OL ARCHITECTURE MANUAL FOR ARCHITECTS AND SCHOOL AUTHORITIES FOURTH EDITION (toss ^OSIO'J Bonk h'J — Copyright N?. COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE A Handy Manual for the Use of Architects and School Authorities COMPILED BY WM. GEO. BRUCE Editor American School Boakd Joirnal Assisted by WM. 0. and FRANK M. RRUCE FOrKTII EDITION MILWAUKEE JOHNSON SERVICE COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1910 By Wm. Geo. Bruce €CI.A26115;-, INTRODUCTION The recognition which has been bestowed by the school authorities and architects of this coun- try upon each successive edition of this work has demonstrated the actual need for practical litera- ture on schoolhouse planning and construction. The first edition was a concise treatise on essen- tials, somewhat limited in scope and extremely modest in form. The succeeding editions were an extension and elaboration of the plan upon which the first was based. The present edition embodies, however, a de- cided advance over the former efforts and a radi- cal departure in plan of presentation. In scope it is extended so as to include every phase of sci- entific schoolhouse planning and to embody the latest and best thought and experiment on the subject. In presentation an entirely new plan has been adopted. Instead of presenting all subjects in topical form, arranged in alphabetical order, it has been planned to arrange the subjects with a view of giving them logical sequence and continu- ity. The ready reference feature which was em- phasized in the former editions is preserved in an ample index and table of contents. The subject-matter is enlarged to nearly two- fold. School Architecture Many phases of schoolhouse construction which have received recognition in recent years are fully described. With the growing tendency on the part of school boards to adopt progressive policies it has been possible for architects to ex- ert a wider latitude in introducing new features which have added materially to the efficiency of schoolhouses and to the comfort of their oc- cupants. The aim of the authors has been to include everything worthy of consideration and to elim- inate the experimental and untried and thus ren- der the highest degree of serviceability to those concerned in modern schoolhouse planning and construction. W. G. B. Contents I Preliminary Requirements Page 7 11 The Building . . 25 Ill The Class Room . 63 IV Special Rooms . 105 V Heating and Ventilation . 139 Appendices . 193 Index . 279 « o y. O pq Ph~ P o o o C O « ■s. -a c bo O C-X3 j 18 School Architecture method saves money over the competitive method and avoids scandal and public upheavals. Soil. — It is an established fact that "ground water" and "ground air" pollute soil. This pollu- tion is not imaginary, but has made much land un- inhabitable. Porous soil, such as sand or gravel is to be preferred, while made land and all soil impregnated with organic matter is to be avoided. The warmth of a building or the rising of ground water resulting from a change in barometric pres- sure may release more than three times the car- bonic acid gas ordinarily present in the air. Clay, swampy soil, quicksand or land too difficult to drain are equally bad. Drainage. — School grounds should be well drained on and below the surface. For this rea- son it is desirable to establish a ground level not more than three feet above that maintained for streets. A gradual slope away from the building toward street or alley in a southerly or easterly direction or well directed drainage to a catch basin is desirable. Sub-soil water should be car- ried from below the depth of the cellar by sub- soil rock and stone or tile drainage to the sewer- age system. It is desirable that such drainage be run entirely about the foundation of the build- ing. Sub-soil drains should be attached to the sewer by a flap-valve with a deep water seal. 19 20 School Architecture Playgrounds. — School authorities are agreed that a minimum of 30 square feet of playground should be allowed for every child. The regula- tions of the English board of education demand a quarter of an acre of playground for every 250 children and a minimum of 30 square feet of open space per child. An edict of the Prussian min- ister of education requires that the playgrounds surrounding schoolhouses contain three square metres (3.5888 square yards) of surface for every school child. The American standard ranges from 30 to 50 square feet per pupil. Playgrounds should always adjoin the school building. They should be sunny, dry and shel- tered from winds. Gravel or cinders, if well drained and well rolled, will make an excellent covering for the ground. Large boulders, re- cesses and obstructions should be avoided. Play- grounds should be arranged so that every part is visible to the person in charge. Boys and girls play best if separated. A rain shed or covering may be provided. Playgrounds for elementary schools should be fitted with a few appliances. In congested cities where outside playgrounds cannot be provided, roof playgrounds may be sub- stituted. These should be surrounded by a para- pet at least four feet high and covered with coarse netting over steel supports. Ample and safe stairway facilities must be provided. 21 \mmatm 'wt.ii^Jl^lfc 22 School Architecture Fences. — The American board fence ought never surround a school and its grounds. Open iron fences will permit a thorough circulation of air and enable sunlight to completely cover the school yard. Neat and unclimbable fences at the rear and side of the grounds are desirable. 23 24 // THE BUILDING Arrangement. — An observation of the prime uses to which a school building is to be put must regulate the disposition of classrooms, corridors, stairways and other conveniences. The final ar- rangement ought never be accepted hastily or without due consideration of hygienic and sani- tary requirements. In brief, floor plans must al- ways (1) suit the scholastic and administrative needs of the school, (2) conform with latest prac- tice in economical, safe and sanitary construction, (3) assure satisfactory and ready maintenance. An architect ought to know as intimately as a superintendent of schools the uses to which the building is to be put. He ought to know without fail that the kindergarten rooms belong on the first floor, the manual training and domestic sci- ence rooms on the ground floor, the auditorium on the first floor, the principal's room on the first floor, natural science laboratories on the top floor, art and mechanical drawing rooms to the north sides of the building, staircases adjoining an outer wall, classrooms on one or both sides of the cor- ridors, playrooms in the basement, etc. 25 26 School Architecture With the classroom as the unit upon which the entire arrangement is to be made, the architect must use such a plan as will best meet all the ap- parent needs. Location and site, number of pu- pils, course of study, kind of school, etc., will make an arrangement in one of these basic shapes necessary: □ Sctus^re Rectangle EHLU E-Form H-Form L-Form TJ-Form VY V-Form Y-Form Wide Angle 27 38 School Architecture Exterior. — While a rule for the exterior de- sign of a school building cannot be indicated artis- tically or scientifically, general beauty and archi- tectural completeness and simplicity can be pro- vided by every good architect. The exterior of a building must only express the interior perfec- tion and should never be supplied at the cost of some absolute necessity. It is a sham to decorate an imperfect shell with an imposing exterior. The material of construction should, primarily, be stone or brick. This will not only lend itself readily to a definite style of architecture, but will be found more fireproof and lasting. A wooden building should only be erected when brick or stone is not easily obtained or is too expensive. Accommodations. — While no two school buildings must provide exactly the same accom- modations, certain fundamental provisions are necessary for both elementary and secondary schools. Thus, elementary schools require : 1, class- rooms ; 2, cloakrooms ; 3, principal's room ; 4, toilet rooms ; 5, boiler rooms ; 6, kindergarten ; 7, playroom ; 8, assembly hall. The following are desirable : 1, waiting room ; 2, teachers' room ; 3, gymnasium; 4, janitor's room; 5, storeroom; 6, library. High schools may, on account of the course of study, require commercial rooms, lab- oratories, art and music rooms, science lecture rooms and manual art rooms. 29 30 School Architecture Foundations. — Foundations serve two pur- poses ; they support the superstructure and en- close a suitable basement. In serving the first, their size and strength will depend entirely upon the weight to be carried. This must vary in every case and can readily be computed by an efficient engineer. To supply a proper basement, foundation walls must allow sufficient light and must be proof against dampness. An application of pitch or boiled asphalt will make the outside of a foundation wall impervious. Stone with flat bed should be the material of construction selected wherever expedient. Next to this comes the concrete wall and finally the clinkerlike vitrified brick. The ordinary brick is very apt to be moist. Concrete for footings, where clean gravel ojgjbroken stone can be ob- tained, is preferable to stone footings. Where basements are impracticable for small schools, the foundation walls should be at least twelve inches thick, should be carried below the frost line, ex- tend not less than three feet above the grade and be ventilated with adjustable shutters. Height. — In the congested districts of large cities, it becomes impossible to confine buildings to a height of two stories. While, thus, the three or four story building is a necessity, a higher schoolhouse should never be permitted. Two story buildings are safer, more readily managed, and healthier for both girls and boys. Even 31 Ph fl > Cw OS Cffi C/2 O c ra I— I (U l— l > .J" Utfl <^ < c W 33 School Architecture though the three story building can be made tire- proof and may be cheaper and more compact, the two story building is safer and architecturally as beautiful. Enlargement. — A new building can be pre- pared for enlargement vertically or horizontally in the original plans. This in growing commun- ities is desirable and should never be forgotten. Additions can best be made horizontally without embarrassing an entire school. Vertical additions are expensive because they require the raising of a roof or an entire floor and make the building temporarily uninhabitable. Horizontal additions require only the breaking through walls for doors and the connection of roof and joists. Aspect. — The classroom is the unit upon which the aspect of a school building must de- pend. Since sunlight is the greatest disinfectant and preservative of life, it is desirable that the di- rect rays of the sun penetrate every room at least once a day. While it is impossible that every room be exposed to sunlight, a careful arrange- ment of corridors, assembly halls, drawing rooms, libraries, etc., in the northern portions of a build- ing will allow the placing of a maximum number of classrooms on the sunny sides of a building. North, northwest, west, southwest and south are in this order the least desirable aspects for school buildings. The lack of sun on the north 33 34 School A rchitecture and northwest sides and its intensity on the west and southwest and south argue against these as- pects. Southeast, east and northeast exposures are most desirable. Each will allow sunlight during the best portion of the day. During the midday the sun is entirely off the eastern sides of the building or strikes a southeast aspect almost vertically. Entrances. — The number and width of en- trances and exits to school buildings is deter- mined in nearly all cases by the general building laws. As a rule, it may be said that entrances should be wide, equipped with two doors and should lead directly to the stairways and corri- dors. Doors should be hung to swing outward and should be equipped with latches that are lock- able on the outside only. A door Z l / 2 feet wide is sufficient for each 150 pupils. A school of one hundred children should have two entrances fitted with double doors, each 3 l / 2 feet wide. The Mas- sachusetts law requires twenty inches for every one hundred persons and not less than four feet to each entrance. There should be one entrance to the basement from the outside, not connected with the regular school entrances and exits. This should be used by the janitor only and is necessary on account of the heating system. It should be located near the boiler room, though not directly opening in- 35 36 School Architecture to the same. A general understanding of the matter will prevent mechanics and repair men from stumbling unnecessarily through corridors during school hours and gives janitors the in- dependence they deserve. Vestibules. — Vestibules placed on a level with the school grounds are desirable. They should be equipped with double swing doors, tile, cement or asphalt floors, and be securely covered. They will protect the inevitable early arrival and prevent largely the tracking in of snow and mud. They should be as wide as the regular entrance. Corridors. — The shape and formation of a building will determine the size and extent of the corridors to be provided. In large buildings the central corridor with rooms on either side is slowly being replaced by the corridor with rooms on but one side. The latter with other advant- ages affords better light and ventilation and facil- itates the correct disposition of classrooms. While this plan increases the relative cubic area, thus ultimately increasing the cost of the building, its very successful use and the general brightness of the entire building argue forcibly in its favor. Corridors should always be wide, well venti- lated, lighted and heated. The minimum width should be 11 feet, although 13 feet in larger build- ings would be preferable. Corridors in very large buildings 18 feet in width are desirable. 38 School Architecture For all practical purposes, cement is the most desirable flooring in corridors. It is fireproof, can be easily cleaned, and wears almost indefin- itely. Care should be taken, however, that the ridges, if any are introduced, are made as shallow as possible and run straight across or lengthwise with the corridor. Deep ridges or ridges running opposite to the direction usually taken in sweeping are not easily cleaned, and may become dirt res- ervoirs. Granite, mosaic or asphalt pavement with base boards of marble are excellent. The ceilings need be no higher than classrooms, but should be light and attractive. Walls should be light, and may be finished in plaster, in glazed brick or ordinary brick coated with white enamel. A picture moulding may be placed in all corridors. The corridors on each floor ought to be equipped with a supplementary sink enclosed in a closet with double doors, swinging out. Both hot and cold water ought to be supplied for clean- ing purposes. Wainscoting may be either of glazed brick, tile, wood or painted burlap. The last two are most practical and economical. Artificial light ought to be liberally provided be- cause of the increased night use of buildings. Especially vestibules, landings and staircases need artificial light. Staircases. — Absolute utility and security must be guaranteed in the building of staircases. This must be ensured for normal and abnormal 39 40 School Architecture use, and must be based on the most scientific and approved practice. Thus, staircases must neces- sarily be well lighted, and be sufficient to accom- modate all pupils at all times. Two staircases should always be provided in every building which houses more than 150 pupils. These should adjoin an outside wall, be as widely separated as possible, easily accessible and conspicuous. The risers of stairs should be Q]/> inches, with 13-inch treads, in primary schools, and in other schools, 7-inch risers with 13-inch treads. A min- imum of five feet is generally recognized as the correct width of staircases. This may be in- creased by V/ 2 feet per 100 additional pupils. Long flights of consecutive stairs should always be broken by horizontal landings, which should be at least V/z times the width of the stairs. Triangu- lar and circular stairs should give way to fire- proof box staircases or open staircases with balustrade. Under all conditions, staircases should be ab- solutely fireproof. This includes not only walls and casings, but the skeleton and body of the stairs themselves. The most modern schools are now provided with iron runners set in solid brick walls, with treads of concrete, cut stone or as- phalt. They may be covered with wood, rubber or metallic safety treads and provided with fire cut-offs. Staircases should be arranged near en- trances and should be run to top floor when once 41 42 School Architecture begun. Windows should be about four feet above the level of the stair landing. Every stairway should be equipped with a hand railing, running the entire length without any break at the landings. This should be plain, smooth and preferably made of hard wood. Three inches diameter will allow the average child an easy grasp of a wood hand rail. The iron pipe railing, though cold and uninviting, is often used and should be about V/x inches in diameter. It is usually supported on wrought iron brackets with the ends turned back to the wainscoting. Thirty-six inches is about the right height of the average hand railing. The so-called "Duplex" or double reverse stairways in use in the public schools of New York City are excellent and permit of great sav- ing in floor space. They are of steel construc- tion with cut stone or asphalt filled treads. On the corridor side they are enclosed from top to bottom with partitions made of wire glass set in steel frames. Access is had to the floor landings by means of fireproof doors, fitted with automatic check and spring. As the height of the ordinary story in New York schools, including the thick- ness of floor construction, is 15 feet 6 inches, suffi- cient room is obtained to place a landing midway. The stairways permit a double rank of pupils to ascend and descend at the same time without in- terfering with each other. The stairways are 4 43 44 School Architecture feet wide, each permitting two pupils to walk abreast. Wainscoting. — Wainscoting on account uf the hard wear of lower walls may be distributed liberally in corridors, cloakrooms, etc. Tile, wood and painted burlap make a good surface. Tile does not. scratch or smear and is dust and vermin proof. Hard plaster, painted four coats of lead and oil in a soft gray color and finished without gloss is likewise good. Woodwork. — All woodwork used in the finish of halls, corridors or classrooms of school build- ings ought to be primarily simple. This simplicity ought to especially tend to the avoidance of heavy, deep cut mouldings, abnormal window sashes, or beading unnecessarily large. While most of such woodwork can and ought to be dusted regularly, proper care in its first installation can reduce this to a minimum. There should, of course, in all cases be no radical departure from the dull natural wood fin- ish. Oak, ash, cherry, birch or pine for interior woodwork can be made to look excellent in the natural finish. If a cheap material is used which requires painting, the color will follow naturally to harmonize with the wall coloring. Soft or yellow pine should be shellaced to prevent its darkening in time. Elevators. — Only the largest buildings in congested districts of large cities require eleva- 45 46 School Architecture tors. A freight elevator is rarely if ever needed. Elevators should be installed in sizes proportion- ate to their future use. They should be mod- ern in design, equipped with the latest and best safety appliances and installed according to the laws which apply. The Massachusetts building law provides : "All elevator shafts and light wells, unless built of brick, must be filled in flush between the wooden studs with fireproof materials, or lined with metal or plastered on metallic lathing as may be directed by the inspector, and all woodwork in- side of such shafts or wells be lined with tin plate, lock-jointed." Partitions. — It has been found at times desir- able to install in small assembly rooms and kin- dergartens movable partitions or sliding walls. An assembly hall can thus temporarily be turned in- to a classroom, while small kindergarten rooms may become large accommodation rooms. Un- doubtedly, the idea is a good one, but should be introduced with care and only where needed. Basement. — Unless some other special provi- sion has been made, the basement should contain playrooms for boys and girls, general toilet rooms, school baths, gymnasium, cooking classes, manual training rooms, heating and ventilating apparatus, boiler rooms, coal storage, janitor's room, etc. 47 u fc3 O o *d - v JO o o K u O m W 48 School Architecture Basements should always be high and well lighted. A clear ten-foot ceiling or a thirteen- foot ceiling in which an allowance of three feet is made for ventilating ducts and steam coils will suffice. To assure ample light, the top of the foundation should rise at least three feet above the ground level. Most authorities urge that basements extend five feet above the ground. Floors of basements should, without exception, be of asphalt or concrete. The latter should be surfaced with a hard, tough cement. If wooden floors are tolerated, they should be laid on a con- crete bed. When manual training and domestic science rooms are located in the basement, the basement should become the ground floor. The floor level need not be more than two feet below the ground level. In any case, the basement should be acces- sible from outdoors. Every basement must be dry to insure the health of children. To effect this a drain or catch basin must be fitted in every basement with a good valve or back water gate. Floors must be properly sloped in the direction of the basin, thus securing prompt drainage at all times. Plumbing-. — It is absolutely necessary to re- member in the installation of plumbing that school children use toilets and water troughs more severely than any other class of individuals. For this reason sewers, waste-pipes, traps and closet 49 fc u U o . 