-cyperus. Ehrliarta tenacissima. Few-tlowered rush, Juncus pauci- florus. Isonepeis nodosa. Victorian nettle, Urtica incisa. Stercidia acerifolia, Flame-tree. Sterculia diversifolia, Victorian bottle- tree. Sterculia fpetida, -, Sterculia lucida, Stercidia represtris, [- Bottle-tree. Sterculia villosa. Sterculia urens. ' Stinging nettle. Stipa tenacissima. MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER. 75 Stolpoddo, Hibiscus mutabilis. Stone. Stramonium, Datura Stramonium. Straws of cereal and leguminous plants. Straw paper, old. Strelitza regina, Baobab. Stringy bark, Eucalyptus obliqua. Stypa spartum. Sugar-cane, Saccliarum officinarian. Sugar-cane leaves. Sultana bark. Sunflower. Sun-hemp. (See Sunn.) Sunn, Crotalaria juncea. Swamp moss. Swamp tea-tree, Melaleuca ericifolia. Melaleuca genisti folia. Melaleuca squarrosa. Sweet broom. Sword-grass, Galinia psittacorum. Lepidosperma elatius. Tall palm lily, Cordyline indivisa, stems and leaves of. Tall sword rush, Lepidosperma elatius, stems and leaves of. Tan. Tan bark, etc. Tan spent. Tarred rope. Terebinthenacew. Thalipot, leaves of. Thick-leaved pittosporum, Pittosporum crassifolium. Thistle-down. Thistle-stalks. Thistles. Threads. Tikkur, refuse stems and leaves of. Tilia Europcea, Lime-tree, wood of. Tillandsia. Timothy. Tobacco. Tousles Mois, annual stems and leaves. Tow. Tracena endivisa. Tree moss. Tree nettle, Laportia gigus. Traphis. Triticum, repens, Dog-grass (also called Couch-grass, Dog-wheat, Knot-grass, Twitch-grass, Quitch and Quickens). Triticum rulgare, Wheat. Tulip leaves. Turmeric, refuse stems and leaves of. Turf. Turnips. Tussock-grass, Xerotes longifolia. Twine. Twitch-grass, same as Dog-grass. Typlia angustifolia, Bulrush. Stems and leaves of. Typlia latijolia, Cat-tail. Ulmus. Llmus campestris, Elm, wood of. Ulva marina. Urania, Guazama ulmifolia. (Ravenda) Madgascariensis. Meloclda liliacefolia. Pterospermum acerifolium. Urtica divaricata, Giant nettle. Urtica heterophylla, Neilgherry nettle. Urtica incisa, Victorian nettle. Urticeai. Usnea (Lichens). Fucus vesiculosus. Varec, Vareeki Vegetable fibres, raw. Vellozke. Victorian bottle-tree, Sterculia diversi- folia. Victorian hemp, Sida pulcliella. Victorian nettle, Urtica incisa, stems of. Victorian yellow-wood, Melaleuca squarrosa. Vined lantern-flower, Abutilon venosum. 76 Vines, grape-vines. Vines, hop. Walnut, Juglans regia, wood of. Walnut leaves. Wasps' nests. Waste, cotton. Waste papers. Water-broom. Water-lilies, t Water-moss. Water-oats, Zizania aquatica. Water-plants. Water-weeds. Wayfaring- tree. Weeds. Wheat, Iriticum vulgare. Wheat straw. Whin. White moss. White pine, Abies pectinata, wood of. White-wood. White poplar, Popalus alba, Avood of. Wikstrcemia solicifolia. Wild broom, Spartium scoparium. Wild cherry (Hino-ki, Japan). Willow, Salix alba, wood of. Willow-herb, stalks of. Willow, inner bark of. Willow twigs. Willow wood. Wire-grass, Ehrharta tenacissima. Poa Australis. Wood-chips. Wood. Wood-pulp. Woods- Acacia, Pobinia Pseud- Acacia Alder, Alnus glutinosa Ash, Fraximis excelsior Aspen-tree, Populus tremula THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Yield per cent, of fibre. 34.10 34.30 32.28 35. Yield per cent. Woods — of fibre. Bamboo, Bambusa thonarsu . 34.90 Beech, Fagus sylvatica . . 30.90 Birch Betula alba . . . 33.80 Black alder, Rhamnus Frangula 37.82 Canadian poplar, Populus Canadensis .... 36.88 Elm, Iflmus campestris . . 31.81 Filbert-tree, Corylus Avellana . 31.50 Fir, Pinus sylvedris . . . 35.17 Heath, Erica vulgaris . . 27.14 Horse-chestnut, JEsculus Hip- poeastanum . . . .38.26 Italian poplar, Topulus Palica 36.12 Lime-tree, Tilia Puropcea . 38.16 Oak, Quercus robur . . . 29.16 Osier, Salix alba .. . . 29.50 Pitch pine, Piniis Australis . 31.08 Rattan, Calamus verus . . 29.19 Red pine, Pinus sylvestris rubra 32. 2S Walnut, Juglans regia . . 26.52 White pine, Abies pectinata . 34.60 White poplar, PojJirfus alba . 35.81 Willow, Salix alba . . . 37.82 Woolen. Woolen-grass (Typha) . Wrack. (See Varec.) Xerotes longifolia, Tussock-grass. Yellow wood, after extracting dye. Yercum, Calatropis gigantea. Yucca aloifolia, Spanish bayonet. Yucca angustifolia. Yucca breviola. Yucca draconis. Yucca filamentosa. Yucca glortosa, Adam's Needle Yucca puberula. Zizania aquatica, Water oats. Zea Mays, Maize. Zopissa. cellulose. 77 Micro-graphic Study of the Manufacture of Paper. 1 From a microscopic study of the various vegetable fibres used in paper-making, A. Girard has determined the quali- ties such fibres ought to possess. Absolute length is not of much importance, but the fibre should be slender and elastic, and possess the property of turning upon itself with facility. Tenacity is of but secondary importance, for, when paper is torn, the fibres scarcely ever break. The principal substances employed in paper-making may be divided into five different classes : — 1. Round, ribbed fibres, as hemp and flax. 2. Smooth or feebly ribbed fibres, as esparto, jute, phor- mium, dwarf palm, hop, and sugar-cane. 3. Fibro-celhdar substances, as the pulp obtained from the straw of rye and wheat, by the action of caustic lye. 4. Flat fibres, as cotton, and those obtained by the action of caustic lye upon wood. 5. Imperfect substances, as the pulp obtained from sawdust. Cellulose. Cellulose, C 6 H ]0 O 5 , constitutes the essential part of the solid framework or cellular tissue of plants, and hence is an especially characteristic product of the vegetable king- dom. The outer coating of ascidian animals is, however, apparently identical with cellulose. 1 ' Comp. Rend.,' lxxx. 629-631 ; ' Chem. Soc. J.,' xxviii. 675. 78 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Cellulose occurs nearly pure in cotton, linen, and the pith of certain plants. Swedish filter paper, linen rags, and cotton-wool are still purer forms of cellulose. Cellulose is a white, tasteless, odorless, non-volatile body of about 1.45 specific gravity. It is insoluble in water and all ordinary menstrua, but dissolves, as first observed by Schweitzer, in a strong solution of cupric oxide in ammonia. Hi/clrocellulose, C ]2 HooO n , is the product of the action of mineral acids (e. g., sulphuric acid of 1.42 sp. gr., or fuming hydrochloric acid), and many other reagents on cellulose. It always retains the form of the cellulose from which it is derived, but differs therefrom in being extremely friable, more readily affected by reagents, and in the readiness with which it combines with coloring matters. Cellulose undergoes gradual change by prolonged boiling with dilute acids, being converted into hydrocellulose, and is even affected by boiling water alone, especially if heated under pressure. Oxy cellulose appears to vary somewhat in composition according to the mode of preparation, but an apparently definite substance of the formula, C 1S H 2G 16 , was obtained by Cross and Bevan (' Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.,' iii. 206) from several different sources. The cellulose was boiled with nitric acid containing 50 per cent, of HN0 3 , whereby it was largely oxidized to oxalic acid, but yielded 30 per cent, of oxycellulose in the form of a fine white powder, readily soluble in dilute alkalies, and reprecipitable from the solu- tion in a pectous form on addition of acids, salts, or alcohol. Oxycellulose dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with DETERMINATION OF CELLULOSE. 79 pink coloration, and yields a gummy dextro-rotatory sub- stance resembling ordinary dextrin. By the action of con- centrated nitric acid mixed with sulphuric acid oxy cellulose yields a nitro-compound of the formula C ls Ho 3 (N0 2 ) 3 16 . The oxidation of cellulose by hypochlorites seems to depend on the presence of free acid, 1 even the atmospheric carbonic acid having a notable influence. When once converted into oxy cellulose, no reducing agent (e. g., thio- sulphate) will restore the fibre to its original condition. By immersing dyed oxycellulose tissue in a bleaching liquid, the dye can be made to disappear, and the fibre can be re-dyed of any color by immersion in the solution of a suitable coloring matter. Determination of Cellulose. For the determination of cellulose in wood, vegetable fibres, and substances to be used for the manufacture ol paper, Muller recommends the following processes : 5 grams weight of the finely divided substance is boiled four or five times with water, using 100 c. c. each time. The residue is dried at 100° C, weighed and exhausted with a mixture of equal measures of benzine and strong alcohol, to remove fat, wax, resin, etc. The residue is again dried, and boiled several times with water, to every 100 c. c. of which 1 c. c. of strong ammonia has been added. This treatment removes coloring matter and pectous substances. 1 If paper be written on with a solution of potassium chlorate acidulated with hydrochloric acid, oxycellulose is formed, and on immersing the paper in a solu- tion of a basic coal-tar dye the writing will appear in color. 80 • the manufacture of paper. The residue is further bruised in a mortar if necessary, and is then treated in a closed bottle with 250 c. c. of water, and 20 c. c. of bromine water containing 4 c. c. of bromine to the litre. In the case of the purer bark-fibres, such as flax and hemp, the yellow color of the liquid only slowly disap- pears, but with straw and woods decolorization occurs in a few minutes. When this takes place, more bromine water is added, and this is repeated till the yellow color remains and bromine can be detected in the liquid after twelve hours. The liquid is then filtered, and the residue washed with water and heated to boiling with a litre of water containing 5 c. c. of strong ammonia. The liquid and tissue are usually colored brown by this treatment. The undissolved matter is filtered off, washed, and again treated with bromine water. When the action seems complete, the residue is again heated with ammoniacal water. This second treatment is sufficient with the purer fibres, but the operation must be repeated as often as the residue imparts a brownish tint to the alkaline liquid. The cellulose is thus obtained as a pure white body. It is washed with water and then with boiling alcohol, after which treatment it may be dried at 100° C. and weighed. Bevan and Cross, 'Chem. News,' xlii. 77, substitute a .treatment with chlorine gas for the repeated digestion with dilute bromine water, prescribed in the foregoing process. A single repetition of the treatment is then always sufficient, and the results obtained are concordant with those given by the bromine process. Bevan and Cross also find that by boiling the chlorinated fibre for a few minutes in a 5 per cent, solution of sodium sulphite, and then in a 1 per cent. RECOGNITION" OF VEGETABLE FIBRES. 81 solution of caustic potash, pure cellulose is at once obtained, the results by this method being 5 per cent, higher than those yielded by Miiller's process. Recognition of Vegetable Fibres. As vegetable fibres, when thoroughly bleached, all consist of nearly pure cellulose, chemical tests are not available for distinguishing one kind from another ; but, owing to the impossibility of wholly removing the incrusting matter on the manufacturing scale, it is possible to distinguish between certain fibres, such as cotton and linen. By far the best and most reliable means of differentiating vegetable fibres is to examine their structure with a micro- scopic power of 120 to 150 diameters. Filaments of cotton appear under the microscope as trans- parent tubes about .04 millimetre in diameter, flattened and twisted round their axes, and tapering off to a closed point at each end. A section of the filament resembles somewhat a figure-of-eight, the tube, originally cylindrical, having collapsed most in the middle,- forming semi-tubes on each side, which give to the fibre, when viewed in certain lights, the appearance of a flat ribbon with the hem or border at each edge. The uniform transparency of the filament is impaired by small irregular figures, in all probability wrinkles or creases arising from the desiccation of the tube. The twisted and corkscrew form of the dried filament of cotton distin- guishes it from all other vegetable fibres, and is characteristic of the fully ripe and mature pod, M. Bauer having ascer- 82 TflE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. tained that the fibres of the unripe seed are simply untwisted cylindrical tubes, which never twist afterwards if separated from the plant ; but when the seeds ripen, even before the capsule bursts, the cylindrical tubes collapse in the middle and assume the form already described. This form and character the fibres always retain, undergoing no change through the various operations of spinning, weaving, bleach- ing, printing, and dyeing, nor in all the subsequent domestic processes of washing, etc., and even the reduction of the rags to pulp for the manufacture of paper effects no change in the structure of the fibres. Linen or flax fibre appears under the microscope as hollow cylindrical tubes open at both ends, and having a diameter of about .02 of a millimetre. The fibres are smooth, the inner tube very narrow, and joints or septa appear at inter- vals, but they are not furnished with hairy appendages, as is the case with hemp. The jointed structure of flax is only perceptible under a very excellent instrument, and with judicious management of the light. When flax fibre (linen) is immersed in a boiling solution of equal parts of caustic potash and water for about a minute, and then removed and pressed between folds of filter paper, it assumes a dark-yellow color, whilst cotton, when similarly treated, either remains white or becomes a very bright yellow. The same solution of potash, employed cold, colors raw flax orange-yellow, whilst raw cotton becomes gray. When flax or a tissue made from it is immersed in oil, and then strongly pressed to remove the excess of the liquid, it remains transparent, while cotton similarly treated" becomes opaque. RECOGNITION OF VEGETABLE FIBRES. 83 Phormium tenax, or New Zealand flax, may be distin- guished from ordinary flax or hemp by the red color pro- duced on immersing it in nitric acid of 1.32 sp. gravity, containing lower oxides of nitrogen. A reddish color is also developed if New Zealand flax be immersed first in strong chlorine water and then in ammonia. In machine-dressed New Zealand flax the bundles are translucent and irregularly covered with tissue. Spiral fibres can be detected in the bundles, but less numerous than with sizal. The bundles are flat, and numerous ulti- mate fibres project from them. In Maori-prepared phormium the bundles are almost wholly free from tissue, and there are no spiral fibres. Hemp fibre resembles flax, but has a mean diameter of about .04 mm., and exhibits small hairy appendages at the joints. With Manilla hemp the fibrous bundles are oval, nearly opaque, and surrounded by a considerable quantity of dried- up cellular tissue composed of rectangular cells. The bun- dles are smooth, very few partly detached ultimate fibres are seen, and no spiral tissue. Sizal forms oval fibrous bundles surrounded by cellular tissue ; a few smooth ultimate fibres projecting from the bundles. Sizal is more translucent than Manilla, and is characterized by the large quantity of spiral fibres mixed up in the bundles. Jute fibre appears under the microscope as bundles of tendrils, each of which is a cylinder with irregularly thick- ened walls, the thickening often amounting to a partial 84: THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. interruption of the central lumen. The bundles offer a smooth cylindrical surface, to which fact the silky lustre of jute is due, and which is much increased by bleaching. By the action of sodium hypochlorite, the bundles of fibres can be disintegrated so that the single fibres can be more readily distinguished under the microscope. Jute is colored a deeper yellow by aniline sulphate than is any other fibre, and responds strongly to the bromine and sulphite test. In examining fibres under the microscope the tissue should be cut up with sharp scissors, placed on a glass slide, moistened with water, and covered with a piece of thin glass. Note. — For the portions of this chapter contained under the heads of Deter- mination of Cellulose, and Recognition of Vegetable Fibres, the author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to Allen's ' Commercial Organic Analysis,' vol. i. p. 316 et seq. CLASSIFICATIONS OF PAPER. 85 CHAPTER III. COMMERCIAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF PAPER — SIZES OF PAPER COMMERCIAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS. The following list shows the manner in which new papers and boards are usually classified in the markets of the United States : — Binders' boards No. 1. Binders' boards No. 2. Blotting, American. Blotting, English. Book, extra machine finish. Book, fine Avhite and tinted. Book, machine finish, Ioav grade. Book, No. 1, shavings and imperfec- tions. Book, No. 2. Book, superfine. Book, super-sized and calendered. Book, super-sized and tinted. Card middles, ground wood. Card middles, long fibre wood. Card middles, rag and wood. Cigarette straw tissue. Colored papers, double mediums. Colored papers, glazed mediums. Colored papers, tobacco. Colored papers, tissues. Filter paper. Flat caps, engine-sized. Flat caps, fines. Hanging, brown. Hanging, buff". Hanging, curtain. Hanging, machine satin. Hanging, superfine, No. 1. Hanging, superfine, No. 2. Hanging, white blank, No. 1. Hardware, light-colored, No. 1. Hardware, No. 1, glazed. Hardware, No. 1, glazed, tarred. Hardware, red. Leather board, common. Leather board, counter. Leather board, extra. Ledger. Manilla, bleached, No. 1. Manilla, bleached, No. 2. Manilla, cream, rope. Manilla, extra jute. Manilla, jute and gunny. Manilla, No. 1, heavy weight. Manilla, No. 1, light weight. Manilla, No. 1, rope. Manilla, No. 2. Manilla, ordinary. Manillas, bogus. Manillas, flour-sack, cream. Manillas, flour-sack, drab. Manillas, rope, unbleached, No. 1. Manillas, rope, unbleached, No. 2. 86 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. News, No 1. News, rag and wood. News, No. 1, rag. News, ordinary rag. News, straw. News, straw and wood. Plate. Record. Straw boards, air-dried. Straw boards, air-dried, No. 1. Straw boards, air-dried, New York. Straw boards, air-dried, Penn. Straw boards, steam-dried. Straw boards, steam-dried, No. 1. Straw boards, steam-dried, No. 2. Straw boards, steam-dried, No. 3. Straw wrapping. Straw wrapping, heavy weight. Straw wrapping, light weight. Super-calendered, white and tinted. Tar boards. Tea papers. Test papers. Tissue, Manillas. Tissues, black. Tissues, white. Tracing paper. Sizes of Papers. There is in the United States no one set of standard sizes for book papers and for news papers. The lists of sizes vary in Philadelphia, New York, Chicago, and Boston. Old names of sizes for writings and bank ledger papers have been retained; but names of sizes for printing papers have virtually disappeared. The sizes and weights of news, book, and other papers carried regularly in stock by paper dealers are as follows : — Sizes, inches. 24 X 38 . 26 X 40 . 28 X 42 . 31 X 44 . 33 X 46 . NEWS. Weights (lbs. per ream). . 25, 27, 30. . 35. . 40, 45. . 40, 50, 60. . 60. MACHINE FINISHED BOOK, WHITE AND TONED. Sizes, inches. Weights (lbs. per ream). 24 x 38 30, 35, 40, 50, 60. 26 X 40 50, 60. 28 X 42 40, 45, 50. 31 X 44 50, 60. SIZES OF PAPERS. 87 SIZED SUPER CALENDERED BOOK, WHITE AND TONED. Sizes, inches. Weights (lbs. per ream). 22 X 28 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80. 24 x 38 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 100. 26 X 40 50, 60, 70. 28 X 42 50, 60, 70. 31 X 44 . . . . . 50, 60, 70. COLORED COVER PAPERS. Sizes, inches. Weights (lbs. per ream). 20 x 25 . . . . . 22, 32, 40, 48. 22 X 28 32, 50. 24 x 38 40. MANILLAS. Sizes, inches. Weights (lbs. per ream). 24x36 . . . . . 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80. 30 x 40 . . . . . 28, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80. 40x48 100, 125, 150. FLAT WRITINGS. Names. Sizes, inches. Letter . . . . . 10 X 16 Small cap . . . 13 X 16 Cap 14 X 17 Crown 15 X 19 Demy 16 x 21 Folio 17 X 22 Medium . . . . 18 X 23 Royal 19 X 24 Double cap . . . 17 X 28 Weights (lbs. per ream). 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. 12. 12, 14, 16, 18, 20. 18, 20, 22, 24. 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28. 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28. 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 36. 20, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 36. 24, 28, 32, 36, 40. "LINEN" BANK-LEDGER PAPERS. Names. Crown . . Demy . . Medium . Royal . . Super royal Elephant . Imperial . Double cap Double demy Double medium (C Double royal Colombier Atlas . . . Double elephant Antiquarian . . Sizes, inches. . 15 X 19 . 16x21 . 18 X 23 . 19 x 24 . 20 X 28 . 23 X 28 . 23 X 31 . 17 x 28 . 21 X 32 . 16 X 42 . 23 X 36 . 18 X 46 . 24 X 38 . 23 X 34 . 26 X 33 . 27 x 40 . 31 X 53 Weights (lbs. per ream). 22. 28, 30. 36, 40 44. 54. 65. 72. 32, 60. 60. 80. 36, 40. 100. 125. 200. 88 The manufacture of paper. Commercial Classifications of Paper-Making Materials. Rags. Rags are imported into the United States from almost every civilized country in the world ; but the alphabetical classifications (not classifications according to value) of paper-making materials given in this chapter embrace only those which are regularly quoted in the markets of the United States and of Great Britain. ALEXAND1 UA RAGS. Blues. Whites. Colors. BELGIAN RAGS. Dirty fines. Linens, No. 4. Fustians, dark. Linens, white, No. 1. Fustians, light. Outshots. Housecloths. Prints, light. Linens, gray. Prints, tender, for blottings Linens, No. 1. White cottons. Linens, No. 2. AVhite cottons, superfine. Linens, No. 3. BRITISl 1 RAGS. Black calicoes. Fustians, light. Burlaps, bagging, No. 1. Light prints. Canvas linen, first. London fines, cotton. Canvas linen, second. New cuttings, cotton. Checks and blues. New print tabs. Essex fines. Outshots, cotton. Flax tow. Seconds. Fustians, dark. Thirds. CONSTANTIN OPLE RAGS. Blues. Whites, No. 2. Reds. Whites, No. 3. Whites, No. 1. PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS. 89 DOMESTIC RAGS. Canvas, cotton. Canvas, linen. City whites, No. 1. City whites, No. 2. Colors. Country, mixed. Country, mixed, free of woollens. Country, seconds. Country, white. Mill assorted, whites. New seconds, dai'k. New seconds, light. Unbleached muslins. White shirt cuttings. DUTCH RAGS. Blues. Cottons, dark. Fustians, light and brown. Linens, fine whites, No. 1. Linens, fine whites, No. 2. Linens, fine whites, No. 3. Prints, light. HAMBURG RAGS. NSC, new shirt cuttings. SP FFF,T$o. 1, linens. S P FF, No. 2, linens. S P F, No. 3, linens. FG, No. 4, linens. F F, No. 5, linens. Extra fine blue linen, light color. L F B, blue linens. CSPFFF,No.l, cottons. CS P FF, No. 2, cottons. C S P F, No. 3, cottons. C G C, colored cottons. C F X, low-grade cottons. Extra fine blue cottons. Blues, ordinary. Blues, selected. JAPANESE RAGS. I Whites, ordinary, S P FFF, No. 1, linens. S P F F, No. 2, linens. S P F, No. 3, linens. KONTGSBERG RAGS. F G, No. 4, linens. F F, No. 5, linens. L F X, low-grade linens. LEGHORN RAGS. P P, No. 1, white linens. S S, No. 2, white linens. T T, No. 3, white linens. it R, linen stripes. P C, No. 1 , white cottons. £ C, No. 2, white cottons. I 1 G, No. 3, white cottons. R C, cotton stripes. C C, colored cottons. 90 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. S P FF. S P F F G. B G. LIBAN RAGS, LINENS. Sacking. A. LFB. MEUREL RAGS, LINENS. S P FF, No. 1, linens. 5 P F, No. 2, linens. F G, No. 3, linens. F F, No. 4, linens. LFB, blue linens. 8 P FF, No. 1, linens. S P F, No. 2, linens. F G, No. 3, linens. RUSSIAN RAGS. F F, No. 4, linens. L F X, No. 5, linens. LFB, blue linens. Blues. Mixed. SMYRNA RAGS. Reds. Whites. SP F SFF. Bagging, mixed. Gunny bagging, No. 1. Gunny bagging, No. 2. Jute threads, best. Jute threads, clean. TRIEST RAGS. SFX. SFB. Rope, Bagging, and Threads. Rope, jute. Rope, Manilla. Rope, tarred Manilla. Rope, white Manilla. Rope, mixed. Shavings and Old Papers. Binders' board cuttings. Bogus Manillas. Book stock, No. 1, light. Books, new, solid folios. Books, old blank. Books, old printed. Briefs and letters. Broken news and letters. Commons. Hardware, No. 1. Ledger and writing. Manillas, No. 1. Newspapers and pamphlets, extra. Newspapers and pamphlets, old. Paper-collar cuttings. Railway sheets, white and buff. Railway tickets. Shavings, cream post. PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS. 91 Shavings, mixed. Shavings, mixed, part white. Shavings, No. 1, hard. Shavings, No. 1, soft. Shavings, No. 1, white and colored. Shavings, No. 2, white and colored. Solid stock. Straw board cuttings. White collar cuttings. White envelope cuttings. White shavings, hard, No. 1. White shavings, soft, No. 1. Adansonia fibre. Bamboo, crushed. Various Fibres. Palm fibre. Palm leaves. Fibre, bales. Fibre, ballots. COIR GOODS. | Fibre, rope. Good black. CURLED FIBRE. | Good green. Gutta-percha, good to fine. GUTTA-PERCHA. | Gutta-percha, low to medium. Assam. Borneo. Central American. Madagascar. Mozambique. Cotton waste. Flax waste. Jute bagging, special. INDIA-RUBBER. Negrohead. Para, fine. Pe££U. Kitool fibre, brown. Wastes. Jute bagging, good, clean. Jute bagging, second quality Jute cuttings. Aspen, dry, in sheets. Aspen, 50 per cent, moisture. Brown pine, dry. Brown pine, 50 per cent, moisture. Brown pine (half chemical \ " Heosfos' brand, 50 per cent, moisture. Wood Pulps. Chemically prepared (acid), 50 per cent. moisture. Chemically prepared, bleached. Chemically prepared, unbleached. Ligneous meal (wood flour), selected. Ligneous meal (wood flour), extra fine. 92 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Ligneous meal (wood flour), fine. Pine, dry, in sheets. Pine (long fibre), 50 per cent, moisture. Pine, 50 per cent, moisture. Pine, 50 per cent, moisture (single sorted) . Straw Pulp Straw pulp (bleached), 50 per cent moisture. Straw pulp (bleached), 50 per cent moisture, extra quality. These pulps are sold by the ton of dry weight. Algerian (oran, etc.), first quality. Algerian (oran, etc.), second quality Algerian (oran, -etc.), third quality. Gabes, sfax, or skira, good average. Esparto-Grass. Spanish, fine to best. Tripoli, hand picked. Tripoli, fair average. Chemicals, Clays, Coloring Materials, Rosins, etc., employed in Paper-making. Alkali (quoted according to per cent.). Alum, ground. Alum, lump. Alum, pearl. Alum, porous. Aluminous, cake. Anti-chlorine. Bichromate of potash, American. Bleaching powders. Brazil wood. Catechu. Cochineal. Caustic soda (quoted according to the per cent.). Clay, China, English. Clay, China, "Star." Clay, South Carolina. Clay, Terra alba, American. Clay, Terra alba, French. Corn-starch. Copperas, American. Extract of logwood. Mineral, fibrous pulp. Orange mineral. Potato starch. Prussian blue. Prussiate potash. Eosins, common to good, strained. Rosins, good, No. 1. Rosins, good, No. 2. Rosins, low. Rosins, No. 1. Rosins, extra pale. Rosins, pale. Sal soda, caustic. Sal soda, English. Soluble blue. Spanish brown. Sugar of lead, brown. Sugar of lead, white. Sulphuric acid (quoted according to the per cent.). Venetian red. Vitriol, blue. Yellow ochre, Rochelle. PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS. 93 Aniline Dyes, etc. Blue, paper, 1. Blue, paper, 2. Blue, ultramarine. Brown, Bismarck. Diamond, magneta. Eosine, pure. Green, fast, No. 1. Green, fast, No. 2. Lac k la cochennille. Magenta crystals, pure. Magenta crystals, No. 2. Methyl blue. Methyl green. Methyl violet. Orange B. Paris blue. Red lake. Rocceline, pure (fast red) . Silk green. Violet, 2 B crystals. Violet, 2 B powder. Yellow, No. 6 P. 94 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. CHAPTER IV. MANUFACTURE OF PAPER BY HAND. We who live in the present day with our newspapers issued every twenty-four hours by the millions, can form but an indistinct idea of what was the state of the art of paper manufacture even at so late a period as the commencement of the present century. Instead of paper being reeled off in webs many feet in width, and at the rate of nearly a mile in length in the hour, each sheet had at that time to be separately made on a mould by hand, and had then after- ward to be subjected to various processes before it was in a state suitable for use. To obtain an uniform and continuous supply of paper for any purpose was quite impossible, and the necessity of applying machinery to this manufacture was beginning to be urgently felt, and the success which had attended its introduction into the spinning and weaving industries gave encouragement to the paper manufacturer. Yet the entire change from a system of manufacture almost mediaeval in its rudeness has been comprised within the lifetime of many persons now living. Hand-made paper continues to be used for special pur- poses ; but, for serviceability, machine-made paper is un- doubtedly to be preferred. In Great Britain and on the MANUFACTURE OF PAPER BY HAND. 95 continent of Europe hand-made writing paper is more largely used than in the United States, and its present employment is owing in Europe largely to the conservatism of the people ; but affectation probably exerts as much influence as any other cause at home and abroad in maintaining the fashion of employing hand-made writing paper. There is now so little hand-made paper produced in the United States that a chapter devoted to the details of its manufacture is really of no practical value ; but in order that this volume may not seem incomplete a synopsis of the process of manufacturing paper by hand will be given. The. preparation of the pulp for paper to be made either by hand or by machinery is identical, but as the paper pro- duced by the former method is usually of an expensive character, consequently only the finest qualities of rags are used. As the preparation of the pulp will be described later, we shall now only take it after it has issued from the beating engine, been stained and run into large chests from which the paper-maker's vat is supplied. The sheet of paper is moulded in the following manner : the vatman takes the mould, which consists of a framework of fine wire cloth having a "deckle" or movable rectangular frame of wood to keep the pulp from running off, and dipping the mould vertically into the pulp and bringing it up horizontally takes up a sufficient quantity to fill the deckle. The vatman then runs the pulp evenly over the mould from the front side to the back, the superfluous stuff being dropped into the vat, and then gives the mould the " shake," which motion being imparted so as to be felt in the length and across the mould 96 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. causes the fibres of the stuff to intertwine and the water to pass through the openings in the wire-cloth, the sheet of paper being formed from the pulp which remains. The operation of moulding the paper requires great nicety, both in determining the thickness of the sheet and in imparting to it an uniform body throughout. The stuff in the vat is kept at the proper temperature by a copper or other contrivance placed within the vat, steam heat being communicated through a suitable pipe, the agita- tion of the stuff being accomplished by means of machinery also placed within the vat. After the sheet of paper is formed the vatman brings it to the stay, and removing the deckle applies it to a second mould and proceeds as before. An assistant, called a "coucher," takes the first mould and places it on an inclined elbow in order to cause more water to drain out of the sheet ; the coucher, having by his side a heap of porous pieces of flannel called " felts," next turns the mould over on one of them, leaving the sheet of paper on the felt, and then placing another felt on the damp sheet of paper, he is in readiness to turn over the sheet from the second mould. In this manner the two workmen proceed, the vatman moulding a sheet of paper and the coucher placing it upon a felt, until the pile, which is called a " post," contains six or eight quires. The post is then carried to the press, where it is subjected to a powerful pressure, which causes a large quantity of water to be removed from the paper, leaving the sheets sufficiently dry to be handled by the "layer," who lays one MANUFACTURE OF PAPER BY HAND. 97 sheet upon another leaving out the felts, and after parting sheet from sheet subjects the heap to a moderate pressure. Fig. 1 shows the process of forming paper by hand, the vatman being in the act of giving the mould the " shake," and the coucher being represented turning a sheet of paper from the mould upon a felt ; the " post," which is partly built up, being so arranged as to be drawn to the press upon a gangway of rollers. The sheets after being pressed, as has been described, are next parted, and then hung in the drying loft, where the paper remains until dry, being placed in spurs five or six sheets thick upon rope made from cow hair. The paper is next sized by passing the spurs through a trough containing a strong solution of gelatine, and then in 7 98 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. order to free the paper from an excess of size it is placed upon an endless felt and carried to one end of the long size trough and passed between press rollers. In order to pre- vent the sheets from sticking together they are separated from each other and carried to the drying loft, and finally dried at a temperature of about 75° to 80° F. The paper is then examined, the damaged sheets being thrown out or the knots removed, and is next glazed by passing the sheets between plates, the paper being finally sorted and finished in much the same manner as machine- made paper, but with additional pains. After being neatly put up into quires, half reams, and reams, the hand-made paper is ready for market. The water-mark observable on almost all hand-made papers when held against the light is produced by wires representing the letters or design of the water-mark raised above the other portion of the mould, thus making the paper thinner in that part covered by the marking wires by indelibly stamping the device or devices in the substance of the sheet of paper during its formation from the pulp. Adams, Mass., is probably the only place in the United States where paper is now made by hand; the quantity produced from each vat is from 190 to 200 pounds per day. But in Great Britain, where there exists a larger demand for this class of paper, the total production averages about 60 tons per week. DISINFECTING RAGS. 99 CHAPTER V. 4 DISINFECTING RAGS PURCHASING RAGS. When cholera, or other infectious or contagious diseases, exist in foreign countries, or in portions of the United States, the health officers in charge of the various quar- antines in this country require that rags from countries and districts in which such diseases are prevalent shall be thoroughly disinfected before they are allowed to pass their stations. Rags shipped to Hull, Liverpool, London, Italian, or other ports, and re-shipped from such ports to the United States, are usually subjected to the same rule as if shipped direct from the ports of the country in which such diseases prevail. It is usually requisite that the disinfection shall be made at the storehouses in the port of shipment by boiling the rags several hours under a proper degree of pressure, or in a tightly closed vessel, or disinfected with sulphurous acid, which is evolved by burning at least two pounds of roll sulphur to every ten cubic feet of room space ; the apart- ment being kept closed for several hours after the rags are thus treated. Disinfection by boiling the rags is usually considered to be the best method. In the case of rags imported from India, Egypt, Spain, and other foreign countries where cholera is liable to become 100 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. epidemic, it is especially desirable that some efficient, rapid, and thorough process of disinfecting should be devised. In order to meet the quarantine requirements, it must be thorough and certain in its action, and in order that the lives of the workmen and of others in the vicinity may not be endangered by the liberating of active disease-germs, or exposure of decaying and deleterious matters, and that the delay, trouble, and expense of unbaling and rebaling may be avoided, it must be capable of use upon the rags while in the bale, and of doing its work rapidly when so used. The object of Messrs. Parker and Blackman's invention, shown in Figs. 2, 3, and 4, is to provide such a process for disinfecting rags and other fibrous materials while in the bale. Figure 2 shows a view of one form of apparatus adapted for use in carrying out their process. Fig. 3 is a longi- DISINFECTING RAGS. 101 tudinal sectional view, showing a bale of fibrous material as being acted ivpon ; and Fig. 4 is an end view of the bale, showing the relative positions of the injecting- tubes. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. A designates a chamber provided at one end with an opening, B. to be closed by a door, (7, hinged at its lower edge, and adapted, when swung outward and downward, as shown in Fig. 2, to form a continuation of the floor of the interior of the chamber. A car, D, sup- ported upon suitable rollers or casters, D 1 D', is adapted to be run forward and back over the floor of the chamber, and when the door is swung down, as described above, out upon said door as a continuation of the floor. This car is shown pro- vided with means for clamping and holding firmly a bale, E, 102 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. of the material to be treated, and is caused to travel back and forth within the chamber and out through the door, when the latter is opened. Just beyond the closed inner end of the chamber A is another chamber or receptacle, F, into which is to be forced any desired kind of disinfectant gas or liquid under pressure. This liquid or gas can be forced or fed into chamber F, and put under pressure in any desired way or by any preferred means. Through the forward wall of this chamber or receptacle, and through suitable stuffing-boxes, G, therein, pass the hollow rotary shafts H IT, of any desired number, having their bores in communication with the interior of the chamber. One of these shafts is continued through the other or rear wall of the chamber, and connected with suitable means for causing it to revolve in either direction as desired. The hollow shafts pass forward through and are journaled in suitable long journal- bearings, 77, in the inner wall of the chamber A. The portions of the shafts within the chamber A are closed and pointed at their forward ends, screw-threaded throughout their lengths, and provided with series of small openings communicating with their central bores. Each shaft is formed with a collar, 7z, bearing against the inner or forward end of the shaft-bearing to prevent any backward movement of the shaft. Just outside of the wall of chamber A the shafts are provided with intermeshing gear-wheels, so that when one of them is rotated, as indicated above, the others will be revolved an equal number of times. The threads of the screws are so constructed that as the main driven screw is turned so as to screw it into anything brought DISINFECTING RAGS. 103 against its point the other screws will by their gears be turned to screw them in also. The mechanism for feeding forward the carriage with the bale fastened thereon is so connected with the gears on the shafts that the bale is fed against the end of the revolving screws and then continuously forward or inward as they are screwed into it. After the perforated screws have been driven fully into the bale, the door having been previously shut to close the chamber A tightly, disinfectant gas or liquid — preferably gas — is forced into chamber F, and from there out through the series of screws projecting into the bale. The gas then passes out through the openings in the screws, and is forced to pass in every direction through the mass of the bale, so as to come into intimate contact with every portion thereof, and effectually destroy every germ among the fibres of the material. As most fibrous materials, and especially rags, are baled so as to be in layers, the inventors so place the bale to be treated on the carriage that the perforated screws shall penetrate it in directions at right angles to the layers, as shown best in Fig. 3. By so doing it is insured that the gas or liquid used, issuing through the holes in the screws, shall pass in all directions throughout the bale, so as to come in contact with and act upon every portion of the material in every layer. When the material is in layers, if the screws were inserted into the bale in directions parallel with the layers, the gas or liquid would be apt to pass out between such layers as the screws projected between, thus leaving much of the material not properly acted upon. When, however, the bale is not 104 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. stratified in its formation, the screws can be forced into it in any direction desired. Upon the top of the chamber J. is a receptacle or tank, K, containing disinfecting liquid, L. At one end of this tank a pipe, M, leads upward from the interior of chamber J. to a point within the tank above the level of the liquid, and is then bent over and carried down into the liquid. A discharge opening or pipe, N, is provided on top of this tank at or near its end. With this construction all the air and gas passing up out of the chamber A, as gas or liquid is forced into and through the bale, must pass through the disinfectant liquid in the tank 7T, so that any disease-germs contained or floating in it will be, it is claimed, effectually rendered harmless. When a sufficient amount of disinfect- ant has been forced into and through the bale, the disinfect- ant is turned off and cold dry air is forced into the chamber or receptacle F, and from thence out through the per- forated screws or nozzles and the bale. Any desired means can be used for compressing and cool- ing the air and forcing it into the chamber. This air, pass- ing through the bale, cools and dries it, and then, as it issues from the bale and fills the disinfecting chamber, drives the foul air and gases from such chamber up and out through the disinfecting liquid in tank K. Only a very short time, it is claimed, is required to thus cool and dry the bale and drive out all the foul air from chamber A, so that it will be perfectly safe to open and enter the latter. The screws are caused to rotate, so as to be unscrewed or withdrawn from the bale, the carriage-moving mechanism being at the same DISINFECTING RAGS. 105 time actuated so as to move the carriage backward and out- ward, so that the bale can be removed therefrom. This process is claimed to be adapted not only to destroy all disease-germs, but also to destroy all foul and injurious gases and odors in the bale or arising therefrom. The decay of any vegetable or animal matter mingled with the material of the bale, it is claimed, will be arrested, and such deleterious matter rendered inert and incapable of injury to the health of those handling the bale or the material thereof after the bale has been opened. Instead of using perforated hollow screws, as described and shown, the inventors contemplate using hollow perfo- rated spindles to be thrust into the bale, either with or with- out rotary motion. Any suitable form of disinfectant can be used by this process, as, for instance, sulphurous acid in the gas or in solution, hot air, superheated steam, carbolic acid, any of the well-known solutions or vapors containing chlorine or sulphur, or, if desired, a solution containing a very small portion of corrosive sublimate. When the disin- fectant is in the form of a solution, it can be used as a liquid or mixed with air in the form of spray or vapor, which can be forced through the perforated nozzles into the bale. In lieu of injecting the disinfectant into the bale and causing it to permeate outward, the disinfectant can be caused to pass inward into and be drawn off from within the mass of material. In carrying out this modified process the disinfectant is fed in any desirable way into the disinfect- ing chamber around the bale, and the perforated tubular 106 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. nozzles or screws having been previously inserted into the bale in the same manner as shown and described hereinbe- fore, a vacuum is produced by any desirable means in the chamber, with the interior of which the outer ends of the bores of the nozzle communicate, as described. The disin- fectant within the disinfecting chamber surrounding the bale will then be drawn inward through the bale to the perfo- rated nozzles and out through them into the vacuum chamber. From thence the gases and vapors are drawn off by any suitable means and passed through a disinfecting tank or apparatus of any well-known construction. The disinfectant, after a sufficient quantity of it has been drawn through the bale, is shut off and cool dry air admitted to the disinfecting chamber instead, and also drawn in through the bale and out through the nozzles and a disinfecting tank or apparatus. Instead of causing the disinfectant, and subsequently the cool air, to pass inward through the bale and thence out through the nozzles by suction, the disinfecting chamber can be made strong enough to stand considerable pressure, and the disinfectant and afterward the air can be forced under pressure into it and around the bale. By such pressure the disinfectant or air can be caused to penetrate the bale from all sides inward to the perforated nozzles within it and then to pass outward through them. Either of these processes may be used, if desired. purchasing rags. 107 Purchasing Rags. The purchasing of rags for a paper-mill requires great experience, as there are so many tricks and frauds practised in making the bales, that even the most lynx-eyed and ex- perienced buyers often find numerous weight-giving sub- stances in the interior of the bales after they are opened. There is, of course, no way to discover these frauds until the rags are about to be used, and the only safeguard against such dishonesty is the exercise of caution in regard to the persons from whom the rags are purchased, and should the sellers refuse to make reasonable allowances for such fraudu- lent overweighting of the bales, good grounds would then exist for seeking to find more honorable dealers. Such frauds will exist just so long as paper-makers sub- mit to them without vigorous protest — but no longer. The color and strength of the materials determine the value of the rags ; city rags being easily distinguished from country rags by their respective colors and textures, city rags being fine and white, and country rags coarse and dark. If there be ground for reasonable suspicion that the rags have been unduly weighted with water it is advisable to weigh and then dry a lot of them either by spreading them in the rays of the sun or in a heated room and afterwards re weighing them. The quantity of moisture contained in the rags is indicated by the difference between their wet and dry weights. The natural humidity of rags varies from 5 to 7 per cent., being greater in coarse rags than in fine ones, and no greater allowance than this should be made. Linen 108 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. rags not uncommonly contain jute and cotton ; the jute being very undesirable as it injures the color of the paper. The presence of jute in linen may be ascertained by washing and treating with dilute chlorine, when the jute will become of a reddish color and the linen white. Cotton in linen is quickly destroyed by treating the rags with concentrated sulphuric acid, which does not injure the linen fibres but leaves them white and opaque. The gummy matter is removed by washing, and the sulphuric acid is neutralized by the addition of a small quantity of caustic potash. By drying the rags and treating as above, and then re- drying after separating the jute or destroying the cotton the per cent, of admixtures can be readily determined. SORTING RAGS. 109 CHAPTER VI. SORTING RAGS SORTING WASTE PAPER SORTING OR "DRY PICKING" ESPARTO — MACHINE FOR FACILITATING THE SORTING OF PAPER STOCK. Some manufacturers after opening the bales pass the rags through a machine for the purpose of removing the dust, sand, and other adhering matters. This treatment of the rags makes them much less objectionable to the sorters and cutters whose eyesight and health are better preserved there- by. The next operation through which the rags, waste papers, rope, and like materials used for paper stock pass is that of sorting according to fibre and color. Raw, coarse materials used for paper stock are more wasteful in treat- ment than fine city rags, and the same manipulations neces- sary to reduce the former to useful stock would prove destructive to the latter. The sorting of the raw material is, consequently, an important branch of the paper trade. In Europe a more minute classification is adopted than in the United States ; but on the Continent the assortment and classification of rags are much more simple than in either Great Britain or America. This department of the work should be conducted on simple and easily-remembered principles in order to facilitate the labor and save time. 110 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. It is not possible to describe any system of assorting and classifying rags that would be generally acceptable, as every country, and almost every mill, follows a different one in order to conform to particular circumstances. The follow- ing distinctions are, however, commonly made : — According to Fibre : — Linen. Hemp. Cotton. Manilla. Half wool, or woollens. According to Color: — White, first, second, third. Gray. Blue. Red. Black, containing all dark colors. Bagging, canvas, ropes, threads, twine, etc., are also sepa- rately classified. After the rags are assorted, whether uncut or cut, a fore- man usually inspects them after they are spread out on a large table in order to control the work of the women employed in this department. Sometimes the labor of sorting the rags can be materially facilitated by the use of mechanical contrivances. The invention shown in Figs. 5, 6, and 7 is intended to facilitate the sorting of paper stock. Sorting Waste Paper. When waste paper has been removed from the bale it should at once be passed through a devil and duster. SORTING WASTE PAPER. Ill Some mills use a railroad duster connected by an apron with an open cylinder duster. After the material has been opened up and the adhering impurities removed it is ready for the sorting-rooms, which are of the same general appearance as those in which rags are sorted ; but the tables, however, are without knives, as waste papers do not require to be cut. The sorters are required to sort out everything which has not once been white pulp, and remove all book covers, book- marks, toothpicks, matches, cigar stumps, scraps of leather, bits of wood, and other foreign substances which gravi- tate so naturally into the waste-paper basket and thence into the chifFonnier's bundle. The dealers are not always to be relied upon to do the sorting properly, and should pieces of yellow straw or dark wrapping paper be reduced to pulp along with the white paper they will reappear in the finished product in the form of yellow, gray, or colored spots. Papers made from some kinds of wood, esparto, etc., turn to a yellow-brown color during the bleaching, and as they cannot be made into first quality paper it is necessary to sort them out, and if the eye and touch are not to be relied upon such papers should be dipped into a bucket containing a strong solution of soda. If the soda does not change the color of the paper it is thrown with the No. 1 stock ; but if it turns yellow or brown under the test it is sorted out for inferior stock. No uniform classification in the grading of waste paper is 112 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. in use in the sorting-room ; the grading depending upon the custom of individual mills. Means are shown in Figs. 68, 70, 71, and 72 whereby "im- perfections" in large quantities can be assorted and delivered to the duster with the uniformity required to fully and properly supply it. Sorting or "Dry Picking" Esparto. The first process to which esparto is subjected after being delivered at the mill is that of " dry picking," which opera- tion is usually performed by girls who work at separate tables placed in a long row. A coarse iron-wire screen forms a portion of the top of each table, and on this gauze each girl spreads small bunches of esparto and picks out such imperfections as pieces of weed, root-ends, etc., while the smaller and heavier impurities, such as sand, etc., fall through the openings of the wire screen into a receptacle placed under the table. " Dry picking" is a term used in contradistinction to "wet picking" which is a subsequent process employed after the boiling. In some of the mills in Great Britain a machine is used for facilitating the labor of dry picking. The esparto is first passed through a fan duster and is then carried forward on an endless belt, the roots, etc., being removed by girls stationed on each side of the machine. The root-ends, etc., are very hard to boil and bleach, and, in addition to injuring the color of the bulk of the fibre, they are liable to make their appearance in the finished paper in the form of dark-colored spots, FACILITATING THE SORTING OF PAPER STOCK. 113 technically known as "sheave." After the grass has been properly sorted it is carried to the boiler-house. Machine for Facilitating the Sorting of Paper Stock. Messrs. Robert O. and Walter Moorhouse, of Philadel- phia, are the inventors of the machine shown in Figs. 5, 6, and 7, for facilitating the sorting of materials used for paper stock, which has for its object the turning over and loosening of the same and passing them steadily upon a screen before the eyes of the operatives, whose attention being relieved of the labor of spreading, opening, and removing the paper- making materials, are enabled to more quickly and thor- oughly sort them. This invention consists in an endless travelling screen of wire-cloth supported upon and moved by suitable rollers turned by power, upon which the stock is placed near one end, and a series of rotating vanes, also turned by power, which, by sweeping over the top of the screen, rub the stock upon it and open it, thus spreading it in view of the opera- tives and letting much of the dirt and grit fall through the screen. The operatives, being stationed along the sides of the screen, between the several vanes, remove objectionable objects that do not pass through the screen, and the desira- ble stock, being carried to the end, is discharged by having several operatives each taking out a particular kind or color of material, and they are thus very expeditiously sorted. Fig. 5 is a top view of the machine, Fig. 6 a front view, and Fig. 7 an end view. 114 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Fig. 7. A is an endless apron of wire-cloth, supported by rollers, B and B', at the ends of the frame C, and smaller inter- mediate rollers, D D, upon its upper portion, and rollers, E E, on the lower portion ; a roller, F, supported and turning in bearings formed in the ends of the levers 6r, pivoted at G' to the frame (7, by which the apron A is pressed toward the roller B by the action of weights, IT, on the opposite end of the levers G, so that by FACILITATING THE SORTING OF PAPER STOCK. 115 applying power by a band to the pulley J on the shaft i? 2 of the roller B the adhesion or friction of the apron A upon the roller B will be sufficient to cause the apron to move in the direction of the arrows in Fig. 5, without subjecting the entire length of the apron A to such severe strain as would be requisite were it strained by tightening the roller B'. K /rare standards or frames secured to the frame G at intervals, and support shafts, K\ turning in bearings in the standards Khy means of pulleys, iT 2 , and having vanes, K 3 , preferably made of sheet metal, and provided with edges of leather, rubber cloth, or similar yielding material, which are of such dimensions as to sweep the apron A. Strips or rims, L Z, are placed at each side of the apron A, which serve to prevent the stock spreading laterally beyond the reach of the vanes K 3 and falling off the apron A. The operation of the machine is as follows: Power is applied to the pulleys B 2 and K 2 \ the materials are placed on the apron A at the place marked M, and passing, by the motion of the apron A, under the vanes _Zl 2 , are rubbed over the apron, and any grit and sand detached from them falls through the apron, and the stock, by the rubbing, becoming opened and spread out before operators stationed at N N N between the reels K 3 , are readily sorted by the operators re- moving such as is not desired to pass through the machine, and the remaining acceptable materials pass off at the end of the apron A, at the point 0, ready for use as paper stock. In the illustrations only three reels or sets of revolving vanes are shown ; but in practice a larger number are used, 116 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. and a greater number of operatives than three are employed, the machine being much longer than shown, as is implied by the break in Fig. 6, the increased length of machine in- volving a mere duplication of the parts shown. CUTTING RAGS BY HAND. 117 CHAPTER VII. cutting rags by hand — cutting rags by machinery list of patents for rag cutters and dusters cutting wood for chemical fibre treating wood before grinding voelter's machine for cutting or grinding wood — list of patents for wood grinders corn-husk cutter. Cutting Rags by Hand. When the stock is cut by hand the operation is usually performed by drawing the rags against the sharp edge of a scythe-like knife measuring about 14 inches in height above the table. The contrivance .shown in Figs. 8, 9, and 10 is the invention of Mr. Edgar D. Aldrich, of Pittsfield, Mass., and consists of a device for securely holding the section of scythe-blade used to cut rags in paper-mills, and in such a way that it can readily be detached to be ground or reversed, and can be tightened in place easily and quickly, and by mechanism arranged to be entirely out of the way of the operator, and that cannot catch in the rags. Fig. 8 is a side elevation of the holder ; Fig. 9 is a rear elevation, and Fig. 10 is a section. The holder proper, B, is of cast metal, in one piece, and has a flat base to bear against the side of the table, to which it is attached by means of bolts passing through holes left in 118 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the flanges h b, as seen in Fig. 8. The sides of the holder, which may be made as light as is consistent with strength, support the top C and bottom D, which afford the two Fijr. 8. Fie. 9. Fi, of which the working-cylinders are composed. Said shafts are journaled in bearings on the frame A, one of them being provided with a gear, C\ that meshes with a pinion, b, on shaft B for operating the cylinders when shaft B is set in motion. Shafts G and G may be geared together, or one of said shafts may be left free to be revolved by the friction or interaction of the cutters D of the opposite cylinder. The cutter-disks D are made in the form shown in Figs. 33 and 34, with a central eye or opening, D 2 , to fit over the shaft C, and with a series of depressions, teeth, or serrations, d, about the periphery. Said disks may be made from plate steel, or may be punched from sheet iron, and case-hardened after the teeth d have been found. The disks are preferably about one-fourth of an inch in thickness for ordinary work, although the inventors do not confine themselves to any particular dimensions, as the size of the disks may be varied as required. The cutters or disks D are slipped on to the shafts C G, alternating with each other on the respective shafts, as indicated, the cutters 136 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. on the upper shaft being separated at their edges by the cntters on the lower shaft, and vice versa. Said cutters are retained laterally by a collar or shoulder, c, fixed upon the shaft at one end of the cylinder, and by nuts, e, screwed on to the shaft at the opposite end, as illustrated, so as to confine the cutters within a given limit of the length of the shaft G, the cutters or disks being free to adjust themselves within said limit to the space intermediate between the cutters of the other cylinder. Thus the edge of the cutters of the upper cylinder interact with and serve to keep sepa- rate the cutters of the lower cylinder, and vice veisa, while all of the notched edges or peripheral angles of the several disks D on one cylinder or shaft C shear past or against the adjacent edges or angles of the disks on the opposite shaft or cylinder when the mechanism is rotated, thus effecting a series of stripping cuts corresponding in width to the respec- tive thicknesses of the disks or cutters. The eye D 2 of the cutters D and the shafts C are made of corresponding irregu- lar shape, or with a flattened side, as at m, or provided with some equivalent means for retaining them in position, and preventing any independent rotation between the shaft and cutter-disks. By turning the nuts e upon the shafts C, the shearing-edges of the cutters can be set together with greater or less force, the cutters being laterally free among them- selves. Adjustment at all the cutting angles is effected simultaneously by the adjustment of nuts e. F indicates clearer bars or fingers, which are arranged between the respective cutters D in series corresponding therewith. These clearer-bars are arranged to nearly fill CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 137 the width of the spaces between the disks D. They extend from the shaft G to a position beyond the peripheral line or edges of the disks, their outer ends being retained stationary by suitable supports, E, so that any of the severed material that becomes wedged in or caught between the parallel sides of the adjacent disks will be forced outward from the spaces as the disks revolve past the clearer-bars. Thus the severed material is freed and discharged from among the cutters or prevented from winding around the cylinders. The clearers F are made as shown in Fig. 35 (preferably of round wire, although flat plates may be employed if desired), with a loop, /, at one end to fit over the shaft G, and the loop 1 at the opposite end, through which is passed a support- bar, E, that extends across the frame A, and by means of which the outer ends of the series of clearers are retained in a uniform line, and the respective clearers prevented from turning out of place by the strain of the work and the revolving of the cutters. G indicates the endless travelling apron for feeding the material to the cutters. The apron may be mounted on guiding-rolls, and be operated in any suitable manner; or, if preferred, a stationary table may be used instead of the travelling apron. A stationary table is shown at G', in front of the stripping-cutters at D'. H indicates a chute for collecting and directing the cut material as it falls from the cutter-cylinders. The machines may be made with long cutter-cylinders, as shown between the frames A A, and with bearings at each end ; or they may be made with short projecting cutter-cylinders as at Z>', 138 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. or with both the long and short cylinders, as shown in the illustrations. Also, any desired number of disks or cutters, D, may be used to compose the cylinders, and said cutters may be formed of any thickness required. Cutters of different thicknesses can be run together when desired, and one series of cutters can be readily exchanged for another of different thickness by simply raising the shafts C from the bearings, removing the nuts e, and sliding off those which are on the shaft and then sliding on the other set of cutters. When it is desired to cut the material into strips or pieces of consider- able width, tubular cylindrical blanks may be arranged between two thin serrated disks, D, to form a cutter of the desired thickness, this being equivalent to making a single cutter of equal thickness to the blank and cutters as combined. In the machine here shown the invention is embodied in a practical form for cutting up old corsets for the purpose of separating the steels, eyelets, and whalebones from the cloth fibre, the side cylinders at D' being adapted for severing the busk-steels and eyelet-strips, and the broad cylinders for cutting the body portions transversely across the whale- bones. In the operation of the machine the material to be cut is fed between the cylinders from the apron or table, and the revolving cutters sever it into uniform strips corresponding in width to the width of the cutting-disks. The teeth, d, of the disks are readily forced through the material, and the depressions between the teeth receive the hard substances, thus preventing the material from escaping or sliding in front of the contact edges of the cutters, so that the machine CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 139 operates with comparative ease and effect, while the cutters, by reason of their form and arrangement it is claimed do not require to be sharpened, even though cutting hard substances, and, if broken or injured, can be readily renewed. The cutters of case-hardened wrought-iron can be cheaply made, and are very durable, and the machine, it is claimed, can be maintained in working condition at slight expense. It is also claimed to be rapid and efficient in its operation, and is adapted to severe usage without liability of derange- ment. Machine for Separating Metallic Substances from Paper- Stock, etc. In connection with the machine of the Messrs. Colburn last described, we will here mention the invention of Mr. Charles F. Taylor, of Springfield, Mass., which has for its object the separation of small metallic substances from rags and paper-stock. Heretofore objectionable matter in rags has been largely removed by hand, and in pulp by screens, perforated bottoms, etc. These, however, do not remove the small particles of iron and other like matter, which is very objectionable. In reducing rags to the desired degree of fineness and purity for the bleach-boiler, no means has been devised to separate small metallic substances from the rags. A large percentage of the objectionable matter which it has hereto- fore been very difficult to remove is magnetic, or, in other words, is of such nature as will be attracted by a magnet. It is consequently proposed in the present invention to utilize 140 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. this attractive property for the purpose of separating such substances from the rags. It will readily be seen that many mechanical contrivances may be devised with which the attractive force of magnets may be utilized for this purpose, and that there are various stages in the process of paper-manufacture where the magnetic force may be applied to accomplish the desired result, and that both permanent and electro-magnets may be used. In treating rags containing a large proportion of metallic substance such as are designed to be cut by the Coburn rag- cutting machine special applications of the magnetic force would have to be made; but the best result is ordinarily attained by the application of the magnetic force in two stages, the first after the rags have been reduced to the size to which they are usually cut before being placed in the bleach-boiler, and the second after the material has been reduced to pulp. Probably the best method of applying and utilizing this force in the first instance is to provide two sets of revolving magnets, a, as shown in Figs. 36 and 37, and to feed the cut rags between these magnet-rolls, they being so adjusted that all the material which passes is caused to come in con- tact with or in close proximity to the magnets, when, if there be any particles in the stock, either separated from or attached to. the rags of the nature above described, they will be attached to the magnets, and be carried by the revolving of the magnets away from the flow of clear material, and may be wiped from the magnets with any convenient appli- CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 141 ance. A fixed or stationary magnet may, however, be used at this stage, and a good result attained. Figs. 36 and 37 are side views of an arrangement for the application of the magnets for use in cut rags, and Figs. 38 and 39 are views illustrating the application to pulp. Fig. 36 illustrates a device consisting of a hopper, b, having a feed-wheel, c, arranged to feed the stock to the magnets a. The feed-wheel c is provided with pins which catch and feed the rags through the chute. Fig. 37 illustrates a means of feeding the rags to the magnets upon an endless apron. Fig. 36. Fig. 3 7. Figs. 38 and 39 illustrate the method of application in separating the objectionable matter which may have passed the first appliance from the stock after it has assumed the form of pulp. It is preferable to apply the magnets to the pulp while it is passing through the sand catcher. The flow is here slow and shallow, and by immersing the magnets at 142 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. this point all or a large proportion of the magnetic matter is caught. There is in much pulp a scaly matter, which appa- rently comes from the iron portion of the machinery with which the pulp comes in contact. The pulp is of such con- sistency that these small particles are held, and do not fall to the bottom ; neither can they be caught in screens. The best method of application is probably to attach a series of magnets to an arbor, and revolve them slowly in the sand- box in a direction against the flow of the pulp. The magnets, being set near together, will thus aid in separating the globules of pulp which gather and hold the objection- able matter, aiding thus mechanically in freeing the pulp of the particles of foreign matter. The magnets should be cleaned once in about twenty-four hours. This may be done with any convenient contrivance. A brush properly adjusted to accomplish the desired result can be used ; the revolving magnets may, however, be used without a mechanical means to clean them. Other Rag-cutting Machines. There are rag-cutting machines in the market other than those which we have described, but, as they are all repre- sented in the catalogues of the leading manufacturers of paper-making machinery, we shall not enumerate and describe them in this volume owing to lack of space. The reader is, therefore, referred to the firms of Messrs. Cyrus Currier & Sons, Newark, N. J. ; Holyoke Machine Co., Holyoke, Mass. ; the South Boston Iron Works, Boston, Mass. ; Messrs. La Tourrette & Co., Middleton, O. ; Messrs. CUTTING RAGS BY MACHINERY. 143 Stiles & Co., Riegelsville, Warren Co., N. J. ; The Black & Clauson Co., Hamilton, O., etc., from whom all desired information can be obtained. Sizes of the Cut Rags. In order to avoid the great waste which results from the unravelling of the rags when cut on the bias, it is desirable to make the cut in the direction of either the warp or woof. The dimensions of the cut rags vary from about two to five inches square ; coarse and tough varieties being cut smaller than those which are soft or well worn. List of Patents for Rag-cutters and Dusters, issued by the Government of the United States of America, from 1790 1 to 1885 inclusive. No. Date. Inventor. Jan. 13, 1829. W. Debit. July 27, 1831. G. Carriel. 93 Nov. 28, 1836. E. Burt and G. Carriel. 615 Feb. 22, 1838. It. Carter. 920 Sept. 14, 1838. E. Burt. 927 Sept. 19, 1838. H. Clark and W. Albertson. 1,782 Sept. 10, 1840. E. Smith. 11,882 Oct. 31, 1854. A. S. Woodward and B. F. Bartlett. 23,643 April 12, 1859. W. C. Geer. 27,167 Feb. 14, 1860. J. Storm. 31,154 Jan. 22, 1861. R. Daniels. 38,735 June 2, 1863. J. Faw. 73,695 Jan. 28, 1868. J. Collins, Jr., and N. R. Nickson. 74,506 Feb. 18, 1868. J. Collins, Jr. 75,341 March 10, 1868. A. Allen. 80,531 Aug. 4, 1868. A. T. Bennett and W. O. Anderson. 85,512 85,513 Jan. 5, 1869. Jan. 5, 1869. l A. F. Crosby. 98,692 Jan. 11, 1870. J. W. Barbour. 00,718 March 15, 1870. L. Brainard. 1 See page 50. 144 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. Inventor. 102,854 May 10, 1870. W. E. Newton. 133,787 Dec. 10, 1872. M. Marshall. 145,475 Dec. 16, 1873. E. D. Aldrieh. 214,185 April 8, 1879. G. W. Patten and J. II. Knowles, 214,462 April 15, 1879. J. T. Slack. 217,100 July 1, 1879. T. W. Harding. 234,640 Nov. 16, 1880. W. A. Wright. 268,075 Nov. 28, 1882. T. W. Harding. 272,856 Feb. 27, 1883. L. and J. C. Coburn. 280,076 June 26, 1883. F. L. Palmer. 286,373 Oct. 9, 1883. L. Baumaun. 286,503 Oct. 9, 1883. } 287,482 Oct. 30, 1883. V C. F. Taylor. 292,873 Feb. 5, 1884. ) 298,108 May 6, 1 884. R. O. and W. Moorhonse. 299,366 May 27, 1884. T. Ferry. 311,186 \ Jan. 27, 1885. J. B. Hart and E. H. Walker. Straw Cutters. The cutters used for cutting straw into the required short lengths are similar to ordinary rag cutters ; the straw being spread on a table and fed to fluted feed-rolls, which push it forward over a steel bed-knife where it is cut by revolving knives. It is usually desirable to pass the straw through a cleaner ; but if this is not done it should fall from the cutting-box on a slanting rack of wire through the openings of which the chaff and grain will pass. The straw after being cut is next thoroughly wetted and afterward thrown into a bin, where it sweats and soaks and gradually grows more pliable while waiting to be thrown into the boiler. treating wood before grinding. 145 Cutting Wood for Chemical Fibre. The wood is generally received at the mill as cord wood ; it is freed from bark and the worst of the knots are cut out. It is cut into chips by a machine consisting of a heavy cast-iron disk, measuring about seven feet in diameter, keyed on a shaft at one end of which is a driving pulley, and all mounted in a suitable frame. Three knives are fastened to the face of the disk, in a slightly inclined position, so that the edges of the knives project about three-quarters of an inch from the face. The wood is fed to the knives through a cast-iron chute arranged in a slanting position, facing the disk in a line with the knives. The wood on coming in contact with the knives is cut into chips measuring from one- half to three-quarters of inch in length. From the cutting machine the chips fall into a pit from which they are conveyed to the digester by means of an ordinary bucket elevator or other suitable plan. If the knives are kept true and sharp the wood will generally feed regularly and smoothly to the cutter, thus avoiding the necessity of employing either physical or mechanical force for holding the wood to the disk. Treating Wood Before Grinding. Various methods of treating wood previous to submitting it to the action of the grinders have been proposed and used. By one process the pieces of wood after being cut into suitable lengths for grinding are treated by first steaming 10 146 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. them, then removing the acids generated in the steaming operation, next treating the steamed wood with alkali, and, finally, grinding or reducing the pieces to pulp. Steaming has been resorted to for the purpose of removing the bark from wooden blocks preparatory to grinding the solid parts, and wood has also been treated with water sprinkled on it from above, and steam simultaneously applied from beneath it, in order to soften and cleanse it preparatory to grinding. But the process which we shall now describe, which is that of Mr. George F. Cushman, of Barnet, Vermont, is intended to facilitate the disintegration of the fibres when submitted to the action of the revolving stones by a prelimi- nary cooking of the block of wood in a bath of boiling hot water with lime, soda-ash, or equivalent chemical agent in solution, to soften the block, toughen the fibres, and lessen their lateral adhesion. By this process the block is reduced to pulp with much less power than is required to grind a block not so treated, and the pulp produced is claimed to be softer, stronger, and more desirable, since the fibres are not broken up or comminuted, but are more nearly in their natural condition, with their lateral beards or filaments pre- served, so that when reunited in the paper sheet special toughness and tenacity are attained. In carrying out this method, immerse the solid wooden blocks in a strong solution of lime, soda-ash, chloride of lime, or equivalent chemical agent, kept boiling hot by the introduction of steam or otherwise, and adapted to soften the blocks in readiness for grinding, and retain the blocks TREATING WOOD BEFORE GRINDING. 