GIass_^ Book_./i I88't c^^^r---^ c/ ^ SONNBNSCHEIN'S CYOLOPM)IA OF EDUCATION PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODB AND CO., NBW-STRBBT SQUAEE LONDON SONNENSCHEIN'S '^ CYCLOEEDIA OF EDUCATION A HANDBOOK OF EEFEEENCE ON ALL SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH EDUCATION (ITS HISTOEY, THEOEY, AND PEACTICE), COMPEISING AETICLES BY EMINENT EDUCATIONAL SPECIALISTS THE WHOLE ARRANGED AND EDITED BY ALFRED EWEN FLETCHER r; N.Y. C. W. BAEDEEN, PUBLISHER LONDON: SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO. 1889 NOV 1 , •■ LB 13 mi LIST OF PRINCIPAL CONTRIBUTORS. J. Maitland Andeeson, Chief Librarian, St. Andrews University. Miss A. M. 0. Baxley, Secretary to the Froehel Society. Mrs. AimiE Besant. Rev. Canon Bloeb, D.D., formerly Head Master of the Xing'' s School, Canterbury. H. COTJETHOPB BOWEN, M.A, OscAE BEOWNIN&, M.A., King's College, Cambridge. W. Feeeland Oaed, Greemvich Hospital School. J. Spencee Ctjewbn, President of the Tonic Sol-fa College. Joseph Daee, B.A. James Donaldson, M.A., LL.D., Senior Principal of St. Andreivs University. R. T. Elliott, B.A. Mrs. Heney Fawcbtt. ElOHAEB GOWING. AxEXANDEE H. Geant, M.A. J. F. Hbyes, M.A., Magdalen College, Oxford. J. HowAED HiNTON, M.A., formerly Mathematical Master, U-ppingham School. Rev. J. Denis Hied, M.A. Rev. J. W. HoESELEY, M.A. Waltee Low, M.A., Mercers' School, Col- lege Hill. Rev. E. F. M. MacOaethy, M.A., Head- master, King Edward^s School, Five Ways, Bir- mingham, and Vice-chairman of the Birming- ham School Board. Sir Philip Magnus, Principal of the Cen- tral Technical Institution, South Kensington. P. E. Matheson, M.A., Felloxo of New College, Oxford, and Oxford Seci-etary to the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board. Al"PEED Milnes, M. a., Assistant Secretary, London University. H. Kbatlby Mooee, Mus. Bac. Rev. H. Kingsmill Mooee, M.A., Prin- cipal of the Church of Ireland Training Col- lege, Dublin. Professor A, F. Mtteison, M.A., University College, London, Dr. Newsholme, ikfec^z'mZ Officer of Health for Brighton, author of ' School Hygiene.' J. L. Paton, M.A., Felloio of St. Johris College, Cambridge. Rev. H. D. Rawnsley, M.A. David Salmon, Head-master of Belvedere Place Board School, Borough Road, London. Aeththr Sidgwiok, M.A., Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Rev. A. J. Smith, M.A., Head-master of King Edward's School, Camp Hill, Birming- ham. Professor E. A. Sonnbnschein, M.A., Mason College, Birmingham. Francis Stoee, M.A., Merchant Taylors' School. Professor James Sully, M.A., formerly Examiner in Psychology in the University of London. William Whiteley, M.A., Head-master Gloucester Road Board School, Cambertoell. RoBEET Wilson, author of ' The Life and Times of Queen Victoria.' Miss Susan Wood, B.Sc, Training College, Cambridge. RiCHAED Woemell, M.A., D.Sc, Head- master, City Corporation Schools, PEEPACE. The object kept in view by the writers of this work has been to make it useful to all who take an interest in educational questions, and espe- cially to those engaged in the work of teaching, whether in Elementary, Secondary, or the Higher Schools. Within the limits of a small Cyclopsedia an exhaustive treatment of the great variety of subjects dealt with is not to be expected. It has therefore been the aim of the Contributors to give a telescopic rather than a microscopic view of the educational facts and questions discussed, and to bring their purely pedagogic features into clear outline. Eeferences to authorities have been given at the conclusion of the more important articles only, as a carefully compiled Bibliography of Pedagogy is given as an Appendix to the book. The biographical section of the work does not, for obvious reasons, include notices of living persons. A. E. FLETCHER. ADDENDA. Ana itti su. See Schools op Anti- quity, sec. Assyria. Arnauld, Antoine. See Jansenists and' Reformation. Arnold, Matthew. See Pedagogy, Inspectors, and Royal Commissions. Assyria, Schools of. See Schools of Antiquity. Atlases. See Maps. Babylonia, Schools of. See Schools OF Antiquity. Bede. See Middle Ages (Schools OP the). .Bentham, Jeremy. See Utilitari- anism. Borsippa. See Schools op Anti- quity, sect. Assyria. Buchanan, James. See Young Chil- dren (Education of). Budseus. See Reformation. Casaubon. See Reformation. Castiglione, Count Baldassare. See Renaissance. Chaldea. See Schools op Anti- quity. Chancellor. See Rector. Charlemagne. See Middle Ages (Schools op the). City and Guilds of London Institute. See Technical Education. Commercial Education. See Tech- nical Education. Consortium magistrorum. See Rec- tor. Cranfield, Thomas. See Ragged Schools. Cuneiform Characters. See Schools oe Antiquity. Ecole des Arts et Metiers. See Tech- nical Education, Ecole des bons Enfants. See Re- naissance. Ecole Centrale. See Technical Edu- cation. Ecole Diderot. See Technical Edu- cation. Egypt. See Schools of Antiquity. Erech. See Schools op Antiquity. Erganzungsschule. See Law (Edu- cational). Feltre, Vittorino de. See Renais- sance. Fletcher, Joseph. See Young Chil- dren (Education op). Fortbildungsschule. See Law (Edu- cational). Geodesy. See Mathematical Geo- graphy. Groote, Gerard. See Renaissance. Hebdomadal Board. See University Reform. Hieronymites. See Renaissance. HuUah, John. See Sol-Faing. Jacotot. See Payne. Kunstgewerbeschulen. See Tech- nical Education. Museums. See Science and Art Museums. Newcastle Commission. See Royal Commissions. Newman, Cardinal. See Renais- sance and Universities. Oberlin, J. F. See Young Children (Education of). Ober Real. See Law (Educational), sect. Saxony. Obscurantists. See Renaissance. Occam, William of See Scholas- ticism. Owen, Robert. See Young Children (Education op). Ramus, Peter (Pierre de Ramee). See Reformation. Salmasius. See Reformation. Spalatin. See Reformation. Stow, David. See Young Children (Education of). Turnebus. See Reformation. Waynflete, Bishop. See Middle Ages (Schools op the). Wilderspin, Samuel. See Young Children (Education op). CYCLOPEDIA OP EDUCATION. Abacus (a/3ai, a board or slab), origi- nally any table of rectangular form. The term was also applied to a board or table on which mathematicians drew diagrams. The abacus, as at present used to instruct children in the use of numbers, consists of a number of parallel wires on which beads are strung, the upper wire denoting units, the next tens, &c. Abbey or Monastic Schools. — There were two kinds of schools under the direc- tion of the monasteries : (1) schools almost exclusively devoted to the higher educa- tion of novices and those who, having completed their probation, had taken the vow ; (2) schools distinct from these, in which instruction, either gratuitous or on payment, was given to children of all classes of society living in the neighbour- hood of the monastery. The former were the prototypes of the collegiate schools, or colleges, which developed into the colleges at Oxford, Cambridge, and, later on, those at Winchester and Eton. From the latter sprang many of the endowed grammar schools (q.v.), which, at the dissolution of the monasteries, were placed in the hands of lay trustees by charter or letters patent of the Tudor sovereigns. Cathedral schools were similar to this latter kind of mon- astic school. Abbreviated Longhand.— Schoolmas- ters do not generally encourage the prac- tice of abbreviated longhand by their pupils, but for their own purposes teachers could save much time by adopting the abbreviations now in general use by telegraphists, journalists, and authors. Amongst the commoner of these abbrevia- tions are I, the ; o, of ; w, with ; c'^, could ; h, have ; h'^, had ; bn, been ; jf, for ; fm, from ; nt, not ; i, that ; wh, who, which, or what ; g, ing ; t", tion or tian ; mf, ment ; sh, shall ; abt, about ; circs, cir- cumstances ; B^m, Birmingham : L^pool, Liverpool, and so on. The general rule for abbreviating longhand is to omit the vowels, except initial vowels and such as it is obviously necessary to retain to pre- vent confusion. See Shorthand. Abbreviations. — The abbreviations in scholastic use are chiefly those employed to denote academic attainments, as B.A., Bachelor of Arts, M.A., Master of Arts, &c., or to facilitate the working of papers, &c., in mathematics and other studies. In university examinations candidates are generally permitted to abbreviate exten- sively in working geometrical papers by using signs and figures, though many teachers object to the adoption of this practice by young pupils. ABC Method, by which children learn all the letters of the alphabet from an ABC book, from the blackboard, from cards, &c. The pupil is instructed to point to the letters singly in turn, and thus associate the form with the name. This system has now generally been super- seded by the Word Method {q.v.). ABC Shooters (German ABC Schiltzen). — Jocular name for German chil- dren learning the ABC. ' Schiitzen ' in the Middle Ages were the younger wan- dering scholars, who, like fags, were com- pelled to find food for the elder boys by begging or ' shooting,' i.e. purloining, stray fowls, &c. In German students' slang schiessen (shoot) still has this sense. Abecedarian. — This word, composed of the first four letters of the alphabet, denotes a pupil in the most elementary stage of education. Abelard, Peter, b. at Palais, near Nantes, 1079, died 1142. He is one of the most famous of the early Scholastics. His attainments and his eloquence com- bined to give him an important place as an educationist. His father was wealthy, and spared no expense in his son's educa- ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE tion. Having learnt Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, Abelard went to the University of Paris, which enjoyed at that time a wide- spread fame. There he became the pupil of Guillaume de Champeaux, the most skil- ful dialectician of the age. Abelard soon surpassed his master, and often challenged him to public disputations. Abelard re- tired to Melun and lectured there, whither some of the Parisian students followed him. But his health gave way, although not yet twenty-two, owing to his severe studies ; and for some time he sought rest. After many changes we find him again in Paris, as professor of divinity, surrounded by the most eminent scholars of his age. Here it was that he received Heloise, niece of the rich canon Fulbert, as a pupil. Her philosophic studies, how- ever, ended in a romantic attachment that has become as celebrated in literature as that of Swift and Stella. This disturbed the rest of Abelard's life, and caused him much trouble and many enemies. In Abelard's time there were two courses of scholastic instruction : the ' trivium,' containing grammar, rhetoric, and dia- lectics or philosophy ; the ' quadrivium,' comprising arithmetic, music, geometry, astronomy. Abelard's contemporaries agree in regarding him as an accom- plished master in all these. This must be understood, of course, with regard to the age in which he lived, for it is certain that no Greek text of the writings of Aristotle existed at that time in France. Some MS. copies of his works remain, and they may be seen in the British Museum. In them and in his printed works all the quotations from Aristotle are in Latin. Aberdeen University. See Univer- sities. Absenteeism. See Attendance. Absent-mindedness. — This term indi- cates that variety of inattention which arises from mental preoccupation. This may be due to the action of some external stimulus, as when a child fails to listen to what is said to him because he is watching the movements of a fly on the window. In a special manner the term refers to the withdrawal of attention from the external surroundings as a whole, as when a child is wholly inattentive to what it sees and hears because its thoughts are absorbed in the anticipation of some treat. A bent to dreamy imagination and reverie is a common cause of absent-mindedness in children. As a source of inattention it must be carefully distinguished by the teacher from mental sluggishness, as com- monly illustrated in idle wandering of the thoughts, or what Locke calls ' saunter- ing.' As the history of more than one distinguished man tells us, absent-minded- ness in relation to school lessons may be a sign of intense mental activity otherwise absorbed ; and the same fact is still more strikingly illustrated in the habitual ab- straction of the student from his sur- roundings. Absent-mindedness finds its proper remedy in the habitual awakening of the child's interest in his surroundings, in the careful training of the observing faculty and the practical aptitudes, and in the investing of subjects of instruction with all possible attractiveness. See At- tention. Abstract and Concrete. — These refer to a fundamental distinction in our know- ledge. We may have a knowledge of some particular thing in its completeness, as, for example, of water as something at once fluid, transparent, &c. This is knowledge of things in the concrete. On the other hand, we may think about the property fluidity apart from water and all other particular substances. This knowledge of qualities, as distinct from concrete things as wholes, is said to be knowledge of the abstract. In Logic all names of things, whether general or singular, are called concrete terms, all names of qualities ab- stract terms. It is evident from this defi- nition that the region of abstract knowledge is that with which science is specially con- cerned ; for all science deals with the com- mon qualities or properties of things, such as form, chemical qualities, &c., and the general laws which govern these. It is a fundamental maxim of modern education that concrete knowledge must precede abstract. Before a child can gain any abstract ideas, as those of number, force, moral courage, some knowledge of con- crete examples is indispensable. Hence it follows that subjects which deal largely with the concrete, as descriptive geography, narrative history, &c., should form the first part of the curriculum. A concrete presentation of the more striking facts of physical science by means of object les- sons, supplemented by description, is the natural introduction to the more abstract consideration of its laws. (On the transi- tion from concrete to abstract see Herbert ABSTRACTION ACADEMY Spencer, Education, chap. ii. ; Bain, Udto- cation as Science, chap, vii.) Abstraction.— In its widest scope this term means the withdrawal of the mind from one object or feature of an object in order to fix it on another. It is in this sense the necessary accompaniment of all concenti'ation. In a more special sense it refers to the turning away of the thoughts from the difierences among indi- vidual things so as to fix them on the points of similarity. It is thus the opera- tion which immediately leads to a know- ledge of the common qualities of things, i.e. to abstract knowledge. Thus, in order to gain a clear idea of roundness, the child has to compare a number of round things, as a ball, a marble, an orange, &c., and abstract from the other and distinguishing features of each, as the colour of the orange. Abstraction of a greater or less degree of difiiculty is always involved in classification or generalisation, i.e. the pro- cess by which the mind forms the notion of a general class, as animal, toy, &c. It also enters as the main ingredient into induction, i.e. the operation by which the mind passes from a consideration of par- ticular facts to that of the general law which they obey. Since in all cases abs- traction is a casting aside or putting out of sight of much that is present to the mind, it calls for an efibrt of will. Hence the difficulty attending the study of all gene- ralities and abstract subjects in the case of young children. The more numerous and striking the points of diversity, and the more subtle and obscure the points of similarity, the greater the effort of abstrac- tion required. The faculty of abstraction, though appearing in a crude form in young children, is the last to reach its full deve- lopment. The higher abstractions, as those of mathematics, physical science, gram- mar, (fee, should only be introduced in the later stages of education. The natural repugnance of the child to abstraction must be met by a careful process of pre- paration. This includes the accumulation of a sufficient quantity of concrete know- ledge, a jiidicious selection of examples under each head, and a gradual transition from exercises of an easy character per- formed on sensible qualities, as weight, figure, (fee, to those of a more difficult order dealing with recondite qualities. (See Sully, The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, chaps, xii. and xiii.) Abstract Science. — All science, as general knowledge of things, i.e. of things so far as they have common qualities, is abstract knowledge. At the same time a certain group of the sciences are marked ofi" as Abstract and another group as Con- crete. The former deal with a few pro- perties common to a wide s^arieby of things. Thus mathematics, the best type of an abs- tract science, deals with the most general aspect of things, viz. quantity ; for all ob- jects, of whatever nature they may be, exhibit the attribute of quantity. On the other hand, the sciences of description and classification, as botany, deal with the many common qualities or characters of a comparatively restricted region of pheno- mena. Hence they are called Concrete. In many cases we are able to distinguish an abstract or theoretical and a concrete branch of the same subject. Thus in me- chanics we have a theoretical department dealing with the universal laws of equili- brium and motion, and concrete applica- tions of these to particular forms and combinations of matter, as hydrostatics. The distinction between Abstract and Con- crete science has an important bearing on the order in which the sciences should be studied. The Abstract sciences, being relatively simple and fundamental, should precede the corresponding Concrete sciences. Thus a certain knowledge of mathematics is necessary to the study of physics, chemistry, (fee. (See Bain, Logic, Deduction, Introduction, and H. Spencer, Education, chap, i.) Academy (Gr. 'AKaBrjfjLLa). — A recrea- tion ground at Athens, believed to have been named after Academus, an Athenian hero of the time of the Trojan expedition. The Academia was the favourite resort of Plato. Here he used to lecture to his pupils and followers ; hence his school of philosophy was called the Academic School. After the revival of letters the term Aca- demy came to be applied to the higher schools of instruction, particularly to such as were of a unique and special character, as the academies of music, fine arts, the naval and military academies, (fee. In England the application of the word has been considerably extended and appro- priated as the appellation of schools of various grades. A similar abuse of the term is also common in the United States. In France, however, as in Russia, Sweden, and other European countries, the use of B 2 ACCIDENCE— ACOUSTICS the term is now almost confined to the learned societies for the advancement of literature, science, and art. The Academie fran^aise is the final court of appeal on questions relating to French philology, grammar, &c. The Academie des inscrip- tions et belles-lettres is another famous asso- ciation of French savants. The desirable- ness of establishing an English academy of learned men having the authority of the Academie franc^aise has been ably advo- cated by Mr. Matthew Arnold and others. Accidence. See Grammar. Accidents. See School Surgery. Accomplishments. — This term refers to that part of the education of girls {q.v.) which includes instruction in those arts which for the most part are ornamental. Accomplishments include drawing and painting of a mildly artistic kind, dancing, and that kind of music which finds favour in drawing-rooms. Locke attached great importance to dancing as a necessary ac- complishment even for a gentleman, but objected to painting on the ground that ' ill painting is one of the worst things in the world, and to attain a tolerable degree of skill in it requires too much of a man's time.' See Esthetic Culture. Acoustics. — The subject of sound has two branches — one purely observational and concerned with the vibrations of air or of liquids and solids of such a nature as to stimulate the sense of hearing. These vibrations are different from those which excite the sense of sight, inasmuch as they are longitudinal and not trans- versal ; that is, they consist of condensa- tions and rarefactions in the direction in which the sound travels, not, as in the case of light of vibrations, at right angles to the direction in which the disturb- ance is propagated. The other branch of acoustics consists in a study of the means by which it produces sensation in the brain, and the physical conditions under which those sensations are estimated as pleasurable or painful. All substances are more or less elastic. When a portion of an elastic medium is compressed it tends to expand again, and having ex- panded it passes through the normal con- dition to a condition of rarefaction, and before it comes to its original condition it passes through many such phases. Thus any violent disturbance of the air pro- duces an alternate condensation and rare- faction called a wave, and this repeats itself indefinitely, spreading out into all the surrounding air, like the ripples on a smooth lake from a stone which is thrown in. The rate at which this disturbance travels is in air about 1,090 feet a second. The distance which a complete wave occu- pies varies. The central c of the piano is a recurrent wave whose length is about 4^ feet. Hence the number of waves which fall on the ear in a second can be calculated. If each takes up 4|- feet and there are enough of them in a second to cover 1,090 feet, then we approximately find the number by dividing 1,090 by 4g, which gives us 264. The standard num- ber of vibrations for the central c has altered in recent times owing to a change in the standard of pitch. It is now ex- actly 264 vibrations in a second. Any concussion or rapid disturbance leads to the formation of waves in the air or in any medium. These waves are not in general musical notes. For the produc- tion of the latter regularly recurrent disturbances are necessary, and ordinary noises consist of an indefinite number of musical notes so mingled together that their separate existences are undiscernible. The chief modes of producing musical sounds are by the vibration of a string, of a membrane, and of a thin tongue of metal in a current of air. The power of the note produced is much intensified by a resounding board or a closed mass of air of such dimensions as to vibrate na- turally in accord with the note produced. Thus in an organ the sound is produced by an insignificant tongue of metal, which vibrates with a multitude of notes. The organ-pipe takes up that one which it is adapted for, and is the cause of the whole volume of sound. If vibrations exceed a certain number in a second they pass be- yond the limits of audibility. This varies with different persons. Some can hear the cry of a bat ; it is too shrill for others to discern. A whistle has been designed by Mr. Galton in which the rate of vibra- tion can be gradually altered, and a note is produced which, gradually becoming shriller, passes beyond the hearing first of one then of another of a company who listen to it. When it is inaudible to any one it will still influence a sensitive flame. Similarly vibrations pass below the limits of audibility when they become slower than a certain rate. A most instructive experiment, which ACOUSTICS ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE illustrates many facts of optics as well as of acoustics, is the following : We take two tuning-forks of different periods of vibration. Two small beads are hung by a thread so that one just touches the'prong of each fork. A third tuning-fork is now sounded which is of the same period of vibration as one of the forks. The bead in proximity to that fork will be thrown to and fro, while the bead touching the other tuning-fork will remain at rest. This shows that the tuning-fork will take up from the air the vibration which it itself will give out, and the solid mass of steel will be set in motion by the extremely minute influences of the waves of air. The same effect is produced with strings when stretched to various degrees of ten- sion. Let us imagine a room to be com- pletely filled with strings of one length and one degree of tension, such that they would all give out the same note. Let then a set of musical notes traverse the room, consisting of the note to which the strings are attuned and others as well. That note will set all the strings in vibra- tion, and as a consequence it will itself be absorbed — it will not pass through the room, while the other notes will pass on, not being taken up in producing an effect in the room. Here the room full of strings is of the nature of a substance which absorbs that kind of vibration which it, when itself set in vibration, would give out. There are many instances of an action of this kind in heat and light, and the whole study of spectrum analysis rests upon a