6 50 School Architecture fixtures must be of special weight and thickness to withstand the test of severe use. This is pos- sibly the first and only rule to be remembered in school plumbing. For the most part the practice generally accepted for ordinary plumbing applies to installations in school buildings. Nevertheless, the argument for open plumbing must be recalled for emphasis. Plumbing should be open, that is, not enclosed in the wall, be that supply, waste or vent pipe. This is mere- ly a precaution for easy attention in time of neces- sity. Wherever practicable drains and waste pipes should be supported above the basement floor by masonry, concrete piering or proper sus- pensions from the ceiling. Lead and other pipes, which, if it is possible, should never be run through classrooms, may be bronzed or enameled without the necessity of expensive nickle-plate or brass piping. Just previous to handing over the building to the local school authorities, architects ought to prepare a final and correct sketch of the entire sewer and drain pipe system. In clue time this ought to become the property of the school— in fact it ought to be one of its most important rec- ords. The stranger who attempts to study the layout for repair purposes will, without doubt at some future day, treasure this sketch. Drinking Fountains. — It is a great mistake to use wash sinks, or rather combine wash sinks 51 52 School Architecture with drinking fountains in school corridors. Wash sinks should be confined to washroom or specially enclosed recesses in walls. Drinking fountains specially provided with or without a constant stream of water are good. They prevent every possibility of the transmission of contagious dis- ease. Drinking fountains are made in a variety of designs, artistically finished and pleasing. Deafening 1 . — Floors and walls may be effect- ively made sound-proof by so-called deafening quilt. Thus the disturbing noises of one class- room will not penetrate and annoy the adjoining room, while classes may move through corridors almost unheard. To accomplish this, walls and partitions must be carefully lined with the deaf- ener, lapped at the joints. This deafener must never be punctured by nails or piping except where absolutely necessary. This is to prevent the telephonic conduction of sounds through or around the deafener and make the isolation as complete as possible. Deafeners should be unin- flammable, moth, vermin and insect-proof, and non-decaying. Kindergartens, manual training rooms and music rooms are defectively built if not sound-deadened. Fire Protection. — Exits, doors, stairways, corridors and classrooms should be so arranged that at any time an entire building can be emptied in three or four minutes. Rarely, except in the case of an explosion, does a fire gain headway in 53 u p fj £ ti p 5 £— < cj o £ > 1— 1 ?• K tn Si < ^ o V l> b£ --* O — S-. 5 < 3 n — 1— I ^ ^ U o t« C/3 o — X U _2 d i— t O U £ t/i — — S-c Ch >> o u a a OJ <-- = j £> ^ < § > w hJ £ 54 School Architecture less 'time. An explosion can, of course, only be taken as a rare exception and lire and panic must be dealt with. Exits, doors, stairways, corridors, etc., if prop- erly constructed, can be made fireproof or at least guarantee a resistance of intense heat for many minutes. Where appropriations will permit, brick or stone exteriors, concrete or tile flooring and walls, iron staircases with asphalt treads, together with stand-pipes, fire hose and fire escapes will render a building ordinarily safe. Fire extin- guishers, pails, etc., are good, but must be usable and accessible. Fire escapes, or rather, emergency stairs, should be provided on the outer walls adjoining corridors. Fire sprinklers in basements will add to the safety of the entire structure. Fireproofing of wood trim is useless because these woods gather moisture and lose strength while fireproof paints peel off rapidly. If the rules laid down for ordinary building were followed, or if boards of education and architects always remembered the fire danger, buildings would be more fireproof and danger of fire greatly reduced. Attics. — Attics should be made water-tight and heat-proof. A flooring should be laid throughout to prevent unnecessary radiation of heat from classrooms and the penetration of cold from roofs during the winter months. They may be low, but should always be equipped with ample 55 56 School Architecture skylight when used. A brick fire wall ought to cut off sections every 75 feet. Roofs. — The style of architecture employed will always determine the nature of the roof. Roofs may be flat or angled. Flat roofs are un- questionably cheaper, more easily repaired and safer. Slate or tile is desirable for angled roofs. Tile can be secured in black, green or red, but is more expensive than slate. It is durable and at- tractive and has been used with great success. Flat roofs can be covered with an uninflammable composition, cemented, tinned and gravelled. Fortunately, the cut up and angled roofs are becoming obsolete. On economic grounds, these roofs are expensive ; artistically and architectural- ly, they are an eyesore to a community. Roof gutters are best made of copper, with vertical water conductors of galvanized iron, copper or brass, the first two to be preferred. Where tile is used, a vitreous tile lining bedded in asphalt or concrete is best. Cost. — It is impossible to compute absolutely the cost of any school building without definitely stipulating the materia'l and labor to be used. While cost is the first and probably the most diffi- cult question to be answered, it is likewise the most inaccurate, depending largely upon con- ditions to be dealt with. It is for this reason that no one but the local architect can tell what a building of a certain capacity will cost 57 58 School Architecture or how far a stipulated sum of money will go toward the erection of a desired school building. This is largely due to the variation in different sections of the country of the labor conditions, the accessibility to building material centers, etc. Again, much depends upon the class of building desired. Some boards want the plainest and cheapest construction possible, while others de- sire pretentious architecture and some elegance in interior design and finish. Any attempt to give an estimate as to the probable cost must be based upon an average, well designed and well con- structed building. An average or ordinary condi- tion must also be assumed as to the facilities at command in securing labor and material and the natural surroundings and conditions of the build- ing site. Per Cubic Foot. The average cost on twenty- five first-class grammar and primary school build- ings, erected in the city of Boston during the period of 1895 and 1905, was 20 cents per cubic foot. The cost ranged from the lowest, 16 cents, to the highest, 24 cents. In Chicago the cost ranged from 20 to 24 cents, making an average cost of 22 cents per cubic foot. In St. Louis, Mo., the average cost on fifteen school buildings erected during the past seven years was 15*/ cents per cubic foot. The average for the three cities is about 19 cents. 59 60 School A rchitecture Per Pupil. The cost of thirty-three grammar and primary schools in the city of Boston erected during the period of 1895 to 1905, ranged from $121.64 to $203.65 per pupil, or an average of $160.00 per pupil. In Chicago, 111., during a period of three years, on seven buildings the cost has averaged $174.00 per pupil ; in St. Louis, Mo., dur- ing a period of seven years the cost on fifteen buildings has averaged $123.00 per pupil. The average for the three cities is about $152.00. Per Room. The cost per room for a first-class grammar and primary school ranged from $3,000 to $5,000 per room, in accordance with the varia- tion in the cost of labor and material and the natural conditions of the building site. 61 ROCKEFELLER HALL, TiRYN MAWR COLLEGE. Cope & Stewardson, Architects, Philadelphia. 62 /// THE CLASS ROOM Standards. — As the class is the unit about which all organization and administration of the school revolves, so the classroom is the unit upon which the planning of the school building depends. And as the size and formation of classes depends upon the individual welfare of the single child so the life, safety and convenience of the child estab- lish ultimately the standards for the planning of classrooms. It has been agreed generally by architects and authorities on the subject that classrooms should have a minimum of fifteen square feet of floor space, 200 cubic feet of air space per pupil, and be planned to accommodate a maximum of forty students. The room proper is oblong in shape and receives its light only from the long wall on the left. Aisles are run through single rows of seats with the teacher's desk to the front facing the pupils. On account of the fluctuation in the sizes of classes and the demand for large and small rooms alike, the question of classrooms for primary and grammar schools has reduced itself to three standard sizes : 63 * ^1|BeE" ^^7 ; MNtt 1 ^^^B V j \ ««■„.■-.. \ ' „ S2 nlr^l ^^H lid = 64 School Architecture A. 22 x 32 feet; 40 pupils, 8 rows, 5 each. B. 24 x 32 feet; 48 pupils, 8 rows, 6 each. C. 28 x 32 feet; 56 pupils, 8 rows, 7 each. Rooms izy 2 feet high are arranged in this manner to give every pupil an easy view of the teacher and blackboard. Vice versa the arrange- ment gives the teacher perfect control of the chil- dren with all in view at a glance. The form al- lows better lighting, heating and ventilation. In like manner the sizes allow the grouping of rooms near staircases, and guarantee regular and wide corridors. The width allowed between desks is usually twenty to twenty-four inches. Between the blackboard and its adjoining row of desks 3 to 3 l / 2 feet should be allowed. Thirty-two feet is the maximum length of classrooms. In Boston the standard size of classrooms has been fixed at 23x29 feet in the clear. In New York City, classrooms have been ar- ranged on the German standard: 22 feet wide, 30 feet long, 15 feet, 6 inches high, in the clear; 40 pupils. Grade rooms in Chicago public schools have, until recently, measured 26', 6" x 33', 0". At pres- ent the standard is 24', 0" x 34', 0" ; for a maxi- mum of 48 pupils. The St. Louis standard requires that class- rooms be 24', 0" by 32', 6" with not less than 12' clear story height. The maximum seating ca- pacity is 48 pupils. 65 a. 66 School Architecture In Detroit, 24' by 32' is accepted as correct. In Baltimore all schoolrooms are planned to be 26' x 32' with 12', 6" to 13' 0" ceilings. In Cleveland two standard sizes have been evolved : 24' x 32' and 26' x 32'. In Philadelphia the standard classroom meas- ures 24' x 32' xl3'. The Seattle standard classroom is 25' x 32' and 13' story height. Lighting. — The importance and the difficulty of the subject of lighting is self-evident. Primar- ily, light must come to classrooms without ob- struction or interruption. It has been said that every pupil ought to be able to see the sky from his desk. A German authority asserts that 50 per cent, of the floor space should be open to the sky. Under ordinary conditions, the rule that ad- joining structures should not be nearer than twice the height of the school building is safe. This cannot be maintained in crowded cities where buildings are high, but is binding on the location of trees and like. The admission of light to the classroom, after its pure obtainance, is next important. Accord- ingly the window area should be one-fifth of the floor space, assuring a desk illumination of fifty candle metres. Where rooms are wider than twenty-two feet and the light is brought in from one side only, the window area should be at least one-fourth of the floor space. An authority sug- 67 68 School Architecture gests as a good rule the provision of at least .15 square metres (1.6 square feet or 233 square inches) of window surface for each pupil. Light should come to the pupil from one side only, never the front, and pass over the left shoulder. It ought never come from three or two sides because of the cross light and excessive cold window area. While bilateral lighting is at times tolerated, especially when rooms are lo- cated in the north side of the building, the eyes of the teacher are to be considered as also the eyes of the pupils. Light from the rear throws a shadow on the work of the pupil and must al- ways be softened in favor of the teacher. Pro- vided care has been exercised, light may enter from one or groups of windows. Windows. — Windows and their number de- pend on the rules laid down for the lighting of classrooms. Thus window space should be one- fifth the area of the floor space and in unfavor- able light one-fourth of the floor space. They should always be placed to the right of the teacher while facing a class, square top in shape, and set about three feet from the floor level. To facili- tate the diffusion of light, windows should ex- tend to within six inches of the ceiling. During recent years, architects have intro- duced the so-called group system of lighting schoolrooms. As against the regularly placed windows the latter have been drawn together in- 69 70 School . I rchitSi lure to groups, and separated only by iron mullions of minimum thickness. Thus heavy shadows be- tween windows have been avoided as also thi crossing of dearly defined lighl rays. The plan allows a maximum of window surface and obvi ates even the thoughl of bilateral or diffused light. I lie window can be worked into one of the standard styles of archite< tit re with the same ,ii, ce - as the evenly disl ributed window. Generally speaking, all window casings and ledges may be beveled .-it least 40 degrees. Win- dow sills may be "toil ted. 'I lie corners of the [ambs should be rounded, where wood casings are omitted, and protected by a metal strip set Hush with the plaster. Bui one large pane for the up per and one for the lower section oi the window is to be preferred, although there is no objection to .mall panes divided with muni ins. 'I he pupil i al farl hei I removed from a window should be distant not more than one and one hall times the heighl of the window. At t imes and under cei tain unfavorable li >cal conditions prism glass may be employed to ai Lire the steady introduction of pure daylight. Where the proximity and heighl of neighboring buildings cause a dimness of lighl prism gla can due, i light into buildings to a considerable distance. 'I he prii in s will al o equalize and diffuse lighl throughoul a room so thai each pupil may enjoj the same mien h ■ of lighl in e pe< live oi his or 71 72 School Architecture her location. As against artificial light prism glass entails only the first cost of installation and consequently not a continual expenditure. Window Shades. — The sunlight breaking in- to a room with unrestricted power must certainly be softened and diffused by window shades. Sun- light passing through a perfectly white semi- opaque shade will create a decidedly creamy color leaning toward the yellow orange. In order to overcome this yellowish light and to produce more real pure light the window shades should be colored in a light blueish gray or a gray green, thereby neutralizing and diffusing white light without a glare throughout the room. On south- ern windows two shades, one opaque, the other translucent, are desirable. Modern ingenuity has created adjustable fix- tures which complete the service of window shades. These can be made to cover the entire window at one time, can be raised and lowered to any point or can be made to cut off either half of the window very readily. They are a great improvement over the ordinary shade and can be installed at a very low cost. Floors. — Unquestionably a floor of reinforced concrete or hollow tile, set on iron beams and forming the substantial part of the ceiling below, is the ideal construction. Such floors are, how- ever, not always obtainable and the ordinary wooden joist must be used. Wooden floors should 73 74 School Architecture always be of mill construction, and lined with an approved deafening" material. Selected maple makes the best flooring for schoolrooms. This, if matched, blind nailed, and laid with as few joints as possible, will prove very satisfactory. It is sanitary and clean and can be swept without trouble. Georgia or Florida pine, if comb-grained, stands second to maple, but must likewise be of selected stock. In specifying Georgia or Florida pine, care should be taken to limit the width to two and one-half inches or a very poor floor will be obtained. Flooring of rooms above cold air chambers should be care- fully protected with a double thickness of non- conducting deafening quilt to prevent a transmis- sion of cold to the Floor above. Where the floor meets the wainscoting- or base board, the juncture piece can very readily be curved concavely to fa- cilitate cleaning and prevent an avoidable accumu- lation of dirt. Ceilings. — The same rules for iireprooflng and sound deafening which are laid down for floors and walls, should lie maintained for ceilings. A hard plaster, such as adamant, imperial or rock- wall, applied to metal lathing is to be preferred. Wooden ceilings are frequently used, but cannot be recommended. Metal ceilings are good and can be obtained in simple and ornamental designs. Where these are not introduced a smooth, well finished plaster surface should be obtained. In 75 76 School Architecture Massachusetts the law provides that the entire basement