147 under treatment from ten to twenty-four hours, or until the liquid has had time to penetrate all parts of the block, and the lateral adhesion of the fibres is so weakened that they will readily separate by the attrition of the grinding-stone without being broken short or reduced to a mere powder ; and as the chemical action is most rapid in the direction of the length of the fibres, it is desirable to cut the block much shorter than is usual, or to form transverse saw-scarfs at intervals between its ends, in order that the solution may readily penetrate from each end to the centre, so as to loosen and toughen the fibres throughout the block. The pressure of steam above the liquid in the tank tends to force the solu- tion into all the pores of the immersed blocks. Then remove the blocks from the tank and subject them to the action of the grinders in the usual way, keeping a constant stream of water upon the stone ; and the disintegration will be 'found to be effected with great rapidity, owing to the preliminary treatment received by the blocks, and also that no washing is required beyond what results from wetting down the stone. The pulp produced is claimed to be of superior quality, and as the blocks have absorbed only so much of the chemicals as is beneficial to the fibre, it is in condition for the successive steps in the production of vari- ous grades of paper of special strength, and for numerous other purposes in the arts. If preferred, however, this fibre may be mixed with hard stock made of other material, such mixture producing paper or board of exceptional toughness. 148 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Voelter' s Machine for Cutting or Grinding Wood, and Reducing it to Pidp. The art of reducing wood to pulp by subjecting the same to the action of a revolving stone is not a new one, machinery for grinding wood while a current of water was applied to the stone having been patented in France by Christian Voelter as early as 1847 (see 10th volume, 2d series, Brevets dTnvention), and in England by A. A. Brooman, of London, in 1853. (See Repertory of Patented Inventions for May, 1854, page 410.) A large number of inventions for cutting or grinding wood into pulp have been patented in the United States and in Europe ; but the enormous development of the paper-making industry and the cheapening of paper in America during the last fifteen years are largely due to the general introduction of the machine for disintegrating blocks of wood and assort- ing the fibres so obtained into classes according to their different degrees of fineness, invented by Mr. Henry Voelter, of Heidenheim, Wiirtenburg, Germany, and for which invention he received letters patent on August 10, 1858, from the United States. In all the processes known or used prior to Voelter's invention the wood had been acted upon by the stone in one of two ways, viz., either by causing the surface of the stone to act upon the ends of the fibres, the surface of the stone moving substantially in a plane perpendicular to the fibres of the wood ; or, secondly, by acting upon the fibres in such a direction that they were severed diagonally, the surface of the stone moving diagonally across the fibres. The first voelter's wood-pulp machine. 149 plan, in fact, made powder of the wood. The pnlp had no practical length, and on trial proved worthless, or nearly so. The second plan was carried ont by the use of a stone revolving like an ordinary grindstone, the wood being ap- plied upon the cylindrical surface thereof, with the fibres perpendicular, or nearly so, to planes passing through the axis of the stone and the point or locality where the grinding was performed ; and this plan also failed, because the fibres were cut off in lines diagonal to their own length, and were consequently too short to make good pulp. There were other difficulties attending the process not necessary here to mention. Such was the state of the art prior to Voelter's invention ; and his improvement in the art consists in grind- ing or rather tearing out the fibres from the bundle of fibres which makes up a piece of wood by acting upon them by a grinding-surface which moves substantially across the fibres and in the same plane with them. In carrying out his improvement upon the art Voelter splits a log of wood and applies the flat side upon the stone, and then so revolves the stone as to cause points upon its surface to pass the fibres in lines perpendicular, or nearly so, to the length of the fibre. By this mode of procedure it is possible to obtain a sufficiently long fibre and save much power. Voelter's improvement in the art consists, further, in regrinding the fibres by causing them, after being separated from the block, to pass under other blocks of wood, which are being reduced to pulp upon the same stone. The fibres torn out at the first operation are thus rolled over and crushed again and separated into smaller fibre. Voelter's improvements in the machinery are in an arrange- ment of pockets with reference to the grinding-surface, so as 150 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. to hold the blocks of wood in such position that their fibres may be separated from the blocks in the manner described, and whereby fibres may be reground ; and in a contrivance for feeding up the blocks by a positive feed instead of by force derived from weights or springs, as formerly practised; and a contrivance for causing the feed to cease automatically. Fig. 40. On May 22, 1866, Mr. Voelter was granted another patent for improvement in his machine for reducing wood to paper- yoelter's wood-pulp machine. 151 pulp, which patent was reissued April 23, 1872. For the dates of the various reissues and extension of the Voelter patent see the list of patents which follow the close of the present section. Fi<*s. 40 and 41 show front and rear perspective views of Fb. 41. the improved Voelter wood-pulp machine, which is now built with either five or seven pockets. Figs. 42 to 48 show the machine patented by Mr. Yoelter 152 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. on May 22, 1866. Figs. 42 and 43 are sectional elevations of parts of Voelter's apparatus for reducing wood fibres to Fijr. 42. Fi operated by a worm, 13, on the shaft F. 154 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAFER. To the upper side of the worm-wheel 12 are hung two jaws, which bear against opposite sides of the rod 11, and Fisr. 47. Fie 48. voelter's wood-pulp machine. 155 have threads cut in their edges, the side threads being adapted to the tread on the rod. To a cross-head, 15, which slides on guides, 16, attached to the side frames, is secured a box, c, containing a rubber spring or cushion, c?, and against the latter bears a disk, 17, on the rod 11, which projects through the cushion and through the bottom of the box, a nut on the lower end of the rod preventing the withdrawal of the latter. To the lower side of the cross-head 15 is secured a wooden block, e, the face of which, near the lower edge, is cut away as shown in Fig. 42, for a purpose described hereafter. To the side frames are secured two hollow adjustable - cross-pieces or boxes, G G\ each of which communicates with a water-reservoir, and in the lower edge of each box, which is nearly in contact with the face of the stone D\ is a narrow slit or opening, x. The adjacent sides of the boxes G G\ near their lower edges, are parallel, and are such a distance apart as to permit the ready introduction between them of the block e. A rake, H, extends from the bottom of the box B to one side of the grindstone D\ and at the bottom of the box, below the opposite side of the stone, is a projection, i, of the form shown in Fig. 42. On a shelf or partition, 18, at the end of the box B, rests a sieve, J, so fine that fibres which can pass it do not need regrinding, the upper portion of which is inclosed by a casing, 19, secured to the side frames and to the edge of the box. Two pipes, K and K', communicate with this end of the box B, the former above and the latter below the partition 18. 156 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. On a frame-work, A\ Fig. 47, rest three tanks, X, X', and X 2 , and in the tank X is hung a basket, P. of wire- gauze or other suitable material, in such a manner that it receives a shaking motion by means of arms, //, which pro- ject from the said basket, bearing on ratchet-wheels, g, secured to a shaft, Q, turning in brackets attached to the tank. In the tank X revolves a cylinder, R, of wire-gauze, which communicates at one end with a reservoir, S, Fig. 48, at the side of tbe tank, a pipe, T, leading from the reservoir and communicating with the tank X', near the bottom of the latter. To arms, i i, secured to a revolving shaft, j, turning in bearings attached to the tank X, is secured a comb, k, and to arms i ?', hung to brackets / Z, is secured a plate, m, for a purpose described hereafter. In the upper portion of the tank X' turns a shaft on which is secured a fluted or serrated roller, U, and above the latter is a hopper, V, in guides, on one of the inclined sides of which slides a plate, n, the lower edge of the latter being parallel to the face of the roller. The tank JJ is divided by a vertical partition, o, which extends nearly to the bottom into two unequal-sized chambers, x x', and in the lower por- tion of the former turns a paddle-wheel, W. From the upper edge of the tank JJ extends an inclined plate or chute, p, and below the latter, in the tank X 2 , rotates a hollow cylinder, R\ of wire-gauze, which communicates through an opening in one end with a reservoir, S t , Fig. 48, at the side of the tank. voelter's wood-pulp machine. 157 In the lower portion of the tank Z 2 , below the chute p, revolves a paddle-wheel, W, and to a shaft, g, which turns in suitable bearings secured to the tank, is attached a smaller paddle-wheel, r, the upper end of an inclined shute, «s, being- secured to the edge of the tank adjacent to the paddle- wheel r. On a platform, M, supported by pillars rests the' lower stone, N, of a pair of millstones, the upper millstone, N', being hung to and rotating with a vertical shaft, 0, in the ordinary manner, and into the usual central opening in this stone projects the lower end of the chute s. The upper stone, N\ is surrounded by a casing, t, an opening at one side of which communicates with a box or reservoir, S\ secured to the platform M. On the framework A 2 , Fig. 43, rest the tanks Y, Y\ and Y 2 , and in the former is a vertical sieve, v, and a partition, w, the latter extending across the upper portion only of the tank. On one side of the sieve v revolves a paddle-wheel, TT 2 , and from the opposite side of the tank a chute, 31, pro- jects over a cylinder, R 2 , of wire-gauze, which revolves in the tank P. The cylinder R 2 communicates, through an opening in one end, with a reservoir, $ 3 , Fig. 45, a pipe, T 3 , communi- cating with the latter and with the tank F s , in which turns a cylinder, it 3 , which communicates with a reservoir, $ 4 , and against both this cylinder and the cylinder R 2 bear rollers y y, on the ends of which are bands 7i, of leather or other suit- able material, a stationary plate, z, being secured at the side of each roller. In the tank Y 2 turns a paddle-wheel, IF 3 . 158 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The pipe 7T, Figs. 42 and 48, communicates with a pipe, T'. leading from the reservoir S', and also with the reservoir # 2 , and from the latter extends a pipe, K 2 , which communi- cates with the tank Y. The material flowing through the pipe K' is discharged into the basket P, a pump or other suitable apparatus being used to elevate the material when the tank L is above the box^. Operation. — The sections z of wood to be disintegrated are placed between the boxes G G' and against the grind- stone D'. Water is admitted to each of the boxes and into the tank B, and a rotary motion in the direction of its arrow is imparted to each of the shafts D, E, E', and F. A rotary motion in the direction of its arrow is also imparted to each of the shafts Q, j\ q, and 0, to the paddle-wheels W, W, W 2 , and W 5 , to the cylinders U, B, R', i? 2 , and i2 3 , and to the rollers y y. As the worm-wheel 12 is turned the jaws 14 14, acting as a revolving nut, will cause the rod 11 to be moved forward, the block e being brought against the sections z and feeding the latter slowly toward the grindstone by which they are disintegrated, the fibrous particles thus detached being carried into the box B. The undue pressure of the wood against the stone is prevented by the elastic cushion c?, which also yields slightly to permit the wood to accommodate itself to inequalities in the stone, while the wedging of the blocks between the boxes G G', which occurs when the boxes approach each other toward the bottom, is prevented by making the adjacent sides of the boxes parallel. The speed of the forward movement of the rod 11 in pro- yoelter's wood-pulp machine. 159 portion to that of the stone is regulated by adjusting the belt 4 on the pulleys 2, the spring-pawl b, through the medium of which motion is conveyed from the pulley 9 to the shaft F, being sufficiently rigid to retain its hold on the ratchet-wheel I so long as no unusual resistance is offered to the forward movement of the rod 11 and the cross-head. When, however, the blocks of wood are not disintegrated with sufficient rapidity, or the forward movement of the rod 11 is otherwise interrupted or retarded, the pawl b will yield and slip over the teeth of the ratchet-wheel, the rattling noise thus produced informing the attendant of the necessity of readjusting the belt 4 to dimmish the speed of the shaft F. As the block e is brought near the face of the stone, that portion of the wood beneath the inclined face of the block will be cut to a wedge-shape, the thick edge being toward the box G . By this means small particles of wood are pre- vented from being wedged into the narrow space between the box G' and the stone, to the retardation of the revolution of the latter. The finer fibres of the wood are carried by the revolution of the stone between the teeth of the rake H, and are thrown against the sieve J, while such coarser particles as would injure the sieve are arrested by the rake. The finest filaments pass through the sieve /with the water thrown up by the stone, and are conducted through the pipe Kto the reservoir S 2 , Fig. 48, while larger particles fall in front of the projection / and pass with the water which flows through the pipe K' into the basket P, Fig. 47. The finer fibres pass through the meshes of the basket P, while the coarser fibres are retained and removed from time 160 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. to time, such a vibrating motion being imparted to the basket by the action of the ratchet-wheels g as will prevent the meshes from becoming obstructed. The finest fibres pass with the water into the gauze cylinder i? 5 and out of the latter into the reservoir JS, and through the pipe T to the tank L', the coarser fibres being carried by the action of the cylinder R within range of the rotating comb h. by which they are caught and carried upward until the comb strikes the plate m. As the comb continues to revolve the plate m slides forward and scrapes off the adhering fibres, which fall into any suitable receptacle, the tank L being thus cleared of the useless fibres which would obstruct the action of the cylinder. After the contents of the reservoir 8 are intro- duced into the tank X', they are thoroughly agitated and mixed by the action of the paddle-wheel TT, a mash being thus produced, which is directed upward through the chamber X', and on to the chute p, from which it falls on to the cylinder R'. The finer filaments, which pass through the cylinder R' are conveyed into the reservoir S\ and through the pipe T' into the reservoir S 2 , while the mash which remains in the tank is mashed and agitated by the paddle-wheel W, and is directed by the paddle-wheel r into the chute s, down which it flows into the opening in the upper millstone N'. As the fibres pass between the mill- stones they are split and broken into fine filaments, the stones being so prepared that the fibres may be cut rather than worn. The fibres, after being reduced to a pulpy mass, pass from the stones into the casing h and then into the reservoir S 2 . The pulp flows from the reservoir S 2 , through voelter's wood-pulp machine. 161 the pipe K 2 , into the tank Y, where it is directed by the paddle-wheel W 2 against the sieve v, the finest fibres passing through the latter and upward to the chute 31, from which they fall on to the cylinder R 2 , the fibres which pass into this cylinder being conducted to the reservoir /S 3 and through the pipe T 3 to the tank Y 2 . The pulp in the tank Y' is agitated by the paddle-wheel W 3 , so that every portion may be brought into contact with the cylinder. The gauze on the cylinder R 3 is too fine to permit any of the fibres to pass through it. The superfluous water, however, flows into the cylinder and into the reservoir S^, from which it is removed by a siphon or other suitable apparatus. As the cylinders R 2 R 3 revolve the fibres on the surfaces of the same are transferred to the rollers y y, and after being scraped from the latter by the plates z, fall into any suitable receptacle, the leather bands It h, at the ends of the rollers, maintaining the surfaces of the same from contact with those of the cylinders, which are thus preserved from abrasion. The coarse fibres, detached by the plate z, as well as those remaining in the tanks Y Y', are placed in the hopper V, from which they are fed into the tank IT by the fluted roller IT, the sliding plate n being adjusted to regulate the passage of the fibres in such quantities as may be desired. These fibres are discharged from the tank IT into the tank L 2 , and after passing between the millstones are sorted in the tanks Y, Y', and Y 2 , as before. If fibres are required which are not so finely divided as those which pass into the tank Y 2 , they may be removed at any stage of the process, and it will be apparent that any desired number of tanks and cylinders 11 162 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. may be employed in order to obtain a greater assortment of fibres. Instead of arranging the cylinders as described they may be placed with their shafts inclined, and the material may be introduced into the interiors of the cylinders, the finer particles passing through the latter into the tanks, while the coarser fibres are rolled toward the lower end and discharge into any suitable receptacle. A perforated pipe communicating with a water-reservoir may be arranged adjacent to each of the cylinders and sieves so as to throw a constant stream of water on to them, and thus maintain the meshes unobstructed. In the process of reducing wood to fibre by a grinding operation, it always happens that slivers, chips, or small pieces of wood too large either to be used as pulp or to be reground (because they would choke the stones or lift the upper one when stones arranged as shown in the drawing are employed), are detached accidentally from the wooden blocks. These useless pieces of wood are separated from the useful fibres, first, at the rake ; second, at the shaking-basket ; and, third, at the first cylinder R ; and it is better thus to get rid of them at three operations than to remove them all at once ; and this separation of the useless from the useful products of the first grinding, by means of sieves — for the rake, the basket, and the first cylinder are all in fact sieves — and a current of water, bearing both fibres and chips, is the separating process. The fibres which result from the action of the first stone upon the blocks are assorted at the voelter's wood-pulp machine. 163 sieve J at the cylinder R 1 , in the preferred form of apparatus, and none of the fibres which pass these sieves are reground. This separation of coarser from finer fibres by sieves and a current of water is the assorting stage of the process. All the fibres might pass directly from the first to the second stone without being assorted, but in that case the finer fibres would probably be made too fine, and rendered useless ; and, at any rate, the regriuding stones would be uselessly loaded with matter which did not need to be acted upon by them. When a sieve of any kind is employed to assort fibre, the greater part of the water passes through the sieve, and the fibre which does not pass the sieve is left in a pasty state. This is the preferable state for regrinding, and the inventor therefore uses a paddle-wheel to keep the mass in motion to prevent its settling, and another wheel to produce a current to carry the mass to the chute. The regrinding or reducing process is that which is effected by the action of the stones upon the mass of fibre introduced between them. The assorting after the regrinding is caused by the action of a fibre-bearing current and the sieves Tand R 2 . The fibres which do not pass Fmay be ground a third time. So also may those which do not pass R 2 , and the pulp is deprived of the greater portion of its water, so as to fit it for transportation, by means of the cylinders R 2 R 3 and the rollers which gather the fibres from their surface. The cylinder R 2 is, therefore, always a part of the assorting appa- ratus used after regrinding, and when the fibres gathered from its surface are not ground the third time it is also, in 164 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. connection with the rollers, a contrivance for partially drying the pulp. In place of the paddle-wheel r, cords may he wound spirally around the cylinder i2\ so that as the latter revolves the material is caused to flow toward one side of the tank, and, consequently, into the chute. Nature, etc., of the Pulp produced by Voelter^s Metliod. Voelter's method does not produce a real pulp, but rather a semi-flour of wood, it adds nothing to the strength of the paper, and is an injury in the sizing. It is said with reason that the Voelter process produces little with a large amount of power; it requires, in fact, a considerable fall of w T ater to yield 55 or 60 horse-power net to manufacture 1200 pounds of pulp in 24 hours. Further more, the Voelter machines can be used with profit only in proximity to large supplies of wood. Another unfavorable condition is the necessity of working the wood while green ; the sap which remains in the pulp causes it to easily ferment, to heat while piled up, and to take a reddish color. Fig. 49 shows the arrangement of a plant for producing pulp by the Voelter process. The following letters refer to the various mechanical contrivances employed. T, elevator for hoisting the wood to the floor of the mill on which the Voelter machine is located. R, circular saw to cut the wood into blocks. B, Voelter's machine composed of a millstone mounted upon an horizontal shaft and against which the blocks are pressed by mechanical pushers, causing them to advance constantly and regularly as the blocks are ground off. TOELTER S WOOD-PULP PLANT. Fis;. 49. 165 166 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. A continuous stream of water falls upon the circumference of the millstone. E, first sieve removing the wood splinters and separating the fine pulp from the coarser, which must pass to the refming-machine. C, refiner, composed of two horizontal millstones like those of a grain-mill. G, crane for lifting and displacing the millstones for dressing. 0, water-reservoir. P, pump. S, sorter dividing the pulp according to its grade of fineness. Z, pulp press. List of Patents for Wood Grinders, isstted by the Government of the United States of America from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. No. 5,251 12,978 21,161 Date. Aug. 21, 184 7. May 29, 1855 Aug. 10, 1858. ' Inventor. Roberts and Hambly. M. D. Whipple. 1 Reissue 1 3,361 Extended for 7 yri April 6, 1869. i.Aug. 29, 1870. 1 )■ H. Voelter. Reissue i | 4,418 Extended for 7 yrs June 6, 1871. i.Aug. 29, 1877. J 37,951 March 24, 1863. P. A. Chadburne. 40,217 Oct 6, 1863. G. E. Sellers. 55,031 Reissue May 22, 1866. 1 H. Voelter. 4,881 59,042 April 23, 1872. Oct. 23, 1866. 1 H. and F. Marks. 77,829 May 12, 1868. W. Miller. 84,640 Dec. 1, 1868. H. Marks. 87,139 Eeb. 23, 1869. F. Burghardt. 89.220 | 89.221 J 89,255 97,041 April 20, 1869. April 20, 1869. Nov. 23, 1869. J. H. Hawes. J. Stutt. F. Burghardt. 98,210 99,071 101,785 Dec. 21, 1869. Jan. 25, 1870. April 12, 1870. G. Vining. H. Dodge. S. C. Taft. 1 Antedated to Aug 29, 1856, so as to correspond with the date of the earliest foreign patent. PATENTS FOR WOOD GRINDERS. 167 No. Date. Inventor. 102,239 April 26, 1870. A. Fickett. 103,968 June 7, 1870. Bliss and Rees. 105,622 July 26, 1870. G. Ames. 106,710 Aug. 23, 1870. 1 Reissues ~) i | 8.256 1 8.257 j" May 28, 1878. j- H. B. Meech. 8,258 j J 111,415 Jan. 31, 1871. C. and C. Wolff, Jr. 111,419 Jan. 31, 1871. Waissing and Specker. , 112,733) 112,734) March 14, 1871. S. A. Perkins. 113,297 April 4, 1871. W, M. Howland. 113,488 115,274 April 11, 1871. May 30, 1871. [■ J. Bridge. 117,122 July 18, 1871. ) Reissue I J. Taylor. 8,845 Aug. 12, 1879. J 117,683 Aug. 1, 1871. W. Riddell. 119,107 Sept. 19, 1871. B. F. Barker. 119,601 Oct. 3, 1871. J. K. Griffin. 122,353 Jan. 2, 1872. J. Bridge. 122,581 June 9, 1872. H. Dodge. 126,041 April 23, 1872. J. S. Elliott and J. F. W< 127,337 May 28, 1872. A. K. Gilmore. 128,788 July 9, 1872. Burghardt and Burghardt. 130,803 Aug. 27, 1872. H. W. Higley. 130,944 Oct. 8, 1872. C. De Negri. 133,243 Nov. 19, 1872. ) Reissue )■ J. G. Moore. 5,936 June 30, 1874. 1 141,206 July 29, 1873. J. F. Daniels. 141,976 Aug. 19, 1873. S. B. Zimmer. 144,313 Nov. 4, 1873. J. Bridge. 144,354 Nov. 4, 1873. M. S. and M. E. Otis. 148,452 March 10, 1874. ] Reissue > A. Harmes and A. Wagen 5,936 June 30, 1874. J 150,209 April 28, 1874. C. W. Weld. 150,932 May 19, 1874. B. F. Barker. 153,190 July 21, 1874. | Reissue VF. A. Cushman. 8,198 April 23, 1878. J 155,074 Sept. 15, 1874. L. M. Egery. 168 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. 156,355 Reissue 8,197 160,996 163,926 163,958 165,706 166,835 182,891 183,155 187,292 191,899 Reissue 8,877 194,591 195,478 196,515 196,944 198,236 198,845 200,540 201,083 201,152 201,486 201,501 201,550 202,097 202,185 Reissue 8,698 202,698 203,437 203,928 204,077 205,347 206,971 207,553 Reissue 9,110 207,568 208,890 209,197 211,138 212,232 Date. Oct. 27, 1874. April 23, 1878. March 23, 1875. June 1, 1875. June 1, 1875. June 20, 1875. Aug. 17, 1875. Oct. 3, 1876. Oct. 10, 1876. Feb. 13, 1877. June 12, 1877. Sept. 2, 1879. Aug. 28, 1877. Sept. 25, 1877. Aug. 23, 1877. Nov. 6, 1877. Dec. 18, 1877. Jan. 1, 1878. Feb. 19, 1878. March- 12, 1878. March 12, 1878. March 19, 1878. March 19, 1878. March 19, 1878. April 9, 1878. April 9, 1878. May 6, 1879. April 23, 1878. May 7, 1878. May 21, 1878. May 21, 1878. June 25, 1878. Aug. 13, 1878. Aug. 27, 1878. March 9, 1880. Aug. 27, 1878. Oct. 15, 1878. Oct. 22, 1878. Jan. 7, 1879. Feb. 11, 1879. Inventor. F. A. Cushman. B. F. Barker. J. O. Gregg. A. M. Zimmer. J. M. Burghardt. O. Abell. J. Chase. J. O. Gregg. G. H. Mallory. J. Taylor and J. T. Outterson. A. Fickett. J. W. Bowers and D. A. Curtis. M. R. Fletcher. E. N. Speer. J. H. Burghardt. W. H. Haskins. W. W. L>. Jeffers. S. M. Allen. N. Bly. W. J. Baxendale and D. Barry. F. A. Cushman. J. G. Moore. W. A. Doane. - R. D. Mossman. J. A. J. W B. W. Brightman. H. Fisher. C. Mclntyre. . E. Patrick. F. Brown. 1 }■ P. and G. C. Rose. J J. Taylor. W. N. Cornell and C. Tollner. W. D. and N. H. Shaw. W. N. Cornell. E. Johnson. PATENTS FOR WOOD GRINDERS. 169 No. 212,782 217 218 218 219 219 220 220 221 221 221 223 223 224 224 225 225 226 228 228 228 229 229 229 229 230, 231 231 232 232 233 233 233 233 233 234 235 23G 236 237 239 239 239 240 241 509 912 958 034 170 808 970 404 992 993 304 670 002 623 292 988 013 041 477 899 073 513 588 879 471 720 761 431 480 014 070 071 105 611 893 721 794 856 839 040 041 . 807 027 277 Date. March 14, 1879. July 15, 1879. Aug. 26, 1879. Aug. 26, 1879. Aug. 26, 1879. Sept. 2, 1879. Oct. 21, 1879. Oct. 28, 1879. Nov. 11,.1879. Nov. 25, 187 9. Nov. 25, 1879. Jan. 6, 1880. Jan. 20, 1880. Feb. 3, 1880. Feb. 17, 1880. March 9, 1880. March 30, 1880. March 30, 1880. May 25, 1880. June 8, 1880. June 15, 1880. June 22, 1880. July 6, 1880. July 6, 1880. July 13, 1880. July 27, 1880. May 27, 1880. Aug. 31, 1880. Sept. 21, 1880. Sept. 21, 1880. Oct. 5, 1880. Oct. 12, 1880. Oct. 12, 1880. Oct. 12, 1880. Oct. 26, 1880. Nov. 30, 1880. Nov. 26, "1880. Jan. 18, 1881. Jan. 18, 1881. Feb. 15, 1881. March 22, 1881. April 5, 1881. April 19, 1881. May 10, 1881. Inventor. S. M. Allen. N. H. Burnhans. S. M. Allen. J. C. Forbes. A. L. Sturdevant. J. R. Moffitt. W. N. Cornell. ■ H. A. Frambach. S. M. Allen. W. w s. J. G. s. N. A. P. E. Farrell. . A. Doane. M. Allen. W. Martin. D. King. M. Allen. Cowan. W. Priest. Holmes. S. M. Allen. C. II . G. T. C. S. A. J. W. Clark. A. Frambach. P. Enos. F. Hoxie. W. Clark. M. Allen. Fickett. C. Potter. J. Chase. Pi. B. Lane. H. A. Frambach. S. H. Scott, and Pontee and Wyman. S. M. Allen. G. P. Evans. J. M. Stewart. M. V. Eichelberger. H. A. Frambach. R. B. Lane. A. Kreider. E. M. Ball. 170 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. Inventor. 241,311 May 10, 1881. A. Dean. 242 138 May 31, 1881. G. D. King. 242 308 May 31, 1881. T. Hanvey. 243 616 June 28, 1881. G. H. Pond. 243 965 July 5, 1881. B. F. Perkins. 244 416 July 19, 1881. S. M. Allen. 246 516 Aug. 30, 1881. N. Kaiser. 247 072 Sept. 13, 1881. R. B. Lane. 252 983 Jan. 31, 1882. G. Werner. 253 253 654) 655 i Feb. 14, 1882. S. M. Allen. 253 814 Feb. 14, 1882. D. R. Burns. 254 327 Feb. 28, 1882. G. L. Jaeger. 257 436 May 2, 1882. R. Cartmell. 259 974 June 20, 1882. D. R. Burns. 259 992 June 27, 1882. S. M. Allen. 261 263 536 119 July 25, 1882. Aug. 22, 1882. A. Crosby. W. N. Cornell. 263 250 Aug. 22, 1882. H. P. Litus. 264 167 Sept. 12, 1882. W. Jones. 267 715 Nov. 21, 1882. G. H. Pond. 269 291 Dec. 19, 1882. G. L. Huxtable. 271 409 Jan. 30, 1883. ) Re ssue )■ H. N. Brokaw. 10 429 Dec. 26, 1883. 1 277 060 May 8, 1883. J. Prickett. 284 286 433 902 Sept. 4, 1883. Oct. 16, 1883. W. Jones. Cartmell and Ball. 287 980 Nov. 6, 1883. E. Thompson. 289 187 Nov. 27, 1883. F. Voith. 291 777 Jan. 8, 1884. F. G. Ritchie. 291 848 Jan. 8, 1884. P. H. Holmes. 293 235 Feb. 12, 1884. G. F. Evans. 296 298 780 851 April 15, 1884. May 20, 1884. G. H. Pond. Hayden and Sleeper 298 875 May 20, 1884. E. F. Millard. 304 182 Aug. 26, 1884. F. A. Cushman. 305 305 062) 063 i Sept. 16, 1884. E. P. Ely. 306 979 Oct. 21, 1884. S. S. Webber. 309 532 Dec. 23, 1884. | E. P. Ely. 310 659 Jan. 13, 1885. 311 212 Jan. 27, 1885. A. B. Tower. 320 574 June 23, 1885. E. F. Millard. CORN-HUSK CUTTER. 171 Corn-Husk Cutter. The machine for cutting or slicing corn-husks shown in Figs. 50, 51, and 52 is the invention of Mr. Wrn. A. Wright, of Centreton, N. J. Fig;. 50. Fig. 51. ^^^%^f%%^ Fig. 50 is a top or plan view of the apparatus. Fig. 51 is a central vertical section thereof in line x x, Fig. 50. Fig. 52 is a front view of a portion thereof. 172 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. A represents a frame, which is provided with an apron or table, B. and on which is mounted a drum or roller, (7, from Fig. 52. PMMM the periphery whereof project cutters, D, which are separated one from another, or made adjustable relatively to the required width of the strips or shreds into which the husks are to be cut. On the inner end of the table B, and beneath the drum C, is a curved bed, E, the curvature being coincident with the path of the knives or cutters D. To the frame A is connected a swinging frame, F, on whose upper end is mounted a rotary clearer, G, consisting of bristles or fingers fitted to a journaled head or roller, which receives motion from a belt passing around a pulley, a, on the head or roller and a pulley, h, on the shaft c, which latter constitutes the axis of the frame F, and carries a pulley, a', to which power is communicated by means of a pulley, b', on the shaft of the cutter-drum C, or other gear- ing, it being noticed that the clearer G and said drum G rotate in the same direction. H represents a lever with downwardly-projecting teeth, pivoted to a slide «/, whose sides are grooved or formed with CORN-HUSK CUTTER. 173 guides to fit the sides of the apron or table B, so that while the slide is permitted to be moved to and from the cutters D it is prevented from vertical disengagement. The operation is as follows: The lever His raised and a husk, with the stalk end toward the operator, placed on the table B and held by the lever, is pushed to the cutters D by advancing the slide-clamp H J, power having been properly applied to the drum or roller C and the rotary clearer G. The cutters slice the husk into shreds or strips the length of the husk, the shreds or strips passing between the drum G and bed E as the husk is advanced. The clearer G forces the shreds or strips down from the cutters D, and also pre- vents them from winding on the drum. It will be noticed that the outer ends of the cutters describe a greater circle than the drum. Consequently when the cutters reach the clearer the latter is forced away by the former and its frame F caused to swing on the axial shaft c, so as to permit the cutters to pass the clearer, without, however, avoiding the stripping action thereof. As soon as the cutters clear the brushes or fingers of the clearer the frame G returns to its normal position and causes the brushes or fingers to sweep the circumference of the drum G unoccupied by the cutters D. When the length of the husk, excepting the stalk or stub, is entirely cut the slide J is drawn back, the lever H raised, and the husk removed, after which a fresh husk is applied and the operations of slicing, etc., are repeated. The bed E sustains the husk during the cutting thereof, and its lower end being open permits the escape of loose 174 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. cutting, dirt, etc., the rotary clearer G also serving as a fan to assist said escape. The stalk or stub of the husk is severed preferably after the cutting operations. Although only one row of cutters is shown, the number of them may be increased as desired. DUSTING RAGS. 175 CHAPTER VIII. DUSTING EAGS — WET DUSTING WASTE PAPER DUSTER AND WASHER. Dusting Rags. The next operation to which the rags or other paper stock are subjected is that of "dusting," and numerous mechanical contrivances for removing the dust, sand, and other foreign substances mechanically mixed with rags and paper stock have been invented in the United States and are technically known to the trade as "pin dusters," "railroad dusters," " fan dusters," etc. The operation of dusting is commonly performed by passing the cut rags, etc., through a cylinder and sometimes through a conical drum to which a rotary movement is imparted by suitable gearing. The periphery of these dusters is formed of coarse wire-cloth having about nine meshes to the square inch. These drums are sometimes placed on an incline and at other times on a level, their dis- position in this respect depending upon the arrangement of the mechanism for agitating and carrying the rags through the drum. The rags enter at one end of the drum and issue from the other ; the double motion of rotation and transmission causes 176 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the adhering impurities to separate from the rags, etc., and sift through the wire covering of the drum. When the paper stock is coarse and very dirty and con- tains much straw or hemp, such as pack cloths, old ropes, etc., a " devil" is used for dusting the material. The action of the " devil" is much more severe than that of the ordinary duster, and by it the fibres are more thoroughly loosened up and put in condition for the boiling. Some dusters which we have seen consist of a revolving drum with loose or swinging arms against which the rags are fed, and the force with which the rags are struck by these swinging arms whips them around under the drum upon a coarse wire apron through which the dust escapes. The dusted rags issue from the opposite side of the cylinder from that into which they were fed, and if not sufficiently dusted they are caused to pass through a hollow revolving cylinder, also covered with coarse wire cloth, and placed either on a line with the thresher or turned at any desired angle from it. A wooden or metal partition is placed directly against the threshing-drum, against which and the sides of the cylinder the rags are thrown with great force which assists in beating the dust out of them. At the upper portion of the machine at a convenient point an opening is left for the purpose of ventilation and carrying off the light dust, a strong current of air being created by the rapid revolutions of the drum. In England, Belgium, and other parts of the Continent as well as in the United States, the writer has seen rags dusted by a combination of the devil and duster; the devil being com- DUSTING RAGS. 177 posed of two conical cylinders, the interiors of which contain projecting steel spikes. In the interior of these cylinders an iron drum, having its periphery studded with steel spikes, is made to revolve at the rate of about 300 revolutions per minute. " The rags are fed into the first cylinder by a travelling belt, and dashed through from the one to the other by the action of the revolving drum, and from the second cylinder thrown forward on the duster. This con- sists of a large rectangular wooden case, in the interior of which an iron cage, covered with coarse wire-cloth, revolves slowly at right angles to the devil. This cage is set at a slight incline, so that the rags which are thrown into it by the willow at one end slowly pass to the other, while the dust, etc., which have been disengaged by the action of the willow, falls through the wire-cloth, and the dusted rags pass out at the other end, now ready for the boiler." Before describing other forms of rag duster we would call the reader's attention to the different firms mentioned on page 142, from whose catalogues all information regarding the workings of the various dusters in common use can be obtained. It would not be possible in a volume of the size of the present one to fully describe all the machines made and used in paper-making, and we shall consequently confine our atten- tion principally to those possessing features of novelty, and the complete list of patents which this volume contains of all inventions relating to paper-making will enable the theorist or practical man to readily inform himself as to the exact state of the art up to the close of the year 1885. 12 lib THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The Waste from Dusting, etc. The amount of loss resulting from passing the rags through the duster cannot be accurately estimated, as it varies with their nature and condition, the number and con- struction of the machines through which they are passed, the manner in which the rags have been cut, etc. When the cut- ting knives are dull a much greater loss results from ravelling than is the case when the knives are kept properly sharpened. Prouteaux, in his '■Guide Pratique cle la Fabrication du Papier et du Carton' 1 on p. 25, repeats the statement made by him nearly a quarter of a century since regarding the mean waste in the dusting, viz : — 1.5 per cent, for clean white rags ; 2.5 to 3.5 " " hems and seams ; 4 to 5 " " rags containing straw. Owing to the greater care now given to the condition and classification of rags by foreign shippers than was formerly the case, and the improvements which have been made in the dusters now employed in the mills of the United States, it is probable that the above figures are 25 per cent, too high. The waste of rags from the moisture which they contain, overhauling, cutting, and dusting, may be stated to be as follows : — 6 to 8 per cent, for fine and half-fine whites, 8 to 12 " " coarse whites, 6 to 9 " " white cottons, 8 to 12 " " colored cottons, 12 to 18 " " pack-cloths and coarse threads containing straw, 15 to 18 " " ropes not of hemp, 18 to 25 " " hempen ropes containing much straw. 1 Paris, 1884. DUSTING RAGS. 179 The above figures are only approximate however, and are not, of course, intended to apply to every case, the only intention being to give some conception of the proportion of loss which the same materials suffer under the same treat- ment. The loss is less in new and unbleached rags than in old rags. In some paper manufactories on the Continent they have substituted for the dry dusting a washing process which gives less loss of fine thready matters. In this connection we shall later (page 185) speak of a combined washing or cleansing and boiling process. A Machine for Reducing the Loss in Cleaning Cut Rags. The contrivance shown in Figs. 53 to 59 is the invention of Messrs. John B. Hart and Emory H. Walker, of Holyoke, Mass. ; the object being to provide a treatment for rags and similar materials used in paper-manufacture, by which the rags, after being cut, will be separated in a degree from foreign substances without so great a waste of small rags as is common to processes now in use. Fig. 53 is a perspective view of the invention. Fig. 54 is a diagram showing in side elevation and section the lead- ing details of the device ; and Figs. 55, 56, 57, 58, and 59 are enlarged views of certain parts in detail. In Fig. 53, J. is a frame or guide containing an endless belt, B, passing over the roll C, and over suitable rolls (not shown) on other portions of the frame. The roll C is 180 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. attached to a shaft, D, having at one end the tight and loose pulleys F, for the purpose of transmitting motion to Fig. 53. Fig.. 54. Fig. 55. Fig. 56. Fig. 57. J m LTD" JL J=£ QDDQD o o o o o Fig. 58. Fig. 59. # the roll C. The shaft D passes through suitable bearings in the posts F F. Below the roll C, and attached to the posts F F by pins G G, or in any other proper manner, is DUSTING RAGS. 181 the tray H, having at its opposite end an apron, /, and having its bottom formed of open work, J (more fully described hereafter). At the end of the tray H, which bears the apron /, are two posts, K K, supporting the cam- shaft L, and a second roll-shaft, M. The cam-shaft L con- tains two cams, N N, and a pulley, 0, as shown. This pulley is connected by the belt P with a similar pulley, Q, on the first roll-shaft D, and by the connection described the revolution of the first roll causes revolution of the cams. On the tray Have the projections R, resting on the cams N, whereby the revolution of the cams produces a vibratory motion of the tray H. The second roll, S, carries an end- less belt similar to that on roll (7, previously described, and receives motion in a suitable manner. The arrangement of the various parts described and the direction of their motion are shown in Fig. 54. The action of the mechanism described is as. follows : The cut rags to be operated upon are delivered on to the belt or carrier B, moving in the direction shown, and are carried forward over the roll C and dropped into the tray H. This delivery to the tray is gradual and dependent upon the velocity of the roll. The rags, after striking the upper end of the tray, gradually slide toward its lower extremity — impelled by gravity and the vibratory motion of the tray. The bottom of the tray is formed of open-work made of bars, as shown in Fig. 55, or wires or rods, as shown in Fig. 56, arranged parallel to each other, or laid in different directions, crossing or interlacing as indicated in Figs. 57 and 58, or the openings may be perforations in a continuous sheet, as 182 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. shown at Fig. 59. As the rags pass along the bottom of the tray the ' dust and other impurities work to the bottom and fall through. Small rags also pass through and are deposited below, where they may be collected and used, whereas, with- out this device, they would remain mixed with the larger pieces until blown out by a " duster," when, by their small size, they would pass through the meshes of the screen and be lost. The object of the apron J is to carry the rags fairly on to the second belt-carrier, which moves them to the desired point of delivery. The same gentlemen have also made another improvement in appliances for the treatment of cut rags used in the manu- facture of paper ; and the objects of their improvements are to secure a thorough mixing, stirring, and shaking of the rags for the purpose of separating foreign substances from the rags and disengaging small particles of cloth from the larger ones, and they claim to attain these objects by the mechanism shown in Figs. 60, 61, and 62. Fig. 60 is a vertical section showing this second invention and parts connected therewith. Fig. 61 is a perspective view of a portion of the invention in detail, and Fig. 62 is also a perspective view of a modified form of parts represented in Fig. 61. In Fig. 60 A is a roll or drum, which is driven by suit- able mechanism, and by its revolution imparts motion to the endless belt or carrier B. The rags to be acted upon are placed upon the top side of the carrier B, and, travelling in DUSTING RAGS. 183 the direction indicated by the arrow, pass over the roll A and fall therefrom. C is a screen, made of lattice-work, interlaced wire, or other suitable material, properly arranged to form a perfo- rated receptacle, and located, as shown, to receive the rags delivered by the carrier B. Fig. 60. Fig. 61. Fig. 62. £ e D is a shaft or cylinder having projecting arms, E E, etc. The shaft D is supported by suitable bearings, and has a pulley, F, through which rotary motion can be transmitted to the shaft or cylinder D. The cylinder D is placed beyond 184 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the carrier-roll A, and above and nearly in contact with the screen c, for the purpose of stirring and shaking the rags passing through the apparatus. G is a bonnet or shield, which covers and closes in the space about the cylinder D, for the purpose of preventing the throwing off of the rags by the action of the cylinder D and arms E E of same. H H are wings attached to the bonnet G, for the purpose of catching a part of the rags thrown upward by the revolv- ing shaft, and allowing them to fall again upon the cylinder to be further acted upon. The arms E E, etc., may be made in single continuous pieces, as shown in Fig. 61, or they may be made up of sections of any desirable form, one arrangement being shown in Fig. 62. In operation the rags fall upon the carrier B, pass over the roll A, fall upon the upper part of the screen C and upon the rapidly-revolving cylinder D. The arms E E, etc., toss the rags about in the confined space between the bonnet G and the screen C, and thoroughly stir and shake them, so that the dust is separated from the rags and caused to fall through the screen, while, in due time, the rags descend to the lower part of the inclosed space. From the lower part of the bonnet G the rags slide down the incline of the screen and are carried away by suitable devices. The screen and carriers form, in combination, a device for the cleaning of rags and the saving of small rags, and are fully shown in Figs. 53 to 59. WET DUSTING. 185 Wet Dusting. Combined Washing or Cleansing and Boiling Process. The apparatus shown in Figs. 63 and 64 is the invention of Mr. W. E. Newton, of London, England, and the method employed by him is a combined washing or cleansing and boiling process, which is effected in a device in which it is claimed that the operations can be conducted with greater facility than has previously been the case. The rags generally have adhering to them a good deal of dirt, which can be easily removed, and this is done by wash- ing them in plain hot water in the apparatus shown in Figs. 63 and 64, before submitting them to the action of any chemical solutions, for the purpose of more thoroughly cleansing and bleaching them. A large proportion of the dirt and impurities may thus be removed in a short time, and these particles, being heavy, sink into the lower part of the apparatus, and may be drawn off in the form of mud without wasting the chemical solutions used in the sub- sequent processes. Fig. 63 is a sectional plan view, and Fig. 64 a vertical section of Newton's apparatus, which consists of a cylindrical framework or cage, a a, covered externally with perforated metal or wire-gauze, and provided internally with any con- venient number of vertical ribs, a', which project radially from the circumference toward the the centre. This per- forated metal cage a rests upon cross-bars, b b, or upon a ledge fixed inside the external casing c c, leaving an annular 186 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. space between the external casing and the outside of the cage a. Inside this cage a is mounted a frame, which is fixed on the vertical spindle e, and consists of a series of beaters or stirrers, d' d', of peculiar shape. The lower part Fisr. 63. of the spindle e is made square at e\ and fits into a square socket in the end of the short shaft/, which passes through a stuffing-box, g, at the bottom of the casing c, and is sup- ported in a step, 7z, below. On this shaft / is keyed a bevel pinion, i, which gears into and is driven by a similar wheel, y, which is actuated by a band from any prime mover to the pulleys on the end of the shaft /. It will be seen that the beaters d' d' extend from the upper part of the spindle e down to the bottom of the cage a a, or nearly so, and that the beaters are much wider at the bottom than at the top.' The effect of WET DUSTING. 187 this peculiar shape of the beaters is that when they are in operation greater motion is given to the lower part of the water than to the upper portion, thus creating a kind of whirlpool action of the water, and a vertical or tumbling circu- Fig. 64. lation of the water and rags in contradistinction to a hori- zontal circular motion, thereby causing the dirt and impurities to be more readily removed from the rags. After passing through the perforated sides of the cage a into the annular space between it and the external casing, the dirt and impurities are deposited in the form of mud at the bottom of the vessel c, and may be drawn off through 188 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the pipe d before the chemical solutions are added for the subsequent processes. If desired, the water in the apparatus may be heated by jets of steam, which may be injected from nozzles into the annular space outside the cage a, or into any other con- venient part of the apparatus. At the bottom of the external wooden vessel c is made a space to receive the mud and sediment from the dirty rags. This may be covered over with a false bottom, k, as shown in the drawings, and this false bottom may be perforated or not, as may be preferred. The operation of the apparatus is as follows : The rags are charged into the perforated cage a through the top, which, if desired, may be inclosed or covered in by doors, as shown at I I. Water is then admitted, and, if cold, it may be heated by injecting steam into it, as already men- tioned. The shaft e with the beaters cT may then be rotated, and, by knocking the rags about in the water, it is claimed will quickly detach the greater part of the dirt, which will pass through the perforated sides of the cage a into the annular space beyond, and gradually subside in the outside water, and descend into the mud space below the false bottom Jc, from whence it may be drawn off from time to time through the pipe d. A solution of soda or other equivalent chemical substance may then be run into the apparatus, and the whole of the liquid with the rags in it may be boiled by means of the steam for any desired time, or until the rags are quite clean. They may then be WASTE-PAPER DUSTER AND WASHER. 189 bleached and reduced into pulp, and be converted into paper in the ordinary manner. The steam-pipes for heating the water have not been shown, as it will be found that by simply causing steam to bubble ^^p in the water from nozzles, in the manner already explained, the water will be sufficiently heated. It will be noticed that as all the driving-gear is placed below, the cage a and the parts contained therein, together with the central shaft e, may be lifted out of the outer vessel c for the convenience of emptying the rags out of the cage, which may then be replaced in its original position. In practice the inventor states that it will be found con- venient to use three of the above-described apparatuses in combination, so arranged in reference to each other that the cage a with its contents may be lifted out of one apparatus and placed in the next. The first apparatus may then be used for the preliminary washing out of the loose dirt, the second for boiling the rags in any chemical solution, and the third for the boiling or bleaching operation, or for simply washing in cold water. Waste-Paper Duster and Washer. Messrs. Hiram Allen and Lyman S. Mason, of Sandy Hill, N. Y., in their process for preparing pulp from papers, use a rotary self-discharging dusting engine by which the dry " imperfections" are subjected to the desired tumbling, beating, tearing, and screening action, from which machine the waste papers are progressively introduced in loose con- 190 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. dition into water in a circuit vat where they are subjected in heated alkaline water to the action of a current-producing paddle-wheel for the purpose of discharging the ink and separating the fibres. The process is intended to cover all the stages of reducing the imperfections to bleached and finished pulp ; but in this section we shall deal only with the dusting and washing mechanism employed'. Fig. 65 shows, in side elevation and partial vertical longitudinal section, the dusting engine employed by Messrs. Fig. 65. Allen and Mason, the section being at about the line w' id' in Figs. 66 and 67. Fig. 66 represents a transverse section of the same dusting- engine at about the line v v in Fig. 65, and viewed in the direction pointed by the arrow u in that figure, with an ele- vation of modified driving devices. Fig. 67 is an elevation WASTE-PAPER DUSTER AND WASHER. 191 of a section at about the line tt in Fig. 65, and viewed in the direction indicated by the arrow s in that figure. Fig. 68 Fie. 66. is a perspective view of the exterior of the same dusting- engine illustrated in the other figures with feeding appliances. Fig. 67. Fig. 69 is a perspective representation of a circuit-vat furnished with a paddle-wheel and a rotary washer, and 192 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. arranged to receive papers in loose condition from the dusting-engine, and suitable for use in transforming the papers into washed and bleached pulp. Tig. 68. Fig. 69. A is the stationary support for the mechanisms. The dusting-engine has a rapidly-revolving beater, F, Figs. WASTE-PAPER DUSTER AND WASHER. 193 65, 66, 67, within a tubular slowly-rotating screen, G, that is open at its ends and is incased closely about its ends and loosely at its sides by a cover, H, that has a feed-opening, a, in one end and a discharge-passage, b, at the other end. The general action of this dusting-engine is similar to that of some other dusting-engines heretofore used, that is, papers introduced at the feed-aperture a into the slowly-rotating screen will be therein rapidly struck, tumbled, and loosened up repeatedly by the fast-revolving beater, so as to separate from the papers dust and dirt, that may then fall down through the meshes of the screen on to the bottom of the casing as the papers are progressively beaten and tumbled along through the screen and are discharged in loose con- dition at b. The circuit-vat, Fig. 69, is supplied with water, Z, with or without alkali therein, and is furnished with a paddle-wheel, / or T, constructed and arranged so that as the wheel revolves and produces a strong current in the water through- out the vat, dry papers progressively introduced in loose condition into the vat will be progressively immersed in the water by the paddles c of the wheel, and subjected to the soft disintegrating actions of the paddles in the water. To avoid having in the paper-mill a large pile of the loose dry papers discharged from the dusting-engine, and to pre- vent the consequent loss of room and danger from fire, and also to avoid having persons stow away the loose papers, or feed them into the pulping- vat, as they are discharged from the dusting-engine, the inventors combine with the dusting- engine and pulping-vat an automatic transferring device, 13 194 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. by means of which the loose papers discharged from the dusting-engine are at once progressively transferred into the pulping or circuit vat. In carrying out this combination of the dusting-engine, circuit- vat, and device for transferring the papers from the dusting-engine into the vat, such transferring device, of course, varies in construction according to the relative positions of the circuit- vat and dusting-engine. For instance, when, as represented in Figs. 68 and 69, the dusting-engine B is nearly over the circuit-vat, the paper-transferring device e/then preferably consists of a simple chute, through which the loose dusted papers will descend by their gravity from the dusting-engine into the circuit-vat. When the circuit pulping- vat is located over, higher than, or far from the dusting-engine, the inventors combine with the dusting-engine and circuit-vat some suitable elevator or conveyer, for transferring the loose papers into the circuit-vat as fast as they are discharged from the dusting- engine. While the papers are being introduced in successive small quantities or progressively into the water in the circuit-vat by hand, or from the dusting-engine by automatic means, during one or two hours (more or less), the revo- lutions of the paddle-wheel / are continued, and thereafter the rotations of the paddle-wheel are continued in the mixture of papers and water for an hour or two (more or less), or until the papers become reduced to the proper pulpy condition to permit the ready washing out of the dissolved sizing and of the disintegrated ink in water, when printed WASTE-PAPER DUSTER AND WASHER. 195 papers are thus introduced and treated in alkaline water in the vat. In order to provide means whereby the dusting-engine can be kept constantly in use without any accumulation of the dusted papers, after completing the supply of papers from the dusting-engine to the vat, and while the papers are being reduced to coarse pulp in that vat, a second vat can be suitably placed and a conduit arranged for transferring the dusted papers in loose condition from the dusting-engine into such vats at will. While introducing the paper into the water in the pulping- vat and during the subsequent operation of reducing the papers to pulp by the rotation of the paddle-wheel in the vat, the water in the vat is kept at a temperature of from about 100° to 212° F., and preferably at about 160° to 190° F., or at whatever temperature shall secure the quick solu- tion of the sizing of the paper and of the vehicle of the ink when printed papers are used. To quickly and cheaply accomplish the dissolution of the ink, there is added to the heated water in the vat some suitable solvent, such as caustic soda, soda-ash, or equivalent alkali. The quantity of solvent used may be sufficient to make the specific gravity of the water in the vat with the papers about one-third to two-thirds of 1° Baume, more or less. This alkali is introduced into the water in the vat either before, during, or soon after the introduction of the printed papers. When the papers are not printed, the alkali may be omitted. The papers will be reduced to pulp in the water in the vat by the action of the paddle-wheel without having the water heated; but the 196 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. moderate heating of the water hastens the pulping of the papers. To secure the proper continued heating of the water, papers, and pulp in the vats steam is introduced by suitable means, as, for instance, by the pipes g, Fig. 69, having a stop valve or valves, and communicating at one end with a sup- ply of steam and open at the other end or ends to the water in the vat near its bottom. Printed papers it is claimed can be -quickly and cheaply transformed into clean, refined, and bleached pulp, according to the present process, by the use of the apparatus or mechan- ism represented in Fig. 69, by first reducing the papers to coarse pulp and dissolving the ink and sizing therefrom by progressively introducing the papers in dry loose condition into the water in the vat, while the washer M is kept out of the water by the gearing 7, and the paddle-wheel /is constantly revolved, and steam is admitted into the water for the pipes , by rivets, as at a, Fig. 83, or by bolts b. Fig. 84. The spherical portion of the piece F is properly perforated, and as a separator of stock from the steam admi- rably serves its purpose. In use, however, fragments of stock gradually work through the perforations, and clog the apparatus, and it must be frequently removed for repairs. To remove the strainer shown in Fig. 83, the rivets a a, etc., must be cut, which is a laborious and expensive operation. To remove the piece F, in Fig. 84, a number of bolts must be taken out, and as, under the action of heat, pressure, and chemicals, the bolts b b, etc., are likely to be corroded in place, this work will usually be found to be more expensive for removing and replacing than in the former case. REVOLVING BOILERS. 217 Mr. Benjamin F. Mullin, of Holyoke, Mass., has invented a strainer which he claims is readily accessible for cleaning, Fig. 83. easily detachable for repairs, and firm and secure when in place. This strainer is shown in Figs. 85, 86, and 87. The strainer proper is shown at F. It is of spherical form, of proper size, and with suitable holes, as shown, to meet the conditions respecting strength and capacity ol the given service. At the line where the strainer F meets the boiler-shell A it comes to an edge (without flanging), and is given the form of the surface which it meets, for the pur- pose of forming a close connection. A row of half-holes is made around the edge of the strainer, as shown, for the pur- pose of allowing it to come to a better bearing, and also permitting particles of stock to blow back into the boiler that would otherwise collect in the corner between the strainer-edge and the boiler-shell. The strainer F as described is attached to the boiler-shell in the following manner: To opposite sides of F are firmly 218 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. united heavy ears, G G, as shown. Pairs of corresponding ears, H H, etc., are securely riveted in the proper position on the shell J., as indicated, and heavy pins, / /, pass through 'is- 85. Fig. 86 Fig. 87. the ears, firmly holding the parts in place, accidental dis- placement being prevented by the split pins K K. When necessary to reach the concave surface of strainer F, a pin, 7", is removed, F being swung back on the pin as a hinge, as in Fig. 87. F may be entirely separated by removing both pins. The relative position of the two hinges shown gives square resistance to the action of the stock when the boiler is in motion, and prevents lateral strains. treating colored rags. 219 Treating Colored Rags. The course practically pursued by paper-manufacturers in preparing their paper-stock for use is as follows : — The stock is put into the well-known form of apparatus, and boiled for several hours in a solution of quicklime or of soda-ash, or caustic soda and quicklime, for the double pur- pose of removing the oils or greasy matters adherent to the stock, and for discharging the colors. It often happens that the greasy matters are rendered insoluble, or the coloring- matters are rendered more prominent, so as seriously to interfere with the action of the chloride of lime, to which the stock is subsequently subjected for bleaching purposes. In discharging colors from misprints or calicoes, the mor- dants are usually removed by various acid baths adapted to the particular mordants, after which the colors can be easily removed by alkalies. This process, however, affects more or less injuriously the strength of the cloths. Messrs. George F. Wilson and Philip O'Reilley, of Provi- dence, R. I., have patented a process by which they claim that the mordants can be treated with chemicals in such a manner that a double decomposition in the bath will take place in contact with the colors, and the effect of this nas- cent action, so produced, they claim, will be to produce the oxidation or deoxidation of the mordants, and that the dis- charge of the coloring-matters may be brought about with- out injury to the fabrics or paper-stock so treated. In Fig. 88 is shown the apparatus which the inventors 220 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. have devised to save labor and to utilize to the utmost extent all of the chemicals employed. Fig 88. A represents an iron-wire basket with a strong iron frame, which holds the paper-stock in the several processes until it TREATING COLORED RAGS. 221 is bleached and ready to be dried. This basket is sus- pended by a rope passing over a pulley, so that it can be readily raised and lowered. This pulley is suspended from a carrier, B, which travels on a rail, C. Beneath this rail, and in a line with its length, is a series of keirs, D, E, F, G, IT. The basket A can, by raising and lowering it and moving the carrier B, be readily transferred to any of the keirs. In connection with the keir ff, a stirring device, /, is em- ployed. This is so constructed as to be raised and lowered. It is supported in a bearing attached to the bar or rail K, so as to be revolved by means of the belt or strap on the pul- ley L. The spindle or arbor of the stirrer passes through the hub of the pulley, and is free to move up and down therein and in its bearing ; but rotary movement independ- ent of the pulley is prevented by a spline-and-groove con- nection. From the upper part of the spindle of the stirrer a rope passes over a pulley, M, so that the stirrer may be raised, as shown in full lines, or lowered into the keir, as shown in dotted lines, as required. A cover is or may be employed for the keir H. It is made to serve as a step or bearing for the spindle of the stirrer, as well as to close the keir. The operation of preparing the stock is as follows: The first step is to put into the wire basket a suitable quantity — say five hundred pounds — of colored rags cut into small pieces, as is the common practice, for convenience in work- ing them. Into the keir D are put, for treating the weight 222 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. of rags mentioned, five hundred gallons of water and fifteen pounds of caustic soda, to which, is added a small quantity — say two gallons — of soft soap. The wire basket and rags are now put into the keir and boiled, preferably under atmospheric pressure, for about three hours, or sufficiently long to remove the oils and grease, which may be accom- plished with frequent stirring in much less time. They may now be transferred in the basket to keir IT, to be thor- oughly washed with water. In washing the stirring appa- ratus is employed, it being let down into the position indi- cated in dotted lines in the drawing. The operation is continued until the stock is sufficiently clean, which an expert paper-maker will readily determine. The keir E is now supplied with two hundred and fifty gallons of water, with which have been mixed five pounds of a soluble salt of manganese, prepared for the purpose from black oxide of manganese, and muriatic and sulphuric acids, as hereafter described. The rags having been washed are now immersed in this solution, where they are to remain for about three hours, being thoroughly agitated or stirred during this whole or a portion of the time. While this process is going on put into the keir F two hundred gallons of water having in solution fifteen pounds of chloride of lime, where the rags are thoroughly stirred and where they remain for about two hours. If the goods have obtained or taken on a brown color they may be washed thoroughly in the keir H, and then removed to the keir G, in which have been put two hundred and fifty gallons of water and five pounds of oxalic acid. This is for the purpose of removing any traces of iron TREATING COLORED RAGS. 223 or manganese which may be left in the rags. They are allowed to remain in this solution for about three hours, when they may be again washed in keir IT, and then thrown into a hydro-extractor of any ordinary or suitable construc- tion, which will take out nearly all the water remaining in them ; after which they may be dried and made ready for shipment. The rags coming out of this process are ready to be reduced to pulp in the ordinary engines. Should the rags not have obtained the brown color referred to above, they may be returned to the manganese solution again, and then again to the chloride-of-lime solution, as before. The remaining part of the processes following this second treatment will be the same as before described. Permanganate of potash could be employed for the man- ganese with excellent results. It would be preferable to use it but for economical reasons. The patentees state that they have obtained nearly or quite as good results by means of the soluble salt of manga- nese, before referred to, which is prepared in the following- way : In a suitable vessel, to one pound of black oxide of manganese add one pound of commercial muriatic acid, or other quantities in approximately the same proportion can be used. Mix them well and let the whole remain for from thirty minutes to one hour, and then add two and one-half pounds of commercial sulphuric acid ; stir and heat the mass gently until the manganese is dissolved, then add about three gallons of water, stir it well, and leave the whole to settle. In charging the keir E only the clear liquor of the soluble salt of manganese is used. 224 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. We have indicated the proportions in the foregoing pro- cess with considerable minuteness in order that the inven- tion can be readily carried into effect ; but it is obvious that these may be varied more or less. The stirring apparatus can, if desired, be readily constructed so as to be shifted from one keir to the other by supporting the bearing for the spin- dle of the stirrer in a travelling bracket, and making the elevating and lowering pulley also movable, like that which supports the basket. This is not, however, considered neces- sary, as the stirring is principally required in the washing- keir. Boiling Waste Paper. Waste paper can be boiled in either stationary or rotary boilers ; but in mills where its manufacture is made a spe- cialty it is commonly boiled in stationary iron tubs. Writing-ink can be extracted by simply boiling with water; but a solution of soda-ash is generally used for extracting printing-ink. The tubs used for boiling waste paper vary in size in dif- ferent mills, but a form of tub, very similar in design to that shown in Fig. 89, which has been found to give satisfaction is built of boiler iron and measures about eight feet in depth and eight feet in diameter at the bottom, and six inches wider at the top than at the bottom. Steam is evenly distributed to all parts of the tub through a false bottom perforated with a large number of small holes. In order to expedite the emptying of the tubs the false bottoms have attached to them three or four iron rods to the BOILING WASTE PAPER. 225 tops of which iron chains are hooked and the false bottom and mass of boiled paper raised and deposited at any desired point by means of a steam hoisting engine or a crane. It is preferable not to pack the waste paper while in a dry state in the tubs, as it is liable to be imperfectly boiled owing to the imperfect circulation of the liquid through dry paper. To properly begin the boiling operation it is necessary to fill the tubs one-quarter full with a solution of soda-ash, which should then be brought to the boiling-point, when the papers should be thrown in and evenly distributed. In order to obtain an even distribution of the boiling liquor over the surface of the tubs an iron pipe extends from the centre of the false bottom to nearly the top of the tub, and this pipe being covered with a suitable hood distributes the soda-ash solution over the whole surface of the vessel. The iron tubs are cased with wood or covered with an asbestos coating to prevent the escape of the heat, and the top is covered with a flat iron cover in one or two pieces. The steam enters the tub at the side, near the real bottom, but under the false bottom ; and the liquor is drawn off through a pipe and valve connected directly with the bottom of the tub. In many mills the liquor is not drawn off after each boil- ing, the paper only being hoisted from the tub and the liquor strengthened by the addition of ten to twenty pounds of fresh soda-ash to each one hundred pounds of the paper to be next boiled. In proportion as the waste paper is more thickly covered with printing ink the more soda-ash will it require in the boiling operation. The period of boiling 15 226 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. varies from twelve to twenty-four hours, according to the nature and condition of the waste paper to be treated. The waste steam from the engine can be profitably em- ployed in the boiling operation, as water in becoming steam absorbs a large quantity of heat, which becomes latent, and is termed the heat of vaporization ; but this heat is again given out when the steam condenses to water. The latent heat of steam by one observer is 996.4° F., and by another 998°. The latent heat of steam diminishes as the tempera- ture of the steam rises, so that equal weights of steam thrown into cold water will have nearly the same heating power, although the temperatures may vary exceedingly. This also appears to be below the boiling-point, so that to evapo- rate a given quantity of water a certain amount of heat is requisite at whatever temperature the evaporation is con- ducted. It is for this reason that distillation in vacuo at a ' low temperature effects no saving of fuel. The tubs which are described above will each hold about four thousand pounds of papers ; heavy book papers, how- ever, require less room than news or shavings, and the quan- tity which a tub will hold varies according to the class of waste papers to be treated. Treating Waste Papers so as to make Paper entirely therefrom. By the common process the imperfections, consisting of old letters, documents, newspapers, books, etc., are dusted, and then put into a rotary boiler, and cooked and pulped in an alkali solution. This operation produces a mass partly BOILING WASTE PAPER. 227 pulped and so conglomerated that the alkali cannot reach all of the ink. Much of the ink thus remains to form a constituent part of the pulp and paper made from it. This mass is then put into a washer, and the alkali and dissolved ink removed, after which it is beaten to the proper pulp and mixed with the other portions of the stock ; usually not over fifty per cent, of imperfections being admitted into the stock for new paper, the remainder of the stock being made up of rags, etc. The object of the process patented by Mr. J. T. Ryan, of Hamilton, Ohio, is to so treat the imperfections that a first- class clean paper may be made entirely therefrom. In exe- cuting this process first pass the imperfections through a duster, all thick old books being previously torn apart to reduce them to a few leaves. Then treat the imperfections to the action of hot alkali without pulping them. The alkali solution thus acts on the surfaces of the imperfections and dissolves off and carries away all the ink into the solu- tion. Then drain the imperfections, which are still in sheet form, as free from the alkali solution as convenient. Then place the imperfections, still in sheet form, in the washing- engine, and wash out the alkali solution, which leaves the imperfections perfectly clean. The material is then pulped in the beating-engine, and it is claimed can be formed into first-class clean paper without the addition of any new or expensive paper-stock. In executing this process use a common duster. Into a bucking-keir put a soda-ash solution having a density of 5° Baume at 160° Fahrenheit. Put in the stock, and shower 228 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. for eight hours at a temperature of 160° F., without pulping the imperfections; then lift, and drain and cleanse well in the washing-engine ; then pulp and form into paper. As the draining operation will always be imperfect, each charge removed will carry away some of the soda-ash. solu- tion and leave the remainder of impaired strength. After each drainage, add water to make up for loss in quantity of solution, and add enough soda-ash solution, having a density of 13° Baume, to bring all the solution up to 5° Baume at 160° F. In about eighteen working days the liquor will have accumulated considerable ink and other matter. Then blow off one-half of the liquor, and restore the quantity for proper working. None of the soda-ash solution is wasted, except such as fails to drain, and such as is blown out, as last mentioned. Boiling scrap paper in alkali, then cooling it, then boiling in a new solution, then beating to pulp in alkali, then wash- ing, etc., is an old process. But in the present method every care is to be taken to guard against pulping before the alkali is washed out. Other Methods of Treating Waste Papers. Fig. 69 shows a view of a circuit-vat in which the sizing of the paper and the vehicle of the iuk can be quickly dissolved ; the temperature necessary to be maintained and the quantity of alkali to be employed are given in the text describing the construction and operation of this circuit-vat, In the section of Chapter X., devoted to "Washing Waste Paper or ' Imperfections,' " a process is described by which BOILING STRAW. 