similar phenomenon in the case of light. The vibrations of the air are conveyed to the brain by a delicate apparatus, con- sisting of the following parts : A mem- brane which is agitated by the waves passing down the passage of the ear. To this membrane are attached two bones forming a lever and conveying the vibra- tions to another membrane. This latter membrane encloses a space filled with fluid, the vestibule, and from this space open out two spiral-formed canals and a space shaped like a snail-shell, the cochlea. Into the fluid of the cochlea project a number of small fibres or rods of varying lengths, and it is supposed that vibrations of varying rates a.re picked out by these fibres, each fibre being set in vibration by its corresponding vibration, and con- veyed by them to the auditory nerve. Although in the air the multitudinous vibrations of a piece of music are com- pounded into a single complex agitation, still the ear has the power of picking out each note, and even the particular kind of note of every instrument — that is to say, there is the power in the ear of dis- tinguishing the several vibrations, how- ever compounded. The state of the air through which a number of musical notes is passing is very complicated. We will consider two instances. Take the note C and the c above it. When the note c sounds, the air has its point of greatest compression and greatest rarefaction at distances of 4 feet from each other. Due to the higher c there are compressions and rarefactions at distances of 2 feet from each other. These will combine into a series at a distance of 2 feet, but these compressions and rarefactions will not be identical ; where the phases of the two notes coincide there will be a more marked effect than where they differ. Still the total series will be regular, and its phases will recur, complicated as they are, within a short interval. If two notes, however, be sounded together, the periods of which differ but slightly, they will, if started in corresponding phases at one time, augment each other considerably, but after a cer- tain time, when the faster wave has gained sufficiently on the slower wave, they will almost neutralise each other. Hence, the sound will rise and fall in intensity at appreciable intervals, giving rise to an effect similar to that of the flickering of a candle. This is productive of an un- pleasant sensation to the ear, and it is found that what are called disharmonies in music are notes related in the above fashion to each other. For the experi- mental and general knowledge of acoustics Tyndall's book on Sound may be consulted. Airy's and Donkin's books give the more mathematical treatment. Helmholtz's book on the Sensations of Tone has been translated, and is the authority on the phenomena of sound in relation to the sense of hearing. Acquisition of Knowledge, or learn- ing in its widest signification, includes every operation by which the mind comes into possession of a new fact or truth. This may take place either by means of a new personal observation, through the in- struction of others, or finally as the result of reflection and reasoning upon what is 6 ACROAMATIC METHOD ADAM, ALEXANDER already known. In the narrower and scholastic sense it refers to the gaining of knowledge by the help of others' instruc- tion. Hence the acquisition of knowledge is sometimes distinguished from the child's independent discovery of it. Learning is often spoken of as if it were a mere ex- ertion of the faculty of memory. But wherever new knoivledge is gained there is a preliminary process of comprehending or assimilating the new materials. Thus in grasping a new fact in geography or natural history, a child's mind must put forth activity in tirst analysing or resolving the complex whole into its parts or ele- ments, and then synthetically recombining these, and viewing them in their proper relation one to another. Not only so, the new fact presented can only be grasped or realised by the mind by the aid of its points of affinity with what is already known. In other words, the mind has to assimilate the new to the old. In the case of learning new concrete facts by verbal de- scription, this assimilative process assumes the form of constructing a new pictorial representation out of materials supplied by the reproductive faculty. (See Imagina- tion.) Where the new fact is not only imaginatively realised, but also understood, the process of assimilation includes the reference of it to some previously known class, and to some familiar principle or rule. It is thus evident that learnins; is never a purely passive process of reception, but always involves the activity of the child's own mind. There is no gaining of knowledge where there is not close at- tention and a serious efibi^t to take apart and recombine the materials presented by the teacher. (See K. A. Schmid's £nci/- clopddie des gesammt. Erziehnngs- nnd Unterrichtswesen, article ' Lehren und Lernen.') Acroamatic Method (aKpoafxariKo?, to be heard), a term applied to the oral method of instruction adopted by Aris- totle. Activity.— By the activity of a thing is meant tlie putting forth of its specific and characteristic force. In a wide sense nature as a M'hole is constantly active, and this activity is a special characteristic of living things. In the human being we have both a physical or bodily and a mental activity. Children, like young animals, exhibit a marked tendency to spontaneous muscular action, as may be seen in their play (see Play). This in- stinctive impulse to muscular exertion is an important condition of the growth of the bodily powers, and of the acquisition of the command of the organs of move- ment by the will (see Will). Mental ac- tivity, as distinguished from bodily, is the conscious exercise of mental power. The most general name for this is Attention (which see). It is now generally admitted that all mental development is the result of the child's self-activity. A child learns just in proportion to the degree in which it actively exerts its intellectual faculties. This mental activity is in the earlier stages of development closely connected with bodily. It is by using the organs of sense in observation and by experiment- ing with the moving organs, more especi- ally the hands, that the child's intelli- gence is called into play. Hence the educational significance of the child's spontaneous tendency to movement, a significance Avhicli Froebel was the first to fully see and utilise. The higher form of mental activity sliows itself in the vol- untary concentration of attention in re- producing former impressions, and in sepa- rating and recombining these so as to carry out the operations of imagination and thought. This so-called intellectual activity is immediately dependent on an exertion of will, and hence may be said to contain a moral ingredient. At the same time it is customary to distinguish from this intellectual a moral activity, which shows itself in an effbi't of will to do what is right. Such exertion is the proper means by which the will is strengthened and character formed (see Ciiaeacter). Thus we see that the child's physical, intel- lectual, and moral development alike de- pend on its self- activity. (See Iv. A. Schmid's Encyclopddie, article 'Thatig- keitstrieb.') Adam, Alexander, a celebrated Scot- tish teacher, born in Morayshire in 1741. In 1769 he succeeded to the rectorship of the High School of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself by introducing the study of classical geography and history, and by teaching his pupils the dead lan- guages by aid of their native tongue, a method which he probably borrowed from the Port- Royalists (q. v.). Adam pub- lished the first Latin grammar written in English. Previous to him the whole of the text of grammars was written in ADELAIDE UNIVERSITY ESTHETIC CULTURE Latin. His innovation was condemned by many, but soon became popular, and edition after edition of liis grammar ap- peared with great rapidity. He was also the founder of the first organisation of Scot- tish tutors for mutual benefit. He died 1809. Adelaide University. See Universi- ties. Administration. See Education De- partment. Adult Education. — The promoters of the various systems of adult education con- tend, in the first place, that the instruction received in the day school ought to be con- tinued, or that much of the advantage will be lost ; in the second place, that some provision should be made for adults to spend their leisure time in a manner at once enjoyable and profitable. The in- terests of commerce have led to the esta- blishment of technical schools, the main object of which is to make the workman more intelligent and skilful. In this gene- ral activity higher education has not been forgotten, and adults of industry and ability have abundant opportunities at different colleges and schools of studying a univer- sity course. The most important institu- tions founded for the promotion of adult education are : 1 . Mechanics' Institutes, initiated by Dr. Birkbeck {q. v.), who de- livered a course of free lectures to artisans at Glasgow in 1800. The first institute was established in London in 1823, and since that time they have spread through- out the length and breadth of the country. The premises usually include a reading- room, circulating library, lecture-room, and class-rooms. Although originally in- tended to be self-supporting, the subscrip- tions of the members are generally supple- mented by contributions. 2. Night Schools, in connection with the different elementary schools of the country, are found in nearly every town. They are taught by certifi- cated teachers, and supported by the fees of pupils, and by grants upon examination by the Education Department. The sub- jects of instruction include the ' three Rs,' geography, grammar, French, &c., as spe- cified by the Code. 3. Evening Classes. — In London, at University College, King's College, the City of London College, Birkbeck Institutes, Polytechnic (Regent Street), South Kensington Museum, Fins- bury Technical College, &c., evening classes are held. In the provincial colleges {q.v.) evening classes constitute an important part of the curriculum. A great impetus was given to adult education by the re- vival of the non- collegiate system at Ox- ford and Cambridge, and the establishment of London University, for the purpose of examining and conferring degrees. Dur- ham and Dublin also examine candidates without residence, and so stimulate pri- vate study. 4. Recreative Evening Glasses. — The most recent scheme for promoting adult education has been the establish- ment of recreative evening classes. Among the founders are eminent educationists, and many representative working men. They allege that previous efforts have been unsatisfactory because the programmes have not been sufficiently entertaining. Their aim is to provide wholesome amuse- ment and technical instruction for young men and boys who have left school. The distinguishing features are modelling in clay, wood-carving, calisthenic exercises with dumb bells or wands to a musical accompaniment, and instruction in instru- mental as well as vocal music. .ffigrotat. — When a candidate for honours in any school at Oxford, or tripos at Cambridge, is prevented by illness from taking his examination or any part of it, the examiners may grant him what is called an segrotat degree. (Lat. o^ger, sick.) Esthetic Culture. — This concerns it- self with the strengthening and develop- ing of the aesthetic feelings and judgment, which together constitute what is known as taste. This faculty includes the capa- bility of recognising and enjoying all manifestations of the beautiful, both in nature and in art. It stands on the one side in close relation to the two higher senses, hearing and sight. The most rudi- mentary form of taste shows itself as a refined sensibility to the impressions of colour and tone. A fondness for bright colours and the combinations of these is observable, not only among young children and backward races, but even among some of the lower animals. In its fuller deve- lopment taste involves the activity of tlie higher intellectual faculties, and more par- ticularly the imagination (q.v.). This applies even to the appreciation of the sights and sounds of nature, which, as Alison has shown, owe much of their beauty and charm to suggestion. In the case of certain arts, as painting and, pre- eminently, literature, the exercise of the AFFECTATION AFFECTION imagination is the chief source of the aes- thetic delight. The education of taste aims at expanding and refining the ses- thetic feelings, and guiding the judgment by providing a fixed standard. It is thus at once a development of emotional sen- sibility and of intellectual power. In order to develop a child's taste it is neces- sary to awaken a genuine feeling for what is pretty, graceful, pathetic, sublime, &c. Hence the educator must be on his guard against the mere affectation {q-v.) of others' aesthetic sentiments and a mechani- cal reproduction of their maxims. This evil may be most efiectually prevented by carefully attending to the way in which taste naturally develops, by not forcing a mature standard on the unformed childish mind, and by allowing, and even encou- raging, a certain degree of individuality in taste. The education of taste includes first of all the exercise of the faculty in distinguishing and appreciating the beauties of our natural surroundings. This branch connects itself with the training of the observing faculties, and the fostering of a love of nature. An- other branch concerns itself with the per- ception of what is graceful, noble, and so forth, in human action. And here the cultivation of taste becomes in a measure ancillary to moral education. Finally, it embraces special technical training in the fine arts, more particularly music, draw- ing and painting, and literary composi- tion. Here the object of the educator must be both to form the taste by the pre- sentation of good models, and also to exer- cise the child in the necessary processes of interpretative rendering, as in singing and recitation, imitative reproduction, as in drawing, and original invention. The value of a wide gesthetic culture depends on the fact that it necessarily involves an harmonious development of the feelings as a whole, and so a preparation of the child for the most varied and refined en- joyments, and also a considerable growth of the intellectual faculties. Indeed, the {esthetic feelings form one important sour-ce of interest in most, if not all, branches of study. Thus the scientific observation of nature is sustained by a feeling for its picturesque and sublime aspects, and the pursuit of history is com- monly inspired by an exceptional suscep- tibility to the dramatic side of human life. The connection between resthetic and in- tellectual education becomes especially ap- parent in the study of literature, which is at once as a record of thought in words, an appeal to the logical faculty, and as a variety of art embodying worthy and noble ideas in a fitting laarmonious form, a stimulus to the aesthetic feelings and the critical judgment. The connection be- tween sesthetic culture and moral training is a question that has been much discussed both in ancient and in modern writings. (>S'ee Sully, Teacher's Handbook, chap, xviii., and the references there appended ; also Schmid's Encyclo'pddie, article ' Aesthe- tische Bildung.) Affectation. — This refers to the as- sumption of the external marks of a worthy feeling as the result of a volun- tary effort, and not as the spontaneous manifestation of the feeling itself. It by no means necessarily involves a deliberate in- tention to deceive another, as hypocrisy always does, and commonly falls short of deception as an ' awkward and forced imitation of what should be genuine and easy' (Locke). It generally implies an in- tensified form of self-consciousness. As a form of insincerity, and having one of its chief roots in vanity, it calls for careful watching on the part of the educator. At the same time it must be remembered that it often arises half-consciously from the wish to please and the desire to be in sym- pathy with others. According to Locke affectation is not the product of untaught nature, but grows up in connection with management and instruction. It is thus a failing which a careless mode of educa- tion is exceedingly likely to encourage, as where a teacher looks for and even exacts the responsive manifestation of feelings which belong to a later stage of develop- ment, such as the more refined forms of sesthetic and moral feeling. (See Locke, Thouglits concerning Educatio7i, § 66, and Miss Eclgeworth, Practical Education, chap. x.). Affection. — This term, once used for all permanent and constant, as distin- guished from transitory and variable, states of feeling, has come to be narrowed down to one specific variety of these, viz. a feeling of attachment to others. It in- cludes two elements which it is important to distinguish : a pleasurable feeling of tenderness showing itself in a liking for some particular pei^son, and an element of sympathy or kindly sentiment. A true AGE IN EDUCATION affection is a gradual attainment involv- ing fixed relations of a happy kind, an accumulation of memories, and a final process of reflection. Hence it has been said that grateful afiection for a parent or a teacher is one of the latest of attain- ments. The fact that a feeling of afiec- tion prompts the subject of it to seek to l^lease and further the happiness of the beloved object gives it a peculiar educa- tional value. It is now commonly held that the most effectual way to influence a child is to attach it by bonds of afiec- tion. This work, which varies in difficulty according to the natural disposition of the child, is always much easier in the case of a parent than of a school teacher, for the latter, as the representative of a govern- ment which is wont to appear unnatural and excessive, is apt to arouse hostile feel- ings. These difficulties can only be got over by an habitual manifestation of kind- ness, consideration, and sympathy on the part of the teacher. See Sympathy. Age in Education. — The connection between age and education has been the subject of much controversy, but, speaking of the period up to manhood, it has been generally agreed that there are three dis- tinct stages in the development of the mind corresponding to three clearly marked periods in the development of the body. The three epochs extend each over seven years, and are strikingly distinguished by physiological differences in the constitu- tion, some of which are external and ob- vious. These periods are infancy, child- hood, and youth. Infancy, which covers the first seven years of life, is the time of active physical development and of rapid growth. Its close is indicated by the shedding of the temporary teeth and the appearance of the earliest permanent teeth.. Even dur- ing the last two or three years of this stage a child is capable of little original efibrt, and there are few manifestations of mental activity beyond observation and memory. Instruction during this period should hold, therefore, only a se- condary place, and the education should be rather that of the body than that of the mind. The voice of nature should rule, and it demands considerable freedom from restraint, exercise for the body, and for the intellect entertainment and amusement which are not too exciting. In the application of this principle there is, however, much preparatory work to be done which will greatly facilitate future progress. The child must be brought under training and taught obe- dience by being induced to rely upon the teacher, and so to submit to his guid- ance. Advantage should be taken, too, of the great interest which is natural to children in the objects of everyday life, especially animals. Simple descriptions of the food we eat and of domestic animals afford infinite pleasure to the young, stimu- late observation, furnish the mind with useful facts, and strengthen the memory. The power of imitation is strong at this age, and drawing or writing may be a source of both pleasure and profit. Read- ing and arithmetic are usually regarded as tasks, and only the very rudiments should be attempted. A remarkable transformation has taken place in the in- fants' schools of this country by the al- most universal adoption of the Kinder- garten method {q.v.) of teaching, founded by Froebel. Its general aim is to amuse the child in such a way as to exercise its faculties so. that it may be educated with- out being conscious of pressure. The gratifying results which are obtained by this system prove the excellence of the methods employed. Childhood extends from the seventh to the fourteenth year, or the attainment of puberty, and coincides nearly with the second dentition. Throughout this period the desire for more vigorous physical exer- cise is manifested. The child begins to feel his strength, and gives evidence of his power and tastes by independent thought and action, which point to a future career. Natural propensities are now quickly developed, impressions are received and character formed. The desires and aspi- rations should be carefully observed by the teacher so as to approve and en- courage what is good, or to restrain and check the evil. Yoxdh embraces the period from four- teen to twenty-one years of age, during which the development of the body is completed, and virility is attained. This is essentially the time of special prepara- tion for the battle of life. Except in the case of the wealthy and those intending to adopt a profession, the opportunity of giving undivided energy to study has ended with boyhood. The faculties of the mind are now active and vigorous, the imagi- 10 AGENTS AGRICOLA, RODOLPH nation is quickened, and a youth should enter upon the study of his favourite sub- ject full of hope and zeal. To ensure sound progress and to prepare for respon- sibility which is near at hand, the teacher, while he still carefully guides, should pro- vide less assistance and require greater independent exertion and original effort on the part of the pupil. Legislation in reference to age and education varies in different countries, and even in different parts of the same country. In England, school boards and school attendance committees may com- pel attendance at school under the Ele- mentary Education Act from five to four- teen years of age. Between these limits the years of school attendance required by the bye-laws of different school boards and committees vary considerably. As a rule the period of attendance is shorter in agricultural districts than in towns, numbers of children in rural parishes being allowed to leave school at ten years of age, provided they have passed the fourth standard. The School Board for London compels attendance from five years of age until either (1) the sixth standard is passed ; or (2) the child is thirteen years of age and has passed the fourth standard ; or (3) the child is fourteen years of age. In the United States the legal school age is from five to fifteen ; in France from seven to twelve ; in Germany from six to fourteen. In Switzerland each canton legislates for itself. In Lucerne attendance at day school is compulsory from seven to fourteen years, followed by two years at an evening school. In Zurich the age is from six to twelve at day school, and three years at an evening school. Agents — Scholastic, Medical, and Clerical. — There are numerous agencies in London and also in the provinces for bringing together parties whose educa- tional wants are complementary. Some restrict themselves to one particular branch of educational business — for ex- ample, there are ' governess agencies,' which bring into communication gover- nesses and persons that wish to engage governesses ; ' medical agencies,' which limit themselves to the satisfaction of the needs of medical gentlemen that wish to find situations, and medical gentlemen that wish to be provided with assistants, partners, or new fields of work, and so forth. Other agents extend their con- nections to all branches. After due in- quiry they place on their books the names of ladies and gentlemen who wish to find situations as assistants in schools, or as visiting tutors to private families, or as travelling tutors; who wish as principals to engage assistants, who wish to enter into partnership or to receive a partner, who wish to sell or to purchase a school. They also recommend to parents and guardians satisfactory schools in which to place their children, according to the individual re- quirements, both at home and abroad. The commission charged is very reason- able at all respectable agencies — gene- rally 5 per cent, on engagements at home, and 10 per cent, on engagements abroad, and for partnerships and transfers 5 per cent, on the money (or money value) tlaat passes. In spite of the abuse of their position by some agents, and the delibe- rate swindling of impostors describing themselves as agents, the system is un- doubtedly of great assistance to both par- ties to each transaction, particularly when the agent has a good connection and is competent to judge of the qualifications and needs of the applicants. It is strange that so few