ceiling be plastered on metal lath. Ceil- ings should not be less than 13 J^ feet in height. Their color should be preferably a creamish gray. Doors. — All classroom doors should primarily assure convenience and reliability for use in call- ing and dismissing classes. Again they should be absolutely under the control of the teacher, pref- erably near her. One door will give a teacher better control over a class than two. A second door will necessarily open upon benches and cause undesirable room crossing. With the ward- robe at the rear of the room the door is best placed near the front in the open space between desks occupied by the teacher and pupils respec- tively. Doors should be about three feet wide, hung in a substantial frame, be strong and durable. They should be of the ordinary height, with a knob convenient to the child's grasp. While many authorities demand that doors swing outward, classroom doors which should be under the con- trol of the teacher in case of a panic, may safely open into the room. What loss of life has oc- cured in the schools of the country has been due to the fact that teachers were unable to control the rush of children from rooms during a panic. German school authorities believe that doors opening into corridors add to the safety of a classroom. The door is hung on the wall in classroom and swings nut into the corridor. The 77 • ''zsSS&l > -\ 78 School Architcctuve door frame instead of standing square, as ordinar- ily found, is set on the bias away from, and in the direction in which the door will swing. It must be remembered that school walls have be come very wide on account of the number of ventilating duets and other piping which is placed therein. Thus the angle between the wall and the floor is reduced to 50 degrees, while only one- half of the door projects beyond the wall line. The best practice in the United States requires thai the door be hung so thai it can be swung hack againsi the corridor wall, and altogether out of the way. Quarter -awed oak makes the best material for doors. This when well oiled and varnished wears almost indefinitely. A plate can be placed about the door knob to prevent smearing, and one at the base will protect the wood from accidental kicks. A glass panel in the upper part of the door is a confession of a poorly lighted corridor. This should be avoided where possible. When- ever tolerated frosted glass should be preferred to the ordinary transparent pane. Transoms are un- necessary and disturb the efficienl working of the ventilating system. Blackboards. — Blackboards are invariably placed on the front and right hand wall of the classroom. They are rarely placed on the rear 79 80 School Architecture wall because of the absorption of light, and should never be placed to the left, between windows. The glare from windows puts this wall space into a dark shadow which is almost impenetrable. The strain on pupils working in their seats is severe — almost blinding on the sunny side of a building. There are three standard types of blackboards: 1. The board obtained by covering a concrete or ordinary wall surface with liquid slating. 2. The wood pulp board. 3. The natural slate black- board. Liquid slating is possibly the third best of the three types. While cheaper than wood pulp or slate, its surface must be renewed once a year and then often cannot be washed or properly cleaned. Wood pulp is satisfactory and very much cheaper than slate. Slate makes the best blackboard. Both slate and pulp can be secured in a dull, dead black, but must be kept so, and should never be allowed to become gray. A new artificial slate made of ground slate and cement mounted on metal lathing is being introduced with success. The standard height of blackboard surface is four feet. This in primary grades is placed two feet, two inches from the floor ; in grammar grades and high schools two feet, six inches. The top of the blackboard should never be more than six and one-half feet from the floor and not ex- tend into dark or useless corners. 81 Hn ■T ■r il ■3 : 1 W: ' p M il m I F- :■ ■3.- S3 ■C~'.J:; -*' j :■•".. '■ ^ ' I :-■ 1131 ' HI §« ■Is] H : lial Hu:££tfNlfl ggial — ffcr " i -Ate? «1f j j , i 11 '^ Di. S3! ■*':"• 13 lial £■* * ;:«■ HisSIJ » ilS I at JMBJ ;!"■* lial .il e iiB ■ iiigjil 1 I f ■ m mfBtm 82 School Architecture Natural slate, the ideal blackboard surface, may be obtained for blackboards in widths rang- ing from 24 inches to 48 inches. The standard widths are 36 inches, 42 inches, by three feet to six feet in length. The slabs can be purchased to fit close-jointed and fill wall spaces exactly. They cost about twenty-five cents per square foot placed on the wall. The artificial blackboards can be obtained in greater lengths and similar widths. They should be placed preferably on a wall with expanded metal lath. Artificial blackboards cost about six- teen cents per square foot. Chalk troughs about three inches wide, cov- ered with a movable wire netting, should be placed under all blackboard surface. Where it is found that blackboards affect the lighting of a room, spring roller shades of a neutral color may be drawn over the surface while not in use. Cab- inets of disappearing blackboards, one upon the other, and about six in number, are desirable in science lecture rooms of high schools. Wall Coloring — If the lighting of a school- room is important the reflection and diffusion of light in the room is of equal importance. The standards of correct wall coloring are based en- tirely upon fatigue as experienced both by teacher and pupil and the possibility of illumination on unfavorable days. Again the standards exclude 83 .fa 84 School Architecture colors known to be light absorbent and include colors extensively found in nature. White, the presence of all light, is considered hygienically bad; it tires the eye by its glare and almost uninterrupted strength. Black, the ab- sence of all color, absorbs light and is equally bad. Opticians tell us that the eye has been made to fit colors equally distant from white, the presence of all color, and black, the absence of all color. Gray, a mixture of black and white, should therefore be the basic color for the tinting of every wall in the schoolhouse. It should, however, only be the basic color. Combinations of all other colors of the spectrum can be effected without the necessity of employing as such the cold and uninviting color of gray. The ceiling should be kept light, but never white or chalky. It is never touched by the rays of the sun, except by reflection from a mirror or other polished surfaces. Consequently, in the ma- jority of cases it will receive diffused light only. A tint of white, such as a cream color, which will aid in the downward diffusion of light, is there- fore most desirable. The spectral colors, orange, red, violet, yellow, blue and green, should never be used for ceiling without intense whitening. On the north exposure, colors can be made light and warm on account of the natural coldness of the location. On the east the colors should be less warm including more gray. The same is true 85 £ 2 i— i u > *3 p 86 School Architecture of the south and west rooms of the school build- ing. The woodwork and mouldings should be of some accepted hard wood, finished in its natural color. This can be adapted to almost any color combination. All space not actually needed for blackboards should be treated in the wall color. The regular oil paint will, in the long run, prove most satisfactory. This must and can be carefully stippled to prevent gloss and will retain its appearance and color for several years. Once a year this can be washed, thus producing almost a new surface. Water color tints can be obtained for less money than oil painting. In like manner a greater variety of shades and colors is possible. On the whole oil paint is more desirable, more sanitary, and in time cheaper. Picture Moulding. — Every classroom and corridor may be fitted with picture moulding. This offsets a blank wall nicely, is convenient in hanging pictures and may divide the decoration of the wall and ceiling. Picture moulding should be made of some hard, smooth, well grained wood and should be carefully fastened to the wall. When once begun it should be run entirely about a room and should be finished in harmony with the remaining woodwork. Wardrobes. — Architects and school author- ities agree that separate wardrobes should be pro- vided for classes in all school buildings. Such wardrobes or cloakrooms should immediately ad- 87 u u 4 o o W u CO w < Q O > ;W 88 School Architecture join the classroom so that pupils can properly de- posit their personal belongings during school hours. Wardrobes should not be allowed on the walls of the classroom, corridors or basement. To the present day an agreement as to the best location for wardrobes relative to classrooms has not been reached. The best practice requires that they be placed to enjoy direct light from the outside. Doors do not open into corridors, but only into the classroom. This gives the teacher full control of classroom and wardrobe at all times. In like manner it assures excellent ven- tilation for classroom and wardrobe since the in- take or fresh air supply can be placed in the class- room and the outlet or foul air exit can be located in the wardrobe. This will prevent all odor from wet or unclean ciothing and will not necessitate separate ventilation. It requires two doors and the proper location of air registers. Generally wardrobes should be well lighted, heated and ventilated. Light should come from the outside. The width of each room should never be less than four feet, preferably about six feet. Its length should be proportioned to the number of pupils to be accommodated by the classroom and the style of hooks or racks to be provided. Hooks for clothes, shelves for pack- ages, stands with drip pans for umbrellas and rubbers, should be provided. Hooks for grammar schools should be placed five feet from the floor, 89 w." • 3J ■Jf r=s;-fcr tec ""If N* - " ~ - ,-JT, - * « 3 P&z'li^f^ ~£ His ^ en M « U i- u in w U 90 School Architecture in primary schools four feet, or a variety of heights in all wardrobes. The hanging space is twenty-five feet for fifty pupils. Walls should be finished with a material that is easily cleaned, dis- infected and non-absorbent. Clothes racks, what- ever kind they may be, should never extend to the floor, to allow the thorough cleaning of the room. Steel lockers as wardrobes have in recent years been installed in high schools very extensively. These lockers are constructed in a variety of styles and are furnished with keyless locks for the use of the individual pupil. They are in- stalled in corridors and have proven most suc- cessful. In gymnasiums, where the storage of much clothing is called for, the steel locker has become an absolute necessity. A new type of wardrobe is being introduced in New York and Chicago, which consists of wood or steel cupboards, fitted with doors sliding ver- tically in casements. They are equipped with hooks and racks and so constructed that inde- pendent ventilation with the regular ventilation system is possible. While some doubt might ex- ist as to their practicability, they unquestionably effect a saving in space over the cloakroom as also the original cost of construction. Platforms. — Some difference of opinion ex- ists on the use of platforms. Most grade class platforms have been abolished as dust catchers, as an interference with the ready use of blackboard 91 93 School Architecture space back of the teachers' desk and as a hin- drance to the rule that teachers move about the class during school hours. In lecture and as- sembly rooms the platform should be low as pos- sible, but wide and long. Teachers' Wardrobe. — Where a building cannot include a special teachers' room, a teach- ers' wardrobe or case ought to be installed in every classroom. This ought to assure privacy, and must be comparatively air-tight. It should contain hooks and shelves and be fitted with a good lock. Bookcase. — A bookcase twelve inches deep should be provided in each classroom for the use of the teacher and the storage of supplementary books and other paraphernalia. It may best be built in one of the side walls, not conspicuously, and should be closed by one or two glass doors. A few drawers ought also be added with a cup- board at the bottom. Equipment. — A schoolhouse architect must necessarily be consulted in the purchase of much of the equipment of a schoolhouse. His varied expe- rience with other equipments will make his judg- ment valuable and his advice worthy of considera- tion. Some standard articles, however, such as school desks, manual training benches and the like, need hardly the expert advice of an architect. The average superintendent of schools has been forced 93 94 School Architecture to give the more common items his attention and consequently is generally well informed. School Furniture should always embody a maximum of simplicity and durability. It must necessarily be adapted to the uses to which it is to be put and must be in conformity with the best and most modern practice, of the day. School desks, whether adjustable or stationary, must be curved and fitted to assure the comfort and the good health of the pupil. The individual desk must be attractive in appearance, and made of the best hard maple or oak and flawless steel or iron. Its edges must be beveled, its corners rounded, its hinges noiseless, its varnish, japan and glue the best that money can buy. Vacuum Cleaning for schools, while still in its experimental stage, will undoubtedly become an important item of equipment in the near future. It is based on the idea of entirely removing dust and dirt from classrooms and subsequently de- stroying it. Briefly, a good system requires a vacuum producer capable of maintaining a vac- uum of ten inches mercury. It must be equipped with an air-tight and dust-proof separator of sufficient capacity, located preferably in the base- ment. A system of smooth-bore vacuum piping ought to be installed in the building with special fittings which enable the construction of a con- duit perfectly smooth from intake to discharge. The cleaning tools must, of course, be movable, 95 96 School Architecture durable and easily handled, with a suction force of two inches beyond the metal parts of the tool to assure effectiveness in corners and under desks. The system must assure the removal of a maxi- mum of dust at a minimum of cost and annoyance. Program Clocks and automatic bell-ringing systems are entirely too successful and well known to require argument. Large high schools cannot be operated without them. They work with almost human intelligence and are mechan- ically as perfect as seems possible for the pres- ent. Program systems require a master clock and secondary bells and clocks which are all con- trolled by the master clock. In elementary schools simple electric push buttons with proper connections with the school grounds should be supplied. Special Thermometers ought to be hung in every classroom and corridor of a school building unless a system of automatic temperature regula- tion is installed. When such a system is installed special instruments are, of course, unnecessary since the thermometer is always supplied with every thermostat. Great care ought to be exer- cised in the purchase of good thermometers to assure accuracy and relative correctness in ac- tion. Instruments, under identical conditions, will vary as much as ten degrees — a variation which in a schoolhouse cannot be tolerated. In placing the thermometers the breathing line of the 97 98 School Architecture smallest pupil ought to be taken as the maximum height. The thermometers ought to be shifted to several places to discover the degree of tempera- ture throughout the room. Once a year they ought to be gathered by the principal and tested for accuracy. Telephones which can connect the school with the school board office and intercommunicating telephones for principal to boiler rooms, teachers' rooms and classrooms may be provided. The time has come when a common understanding of the use of the telephone has made its installation desirable. Economy in installation and efficiency in operation are the principal requisites. Bulletin Boards ought to be provided in some conspicuous place near the entrance of every building. They ought to be plain and consist only of a frame, a wood back that will take push tacks and a glass door. The wood ought to be the natural finish and of the same material as the woodwork. Projection Apparatus ought to be planned for assembly rooms in elementary schools and sci- ence lecture rooms and auditoriums in high schools. The prices and varieties have made their installation no longer a luxury while the develop- ment of many studies now depends upon their use. Projection apparatus may consist of a stereopticon lantern, slides and a good, white spring-roller curtain. Instruments of recent 99 -J ^^"3 ff^Hfr * — ■ "^- vJ i x ;! : "" | Li 'V \; #p 'jf^dB! ' \ 1 MJJ;. : |l* f U| ;il F! iKJ *;_' ;" ..;£•. ^-k^r^i .HJ '*^&r jpHtlBP Mil ™^B 1 V f i lamdtSl iMB-J i % * oBi ^ l ^^Bj ' '^^^_ ^^^^^4', , :mgm m _fjjM IjI c ca o < t/2 • N 4 o o u 100 School Architecture manufacture are equipped with an opaque pro- jector attachment which has proven most suc- cessful. Artificial Light. — While all classrooms should admit a maximum amount of light under extremely unfavorable conditions, dark or misty days in the fall of the year, or cloudy days dur- ing- the spring, will demand provisions for the pos- sible use of artificial light. It is, of course, need- less to say that rooms which require the use of artificial light on ordinary bright days condemn architect, superintendent of schools, and school board. Light which assures a maximum of whiteness is to be preferred for the artificial lighting of schoolrooms. Fixtures must, of course, be sus- pended from the ceiling and should be arranged so that the center of light distribution is slightly to the left of the longitudinal center line of the room and in front of the transverse center. By this means, each pupil will have a main source of light slightly to the left and front, thus obviating heavy shadows on his 'work. The Welsbach light for gas and the Tungsten incandescent lamp for electricity give the whitest and strongest light. Both are very delicate and frail, but last sufficiently long and prove very satisfactory. The latter is to be preferred because it does not contaminate the air by combustion. In Boston it is aimed to provide each desk 101 8» ot; UhTH W o I— I 102 School Architecture with a minimum illumination of two foot-candles or light equal to the illumination of two standard candles at a distance of one foot. English authorities are agreed that 300 candle power for 1,000 square feet of floor space, or one candle power for every three square feet is cor- rect. A German authority places the standard of lighting for classrooms at 10 metre candles. By this he understands that the source of light be equal to ten normal candles at a distance of one metre. Lights should never, unless very strong, be more than eight feet above the floor level. They may be augmented by prismatic globes which con- centrate and distribute rays very successfully. During the past few years the theory of dif- fused light has prompted reflection to the ceiling and subsequent diffusion to all parts of the room. The amount of light needed for such illumination can be judged when it is remembered that the intensity of light diminishes in the ratio of the inverse square of the distance. This diminution does not include two reflections and the possi- bility of imperfect reflecting surfaces. To the present time indirect lighting of classrooms ob- tained by diffusing the direct rays upon the ceil- ing of the classroom has been found prohibitive in cost and altogether impractical. 