229 it is claimed that the sizing, etc., can be removed from the imperfections, and the fibres separated in the beater without breaking. Boiling Straw. Mellier's Process for Treating Straw. Mellier's process for treating straw to prepare it for use in the manufacture of paper consists in steeping the straw for a few hours in hot water after it has been cut and freed from knots and dirt. The straw is then placed in a rotary boiler containing a weak solution of caustic alkali, and, after making it steam- tight, the pressure should be gradually raised to about 55 to 70 lbs. to the square inch, at which point it should be main- tained for about three hours, the boiler in the meanwhile being made to revolve at the rate of about one or two revo- lutions per minute. The solution used by Mellier is from 2 to 3 degrees Baume, and in the proportion of about seventy gallons of such solution to each hundred weight of straw. In order not to dilute the caustic alkaline solution by the condensation of the steam it is recommended, if the boiler is to rotate vertically on its small axis, to cover it with a jacket so that the steam may circulate from one end to the other between the two plates ; but if it is to revolve horizontally, or upon its long axis, there should be fixed near each end of the boiler and inside of it a diaphragm or partition, which partition should be connected by numerous tubes arranged 230 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. in a circle near the outer circumference of each partition. By this arrangement the steam introduced through the hol- low axis at one end of the boiler passes through the steam- pipes, and thence into the compartment at the other end of the boiler, where it and the condensed steam are conveyed away through the other hollow axis. By not delivering the steam directly into the boiler, in addition to not diluting the alkaline solutions, the trouble is saved of sometimes having the end of the steam-pipe in the boiler choked with straw, and there is another additional advantage of being able to quickly cool the boiler, after the pressure has been maintained for a sufficient length of time, by passing a stream of cold water through the jacket or steam-pipes. After the apparatus and fibres under treatment have been cooled in the manner described, the manhole is opened and the materials emptied into suitable vessels, where they are washed first with hot and afterwards with cold water until the liquor runs perfectly clear. The fibre is next steeped for about an hour in hot water acidulated with a quantity of sulphuric acid equal to about two per cent, of the fibres under treatment, and, finally, the washing is completed with cold water. The bleaching is then done in the ordinary way, and it is claimed that it can be accomplished by the employment of a comparatively small quantity of chloride of lime. This process was patented in America and also in Europe by Mr. M. C. Mellier, of Paris, France, the patent in the United States bearing date May 26, 1857. BOILING STRAW. 231 Bums' 's Process for Treating Straw. Heretofore in the art of making straw paper the straw has been reduced to pulp by means of beating-machines, or by means of a machine having a rotary 'cylinder carrying a series of cutting-knives. The objections to these machines are several, among which may be stated the fact that the fibre of the stock is sometimes completely cut to pieces, and that the bleaching material in solid particles is introduced into these machines, both of which objections, especially where straw-stock is used, tend to make the paper, straw- board, and the like extremely brittle and rotten, and conse- quently unsatisfactory to the trade. To remedy these objections Mr. Daniel R. Burns, of Day- ton, Ohio, has invented a process by means of which the stock is first cooked, then disintegrated by separating and tearing the fibre apart without destroying the fibre itself, thereby, it is claimed, allowing the fibre to retain all its albu- men and gluten properties. Finally the stock is subjected to a bleaching process without the contact therewith of any solid-matter bleaching material. The bleaching process, as conducted by Mr. Burns, is described in Chapter XL Fig. 89 shows a section of the vessel used for boiling the straw ; Fig. 90 shows a transverse section of the disintegrat- ing machine, and Fig. 91 shows a face view of the stationary grinding disk. The boiler shown in Fig. 89 consists of the vessel A, hav- ing a suitable cover, and in which the stock is first placed to be cooked. It is provided with an upright perforated cen- 232 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. tral tube, B, having a deflecting-cap, (7, at the top, and a steam-pipe entering it at the bottom. The stock is placed around this pipe B, and the steam from the steam-pipe, en- tering the pipe B and passing out through its perforations, thoroughly cooks the stock throughout. Fie. 89. The process and manner of treating the stock when intro- duced into the vessel A is as follows : Twenty pounds of carbonate of soda are added to every one hundred gallons of water, which is not raised to a higher temperature than 212° F. at any time during the process. The straw is introduced when the water is cold, after which the heat is gradually BOILING STRAW. 233 raised to the boiling-point. In most cases it is claimed that the straw is in condition to be removed from the tub as soon as the boiling-point is reached. To ascertain if it be suffi- ciently cooked, a small sample is taken from the tub, and if the knots on the straw, hay, grasses, etc., can be easily crushed under the fingers by a slight pressure, it is ready to be delivered from the tub. If not, the boiling must be con- tinued. This is intended for stock to be bleached white. For stock which is to retain the natural color, or not be- yond a buff, there are introduced into the water ten pounds of extract of hemlock or oak bark to every one hundred gallons of water, and the same amount of carbonate of soda as above (twenty pounds), and dissolved. The liquid is now the tannate of soda. The stock is then introduced as be- fore, when the water is about 60° F. The tannic acid uniting with the gluten and albuminous properties of the stock imparts to it the properties of leather, the same as to hides or skins in tanning, which preserves it from the action of the water. The soda acts upon the fibre, soften- ing and disintegrating it, so as to make it useful for paper- stock. This gives to the darker colored stock, paper, straw- board, etc., a greater amount of tenacity and strength than has heretofore been obtained by any other process. After being cooked the stock is removed from the vessel in which the boiling is conducted, and is fed into the dis- integrating-machine. (Shown in Fig. 90.) This machine consists of the revolving shaft D, driven by any suitable power by means of pulley E. One end of shaft E carries a rotary disk, F, of peculiar construction — that is, its grinding- 234 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. face is concaved. The grin ding-disk G is of similar construc- tion, only it is preferably made stationary (although it may be made to revolve), and is also provided with the central feed-orifice g, communicating with the feed-hopper IT. The disks F and G are inclosed by a tight casing, 7, provided with a discharge-opening, 0, for the pulp after it has been reduced. The shaft D has a lateral adjustment for the pur- pose of regulating the degree to which the pulp is to be reduced. This adjustment is effected by means of the ad- justing-screw TV" working in a nut, L. The plate K, against which the screw bears, is made stationary, so as not to revolve; but has a lateral motion. J is a loose washer free to revolve or move laterally. This construction prevents all tendency of the adjusting- screw to tighten or loosen due to the revolution of the shaft ; and, further, in the event of the washer J sticking to the end of the shaft by heat, the washer would still be free to turn against the stationary plate J. The cooked stock is fed into the machine through hopper J7", the concave confronting faces of the grinding-disks admit- ting of an opening into which the stock may be easily passed. Here, by the gradually-increased rapidity of the planes of the disk G from the centre outward, the fibre of the stock is completely separated and torn apart, and the whole paper stock reduced to pulp, but it is claimed without destroying the fibre itself. This stock is now ready for use for the darker-colored papers. Where straw-stock is treated it will be seen that all the gluten and albumen matter is retained, BOILING STRAW. 235 which the inventor states he has found essential in order to render the paper tough and homogeneous. Fig. 91 shows a face view of the stationary grinding-disk, which is represented with dressing. Different kinds ot dressing for the disk are required, however, according to the nature of the stock to be treated. When it is desired to have a lighter colored paper than results from the stock treated in the manner above described it is subjected to a bleaching process, which see in Chap. XI. The inventor of the present process states that the reason it has been necessary heretofore to use caustic-alkali, acids, and the high degree of heat is that there was no machinery used that would disintegrate the stock and reduce it to pulp without being so treated, while his machine shown in Figs. 90 and 91 is so driven, that the disk has a velocity (the periphery travelling at the rate of five thousand feet per minute) which reduces the stock with great rapidity to pulp without injuring the fibre. Boiling Coal Tar with the Alkalies employed in Treating Straw. It has been proposed to boil coal tar with the alkalies used in the preparation of paper pulp from straw ; the quantity used being about 5 pounds of coal tar to each 1000 pounds of straw or other material treated, or such quantity of coal tar as is necessary to neutralize the quantity of alkali used. It is claimed that the paper made from straw thus treated will be much less harsh and brittle than that treated in the ordinary way. 236 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Other Methods of Treating Straw. For other processes of treating straw see those of Dahl, Franche, and others, described in the section of the present chapter devoted to boiling wood. The most tender straw used in the manufacture of paper is that of oats, next that of barley, wheat, and finally rye. Maize straw is even more tender than oat straw. The time for boiling depends on the hardness of the material, as also upon the pressure under which the material is boiled and the strength of the alkaline solution, and the preliminary labor which may have been bestowed on the material. Corn leaves and stalks are placed in a solution containing, for 100 pounds of material, 40 pounds of lime and 1 pound of potash ; the straw remains under treatment about 3 hours. Oat Straw. — For 100 pounds of straw a solution is required containing 50 pounds of lime and 2 pounds of pot- ash. Time, 3 hours. Barley straw is first boiled for 3 hours in water and then brought into a solution containing, for every 100 pounds of straw, 50 pounds of lime and 2 pounds of potash. It is then brought into a second solution consisting of 30 to 40 pounds of lime and 1 pound of potash. Time in each solution 3 hours. Wheat straw is first boiled for 3 hours in water and then placed consecutively in 3 solutions, remaining in each for 3 hours. The first consists of 50 pounds of lime and 2 pounds BOILING ESPARTO. 337 of potash, and the last two of 30 pounds of lime and 1 pound of potash. Rye straw, being very hard, must first be boiled in water for 3 hours, and then successively for the same time in four different alkaline solutions of the same strength as those for wheat straw. Boiling Esparto. The esparto after being sorted, as has been described on page 112, is in condition for boiling. There are various forms of boilers in use for the treatment of esparto ; but the stationary form shown in Fig. 74 is ordinarily employed in Great Britain. The grass is filled into the boiler through the door A (Fig. 74), which can be firmly fastened down by the screws shown. The steam is admitted into the boiler through the pipe (7, which extends a short distance below the perforated bottom. Surrounding the steam pipe C is a wider pipe, D, open at the top, and made slightly trumpet-shaped, also open at the bottom below the false bottom. The false bottom rests on a shoulder formed on the lower portion of the pipe D. The liquor passes through two or more openings in the enlarged portion of the pipe D, and there is thus produced a constant circulation of the hot liquor, which is dispersed all over the boiler by striking against the hood E at the top of the pipe D. This action of the hot liquor striking against the dome E is techni- cally termed " vomiting." The liquor is run off from the boiler through a valve placed under the boiler, and the grass is removed through the door B. A safety valve is usually 238 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. placed as shown in the illustration, and the chain and weights are intended to allow the door A to be conveniently raised and lowered. Just before starting to fill the boiler with grass the vomit is started and continued in action until the boiler is filled, as the grass is thereby softened, which allows closer packing in the boiler. The form of boiler described cannot be used with very high pressure steam, as in such cases it requires slight modi- fications. Much experience and care are necessary in boiling esparto, for if the material should be insufficiently boiled there results a loss of soda in the operation of reboiling thereby entailed, and then the result is often not satisfactory when a repeti- tion of the boiling is made necessary. The quality of the grass, the form of boiler, the pressure, etc., determine the quantity of caustic soda to be used. When a shipment of esparto is received at the mill, experiments should be made to find the least quantity of caustic soda necessary to properly boil that especial lot, and the quantity found necessary should be continued until the whole con- signment is used. Dunbar states : " When the necessary precautions are taken to have everything in proper order and condition, the under- noted quantities of caustic soda will generally boil the various espartos in a satisfactory manner : — Fine Spanish esparto, boiled with 28 lbs. caustic soda (70 per cent.) per cwt. Medium Spanish " " 24 " " " " Fine Oran " " 30 " " " " Medium Oran " "28 " " " " Fine Susa " " 28 " " " Tripoli " " 32 " " " " Tripoli " " 25 " " " " BOILING MANILLA AND JUTE. 239 All boiled for ten hours in stationary vomiting boilers with ten pounds steam pressure, care being taken to see that the esparto is sufficiently boiled before the liquor is run off." When the boiling of the esparto is completed, the steam is shut off, the lid lifted, and the liquor conducted to a large store-well. The esparto is then washed by running water into the boiler, fastening down the lid and turning on the steam. After a short time the steam is again shut off and the new liquor is also run into the store-well. The door B is then opened and the esparto removed from the boiler, and if it is not to be used in fine grades of paper is carried directly to the breaking engine ; but when a high degree of purity is desired the grass is first carried to the " wet-picking" department of the mill, where girls and women overhaul it and pick out all the unboiled portions. For other methods of boiling esparto see the processes of Dahl and Franche, described in this chapter. Boiling Manilla and Jute. Both manilla and jute may be boiled in either rotaries or open tubs, but in either case a liberal use of milk of lime will be necessary. From 15 to 30 pounds of lime per 100 pounds of material is the usual proportion ; but this is largely exceeded by some manufacturers, who sometimes employ as much as 40 or 50 pounds of lime for 100 pounds of jute. Treated by steam and water at a high temperature (248° to 266° F.) jute fibre, is completely destroyed, and is then 240 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. converted into soluble compounds. The same result occurs when heated with acetate of soda. In this case acetic acid distils over, thus showing that jute is decomposed, and gives rise to the formation of acids. Even a small quantity of bisulphite prevents this decomposition. This, according to Mr. Cross, is due to the known combination of this salt with the aldehydes formed by the action of oxidizing agents on jute. Conleifs Process for Boiling and Bleaching Jute. As a preliminary step to carrying out the following pro- cess, which is the invention of Mr. Edward Conley, of Cin- cinnati, O., first assort, clean, and cut up the jute or jute- butts in the usual way. Then put them into a close vessel, either stationary or revolving. To every one hundred pounds of jute are added sixty gallons of caustic alkali of a strength of 7° Baume, at a temperature of 130° F. Then boil for about ten hours under a standard pressure of eighty pounds. The boiling completed, the spent liquor is drawn off, and the stock thoroughly washed with hot water, which keeps the thick vegetable matter in solution, and carries off the black and non-fibrous substances. Preparatory to being bleached it is washed in an ordinary rag-engine in the usual way, after which it is preferable to run it through a wet-machine, which extracts from it a large amount of water, and leaves it in a better condition to absorb the bleaching liquor. When jute-bagging, burlaps, or gunny-bagging are used, the quantity of caustic alkali may be less by ten gallons. BOILING MANILLA AND JUTE. 241 The strength and quantity of caustic alkali, the pressure, and the time given above are the standards, but their equi- valents may be used. For example, 7° Baume" at 130° F. has been named, but 8° Baume at 100° F. is equivalent. In this process there are two points of prime importance : First, boiling in alkali as strong as can be made caustic. It would be preferable to use alkali of a strength of from 9° to 10° Baume, if it were practicable to make pure caustic at that strength. Alkali, of any greater strength than 7° or 8° Baume, cannot be made thoroughly caustic except by evaporation. Second, a combination of a caustic liquor of a high strength and a medium pressure. The advantages claimed to be gained by this process are as follows: First, the disintegration of the stock is effected by the single process above described. Second, this disinte- gration being thorough, the cellulose is left of a light brown color, and in its natural state short, with uneven ends, which is the best condition to be worked into paper. Third, another consequence of this thorough disintegration is, that all foreign matters, as silica, gluten, etc., are easily separated from the pulp, leaving pure cellulose. Fourth, owing to the absence of all foreign matters, paper made from pure cellu- lose dries out regularly when wet down for printing. This gives to the sheet an even surface, which enables it to pass smoothly through the press, and receive a clear and distinct impression. It is also opaque, and, when printed upon, does not permit the ink to show through from one side to the other. Moreover, pure cellulose is easily bleached, only a comparatively small amount of chemicals being required, 16 242 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. and, therefore, the paper made from it is not only of the highest grade of color, but also stronger than when the pulp is subjected to a more intense chemical action. The cellulose obtained by this process is not chemically pure, but practically its purity is claimed to be sufficient to produce all the results claimed for clear cellulose. It has been the practice to work jute into low grades of white paper, and in small quantities. When treated by this process, it is claimed that it can be made into the finest grades of paper, either when used alone or mixed with other stock. Mr. Conley is not the first person to use jute in the manu- facture of white paper, so called. It has been experimented upon by many persons and in many ways, such as boiling in lime, boiling in soda-ash, giving it an acid bath, etc.; but by none of such processes, however, has cellulose of the desired quality been produced. Boiling Wood. Ch e mica lly- Prepared Wood- Pa Ip. During the past twenty years special efforts have been made with a view to dissolving the intercellular in crusting or cementing matter existing between the fibres of wood, so that the resulting cellulose might be introduced into fine papers, and latterly with considerable success. In the earlier processes patented in England by Sinclair, in 1854, and Houghton, in 1857, wood was boiled with about twenty per cent, of real caustic soda under a pressure of from ten to fourteen atmospheres. Experience has die- BOILING WOOD. 243 tated certain improvements in some of the details of these earlier methods by which so-called chemical wood-pulp is manufactured very largely on the continent of Europe from whence it is imported into England to a considerable extent ; and in the United States also the preparation of cellulose from wood is receiving much attention. It is possible to obtain a pulp of good quality suitable for some classes of paper, by boiling the chipped wood with caustic soda in the manner indicated; but when it is desired to use the pulp so prepared for papers having a perfectly white surface, it has been demonstrated in practice that the action of the caustic soda solution at the high temperature which the required pressure develops results to a certain degree in a weakening and browning of the fibres, and dur- ing the past five years much labor has been expended in the endeavor to overcome the objections named. The outcome of these efforts has been a number of patents, having for their object to prevent oxidation and subsequent weakening of the fibres from taking place in the chemical preparation of wood-pulp. Bisulphite of lime is one of the chemical agents used to prevent oxidation and subsequent degradation of the fibres in the processes patented by Messrs. Mitscherlich and Francke, and bisul- phite of magnesia is one of the agents used for the same purpose in the processes of Messrs. Ekman and Graham. Although a common principle runs through all these methods of preparing cellulose from wood, they differ materially in detail, as to construction of the digesters em- ployed, methods of treating the wood stock before boiling it 244 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. in the sulphurous-acid solution and also as regards pressure, blowing off of the sulphurous acid gas, etc., but all these processes present a striking similarity to the method patented by Tilghmann in 1867. The process patented by Dr. Mitscherlich, of Munden, Prussia, has been quite extensively adopted in Germany. The chemical changes which take place during the boiling process in Dr. Mitscherlich's method of preparing cellulose from wood may be explained as follows: — The sulphurous acid is oxidized by combining with a part of the oxygen of the cellulose and of the organic substances, and formed into sulphuric acid, that under normal circum- stances combines with the bases that have before been united with the sulphurous acid. When the process is not properly conducted, free acid is formed in the solu- tion, which exerts an injurious influence upon the fibres. Besides the free acid and its combination, the incrusted sub- stances are formed into compound combinations of tannic acid and its by-products, which are highly objectionable. For the proper carrying out of the boiling process it is an essential condition that the sulphurous-acid solution be free from polythionic salts, as by the action of such salts a brown- ish-black deposit is formed on the wood stock, during the boiling, so that it remains hard and causes a failure of the boiling operation. At the same time a considerable increase of temperature takes place, so that the tests taken from the boiler show an abnormally quick decrease in the proportion of sulphurous acid in the solution. These polythionic acids are generated commonly by the presence of free sulphur- BOILING WOOD. 245 fumes during the roasting process. To prevent their pre- sence care has to be taken that sulphurous acid free from such acid and salt is obtained and used. The great objection to the modern chemical processes of preparing pulp from wood is that, as they commonly depend on the use of bisulphite, which, being an acid salt, cannot be worked in an iron boiler, great difficulty has been en- countered in practice in maintaining the lead lining of the digester in proper repair. It is probable, however, that this difficulty will be surmounted with further experience. In Dr. Mitscherlich's apparatus a thin lead lining is cemented to the inner surface of the boiler by a cement composed of common tar and pitch, and the lead lining is then faced with glazed porcelain bricks. The objection to this method is that in case of leakage or rupture in the brick facing and lead lining the pulp is liable to become injured by the tarry product. Messrs. Hitter and Kellner propose to unite the iron shell of the boiler and its lead lining by means of an interposed soft metal alloy fusible at a temperature lower than that of either. It is claimed that the shell and lining- are thus securely united, while the alloy being fusible under the normal working temperature of the digester the lead lining can slide freely on the boiler shell. The objection to this method is that it is difficult to localize the creeping or sliding effect of the lead lining into adequately small por- tions to make the metal sufficiently durable for digesters, but this objection the same inventors claim to have overcome by a later invention. For other methods of securing the lead lining to the boiler shell, see the list of patents at the close of this section. 246 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. All the acid processes for obtaining cellulose from wood are open to the objection that the cellulose so obtained con- tains a considerable quantity of incrusting matter which is allowed to remain in the fibre, thus giving a harsh character to the paper manufactured solely from it, and another objec- tion is its great transparency. In order to obtain a pure cel- lulose it is necessary to exhaust it in an alkaline solution subsequent to the treatment with acid. The white woods and pines are commonly used in the manufacture of " chemical wood pulp." "The white woods, such as bass-wood, and the different varieties of poplar, are easily managed; the 'popple' or white poplar and the aspen are the least difficult to reduce, next comes the bass-wood, then the yellow poplar, but the quantity of the fibre obtained from each is inverse to this, as the yellow poplar gives. the best and longest fibre, then the aspen, and lastly the ' pop- ple.' The pines give a long fibre of considerable strength, but a smaller quantity per cord, and require severe treatment to make it white. The treatment which the different kinds and varieties of wood require is alike except in degree, and the following descriptions of boiling with soda will conse- quently answer for all." Marshall's boiler in which the wood chips can be digested with soda will also be described. Boiling with Soda. A method of cutting the wood into chips has been de- scribed on page 145. From the Paper Trade Journal we take the following description : The rotary boiler is gene- rally considered preferable, and it is usually made of three- BOILING WOOD. 247 quarter inch iron, and measures about seven feet in diameter and twenty-two feet in length, with whole wrought-iron heads. Heavy cast-iron hollow trunions are riveted on each head. The digester is provided with a steam coil of 2| inch pipe aggregating about 700 feet in length ; the steam is admitted and the water of condensation is discharged through the hollow journal at the same end. There is a short coil of 2| inch pipe perforated with holes Jg of an inch in diameter, and located inside of the digester between the manholes, and connected through the shell with a blow- off valve on the outside. There is located on the opposite side, also inside of the digester, a perforated pipe which ex- tends the whole length and is connected through the other hollow journal with a force-pump of large capacity. The chips are filled into the digester through the manholes, and after the digester is packed full, 2800 gallons of soda solu- tion at 9° Baume are run in ; the manheads are then put in, the steam is turned on, and the digester is started. As long as a solid stream of the water of condensation flows from the discharge pipe it is allowed to run, but when the steam comes, it must be connected with a steam trap of sufficient capacity to discharge all of the water as rapidly as it is formed. The steam pressure is allowed to rise to 115 pounds by the gauge, and maintained at that point for five hours, at the end of which time the steam is shut off, and the diges- ter stopped with the manheads at the lowest point. A blow- off pipe, which extends from under the digester to the spent liquor tanks in the evaporator room, is now connected by a flange joint to the blow-off valve, which is located between 248 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the manheads, and which connects with the perforated coil inside. The blow-off valve is opened a little at a time, to prevent the liquor from being blown out with too great vio- lence. The valve may be opened a little more and more as the pressure decreases. At this point one of two courses may be pursued : First, all of the liquor may be blown out, thus securing the largest possible quantity of spent liquor of full strength for evaporating, and this will be found to be about two-thirds of the original quantity that was put into the digester. When this is obtained the blow-off valve is closed and the force-pump which connects with the perfo- rated pipe inside of the digester is started and hot weak liquor is pumped in. While this is being done the blow-off pipe is disconnected, and when a sufficient quantity of weak liquor is forced into the digester, the digester is started and allowed to make a few revolutions. It is then stopped and the blow-off pipe is again attached, and the liquor which has been pumped in is blown out. Care must be taken to maintain the necessary pressure by keeping sufficient steam on the coil to accomplish this. When this is done, the force-pump is again started and a quantity of warm water is pumped in ; the blow-off pipe is again disconnected, and the digester is allowed to make a few revolutions. It is then stopped with the manheads at the top, and after the man- heads are taken out, the digester is rotated half way, and the contents of the digester are emptied into a tank located underneath. This tank is provided with a perforated false bottom of sheet-iron, the holes y 1 ^ of an inch in diameter. The liquid is allowed to drain off into a cistern, and is saved BOILING WOOD. 249 to be used for the first wash. The second course that may be pursued is to blow about one-half of the liquor out of the digester, then start the force-pump in the hot weak liquor while the blowing off goes on. As soon as a sufficient quantity is obtained for evaporation the blow-off valve is closed, but the pumping is continued until there is sufficient water in the digester to give the fibre a first wash. It is then stopped, and the digester is rotated a little and emptied. Time is saved by pursuing the second course, but there is a loss of soda, and the pulp is not so thoroughly washed as in the first instance. Dahl's Process of producing Cellulose from Wood, Straw, Esparto, or other Vegetable Matters, by boiling them under pressure in a hydrated solution containing Sulphate of Soda, Carbonate of Soda, Soda Hy- drate, and Sodium Sulphide. The process of Mr. Carl F. Dahl, of Dantzic, Germany, is applicable to the manufacture of cellulose from wood, straw, esparto, and other vegetable substances. For the purpose of dissolving the cellular substance or fibrous mass out of the bodies incrusting them the commi- nuted wood, straw, esparto, and the like are boiled under pressure in wrought-iron vessels free from lead lining, con- taining a hydrated solution in which are contained sodium salts, partly in the form of sulphate of soda, carbonate of soda, soda hydrate, and sulphide of sodium. Two hundred and twenty pounds avoirdupois of half-dried pine wood require about fifty-seven pounds of the above-named salts in solution ; straw and esparto, about twenty-two to twenty- seven pounds. Pine or fir wood requires five to ten atmos- 250 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. pheres overpressure, the strength of the sodium solution being 6° to 14° Baume, the time of the boiling varying from thirty to four hours. Esparto requires two to five atmospheres overpressure, the strength of the sodium solution being 5° to 8° Baume, and duration of boiling eight to three hours. By the boiling process the incrustations combine with the sodium solutions ; the cellular matter, it is claimed, remains uninjured of a loose consistency. After the boiling is completed, the brownish-black lye is blown off into iron basins for the purpose of afterward recovering the sodium salts. The remaining cell matter is washed with warm water in the boiler or other suitable receptacle, and is then manufactured into paper-pulp, in the well-known way. by means of a Hollander or pulp-engine, and bleached with a solution of chloride of lime. The color of the unbleached mass is yellowish-gray; that of the bleached mass pure white or slightly yellowish, according to the degree of bleaching. Sulphate of soda serves for the production of the sodium solution. The sulphate dissolved in water is boiled with about twenty to thirty per cent, of burnt lime. The lye thus prepared is already serviceable for boiling ; but it receives its proper composition by the addition of the salts regained from the sulphate solution after the boiling process. The lye, after being used, is forced into an evaporating-oven for the purpose of regaining the salts, is strongly calcined, and after thus being deprived of gas is drawn from the oven as a cake-like mass, washed, and the resulting solution used for the preparation of fresh lye. BOILING WOOD. 251 For obtaining pure salts without the admixture of carbon, the thickened lye is drawn from the evaporating-oven and is fused in a calcining-oven at a dark-red heat. The fused mass, after cooling, assumes a reddish-brown color, is readily soluble in water, and has approximately the following com- position : sixteen per cent, sulphate of soda, fifty per cent, carbonate of soda, twenty per cent, sodium sulphide, four per cent, diverse non-essential matters. This composition is very variable, according to the properties of the boiled matter, but without influencing the dissolving power of the solution afterward prepared therefrom. The salt which is regained should be dissolved as soon as possible, or guarded against the influence of atmospheric air. By the process of boiling and regaining, about ten to fifteen per cent, of the salts in the solution is lost. In general practice the losses are replaced in the preparation of the lye by sulphate of soda. For the solution are taken eighty-five per cent, of regained salt and fifteen per cent, of sulphate, which mix- ture, boiled with twenty to twenty-three per cent, of burnt lime, yields the proper lye. With ten per cent, of loss a clear watery solution is taken for the lye, in which are con- tained one hundred and ninety-eight pounds of regained salt. Twenty-two pounds of sulphate are added, and the solution, in which are contained two hundred and twenty pounds of salts in the already-named proportion, is boiled with forty-four pounds of burnt lime. If the loss amounts to fifteen per cent., then thirty-three pounds of sulphate and one hundred and eighty-seven pounds of regained salt are taken, the whole being boiled with fifty pounds of lime. In 252 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the case of twenty per cent, loss, one hundred and seventy-six pounds of regained salt and forty- four pounds of sulphate are taken for the solution, and are boiled together with fifty-two pounds of lime. If twenty-five per cent, of sulphate is to be added, one hundred and sixty-five pounds of regained salts, fifty-five pounds of sulphate, and sixty-one pounds of burnt lime are taken for the solution. In regular operation the utmost limit of sulphate addi- tion should be thirty per cent., one hundred and fifty-four pounds of regained salts, sixty-six pounds of sulphate, and seventy pounds of burnt lime. The proportion of salts, con- tained in the boiling solution is, on an average, thirty-seven per cent, sulphate of soda, eight per cent, carbonate of soda, twenty-four per cent, soda hydrate, twenty-eight per cent, sodium sulphide, three per cent, diverse combinations. This composition is very varying according to the qualities of the materials to be boiled. The transfer from the soda hydrate treatment to the de- scribed treatment with sulphate is accomplished in the pre- paration of the lye by replacing the loss of soda hydrate by the sulphate, instead of by soda, and then, with the disap- pearance of the hydrate, gradually reducing the addition of lime during the boiling of the solution from forty-five per cent, to about from twenty to twenty-three per cent. Defects of Boilers for Digesting Wood by the Soda Process. The manufacture of wood-pulp by the chemical process has, from its invention down to the present time, been at- tended by very disagreeable and expensive features. It is a BOILING WOOD. 253 well-known fact that all wood-pulp digesters, of whatever description, leak more or less when a certain pressure has been attained. Generally, when the steam pressure has reached sixty pounds per square inch, the digester begins to leak. Then as the pressure is increased to one hundred or more pounds the leakage is increased. It frequently happens that as much as one-fourth or one-third of all the boiling liquors in the digester are lost in this manner, and necessitates charging the digester with an excess of alka- line liquor. The leakage is forced out through the riveted seams of the digester in the form of a fine spray and charges the surrounding atmosphere with an exceedingly offensive and suffocating vapor, which is unhealthy and in- jurious to the men working in the vicinity, who are obliged to inhale some portions of it. It frequently happens that the leakage is so great as to prevent the disintegration of the wood, thereby causing the . total loss of the charge. Various methods of riveting digesters have been adopted. Plates have been planed to a true surface at the laps of the seams. Rivets have been even screwed in through the laps and headed cold. Digesters have been made of steel in order to have a close-grained surface at the seams. But none of these various methods have proved successful in pre- venting the leakage ; and it is a well-known fact that wood digesters can be operated but a few weeks without recalking and replacing rivets, and the utmost care and skill of .the boiler-maker have failed to produce digesters that will not leak at or through the seams. The filling and discharging of the 254 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. digester two or three times daily, thus exposing it to tem- peratures varying from 150° to 320° F., produces expansion and contraction sufficient to cause the iron or steel plates to "creep" at the seams, and thus wear away the calking. "When the pressure in the digester has reached a certain point, it opens the seams sufficiently to allow the escape of the very volatile liquor composed of the caustic alkali and other pro- ducts generated in the process of the disintegration of the wood. Even in the pulping of wood plain, without chemicals, the escape of the pinic, pyroligneous, and other acids is annoy- ing and injurious. By the invention shown in Fig. 92, Mr. George E. Marshall, of Turner's Falls, Mass., claims to have overcome all these difficulties, and he states that he has con- structed and successfully operated for months wood digesters that are perfectly tight, not leaking at all, and, therefore, he claims the honor of having changed the manufacture of chemical wood pulp from the most disagreeable, offensive, and wasteful process known in the whole art of paper-making to a pleasant, safe, and economical system, always producing sure results, and worked with more ease and comfort than the ordinary process of boiling rag stock. MarsliaTTs Boiler for Digesting Wood by the Soda Process. Fig. 92 represents Marshall's stationary upright wood- digester with its appurtenances. A, the digester, is six feet in diameter, and sixteen feet long, made from half-inch iron or steel boiler-plates — all seams double riveted. BOILING WOOD. 255 Fisr. 92. B, the outer shell or jacket, is six feet and eight inches in diameter, and connected to the digester, A, at a distance of 256 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. from eight to twelve inches below the top. The upper end of jacket B is drawn into a diameter two inches greater than the diameter of the digester A, for the purpose of placing the digester within the jacket. A wrought-iron ring, one inch thick by four or five wide, and made in sections, fills the space between the ends of the jacket and the digester, and two rows of rivets are put through the jacket-ring and the digester. Four screws, P, one and one-eighth inch, in diameter, are put through the lower end of the jacket with a re-enforcing plate to assist in supporting the weight of the digester. The jacket B should be covered with felting, asbestos, or some other non-conducting substance, to preserve a uniformity of temperature and to prevent undue condensation in cold weather. It is also connected with the digester by suitable stay bolts to guard against the explosion of the one or the collapse of the other. The digester is provided with the usual perforated false bottom, E, extending across at a height from ten to twelve inches from the bottom of the digester. C is a gate operated by a rod passing up through the digester, with a hand-wheel and screw at the top, shutting over the end of the blow-off pipe D, and is used to prevent the wood from entering the pipe leading to the blow-off valve at D while the wood is being treated. The blow-off valve at D is used to discharge the contents of the digester, and is connected to a heavy eight-inch wrought-iron pipe passing through a stuffing-box in the jacket B, and screwed into a BOILING WOOD. 257 heavy wrought-iron ring riveted inside of the digester, as shown in the drawing. G is a two-inch iron pipe connecting the top and bottom of the digester, and is used while the steam-pressure is being raised to conduct the liquor from the bottom to the top of the digester for the purpose of removing any pulp that may have passed through the perforated false bottom, it being important to keep the space under the false bottom clear of fibre. The pressure is greater at the bottom of the digester than at the top until the full pressure required is attained. The opening of the valve in the pipe G will cause the liquor to circulate from the bottom to the top of the digester, carrying with it any fibre remaining in the liquor. This pipe may also be used to circulate the hot liquor from the bottom to the top of the digester while the pressure is being raised. F is a two-inch pipe extending upward from near the top of the jacket, having an arm extending across and down into' the top of the digester, and contains a pressure-valve, P, for the purpose of regulating the steam-pressure in the space between the jacket and the digester, and for relieving the pressure on the outside of the digester when its contents are being discharged through the blow-off valve D, insuring the digester from the danger of collapsing from outside strain by pressure in the jacket. This pressure- valve P is controlled by weights, which can be regulated according to the indi- cations of the steam-gauges K If, one of which connects with the jacket and the other with the disgester. The steam for treating the stock in the digester is admitted 17 258 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. through a pipe, H, directly to the alkaline liquor, all attempts to treat the stock by the heat of the steam within the jacket proving insufficient, it not penetrating to the centre of the digester, and leaving a core of " uncooked" wood in the middle. /is an inch-and-a-half pipe for conveying steam into the space between the jacket and the digester, for the purpose of maintaining a pressure equal to or greater than the pres- sure within the digester, thus balancing the pressure inside the digester with an outside pressure, and thereby preventing leakage of liquor through the seams of the digester. L is a safety-valve. M is a manhole. iVis a check-valve. is a hot-water pipe to be turned into the manhole for washing out the digester with the hot water obtained by the condensation of the steam in the jacket, which is a great convenience over the former way of washing the digester with cold water. Soda Recovery. Fig. 93 shows' a sectional elevation and plan of a Porrion oven, the various parts being indicated by the following letters: D, grate. (7, oven where the incineration takes place. IT, conduit which brings the hot air from the furnace. A, evaporator with its paddles. B, large flue. The liquor is conveyed to the Porrion evaporating and incinerating oven, which differs from an ordinary reverberatory SODA RECOVERY. 259 oven in its being provided with paddle-agitators which pro- ject the liquid, making it come down in sprays; this increases the surfaces coming in contact with the hot air and the smoke current traversing the oven. The expense of fuel is greatly reduced by this method. Fiji. 93. The residue is in combustion when it comes from the oven ; and is disposed in a pile so that it may burn slowly. The combustion terminated, the carbonates are rendered caustic like those for the trade ; they contain at an average 42 per cent, of anhydrous soda. Two-thirds of the soda used are thus recovered, the lost third being mostly retained by the lime, notwithstanding whatever care might be taken in the washing. 260 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The economical regeneration of the carbonate of sodium by means of the evaporation and the incineration of the black liqnors produced by the soda treatment of straw, wood, etc., have been a progress of the highest importance in these industries. Acid or Bisulphite Processes of Treating Wood. Graham's Method of treating Wood and other Fibrous Substances for the production of Fibre, for Paper-making, etc., by the Injection of Sul- phurous Acid, either alone or in combination with Potash, Soda, Mag- nesia, Lime, or other suitable Base in the form, of a Solution contain- ing an excess of Acid, into a closed or open Vessel or Digester during the operation of Boiling. The process of Mr. James A. Graham, of London, Eng- land, which we will now describe, relates to the treatment of wood and such other fibrous substances as are capable of producing fibres suitable for paper-making, and other pur- poses when boiled or steeped in a solution of sulphurous acid, or a sulphite or bisulphite of soda, potash, magnesia, lime, or other suitable base and water. The operation is preferably conducted in a closed boiler .protected by a lead lining or otherwise from the action of the chemicals used, and fitted with .a valve which can be opened, so as to allow the gases and volatile hydrocarbons contained naturally within and around the fibres (either in chemical combination or mechanical adhesion therewith) to escape. We will first explain the manner of carrying out Graham's invention in a closed boiler. In carrying out the process there is a constant loss of sul- phurous acid gas going on, and consequently a continual ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 261 weakening of the solution employed, in order to avoid which it is preferable to employ the monosulphite of potash, soda, magnesia, lime, or other suitable base and water. Either of these substances., or a suitable combination of them, and water are placed in the boiler with the fibrous substances to be treated, and the temperature raised to or above boiling- point. After the hydrocarbons, air, and gases natural to the fibrous substances have been driven out by the heat and allowed to escape there is pumped or injected into the vessel or boiler sulphurous acid, either in its gaseous or liquid state, or in combination with potash, soda, magnesia, lime, or other suitable base and water, or a solution of sulphurous acid. There is thus forming in the closed boiler a solution contain- ing an excess of sulphurous acid above that required to form, in combination with the base, a monosulphite. The opera- tion of injecting sulphurous acid or its combinations with potash, soda, magnesia, lime, or other suitable base, as above described, may be repeated from time to time during the boiling, so as fully to maintain, and, if necessary, increase, the strength and efficiency of the chemical solution employed. According to this mode of treatment a saving of the chemi- cal employed is claimed to be effected, as little or no sulphur- ous acid gas is lost during the time the gaseous hydrocarbons, air, and other gaseous or volatile matters are being driven out of the fibrous materials. It will be readily understood that in the case where there is employed an open vessel or boiler the operation will natur- ally be carried on at the temperature of the boiling-point of the solution employed; but the mode of keeping such solu- 262 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. tion at a fairly uniform strength, or, if necessary, increas- ing its strength, will be substantially the same as that above described when using a closed vessel or boiler, in which latter case the operation may be carried on either at or above the boiling-point of the solution. When using an open boiler, it is evident that the excess of sulphurous acid supplied during the boiling will be constantly given off' in a gaseous state from the surface of the liquid, and must consequently be replaced by further injections, while the acid given off can be led away and condensed, so as to en- able it to be again used, if desired. In cases where the vege- table substances are boiled with water alone, or in conjunc- tion with potash, soda, magnesia, lime, or other suitable base in the form of an oxide or an acid sulphite, the injection of sulphurous acid or its combinations with potash, soda, mag- nesia, lime, or other suitable base during the boiling will be equally beneficial. The inventor prefers to inject the sulphurous acid, or its combinations, as above described, into the vessel or boiler at the bottom, and to cause it to come in contact with the solution therein, before reach- ing the fibrous material. For this purpose there is formed a kind of chamber beneath the boiler, and separated there- from by a perforated disk or diaphragm of lead or other suitable material capable of resisting the action of the solu- tion, so as to allow the latter to fill the chamber. To this chamber a pipe is connected, through which the sulphurous acid, or a combination of it with a suitable base, as described, is forced or injected by any suitable apparatus. It will, of course, be necessary to coat with lead the inte- ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 263 rior of the vessel or boiler and the parts with which the sulphurous acid or its combinations described come in con- tact. Mitscherlich's Processes of Preparing Cellulose from Wood. In the process patented September 5, 1882, by Dr. A. Mitscherlich, of Miinden, Germany, cellulose is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of tannic acid. In carrying out this invention the wood is freed of bark and cut into pieces of convenient size for handling without, removing the knots and small limbs. These pieces of wood are placed in a. boiler which has an interior lining of .lead, and which is provided with heating-tubes and with other accessories required for the induction and eduction of steam, etc. As soon as the boiler is charged Avith wood the di^es- ter is hermetically closed and the wood treated with steam and then with the aqueous solution of bisulphite of lime, according to the size of the wood, at a temperature of 226° F., for a certain length of time, preferably for somewhat more than eight hours. By the action of the steam ' and bisulphite - ©^ lime upon the wood all the soluble substances which surround and permeate the fibres of the wood are dis- solved, while the cellulose remains as a soft mass in the liquid. The contents of the boiler are raised to boiling- heat, which is maintained for such a length of time as the vapors which are conducted off to the tower or shaft em- ployed continue to have a strong smell of sulphurous acid. Instead of conducting the vapors into the tower or shaft, they may also be conveyed to a tank containing slaked 264 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. lime (milk of lime). A concentrated solution of bisulphite of lime is obtained in the tank, which is extensively used in the trades for preventing the formation of acetic acid in solu- tions while in the process of fermentation. If in place of the slaked lime, carbonate of soda or other salts are placed in the tank, the different sulphites can thus be readily pro- duced. The solution remaining in the boiler is then run off and separated from the cellulose. It contains, besides salts of lime (sulphate of lime, etc.), essentially tannic acid, also adhesive substances, acetic acid, and a small quantity of sulphurous acid, which latter is retained in the solution. The solution can be utilized, first, as a new tanning mate- rial ; secondly, for the manufacture of adhesive substances ; and, thirdly, for the manufacture of vinegar. The insoluble residue in the boiler consists of cellulose with the knotty parts of the wood, which knots are not changed by the boiling process while in the boiler, owing to their greater consistency. The fibres, knots, together with particles of bark, are finally removed from the boiler. The white or nearly white cellulose is obtained by the above process in considerably larger quantity than was sup- posed to be obtainable from the wood. For instance, from air-dried spruce it is claimed that over sixty-six per cent, of dry cellulose can be obtained. This cellulose may be utilized, either directly or by bleaching with chloride of lime, in the manufacture of paper, and in case of longer fibres, even in the manufacture of textile fabrics. Dr. Mitscherlich's invention, patented May 4, 1883, has reference to certain improvements in the apparatus for and the method of making cellulose, whereby it is claimed a perfectly ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 265 white and tough cellulose is ohtained at a considerably re- duced cost, to be used as a substitute for the best rags, in the manufacture of paper. The invention consists, first, of certain improvements in the apparatus for boiling the wood with the sulphurous-acid solution, and, secondly, of a method of treating the wood stock by first steaming the stock, so as to expel the air from the pores, then boiling it with the sulphurous-acid solution, first at a temperature of about 226° F., which is gradually raised to about 244° F., and finally lowered until the sul- phurous acid is entirely driven off. Fig. 94. Fis. 95. Fig. 94 represents a vertical central section of a part of a boiler for the wood stock and the sulphurous-acid solution. Fig. 95 is a detailed vertical transverse section, showing the 266 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. connection of the steam-heating pipes with the wall of the boiler. Fig. 96 is a vertical longitudinal section of a device for testing the contents and indicating the temperature ; and Figs. 97 and 98 are respectively vertical and transverse sections of a stamp for disintegrating the boiled wood stock. Fi G. Archibold. 10,328 May 22, 1883. ) 280,171 June 26, 1883. J. A. Graham. 284,319 May 4, 1883. A. Mitscherlich. 295,865 March 25, 1884. D. O. Franche. 296,935 April 5, 1884. C. F. Dahl. 306,476 Oct. 14, 1884. F Fremerey. 307,972 Nov. 11, 1884. D. Minthorn. 310,753 Jan. 13, 1885. G. B. Walker. !15 I Oct. 27, 1885. E. B. Ritter and C. Kellner. >16 J 329,21 329,21 331,323 Dec. 1, 1885. R. P. Pictet and G. L. Brelaz. List of Patents for Digesters with Lead Linings to be used in the Preparation of Cellulose, issued by the Government of the United States of America, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. No. Date. Inventor. 238,227 March 1, 1881. H. H. Furbish. 259,206 June 6, 1882. A. H. Pond. 265,649 Oct. 10, 1882. G. F. Wilson. 284,319 Sept. 4, 1883. A. Mitscherlich. 298,602 May 13, 1884. J. S. McDougal, 300,778 June 24, 1884. J. A. Hitter. 304,092 Aug. 26, 1884. L>. O. Francke. 304,674} 304,675 I Sept. 2, 1884. J. A. Southmay 305,740 Sept. 30, 1884. E. H. Clapp. 307,587 Nov. 4, 1884. G. R. Philippe. 296 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. Inventor. 307,608) 307,609 J 312,485 Nov. 4, 1884. Feb. 17, 1885. C. J. L. Wheelwright et ah Makin. 312,875 Feb. 24, 1885. J. F. Marshall. 314,643 March 31, 1885. T. Alcheson. 328,812 329,214 Oct. 20, 1885. Oct. 27, 1885. }«. B. Putter and C. Kell List of all Patents for Digesters for Paper Pulp, issued by the Govern- ment of the United States of America, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. No. Date. Inventor. 1,753 Sept. 2, 1840. } Reissue [G. Spafford. 171 June 11, 1850. ] 4,093 June 25, 1845. R. Deerino-, Sr. 6,980 Dec. 25, 1849. L. W. Wright. 7,497 July 9, 1850. H. Pohls. 9,910 Aug. 2, 1853. ] Reissue > J. T. Coupier and M. A. C. M 1,295 March 25, 1862. ] 11,981 Nov.' 21, 1854. W. Watt. 17,387 May 26, 1857. M. A. C. Mellier. 20,294 May 18, 1858. M. Nixon. 21,077 Aug. 3, 1858. A. S. Lyman. 24,484 June 21, 1859. 1 Reissues 996 ) 997 i July 3, 1860. [ J. B. Palser and G. Howland. 1,590 Dec. 15, 1863. 2.730 1 2.731 i Aug. 15, 1867. 1 24,819 July 19, 1859. A. S. Pitkin. 25,418 Sept. 13, 1859. M. L. Keen. 26,199 Nov. 22, 1859. M. Nixon. 27,564 March 20, 1860. G. Howland and J. I). Palser. 28,062 May 1, I860. C. S. Buchanan. 37,846 March 10, 1863. S. M. Allen. 38,901 June 16, 1863. M. L. Keen. 40,659 Nov. 17, 1863. J. B. Fuller. 40,696 Nov. 24, 1863. A. S. Lyman. 41,812 March 1, 1864. J. B. Fuller. 42,319 April 12, 1864. J. Stover. 43,015 Jan. 7, 1864. J. B. Fuller and J. P. Upham ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 297 No. Date. 43,073 Jan. 7, 1864. Sept. 13, 1864. Jan. 3, 1865. Jan. 10, 1865. April 11, 1865. May 2, 1865. Sept. 26, 1865. Oct. 3, 1865. Nov. 7, 1865. Dec. 12, 1865. 44 45 45 47 47 50 50 50 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 52 52 52 52 52 54 54 54 54 55 55 55 Re 2 55 56 57 61 63 71 73 80 84 90 94 209 791 849 217 539 108 266 835 430 1 431 432 433 j 570 571 704 705 706 813 543 544 694 941 994 308 309 510 932 031 253 418 ssue 383 835 832 947 848 044 728 138 737 850 566 228 Dec. 19, 1865. Dec. 26, 1865. Jan. 2, 1866. Feb. 13, 1866. Feb. 20, 1866. Feb. 27, 1866. March 6, 1866. May 1, 1866. ' May 8, 1866. May 22, 1866. May 22, 1866. June 5, 1866. June 5, 1866. June 23, 1866. June 26, 1866. July 31, 1866. Sept. 11, 1866. Feb. 5, 1867. March 19, 1867. Dec. 3, 1867. Jan. 7, 1868. Aug. 4, 1868. Dec. 8, 1868. May 25, 1869. Aug. 31, 1869. Inventor. J. B. Fuller. H. B. Meech. W. Deltour. H. B. Meech. T. A. Nixon. J. B. Fuller and J. B, Upham. J. Evans. T. A. Nixon. H. B. Meech. Y J. W. Dixon. J. Eastor, Jr., and F. Thiry. A. K. Haxtun. J. W. Dixon. J. W. Dixon and G. Harding. H. B. Meech. H. Voelter. J. W. Dixon. H. L. Jones and D. S. Farquharson. J. W. Dixon. J. Tiffany. H. B. Meech. J. R. Haskell. A. Fickett. J. Tiffany. W. Holdman. Geo. L. Witsil. G. E. Marshall. 298 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. Inventor. 9G,237 Oct. 26, 1869. V. E. Keegan. 100,135 Aug. 9, 1870. L. Dean. 108,241 Get. 11, 1870. A. H. F. Deiningcr. 108,487 Oct. 18, 1870. M. L. Keen. 109,595 Nov. 29, 1870. L. Dean. 110,873 Jan. 10, 1871. ) Reissue > G. Sinclair. 4,771 Feb. 25, 1872. J 113,502 April 11, 1871. J. Denis. 114,301 May 2, 1871. M. L. Keen. 115,327 May 30, 1871. W. F. Ladd. 116,980 July 11, 1871. H. B. Meech. 117,427 July 25, 1871. M. L. Keen. 117,683 Aug. 1, 1871. W. Riddell. 119,107 Sept. 19, 1871. B. F. Barker. 119,465 Oct. 3, 1871. M. L. Keen. 123,757 Feb. 13, 1871. F. W. Zanders. 124,196 March 5, 1872. G. Demailly. 128,732 July 9, 1872. M. L. Keen. 131,794 Oct. 1, 1872. D. A. Fyfe. 137,484 April 1, 1873. L. Routledge. 140,333 June 24, 1873. W. E. Woodbridge. 141,016 July 22, 1873. L. Routledge. 143,546 Oct. 7, 1873. A. Ungerer. 148,125 March 3, 1874. H. J. Lanhouse. 151,127 May 19, 1874. J. P. Herron. 151,991 June 16, 1874. A. S. Lyman. 155,836 Oct. 13, 1874. W. F. Ladd. 166,117 July 27, 1875. H. Loring. 168,382 Oct. 5, 1875. J. W. Dixon. 196,965 Nov. 13, 1877. H. Allen and L. S. Mason 197,850 Dec. 4, 1877. W. W. Harding. 206,277 July 23, 1878. J. Thorpe. 209,179 Oct. 22, 1878. G. Miles. 212,447 Feb. 18, 1879. S. and J. Deacon. 234,144 Nov. 9, 1880. W. R. Patrick. 234,431 Nov. 16, 1880. J. Saunders. 238,227 March 1, 1881. H. H. Furbish. 240,318 April 19, 1881. M. L. Keen. 241,815 May 24, 1881. H. B. Meech. 246,083 Aug. 23, 1881. H. Coker. 258,400 May 23, 1882. H. A. Frambach. 259,206 June 6, 1882. G. H. Pond. OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 299 No. Date. Inventor. 259,658 June 20, 1882. T. Atcheson. 269,649 Oct. 10, 1882. G. T. Wilson. 276,163 April 24, 1883. J. W. Dixon. 284,319 Sept. 4, 1883. A. Mitscherlich. 286,031 Oct. 2, 1883. G. E. Marshall. 298,602 May 13, 1884. J. S. McDougall. 300,778 June 24, 1884. J. A. Hitter. 304,092 Aug. 26, 1884. D. O. Francke. 304.674 | 304.675 ) Sept. 2, 1884. J. A. Southmayd. 305,740 Sept. 30, 1884. E. H. Clapp. 307,587 Nov. 4, 1884. G. K. Phillips. 307,608 Nov. 4, 1884. C. S. Weel wright. 307,609 Nov. 4, 1884. C. S. Weelwright and G. E. Marshall 312,875 Feb. 24, 1885. J. F. Marshall. 313,011 Feb. 24, 1885. B. F. Mullin. 314,643 March 31, 1885. T. Atcheson. 328,812 329,214] 329,217) Oct. 20, 1885. Oct. 27, 1885. 1 E. B. Bitter and C. Killner. 329,949 Nov. 10, 1885. J. F. Quinn. 333, 105 Dec. 29, 1885. C. Bremaker and M. Zier, Si c Methods other than the Mechanical, Soda, and Bisul- phite Processes for the Treatment of Wood. Aussedafs Process of Treating Wood} By this process the wood is disintegrated by means of an injection of steam. The apparatus consists of a vertical boiler, tested at six atmospheres, four and one-half feet in diameter, and about ten feet high ; it is closed at its upper part by a manhole used to fill and discharge the wood; it is provided at the lower part with a perforated false bottom upon which the wood rests, so that there remains between the 1 Dictionnaire de Chemie, Wurtz, tome ii. p. 749 et seq. 300 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. false and true bottoms of the boiler a space sufficient to con- tain the condensed steam, which can be discharged by means of a cock or valve, according to the requirements of the work. Another valve is placed upon the manhole, to be used at the end of the operation to discharge the non-condensed steam. The boiler is supported upon two hollow lateral axles, resting in suitable boxes, and used for the admission of steam. The wood is piled in the boiler so as to occupy the least possible space ; the filling of the boiler being com- pleted the manhole is closed. The discharge valves being closed, the injection of steam is proceeded with. The steam must be as dry as possible, and it must be admitted gradually. This last condition is essential, if a supple and strong pulp is desired, and to prevent the wood from get- ting black. For this reason the steam-cock is only one- third opened, and it is then regulated so as to attain, after three or four hours, a temperature corresponding to five atmospheres, which temperature must be maintained for about one hour. During the operation the condensation chamber must often be emptied, as the least contact of the wood with this water would blacken the wood; furthermore, the rush of steam which takes place at the moment of the opening of the dis- charge valve facilitates the disintegration, in removing, either by dissolution or by displacement, all the gummy and resinous matters which fill the cells of the wood. These condensed liquids are heavily colored during the first part of the operation. It is advisable to open for a few minutes the OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 301 valve placed on the manhole, so as to insure a convenient distribution of the heat ; the air thus being evacuated a free circulation of steam is insured. The time required for the injection varies according to the wood to be treated ; it takes three hours for white woods, poplar, aspen, birch, etc., and five hours for hard and resi- nous woods. The steam valve being closed, the two valves on the boiler are opened in order to completely discharge the steam and not to allow it to settle upon the wood. Every- thing being cooled the discharging of the wood is proceeded with. The wood is then of a reddish color, more or less dark, according to the nature of the wood treated and to the pres- sure of the steam injected. The higher the pressure used, the darker will be the wood. A much clearer shade in the wood is obtained if a pres- sure of three atmospheres is not exceeded and the duration of the injection prolonged ; but the disintegration of the wood is not so complete and the subsequent operations for the trituration will be rendered longer and more difficult. When, for the injection, steam is introduced in a boiler the pressure of which is already at five atmospheres, great precautions must be taken to prevent the too prompt heating of the wood. The admission valve must be operated with intelligence. It is best to make steam in proportion to the consumption and to start the fire under the steam generator when the filling of the boiler is commenced; the greatest 302 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. drawback to be feared in the management of the operation is thus avoided. The wood is charged into the boiler for injection in any shape, with or without the bark, without it being necessary to remove the knots or the rotten parts ; the bark is suffi- ciently softened by the injection, while the knots, etc., are re- moved by the condensing water. Still, it is better to remove the bark than to allow it to remain, but, then, its removal is done so much more easily after the injection than before. The wood is generally used in the shape of logs three feet, of any diameter ; chips, shavings, wastes from saw- mills, packing-shops, floor-joiners, etc., can all be utilized. The trituration succeeding the disintegration is subdivided into two parts : the crushing and the refining. The wood, which has been injected in the shape of logs, is cross cut in sections § of an inch thick by means of a cir- cular saw. The sawdust produced by this operation is very fibrous : it may be worked into pulp, but as its refining takes a long time it is generally burned. The production of this sawdust may be avoided by sub- mitting the log at its end to the action of a chipper of the style used to crush resinous barks or tincture woods ; but its reduction in disks gives a more uniform pulp, while the pro- ducts obtained through the use of a chipper are very uneven. Furthermore, we may, with the disk, and when the disinte- gration has been well performed, obtain long or short fibres by varying the thickness of this disk, which is of great ad T vantage, considering the commercial value of the product. The disks are crushed by means of the crushing-machine OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 303 invented and patented in France by Mr. I wan Koechlin and operated for the first time at the Isle Saint Martin. This apparatus is essentially composed of a vertical shaft upon which a burr-pestle of a special pattern is mounted, which drags, breaks, and crushes the wood against the sides of a fixed envelope or shell, the interior of which represents, in inverse sense, the relief of the burr-pestle. It is, in one word, a kind of coffee-mill. One of these crushers, requir- ing three horse-power, will prepare about 75 lbs. of wood per hour. According to the opinion of manufacturers who have these machines in use, they answer the purpose very successfully. Mr. Roger, machinist at Epinal, France, built them. The crushed wood is mixed with water in sufficient quan- tity, in the agitating boxes, before its passage through the mill. The mills used and patented in France by Mr. Aussedat, are provided with conical millstones. The opening in the lower millstone is more inclined towards the horizontal line, in order to give passage to the material. Burr-stones give excellent results, but they should be of one piece, as the water rapidly disintegrates the plaster which is commonly used to bind the fragments together ; when whole stones cannot be had, the fragments should be united with cement. Granite-stones yield less product, and furthermore, they wear off rapidly and require frequent dressing. These pulps are especially used for fine card-board and wall papers. The cream tint of the prepared wood presents to the eye a very agreeable ground, much appreciated by the 304 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. wall-paper manufacturers, as the colors show upon this ground in fresher and sharper lines than upon any other paper. Still, it is possible, that some economical method may be found to bleach the product of the Aussedat process. The problem does not offer as many difficulties as the bleaching of the Voelter pulp, as the larger part of the sap and the rosin have been displaced by the dissolving action of the steam. It results from experiments made at the Onnonay labora- tory, and which Mr. Bourdillat has kindly communicated, that the manipulation by steam causes a mechanical and a chemical action ; it traverses the cellular tissue of the wood, dissolving and expelling the larger portion of the gummy and resinous substances which fill the cell. Furthermore, the heat disengages a certain quantity of acetic acid, the action of which adds to that of the steam, acting especially upon the incrustating matter. The following experiments have been made to bleach the more or less deep reddish pulp : — 1. The use of hydrochloric or azotic acids in the boiling removes from the pulp a large portion of the incrustating matter : thus treated, the pulp presents a clearer tint after washing, but it is susceptible to the action of hypochlorites only when operated upon in highly concentrated baths and under the influence of heat. The hypochlorite baths used must be at least of 400 chlorometric degrees. (French.) 2. The fermentation, produced by the addition of a certain quantity of beer yeast to the pulp, previously slightly acidu- lated by sulphuric acid, produces a clear enough pulp, if the OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 305 fermentation lasts only a few days ; the pulp will be gray if this action is unduly prolonged. In the first form the pulp is not sensibly susceptible to the hypochlorites, while in the latter the bleaching is effected tolerably with 400° (French) baths. The large waste resulting from this method, and the considerable time needed to complete the action of the fer- mentation, make this process impracticable. The caustic alkalies have not given good results, the color- ing matter becomes of a darker hue, and resists more ener- getically the action of the hypochlorites than when the pulp has been previously treated. Bacliet-Machard Process of Disintegrating Wood} Messrs. Iwan Koechlin & Co. have carried on the Bachet- Machard patent at the Isle Saint Martin, near Chatel (Vosges), France, and it has also been experimented with on a large scale at Bex and at Saint Tryphon, Switzerland. At the start, the inventors had in view the saccharification of wood, the paper-pulp being intended to be only a secondary pro- duct of the manufacture of alcohol, but in practice the inverse result has been obtained ; the paper-pulp becoming the prin- cipal product and alcohol the secondary one. The wood, previously sawed in thin disks, was thrown in tubs, the filling of which was then completed with water and sulphuric acid ; the latter in the proportion of one-tenth. Each tub would contain 188 cubic feet; 18 hours' boiling- was needed ; the disks were then washed as well as possible 1 Dictionnaire de Chemie. Wurtz, tome ii. p. 749 et seq. 20 306 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. in order to eliminate the acid, then passed through the crushers and the mills. Each 31|- cubic feet produced about 330 lbs. of dry pulp; 65 lbs. of acid and 136 lbs. of coal were used for the production of 220 lbs. of pulp. Calculating the value of the wood at 3j\ cents per cubic foot, the cost of production of 220 lbs. of pulp would be $1.95. With the Bachet-Machard method a brown pulp is ob- tained, producing a good brown folding paper costing about 90 cents per 100 lbs. dry pulp. This brown pulp is easily transformed, by a half bleaching, into a blond pulp costing about $2 per 100 lbs., and which can be utilized, with or without mixing, for the manufacture of wrapping-paper and of all the colored papers. Up to this time a method for economically transforming this blond pulp into white pulp has not been found. The inventors think that the tenth of acid, which they cause to react at 212° F. upon the wood, saccharifies the ligneous, or rather the incrustating substance, without touch- ing the cellulose fibres. Thus the cellulose becomes easily separated into fibres by mechanical means. It is prob- able that the acids modify the incrustating substance and ren- der it friable, and that at the same time certain principles of the wood are converted into glucose. The process is the same as with straw and esparto, when alkaline washes are used, but it requires more energetic boiling ; the proportion of alkali is doubled and the boiling done at a pressure of 165 lbs. A little more chlorine is also required for the bleaching. OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 307 The yield of esparto is . 48 per cent (< rye-straw . 42 " <( wheat-straw 40 " a oats-straw . 3G " a barley-straw 32 " a buckwheat-straw 26 " a pine-wood (the most used) 30 " As per quality, the succedaneous pulps may be classified. in the following order: — 1, Esparto-pulp; 2, wood-pulp; 3, rye-pulp; 4, wheat- straw-pulp; 5, oats-straw-pulp ; 6, barley-straw-pulp ; 7, buck- wheat-straw-pulp. Treating Wood with Aqua Regia. A. Poncharac, near Grenoble, uses aqua regia (nitro- hydrochloric acid), cold, for disintegrating the wood ; 94 parts of ordinary ^hydrochloric acid and 6 parts of azotic acid are employed in earthen vessels of a capacity of 175 gallons. It is allowed to soak from 6 to 12 hours. 