agents seem to have had per- sonal experience in teaching, or to be of such academical standing as to justify re- liance on their judgment in the cases that come before them. The fact that one London agency is personally conducted by two graduates of high academical as well as educational standing is sufficiently noteworthy ; it is especially creditable to the system, and affords exceptional assur- ance of intelligent guidance. Agricola, Rodolph, h. near Groningen, in Friesland, in 1443. His first master is said to have been Thomas a Kempis. He distinguished himself at school, and then proceeded to Louvain, where he graduated. He subsequently studied Greek under Theodore Gaza at Ferrara. Here he also lectured on the Boman language and lite- rature. He returned to Holland, and was professor for a short time in Groningen. In 1482 he removed to Heidelberg, upon the invitation of the Bishop of Worms, and there he was appointed professor. He studied Hebrew with great success, and gave lectures on ancient history ; but a sudden illness put an end to his career at the early age of forty-two. Agricola's classical attainments were of the highest AGRICULTUEAL EDUCATION 11 order, and he has been greatly praised by the elder Scaliger and Erasmus. His chief work is De Inventione Dialectica. This was ordered by Henry YIII., in 1535, to be taught in the University of Cambridge together with the genuine Logic of Aristotle ; and there is the same recommendation in the statutes of Trinity College, Oxford. Agricola attacked Scholasticism with great energy, and this alone would entitle him to a position amongst the pioneers of modern education. He was probably the first man who sought a means of educating the deaf and dumb. He was also the first to introduce the Greek language into Germany. Agricultural Education. — Agricul- ture, with its various subdivisions and allied pursuits, including the tillage of the fields, horticulture, floriculture, forestry, and pastoral, dairy, and poultry farming, is the most useful and universal of all branches of human industry. It is the main source of all products employed as food for men and domestic animals, or as the raw materials for clothing and many branches of manufacturing industry. Being a practical art, involving a multitude of applications of the principles of most of the physical sciences (such as geology and che- mistry, illustrating the qualities of soils and manures, meteorology, mechanics as applied to agricultural machinery, veteri- naiy medicine and surgery as applied to domestic animals, zoology and botany, &c.), agriculture cannot be pursued with advan- tage in the present day without a sound theoretical as well as practical training. The recognition of this truth, which has been brought home to the dullest comprehension by the vast progress made in agricultural chemistry through the labours of Liebig, Lawes, and others, has led to the esta- blishment in all the civilised countries of the world of numerous special institutions for the training of young men intending to take up farming or any of its allied pur- suits as the business of their lives. Before the rise of chemistry the pre- cepts of agriculture were necessarily em- pirical ; but in this pre-scientific period the English farmer, proceeding by the ' rule of thumb ' and ancestral traditions, succeeded in bringing practical farming to a wonder- fully high state of perfectioii. The varie- ties of cattle, sheep, pigs, and horses bred in England surpassed anything of the kind produced elsewhere throughout the world. To this practical success is probably to be attributed the fact that Avhen agricultural theory was revolutionised by the progress of chemistry the necessity of a theoretical training was less quickly recognised in England than in some foreign countries. One of the first attempts in the way of a scientific school of agriculture was made in 1795 by Thaer, at Celle, in the kingdom of Hanover, then part of the dominions of the English Crown. The success attained by this gentleman was such that he was invited by Frederick William III. of Prussia to establish a higher agricultural college in that kingdom, and the institu- tion he founded in 1806, at Moglin, in the province of Brandenburg, in combination with a model farm, has been the pioneer of a host of similar establishments in all parts of Germany. The agricultural academies at Hohenheim in Wiirtemberg, Proskau in Silesia, Weihenstephan in Bavaria, Waldau in East Prussia, and others, were all mo- delled on that of Moglin. At Jena Sturm founded an institute whose pupils attended the university classes in the winter, and a course of practical training on well-man- aged farms in the summer. At Poppels- dorf and at Eldena there were special agricultural academies connected with the Universities of Bonn and Greifswald re- spectively, while other academies were as- sociated with the Polytechnic High Schools of Brunswick, Carlsruhe, Darmstadt, and Munich in Germany, and Zurich in Swit- zerland. Nearly all the Prussian univer- sities now have agricultural institutes con- nected with them, special attention being paid to agricultural chemistry. In addi- tion to this highest collegiate class there exist in Germany two other grades of in- stitutions — the middle agricultural schools and the elementary or lower grade schools. Of the last mentioned there were fifty- three in Prussia alone in the year 1878, comprising twenty-six agricultural schools open winter and summer, fourteen winter schools, three schools of pastoral farming, and ten schools of horticulture and fruit culture. The Prussian Government grants to these establishments nearly 50,000^. annually. In several other parts of Ger- many agricultural educational institutions are, if anything, relatively more numerous than even in Prussia. In Wiirtemberg, besides the higher establishments, there are 783 agricultural continuation schools, attended by upwards of seventeen thousand 12 AHN, JOHN FRANK scholars. In Russia, in France, and in Belgium, as well as in most other Conti- nental countries, agricultural instruction has also received great attention. Austria possessed in 1879, in addition to the Agri- cultural College at Vienna (with nearly five hundred students), as many as sixty- eight institutions devoted to agriculture, horticulture, and forestry; and the national budget in that empire, as well as in other countries of the Continent, every year sets aside large sums for the support of these institutions. In Great Britain there are no Govern- ment institutions of this class, the field being still left to private enterprise. Chairs of agriculture, however, have been founded in some of the British universities. The Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester was founded in 1845. The students, who go through a course of two years' instruc- tion, are partly resident, partly non-resi- dent, the fees amounting to from 4:01. a year for the latter to 80/. for the former. The curriculum embraces a thorough scientific and practical training in the college classes and laboratories and on the extensive farm attached to the college. The authorities of several provincial colleges of the United Kingdom have in- troduced the principles of agriculture into the course of training, and instruction in the subject is encouraged and aided with grants in the elementary schools. Under the Code, the principles of agriculture may be taken up — (1) by the scholai^s in ele- mentary schools, as a branch of elementary science, which is recognised as a class sub- ject ; (2) by the older scholars, in the three highest Standards, as a specific subject ; (3) by pupil-teachers and assistant-teach- ers, as an optional subject, during the course of their engagement. If they do take it up and pass successfully at one of the (May) examinations held by the Sci- ence and Art Department, grants are made on their behalf by that Department, while their success is registered and marks al- lowed for it in any examination they subsequently attend as candidates either for admission to a training college or for a certificate of merit ; (4) by students in tx-aining. as a special science subject, dur- ing either or both of the two years of their residence in a training college. (For full information relating to the examina- tions in the principles of agriculture, in- stituted by the Committee of Council on Education, see the Directory for Estab- lishing and Condiicting Science and Art Schools, annually issued by the Education Department : Eyre & Spottiswoode, East Harding Street, Fleet Street, London, E.G. Price 6d.) In Ireland the Commissioners of Na- tional Education have paid much atten- tion to this department of education, and twenty years ago there were 166 farm- schools in active operation, all with land attached ranging from two to a hundred and twenty acres. Of these nearly half (seventy- six) were workhouse agricultural schools, while forty-eight were ordinary agricultural schools. The instruction given in these, however, is only of the most elementary description, training ordinary school children in the common operations of gardening and the field. Of higher pretensions than these are the thirty- seven model agricultural schools in various parts of the island. Besides these there is one superior establishment, the Model Train- ing Farm at Glasnevin, founded in 1838, where a hundred young men selected from the minor schools receive a more complete course of instruction. A considerable number of the students here receive board, lodging, and two years' education gratui- tously, with a view to becoming farm ma- nagers or steAvards ; while another section consists of school-teachers, who in their later career have to conduct the lower classes of agricultural schools. At Temple- moyle, in Derry, there is another agricul- tural seminary, which has turned out a thousand well-trained agriculturists in the first thirty years of its existence. The total number of pupils in all the agricul- tural schools and academies in Ireland is upwards of three thousand, and the ex- penditure involved is upwards of ten thousand a year. (See Forestry.) Ahn, John Frank (b. 1796, d. 1865).— In 1824 he abandoned commerce for study, and spent two years at the college at Aix- la-Chapelle. He subsequently founded a commercial school, which was the first attempt at a professional school in the Rhenish provinces. It proved a great failure, and after two years he shut it up.' In 1834 he published, in German, his Practical Method for the Rapid and Easy Study of French. The woi'k was an im- mense success, and was translated into many languages. His principle was to apply to the leai'ning of foreign languages ALCUIN ALLEYN, EDWARD 13 the same method which a child follows in acquiring its mother-tongue. There was to be no grammar to begin with, and the whole was arranged in a plan of three courses. His method, no doubt, gave an impulse to the study of modern languages. Alcuin(735(?)-804), an eminent ecclesi- astic and reviver of learning in the latter part of the eighth century, was born in Yorkshire. He was invited by Charlemagne to assist him in his educational schemes, and was placed at the head of the Palace School attached to the Court, where he instructed Charlemagne and his family, amongst others, in rhetoric, logic, mathe- matics, and divinity. Under Alcuin's di- rections a scheme of education was drawn up, which became the model for the other great schools established at Tours, Fonte- nelle, Lyons, Osnaburg, Metz, &.c. — insti- tutions which ably sustained the tradition of education on the Continent till super- seded by the new methods and new learn- ing of the commencement of the university era. In 801 Alcuin obtained leave to re- tire from court to the abbey of St. Martin at Tours, of which he had been appointed the head. Here he remained and taught tni his death in 804. A life of Alcuin by Lorenz was published in 1829, and was translated into English by Slee in 1837. Algebra, to use Newton's expression, is ' universal arithmetic' Whereas arith- metic deals with particular numbers, al- gebra deals with numbers in general ; and whereas the former treats of numbers in connection with concrete things, the latter treats of number in the abstract. These are only two of the most marked distinc- tions, stated broadly. There is another, which 'is even more fundamental. The operations of arithmetic are capable of direct interpretation ^er se ; those of algebra are often only to be interpreted in relation to the assumptions on which they are based. For example, in arithmetic proper the operations denoted by indices are very limited ; but within those limits the inter- pretation is perfectly definite — they refer to certain areas, certain cubes, &c. — and it is clear that these indices must be whole numbers, with regard to which the ideas of positive and negative are inapplicable. In algebra we go beyond this, and work with indices which are fractional, and to which we do apply the ideas of positive and negative; and the operations performed can be and are interpreted ; but only in rela- tion to the assumption on which the whole theory of indices is based, viz. that the mul- tiplication of a'"- by a" shall alivays give «'"+" as a result, whatever a, and r)i and n may denote. It is true that it is very common in schools to divorce the arithmetic from concrete reality, and to work with the symbols merely as symbols. But even then the operations employed are only the writing in symbols of certain particular definite operations, which might be under- stood all along, and which can be at once interpreted by themselves. In algebra, on the other hand, we look upon our opera- tions mainly as the manipulation of symbols pure and simple ; and when we have arrived at results we seek interpretations of them by comparing them with our assumptions. The treatise written by Diophantus in the middle of the fourth century may be taken as the foundation of Greek algebra ; and from him and other Greeks the Ara- bians probably gained much of their know- ledge. But it is to the Arabians themselves that Europe directly owes its knowledge of algebra, as the name implies \al — the, and jabr= consolidating] . Their methods were introduced into Europe by Leonardo, a merchant of Pisa, in 1202 a.d. The first printed Algebra was by Lucas de Burgo, a Minorite friar, in 1494 a.d. The first English treatise on Algebra was by Robert Recorde, teacher of mathematics and prac- titioner in physic at Cambridge. It was called the ' Whetstone of Wit,' and was published in 1557. As regards the method of teaching algebra important develop- ments have taken place, and new depar- tures have been adopted recently. On the subject of the new algebra the reader may consult Professor Chrystal's and Mr. W. Steadman Aldis's excellent text-books. AUeyn, Edward. — A celebrated actor, who devoted his wealth to the foundation of Dulwich College, in 1619. The college was reconstituted by Act of Parliament in 1858. It consists of an educational and eleemosynary branch, a chapel, library, and a fine picture-gallery, the last be- queathed, in 1810, by Sir P. F. Bourgeois. The educational branch comprises the up- per school and the lower school. In the upper school there are eight exhibitions of 50?. a year each, tenable for four years at the universities, or by any student of a learned or scientific profession or of the fine arts; also thirty-six scholarships of 20?. a year each, awarded to boys between 14 ALMA MATER ANALOGY twelve and fourteen years of age. In the lower school gratuities of 20^. and. 101. are granted, at the annual examination, to the most deserving boys then leaving the school. Alma Mater (Latin, ahmcs, cherishing, dear), the name applied in England to the particular university which a student has attended. Alphabet is the term applied to a col- lection of symbols used to express the sounds that occur in a language. The term is derived from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. Alpha Beta, which took the Latin form Alphabetum, but that word does not occur in any prose writer before Tertullian. All alphabets may be traced back to five forms — the Egyptian, cuneiform, Chinese, Mexican or Aztec, Yacutan, and Central American. The Egyptians seem first to have invented the alphabetical system, and their earliest form was the hieroglyphics. These hierogly- phics were pictorial, and indicated words. They are sometimes spoken of as ' the sacred letters'; and there seem to be some cases where the hieroglyphs were used to represent articulate sounds. Derived from the hieroglyphics by a process of degrada- tion is another set of characters, called the Enchorial (i.e. of the people). These Enchorials seem first to have been phonetic powers, perhaps syllables, then mere letters. The Phoenicians are said to have derived their symbols from the Egyptians. Our alphabet is derived from the Phcenician ; and the same is true of Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, Latin, and German. But the names given by Phcenicians to letters did not represent the sounds. The Ro- mans seem first to have named their letters from sounds, and probably the order of the letters is based on a classification of sounds, though it is now difficult to trace its development. Alumiiat (alere, to nourish, med. Lat. alumnatum), the appellation of institu- tions in Germany where, in addition to education, board and lodging are provided for students. In the Middle Ages such institutions were connected with monas- teries, and the pupils, in return for their gratuitous instruction and board, per- formed various services for the church and school. Maurice of Saxony founded some of the more celebrated of these schools in the sixteenth century. Alumnus is really a Latin adjective, de- rived from ah, to feed, to bring up ; but it is chiefly used as a substantive : (1) lite- rally = a nursling, in this sense chiefly by Latin poets : (2) trop. = a pupil. Cicero appears first to have used it in this way in reference to the disciples of Plato. It passed from that source into our own lan- guage when Latin was so commonly used, and it still remains, whether applied to a student of his college or to a pupil of a professor or tutor. America, Education in. See Law (Educational). American Universities. See Univer- sities. Amoross, Don Francisco (6. in Spain 1770, d. at Paris 1848), spent his early years in the army, and saw active service. In 1803 he superintended the direction of a military institute at Madrid for the re- formation of public education in Spain. He adopted the method of Pestalozzi. He was taken prisoner in 1808, at the close of the revolution, but soon released. Later he fled to France, and ofi'ered his services to Napoleon. He was made a member of the ' Society for Elementary Education ' in Paris, and published a work on the method of Pestalozzi. Soon he was able to com- mence a course of teaching in the capital. He had many pupils, and received govern- ment support. In 1819 a military college was founded, and he was appointed di- rector. His method consisted in graduated exercises for full physical development, and was especially noted for the fact that this physical development was made to contribute to the unfolding of the moral faculties. Analogy. — Reasoning by analogy com- monly means inference from one case to another on the ground of resemblance. It differs from the stricter forms of logical reasoning, inasmuch as we are not certain that the points of resemblance observed are necessarily connected with the matter inferred. In many cases, too, of argument from analogy the resemblance is only slight and superficial, and this makes the reasoning still more precarious. This applies to all reasoning from facts and laws of the physical world to analogical processes in the mental and moral world, as when we illustrate the operation of acquiring knowledge by analogies with the physiological processes, digestion, assi- milation, ttc. Children's reasonings, before they become capable of the more exact ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 15 logical forms, are grounded on the percep- tion of resemblance, and so may be de- scribed as analogical. In illustrating new subjects to children, the teacher frequently finds it necessary to resort to analogy. Great care should here be taken to choose suitable analogies, and not to strain them, so as to make them prove more than they are capable of proving. Since analogy is a defective foi'm of reasoning, only useful where the more perfect forms are inapplic- able, it should be resorted to less and less as the child's reasoning faculty develops. (On the logical use of analogy, see J. S. Mill, Logic, bk. iii. chap. xx. The use of analogy in illustrating subjects of in- struction is dealt with by Isaac Taylor, Home Education, chap, xi.) Analysis and Synthesis. — By Analysis is meant the resolving of a complex whole into its parts or elements ; and by Syn- thesis, the reverse process of combining parts or elements into a whole. Physical analysis and synthesis are best illustrated in the chemical processes. As applied to intellectual operations the terms are some- what ambiguous. One clear instance of analysis is supplied by abstraction, in which the mind breaks up the concrete whole given in perception into a number of constituent properties. {See Abstrac- tion.) As supplementary to this we have a process of synthetic construction, as when the mind through the medium of verbal description forms an idea of an unknown chemical substance by a new combination of known qualities. In a somewhat loose manner, Analysis is used to denote induc- tion. Synthesis deduction. A stricter employment of the term ' analysis ' in con- nection with reasoning confines it to the resolution of complex effects into their separate parts, and the reference of these to their proper causes. The terms have come to be employed in education to denote a contrast of method. Thus it is customary to distinguish between an analytical and a synthetical way of teaching a language, and the meaning of the phrase ' gram- matical analysis ' has become well defined. In geometry, again, which is largely an illustration of the synthetic building up of complex ideas out of simple ones, analysis also occupies a subordinate place. While the antithesis has thus a certain signifi- cance and utility, its vague and fluctuating meaning seems to render it unfit to serve as a fundamental distinction in educational method. (See Jevons, El. Lessons in Logic, xxiv. ; Bain, Ed. as Science, chap, iv., and Compayre, Cours de Pedagogic, pt. ii. le9on i.) Analysis of Sentences. — Two different processes are often comprised under this term : (1) 'grammatical' analysis (pars- ing) ; (2) 'logical' analysis. The difierence between them is essentially one of the degree of detail to which the analysis of the sentence is carried. Logical analysis deals with groups of words and assigns the part played by each in the structure of the sentence ; parsing directs attention to the part played by each separate word and the various characters which may be ascribed to it. It follows that analysis ought to precede parsing ; the broad outlines of the sentence should be marked out before the question of the function of each word is raised. Thus it is difficult to define a noun except in relation to the ideas of subject (or object) ; adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions cannot be truly distin- guished except by consideration of their function in the sentence. Experience seems to show that children deal more naturally with groups of words ('thought- units') than with individual words, and find their way without serious difficulty through the outlines of the analysis of simple and compound (complex) sentences. A noun clause is to them a many-worded noun. To be able to recognise 'when I come ' as an adverb clause is certainly easier than to assign its precise func- tion and character to 'when.' This is especially applicable to the teaching of English. Owing to the loss of inflections in modern English, words do not any longer bear their character stamped upon them or tell their own tale. A large number of words may serve as various parts of speech, as Dr. Abbott has shown. The treatment of words in groups is thus imposed by the genius of the modern language, and to this fact the wide-spread adoption of analysis in English-speaking countries bears witness. Parsing may easily become an exercise worse than use- less in English teaching, if it degenerates into a tedious enumeration of all the cha- racters which may be assigned to any single word ; still more if it leads to the discovery of characters in words which they do not really possess {e.g. gender in nouns) ; and the protest which has arisen on many sides is thoroughly justified. But 16 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES parsing when not thus vitiated by false methods is a necessary and useful adjunct of analysis. A word of caution : Much time would be saved if teachers, instead of asking the pupil to ' parse ' every word about which any question arises, would direct his attention to the particular point at issue — e.g. by asking, ' What is the tense of this verb ? ' ' What is the case of this pronoun 1 ' ' What is the perfect par- ticiple of this verb 1 ' The