103 C o £ „ o /■^ 00 to 600. While, of course, there are larger auditoriums, it would be unde- 105 < Q ^ ^ "5 i-i « u 4 W 110 School Architecture with so-called emergency room. This room is to be used by pupils or teachers who are sud- denly taken ill and require medical attention. It may also be used by school nurses and medical inspectors as an examination room. It may be small, but should be quiet, isolated, well venti- lated and easily disinfected. A comfortable couch, a pillow, a pair of blankets, two chairs, a small table, a lavatory and an emergency chest should be part of the equipment. Where the room is used as a nurse's room it must be fitted with a closet for supplies, a writing table and a filing cabinet for records. Gymnasiums. — The gymnasium is not as yet a feature of every American school building. The Swiss laws for building schoolhouses re- quire that at least 3 square metres be allotted to every student in the school gymnasium. The American standard is approximately 3,800 to 4,000 square feet per hundred students. The height is fixed at 22 to 24 or 25 feet in clear. Most high schools of latter day construction make some pretense at maintaining a gymnasium. If proper light, heat and ventilation can be afforded, the ground floor or an exceptionally high basement is not undesirable. The vibra- tions and noise caused by heavy boys and girls makes upper floors undesirable. The general shape of gymnasiums is usually oblong, with windows in the longer walls. These 111 o a C 2 c o ot: rW 112 School Architecture should provide ample light, as good if not better than that required for classrooms. The window casing should not extend lower than six feet above the floor to allow proper wall space for apparatus, radiators, etc. Floors should be of pitch-pine or oak, or even better, hard maple strips, set close and cut opposite to the grain of the wood. The floor should be absolutely dust-proof, well oiled and frequently cleaned. Pillars or posts of any kind are a nuisance. German authorities recommend a floor of hard asphalt set in concrete and covered with linoleum. This combination is firm and yet elastic, nearly noiseless, dust-proof, cheap and easily renewed. The paneling of the lower part of the walls is best made of smooth cement, painted and washable. Painted burlap may pre- sent a softer surface. Adjoining the gymnasium of high schools there must be dressing rooms, shower bath rooms and locker room. All must be propor- tioned to the number of pupils to be accommo- dated in the gymnasium in one session. Dress- ing rooms require benches, frosted windows, good ventilation and a wood floor. Shower baths must be so regulated and installed in such number that comfort and rapidity of use may be assured. Locker rooms may be fitted with lockers for each pupil in the school or merely to accommodate one class at a session. Steel 113 <5 O 114 School Architecture lockers are well ventilated, moth and vermin- proof and can be fitted with keyless locks. Janitor's Room. — Where plans will permit the janitor should be given a room in the base- ment for repairs and private storage. This room should be fitted with a work bench or an ordi- nary manual training bench and shelving. It may be found very convenient to make this room directly accessible from the outside. Kindergartens. — In primary school build- ings it is very desirable to have two kinder- garten rooms, separated by sliding or folding doors. Kindergarten rooms are to be isolated so that games and music will not disturb other classes. Floors and walls should be sound- deadened. School authorities are agreed that the kindergarten should occupy a room convenient to entrance on the first floor. A circle should be painted on the floor and the room equipped with a toilet, specially low and carefully installed. Laboratories. — Physics, chemistry, biology and the other laboratories are usually grouped on the top floor about and adjoining the lecture room. The lecture room which should be especially prepared and equipped for lecture demonstration purposes ought to be very ac- cessible to laboratories on account of the dual lecture and laboratory uses of the greatest por- tion of the equipment. These rooms should al- 115 116 School Architecture ways be specially well heated and ventilated, with the addition of a skylight where necessary. Clay tiled floor and enameled brick walls are ex- cellent. The size of laboratories will depend entirely upon the completeness of the equipment and the number of pupils to be accommodated. One teacher can very nicely supervise the work of twenty-five pupils, though a larger number might be undesirable. Rooms should not be ex- tremely large, while crowding is similarly unde- sirable. With cupboards, fume chambers, ex- periment tables, etc., a room 30 by 40 feet will accommodate twenty-five pupils. Chemical laboratory tables should be placed at right angles to windows and equipped with sinks, gas jets, shelving and lockers. To avoid unnecessary plumbing and fittings, tables may be arranged that pupils work opposite one an- other. The height of the table may be about 36 inches, the depth for two pupils about 54 inches, and the width about 48 inches per student. Pitch-pine or well treated basswood will serve as a non-absorbent and durable top. A "V or "U" shaped trough or sink 8 inches wide and covered with pitch and slanting to a sludge box whose overflow is carried to an approved safety cock should form the dividing line of every double laboratory table. One well ventilated and well finished fume chamber will serve for 117 118 School Architecture every seven pupils. A floor of slate, a roof of enameled iron, and a ventilating flue entering at the side to the top of the chamber, preferably ob- long in shape, will make the best fume chamber. The physics laboratory will require cup- boards, solid large tables, one or two small sinks and light-proof window shutters or shades. An anchored, slate covered table is very desirable. The equipment and cabinets will all depend en- tirely upon the allowance made for this depart- ment. Where possible, the room should be pre- pared with and by the advice of the instructor who is to use it. Zoological, botanical and other laboratories require equipment similar to the chemistry and physics laboratories. Tables with glass tops, chairs, sinks, shelves, cases, drawers, cupboards, as also the rooms themselves must be propor- tioned to the needs of the department. Lecture Room. — A lecture room which opens into all or at least the physics laboratory usually accompanies every natural science de- partment. The principal features of the room are a lecture and demonstration table and raised seats to make this table visible to each and every pupil. The demonstration table of a lecture room should be solid, 32 inches high, 144 inches long, 36 inches wide, contain gas jets, a sink and a fume chamber. The pupils' seats should be raised one above the other not more than one 119 ►J " OPn o . s w Ml* o o M o t» M o M H J <3 O M z H u « « Z «t ci 120 School Architecture foot. A lantern for lecture and illustrative pur- poses should be planned for and, if possible, in- stalled without fail. Windows should be equipped with light-proof shades, easily adjusted and non-breakable. The light, heating and ventilation may resemble the classroom and laboratories. Cupboards, drawers, shelves, etc., should be provided for re-agent bottles and for smaller apparatus. .Library. — A library should be provided for teachers and pupils wherever possible. It should be primarily a usable room, equipped with book- cases, chairs, tables and contain good window area. In large buildings the rooms should be sufficiently spacious to accommodate an entire class at one time. Shelving and cases should be provided in other rooms wherever a library is impossible. Lunch Rooms. — In most schools the lunch room may consist of a cheerful room, furnished with tables and chairs for pupils who bring their noon meal. A drinking fountain and gas plate or a small stove on which coffee or tea may be re-heated complete the equipment. Where cook- ing school classes are maintained some of the products may advantageously be served in the form of lunches. In large high schools it isjrequently desirable that the lunch room be a well equipped restaur- 121 < • — ii— i o H O o w u m C x 128 School Architecture ant with ice boxes, pantries, hooded ranges, sinks, a serving counter, tables and chairs. Such rooms are best located on the top floor of the building or in an isolated corner of the basement from which the cookery smells will not spread. Lunch rooms should have floors and walls which are light in color, non-absorbent and easily washed. Manual Training-. — The installations of manual training departments in elementary and high schools have been so varied and so irregu- lar that a common understanding of the subject is only beginning to take form. Generally manual training departments are provided for in especially prepared rooms on the ground floor. The only requirements are good light, the or- dinary warming and ventilation, sound proofing of walls and equipment. A high basement will correspond to a ground floor and is likewise desirable. Upper floors are undesirable on ac- count of the noise, frequency of use and the de- mand for working materials. Provision for manual training will depend en- tirely upon the needs of each school system. In small elementary schools these will be simple as against a technical or manual training high school. Ordinarily, elementary schools ought to be provided with one manual training room in the basement or ground floor. This will suffice, if properly equipped for limited study of joining. 123 124 School Architecture turning and general woodworking, In large schools or schools especially devoted to the sub- ject, a forge room, iron lathe room, moulding room, wood turning room, benchwork room, tool room, lumber room, teachers' room and an unassigned room may be provided. In general, manual training departments must be equipped with good furniture, including suffi- cient benches, a teacher's desk and chair, demon- stration table and rack and stools for pupils. The teacher ought to be supplied with a closet sufficiently large to warrant the storage of com- pleted work. A good bookcase, wardrobes for the average number of pupils who will use the room in one session, a stock room with good shelving, and work racks to equal the number of benches will complete the equipment. The room itself may resemble a classroom in that ceilings should be tinted, floors may be made of wood, etc. The work shop idea may be readily conveyed by glazed brick run to the height of blackboards and replacing the ordinary wains- coting. In large manual training or technical high schools lecture rooms like the natural science lecture rooms may be added. Museum. — Several of the largest high schools of the country have lately provided for museums. Suitable cases in a properly arranged room must be supplied. The specimens are usually gathered 125 126 School Architecture by teacher and pupil and sometimes only tem- porarily saved. Playrooms. — It is necessary that every school be provided with well lighted and amply ventilated playrooms, to be used during incle- ment weather. Basements with windows on two sides are most practical. Asphalt floors, cement or burlap wainscoted walls of a light shade and round corners wherever possible are desirable. Seats should be provided along walls. Heat may be supplied from coils suspended below the ceil- ing, though the temperature ought never exceed 60 degrees Fahrenheit. Principal's Room. — The principal, the visit- ing public and the pupils must all be considered in the placing of this room. Practice has it to place the principal's room in a three-story build- ing on the second floor, immediately adjoining a staircase. In a two-story building, the first is desirable. The principal's room should be large and roomy, complete in equipment, contain a lavatory, emergency case, a speaking tube or tele- phone to the janitor's room, and always, if possi- ble, overlook the entrance. If a building is de- signed for both high and graded school purposes, the principal's room should be nearest the high school department. Recitation Rooms. — While the uses of a recitation room confined to that work are almost identical with the uses of a classroom, a possible 127 J Wife! 128 School Architecture change or variation in their size is very often desirable. In high schools where recitation classes vary to any extent, several sizes may be provided with ease and profit. Blackboard, seats, a teacher's desk and table are the chief requisites. Science Teachers' Room. — Every head science teacher in every large high school ought to have under his charge an apparatus room for storing physical laboratory equipment, a store room for bulk chemicals, etc., a balance room for the safekeeping of delicate scales and a teachers' room for the preparation of lectures and private experimentation. The rooms follow all the rules for laboratories requiring principal- ly dust-proof cases, shelves and drawers of many varieties. The rooms ought to assure privacy and ought to be provided with several desks and tables. Storage Rooms. — Attics and basements should never be promiscuously lumbered with stray pieces of storage. A room with no equip- ment, save a little shelving, may be set aside in the basement for this purpose. One corner of the room may be confined strictly to brooms and cleaning materials. Teacher's Room. — Where more than six teachers are employed in one school building, a teacher's room should be provided. This should not be a reading room, but merely a rest and 129 130 School Architecture personal retirement apartment. It should be equipped with a lavatory, wardrobe, tables and chairs. The second floor usually contains the teacher's room. Waiting" Room. — Every principal's office should have adjoining it a proper waiting or reception room apart from the private office. This will serve not only as a waiting room, but if properly arranged, may serve as a teachers' meeting room, may be used as the clerk's office in larger high schools and may, in smaller communi- ties, be used as a board of education room. It will give absolute privacy to the principal in his con- ferences. It may contain the teachers' pro- fessional library and reference books. Toilet Rooms. — The greatest care and at- tention must be given to the proper installation of sanitary toilet systems. The perfection of a building depends upon the successful operation of this important adjunct to every school. Money ought never be spared to assure their ventilation, light and absolute sanitation. There are three possible places for the loca- tion of toilet rooms. The one is on the outside of the building, the other in the basement, and the third on each floor. When placed on the outside, toilets must be properly heated, venti- lated, drained and connected by a covered pass- age way with the main building. The heating is difficult because of the steam pressure needed, 131 133 School Architecture the added exposure and the passage way. The plumbing ventilation is difficult because it must be led to a point above the roof of the build- ings to avoid the possibility of odors. This en- tails an added expenditure, which, like the extra draining, is expensive. The plan theoretically sounds well, but is practically not as good as either of the other two systems. There is no good reason why the basement system in small schools and the so-called stack system in large schools are not best. If properly heated and ventilated, and operated in connec- tion with a good water system, both will prove successful. Care must be taken to ventilate both systems apart from the regular ventilation system of the school because of the danger of back draughts, etc. Again the stack system must be arranged in towers apart from the rest of the building, must be accessible and well ventilated. Care should be taken that all toilet rooms are well lighted. It is needless to say that the best possible material ought be used in the fixtures for toilet rooms. At all times individual siphon or ped- estal closets are best. Urinals may be either porcelain or slate, with hammered glass or slate uprights. Above all, toilet room fixtures must be strong, rapid acting and provided with large waste and soil pipes. Urinals ought to be auto- matically flushed either during recesses or entire 133 u 4 - o An, < 4 o o W u en K o 134 School Architecture school days. Closets which operate when the weight of the body is removed from the seat are good. Two feet three inches, and not more than three feet, is the proper width for closet stalls. Urinals may obtain a width of one and three- quarter feet and a depth of one and one-half feet. Great care must be taken in laying the floor in toilet rooms. Wood, cement and all absorb- ent and corrosive materials must be avoided. About the various closets slate should be used as much as possible. Cement ought not be used because the uric acid coming in contact with it begins a chemical action that never can be corrected. The most practical substance to use for toilet room floors is rock asphalt. This can be thoroughly flushed and cleaned with water like no other substance. Care must be taken to equip toilet rooms with proper catch basin and a drain thereto. While some variation may be allowed, a good rule provides one closet bowl for every fifteen girls, and one urinal and closet to every twenty-five boys. In kindergarten and primary schools this number may be slightly increased. Toilet rooms should be equipped with an ample number of wash basins or, if possible, a separate wash room lead- ing to the corridor. While the ventilation of plumbing is properly a problem for the sanitary engineer and the plumber, great care must be taken to secure its 135 I— I 1-1 136 School Architecture successful operation. The foul air from toilets and urinals must at all times be carried off by a separate system of exhaust ducts and never be allowed to impregnate any portion of the school buildings or be connected with the regular venti- lating system. Careful inspection must be made by water or smoke test of the absolute air-tight condition of every joint and connection and then only accepted by an authority competent to judge. This is mentioned because sanitary in- spection is not always required by law and in- ferior workmanship may cause grave damage. Ten square inches of duct area for each closet and eight square inches for each lineal foot of urinal space is accepted as a standard for the ventilation of toilet plumbing. 