132 pounds of aqua regia are required for 220 pounds of wood. It is a dangerous process. When it is desired to operate with hot liquids, 6 parts of hydrochloric acid, 4 parts of azotic acid, and 240 parts of water are used, in granite tubs, provided with a double bottom; it is then heated by the admission of steam during 12 hours, then washed and crushed. Treating Wood ivith Ammonia, etc. It has also been proposed to boil the wood in ammonia, in a closed vessel, heating by steam by means of a worm. 900 gallons of ordinary ammonia are used to disintegrate 308 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 3300 pounds of wood. 65 to 75 pounds of caustic soda are added, and the operation is followed by bleaching. There has been mentioned a process patented in France by Mr. Tessie du Motay. The wood is treated under pres- sure with alkaline liquids, then bleached by means of man- ganate of sodium. The incrustating substances dissolved in the lye may be separated from it by a stream of carbonic acid; the alkali is thus regenerated at little cost- It has also been proposed to replace the caustic alkalies with sulphuret of sodium, which would act like them, but which would offer the advantage of an easy regeneration of the active agent, as it would be sufficient to evaporate and calcine the lyes in order to destroy the organic matters and to recover the primitive alkaline sulphuret. WASHING RAGS. 309 CHAPTER X. washing rags — washing waste paper or " imperfections" washing straw washing wood pulp washing and poaching esparto wash water list of patents for pulp-washing and straining. Washing Rags. The next process to which the material to be reduced to paper pulp is subjected is that of washing. For lower grades of paper, such as wrapping, etc., the rags (of which we shall first particularly speak) or other materials are washed and beaten into pulp in one engine; but for the production of " half-stuff" or bleached pulp separate engines are commonly employed in the United States in which to accomplish the washing and the beating. The rag engine is commonly known as "The Hollander," from the fact that it was invented in Holland about the middle of the eighteenth century. Prior to the invention of the rag-engine, rags were reduced to pulp by stamps or beaters acting in mortars, the contrivance being not unlike the stamping mills used for reducing ores to powder ; but as it would require about five thousand of these stamps to supply a modern Fourdrinier machine of average width and speed, it will readily be seen that the enormous modern development of the paper-making industry is largely owing 310 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. to the Dutch invention which made it possible to use the paper machine invented by the French workman Robert, who was employed in the paper-mill at Essone in 1798, and which machine is now commonly known as the "Fourdrinier." The machines used for washing and beating are almost similar in their construction ; in the rolls of the washing engine, however, there are usually only two bars to the bunch, while in the rolls of the beater there are usually three bars to the bunch. Fig. 109. The rag engines employed in the mills of the United States vary in size and details of construction. In Fiss. 109 to 111 the principal parts of the rag-engine are shown. Figure 109 represents a top or plan view of the engine. WASHING EAGS. 311 Figure 110 is a vertical longitudinal section of Fig. 109, through the line x x. Figure 111 is a vertical cross-section of Fig. 109, through the line y y. Fig 110. f == u c 4 A ^kj^o^^^ Fig. Ill A represents the tub, trough, tank, or vat, which may measure about 12 feet long by 6 feet wide and 2 feet deep. B is the cylinder or roll fitted with bars which revolve at a high rate of speed on the plate J", also furnished with bars ; the term " bars" being the technical name for knives. G is the back-fall ; and D the mid-fellow. As these engines were made about fifteen years ago, the back-fall C was carried up to an angle at its top by continu- ing the curve e, and then dropping back directly, as at /. From the point / the back-fall sloped down to the bottom of the tub, leaving sharp angles on each side. These sharp or right angles were continued around the mid-fellow and 312 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. around the tub, allowing the fibre of the half-ground pulp to catch and hang in the angles or corners, thereby obstruct- ing the current, while the fibre which thus caught in the corners would not receive its proper share of grinding, but being mixed with the rest of the pulp, the result was pulp of uneven fineness, which is very detrimental to good paper. To remedy these evils, the top of the back-fall was curved or rounded oft as seen at g, and the back slope curved trans- versely, as seen at A, and the corner or angle of the tub and that of the mid-fellow were rounded, as seen at i i. Figs. 112 and 113 show the washing or breaking engine more in detail, and the operation is as follows : — Fie. 112. The tub of the engine should be half filled with water, which is admitted through the valve Z>, after which the rags or other materials are taken from the trucks on which they come from the boiler and are gradually introduced into the engine. When the proper quantity of boiled rags or other material has been placed in the engine the operation of washing is commenced, and the roll B is let down just sufficiently to open up the rags and allow the dirt to escape. WASHING RAGS. 313 The rags or other material to be washed should not be introduced into the trough of the engine in such quantities Fie. us. as to be so thick that difficulty will be experienced in turning it. When the engine is started the stirring stick should be used directly above the sand-trap, and around the sides and back- fall of the engine. The object in thus using the stir- ring stick is to prevent " lodgers," or pieces of rag not reduced to half-stuff, from hanging or catching about, which pieces if not forced to travel with the current cause knots and gray specks in the finished paper. The water introduced into the trough of the engine is withdrawn by the washer E, which consists of a drum about three feet in diameter and of such width as to allow a space of about two inches on each side between it and the sides of the engine. The periphery of the washer E is covered with 314 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. fine wire-cloth, aud in the interior of the drum there are arranged buckets indicated by the dotted lines G. The washer E is partly immersed in the water and material con- tained in the trough, and as the drum revolves the buckets G lift the water into a conical pipe and discharge it through the spout H. In regard to the time which the rags or other materials are treated in the washing and breaking engine, it is of course not possible to apply any fixed rule, as the duration of the treatment varies with the capacity of the trough, the weight of the roll, the number of its revolutions per minute, the extent to which its bars and those of the bed-plate are worn, the quantity and nature of the water used in washing, the nature of the rags or other material being washed, and the skill and experience of the workman who directs the operation. The quality of the paper depends largely upon the knowl- edge possessed by the workman having charge of the wash- ing and breaking department of the mill, and an experienced man is generally known by the cleanliness of his surround- ings. When the water from the washing engine runs off clean the roll is lowered upon the bed-plate so as to disintegrate the rags or other material being operated upon, which gradu- ally lose their compact or textile appearance, and are con- verted into a substance greatly resembling that of a fine, long-fibred lint saturated with water, the new substance being more or less white, according to the nature of the ma- terial from which it has been produced. WASHING RAGS. 315 In mills where the number of washing and beating engines is limited it is often necessary to hasten the process of reduc- ing the rags to half-stuff, but such haste must necessarily be at the expense of the quality of the product, and it is seldom that the work of reducing rags can be properly accomplished in less than two or three hours. It is necessary to continue the reduction of the rags for a longer time when the bleaching is to be accomplished with chlorine gas than when liquid chlorine is to be employed. The old custom of bleaching in the washing and beating engine is almost exclusively employed in the mills of the United States ; but the plan is not a good one, as a larger number of engines are required, and the metallic tubs are more or less corroded by the action of the chlorine and sul- phuric acid employed to neutralize the agent used to accom- plish the bleaching, and this is especially true of the bars of the roll and the bed-plates which are not protected by a coat- ing of paint as is the case with the interior of the trough. When the stuff is in condition for emptying into the drainers or into the bleaching cisterns, the discharge valve should be carefully drawn and deposited on the floor until the engine is empty. Before replacing the valve the workman in charge throws a few buckets of water under the cylinder in order to remove any of the half-stuff remaining adhering to the back-fall. The valve should also be carefully washed before it is replaced, as dirt and sand are always lodged in the hole on the top of the valve, and when the valve is carelessly drawn these impurities escape with the stuff. 316 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The sand-trap plate should next be lifted and all impuri- ties carefully removed, after which the plate is replaced and the engine is ready for the reduction of a new lot. If the paper is to possess the requisite strength care must be observed not to reduce the rags to half-stuff too quickly, as in such case the washing will not be properly done and the material will be weakened ; but if attention and time are given for properly drawing the stuff into fibre there results no injury to its texture, and a stronger and better paper can be produced. It is desirable to keep a register of the daily operations in the engine-room, in which the time of commencing and completing each operation may be recorded, and for night- work, when the superintendence is less regular than during the day, such a record is especially desirable. The average waste resulting from washing, boiling, and reduction of the rags to half-stuff can be only approximated ; Prouteaux gives the following figures, which are probably from 10 to 15 per cent, too high: — Whites, fine, half-fine . . . . 7 to 10 per cent. " coarse . . . . . . . 9 to 13 " Cottons, white 7 to 9 " " colored 8 to 14 " Thirds and pack-cloths . . . . . 18 to 26 " Ropes 20 to 25 " " tarred and containing much straw . 20 to 35 " The pipe which supplies the water to the washing or breaking engine varies in size from 3 to 6 inches in diameter, the diameter depending upon the pressure of the water, the size of the engine, and the capacity of the washers, and, as WASHING WASTE PAPER OR IMPERFECTIONS. 317 it is necessary to mix the water with the pulp as quickly as the action of the cylinder will allow, the water is admitted at the end where the rags ascend. • There are two systems in use in regard to the manner of admitting the water to the tub of the engine ; one method being to allow the water to flow in from the top, and the other plan being to let it in at the lower part of the tub. When the supply of water is introduced from the top the flow can always be observed, and flannel bags or other additional filtering arrangements can be more conveniently attached to the mouth of the supply pipe. But if the water is naturally very pure or has been care- fully filtered, its admission from the bottom of the tub fur- nishes an easy mechanical means for keeping up the stir- ring of the contents of the tub, removing "lodgers," and forcing the dirty water to the top, where it is removed by the washers. Washing Waste Paper or "Imperfections." Scrap-paper, be it newspaper, letter-paper, or book-paper, when used as a stock from which to make paper, is by the paper-maker termed " imperfections." The boiled papers are conveyed on trucks from the open boilers, from which they are lifted on the false bottom and are supplied to the washing engine, which should be pro- vided with blunt bars, and abundantly supplied with clear wash water. When the tub of the engine has been properly supplied 318 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. with the desired quantity of imperfections the cylinder is raised and the washers made to revolve until the water runs off clear, when the cylinder is lowered and the papers brushed out. When the imperfections are boiled, rags and threads always make their appearance in the stock, no matter how carefully the papers have been sorted. Sometimes papers are pasted on one or both sides of a body of cloth, which does not make its appearance until the paper has been separated from it, either by the action of the water when heated in the boiler, or by the brushing in the engine, and small threads are often overlooked on account of their fine- ness. A rack, constructed similar to those used for water-wheels, and placed across the tub of the engine, between the mid- fellow and front side, where the pulp begins to ascend the cylinder, has been recommended for catching the rags and strings. The upright teeth which form the rack are fastened in a frame of hard wood which hangs in boxes on the mid-fellow and front side of the engine. The lower part of the frame rests on the floor of the engine. The teeth should be sufficiently strong to resist the pres- sure of the pulp, and are arranged about 2| inches apart, and should be about § of an inch thick at the back end. It is desirable to have the edges of the teeth which come in contact with the pulp either sharp or pointed, as the strings then catch on easier. Metal teeth, which become WASHING WASTE PAPER OR IMPERFECTIONS. 319 polished and allow the strings to slip off, are not as good as wooden ones. When it is not desired to nse the rack it is raised and held above the tub by placing under the rack a stick or paddle, one end of which rests on the mid-fellow and the other end on the front side of the tub. But when the imperfections have been sufficiently reduced to pass through the rack, the stick or paddle is removed and the rack lowered into working position, and it must be frequently raised to remove the rags and strings from the teeth. The pulp, after being properly reduced, can be bleached in the engine in the same way as rags, or by such other methods as may be desirable. Low-priced paper is produced from one class of imperfec- tions, and the entire operation can be finished in one engine ; but if it is desired to produce a paper of the best quality from different classes of waste papers by mixing the various pulps, it is much better to empty the bleached pulp into drainers. When it is possible to obtain fine blue letter-paper in large lots such material should not be bleached, but only washed, as its pulp furnishes a coloring material which can often be used in lieu of ultramarine. The difficulty commonly experienced in repulping paper- stock — that is, clippings and scraps of paper — arises from the breaking or shortening of the fibres, which are thus made so short that they will not unite to form a sheet of adequate strength. The paper having been previously hardened and toughened by the admixture with the pulp of size and other 320 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. substances, it is found that the necessary grinding and disin- tegrating required to pulp it break and destroy the fibre. It has been customary, therefore, to mingle with the paper- stock a quantity of rags, and to reduce the whole to pulp by grinding them together. Thus the paper-stock is employed merely as a filler, the fibre being supplied by the rags. Mr. Charles Coon, of Saugerties, N. Y., by a process in- vented by him, claims to preserve the fibre of the paper-stock in repulping it, so that the stock may be employed alone or without the admixture of rags or other fibrous material in the manufacture of paper. To this end it is necessary to re- move the sizing which firmly binds the fibres together, after which it is claimed they will readily separate without break- ing under the subsequent operation of the beater or pulper. When proceeding according to Mr. Coon's method, first place the paper-stock, which usually consists of cuttings, clippings, and waste, in an upright tank or vessel having a perforated false bottom, and add to it a solution of pearlash of about six degrees strength, in the proportion of about two gallons to six hundred pounds of the dry stock. Water, either hot or cold, may be added to the dry stock before the steam is admitted, if desired. The vessel is then covered and hot steam admitted under the false bottom of the vessel for about four hours. This treatment causes the sizing and other substances to separate from the stock and to rise to the surface of the water of condensation which will have accumu- lated in the vessel. The steam is now shut off, and water (either hot or cold) is admitted at the bottom of the vessel until the water in the latter rises, bearing the sizing, etc., WASHING WASTE PAPER OR IMPERFECTIONS. 321 on its surface, and overflows the top of the vessel or passes off at a waste outlet. This the inventor terms " floating" the size. When the surface impurities are thus removed the incoming water is cut off and the water in the vessel is allowed to drain off at the bottom. The stock thus treated is termed " water-leaf," and contains little or no sizing or other substances which would cause the fibres to adhere. In floating off the size after the steaming operation, it is preferable to admit warm or hot water at the bottom of the tank, although the hot stock may be sufficient to warm it. Care should be taken that the size be not chilled, as it will set and be difficult to remove. The next step consists in removing the water-leaf to the beater, where it is placed in water having a temperature of from 120° to 150° F., and to which has previously been added two gallons of solution of pearlash of about 6° strength, which serves to remove or destroy all the size that may remain in the stock, and leaves, the latter in condition to receive the bleach, color, etc. The temperature of the water or solution in the beater should not exceed 150° F., as a higher temperature is liable to thicken or cook the sizing materials employed in pre- paring the pulp for use. For pulping soft material 120° F. is sufficient. It is preferable to employ this temperature for rag-stock fibre, while for grass or wood fibre 140° F. is preferable. It is best to employ pearlash as the best form of potash, as caustic potash appears to weaken, rot, or burn the fibres, and they break and become too short in the operation of 21 322 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. pulping. The pearlash solution should be of sufficient strength to remove the sizing and free the fibres, and this will vary somewhat with the kind of stock employed, the softer kinds requiring a little weaker, and the harder kinds a little stronger solution than that named; but a slight experience will enable the operator to readily determine the proper strength for his purpose. When the water-leaf is placed in the beater the pulping proceeds, and while it is in progress the chlorine is added, which bleaches the mass in about fifteen minutes. The chlorine being employed while the stock is hot, the bath in the beater being kept at from 120° to 150° F., it accom- plishes its work and passes off with the steam and vapor, leaving no traces behind. Consequently it is not necessary to employ anti-chlorine to remove it, as is ordinarily done. By the ordinary method the bleaching is commonly done while the stock is in the washer and known as " half-stuff," and from the washer it is let down into the drainers, where it is allowed to remain eight or ten days. The anti- chlorine is added when this half- stuff is removed to the beater, and as cold water is usually employed in beating or pulping, the chlorine is generally only partially removed, and the paper made from the stock is apt to turn yellow with age. In the present process the hot pearlash solution acts in concert with the chlorine, so as to accelerate the bleaching of the stock or pulp and to dissipate the chlorine, as above stated. After the stock has been reduced to pulp in the beater it may be sized, colored, etc., in the usual way. WASHING STRAW. 323 Waste papers are sometimes washed in a circuit- vat furnished with a paddle-wheel and a rotary washer such as is shown in Fig. 69. '&• Washing Straw. After the straw has been boiled it is sometimes washed by emptying it from the boiler into a vat or tub of suitable capa- city, which should have a false perforated bottom. Before the straw is emptied into the vat the perforated bottom should be covered with a piece of coarse bagging or cocoa-matting, which will allow the liquid to escape. Hot water under a strong pressure should be introduced beneath the false bottom, and after the water has risen and become sufficiently mixed with the pulp the contents of the tub should be stirred with paddles and then allowed to drain ; the opera- tion being repeated until the pulp has been sufficiently washed. If possible, the straw pulp should be washed in the wash- ing engine in preference to the tubs just described ; but in some mills the tubs and washing engine are both used, the pulp being pumped from the tubs to the washing engines while it is in a fluid state, or if it is allowed to drain in the tubs the pulp is conveyed on trucks to the engine. If the straw has been properly digested the bed-plate of the washing engine should be smooth and the bars of the cylinder should be blunt, as it will not be necessary to subject the pulp to any further disintegrating action. The first washing of the pulp in the washing engine 324 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. should be done with hot water in order to thoroughly wash out any alkali so as to avoid loss of chlorine in the bleaching. After being washed the pulp is either emptied into drainers, and after being removed treated like rag pulp, or it may be emptied into a large stuff-chest provided with a suitable agitator from whence it is run over a wet machine for the purpose of removing sand, knots, and other parts of the straw which have not been thoroughly digested. The bleaching of straw pulp is usually accomplished in the washing engine in the same manner as rags. Washing Wood Pulp. Mechanically prepared wood pulp is simply added to and thoroughly incorporated with the rag pulp in the beating engine ; but as it is necessary to reduce it to the finest fibres it is subjected to the action of the cylinder for about one and one-half hour. Chemically prepared wood pulp after being emptied out of the digester into the discharge tank is allowed to drain, and the liquor is saved to be used for the first wash to which the pulp is subjected while in the digester, as has been ex- plained on page 249. When the fibre has been allowed to properly drain in the tank the drain-cock is closed and warm water is run in until the tank is full, and after it has been allowed sufficient time to penetrate the fibres the drain valve is again opened and the water drained off, and afterwards the tank is again run full of water and then drained as before. After being washed in the tank as has been described, the pulp is allowed to drain as dry as possible after the second WASHING AND POACHING ESPARTO. 325 washing and is then transferred, either by a centrifugal pump or by other suitable means, to the washing engine, which should have a smooth bed-plate and blunt bars on the cylinder. If the pulp has been properly prepared but little washing will be necessary in the engine, and any chips which are in the pulp will be readily reduced to fibre by the action of the cylinder. After the washing is completed the valve' on the water- supply pipe is closed and a sufficient quantity of water is removed by the washer to make room for the bleaching liquor, which is then introduced at a temperature of about 100° F., and the engine run until the desired color is ob- tained, after which the pulp is run into the drainers. If the pulp is to be used at the mill where the fibre is pro- duced it is desirable to run it from the washing engine into a large stuff-chest, such as has been mentioned for straw, from whence it is passed over a wet machine before bleach- ing ; but if it is intended to make the fibre into dry rolls for transportation the screening can be accomplished during the passage over the machine as it is being fabricated into rolls. Washing and " Poaching" Esparto. The washing of esparto is a simple operation if the treat- ment of the grass in the boiler has received proper attention^ The tub of the washing engine is half-filled with water, after which the grass is introduced and run for about twenty or thirty minutes. Esparto is not commonly bleached in the washing engine, 326 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. but is passed in a " poacher," which is arranged on a slightly lower level than the washer. The poacher or the " potching engine," as it is also termed, is larger than the washer, and instead of the cylinder and bars it has a hollow drum which carries on its periphery a number of cast-iron paddles which thoroughly agitate the pulp. In introducing the half-stuff from the washer to the poacher care should be exercised to keep the quantities as near uniform as possible, as irregular bleaching will result if the quantity of stuff filled into the poacher is changed and the bleach is not varied accordingly. A finer wire is used on the washer of the poacher than on that of the washing engine ; the washing in the poacher being continued until the esparto is thoroughly washed, after which the bleaching liquor is introduced in the desired quantity, the washer of the poacher being raised before the bleach is put in. After remaining in the poacher usually for about two hours the pulp is emptied into stone chests or drainers, which have each a capacity for containing two engines of the bleached stuff, where it remains usually for about eight hours. The stone chests are commonly placed in an exposed position, as it is thought that the action of light assists the bleaching. The chests are supplied with two perforated zinc drainers, one extending up the back of the chest and connecting with the second, which is placed on the bottom of the drainer. WASH WATER. 327 In some cases the washing and bleaching are done in the washing engine, in which case it is provided with two drums, the peripheries of which are covered with wires of different fineness, the coarser being used for removing the water from the washing and the finer for removing the excess of bleach, at which stage much of the pulp is so fine that it would pass through, the coarse wire-cloth of the washer. When this method is employed the pulp is run directly into the beating engine without pressing. List of American Patents for Washing Engines. The distinction between washing engines and beating engines is so slight that it would be impracticable to separate the two classes, and both varieties are con- solidated in the " List of Patents for Pulp Engines and Bed Plates" at the close of Chapter XIV. Wash Water. An abundance of pure, clear water is one of the first con- ditions in the manufacture of fine white papers ; for lower classes of papers, such as wrapping, etc., it is not a matter of such vital importance. When we consider that each one pound of rags or other material to be converted into paper will be brought in intimate association with from 100 to 200 times their own weight of water, it becomes manifest that even the smallest proportion of certain impurities which such water may con- tain will result in serious injury to the pulp. The value of the soda, bleach liquor, alum, sulphuric acid, and coloring matters neutralized by impure waters aggre- gate an important sum of money in a short time, and every 3*28 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. paper manufacturer should know the exact constituents of the water which he employs. Water is composed of the two gases, oxygen and hydro- gen, in the proportion by weight of 88.9 parts of the former and 11.1 parts of the latter, or 1 volume of oxygen to 2 volumes of hydrogen in chemical combination. The composition of water can be proved analytically as well as synthetically, a current of electricity decomposing it into its constituent gases, twice as much hydrogen as oxygen, by volume, being produced. Water, when pure, is colorless (in small quantities) and transparent, without taste or odor, and a bad conductor of heat and electricity. It is slightly elastic; under a pressure of 30,000 pounds to the square inch 14 volumes may be condensed into 13 volumes. It is 815 times heavier than atmospheric air, an imperial gallon weighing (at 62° F. and barometric pressure at 29.92 in.) 70,000 grains, or 10 pounds avoirdupois ; but being the standard to which the gravities of solids and liquids are referred, its specific weight is usually said to be 1.0. It is proper that we should give a description of the different sources from which natural waters are obtained, and also the properties of the water in each case when they are used in paper-making. We will divide the several natural waters into rain, river, and well waters, and the principal source of these is rain, snow, or hail. It is probable that rain as it leaves the clouds is almost pure, but in its passage through the air it absorbs certain gases, and carries with it small particles of organic matter WASH WATER. 329 which are floating about in the air. The substances thus dissolved by the rain in its passage to the earth, i. e., in the open country, are the gases, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid, a little carbonate of ammonia, nitric acid, this latter more especially after a thunder storm, it being formed from ammonia and water by the passage of the electric spark through the air. In or near large manufacturing towns several other substances are found in rain water, such as sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, etc., varying with the kind of manufacture carried on near the spot. Again, if rain water is collected after having fallen upon the roofs of houses it will be further contaminated by various sub- stances with which it comes in contact. Rain water from the absence of earthy salts is very soft, and on that account is preferable to hard waters. Rain, after it reaches the earth, soaks down into it, and during its passage through the various strata dissolves certain salts, etc., the quantity and quality of which vary with the nature of the strata with which it comes in contact. When this takes place on high ground the water percolates the strata, and very frequently finds an outlet at some lower point, as a spring. One or more of these springs is generally the source of commence- ment of rivers, which, as they flow on in their course, become increased in size by the various additions of water received from rain, drainage from the surface of the earth, etc. The springs above mentioned generally yield hard waters, that is, water containing earthy salts in solution, the most frequent of which are carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, sulphates of lime and magnesia, common salt, and organic 330 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. matter. These are the substances which the rain, contain- ing a considerable quantity of carbonic acid in solution, dissolves in its passage through the earth. Spring waters resemble well waters. The river water, receiving supplies from those other sources which do not contain earthy mat- ters, is, of course, softer than spring water. River water usually contains from 10 to 20 or 25 grains of solid matter per imperial gallon of 70,000 grains. The quantity, how- ever, varies with the time of the year and the dryness of the season. Carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, sul- phate of lime, chloride of sodium, and organic matter are the substances most generally found in river water, the quantities per gallon and the relative proportions of the constituents varying according to circumstances. The hard- ness of water is generally determined by a solution of soap in proof spirit, made of such a strength that every degree of hardness shall be equivalent to one grain of carbonate of lime in a gallon. This simple method is known as Dr. Clark's soap test. In water the carbonate of lime is held in solution by the presence of free carbonic acid. When the water is boiled this carbonic acid escapes, and the carbonate of lime is de- posited ; and it is this deposit which forms the principal in- crustation in steam boilers. The removal of this carbonate of lime, or the greater portion of it, of course renders the water softer than before boiling. If carbonic acid gas be passed through lime-water until the precipitate first formed is dissolved, the resulting liquid is a solution of carbonate of calcium in carbonic acid water. WASH WATER. 331 When the solution is boiled carbonic acid escapes, and the carbonate is again precipitated. Such an experiment will serve to show how chalk is kept in solution in ordinary well waters, giving the property of " hardness" and the manner in which the incrustation of boilers is formed. It may here be stated that sulphate of calcium produces similar hardness, and that these, with small quantities of the sulphate and carbonate of magnesium, con- stitute the hardening constituents of well waters. The waters from wells differ from each other much more than do river waters, from the fact of the waters passing through different strata in different spots, and having no direct addition of rain water. Determination of Constituents and Hardness of Water. We cannot enter upon a full description of the different qualitative and quantitative methods for determining the constituents of water, but will only briefly describe a few ex- aminations of importance, and refer those of our readers who may desire more minute information, concerning methods and apparatus employed, to the treatises of Wanklyn and Frankland on Water Analysis. The qualitative examination of water as to its admixtures of iron, lime, magnesia, alkalies, chlorine combinations, sul- phuric and carbonic acids, the larger or smaller quantity of which generally determines its character, can be executed in the following manner : — 1. The presence of iron can be readily discovered by the 332 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. addition of a solution of yellow prussiate of potash to the water ; the iron salts will form with it Prussian blue. 2. The chlorine combinations are shown by the f@rmation of a white precipitate when treated with nitrate of silver in nitrate solution. 1 3. Sulphuric acid and sulphates are recognized by the formation of a white precipitate with chloride of barium. 2 4. Carbonic acid is present when the addition of clear lime-water gives a white precipitate. 5. The presence of silicic acid, lime, and magnesia, by evaporating to dryness, with an addition of hydrochloric acid, in a platinum dish of a capacity of about one litre. The residue is taken up with hydrochloric acid and water, the portion remaining undissolved being silicic acid. The lime can be separated as calcium oxalate from the filtrate with ammonium oxalate. After removing the calcium oxa- late by filtration and evaporation of the filtrate, the magne- sia is precipitated with ammonium phosphate, as ammonium magnesium phosphate. 6. Organic substances are shown by adding a few drops 1 Numerous apparatus containing chemical tests for water have been contrived, and without wishing to disparage such apparatus, it is probably best to state that without a knowledge of chemistry those who use them will be worse off with than without them. For instance, nitrate of silver is usually provided to determine the presence of chloride and chlorine ; but if carbonate of soda should be present in the water under examination, carbonate of silver would be formed as well as chloride. Before the nitrate of silver could be applied the water should be acidu- lated with nitric acid to remove the carbonates, and then the nitrate of silver would throw down the chloride. 2 200-300 c. c. of clear water is heated to boiling, and then heated with a slight excess of solution of chloride of barium and a few drops of hydrochloric acid, boiled and filtered. The precipitate is washed, ignited, and weighed. Good filter-paper is essential for this determination. WASH WATER. 333 of potassium permanganate and some pure sulphuric acid. If organic substances are present the potassium permanga- nate, added drop by drop, is decolorized until all the organic substances are completely oxidized. 7. Determination of the entire residue. One litre is care- fully evaporated to dryness in a platinum dish, the weight of which has been previously determined. The residue is dried at 356° F. until a decrease in weight no longer takes place. It not uncommonly happens that the solid residue is exceedingly deliquescent; in such a case it must be rapidly weighed. 8. A determination of hardness with alcoholic soap solu- tion serves in most cases as a substitute for a quantitative analysis. We give, therefore, a short description of it. The process of determining the hardness of water by a soap solu- tion of a determined percentage, which was introduced by Clark, is a very simple one. By an addition of soap solution to water containing too much lime or magnesia a white pre- cipitate of lime or magnesia soap insoluble in water is formed as long as calcium or magnesium salts are present. A distinction is made between " total hardness 1 ' and "permanent hardness." The hardness of water not boiled is termed total hardness, and the hardness produced by the earthy sulphates is termed " permanent hardness," because unaffected by ebullition ; the term " temporary or change- able hardness" being also frequently used to denote the hardness produced by the earthy carbonates, because re- movable by ebullition. The process of determining the total hardness is as fol- 334 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. lows: 50 c. c. of water are measured with a pipette into a bottle having a capacity of about 8 ozs., and provided with an accurately-fitting ground stopper. Before adding the soap solution the free carbonic acid is removed by shaking the water, and then sucking out the air from the bottle through a glass tube. Then add from a burette or pipette graduated into cubic centimetres 1 c. c. of a standard solu- tion of soap, 1 shake the bottle vigorously, and repeat the process after each addition, the quantity of soap test being gradually decreased until it is added only drop by drop as the reaction approaches completion. When a dense, deli- cate lather is formed which will endure for the space of five minutes, the bottle being laid down on its side, then the operation is finished, and the quantity of soap solution must be accurately noted. The number of cubic centimetres of soap solution required to produce a lather being known, the degree of hardness can be ascertained from Table No. 1 or 2. 1 Standard Soap Solution. — To make a potash soap, -which keeps well, 40 parts of dry potassic carbonate and 150 parts of lead plaster (Emplastrum plnmbi, B. P.) are rubbed together in a mortar until thoroughly mixed. Methylated spirit is then added and triturated to a cream, and after allowing to rest for a few hours, transfer to a filter and wash repeatedly with methylated spirit. The strength of this is determined by adding it to 50 c. c. of standard calcic chloride solution (the preparation of which will be explained); proceeding as in determining hardness. Dilute with water and alcohol until exactly 14 25 c. c. are required to form a permanent lather with 50 c. c. of solution of calcic chloride. The water is added in quantities such as to make the proportion of water to spirit as one to two. Standard Calcic Chloride Solution. — This may be prepared by weighing 0.2 gram of any pure form of calcic carbonate, such as Iceland spar, into a platinum dish and gradually adding dilute hydrochloric acid until it is dissolved ; loss may be prevented by covering the dish with a clock glass. Excess of HCI is driven off by successive evaporations to dryness, with distilled water, then re-dissolve in distilled water, and make up to one litre. WASH WATER. 335 1. Clark's Table of Hardness — 1000 grains of Water used. a O Jo O 5 "S (-. cc CO t. o n 2 =2 £ CM a ~ C3 o o • co +3 S <^ S o o o ifj Degree of hardness. 5 "3 CO CO 'fferen next c hardn Degree of hardness. easure solu fferen* next cl hardn s Q § P Distilled water = 0... 1.4 1.8 9 19.4 1.9 1 3.2 5.4 7.6 9.6 11.6 13.6 15.6 2.2 2.2 2.0 20 2.0 2.0 1.9 10 21.3 23.1 24.9 26.7 28.5 30.3 32 1.8 2 11 1.8 3 12 1.8 4 13 1.8 5 14 1 8 6 15 1 8 7 16 1.7 8 17.5 1.9 2. Table of Hardness in Parts per 100,000, 50 e. c. of Water used. co O d c nj • c s co C v. S OS d ° ^ CO d 3 . th a Sb co o O 3 dg d £"8 03 O th S3 • C S co O OS rio d o . ao OS o O 7- a • C B co C <— ".£ d o ^ CO d u . co 03 O O^ 1 .7 .00 3.8 4.29 6.9 8.71 10.0 13.31 13.1 18.17 .8 .16 .9 .43 7.0 .86 .1 .46 .2 .33 .9 .32 4.0 .57 .1 9.00 .2 .61 .3 .49 1.0 .48 .1 .71 .2 .14 .3 .76 .4 .65 .1 .63 .2 .86 .3 .29 .4 .91 .5 .81 .2 .79 .3 5.00 .4 .43 .5 14.06 .6 .97 .3 .95 .4 .14 .5 .57 .6 .21 .7 19.13 .4 1.11 .5 .29 .6 .71 .7 .37 .8 .29 .5 .27 .6 .43 .7 .86 .8 .52 .9 .44 .6 .43 .7 .57 .8 10.00 .9 .68 14.0 .60 .7 .56 .8 .71 .9 .15 11.0 .84 .1 .76 .8 .69 .9 .86 8.0 .30 .1 15.00 .2 .92 .9 .82 5.0 6.00 .1 .45 .2 .16 .3 20.08 2.0 .95 .1 .14 .2 .60 .3 .32 .4 .24 .1 2.08 .2 .29 .3 .75 .4 .48 .5 .40 .2 .21 .3 .43 .4 .90 .5 .63 .6 .56 .3 .34 .4 .57 .5 11.05 .6 .79 .7 .71 .4 .47 .5 .71 .6 .20 .7 .95 .8 .87 .5 .60 .6 .86 .7 .35 .8 16.11 .9 21.03 .6 .73 .7 7.00 .8 .50 .9 .27 15.0 .19 .7 .86 .8 .14 .9 .65 12.0 .43 .1 .35 .8 .99 .9 .29 9.0 .80 .1 .59 .2 .51 .9 3.12 6.0 .43 .1 .95 .2 .75 .3 .68 3.0 .25 .1 .57 .2 12.11 .3 .90 .4 .85 .1 .38 .2 .71 .3 .26 .4 17.06 .5 22.02 .2 .51 .3 .86 .4 .41 .5 .22 .6 .18 .3 .64 .4 8.00 .5 .56 .6 .38 .7 .35 .4 .77 .5 .14 .6 .71 .7 .54 .8 .52 .5 .90 .6 .29 .7 .86 .8 .70 .9 .69 .6 4.03 .7 .43 .8 13.01 .9 .86 16.0 .86 .7 .16 .8 .57 .9 .16 13.0 18.02 336 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Clark was the first to introduce the term " degree of hard- ness," and in Table No. 1 each measure of soap solution = 10 grains, and each degree of hardness = 1 grain of carbon- ate of lime or its equivalent of another calcium salt, or equivalent quantities of magnesia or magnesium salts in 70,000 parts (= 1 gallon). At the present time one degree of hardness is suitably estimated as equal to one part of calcium oxide in 100,000 parts of water. Should it be found that the quantity of soap solution required to produce a permanent lather exceeds 16 volumes of the solution to 50 of water, a second experiment would be necessary. In such a case a smaller quantity of the sample of water — even as low as 10 c. c. if the water appears to be very hard — to which a sufficient quantity of recently- boiled distilled water has been added to raise the bulk to the required 50 c. c. The same process is then performed as above described, but the number expressive of hardness must be multiplied by 2 or some other figure, according to the degree of dilution of the sample. For the determination of the permanent hardness, 500 c. c. of water are gently boiled in a sufficiently large matrass for at least oue and one-half hour, a part of the evaporated water being replaced by distilled water. While the water is boiling the steam should be allowed to escape freely, and precaution must be observed to prevent the steam from the matrass from condensing and flowing back into the boiling water, because the escaping carbonic anhydride would be dissolved by the condensed water, which WASH WATER. 337 would thus be continually returned to the contents of the matrass in sufficient quantity to interfere with the complete precipitation of the carbonate of lime. The boiled water, when cold, is poured into a flask having a capacity of 500 c. c, and the matrass rinsed out with distilled water, the rinsing being added to the water in the flask. The latter is then filled with distilled water up to the mark, and the entire contents filtered through a dry filter into a dry glass. The degree of hardness of a definite number of cubic centi- metres is then determined in the manner above described. The English degrees of hardness are reduced to German by multiplying the degrees found by 4 and dividing by 5, the reduction of German to English degrees being vice versa accomplished by multiplying by 5 and dividing by 4. Waters possessing the properties of hardness are unsuit- able without purification to be used in mills where the best qualities of white papers of any class are manufactured. Various methods for purifying water for use in paper- mills have been proposed, some mills using surface streams run their water first into large settling ponds into which it is admitted only when it is comparatively clear. Other manufacturers use filters especially manufactured for this purpose ; but as these filters are made in a great variety of ways and their virtues fully set forth in the adver- tising columns of various trade papers, we will not devote space to a description of them. In some mills separate filters are attached to each washing and beating engine. 22 338 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. List of Patents for Pulp-washing and Straining, issued by the Government of the United States of America, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. No. 615 1,441 1,753 Reissue 171 Extended 7 years 1,7(30 3,354 Reissue 196 4,341 8,306 12,283 Reissues 340 2,515 28,062 34.214 34,945 44,059 46,030 46,915 54,993 62,517 62,942 66,258 79.935 84,850 87,385 90,472 96,515 99,735 103,506 105,354 105,755 125,810 128,625 136,002 137,696 Date. Dec. 31, 1833. Feb. 22, 1838. Dec. 27, 1839. Sept. 2, 1840. June 11, 1850. from Sept. 2, 1854. Sept. 3, 1840. Nov. 24, 1843. March 25, 1851. Dec. 31, 1845. Aug. 19, 1851. Jan. 23, 1855. Jan. 8, 1856. March 19, 1867. May 1, 1860. Jan. 21, 1862. April 15, 1862. Sept. 6, 1864. Jan. 24, 1865. March 21, 1865. May 22, 1866. March 5, 1867. March 19, 1867. July 2, 1867. July 14, 1868. Dec. 8, 1868. March 2, 1869. May 25, 1869. Nov. 2, 1869. Feb. 8, 1870. May 24, 1870. July 12, 1870. July 26, 1870. April 16, 1872. July 2, 1872. Feb. 18, 1873. April 8, 1873. Inventor. S. A. Sweet. R. Carter. N. Hebbard. > G. Spafford. W. Dickinson. •J. Phelps. W. Bishop. G. West. 1 }■ H. AV. Peaslee. J C. S. Buchanan. J. Piercy. S. S. Crocker. A. Anderson. G. E. Sellers. S. Lenher and H. H Spencer. L. M. Wright. W. Adamson. S. Curtis. G. E. Sellers. J. E. Andrews. G. L. AVitsil. A. S. Winchester. R. R. Sylands. H. Voelter. S. W. Wilder. C. G. Sargent. W. H. Merrick. A. St. C. Winchester. G. W. Hammond and T. J. Foster. L. Hollingsworth. H. H. Olds. G. L. Lovett. PATENTS FOR PULP-WASHING AND STRAINING. 339 No. Date. Inventor. 140,166 June 24, 1873. } Reissue Jan. 14, 1879. V J. Robertson. 8,542 1 145,159 Dec. 2, 1873. S. and J. Deacon. 147,595 Feb. 17, 1874. C. J. Bradbury. 147,717 Feb. 17, 1874. J. S. Warren. 148,643 March 17, 1874. A. Annandale, Jr. 154,733 Sept. 1, 1874. J. S. Warren. 156,885 Nov. 17, 1874. G. Gavit. 165,192 July 6, 1875. J. S. Warren. 170,471 Nov. 30, 1875. S. E. Crocker. 175,286 March 18, 1876. K. Hollingsworth. 188,474 March 20, 1877. G. L. Lovett. 190,390 May 1, 1877. W. C. Tuttle. 192,107 June 19, 1877. W. Blizzard and E. Mather. 193,344 July 24, 1877. R. A. Morton. 194,960 Sept. 11, 1877. W. H. Elliot and L. F. Clark 197,764 Dec. 4, 1877. F. A. Cloudman. 206,187 July 23, 1878. E. Mather. 206,632 July 30, 1878. S. Snell. 206,877 Aug. 13, 1878. H. Hollingsworth. 209,326 Oct. 29, 1878. G. Campbell and W. Lidgett. 210,521 Dec. 3, 1878. L. L. Could. 210,612 Dec. 10, 1878. J. W. Hyatt and J. G. Jarvis 210,853 Dec. 17, 1878. H. Hollingsworth. 216,243 June 3, 1879. J. S. Warren. 216,565 June 17, 1879. ) Reissue I J. Tyler. 10,042 Feb. 21, 1882. J 221,221 Nov 4, 1879. M. S. Drake. 221,330 Nov. 4, 1879. W. L. Longley. 223,969 Jan. 27, 1880. B. F. Warren. 225,545 April 13, 1880. C. Pinder and W. A . Hardy. 226,819 April 20, 1880. L. Zeyen. 230,029 July 13, 1880. A. McDermid. 230,287 July 20, 1880. B. Klary. 232,383 Sept. 21, 1880. G. A. Whiting. 234,559 Nov. 16, 1880. S. L. Gould. 234,719 Nov. 23, 1880. C. Pindar and W. A . Hardy. 238,126 Feb. 22, 1881. H. Judson. 235,213 Dec. 7, 1881. J. Cornell. 239,276 March 22, 1881. J. M. Shew. 235,976 Dec. 28, 1880. L. Zeyen. 340 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. Inventor. 239,837 April 5, 1881. C. Pindar and W. A. Hardy. 242,428 June 7, 1881. C. Bremaker. 258,209 May 23, 1882. C. Anderson and T. Patten. 262,877 Aug. 15, 1882. J. and R. Wood. 276,250 April 24, 1883. N. Kaiser. 276,596 May 1, 1883. G. Kaffenberger. 276,989 May 1, 1883. S. Wrigley and J. Robertson 277,239 May 8, 1883._ P. H. Cragin. 284,232 Sept. 4, 1883. E. J. F. Quirin. 287,164 Oct. 23, 1883. H. Reinicke. 310,469 Jan. 6, 1885. H. Schlatter. 313,037 Feb. 24, 1885. F. Williams. 315,420 April 7, 1885. R. Kron. 316,938 May 5,' 1885. F. K. Black. 318,180 May 19, 1885. W. Gray. 325,206 Aug. 25, 1885. W. Gray. 331,304 Dec. 1, 1885. R. Kron. BLEACHING POWDER. 341 CHAPTER XL bleaching powder estimation of chlorine in bleaching powder preparing and using the bleaching solution zinc bleach-liquor alumina bleach-liquor draining sour bleaching — bleaching with gas — bleaching pulp made from old papers or imperfections bleaching straw bleaching wood fibre method for bleaching wood, straw, etc. bleaching jute bleaching mate- rials composed of hemp, flax, etc. — bleaching vegetable tissues with permanganate of potash bleaching paper pulp by applying the bleaching agent in a sprayed condition bleaching in rotaries list of patents for bleaching pulp. Bleaching Powder. Bleaching powder or chloride of lime is the chemical which is the active agent in the bleaching processes em- ployed for paper pulp. Numerous investigations have been made of late years to determine the constitution of this substance. Gopner, 1 Richter, 2 and Juncker, 3 support the old view that bleaching powder is a direct compound of chlorine with lime, CaO.Cl 2 . On the other hand Schorlemmer states 4 " that hypochlo- 1 J. pr. Chem. [2], viii. 441. ■ 2 Dingl. pol. J. ccx. 21. 3 Ding. pol. J. ccxii. 339. 4 Deut. Chem. Ges. Ber. yi. 1509; Chem. Soc. Journ. [2], xii. 335. 342 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. rous acid is very easily obtained by distilling bleaching pow- der with the requisite quantity of nitric acid, a colorless distillate being thereby produced, which bleaches much more strongly than recently prepared chlorine water, and when shaken up with mercury yields a considerable quantity of brown mercuric oxychloride. 1 " The fact that when bleaching powder is exhausted with successive small quantities of water, the last extracts still contain calcium and chlorine in the proportions required by the formula, CaOCl 2 , merely shows that the product of the action of chlorine on lime is not a mixture of calcium chlo- ride and hypochlorite (CaCl 2 + CaCl 2 2 ), but a compound f CI constituted according to the formula, Ca < , as first sug- gested by Olding. " In the preparation of aqueous hypochlorous acid by the action of chlorine on water containing calcium carbonate in suspension, the compound just mentioned is first formed and then decomposed according to the equation : — f CI Ca| oci + Cl 2 =CaCl 2 +Cl 2 0." The experiments of Kingzett 2 and of Kopfer 3 corroborate this view of the constitution of bleaching powder. The results of the experiments of these two chemists show that bleaching powder contains either a mixture of calcium chloride and hypochlorite, or the compound CaCl(OCl). The production of hypochlorous acid is explained equally 1 Gmelin's Handbook, vi. 60. 2 Chem. Soc. Journ. [2], xiii. 404. 3 Chem. Soc. Journ. [2], xiii. 713. BLEACHING POWDER. 343 well by both Kingzett and Kopfer and satisfactorily accounts for the formation of bleaching powder by the action of chlo- rine upon calcium hydroxide. " One atom of chlorine first replaces the group OH, which combines in the nascent state with the hydrogen atom of another hydroxyl to form water, whilst the second atom of chlorine goes into the place of the hydrogen atom thus removed." Sometimes bleaching powder becomes injured by packing it too quickly after it has been manufactured, and in such cases, especially on hot summer days, it is liable to decompo- sition, and sometimes so quickly as to become worthless in a few hours. Bleaching powder should be used as fresh as it is possible to obtain it, as it undergoes alteration by keeping, the loss of active chlorine being greater in summer than in winter. The rooms in which bleaching powder and the bleach solu- tion are stored should be kept dark and moderately cool. " Bleaching powder ought to be a pure white powder, which in the case of a strong article is mixed with lumps ; but these on crushing ought to show just the same properties, as the powder ; they ought to be completely transformed, and not to contain a core of lime. These lumps are some- times removed by riddling. In the air, bleach gradually attracts moisture and carbonic acid, and finally deliquesces to a pasty mass. It has a peculiar smell, different from that of chlorine, and usually ascribed to hypochlorous acid set free by the carbonic acid of the air; but this cannot be so, as bleach solutions to which an excess of alkali has been added exhale the same smell, even after boiling and cooling 34:4 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. in an atmosphere free from carbonic acid (Winckler, Dingl. Journ., cxcviii. 149). 1 Mixed with a little water, bleach forms a stiff paste, with a perceptible rise of temperature ; if ground up with more water, most of it enters into solution (according to Fresenius first the calcium chloride), but there always remains a considerable residue, consisting chiefly of calcium hydrate, containing some bleaching chlorine, which can only be washed out by a very large amount of water. The aqueous solution has a faintly alka- line reaction, the smell of bleaching powder, and a peculiar astringent taste. This solution is almost exclusively em- ployed in bleaching, as the residue would contaminate the paper-pulp, the fabric, etc., and even locally destroy them. M. F. Hodges has proved that after complete washing the insoluble residue of bleaching powder is quite harmless. " Bleaching powder decomposes gradually, even in the absence of air, as is proved by the instance communicated by Hofmann of the explosion of a tightly stoppered bottle, also in well-packed and protected casks — but especially under the influence of air and light. Sometimes the decomposi- tion takes place quite suddenly, but only when warm bleach has been packed in hot summer weather. The shaking in a railway truck or a wagon also injures it more than quiet lying in a dark dry place. Hence the strength of bleach is nearly always guaranteed only at the place of shipment ; 1 Accordingto Phipson (' Compt. Rend.' Lxxxvi. p. 1196), sulphuretted hydro- gen passed over bleaching powder causes the production of a smell of free chlorine : first hypochlorous acid is formed; and this with H 2 S decomposes into H.^O,S, and CI. BLEACHING POWDER. 345 but bleach shipped with 35 per cent, in England ought still to show at Hamburgh or New York 33 or at least 32 per cent. Pattinson ('Chem. News,' xxix. p. 143) examined the speed at which bleaching powder loses its available chlorine. In the course of twelve months the strength of the following examples of bleach was lowered — Ai A 2 A 3 Br B 2 B s c L C 2 c 3 from 28.7 37.4 37.1 32.9 35.2 36.7 31.8 37.6 37.6 to 20.8 31.2 30.2 22.2 27.9 28.0 26.4 28.2 32.3 "The samples A, B, and C were taken from different works, but the three numbers of each letter from the same chamber in different stages of saturation. The average loss of chlorine in the "first three months, from February to April, was 0.33 per cent, per month ; from June to Septem- ber, 86 per cent, per month; from November to January, 0.28 per cent, per month. The greatest loss occurred in August, viz., on the average 1.4 per cent, per month. The monthly loss of chlorine on an average of the whole year was in maximo 0.90, in minimo 0.50, average 0.63 per cent. It is very noteworthy that weak (28.7 per cent.) bleach lost strength quite as rapidly as the strong (37 per cent.), which contradicts the formerly general assumption. Pattinson's observations were made with samples kept in loosely corked bottles sheltered from direct sunlight; possibly bleach packed in good casks may behave somewhat differently. Dullo ('Wagner's Jahresb.,' 1865, p. 253) showed that bleaching powder continually gives off oxygen. At a lower temperature slowly and gradually, at a higher one quickly ; but his suggestion (impracticable in any case) that 346 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. no bleach should be made above 30 per cent, is shown to be useless by Pattinson's experiments." 1 Estimation of Chlorine in Bleaching Powder. Bleaching powder, or chloride of lime, is an important chemical in a paper-mill, and while it is possible to have the powder tested by analytical chemists still it is desirable that the manager of a mill should be able to make the tests and to quickly discover whether the material with which the proprietor is supplied is of the desired quality. Bleaching powders are usually quoted as on the spot or to arrive, and 32 per cent, is considered the standard strength by the trade, and powders of less strength should not be accepted as good delivery. There are various methods for the volumetric estimation of chlorine in bleaching powder, which contains hypochlo- rite of lime, chloride of calcium, and hydrate of lime. The latter two ingredients are for the most part combined with one another to basic chloride of calcium. Fresenius 2 states : In freshly prepared and perfectly normal chloride of lime the quantities of hypochlorite of lime and chloride of calcium present stand to each other in the proportion of their equivalents. When such chloride of lime is brought into contact with dilute sulphuric acid the whole of the chlorine it contains is liberated in the elementary form, in accordance with the following equation : — CaO,C10 + CaCl+ 2(HO,S0 3 )= 2(CaO,SO s ) + 2HO + 2Cl. 1 Lunge, Sulphuric Acid and Alkali, vol. iii. p. 172 et seq. 2 Pages 504 et seq. ESTIMATION OF CHLORINE IN" BLEACHING POWDER. 347 On keeping chloride of lime, however, the proportion be- tween hypochlorite of lime and chloride of calcium gradu- ally changes — the former decreases, the latter increases. Hence from this cause alone, to say nothing of original difference, the commercial article is not of uniform quality, and on treatment with acid gives sometimes more and some- times less chlorine. As the value of bleaching powder depends entirely upon the amount of chlorine set free on treatment with acids, chemists have devised various simple methods of determining the available amount of chlorine in any given sample. These methods have collectively received the name of Chlorimetry. We describe from the authority above quoted the best in use. The preparation of the solution of the bleaching powder to be tested is prepared best in the following manner: — Weigh 10 grams, triturate finely with a little water, add gradually more water, pour the liquid into a litre flask, triturate the residue again with water, and rinse the con- tents of the mortar carefully into the flask ; fill the latter to the mark, shake the milky fluid, and examine it at once in that state, i. e., without allowing it to deposit; and every time before measuring off a fresh portion shake again. The results obtained with this turbid solution are much more constant and correct than when, as is usually recommended, the fluid is allowed to deposit, and the experiment is made with the supernatant clear portion alone. The truth of this may readily be proved by making two separate experiments, one with the decanted clear fluid, and the other with the residuary turbid mixture. Thus, for instance, in an experi- 348 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. merit made in my own (Fresenius's) laboratory, the decanted clear fluid gave 22.6 of chlorine, the residuary mixture 25.0, the uniformly mixed turbid solution 24.5. 1 cubic centi- metre of the solution of chloride of lime so prepared corre- sponds to 0.01 gram chloride of lime. A. Penot's Method. 1 This method is based upon the conversion of arsenious acid into arsenic acid ; the conversion is effected in an alkaline solution. Iodide of potassium-starch paper is employed to ascertain the exact point when the reaction is completed. a. Preparation of the Iodide of Potassium- Starch Paper. — The following method is preferable to the original one given by Penot : — Stir 3 grms. of potato starch in 250 c. c. of cold water, boil with stirring, add a solution of 1 grm. iodide of potassium and 1 grm. crystallized carbonate of soda, and dilute to 500 c. c. Moisten strips of fine white unsized paper with this fluid and dry. Keep in a closed bottle. b. Preparation of the Solution of Arsenious Acid. — Dis- solve 4.436 grms. of pure arsenious acid and 13 grm. pure crystallized carbonate of soda in 600-700 c. c. water with the aid of heat, let the solution cool, and then dilute to 1 litre. Each c. c. of this solution contains 0.004436 grm. arsenious acid, which corresponds to 1 c. c. chlorine gas of 0° and 760 mm. atmospheric pressure. 2 1 Bulletin de la Soci6t6 Industrielle de Mulhouse, 1852, No. 118; Ding. Poly. Jour. 127, 134. 2 Penot gives the quantity of arsenious acid as 4.44 ; but Fresenius has cor- ESTIMATION OF CHLORINE IN BLEACHING POWDER. 349 As arsenite of soda in alkaline solution is liable, when exposed to access of air, to be gradually converted into arseniate of soda, Penot's solution should be kept in small bottles with glass stoppers, filled to the top, and a fresh bottle used for every new series of experiments. According to Mohr the solution keeps unchanged, if the arsenious acid and the carbonate of soda are both absolutely free from oxidizable matters (sulphide of arsenic, sulphide of sodium, sulphite of soda). c. The Process. — Measure off, with a pipette, 50 c. c. of the solution of chloride of lime prepared according to the directions already given, transfer to a beaker, and from a 50 c. c. burette, add, slowly, and at last drop by drop, the solution of arsenious acid, with constant stirring, until a drop of the mixture produces no longer a blue-colored spot on the iodized paper; it is very easy to exactly hit the point, as the gradually increasing faintness of the blue spots made on the paper by the fluid dropped on it, indicates the rected this number to 4.436, in accordance with the now received equivalents of the substances and specific gravity of chlorine gas after the following proportion : 70.92 (2 eq. chlorine) : 99 (1 eq. As0 3 ) : : 3.17763 (weight of 1 litre of chlo- rine gas) : x ; x = 4.436, i. e., the quantity of arsenious acid which 1 litre of chlorine gas converts into arsenic acid. This solution is arranged to suit the foreign method of designating the strength of chloride of lime, viz., in chlorimetrical degrees (each degree represents 1 litre chlorine gas at 0° and 760 mm. pressure in a kilogramme of the substance). This method was proposed by Gay-Lussac. The degree may readily be con- verted into per cents., and vice versa, thus: A sample of chloride of lime of 90 u contains 90 X 3.17763 = 285.986 grm. chlorine in 1000 grams or 28.59 in 100 ; and a sample containing 342 per cent, chlorine, is of 107.6° for 100 grm. of the substance contain 34.2 grm. chlorine. : 1000 grm. of the substance contain 342 349 grm. chlorine, but 342 grm. chlorine = _ — litres = 107.6 litres. : 1000 grm. 3.1 7763 of the substance contain 107.6 litres chlorine. 350 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. approaching termination of the reaction, and warns the operator to confine the further addition of the solution of arsenious acid to a single drop at a time. The number of | c. c. used indicates directly the number of chlorimetrical degrees (see note), as the following calculation shows : Sup- pose you have used 40 c. c. of solution of arsenious acid, then the quantity of chloride of lime used in the experiment contains 40 c. c. of chlorine gas. Now the 50 c. c. of solution employed correspond to 0.5 grm. of chloride of lime; therefore 0.5 grm. of chloride of lime contains 50 c. c. chlorine gas, therefore 1000 grms. contain 80,000 c. c. = 80 litres. This method gives very constant and accurate results. Preparing and Using the Bleaching Solution. The bleaching solution is best prepared in large wooden vats lined with lead, or in cisterns constructed of brick and cement, and furnished with suitable agitators driven by power. There should be at least two vats or cisterns in each mill ; but if there is sufficient room it is desirable to employ three cisterns in rotation, thus allowing three extracts to be made from the powders and insure their thorough exhaustion. The residuum, consisting of sand, carbonate of lime, etc., remaining on the bottom of the cisterns is washed out. The bleaching solutions are run from the cisterns into a suitable receiver where the liquor is kept at the required strength by diluting each solution until the prescribed specific gravity is indicated on the hydrometer, it being PREPARING AND USING THE BLEACHING SOLUTION. 351 necessary that liquor in the receiver should always show degree of strength in order that the same quantity may be expected to reproduce the same results. After the rags, etc., have been washed and reduced to half-stuff in the engine, the desired quantity of liquor is drawn from the receiver and added to the material to be bleached. The quantity of chloride used varies according to the nature of the rags: 2 to 2.5 per cent, for white rags, while others, on the contrary, require 7 to 10 per cent. ; chlorine gas being preferable for the latter class of rags on account of its greater economy. Gas bleaching for half-stuff is seldom resorted to in the United States or Great Britain, but in Russia it is almost indispensable for bleaching the coarse linen rags so plentiful in that country. Sometimes a fresh solution is prepared for every engine of pulp by placing, in a suitable receptacle, the quantity of powders required to bleach one engine of rags (5 to 10 pounds per 100 pounds of paper), and after filling the re- ceptacle with water the contents are stirred with a paddle, and after sufficient time has been allowed for the liquor to rest it is drawn off when clear into the engine through a faucet placed a few inches above the bottom of the recep- tacle. A box or barrel lined with lead and having a capacity of from 25 to 30 gallons, and arranged on a suitable platform above the engine, makes a good vessel in which to prepare the solution; such a vessel containing 15 to 20 pounds of 352 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. good bleaching' powder will produce a solution testing 6° to 8° B. The sediment, after drawing off the clear solution, is removed from the vessel, dissolved in another receptacle, and the weak solution thus obtained is used with the pulp in the next engine. If sufficient time is allowed the chlorine will bleach the pulp without the aid of an acid; but to facilitate the dis- engagement of the chlorine, sulphuric acid is generally employed, thereby shortening the time and greatly decreas- ing the number and capacity of the pulp receivers which would otherwise be required. The proportion of sulphuric acid employed may vary from nothing to one pound for every four pounds of bleaching powder, and depends upon the class of stock to be treated, the available draining-room, and time. Instead of adding the sulphuric acid of the ordinary strength, it is preferable to dilute with ten to twenty times its own weight of water. The dilution of the sulphuric acid should be made very carefully, as many a workman has lost his eyesight or been otherwise injured by carelessly adding sulphuric acid to water. When the acid has been thoroughly incorporated with the pulp it is emptied from the engine into a drainer, i. e., if the pulp is not to be at once used. Zinc Bleach Liquor. Strong acids are often objectionable for liberating chlorine from bleaching powder, and especially in bleaching some classes of paper pulp. If a solution of zinc sulphate be ALUMINA BLEACH LIQUOR. 353 added to a solution of bleaching powder, calcium sulphate is precipitated, and the zinc hypochlorite formed at once splits up into zinc oxide and a solution of free hypochlorous acid. Zinc chloride acts similarly; for a saturated solution of zinc in strong muriatic acid decomposes as much bleach- ing powder as half its weight of concentrated oil of vitriol (Varrentrapp). The reaction must be — CaOCl 2 + ZnCl 2 = CaCl 2 + ZnO + 2C1. Accordingly these zinc salts can be employed in place of sulphuric acid and thus bleach the paper pulp very quickly. When this mixture is employed in bleaching paper pulp, the precipitated calcium sulphate and zinc oxide remain in the pulp. This solution was introduced by Sace (' Wagner's Jahresb.,' 1859, p. 548), and has been recommended by Varrentrapp (lb., 1860, p. 189). Lunge, 'Sulphuric Acid and Alkali,' iii. 281. Alumina Bleach-Liquor. Orioli ("Wagner's Jahresb.,' 1860, p. 188) recommended, especially for paper-mills, a bleach liquor made by decom- posing equivalent quantities of a solution of bleaching powder and aluminum sulphate; this had been known for several years as Wilson's bleach liquor. Gypsum is thrown down and aluminum hypochlorite remains dissolved. This is very unstable, and hence can be employed for bleaching without adding an acid, splitting up into aluminium chloride and active oxygen. Consequently the liquid always remains neutral, and the difficulty caused by the obstinate retention 23 354 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. of free acid in the fibre by which it is strongly acted upon on drying, in this case does not exist. The aluminium chloride also acts as an antiseptic, so that the paper stock can be kept for many months without any fermentation or other decomposition. The solution is allowed to act for about ten minutes in the engine. Lunge, 'Sulphuric Acid and Alkali,' hi. 281. Draining. The drainers are best constructed of brick and cement, and they can be built so as to allow the pulp to be removed from the open top or through a door near the bottom. The open-top drainers are usually about five or six feet deep, and are arranged in rows conveniently near the beaters; the pulp being shovelled out by a workman who throws it on a platform which should be on about a level with the engine-room, whence it is carried on trucks to the beaters. When the pulp is removed from the bottom of the drainers their height is not restricted, and they can be built at any convenient point below the floor of the engine-room, and in some mills they are placed directly below the engines. The doors at the bottom of such drainers should be of sufficient size to allow the workmen to pass in and out, and so arranged as to be conveniently opened and closed. Sufficient room must also be allowed at the bottom for run- ning the trucks on which the pulp is carried to the hoists. The walls of the drainers should be carefully built and then DRAINING. 355 plastered with cement; the thickness of the walls being sufficient to resist the pressure of a body of liquid as large as the drainers will hold. The bottoms of the drainers are perforated to permit the escape of the water. The perforated bottoms of these screens or drainers have hitherto been made in many different ways, all of which have been found subject to serious objection in practical use. In some instances difficulty was experienced from the liability of the holes or perforations to become clogged or closed by the wet material. In other cases diffi- culty arose from the fact that the strainers were made of metal, the oxidation of which caused a discoloration of the stock. These difficulties are largely overcome by making the strainer of tile and providing it with perforations of a flaring or conical form larger at the bottom than at the top, and in supporting the tile thus made by beams or bars, of tile or concrete, which, like the tile, are free from liability of oxidation. Fig. 114 represents respectively a plan view of an improved tile strainer, a cross section of the same, and a top-plan view, illustrating the manner of constructing the floor or bottom of the drainer. It is the invention of Mr. Samuel Snell, of Springfield, Mass. The tiles A are made of any suitable clay or composition, of a flat and regular form, and provided with numerous ver- tical openings or perforations, c, the lower ends of which are larger than the upper. In constructing the drainer it is provided at the bottom with a series of longitudinal bars or supports, B, made of 356 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. tile or concrete, and arranged parallel with each other at suitable distances apart. Upon these beams the tiles A are arranged in such manner as to form a continuous unbroken floor to support the paper-stock. The perforations c permit Fiji 114. m n ^4 wmm >T3Z the water to flow from the stock, and, owing to their conical form, avoid the danger of the material which may enter their upper ends lodging within them. If it is desired to save the bleach liquor, which is a ques- tionable economy where only rags are worked, it is allowed to run into a "junk" or reservoir placed below the bottom of the drainers, whence it is pumped into an upper receiver to be strengthened, or to be employed for preliminary bleaching. In order, however, to save the fibres which SOUR BLEACHING. 357 escape with the liquor from the drainers it is desirable to run the waste liquor into a cistern where the fibres can be deposited. Scrupulous cleanliness should be the rule in this as in every department of the mill, and stuff which may fall upon the floor and become soiled should be thrown in a box provided for that purpose ; all trucks, boxes, etc., used in the drainers should be periodically washed and kept in a cleanly condition, and the floor should be washed each day. In order to economize in time and capital, various methods have been tried to quickly drain the pulp by mechanical means, and one of the most acceptable methods for extract- ing the water from the stuff is by the centrifugal drainer, which is similar in construction to that used for drying cloth. Sour Bleaching. This method of bleaching may be conducted partly or wholly in the drainers, those of good height and large capacity being best suited for this process. The stuff should be emptied from the engines into the drainers where it should be kept packed closely around the sides, as the stuff shrinks away as the water drains off. The bleach solution is admitted at the top of the drainers in sufficient quantities to saturate the entire body of stuff, and then the largely-diluted vitriol solution is admitted in a short time after the bleach solution. The strength and quantity of each of the solutions neces- sary for different classes and quantities of pulp are soon ascertained by practical experience. 358 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. This method of bleaching may be modified in a great variety of ways ; some manufacturers add the acid solution first and the bleach solution afterwards ; others add one-half of the bleach solution in the engine and then empty the stuff in the drainers, and after running in the acid solution they then admit to the stuff in the drainers the remaining one-half of the bleach solution. This process is manifestly not suited for bleaching fine stuffs, as its operation cannot be watched in its different stages, and some portions of the material are liable to come from the drainers in an unbleached condition. Bleaching with Gas. The process of bleaching with gas can be conducted in the same kind of drainers in which the process of sour bleaching is carried on. When the half-stuff is emptied from the washing engine into the drainers the water immediately commences to leave it ; but as it would require a long time for the stuff to become sufficiently dry in the drainers to be bleached with gas, a centrifugal drainer is commonly employed, or the pulp is run over the wet machine. In order to achieve satisfactory results with gas-bleached half-stuff, it is necessary that it should be neither too dry nor too moist. A good method of testing the condition of the half- stuff for gas bleaching is to squeeze samples of it between the hands ; if the pressure should cause no water to escape and the samples still possess a damp appearance, the material BLEACHING WITH GAS. 359 may be considered to be in a suitable condition to be bleached with gas. "The method of bleaching is as follows: Put 1600 pounds of half-stuff, in the condition mentioned above, loosely into a stone chamber, and seal it in such a manner that it will be perfectly air tight. Into the lead retort connected with this chamber by leaden pipes, pour 3 pails of water and 66 pounds of common salt; stir thoroughly, and add 65 pounds of manga- nese; stir again, and close the retort. Next charge a leaden vessel with 119 pounds of vitriol and allow the acid to drop through a bell-mouthed bent siphon into the retort contain- ing the mixture of manganese, salt, and water, three hours being allowed for the vitriol to drop into the retort. " The retort is then heated to 212° F. with steam for several hours, and two hours are allowed for the gas to escape up the mill chimney. For fine stuff, such as willow-rope, one hour extra must be allowed for the escape of the gas." Chlorine gas may be prepared either with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, the relative cost of these two acids deter- mining which should be employed. The proportions of the ingredients to be employed are not absolute, as they must vary with the composition of the manganese and the strength of the acid used. When sul- phuric acid is employed the proportions may be about as follows : — Manganese ...... 