method of so-called ' logical ' ana- lysis is of comparatively recent date. It was originated in Germany by K. F. Becker [Deutsche Sprachlehre, 1827). In opposition to the empirical methods then in vogue, he based his grammar upon thought relations and logical distinctions. Becker's system exercised a great influence not only upon the teaching of German, but also upon that of Latin and Greek ; it was introduced into England by Dr. Morell, and various improvements in de- tail were made by Mr. C. P. Mason. It has been much criticised from various points of view, but not superseded. Pro- bably its defects have arisen from a mis- taken view of the relation of grammar to logic, from which Becker himself was not free. Grammar and logic are not coin- cident, though they have their points of contact. Thus logic is justified from its own point of view in casting every judg- ment into the mould of subject, copula, and predicate. But logic neglects many finer shades of meaning which are gram- matically of the highest interest (' Birds fly ' is not=' Birds are flying ') ; and in many other ways grammar may be vitiated by the intrusion of logic. For logic con- cerns itself only with the import of pro- positions ; grammar with their import as expressed in a certain form of language. Hence an analysis which contents itself with stretching every sentence upon the Procrustean bed of the logical judgment may easily do violence to language. A warning is needed against analysing in the way in which ' a butcher analyses sheep ' (Mr. H. Bradley, Academy, January 1886). The process of sentence analysis must be conducted on true grammatical lines ; so conducted it forms a sound basis of rational grammar teaching, not merely in English, but in foreign languages too. The grammatical division of the sen- tence is into two parts, corresponding to the two elements in every ' complete thought ' : Subject. Predicate. The mail is a traitor. Birds fly. Whether every sentence can be thrown into this form is a matter of opinion. The question is admirably discussed in Paul's Principien der Sprachgeschichte (translated by Professor Strong), in connection with the views of Miklosich as to ' subjectless sentences ' (e.g. speak, pluit) and the difii- culties involved in defining the term ' sen- tence.' The terms ' subject ' and ' predi- cate ' are incapable of definition except by reference to one another. The ' subject ' is the word or group of words denoting that of which the action denoted by the predi- cate is declared ; the ' predicate ' is the word or the group of words denoting that which is declared of the thing denoted by the ' subject.' Any more confined definition of these terms must be imperfect ; if we say, as is very commonly said, ' The sub- ject is the word or group of words denot- ing that of which something is declared,' or ' The subject is the word or group of words denoting that which is spoken about,' the definition may practically answer the purpose ; for experience will show the pupils what is really meant. But, strictly speaking, ' something ' is declared of other parts of the sentence besides the ' subject.' For instance, in such sentences as ' This ambition I do not share,' ' At lovers' per- juries Jove laughs,' ' something ' is said of ' this ambition ' (i.e. that I do not share it), and of ' lovers' perjuries ' (i.e. that Jove laughs at them) ; and these notions being in fact the emphatic parts of the sentence naturally present themselves to the mind when the question is asked, ' About what is something said in this sentence ? ' Children before they have ac- quired grammatical experience are apt to assign the same word as subject of the fol- lowing sentences, 'Wellington conquered the French at Waterloo,' and ' The French were conquered by Wellington at Water- loo.' To sum up : the subject cannot be defined except by reference to the full predicate. Whether the clumsy definition which results is of any use for teaching purposes opens up a question too wide for discussion in this place. See Definition. Grammarians are not agreed as to the best way of using the terms ' subject ' and * predicate.' The general method is to dis- ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 17 tinguish logical {ov full) and grammati- cal subject, and logical (or full) and grainmatical predicate, and to use the terms subject and predicate in parsing as equivalent to grammatical subject and grammatical predicate. Thus in the sen- tence ' The fair breeze fanned my cheek softly,' breeze would be the (grammatical) subject a.T\di fanned the (grammatical) pre- dicate. This method has the advantage of providing convenient terms for the cardinal words of the sentence ; the objec- tion to it is that it sacrifices the words suljject and predicate as names for the two parts into which the sentence primarily falls (compare, too, what is said below about qualifying parts of the sentence). It is open to those who think that subject and predicate should be kept for this sense to distinguish breeze as the ' subject-word ' and to callfanned simply ' verb ' ; though it would doubtless be desirable, if possible, to find for the verb some term which was not a term of parsing. With regard to the proper use of certain other terms of analysis, divergencies of opinion exist. It is one of the chief merits of Mr. Mason to have given a definite and useful meaning to the term ' complement,' which has been so vaguely used in France (co'inplement direct ; complement indirect) ; this term is now generally understood to denote the part of the sentence which completes the meaning of a verb of ' incomplete predica- tion ' (i.e. a verb which does not make complete sense by itself). As the infinitive (used after another class of ' incomplete ' verbs) plays a very different rdle in the sentence from the ad- jectives and nouns, called complements, some grammarians have thought it desir- able to mark this use of the infinitive by a special name — ' prolative infinitive' (i e. infinitive which extends the meaning of the finite verb) is the term employed in the Public School Latin Primer; when first introduced in that book it met with a storm of opposition, but is now widely used. The term ' supplementary infinitive ' has also been suggested. But whatever term is employed there would seem to be obvious advantages in recognising by a separate term this characteristic feature of the Aryan languages ; in such a sentence as ' He seems to be rich,' the complement is rich (compl. of the infinitive to be), not to be rich. The term ' indirect object ' is used very variously, and the question arises whether indirect object should be analysed as coming under the ' object column ' or the ' adverbial adjunct column.' The question is complicated by the oblil/eration in mo- dern English of the distinction between dative and accusative. It is undoubtedly true that in modern English we may say not only ' I told him the story,' but also ' He was told the story ' — i.e. the indirect object may become the subject of a pas- sive verb. But in languages which pre- serve the distinctive case inflections, this is impossible ; and it is urged with force that the indirect object is as adverbial in character as any prepositional phrase (He sent it to the post). The classification of noun (substanti- val) clauses presents considerable difficulty in regard to details. But the main classes generally accepted are : (1) indirect state- ments ; (2) indirect petitions (commands) ; (3) indirect requests. There is a diffi- culty in regard to such a sentence as ' It is strange that such things shoidd be '; this differs from ' It is strange that such things are^ as containing not a statement of fact, but rather an expression of contingency. Such a clause is called by Mr. F. Ritchie {English Grammar and Analysis, 1886) an ' indirect thought.' The qualifying parts of the sentence (attributes, adverbial adjuncts) are very commonly treated as enlargements, by which the naked sentence is clothed. This is open to serious objections, such as those urged by Dr. F. Kern {Deutsche Satz- lehre, 1883) and by Mr. J. Spence {Jour- nal of Education, 1884). In such a sen- tence as ' Birds that are web-footed swim in water,' it is certainly misleading to speak of the clause that are web-footed as an ' enlargement ' ; the statement is made not about birds, but about birds that are web-footed. These objections do not apply to the method of breaking up sentences into parts, if it be recognised that the process is an abstract one, and that at every stage of analysis we get farther and farther away from the actual sentence be- fore us ; they apply only to the synthetic reconstruction of the sentence out of the elements which result from the process of analysis. The most common form in which sen tences are analysed is a ruled table con- taining headings for subject, predicate, &c. Dr. Bain {Teaching of English, 1887) 18 ANSWER ARCHITECTURE OF SCHOOLS objects to the derangement of the order of words in the sentence which results, and this is certainly felt as a difficulty, especi- ally in analysing French and German. In some schools the sentence to be analysed is written out vertically and the descrip- tion of the parts (subject, object, &c.) are written opposite. This is the method adopted by Mr. Fitch {Lectures on Teach- ing, p. 268). There are two points of im- portance to be kept in view : (1) the best method of indicating the relation of the words in each group ; (2) the best method of indicating the relation of each group to the others. For the latter purpose the generally employed form of a tree is useful. Answer. See Question and Answer. Aporti, Ferante, the celebrated founder of infants' schools in Italy, was born in 1791, in San Martino, in the province of Mantua. From childhood he was destined for the priesthood. Yet, whilst pursuing the usual studies eagerly, he never ceased to interest himself in the progress of his nation, especially in the education of the children, for by this means only did he think it possible to save Italy, He was professor of history in Cremona, and was also appointed inspector of schools there. He soon discovered that the great defect in the national education was the absence of any early culture. Italy had at that time many little schools, which were con- ducted by ignorant old women, very much like our dames' schools of forty or fifty years ago. Aporti felt that education should commence from the cradle, and devised a plan of education to precede that of the ordinary school. In 1827 he made his first attempt, and opened a small school in Cremona for the children of the rich. His method has been described as ' development of the body by means of a sound regime, frequent recreation, short hours of work, and gymnastic exercises suitable to the age of the children ; for- mation of the heart by good examples and wise precepts ; culture of the spirit by teachmg of a kind fitted to their intellec- tual capacities, so that it resembled play rather than a task.' Brilliant success crowned his effort, on all sides he met with praise, and in 1829 the government of Milan approved his method by public decree. Numerous other places followed the example of Cremona, and in 1833 Aporti published a manual to serve as a guide to the promoters of these infants' schools. Not satisfied with this, he spent any time that could be snatched from his many duties to go and visit these schools. He was accused of introducing a spirit of ir- religion and revolt by his method, but he 1 pursued his course without relaxation till y thousands of schools bore witness to the success of the system he had inaugurated. By special invitation he opened a school at Turin, in the heart of the university, and thus efiected a complete reformation in Italian teaching. Distinctions were showered upon him. The French Govern- ment bestowed on him the title of ' Knight of the Legion of Honour.' Though he fled to Piedmont as a refugee, Victor Em- manuel raised him to the rank of a sena- tor in 1848. In 1855 he was elected with every mark of dignity to be President of the University of Turin. There he died in 1858, but he still lives in the memory and speech of his countrymen as ' the Father of Childhood.' Apparatus. — Catalogues containing price lists of apparatus, instruments, dia- grams, &c., to illustrate the following sciences, and obtainable from various manufacturers, have been prepared, and can be had on application: — 1. Practical Geometry, Machine and Building Con- struction, Mechanics and Steam. 2. Ex- perimental Physics. 3. Chemistry and Metallurgy. 4. Geology and Mineralogy, Natural History (Physiology, Zoology, and Botany), Physiography and Agricul- ture. A skilful teacher will be able to save much expense, and to make his subject increasingly attractive to his pupils, by constructing his own apparatus where pos- sible. The greatest discoverers in science have worked with rough apparatus of their own invention and construction. Approbation. See Praise and Blame. Architecture of Schools. — Conspicuous among the questions which the universally awakened interest in education has brought up for discussion is that of the architec- ture and planning of school buildings. When the curriculum of secondary schools was confined to Latin and Greek grammar and translation, and of primary schools to reading, writing, and ciphering, the struc- ture of the school in which these com- paratively simple operations were only too mechanically performed was only too mechanically simple. However imposing ARCHITECTURE OF SCHOOLS 19 might be the external appearance — and some of these old schools very creditably reflected the ecclesiastical origin of their foundation — the interior coidd boast of very little accommodation for school pur- poses beyond one large schoolroom. In this all the scholars were taught all the subjects, the masters' desks being dotted about the floor, with a clear space round each desk, in which the class stood for ' lesson,' and then was relegated for ' pre- paration ' or ' writing ' to desks placed either against the walls, or face to face, or in other ways determined by no higher consideration than that of convenience or close packing. But the day of these things has gone by ; the extensions of the curri- culum to include subjects requiring more space, greater quiet, or special arrange- ments for their adequate treatment ; the improvements in methods of instruction, coupled with the introduction of a greater variety of methods ; and, beyond this, a far higher conception of the parts which good order, decency, and considerations of health should play in the education of youth, have completely altered the aspect of the architectural question. From being a very simple one it has now become one of the most complex. The adaptation of school buildings to their diverse purposes has made infinite attention to details su- premely important. These details, their efiect upon the discipline, comfort, and efficiency of a school, it has become part of a schoolmaster's professional duty to study and to master. In designing school buildings his services, as the only possible expert in these matters, are indispensable side by side with those of the professional architect. A school, like every building, ought to have a character of its own, and to bear upon its exterior the marks of the purpose for which it was erected. Being neither a church, nor a town-hall, nor a post-office, nor an asylum, nor a workhouse, it should not suggest any of these to the eye. By its approaches, its facade, its ornament, it should reflect the quiet dignity as well as the practical utility of the work carried on within its walls. The site should, whenever possible, be a large open piece of ground, not hemmed in by houses, but free to the four winds and the direct action of the sun. Its area, including playgrounds, should be at least five square yards per scholar ; or more, if the whole school has its recreation at the same time. Its boundaries should be no higher than is absolutely necessary. In the country or quiet suburbs of a town, low walls, surmounted by iron palisading about six feet high, make the best boun- daries. In the middle of a town the necessity of avoiding distractions from the streets demands higher walls, but they need not exceed six feet. The buildings. — The whole of the sur- face soil should be removed from the site to be occupied by the buildings, and the ground under the floors should be covered with a uniform layer of concrete. A space of at least a foot should be left between the top of the concrete and the under-side of the floor joists, and this space should be thoroughly ventilated. The ideal school contains no staircases, so that the building should consist of only one storey, where the site is large enough for the purpose ; and should never, under any circumstances, exceed two storeys. The main building should have at least two entrances from the public thoroughfares. It should con- sist of an assembly hall, and a number of class-rooms sufficient to accommodate the whole school without using the assembly hall. This leaves the hall free, as it should be, for examinations, when the accommo- dation of the class-rooms would obviously be insufficient, for collective lessons, reci- tations, singing, &c. The assembly hall should, whenever possible, be a ' central ' hall — i.e. should have the majority of the class-rooms arranged round it, and com- municating with it, either directly or, better still, with an intervening corridor. In a two-storeyed building the hall would run up to the height of the upper storey ; and a gallery round the hall at the level of the first floor would make communi- cation with the class-rooms on that floor easy. The advantages of the ' central hall ' arrangement are : (1) the whole school can meet and disperse to the several class- rooms with the least possible delay or dis- turbance ; (2) the head-master and the various school officials can visit or take round notices with the least possible waste of time and energy ; (3) the central hall can be made a reservoir of fresh warm air, which can supplement the other means of ventilating the class-rooms and corridors, and, on the other hand, when the hall itself is full of people, as on ' speech days c2 20 AECHITECTURE OF SCHOOLS it can be ventilated from them ; (4) eco- nomy in the matter of cost is effected, as the main walls serve a double purpose. Intervening corridors have the great ad- vantage of enabling examinations and other collective teaching to be continued without interruption from the movement of the scholars from class-room to class- room or to the playground. The difficulty of adequately lighting the central hall may be overcome by placing cloak-rooms, masters' rooms, and other rooms not run- ning up to the same height as class-rooms, at each end of the central hall, thus per- mitting large windows high up at each end. Sky-lights or dormer-windows in the roof would further contribute light. The corridors, if parallel with the side walls, and therefore long, would be lighted at each end, or, if at right angles between every pair of class-rooms, and therefore short, would be lighted from one end. Sky- lights are to be avoided, whenever possible, as a storm of rain or hail produces noise, and of snow, darkness. The capacity of the central hall should be calculated at six square feet for each person to be seated on public occasions. Glass-rooms. — If the class-rooms are lighted on one side, as would mostly be the case, the room should be arranged so that no shadow shall be cast by the pupil's body on his book or paper, and for this purpose the light should fall on his left hand. There is no objection, and in fact a distinct advantage, where ventila- tion is taken into account, to having win- dows on two adjacent sides. No class- rooms should be placed on the north side of the building unless some of the windows can be placed so as to afford direct sun- light. The area of window surface should never be less than one-sixth of the area of the floor, and may be one-fifth with ad- vantage. The window-sills should be 4 ft. 6 in. above the floor. The area of the floor should be calculated, in elemen- tary schools, at ten square feet to each pupil, and should never be less than this ; in secondary schools, it may reach fifteen or sixteen feet with advantage. The height should be, in all schools, at least fourteen feet. The master's desk and dais should be in the middle of the long side of the room, with the light (necessarily) on his right. When at his desk, or at the blackboard behind it, he should have the whole class well in view, and therefore be well back from the front row of desks ; and the longer the rows, the further back must his desk be placed, and therefore the wider must the room be. Consequently an ar- rangement which permits of eight pupils in each long row (in single or dual desks, and allowing twenty-four to twenty-six inches ' elbow room per pupil) is usually more economical of floor space than one for ten pupils in each row. If the dais is suffi- ciently high (eighteen or twenty inches) a stepped or sloping floor is quite unneces- sary ; and there is an obvious economy in the principle of raising the master above the pupils for purposes of supervision, as against the opposite one of raising the pupils in tiers above the master. Besides, the noise of the pupils' movements and the fatigue to the master in moving about among his class, when on a stepped floor, are good pedagogic reasons for a sparing use of such an arrangement. The most appropriate place for a stepped floor (where it is most required, i.e. in an elementary school) is one extremity of the central hall. The class-room walls should be lined inside, to a height of from 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. 