137 138 V HEATING AND VENTILATING The Problem. — It is an established fact that every school building to properly perform the function for which it is erected, must be equipped with a good system of heating and ventilation. Tests of the temperature effects on pupils, the vitiation of air in confined use, and the great changes and variations in climatic conditions, have made the installation of both systems an absolute necessity. Heating and ventilation are the very heart and vitals of a building, upon which depends the success or failure of its en- tire construction. Briefly, the problem of heating and ventilat- ing is this: The air of a schoolroom must be mild and agreeable and equally warmed in all kinds of weather and in every corner of the room. It must be pure and properly moistened. Fresh air must enter a room and foul air be re- moved in such quantities that no portion of it will be breathed into the lungs of the pupils twice. On account of the great danger to health this is not to be effected by the opening and 139 140 Heating and Ventilation closing of windows, but by some automatic means which guarantees even better air than open windows can supply. The temperature must be controlled by some self-working tem- perature regulating device which will readily maintain a certain, uniform degree of heat. Air must be brought into a room without noise, draught or annoyance of any kind, and must be removed in a similar manner. It is almost needless to say, that the temper- ing and supply of air is not a problem which may be left to the inexperienced or uninformed. While most architects know in a general way the rules for the heating and ventilation of school buildings, only a few are able to give expert judgment on its planning and installation. It is thus, absolutely necessary, especially where the problem is at all large, to employ expert as- sistance, not only to ensure an economical in- stallation, but also to obtain a system that can be used at a minimum of cost during the lifetime of the building. Again, it is necessary to treat the problem of heating and ventilation conjointly. While the heating of school buildings, preceded by many years their ventilation, the time has come when, except in the case of the poor building, one is always discussed with or relatively to the other. This is especially due, of course, to the fact that 141 142 Heating and Ventilation ventilating systems are now operated in con- junction with the heating system. The relation is evident when it is remembered that the one problem deals with the securing of fresh air, the other with its warming and tempering. Temperature. — The first and most important question to be determined in the heating of class- rooms is, of course, temperature. It is needless to say that overheating means merely fuel waste and discomfort, while chilliness means possible sickness. The temperature to be maintained for class- rooms varies in different portions of the country. Near the sea coast or in a humid climate 68 de- grees Fahrenheit is a good temperature for school children. The rules of the English Board of Education (Act 1902) requires that "an even temperature of from 54 degrees to 60 degrees should be maintained." With proper humidity and ventilation schools in the United States can on an average be kept uniformly at 70 degrees. Temperature Regulation. — Every school- house equipped with a heating system either of steam, hot water or hot air should be supplied with automatic temperature regulation. School authorities who have given the subject no at- tention, frequently confound temperature regu- lation with ventilation. The latter deals with the supply of fresh air, while the former controls the temperature and prevents the rooms in a school 143 144 Heating and Ventilation from becoming too hot or too cold. The ad- vantages derived in temperature control or regu- lation are two fold. First, by holding the temperature in a school- house at, say 70 degrees, all waste of fuel is pre- vented and consequently a considerable saving in money is effected. Thousands of dollars have been wasted in a single schoolhouse by over- heating it and securing a cooler temperature by opening the windows. Every particle of excess heat which goes out of the window is an actual waste of the public funds. If the outdoor tem- perature is 30 degrees it will require 40 degrees of heat to bring the schoolroom temperature up to 70 degrees. If, however, the outdoor tem- perature is 50 degrees only 20 degrees of heat are required to ensure the comfort of the school- room. A reliable system of temperature control will furnish the exact amount of heat required and avoid all excess consumption of fuel and consequently all extravagance in this direction. Second, by keeping the classrooms at an even temperature the health and comfort of teachers and pupils are promoted. A classroom that is too cold causes physical discomforts which may result in ill health. A classroom that is too hot is even worse. The average teacher will resort to an open window for relief. The draughts from these open windows are certain to bring on 145 i / ] "ml 1 1 IMjMMHP ■ \ i * m •> ~~i —- - ' - . ■ . :. ■ 11 * IhsssI 1 •*•- . ,,1 | H 1 fc£&n» 1,1 I 1 -s> ■ I I -J !_; m < o < o o M u < i— i < CT. 146 Heating and Ventilation coughs and colds which only too frequently end in throat or pulmonary troubles. The cause of education is as much promoted by hygienic sur- roundings and physical comfort of pupils as by teachers and textbooks. Hence automatic tem- perature regulation is regarded by the highest authorities as a necessity. A schoolhouse with- out it cannot be considered strictly modern. The Johnson System is the standard and may be found in ninety per cent, of the school and college buildings now equipped with any sys- tem of temperature control. Methods of Heating. — The methods of heat- ing school buildings may be divided under two headings: individual, in which the heat is radiant; and central, in which the air is heated by convection. Generally speaking, the first method, in which a stove is to be employed, is impractical in all but the one room school. The ventilation, such as it is, is limited and by no means equal to the poorest gravity system. A central heating system may consist of a furnace, steam, or hot water boilers, which in turn may be either direct or indirect. The open grate or English fire place, while offering possibly the best ventilation for small schools is very rarely used in this country, and therefore, need not be considered. It is an extremely poor heater, is dangerous, and does not compare in service with the jacketed stove. 147 75 'c~ a K •n •o (J en CO P c< I— I < rt PS g, p I < o . en ►J.S 2^ u CO W w pq m 3 148 Heating and Ventilation Stove Heating. — In the small country schools heating by stoves is most practical. Where a stove is employed it is best surrounded by a sheet iron jacket extending from the floor to about six inches above the stove top. A fresh air inlet is provided in the floor under the stove, and connected by means of a metal duct with the outside. The chimney is arranged to contain a vent flue with a register near the floor line to carry off the cold and vitiated air. Valves are placed in fresh air and vent ducts to be closed at night. The system is troublesome, dirty, dis- turbing, though very economical. 90 per cent, of the heat generated is used. Furnace. — There are two ways of employing furnace heating, namely, through the gravity and the fan system. In very small buildings only, or where certain conditions do not permit, is it ad- visable to use the gravity system. The fan sys- tem is always preferable, but where a lack of funds does not permit, or where ready power for operating fans is not obtainable, the gravity sys- tem must necessarily be resorted to. Such grav- ity system must depend for its successful opera- tion upon the planning of the ducts and the di- rection of the winds. With the gravity system there are times when strong winds from certain directions may prevent certain rooms from being heated. With the fan system the air may be 149 150 Heating and Ventilation forced into all rooms even against outside wind pressures. The furnace fan system, employed in the large r buildings, usually proves successful. The effi- ciency here, like in all heating plants, however, rests mainly upon the proper planning and in- stallation of the system by a reliable contractor and one who is familiar with this class of school work. It is very essential in this class of heating systems that all joints in the furnaces shall be made air tight and thus dust and gas proof. Steam Heating. — The popularity of steam for the heating of school buildings is due to a variety of causes. Primarily, it is cheap to install and eminently serviceable. On account of the intensity of steam heat much piping or radiating surface is not necessary. Single piping through- out is only necessary, with one series of returns in the basement. Unused portions of the sys- tem can be shut off without danger of frost and at a saving of heat. In extremely cold weather steam rarely fails to respond when other sys- tems cannot be made to work. Steam heat de- livers from seventy to eighty per cent, of the heat of the fuel to the radiating surface. Despite these advantages, however, the argu- ment of ''burnt air" during intense cold has been used against the system of steam heating. Steam enters the piping at a high temperature and con- veying this heat to the surface seems to burn the 151 u £ C3 Hi- f-v I/) HH 1) CO U 152 Heating and Ventilation particles of dust which come into contact with this piping. In a low-pressure system with indirect radiation this difficulty is not met with and steam will prove most satisfactory. German authorities prefer a low-pressure, indirect steam system. Vacuum steam heating systems produce in an absolute vacuum of 29.92 inches water a vapor at 98 degrees; in a 20-inch vacuum at 161.2 de- grees. They have been used with success in small school buildings. Hot Water Heating. — The advantages argued in favor of hot water heating are especial- ly economy of fuel and satisfaction in the de- grees of heating. Tests have absolutely proven that while the first cost of installation consider- ably exceeds that of the cost of direct steam heat- ing the amount of fuel saved by hot water system warrants the increased expenditure. Hot water is easily operated, and when employed in an in- direct low-pressure system is excellent. Care, however, should be taken that in the indirect hot water system a cold air shut-off damper be placed in cold air duct to each indirect stack. The heat units utilized out of the fuel are 65 to 75 per cent. Direct and Indirect Heating. — With the more recent perfection of ventilating systems, sim- ple direct heating or the placing of steam or hot water radiators in classrooms has become unpop- ular. The great objection is found that with di- 153 u CJ-- I— I -C ^< « s U H ^£ 4 o o u xn K o I— I > 154 Heating and Ventilation rect radiation only in schoolrooms, children re- breathe the same air time and again, until it be- comes so vitiated as to be absolutely stifling. Di- rect heating is permissible in corridors, gymna- siums, ward-robes and basements, but care should always be taken as to the proper placing of radi- ators, etc. Indirect heating done through the gravity sys- tem, is liable to be more or less successful. Directions of winds and other weather condi- tions having a large bearing on the success of system. The plenum system of ventilation, how- ever, with fan, has proven exceptionally successful. Though more expensive, it lends itself to the ready heating of the fresh air and its rapid intro- duction into classrooms by forcing air through encased heat coils in warming chambers and the consequent transmission of warmed air into rooms. The direct with mechanical ventilation system of heating schools has become very popular in recent years. With this arrangement radiators or wall coils are placed in front of windows and on exposed sides of schoolrooms, to which the steam generated at boilers is furnished. In cold weather the greater part of the heating of the rooms is then done through this direct radiation. With the mechanical ventilation is connected a fan which blows air through a series of coils located in a plenum chamber. This plenum chamber has 155 156 Heating and Ventilation ducts connected to it, one going to each room and through these ducts a constant supply of proper tempered air is sent to the rooms. As will be seen, the pupils are therefore getting a constant supply of fresh warm air to breathe, and in which this arrangement considerably differs from and improves over the simple direct system of heating. There is a considerable benefit in economy also to be considered in the arrangement of this heating system, viz. : that in the milder weather the direct apparatus, if automatically controlled, is kept shut off the greater part of the time and the heating as well as the ventilation is then done through the fan heating system. If not automatically controlled, these conditions would altogether de- pend upon the ability or the willingness of the teachers to give their attention to the heating plant. Air. — The strongest argument that can pos- sibly be advanced for the proper ventilation of school buildings is found in the remarkable change which fresh air undergoes in respiration. Air is approximately composed of four parts of nitrogen to one part of oxygen, carbonic acid gas from two to five parts in 10,000 volumes, some water vapor and a very little ammonia. Vitiated or expired air contains only about 95 per cent, of the required oxygen, an excess of .15 parts of nitrogen, an increase in the total 157 "' . **/ m c -» \ i iu.* ...... | . < i— i r^ a-g W • H . O I £~ <^ >•* , O c w w • M h-i ^H !> 158 Heating and Ventilation mixture of almost five per cent, of carbonic acid .gas, besides the heat and moisture created by ex- halation. It is thus evident that the greatest danger of poorly ventilated rooms is the lack of oxygen and the excess of carbonic acid gas. Oxygen which is found in such great quantities in the air is replaced by a gas, which, though not directly poisonous, is not necessary to life to the same degree as oxygen. Carbonic acid gas contami- nates the air by mixing perfectly with it thus reducing the volume of oxygen which can and must be breathed in given quantities. Further- more, when it is remembered that mixing per- fectly with the air carbonic acid gas begins to be detected by the sense of smell when seven parts in 10,000 have been reached the absolute neces- sity of good ventilation is apparent. In any consideration of air and its effects up- on the inhabitants of schoolhouses the work of pupils and teachers must always be considered. It is an established fact that work in vitiated air is almost impossible. The senses seem to be numbed; fatigue and lassitude are experienced to a very marked degree with the consequent effect upon the blood and vital organs of the oc- cupant. Tests of pupils under all conditions have established the absolute necessity of ven- tilation and temperature regulation. Tests have 159 160 Heating and Ventilation been made and records of same can be obtained from publisher of this volume. Requirements for Ventilation. — In plan- ning any school building it must not be forgot- ten that 250 cubic feet of air space must be pro- vided for every pupil, in every classroom. Into this space 30 cubic feet of fresh air per pupil must be supplied once each minute, or a complete change of air must be made once every eight to ten minutes. The actual amount of fresh air re- quired for every pupil is variously computed by authorities from 1,800 to 2,500 cubic feet per hour. Less than 1,800 cubic feet of air per hour for each occupant of a room would undoubtedly prove unhealthful. More than 2,200 cubic feet may be considered excessive, if not wasteful. The total number of air changes for each classroom can readily be computed by obtaining the cubic contents of the room. Thirty cubic feet per minute, per pupil, multiplied by the number of pupils to occupy a room will give the amount of air required for a room each minute. By dividing the cubic contents of a room by the air required for that room once a minute the num- ber of changes can be computed for every hour. Methods of Ventilation. — There are two general methods of ventilating school buildings of ordinary size. The one method is the gravity system, commonly called natural ventilation. 161 162 Heating and Ventilation The other is the system of mechanical ventilation operated either on the plenum or vacuum prin- ciple. Window ventilation and stove ventilation are not considered here. Window ventilation should never be resorted to where other methods are possible. It may never be considered a system as such because of the danger of draughts and the necessity of open doors. Stove ventila- tion is merely an apology for making stoves usable in the economical conduct of the small school. They have been described under stove heating because the jacket, the inlet and outlet flue and the dampers ought to be made a part of the stove itself. Natural Ventilation. — -Natural ventilation is always effected on the principle of gravity, wherefor the system is commonly called the gravity system. In this system the ventilation is caused by the lightness of the heated air which naturally rises and then is properly carried from the room by ducts and flues. Heat may be secured either direct or indirect through inlet flues connected with the furnace or from an air chamber equipped with coil piping. The outlet flue, placed in the lower part of the room, is frequently equipped with a separate system of heated piping to create a suction and thus, assist in drawing the vitiated air out above the roof. 163 164 Heating and Ventilation Many drawbacks accompany a system of natural or gravity ventilation. Primarily it is unreliable. It works well during cold weather when there is a radical variation between the in- door and outdoor temperature. When the weather is mild proper suction cannot be created and the system loses force and working effi- ciency. High winds effect the system, while much coal is needed to assure thirty cubic feet of fresh air per minute per pupil. The system is inferior to the pressure or mechanical system. Mechanical Ventilation. — Mechanical ven- tilation means the forcing of air into the room by means of fans or blowers. Fans or blowers of a certain size, operating at a certain number of revolutions will propel an amount of air into a room which can be mathematically computed. The great advantage is that irrespective of wind, weather or temperature, the air can be supplied regularly, evenly, and at the proper degree of warmth. Two systems of mechanical ventilation were originally devised. The one was known as a vacuum or exhaust system by which a fan placed in the attic drew vitiated air from the various rooms and corridors of the entire building. The other is known as the plenum or pressure sys- tem, by which the fresh air is driven through ducts and flues wherever ventilation is required. 165 166 Heating and Ventilation Both systems have been tried until today the plenum system meets with general favor. The vacuum system of ventilation was built on the idea of suction. Vitiated air was to be drawn out while fresh air was supplied from in- lets, etc. It soon became noticeable, however, that the fan would not confine its efforts to foul air, but allowed an open or defective window or door to become its entire source of supply. In like manner odors from toilet rooms would be started up through a building with serious effects. The system has therefore almost entirely given way to the plenum or pressure system. The plenum or fan blast system has in recent years gained great popularity. Heating in this arrangement is done by banking a large amount of radiation in a basement room close to a fan or blower. Fresh air is taken from out of doors 'through this radiation (called tempering coils) by the fan, and is forced into a plenum chamber from which various ducts lead up into the different rooms. Between the fan and the plenum chamber a second set of coils (called re-heater coils), and a by-pass are placed. A mixing damper is in- serted, so that the air can be sent into any room at a desired degree of temperature. In this sys- tem of heating, the ducts are generally placed on inside walls, having the opening toward the out- 167 Q •~ u £^ M en OS OfQ c/} a w 168 Heating and Ventilation side walls or windows. In connection with the heating ducts must be placed a ventilating duct which carries off the heated and vitiated air. As already explained in other arrangements of heat- ing systems care must be given in order to get the heating and ventilating ducts the proper sizes ac- cording to the dimensions of the rooms and the number of scholars in such rooms. With this system of heating, doors leading to corridors should always be kept closed, and win- dows should be well fitted. In fact, to make the most successful working plant of this arrange- ment, the more air-tight a room can be made aside from the outlet or heat duct, and the inlet or vent duct, the better. The plenum system supplies air more uniform- ly, more economically, more efficiently, with less velocity and greater convenience than any other system. Temperature can readily be maintained and regulated, while warm air can be introduced without annoyance or inconvenience to teacher or pupil. The inlets and outlets must be care- fully placed and air however propelled must be pure and tempered. Fans may be run by a low pressure of steam from the boilers, and the ex- hausts from the general engine run into the pipes. Thus, the cost of running the fan be- comes almost a negative item. Or the system 169 m - 1) wo r> 170 Heating and Ventilation may be arranged that the building can be warmed in mild weather by the exhaust steam from the engine that propels the fan on a steam pressure of from five to fifteen pounds, thus likewise effecting a material reduction in the consumption of coal. Fans may also be run by electricity, water motors or gas engines. A combination of the plenum and vacuum systems has been at- tempted recently and operated with great success. An excellent idea has been worked out in a Western city by the schoolhouse architect, who has separated the ventilating system for the auditorium from the regular ventilating system. This was based on the fact that the auditorium is used only a short time each day and that a separate motor supplying independent ventilation will save its own cost in but a short time. The plan has been worked successfully and economically, and contains the elements of prac- ticability. Inlets and Outlets.