1 part. Common salt 0.5 to 2 parts. Sulphuric acid . . . . .2 parts. Water 2 " 360 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. When hydrochloric acid is employed for preparing the gas, 3 parts of the acid and 1 part of manganese are simply used. Lump manganese is preferable to the powdered man- ganese, on account of the slower action of the acid on the latter, which also requires agitation to effect a mixture of the two substances. The chlorine gas in escaping from the retort carries with it some hydrochloric acid, which, if allowed to escape into the half-stuff, would injure the strength of the fibres. There are various methods of freeing the gas from this acid; one of the simplest means adopted for attaining this object being to lead the pipe which conveys the gas from the retort into a receiver containing a small quantity of water. "The pipe should be allowed to enter only a few lines below the surface of the water, in order that the height of the column of liquid may not exercise a sensible pressure in opposition to the escape of the gas. The bubbles of gas give up their particles of hydrochloric acid at the contact of the water, which mechanically washes them away." In order to impart greater brilliancy to their stuffs, some manufacturers bleach with chlorine gas, and then with liquid chlorine, which method by the employment of a smaller quantity of gas diminishes the danger of excessive action upon the fibres. The waste from bleaching varies, of course, with the different classes of rags; for fine whites it ranges from 1.5 to 3.5 per cent., and for coarse rags and thirds the loss is from 3 to 8 per cent. bleaching straw. 361 Bleaching Pulp made from old Papers or "Imperfections." The pulp made from old papers or imperfections is bleached in the same manner as rags. The manipulation of the pulp in the engine during the bleaching process depends upon the class of paper which is to be produced ; the whole bleaching process can be "finished in one engine if only one class of " imperfections" are to be made into a low grade of paper ; but if the pulps of different kinds of old papers are to be mixed, and the best quality of paper produced, the bleached pulp should be emptied from the engines into the drainers. Bleaching Straw. The bleaching of straw pulp is done in about the same manner as rags are bleached, the only difference being that a larger proportion of chemicals is required. Some manu- facturers commence the bleaching with gaseous chlorine, but the process must always be terminated with the chloride of lime; otherwise the pulp would be reddish. The proportion of bleaching powder required for bleach- ing straw varies from 12 to 25 pounds of bleaching powder and a corresponding proportion of vitriol to every 100 pounds of paper made entirely from straw. In order to obtain a satisfactory result from straw pulp it is imperative that the boiling should be properly done, as it is false economy to curtail the quantity of soda used in the digester, and then be compelled to force the bleaching by 362 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the employment of an excess of chemicals which weaken the fibres. Thorough washing out and neutralization of the alkali is also necessary after boiling straw, and if these points receive proper attention much, of the trouble usually experienced in bleaching straw pulp may be obAdated. Care must be observed to thoroughly wash out the drainers with clear water in order to carry away all the hydrochloric acid, which imparts a disagreeable yellowish- gray color to the pulp. The bleach solution should not, if sulphuric acid has been used, be allowed to remain for a protracted period in contact with the pulp ; it should not only be drained as quickly as possible, but it has been recommended to also empty the bleacher with a larger quantity of water, and thus to soak and wash the white pulp immediately in the drainers. The waste bleach liquor quickly parts with its chlorine when exposed to the action of the air, and consequently if the liquor which escapes from the drainers is to be again used, it is best to add it to the gray pulp in the washing- engine, and employ it as a preliminary bleacher, and then wash it out again, for if the waste bleach liquor is allowed to become transformed into hydrochloric acid through too long contact with the air the injury which it will inflict upon the color and strength of the fibres will be irreparable. Bums 's Bleaching Process for Straw, etc. On page 231 we gave a description of Burns's process for boiling and disintegrating straw, and in Fig. 115 is shown BLEACHING STRAW. 363 a vertical section of the apparatus in which the bleaching of the straw is conducted. Fiff. 115. g^^^^^^?^<>^%i I -7? 5S255S55SSSSSS y?,„M/s/ssss;,s;s*7)Z& P represents a tank or tub, preferably of wood, in which is placed a quantity of water and chloride of lime. It is provided with a steam-pipe, R, entering the tub at the bot- tom, so that the entire contents may be impregnated. By this means the chlorine gas is eliminated from the solid particles, and it passes (together with a quantity of vapor and water charged with the gas) into tub Q, by means of pipe S, where it enters at the bottom. In this tub Q the paper stock to be bleached is placed, and the chlo- rine, entering the stock or pulp from the bottom, niters through to the top, where it passes off. It will be seen that by this construction no solid particles or bleaching-matter touches the pulp. Where the bleaching material itself is placed in the tub with the pulp it rots it and makes it brittle when made into paper. Straw-board heretofore made by the existing processes is usually extremely brittle; but by Burns's process it is claimed 364 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. that the fibre of the straw is not destroyed, nor is the pulp made brittle by the introduction of solid particles of lime, caustic alkali, and the like into the bleaching tub, thereby eliminating and destroying also the albumen and gluten properties of straw, which are essential to the proper making of straw paper. Bleaching Wood Fibre. There are numerous methods of bleaching the various kinds of wood fibre. The bleaching engine is similar to the common rag-washing engine with the difference that it has no plate or sand catcher. The engine is filled about two- thirds full with warm water and the necessary proportion of bleach liquor. The rolls of fibre, which, having been run over the wet machine, resemble paper, are supplied to the engine in sufficient quantities to nearly fill it, after which the steam is turned on and the contents of the trough are heated to about 210° F. If the fibre has not been sufficiently bleached more bleach liquor is added, and when the desired color is obtained the cylinder washer is lowered and the cold water is turned on. After it is cooled a little the whole is emptied into the drainers and the liquid is allowed to drain off. Another method of bleaching is to treat the fibre substan- tially the same as just indicated, to neutralize the excess of chlorine with antichlore, and run the fibre over a wet machine, thus dispensing with drainers. This is an improvement, but it is nevertheless crude and imperfect. (' The Paper Trade Journal,' xiv. p. 43.) BLEACHING WOOD FIBRE. 365 Wood fibre, excepting chemically prepared wood-pulp, will not bleach whiter than a light-yellow or cream color by the chlorine process without decomposition, and partial or entire destruction of fibre taking place. Mr. Goldsbury H. Pond, of Glenn's Falls, N. Y., has patented a process in which he uses metallic oxides with chlorine or any other substance or solution that will yield oxygen by the action of these metallic oxides, depending entirely in this process upon the generation of oxygen in contact with the material to be bleached, either in air or in a bath of any substance which may be compatible with a bleaching operation, and which is capable of yielding up its oxygen through the agency of a metallic oxide. In this solution wood-pulp or any other fibrous material to be bleached is thoroughly wet or mixed therein, thereby bringing into a close and positive contact the material to be bleached and the innumerable points of generation of the oxygen. To accomplish these results there is prepared a bath of a weak solution or mixture of any metallic oxide mixed with water, such as the oxide of iron, copper, zinc, lead, nickel, or cobalt. The inventor prefers the oxide of iron and zinc to all others. In using the oxides they are mixed with water, and are then thoroughly mixed with the material being bleached, so that the fibres thereof are completely covered with it, the metallic particles being deoxidized and oxidized to an un- limited extent, thereby developing a large quantity of oxvgen. 366 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. In bleaching wood pulp and any other material of a fibrous nature — such as hemp, jute, flax, cotton, or the waste of any of these — for the manufacture of paper, take the common bleaching tank or engine now in general use in paper-mak- ing, fill it partly full with water and with the metallic oxides mixed therein in the proportions of one pound of the oxide to one hundred pounds of the material to be bleached, this proportion being varied according to the amount of oxygen required ; then add a quantity of the solution of either chlo- ride of lime or chlorine water, or any other solution capable of yielding oxygen by the action of the metallic oxides. Then fill the tank or the engine to its working capacity with the wood pulp, heating with steam to nearly the boiling point. The beating-roll by its revolution thoroughly mixes the pulp with the solutions of chlorine or chloride of lime and the metallic oxides therein, when by the action of the heat large volumes of oxygen are produced within the mass of the pulp and in contact with each fibre thereof, and as the oxy- gen is generated the bleaching is immediately effected. After the bleaching is completed the whole mass of the wood pulp is acidulated with dilute acid, decomposing the oxides, which are then washed out in combination with the acid, leaving the pulp clean, and it is claimed perfectly white. Chlorine gas or water saturated with chlorine, or any solu- tion susceptible of yielding oxygen by the action of the metallic oxides, may be used and mixed in the same manner as before described, with the pulp, water, and oxides in the bleaching engine, and treated in the same manner, and when heated the same results it is claimed will follow, and a large METHOD FOR BLEACHING WOOD, STRAW, ETC. 367 volume of oxygen will be generated, and when in contact with various fibrous materials and the wood pulp bleaching it to a permanent white in a few minutes. To accelerate the process of bleaching, more metallic oxide can be added at any time during the operation. It is a well-known fact that in the use of chlorine when it is heated it leaves its solution and goes off into the air. In this process the oxygen is not formed and the bleaching is not accomplished unless heat is applied and the chlorine or other solution or mixture containing oxygen brought into contact with the metallic oxide. The nearer to, but under, the boiling-point this process is operated the more volumi- nous will be the generation of the oxygen, and the more efficient and immediate will be its bleaching properties. Method for Bleaching Wood, Straw, etc. In the manufacture of white paper from wood, straw, etc., it is of great importance, after such stock has been boiled in an alkaline solution, that the pulp thus produced should be thoroughly cleansed from the alkali and saccharine or glu- tinous matters remaining in it before the pulp is subjected to the action of chlorine for bleaching it for white paper. After the stock has been bleached with chlorine, it is equally important that all traces of the chlorine be removed from the pulp before it is run out on the paper-machine into any white paper. It is a fact well known to the best paper-makers that the more thoroughly the pulp is cleansed from alkali and 368 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. glutinous matter remaining in it after it has been boiled, the less chlorine it takes to produce a given shade of white, and it is equally well known that the action of the chlorine tends to weaken and destroy the fibre, and that the less chlorine used, the stronger and more pliable is the paper produced from straw and like fibrous material. Hence the necessity of a thorough washing or cleansing of the pulp before it is bleached, as well as afterward. Another fact is, that the longer the stock is allowed to remain in the pulpy state after being bleached, before the chlorine is washed out, the more hard, crisp, and brittle is the paper produced; hence it is of importance that such fibrous material be bleached quickly, and the chlorine im- mediately washed out. Still another fact, but one not generally known, is that, if a certain amount of chlorine is to be used for bleaching a certain amount of stock, if, instead of using the whole quantity of chlorine at one time, a portion only is used to bleach the stock, and the stock then dried sufficiently to be handled, and the chlorine washed out, and then the remaining chlorine used to rebleach the stock, a much whiter and cleaner paper is produced. For example, if twenty pounds of chlorine are to be used to bleach one hundred pounds of pulp, instead of using all the chlorine in one operation, first use, say, fifteen pounds to bleach the one hundred pounds of pulp, and then, after thoroughly washing the pulp, use the remaining five pounds of chlorine to rebleach the whole quantity of pulp. But, METHOD FOR BLEACHING WOOD, STRAW, ETC. 369 to perform these operations in mills as now constructed would require a great amount of extra time and labor. As usually practised in the best paper-mills in the country, the pulp, as it comes from the boilers, is placed in an ordinary rag engine, and partially washed. It is then emptied into a tank or stuff-chest, and drawn off, by means of a pump, to the mixing-box of an ordinary wet-paper machine, where it is mixed with the water extracted from pulp previously passed through the machine. The pulp thus mixed is then passed through the screen or pulp-dresser and onward to the wire-gauze cylinder, if a cylinder machine is used, where the water is partially extracted and carried off through the cylinder and the pulp thereby formed into wet paper on the surface of the cylinder, and from whence it is taken off by the " wet felt." The wet machine has been in use for the purpose of running out straw and wood-pulp, and removing uncooked portions of the pulp as it passes through the screen or pulp-dresser, a small portion of the alkali and saccharine matter being also incidentally removed as the wet paper passes through between the press rolls. In carrying out a process used by one of our most suc- cessful paper manufacturers there is made use of, among other devices, the ordinary wet machine, with certain im- provements. These improvements consist, first, in allowing the water which passes through into the perforated cylinder to run off to waste, carrying with it, of course, the alkali and saccharine matter held in solution, and, second, in keeping 24 370 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. up the supply of water necessary to work the pulp through the screen or dresser, and to form the paper on the cylinder, by discharging fresh, clean water into the receiving vat or mixing trough, and an additional supply of clean water into the pulp after it has passed the screen, but before reaching the cylinder, as hereafter more fully described. As a much larger amount of water can be passed through the cylinder than through the screen, the amount of water added to the pulp after passing the screen may be very con- siderable, so that, by these improvements, a much greater quantity of water can be washed through the pulp than by the old method, and consequently the pulp is more thoroughly cleansed. Fig. 116 is a top plan view of a common cylinder wet- paper machine, having the improvements mentioned applied. Fig. 117 illustrates a side view of the same, with portions broken away to show the interior. Fig. 118 shows a side elevation of a train of three wet machines, with the accompanying bleaching tanks, stuff chests, etc., as arranged for carrying out the process. A, Figs. 116 and 117, represents a "wet machine" of the ordinary construction, so far as regards the general features of screens, vats, perforated cylinder, endless felt, press-rolls, etc., and in which a represents the receiving vat for the pulp; b the screen or pulp dresser; c the vat which re- ceives the pulp passing through the screen ; d the trough in which the wire-gauze cylinder is mounted, and which is kept filled with pulp and water ; e the gauze cylinder ; and / a pipe communicating with the interior of the cylinder, METHOD FOR BLEACHING WOOD, STRAW, ETC. 371 and with an exhaust pump for causing a suction inward through the cylinder. Fi>. 116. Fig. 117. 372 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Heretofore it has been customary to have the pipe / dis- charge the water exhausted through it back into the receiv- ing-vat a, where it became mixed with new pulp, and in this manner the same water was used over and over again. In the present machine this water is allowed to run off to waste, as shown, and there is provided a pipe, n, which discharges fresh, clean water into the receiving-vat a, to reduce the pulp to the required thinness. To one side of the machine there is attached a box, J, divided into two compartments by means of a vertically adjustable gate, g, having an opening, 7i, through it, as shown in Figs. 116 and 117. One compartment of the box J is provided with a hole, ?', communicating with the vat c, and the other compartment is provided at its bottom with a waste-pipe, j, and there is also arranged a water-supply pipe, k, so as to discharge into the compartment which is connected with the vat, as shown in Figs. 116 and 117. Water being discharged through the pipe h into box J, a portion flows through the hole i into vat c, and the remainder through gate g and off through waste-pipe j. By adjusting the gate g, the water may be maintained at any desired height in the box, and as the box has free com- munication with the vat, the level of the pulp in the latter is always the same as that of the water in the former, so that, by adjusting the gate g, the level of the pulp may be varied as desired. As the gate is raised and lowered, the quantity of water which flows into the vat is also varied. METHOD FOR BLEACHING WOOD, STRAW, ETC. 373 By this arrangement of parts it is possible to work a very large quantity of water through the machine with the pulp, so as to thoroughly dissolve and wash out all alkali and saccharine matters, ink, chlorine, and other foreign matters, which are carried off with the water through the cylinder e. In the old styles of machine, where less water could be worked through, the alkali and saccharine matter were only partially dissolved, and the only portions that were removed were those that were squeezed out from the wet paper in passing through the press-rolls, as all that was held in solu- tion by the water passing through the gauze cylinder was returned with the water to the receiving-vat, and remixed with fresh pulp or stock. In carrying out this process there are provided two or more of the wet machines A, and double the number of bleaching-tanks B, all arranged as shown in Fig. 118, placing first a machine and then two tanks, side by side, and so on. Fig. 118. Near the first machine there is located a tank or stuff- chest, C, and connected by a pump, D, with the receiving vat A, of the first machine. At the back end of the machine there is arranged an ele- vator, E, which may be shifted so as to communicate with either one of the two tanks, B, there located. 374 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Each of the tanks B is provided with a discharge-pipe, emptying into the receiving-vat of the second machine A\ and at the back end of this second machine is an elevator discharging into the second pair of tanks, and so on con- tinuously, each machine connecting with a pair of tanks, and these tanks with the next machine. The last tank is connected with either a rag engine, as shown, or with a tank or stuff-chest, according to circumstances. In operating the train of machines, as shown in Fig. 117, the pulp, after being boiled and then washed in an ordinary rag engine for about an hour, is discharged into the tank C as unwashed pulp ; or, if properly boiled, the pulp may be taken directly from the boiler to the tank C without being passed through the rag engine. From the tank G the pulp is carried by the pump D to the first wet machine A, where the pulp is thoroughly washed and cleansed, and freed from alkali, saccharine mat- ter, ink, chlorine, and other impurities contained in it. The pulp, in passing through the machine, is converted into wet paper, and in this form it is delivered to the ele- vator JE, which carries the wet paper over into the first bleaching tank B, which is charged with a solution of chlorine, and provided with stirrers or agitators for breaking up the paper and reducing it to the form of pulp again. When the first of the tanks, B, is sufficiently charged with the wet paper, the elevator E is shifted so as to dis- charge into the adjoining tank, which is, like the first one, charged with chlorine, and provided with agitators. While the second of the tanks B is being filled, steam is METHOD FOR BLEACHING WOOD, STRAW, ETC. 375 admitted into the one which is full, and the contents heated to about 100° above the temperature of the surrounding air, which causes the chlorine to act with great rapidity. This is continued for about two hours, the agitators being kept in motion all the while, when the pulp is discharged in the receiving-vat of the second wet machine A 1 , through which it is passed to wash out the chlorine and coloring matter dis- solved by it while in the tank B. This second machine again forms the pulp into wet paper, and then discharges it on to the second elevator E\ which delivers it into one of the second pair of bleaching tanks JB 1 , where, it undergoes the same treatment as in the first, except that the chlorine solution is of only about one-third the strength of the first. The pulp is then discharged from this tank B l to the third machine A 2 , where it is washed from the chlorine, formed into wet paper, and then, by the elevator E" de- livered into the third tank B 2 , where it is again broken up and reduced to pulp. From this third tank the pulp is discharged into an ordi- nary rag engine, and the coloring and sizing matter added to it, and then discharged into a tank or stuff-chest, from whence it is delivered on to the usual paper machine, and by it formed into finished paper. It is obvious that the bleaching tanks may be located jn the basement of the building, immediately under the machines, and pumps used to draw the pulp up from each tank to the next machine, and also that the last tank could be dispensed with, and the wet paper put into the rag 376 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. engine by hand, but it is preferable to locate them as shown, for the reason that thereby hand labor is entirely saved, and also the cost of extra pumps. There are numerous advantages claimed for this process over the old methods, among which we mention : — First, a much more rapid and perfect cleansing of the pulp from the alkali and saccharine matter, as in the same length of time there is washed about ten times the quantity of water through it that could be done by the old method. Second, it requires no drainers, and therefore the labor required under the old method, to remove the stock from the drainers to the rag engine, is dispensed with, and, besides, in the old method, more or less of the stock was lost in the many handlings from drainers to cars, cars to rag engines, etc., and still more of it injured by dirt of various kinds getting into it while being thus handled. By the present arrangement it will be seen that the only handling required is in passing the stock, in the first instance, from the boiler to the washing engine. This process it is claimed produces the finest kinds of book paper from straw, wood, and like fibrous materials, with less labor, trouble, and expense than attended the pro- duction of common news printing paper by the old method, and the quality of paper that can be produced is said to be far superior to that made upon the old plan, and hence will conduce to the use of straw, wood, etc., for the finest paper, instead of the far more expensive stock formerly used. BLEACHING JUTE. 377 Bleaching Esparto. The usual method employed in Great Britain for bleaching esparto has already been described on p. 325 et seq. Bleaching Jute. It is already some years since the chemists, Messrs. Cross and Be van, began to study the jute fibre, yet in spite of the importance of their discoveries they seem not to attract the attention they deserve. According to the investigations of Messrs. Cross and Bevan, jute does not contain cellulose under the ordinary conditions, but in the form of one of several ethers of the cellulose, which they comprise under the denomination of bastose. While cellulose belongs to the class of hydrates of carbon, bastose constitutes the link between the latter and the aromatic compounds, and conse- quently jute has properties very different from those of the other vegetable fibres. When treated with chlorine this bastose is transformed into a chlorinated compound which offers two characteristic reactions. The treatment with sulphite of soda gives a bright magenta red coloring matter, which, by the' action of alkalies, is decomposed in soluble substances belonging to the group of tannic acid. This, latter fact is of great importance practically, since, while in the coloring of cellulose, it is necessary to mordant it previously, jute already possesses this mordant from the beginning ; it is, in a certain sense a mordanted cellulose,, and therefore takes more easily the aniline colors. Messrs. Cross and Bevan have also discovered two other 878 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. remarkable properties of jute, which are technically of very great importance. When large quantities of fibre are kept for some time in a damp condition, principally in presence of sea-water, the fibrous material is decomposed in sub- stances analogous to tannin, and in acid belonging to the group of pectic acid. The fibre itself is rendered more or less rotten, and in some cases reduced to a powder. It is very likely that the larger quantity of jute brought over to Europe is already more or less injured, either from long exposure on the voyage or from circumstances which have affected it before it is shipped. Another singular property of jute is its decomposition by means of acids, principally mineral acids. At a compara- tively low temperature jute is transformed by acids into solid combinations, which at a higher temperature are changed in their turn into brown substances and into volatile products of disagreeable odor, such as furfurol and others. This is the origin of the color and smell of the majority of the jute fabrics treated by acid. Dyers never em: ploy the same receipts for jute that they would for cellulose, as the latter is a great deal more resisting towards acids. It has been found that a small amount of acetate of soda prevents the destructive qualities of the mineral acids, one pound of acetate of soda being sufficient for about five to six gallons of the water used. .. Jute can be very easily bleached by means of permanga- nate of potash; the loss experienced by this process is about 3 to 4 per _ cent. Of course before treating with permaga- nate the jute must be thoroughly cleansed either by means BLEACHING JUTE. 379 of alkali or soap. This method, which would give good results, is unfortunately too expensive, since 3| to 4| pounds of permanganate of potash would be required for the bleaching of 100 pounds of jute. According to Messrs. Cross and Bevan the hypochlorites are the only available materials for using on a commercial scale, but great care must be taken in their employment on account of the action asserted by free chlorine on the fibre. Chloride of lime cannot be used as such in the bleaching of jute, as it trans- forms the same into chlorinated compounds ; this latter is easily distinguished by the magenta-red coloration it takes when wetted with sulphite of soda. When such a chlori- nated jute is steamed a decomposition takes place, muriatic acid is liberated, a brown coloration is formed, and the tissue is rendered completely rotten. The hypochlorites oxidize the jute into combinations, which form with insoluble compounds, and which are very difficult to eliminate. It is well known that in the laboratory jute can be easily bleached by being suspended over phosphorus in a damp atmosphere, and also by means of oxygenated water. According to a process recently patented the jute stock is first thoroughly washed in the usual manner, after which a composition of 10 pounds of alum, 4 pounds of South Caro- lina clay, and 2 gallons of water is boiled and added to 500 pounds of the stock, which is then run in the mixing engine for fifteen minutes, after which 50 pounds of bleaching powder are added. In like proportions the composition and bleaching powder 380 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER are used with larger quantities of the stock, so that it is claimed that one-half of the quantity of bleaching powder used in the processes heretofore employed is saved, as it commonly requires 100 pounds of bleaching powder to bleach 500 pounds of this stock. In addition to the claimed saving in the quantity of bleaching powder employed, it is also claimed for the present process that the annoyance of " foam" and the use of coal- oil to kill the same are obviated, and that the wire-cloth jacketing and felts used on the paper-machines are saved. We here refer the reader to the description of Conley's process for bleaching jute. Bleaching Materials composed of Hemp, Flax, etc. The following process, which is the invention of Mr. Auguste Demeurs, of Huyssinghen, Belgium, relates to an improved process of bleaching applicable to materials com- posed of hemp, flax, or other products containing stalks, straws, or the like (which generally resist bleaching by chlorine alone), and permitting the materials named to be utilized in the manufacture of the finest white paper. The process is carried into effect in the following manner : The materials having previously been subjected to steeping or boiling in lye, more or less strong according to' their quality, and then suitably bleached with chlorine gas, are introduced into the chlorous vat, or subjected to a primary washing of the pulp in the ordinary manner. When this first operation has been suitably effected — that is to say, BLEACHING MATERIALS COMPOSED OF HEMP, FLAX, ETC. 381 when the pulp has completely lost its yellow color, produced by the action of the bleaching with gas, and when the washing-water, at first acid and cloudy, has become clear and neutral — the supply of water is stopped, the washing drums or rollers being still allowed to operate until the half- stuff has attained in the vat the degree of concentration desired. It is at this moment that the straws are attacked, the color of which has become almost completely black by reason of the washing. For this purpose a caustic lye com- posed of equal parts of carbonate of soda and lime is intro- duced into the vat. This bath, the degree of which is in proportion to the kind of material to be treated, is generally prolonged for two or three hours, at the end of which time it is claimed that it will be impossible to discover in the pulp the least trace of straws. After a second washing, which destroys the brown color produced by the lye, the bleaching of the pulp is proceeded with by means of a solu- tion of chloride of lime, the quantity of which can be con- siderably reduced, because the filaments have acquired a cer- tain degree of whiteness by the action of the alkali, and there is, it is claimed, no longer any fear of the presence of straws, which resist the action of the bleaching. This process, which is claimed to be much more economi- cal than the ordinary methods, offers also the great advan- tage of bleaching the straws in such a manner that they do not reappear in the finished paper at the end of several months, which enables the manufacturer to keep his pulp in stock or on sale with impunity. Although the same result can be obtained by the use of 382 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. other alkalies, the patentee considers the caustic lye of car- bonate of soda and lime the most advantageous. The manufacturer should choose that alkali which appears to be most advantageous for his purpose. The bleaching with chlorine gas which sometimes follows the reduction of rags into half-stuff can be dispensed with and replaced by a solution of chloride of lime. The result is claimed to be a sensible diminution in the cost of the operation, its duration, and the cost of labor, without taking into account the difficulties and inconveniences heretofore experienced by a number of manufacturers, who can now employ the above-described process without requiring new plant. Bleaching Vegetable Tissues with Permanganate of Pot- ash, and Neutralizing with Oxalic Acid, Sulphite of Sodium, and Chlorine. This process, which is the invention of Mr. John A. South- mayd, of Elizabeth, N. J., is intended as a substitute for the bleaching processes usually practised in pulp-grinding engines, wherein from five to ten hundred pounds of pulp are acted on at once, and a period of eight to twelve hours is consumed in working the pulp through the bleaching liquor. In mills of large capacity from ten to twenty such engines, using from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty horse-power, are em- ployed all the time in bleaching and washing the pulp, it being absolutely necessary to remove every trace of the chlo- rine to prevent yellowness in the product. In the present invention it is claimed that any required amount of the stock BLEACHING VEGETABLE TISSUES, ETC. 383 can be bleached at one time in a single vessel, the chemicals acting in a much more rapid manner than does chlorine, and a charge of five tons, it is claimed, may be washed and bleached in about five hours. The material to be bleached may first be treated with caustic potash to soften and prepare the tissues for the action of the permanganate of potash, and such treatment it is stated is best effected in a closed boiler, where the heat and pressure of steam may be used to facilitate the mechanical and chemical action of opening the fibres. The permanga- nate attacks and decomposes the coloring matter, but does not remove it, such matter being subsequently removed by the use of the oxalic acid and sulphite of sodium. We will first describe the application of the process to the bleaching of hard spruce, and then state the modifications employed with other fibres. The first stage of the process consists in boiling the fibrous matter or tissue with a solution of permanganate of potash, in the proportion of ten to fifteen pounds of the agent to one ton of the fibre, until the same appears to be thoroughly oxidized, the operation requiring from one to two hours if performed in a closed vessel under steam pressure, but a rather longer time if boiled in an open vessel. The application of heat in this stage of the process is essential to produce the required effect ; but the subse- quent treatment may be performed in a closed or open vessel without heat, as may be most convenient. When the fibre is properly affected by the permanganate, treat it with a solution of oxalic acid and sulphite of sodium, which effects the bleaching in about two hours by the decomposition of 384 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the permanganate and coloring matter. With certain kinds of tissues this treatment suffices to discharge all the color ; but in cases where the fibre, owing to its place of growth and the presence of certain salt in its texture, is not wholly bleached by such treatment, it is desirable to prepare this acid and sulphite with the addition of a small amount of chlorine, thus securing a totally different action with the chlorine from that produced by either the acid or chlorine alone. For a ton of such fibre, the acid solution is prepared by dissolving from forty to sixty pounds of the acid and fifteen to twenty-five pounds of sulphite of sodium in two hundred gallons of water, and the fibre is preferably boiled in such solution to produce the desired effect, although the same results can be obtained by using the acid without heat, if a longer time be allowed for its action. As the spruce fibre is very difficult to bleach, other tissues can be whitened in a shorter time and with a smaller proportion of the agents employed. In treating manufactured fibres, as rags, the patentee states that he has found that, owing to the twisting of the threads and the variety of thicknesses, textures, and colors, which he subjects to treatment at one time, he is compelled to use nearly the same amount of chemicals as for hard crude fibres ; but with soft grasses and soft woods like poplar he uses only from seven to twelve pounds of permanganate, twenty-five to thirty-five pounds of acid, and seven to twelve pounds of the sulphite of sodium for each ton of the tissues. He also finds in practice that it requires about sixteen hun- dred gallons of water to soak a ton of spruce fibre, and the preparatory boiling with potash, which prepares the fibres so BLEACHING PAPER PULP, ETC. 385 peculiarly for the action of the permanganate, therefore re- quires that amount of water. When the alkali is drawn off before the bleaching operation, the bleaching agents are then applied with the water in which they are dissolved, and enough water is added to thoroughly boil the charge. Bleaching Paper Pulp by applying the Bleaching Agent in a Pulverized or Sprayed Condition. Mr. Jean B. Fessy, of Saint Etienne, Loire, France, has lately patented an invention having for its object to effect economy in the cost of bleaching by reason of the small quantity of bleaching agents required, and to save time, owing to the rapidity with which the process can be per- formed, by effecting the thorough utilization of the action which develops from the decolorizing agents when in a nas- cent condition. To attain these objects the bleaching is effected by sub- mitting the materials to be bleached to the action of a solu- tion or solutions of the decolorizing agents when in a state of pulverization, spray, or fine division, which may be effected by causing the agents, while under pressure, to come in con- tact with a resisting medium, or to be dispersed by steam or compressed air, and the materials to be bleached are sub- mitted to the action of this finely-divided agent or agents, whereby it is claimed the bleaching can be effected readily and to any required degree. The bleaching agents may be of the usual kind ; but for decolorizing paper pulp chlorous acid is preferred. 25 386 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Fig. 119 is an end elevation, and Fig. 120 a side ele- vation of the apparatus employed by Mr. Fessy for spraying the bleaching agent. Fie- 119. Fijr. 120. The apparatus employed is analogous to the pulverizer of Koerting Brothers, and is constructed as follows : The steam or other fluid passes through a tube, A D, and stopcock B into a nozzle, E, from whence it issues under pressure into a funnel, F G H J, into which opens in front of the nozzle E a nozzle, 0, through which the bleach- ing liquids to be pulverized pass by separate branches, L, provided with stopcocks M K, so that the liquids are instantly combined in any required proportions capable ot BLEACHING PAPER PULP, ETC. 387 being regulated by the stopcocks M K. The two nozzles constitute an arrangement resembling a spray-producer inclosed in the funnel or trumpet mouth F G H J, and pro- duce a thorough pulverization and mixture of the bleaching agents, which issue therefrom in a fine state of division and act instantaneously upon the pulp or other materials to be bleached or decolorized. The stopcock B on the pipe for the steam or other fluid under pressure enables the supply and pressure to be regulated to give the proper pulverization of the agents for their due action on the materials to be bleached or decolorized. The steam or other fluid under pressure, escaping by the one nozzle, draws the liquids or agents from their respective supply-pipes and nozzles in regulated quantities according to the adjustment of the stop- cocks, and instantaneously sprays and thoroughly combines the same, and this finely pulverized combination acts upon the matter to be bleached, and effects the bleaching it is claimed by instantaneous reaction. The pulverizing apparatus described is the best with which the patentee is acquainted for the purposes of this invention, the essence of which is the instantaneous pulverizing and combination of the bleaching agents which will give the reaction necessary for bleaching. The bleaching thus effected it is claimed does not deteriorate, and by its aid paper pulp can be bleached with rapidity, and it is claimed that it is possible to bleach pulp which hitherto could not be bleached in a practically available manner, and facility is also given for obtaining an absolutely regular and uniform bleaching to any desired tint, as the operation can be arrested 388 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. at any stage. There is economy in the use of the bleaching agents, as any surplus is not wasted. Bleaching in Rotaries. Rotary boilers are used in some mills instead of bleaching engines. It is true that in these rotary bleachers the chlorine gas has no means of escaping into the atmosphere; but for some classes of pulp the friction produced by the rotary motion of the boilers is objectionable, and then again the progress of the bleaching operation cannot be watched. The construction of rotary bleaching boilers is often defective and dangerous. Mr. Harrison Loring, of Boston, Massachusetts, has patented an invention which consists in so constructing and arranging the gudgeons and induction pipes for rotary bleaching boilers of all the known forms that the induction pipes pass into the boiler separate and independent of the trunnions, and the latter made hollow, in the form of an annular ring, with flanges attached to the head of the boiler, thus obtaining a larger bearing surface of the journal, greatly strengthening the head, and avoiding cutting a large hole in the centre of the same, as is neces- sary in the old form of solid gudgeon. The metal is thus distributed in a uniform manner, thereby avoiding strain of the casting in cooling, and by making the induction pipes separate, heating and expanding of the gudgeons are pre- vented. The gudgeons are so made that there shall be no communication between the outer casting and the inside of the boiler, thereby removing all liability of explosion by reason of defects in or accidental breaking of the casting. LIST OF PATENTS FOR BLEACHING PULP. 389 Fig. 121 represents a longitudinal section of Loring's invention. Fig. 122 is an end elevation. A, represents the end or head of the boiler ; b, a section of the gudgeon Fig. 121. Fisr. 122. attached to the same ; c, the stuffing-box, also attached to the boiler-head within the gudgeon; and d, the induction pipe passing through the stuffing-box. List of Patents for Bleaching Pulp, issued by the Government of the United States of America, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. No. Date. Inventor. 4,616 July 2, 1846. J. G. Kendall and J. H. Kendall 13,008 June 5, 1855. ) Reissue v H. Loring. 2,320 July 24, 1866. J 16,100 Nov. 18, 1856. J. A. Roth. 25,975 Nov. 1, 1859. 44,250 Sept. 13, 1864. J. B. Meldrum. 46,774 March 14, 1865. G. W. Billings. 51,569 Dec. 19, 1865. J. W. Dixon. 52,250 Jan. 23, 1866. J. Short. 390 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. Inventor. 53,152 March 13, 1866. ) Reissue > H. L Jones and D. S. Farquharson. 2,384 Oct. 25, 1866. ) 55,834 June 26, 1866. J. W. Dixon. 56,732 July 31, 1866. L. Dodge. 56,833 July 31, 1866. J. Tiffany and H. B. Meech. 56,860 July 31, 1866. F. Perrin. 57,649 Aug. 28, 1866. C. M. E. DuMotay. 58,935 Oct. 16, 1866. H. M. Baker. 66,353 July 2, 1867. W. C. Joy aud J. Campbell. 67,559 Aug. 6, 1867. A. J. Loisean. 67,941 Aug. 20, 1867. J. B. Biron. 70,878 Nov. 12, 1867. S. T. Merrill. 75,691 March 17, 1868. S. T. Merrill. 85,860 Jan. 12, 1869. B. Smith. 87,779 March 16, 1869. W. C. Joy and J. Campbell 95,365 Sept. 28, 1869. G. E. Marshall. 99,735 Feb. 8, 1870. S. W. Widder. 100,071 Feb. 10, 1870. E. J. Rice. 100,523 March 8, 1870. J. W. Goodwyn. 102,868 May 10, 1870. A. M. Koshbrugh. 104,781 June 28, 1870. E. Sheldon. 105,585 July 19, 1870. G. E. Marshall. 106.711 Aug. 23, 1870. H. B. Meech. 108,509 Oct. 18, 1870. C. E. O. Hara. 116,020 June 20, 1871. J. Campbell. 116,338 June 27, 1871. H. Monroe. 122,783 Jan. 16, 1872. J. W. Rossman. 125,658 April 16, 1872. J. Campbell. 153,775 Aug. 4, 1874. H. J. Lahousse. 162,043 April 13, 1875. G. W. Dubuisson. 165,307 July 6, 1875. E. Conley. 166,117 July 27, 1875. H. Loring. 266,782 Sept. 11, 1882. A. Demeurs. 294,619 March 4, 1884. E. Mermite. 302,055 Aug. 5, 1884. J. A. Southmayd. 307,390 Oct, 28, 1884. E. A. D. Guichard. 311,425 Jan. 27, 1885. J. B. Fessy. 312,525 Feb. 17, 1885. P. SouderSjC. Smith, H. C. Craighead, and N. Souders. 321,452 July 7, 1885. G. H. Pond. 322,655 July 21, 1885. A. W. Wilson. BEATING. 391 CHAPTER XII. beating — beating engines — list of patents for pulp engines and bed-plates. Beating. The paper may not be made in the beaters as some manu- facturers claim it is, but the beating-engine department in the paper-mill is a very important one, and in addition to being roomy and well lighted it should be kept in an orderly and cleanly condition. The foreman of the beating department should be a tho- roughly practical and trustworthy man, upon whom the superintendent or the owner of the mill can rely implicitly that all orders will be carried out exactly as to the quanti- ties and as to the order and time as given. It is one of the most delicate and important operations in paper-making to determine the composition of the pulp, or the relative proportion of each grade, the combination of which is to supply the beating engine, and the responsibility should rest solely with the superintendent of the mill, who alone should decide the matter. Papers are usually made upon orders for a certain pattern, and it is important to impart to them the qualities required, although it must be admitted that they are not always com- patible. It is for the manufacturer to appreciate the prac- 392 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. tical value of these conditions and then to regulate the general work of the mill accordingly. Taking a certain theoretical composition for his pulp he must see whether the cost to which the paper will come is not too high. The superintendent ought, therefore, to have in his mind, or near at hand, everything necessary for his information ; the cost of the raw materials, and the expenses of cutting, boiling, bleaching, loading, sizing, and coloring. He should also see whether the supply will allow him to employ a certain grade in preference to another. Some of these items of cost can, of course, be varied when the pulp, such as wood, straw, etc., is purchased already prepared. When these various points have been settled he must foresee the difficulties that may be met in making the paper by machinery. If the paper is to be glazed or colored, will such and such a material not be apt to introduce too many lumps, etc., into the pulp, and will this not result in wearing out the wires and felts too rapidly \ It is in the matter of the composition of pulps that the knowledge of the successful manufacturer is displayed. Before settling the question he must indeed have gone over all those involved in the art of paper-making. It generally requires but a few minutes' reflection for one who thoroughly understands the capabilities of his mill. The foreman of the beating department ought to pay attention so as to see that each lot of pulp contains the grades required for his working lists for the day, and a sufficient quantity for the number of lots of stuff he is ordered to prepare. The assistants bring BEATING. 393 in the fixed quantity of pulp to be beaten and throw it into the tank of the beating engine, and when this is filled wash- ing is commenced and continued for a sufficient length of time. When the pulp has arrived at such a degree of tenuity that it may be in danger of passing between the wires of the strainer this is closed and the washing ceases. When animal-sized papers are being made, a sufficient quantity of hyposulphite of sodium or "antichlorine" to neu- tralize the chlorine is introduced just as soon as the washing is completed. But with engine-sized paper the loading material should first be added after the washing is finished ; then the size is introduced, then the alum, and finally the coloring matter. When the washing is completed the washing drum is raised and the beating roll is then gradually lowered upon the plate ; but before the roll is lowered the engineer must be satisfied that the chlorine in all its combinations has been thoroughly eliminated. There are numerous methods of testing for chlorine. Small slips of blue litmus paper are sometimes used for this purpose, the washing being continued as long as the blue litmus color of the slips is changed to red after being im- mersed for a moment or so in the contents of the engine trough. A more sensitive method by which the presence of chlo- rine can be established with greater certainty is based on the characteristic color which iodine produces in contact with starch. 394 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. In order to test the contents of an engine by the latter method a handful of the pulp is taken out, pressed so that the excess of liquor runs off, while leaving the pulp still moist, when a few drops of a solution prepared as follows are poured on it: J oz. of starch is mixed with sufficient cold water to. form it into a paste, enough boiling water being then added to make the mixture up to one pint when two drachms of iodide of potassium are added and thoroughly incorporated; the test is ready for use when cold. If chlo- rine is present in the pulp a few drops of this bleach test will color the stuff blue-black ; but if the stuff is free from chlorine no change in color will take place. As soon as the wash-water is cut off from the engine and the washing drum is raised the engineer commences the beating by lowering the beating roll sufficiently to begin the operation, the space between the knives being gradually curtailed as the operation proceeds. The theory of the beat- ing process is that the fibres are not to be cut but are to be drawn out to their utmost extent by the action of the knives and the friction among the mass of material itself while in the trough of the beating engine. This theory cannot be fully carried out for ordinary grades of papers ; but where the number of engines and the capacity of the mill and margin of profit will allow it the principle should be worked up to as closely as possible. Long pulp is produced by blunt knives and slow working ; short pulp by sharp knives and quick work. The beating of the stuff into pulp is usually timed accord- ing to the thickness of the paper to be made from it, and in BEATING. 395 direct proportion to the uniformity of time consumed in the preparation of a lot of pulp to be made at a specified weight, will the regularity in quality and weight run on the wire of the machine. Three to five hours may often be sufficient time for run- ning off a beater of pulp to be used for thick paper ; but twenty-four hours or even longer will be required when the pulp is to be used for the thinnest sheets. The touch is sometimes relied upon by those having con- siderable experience, to determine the fineness of the pulp ; but this fact is best determined by the "proof." A cylin- drical vessel made of copper, zinc, or gutta percha is gener- ally employed for this purpose, a small quantity of the pulp being placed in the vessel and diluted with a large quantity of water ; as the thin mixture is slowly poured off and flows over the rim as a very thin sheet, the fibres of the pulp will take a direction parallel to that of the current of water, at the point where it flows over the rim, thus allowing the length of the fibre to be determined. If the pulp looks cloudy and quite a quantity of little white points or lumps remain visible, it will be necessary to make these imperfections disappear, and for this purpose the engineer lowers the roll so that the extremity of its blades almost impinge those of the plate, but they must not actually touch. In fifteen or twenty minutes the lumps can usually be brushed out under the action of the roll. Many manufacturers are handicapped in their efforts to produce the best qualities of the different classes of papers by having too small a number of beating engines in their 396 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. mills, as the pulp in such cases must be worked off too hastily. Much, however, depends upon the workmen in the beating department, whether the pulp is of the desired quality or not. It is possible to work even a comparatively weak material into a reasonably strong paper, if care is exercised to properly handle it in the beating engine ; but, as has been previously intimated, " if the stuff is not correctly treated, such as by sending out stuff for laid paper too fast and long, or too soft and carrying too much water, the weight will vary, and the paper crush at the couchers and stick at the press rolls, causing all sorts of trouble and confusion to the machine man, and a considerable amount of waste." When the beating is about three-quarters completed the loading materials, the sizing, and coloring matters are thrown into the trough of the engine ; and while the pulp is finish- ing, the mixture of the contents takes place, this, however, may often be facilitated by stirring. When the lot of pulp is finished the engineer lifts the plug and the pulp is run off through larger pipes made of copper or other suitable material into the supply vat of the paper machine. The trough of the engine is then carefully rinsed and the plug replaced; after which the engine is in readiness for the commencement of another operation. The different materials used for the manufacture of paper, of course, require to be treated in the beating engine accord- ing to their nature ; pulp made from old paper requiring only a thorough brushing so as to prevent any small pieces of paper from passing through without being reduced to fibre. BEATING. 397 If the waste papers or " imperfections" are to be mixed with rags, the latter must be thoroughly reduced before the paper stuff is added. Bleached straw and wood pulps, as has been previously stated, are already reduced to fibres, and are generally only mixed in beating engines, some of which in leading mills have only a smooth bed plate. " Anticlilorine :" Its Preparation. Hyposulphite of sodium, or so-called " antichlorine" is used in paper-making to discharge the bleach from the pulp. There are several ways of procuring hyposulphite of soda. Very fine crystals may be obtained by passing sulphurous acid gas, well washed, into a strong solution of sodium carbonate, forming neutral sulphite of soda, and then digesting the solution with sulphur at a gentle heat. The following simple method of preparing antichlorine will answer for most paper-mills : Have a large square wooden box or cask constructed, and place it upon a plat- form about 3 feet and 6 inches high. On the inside of the box or cask nail a sufficient number of blocks to support two movable frames, which are to be covered with old close fishing seine or netting made of twine; upon each frame there are to be placed 250 pounds of the common crystal soda of commerce, care being observed to have the meshes of the screens sufficiently close to prevent the soda from falling through. A tight cover is then put on the box or cask, and "daubed" or luted around with soft clay so as to make the cover air-tight. It is preferable to attach an air- 398 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. cock to the cover so as to allow the air to escape from the interior of the receptacle ; but two or three small holes made in the clay luting will answer every purpose. The receptacle containing the soda is connected by means of a suitable pipe with a retort into which are placed eleven pounds of sulphur. In a short time after tire is started under the retort the sulphur will commence to melt, at which point a piece of red-hot metal should be thrust into the sulphur, the fumes from the burning of which will pass through the connecting pipe into the receptacle containing the soda which will be thus converted into an antichlorine. When the first eleven pounds of sulphur are consumed, another eleven pounds should be placed in the retort, as the five hundred pounds of soda will require twenty-two pounds of sulphur for its complete conversion into hyposulphite of sodium. The antichlorine is then dissolved in the box or cask, and drawn off into carboys, which are then taken to the beating-engine department of the mill. Upon a fairly large scale hyposulphite of sodium is now prepared by treating tank waste liquor, or red liquors, with sulphurous acid obtained by the combustion of pyrites. The sulphurous gas is passed up a wrought-iron tower packed with coke, down which the liquors are run. This process yields a cheap product and is preferable to the old method of treating tank waste. BEATING ENGINES. 399 Beating Engines. The Kingsland Palp Engine. The Kingsland pulp engine made by Messrs. Cyrus Currier & Sons, Newark, New Jersey, is shown in Figs. 123 to 126. Fig. 123 is a perspective view, Fig. 124 a front view, Fig. 123. wJKKmm, 400 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Fig. 125 a vertical cross section, and Fig. 126 a front view of the plate of the Kingsland engine. The half-stuff descends through the pipe B, Fig. 124, and passes into a circular chamber, the sides of which are formed of two plates, 0, Q, provided with steel teeth; these are stationary, and can be brought closer together, or placed further apart, by the handle and gearing, 6r, A, C, E, Fig. 122, so as to grind the half-stuff in pulp of the desired length of fibre. The threaded bolts V, passed through lugs D, bring up the back plate 0, while F forms guides for E. Between and Q a plate, P, is placed; it has steel teeth, and is rotated rapidly between them by a shaft and belt. This shaft works in journals, and has no collars, so that it can adjust itself to the varying distances between the outer plates. The pulp, -when ground, passes out through pipe I in a continuous stream. Usual Construction of Beating Engines. Beating engines are very similar in construction to wash- ing engines. A beater-roller set with knives around its periphery is used in combination with a bed-plate, also set with knives, the parts being operated in a vat. or trough, in which a constant circulation of the material to be pulped is maintained. Heretofore, ordinarily, the material has been circulated horizontally around in an upright partition termed a " mid- fellow," and the beater-roll and bed-plate have been placed in the alley or channel between this mid-fellow and one side of the tank. The beater-roll lifted the material over a sort BEATING ENGINES. 401 of dam (termed a " back-fall"), and the material then flowed by the action of gravity around the mid-fellow, and entered again between the beater-roll and the bed-plate. It has, however, been proposed to dispense with the mid-fellow, and have the material returned under the back-fall and bed-plate. In either case, however, the circulating force is that of gravity due to the piling up of the liquid or semi-liquid on the side of the back-fall opposite to the beater-roll. Con- sequently, the flow is comparatively feeble, and it is neces- sary to use a large quantity of water in order to prevent the fibre in suspension from depositing. In the invention patented by Mr. John Hoyt, of Manchester, N. H., and shown in Figs. 127 to 130, a much more rapid and vigor- ous circulation is claimed to be maintained. The beater- roll in this invention is placed at one end of the vat, which is of a depth sufficient to contain it, and the other part of the vat is divided by a horizontal partition or divi- sion, which extends from the beater-roll nearly to the other end. The material to be pulped is carried around by the beater-roll, and is delivered into the upper section above the partition. It flows over the partition, then passes down around the end of the same, and returns through the lower section of the vat to the beater-roll. The bed-plate is placed at the bottom of the vat under the beater-roll. The beater-roll not only draws in the material, creating a partial vacuum in the lower section of the vat, but delivers it into the upper section with considerable force, impelling it forward very rapidly. By the aid of this more rapid as well as more vigorous circulation not only is the 26 402 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. material returned more quickly, and, therefore, acted upon more often by the beater-roll in the same time, but it may be worked with a much less quantity of water, and thereby very important advantages may be secured. These advan- tages are stated to be, first, in the improved quality of the product, for when a considerable body of the fibrous mate- rial is drawn between the knives the different pieces are rubbed together, and thus disintegrated without destroying the length and felting quality of the fibre, whereas when the pulp is thin, the pieces are ground individually, as it were, between the knives, and the integrity of the fibre in large measure destroyed ; secondly, in the greater quantity of pulp which can be prepared in a medium of given size, owing to the larger proportion of fibrous material in the charge ; and thirdly, in avoiding the liability of the fibrous material depositing out of the liquid, and lodging in the channels. Hoytfs Beating Engine. Figs. 127 to 130 represent a beating engine constructed in accordance with Hoyt's invention. Fig. 127 is a plan with part of the casing or vat removed ; Fig. 128, a vertical longitudinal section; Fig. 129, a plan of the bed-plate; Fig. 130, a partial view in cross section. The cylindrical roll A, provided with knives, B, set radially in the periphery, is mounted concentrically on the shaft C, which is journalled in the sides of the vat D. The vat is of any suitable length, and in depth about equals the diameter of the roll, which is set in the vat close to one end. The BEATING ENGINES. 403 ends of the vat are rounded. The beater-roll is slightly eccentric to the curvature of the end of the vat, in order to Fig. 127. Fig. 128. give a clearance (see Fig. 128) and allow the crude pulp to be lifted with less difficulty. The bed-plate knives E are set in the shoe F, which is fixed in or to the bottom of the vat under the beater-roll. 404 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The knives are separated by strips or blocks, G, of wood or other suitable material, and a number of these knives and Fig. 129. Fig. 130. strips are fastened together by a curved bolt or rivet, H. As shown, the knives on each side of the middle are fastened together. The shoe F has flanges /, which, are radial with respect to the axis of the beater-roll and form a dovetail. The two sets of knives with their spacing-strips are placed in the dovetail and are spread apart by the wedges iT and L. Those marked TTare of wood, the wedge L of iron. The wedges K are first inserted and the wedge L is driven be- tween them. When the bed-plate knives become worn they can be set out by withdrawing the wedges, and placing strips or pieces under the knives. As they are set out the two sets are drawn toward each other, owing to the inclina- tion of the flanges /, and it is necessary therefore to plane off a little of the wooden wedges K before replacing them and the iron wedge. The bed-plate knives are placed radi- ally with respect to the axis of the beater-roll, and are adjusted in nearly radial planes. The shaft of the beater- roll turns in close boxes, which are further provided with collars, M, in order to make the joint liquid-tight. Any BEATING ENGINES. 405 ordinary or suitable means can be used to adjust the shaft of the roll. Between the beater-roll and the opposite end of the vat is the horizontal partition N, which extends to within a short distance of the end of the vat. There is an upright inclined plate, P, which is brought at the upper edge into close proximity to the beater-knives, but does not touch them. The vat is provided with the usual valve for with- drawing the pulp and also with the pipe for supplying water. In the sides of the vat opposite the ends of the bed- plate knives are curved slots, through which the knives and wedges can be inserted and withdrawn. In operation these slots are closed by blocks, Q, of corresponding shape, so as to fit the hole. The blocks are held in place by the plates R, which are bolted over the slots after the blocks have been put in place. The operation of the engine is as follows : The beater- roll and bed-plate knives being properly adjusted, the vat is filled with the rags or fibrous material to be pulped and the proper quantity of water. The beater-roll being revolved at the proper speed — say, for a roll four feet in diameter, at the speed of one hundred and twenty revolutions per minute — the rags and liquid are drawn between the knives, are carried up by the beater-roll, and thrown over the edge of the plate P. They flow around the partition N with considerable velocity and return again and again to be acted upon by the knives. The roll is revolved until the pulp is properly re- duced. 406 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Umpher stem's Beating Engine. As we have previously explained, pulp engines generally consist of a trough having straight sides and semicircular ends, an operating roll, a co-operating bottom plate and back- fall, the trough being partly divided by a longitudinal par- tition, called the " mid-fellow" or " mid-feather," around which the pulp flows from the back of the roll to its front, passing between the roll and bottom plate over the back-fall, and again around the " mid-fellow" to the front of the roll, from whence the operation is repeated. Such a construction and arrangement of parts are found in practice to be ineffi- cient, the pulp nearest the circumference of the trough hav- ing a greater distance to travel than that portion near the mid-fellow, that in its repeated revolutions is not so often acted upon, and the mass is therefore unequally treated. The invention patented by Mr. William Umpherston, of Leith, Scotland, is designed to overcome this difficulty ; and it consists in providing a longitudinal and direct passage beneath the back-fall, whereby the pulp, in its delivery from the back of the roll and movement through the passage to the front of the roll, is directed as through an inverted siphon and pressed through the passage by its superincum- bent weight at the terminus of the back-fall. As we have already several times described the minor details of construction common to this class of machines, we shall now simply outline a machine containing such essential parts as are necessary to understand Umpherston's improve- ments. BEATING ENGINES. 407 In Fig. 131 the rotating roll A has a surface adapted for grating, rasping, or filing, and the fixed bottom plate B is also provided with a similar surface co-operating with that upon the roll A, the distance between such parts being regulated by a vertical adjustment of the latter. The form of the back-fall G is similar to that of ordinary pulping- machines ; but in the present invention a return-passage, Z>, is provided beneath the fall, so that the semi-fluid contents that pass over the back-fall are directed by the return-pas- sage to the front of the roll A, the superincumbent weight of the mass of pulp as it is delivered from the back-fall press- ing the mass along this return-passage. The relative posi- tion of the drum-washer or cleaning-cylinder is shown at E, and a hood, G, is also provided to prevent the pulp from being thrown out of the machine. It will be seen that Umpherston's construction provides 408 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. for. an equal distribution and treatment of every portion of the material acted upon, which insures rapidity and uniform- ity of treatment. This engine is manufactured by the J. Morton Poole Co., of Wilmington, Del., who state that they have one of Um- pherston's engines of 10 cwt. capacity now (1886) in success- ful operation at the Rockland Mill of the Jessup & Moore Paper Co., near Wilmington, Del. It is claimed for this engine that it occupies only about one-half of the floor space required for an engine of the ordi- nary kind of equal capacity. The movement of the pulp in it is uniform, and no stirring is necessary to prevent lodg- ments. It is claimed that the pulp circulates freely, although furnished thicker than can be done in engines of the ordinary kind of equal capacity. The Jordan pulp engine made by Messrs. J. H. Home & Sons, Lawrence, Mass., and also by the Windsor Locks Machine Co., Windsor Locks, Conn., the Brightman Engine, made by the Cleveland Paper Company, Cleveland, O., the Jeffers Refining Engine, built by the Pusey & Jones Com- pany, Wilmington, Del., as well as a large number of other engines which will be enumerated in the list of patents at the close of this section, are so well known to the trade that it is scarcely necessary to describe them in detail in this volume. List of Patents for Pulp Engines and Bed Plates, issued by the Govern- ment of the United States of America, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. No. Date. Inventor. 1,760 Sept. 5, 1840. W. Dickenson. 1,813 Oct. 10, 1840. R. Daniels. 6,784 Oct. 9, 1849. W. Clarke. LIST OF PATENTS FOR PULP ENGINES AND BED PLATES. 409 No. Date. Inventor. 8,261 July 29, 1861. J. C. Fonda. 22,707 Jan. 25, 1859. F. Stiles, Jr., and J. N. Crehore. 34,214 Jan. 21, 1862. J. Percy. 26,387 Dec. 6, 1859. F. Vandeventer. 43,707 June 7, 1864. G. A. Corser. 46,893 March 21, 1865. J. G. Fuller. 47,739 May 16, 1865. T. Lindsay. 47,849 May 23, 1865. O. Morse. 52,941 Feb. 27, 1866. J. Easton, Jr., and F. Thiry. 57,355 Aug. 21, 1866. J. McCracken. 60,645 Dec. 18, 1866. J. M. Shew. 70,878 Nov. 12, 1867. S. F. Merrill. 76,270 March 31, 1868. J. Taggart. 85,386 Dec. 29, 1868. D. Hunter. 86,858 Feb. 9, 1869. W. Parkinson. 94,816 Sept. 14, 1869. P. Frost. 94,843 Sept. 14, 1869. P. Rose. 98,691 Jan. 11, 1870. E. Hawkins. 101,008 March 22, 1870. A. Hankey. 105,728 July 26, 1870. T. Rose and R. Gibson. 115,274 May 30, 1871. J. Bridge. 116,039 June 20, 1871. R. M. Fletcher. 116,045 June 20, 1871. P. Frost. 116,978 July 11, 1871. H. B. Meech. 117,122 July 18, 1871. J. Taylor. 118,092 Aug. 15, 1871. G. Ames. 118,767 Sept. 5, 1871. E. Wilkinson. 119,107 Sept. 19, 1871. B. F. Barker. 120,265 Oct. 24, 1871. ) Reissue Y S. L. Gould. 4,976 July 16, 1872. i 120,787 Nov., 7, 1872. Wm. R. Smith. 120,837 Nov. 14, 1871. N. W. Taylor and J. H. Brightman 121,780 Dec. 12, 1871. J. Hatch. 121,970 Dec. 19, 1871. C. Smith. 124,612 March 12, 1872. T. Nugent. 128,788 July 9, 1872. J. M. Burghardt and F. Burghardt. 130,067 July 30, 1872. T. Nugent. 135,631 Feb. 11, 1873." G. A. Corser. 144,557 Nov. 11, 1873. S. Moore and R. H. Hurlburt. 150,147 April 28, 1874. W. B. Fowler. 151,992 June 16, 1874. A. S. Lyman. 153,774 Aug. 4, 1874. W. Kennedy. 410 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. Inventor. 155,152 Sept. 22, 1874. F. Genin. 157,625 • Dec. 8, 1874. M. Meyer. 160,746 March 16, 1875. M. R. Bonjin. 160,996 March 23, 1875. B. F. Barker. 163,638 May 25, 1875. A. Cushman. 166,519 Aug. 10, 1875. A. Gardner. 163,638 May 25, 1875. F. A. Cushman. 174,805 March 14, 1876. S. S. Gould. 178,205 May 30, 1876. W. E. Taylor. 182,891 Oct. 3, 1876. J. Chase. 183,349 Oct. 17, 1876. J. S. Warren. 189,671 April 7, 1876. J. S. Warren. 190,373 May 1, 1877. J. H. Robinson. 191,898 June 12, 1877. E. Sumner. 194,824 Sept. 4, 1877. ) - Reissue [ E. D. G. Jones. 8,609 March 4, 1879. J 199,940 Feb. 5, 1878. A. A. Simonds. 200,828 March 5, 1878. C. L. Hamilton. 208,292 Sept. 24, 1878. J. Carroll. 210,937 Dec. 17, 1878. J. H. Horne. 213,640 March 25, 1879. P. P. Emory. 216,349 June 10, 1879. W. H. Russ'ell. 216,505 June 17, 1879. C. Bremaker. 221,812 Nov. 18, 1879. A. Hankey. 224,079 Feb. 3, 1880. G. A. Corser. 225,976 March 30, 1880. G. H. Ennis. 226,098 March 30, 1880. O. Morse. 229,201 June 22, 1880. J. Taylor. 232,460 Sept. 21, 1880. C. E.*B. Cooke, J Hibbert. Cooke and G 239,350 March 29, 1881. A. J. Shipton. 244,220 July 12, 1881. A. Forbes. 246,528 Aug. 30, 1881. E. Mather. 248,707 Oct. 25, 1881. H. P. Case and E. L. Granger. 249,257 Nov. 8, 1881. A. C. Rice. 253,447 Feb. 7, 1882. W. E. Taylor. 253,606 Feb. 14, 1882. J. H. Horne. 254,251 Feb. 28, 1882. J. R. Abbe. 256,352 April 11, 1882. G. Miller. 273,801 March 13, 1883. C. S. Barton. 277,268 May 8, 1883. S. L. Gould, 282,818 Aug. 7, 1883. W. Whitely. LIST OF PATENTS FOR PULP ENGINES AND BED PLATES. 411 No. Date. Inventor. 286,216 Oct. 9, 1883. O. Morse. 288,234 . Nov. 13, 1883. A. Hankey. 289,235 Nov. 27, 1883. G. W. Cress man. 297,037 April 15, 1884. 1 Reissue >\V. Umpherston. 10,658 Nov. 3, 1885. J 299,307 May 27, 1884. AV. Whitely. 302,399 July 22, 1884. A. Hankey. 303,374 Aug. 12, 1884. J. Hoyt. 307,237 Oct. 28, 1884. C. F. Taylor. 308,255 Nov. 18, 1884. G. F. Harlan. 310,230 Jan. 6, 1885. A. A. Simonds. 312,390 Feb. 17, 1885. J. F. Seiberling. 320,612 June 23, 1885. H. Allen and L. S. Mason. 320,721 June 23, 1885. F. S. Taylor. 412 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. CHAPTER XIII. sizing engine sizing — bleaching resin and preparing size therefrom surface sizing hard sizing paper in process of manufacture — " double-sized" paper tub sizing with benzine and resin sizing the surface of printing paper materials used in sizing paper water- proof sizings for paper. Sizing. Prior to the introduction of paper- making machinery the sheets were sized only with gelatine or animal size ; but resin or vegetable size is now commonly used; it is added to the pulp in the beating engine, and greatly facilitates the manufacture of paper in continuous sheets. The present century has been rich in great mechanical and chemical achievements, and the adaptation of inventions to industrial pursuits ; one improvement has engendered many others, consequently we should not be surprised at the large number of inventions relating to paper manufac- ture which were a natural sequence to the invention and perfection of our modern paper-making machines. The first attempts at sizing pulp in the beating engine commenced at the beginning of this century; the experi- ments of Braconnot, d'Arcet, and others leading to the preparation of resin or vegetable size. ENGINE SIZING. 