6 in. (according to the average height of the scholars using the room), with a dado, which may be of wood, tiles, or painted cement. The height of this dado should be varied as stated in order to allow of that most effective piece of school apparatus known as the ' con- tinuous blackboard' being placed round at least three of the walls immediately above the dado, on which the scholars can work in the presence of the teacher. Corridors and staircases. — The corri- dors should be at least five feet wide, so as to allow two streams of scholars to be moving in opposite directions without risk of inconvenience or disturbance. The flooring may be of wood-blocks or asphalte. Staircases in schools are open to nume- rous objections. They are noisy, they are dangerous, they are a fruitful source of breaches of good discipline, and they seri- ously add to the labours of supervision. If, as in a two-storeyed building, they are necessary, they should be of the same width as the corridors, they should on no account be spiral, but should have short flights with wide landings, and the flooring should be of wood-blocks. Care should also be taken in two-storeyed schools to have the floors of the class-rooms on the upper ARCHITECTURE OF SCHOOLS 21 story constructed of sound-proof mate- rials, such as girders and brick or concrete arching, which have the advantage of being non-conducting both to sound and fire. Science-rooms. — The position of sci- ence in the curriculum of all secondary schools being now fully established, the proper construction of the lecture-rooms, laboratories, apparatus-rooms required for the teaching of chemistry, physics, and physiology, has become a matter of prime importance. The recommendations of the Royal Commission on Technical Instruc- tion are forcing the question of elementary scientific and technical instruction upon the attention of the managers of elemen- tary schools ; but, in the case of this latter class of schools, it will probably be found convenient, especially in large centres of population, to erect a special school-build- ing to which pupils would be drafted from the other schools : though the time is pro- bably not far distant when a laboratory and workshop will be considered necessary ad- juncts of all elementary schools in artisan neighbourhoods. Science-rooms, to what- ever kind of school attached, should be in a separate block, near the main building, and readily accessible by a covered way. Otherwise the rest of the school will run the risk of being incommoded by fumes, and the chemical and physical students, of being disturbed in their investigations by the vibrations accompanying the move- ments of large numbers. The rooms should not be lighted on the south or west side, but should face either north or east, in order to avoid, as much as possible, the ill effects of direct sunlight upon chemicals and apparatus. The warming and venti- lation of the science-rooms should be on the same principle as for the main build- ing, only the areas of the inlets and outlets of air should be much larger. Cloak-rooms. — The extent to which accommodation for caps, great-coats, um- brellas, (fee, is required varies considerably with the character of the school. In a boarding-school, where the boarding-houses are clustered round the school, or in a day school, where the pupils live within short distances of the school, hardly any cloak- room accommodation is required ; the cor- ridors or covered ways may be fitted with pegs, and little else would be wanted ex- cept, perhaps, a drying-room connected with the hot- water apparatus, to receive the great-coats after a heavy downpour of rain. But in a day school of any kind, especially in towns where the schools are large, too great importance cannot possibly be attached to the supply of sufficient cloak- rooms. On this (together with the proper arrangement of the latrines) rests the very foundation of school morals. Health, dis- cipline, tidiness, respect for personal pro- perty are all encouraged at this point — on the very threshold of each school day — by effective arrangements, or discouraged by the reverse. There should be a sepa- rate cloak-room for every 150 scholars, with, if possible, ingress at one door and egress at another. The cloak-rooms should not be altogether at one part of the build- ing, but each should be as near as possible to the classes to which it is assigned. In this way perfect order can be maintained at assembly and dismissal, and the build- ings be cleared of scholars at the end of each school session in a few minutes. The fittings of the cloak-rooms should be de- signed in order (1) to isolate each scholar's outdoor clothing, so that the risks of the spread of infection may be largely dimin- ished, and that the wet coat of one boy may not saturate the dry coat or stain the light coat of his neighbour ; (2) to provide a system of umbrella-drainage, by which the fetid and discoloured drippings of many (cheap) umbrellas may be at once carried outside the building ; (3) to sub- ject each separate coat and umlbrella to a current of hot air, and, at the same time, to obtain such a length of hot- water pipes as will raise the temperature of the room sufficiently to dry wet clothes in the inter- val between assembly and dismissal ; (4) to reduce to a minimum the temptation to pilfer ; (5) and, by giving each boy's um- brella a place for deposit in his own com- partment, to prevent delays and confusion at dismissal, and to check changes of ownership, accidental or otherwise. All these objects can be accomplished by fit- ting the cloak-rooms with wooden parti- tions round the walls, and additional back- to-back partitions projecting into the room at equal distances at right angles to one of the walls. Hot- water pipes should be carried round and under all the partitions, so as to create a current of air direct up to and through each coat as it hangs. ^ The following detailed dimensions are given : Height of partition, 5 ft. 4 in.; width , 1 ft. 2 in. ; depth, 8 in. ; height of ledge 22 ARISTOTLE for gaiters, 1 ft. ; height of hook for um- brella, 2 ft. 6 in. ; width of drainage- trough, 3 in. ; length of hot-water pipes for 150 partitions, about 150 ft. Drainage-troughs. — On an asphalted floor these should be formed by sinking runnels in the asphalte. On a wooden floor the side troughs should be made by- two beads cased with zinc, and the main trough should be sunk in the boarding of the floor, and also cased with zinc. The main channel should communicate with the outside drainage. The lower panels of the door of the cloak-room should be flitted in with perforated zinc, in order that a current of colder and drier air from the corridors may be kept up through the room to cany off' the vapour arising from the wet clothes when heated by the hot- water pipes. The cost of the above (ex- clusive of hot- water piping) need not ex- ceed 65. per scholar. Aristotle or Aristoteles, the famous Greek philosopher and teacher, was h. 384 B.C. in the colonial town of Stageira, and hence is frequently spoken of as the ' Sta- girite.' His father, Nikomachus, was a physician, and a friend of Amyntas II. and Philip, King of Macedon, the grandfather and father of Alexander the Great. Having lost his parents very early Aristotle was brought up by Proxenus of Atarneus, in Asia Minor, to pursue medicine and sur- gery as a profession ; but in his eighteenth year he went to Athens, and somewhat loiter became a pupil of Plato, who was so impressed with Aristotle's mental jDowers that he called him ' the intellect of the school.' Aristotle remained twenty years in Athens, where he established a school of rhetoric, or oratory, a kind of edu- cational institute in which the youth of Athens obtained the mental training fltting them for the public life of their day. On the death of Plato (347 B.C.) Aristotle re- moved again to Atarneus, and subsequently to Mitylene, and it was about this time he was invited by King Philip to edu- cate his son. In the period 343 to 340 B.C. Aristotle acted as tutor to Prince Alexander from the thirteenth to six- teenth year of the age of the latter. The young prince became greatly attached to his tutor, but they subseqviently became estranged, owing to Alexander's ambition ; and, on Alexander entering upon his great campaign in Asia (334 B.C.), Aristotle re- moved again to Athens. Here, at the age of fifty, he opened the ' Lyceum ' (q.v.), so called from its being near the temple of the Lyceian Apollo (Apollo Lyceius). It was while at this school that Aristotle matured his philosophy and attained his unsurpassed reputation as a philosophical writer and teacher. From his habit of walking about the garden of the Lyceum with his pupils when teaching, his was called the peripatetic philosophy (Greek, TreptTraret?/, to walk about). In this con- genial occupation he passed twelve years ; but in 322 B.C., after Alexander's death, Aristotle had to fly from Athens, his enemies having brought against him an absurd charge of godlessness or atheism. He died the same year at Chalcis in Euboea, at the age of sixty- two. One of the greatest achievements of Aristotle was the creation of the science of deductive logic, which has undergone no material modiflcation since it left his hands. His other writings embrace all branches of speculative philosophy — i.e. metaphysics, or the science of real being ; ethics, or the science of morality ; and politics, or the science of government, and social science ; these, and his treatises on rhetoric and poetry, on animals, and various other subjects, are amongst the greatest monu- ments of the human intellect. Aristotle, being himself a teacher by profession, also wrote upon education, considered from the point of view of general ethics, as well as in its social and political relations. If man is to attain the greatest human good, happiness, he must, according to Aristotle, be trained to the knowledge and practice of virtue — in the flrst place to theoretical or diagnostic, and in the second place to practical or ethical virtue. Having to live in a material world, however, man must not be alloAved in his education to neglect the useful, but he must pay atten- tion to this only within due limits, so that he does not become absorbed in the pur- suit. As virtue is a regular habit or attitude of the soliI, and not simply a capacity, human beings can only acquire it by proper teaching, ti-aining, and habi- tuating in its ideas and practice. Accord- ing to Aristotle, the guidance of the busi- ness of education is the duty of the State. The flrst thing necessary is to take care that infants shall be properly fed, and that they shall be brought up with healthy bodies. Up to their flfth year children should be provided with amusement, and ARITHMETIC 23 their play should be so guided as to de- velop more particularly their muscular system . From the fifth to the seventh year the child should receive oral instruction, listening to the words of his teacher, and looking at objects or other modes of illu-strating the oral lessons. From the seventh to the fourteenth year the boy goes through the elementary course of education at school, and from the four- teenth to the twenty-first year the ad- vanced course at the higher school and academy, coming out at the end a man fully developed mentally, morally, and physically. The leading departments in the education of the ancient Greeks were called (1) grammar, (2) music, and (3) gym- nastics, answering respectively to (1) lite- rary, (2) sesthetic, and (3) physical culture. On all these points there are many valu- able observations to be found in Aristotle's various treatises. It was characteristic of Greek civilisation that Aristotle should teach that deformed and hopelessly weak infants should not be permitted to live. Nor did Aristotle allow that slaves, or even women, had the capacity of being fully trained to virtue. Wisdom is the highest object of the highest education, but this, according to Aristotle, was un- attainable until man had reached the pitch of culture entitling him to be called a philosopher. {See Athenian Education.) Arithmetic (Gr. apLOiMqnKrj, from apcd- fi6lfi,n of adding re- mained. One of the tewtn of a good aritli- metio is wlietlier it tel(\s us to t(^ll nt sight whether two or morenun\biM\s a.re divisible by one connnon nund)t^r, and is frtxpiently of gnvit aid in simplifying fractions. Having proceedtul thus far, modern t(*achers of arithmetic at once introduce the ]>upil to fractions. The old method of defeiring fractions to a late jitM'iod in the systt^nl nvsulttnl in students seldom being fanuliar with them. When the student has mastered the principles of pure arithmetic he comes rt'udy-armt^d to the n»or(* practical branch of commercial arithmetic. Tht> first real step in this branch is ' rule of three,' or, as it is now generally taught, ' the unity method,' which rests on a siinple, intelli- gent basis, fi'om which it takes its nan»e, thus — h*t t ht* qut^stion bo, ' if 20 liorses draw 25 tons, liow numy tons will 50 horses draw 'i ' Statement is, If 20 horses draw 25 tons, it is dear that one horsci draws the t\v*»ntit^th part of 25 tons, and 50 horst*s 50 1 imes tliis amount, which may be stfitcd thus : 20 liorsos draw 25 tons. .'. I liorse draws ""^ tons. . r.A I 1 25 X 50 . ,'. 50 Jiorses draw — m - ^°"^''' Hums comprising 5, 7, or 9 (piantities may l)(? worked out by this method. I>y an a})- plicatioii (titherof ordinary I'ule of tlireoor the unity nusthod, interest, discount, pre- sent w(piired. The simplest way of working these sums is to reduce the inches to frac- tions of a foot, and tlum as far as possi- ble Avork them all fractionally. Tliere is another method of doing all these sums, which is intei-esting from some of the sur- vivals of antiquity which remain in it. It is called from its metliod ' duodecimals.' I Jut it is now rarely used. Ratio and proportion. — The ratio of 'M. to 5/. expresses the relative gi-eatness of 3/. with regard to 5/., and this ratio is represented by Avriting the fraction j^, and tlun-efoi'e ratios can be compared by com- paring the fractions which repri^sent them. Proportion consists in the equality of two ratios. Wci can state it thus — 3 : 9 : : 5 : 16. Tlie truth of tliis can always bo ARITHMETIC 27 verified by multiplying the two extremes and the two means, wliich must be equal, thus 3 xl5=9 x5. {See Kaestner, Ge- schichte der Mathematik^'P eacock's ' History of Arithmetic ' in the Encyclopcedia Me- tropolitana ; and a paper on ' Approximate Arithmetic ' read by Mr. G. Heppel, M.A., at the College of Preceptors, and printed in the Educational Times for October 1887.) Mental arithmetic. — Although, apart from the employment of arithmetical ma- chines, every problem in arithmetic must necessarily be performed by the mind, it is only within certain limits that the opera- tion is exclusively mental. In most cases the memoiy is not powerful enough to dispense with the aid of writing. There is, however, a large class of arithmetical problems, and those not of the simplest chai'acter, connected especially with the various depaii:ments of trade and com- merce, which may with proper training and sufficient practice be solved by the mind alone, without the assistance of pen and paper or slate and pencil. This so-called mental arithmetic is • an art of such wide utility, that it has long formed an impor- tant branch of arithmetical teaching in elementary and secondary schools. Even young pupils of ordinary ability are, when properly taught, capable of attaining a re- markable degree of proficiency in this prac- tical branch of arithmetic, and a boy thus equipped will, on leaving school, commence life at considerable advantage over youths without such training. To sound progress in mental arithmetic a thorough grounding in the first and simplest elements of the science is indis- pensable. The teacher, for instance, who follows the course recommended by Pro- fessor De Morgan in training scholars quickly to count backwards and forwards, will carry his pupils forward with far greater ease than one who fails to pursue tins method. De Morgan, in fact, strongly advises every student of arithmetic to pursue the practice of counting arithme- tical series like the following untU they become perfectly familiar and can be run through mechanically with the greatest rapidity. In the Appendix to his Arith- metic De Morgan enters fully into this sub- ject. Teachers who have never attempted this method are recommended to begin the experiment in the form of simultaneous oral repetition with young pupils in classes. The fii'st group of series is as follows : -Q o o pi 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, &c. 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, &c. 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, &c. 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, &c. 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, &c.| 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, &c. 0, 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, &c. 0, 9, 18, 27, 36, 45, 54, 63, &cJ The series above given all begin" at zero, but the initial number should be varied, and other equally useful series will result. Thus, with the common difierence 2, we have the additional series : 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, &c. With the common difierence 3, we get two additional series : 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, &c. 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, &c. With the common difierence 4, we have three additional series : 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, &c. 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, 26, &c. 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27, &c. With the common difierence 5 we have four additional series ; with common dif- ference 6 we have five more series, and so forth. These series should be counted both forward and backward. Children thus trained in counting rapidly obtain complete mastery over the more compli- cated operations of arithmetic. For the series they thus learn to count really con- tains or involves all the four simple rules of arithmetic. Counting forwards is simple addition, and counting backwards sub- traction, while the progress by common difierences makes the series only a multi- plication table written out in full, and will obviously facilitate the learning of that table and of the reverse process of division. Mental arithmetic, in the narrower sense of the term, is a practical art. It consists of a body of rules for the rapid working (without the aid of writing) of problems involving chiefly the ordinary weights and measures and divisions of money. As these are all purely conven- tional, there is no problem involving them that can be worked mentally, except by pupils who have thoroughly committed the tables to memory. Where, as in France, such tables are throughout on the decimal system, the figures give the pupil no trouble to learn. He knows them as soon as he has learnt the common multiplication table up to 10 times 10, and there is nothing 28 ARMY SCHOOLS ARNOLD, THOMAS, D.D. further whatever of a numerical nature to learn in decimal weights and measures except mere names. Among the Conti- nental nations, therefore, mental arith- metic is incomparably easier than with Englishmen, Our tables of weights and measures are an anachronism. Compared with the decimal tables, the English weights and measures are as clumsy, unphiloso- phical, and unscientific as is the Roman system of notation compared with the Arabic. They necessitate an enormous amount of otherwise absolutely unnecessary labour, and multiply the difficulties of mental and ordinary arithmetic a hundred- fold. Under the decimal system there are no compound rules of arithmetic, whether performed mentally or in writing. The rules of mental arithmetic in English schools are consequently enormously more complicated than in most Continental schools. But the simple fact that our weights and measures are so complex renders the art of mental arithmetic so much more impor- tant and useful with us than with our neighbours. The more unpractical our divisions of money, time, space, weight, or of solid or liquid capacity, the more urgent the necessity of teaching mental arith- metic, and the greater the practical utility of the art. Army Schools. See Education (Army). Arndt, E. M. (b. at Schoritz, Isle of Riigen, 1769, d. I860).— In 1787 he went to the gymnasium at Straslund. Here he studied two years, and then proceeded to the University of Greifswald, and after- wards to Jena, where he was a pupil of Fichte. After travelling for a considerable period, he settled at Greifswald as privat- docent in 1800. There he was made pro- fessor extraordinary in 1806. By his writings he probably abolished serfdom, and roused his country to shake off the yoke of Napoleon by his patriotic pamph- lets and songs. After Germany was free, he was made professor at Bonn, but he demanded such bold reforms of the consti- tution that he offended the Diet, and was deprived of his chair, though he retained his salary. He passed twenty years in retirement, and devoted himself to litera- ture. In 1840 he was reinstated as pro- fessor at Bonn, and in 1841 was made rector of the university. Arnold, Thomas, D.D., made a great reputation as a teacher by the success with which for the last fourteen years of his life he discharged the duties of head- master of the great public school of Rugby. Arnold was the son of a collector of cus- toms at West Cowes, Isle of Wight, where he was born on June 13, 1795. Losing his father while still a child, he received | a careful preparatory education from his ■ mother and aunt, and after spending four years (1803 to 1807) at Warminster School, Wiltshire, entered the public school of Win- chester, where he remained from 1807 to 1811, under the successive head-masters Dr. Goddard and Dr. Gabell, of whom he speaks with gratitude as excellent teachers. In 1 81 1 he became a student in Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He was elected Fellow of Oriel in 1815, and won the Chancellor's prize for a Latin and an English essay in 1815 and 1817. At this period Thucy- dides — whose history of the Peloponnesian War he at a later period edited with valu- able notes and commentary — Aristotle, and Herodotus wei'e his favourite authors; but his studies embraced not only classics and history, but an earnest investigation of the Christian Scriptures, and the great principles of religion and philosophy in their application to daily life. Entering on these problems, somewhat unsettled in his opinions, Arnold, who was constantly discussing them with his contemporaries at college, including men like Keble, Whately, Copleston, Davison, and Hamp- den, ended by becoming thoroughly im- bued with the Christian spirit, convinced that the noblest life was to be found in the Christian ideal — in the endeavour to live in the spirit of Christ. It was to the fact that he was himself profoundly pene- trated with the religious spirit that his success as a teacher was due. Having taken deacon's orders in 1818, he settled in 1819 at Laleham, near Staines, where he was for some time chiefly engaged in preparing young men for the university. After ten years spent in teaching, occa- sional preaching, persevering study, and the maturing of his own character, he was at length elected to the head-mastership of Rugby School, and entered upon the duties of his post in August 1828. In one of the testimonials given to Arnold on becoming a candidate for this position, the writer used the prophetic words : ' if Mr. Arnold is elected he will change the face of education through all the public schools of England' — a prediction quite justified by the issue. Arnold's distinc- ART EDUCATION ASCHAM, ROGER 29 tion as a teacher was not that he invented any new form of discipline. His success was wholly due to his own earnest endea- vour to apply the principles of Christianity to life in the school as well as out of it. The mere fact of his own genuine devotion to Christian principle had an irresistible influence with the boys under his care; the amiability of his heart, the justice of all his dealings with them, the transparent honesty of his own character, made him at once loved and feared. His method may be illustrated by the way in which he trained boys to truthfulness. In the higher foi'ms of the school, if a boy, in replying to a question on some point of conduct, was not satisfied simply to give his reply, but attempted to support it by other statements, Arnold at once stopped him with the words, ' If you say so, that is quite enough. Of course I believe your word.' The feeling at once grew up in the school that it was disgraceful to tell the head-master a lie, and thus truthful- ness became habitual. In this and other ways Arnold gained a complete mastery in directing the public opinion of the school — and there is no more powerful aid to discipline, no more effective instrument for controlling a company of boys as well as the society of men at large, than public opinion, or the general standard of moral conduct. Arnold could act with severity where he found it necessary. Once he made an example of several boys by ex- pelling them from the school for gross lareaches of truthfulness and order, and, in doing so, he said, ' It is not necessary that this should be a school of three hun- dred, of one hundred, or even of fifty boys. It is necessary that it should be a school of Christian gentlemen.' In June 1842 Arnold was suddenly cut short by an attack of angina pectoris at the early age of 47. Besides his labours in the school Arnold was a prolific writer. In addition to his edition of Thucydides, he wrote a History of Home,' in three volumes, a work based on the then popular sceptical theories of Niebuhr. He also published five volumes of sermons, and contributed numerous articles to the encyclopaedias, reviews, and periodicals of the day. In 1841 he was appointed by Lord Mel- bourne to the Professorship of Modem History in the University of Oxford. He only lived to deliver one short course of lectures, which were attended by numer- ous audiences, and were published after Arnold's death. Art Education. See Esthetic Cul- CURE. Art (Schools of). See Science and Art Department. Arts (Liberal). — Art is derived from the same root as aro, to plough, because ploughing was the first art (Max Miiller); or more commonly from a root ar, mean- ing to fit things together. In itself it is a wide term often used to denote every- thing not a direct product of nature, and in this sense we speak of nature and art. In a more restricted sense it is opposed to science on the one hand, and to manufac- tures on the other. Its meaning is made fairly clear in the old definition that ' Science is to know that I may know ; Art is to know that I may teach.' There is a more limited sense still, including a group of arts, whose end is not use but pleasure. These are called the fine, the liberal, or the polite arts — ' liberal ' here meaning only such as the leisured classes (freemen as opposed to slaves) could follow. These are sometimes spoken of as art, as if they only were the arts. By common consent the five principal fine arts are — architec- ture, sculpture, painting, music, poetry. (See Esthetic Culture.) Ascham, Roger, b. 1515. — One of the earliest of English educational reformers, whose claim to that distinction is estab- lished by the new method of teaching he unfolded in his celebrated Scholemaster published in 1570, two years after his death. This work, in the opinion of Dr. Johnson, ' contains perhaps the best advice that was ever given for the study of lan- guages.' Ascham advocates the adoption of the natural in preference to all artificial methods, and maintains that the dead languages must, like mother tongue, 'be gotten, and gotten only by imitation. For as ye used to hear, so ye used to speak.' He expresses his willingness to venture a good wager that an apt scholar who will translate some little book in Tully on the frequent repetition method, will in a very short time learn more Latin ' than the most part do that spend from five to six years in tossing all the rules of grammar in common schools.' Like Locke, Ascham spoke from successful experience as a pri- vate tutor, and he tells us that his illus- trious pupil Queen Elizabeth, ' who never took yet Greek nor Latin grammar in her 30 ASSIMILATION ASTRONOMY hand after the first declining of a noun and a verb, but only by this double trans- lating of Demosthenes and Isocrates daily, without missing, every forenoon, and like- wise some part of Tully every afternoon, for the space of a year or two, hath attained to such a perfect understanding in both the tongues,' as to be