— The best system of ventilation can be absolutely destroyed by the incorrect sizes of inlets and outlets or their care- less location anywhere in a wall. Inlets and out- lets regulate the volume of air supplied per minute, the velocity at which the system can possibly be made to supply thirty cubic feet per minute per pupil, in fact the ventilating effi- ciency of the entire system. A proper apprecia- 171 173 Heating and Ventilation tion and understanding of the subject means a solution of the entire ventilating problem. After much discussion and experimenting the consensus of opinion is making toward an inlet register placed above the breathing line at about eight or nine feet above the floor and an outlet in the same wall a few inches above the floor. In this manner it is known draughts are avoided, air is sent into the room a maximum distance and returned after its use to the outlet. While in the old systems the outlet ducts were always placed near the ceiling because of the action of heated foul air, the indirect plenum system sup- plies air on the prinicple that foul air which is heavy, drops to the floor and ought to be drawn away before it is allowed to rise to the ceiling. Tests with smoke have absolutely proven that of all methods the inlets above and outlets be- low in the same wall are best. Inlets ought to be large in proportion to the amount of heated or fresh warm air to be sup- plied. They ought at least guarantee a constant supply of air without draughts or annoyance. For this reason air ought never be allowed to enter a classroom at a greater velocity than six feet per second. Were it not for the cost air might best be forced into the room at several points and vitiated air removed at several other points in different walls. 173 <° P i-fo8 8 s W 174 Healing and Ventilation The minimum size for inlets and outlets in standard classrooms can safely be placed at four square feet, or one square foot for every ten oc- cupants. When it is remembered that the smaller the inlet the stronger the draught and vice versa, an inlet of six square feet is not too large. The London Board of Education provides that inlets should assure a minimum area of 2 l / 2 square in- ches per head. An English authority discussing the subject allows that this appears to be hardly sufficient unless some means of mechanical pro- pulsion is used. He goes on to say, that "it is usually calculated that a square inch of unob- structed space will allow 125 cubic feet of air to pass through per hour, so that for every thou- sand feet of air required four square inches of clear opening must be provided." If anything, outlets must be larger than inlets. In the construction of flues great care must be taken to avoid dead ends, cold exposure and bold curves. Each will tend to disturb the working efficiency of the system. Curves will reduce the carrying power of the air by almost one-quarter, unless properly sloped. It is sug- gested by the Massachusetts building inspector that an outlet flue should be equipped with a steam pipe about one foot above the opening of the flue. The proper dimensions of all flues may be determined by dividing the volume of air to be 175 176 Heating and Ventilation handled by permissable rate of flow. Their shape is best rectangular, since the loss of air due to friction by passing through pipes varies as the square of its velocity. This does not mean they should not be made large, but is a precaution against waste in fan or gravity power. Vertical flues are usually designed for an air velocity of six to eight hundred feet per minute, with a greater velocity in the horizontal supply flues. A flue 2 l / 2 feet square, 12 feet long with 30 per cent, difference in temperature, will discharge 250 cubic feet of air per minute. Fresh Air Supply. — Great care must be taken to secure for every school building the best possible air. For this reason air must al- ways come directly from the outside through a supply which ought never begin at the ground. The fresh air supply pipe ought to be run up the side of the building about twelve feet. While in three story buildings this may be more; it must not be forgotten that smoke from adjoining buildings may contaminate the air if the supply pipe reaches too great a heighth. The pipe is best placed on the south side of a building both on account of the warmth of the exposure, as also the disinfecting qualities of the sunlight. It should be covered with a wire netting, loose wove, and should be proportioned to the work required. 177 178 Heating and Ventilation In almost every system the fresh air intro- duced into a building must be cleaned and tem- pered before transmission to classrooms. Either of the systems of air washing can be used effec- tively and will determine to an extent the suc- cess or failure of fresh air supply. Where tem- pering rooms and a plenum system are installed the problem of air cleaning and tempering is reduced to merely the correct size and location of the cleaners and the tempering room. These latter, whether rooms or chambers, should be air tight, and sufficiently large to raise the air to the temperature required. They should be white- washed several times a year, cleaned continually, and be kept perfectly empty at all times. Air-Washer. — There are a number of school buildings throughout the United States that have installed so-called air-washers. They are de- signed to cleanse the air from dust and soot be- fore passing into the schoolrooms. The device consists of a series of baffle plates so arranged, in the inlet duct in the basement, as to arrest every dust particle and then pass the air through several sprays of water, thus thoroughly washing it before passing into the classroom. Another method consists of the use of a horizontal crate filled with moistened coke or excelsior through which the air passes before, going into the upper ducts. A third and simpler method comprises a 179 180 Heating and Ventilation series of sprays emanating from perforated water pipes. These pipes are so arranged that the sprays practically form a thin sheet of water, thoroughly washing the air as it passes through. Other very cheap and simple air filters may be made of screens covered with hempen cords, jute cloth or cheese cloth. Each of the three materials has been used successfully. To make the screen rigid they may be covered with coarse filter netting. Screen niters must be made mov- able and cleanable and should be covered with a good quality of material whichever is used. Care must be taken not to make the passage of air through screens too difficult since the size of flues must be increased when air-washers are be- ing planned. There is no doubt but what air thus washed or screened becomes pure and fresh. When the water method is used it may become a combination air-washer and humidi- fier. The water air-washer may be used as a temperature cooler in the early fall and late spring of the school year. Humidity. — If, as has been proven, the aver- age percentage of moisture in outdoor atmos- phere is 70 per cent, it would seem only reason- able that a reduction to 20 or 30 per cent, in classrooms would not be wise. The average at- mosphere in schoolrooms and private dwellings contains, especially during the winter months, 181 182 Heating and Ventilation 10 to 20 per cent, of air moisture. This is ex- plained in the fact that without the injection of moisture the humidity of the air is reduced by one-half for a given volume with every 19 de- grees Fahrenheit increase of heat. One hundred per cent, is taken as the maximum of saturation after which condensation begins. Without discussing the effects of dry atmos- phere attention may be drawn to the causes of throat and nasal trouble, the improper self-care of mouth, throat and nose in dry atmosphere and the ultimate mumifying effects upon the text- ure of the skin. Another remarkable effect of dry air is that while it may require a temperature of 70 degrees to ensure physical comfort, the same may be obtained with a relative humidity of 50 per cent, at 65 degrees Fahrenheit. In other words, if the moisture which properly be- longs in air is adequate 5 degrees less heat is necessary to properly temper a room. It has been estimated, roughly, that this will make a fuel saving from 12^ to 15 per cent. Fifty per cent, is about the proper humidity to be maintained in classrooms. It may vary from 40 to 60 per cent, under conditions, though both points ought to be taken as extreme limits to be avoided. Besides the systems of air-wash- ing, which may serve to an extent as humidi- fiers, moisture may be injected into air from 183 184 Heating and Ventilation radiator pans, wet cloths or sponges hung in sup- ply ducts or water vessels placed in furnaces. The best system seems to be that connected with an indirect heating plant by which a small jet of steam is allowed to escape into a funnel shaped tube near the opening of the cold air duct The tube is equipped with a valve which expands as the steam escapes, thus regulating the amount of moisture 'supplied. The system has proven must successful and has been used with good re- sults. Boiler Rooms. — Unquestionably the boiler room in a small school building belongs in the basement of that building. The comparative safety with which this can be installed, as also the excessive expense incurred by any other location, establishes the rule for the basement boiler room in small schools. In later years, however, outside boiler rooms have been constructed in connection with large buildings and are now being operated with great success. Of course, the plan is expensive in its first equipment. Its operation is the same as the basement boiler room with the advantages of isolation, and a reduction of the danger of fire, explosions, etc. Again heating and ventilating systems can be constructed on more liberal lines without the danger of encroaching upon the basement and its other uses. 185 186 Heating and Ventilation In general, the boiler room follows the rule laid down for basements. It should be at least twelve feet high and if possible shut off from the rest of the basement by a heavy fire-proof wall. The only means of communication with the rest of the building ought to be by a fire-proof door, fitted with spring butts and door checks. Though brick pavement or stone flagging laid in con- crete has been commonly used for floors in boiler rooms, asphalt, laid at least one-half inch thick or good concrete will serve as excellent flooring. Ceilings should be fire-proof cement on metal lathing. The best type of boiler ought always be selected for new school buildings. They should be properly inspected by qualified engineers and only accepted after satisfactory test. Boilers should be made accessible on all sides with prac- tical communication with coal room and out- side. Flues should have not less than four in- ches of brickwork and be lined from bottom to top with terra cotta or cast iron flue linings. Eight inches at all joints should be the thick- ness for the enclosing brickwork of all boiler and furnace flues, while wood should never be used except within a safe distance of their ex- terior. In like manner all piping should be kept free to obviate all danger of fire. Chimneys. — The height of a chimney and the size of the flue should receive the maximum 187 188 Heating and Ventilation allowance in accordance with the size of the heating apparatus. The heating engineer can determine this readily. Care should be taken to make chimneys as inconspicuous as possible without affecting the efficiency of the heating system. Heat Economy. — Where buildings are me- chanically ventilated the exit duct or ducts should be provided with a damper or dampers which should be closed when the ventilation is not required, for instance, before and after school hours. The heat can thus be confined to the building after the fires have been banked. If compressed air is used in building, a pipe line sys- tem having a switchboard in engine room can be led to such attic dampers and they can thus be automatically opened or closed. If no compressed air system is used in the building these dampers can be operated by a series of chains or ropes operated from some central or convenient place. With the mechanical plenum system of ven- tilation a plan has been devised for rapidly heat- ing a building before the opening of school. In these systems a by-pass is arranged at the fresh air inlet whereby air is drawn from corridors and rooms and returned perfectly warm to the various portions of the building. As soon as the proper temperature has been reached the fresh air supply is thrown in and fresh air is 189 X90 Heating and Ventilation supplied. Undoubtedly a building can thus be warmed in a short time at very little expense. Radiators. — Radiators ought always take precedence over steam coils, except in base- ments. They are pleasing to the eye, allow ample radiation surface, and can be placed wherever desired. In general they should be simple in design, contain no dust catching nooks or cor- ners, and be fitted with automatic air valves. Foot Warmers. — Foot warmers are desir- able in elementary schools, installed in lower corridors. They may consist of simple steam pipes encased in tin or galvanized iron boxes. Air supply may be taken from the risers in the vestibule stairs. It is well to have a water drip and a drip pipe connected with the casing to prevent drainage through leakage that may oc- cur and to carry off water from the wet shoes of children. Foot warmers should have means for closing when not in use, and a cleanout. 191 193 APPENDIX "A" Laws for Schoolhouse Construction The general building and inspection laws have heretofore governed the erection of school- houses. These have referred principally to fire safety and require usually the swinging of exit doors outward. During the past few years, however, school authorities have prevailed on legislatures to enact laws more closely govern- ing the construction of school buildings. Fol- lowing are a few of the best laws now on the statute books of the several states: The New York Law 1. No schoolhouse shall hereafter be erected in any city of the third class or in any incor- porated village or school district, and no addi- tion to a school building in any such place shall hereafter be erected, the cost of which shall ex- ceed five hundred dollars, until the plans and specifications for the same shall have been sub- mitted to the commissioner of education and his approval indorsed thereon. Such plans and specifications shall show in detail the ventilation, heating and lighting of such buildings. 193 194 Schoolhouse Laws 2. Such commissioner of education shall not approve any plans for the erection of any school building or addition thereto unless the same shall provide at least fifteen square feet of floor space and two hundred cubic feet of air space for each pupil to be accommodated in each study or recitation room therein, and no such plans shall be approved by him unless provision is made therein, for assuring at least thirty cubic feet of pure air every minute per pupil, and the facili- ties for exhausting the foul or vitiated air there- in shall be positive and independent of atmos- pheric changes. 3. No tax voted by a district meeting or other competent authority in any such city, vill- age or school district exceeding the sum of five hundred dollars, shall be levied by the trustees until the commissioner of education shall certify that the plans and specifications for the same comply with the provisions of this section. 4. All schoolhouses for which plans and de- tailed statements shall be filed and approved, as required by this section, shall have all halls, doors, stairways, seats, passageways and aisles and all lighting and heating appliances and ap- paratus arranged to facilitate egress in cases of fire or accident and to afford the requisite and proper accommodations for public protection in 195 < 4 o o K u O 196 Schoolhouse Laws such cases. All exit doors shall open outwardly, and shall, if double doors be used, be fastened with movable bolts operated simultaneously by one handle from the inner face of the door. No staircase shall be constructed with wider steps in lieu of a platform, but shall be constructed with straight runs, changes in direction being made by platforms. No door shall run im- mediately upon a flight of stairs, but a landing at least the width of the door shall be provided between such stairs and such doorway. — (Laws 1909, Chapter 21, Article 5, Paragraph 111.) The Pennsylvania Law That in order that due care may be exercised in the heating, lighting and ventilating of pub!ic school buildings hereafter erected, no school- house shall be erected by any board of education or school district in this State, the cost of which shall exceed four thousand dollars ($4,000.00), until the plans and specifications for the same shall show in detail the proper heating, lighting and ventilating of such building. Light shall be admitted from the left or from the left and rear of classrooms, and the total light area must, unless strengthened by the use of reflecting lenses, equal at least twenty-five per centum of floor space. Schoolhouses shall have in each classroom at least fifteen square feet of floor space, and not 197 198 Schoolhouse Laws less than two hundred cubic feet of air space per pupil, and shall provide for an approved system of indirect heating and ventilation, by means of which each classroom shall be supplied with fresh air at the rate of not less than thirty cubic feet per minute for each pupil, and warmed to maintain an average temperature of seventy de- grees Fahrenheit during the coldest weather. — (Act April 22, 1905, Sec. 1-3, P. L. p. 282.) The New Jersey Law In order that the health, sight and comfort of the pupils may be properly protected, all schoolhouses hereafter erected shall comply with the following conditions: I. Light shall be admitted from the left, or from the left and rear of classrooms, and the total light area must, unless strengthened by the use of reflecting lenses, equal at least twenty per centum of floor space. II. Schoolhouses shall have in each class- room at least eighteen square feet of floor space, and not less than two hundred cubic feet of air space per pupil. All school buildings shall have an approved system of ventilation by means of which each classroom shall be supplied with fresh air at the rate of not less than thirty cubic feet per minute for each pupil. III. All ceilings shall be at least twelve feet in height. 