413 Papers may be roughly divided into, two classes, viz., " tub sized" and "engine sized;" but as most papers, even tub sized, excepting blotting- or water-leaf paper, are more or less sized in the engine we shall first speak of the latter method. Engine Sizing. The intimate mixture with the pulp and precipitation upon the fibres of a substance which, when desiccated, will virtually fill the interstices between the fibres, and at the same time be comparatively water-proof, is the theory upon which engine sizing is based, and the substance commonly employed for this purpose is a mixture of resin soap treated with alum. The thorough incorporation of this body with the fibre is best produced by first adding an aqueous solution of resin soap to the pulp in the trough of the engine, and then, after an intimate mixture of the pulp and soap has been made, a solution of alum is run in. A combination of resin and alumina and of sulphate of sodium is formed by a double decomposition in the pulp. The resinate of alumina thus intimately incorporated with the pulp under- goes a fusion when the paper passes over the drying cylinders and communicates to the paper its hydrofuge property. When there is added to the sizing a small proportion of starch the latter in swelling draws together and unites the fibres of the paper and renders it less spongy. The resin soap is usually prepared in a wooden tub or 414 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. iron-jacketed boiler having a capacity of about 250 or 300 gallons, which is a convenient size for dissolving two barrels of resin ; steam is admitted near the bottom of the tub or boiler through a suitable pipe. The desired quantity of water having been run into the receptacle, carbonate or caustic soda dissolved and previously strained is next added to the water, and the contents of the tub or boiler raised to the boiling point, when the finely powdered resin is gradu- ally thrown in, and the contents constantly stirred with a paddle for two hours, or until the resin is entirely dissolved. It is desirable not to use too small a proportion of water in the preparation of the resin soap, as the impurities of both the resin and the soda in such a case will be mixed with the soap. Some manufacturers of paper prefer to dissolve the resin in a solution of soda-ash of such concentration that its specific gravity is greater than that of the resin soap. The quantity of water required to dissolve the resin and produce the desired concentration is a matter for experiment, and is readily discovered after a few trials. The impurities of the soda and resin fall to the bottom of the boiler after about two hours' boiling and stirring ; the resin soap remains on top, and can be taken off in a clear condition. Should a large quantity of soda remain on the bottom of the tub or boiler after the soap is removed, more resin or less solution must be used next time ; but if the resin is not properly dissolved after the boiling has been continued for the usual length of time, the proportion of soda should be increased. ENGINE SIZING. 415 The proportion of resin used to each pound of soda-ash varies in different mills, three, four, and even five pounds of resin being used to each pound of soda-ash. The proportions of resin, soda-ash, and water can be best determined by practical experience, as no prescription could be devised which would be suitable to every case. M. d'Arcet, who modified the proportions recommended by M. Braconnot, recommended for the preparation of the resinous soap : — Powdered resin . . . . . . .4.80 parts. Crystals of soda at 80° (Fr. alkaliraeter) . . 2.22 " Water 100 " Theoretically speaking, only 2.45 parts of alum would be required to precipitate the resin ; but the waters, which are almost always calcareous, neutralize a part of the alum. Crystals of soda are much more expensive than soda-ash, but on account of their greater purity they are sometimes preferred to soda-ash. At the present day the resin soap is preferably made by dissolving ordinary resin with a solution of carbonate of soda under a boiling heat in a steam-jacketed boiler, the class of paper to be made governing the quality of resin to be employed. The boiling usually requires from one to eight hours, according to the relative proportions of soda-ash and resin used — the greater the proportion of soda- ash employed, the less the time required for boiling — the process being completed when a sample of the soap formed is completely soluble in water. As we have previously intimated, the proportion of resin used to each pound of carbonate of soda differs in almost 416 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. every mill; but about three pounds of resin to one pound of carbonate of soda is the usual proportion. It is really waste to use a greater quantity of soda than is absolutely neces- sary to thoroughly dissolve the resin, as it only consumes its equivalent of alum, without yielding any beneficial results. We have several times mentioned carbonate of soda (washing soda) as the material used for dissolving the resin, but caustic soda is used in some mills, and soda-ash in others, all being about equally suitable. The resin soap is cooled after boiling by running it off into iron-tanks, where it is allowed to settle, the soap forming as a dense syrup-like mass, and the coloring matters and other admixtures of the resin rising to the top are easily removed. It is important to run off the mother-liquor containing the excess of alkali, for when the soap is used it consumes alum to neutralize it. After the impurities have been removed from the tank containing the resin soap, the latter is dissolved in water. If, owing to imperfect boiling, the resin is not thoroughly dissolved, a small quantity of carbonate of soda is added to the water used for dissolving the soap. In many mills where starch is used for stiffening purposes the soap is mixed with a quantity (about 1| part of starch to 1 part of resin) of starch paste, which is prepared in a separate vessel by dissolving farina in hot water. Some manufacturers mix the starch paste with the kaolin in lieu of mixing it with the resin. ENGINE SIZING. 417 The mixtures of either resin soap and starch paste, or of starch paste and kaolin after being sifted very carefully, are in readiness to be used. From 3 to 4 pounds of the mixture of resin soap and starch paste to each 100 pounds of dry pulp are about the proportions in which the size is generally used ; but the quantity added to the pulp in the trough of the beating engine, of course, depends upon whether the paper is to be soft-sized or hard-sized. The mixture of soap and starch after being dissolved in water, and in some cases even without being dissolved, is put into the beating engine in which the pulp is circulating, and after being thoroughly mixed with the pulp the solu- tion of alum or sulphate of alumina is added. The " crystallized alum" used by paper manufacturers is valuable in the sizing process only on account of the sulphate of alumina which it contains, the other ingredients, sulphate of potash, water, etc., contained in the alum exerting no influence upon the resin soap, are consequently of no value. The concentrated alum, which always contains the greatest percentage of sulphate of alumina and other sulphates which have a direct action on the resin soap, are the most economical for use, being proportionately cheaper than crystallized alum ; such concentrated alums as " Pearl" alum, etc., being especially employed. Some paper-makers do not object to the presence of iron, for ordinary purposes, provided it is in the state of a proto- salt, or in the ferrous state, and is accompanied by more or less free acid. Many of the concentrated alums and alumi- 27 418 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. nous cakes contain the iron as a ferric salt, and this is readily decomposed, depositing the ferric oxide and making more or less discoloration, which is very objectionable when clear, white papers are desired. The acid alums are not altogether objectionable because they are very largely used, especially for all common papers, such as news and low grade books ; and the bulk of paper made is no doubt of this character. They are especially important, not only as being more active in sizing than neutral or basic alum, with the same, or larger, percentage of sulphate of alumina, but are particularly use- ful in developing the aniline blue employed in common papers for the purpose of correcting the color. Acid alums are also useful in sizing when the water employed is at all hard, as the free acid more or less neutralizes the hardness of the water. The best type of a concentrated acid alum is Harrison's " Lion" alum, which contains from 52 to 55 per cent, of neutral sulphate of alumina and from one to three per cent, of free acid. This alum is used with the greatest success by numbers of manufacturers of common papers, such as news and low grade book papers. " Aluminous cake" is used in many mills as a substitute for alum. If aluminous cake consisted entirely of sulphate of alumina it would be a most valuable substitute for alum in the sizing process, but the great objection to it for fine and colored papers is that it sometimes contains an excess of free sulphuric acid and soluble iron ; the sulphuric acid not only discharging some colors from the pulp but also destroy- ing the brass wire-cloths of the paper machines. The solution of either alum or aluminous cake is prepared ENGINE SIZING. 419 in a lead-lined receptacle of suitable size, and furnished with a pipe for heating the contents of the tank by steam. The quantity of alum or aluminous cake used varies with the sulphates themselves and with the class of pulps to which they are added, and as a large number of vegetable and aniline colors are brightened by sulphate of alumina it is desirable for many kinds of colored papers to add the solu- tion of alum or aluminous cake to the pulps in quantities which will be in excess of those required for precipitating the resin upon the fibres. Litmus papers may be employed to detect a surplus of either resin soap or sulphates in the pulp : if, after the incorporation of the sizing with the pulp it turns red litmus paper blue, the proportion of alum or aluminous cake is insufficient, and for uncolored papers these materials should be increased until the pulp turns blue litmus paper red. Practical experience is always the best guide in regulating the proportion of alum and other chemicals to be used, for the reason that there is such a difference in the strength of various alums, etc., employed, and in the nature of the wash- water, etc., used in various mills, that directions which would prove effective in one case might result disastrously in another. We could here again remark that neither the solution of resin soap, alum, nor any other chemical should be run into the engine without being previously strained, either through a wire gauze or flannel cloth, and the size, alum, kaolin, coloring matters, etc., should be accurately weighed or other- wise determined. 420 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Various substances have been employed in special mills as a substitute for resin in the sizing process ; but as most of these lack that most important requisite — economy — none of them have as yet come into extended use. Wax dissolved with a concentrated solution of caustic soda and precipitated with alum has been proposed, and makes an excellent size, but its costliness would confine its use to the highest grades of fine papers. The addition of about 12 pounds of gum tragacanth to each 500 pounds of resin has been proposed and used in preparing some kinds of engine-sized papers, and imparts to them, it is claimed, an appearance resembling tub-sized papers. Bleaching Resin and Preparing Size therefrom. The following method of preparing resin size was patented in 1868, by Mr. Thomas Gray, of London, Eng. Operating on any quantity of resin, say eight hundred pounds, throw into a copper or sheet-iron boiler forty gallons of water ; dissolve into it," in heating, about seventy pounds of salt of soda, or other alkaline salt, agitating and stirring the mixture till perfect dissolution of the alkaline salt occurs. When this result is attained, gradually add the resin in small quantities, stirring the material, and waiting till all is completely dissolved before throwing in any more. When the whole is thoroughly mixed turn off the steam, and the first operation being over proceed with the prepara- tion of the size. Having previously dissolved forty pounds of common salt SURFACE SIZING OR SIZING IN SHEET AND IN WEB. 421 in fifty gallons of cold water, take a boiler twice or three times more capacious than that used for preparing the resin, pour in together with the resin, yet hot, one-half part of the salt water prepared, adding thereto thirty gallons of cold water. Then apply heat, stirring the mixture by means of a spattle, and a homogeneous whitish mass will soon be obtained. Continue stirring until the mixture assumes a very intense dark color, much like that of wine, which change is pro- duced by the perfect union of the prepared resin and the salt at that moment. Let the mixture settle, and afterward draw off the liquid portion. Then add some cold water and the remainder of salt water and allow the mixture to again settle, and after decanting the supernatant liquor the mixture is ready for use. Surface Sizing or Sizing in the Sheet and in the Web. Papers to be used for writing purposes are commonly coated with animal size, which is as colorless as possible in order not to injure the color of the paper. Hide and skin trimmings, cartilages, and membranes from animals slaughtered for food or to supply the hides and skins used for the manufacture of leather; hog, hare, and rabbit skins, the hoofs and ears of oxen, sheep, and goats, parch- ment refuse, eel-skins, etc., form the principal sources of supply from which the materials used for the preparation of 422 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. animal size used in the manufacture of writing papers are derived. The treatments which the materials receive in the prepara- tion of size vary with their nature and condition and the variety and grade of papers to which the size is to be applied. Speaking generally, and having in view the sizing of sheets of paper by the hand method of sizing, the materials named are usually washed, then steeped in lime-water, and afterwards perfectly cleansed from it by washing in acidulated and then in pure water. In order to convert the fat into an insoluble lime soap, the material is next gently boiled in eight or ten times its weight of water for about six hours, during which time it is sprinkled with a small quantity of very finely powdered lime ; the boiling point being completed as soon as a drop of the liquor placed upon a cold porcelain plate solidifies to a jelly. There are next added to one hundred parts of the jelly thus produced two or three parts of alum previously dissolved in water, by which the size is coagulated and rendered inso- luble, and consequently is in a more suitable form for the sizing of paper. Sometimes the ready-made size of commerce is used. This is steeped for two or three hours in water and then dissolved in boiling water ; 13 to 18 lbs. of size mixed with 4 to 6 lbs. of alum, dissolved in 22 gallons of water, is usually sufficient for sizing an average-size vatful of paper. The solution of size is brought to a temperature of 77° F., and then about 100 sheets of paper are dipped into it at one time, and so moved about that each sheet becomes coated SURFACE SIZING OR SIZING IN SHEET AND IN WEB. 423 with size on both sides ; they are next pressed so as to dis- tribute the size in the interior of the separate sheets, and afterwards separated and, hung to dry on lines in a drying room. It is necessary that the drying should proceed slowly; cau- tion, however, must be exercised that desiccation is not con- tinued for a sufficiently long time to permit the decomposi- tion of the moist size. In summer thunderstorms induce the decomposition of the size, which becomes covered with mould, liquefies, and loses its glutinous properties. If the sheets of paper are too rapidly dried the size remains distri- buted throughout the body of the material ; but during slow desiccation the size as it dries is drawn, in company with the moisture, to the surface, where it forms an impermeable layer. Thus it happens that strictly animal sized papers if properly dried will blot if there has been an erasure or scraping of the surface. If the paper is to be sized in the web by the use of ma- chinery, the preparation of the size is conducted on a larger scale than has been just described. In large paper-mills the size is generally prepared in a room devoted to the purpose, and is commonly located near the machine, adjoining it if the latter is on the ground floor, and usually below the machine-room if it is on the second floor. The finest grades of light hide and skin clippings are em- ployed for No. 1 letter papers ; but less costly stock is employed for the lower grades of animal-sized papers. In order to preserve the glue stock tanners and tawers macerate it in milk of lime and afterwards dry it, and as the 424 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. clippings require to be freed from the lime the first treatment which the glue-stock receives after arriving at the paper-mill is to put it in large wooden tubs filled with water in which it is allowed to remain for several days in soak. If the paper-mill is situated on the banks of a stream the glue-stock is sometimes packed in large willow baskets and the latter submerged in water by means of a travelling crane, and in this the stock is soaked and freed from lime. But the more desirable way is to soak the glue-stock in wooden tubs and then put it in a larger revolving wash-drum about five feet in diameter and ten feet in length, which drum should be driven by power and so constructed that it will be one-half immersed in a vat. The drum suitably covered with wood is filled with the necessary quantity of stock through a door, which is formed by hinging one of the boards which form the surface of the drum, and clean water being admitted through one of the hollow trunnions the dirty water is allowed to escape through perforations in the periphery of the drum while it is being revolved. The objection to the glue-stock washing apparatus in com- mon use is that the stock is usually damaged by being broken up too much, and considerable loss results, besides from the fact that the small particles are allowed to escape with the wash water. Mr. W. A. Hoeveler has lately patented a washer by which the defects named are claimed to be reme- died and other advantages derived. Fresh waste, i. e., such as has not been limed and dried, and which is sometimes purchased by paper manufacturers from neighboring tanneries, must be prepared as soon as SURFACE SIZING OR SIZING IN SHEET AND IN WEB. 425 possible after it arrives at the paper-mill, as otherwise it would taint the air, be attacked by rats and other vermin, and suffer injurious alterations by decomposition. The fresh waste is first placed in tubs filled with water in which has been dissolved 2 per cent., by weight, of caustic lime. It is best to allow the water to stand for a week or so before using it for the fresh waste. The length of time which the stock remains in the lime bath varies according to the material : trimmings from calf-skins requiring from 10 to 15 days; sheep-skins, 15 to 20 days; and trimmings from heavy hides, such as ox, 25 to 30 days. The milk of lime should be renewed once or twice a week and thoroughly stirred. The material is washed in the washing drum after being removed from the lime, and is afterward spread out in the yard to drain and dry. When sufficiently dried the mate- rials are ready for boiling to glue, and can be stored until wanted. The glue stock, after being cleaned or prepared as has been described, is placed in a boiler of cast-iron, sheet-iron, or copper. Its capacity depends upon the quantity of raw material to be boiled at one time. It is best to have boilers holding from 100 to 400 pounds of raw material, and to place two or more of such boilers together. Resting upon the bottom there should be a stopcock for drawing off the gelatinous solution. From 1 to 3 inches above the bottom of the boiler there should be a perforated and movable false bottom supported by flanges, thereby preventing direct con- 426 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. tact of the materials with the heated bottom of the boiler, and obviating injury by scorching. The glue stock having been placed in the boiler, water is poured over it and steam admitted under the false bottom ; but the water should at no time be allowed to come to a boil, care being observed not to allow the temperature to exceed 200 F., which should be maintained from 10 to 18 hours, the time depending upon the nature of the raw material. As the gelatinous solution is formed it is drawn off from the boiler into wooden tubs, and is at the same time carefully strained to remove impurities. Two or three extracts are made from the same lot of glue stock, all the solutions being mixed together in the receiv- ing tubs, where a solution of alum is added in such propor- tions as to be recognized by tasting the liquor. The object in view in adding the alum solution is to prevent the gela- tine from fermenting or decomposing, and as the danger from this cause increases with the higher temperature of the atmosphere, more alum should be used in summer than in winter. After the solutions cool they are ready for use, the gela- tine being removed from the receiving tubs and dissolved in a separate tub as required for use, the tub in which it is dissolved being provided with a steam pipe. The propor- tion of water (which should be only lukewarm) employed in dissolving the gelatine varies from one-quarter to one- half of the volume of the latter, the nature of the fibre and thickness of the paper regulating the proportion of water to gelatine ; the concentration of the solution being SURFACE SIZING OR SIZING IN SHEET AND IN WEB. 427 greater for thin papers and weak fibres than for thick papers and strong fibres. The mechanism for supplying the size to the trough, through which the web of paper is passed, and the manner of running it over the Fourdrinier machine are so well understood that it is not necessary to enter upon a detailed description of either. The best method of drying paper after it is tub-sized is still an unsettled question among manufacturers of paper. In this connection we quote from an editorial in the ' Paper Trade Journal :' " When the paper is passed through the size-tub it is again wet; the fibres expand, and their hold on each other is relaxed. Now it must make a difference to the subsequent strength and quality of this paper whether it is hung up in a loft to dry or run over a drying machine. If it is hung in the loft no strain is put upon it, and the fibres are at liberty to shrink or slowly contract in all direc- tions ; whereas if it is run over a drying machine, consisting of from fifty to one hundred reels, the longitudinal strain prevents the fibres from shrinking and resuming their normal position in that direction. Attempts have been made to obviate this defect by regulating the speed of each section of the machine in such manner as to allow for the shrinkage ; but this only remedies the evil by preventing the paper from breaking as it travels over the machine. Everything else being equal, it would seem that loft-dried paper must be superior to that dried on the drying machine. Our home manufacturers indorse this view, inasmuch as 428 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. they continue to prefer the system of loft-drying to the less expensive machine methods." It is, of course, understood that papers which are surface sized may previously have been sized in the beating engine, and this method is mentioned under the head of " Double Sized" Paper. The methods employed for drying the papers will be found treated in Chapter XV. Hard-Sizing Paper in process of Manufacture by ad- ministering Vegetable and Animal Sizes successively to the Web before it is Dried upon the Heated Cylinders. The following composition and method of hard-sizing paper was patented in 1873 by Mr. X. Karcheski, of Belle- ville, N. J. The invention consists in submitting paper in the web, before it is dried, first to a bath of vegetable size, and then to a bath of animal size, both of peculiar com- position, and in removing the superfluous sizes by scraping. Also in drying the product upon the heated cylinders of the paper-machine, so that the complete operation of manu- facturing paper which is sized is conducted with only one dry- ing process, irrespective of whether the paper is more or less hard-sized or enamelled. The invention further consists in distributing the earthy matter contained in the vegetable size upon a web composed solely of paper-pulp, filling its pores and cavities, and thus producing an even surface upon which the animal size is subsequently deposited in a thin pellicle. Thus the making of the paper brittle is avoided, which brit- tleness is one objectionable result of mixing earthy matter HARD-SIZING. 429 with the pulp, and preventing- the paper from absorbing animal size to such an extent as to become translucent. These sizes contain some novel ingredients, and their com- position is varied according to the various results sought to be accomplished. Mr. Karcheski's process involves the introduction between the drying-cylinders and the last pair of press-rolls, in a Fourdrinier or "-cylinder" machine, of two vats or tanks, for containing vegetable and animal sizes respectively, each provided with a suitable device for scraping off the super- fluous size from the material operated upon. The first vat contains the vegetable size, consisting of bleached resin dis- solved by heat in the least possible quantity of alkalies and water, with the addition to the solution of a quantity of color- less earth and soap. The web of paper from the press-rolls passes through the size and absorbs the resin and soap, while the colorless earth fills its pores. When the paper is manufactured from new stock and is free from impurities and foreign matters, colorless earth in the first vat may be omitted, if increase in the weight of paper should be objectionable. The excess of size is removed from the paper by scrapers, and the web then passes into the second vat, which contains the animal size, consisting of a solution of glue, alum, tallow, or other soap, colorless earth, and a trace of chloride of sodium. In combining these ingredients the proportions are not arbitrary. The operator will soon learn to vary them according to the quality of surface required, as to hardness, lustre, and enamel, and also according to the purity of the 430 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER ingredients themselves, and the conditions attending their use Care must be taken in all cases that a sufficient quantity of alum is present to neutralize the alkalies used in the pro- cess. The superfluous animal size is removed by scrapers, as before, and the web then passes on to the drying cylinders. The apparatus invented by Mr. Kercheski, by means of which the web of paper is subjected to the process of hard Fig. 132. Fur. 133. sizing, coloring, or water proofing, is shown in Figs. 132 and 133. Fig. 132 is a vertical longitudinal section, showing Ker- HARD-SIZING. 431 cheski's apparatus interposed between the last pair of press- rolls, and the drying cylinders of a Fourdrinier machine, and Fig'. 133 is a plan of the same. The dotted lines indicate the paper or other material under treatment, and the arrows indicate the direction in which it moves. The two vats, A and B, are interposed between the last pair of press-rolls, G C, and the drying cylinders D D, of a Fourdrinier or cylinder machine. These vats are provided with guide-rollers, e e e, and carrying-rollers, //, for the purpose of conveying the paper or other material operated upon into and from the sizing compositions contained in the vats. Each vat is provided with adjustable scrapers, g \ // \ \ if r~ , ,<' ~ ■Ii , 1,1'' ._ , ■-■■<:■", J- mm - -1), -< • , - ;pM u -- - ii i HR f/SM/, V •• 111 :3 . I WIS »» Mm "iV" til m mm MAKING AND FINISHING. 49; CHAPTER XV. MAKING AND FINISHING. The materials to be made into paper having been sub- jected to all the preliminary operations which we have described, the pulp is ready for transformation into sheets by means of the paper-machine. Before proceeding further, we shall recapitulate in a few words the operations of which we have treated. The materials arrive at the mill, are sorted and cut by hand or by machinery, dusted, boiled in water and in alkalies, dripped, washed, and reduced to half-stuff in the rag-engine. The half-stuff is drained, pressed or air dried, and submitted to the action of an hypochlorite or ol gaseous chlorine, or to the action of both these chemicals. After the bleaching with chlorine or other chemicals, the pulp is washed, and, if necessary, the last traces of chlorine are eliminated by means of antichlorine ; then the refining is proceeded with in the beating engine, and the minute fibres or pulp thus obtained is treated with agglutinative, loading, and coloring materials, intended to give weight, body, and finish to the paper. The pulp having been thus pre- pared is passed into the stuff-chest of the paper-machine. In Fig. 134 we show an interior view of a machine room in a modern paper-mill, containing a Fourdrinier machine. The pulp is passed into the stuff-chest of the paper- 496 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. machine and is kept in suspension by means of an agitator ; it is delivered to the paper-machine in constant quantities, and after passing through several purifying contrivances, intended to free it from the last traces of sand, it is run in a thin and wide sheet upon endless metallic cloth, horizon- tally disposed at its anterior part. A continuous forward movement is communicated to this metallic cloth, technically termed the " wire," which receives during its forward move- ment a continuous succession of lateral shakes, in imitation of the " shake" which the vatman gives to the sheet of paper when moulded by hand ; the " shake" is intended to favor the dripping and felting of the pulp upon the " wire." A suction contrivance operated underneath a certain part of the metallic cloth also assists in the abstraction of moisture and renders the sheet more solid. The sheet, having reached the extremity of the horizontal parts of the metallic cloth, passes upon a cylinder which delivers it to two laminating cylinders covered with felt ; thence the sheet passes through the pressing rolls and to the drying cylinders heated by steam ; lastly it may be made to pass between one or more pairs of circular scissors which trim and slit the paper into strips of the desired width ; these strips are then rolled upon a cylinder fixed on a mandrel. It will not be possible in a volume of the size of the pres- ent one to enter upon a detailed description of all the parts and the manner of operating our modern paper-machines. We shall consequently devote space only to such portions of the machines employed for making and finishing the paper as possess features susceptible of improvement, and in this MAKING AND FINISHING. 497 connection illustrate some of the recent inventions of practical paper manufacturers. The practical parts of the work of forming and finishing the paper will be treated only so far as may be necessary for comprehension, as, in the opinion of the writer, a description of the mechanical skill which can be acquired only through actual experience offers no advant- age to either the theorist or to the practical paper-maker ; the " machine man" can become familiar with the best man- ner of adjusting and operating the paper-making machine under his charge only by long and practical experience. It was the writer's first intention to have made the present chapter as well as the various other chapters in this work entirely " practical," and to this end he secured personally in the United States, as well as in the other great paper- making countries in the world — Great Britain, Germany, France, and Belgium — a large number of notes entirely practical in their character. But upon a full consideration of the subject, and by the advice of some of the leading paper makers, the author decided that the present volume could be made more valuable by surrendering the space to a description of some of the leading mechanical inventions of the present day which have done so much to increase the product and lessen the cost of all kinds of paper. In adopt- ing the latter plan the writer is well aware that he renders himself liable to the old complaint of the " practical" man who neglects and condemns books because they do not enter into the minutest details contributing to successful operations;, but this criticism does not by any means lessen the value of books. After all, we can only reiterate that 32 498 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. " practical information" can be obtained only by actual practice. The province of a book on any of the arts is that of a guide-post which points out the correct road, but leaves the traveller to take it and to encounter and remove for him- self all the small obstacles found on the way. Hence, while books cannot take the place of actual experience, their value, as embodying the experiences of others must not be ignored, and nothing can be more useful or valuable to the really practical man thau a volume describing and illustrating in detail the state of the art in any manufacture and thereby pointing out the roads that are being pursued by successful manu- facturers and inventors of the present time. Such a book, if intelligently used, should prove a never-failing means of suggestion and inspiration to all progressive practical men. Whereas, a description of methods and mechanical appliances which have for a long series of years been employed in various portions of the world, and have already become common property can, in reality, prove of little value to the advanced paper-makers of the day. Fig. 135 shows an apparatus for purifying the pulp. The machine oscillates, and receives a shaking movement from blades arranged for that purpose. The pulp is received from the supply-box through the tube IT, and is distributed in compartments provided with stops for the sand and other heavy bodies ; then, passing through grooves made in a cop- per plate, it falls in the reservoir B. It then passes through the pressure of its upper level, in the compartment C, going through other grooves, passes over rubber sheets, D, and falls in the channel F to be conveyed to the machine. MAKING AND FINISHING. 499 In order to insure satisfactory weight and uniformity in the color of the paper, some manufacturers employ two stuff- Figr. 135. chests with each machine, into one of these chests the pulp is emptied from the beater while the " machine" is being supplied from the other. In some cases it may be found advantageous to work the " wire" taut on the machine, and in other cases it may be found more economical to work the " wire" quite slack ; but these matters, as we have previously hinted, are subjects for practical consideration. Stvff Regulator for Paper-Mald'ng Machines. The invention shown in Figs. 136 to 140, which is that of Mr. Cornelius Young, of Sandy Hill, New York, relates to improvements in stuff-regulators for paper-machines ; and it consists in providing an adjustable gate, the movements of which are automatically controlled by the movements of a balanced stuff-chute, and in providing the stuff-box with a vertically-sliding gate. 500 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The object is to regulate the flow of pulp or " stuff" from the stuff-box to the paper-machine proper. Figure 136 is a plan view of a stuff-box provided with Young's improved device. Fig. 137 is a vertical section of it taken at broken line x y in Fig. 136. Fig. 138 is a Fig. 136. s Fig. 137. front elevation of it, with part of front wall broken away to show gate I closed. Fig. 139 is same showing gate I open. Fig. 140 is a perspective of gate /and pivoted arms. The box is divided by partitions A, B, and C into four compartments. One of the compartments is provided with MAKING AND FINISHING. 501 one or more apertures, e e', in the bottom, through which the stuff is forced by a pump into the box, until the com- partment is filled to the top of partition (7, when it flows Fig. 138. Fi. 155. Fis:. 156. A represents the couch-roll. B and C represent the first and second press-rolls. D represents the drying- cylinders, i? represents the calenders. F represents the main driving-shaft running in hangers overhead. G re- presents one of the pair of cone- pulleys driving the couch. G' repre- sents one of the pair of cone-pulleys driving first press-roll. G 2 represents one of the pair of cone-pulleys driving second press-rolls. G 3 represents one of the pair of cone- pulleys driving drying-cylinders. 6r 4 represents one of the pair of cone-pulleys driving the calender-rolls. The main shaft F runs overhead instead of on the floor. This removes the great obstacle to approaching the machine, and although placing shafting overhead rather than on the floor is not of itself new, yet in running the machinery of a paper-machine, in connection with the other devices of this invention, it has never before been done. On the shaft F are fixed conical pulleys or drums, each of which is con- nected by a belt with another corresponding one below, driving each of the presses, the driers, and the calenders. MAKING AND FINISHING. 525 To any one at all familiar with mechanics it will be obvious that when the belt is moved up on . the increasing form of one of these cone-pulleys, it is correspondingly moved down on the decreasing face of the other pulley, and thereby increases its speed and consequently that of the roller or drier, to which it is connected by a mitre-wheel gearing into a shaft on which the roller or drier is fixed at a right angle to that running the cone-pulley ; and, vice versa, when the belt running over the cone-pulley on the driving-shaft over- head is shifted toward the decreasing face of the pulley, the one on which it turns below will be diminished in speed. Now, the capability to increase or decrease the speed of any one of these rollers — couch, press, calender, or driers — at will in a moment's time, and to any exent ever so small, has never been effectually done on any paper-machine ever made, and it is what Mr. Marshall claims to accomplish by means of these cone-pulleys and the belt-shippers to be now de- scribed. The belt-shipper H- — one for each pair of cone pulleys — is hung at a convenient height midway between the two pulleys, and of a length suitable to reach from the upper to the lower pulley. The ends are forked as usual in belt- shippers of all kinds. To enable the shipper, which is of some length, to be held firmly in place and yet to move readily when required, the arms a are formed at their middle into a sleeve or box, b — say, fourteen to sixteen inches long — through which passes a bar, c, securely bolted to supports, and on this bar the shipper moves steadily. To the upper side of this sleeve b is bolted a box, nut, or 526 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. female screw, through which passes the male screw e, running in fixed gudgeons on the same supports that hold the bar c, and having on one end a hand-wheel, /, by which the screw is readily turned. The operation of these devices will be readily seen, and how the speed of any of the rollers can be adjusted instantly to suit circumstances. For instance, if from a slight change in 'the stock in thickness, or in its being beaten up, it should take more water, and should, in passing over the driers, gain a trifle more on the calenders than it had been running, so as to become a little slack on reaching the calender, the machine-tender in an instant seizes the hand- wheel on the belt-shipper, which moves the belt on 0\ and which runs the calender-rolls, gives it two or three turns to the left, runs the belt up on 6r 4 , and correspondingly down on the opposite pulley on the shaft below, and instantly brings up the speed to the extent required ; and so wifh any one or all. Cone-pulleys have long been in use for changing speed on various machines, and in various ways, but never in any such combination as Mr. Marshall presents, by the operation of which, as described, he secures greater convenience and certainty in controlling the speed of every member of the machine, more equal tension of the stock and paper, a considerable saving of power in running the machine, a decided saving of labor in avoiding lagging, and also much expense in the care and straining of long heavy belts, by which he gets a large increase in the production of paper, more room in working about the machine, which, most important of all, allows the machine tender easy and MAKING AND FINISHING. 527 comfortable access to every part of the machine with entire safety and unexposed to the constant danger of losing his life among the complication of belts and gearing of machines as at present commonly used. Mr. Marshall has also made another improvement which relates to that part of the machinery of a paper-mill which drives the " machine" and all the concomitant parts, and it is a continuation of and a combination with the devices shown in Figs. 154 to 156. In running a paper-machine it is absolutely necessary that the harmony between the different parts should be preserved and maintained by exact and quick adjustments, as has previously been stated ; but it is also of equal import- ance to provide, in the driving apparatus for making paper, for maintaining in certain portions of the machinery a constant and unvarying rate of speed as it is delivered from the controlled action of the steam-engine, water-wheel, or what- ever motive power impels the whole machinery. All practical paper-makers know that this applies thoroughly to the pump which returns the water strained from the paper pulp as it is being formed into paper on the Fourdrinier wire, to the screens through which the pulp is strained on its passage to the Fourdrinier wire, to the agitators which keep the pulp in motion in the vat, and to the " shake" which gives the oscillating motion to the "wire." But while it is of such importance to maintain in all the above-mentioned parts of paper machinery a constant and uniform speed, it is equally necessary that the couch-rolls, the press-rolls, the driers, and calenders, including all those parts of a paper-machine on 528 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. which the paper is formed, pressed, dried, and calendered, must, in order to produce the full amount of paper the ma- chine is capable of making economically, be varied and run at a greater or less speed, according to the character of the pulp and the thickness of the paper manufactured. The pro- vision ordinarily made to accomplish this is to use gears of different sizes at a point on the main line of shafting between the point of transmission to those parts necessary to run at a constant speed and those parts which it is desirable to increase or diminish in speed. This is commonly done by cutting the main line of shafting at the desired point, and employing a counter-shaft running parallel to the main shaft and connected at each end by spur-gears to the two sections of the main line. The employment of different sizes of spur-wheels at these points of connection gives any desired speed to the couch-rolls, press-rolls, driers, and calenders, as the speed at that point of the main shaft transmitting power to these several points is varied by changing the spur-gears at the points of connection with that part of the main line which runs at a constant and unvarying speed. This is an unhandy and expensive way of working, for as the changing of the spur-gear necessitates the stopping of the whole paper-machine while the alteration is being made, considerable time is lost in accomplishing the shifts. Efforts have been made to obviate the necessity of stopping the machine while the changes are being made by combining two cone-pulleys ten to twelve feet long with the speed-gear running from one hundred and fifty to two hundred and twenty-five revolutions per minute ; but they MAKING AND FINISHING. 529 have never been so effectual as to be satisfactory. The length of these cones — ten to twelve feet — does not admit of a high speed, on account of the springing of the cones, and it is necessary to use a belt at least ten inches wide, in order to transmit sufficient power to drive the machine, and as a belt of this width can work to advantage only on cones of a moderate pitch, the range of the change of speed as con- trolled by the pitch and length of the cone is not sufficient to make all the changes of speed required in producing paper at rates of from twenty to two hundred feet per minute, and it has still been found necessary to use three or more sets of spur-gears in connection with these cone-pulleys. The extent of change of speed allowed by these cones from the slowest to the fastest being only about sixty feet per minute, when a change in the thickness of paper being made requires a greater rate of speed than this, the machine must be stopped and a change of the speed-gears must be made. So manufacturers have found that all their efforts to effect the desired changes of speed by the use of the cone- pulleys alone as commonly employed have been but partially successful. Again, the use of two long cone-pulleys in combination with the common back line or driving shafting of a paper-machine necessitated so much additional room on the back side of the machine that it has commonly been found necessary to erect a small building outside the machine-house, but attached to it, in which to operate these unwieldy cones. To accomplish this desirable purpose of changing the speed of the machine at once without the disagreeable necessity of stopping it and changing the gear- 34 530 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. ing, and without requiring any additional floor room, Mr. Marshall combines four cone-pulleys in pairs — one of each pair placed above the other — about five or six feet long, or half the length of those commonly used, and of different diameters, as shown in Fig. 157. These cones, being comparatively short, admit of a high rate of speed, which permits the use of a narrow belt of only four inches in width. This gives the required power, and being able to use these narrow belts, it is possible to get a much sharper pitch of the cones, and thus the required range of speed is obtained without the annoyance of stopping the machine to change the gear. By placing these pulleys one above the other, and one pair driving the other, the inventor greatly economizes space and obviates the employment of a long, wide belt, which is always costly and troublesome. Fig. 157. Fig. 157 is an elevation, partly in section, illustrating Mr. Marshall's invention. MAKING AND FINISHING. 531 L is the main driving-shaft, connected with the motor by pulley and belt, and terminates at K. M is the main driving cone-pulley, connected by a belt with the cone-pulley N. placed underneath it. On the same shaft with N is the cone-pulley 0, the larger end of the pulley being of the same size as the small end of the pulley N. The cone-pulley is connected with the cone- pulley P, placed over it, and driven by a belt passing over both. The cone-pulley P is on a short shaft overhead, extending to and stopping at its bearing K on the right, and on the left extending far enough beyond the bearing 7 to carry a spur-wheel, R. The belts connecting all the cone-pulleys are controlled by the shipper, as shown in Figs. 154 to 156. On the shaft P, which is stopped and has its bearing in the rear of bearing 7, is a spur-wheel engaging in the wheel P, which carries the shaft P, with all its dependencies. So it will be seen that the main shaft L, with all its driving-power, runs steadily and always the same. The power for the other parts of the machine is communicated from M to N, to and P, and by the spur- gears to the shaft P, from which are run the couch-rolls, the press-rolls, the drier, and the calenders, and the speed of all these together may be accelerated or slackened to any desired extent by simply moving the belts on the two pairs of pulleys M N, OP, while the individual parts are each controlled by the arrangement of cone-pulleys as shown in Figs. 154 to 156. V V are friction-wheels — one on the main shaft L, the other on a counter-shaft, W, which extends in the rear of 532 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the cone-pulleys to the mitre-gears 8, for driving the felt washers 2 2 — which are necessarily driven from the main shaft, to insure the necessary uniformity of speed, which they could not have if driven from the shaft bearing the cone-pulleys. These friction-wheels are controlled by a screw, JT, engaging in the bearing of the shaft W. Yis a pump used for returning the water used in forming the paper. Z Z are the screens for straining the pulp. 6 is the pul- ley that drives the " shake." All these require to be driven by a steady, unvarying power, and are therefore necessarily attached to the main shaft by belts and pulleys. Drying Cylinders. Cast-iron cylinders, perfectly true on their surfaces, and having well balanced bodies are used for drying machine- made paper. It is necessary that the shells of the driers should be of uniform thickness, and that the surfaces should be entirely free from sand holes, it is consequently desirable that these shells should be cast in loam and that they should be turned true on the inside as well as on their surfaces. Steam is admitted to the drying cylinders through hollow journals. Usually these journals are provided with a valve- seat in which is arranged a valve, which is held to its seat by the pressure of the steam within the drum or cylinder. When a very low pressure of steam is employed in the cylinder, the valve is not held tightly to its seat, and permits foreign substances and sediment to work between the valve MAKING AND FINISHING. 533 and its seat, whereby the parts are caused to wear unevenly and become leaky. The object of Roach's invention, shown in Fig. 158, is to provide the joint with means whereby the valve is retained in its seat at all times. Fig. 158 is a vertical section of Roach's improved pipe- joint applied to a hollow journal. Fig. 158. A represents the drum or cylinder, and a the hollow journal upon which the drum rotates, and which is supported in a suitable bearing, B. D represents a head or cap, which is applied to the end of the hollow journal and provided with a depression or cavity, d, into which the end of the journal is fitted. The head D is secured to the journal by screw-bolts, d', so as to 534 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. turn therewith ; or, if preferred, the head and journal may be provided, respectively, with screw-threads and the head screwed on the journal. The head D is provided with a valve-seat, d 2 K of conical, oval, or other suitable form, in which is seated a valve, e, of similar form. The valve e is secured to a steam-pipe, /, by means of an internal screw- thread, which engages with an external screw-thread formed on the inner end of the pipe /. If preferred, the valve may be formed in one piece with the steam-pipe /. The pipe / opens into the hollow jour- nal, and may extend through it into the cylinder A, if desired. g represents a spiral or other suitable spring, which sur- rounds the steam-pipe/, and bears with its inner end against the head D, and with its opposite end against a collar, 7i, which is secured to the pipe / by a set-screw, h'. The spring g tends to draw the pipe / and valve e outwardly, whereby the valve is forced tightly against its seat. The tension of the spring can be regulated by means of the collar li and set-screw li'. By this construction the valve is held on its seat at all times, thereby preventing the accumulation of sediment between the valve and its seat, which results in an unequal wear of the parts, causing leakage, and it also prevents cor- rosion of the parts when the machine is not in operation. It has also been a common practice to force the steam for heating directly into the drying-cylinders through the jour- nals, into the ends of which the steam-pipe is packed, the journal, in effect, being made only a continuation of the MAKING AND FINISHING. 535 steam-pipe, but always with a leakage and escape of steam, from the inevitable wear of the end of the stationary steam- pipe being packed into the moving grinding-journal, requir- ing constant repacking. The condensed water, which accumulates rapidly in these drying cylinders, has usually been conducted out by means of a pipe attached to the inside of the cylinder-head, extend- ing across its diameter, and curved near the bottom, so as to take up at each revolution a quantity of water which was blown out or discharged through an opening in the cylinder- head as at each revolution of the cylinder it was lifted and turned over. As this water was blown out a consider- able amount of steam escaped with it, and continued to do so till the end of the discharge-pipe, in revolving, was again filled with water. The percentage of steam thus escaping and wasted is large enough to very materially affect the heat in the cylinder, and in a battery of four, six, or more, draws very largely on the supply of steam, and adds a heavy item to the operating expenses of the mill. Vis- 159. Fig. 159 shows a longitudinal section through the drying cylinder of Jaminson's improvement in steam-traps. A is the drying-cylinder. B is the steam-pipe passing 536 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. through the journals of the cylinder and the cylinder longi- tudinally, having in it perforations, a, for the discharge of the steam to heat the drier, of the same capacity as the pipe itself. In this pipe, midway between the cylinder-heads, is a partition, on one side of which steam enters the cylinder, and on the other the water condensed is discharged. These perforations are in the half of the pipe next the entrance of the steam. On the other side of this partition, in the steam- pipe J3, is fastened a pipe, C, which passes almost to the bottom of the cylinder, when it turns and terminates with a valve or gate, E. This gate or valve E has an opening in its side, which is closed by a gate balanced on a pin. On the upper end of this sliding gate is fastened a rod projecting forward some inches. To the end of this rod is secured a float, D, which, rising on the surface as the water increases in the bottom of the cylinder, pushes back the rod attached to it and to the sliding gate, whereby the gate is opened and the water of condensation rushes into the valve-opening, and, by the pressure of the steam, is forced up into the closed half of the steam-pipe and out through it, where, by a con- nection on its end, it is conveyed into a tank, or back to the boiler, without the loss of heat or the escape of steam, the float falling just as fast as the water is lowered by the dis- charge, and the gate is closed at the same rate. It will be seen that in this way, as the water is discharged as the gate is open, and as that is automatically controlled by the amount of water acting on the float, nothing but water can pass out, and not a particle of steam can escape or be wasted. MAKING AND FINISHING. 537 The steam-pipe passing through the journals of the cylin- der is made tight at both ends by a sleeve of brass or other metal, that may be readily renewed, fitting closely into the journal-bearings with ordinary steam-packing, preventing all loss of steam. This of itself is a great advantage over the ordinary way of driving the steam directly through the jour- nal into the cylinder, as it is impossible with the constant wear of the journal against the end of the steam-pipe to make the fitting continue secure and steam tight. With the device shown in Fig. 159 the water, it is claimed, is kept constantly discharging without the loss of a particle of steam either through the discharge-pipe or by leakage at the journals. Single Cylinder Machine. A machine adapted to the forming of thin papers and Fig. 160. such as are required to be smooth on only one face is illus- trated in Fig. 160. It is a modification of the Fourdrinier 538 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. machine, and consists of an ordinary paper-machine as far as the conch-rolls A A. After leaving the conch-rolls the paper is carried backwards on the top of the endless belt B, and is brought in contact and adheres at d with the large heated cylinder C. The press-roll E presses the paper against the periphery of the cylinder C, and the paper pass- ing around the cylinder is wound up when quite dry on reels at G, and is afterward cut or calendered in the usual way. The felt, as it travels, passes through the box IT, which is filled with water and acts as a belt washer. Calendering. Leading Paper through Calender- Rolls. — Hitherto in the process of calendering the paper web, as it passes con- tinuously from the driers of the machine, has been conducted and guided through the stack of calender-rolls by the fingers of the machine tender, and serious accidents are continually occurring, in which the fingers of the operator get jammed and terribly bruised and the danger multiplied, since the paper web has to be restored every time its continuity is interrupted for any cause whatsoever. Moreover, in the process of " mending up" a large amount of " broken" is produced, because the draft and tension across the paper web are not uniform, and folds or wrinkles are caused, which at once make a crack or break in the paper, and these con- tinue until the tension is properly restored, the paper during this interval being rendered useless for commercial purposes. Smith's Pneumatic Guide. — To overcome the objections MAKING AND FINISHING. 539 which have been mentioned, and to render the waste of the paper less and make the effort of mending-up not so labor- ious to the operative, and reduce the danger to a minimum, various mechanical contrivances have been devised. Fig. 161 illustrates a pneumatic device for leading paper through calender-rolls ; it is the invention of Mr. Richard Smith, of Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada. Fig. 161 is a side elevation of Mr. Smith's invention arranged as a whole and fitted upon the calender-roll stack and drier-frame, the two upper rolls being in section. Fig. 161. As the inventor proposes to use a blast of air or its equiva- lent (either suction or pressure) in order to guide the paper web automatically through and around the rolls, it becomes 540 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. necessary to partially cover and protect a portion of the surface of the calender-rolls in order to produce the de- sired effect, by confining the current of air, and thus oblige it to assume a certain direction, and carry with it the advance end of the paper web to be led between the rolls. There is therefore shown, as partially closing the exterior peri- pheries of the rolls, a series of alternately oppositely-disposed wind-cases, IT I 2 , etc., which are plates bent preferably concentric with the curvature of the rolls and extending their entire length. In revolving bodies centripetal force always exerts a some- what important function upon an object located upon its surface ; hence, and more especially in paper-making ma- chines, the paper web has a great tendency to adhere to the surface of the calender-rolls, and pass continuously around one roll in lieu of advancing on and around the next adja- cent roll. This fact is especially noticeable in the manufac- ture of light-weight paper, and it is found necessary to em- ploy in connection with the wind-cases above alluded to, a device called a " doctor." In this especial instance the inventor has terminated the upper extremity of the wind- cases, which enter between two rolls in the shape of a straight steel bar or doctor, if, which is bevelled to coincide, or approximately so, with the line of a tangent to the roll at the point where the doctor touches the roll. The most effective position is a point a short distance to one side of the place of contact between the two rolls where the exterior surface of the top roll first begins to assume an upward path of movement in its rotation ; hence, when the paper after a MAKING AND FINISHING. 541 break is to be mended up, the operator raises the lever and advances the wind-cases towards the rolls and in close prox- imity thereto, while their respective doctors are brought in close contact with the upwardly-moving surface of each roll, and thus any tendency which the paper web may have as it emerges from one side between two rolls to the other to pass up and wind around the top roll of the pair, is instantly checked by the doctor, which, as the curve of the latter coin- cides with the interior curve of the wind-case, it guides the paper along in its proper course down around the lower roll of the pair. The same action ensues as the paper web emerges from between the next two rolls and meets the next doctor, and so on down between the rolls composing the stack. Mounted upon the wind-cases, with which they are suit- ably connected, there is disposed a series of pipes, I T I 2 , etc. The latter communicate with a blower, L, either exhaust or pressure, and from which the air is obtained as means for guiding and passing the paper web through the rolls. Operation. — The operation of the apparatus, shown in Fig. 161, is as follows, -with the various rolls and pulleys moving in the direction of the arrows, as indicated: The paper web has been interrupted and broken from some cause, and it must be restored ; hence the operator drops the table C into a horizontal position and lifts the lever H 2 to bring the doctors to bear against the rolls 7i h' 7i 2 , etc., and the wind-cases IIP near to the surfaces of the rolls. The paper is then passed around the rolls a a and drier A\ thence over the table C between the quick-running rolls 542 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. E E\ which exert sufficient tension upon the web commen- surate with its strength, hence adjustable but not enough to break it. Immediately upon the proper restoration of the tension and removal of the slack consequent upon the mend- ing up, the operator swings the table upward, the paper web meantime continuously passing along until the movable cutter g has engaged with and passed the fixed cutter g' upori the arms G'. The paper web is then instantly severed, and the draft rolls carry and feed it directly to the tapes d 2 d 2 d 2 , whence it is conveyed to the entrance of the wind-case- /in a line directly at right angles to the calender- rolls — an important feature, since it obviates the loss of paper incidental to the ordinary method, where the paper web is introduced at an angle with the axis of rotation of the rolls. Upon the arrival of the advance end of the paper web in front of the wind-case the pressure from the air- current through the pipe I forces it quickly around the roll A, while the interior surface of the case maintains and guides it in a proper direction between the rolls li and h'. Imme- diately after the w T eb emerges from between the rolls, although in close contact and with a tendency to pass up and wind around the upper one, it at once encounters the doctor, which removes it therefrom and compels it to follow the curve of the wind-case /', when the pressure from the air- current emerging from the pipe T still further advances it, and so on through the rolls of the stack, when it may either be passed onward and led through in a similar manner by means of a second series of tapes, d 2 d 2 , to a second stack, or be led to the reels, upon which it is temporarily stored. MAKING AND FINISHING. 543 A great advantage accrues by the operation of conducting paper through calender-rolls in the manner just described — that is, the current of air in passing over the surface of the paper exercises a decided influence in cooling the heated continuous paper web as it passes from the driers. Hitherto it has been customary to grind and finish the calender-rolls cold ; hence, after being mounted in proper position, and the heated web has passed through them for any length of time, the rolls become hot and expand, and the result is that the faces of the rolls do not coincide, since they were ground to fit when in cool position. Further, it is found in practice that a special cold blast of air applied across the web prior to its entrance between the rolls of the stack and independent of the current inducing the progress of the web through the stack, accomplishes the cooling of the individual rolls to remain cold ; hence there is no expansion, and the surfaces coincide exactly with the greatest degree of efficiency. Cram's Entering Guide. — The device for threading calen- der-rolls, shown in Figs. 162 to 164, is the invention of Mr. Madison H. Cram, of Pawtucket, R. L, and its object is to provide a simple means for guiding the paper between the rolls with certainty and precision; and it consists in the combination, with the set of calender-rolls, of two narrow endless belts passing together between the rolls, and means for shifting the location of the belt along the rolls. Fig. 162 is an end elevation of a set of calender-rolls pro- vided with Mr. Cram's improvement. Fig. 163 is a rear elevation of the same. Fig. 164 is a vertical section taken 544 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. in the line of the inner face of the bearing standard, showing the belts running on the large diameter of the rolls. Flo-. 162. Fig. 163. Fis- 164. A A are the bearing standards, in which the rolls B B B are placed one above the other with their peripheries touch- ing each other. The upper ends of the standards A A are connected by means of the parallel guide-rods C C, upon which is placed the sliding belt-carriage D, a sliding move- ment being imparted to the carriage along the rods by means of the pivoted shipper-handle a, provided with a slot, b, which embraces the smaller outer end of the stud c pro- jecting from the carriage. The carriage D is provided with the loose belt-carrying pulleys d, e, and /, which revolve upon suitable pins or studs ; and upon the rods g and 7i, which extend from one of the bearing-standards to the other, MAKING AND FINISHING. 545 near the base of the same, are placed the loose belt-carry- ing pulleys i and /, these pulleys being made capable of a sliding movement along the rods ; and also upon a rod 7c, which extends from one of the bearing-standards to the other at the same height and parallel with the guide-rod C, is placed the loose pulley 7. The weight E is provided with the upright ears in in, between which is pivoted the loose pulley o, and the opposite weight, E, is in like manner pro- vided with the loose pulley n. The narrow endless guide- belt F, when in its normal position, passes from the carriage- pulley / over the smaller end portion of the top roll B, thence downward from side to side between the smaller end portions of the rolls and under the bottom roll B, thence over the loose pulley j upon the rod h, then under the loose pulley o of the weight E, and upward to the pulley/. The narrow endless belt G, which runs over the rolls B in contact with the belt F, passes from the roll e of the carriage D over the smaller portion of the top roll B in contact with and above the belt F, thence downward with the belt F from side to side between the rolls B and outward over the loose pulley *' upon the rod g, thence under the pulley n of the weight E' and upward to the loose pulley I upon the rod 7c, and thence Over the loose carriage-pulley d to the pulley e, the belts F and G moving uniformly in the same direction between the rolls B B. Operation. — In guiding the paper into the calender-rolls the belts F and G are first moved from the smaller to the larger portion of the rolls by the lateral movement of the carriage D, by means of the shipper a. The paper fed 35 546 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. forward between the guiding-belts F and G, and upon the completion of its passage through the 'rolls of the carriage D, is moved back to its normal position, the guiding-belts being thus carried from the larger to the smaller portion of the rolls B B, the resulting slack of the belts F and G being taken up by the action of the weights FJ and JE'. The calender-rolls are thus claimed to be rapidly threaded with- out danger to the workmen. The belt 67, instead of running directly upon the belt F, may run side by side with it if preferred. Moistening the Paper. — When the web of paper leaves the driers it is usually too hard to receive the impression of the calenders as readily as if its surface were slightly humid, and the paper is consequently sometimes moistened with steam just before it passes through the calenders. The paper is dampened by means of a three-eighths inch pipe perforated with small holes about the size of the head of a pin ; this pipe is secured to the frames of the calenders a short distance below the sheet where it first enters. Some- times two pipes are employed, one on each side of the calenders, so as to dampen each side of the paper. Automatic devices are used for turning off the steam from the pipe in case the paper should break so as to prevent the rolls from getting wet. Moistening the Calender Rolls. Breiuer's Method. — Some- times it is desirable to moisten the calender-rolls of paper- making machines, the object being to heat the same from the exterior. The "■ steam condensing doctor" invented by Mr. Frank MAKING AND FINISHING. 547 Brewer, of Marseilles, 111., is shown in Figs. 165, 166, and 167, and it is designed to accomplish the purpose first named. Fi<*. 166. Fig. 165. The device, besides performing the above-mentioned func- tions, acts as a doctor to remove any waste from the rolls and prevents them from clogging. Fig. 165 represents a side elevation of a stand of calender- rolls with Mr. Brewer's device attached. Fig. 166 is a transverse vertical section through the rolls and the device. Fig. 167 is a longitudinal view of one of the pipes of the device partly broken away and partly in section. A designates the frame, upon which the rolls a a are 548 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. journaled in proper bearings, the journals being designated by a' a'. bbb are pipes having their ends closed by the screw-caps having central circular openings, for a purpose hereafter explained. The caps may be secured in position, when screwed on the ends of the pipes by set-screws. Brackets are secured to the standards of the frame in such a position that pipes b, near their ends, rest in concave notches of the brackets, and may be firmly held therein by the set- screws which pass through the flanges of the notches. The brackets may be secured in place in any desirable manner, but are preferably secured by means of set-screws passing through the slots and entering the outer sides of the standards, thus making the brackets adjustable. The pipes b cross the frame A transversely, and are pre- ferably so situated as to lie adjacent to every second one of the smaller rolls a, as shown in Fig. 166, the axis of each roll and its corresponding pipe being in the same horizontal plane. Each pipe b has a longitudinal slot, the edges of which form a close joint against the surface of the roll. The slot does not extend the entire length of the pipe, its end being equally distant from the ends. The axis of the slot lies in the plane with those of the roll and pipe. G C are small steam-pipes running through the pipes b, passing through the openings in the caps and having their ends on one side closed. Their other ends are connected by proper couplings, ccc, to the steam-pipe C, Fig. 165, which takes steam from any suitable source of supply. MAKING AND FINISHING. 549 Each pipe G, Fig. 166, has a longitudinal series of small equidistant openings, Z), on the side facing the roll, and lying in the same plane as the axes of the roll and pipe. d d are discharge-pipes for water of condensation, which pipes depend from the pipes b on the side adjacent to the steam-pipe C. Steam being admitted through the pipes C G passes out of the openings D and fills the spaces E between the pipes b and (7, and as the rolls rotate heats and moistens them. The pipes b, on account of their contact to the rolls, act as doctors to the rolls to remove waste that might clog them. Newton's Method. — The essential feature of the invention of Mr. Moses Newton, of Holyoke, Mass., illustrated in Figs. 168 and 169, consists in the delivery of steam upon the sur- faces of the calender-rolls and in conveying running water to the interior of the rolls and thence out again, causing the condensation of the steam upon the surfaces of the rolls, thereby producing a polished surface on the paper as it passes over and between the calender-rolls. Fig. 168 shows a front elevation of an ordinary stack or series of calender-rolls provided with water and steam pipes in accordance with Mr. Newton's plan. Fig. 169 represents a vertical cross-section of the same. A illustrates the main frame of the apparatus; B, the calender-rolls, arranged horizontally in the frame, as usual; C, pipes arranged to deliver cold water into a greater or less number of the calender-rolls at one end ; D, pipes which carry off the water from the opposite end of the rolls, and E a steam-pipe having any desired number of perforated 550 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. arms or branches extending along the outside of the rolls and delivering the steam thereon. Water may be admitted Ficr. 168. Fig. 169. Tin to all or any desired number of the rolls, and the steam may, in like manner, be delivered to a greater or less number of the rolls, as circumstances may require. In most cases the best results are secured by supplying water to the top rolls only and delivering steam upon the bottom rolls only. The steam condenses upon the surface of the rolls, damp- ening them slightly, but with perfect uniformity, and the consequence is that the rolls impart to the surface of the paper a much smoother finish and higher polish than can be attained by the ordinary mode of procedure. When the steam and water pipes bear the relation shown in the illus- MAKING AND FINISHING. 551 trations the condensation takes place gradually, but mainly upon the upper rolls, with which the steam comes in contact. Preventing the Burning or Injury by Heating of the Paper or Material of which the Calender-Rolls is composed. — As paper-calender rolls are ordinarily constructed, the great pressure to which they are subjected, together with the speed at which they revolve, operate to heat their bearings, as well as the rolls themselves, and they are often completely ruined from this cause, the heat being so intense as to burn and destroy the paper or material of which the rolls are composed, especially near their ends. The object of the invention of Mr. H. J. Frink, of Chi- copee, Mass., illustrated in Fig. 170, is to provide one or Ficr. 170. more internal annular chambers in the interior of a paper calender-roll, through which to force water to prevent the paper or material of which the roll is composed from being burned or injured by heating, and to keep the journal-bear- ings at as uniform temperature as possible. Fis. 170 is a sectional view of a calender-roll made accord- 552 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. ing to Mr. Frink's invention, at a plane on the line of its axis, with the extreme end of the shaft in section, showing the application of a stuffing-box thereto. The main shaft should be of suitable size to withstand the great pressure to which it is subjected, in which, near each end, is made an annular groove, 5, into one of which are fitted two half-collars, 6, with preferably a little space be- tween its ends, and another collar, 7, is shrunk on to these two half-collars 6, which keeps them solid and firm in their groove. A retaining-head, 8, is then fitted snugly and firmly on to the main shaft 3 and against the retaining-collar 6, and a series of rings, 4, are then shrunk on to the main shaft 3 at suitable distances from each other, each ring, except that at each end, having a recess in it, or perforation, extending through it transversely, as shown at 10, the end ring 4 being fitted snugly against the head 8. An orifice, 9, is made in each end of the shaft at its axis, and another one is made from the side just inside of the first ring 4, which communi- cates with the orifice 9, made at the axis of the shaft ; and a tube, 13, is either forced on to the rings 4 or shrunk thereon, so as to fit the exterior of the rings snugly, to give the tube a firm and solid bearing against each ring; the space between the tube and the shaft thus forming one or more annular chambers or compartments — if more than one, com- municating with each other through the transverse perfora- tion or cavity in the dividing rings 4. After the tube 13 is fitted properly in place, the paper or other substance, 2, is forced upon the tube 13 and against the fixed head 8 by hydraulic pressure. The other head 8 MAKING AND FINISHING. 