a more remarkable example of the acquisition of great learning and utterances than even Dion Prussseus, whom Ascham instances as haAdng accom- plished this feat with the assistance of only two books, the Phcedo of Plato and the de Falsa Legations of Demosthenes, Roger Ascham was a native product of the new learning of the sixteenth century which marked the decline of monkish Latin and the rise of a more liberal scholarship with the introduction of Greek into the school curriculum. Ascham publicly read Greek at Cambridge in 1536, published Toxo- philus, the ScJiole of Shootinge, 1545, and was Latin secretary to Edward YI., Mary, and Elizabeth. For ten years previous to the accession of Elizabeth he was her preceptor. Assimilation. See Discrimination. Association of Ideas. — This expression refers to the well-known laws which govern the succession of our thoughts. Whenever one thing reminds us of another, this pro- cess of suggestion is due to a law of asso- ciation. The first and principal one, known as Contiguity, tells us that ideas recur to the mind in the order in which the original objects and impressions presented them- selves. In this way we associate events that occur together or in immediate suc- cession, as the movement and sound of a bell, objects and events with places, one place with another, and so forth. All ac- quisition of knowledge, whether by direct observation or through the medium of instruction, involves the building up of a group of such associations. Thus, a child's knowledge of a particular animal includes associations between the several charac- teristic features, between the animal as a whole, and its proper surroundings, its habits of life, &c. In studying geography and history, complex associations of place and time have to be built up. Since, more- over, all verbal acquisition implies the working of this law, both in the coupling of names with things and in the connec- tion of words in a given order, it is evident that the whole process of learning is con- cerned to a large extent with the fixing of associations in the mind. In addition to the law of Contiguity, it is customary to specify two other principles governing the succession of our ideas, viz. Similarity and Contrast. It is a matter of common observation that natural objects, persons, words, &c., often recall similar ones to the mind. Here, however, it is evident that the connection is not due to the fact that the things were originally presented in this order, but rather to the action of the mind in bringing together what is similar. This law has an important bearing on the pro- cess of acquisition (q.v.). By discovering points of resemblance between new facts and facts already known, we are able greatly to shorten the task of learning, as is seen in the rapidity with which an accomplished linguist masters a new lan- guage. All assimilation of new knowledge evidently involves the working of this principle, since it proceeds by joining on the new acquisition to old ones which are seen to have some analogy or affinity to the first. The law of Contrast, which says that one idea tends to call up its opposite, as good, bad, seems to be by no means universal in its action, and is not a prin- ciple co-ordinate in independence and dig- nity with the other two. So far as it is valid, it represents a tendency of thought which springs out of the essential condi- tions of our knowledge of things. We begin to know common objects by distin- guishing one thing from another, and the broader difierences or contrasts among things are among the first to impress the childish mind. In this way a child learns to think of opposites together, as sweet sour, good naughty. The well-known ef- fect of contrast on the feelings renders it a valuable instrument for giving greater vividness to impressions, and so stamping them more deeply on the mind. The con- trasts of climate, scenery, social condition, and so forth, are a great aid in the more descriptive and pictorial treatment of geo- graphy and history. (For a fuller expo- sition of the laws of association see Bain, Mental and Moral Science, bk. ii. chap, i.-iii. ; Sully, Teacher's Handbook, chap, ix. ; and Spencer's Principles of Psycho- logy, i. 228. Association for Extension of Female Teaching. See Education of Girls. Astronomy (aa-rpov, a star, and I'o/xos, a law) is the science of the heavenly bodies. It does not form an adequate part of the ATHEN^UM ATHENIAN EDUCATION 31 course of general instruction in this coun- try, though some of the elementary parts are included in the higher standards of the Educational Code. Yet it is a subject that can be made highly interesting to children, and requires little expenditure in the way of apparatus. Every child can be brought to observe that the heavenly bodies appear to move from east to west around the earth, and can thence be led to conclude that the earth rotates from west to east. Then they can be easily interested in noticing that most of the heavenly bodies keep their relative posi- tions with respect to each other, but that some do not, viz. the sun, moon, and planets. How pleased are children when they can point out any of the constella- tions, as Orion or the Great Bear, or any remarkable star, as the Pole Star. By drawing their attention to Venus — now rising before the sun as the morning star, now setting after it as the evening star, gradually moving until a short distance from it, then standing still, then drawing nearer — they can be shown that Yenus must most probably be moving around the sun at a less distance from it than we are. Again, from the apparent motion of the sun amongst the stars the real motion of the earth around the sun can be made known. Tliis will lead to a general de- scription of the solar system. Then the earth can be more particularly dealt with — its globular shape demonstrated, its me- ridian and other lines explained, the me- thod of denoting the positions of places by latitude and longitude made known — as well as the way to determine its di- mensions by measuring a small part of a meridian. Afterwards the phenomena of day and night and of the seasons can easily be explained with the help of a small globe. Most interesting is the explanation of the phases of the moon. Eclipses of the sun and moon should not be allowed to pass without the attention of the children being drawn to them and their causes being shown. These phenomena may also be made of use to show that all the heavenly bodies are not at the same distance from us, and also that the earth and moon are spherical. As far as this only the naked eye, protected at times by a piece of co- loured glass, is required for observation ; but if a telescope were among the scliool apparatus what further subjects for thought would be opened out to the pupils ! — Jupiter's moons, Saturn's rings, the sur- face of the moon, the spots on the sun, the different clusters of stars. All this can be made to draw out a child's powers of observation and to lead him to right con elusions. Nautical Astronomy is taught to mer- chant-seamen at schools and training-ships at most of the principal ports, and to the Royal Navy at the Greenwich School, on board the ' Britannia,' and at the Royal Naval College. It also forms one of the subjects of examination by the Science and Art Department. The pupils are taught to measure with the sextant the altitudes of the heavenly bodies, noting the times by the chronometer, and from the data thus obtained to work out the latitude and longitude of the place of ob- servation. In England lectures on Ma- thematical Astronomy are delivered at the universities, and there are observato- ries where the students may learn to use the different instruments ; but the num- bers making use of these opportunities are very few. In the universities, colleges, and high schools of the United States, however, this advanced study is very general. Athenseum. — The name given to a temple at Athens dedicated to Athena. In it poets and scholars were accustomed to meet and read their productions. Used in the present day to designate a scientific association, or the building where such an association meets. A school of higher grade in Holland and Belgium is called an Athenaeum. Athenian Education. — From times be- yond the records of history, the first im- pressions of Athenian children must have been derived from the tales and sayings of their mothers, nurses, and other attend- ants. ' Know you not,' says Socrates in the Repiiblic of Plato, 'that first of all we teach children fables ? ' In particular, the basis of their moral and religious feelings must have been strongly laid by the narra- tion of legends regarding the marvellous actions of gods and demigods ; and these were handed on from generation to gene- ration, not least effectively in the shape of ballads. Plato, in the organisation of his model Republic, was much concerned that there should be a safe selection of such educational instruments in the plastic days of early youth. ' First of all then, as it seems, we must exercise control over the 32 ATHENIAN EDUCATION fable-makers ; and whatever beautiful fa- ble they may invent we should select, and what is not so we should reject ; and we are to prevail on nurses and mothers to repeat to the children such fables as are selected, and fashion their minds by the I fables much more than their bodies by . their hands. But the greater number of ■ the fables they now tell them must be cast aside.' Homer and Hesiod, and the other poets, would therefore require to be se- verely expurgated. Plutarch, also, was in favour of restraining nurses from telling children fables indiscriminately, on ac- count of the ruinous moral effects. Aris- totle would place these matters under the supervision of the Psedonomi, or magis- trates who exercised a certain superinten- dence over the education of youth. The fables of -^^sop appear to have stood highest in popular esteem, ^sop was a contemporary of Solon, and lived about 570 B.C. By the opening of the fourth century before the Christian era — a date rendered ever memorable by the death of Socrates — there seems to have been widely diffused over the Grecian world a certain amount of elementary education. At what age childi^en commenced going to school we are not definitely informed ; Plato and Aristotle agree that there was no good in attempting formal mental instruction before the age of five. At the end of the sixth year, boys and girls were separated. The children were conducted to school, to the gymnasium, and indeed everywhere out of doors, by a pi'ivate tutor, or pedagogue (TratSaywyos, child-leader) — a slave usually, who did not necessarily possess much knowledge or polish, and who generally carried the boys' books, musical instru- ments, and other school necessaries, and governed their conduct by the conven- tional rules of propriety. At the gym- nasium, the pedagogue attended his pupil all the time he remained there ; but it is hardly probable that he stayed in like man- ner at school during school hours. In- deed, about the middle of the fourth cen- tury B.C. there was a law forbidding persons over school age (except the son, or daugh- ter, or son-in-law of the schoolmaster) to enter the school during school hours, on pain of death ; but this law appears to have been abrogated soon afterwards. When a youth entered on his seventeenth year, the occupation of his pedagogue was gone. The literary education of youth was in no way controlled by the State,. but depended on the opinion and discri- mination of the parents. ' Did not the laws enacted on tliis point,' asks So- crates in the Crito, ' enjoin rightly, in re- quiring your father to instruct you in music and gymnastic exercises ? ' But these laws seem to have been practically in abeyance. Public institutions, main- tained at the expense of the State, do not appear to have been founded till a late pe- riod ; and although Plato talks of appoint- ing teachers, to be paid at the public cost, this was only his own speculation, to which there was no corresponding actuality for long afterwards. Still, the idea of edu- cation strongly commended itself to the public mind. The total neglect of the edu- cation of one's children was exceptional, and disapproved ; Plutarch relates how the people of Trcezen not only supported Athenian fugitives, women and children, at the time of the Persian invasion, but also paid teachers for the children ; and ^lian tells us that the Mitylenfeans thought they inflicted the severest pos- sible penalty on their revolted allies when they prohibited the education of their children. But there was no real State intervention to secure a good quality of education. The teachers followed the pi'o- fession, not because they were specially qualified, but because it offered a fairly ready means of livelihood ; and the Psedo- nomi limited their superintendence to the administration of certain laws respecting morality. The profession of elementary schoolmaster, indeed, was not in high re- pute. School opened early in the morning. Solon enacted that the schools should not open before sunrise, and should close before sunset. There was certainly an afternoon meeting. The great branches of instruc- tion were — gramriiata (ypa/A/xara), mou- siM (fxovcTLKy), gymnastike {yvjxva(TTiKri) ; Aristotle gives a fourth, graphike {ypa_, mical pronunciation exercised l^'fep^-rtn^o.sing personality, who directed their professional eijprgies to the practical end of qualifying yiaung men ' to think, speak, tion of the poets — and discip^ed^bve- ments, for taking part in a ^^oric festival^ with becoming consonance amidst ae^b^d..aaid ko^'^i^h ei|ect. — There were no girls' of citizen performers. Of su'e^ gymnastic and musical training, the coi^fnaLtion of which constituted an accomplished firecian citizen, the former predominated at ThelBeS, the latter at Athens. Moreover, at Thebes, the musical training was based more upon the flute ; at Athens, more upon the lyre, which admitted of vocal accompani- ment by the player.' The lyre and cithara — there can have been but little difierence between them — were indeed the only in- strtiments thought proper for a free citizen of Athens. The flute, although at one time a great favourite, was at length given up at Athens, partly because it distorted the features, partly because it precluded the player's own vocal accompaniment. — The exercises of the Gymnasiit^vi (q.v.) for the development and strengthening of the body were regularly entered upon at the age of sixteen, and continued till eighteen. Ad- vanced instruction, beginning at eighteen or twenty, was given by the Rhetors and SoTphistSj/or 23ay, mostly to the sons of the wealthier citizens ; Socrates alone taught in the streets and the market-place with all who cared to discuss with him, and without reward. The special object of the Sophists was to prepare their pupils for success in public affairs, particularly by exercises on the more usual commonplaces of practical life, and by sharpening the oratorical and dialectic skill of the young men ; some of them also taught mathematics and astro- nomy, as well as philosophy and morals. There has been hot controversy over the character and conduct of the Sophists, Grote's view may be accepted as most in accordance with the evidence. The odious part of the connotation of the term ' So- phist ' was stamped upon it by Plato, who, like Socrates, had a vehement repugnance against receiving pay for teaching. There is really no proof that any of the reputable Sophists were 'peculiarly greedy, exorbi- tant, and truckling,' or that, as Plato has been misinterpreted to convey, they ' poi- soned and demoralised, by corrupt teach- ing, the Athenian moral character.' The difference of attitude of Plato and the Sophists must be carefully observed : Plato was a great and systematic theo- rist ; the Sophists were men of wide ge, great intellectual force, and schools at ^thens. The education and culture of' "^he^female sex was not provided %r by law ; it was left to custom and to ;::=&e-pef§onal notions of the household and the family. Girls picked up whatever in- struction they received from their mother.' and from the women-servants. The sub- jects were, for the most part, of purely feminine concern — spinning, weaving, sew- ing, and the like ; in the better households also reading and writing. The duties of religion, with the popular beliefs respect- ing the gods, and the general rules of proper and becoming behaviour would be incul- cated as opportunity offered. About fifteen the Athenian girl usually got married, and might obtain further instruction, in an incidental way, from her husband, or she might not. He would take her to see tragedy at the theatre ; he would, almost certainly, not permit her to see a comedy acted. Athletics. — According to Herodotus the Lydians believed that their ancestors invented games and pastimes during a famine to divert their minds from the pangs of hunger they suffered in their bodies. This ingenious theory, however, 34 ATHLETICS will hardly be accepted in these days with more credence than the assertion that Cfesar's soldiers taught the ancient Britons football when they grew tired of slaughter. Whatever may have been their origin, it is an undoubted fact that games of skill and endurance have exercised a healthy and beneficial influence upon the human race. It is a much debated question whether too much attention is not paid to athletics in our public schools in the present day. Pessimists hold that youth is robbed of many valuable hours by ' play ' which might be with better advan- tage devoted to study. The trite adage about the ' dull boy ' is quoted as an an- swer to this argument by those who take the opposite view and hold with the maxim Mens sana in corpore sano. The best argument in favour of sports and pastimes as auxiliaries to education is found in the fact that they engender in the young a spirit of emulation which once implanted in the mind extends to every action of life. The boy whose am- bition it is to be able to run a mile in less time than his fellows, to leap a greater height or throw a cricket-ball further than any other lad, would also have a desire to be at the top of his class and to show better results at his periodical ex- aminations. It will be found, at any rate, that this is generally the case. Many in- stances might be quoted of men who have distinguished themselves in law, litera- ture, science, or art, who in youth were known as the foremost in the cricket-field, or apt with the oar. The record of the Oxford and Cambridge boat-race bristles with such instances. Apart from the desirable spirit of rivalry fostered, boys gain a store of health which grants them a lease of life seldom given to the book- worm. Open-air sport also endows the rising generation with manly indepen- dence, fills their minds with a love for fair play, exterminates petty meannesses, and fits them to take their part fearlessly in the great struggle of life later on. There is no doubt that the element of danger entering into many of our outdoor pastimes as played at school fosters a spirit of daring and enterprise in youth •which in after years gives men the phy- sique and courage which have gained for Englishmen the proud title of pioneers of civilisation. The love of adventure and the dogged determination displayed by those who were the first to push forward into the trackless deserts and jungles of Africa, or to plumb the fearful secrets of the North Pole, were but the outcome of many a hard-fought game at school. It is of course possible to err on the wrong side even in the matter of athletics, and to push training and exertion too far until they become mentally and physically harmful. There is often a tendency to do this where the master himself has been a distinguished athlete. Greater publicity, too, is now given in the daily and weekly press to reports of matches played at dif- ferent schools. The anxiety of both prin- cipal and boys to figure well in ' print ' sometimes leads to a desire to stretch a point and to trespass over that faint line which divides judicious relaxation and neglect of study. What may be called the regime of sport varies greatly in dif- ferent schools. In many cricket and foot- ball only are encouraged as being the standard English games, whereas in others pedestrianism and athletics pure and sim- ple are given premier honours. Since the institution of the volunteer movement, too, cadet corps have been established at many public schools, such as Eton, Har- row, Dulwich, Cheltenham, Whitgift, Glenalmond, and others, and the formid- able annual parade of juvenile corps on Wimbledon Common during the meeting of the National Rifle Association is evi- dence of the popularity of this movement. Amateur soldiering has an enormous at- traction for the boys, and the skilful way in which they shoot shows that the prac- tice of musketry has occupied no incon- siderable portion of their leisure time. Volunteering is one of the best forms of play schoolboys can have, provided care be taken to prevent its fostering the mili- tary spirit in its objectionable manifesta- tions. The drill sets boys vip wonderfully, teaches them how to walk briskly and up- rightly, and gives them notions of method and precision which are never forgotten. Further, it furnishes a nursery for citizen soldiers who might be called upon in time of urgent national need, and has none of the objectionable features of the compul- sory systems of Germany. Cricket re- cords show a steady increase of skill in that noble game on the part of school- boys. It is the most innocent and bene- ficial form of recreation, and cannot be too warmly encouraged. Where the funds ATTENDANCE 35 admit, a professional player should be engaged to teach the schoolboys. Such a man can be engaged at a very moderate salary per week, and a very good return for the outlay would be gained, as the man would not only teach how to bowl and bat, but would keep the ground in order and look after the implements of the game. Schools where a professional is engaged show the best results so far as scoring is concerned, and turn out the best cricketers. Football cannot by any means be classed as an innocent game. On the contrary, it is full of pitfalls and dangers, especially when played under Rugby rules. Many a man has been in- jured for life through football. It is never- theless growing in popularity, the element of danger seeming to commend it in the eyes of the vigorous youth of this island. The Canadian game of Lacrosse, which is not so well known in Great Britain as it should be, is one of the best and most at- tractive of outdoor games. It has all the elements of excitement to be found in football without the kicking, while mar- vellous skill and dexterity are required by the players. In the metropolis and the North of England Lacrosse teams have been formed, and there is little doubt that in course of time the game will take a firm root in this country. The violent and sudden exertion required in foot- racing, especially for short distances, does not permit medical men to recommend that pastime, and the same remark will apply to rowing, which is said to be a fertile source of heart-disease in after- life. Few schools, however, are favour- ably situated in the matter of rivers or lakes, so that rowing is possible only in few instances. Swimming {see Bathing), 'the purest exercise of health,' cannot be too greatly encouraged. Every boy should be taught to swim as he is taught to write, for where no river exists public baths can be utilised at a trifling cost, which includes the services of a competent teacher. In London Board schools the recreations of the children chiefly consist of drill, or rough romping in the playground. In many of the palatial erections which are now dotted about in the thickly popu- lated districts, the managers have erected parallel bars, swings, and trapeze ap- pliances, and these are always well patro- nised by the children. Attendance. — Without regularity of attendance satisfactory progress is impos- sible. The thorough mastery of one lesson generally depends upon the preceding les- son having been learned ; consequently the child who misses the first is likely to be incapable of benefiting by the second. Nor is the evil confined to the individual, for the whole class has to wait while the teacher is helping the pupils who have been absent to overtake the rest. The mischief does not end even with loss of lessons or waste of time. Education is concerned with the formation of good habits as well as with the acquisition of knowledge, and it is impossible for a child who is often kept away from school to form a habit of regularity — a habit not only valuable in itself, but the foundation of many others that are valuable also. The chief causes of absence from day schools are : absence from home ; illness ; bad weather ; truancy ; poverty, resulting in want of boots and clothes ; petty employ- ments, such as ' minding baby,' ' taking father's dinner,' ' fetching mother's work,' &c. ; the apathy of parents ; their desire that their children should be earning some- thing. As the last four causes, perhaps the last five, operate only in schools for the poor, it is only in such schools that irre- gularity of attendance is a serious evil. How