199 Mi 200 Schoolhouse Laws IV. All stairs, except cellar stairs, shall be not less than four feet in width and shall have intermediate landings. The several flights of stairs shall be enclosed by brick walls or by partitions of slow burning construction, and without open well holes. The risers of stairs shall not exceed seven and one-half inches in height, and the treads shall be at least ten in- ches in width, exclusive of the projecting nos- ings. V. Every schoolhouse having eight rooms shall have two flights of stairs of not less than four feet in width, or, in lieu thereof, one flight of stairs situated near the center of the building, not less than six feet in width. VI. Every school building having more than eight and less than sixteen rooms, shall have two flights of stairs not less than five feet in width. VII. Every schoolhouse having sixteen or more rooms shall have three flights of stairs not less than four feet in width, or, in lieu thereof, two complete flights of stairs not less than six feet in width. VIII. Every building more than one story in height shall have metal ceilings, wooden ceil- ings painted white, or some light tint, or plastered ceilings on metal lath. — (Laws 1903, Rev., Art. X, Sec. 131.) 201 202 Schoolhousc Laws The Utah Law Provided, that no schoolhouse shall hereafter be erected in any school district of this state not included in cities of the first and second class, and no addition to a school building in any such place shall hereafter be erected until the plans and specifications for the same shall have been submitted to a commission consisting of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, the Secretary of the State Board of Health, and an architect to be appointed by the Governor, and their approval endorsed thereon. Such plans and specifications shall show in detail the ven- tilation, heating and lighting of such buildings. The commission herein provided shall not ap- prove any plans for the erection of any school building or addition thereto unless the same shall provide at least fifteen square feet of floor space and two hundred cubic feet of air space for each pupil to be accommodated in each study or recitation room therein, and no such plans shall be approved by them unless provision is made therein for assuring at least thirty cubic feet of pure air every minute for each pupil and the facilities for exhausting the foul or vitiated air therein shall be positive and independent of atmospheric changes. No tax voted by a dis- trict meeting or other competent authority in any such school district shall be levied by the 303 204 Schoolhouse Laws trustees until the commission shall certify that the plans and specifications for the same comply with the provisions of this Act. All school- houses for which plans and detailed statements shall be filed and approved, as required by this Act, shall have all halls, doors, stairways, seats, passageways, and aisles, all lighting and heating appliances and apparatus arranged to facilitate egress in cases of fire or accident, and to afford the requisite and proper accommodations for public protection in such cases. The commission herein provided shall serve without compensation, but shall receive their actual and necessary expenses incurred in the performance of their official duties, except the architect, who shall receive as above provided and four dollars per day while attending meet- ings of the commission, the account for which shall be verified on oath and be paid from the State School Fund.— (Law 1907, Sec. 1823, Amended 1909.) The South Dakota law In order that due care may be exercised in the heating, lighting and ventilation of public school buildings hereafter erected, no school- house shall be erected by any board of education or school district board in this state until the plans and specifications for the same showing in detail the proper heating, lighting and ventila- 205 206 Schoolhousc Laws tion of such building shall have been approved by the superintendent of public instruction. Schoolhouses shall have in each classroom at least fifteen square feet of floor space, and not less than two hundred cubic feet of air space per pupil, and shall provide for an approved system of heating and ventilation by means of which each classroom shall be supplied with fresh air at the rate of not less than thirty cubic feet per minute for each pupil, and have a system of heating capable of maintaining an average tem- perature of seventy degrees Fahrenheit during the coldest weather. — (Laws 1907, Art. XV., Sec. 237.) The Kansas Law- Sec. 1. That the doors of all public or pri- vate schoolhouses shall open outwards, and all doors of schoolhouses shall remain unlocked while the school is in session. Sec. 2. That in every public or private schoolhouse of two or more stories, every story above the first shall be provided with either two or more exits from the upper floor separate and distinct from the exits of the lower floor, or shall be provided with sufficient and suitable fire escapes which shall be built of iron or steel. Sec. 3. That the tops of all furnaces in pub- lic or private schoolhouses shall be covered with asbestos covering, and the top of such furnace 207 u — X- ^u 1/2 o 208 Schoolhousc Lazvs shall not be nearer than eighteen inches to the nearest woodwork above. The ceiling above said furnace shall be covered with asbestos or masonry. Sec. 4. That no contract shall be let for the erection of any school building, nor shall any public funds be paid out for the erection of schoolhouses of two or more stories until the plans for such buildings shall have been sub- mitted to the state architect and approved as to all the requirements of this act. — (Laws 1909, Chapter 209.) The Virginia Law Construction of schoolhouses. No school- house shall be contracted for or erected until the site, location, plans and specifications there- for shall have been submitted to and approved in writing by the division superintendent of schools, whose action in each case shall be re- ported by him to the State Board of Education; and no public school shall be allowed in any building which is not in such condition and pro- vided with such conveniences as are required by a due regard to decency and health; and when a schoolhouse appears to the division superintend- ent of schools to be unfit for occupancy, it shall be his duty to condemn the same and immediate- ly to give notice thereof in writing to the chair- man of the district school board, and thenceforth 209 at < 210 ScJioolhouse Lazus no public school shall be held therein, nor shall any part of the state or county fund be applied to support any school in such house until the division superintendent shall certify, in writing, to the district school board that he is satisfied with the condition of such building and with the appliances pertaining thereto. — (Code, Sec. 1489, Par. 56.) The Massachusetts Law 1. That the apparatus will, with proper man- agement, heat all rooms, including the corridors to 70 degrees F. in any weather. 2. That, with the rooms at 70 degrees and a difference of not less than 40 degrees between the temperature of the outside air and that of the air entering the room at the warm air inlet, the apparatus will supply at least thirty cubic feet of air per minute for each scholar accom- modated in the room. 3. That such supply of air will so circulate in the rooms that no uncomfortable draught will be felt, and that the difference in temperature be- tween any two points on the breathing plane in the occupied portion of the room will not ex- ceed 3 degrees. 4. That vitiated air in amount equal to the supply from the inlets will be removed through the vent ducts. 211 212 Schoolhouse Laws 5. That the sanitary appliances will be so ventilated that no odors therefrom will be per- ceived in any portion of the building. To secure the approval of this department of plans showing methods of heating and ventila- tion, the above requirements must be guaranteed in the specifications accompanying the plans. — (Form No. 83, Inspection Dept. of Mass. Dist. Police, by authority of Acts 1902, Chapt. 106, Sec. 54 and 55.) The Vermont Law Section 5412. The words, "public buildings," as used in this chapter, shall mean churches, school buildings, hotels more than two stories high, and places of amusement more than one story high, and buildings, factories, mills or work- shops more than two stories high in which per- sons are employed above the second story. Sec. 5413. Said board shall take cognizance of the interests of the life and health of the inhab- itants of the state, shall make or cause to be made sanitary investigations and inquiries respecting causes of diseases, especially of epidemics, and the means of preventing the same, the sources of mor- tality and sickness and the effect of localities, em- ployments, habits and circumstances of life on the public health; and, when requested, or when, in their opinion, it is necessary, shall advise with mu- nicipal officers in regard to drainage, water sup- ply and sewerage of towns and villages, and in 213 K fl" ca « w >— i *d (LI o o M u CO W o I— I W 214 Schoolhouse Laws regard to the erection, construction, heating, ventilation and sanitary arrangements of public buildings ; and said board may compel the owners of such buildings to provide them with the neces- sary appliances and fire escapes for preventing ac- cidents to persons who may be in such buildings ; and said board shall exercise the powers and authority imposed by law upon said board. Sec. 5416. Said board shall, when necessary, issue to local boards of health its regulations as to the lighting, heating and ventilation of school- houses, and shall cause sanitary inspection to be made of churches, schoolhouses and places of pub- lic resort, and make such regulations for the safety of persons attending the same as said board deems necessary. Public buildings now standing or hereafter erected shall conform to the regula- tions of said board in respect to sanitary condi- tions and fire escapes necessary for the public health and for the safety of individuals in such public buildings. A person, corporation or committee intending to erect a public building shall submit plans there- of showing the method of heating, plumbing, ven- tilation and sanitary arrangements to said board, and procure its approval thereof, before erecting such building. Sec. 5417. A person, corporation or committee which erects a public building without the ap- proval and without complying with the regulations 215 216 Schoolhouse Laws of the state board of health as provided for in the preceding section, shall be fined not more than five hundred dollars, nor less than one hun- dred dollars, and shall make such building to conform to the regulations of said board be- fore the same is used, otherwise such building shall be deemed a nuisance, and be put in proper condition by the local health officer under the di- rection of said board at the expense of the owner. Sec. 5418. Said board may examine or cause to be examined a school building or an outhouse and condemn the same as unfit for occupation or use, and a building or outhouse so condemned by written notice served upon the chairman of the board of school directors or the person having such school in charge, shall not be occupied or used until the same is repaired and the sanitary conditions approved by the state board of health. A person who violates a provision of this section shall be fined not more than fifty dollars nor less than five dollars. — (General Statutes of Vermont, Chapter 225.) The Connecticut Law 137. Every school district shall be a body corporate. And shall have power to sue and be sued, to purchase, receive, hold, and convey real and personal property for school purposes ; To build, purchase, hire, and repair schoolhouses, and supply them with fuel, furniture, and other ap- pendages and accommodations ; To establish 217 218 Schoolhouse Lazvs schools of different grades; To purchase globes, maps, blackboards, and other school apparatus; To establish and maintain a school library; To employ teachers, except for such time as the town may direct the school visitors to employ the teachers; And shall pay the wages of such teach- ers as are employed by the district committee in conformity to law; To lay taxes and borrow money for all the foregoing purposes; And to make all lawful agreements and regulations for establishing and conducting schools, not incon- sistent with the regulations of the town having jurisdiction of the schools in such district. 169. No district shall be entitled to receive any money from the state, or town, unless it has a schoolhouse and outbuildings, satisfactory to the board of school visitors. 170. No new district schoolhouse shall be built except according to a plan approved by the board of school visitors and by the building com- mittee of such district; nor at an expense exceed- ing the sum which the district may appropriate therefor. 279. Every schoolhouse shall be kept in a cleanly state and free from effluvia arising from any drain, privy, or other nuisance, and shall be provided with a sufficient number of proper water closets, earth closets, or privies, for the use of the pupils attending such schoolhouse, and shall be properly ventilated. 219 220 Schoolhouse Laws 280. Whenever it shall be found by the state board of education or by the board of school vis- itors, or by a member of the town school com- mittee of the town in which any schoolhouse is located, that further or different sanitary provi- sions or means of lighting or ventilating are re- quired in any schoolhouse, and that the same can be provided without unreasonable expense, either of said boards, or such member of the town school committee may recommend to the person or au- thority in charge of or controlling such school- house such changes in the ventilation, lighting or sanitary arrangements of such schoolhouse as they may deem necessary. In case such changes be not made substantially as recommended within two weeks from the date of notice thereof such board or member of the committee may make complaint to the proper health authority of the community in which such schoolhouse is situated, which said authority shall, after notice to and hearing of the parties interested, order such changes made in the lighting, ventilation, or sanitary arrangements of such schoolhouse as it may deem necessary or proper. 281. The word schoolhouse as used in para- graphs 279 and 280, shall include any building or premises in which instruction is afforded to not less than ten pupils at one time. Every violation of any provision of paragraphs 279 or 280 shall 221 222 SchoolJwusc Laws be punished by a fine of not more than five hun- dred dollars or imprisonment for not more than six months, or both. 290. In all cities the common council, in all boroughs the warden and burgesses, and in all towns and parts of a town not within the limits of a city or borough the selectmen, shall require that all churches, schoolhouses, and public halls that are used for lectures, amusements, exhibi- tions, or assemblages of people, shall be provided with ample facilities for safe and speedy entrance and exit in case of necessity, be arranged so as to promote the comfort and safety of persons visit- ing them, and be closed till such requirements are complied with ; and any city, borough, or town may make suitable by-laws regarding the same. 291. Every story above the first story of a building used as a schoolhouse, orphan asylum, reformatory, opera house, hall for public assem- blies, boarding house accommodating more than twelve persons, or tenement house occupied by more than five families, shall be provided with more than one way of egress, by stairways on the inside or fire escapes 'on the outside of such build- ing. Said stairways and fire escapes shall, at all times, be kept free from obstructions and shall be accessible from each room in every story above the first story. — (General Statutes Connecticut, Chapters 135 and 136.) 323 224 APPENDIX 'B" Program for Schoolhouse Competition Whenever a board of education deems the selection of schoolhouse plans by competition best, it becomes necessary to invite architects to submit plans. The following suggestions have been gathered from several programs and may be adapted to the size or style of school contem- plated. Announcement There will be a competition for the selection of plans and an architect for the construction of a school building conducted by the Board of Education of the City of in the State of , beginning , and ending The judges for this competition will be the , acting under the advice of Mr , an ex- pert. The reward will be an acceptance of the general plans submitted together with a com- mission to draw final plans for the building, and supervise the construction thereof. The other competitors shall receive rewards in this order: the architect who submits the second best plan will receive $ , the third best set$ , 225 226 Schoolhouse Competitions the fourth best $ , the fifth best $ It is understood that every architect submit his best possible plan within the limits of this pro- gram, together with a brief explanation thereof. The competition is open only to architects. All plans may be rejected and unac- cepted plans will be returned promptly to their authors. The Site The site of the proposed building is the block of ground bounded on the north by. street, on the east by street, on the south by street, and on the west by street. The frontage on the several streets is shown on the blueprint enclosed, as is also the estab- lished grade of the streets surrounding it with the present surface of the ground on said block, with the location of the present buildings there- on. As the block is surrounded by prominent streets it will be necessary that the four eleva- tions be of the same materials, that is, common brick cannot be used on either. The two most prominent streets are and streets, and being cross streets and oc- cupied by residences. 227 228 Schoolhouse Competitions We believe it would be of advantage to archi- tects competing to visit our city and inspect the grounds and surroundings. The Building. It must never be forgotten in the preparation of designs for this building that this is intended to become an school. Architects must therefore know intimately the needs to which every part of the building is to be put. The sum available for the complete erection of this building, exclusive of heating, temperature regulating, ventilating, plumbing, electric wiring, gas piping, architect's fees, movable furniture and equipment of the several laboratories, is $ and all designs must be made with reference to this limit. The building proper is to be stories high with a basement and attic, and must accommodate pupils. The various stories shall be feet in height, and the .basement feet in depth. The materials of construction shall be , with walls, floor, ceilings of Staircases shall be fireproof with corridors feet in width. The classrooms must be feet in size, light must come from the left side of the pupils only, window area must be one-quarter the area of the floor space, wardrobes shall be at- tached to every room, toilet rooms shall be pro- 229 230 Schoolhouse Competitions vided in , the building shall be heated by , ventilated by the system, regulated by the Johnson system, and have included all water pipes, sewer pipes, gas pipes and electrical wiring necessary for the com- plete equipment of such a structure. Requirements. The building is to meet the following require- ments for classrooms, etc. : Classrooms in number, to seat pupils each and to contain. square feet. Recitation rooms, in number, to seat pupils each, and to contain square feet. Study rooms, in number, to seat pupils each, and to be placed on floor. Auditorium, lower floor, to seat from to pupils. Kindergarten rooms, two, adjoining, first floor, to accommodate pupils. Toilet rooms, in number, located floor. Manual training rooms, in num- ber, ground floor. Domestic science rooms, in num- ber, ground floor. Drawing rooms, in number, top floor, to accommodate pupils, o U w 5 HP SI « H bo P-» rt U be -"* 232 Schoolhouse Competitions Commercial department, rooms in number, top floor, to accommodate pupils. Gymnasium, ground floor, for boys and girls. Laboratories, in number, top floor, to accommodate pupils. Library, one, with reading room attached, sec- ond floor. Principal's office, with waiting room, first floor. Teacher's rest room, one, for ladies, second floor. Teacher's room, one, for gentlemen, second floor. Lunch room, one, top floor. Playrooms, two, basement, to accommodate pupils. Bicycle rooms, one, basement. Janitor's rooms, in number, base- ment. Storage rooms, in number, base- ment. Storage closets, one in each class and recita- tion room. Plans. Competitors, to show that the foregoing re- quirements have been complied with, must sub- mit the following plans under the accompanying conditions : 1. A plan showing the location on the lot, drawn to the scale of one-sixteenth inch to the foot. 2. A plan of each story and the basement. 