553 is then forced into place against the roll 2, and the other end half-collars 6 are placed in their groove 5, and the collar 7 is shrunk thereon, so that the heads 8, tube 13, and roll 2 are solidly in place, with the annular chambers or compart- ments 14 inside the tube and between the rings 4. If the roll is to be made very short for special purposes, there may be but one of these annular chambers, the orifice 9 at each end of the shaft opening into the same chamber ; but if the roll is to be longer, there may be several of these annular chambers or compartments, with the orifice 9 at each end of the shaft opening into the end chamber or compartment. The exterior surface of the roll 2 is then turned off and finished, and a pipe, 15, is connected with the orifice 9 in each end of the shaft 3 with any ordinary and well-known packing or stuffing-box attachment, as shown at 12, so that the roll may revolve and the pipe remain stationary, and the joint where the two are connected may be water-tight. The constant flow of water through the annular chambers, 14, between the tube and its shaft, it is claimed, keeps the whole of the roll 2 perfectly cool, so that it or its bearings never become heated to any appreciable or injurious extent. As this introduction of water into the roll operates to keep its journal-bearings at a more uniform degree of tempera- ture, it follows that the factional bearing of the journals is also more uniform, inasmuch as there is little or no expan- sion of the metal of the journals, and no consequent increase of friction. It is evident that instead of securing or shrinking the rings 4 on to the shaft 3 the latter may be turned down, 554 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. leaving a series of annular projections or collars, having sub- stantially the same form as the rings 4. Method for the easy Removal and Replacement of Calen- der-Rolls. — Usually calender-rolls of paper, wood, or metal are used in a " stack" as it is called ; or a series placed one above another, have been kept in place within the frame, which is made open from the bottom roll to the top, the opening only large enough to receive the journal-boxes of the rolls, which are perhaps from four to five inches in dia- meter, while the roll itself is from six to fifteen inches in diameter. The pillow-block is always solid, with the open-sided frame cast with it, and holds the bearings in which the lower and usually largest cylinder runs, and to which the power is applied, and by the friction of which upon the one next above and resting on it gives motion to the whole com- posing the stack. Calender-housings having been constructed in this way, it became necessary, whenever it was required to remove rolls for " turning-off'' or for any purpose, to hoist them up and out at the top one by one, even to the last one at the bottom, which is the driving-roll, and very heavy, weighing often several tons, making the removal of any of the lower ones especially a long, tedious, and expensive operation, and not unaccompanied with danger. The pressure upon the rolls has usually been applied by a screw or weighted lever working upon the upper roll, and it has been proposed to use, instead of this device, a cushion of steam or water or some other fluid, to be forced to any MAKING AND FINISHING. 555 extent needed into a tight cylinder having a piston the rod of which, bearing upon the cap of the upper journal-box when the cylinder is charged, shall hold the rolls firmly down, and at the same time allow a slight recoil if anything of an improper thickness passes between the rolls. In this connection we illustrate in Figs. 171 and 172 the invention of Mr. George E. Marshall, of Turner's Falls, Mass. Fig. 171 is a front view of a "stack" of cylinder- rolls. Fig. 172 is an end view of the same. Fig. 171. A represents the frame of heavy cast-iron holding the rolls, having between the sides an opening wide enough to allow the withdrawal of the rolls ; and these sides, near the bottom, are expanded in their breadth, and correspondingly in the opening, wide enough to allow of the withdrawal of the bottom or driving-roll. This frame has cast on it a base of 556 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. sufficient width and thickness to sustain solidly the rolls, when it is bolted to the floor. G shows the boxes, each pair of which holds the journals of the respective rolls, and are of a peculiar construction, made in several parts, so that they can be taken to pieces and removed from the frame without disturbing the roll. The boxes in which the journal runs have on their sides trunnions D, which enter the adjustable sliding sides of the boxes. G represents the end of the journal /, the roll, having between it and the trunnion-box steel rings or washers. MAKING AND FINISHING. 557 The trunnion-box can be turned and adjusted in any way or removed with ease by slipping the sliding boxes on the trunnions. Through the sides of the frame, holes are drilled under each box, to allow a pin to be put in to sustain the boxes when it is necessary to remove any roll below them. C is the upper roll, larger than the others, and upon the boxes of which the pressure is applied from the cylinders and pistons and piston-rods above them, to keep the rolls to a close pressure. D' is a steam-tight cylinder, one oyer each end of the rolls into the top of which steam is forced by a pipe 1 . Within each cylinder is a piston, D" , both having on their under sides piston-rods, which, when steam is let into the cylinder above the pistons, are forced down upon the boxes of the upper roll, thus giving the desired pressure. The steam is let on through the pipe /', and the pressure is controlled by steam-cocks. Entering the side of each cylinder D' about midway is a discharge-pipe, K, for taking off the water of condensation through a steam-trap. ■JET is a pipe, with a trap, for drawing off any water that by leakage may accumulate under the piston. L L are yokes bolted into the caps and passing down under each roll as it is required to be raised. G' is a pillow-block, which sustains the lower or driving roll in the stack. This is bolted to the base of the frame of the calender-stack, but so that it can be removed by reliev- ing it of the pressure of the rolls. 55cS THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Stripping Sheets of Paper from off the last Roller of Calendering Machines. — The stripping-fingers for stripping the sheets of paper from off the last roller of calendering machines as usually made are secured to one rod and their ends caused to press against the roller by means of a weight or spring actuating the rod. The fingers are rigid on the rod as regards lateral movement, and consequently bear always on the same parts of the roller, which necessitates frequent refitting of the same by grinding ; otherwise these grooves mark the paper being calendered. This objectionable feat- ure in calendering machines may be overcome by makiug the stripping-fingers independent in their action on the last roller by securing them to separate blocks provided with adjustable weights to cause the fingers to bear indepen- dently with the proper force against the roller, and the blocks have open bearings, by which they are placed on a fixed rod, thus enabling each finger to be moved laterally, so that its end may bear on different parts of the roller, thus causing an even wear to the surface of the roller. The fingers may be moved laterally, as desired, by the attendant while the machine is in operation, or taken off and placed and arranged on the fixed bar, to suit the sizes of the sheets of paper being calendered. In this connection we illustrate in Fig. 173 the invention of Mr. John McLaughlin, of Lee, Mass. Fig. 173 represents an elevation of a calendering-machine with the independent detachable fingers in position to strip the paper from off the last roller. MAKING AND FINISHING. 559 Only sufficient of a calendering-machine is shown to illustrate the application of the improved stripping-fingers, a a are the side frames, and b, c, and d the rollers, cl is the last roller and it is against this that the stripping-fingers e e bear to discharge the paper from it into the receiving-box. Three stripping-fingers only are here shown, it of course being understood that the number of them will depend on the size of the machine and quality and size of the paper being calendered. Fig. 173. Fig. 173 illustrates the essential features of Mr. McLaugh- lin's invention. The finger e is secured in an angular position to the block or head / by means of a screw, which passes through a slot in the lower end of the finger to enable the upper end, which is tapered off to a sharp edge, so as to lie close to the roller d, to be set in line with the ends of 560 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the other fingers, to strip the paper evenly off the roller d. The head or block / has an open bearing, by which it rests on the fixed rod g, secured in brackets from the side frames a a ; and projecting from its sides in a horizontal position under the free end of the finger e is a rod which may be cast with the block or head/, or be screwed or driven in a hole therein ; and on this rod is placed a pressure-weight secured thereto by a screw. The position in which this weight is set on the rod determines the pressure of the end of the finger against the roller d. Each finger, with its carrying block or head / and pressure-weight, being inde- pendent, and merely resting on the fixed rod g, it will be observed may be set to bear on any part of the roller d desired, and be shifted about, so as to prevent grooves being worn in the roller, and also be readily removed from and replaced on the rod g, according to the number required to properly strip the sheets of paper from the roller d. We have shown tapes * i on small pulleys *' i 2 , arranged and adapted to convey the paper off the fingers e e into a receptacle, placed under the lower pulleys i 2 , but the recep- tacle is not shown in the illustrations. Plate Calenders. — Prior to the introduction of the method of glazing paper in super-calenders, the paper was first cut into sheets and passed through plate calenders. Plate calenders are still used to a considerable extent in English and Continental mills ; but there are probably not two mills in the United States where they are now employed. With these calenders the paper to be glazed is laid in single sheets between zinc or copper plates until a pile of MAKING AND FINISHING. 561 about twenty-five sheets of paper are so arranged, and this stack of alternate sheets of paper and metallic plates is then passed forward and backward between the rollers, under great pressure, until the polished surface of the plates com- municates a gloss to the paper. If a very highly calendered surface is desired the plates are frequently changed and the paper relaid between them. Fig. 174 shows a side elevation of a plate calender; it con- sists of two solid iron press rolls, B B, mounted in a frame- work, A. Pressure is applied to the top roll by means of levers and weights. Finr. 174. In operating this form of calender the stock of paper and plates is first deposited on the table in front of the rolls and is then pushed forward until the rolls take a " bite" on the stack and carry it through the rolls, the stack then comes in contact with a shifting device which reverses the motion of the rolls and carries the stack backward through the rolls. 36 562 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Cutting and Rolling. — After the paper has been wound up at the end of the drier it is trimmed and slit so as to pro- duce the width of web required. The usual form of paper cutter employed in British and Continental mills as well as in many of the mills of the United States is shown in Fig. 175, and it cuts from six to eight webs at one time. Fig- 175. The webs of paper to be operated upon are shown at a a, from whence they are led between the leading rolls b b through the feeding rolls c c, which latter are driven, by means of the change pulley d, at such a rate of speed that the paper is fed to the revolving knife at the precise speed requisite to produce the exact length of sheet required. The paper after passing the feeding rolls c c travels on to the slitting-knives e, which are circular revolving knives which slit the paper into the required width. From the slitting-knives e the web travels through the drawing rolls f f to the revolving knive g, which, pressing MAKING AND FINISHING. 563 down with sufficient sheering force against the dead knive g\ cuts the web of paper crosswise into the required length of sheet. The dimensions of the sheet of paper may be increased or diminished by changing the diameter of the expanding pulley li and the change pulley d. After being cut, the sheets of paper fall upon the endless felt i and are carried forward to the table h, where they are arranged by boys or girls. Cutting Water-Marked Paper. — In machines for cutting water-marked paper a greater degree of nicety in the adjust- ment is necessary than in the revolving cutters. A form of single sheet paper-cutter adapted for cutting water-marked paper is shown in Fig. 176. Fig. 176. The paper after passing through the slitting-knives A, which are similar to those of the revolving cutter shown in 564 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Fig. 175, it passes over the measuring drum O, which by a crank arrangement, D 2U, has imparted to it an oscillatory movement and can be adjusted to draw the exact quantity of paper forward for the length of sheet required. The paper is made to adhere to the drum by means of the gripper rolls F F, arranged so as to rise and fall as the drum oscillates, while the dancing roll B keeps the web at a uniform tension. By means of the knife /, the paper is cut into sheets; this knife is connected with cranks and links, 6r, and is supported by the link rods H H working horizontally with a swinging motion against the dead knife K. At the same time clamp L holds the web in position. The sheets to be cut may be seen hanging down at the dotted lines M. The sheets are then arranged by boys or girls in the usual way. On account of the great amount of attention which this cutter requires it is only employed when extreme accuracy is necessary. The question is often asked, " What style of cutter is best adapted to cut the paper into sheets directly ofT the machine 1" In reply we probably cannot do better than to quote the answer to. the above question which was made by the ' Paper Trade Journal' as follows: — " Either a good dog cutter or a continuous feed cone- pulley cutter will cut, in good condition, say 6000 pounds of paper per day of twenty-four hours. If the production is greater, the cutter ought to be separate from the machine and the paper should be run on rolls and then carried to the cutter, and the paper from six to eight rolls should be cut MAKING AND FINISHING. 565 off at one time. When the machine is speeded to make four to seven tons of paper per day, the machine tender has not time to attend to the cutter, and, in fact, there is no cutter made that will do the work as it ought to be done, at the speed necessary. The best cutters will make from twenty to twenty-four cuts per minute if they are kept in the best possible condition, and this is as fast as girls can sort and lay the paper properly. It is, therefore, better to put in two cutting machines and run them slow enough to secure good work and to cut all of the paper in daytime. If the paper is made up into large rolls, a sufficient quantity is run on a large reel, which is then removed from the machine and an empty one substituted, and while it is being filled the one just removed is run through the winder, which trims the edges, cuts the paper in proper width, and winds it up on wooden rolls or spools. The winder is simply the cutting machine divested of the cross-cut knife and all superfluous rolls. One or two shafts, as the case may be, are added with suitable framework; the spools are put on these shafts and held in place by collars and set screws; the shafts are driven by friction motion of the same power that drives the reel on the machine. The spools must be of exactly the same diameter, since, if they are not, the paper will wind loose and uneven on the smaller, while that being wound on the larger, having all the strain to bear, will be likely to break, and even when the spools are on different shafts, and each is driven by its own friction belt, it is difficult to make the rolls uniform. For the purpose of overcoming this difficulty Messrs. J. and W. Jolly, of Holyoke, have built a 566 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. driver, consisting of a combination of pulleys and bevel gears which permit the use of spools of different diameters, and it is likely to prove the best means yet devised for driving the winder. Inasmuch as many of these rolls are made large and heavy, it is necessary that they should be wound solidly in order that they shall be able to withstand the inevitable rough handling which they receive in transportation from the mill to the printing house, and the rewinding they are subjected to for the purpose of wetting down previous to being printed." Defects in Apparatus in common use for Winding the Cut Web of Paper into Rolls. — In apparatus for winding the cut web of paper into rolls there has been a great draw- back, in the form of the impossibility of equalizing the speed of the several rolls in such a manner that rolls of different diameters can be revolved at different speeds corresponding to their respective diameters and still be driven from the same main shaft, so that the paper after it is cut into strips may be wound evenly upon all the rolls regardless of their diameters. If this drawback could be overcome there would be accomplished a great saving in the manufacture of paper, inasmuch as in machinery heretofore used it has been neces- sary to remove as much good paper from the other rolls as damaged paper from one roll in case the paper on one roll should be damaged by some accident or other. It is also desirable that a new roll may be started while the paper is still being wound upon the other rolls. Manning's Machine. — By the use of the apparatus illus- trated in Fig. 177 the inventor, Mr. John J. Manning, of MAKING AND FINISHING. 567 Great Barrington, Mass., claims that all the objections which have been named are overcome, and, in short, that the several rolls and their shafts may be revolved at a speed cor- responding to their diameter, and that the result is performed automatically. Fiji. 17 7. Fig. 177 is a side elevation of as much of a paper-making machine as is necessary to illustrate Mr. Manning's improve- ment. A indicates the roll of paper, which is to be cut in suit- able widths to be wound upon the rolls, and the web passes from the roll A under a roller or cylinder, B, then upward over a small roller, C, between the revolving shears or cutters Z), which cut the web into suitable widths, and between two rollers or cylinders, E and F, from which rollers the several webs or strips of paper pass down to their respective rolls, which are wound each upon a shaft, G, journaled transversely in bearings in the frame of the machine, the bearings being of such a construction that the shafts may be lifted out of their bearings. The shafts, of which there are as many as there are rolls to be wound and webs of paper cut, have 568 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. small pinions secured upon them inside of the bearings, which pinions mesh with pinions secured upon the ends of shafts which are provided with pulleys, K, or similar gears, such as cog-wheels. In the illustration the gears K are shown as pulleys hav- ing belts passing over them, and we shall refer to the gears as pulleys in this description. Belts, L, pass over the pulleys, and each pair of belts of adjoining pulleys pass over two pulley-rims, M. forming parts of Manning's improved equali- zing-pulley. Both of these equalizing pulleys, iV, with their two rims, are placed upon shafts, 0, which have common pulleys or gears, over which pass belts, which again pass over the two rims of an equalizing-pulley, it, upon the drive or power shaft S. In the illustration there are shown four rolls, and conse- quently four shafts, and therefore two equalizing-pulleys, jV, are shown, and one equalizing-pulley upon the drive- shaft, and it follows that if more than four shafts are used the number of equalizing-pulleys, N, is increased at the rate of one pulley for each pair of shafts and belts, and the number of equalizing-pulleys, i?, is increased at the rate of one for each pair or less of equalizing-pulleys, iV, each of which pairs of equalizing-pulleys are again provided with suitable belting, which passes to another equalizing-pulley, the pulleys having separate shafts and belt-pulleys, the number of equalizing-pulleys decreasing gradually by divi- sion with two in the number of pulleys until one equalizing- pulley is reached, which is placed upon the drive-shaft. It follows that if an uneven number of rolls and shafts is used, MAKING AND FINISHING. 569 one of the pulleys, N, will only have one belt passing over it and will have the two rims revolving together, the manner of connecting the rims being described hereafter. If only two shafts and rolls are used, one equalizing-pulley only is used. In this manner it will be seen that these pulleys serve as equalizers for the several shafts revolving in concert, auto- matically regulating the speed according to the tension upon the several pulleys. It follows that, although these pulleys are especially adapted to and intended for paper-cutting apparatus for paper-making machinery, the pulleys may be used in any other machinery, in which it is desirable to automatically regulate the speed of pulleys or cog-wheels according to the tension upon them. By using these pul- leys any damaged part of the web winding upon one roll may be removed, and the roll started again without the necessity of removing any paper from the other rolls so as to equalize their thickness and consequently their speed of revolution, or a roll may be removed and a new roll started while the other rolls continue to wind the paper upon the large rolls already formed. Dangoise's Machine. — There has of late years been invented a large number of machines for trimming, slitting, and roll- ing paper. Dangoise's machine, which the writer has seen in practical operation in Belgium, is an ingenious contrivance for trimming, slitting, and rolling paper, and we illustrate the machine in Figs. 178 and 179. Fig. 178 is a side elevation of the machine and Fig. 179 a front view. 570 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. To bearings on the opposite side frames of the machine are adapted the journals of a drum, II, which is driven, through the medium of suitable gear-wheels, from the driving-shaft, carrying the smoothing-roller G On the Fig. 178. Fie 179. -drum H rests the roller E on to which the continuous sheets of paper, after they are cut are wound, the journals of this roller being adapted to bearings arranged in guides P in the opposite side frames of the machine. To these guides are also adapted plates, which form bearings for three rollers, D, G, and F, the two former being arranged to rest on the rolls of paper, which are wound on the roller E, while the roller F carries a series of circular cutting knives, Fig. 179, ;arranged at points corresponding with the width of paper MAKING AND FINISHING. 571 desired to be cut. The edges of these knives are adapted to corresponding grooves in the roller D, and on the roller G are arranged a series of blades, corresponding in position to the knives on the roller F, for a purpose explained hereafter. The cutter-roll .Fis driven from a vertical shaft, M, through bevel-wheels, o o, receiving motion from the driving-shaft through suitable gearing. The front plates, JV, of the guides Pare removable, so that the roll E may be withdrawn when it is desired to remove the rolls of paper from the roller E. The plates which form the bearings for the rollers F D G have secured to them vertical racks, K L, controlled by pin- ions on a horizontal shaft, /, furnished with retaining-pawls and ratchets, so that the rollers may be raised to any desired height after the required amount of paper has been wound on the roller E. The roll A of paper to be cut is arranged on the lower part of the frame, as is shown in Fig. 178, and immediately above this roll is the stretcher or tension device X, so secured to the opposite side frames that it can be adjusted to different angles to vary the tension. This stretcher carries two bars, B and B\ the paper from the roll A first passing over the bar B and under the bar B\ and thence over the roll C, which, being caused to rotate in a direction opposite to that pursued by the paper, smooths the paper and removes all creases therefrom. The paper then passes over the roller D and between the latter and the cutter-roll F, by which the paper is cut into a number of strips of the required width, these strips being wound by means of the drum H on to 572 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. metal or wooden bobbins arranged on the roller E. The rollers D G, resting on the rolls of paper as they are wound on to the bobbins, give the required tension and pressure to the paper, while the rings or blades Q on the roller 6r, entering between the strips of paper as they are wound into rolls, guide the strips and insure the formation of even and compact rolls. If desired, the cutting-knives on the roll F, except those at the ends for trimming the edges of the paper, may be dispensed with, in which case the blades Q on the roller G are so constructed as to cut the paper to the proper widths as it is wound on to the roller E, these blades thus serving the purpose of both cutting and guiding the paper. Finishing Paper. After being cut, and, if necessary, calendered, the paper is sorted, or, in other words, it is examined sheet by sheet, and all soiled or torn sheets are thrown out. It is next counted into quires and reams, each quire containing twenty-four sheets, and each ream twenty quires. The appearance, and consequently the market value, of the paper when finished depends very greatly upon those who have charge of this department. Carelessness of any kind in handling and finishing the paper should not be tolerated. In putting up the sheets into quires, half-reams, and reams, it should always be re- membered that buyers pay a great deal for "fancy" in this world. A neat and attractive package of stationery will catch the eye of a purchaser much more quickly than one LIST OF PATENTS RELATING TO PAPER-MAKING MACHINES. 573 that is not so invitingly finished, and although the material in the latter is identically the same as in the former package, the attractively finished paper will be the more valuable for the reason that it commands a quicker sale. American paper-manufacturers usually appreciate this point, but British manufacturers, as a rule, seem to pay little attention to it. When the paper is sent out in web too much care cannot be given to tightly reeling it and keeping the edges even, thus imparting to it a neat and finished appearance, which makes it more desirable and salable, as there results economy in both the printing and in the cutting. List of Patents relating to Paper-making Machines, issued by the Govern- ment of the United States of America, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. No. Date. Inventor. Jan. 23, 1833. W. Cole. Feb. 20, 1836. C. Forbes. 1,059 Dec. 31, 1838. J. M. Hollingsworth. 1,336 Sept. 25, 1839. W. and A. L. Knight and E. F. Condit. 5,041 March 27, 1847. L. W. Wright. 5,671 July 18, 1848. G. L. Wright. 6,337 April 7, 1849. J. M. Hollingsworth. 8,698 Jan. 27, 1852. G. W. Turner. 10,519 Feb. 14, 1854. S. G. Levis. 12,027) 12,028) Dec. 5, 1854. O. Marland. 13,913 Dec. 11, 1855. C. D. Jones. 14,621 April 8, 1856. P. H. Wait. 15,852 Oct. 7, 1856. J. Kinsey. 16,430 Jan. 20, 1857. J. S. Blake. 17,663 June 30, 1857. E. M. Bingham. 17,817 Aug. 4, 1857. P. Clark. 19,045 Jan. 5, 1858. S. Piossman. 21,008 July 27, 1858. F. Lindsay and W. Geddes. 21,768 Oct. 12, 1858. J. and R. McMurray. 26,387 Oct. 12, 1858. T. Vandeventer. 31,215 Jan. 22, 1861. G. J. Wheeler, G. N. Dunnell, and W. Sharp. 574 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. Inventor. 34,633 March 11, 1862. J. Harper. 38,684 May 26, 1863. J. F. Jones. 38,698 May 26, 1863. G. E. Rutledge. 39,500 Aug. 11, 1863. J. L. Seaverns. 41,102 Jan. 5, 1864. G. E. Sellers. 42,854 May 24, 1864. R. L. Howe. 42,896 May 24, 1864. J. B. Wortendyke. Reissues ) 1,817 May 24, 1864. VJ. B. Wortendyke. 1,818 J 43,280 June 28, 1864. F. Baker. 43,860 Aug. 16, 1864. S. Nowlan. 44,059 Sept. 6, 1864. A. Anderson. 45,149 Nov. 22, 1864. E. N. Foote. 46,405 Feb. 14, 1865. J. P. Tice. 48,347 June 20, 1865. J. Shanlan. 50,323 Oct. 10, 1865. S. W. Baker. 51,293 Dec. 5, 1865. H. Chapman. 53,991 April 17, 18&6. C. Lang. 58,051 Sept. 18, 1866. E. B. Bingham. 59,661 Nov. 13, 1866. S. G. and G. S. Rogers, 62,958 March 19, 1867. R. L. Howe. 63,939 April 16, 1867. E. O. Potter. 70,534 Nov. 5, 1867. E. Curtis. 71,108 Nov. 19, 1867. E. Wilmot. 72,564 •Dec. 24, 1867. F. Thing. 79,659 July 7, 1868. J. Jennings. 82,854 Oct. 6, 1868. A. B. Lowell. 83,165 Oct. 20, 1868. A. Howland. 83,616) 83,617 J Nov. 3, 1868. E. T. Ford. 84,235 Nov. 17, 1868. J. Viney. 85,157 Dec. 22, 1868. J. Wrinkle. 88,035 March 23, 1869. S. Gwynn. 89,132 April 20, 1869. A. T. Dennison. 89,766 May 4, .1869. C. Hofmann. 90,711 June 1, 1869. J. W. White. 90,898 June 1, 1869. C. B. Van Walkenbu rgl 91,842 June 29, 1869. R. C. Harris. 92,161 July 6,, 1869. W. Campbell. 92,303 July 6, 1869. G. F. Goetzie. 92,596 July 15, 1869. E. F. Ford. 95,153 Sept. 21, 1869. J. P. Sherwood. LIST OF PATENTS RELATING TO PAPER-MAKING MACHINES. 575 No. Date. Inventor. 100,755 March 15, 1870. W. W. Harding. 101,345 March 29, 1870. G. S. Barton. 102,265 April 26, 1870. I. Hoffman. 102,754 May 10, 1870. W. H. Beasdale. 104,281 June 14, 1870. L. Dodge. 106,134 Aug. 9, 1870. L. Dean. 106,179 Aug. 9, 1870. C. P. Leavitt. 109,552 Nov. 22, 1870. P. Scanlan. 111,081 Jan. 17, 1871. C. A. Pease. 111,496 Jan. 31, 1871. M. and A. Waissnix and C. A. Shecker. 111,751 Feb. 14, 1871. R.A.Kelly. 112,422 March 7, 1871. D. Crosby. 118,624 Aug. 29, 1871. C. McBurney and L. Hollingsworth. 123.573 Feb. 13, 1872. James F. Marshall. 124,881 March 26, 1872. J. Burns and J. Campbell. 127,463 June 4, 1872. L.M.Crane. 128,469 July 2, 1872. F. Curtis. 131,103 Sept. 3, 1872. M. J. Kearney. 131,732 Oct. 1, 1872. C. J. Bradbury. 134,810 Jan. 14, 1873. M. Lawler. 138,173 April 22, 1873. W. McLaughlin. 140,418 July 1, 1873. R. Hutton. 141,358 July 29, 1873. N. Keely. 144,172 Sept. 11, 1873. C. Whealan. 143,801 Oct. 21, 1873. J. Whitehead. 144,902 Nov. 25, 1873. D. Hamel. 146,520 Nov. 25, 1873. B. F. Field. 149,381 April 7, 1874. G. Dunn and R. McAlpine. 150,545 May 5, 1874. L. A. Duckett. 152,216 June 23, 1874. C. W. Cronk. 153,277 July 21, 1874. B. G. Read. 155,027 Sept. 15, 1874. R. Hutton. 158,204 Dec. 29, 1874. B. F. Eaton. 158,400 Jan. 5, 1875. J. Butler. 160,175 Feb. 23, 1875. J. L. Firm. 164,468 Dec. 1, 1874. R. McMurray. 164,814 June 22, 1875. C. L. Crum. 166,122 July 27, 1875. M.Matthews. 167.574 Sept. 7, 1875. S. Sellers. 168,746 Oct. 11, 1875. J. W. Huested. 174,369 March 7, 1876. A. W. Keeney. 175,724 April 4, 1876. A. McDermid. 176,344 April 18, 1876. C. O. Perrine. 576 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. Inventor. 179,161 June 27, 1876. W. Conquest. 181,921 Sept. 5, 1876. J. H. DeWitt. 183,112 Oct. 10, 1876. C. T. Bischoff. 185,536 Dec. 19, 1876. G. Howland. 194,582 Aug. 28, 187 7. L. Cole. 195,698 Oct. 2, 1877. W. Buchanan and C. Smith. 195,821 Oct. 2, 1877. P. W. Hudson. 196,542 Oct. 30, 1877. D. Scrymgeour. 196,634 Oct. 30, 1877. M. H. Cornell. 197,004 Nov. 13, 1877. J. Bacon. 197,502 Nov. 27, 1877. J. A. Turner and J. T. Stoneham, 199,359 Jan. 22, 1878. J. Dunbar. 200,209 Feb. 12, 1878. G. W. Lewthwaite. 200,309 Feb. 12, 1878. G. F. Jones. 200,337 Feb. 12, 1878. F. Phillips. 200,367 Feb. 12, 1878. J. A. White. 200,369 Feb. 12, 1878. C. Young. 201,757 March 26, 1878. J. W. Dixon. 206.106 1 206.107 i July 16, 1878. J. Hatch. 207,287 Aug. 20, 1878. F. A. B. Koons. 208,792 Oct. 8, 1878. H. Burgess. 209,003 Oct. 15, 1878. C. Young. 210,097 Nov. 19, 1878. O. W. Clark. 211,991 Feb. 4, 1879. J. O. Gregg. 211,362 Feb. 18, 1879. G. Dunn and F. Hollister. 212,485 Feb. 18, 1879. J. W. Moose. 215,422 May 13, 1879. G. Wilson and A. Raymond. 215,946 May 27, 1879. J. T. F. McDonald. " 216,696 June 17, 1879. J. Peaslee. 216,914 June 24, 1879. W. S. Tyler. 218,003 July 29, 1879. J. Dunbar. 222,353 Dec. 9, 1879. E. B. Hayden. 223,918 Jan. 27, 1880. N. Kaiser. Reissue 10,074 April 4, 1882. 223,381 Jan. 6, 1880. W. C. Phelps. 225,141 March 2, 1880. J. Jordan and C. C. Markle. 225,609 March 16, 1880. J. Jamison. 226,609 April 20, 1880. H. Hay ward. 229,636 July 6, 1880. S. Pusey. 230,029 July 13, 1880. A. McDermid. 231,038 Aug. 10, 1880. J. J. Harris. LIST OF PATENTS RELATING TO PAPER-MAKING MACHINES. 577 No. Date. Inventor. 231,169 Aug. 17, 1880. G. Holloway. 231,579 Aug. 24, 1880. G. Holloway. 232,031 Sept. 7, 1880. J. H. Henry. 237,021 Jan. 25, 1881. R. Hutton. 237,047 Jan. 25, 1881. C. B. Rice. 239,275 March 22, 1881. J. M. Shew. 241,522 May 17, 1881. P. Ambjorn. 242,815 June 14, 1881. C. W. Cronk. 246,799 Sept. 6, 1881. C. W. Mace. 247,844 Oct. 4, 1881. G. H. Moore. 248,001 Oct. 4, 1881. C. C. Wool worth. 249,992 Nov. 22, 1881. J. Randall. 252,050 Jan. 10, 1882. D. McKay. 255,867 April 4, 1882. R. Hutton. 256,047 April 4, 1882. J. Randall. 258,710 May 30, 1882. C. M. Burnett. 258,937 June 6, 1882. M. A. Martin. 259,391 June 13, 1882. B. A. Hickox. 260,172 June 27, 1882. F. Curtis. 260,356 July 4, 1882. T. P. Barry. 260,988 July 11, 1882. W. O. Jacobs. 263,012 Aug. 22, 1882. J. B. Bird. 266,307 Oct 24, 1882. C. Pareus. 267,704 Nov. 21, 1882. J. J. Manning. 268,276 Nov. 28, 1882. R. W. Perkins. 270,718 Jan. 16, 1883. J. Albey. 274,483 May 27, 1883. G. Garceau. 275,056 April 3, 1883. G. E. Marshall. 276,127 April 17, 1883. C. Young. 280,123 June 26, 1883. C. Batter. 280.555 July 3, 1883. H. A. Barber. 280,564 July 3, 1883. I. Bratton. 281,034 July 10, 1883. L. Dejonge. 282,096 July 31, 1883. J. J. Manning. 284,273 Sept. 4, 1883. G. R. Caldwell. 285,838 Oct. 2, 1883. S. Pember and S. Bird. 285,954 Oct. 2, 1883. T. P. Barry. 286,587 Oct. 16, 1883. H. F. Chase. 288,152 Nov. 6, 1883. M. Sembritzki. 289,675 Dec. 4, 1883. H. Marsden and H. Schofield. 291,406 Jan. 1, 1884. H. Sawyer. 293,471 Feb. 12, 1884. G. Kaffenberger. 293,785 Feb. 19, 1884. W. H. and W. S. Ravenscroft. 37 578 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. 293,870 Date. Feb. 19, 1884. Inventor. J. J. Harris. 296,083 296,222 297,702 April 1, 1884. April 1, 1884. April 29, 1884. J. V. Stenger. B. A. Schubiger. G. E. Marshall. 297,775 298,562 298,634 301,596 301,732 April 29, 1884. May 13, 1884. May 13, 1884. July 8, 1884. July 8, 1884. J. L. Firm. F. W. Dunnell. T. Stewart. R. W. Hopking. 1). Lockwood. 303,404 304,091 305,615 305,824 309,658 312,314 Aug. 12, 1884. Aug. 26, 1884. Sept. 23, 1884. Sept. 30, 1884. Dec. 23, 1884. Feb. 17, 1885. C. Smith. W. J. Foley. J. J. Manning. W. D. Kites and E. D. Fillio. J. Sinclair. C. Young. 313,994 316,221 March 17, 1885. April 21, 1885. J. Crossley. H. A. Barber. 318,378 May 19, 1885. W. Leishman. 319,567 June 9, 1885. G. Dunn. 319,615) 319,616 J June 9, 1885. F. C. Plume. 319,969 June 16, 1885. M. Fitzgibbons. 320,372 June 16, 1885. J. F. F. MacDonnell. 321,312 323,079 324,601 June 30, 1885. July 28, 1885. Aug. 18, 1885. W. A. Philpott, Jr. J. F. Seiberling. R. Smith. 325,165 325,973 329,610 Aug. 25, 1885. Sept. 8, 1885. Nov. 3, 1885. W. A. Fletcher and W. E. Kei M. J. Roach. C. Smith. ightley, THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 579 CHAPTER XVI. THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPERS. Asbestos or amianthus paper consists usually of two parts of paper pulp and one of amianthus. It is distinguished from ordinary paper by its color, having a yellowish tint. When burned in a flame it leaves a white residue, which, when not violently shaken, retains the form of the paper, and upon which the writing, provided ink containing sulphate of iron has been used, can be traced and deciphered with some trouble by the yellow marks left behind. Expe- riments in the manufacture of asbestos paper have been made in the United States, where beds of amianthus have been discovered and the price of the material is low. The asbestos used in the United States is in part mined here, in part imported. In this country the mineral is found in very many localities, but usually in pockets or other small deposits. In most cases of occurrence the amount is not sufficient to warrant the expenditure of the capital necessary for opening the deposits ; consequently the number of occurrences is far greater than that of operated mines. The following are the leading localities at which this mineral is obtained: the towns of Brighton, Sheffield, Pelham, and Winsdor, Massachusetts ; Richmond County 580 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. and elsewhere in New York; near New Brunswick, New Jersey ; near Media and Colerain, Pennsylvania ; in the western part of Maryland ; Hanover and Loudon counties, Virginia ; western North Carolina ; northwestern South Carolina ; Rabun and Fulton counties, Georgia ; Butte, Fresno, Los Angeles, Tulare, Mariposa, Placer, and Inyo counties, California. It is reported also from Dakota, Wyoming, Colorada, Utah, and Nevada. This list of occur- rences might be increased indefinitely, as the mineral is by no means an uncommon one. The annual production in 1883 and 1884 was about 1000 short tons. The price in New York ranged from $ 15 to $40 per ton, the price varying with the quality. The American asbestos is usually characterized by a short fibre, and by being somewhat brittle and harsh. These qualities, while unfitting it to a greater or less extent for such uses as the manufacture of rope, cloth, etc., in which a long fibre is required, do not greatly injure it for the manufacture of paper. Imported asbestos comes mainly from the province of Quebec, Canada, and is perhaps the best for general uses. The better qualities of the Quebec asbestos bring $75 to $100 per ton in New York, while the price of the poorer grades ranges as low as $40 per ton. For the manufacture of drop- curtains for theatres, etc., Italian asbestos is principally used, as it has a long, silky, tough fibre, well fitted for the purpose. This brings in New York from $100 to $250 per ton. A demand has lately sprung up for asbestos paper for insulation of electric wires. Sheathing paper is also largely made from asbestos. THE PREPARATION" OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 581 Carbolic acid paper is prepared with 3^ ounces of carbolic acid to the square foot. It is used for disinfecting purposes, and also for packing fresh meat. The process of preparing it is as follows : Melt at a moderate heat 5 parts of stearine, 6 of paraffine, and 2 of carbolic acid. Apply the melted mixture to the paper with a brush. A still more effective paper, and which can be used for a great many purposes, is obtained by the use of a smaller quantity of nitric acid in place of carbolic acid, the remainder of the process being the same. Improved Cigarette Paper. — Tobacco leaves are ground to an impalpable powder which is sifted in a box upon a moistened sheet of cigarette paper. The sheet thus prepared is covered with another sheet and brought under a press. Other sheets treated in the same manner are placed upon these and the whole finally subjected to strong pressure, whereby the tobacco-powder is intimately united with the moist paper. After remaining in the press for 12 to 24 hours the paper is removed and is ready for use. By a suitable mixture the color, flavor, and smell of the various kinds of tobacco can be successfully imitated. Paper thus prepared burns uniformly, never on one side only, and does not char. Colored Paper for Tying up Bottles, etc. — The dry aniline colors of all shades are used. Dissolve 15 grains of aniline color in 1 ounce of highly rectified alcohol, dilute the solu- tion with 10 ounces of distilled water, and add 23 grains of tannin dissolved in \ fluid ounce of alcohol. The object of the addition of tannin is to fix the color permanently upon 582 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the fibres of the paper, as without it the color on drying could be easily rubbed off. Now take thin white writing- paper, spread it upon a marble or copper plate, and apply the fluid by means of a sponge. Hang the paper over a cord to dry, and in a few days varnish it with a concentrated solution of sodium water-glass to 100 parts of which have been added 10 parts of glycerine. Cork paper, patented in America by H. Felt & Co., is prepared by coating one side of a thick, soft, and flexible paper with a preparation of 20 parts of glue, 1 of gelatine, and 3 of molasses, and covering it with fine particles of cork lightly rolled on. The material is used for packing glass, bottles, etc. Electro-chemical Telegraph Paper, Pouget-Maisonneuve's. — Sufficiently sized paper is treated with a solution of 5 parts of ferrocyanide of potassium and 150 of salammoniac in 100 of water. Telegrams received by means of this paper and Morse's apparatus, before the present system of receiv- ing by sound was introduced, gave very satisfactory results. Emery Paper. — Fig. 180 represents Edwards's patented apparatus used in the manufacture of emery, sand, glass, and similar papers, a is the beam on which the endless paper is rolled. In unrolling it passes over the brush- roller i, which takes up the glue from the boiler h and applies it to the paper. The boiler containing the glue is constructed of copper or iron, and surrounded with a steam- jacket. The small rollers h and n act as distributers, both being turned by friction with b. As soon as the paper reaches the even plane from b to c the glue upon it is THE PREPAEATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 583 heated by steam emanating from the apparatus d, and a fine jet of the material, emery, glass, sand, etc., falls from e upon the surface thus heated. The powder penetrates deeply into the soft, sticky mass, and adheres quickly. Fig. 180. The excess falls off by the paper turning over c, and is collected in a box. The powder in e is heated by a steam- pipe. The fan / sets the paper in motion, whereby all the powder not adhering tightly is shaken off. A jet of steam striking the surface of the paper through g helps to set the powder more securely in the glue. Water-proof Emery Paper. — The paper is coated on both sides with pulverized emery which is made to adhere to it by means of a water-proof cement, so that moisture can have no injurious effect upon the paper. This flexible water-proof cement is prepared by melting 2 parts of hard, African copal, pouring over this, while yet hot, 3 of boiled linseed oil and adding one part of oil-lacquer, 1 of Venetian turpentine, 1 of Venetian red, J of Berlin blue, J of litharge, and 1 of dissolved caoutchouc. Mix these ingredients inti- mately, and should the compound be too thick dilute with 584 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. some linseed-oil varnish. Then spread it uniformly upon paper, or a suitable cheap fabric, stretched in a frame, and sift finely pulverized emery, or glass, quartz sand, etc., over it; and, when dry, remove the excess of powder. Some- times both sides of the paper are covered, one side with coarser and the other with finer powder. Enamelled Writing Surfaces on Pasteboard and Paper. — A mixture of bleached shellac and borax dissolved in 10 per cent, of water and glue and vine-black rubbed to an impal- pable powder is used for the first coloring material. It is transferred to the paper to be coated by means of a felt roller, and distributed with a brush. The paper is then dried and rolled up. After this operation a second color consisting of vine-black, pergamentine (water-glass and gly- cerine) is used, the paper receiving three coats of this. It is then cut into suitable sizes, steamed at a temperature of 248° F., and finally smoothed by calendering. For white tablets Kremnitz white is used in place of vine-black ; for colored, ultramarine, etc. Iridescent Paper. — Boil 4| ounces of coarsely powdered gall-nuts, 2f ounces of sulphate of iron, \ ounce of sulphate of indigo, and 12 grains of gum- Arabic; strain through a cloth, brush the paper with the liquor, and expose it quickly to ammoniacal vapors. Imitation of Motlier-of Pearl on Paper. — Stout paper with a glossy coating is allowed to float upon a solution of salts of silver, lead, or bismuth. As soon as the paper lies smooth upon the surface of the solution it is slowly lifted and allowed to dry. The dry paper is then placed in a room THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 585 impregnated with sulphide of hydrogen, and remains here until the surface has assumed a metallic lustre. Diluted collodion is now poured over the paper thus prepared, or it is drawn through a bath of it, when, after drying, the beau- tiful iridescent colors will appear upon the paper. The most varying effects can be produced by sprinkling reducing substances or salts upon the surface of the paper before sub- mitting it to the action of the sulphide of hydrogen. This process is not only adapted for paper but can also be employed for finished articles, as boxes, bonbonnieres, etc. Leather Waste — Hoio Prepared for Use in the Manufac- ture of Paper. — To extract the tannin place the waste for a few hours in a solution of 5 parts of lime, 5 of crystallized soda, and 1| of salammoniac in 100 of water ; then wash first Avith acidulated and next with pure water. The pre- pared waste is worked into paper in the ordinary manner, either by itself or mixed with rags. Plioto-lithograplxic Transfer Paper, and Transfer-color belonging to it. — Paper is treated with a solution of 100 parts of gelatine and 1 of chrome-alum in 2400 of water, and, after drying, with white of egg. It is sensitized in a bath consisting of 1 part of chrome alum, 14 of water, and 4 of alcohol. The addition of the latter prevents the solution of the white of egg. On the places not exposed to the light the white of egg becomes detached, together with the color with which the exposed paper has been coated. The transfer color consists of 20 parts of printing ink, 50 of wax, 40 of tallow, 35 of resin, 210 of oil of turpentine, and 30 of Berlin blue. 586 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Preserving Papers. — Two new varieties of preserving papers have been recently brought into the market. The one is obtained by immersing soft paper in a bath of salicylic acid, and then drying in the air. The bath is prepared by diluting a strong solution of the acid in alcohol with a large volume of water. This paper may then be used for wrap- ping up apples, etc. The other paper used as protection against moths and mildew is best prepared from strong Manilla paper by immers- ing it in the following bath : Seventy parts of tar oil, 5 of crude carbolic acid containing about \ phenol, 20 of coal- tar at a temperature of 160° F., and 5 of refined petroleum. The paper is then squeezed out, and dried by passing it over hot rollers. Tar Pwper. — Boil 100 pounds of tar for 3 hours, then dissolve in it a quantity of a glue prepared from resin and soap, pour 8 gallons of boiling water upon the mixture, stir carefully, and let the mixture boil. Then stir carefully 100 pounds of potato flour into 60 gallons of water in a vat, mix the dissolved tar with 15 gallons of boiling water, and add this to the potato flour in the vat, stirring constantly. Twenty-four parts of this homogeneous fluid are taken to 20 parts of paper-pulp. From the pulp the tar-paper is manufactured, which can be painted black and varnished to make it water-proof. The prepared tar-solution may also be used to impregnate wood, sail-cloth, etc. Tracing Paper, Tracing Linen, and Transparent Packing Paper. — The paper is first treated with boiled linseed oil, and the excess of oily particles removed with benzine. The THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 587 paper is then washed in a chlorine bath. When dry it is again washed with oxygenated water. Paper can be made transparent by applying a thin coating of a solution of Canada balsam in turpentine to the paper, then give it a good coating of much thicker varnish on both sides. Perform the work before a hot fire, to keep the paper warm, and a third or even fourth coating until the paper becomes evenly translucent. Paper prepared in this manner comes nearer to perfection than any other. By the following very simple process ordinary drawing paper can be rendered transparent, for the purpose of mak- ing tracings, and its transparency removed so as to restore its former appearance when the drawing is completed. Dissolve any quantity of castor oil in one, two, or three volumes of absolute alcohol, according to the thickness of the paper, and apply it by means of a sponge. The alcohol evaporates in a few minutes, and the tracing paper is dry and ready for immediate use. The drawing or tracing can be made either with lead-pencil or India ink, and the oil removed from the paper by immersing it in absolute alcohol, thus restoring its original opacity. The alcohol employed in removing the oil is, of course, preserved for diluting the oil used in preparing the next sheet. Linen, to prepare it for being used for tracing purposes, is first provided with a coating of starch and then with an application of linseed oil and benzine. It is finished by being smoothed between polished rollers. Transfer Paper. — Mix lard to a paste with lampblack, rub this upon the paper, remove the excess with a rag, and 588 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. dry the paper. A copy of the writing can be transferred on a clean sheet of paper by placing it underneath the pre- pared paper and writing upon the latter with a lead-pencil or sharp point. Water-proof paper, transparent and impervious to grease, is obtained by soaking good paper in an aqueous solution of shellac and borax. It resembles parchment paper in some respects. If the aqueous solution be colored with aniline colors very handsome paper, of use for artificial flowers, is prepared. Peterson's Water-proof Paper. — Dissolve 3| ounces of tallow soap in water, add sufficient solution of alum until the soap is entirely decomposed, and mix this fluid with a gallon of paper-pulp. The paper is in all other respects prepared in the ordinary manner, and need not to be sized. It is especially suitable for cartridge-shells. Wrapping Paper for Silver Ware. — The appearance of silver ware is frequently injured by being exposed to air containing sulphuretted hydrogen or sulphurous and other acids. The small quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen con- tained in illuminating gas and which in burning yields sul- phurous acid is frequently sufficient to spoil the appearance of all the articles in a store. To prevent this a prepared paper is recommended. Prepare a solution of 6 parts of caustic soda in water of 20° Baume, then add 4 of zinc oxide and let the mixture boil for two hours, if possible under a pressure of 5 atmospheres. Dilute the solution, when clear, to 10° Baume, and it is ready for impregnating the paper. THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 589 Writing, Copying, and Drawing Paper which can he Washed. — The paper is made transparent by immersion in benzine and then, before the benzine volatilizes, plunged into a solution of siccative prepared in the following manner : One pound each of lead shavings and oxide of zinc are boiled for 8 hours, together with 8f ounces of hardened Venetian turpentine in 2 J gallons of purified linseed-oil var- nish, and then allowed to stand for a few days to cool and settle. The clear layer is then poured off and to this are added 5 pounds of white West Indian copal and 8f to 10 ounces of sandarac dissolved in spirit of wine or ether. This paper can be written or drawn upon with pen and ink or water colors ; or, by using good copying ink, good copies can be taken from it without a press. INDEX. A DAMSON'S method of preparing stock for paper-makers' sizing, 446-448 Aldrich, E. D., contrivance for holding knife for cutting rags by hand, 117- 120 Alkali, quantity of, used for dissolving the ink from printed papers, 195 Allen and Mason's dusting engine for preparing pulp from papers, 189-202 Alum, 435-442 aluminous cake, substitute for, 418 as a mordant, 462 concentrated, as a water purifier, 440, 441 false economy in the use of, 441, 442 from bauxite, 437 "Lion," 418 pearl, the most powerful sizing agent, 438 test for iron in, 440 Alumina bleach liquor, 353, 354 Aluminium sulphate, 443-145 Aluminous cake, substitute for alum, 418 Alums, varieties of, 435, 436 Amianthus or asbestos paper, 579, 580 Ammonia, treating wood with, 307, 308 Ancient history found on clay tablets, 19 Aniline and other reds, combination of, in coloring paper, 476 black, 483, 484 colors, acid mordants for, 463 dyes used in paper-making, 93 gray (murine), 483 red colors, commercial names of, 467 violets, 481 Animal size, materials from which it is made, 421, 422 Antichlorine, preparation of, 397, 398 Aqua regia, treating wood with, 307 Arsenious acid, preparation of the solu- tion of, 348 Artificial flower-paper, crimson stain for, 486 dark blue stain for, 486 dark green stains for, 486 dark red stain for, 487 rose color stain for, 487 scarlet stains for, 487 yellow stains for, 486, 487 flowers, to stain paper for, 485-487 Asbestos, annual production of, 580 average prices of, 580 large use of, for sheathing paper, 580 leading localities at which it is ob- tained, 579, 580 or amianthus paper, 579, 580 paper for insulating electric wires, 580 Assyrian antiquities in the British Museum, 19, 20 Mythology found on clay tablets, 20 Aussedat's paper-mills, 303 process of treating wood, 299-304 Automatic wire-guide for paper-making machines, 505-514 BACHET-MACHARD'S process of disintegrating straw and esparto, 306 process of disintegrating wood, 305-307 Bagging, rope, and threads, classifica- tion of, 90 Bankruptcy in the United States after the war of 1812, 54, 55 Barley straw, treatment of, 236 Barry's (Thos. P.), improved wire- guide device, illustrated, 505-514 Bastose, a mordanted cellulose, 377 592 INDEX. Baumann's machine for cutting rags, 130-133 Bauxite, rich in alumina, 437 Beating, 391-398 engine, Hoyt's, 401-405 Wm Umpherston's, 406-408 engines, 399-408 usual construction of, 400-402 process, theory of, 394 usually timed by the thickness of the paper to be made, 394, 395 Benzine and resin, tub sizing with, 434 Bevan and Cross's treatment with chlo- rine gas in M tiller's processes, 80, 81 Bisulphide processes of treating wood, some of the defects of, 289, 290 Black, aniline, 483, 484 color on paper, 483, 484 coloring for paper used for cheap pocket-books, 484 indelible, 484 stain for Morocco paper, 489, 490 stains for glazed papers, 487 Bleach liquor, alumina, 353, 354 zinc, 352, 353 Bleaching boilers, American patents issued from 1790 to 1885 inclu- sive, 389, 390 esparto, 37 7 in rotaries, 388, 389 in the washing and beating engine, disadvantages of, 315 jute, 377-380 Conley's process for, 240-242 of materials composed of hemp, flax, etc., 380-382 of pulp, experiments made in, 304, 305 of straw, Burns' s process for, 362, 364 paper pulp by applying the bleach- ing agent in a pulverized or sprayed condition, 385-388 powder, 341-346 alteration by keeping, 343, 344 estimation of chlorine in, 346- 350 injured by too hurried a pack- ing, 343 requisite attributes of, 343, 344 pulp made from old papers, 361 resin and preparing size therefrom, 420, 421 solution, preparing and using, 350 Bleaching — sour, 357, 358 straw, 361-364 vegetable tissues with permanga- nate of potash, and neutralizing with oxalic acid, sulphite of sodium, and chlorine, 382-385 with chlorine gas requires longer time for reduction of the rags than when liquid chlorine is used, 315 with gas, 358-360 wood fibre, 364-367 wood, straw, etc., 367, 376 Blue (azure and light) stains for satin papers, 491 (azure) stain for glazed papers, 487, 488 (dark and light) stains for Morocco papers, 490 (dark and pale) stains for glazed papers, 488 potassium ferrocyanide for produc- ing different shades of, 463 rags for deep blue colored paper, 475 shades on paper, 471-477 stain for artificial flower paper, 486 Blueing paper, 475 Boiler, Marshall's, for digesting wood by the soda process, 254-258 rag, illustrated, 209 rotary, illustrated, 204, 205, 215- 218 of Geo. F. Wilson, illustrated, 211-214 Boilers for digesting wood by the soda process, defects of, 252-254 rag, forms of, 204 revolving, 210-218 stationary, 209, 210 Boiling, alkaline substances used in, 204 and washing rags, 185-189 coal tar with the alkalies employed in treating straw, 235 esparto, 237-239 liquor, not drawn off after each boiling, 225 Manilla and jute, 239-242 object of, 204 rags, 203-208 combined process for washing and, 185-191 use of lime and soda ash in, 206, 207 INDEX. 593 Boiling rags — usual time of steam pressure, 207 straw, 229-237 ■waste paper, 224-229 period of, varies with the nature of the stock, 226 wood, 242-258 wood chips with soda, 246-249 Bradford, William, aids in the intro- duction of the paper manufacture into the United States, 43, 44 Bratton's (Isaac) improvements in con- nection with, the suction-box of a paper-making machine, illustrated, 514-518 Brazaline, shades of red, employed for, 465 Brazil wood, to extract a strong dye liquor from, 466, 467 Brewer's method of moistening calen- der rolls, 546-549 British Museum, Assyrian antiquities in, 19, 20 Brown colors, Venetian red for, 46 7 (dark) stain for glazed papers, 488 (reddish and light) stains for satin papers, 491 shades on paper, 478-480, 484, 485 Building paper, water-proofing, 451, 452 Burns' s apparatus for bleaching straw, 362, 363 process for bleaching straw, etc., 362-364 for treating straw, 231-235 CALCIC chloride solution, standard for testing water, 334 Calender rolls, Brewer's method of moistening, 546-549 H. J. Frink's method of pre- venting over-heating, 551- 554 leading paper through, 538- 543 method for the easy removal and replacement, 554-557 Newton's method of moisten- ing, 549-551 Calendering, 538-561 machines, stripping paper from, 558-560 Calenders, plate, 560, 561 Carbolic acid paper, 581 38 Carbonate of sodium, economical re- generation of, 260 Card-board and wall papers, pulp for, 303, 304 Carey, Mathew, & Sons, 53 Caustic soda, quantities used in boiling different classes of rags, 208 used in boiling esparto, 238 use of, for dissolving ink from printed papers, 195 Cellulose, 77-79 American patents for lead lined digesters to be used in pre- paring, from wood, issued by the United States from 1790 to 1885 inclusive, 295, 296 for preparing, from wood, is- sued from 1790 to 1885 in- clusive, 295 Dahl's process of producing, from wood, straw, and other vegetable matters, by boiling in a chemical solution, 249-252 determination of, 79-81 Dr. Mitscherlich's process of pre- paring, from wood, 244, 245 oxidation of, 79 pure, necessary process to obtain, 246 Chaldea, Babylonia, and Assyria, best histories of, found on clay tablets, 19 Chemical fibre, cutting wood for, 145 wood-pulp, woods most easily used for, 246 Chemically prepared wood-pulp, 24 2-246 Chemicals, clays, coloring materials, resins, etc., employed in paper- making, 92 Chenney, Pearson C, 57 Chlorine gas, preparation of, 359, 360 substitute for bromine water in Mailer's processes, 80, 81 in bleaching powder, estimation of, 346-350 testing for, 393, 394 Cigarette paper, improved, 581 boiling ropes for, 207 Clark's (Dr.) soap test for hardness in water, 330-333 table of hardness of water, 335 Clay, early use of, for writing upon, 19 tablets containing best histories of Chaldea, Babylonia, and Assy- ria, 19 594 INDEX. Clays employed in paper-making, 92 Coal tar, boiling, -with the alkalies em- ployed in treating straw, 235 Coburn's machine for cutting rags, etc., or materials containing metallic and other substances, 133-139 Cochineal, shades of red employed for, 465 Colored paper for tying up bottles, 581, 582 papers, dry aniline colors of all shades used, 581 rags, treatment of, 219-224 treatment of, in boiling, 206, 207 Coloring, 457 r 493 materials employed in paper-mak- ing, 92, 93 surface, 485 Colors, binary, 458, 461 primary, 458, 461 for paper, 459 the, 458-462 vegetable, instability of, 485 Concentrated alum as a water purifier, 440, 441 Congress, use of imported paper by, 54, 55 Conley's process for boiling and bleach- ing jute, 240-242 Connecticut, first paper-mill in, 46 Coon's process of re pulping paper-stock, 320-322 Copying paper, boiling ropes for, 207 cigarette, and tissue paper, boiling ropes for, 207 writing, and drawing paper which can be washed, 589 Cork- paper, 582 Corn-husk cutter, 171-174 Corn leaves and stalks, treatment of, 236 Cotton and linen fibres, effect of a cold solution of potash on, 82 effects. of oil upon, 82 to distinguish between, 81 fibre, effect of a boiling solution of caustic potash on, 82 filaments, microscopic appearance of, 81, 82 of, appearance of, under the microscope, 81, 82 in linen, how to destroy, 108 paper, some of the earliest dated examples of its use, 28 Cotton paper — statutes written upon, by the Empress Irene, at the close of the eleventh century, 29 use of, by the Arabs in the ninth and tenth centuries, 28 various titles applied to, in the middle ages, 28 Coxe, Tench, 50 Cram's (Madison H.) entering guide, 543-546 Crimson stain for artificial flower paper, 486 Cushman's machine for disintegrating fibres of wood, 146, 147 Cut rags, machine for reducing the loss in cleaning, 179-184 Cutter, corn husk, 171-174 Cutters, straw, 144 Cutting and rolling, 562, 563 and winding paper, Manning's ma- chine for, 566-569 rags by hand, 117-121 by machinery, 121-144 water-marked paper, 563-566 wood for chemical fibre, 145 Cylinder machines of American inven- tion, early, 56 rolls, stack of, 555-557 Cylinders, drying, 532-537 DAHL'S process of producing cellu- lose from wood, straw, esparto, or other vegetable matter, by boiling them underpressure in a hydrated solution containing sulphate of soda, carbonate of soda, soda hy- drate, and sodium sulphide, 249-252 Dandy roll for paper-making machines, 518-520 Dangoise's machine for trimming, slit- ting, and rolling paper, 569-572 Demeur's (Auguste) process of bleach- ing applicable to materials composed of hemp, flax, or other products containing stalks, straw, etc., 380- 382 Demotic, hieroglyphic, and hieratic papyri, 21-23 Dickinson (John), description of his paper-making machine, invented in 1809, 51 Didot (M. Leger), 47 INDEX. 595 Digesters for paper pulp, American patents issued for, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive, 296-299 lead-lined, used in preparing cellu- lose from wood, American patents issued for, from 1790 to 1885 in- clusive, 295, 296 Disinfecting rags, 99-10G Parker and Blackmail's inven- tion for, 100-104 Disinfection by use of sulphurous acid,:99 Documents undated, fixing approximate periods of, by means of the papers, 40 Donkin, Bryan, 48 Drainers, proper construction of, 354- 357 Draining, 354-357 Drawing, copying, and writing paper which can be washed, 589 "Dry picking" esparto, 112 Drying cylinders, 532-537 tub-sized paper, 427, 428 Duster and washer, waste paper, 189-202 Dusters, rag, list of American patents for, 143, 144 Dusting machines, 175-202 means for facilitating the handling and opening of waste papers, preparatory to, 197-199 rags, 175-202 waste from, 178, 179 Dyes, aniline, used in paper-making, 93 DyestutFs capable of producing red colors and shades, 464-469 for coloring papers, 463, 464 EDWARDS'S apparatus for making emery, sand, glass, and similar pa- pers, 582,583 Egyptian papyri in the British Muse- um, 21 sizes of, 23 Electro-chemical telegraph paper, 582 Emery paper, 582, 583 Edwards's apparatus for mak- ing, 582, 583 water-proof, 583, 584 Enamelled writing surfaces on paste- board and paper, 584 Engine, Hoyt's beating, 401-405 sizing, 413-420 Umpherston's beating, 406-408 Engines, beating, 399-408 usual construction of, 400-402 Entering guide, Cram's, 543-546 Esparto, bleaching, 37 7 boiling, 237-239 Dahl's and Tranche's process of boiling, 239 grass, classification of, 92 sorting, 112 washing and poaching, 325-327 FERRIC oxide, 467 Fessy's (Jean B.) process of eco- nomical bleaching, illustrated, 385-388 Fibre, hemp, description of, 83 jute, microscopic appearance of, 83, . 84 linen or flax, microscopic appear- ance of, 82 Fibres, cotton and linen, effects of a boiling solution of caus- tic potash on, 82 to distinguish between, 81 linen and cotton, effects of a cold solution of potash on, 82 various, classification of, 91 vegetable, differentiating of, 81-84 recognition of, 81-84 Filaments of cotton, as they appear un- der the microscope, 81, 82 Finishing and making paper, 495-578 Flax fibre, effects of a boiling solution of caustic soda on, 82 microscopic appearance of, 82 New Zealand, to distinguish from ordinary, 83 Flowers, artificial, to stain paper for, 485-487 Fourdrinier, Henry and Sealy, pur- chased, in 1804, the interest of Didot and Gamble in the Robert machine, 48 machine illustrated, 310-314, 495 how the machine invented by Robert, and perfected by Gamble, Didot, and Don- kin, came to be called the, 49 Francke's process of manufacturing pa- per pulp from wood, esparto, straw, etc., 274-288 Frink's (H. J.) method of preventing overheating of the calender rolls, 551- 554 Furfurol, from jute, 378 596 INDEX. GAMBLE, John, 47 Gas, bleaching with, 358-360 chlorine, preparation of, 359, 360 Gilpin, Thomas, 52-54 Glazed papers, black stains for, 487 blue stains for, 487, 488 brown stains for, 488 green stains for, 488 lemon color stains for, 488, 489 orange-yellow stain for, 489 red stains for, 489 rose color stains for, 489 stains for, 487-489 violet stain for, 489 Glue stock, preservation of, by tanners and tawers, 423, 424 treatment of, at the paper- mill, 424 washer, patented by W. A. Hoeveler, 424-427 Graham's method of treating wood and other fibrous substances for the pro- duction of fibre for paper-making, etc., by the injection of sulphurous acid, either alone or in combination with potash, soda, magnesia, lime, or other suitable base in the form of a solution containing an excess of acid, into a closed or open vessel or digester during the operation of boiling, 260- 263 Gray, aniline, 483 (bluish) stain for satin papers, 492 (light) stain for satin papers, 491- 492 shades on paper, 482, 483 Gray's (Thomas) patented method of preparing resin in size, 420, 421 Green (brownish and light) stains for satin paper, 492 (copper and pale) stains for glazed papers, 488 (dark and pale) stains for Morocco papers, 490 shades on paper, 477, 478 stain for artificial flower paper, 486 vitriol, use as a mordant, 462 Grinders, wood, American patents for, 166-170 Grinding, treating wood before, 145- 147 Guide, Cram's entering, 543-546 Gutta-percha fibres, classification of, 91 HAND-MADE paper, manufacture of, 94-98 Hardness of water, Clark's tables of, 335 Hard-sizing of paper, Karcheski's me- thod of, 428-431 paper in process of manufac- ture by administering vege- table and animal sizes suc- cessively to the web before it is dried upon the heated cylinders, 428-433 water, Dr. Clark's soap-test for, 330 Hart and Walker's machine for reduc- ing the loss in cleaning cut rags, 179- 184 Hemp fibre, description of, 83 Hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic papyri, 21-23 Hoeveler's (W. A.) patent glue stock washer, 424-427 Hoffman's violet, 481 Hogben's (James) process of coloring paper in the course of manufacture, 476 " Hollander," rag engine, 309 Houghton's process for preparing wood pulp, 242 Hover's composition for treating paper, 435 How's (Warren B.) method of apply- ing paraffine to paper, 452-455 Hoyt's beating engine, 401-405 Hydrocellulose, 78 Hydrochloric or azotic acids, for remo- val of incrustating matter from the pulp, 304 Hypernic, composition and use of, 466 Hypochlorite baths, requisite strength of, 304 Hyposulphite of sodium, so-called anti- clilorinc, use of, 397 IMITATION of mother-of-pearl on paper, 584, 585 Imperfections, common process of treat- ing, 226, 227 J. T. Ryan's process of making first-class clean paper therefrom, 227, 228 washing, 316-323 what they consist of, 317 Indelible black, 484 INDEX. 597 India-rubber fibres, classification of, 91 Ink, solvents used for removing from printed papers, 195 Inks, printing and writing, to extract from waste paper, 224 Insulation for electric wires, asbestos paper for, 580 Iodide of potassium-starch paper, pre- paration of, 348 Iridescent paper, 584 Iron, test of, in alum, 440 detection of, in water, 331, 332 Ivy mill, Delaware County, Pa., 44 JAMINSON'S improvement in steam traps, 535-53 7 Jolly's (J. and W.) driver for winder, 565, 566 Journal, hollow, 533 Jute and Manilla, boiling, 239-242 bleaching of, by permanganate of potash, 3 78, 379 in the laboratory, 379 Conley's process for boiling and bleaching, 240-242 decomposition of, by mineral acids, 378 determining its presence in linen, 108 effect of salt air and salt water upon, 378 fibre, microscopic appearance of, 83, 84 stock, patent composition for bleach- ing, 379, 380 KELLER, invention of the wood- pulp machine by, 57 Keller's patent sold to Henry Voelter's Sons, 57 Kercheski's apparatus for hard sizing, 430-432 method of hard sizing paper, 428- 431 Kingsland pulp engine, 399, 400 Koeehlin's (Ivan) wood crushing ma- chine, 302, 303 LATENT heat of steam, 226 Laur's patent for making papei'- maker's alum, 437 Leading paper through calender-rolls, 538-543 Lead nitrate, preparation of, and descrip- tion, 463 sugar of, 463 Leather, used by the Israelites as a writing material, 24 waste, how prepared for the manu- facture of paper, 585 Lemon color stain for glazed papers, 488, 489 for satin papers, 492 Light, composition of, 458 Lime and soda ash, use of, in rag boilin^, 206, 207 milk of, preparation of, 207, 208 preparation of milk of, 207 slaked, more soluble in cold than in warm water, 206 Linen and cotton fibres, effects of a cold solution of potash on, 82 effects of oil upon, 82 determining the pi*esence of jute in, 108 fibre, effect of a boiling solution of caustic potash on, 82 paper, period and manner of its invention, 33, 34 rags, often mixed with jute and cotton, 107, 108 to destroy cotton in, 108 tracing, 586, 587 Long pulp, to produce, 394 Loring's (Harrison) rotary bleaching boiler, 388, 389 M ACHINE, Dangoise's, for trim- ming, slitting, and rolling paper, 569-572 for cutting and winding paper, 566- 569 corn husks, 171-174 or grinding wood and reducing it to pulp, 148-166 paper, 562, 563 single sheets of paper, 563-566 wood for chemical fibre, 145 for disintegrating fibres of wood, 146, 147 for facilitating the sorting of paper stock, 113-116. for purifying pulp, illustrated, 498, 499 for reducing printed papers to pulp, 196 598 INDEX. Machine for reducing — the loss in cleaning cut rags, 179-184 for separating metallic substances from paper stock, 139-142 for washing rags, 185-189 single cylinder, for forming thin papers, 537, 538 Machines for cutting rags, 122-144 for dusting rags, 1 75-202 paper-making, list of American patents for, 573-578 McKay's (David) improved dandy roll, illustrated, 518-520 McLaughlin's invention of stripping fingers, 558-5G0 Making and finishing paper, 495-578 Manganese, soluble salt of, to prepare, 223 Manilla and jute, boiling, 239-242 hemp, description of, 83 Manning's machine for cutting and winding paper, 566-569 Manufactures, American, after the adop- tion of the Constitution, 49 development of, during the War of •1812, 50 Marshall's boiler for digesting wood by the soda process, 254-258 for treating wood for paper pulp by the acid or bisulphite processes, 292-294 George E., invention for a stack of cylinder rolls, 555-557 invention for regulating speed of paper-making machines, illus- trated, 522-532 Mason and Allen's dusting-engine, 189- 202 Massachusetts, early paper-mills in, 44-46 Materials used for paper-making, 64-76 in sizing paper, 435-448 Maxfield's, Charles A., process of ap- plying ozocerite to paper, 455, 456 Mellier's process for treating straw, 229, 230 Metallic substances, machines for sepa- rating, from paper stock, 133-142 Methods other than the mechanical, soda, and bisulphite processes for the treatment of wood, 299-308 Micrographic study of the manufacture of paper, 77 Microscopic study of vegetable fibres, 77 Milk of lime, preparation of, 207, 208 Mineral pigments for yellow colors, 470 Mitscherlich's apparatus for preparing cellulose, 264-274 objections to, 245 process of preparing cellulose from wood, 244, 245 processes of preparing cellulose from wood, 263-274 Moistening calender rolls, Newton's method, 549-551 the calenderrolls, Brewer's method, 546-549 the paper for calendering, 546 Moorhouse, Robert and William, ma- chine for sorting paper stock, 1 1 3-1 1 6 Mordants, commonly employed in paper coloring, 462 Morocco papers, black stain for, 489 blue stains for, 490 green stains for, 490 orange-yellow stain for, 490 red stains for, 490 stains for, 489-491 violet stains for, 490, 491 yellow stain for, 491 Mother- of- pearl, imitation of, on paper, etc., 584, 585 Muller's processes for determination of cellulose, 79, 80 Murine, 483 NAPHTHALINE colors, 482 violet, 482 Natrona porous alum, 439 Newspapers, old-folded, means for handling and opening, 197-199 Newton's machine for washing rags, 185-189 method of moistening calender rolls, 549-551 New Zealand flax, to distinguish from ordinary 11 ax, 83 Nitrate of lead, 463 OAT straw, treatment of, 236 Orange-yellow stain for glazed papers, 489 for Morocco papers, 490 stains for satin papers, 492 O'Reilley and Wilson's apparatus and process of treating colored rags, 219— 224 INDEX. 599 Overheating the calender-rolls, pre- venting, 551-554 Oxycellulose, 78, 79 Ozocerite, treating paper with, 455, 45G PAMPHLETS, means for facilitating handling and opening of, 197-199 Paper, artificial flower, crimson stain for, 486 dark blue stain for, 486 dark red stain for, 487 green stains for, 486 rose-color stain for, 487 scarlet stains for, 487 yellow stains for, 486, 487 asbestos or amianthus, 579, 580 black, for cheap pocket-books, coloring for, 484 building, water-proof composition for, 451, 452 carbolic acid, 581 Chinese, 25 cigarette, boiling ropes for, 207 colored, for tying up bottles, 581, 582 commercial, classification of, 85, 86 . copying, boiling ropes for, 207 cotton, date of the oldest European document on, 29 its use for official documents forbidden by the Emperor Frederick II., 29 made known to the Western world by the Arabs in the eighth century, 27 use of, by the Arabs in the ninth and tenth centuries, 28 various titles applied to, in the middle ages, 28 cutter, single sheet, 563-566 cutting machine, 562, 563 derivation of the word, 25 double sized, 433 drying of tub sized, 427, 428 earliest manufacture of, in England, 31, 42 electro-chemical telegraph, 582 emery, 582, 583 enamelled writing surfaces on, 584 first American patents for manu- facture of, 51 first made from cotton pulp mixed with rags, 33 Paper — first successfully made by ma- chinery at Erogmore, Eng., in 1803, 48 for artificial flowers, stains for, 485-487 foreign, used by the U. S. Con- gress, 54, 55 hand manufacture of, 94-98 historv of the manufacture of, 17- 63 " Hover's composition for treating, 435 how commonly made, 25 how effected by the enforcement of duties on rags in 1843, 60 imitation of mother-of-pearl on, 584, 585 improved cigarette, 581 iridescent, 484 J. T. Ryan's process of making, from imperfections, 227, 22S Kercheski's method of hard sizing, 428-431 leading through calender rolls, 538- 543 linen, first made in Europe in the fourteenth centuiy, 33 machine for cutting single sheets, 563-566 machine for facilitating the stock, sorting, 113-116 for trimming, slitting, and rol- ling, 569-572 made from the wool of the cotton plant bv the Chinese, A. I). 152, 27 made from wood, difficulty experi- enced in its introduction, 57-59 made in a continuous sheet by John Dickinson in 1809, 51 period and manner of its invention, 33, 34 Paper-making, chemicals, clays, color- ing materials, etc., used in, 92, 93 classified division of the sub- stances used in, 77 in the United States, I860 to 1870, 61, 62 machines, American patents for, 573-578 regulating the speed of the various portions, 520- •532 600 INDEX. Paper-making — materials, commercial classifi- cation, 88-93 manufacture, American, statistics of, 49, 55, 56, 57, 61 great development in the United States, 42, 43 micrographic study of, 77 of, by the Arabs, 27 of, in Germany, 32 of, in Italy, 32 of, in Spain, 29, 30 of, in the Netherlands, 31 materials used by the Chinese paper-makers, 27 for making, 64-76 method of applying paraffine to, 452-455 mill first established in America, in 1690, 42 modern, interior view of, show- ing a Fourdrinier machine, 495 mills, early American, 42-46 first establishment of, in France, 30 in the different countries of the world, 41-43 in the United States at the commencement of the Revo- lution, 46 in the United States in 1810, 49, 50 used by Aussedat, 303 moistening the, 546 now in common use, facts in regard to its invention, 35-40 other uses of, besides printing and writing upon, 25, 26 packing it tor the salesroom, 572, 573 Peterson's water- proof, 588 photograph size for, 449 photo-lithographic transfer, with transfer color belonging to it, 585 prices of, during the War of the Rebellion, 61, 62 printing, sizing the surface of, 434, 435 produced in the United Sates in 1820, 55 pulp, American patents issued from 1790 to 1885 for digesters in preparing, '296-299 Paper- making — bleaching of, by applying the bleaching agent in a pulver- ized or sprayed condition, 385-388 Francke's process of manu- facturingfrom wood, esparto, straw, etc., 274-288 Marshall's boilers for making from wood by the acid or bisulphite processes, 292- 294 Pictet and Brelaz's process of converting wood into, 290- 292 rag, first mention of, 26 rapid development of its trade in France in the fourteenth century, 30 sizing, materials used in, 435-448 stock for, 446-448 so-called rice, made from the marrow of the Orelia papyri/era, 27 stock boilers, improved strainer for the blow-off', 215-218 Coon's process of repulping, 320-322 difficulties in repulping, 319 Taylor's machine for separating small metallic substances from, 139-142 straw, size for, 449 stripping sheets of, from off the last roller of calendering machines. 