serious it is the figures furnished by the Committee of Council show. The re- port (1885-86) states that there were on the registers of public elementary schools in England the names of 4,412,148 chil- dren, but that the average attendance for the year was only 3,371,325. Thus the average attendance was only 76-4 of what it should be ; in other words, nearly one- fourth of those who ought to be in school were permanently absent. Good attendance may be promoted : (1) By making school pleasant physically. The rooms should be clean, light, well ventilated, and (in winter) well warmed. The walls should be bright with pictures and the windows with flowers. (2) By making school pleasant morally. The whole tone should be kindly and cheerful. The teachers should never shout, or speak harshly ; the discipline, though necessarily firm, should be mild ; and work, though necessarily hard, should be agreeable. (3) By cultivating friendly relations with the parents and interesting them in the progress of their children. ' Speech days,' breaking-up parties, prize distributions, d2 36 ATTENTION BACON, FRANCIS and ' public examinations ' have been found very useful in this respect. (4) By send- ing notes to, or requiring notes from, the parents in all cases of absence. This is a very effective method of preventing tru- ancy, for it renders immediate detection certain. (5) By giving rewards for good attendance. {See Rewards and Punish- ments.) (6) By a steady, consistent, and discreet use of the power of compulsion. {See School Boards.) Attention. — This term refers to a spe- cial degree of mental activity called forth by the action of some particular stimulus at the moment. The state of attention thus contrasts with that of mental relaxa- tion, in which there is no special direction of the thoughts upon a given object. We may attend either to some external object or to some internal thought. As used by the teacher, the word ' attention ' is com- monly confined to the former direction of mental activity, the latter being marked off by the term 'reflection.' The act of attention assumes one of two unlike forms according as the stimulus springs out of the object itself or is supplied by the mind that attends. The former is illustrated in a child's responsive attention to a bright light, the song of a bird, and so on. This crude and early form of attention is known as reflex or non-voluntary. The higher and more perfect form of attention, which is illustrated when a child tries to fix its mind on a subject, is called voluntary, because it implies an independent wish and purpose. The full development of this power of voluntary attention is seen in what is known as concentration — i.e. the resolute keeping of the mind fixed on one subject and what is relevant to this, and the turning away from all distracting objects and suggestions. All prolonged attention implies the presence of a feeling, which feeling is the source of what we call interest {q.v.) In educating the atten- tion the teacher must aim at enlarging the sources of interest, and at gradually strengthening the power of voluntarily concentrating the thoughts. The obstacles to attention difier according to the nature of the child. Some are indisposed to at- tend from mental dulness and indolence. It is obvious, too, that any falling off in vigour of brain through ill-health or fatigue must induce a lethargic condition which is unfavourable to the exercise of attention. Many children, moreover, wha are by no means dull and inactive, prove bad subjects for that sustained attention required by the school-teacher. Thus there is the familiar butterfly type of mind that flits unwearyingly from subject to subject, yet finds any prolonged effort of attention irksome. Then, too, there is the dreamy imaginative mind which tends to be absorbed in its own inner world, and to grow dull and seemingly stupid in relation to external impressions {see Ab- sent-mindedness). In building up the habit of attention, care must be taken at the outset to remove as far as possible all sources of distraction and mental pre- occupation, and not to exact too long and fatiguing an effort at one time. Variety of occupation and a certain measure of relaxation should thus be introduced into school life. Any form of occupation which has become thoroughly familiar and easy by repetition may serve as a relief to the attention. {See Sully's Hand- book, chap, vi., and the references there added.) Australia (Education in). See Law (Educational). Australian Universities. See Uni- versities. Austrian Universities. See Univer- sities. Authority. See Discipline. B Bachelor. See Degrees. Backwardness. See Dull Scholars and Stupidity. Bacon, Francis (Lord Yerulam) (6. 1561, d. 1626), the famous English chan- cellor, philosopher, and essayist, was the son of a distinguished lawyer, and his mother was eminent for learning and piety. He went to Cambridge in his thirteenth year, and in his sixteenth began to question the philosophy of Aristotle. He left Cam- bridge to study law in Gray's Inn, and sub- sequently spent considerable time in Paris. He was called to the bar in 1582, and soon had a considerable practice. He was a relative of Cecil's and a friend of the Earl BACON, ROGER BASEDOW, JOHANN BERNHARD 37 of Essex, and as these were sworn foes he soon got into trouble. Bacon's con- duct towards Essex, later on, is a fruitful source of apology and censure. In 1618 he was made Lord High Chancellor of England, and created Baron Verulam ; hut was subsequently disgraced and de- prived of his high office on conviction of a charge of corruption. In the height of his power he published his great work, the Novum Organon, which had occupied his thoughts for many years, and its publica- tion aroused considerable interest at home and abroad. Mr. Spedding says our philo- sophy ' was born about Bacon's time, and Bacon's name has been inscribed upon it.' But others regard Roger Bacon {q.v.) as the father of experimental philosophy and the originator of the Inductive Method. Though the points of similarity between these two great men are many, there are not lacking wide differences. Roger ex- erted little influence and founded no school of philosophy, whereas Francis produced a profound impression upon all thought and changed the methods of investiga- tion. Bacon (like Descartes) led men away from scholasticism, to investigate nature by observation, experiment, and induction. He lirst perceived a philosophy of the sciences, and proclaimed that physics was ' the mother of all the sciences,' and thus takes important rank in the history of education. His Advancement of Learning, which appeared in 1605, discovered the scientific basis of educational method, and it was to this work that Comenius was in- debted for much of his educational doc- trine. As Professor Laurie points out, however (Comenius, in trod. p. 11), 'Bacon was not aware of his relations to the sci- ence and art of education ; he praises the Jesuit schools (q.v.), not knowing that he was subverting their very foundations. We know inductively that was the sum of Bacon's teaching. In the sphere of outer nature, the scholastic saying, Nihil est in intellectit, quod non prius fuerit in sensu, was accepted, but with this addition, that the impressions on our senses were not themselves to be trusted. The mode of veri- fying sense-impressions and the grounds of valid and necessary inference had to be investigated and applied. It is manifest that if we can tell hovi it is we know, it follows that the method of intellectual in- struction is scientifically settled.' Bacon, Roger (6. near Ilchester about 1214, d. 1292).— He was educated at Oxford and Paris, where he was so suc- cessful in his studies that the degree of D.D. was conferred upon him. He returned to Oxford and took the vows of a Franciscan. These vows were poverty, manual labour, study. His reputation for learning was extraordinary, and Dr. Jebb classes his writings under the heads of 'grammar, mathematics, physics, optics, geography, astronomy,' &c. Hallam says of him that he had ' almost prophetic gleams of the future course of science, and the best principles of the inductive philosophy.' He is the reputed discoverer of gunpowder and the telescope. The ring of a true education is heard in passages of his Opus Majus, where he says that ' most students have no worthy exercise for their heads, and languish and stupefy upon bad translations.' ' There are four stumbling- blocks in the way of arriving at knowledge — authority, habit, appearances as pre- sented to the vulgar eye, and concealment of ignorance with a show of knowledge.' ' We must prefer reason to custom.' Yet this man was treated as a magician, and supposed to have the help of infernal spirits, and after he was sixty -four years of age was allowed to remain in a French prison ten years. Roger Bacon's great merit is that he was the first in England to clearly teach that experience is the basis of knowledge. He thus anticipated his great namesake by four hundred years. Mr. Stanley Jevons maintains that Roger Bacon is more enti- tled than Francis to the honour of having introduced the Baconian or Inductive Me- thod. Bangor Training College. AS'ee British AND Foreign School Society. Basedow, Johann Bernhard (1723- 1790), the celebrated German educational reformer, was born in Hamburg, educated at Leipsic, and subsequently spent some time as a tutor in Hoi stein to a boy of the age of seven, for whom he worked out a new method of teaching language. In 1 753 he was nominated professor of ethics at Soroe ; but in 1761 he retii^'from this post on account of his theological opinions, and removed to Altona, where he published his heterodox Methodical Instruction, both in natural and biblical religion. Six years later he left off his theological speculations and devoted himself with ardour to edu- cation, of which he conceived the project of a general reform in Germany. He pub- 38 BASHFULNESS BATHING lished in 1768 his Address to the Friends of Himianity on Schools and Education, in which he called for the reform of schools and of the common methods of instruction, and advocated the establishment of an in- stitute for qualifying teachers. In his next work, the Eletnentary Book, he developed his scheme for the education of the young, which is practically an encyclopaedia of everything worth knowing by children, as comprehensive, indeed, as the Orhis Pieties of Comenius. The pupil was first to re- ceive instruction in the knowledge of words and things ; he was next to be taught to read without weariness or loss of time by an incomparable method founded upon ex- perience ; then he was to be instructed in natural knowledge, followed by a know- ledge of morals, the mind, and reasoning — all instruction in natural religion to be thorough and impressive, and all beliefs to be described impartially, so that it should not at all appear of what belief is the teacher himself ; finally he was to re- ceive a knowledge of social duties, of com- merce, &c. The woi'k was received with great favour, and Basedow soon obtained the means to establish an institute for education, which he termed the Philan- thropinon, at Dessau, in order that he might apply his principles in training men who might spread them throughout Ger- many. That was in 1771. In 1774 he brought out the first number of Archives, the organ of the Philanthropinon, in which he demonstrates that the aim of all educa- tion is that the student may endure little grief, trouble, or sickness, and that he may learn to take real pleasure in what is good. The wisdom of all wisdom is virtue and peace. The useful part in each science should only be learned. In 1 774 he brought out a pamphlet entitled The Fhilanthro- pxno'n, founded at Dessau, containing the details of his plan. In itself the Philan- thropinon was not a success. Few scholars ever came, and Basedow soon lost all spirit in the enterprise. He had, besides, an ungovernable temper, and he quarrelled with his colleagues one after another. The Philanthropinon was closed in 1793. From it, however, a great pedagogical excitement and agitation spread over Germany and Switzerland, and, indeed, over a great part of Europe ; and the most thinking educa- tionists openly advocated his plan. Rath- mann in 1792 and Meyer in 1791-92 brought out editions of his life and works. Bashfulness, or shyness, is a particular form of timidity, and as such is a well- marked characteristic of childhood. Its proper exciting cause is the presence of a stranger. This appears to evoke, in the case of the infant, a distinct form of inhe- rited feai-. (AS'ee Fear.) Bashfulness shows itself later, and presupposes a certain de- velopment of self-consciousness. It may be defined as a feeling of timidity arising from distrust in one's own powers when under the observation of another. The feeling is thus nourished by the general timidity of childhood, and in a special way by the child's sensibility to others' opinion and the desire to please. In its intenser degrees it constitutes an acute form of suffering, and in the case of more than one distinguished child has been a source of real misery in early years. It tends to produce awkwardness of manner, inability to converse with others, &c. In the case of children who are specially eager to please, though the victims of self-distrust, it often engenders an unnatural and affected man- ner. In extreme instances it may even lead to a morbid shrinking from society. It is a quality which calls for the special consideration of the educator. A certain measure of shyness is proper to childhood, and the anxiety of which it is an expres- sion has its moral value, since it favours a nice care in behaviour. At the same time it must clearly be kept within due bounds The educator should remember in dealing with bashful children that the feeling is deepened and fixed by every form of re- pression and discouragement. Its proper corrective is the gi-adual accustoming of the child to the society and conversation of others, and the encouragement of it in the natural exercise of its powers under these circumstances. School education, with its greater publicity, commonly acts as a corrective to the shyness due to the exclusion of the home. Yet just because of this publicity, and the severe demand which it makes on the child's self-confi- dence, the school teacher has a specially difficult task in the treatment of shyness. (On the nature of the feeling, see Bain, Mental and Moral Science, bk. iii. chap, iv. § iv. On its educational aspects, see Locke, Education, § 70 ; article ' Blodig- keit,' in Schmid's Encyclopddie.) Bathing. — The addition of a swimming bath to every large school would be a most potent factor in leading to increased BELGIAN UNIVERSITIES BENTLEY, RICHARD 39 healthiness of school children. Failing this, the managers of each school should get admission for the scholars to public baths in the neighbourhood, or in country schools a neighbouring stream or pond (not too deep) should be chosen for the purpose. It should always be remembered that run- ning water has a more benumbing effect than stagnant water, owing to the fact that in the former case different layers of water are constantly coming in contact with the body, rapidly abstractmg heat, and increasing the danger of cramp or fainting. Wherever the bath, scholars should only be allowed to frequent it under strict supervision, and the following rules should be carefully followed : 1. The bath should not be taken within two hours of the last meal. 2. Children should not be allowed to loiter in undressing. A sharp walk before entering the bath is ad- visable, in order that the skin may be warm and glowing at the time the bath is taken. 3. Children should not be allowed to remain in the bath too long, nor in any case until chattering of teeth or blueness of the lips or nails is produced. The person in charge of the swimming-bath should undex'stand how to use the proper restoratives in case of accidental immersion, and these measures should be vigorously and steadily employed. {See School Sur- gery.) No boy should be allowed to row until he has learnt to swim. The temper- ature of the water in the swimming-bath should be from 65° to 70° Fahr., when it is intended that children should remain in it beyond a few minutes. Where this tem- perature is artificially kept up, the hot water must be introduced at the lowest level of the bath, for, being specifically lighter than cold water, it tends to rise to the surface. In addition to its effect on cleanliness, and in improving the general tone of the system, bathing combines, in the form of swimming, both exercise and bathing. Swimming tends to expand the chest and enlai'ge the lungs, at the same time strengthening the muscles of the trunk and limbs. Belgian Universities. See Univer- sities. Bell, Dr. See Monitorial System. Belles-Lettres is the French equivalent for polite literature, and includes poetry, fiction, aesthetic criticism, and all that kind of literature written in accordance with the principle of art for art's sake {Vart pour Vart). The term is sometimes used in association with those studies which treat of the oral as well as the written ex- pression of beauty. Hence in the Scottish universities there are joint professorships of rhetoric and belles-lettres. Beneke, Friedrich Edward (6. 1798, d. 1854). — A German philosopher who ren- dered considerable service in establishing the true principles of the art of teaching. He was professor of philosophy at Got- tingen and Berlin from 1822. He was the author of a large number of philoso- phical treatises, and, in opposition to the popular idealist or a priori school of his day, whose chief representative was Hegel {q.v.), Beneke adhei'ed to a form of the Experience Philosophy very similar to that of Locke, Hume, J. S. Mill, and the prin- cipal English philosophers of the same em- pirical school. That part of his system to which Beneke attached most import- ance was his psychology, which bears a considerable resemblance to the doctrines of Herbart (q.v.), and the results of which he applied to education. The chief works in which he developed his ideas in this department are : (1) his Doctrine of Edu- cation and Instruction (JErziehtcngs- und Unterrichtslehre, 3rd edit, by Dressier, 1864) ; (2) his Logic as the Doctrine of the Art of Thinking {Logik als Kxmstlehre des DenkenSj 1842) ; and (3) his Pragmatic Philosophy, or Psychology in its App>lica- tion to Life (Pragmatische Philosophic oder Seelenlehre in der Anwendung auf das Leben, 1850). The development of intellectual consciousness, according to Beneke, depends entirely on the fact that the human mind is endowed with the ca- pacity of receiving impressions from ex- ternal material phenomena. His theory, which had been anticipated by the Eng- lish philosophers like Locke and James Mill, is capable of very fruitful applica- tion in education, and attracted great at- tention amongst German pedagogues. (See Schmidt's ' Biography of Beneke' in Dies- terweg's Pddagogisches Jahrbiich, 1856, and Dressler's monograph on Beneke and his Writings, or in the 3rd edit, of the Lehrbuch der Psychologic, 1861.) Benevolence. See Sympathy. Bentley, Richard (6. at Oulton, near Wakefield, 1662, d. 1742), the son of a small farmer, was educated at Wakefield Grammar School and at St. John's College, Cambridare. In 1682 he became head- 40 BIBLE BIOLOGY master of the grammar school at Spalding, After a year there he became private tutor to the son of Dr. Stillingfleet, and accom- panied his pupil to Oxford. In 1 69 1 Bent- ley published his dissertation on the chro- nicler Malalas, which won for him a place amongst the greatest ci itics of Europe. In 1692 he preached the first series of the Boyle Lectures. In the following year he was appointed keeper of the king's li- brary, and this was the accidental cause of his Dissertation on the Epistles of Pha- laris. Boyle of Christ Church edited these epistles, and spoke disparagingly of Bentley in the preface. Bentley had determined in his own mind that the epistles were spurious, and in 1697 he wrote to this effect. Boyle and his friends were aroused, and the greatest scholars and wits of Christ Church joined to refute and lampoon Bent- ley, who in 1699 published his enlarged Dissertations, in which he conquex'ed for all time his array of opponents. In 1700 he was appointed Master of Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge. Here he soon came in collision with tlie senior Fellows by his ar- bitrary conduct. A most serious litigation followed for more than a quarter of a century, in which Bentley outwitted all comers. A detailed and highly amusing account of this can be found in De Quin- cey. Works, vol. vi. All through the long years of litigation he continued his work as a scholar and critic. In 1717 he ob- tained the post of Regius Professor of Divinity, by doubtful means, and in 1718, by a vote of the senate, he was deprived of all his degrees. Bentley, however, had seen too many battles to leave the field. He appealed to the king, and after five years a mandamus was issued to the uni- versity to restore him. Next to the Epistles of Phalaris, perhaps his edition of Horace procured him the highest fame. He played freely with emendations of the text, which he introduced with extraordinary inge- nuity. He also edited Terence, Phsedrus, and portions of Cicero, besides writing numerous theological works. His activity was wonderful, and it is a source of deep regret that his life should have been wor- ried by personal strife. Though an in- veterate litigant, however, Bentley was singularly happy in his domestic relation- ships. Bible (Gr. ra ^lySXta).