233 234 Schoolhousc Competitions 3. Four elevations, one of each side, of the en- tire number of which one may be shaded. 4. Two sections, through the auditorium; one north and south and one east and west. All plans, except the first mentioned, shall be drawn to the scale of one-eighth inch to the foot. But one design shall be submitted, though additional plans may accompany each design. The competing architects will submit, with their plans, a careful estimate of the cost of erect- ing the building according to their respective plans, and this must be accompanied with a cer- tificate of a reputable builder that the building can be erected according to such plans for a sum not exceeding $ ; also a descrip- tive specification of the material proposed to be employed, and the mode of construction, and of heating and ventilating to be adopted. In like manner a brief typewritten description calling at- tention to points of special importance is allowed. During the time of discussion and considera- tion by the board of judges plans shall not be shown to any of the competitors, nor to the pub- lic until the decision has been announced. A plan and its author will be excluded from the competi- tion if any attempt is made, directly or indirectly, by its author to unduly influence the decision of the board; if it is sent in after the limit of time named in the invitation, or if, in any particular, it violates the conditions of the competition. 235 ■ Pi I— I > W Q d 1—1 p p I— I pq O o w u w p < M o 236 Schoolhouse Competitions The architect finally appointed will make the detail plans and specifications, and exercise such inspection and superintendence, and shall render such other assistance in the construction of said building as may be required of him. Changes and alterations requested by the board shall be made in said plan by the architect or architects, without any additional compensation from said board. The superintendent employed by the architect shall be approved by the board. In full compensation for these services, in case said building is erected, including all changes and alterations in the same as hereinafter specified, he shall be paid a commission of 5 per cent, upon the contract price. 237 238 APPENDIX "C* Architects' Professional Practice. The following is the schedule of minimum charges together with a statement of the pro- fessional practice of architects deemed usual and proper, as adopted by the American Institute of Architects. 1. The architects' professional services con- sist of the necessary conferences, the preparation of preliminary studies, working drawing, specifi- cations, large scale and full size detail drawings, and of the general direction and supervision of the work, for which, except as hereinafter men- tioned, the minimum charge, based upon the total cost of the work complete, is six per cent. (The total cost is to be interpreted as the cost of all materials and labor necessary to complete the work, plus contractors' profits and expenses, as such cost would be if all materials were new and all labor fully paid, at market prices current when the work was ordered.) 2. On residential work, on alterations to ex- isting buildings, on monuments, furniture, decora- tive and cabinet work and landscape architecture, it is proper to make a higher charge than above indicated. 239 240 Architects* Professional Practice 3. The architect is entitled to compensation for articles purchased under his direction, even though not designed by him. 4. If an operation is conducted under sepa- rate contracts, rather than under a general con- tract, it is proper to charge a special fee in addi- tion to the charges mentioned elsewhere in this schedule. 5. Where the architect is not otherwise re- tained, consultation fees for professional advice are to be paid in proportion to the importance of the questions involved and services rendered. 6. Where heating, ventilating, mechanical, structural, electrical and sanitary problems are of such a nature as to require the services of a specialist, the owner is to pay for such services. Chemical and mechanical tests and surveys, when required, are to be paid for by the owner. 7. Necessary traveling expenses are to be paid by the owner. 8. If, after a definite scheme has been ap- proved, changes in drawings, specifications or other documents are required by the owner; or if the architect be put to extra labor or expense by the delinquency or insolvency of a contractor, the architect shall be paid for such additional services and expense. 9. Payments to the architect are due as his work progresses in the following order : Upon completion of the preliminary studies, one-fifth of 241 242 Architects' Professional Practice the entire fee ; upon completion of specifications and general working drawings (exclusive of de- tails), two-fifths additional, the remainder being due from time to time in proportion to the amount of service rendered. Until an actual estimate is received, charges are based upon the proposed cost of the work and payments received are on account of the entire fee. 10. In case of the abandonment or suspension of the work, the basis of settlement is to be as follows : For preliminary studies, a fee in ac- cordance with the character and magnitude of the work; for preliminary studies, specifications and general working drawings (exclusive of details), three-fifths of the fee for complete services. 11. The supervision of an architect (as dis- tinguished from the continuous personal superin- tendence which may be secured by the employ- ment of a clerk-of-the-works or superintendent of construction) means such inspection by the archi- tect or his deputy, of work in studios and shops or a building or other work in process of erec- tion, completion or alteration, as he finds neces- sary to ascertain whether it is being executed in general conformity with his drawings and speci- fications or directions. He has authority to re- ject any part of the work which does not so con- form and to order its removal and reconstruc- tion. He has authority to act in emergencies that may arise in the course of construction, to order 243 o pq O H o o w u Q < W H c/3 Ph w 244 Architects' Professional Practice necessary changes, and to define the intent and meaning of the drawings and specifications. On operations where a clerk-of-the-works or super- intendent of construction is required, the architect shall employ such assistance at the owners' ex- pense. 12. Drawings and specifications, as instru- ments of service, are the property of the architect. 245 246 < o H co i-f O o W u w W o I— I < Q O 247 248 c/5;> M o H CO 4 o o W u C/3 a w CO 249 250 o pq a* w CO o 251 252 253 co i— i O ffl ►4" O O u co W o 254 255 256 w V ■r, J— < — 1) £ Jl W - H H ^ W X 4 _< c w 257 258 in m c 3l < 6 W ^ O'S U o m o J 259 m \ i f?7 * it -*N^«. <- ° en - l-H « 260 fcff.'iro dc *w ^. Ha u u O i— i 261 262 (J N P CO o o W u CO > — * I— I > 363 264 265 • -\ J Ik .jH| 1 H||HHHHflBHHH8IH ■ i ' t lljpil'' ■ SS n" rff - • — Tins 12 if ' 1 *n^HJHkMMHiHHHHMh \THS5 ; E^± . ' ip Mi / J 266 267 Ph ° < o O i— i w w 268 e u . o J 03 u fc.-g n • >H 269 270 271 1 '-I ■a 2 Cfl W - o Q w u m 272 273 274 << m^ 4 o o W u £ O en c* W W 275 276 277 278 INDEX Accommodations, 29. Air, 157. Air, Effects of Dry, 183. Air Filters, 181. Air Supply, 177. Air-Washer, 179. Additions, 33. American Institute of Architects, 13 ; Profes- sional Practice of, 239. Announcements, 225. Appendices, A., 193-223; B., 225-237; C, 239- 245. Architects, 7-13 ; Methods of Employment, 9 ; Fees, 13 ; Professional Practice, 239. Area of Classrooms, 63. Area of Playgrounds, 21. Arrangement of Building, 25-27. Artificial Light, 101-103. Aspect, 33. Assembly Rooms, 105. Attics, 55. Automatic Temperature Regulation, 143. Basement, 47-49; Entrance to, 35. Bicycle Rooms, 107. 279 Biology Laboratories, 115. Blackboards, 79-83. Boilers, 187. Boiler Rooms, 185. Bookcases, 93. Buildings, The, 23-61; Competition for Plans, 229. Bulletin Boards, 99. Ceilings, 75. Chalk Troughs, 83. Chemical Laboratories, 115. Chimneys, 187. Classroom, The, 63-103 ; Aspect of, 33 ; Tem- perature of, 143. Cleaning, Vacuum, 95. Clerk of the Works, 13. Cloak Rooms, 87. Clocks, Program, 97. Closets, 133. Coloring of Walls, 83. Commercial Rooms, 107. Competitions for choosing plans, 11 ; Program for, 225. Compensation of Architects, 13 ; 239. Condemnation Proceedings, 17. Connecticut Law, 217. Corridors, 37-39. Cost, 57-61. Deafening, 53. Direct and Indirect Heating, 153. Domestic Science Rooms, 107. 280 Doors, Classroom, 77-79; Exit, 35. Drainage of Sites, 19. Drawing Rooms, 109. Dressing Rooms, 113. Drinking Fountains, 51. Duplex Stairways, 43. Economy of Heat, 189. Elementary School Accommodations, 29. Elevators, 45-47. Emergency Rooms, 109. Emergency Stairs, 55. Enlargement, 33. Entrances, 35. Equipment, 93-101. Exits, 35. Exterior, 29. Fan Blast Ventilation, 167. Fences, 23. Filters, Air, 181. Fire Escapes, 55. Fireproofing Staircases, 41. Fire Protection, 53. Fire Walls in Attics, 57. Floors, 73 ; in Basements, 49 ; in Corridors, 39 ; Deafening of, 53; in Gymnasiums, 113; in Playrooms, 127; in Toilet Rooms, 135. Flues, Ventilating, 175. Foot Warmers, 191. Foundations, 31. Fresh Air Supply, 177. Furnaces, 149. 281 Furniture, School, 95; Manual Training, 125. Group System of Lighting, 69. Gymnasiums, 111-115. Hallways, 37. Hand Railings, 43. Heat Economy, 189. Heating and Ventilation, 139-191. Heating of Playrooms, 127. Height of Buildings, 31 ; of Classrooms, 65 ; of Basements, 49. Hot Water Heating, 153. Humidity, 181. Indirect Heating, 155. Inlets and Outlets, 171-177. Janitor's Room, 115. Kansas Law, 207. Kindergartens, 115. Laboratories, 115-119. Laws for Schoolhouse Construction, 193-223 ; New York, 193 ; Pennsylvania, 197 ; New Jersey, 199; Utah, 203; South Dakota, 205; Kansas, 207; Virginia, 209; Massa- chusetts, 211; Vermont, 213; Connecticut, 217. Lecture Rooms, 119-121. Library, 121. Light, Artificial, 101. Lighting, 67-69; Aspect of Rooms, 33. Location of Sites, 15. Lockers, 113. Umch Rooms, 121-123. 282 Manual Training, 123 ; in Basement, 49. Massachusetts Law, 211. Materials of Construction, 29 ; of Foundations, 31. Mechanical Ventilation, 165-171. Methods of Heating, 147. Methods of Ventilation, 161. Museum, 125. Natural Ventilation, 163-165. New Jersey Law, 199. New York Law, 193. Obtaining Sites, 17. Office, Principal's, 127. Outlets, 171-173. Partitions, 47. Pennsylvania Law, 197. Physics Laboratories, 115. Picture Moulding, 87. Pipes, Basement, 49. Plans, Competitions for, 11 ; Program for Competitions, 225 ; Requirements in Com- petitions, 231-233. Platforms, 91-93. Playgrounds, 21. Playrooms, 127. Plenum Ventilation, 167. Plumbing, 49-53 ; Corridor Sinks, 39 ; Drink- ing Fountains, 51 ; Toilet Rooms, 133-137. Preliminary Requirements, 7-23. Principal's Room, 127. Prism Glass, 71. 283 Problem of Heating and Ventilation, The, 139 Professional Practice of Architects, 239. •Program for Schoolhouse Competitions, 225. Program Clocks, 97. Projection Apparatus, 99. Radiators, 155: 191. Railings, Stair, 43. Reception Room, 131. Recitation Rooms, 127-129. Registers, Ventilating, 171-7. Regulation, Temperature, 147. Requirements in Building Program, 231. Requirements for Ventilation, 161. Roof Playgrounds, 21. Roofs, 57. Rooms, Assembly, 105 ; Class, 63 127; Boiler, 185. Sanitation, Drainage of Sites, 49; Toilet Rooms, 131. School Furniture, 95. School Grounds, 15-21. Science Teachers' Room, 129. Shapes of Buildings, 27. Sites, 15-21; Location of, 15 Soil, 19. South Dakota Law, 305. Special Rooms, 105-137. Special Thermometers, 97. Staircases, 39-45. Standards, Classroom, 63-67 Steam Heating, 151. 19 Recitation, Plumbing, in Program, 227. 284 Stove Heating', 140. Storage Rooms, 129. Teachers' Room, 129 ; Science, 129. Teachers' Wardrobe, 93. Telephones, 99. Temperature, 143, Temperature Regulation, 143-147. Thermometers, 97. Toilet Rooms, 131-137; Plumbing, 49. Urinals, 133. Utah Law, 203. Vacuum Cleaning, 95. Vacuum Steam Heating, 153. Vacuum Ventilation, 167. Ventilating Flues, 175. Ventilation Requirements for, 161 ; Methods of, 161; Natural, 163; Mechanical, 165; Vacuum, 167 ; Plenum, 167. Ventilation of Toilet Rooms, 133. Vermont Law, 213. Vestibules, 37. Virginia Law, 209. Vitiation of Air, 157. Wainscoting, 45. Waiting Room, 131. Wall Coloring, 83-87. Walls, Deafening, 53 ; Sliding, 47. Wardrobes, 87-91 ; Teachers', 93. Washers, Air, 179. Windows, 69-73. Window Shades, 73. Woodwork, 45. 285 EXTENDS AROUND THE GLOBE The Unique Product or the Johnson Service Company Among the industrial enterprises which have grown up in this county there are few which are more unique in character and at the same time render a greater , service to mankind than that which provides for the regulation of temperature. At a time when the county is discussing the conservation of natural resources and modern science points out the harmful effects of tempera- ture extremes it may prove interesting to explain what a system of temperature control really means. Wherever artificial heat is employed the con- sumption of fuel is a factor to be dealt with. Ex- cess heat is a double waste. It- wastes money and endangers health and comfort. With the size of a building and the increased number of inmates in such a building the problem grows in importance. Take, for instance, a large office building, a hotel or a schoolhouse. It has a large number of rooms. During the winter months these have to be heated. The amount of fuel consumed is considerable. The janitor or fireman cannot so arrange that all rooms in the building are kept at 286 School Architecture an even temperature. This becomes specially true on windy days or in extreme cold weather. The rooms with northern exposure lack sufficient heat, while the rooms with southern exposure become too warm. The Johnson system will hold the temperature in every room of the building at any desired degree. All rooms may be kept at 70 de- grees, or the various rooms may be kept at differ- ent degrees of temperature as desired. The advantage derived is not only found in the uniform distribution of warmth throughout a building and the elimination of temperature ex- tremes, but also in that the consumption of fuel is under complete control. Not an ounce of coal is wasted. Aside from the economic advantage of temper- ature regulation the physical advantage cannot be minimized. A room that is too hot or too cold is certain to be harmful to its inmates. Coughs and colds are caused by sudden exposure to the out- door air after leaving an overheated room, or to a room where the temperature is gone down be- low the degree of ordinary comfort. It is perhaps unnecessary to discuss the ad- vantages of temperature control. That its value is commonly accepted may be noted from the fact that the best known buildings throughout the United States and Europe are equipped with the Johnson system, which is not only the pioneer in this field, but also the recognized leader. It has. 287 School Architecture its imitators, as has every great invention, but none compares in efficiency and completeness. The government buildings at Washington, from the Capitol to the White House, the state capitols and state universities, the homes of the Astors, the Vanderbilts and the Carnegies, thou- sands upon thousands of school buildings, office buildings, hotels, churches, theaters and factories, in fact, a number and variety of buildings too numerous to mention, are equipped with the John- son system. In Europe some of the most im- portant public and private buildings, including princely palaces, hospitals and dwellings are so equipped. In speaking of so important an invention, it may not be out of place here to say a word about the inventor. Some twenty years ago Prof. Warren S. Johnson, then an instructor in a normal school, conceived the idea of controlling artificial warming of buildings. The beginning was a small one and the enterprise was not with- out its struggles and trials. But the indomitable will power of the inventor, who also became the directive business head of the company, overcame the most difficult obstacles. The enterprise was safely led through the shoals and rocks of com- mercial hazard, the mechanical problems were suc- cessfully solved, and the recognition which was sought and deserved was won. 288 School Architecture Today it must be admitted that Prof. Johnson's invention is an important contribution to the wel- fare of mankind. Its economic advantage is in- estimable, and if we place any value upon physical comfort and. protection against the danger of tem- perature extremes, the inventor has earned the gratitude of the world. The invention, too, has been the means of creating a large industry. Several hundred men are employed at the home plant, a splendid lire- proof structure. The company also maintains branch offices in the leading cities of the United States and Canada, employing a large number of men at each office. Its foreign offices are located at' London, Berlin and Warsaw. 289 The Illustrations in this Book The buildings illustrated in this little volume are simply a- few of several thousand school- houses which have been equipped with the John- son system of temperature regulation. The number of buildings so fitted includes not only the recent and most modern public and pri- vate schools, but also a long list of normal schools, colleges, and universities located in vari- ous parts of the United States. JOHNSON SERVICE CO Main Office and Factory 149-151 Michigan Street, Milwaukee, Wi BRANCH OFFICES BOSTON, MASS. 12 Pearl Street BUFFALO, N. Y. 11 Erie County Bank Bldg. CHICAGO, ILL. 98 E. Lake Street CINCINNATI, O. 68 Perm Bldg. CLEVELAND, O. 704 American Trust Bldg. DENVER, COLO. 816 Nineteenth Street DETROIT, MICH. 224 Twenty-first Street KANSAS CITY, MO. 318 W. Eleventh Street MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 525 Sixth Ave.. South NEW YORK CITY 123 East 27th Street OAKLAND, CAL. 963 Harrison Street PHILADELPHIA, PA. 1522 Sansom Street PITTSBURG, PA. 440 Sixth Avenue PORTLAND, ORE. 50S Beck Bldg. SAN FRANCISCO. CAL. 302 Monadnock Bldg. SEATTLE, WASH. 476 Arcade Bldg. WASHINGTON, D. C. 1306 F Street. N.W. JOHNSON HEAT REGULATING COMPANY SAINT LOUIS, M<). •. , <>:> North Tenth Streel JOHNSON TEMPERATURE REGULATING COMPANY < >]■" CANADA TORONTO. ONT. L18 Adelaide Street, V\ WINNIPEG, MAX. 259 Stanley S GESELLSCHAFT FUR SELBSTTAETIGE TEMPERATURREGELUNG BERLIN, GERMANY W L5 Schaperstr., is FRANTS ALLING COPENHAGEN, DENMARK Puggaardsgade, 4 HENRY SIMON, LTD. MANCHESTER, ENGLAND 20 Mount St. JACOB( > SCHNEIDER MADRID. SPAIN Alfonso XII. 56 DRZEWIECK1 & JEZIORANSK1 WARSAW, RUSS1 \ Jerozolimska, 85 13 jl- One copy del. to Cat. Div.