558-560 tar, 586 tariff on, 54 to make, entirely from waste paper, 226-228 tracing, and transparent packing, 586, 587 transfer, 587, 588 treating, with ozocerite, 455, 456 use of in Greece in the thirteenth century, 29 waste, boiling, 224-229 packing it in the tubs, 225 to begin the boiling operation, 225 to extract inks from, 224 sorting, 110-112 washing, 316-323 water-marked, cutting, 563-566 water-marks on, 40 water-proof emery, 583, 584 INDEX. 601 Paper, water-proof — sizing for, 448, 449 transparent, and impervious to grease, 588 ■winder, 565, 5(36 ■winding, defects in apjiaratus in general use, 566 "wrapping for silverware, 588 writing, copying, and drawing which can be washed, 589 preparing size for, 449 to produce a hard surface upon, 432, 433 Papers colored, aniline colors used for, 581- glazed, black stain for, 487 blue stains for, 487, 488 brown stains for, 488 green stains for, 488 lemon-color, stain for, 488, 489 red stains for, 489 rose-color stain for, 489 stains for, 487-489 violet stain for, 489 Morocco, black stain for, 489 blue stains for, 490 green stains for, 490 orange-yellow stains for, 490 red stains for, 490 stains for, 489-491 violet stains for, 490, 491 yellow stains for, 491 (old) and shavings, classification of, 90, 91 old folded news, means for facili- tating handling and opening, 197-199 preparation of various kinds of, 579-589 preserving, 586 printed, apparatus for reducing the pulp, 196 temperature of the water in pulping, 195 satin, blue stains for, 491 brown stains for, 491 gray stains for, 491, 492 green stains for, 492 lemon-color stain for, 492 light violet stain for, 493 orange-yellow stains for, 492 rose-color stains for, 4.92, 493 silver white stain for, 493 stains for, 491-493 white stain for, 493 Papers, satin — yellow stain for, 493 waste, methods of treating, 228, 229 to make paper entirely there- from, 226-228 Papyri, Egyptian, in the British Mu- seum, 21 sizes of, 23 hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demo- tic, 21-23 Papyrus, description of, 23, 24 early use of, 23 when superseded by cotton paper, 24 Paraffine, How's method of applying to paper, 452-455 in water-proofing paper, 451, 452 method of applying to paper and straw board, 452-455 Parchment, probably invented by Eu- menes, king of Pergamos, 24 skins principally employed for its manufacture, 24 statutes for regulating some relig- ious houses written upon, by the Empress Irene at the close of the eleventh century, 29 Parisian violet, 482 Parker and Blackmail's apparatus for disinfecting fibrous materials while in the bale, 100-104 Paste, starch, preparation of, 416 Pasteboard, enamelled writing surfaces on, 584 Patents, American, for pulp-engines and bed-plates, issued from 1790 to 1885 inclusive, 408-411 for pulp-washing and straining, issued from 1790 to 1885 inclusive, 338-340 for rag-dusters, 202 for bleaching pulp, issued by the United States from 1790 to 1885 inclusive, 389, 390 for digesters for paper-pulp, issued bv the United States, 296- 299 with lead linings to be used in the preparation of cellulose, issued by the United States from 1790 to 1885 inclusive, 295, 296 for preparing cellulose from wood by the acid or bisulphite pro- cesses issued by the United States from 1790 to 1885 inclusive, 295 602 INDEX. Patents — for rag cutters and dusters, list of American, from 1790 to 1885, 143, 144 for washing engines, American, 327 for wood grinders, list of American, 166-170 paper in the United States from 1820 to 1830, 55, 56 relating to paper-making, Ameri- can^l865 to 1885, 62, 63 relating to paper-making machines issued by the United States from 1790 to 1885 inclusive, 573-578 Pearl alum, the most powerful sizing agent, 438 ash, the best form of potash to em- ploy, 321, 322 Pennsylvania, early paper-mills in, 43, 44 Perkins's violet, 481 Perrot's method of estimating the amount of chlorine in bleaching powder, 348, 349 solution, precautions in keeping, 349 Peterson's water-proof paper, 588 Philadelphia, the first paper-mill near, 42 Phormium tenax, 83 Photograph paper, size for, 449 Photo-lithographic transfer paper, and transfer color belonging to it, 585 Pictet and Brelaz's process of treating wood for conversion into paper-pulp, 290-292 Pigments, mineral, for yellow colors, 470 Pipe-joint, Roach's improved, applied to a hollow journal, 533-535 Plate calenders, 560, 561 Plumbic acetate, preparation of, 463 Poaching esparto, 325-327 Pocket-books, cheap, coloring of paper for, 484 Poncharac's process of treating wood with aqua regia, 307 Pond's process for bleaching wood-pulp or any other fibrous material, 365- 367 Porous alum, 436, 437 Porrion oven, sectional elevation and plan of, 258-260 Potash alum, test of its purity, 436 use of, in coloring, 436 Potash alum — effects of cold and boiling solutions of, on linen and cotton fibres, 82 the chromates of, 462 Potassium ferrocyanide, for producing different shades of blue, 463 Poulson's Daily Advertiser, 53 Powder, bleaching, 341-346 deterioration of, by keeping, 343, 344 injured by being packed too soon, -343 requisite attributes of, 343, 344 Preparation of various kinds of paper, 5 79-589 Printed papers, apparatus for reducing to pulp, 196 temperature of the water in pulping, 195 Printing ink, to extract from waste paper, 224 paper, sizing the surface of, 434, 435 Process of repulping stock, by Charles Coon, 320-322 of washing and boiling rags, 185-189 Processes of treating wood, acid, or bi- sulphite, 260-294 other than the mechanical, soda, and bisulphite, for treating wood, 299-305 Proof, for determining the fineness of pulp, 395 Pulp, apparatus for purifying, illus- trated, 498, 499 cleaning of, by fermentation with beer yeast, 304, 305 cloudy, remedy for, 395 engines and bed plates, American patents issued for, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive, 408-411 experiments made in bleaching, 304, 305 fineness of, determined by the "proof," 395 long and short, production of, 394 machine for cutting and reducing wood to, 148-166 made from old papers, bleaching of, 361 nature of the, produced by Voelter's method, 164-166 paper, Francke's apparatus for manufacturing from wood, etc., 277-288 INDEX. 603 Pulp, paper — Marshall's boiler for making from -wood by the. acid or bisulphite processes, 292- 294 removal of incrustating matter from, by hydrochloric or azotic acids, 304 washing and straining, American patents issued for, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive, 338-340 wood, chemically prepared, 242- 246 washing, 324, 325 yield of from esparto, straws, and pine wood, 307 Pulping waste paper, quantity of alkali to be used in, 195 Pulps for fine cardboard and wall papers, 303, 304 straw, classification of, 92 wood, classification of, 91, 92 Pond's process of bleaching, 365-367 Purchasing rags, 107, 108 RAG boiler, rotary, illustrated, 204, 205 boilers, forms of, 204 boiling, duration of time under pressure of thirty pounds steam, 207 cutters, list of American patents for, 143, 144 dusters, American patents for, 202 paper, first mention of, 26 first made by the Arabians in Spain, 33 Rags, average waste of from washing, boiling, and reducing to half stuff", 316 boiling, 203-208 use of lime and soda-ash in, 206, 207 city and country, 107 classification of, 88-90, 109, 110 colored, treatment of, 219-224 treatment of in boiling, 206, 207 • combined process of washing and boiling, 185-189 cut, machine for reducing the loss in cleansing, 179-184 sizes of, 143 Rags — cutting by hand, 117-121 by machinery, 121-144 deeply dyed, proportion of lime and soda-ash in boiling, 206, 207 disinfecting, 99-106 dusting, 175-202 first importation of, into the United States, 50 frauds in baling, 107 imported, quarantine regulations ■ for, 99, 100 linen, mixed with jute and cotton, 107, 108 natural humidity in, 107 purchasing, 107, 108 removing dust, etc., from, by ma- chinery, 109 sorting according to fibre and color, 109, 110 Taylor's machine for separating small metallic substances from, 139, 142 value of, determined by the strength and color, 107 waste of, from moisture, 17S Record of Gistubar, 20 Red (cherry, dark, and pale) stains for glazed papers, 489 colors, natural dye-stuff's capable of producing, 464-469 (dark and pale) stains for Morocco papers, 490 sanders wood, to extract coloring matter from, 466 shades on paper, 464-469 stain for artificial flower paper, 487 Regulating the speed of the various portions of paper-making machinery, 520-532 Resin for water-proofing paper, 451, 452 size, Gray's patent method of pre- paring, 420, 421 used in paper-making, 92 Resinous soap, preparation of, 415 Resins, 445, 446 commercial gradations of, 445 purification of, 446 Revolving boilers, 210-218 Rice paper, so called, made from the marrow of the Orelia papyri/era, 27 Rittenhuysen, William, the first Amer- ican paper manufacturer, 43, 44 Ritter and Kellner's proposed improve- ment to Mitscherlich's apparatus, 245 604 INDEX. Roach's improved pipe joint, illustrated, 533-535 Robert, N. L., date of his patent in France, 47 Rolling and cutting, 562, 563 Rolls, callender, Brewer's method of moistening, 546, 549 H. J. Frink's method of pre- venting overheating, 551- 554 method for their easy remo- val and replacement, 554- 557 Newton's method of moisten- ing, 549-551 cylinder, stack of, Marshall's, 555- 557 Ropes, bagging, and threads, classifica- tion of, 90, 91 boiling of, for tissue, cigarette, and copying paper, 207 tarred, proportion of lime and soda ash in boiling, 206, 207 Rosaniline, base of all the aniline red colors, 467 violet, 482 Rose color stain for artificial flower paper, 487 stain for glazed papers, 489 for satin papers, 492, 493 Rotary boiler for wood chips, 246-249 illustrated, 2 J 5-218 of Geo. F. Wilson, illustrated, 211-214 Ryan's, J. T., process of making first- class clean paper from imperfections, 227, 228 Rye-straw, treatment of, 237 SALT OF MANGANESE, soluble, preparation of, 223 Salts, solubility of, 206 Satin papers, blue stains for, 491 brown stains for, 491 gray stains for, 491, 492 green stains for, 492 lemon color stains for, 492 light violet stain for, 493 orange-yellow stains for, 492 pale yellow stain for, 493 rose color stain for, 492, 493 stains for, 491-493 white stains for, 493 Sawdust, difficulty of refining for pulp, and how its production mav be avoid- ed, 302 Scarlet stains for artificial flower paper, 487 Scythe holder, for cutting rags by hand, 117-120 Shavings and old papers, classification of, 90, 91 Sheathing paper, asbestos largely used for, 580 water-proofing, 451, 452 Sheave, 113 Short pulp, to produce, 394 Silicate of soda for water-proofing, 451, 452 Silverware, wrapping-paper for, 588 white stain for satin papers, 493 Sinclair's process of preparing wood- pulp, 242 Single cylinder machine for forming thin papers, illustrated, 537, 538 Sizal, description of, 83 Size, animal, materials from which it is made, 421, 422 resin, Gray's patented method of preparing, 420, 421 Sizes of the cut rags, 143 Sizing, 412-456 engine, 413-420 in the sheet and in the web, 421- 428 paper, materials used in, 435^-448 stock for paper-makers, 446-448 the surface of printing paper, 434, 435 ■water-proof, for paper, 448, 449 with a composition of soda ash, resin, chloride of sodium, linseed oil, and silicate of sod'a, 449- 451 with benzine and resin, 434 Smith's (Richard) pneumatic guide, 538-543 Snell's tile strainer, 355, 356 Soap, resinous, preparation of, 415 solution, standard for testing water, 334 Soda ash and lime, use of in boiling rags, 206, 207 best way to introduce it, 207, 208 use of, for dissolving ink from printed papers, 195 boiling wood chips with, 246-249 INDEX. 605 Soda — caustic, quantities used in boiling different classes of rags, 208 quantities used in boiling- esparto, 238 process of digesting wood, defects of boilers for, 252-254 recovery, 258-260 silicate of, for water-proofing paper, 451, 452 Sodium, carbonate of, economical re- generation of, 260 hyposulphite of, 397, 398 Sorters, duty of, 111 Sorting esparto, 1 1 2 rags, 109, 110 waste paper, 110-112 Sour bleaching, 357, 358 Southmayd's (John A.) process as a substitute for the bleaching processes usually practised in pulp-grinding engines, 382-385 Spectrum, the, 458 Speed of the various portions of paper- making machines, regulating, 520- 532 Stack of cylinder rolls (Marshall's), 555-557 Stains for glazed papers, 487-489 for Morocco papers, 489-491 for satin papers, 491-493 used for coloring paper for artificial flowers, 485-487 Starch, 446 paste, preparation of, 416 Stationary boilers, 209, 210 Steam, latent heat of, 226 manipulation by, causes a mechani- cal and chemical action, 304 pressure of, in rag boiling, 206 waste, to utilize, 226 Steam-traps, Jaminson's improvement in, 535-537 Stock, glue, preservation of, by tanners and tawers, 423, 424 treatment of, at the paper- mill, 424 Strainer for the blow-off of paper-stock boilers, 215-218 Straw and esparto, Bachet-Machard's process of disintegrating, 306 bleaching of, 361-364 Straw board, method of applying paraf- fine to, 452-455 boiling, 229-237 Straw boiling — coal tar with the alkalies em- ployed in treating, 235 Burns' s process for treating, 231— 235 cutters, 144 Mellier's process for treating, 229, 230 other methods of treating, 236, 237 pulps, classification of, 92 relative grade of tenderness of, 236, 237 washing, 323, 324 Stripping fingers, John McLaughlin's invention, 558-560 paper from off the last roller of calendering machines, 558-560 Stuff regulator for paper making ma- chines, illustrated, 499-505 Suction box for paper-making machines, 514-518 Surface coloring, 485 pumps, application of to Fourdri- nier machine, 51, 52 sizing, or sizing in the sheet, and in the web, 421-428 TABLES of hardness of water, 335 Tar paper, 586 Tariff, eifects of the, on paper industry, after the war of 1812, 54 Tarred rope, proportion of lime and soda in boiling, 206, 207 Taylor's machine for cutting rags, 122- 130 for separating small metallic substances from rags and paper stock, 139-142 Terra-cotta, extensive use of, in early ages, for business and legal docu- ments, 19 Tessie's process of treating wood, 308 Thin papers, single cylinder machine for, 53 7, 538 Thomas, Isaiah, 49 Threads, rope, and bagging, classifica- tion of, 90 Tile strainer, Snell's, 355, 356 Tissue, copying, and cigarette paper, boiling of ropes for, 207 Tracing linen, tracing paper, and transpa- rent packing paper, 584, 586, 587 paper, tracing linen, and trans- parent packing paper, 586, 587 606 INDEX. Transfer paper, 587, 588 photo-lithographic, and trans- fer color belonging to it, 585 Transparent packing paper, tracing pa- per, and tracing linen, 586, 587 TTMNAPISTIN, the Babylonian U Noah, 20 Umpherston's beating engine, 406-408 United States, the greatest paper manu- facturing country in the world, 42, 43 VEGETABLE colors, instability of, 485 fibres, differentiating of, 81-84 microscopic study of, 77 recognition of, 81-84 substances not always desirable for coloring paper, 485 tissues, bleaching by permanganate of potash, and neutralizing with oxalic acid, sulphite of sodium, and chlorine, 382-385 Vellum, ancient fragments of, the Gos- pel of St. Mark written upon, 28, 29 Venetian red, used for delicate brown colors, 467 Violet color stain, for glazed papers, 489 (dark and light) stains for Morocco paper, 490, 491 (light) stain, for satin papers, 493 shades on paper, 480-482 Violets, aniline, Hoffman and Per- kins's, 481 Parisian, rosaniline and naphtha- line, 482 Voelter's machine for cutting or grind- ing wood and reducing it to pulp, 148-166 method, nature of the pulp pro- duced by, 164-166 Voelter's Sons, Henry, purchase Kel- ler's patent, 57 WALKER & Hart's machine for re- ducing the loss in cleaning, 179- 184 Wall-papers and card-boards, pulp for, 303, 304 Washer, glue stock, patented by W. A. Hoeveler, 424-427 Washing and boiling rags, process of, 185-189 and poaching esparto, 325-327 engines, American patents for, 327 rags, 309-317 straw, 323, 324 waste paper or imperfections, 316- 323 wood pulp, 324, 325 Wash water, 327-337 Waste, average in reducing rags to half stuff, 316 from dusting, 178, 179 leather, how prepared for manu- facture of paper, 585 paper, boiling, 224-229 duster and washer, Allen & Mason's, 189-202 packing it in the tubs, 225 quantity of alkali to be used in pulping, 195 sorting, flO-112 temperature of the water in the vat when pulping, 195 to begin the boiling operation, 225 to extract inks from, 224 washing, 316-323 papers, method of treating, 228, 229 to make paper entirely there- from, 226-228 steam, to utilize, 226 Wastes, classification of, 91 Water, concentrated alum as a purifier of, 440, 441 detection of iron in, 331, 332 determination of constituents and hardness of, 331-33 7 division of and sources of supply, 328-330 marks on paper, 40 qualitative examination of, for ad- mixtures, 331-334 river, substances most generally contained in, 330, solvent properties of, 206 tables of hardness of, 335 wash, 327-337 weight of, 328 Water-marked paper, cutting, 563-566 Water-proof emery paper, 583, 584 paper, Peterson's, 588 paper, transparent and imper- vious to grease, 588 sizings for paper, 448, 449 INDEX. 607 Water-proofing building or sheathing paper with a composition of resin, paraffine and silicate of soda, 451, 452 Waters, components of, 328 Wet dusting, 185-189 machine, illustrated, uses of, 369 picking esparto, 1 1 2 Wheat straw, treatment of, 236, 237 White, silvery, stain for satin papers, 493 stain for satin papers, 493 Willcox, James M. & Co., paper- makers, 44 Thomas, Ivy Mill built by, in 1727, 44 Wilson and O'Reilley's apparatus and process of treating colored rags, 219- 224 Wilson's, Geo. F., patent rotary boiler, illustrated, 211-214 Winder, paper, 565, 566 Winding apparatus, defects in, 566 Wire guide, automatic, for paper-mak- ing machines, 505-514 Wood, acid or bisulphite processes of treating, 260-294 American patents for preparing cel- lulose from, issued from 1790 to 1885, inclusive, 295 Aussedat's process of treating, 299- 304 Bachet-Machard's process of dis- integrating, 305-307 boiling, 242-258 cellulose, objections to the acid pro- cess of obtaining, 246 chipper, uneven products obtained from its use, 302 crushing machine of Iwan Koech- lin, 302, 303 cutting, for chemical fibre, 145 defects of boiling, for digesting, by the soda process, 252-254 fibre, bleaching of, 364-367 grinders, list of American patents for, 166-170 grinding machine, invented by Kel- ler in 1844, 57 machine, Keller's patent on, purchased by Henry Voel- ter's Sons, 5 7 machine for disintegrating fibres of, 146, 147 Wood- Marshall's boiler for digesting, by the soda process, 254- 258 for treating by acid or bi- sulphite process, 292- 294 methods other than the mechanical, soda, and bisulphite processes for treating, 299-308 paper made from, difficulty experi- enced in introducing, to the trade, 57-59 Pictet and Brelaz's process of con- verting into paper pulp, 290- 292 pulp, chemical, woods most easily used for, 246 chemically prepared, 242-246 classification of, 91, 92 objections to the modern chem- ical processes of preparing, 245 Pond's process of bleaching, 365-367 washing, 324, 325 some of the defects of the acid or bisulphite process of treating, 289, 290 straw, etc., bleaching of, 367-376 Tessie's process of treating, 308 treating before grinding, 145-147 with ammonia, 307, 308 with aqua regia, 307 Voelter's machine for cutting and reducing to pulp, 148-166 Wrapping paper for silverware, 588 Wright's machine for cutting corn husks, 171-1 74 Writing, copying, and drawing paper which can be washed, 589 ink, to extract from waste paper, 224 paper, preparing size for, 449 to produce a hard surface upon, 43 2, 433 YELLOW colors, mineral pigments for, 470 (orange) stain for glazed papers, 489 stain for Morocco papers, 490 stains for satin papers, 492 608 INDEX. Yellow- pale, stain for Morocco papers, 491 stain for satin papers, 493 shades on paper, to produce, 469- 471 stains for artificial flower paper, 486, 487 Young's (Cornelius) stuff regulator for paper-making machines, illustrated, 499-505 z INC bleach liquor, 352, 353 CA-T^XjOO-TTIE OF practical and Scientific Boolp PUBLISHED BY Henry Carey Baird & Co, INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS, 810 Walnut Street, Philadelphia. *®~ Any of the Books comprised in this Catalogue will be sent by mail, free of postage, to any address in the world, at the publication prices, *3" A Descriptive Catalogue, 96 pager, 8vo., will be sent free and free of postage, to any one in any part of the world, who will furnish his address, ■S®" Where not otherwise stated, all of the Books in this Catalogue are bound in muslin. AMATEUR MECHANICS' WORKSHOP: A treatise containing plain and concise directions for the manipula- tion of Wood and Metals, including Casting, Forging, Brazing, Soldering and Carpentry. By the author of the " Lathe and Its Uses." Third edition. Illustrated. 8vo. . . . $3-00 ANDRES. — A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Volatile and Fat Varnishes, Lacquers, Siccatives and Sealing Waxes. From the German of Erwin Andres, Manufacturer of Varnishes and Lacquers. With additions on the Manufacture and Application of Varnishes, Stains for Wood, Horn, Ivory, Bone and Leather. From the German of Dr. Emil Winckler and Louis E. Andes. The whole translated and edited by William T. Brannt. With n illustrations. i2mo. #2.50 ARLOT. — A Complete Guide for Coach Painters : Translated from the French of M. Arlot, Coach Painter; for eleven years Foreman of Painting to M. Eherler, Coach Maker, Paris. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. To which is added an Appendix, containing Information respecting the Materials and the Practice of Coach and Car Painting and Varnishing in the United States and Great Britain. i2mo. . . . #1.25 (0 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. ARMENGAUD, AMOROUX, AND JOHNSON.— The Practi- cal Draughtsman's Book of Industrial Design, and Ma- chinist's and Engineer's Drawing Companion : Forming a Complete Course of Mechanical Engineering and Archi- tectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud the elder, Prof, of Design iji the Conservatoire of Arts and Industry, Paris, and MM. Armengaud the younger, and Amcroux, Civil Engineers. Re- written and arranged with additional matter and plates, selections from and examples of the most useful and»generally employed mechanism of the day. By William Johnson, Assoc. Inst. C. E. Illustrated hy fifty folio steel plates, and fifty wood-cuts. A new edition, 4to., half morocco . . . . . . . . . $10.00 ARMSTRONG. — The Construction and Management of Steam Boilers : By R. Armstrong, C. E. With an Appendix by Robert Mallet, C. E., F. R. S. Seventh Edition. Illustrated. 1 vol. i2mo. 75 ARROWSMITH.— Paper-Hanger's Companion : A Treatise in which the Practical Operations of the Trade are Systematically laid down : with Copious Directions Preparatory to Papering; Preventives against the Effect of Damp on Walls; the various Cements and Pastes Adapted to the Several Purposes of the Trade; Observations and Directions for the Panelling and Ornamenting of Rooms, etc. By James Arrowsmith. i2mo., cloth #1.25 ASHTON. — The Theory and Practice of the Art of Designing Fancy Cotton and Woollen Cloths from Sample : Giving full instructions for reducing drafts, as well as the methods of spooling and making out harness for cross drafts and finding any re- quired reed; with calculations and tables of yarn. By Frederic T. Ashton, Designer, West Pittsfield, Mass. With fifty-two illustrations. One vol. folio $10.00 AUERBACH— CROOKES.— Anthracen : Its Constitution, Properties, Manufacture and Derivatives, including Aitificial Alizarin, Anthrapurpurin, etc., with their applications in Dyeing and Printing. By G. Auerbach. Translated and edited fiom the revised manuscript of the Author, by Wm. Crookes, F. R. S., Vice-President of the Chemical Society. 8vo. . . $5.00 BAIRD. — Miscellaneous Papers on Economic Questions. By Henry Carey Baird. {hi preparation.} BAIRD.— The American Cotton Spinner, and Manager's and Carder's Guide: A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning; giving the Dimensions and Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calculations, etc. ; with notices of recent Improvements: together with Rules and Examples for making changes in the sizes and numbers of Roving and Yarn. Compiled from the papers of the late Robert H. Baird. i2mo. $1.50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. BAIRD.— Standard Wages Computing Tables : An Improvement in all former Methods of Computation, so arranged that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a specified rate per day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. By T. Spangler Baird. Oblong folio #5.00 BAKER. — Long-Span Railway Bridges: Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and Practical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type Systems of Construction; with numerous Formulae and Tables. By B. Baker. i2mo. $1.50 BAKER. — The Mathematical Theory of the Steam-Engine : With Rules at length, and Examples worked out for the use of Practical Men. By T. Baker, C. E., with numerous Diagrams. Sixth Edition, Revised by Prof. J. R. Young. l2mo. . 75 BARLOW. — The History and Principles of Weaving, by Hand and by Power: Reprinted, with Considerable Additions, from " Engineering," with a chapter on Lace-making Machinery, reprinted from the Journal of the "Society of Arts." By Alfred Barlow. With several hundred illustrations. 8vo., 443 pages ..... $10.00 8ARR. — A Practical Treatise on the Combustion of Coal: Including descriptions of various mechanical devices for the Eco- nomic Generation of Heat by the Combustion of Fuel, whether solid, liquid or gaseous. 8vo . $2.50 BARR. — A Practical Treatise on High Pressure Steam Boilers : Including Results of Recent Experimental Tests of Boiler Materials, together with a Description of Approved Safety Apparatus, Steam Pumps, Injectors and Economizers in actual use. By Wm. M. Barr. 204 Illustrations. 8vo. ....... $3-°° BAUERMAN. — A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron : Containing Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of Assay, and Analysis of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, etc., etc. By H. Bauerman, F. G. S., Associate of the Royal School of Mines. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings from Drawings by J. B. 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Illustrated by forty-four plates, comprising nearly 200 figures. By William E. Bell, Architect and Practical Builder. 8vo. ■. ....... $5.00 BEMROSE. — Fret-Cutting and Perforated Carving: With fifty-three practical illustrations. By W. Bemrose, Jr. i vol. quarto . . . . . . . . . . $3-OQ BEMROSE.— Manual of Buhl-work and Marquetry: With Practical Instructions for Learners, and ninety colored designs. By W. Bemrose, Jr. i vol. quarto . . . . $3.00 BEMROSE.— Manual of Wood Carving: With Practical Illustrations for Learners of the Art, and Original and Selected Designs. By William Bemrose, Jr. With an Intro- duction by Llewellyn Jewitt, F. S. A., etc. With 128 illustra- tions, 4to. . $3.00 BILLINGS.— Tobacco : Its History, Variety, Culture, Manufacture, Commerce, and Various Modes of Use. By E. R. Billings. Illustrated by nearly 200 engravings. 8vo. ........ $3.00 BIRD. — The American Practical Dyers' Companion: Comprising a Description of the Principal Dye-Stuffs and Chemicals used in Dyeing, their Natures and Uses ; Mordants, and How Made ; with the best American, E/iglish, French and German processes for Bleaching and Dyeing Silk, Wool, Cotton, Linen, Flannel, Felt, Dress Goods, Mixed and Hosiery Yarns, Feathers, Grass, Felt, Fur, Wool, and Straw Hats, Jute Yarn, Vegetable Ivory, Mats, Skins, Furs, Leather, etc., etc. By Wood, Aniline, and other Processes, together with Remarks on Finishing Agents, and Instructions in the Finishing of Fabrics, Substitutes for Indigo, Water-Proofing of Materials, Tests and Purification of Water, Manufacture of Aniline and other New Dye Wares, Harmonizing Colors, etc., etc. ; embrac- ing in all over 800 Receipts for Colors and Shades, accompanied by 1 70 Dyed Samples of Raw Materials and Fabrics. By F. J. Bird. Practical Dyer, Author of " The Dyers' Hand-Book." 8vo. $10.00 BLINN.— A Practical Workshop Companion for Tin, Sheet- Iron, and Copper-plate Workers : Containing Rules for describing various kinds of Patterns used by Tin, Sheet-Iron and Copper-plate Workers; Practical Geometry; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids ; Tables of the Weights of Metals, Lead-pipe, etc.; Tables of Areas and Circumferences of Circles; Japan, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, Compositions, etc., etc. By Leroy J. Blinn, Master Mechanic. With over One Hundred Illustrations. i2mo. $2.50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. BOOTH.— Marble Worker's Manual: Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in genera!, their Cutting, Working and Polishing; Veneering of Marble; Mosaics: Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, Secrets, etc., etc. Translated from the French by M. L. Booth. With an Appendix concerning American Marbles. l2mo., cloth #1.50 BOOTH and MORFIT.— The Encyclopaedia of Chemistry, Practical and Theoretical : Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, Geology, Medicine and Pharmacy. By James C. Booth, Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of Applied Chem- istry in the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by Campbell Morfit, author of " Chemical Manipulations," etc. Seventh Edition. Com- plete in one volume, royal 8vo., 978 pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations ....... $5.00 BRAMWELL. — The Wool Carder's Vade-Mecum: A Complete Manual of the Art of Carding Textile Fabrics. By W. C. Bramwell. Third Edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated, pp. 4.00. l2mo. ........ $2.50 BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Raw Materials and the Distillation and Rectification of Alcohol, and the Prepara- tion of Alcoholic Liquors, Liqueurs, Cordials, Bitters, etc. : Edited chiefly from the German of Dr. K. 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Illustrated with numerous engravings. l2mo. #1-50 BULLOCK.— The American Cottage Builder : A Series of Designs, Plans and Specifications, from $200 to $20,000, for Homes for the People ; together with Warming, Ventilation, Drainage, Painting and Landscape Gardening. By John Bullock, Architect and Editor of " The Rudiments of Architecture and Building," etc., etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. 8vo. $3-S° BULLOCK. — The Rudiments of Architecture and Building : For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, En- gineers and Mechanics. Edited by John Bullock, author of " The American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 250 Engravings. 8vo. $3.50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. BURGH. — Practical Rules for the Proportions of Modern Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine Purposes. By N. P. Burgh, Engineer. i2mo. .... $1.50 BURNS. — The American Woolen Manufacturer: A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Woolens, in two parts. Part First gives full and explicit instructions upon Drafting, Cross- Drawing, Combining Weaves, and the correct arrangement of Weights, Colors and Sizes of Yarns to produce any desired fabric. Illustrated with diagrams of various weavings, and twelve samples of cloth for explanation and practice. Part Second is fully supplied with ex- tended Tables, Rules, Examples, Explanations, etc. ; gives full and practical information, in detailed order, from the stock department to the market, of the proper selection and use of the various grades and staples of wool, with the admixture of waste, cotton and shoddy; and the proper application and economical use of the various oils, drugs, dye stutfs, soaps, belting, etc. Also, the most approved method for Calculating and Estimating the Cost of Goods, for all Wool, Wool Waste and Cotton and Cotton Warps. With Examples and Calcula- tions on the Circular motions of Wheels, Pinions, Drums, Pulleys and Gears, how to speed them, etc. The two parts combined form a whole work on the American way of manufacturing more complete than any yet issued. Ey George C. Burns. 8vo. . . $6.50 BYLES.— Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Political Economy Examined. By a Barrister (Sir John Barnard Byles, Judge of Common Pleas). From the Ninth English Edition, as published by the Manchester Reciprocity Association. i2mo. . . . $1.25 BOWMAN. — The Structure of the Wool Fibre in its Relation to the Use of Wool for Technical Purposes : Being the substance, with additions, of Five Lectures, delivered at the request of the Council, to the members of the Bradford Technical College, and the Society of Dyers and Colorists. By F. PI. Bow- man, D. Sc, F. R. S. E., F. L. S. Illustrated by 32 engravings. 8vo. . $6.50 BYRN.— The Complete Practical Distiller: Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Practical De- scription of the Art of Distillation and Rectification; including all of the most recent improvements in distilling apparatus; instructions for preparing spirits from the numerous vegetables, fruits, etc ; directions for the distillation and preparation of all kinds of brandies and other spirits, spirituous and other compounds, etc. By M. La Fayette Byrn, M. D. Eighth Edition. To which are added Practical Directions for Distilling, from the French of Th. Fling, Brewer and Distiller. i2mo. ........ $1.50 BYRNE. — Hand-Book for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engi- neer: Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abrasive Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing and Lackering, Apparatus, Materials and Processes for Grinding and HENRY CAREY BA1RD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. Polishing, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 wood ■en- gravings. 8vo. . . . . . . . . ■ #5.00 BYRNE. — Pocket-Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers: Containing New, Exact and Concise Methods for Laying out Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings ; the Staking out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings; Embankments; Earth- work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. i8mo., full bound, pocket-book form $!-75 BYRNE.— The Practical Metal-Worker's Assistant: Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all Metals and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and Tempering; Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding; Works in Sheet Metal; the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal- workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to Manufacturing Processes; collected from Original Sources, and from the works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plunder, Napier, Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairn and others. By Oliver Byrne. A new, ■ revised and improved edition, to which is added an Appendix, con- taining The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. By John PERCY, M. D., F. R. S. The Manufacture of Malleable Iron Castings, and Improvements in Bessemer Steel. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. With over Six Hundred Engravings, Illustrating every Branch of the Subject. 8vo. ...... $7.00 BYRNE.— The Practical Model Calculator: For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Nava'i Architect, Miner and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 8vo., nearly 600 pages ......... #4.50 CABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE: Comprising a Collection of Designs for various Styles of Furniture. Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. Oblong, 8vo $3-50 CALLINGHAM.— Sign Writing smd Glass Embossing: A Complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By James Callingham. i2mo. • $1.50 CAMPIN. — A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering: Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Work, shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam- Engines, etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By Francis Campin, C. E. To which are added, Observations on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces used for Smoke Prevention; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel- cutting Machine. By J. La Nicca. Management of Steel, Includ- ing Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking and Expansion ; and the Case-hardening- of Iron. By G. Ede. 8vo. Illustrated with twenty-nine plates and 100 wood engravings $5.00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. CAREY.— A Memoir of Henry C. Carey. By Dr. Wm. Elder. With a portrait. 8vo., cloth . . 75 CAREY.— The Works of Henry C. Carey : Harmony of Interests : Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commer- cial. 8vo. . . $1.50 Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey's " Principles of Social Science." By Kate McKean. i vol. i2mo. . #2.25 Miscellaneous Works. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. $6.00 Past, Present and Future. 8vo $2.50 Principles of Social Science. 3 volumes, 8vo. . . $10. oc The Slave-Trade, Domestic and Foreign; Why it Exists, and How it may be Extinguished (1853). ^ vo - • • • $2.00 The Unity of Law: As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical, Social, Mental and Moral Science (1872). 8vo. . . #3.50 CLARK. — Tramways, their Construction and Working : Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System. With an ex- haustive analysis of the various modes' of traction, including horse- power, steam, heated water and compressed air; a description of the varieties of Rolling stock, and ample details of cost and working ex- penses. By D. Kinnear Clark. Illustrated by over 200 wood engravings, and thirteen folding plates. 2 vols. 8vo. . $12.50 COLBURN.— The Locomotive Engine : Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man- agement. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. i2mo. . $1.00 COLLENS.— The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Utopia. By T. Wharton Collens, author of " Humanics," " The Historv of Charity," etc. i2mo. Paper cover, $1.00; Cloth . $1.25 COOLEY. — A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfumery : Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Articles. With a Comprehensive Collection of Formulae. By Arnold J. Cooley. i2mo. . $1.50 COOPER.— A Treatise on the use of Belting for the Trans- mission of Power. With numerous illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar ranging Main Driving and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Belt Faster; ings. Examples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and cal- culating the size and driving power of Belts. Plain, Particular and Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Management of Belts. Descriptions of many varieties of Beltings, together with chapters on the Transmission of Power by Ropes; by Iron and Wood Frictional Gearing; on the Strength of Belting Leather; and on the Experimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others. By John H. Cooper, M. E. 8vo $3.50 CRAIK. — The Practical American Millwright and Miller. By David Craik, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en- gravings and two folding plates. 8vo. .... $5.00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD &. CO.'S CATALOGUE. CRISTIANI. — A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles : With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. CRIS- TIANI, Chemist. Author of " Perfumery and Kindred Arts." Illus- trated by 176 engravings. 581 pages, 8vo. . . . #7.50 CRISTIANI.— Perfumery and Kindred Arts : A Comprehensive Treatise on Perfumery, containing a History of Perfumes from the remotest ages to the present time. A complete detailed description of the various Materials and Apparatus used in the Perfumer's Art, with thorough Practical Instruction and careful Formulae, and advice for the fabrication of all known preparations of the day, including Essences, Tinctures, Extracts, Spirits, Waters, Vinegars, Pomades, Powders, Paints, Oils, Emulsions, Cosmetics, Infusions, Pastilles, Tooth Powders and Washes, Cachous, Hair Dyes, Sachets, Essential Oils, Flavoring Extracts, etc. ; and full details for making and manipulating Fancy Toilet Soaps, Shaving Creams, etc., by new and improved methods. With an Appendix giving hints and advice for making and fermenting Domestic Wines, Cordials, Liquors, Candies, Jellies, Syrups, Colors, etc., and for Perfuming and Flavor- ing Segars, Snuff and Tobacco, and Miscellaneous Receipts for various useful Analogous Articles. By R. S. CRISTIANI, Con- sulting Chemist and Perfumer, Philadelphia. 8vo. . . #5-OC CUPPER.— The Universal Stair-Builder : Being a new Treatise on the Construction of Stair-Cases and Hand- Rails; showing Plans of the various forms of Stairs, method of Placing the Risers in the Cylinders, general method of describing the Face Moulds for a Hand-Rail, and an expeditious method of Squaring the Rail. Useful also to Stonemasons constructing Stone Stairs and Hand-Rails ; with a new method of Sawing the Twist Part of any Hand-Rail square from the face of the plank, and to a parallel width. Also, a new method of forming the Easings of the Rail by a gauge ; preceded by some necessary Problems in Practical Geometry, with the Sections of Prismatic Solids. Illustrated by 29 plates. By R. A. Cupper, Architect, author of " The Practical Stair-Builder's Guide." Third Edition. Large 4to. . #2.50 DAVIDSON. — A Practical Manual of House Painting, Grain- ing, Marbling, and Sign- Writing : Containing full information on the processes of House Painting in Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign- Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Useful Receipts. With nine colored illustrations of Woods and Marbles, and numerous wood engravings. By Ellis A. Davidson. i2mo. $3.00 DAVIES. — A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and Mining : By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. -Illustrated by 76 Engravings. i2mo. . . . . . . $5-00 io HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. DAVIES. — A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining: By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, Examiner of Mines, Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engravings of Geological Formations, Mining Operations and Machinery, drawn from the practice of all parts of the world. 2(1 Edition, i2mo., 450 pages $5.00 DAVIES.— A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying: Scientific, Practical and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. With numerous illustrations and folding plates, iamo. $2.50 DAVIS. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Bricks, Tiles, Terra-Cotta, etc. : Including Common, Pressed, Ornamentally Shaped, and Enamelled Bricks, Drain-Tiles, Straight and Curved Sewer-Pipes, Fire-Clays, Fire- Bricks, Terra-Cotta, Roofing-Tiles, Flooring-Tiles, Art-Tiles, Mosaic Plates, and Imitation of Intarsia or Inlaid Surfaces; com- prising every important Product of Clay employed in Architecture, Engineering, the Blast-Furnace, for Retorts, etc., with a Histoiy and the Actual Processes in Handling, Disintegrating, Tempering, and Moulding the Clay into Shape, Drying Naturally and Artificially, Setting and Burning, Enamelling in Polychrome Colors, Composition and Application of Glazes, etc. ; including Full Detailed Descriptions of the most modern Machines, Tools, Kilns, and Kiln-Roofs used. By Charles Thomas Davis. 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Easy Methods of Determining and Classifying Minerals, including Ores, by means of the Blowpipe, and by Humid Chemical Analysis, based on Professor von Kobell's Tables for the Determination of Minerals, with an Introduction to Modern Chemistry. By HENRY Erni, A.M., M.D., Professor of Chemistry. Second Edition, rewritten, enlarged and improved. l2mo. .... $3 °° FAIRBAIRN.— The Principles of Mechanism and Machinery of Transmission ■ Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engag- ing and Disengaging Gear. By Sir William Fairbairn, Bart. C. E. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume, i2mo ......••• $ 2 -5° FITCH.— Bessemer Steel, Ores and Methods, New Facts and Statistics Relating to the Types of Machinery in Use, the Methods in Vogue, Cost and Class of Labor employed, and the Character and Availability of the Ores utilized in the Manufacture of Bessemer Steel in Europe and in the United States ; together with opinions and excerpts from various accepted authorities. Compiled and arranged by Thomas W. Fitch. 8vo. . I3 00 FLEMING.— Narrow Gauge Railways in America. A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success. Valuable Statistics as to Grades, Curves, Weight of Rail, Locomotives, Cars, etc. By Howard Fleming. Illustrated, 8vo. . . . . $1 50 FORSYTH.— Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and other Monuments : Containing 78 Designs. By James Forsyth. With an Introduction by Charles Boutell, M. 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Giving the details 14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. of Manufacture, Filing, Setting, Gumming, etc. Care and Use of Saws; Tables of Gauges; Capacities of Saw-Mills; List of Saw- Patents, and other valuable information. By Robert GRIMSHAW. Second and greatly enlarged edition, with Supplement, and 354 Illus- trations. Quarto #4.00 GRIMSHAW. — A Supplement to Grimshaw on Saws: Containing additional practical matter, more especially relating to the Forms of Saw-Teeth, for special material and conditions, and to the Behavior of Saws under particular conditions. 120 Illustrations. By Robert Grimshaw. 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Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. ..... $3-O0 HASERICK.— The Secrets of the Art of Dyeing Wool, Cotton, arid Linen, Including Bleaching and Coloring Wool and Cotton Hosiery and Random Yarns. A Treatise based on Economy and Practice. By E. C. Haserick. Illustrated by 323 Dyed Patterns of the Yarns or Fabrics. 8vo. ........ $25.00 HATS AND FELTING: A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter. Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . $1.25 HENRY. — The Early and Later History of Petroleum : With Authentic Facts in regard to its Development in Western Penn- sylvania. With Sketches of the Pioneer and Prominent Operators, together with the Refining Capacity of the United States. By J. T. Henry. Illustrated 8vo. 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Translated from the German by William T. Brannt, Graduate of the Royal Agricultural College of Eldena, Prussia, Edited by William H. Wahl, Ph. D., Secretary of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. Illustrated by sixty-five engravings. 8vo. $3.00 KINGZETT.— The History, Products, and Processes of the Alkali Trade : Including the most Recent Improvements. By Charles Thomas Kingzett, Consulting Chemist. With 23 illustrations. 8vo. $2.50 KINSLEY. — Self-Instructor on Lumber Surveying: For the Use of Lumber Manufacturers, Surveyors, and Teachers. By Charles Kinsley, Practical Surveyor and Teacher of Surveying. i2mo. .......... #2.oc KIRK.— The Founding of Metals : A Practical Treatise on the Melting of Iron, with a Description of the Founding of Alloys; also, of all the Metals and Mineral Substances- used in the Art of Founding. Collected from original sources. By Edward Kirk, Practical Foundryman and Chemist. Illustrated. Third edition. 8vo. ....... $2.50 KITTREDGE.— The Compendium of Architectural Sheet- Metal Work : Profusely Illustrated. Embracing Rules and Directions for Estimates, Items of Cost, Nomenclature, Tables of Brackets, Modillions, Den- tals, Trusses, Stop-Blocks, Frieze Pieces, etc. Architect's Specifica- tion, Tables of Tin-Roofing, Galvanized Iron, etc., etc. To which is added the Exemplar of Architectural Sheet-Metal Work, containing details of the Centennial Buildings, and other important Sheet-Metal Work, Designs and Prices of Architectural Ornaments, as manufac- tured for the Trade by the Kittredge Cornice and Ornament Com- pany, and a Catalogue of Cornices, Window-Caps, Mouldings, etc., as manufactured by the Kittredge Cornice and Ornament Company. The whole supplemented by a full Index and Table of Contents. By A. O. Kittredge. 8vo., 565 pages .... $5.00 LANDRIN.— A Treatise on Steel: Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working, and Use. By M. H. C. Landrin, Jr., Civil Engineer. Translated from the French, with* Notes, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and En- gineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the Martin Pro cesses for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. Hewitt HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 17 United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867, l2mo. . . . . . . . . . $3-00 LARDEN.-A School Course on Heat : By W. Larden, M. A. 321 pp. i2mo $2.00 LARDNER.— The Steam-Engine : For the Use of Beginners. By Dr. Lardner. Illustrated. i2mo. 75 LARKIN. — The Practical Brass and Iron Founder's Guide: A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and their Alloys, etc.; to which are added Recent Improvements in the Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By James Larkin, lale Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department in Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, Philadelphia. Fifth edition, revised, with extensive additions. l2mo. . . . $2.25 LEROUX. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Worsteds and Carded Yarns : Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied to Spinning ; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools ; the English and French Methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds, and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of Charles Leroux, Mechanical Engineer and Superintendent of a Spinning-Mill, by Horatio Paine, M. D., and A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by twelve large Plates. To which is added an Appendix, containing Extracts from the Reports of the International Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee appointed by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woolen and Worsted Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris Uni- versal Exposition, 1867. 8vo. . .... $5.00 LEFFEL. — The Construction of Mill-Dams : Comprising also the Building of Race and Reservoir Embankments and Head-Gates, the Measurement of Streams, Gauging of Water Supply, etc. By James Leffel & Co. Illustrated by 58 engravings. 8vo. $2.50 LESLIE.— Complete Cookery: Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss Leslie. Sixtieth thousand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New Receipts. 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Second American Edition, to which IS HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. are added General Instructions for the use of Aniline Colors. 8vo. 343 P a g es #5-°° LUKIN. — Amongst Machines: Embracing Descriptions of the various Mechanical Appliances used in the Manufacture of Wood, Metai, and other Substances. i2mo. $1-75 L.UKIN. — The Boy Engineers: What They Did, and How They Did It. With 30 plates. i8mo. #i-75 LUKIN.— The Young Mechanic : Practical Carpentry. Containing Directions for the Use of all kinds of Tools, and for Construction of Steam- Engines and Mechanical Models, including the Art of Turning in Wood and Metal. By John Lukin, Author of "The Lathe and Its Uses," etc. Illustrated. l2mo ... #1.75 MAIN and BROWN. — Questions on Subjects Connected with the Marine Steam-Engine : And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. By Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R. N. i2mo., cloth . $1.50 MAIN and BROWN. — The Indicator and Dynamometer: With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By THOMAS J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass't S. Professor Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. 8vo. . $1.50 MAIN and BROWN.— The Marine Steam-Engine. By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval College, With numerous illustrations. 8vo. . . . $5-00 MARTIN.— Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanical Engineers : Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads of Screws of any Required Pitch ; with a Table for Making the Uni- versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps.. By W. A. Martin, Engineer. 8vo. 50 MICHELL.— Mine Drainage: Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Under- ground Steam Pumping Machinery. With a Description of a large number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and the Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and their Merits compared with other Pumping Machinery. By Stephen Michell. Illustrated by 137 engravings. 8vo., 277 pages . $6.00 MOLESWORTH.- Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae and Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers. By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Full- bound in Pocket-book form $1.00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 19 MOORE.— The Universal Assistant and the Complete Me- chanic : Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, Receipts, Processes, Trades Secrets, Rules, Business Forms, Legal Items, Etc., in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. By R. 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Thick I2mo #3.5(1 NEWBERY. — Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every Style : Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 185 1 and 1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of 100 exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. By Robert Newbery. 410. ...... $12.50 NICHOLLS. —The Theoretical and Practical Boiler-Maker and Engineer's Reference Book: Containing a variety of Useful Information for Employers of Labor, Foremen and Working Boiler-Makers, Iron, Copper, and Tinsmiths, 20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. Draughtsmen, Engineers, the General Steam-using Public, and for tha Use of Science Schools and Classes. By SAMUEL NlCHOLIS. Illus- trated by sixteen plates, i2mo. ..... $2.50 NICHOLSON.— A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding: Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding, Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and Paper. By James B. 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Principally designed for explorers and those interested in Mines. By Oliver North. Illustrated. i2mo. . $2.50 NYSTROM. — A New Treatise on Elements of Mechanics : Establishing Strict Precision in the Meaning of Dynamical Terms : accompanied with an Appendix on Duodenal Arithmetic and Me- trology. By John W. Nystrom, C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. $2.00 NYSTROM. — On Technological Education and the Construc- tion of Ships and Screw Propellers : For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, late Acting Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised, with addi- tional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. i2mo. . $1.50 O'NEILL. — A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing: Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, Analy- tical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 8vo., 491 pages $5.00 ORTON. — Underground Treasures'. How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination of all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By James HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 21 ORTON, A.M., Late Professor of Natural History in Vassar College, N. Y.; Cor. Mem. of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York ; author of the "Andes and the Amazon," etc. A New Edition, with Additions. Illustrated #1.50 OSBORN.— The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel : Theoretical and Practical in all its Branches ; with special reference to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. OSBORN, LL. D., Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, Easton, Pennsylvania. Illustrated by numerous large folding plates and wood-engravings. 8vo. ...... $25.00 OVERMAN.— The Manufacture of Steel: Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel. A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard- ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer, Author of the " Manu- facture of Iron," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By . A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . $1.50 OVERMAN. — The Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide : A Treatise on Mouldingand Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam, and Cement ; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow- ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals ; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, Wax, etc. ; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and Founding of Metals ; the Composition of Alloys and their Nature, etc., etc. By Frederick Overman, M. E. A new Edition, to which is added a Supplement on Statuary and Ornamental Moulding, Ordnance, Malleable Iron Castings, etc. By A. A. Fesquet, Chem- ist and Engineer. Illustrated by 44 engravings. i2mo. . $2.00 PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION : Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the A::i of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, Glass-Staining, Graining, Marbling, Sign- Writing, Gilding on Glass, and Coach Painting and Varnishing; Tests for the Detection of Adulterations in Oils, Colors, etc. ; and a Statement of the Diseases to which Painters are peculiarly liable, with the Simplest and Best Remedies. Sixteenth Edition. Revised, with an Appendix. Containing Colors and Coloring — Theoretical and Practical. Comprising descriptions of a great variety of Additional Pigments, their Qualities and Uses, to which are added, Dryers, anr? Modes and Operations of Painting, etc. Together with ChevreuFs Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors. l2mo. Cloth $1.50 PALLETT. — The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's Guide. By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. i2mo. . . . $3.00 PEARSE.— A Concise History of the Iron Manufacture of the American Colonies up to the Revolution, and of Pennsyl- vania until the present time. By John B. Pearse. Illustrated i2mo. . . . $2.00 22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. PERCY.— The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. By John Percy, M. D., F. R. S., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Royal School of Mines, and to The Advance Class of Artillery Officers at the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich; Author of "Metallurgy." With Illustrations. 8vo., paper . . 50 cts. PERKINS.— Gas and Ventilation : Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific Helps to Engineer-students and others. With Illustrated Diagrams. By E. E. 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In two volumes, 8vo., cloth . $7.50 RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting : Comprising the Origin, Definition, and Classification of Colors ; the Treatment of the Raw Materials; the best Formula; and the Newest Processes for the Preparation of every description of Pigment, and the Necessary Apparatus and Directions for its Use ; Dryers ; the Testing, Application, and Qualities of Paints, etc., etc. By MM. Riffault, Vergnaud, and Toussaint. Revised and Edited by M. HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 23 F. Malepeyre. Translated from the French, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by Eighty engravings. In one vol., 8vo., 659 pages $7-5<3 ROPER. — A Catechism of High-Pressure, or Non-Condensing Steam-Engines : Including the Modelling, Constructing, and Management of Steam- Engines and Steam Boilers. With valuable illustrations. By Ste- phen Roper, Engineer. Sixteenth edition, revised and enlarged. i8mo., tucks, gilt edge ....... $2.00 ROPER.— Engineer's Handy-Book: Containing a full Explanation of the Steam-Engine Indicator, and its Use and Advantages to Engineers and Steam Users. With Formulae for Estimating the Power of all Classes of Steam-Engines ; also, Facts, Figures, Questions, and Tables for Engineers who wish to qualify themselves for the United Stales Navy, the Revenue Service, the Mercantile Marine, or to take charge of the Better Class of Sta- tionary Steam-Engines. Sixth edition. l6mo.. 690 pages, tucks, gilt edge . . #3.50 ROPER. — Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines : Including the Modelling, Construction, Running, and Management of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers. With illustrations. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Sixth edition. i2mo.,ti'cks, gilt edge. ROPER.— Hand-Book of the Locomotive : Including the Construction of Engines and Boilers, and the Construc- tion, Management, and Running of Locomotives. 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Thirteenth edition, thoroughly revised and in great part rewritten. In one vol., l2mo., 439 pages $2.50 ROSE.— Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught: Comprising Instructions in the Selection and Preparation of Drawing Instruments, Elementary Instruction in Practical Mechanical Draw- 24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. ing, together with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical Mo- tions, Engines and Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E., Author of " The Complete Practical Machinist," " The Pattern-maker's Assist- ant," " The Slide-valve." Illustrated by 330 engravings. 8vo., 313 pages # 4 .oo ROSE.— The Slide- Valve Practically Explained : Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of the operation of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrating the effects of Variations in their Proportions by examples carefully selected from the most recent and successful practice. By Joshua Rose, M. 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Full bound pocket- book form . . . . . . . ... $2.00 SLATER.— The Manual of Colors and Dye Wares. *" By J. W. Slater. i2mo $3-7 'S SLOAN. — American Houses: A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by twenty-six colored Engravings, with Descriptive References. By Samuel Sloan, Architect, author of the " Model Architect," etc. etc. 8vo. $1.50 SLOAN. — Homestead Architecture : Containing Forty Designs for Villas, Cottages, and Farm-houses, with Essays on Style, Construction, Landscape Gardening, Furniture, etc., etc. Illustrated by upwards of 200 engravings. By Samuel Sloan, Architect. 8vo $3.50 SMEATON.— Builder's Pocket-Companion : Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture ; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject. By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, etc. i2mo. . . . $1.50 SMITH. — A Manual of Political Economy. By E. Peshine Smith. A new Edition, to which is added a full Index. i2mo. . . . . . . . #1.25' HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 25 SMITH. — Parks and Pleasure-Grounds : Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and Garden Architect, etc., etc. l2mo. .... $2.00 SMITH. — The Dyer's Instructor: Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton, Wool, and Worsted, and Woolen Goods ; containing nearly 800 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work. By David Smith, Pattern Dyer. i2mo. . . . $3.00 SMYTH. — A Rudimentary Treatise on Coal and Coal-Mining. By Warrington W. Smyth, M. A., F. R. G., President R. G. S. of Cornwall. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. 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Quarto . $10.00 SULLIVAN. — Protection to Native Industry. By Sir Edward Sullivan, Baronet, author of " Ten Chapters on Social Reforms." 8vo. t $1.50 26 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. SYME. — Outlines of an Industrial Science. By David Syme. i2mo. $2.00 TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, SQUARE, AND FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC., By Measurement. Cloth ...... 63 TAYLOR.— Statistics of Coal : Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial Distribution and Amount of Production and Consumption on the American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manu- facture. By R. C. Taylor. Second edition, revised by S. S. Halde- MAN. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo., cloth . $10.00 TEMPLETON. — The Practical Examinator on Steam and the Steam-Engine: With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of Engineers, Students, and others. 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To which is added A Comparison of the Resisting Properties of Iron and Steel. By A. Brull. Translated from the French by A. A. Fes- QUET, Chemist and Engineer. 8vo. .... $1.00 VAILE. — Galvanized-Iron Cornice-Worker's Manual: Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, and Making Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also, Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other Matter calculated to Benefit the Trade. By Charles A. Vaile. Illustrated by twenty-one plates. 4to $5-00 VILLE. — On Artificial Manures : Their Chemical Selection and Scientific Application to Agriculture. A series of Lectures given at the Experimental Farm at Vincennes, during 1867 and 1874-75. By M. Georges Ville. Translated and Edited by William Crookes, F. R. S. Illustrated by thirty-one engravings. 8vo., 450 pages ...... $6.00 VILLE. — The School of Chemical Manures : Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From the French of M. Geo. Ville, by A. 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Comprising the Electro-Deposition of all Metals by means of the Battery and the Dynamo-Electric Machine, as well as the most approved Processes of Deposition by Simple Im- mersion, with Descriptions of Apparatus, Chemical Products employed in the Art, etc. Based largely on the " Manipulations Hydroplas- tiques" of Alfred Roseleur. By William H. Wahl, Ph. D. (Heid), Secretary of the Franklin Institute. Illustrated by 189 en- gravings. 8vo., 656 pages $7-5° WALTON. — Coal-Mining Described and Illustrated: By Thomas H. Walton, Mining Engineer. Illustrated by 24 large and elaborate Plates, after Actual Workings and Apparatus. $5.00 28 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. WARE.— The Sugar Beet. Including a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Varieties of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils, Tillage, Seeds and Sowing, Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting, Transportation, Conserva- tion, Feeding Qualities of the Beet and of the Pulp, etc. By Lewis S. Ware, C. E., M. E. Illustrated by ninety engravings. 8vo. #4.00 WARN.— The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor: For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin- Plate Workers, etc. Contain- ing a selection of Geometrical Problems ; also, Practical and Simple Rules for Describing the various Patterns required in the different branches of the above Trades. By Reuben H. Warn, Practical Tin-Plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing Instructions for Boiler- Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, Rules for Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by thirty- two Plates and thirty-seven Wood Engravings. 8vo. . $3-00 WARNER. — New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for the Computation of Earth-work : Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates, of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-profes- sional Computers. In two parts, with an Appendix. Part I. A Prac- tical Treatise ; Part II. 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Watson, Author of " The Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engineers." Illustrated by 78 engravings. $1.50 WATSON. — The Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engineers : Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow-work generally , with the most Economical Speed for the same ; the Results verified by Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the Floor. Together HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 3a with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam- Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By Egbert P. Watson. Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. i2mo. . . . $2.50 WATSON.— The Theory and Practice of the Art of Weaving by Hand and Power : With Calculations and Tables for the Use of those connected with the Trade. By John Watson, Manufacturer and Practical Machine- Maker. 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A new edition, revised and considerably enlarged; comprising Treatises on the Principles of Construction and Design. By G. Huskisson Guillaume, Architect. Numerous Illustrations. One vol. 121110. ...... ,$2.00 WILL. — Tables of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. With an Introductory Chapter on the Course of Analysis. By Pro- fessor Heinrich Will, of Giessen, Germany. Third American. jo HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. from the eleventh German edition. Edited by Charles F. Himes, Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. 8vo. . . • - #1.50 WILLIAMS.— On Heat and Steam : Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explo- sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated 8vo. $3 5° WILSON. — A Treatise on Steam Boilers : Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By Robert Wilson. 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ANDERSON— The Prospector's Hand-Book : A Guide for the Prospector and Traveler in Search of Metal Bearing or other Valuable Minerals. By J. W. Anderson. 52 Illustrations. i2mo fico BILGRAM.— Slide-Valve Gears : A new, graphical method for Analyzing the Action of Slide-Valves, moved by Eccentrics, Link Motions, and Cut-off Gears, offering easy means for properly designing Valves and Valve-Gears, and for estab- lishing the comparative merits of their various constructions. By Hugo Bilgram, M. E. Illustrated. i6mo. . . . $1.00 CREW.— A Practical Treatise on Petroleum : Comprising its Geographical Distribution, its Geology, Chemistry, Mining, Refining, Preparation, and Uses. Together with a Descrip- tion of Gas Wells and the Application of Gas as Fuel, etc. By Benjamin J. Crew. Illustrated. 8vo. (In preparation.) CROOKES.- Select Methods in Chemical Analysis (Chiefly Inorganic) : By William Crookes, F. R. S., V. P. C. S. 2d edition, re-written and greatly enlarged. Illustrated by 37 wood-cuts. 725 pp. 8vo. #9.50 HENRY' CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 31 DAVIS. — A Treatise on Steam-Boiler Incrustation and Meth- ods for Preventing Corrosion and the Formation of Scale : By Charles T. Davis. Illustrated by 65 engravings. Svo. $2.00 DAVIS. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Paper: By Charles T. Davis. Illustrated. 8vo. (In preparation.) ROPER. — Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and Firemen Who wish to Procure a License, Certificate, or Permit to Take Charge of any class of Steam Engines or Boilers, Stationary, Locomotive, and Marine. By Stephen Roper, Engineer . . . $2.00 ROPER. — The Steam Boiler: Its Care and Management: With Instructions for Increasing the Efficiency and Economy, and Insuring the Durability and Longevity of all classes of Steam Boilers, Stationary, Locomotive, Marine, and Portable. With Hints and Suggestions, and Advice to Engineers, Firemen, and Owners of Steam Boilers. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. l2mo., tuck, gilt edges .... ...... $2.00 ROPER.— The Young Engineer's Own Book : Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on which the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is Based. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. With 160 illustrations, 363 pages. l8mo., tuck, gilt edges . £3.00 ECONOMIC PAPERS By Henry Carey Baird "A Floating Debt." 18S5, - - - 5 cts. Argument before the Committee on Ways and Means, March 9, 1876. In opposition to the issue of $500,000,000 of 30 year 4% gold bonds. 8vo., - 20 ets. Brief Tracts on Some Economic Ques- tions (1882-1885), 10 cts. Commerce or Association ; and the Present Relations to it of the Unlim- ited Coinage of Silver. An address be- fore the Anti-Monopolv League, in New York City, December 16, 1885, 5 cts. Copyright, National and International (1872). 5 cts. Copyright, National and International. An Address before the Book-Trade Association of Philadelphia, Febru- ary 23, 1884, 5 cts. 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His Theory of Cheap Raw Materials as a Basis for National Wealth, Power and Civilization, Ex- amined and Disputed (1884). - - 5 cts. Mr. Sherman and the National Outlook (1878). .- Sets. Our Bank Credit System. Its Increasing Inflation and Decreasing Strength (1880). 8m, - 5 cts. Political Economy. Reprinted from the American Cyclopaedia, 1S75. 8vo., paper, 75 cts. Protection of Home Labor and Home Productions necessary to the Prosperity of the American Farmer (1860). Svo., 10 cts. Quinine (1880). 8vo., 5 ets. Real Cause of Business Stagnation in the United States. 12mo., St. John, N. B., 1S78, 10 cts. Remonetization of Silver. Testimony before the United Slates Monetary Commission in relation to the Remone- tization of Silver, October 31, 1876. 8vo., 10 cts. Resumption of Specie Payments. Tes- timony before the Committee on Tank- ing and Currency in relation to the Resumption of Specie Payments, April 24, 1878. Svo., - - - 10 cts. Sherman's Silver Theory. Its Sound- ness Disputed (1877). ... 5 rts. Some of the Fallacies of British Free- Trade Revenue Reform. Two Letters to Prof. A. L. Perry, of Williams Col- lege, Mass. (1870). - 5 cts. The British Credit System. Inflated Bank Credit as a Substitute for ' ' Cur- rent Money of the Realm" (1875). 8vo., - 10 ets. The "Clipped" "Ninety-Cent Dollar" Vindicated (1880). - 5 cts. The Duty on Books. Argument before the Finance Committee, United States Senate, May 23, 1872, 5 cts. The Eastern and the Western Questions. Turkey and the United States : How they travel a Common Road to Ruin. Addressed by way of warning to President Hayes (1877). Svo., - 10 cts. The Evolution of the True Government (1S79). ------- 5 cts. The Greenback : Should it be Deprived of its Legal-Tender Power? (1879). 5 cts. The Lesson of German and French Fi- nance. A Reply to the N. Y. Nation (1876). Svo., 5 cts. The National Finances (1877). Svo.. 5 ets. The Necessary Foundations of Individ- ual and National Weil-Being and of Civilization. A Lecture delivere d be- fore the Brooklyn Revenue-Reform Club and before the Young Repub- licans of Philadelphia (1883). - 10 cts. The President on a "Standard of Value" (1885). ----- 5 cts. The Price of Silver and its Relations to the Wheat Competition of India (1885). - 5 Cts. TheResults of the Resumption of Specie Payments in England, 1819-18:3: A lesson and a warning to the j eople of the United States (1874). Svo., - 10 cts. The Rights of American Producers, and the Wrongs of Pritish Free-Trade Revenue Reform (1872). 5 cts. The Silver Dollar, the Original Stand- ard of Payment of the United States of America and its Enemies (1883). 10 cts. The United States Treasury : The Ameri- can Car of Juggernaut (1877). Svo., 5 cts. The Way to Develop Power in the State (1880). - Sets. What is Communism? (1878). - - 5 ets. ftSfThe above or any of our books sent by mail free of postage at the publication prices to any address in the world. $S*Tico Catalogues of Books and Pamphlets on Social Scicnee, Political Economy, the Currency, including all of the pamphlets of H. C. Carey noxo in print : as well as our large Catalogue of Practical and 'Scientific Books, 96 pages, 8w., and our other Catalogues sent free, and free of postage to any one in any part of the world who will furnish his address. HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., Industrial Publishers, Booksellers and Importers, 810 Walnut Street, Philadelphia. HOVc an 1945