— The books or scriptures containing the Old and New Testaments or sacred writinsfs of the Jews and Christians. Whether regarded as the inspired Word of God, and consequently the ultimate standard of morals, or merely as a time-honoured collection of histoidcal, poetical, and ethical literature, a know- ledge of the Bible is indispensable to edu- cation, especially to the education of Eng- lishmen, upon whose history it has exerted so powerful an influence, England having been at the most eventful period in its annals ' the land of one book,' namely, the Bible. Much controversy, however, has arisen upon the question whether it is the function of the schoolmaster to impart this knowledge. By the majority of the reli- gious sects, who hold that the Bible con- tains the sole rule of faith and practice, it is contended that not merely a literary knowledge of it, but a doctrinal knowledge of it is essential to the development of the moral character, and accordingly, in most of the sectarian schools in this country, instruction in the Bible is prescribed as a provision of the first importance. Other religious sects, however, holding equally a belief in the Divine origin of the Scrip- tures, and equally desirous that children should be instructed in them, contend that the instruction should be given, not by the schoolmaster, but by ministers and parents. The secularists also support this view. Bible teaching in the public elementary schools under the control of the School Boards is left to the decision of those bodies, and as a rule a compromise between the contending parties on the subject is arrived at by the adoption of the regulation to the efiect that the Bible shall be read without comment. The literary value of the Bible may be estimated from the fact that the success of some of our most effec- tive writers and orators (John Bunyan, John Bright, for instance) has been attri- butable mainly to the freedom with which they have drawn their illustrations, not from the mythology of the Greeks and Romans, but from the sacred writings of the Hebrews. {See also National Educa- tion League.) Bifurcation. See Classification. Biology (yStos, life ; A.oyos, a word) is the science that deals with the laws, and phenomena, of living things. Of the three great divisions of material things — animal, vegetable, and mineral — it is concerned with the first two, leaving the third to its sister- science, geology. Auguste Comte placed it fifth in his sixfold classification BIOLOGY 41 of the sciences, the pupil passing through mathematics, astronomy, physics, and chemistry ere considered competent to study biology ; and in any complete scheme of education some knowledge of mathe- matics, physics, and chemistry ought to precede the study of biology. Herbert Spencer places it in his third group, the concrete sciences, as an application of the universal laws of the redistribution of matter and motion to the realm of organic existence. He includes in it the sub- sciences of psychology and sociology, the latter of which was raised by Comte to the rank of a fundamental science, and placed sixth, or highest, in his ascending scale. Taking biology in its fullest meaning we have the following sub- divisions : — Biology I Botany, or Vegetable Biology E. >o Zoology, or Animal Biology I ~i i i r t=' t- S: g 2 ^ o & °, 2. ,=5^ aq In its narrower sense, as used in the educational curriculum of our schools, bi- ology takes as objects of study character- istic types of animal and vegetable life. It commences with the study of those lowest organisms which are neither dis- tinctively animal nor distinctively veget- able, and are classed by Haeckel as ' Pro- tista.' These, he says, ' form the bridge that unites the two great kingdoms of organic life into one vast whole ' (Popular Scientific Lectures, No. V.) The simplest of these are merely little masses of jelly- like matter, albuminoid in character, irrit- able, and locomotive. The most convenient for study is one which is a little more highly organised, the amoeba (d/xci^Sw, I change). It may be obtained by steep- ing small pieces of raw meat in water and placing across the meat bits of cotton ; the meat should then be placed in the sun- shine till most of the water is evaporated, and if then a piece of cotton is lifted out and placed on a glass slide in a drop of water under the microscope, amcebse will generally be found on it. It will be seen to be a small irregular mass of granulated matter (protoplasm), the inner part — en- ■dosarc — granular and semi-fluid; the outer — ectosarc — clearer and more solid. Visible also within it is a rounded mass, the nucleus, containing another yet smaller rounded mass, the nucleolus. Careful observation will show that it moves slowly by pushing out a portion of its body (pseudo-podium :=pseudo-foot) and drawing after this the remainder of its body ; and that it feeds by pushing out a pseudo-podium against a food-particle and retracting the pseudo- podium into its body with the adherent food. There is no better type of the funda- mental unit of all animal and vegetable life than the amoeba ; similar cells are found wandering in the vessels of the higher animals as lymph-corpuscles and white blood-corpuscles, while all tissues of more complex organisms are merely cell- aggregates, the conditions of aggregation modifying the ultimate shape and com- position of the original cells. A clear comprehension of the independent cell, as seen in the amoeba, is a necessary in- troduction to the study of the changed, diflerentiated cells which form aggrega- tions modified for the discharge of vari- ous functions in the higher organisms. Another interesting type of the Protista are bacteria — minute organisms of dif- ferent shapes found in connection with diseased conditions of the tissues of higher plants and animals. They are organised ferments, or organisms which cause chemi- cal changes in the organic medium they inhabit, which changes are of a character destructive of the medium. It is inter- esting to note that any nitrogenous cell may set up similar changes, the changes being apparently the general expression of the need of the cell for oxygen. Bac- teria can be obtained by infusing hay in warm water for about half an hour, filter- ing off" the hay, and keeping the filtrate warm. It will gradually become turbid, and a drop of it examined under the mi- croscope will be found to be full of bac- teria. Leaving the Protista, typical organisms distinctively animal or vegetable are next to be studied, and as vegetables are less complex than animals it is well to begin with them. Plants are divided into cryp- togams (Kpv-n-To?, hidden ; ya/x.os, mar- riage) and phanerogams (^aiVw, I show). The lowest division of the cryptogams is that of the Protophyta (Trpwros, first ; cbvTov, a plant) ; the plants comprised in it fall into two ranks — the algse, or chloro- 42 BIRKBECK, GEORGE, M.D. BLIND, EDUCATION OF phyll-contaming (^Awpos, green ; o^v1suV Manual on Disorders of Digestion, which rapidly passed through nine editions. His last work, in 1840, was entitled A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy, which is full of interesting and practically important matter. He died in 1847. Comenius, Johann Amos (6. ISTivnitz, Moravia, 1591, d. 1671), one of the most illustrious educational reformers, was the son of a miller who was a member of the Moravian Brethren, of which religious body Comenius became a bishop. His parents died while he was a child, and he was left to the care of guardians. At school he learnt ' reading, writing, the catechism, and the smallest beginnings of arithmetic' He was sixteen before he be- gan the study of Latin. He was not am- bitious, but earnestly religious, and it was his religion which supplied the educational motive. At sixteen he was sent to a Latin school, and at twenty he was studying at the college of Herborn. Probably because he began to study Latin late he was able to criticise the defective method of teaching. His account of schools is unfortunately still far too true where he says, ' they are the terror of boys and the slaughterhouses of minds — places where a hatred of litera- ture and books is contracted.' But he gave a life of untiring zeal to develop a system of education that should at least have some resemblance to the meaning of the word. He took up the work which had been commenced by Ratich (q-v.), and began by simplifying the Latin gram- mar. He was ordained to the pastorate COMENIUS, JOHANN AMOS 69 ill 1616, and in 1618 was appointed to one of the largest churches of the Mora- vians at Fuhiek. Here he had charge of a school as well, and here too he mar- ried. But in 1621 Fuhiek was taken by the Spaniards, and Comenius lost every- thing, including his library and manu- scripts. In 1622 he lost his wife and only child, and for some years, owing to the destruction and persecution of the Thirty Years' War, he was a wanderer. It was whilst witnessing much of the misery and distress of this calamitous period that he devised a plan for the renovation of schools as a means to restore religion. He fled to Poland, settled in Lesna, and became a teacher in the Moravian Gymnasium there. He wrote his Great Didactic to set forth his method ; then he brought out Janua Linguarum, which contained 8,000 words in 1,000 sentences. This remarkable book was published in many languages, and de- serves notice side by side with the best of recent methods, with which it agrees in principle. But not only did Comenius labour to aid the student in acquiring Latin, he also turned his attention to science. Bacon's Advancement of Learn- ing had raised great hopes in Comenius. He wished to gather a complete statement of all that was known into one work. This he called Pansophia. Comenius visited England with a view to founding a college to try his scheme of Pansophic instruction, under the sanction of Parliament ; but the unsettled times did not admit of its being- carried out. In August, 1642, he left Lon- don for Sweden, where he had long inter- views with John Skyte and Oxenstiern. They urged that he should devote himself to benefit schools and make the study of Latin easier. Thus in various places he worked hard for six years, and his works were published at Lesna, where he had finished them. After this he resided at Patak, where he wrote many more books, including his famous Orbis Ficttis, and founded a seminary which he called La- tium, where only Latin was allowed to be spoken. This was his Pansophic seminary. Prom Patak he returned once more to Lesna, but there, owing to the outbreak of war, he again lost all his property, including some valuable manuscripts. Upon the in- vitation of his friend De Geer, he went to Amsterdam at the age of sixty-three, and there again devoted himself to the labours of writinsr. Here he continued to reside, and was supported partly by teach- ing and partly by the private liberality of his friends. He had married a second time, and was the father of five children. He dedicated his works to the city of Amsterdam in gratitude for its hospi- tality. A mere list of his works is far too long to insert here, and we can only give a sketch of his educational system. Its general aim is stated thus : Man is the most excellent of animals ; his goal is be- yond this life, for this life is only a pre- paration for eternity, in which preparation there are three steps — he should know all things, he should have power over all things and over himself, he should refer himself and all things to God. Here at least we have a distinguishing mark of Comenius as compared with so many edu- cational reformers — his system arose from religion, not in rebellion against it. He elaborates much on the question : How are we to learn ' surely, easily, solidly ' ? From a mass of minute answers to these questions we note two principles which are steadily gaining ground, viz. that a language should be learnt not from a grammar, but from suitable authors, and that one language should be learnt at once. It would require a volume to give his system in detail. He frequently insisted that the hours of tuition should be few, with many intervals, and that there should be two half holidays weekly, a fortnight at Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost, and a whole month at the harvest time. The reader is simply staggered at the work accomplished by Comenius, The Orbis Pictus (the World Illus- trated) is the most famous of all the writings of Comenius, and contains the fullest illustrations of the applications of his principles. It was designed to be sup- plementary to his earlier primers and text- books, of which the best known are the Vestibulum, the Janua, and the Atrium. Professor S. S. Laurie, in his excellent Life of Comenivs, which forms one of the volumes of the Education Library, edited by Sir Philip Magnus, and published by Kegan Paul, Trench, and Co., says that the Orbis Pictus ' may be best described as a series of rude engravings of sensible objects, accompanied by a description of them in short and easy sentences. For ex- ample, we have the picture of a ship with its sails partly set, and a number attached to each part of the ship which corresponds 70 COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IN SCHOOLS to a number in the lesson, thus : the number 2 is engraved on the sails, and in the lesson we have this sentence, ' The ship has (2) sails.' The title of the book was ' The World of Sensible Things draimi ; that is, the nomenclature of all fundamental things in the world and actions in life re- duced to ocular demonstration, so that it may be a lamp to the Vestibtdum and Jamca of languages.' The work went through a great number of editions, and became the most popular school-book in Europe. It was illustrated by Michael Endter of Nuremberg, to whom Comenius gratefully acknowledged his indebtedness. Comenius was the head of the realistic school of educational reformers who laid the foundations of the science of educa- tional method. Communicable Diseases in School. — In addition to the infectious specific dis- eases (q.v.), there are certain diseases which are frequently produced by contact between children. The most important of these is Scabies or Itch. This shews itself as a pimply rash, most frequently seen between the roots of the fingers and at the bends of joints, especially at the wrist. It is extremely irritable, and in more aggravated forms greatly resembles eczema, with which it is often confused, and thus the infection spreads before the true character of the disease is detected. It is due to the rapid multiplication of a ininate insect (the acarus scabiei) not un- like a cheese-mite, the female of which forms minute burrows in the epidermis, and lays numerous eggs, which hatch in about fourteen days. It is very contagious, especially when its true character is not recognised. Any child suffering from a rash which causes him to scratch his skin frequently should be excluded from school. The proper treatment is to bathe the skin, using soft soap freely, and then rub in sul- phur ointment night and morning. Return to school should not be allowed without a medical certificate and until the clothes have been baked or washed in boiling water. Ringioorm is caused by the growth of a minute fungus on the skin. It causes round patches raised at the margin, where the growth of the parasite is most active. On the scalp it also causes large round patches, on which the hair is usually not entirely gone, but short and stumpy. Here the fungus extends down to the roots of the hairs, and obstinately remains tliere, even when the superficial parts have been cured. Such children are frequently al- lowed to return to school. It is a great mistake to suppose that ringworm is neces- sarily cured when the hair begins to grow on the diseased places. If on careful and minute examination no short stumpy hairs (protruding about ^ inch) can be found, then the case may be regarded as cured. A scurfy condition of the head is commonly left after ringworm of the scalp, and this condition generally indicates that the ring- worm is not properly cured, but is still slightly infectious. Unless ringworm is carefully and systematically treated, a child may require to be excluded from school for six months or even longer. Ringworm is often spread in schools by exchanging hats and caps, or by brushes and towels, or by actual contact. Hair- dressers occasionally pass it on, as do chil- dren's hatters by trying numerous caps on different children. Chronic ophthcdmia, characterised by soreness and redness of the eyelids, is contagious, and occasionally spreads in boarding-schools. It seldom oc- curs, however, except in parochial schools, and the conditions more particularly lead- ing to it are badly ventilated dormitories, insufficient food, and general unhygienic conditions, along with the promiscuous use of towels. Irish children seem to be par- ticularly prone to suffer from it. Scald- head is characterised by scabs on the head. A similar rash may occur on the face. It often spreads by contact with other children, and such children should therefore be excluded from school. The preceding diseases are commimicated by actual contact. Chorea and Hysteria are occasionally spread in schools by imita- tion and sympathy. Every teacher should be able to recognise the jerky twitchings, shuffling of feet, contortions of face, and twitching of eyelids which characterise chorea (St. Vitus's Dance), and children suffering from it require prolonged rest from school-work. Other children are apt to imitate the movements, and thus an imitative chorea may be produced. Hys- teria only occurs in girls' schools. It may simulate a simple faint or an epileptic fit ; but there is not the extreme pallor of face and lips which characterises a faint ; nor usually the absolute unconsciousness and absence of flinching which characterise the epileptic patient. The hysterical girl gene- rally tries to attract attention and sym- COMPANIONSHIP COMTE, ISIDORE 1 pathy, and is not so absolutely unconscious of her surroundings as the epileptic patient. She should be firmly treated, and not al- lowed to attract too much attention. Companionship. — The importance of companions as a factor in the mental and moral development of the child has been recognised by the best writers on educa- tion. Locke, who deals with the subject at length in section 68 and following of his Thoughts on Education, returns to it in section 146. According to him, company is a greater force to work upon the pupil than all that can be done by the educator. The educative value of companions is strik- ingly illustrated in the special difficulties that present themselves to the parent in the early home training of a solitary child. The influence of companions is seen first in promoting intellectual development. A child's mind is stimulated to observe and to think by the movements of others' minds. Play, by its action of mind on mind and its association of a number of individuals in concerted orderly action, illustrates in a striking manner the stimu- lating effect of companionship on the in- telligence and on the active powers (see Play). On the moral side the benefits are still more manifest. It is by freely coming into contact with other wills that the child first realises the conditions that underlie the distinctions of right and wrong. The individual can only realise his moral nature by means of social relations, and these are first experienced by the child in intercourse with other children. Compan- ionship works powerfully through the im- pulse of Imitation (which see). This is illustrated in the eifect of a single com- pardon and friend in modifying the taste, inclination, and course of the thoughts of a child ; and it is seen still more plainly in the influence of numbers in assimilating the opinions, sentiments, and rules of action of a boy to those of the set or community of which he is a niember. The influence of companions on this larger scale is a prominent feature of school life, serving to differentiate it from the life of the home, and requiring to be specially taken into ac- count in a comparison of the advantages of home and school training. The ' sympathy of numbers,' as it is called, is a force which the teacher has to reckon with in all class work. The learner is as much, at least, subject to the prevailing feeling of the class as he is to the personal influence of the teacher ; consequently, where the for- mer is hostile to the latter, discipline be- comes impossible. On the other hand, the presence in a class of a cheerful alertness, of a spirit of industry, and of a feeling of respect for authority, is the most valuable auxiliary which the preceptor can secure. The freer and more varied action of com- panionship is seen in the playground, where it may shew itself, as Tom Broivn's School Days and other stories of school life well illustrate, as a moral influence of a singu- larly deep and lasting kind. Such being the importance of companionship, the edu- cator should make it one chief part of his business to select, more particularly in the early years before the child's character is formed, pure and right-minded compan- ions. And the thoughtful schoolmaster will seek in every way to enlist the influ- ence of numbers on his side by judiciously acting upon, instructing, and correcting the prevailing beliefs and sentiments of his community. (*S'ee article 'Umgang' in Schmid's Encyclojjddie.) Competitive Examinations, ^ee Ex- amination. Composition. ^S'ee Essays. Comte, Isidore Auguste Marie Fran- cois Xavier {h. 1798, d. 1857), the Positive philosopher, was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, and at first embraced the socialist tenets of St. Simon. He subse- quently abandoned these for the philo- sophy now associated with his name. The scheme of education which he therein ex- pounded is as striking as it is original and peculiar. He was dissatisfied with the then prevailing systems. No education, he considered, would be satisfactory unless it inculcated a thorough knowledge of each science. Let us, he cried, have a new class of students, suitably prepared, whose busi- ness it should be to take the respective sciences as they are, determine the spirit of each, ascertain their relations and mutual connection, and reduce their respective principles to the smallest number of general principles in accordance with the funda- mental rules of the Positive method (see his Philosophie Positive). At the same time let other students be prepared for their special pursuit by an education which recognises the whole scope of the Positive science, so as to profit by the labours of the students of generalities, and so as to correct reciprocally, under that guidance, the results obtained by each. Such a 72 CONCEPTION CONDORCET, MARQUIS DE reform would strengthen the intellectual functions, regenerate education, advance the sciences by combining them, and re- organise society. Hence, Comte contended, the only logical, as well as the only his- torical, way of educating youth effectually was to teach them the sciences according to the order promulgated in his hierarchy of the sciences — mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology On such principles an education would have a powerful gymnastic effect upon the mind. A good education would include knowledge of the general principles at least of each of these ; and as each science trains to a special way of thinking, the perfectly trained mind was that which had been exercised in all these sciences. No student could know a science without a competent knowledge of the anterior sci- ences on which it depended. Physical philosophers could not understand physics without at least a general knowledge of astronomy ; nor chemists chemistry with- out physics and astronomy ; nor, above all, the student of social philosophy socio- logy without a general knowledge of all the anterior sciences. As such conditions were never at the present day fulfilled there could be no rational scientific edu- cation. Hence the imperfection of even the most important scientific education. If the fact was so in regard to scientific edu- cation, it was no less strikingly so in regard to general education. Our intellectual sys- tem could not be renovated until the sci- ences were studied in their proper order. Even the highest understandings were apt to associate their ideas according to the order in which their ideas had been re- ceived, and it was only an intellect here and there, in any age, which in its utmost vigour could, like Bacon, Descartes, and Leibnitz, make a clearance in the field of knowledge so as to reconstruct from the foundation their system of ideas. Conception. — This term, as the ety- mology suggests [con and capio, to take together), describes the act by which we gather up in a single mental representa- tion a number of like objects which are thereby constituted into a class, as animal, metal. This is effected by comparing con- crete individuals one with another, and seizing the quality or qualities which they possess in common. The result of the act of conception, which is necessarily em- bodied in a general name, is known as a concept. The essential process in concep- tion is abstraction. This correct meaning of conception (viz. the symbolic repre- sentation of a general class) must be care- fully distinguished from another meaning often attached to the word in educational writings, viz. the mental realisation of some concrete object or incident, e.g. the Temple at Jerusalem, through the medium of verbal description. This last operation is best described as an act of construc- tive imagination {see Construction and Imagination). {See Hamilton's Lectures on Metaphysics, vol. i. p. 212 3 Baynes's Essay on Analyt. of Logical Forms, pp. 5, 6 ; and Sully's Handbook of Psychology, chaps, xii. xiii.) Condillac, Etienne Bonnet, Abbe de Condillac, was born at Grenoble 1715, and died 1780. As a philosopher, he is dis- tinguished by his advocacy of the system of Locke, though he differed widely from him. Locke held that there were two sources of ideas, sensation and reflection. Condillac reduced all to one source, sensa- tion. His third book, A Treatise on the Sensations, is considered his chief work. He became so celebrated that he was ap- pointed tutor to the Prince of Parma, and it was here that he published his Course of Studies, which he divides into the arts of writing, reasoning, thinking, followed by a general history of men and empires. As a writer he was lucid, and Mr. Lewes gives him chief praise, because ' he helped to withdraw men from the contemplation of a metaphysical entity.' He thus took an important step towards scientific, ob- jective research. Condorcet, Marquis de {b. 1743, d.in. prison 1794). — He was educated in the college of Navarre, and distinguished him- self in mathematics. In 1765 he published his first work On Integral Calculations, which met with great favour in the Academy of Sciences. This was followed by other works, which secured for him the honour of being chosen member of the Academy in 1769. Though not in the first rank of mathematicians, his labours on 'difierential equations ' have earned him an historical position. He applied philosophy to the amelioration of social institutions, and his main doctrine was the perfectibility of man, both in his individual and social ca- pacity. 'According to him the human frame and intellect, by the aid of time and education, would infallibly attain to per- CONDUCT CONSEQUENCES (DISCIPLINE OF) 73 fection.' He drew up a report on public instruction, entitled A Flan for a Consti- tution, which he presented to the Con- vention at their request, and in which he set forth some lofty views regarding the art of expanding the faculties of the human mind. A Sketch of the Progress of the Htiman Mind is perhaps his chief work. He never wearied in promoting reforms, and he sacrificed his life in his effort to found a republic upon a philosophic basis, for he was pi'oscribed as a Girondist when Robespierre was in power, and, having been thrown into prison, he took poison, and was found dead the morning after his incarceration. Conduct is the manner in which a person guides or regulates his actions. It refers not to single actions, but to the general mode of acting. As such, it is the external outcome of and index to the per- son's fixed dispositions and character. (^See Charactee.) As a uniform mode of be- having on which others can count, conduct is an embodiment of the principle of Habit (q.v.). Good conduct is that which, ob- jectively considered, conforms to the re- quirements of duty or the moral law ; and, subjectively considered, indicates a good moral disposition or a tendency to act rightly. From merely right conduct which satisfies the claims of duty sorne moralists distinguish virtuous, or, better, meritori- ous conduct, which goes beyond this, as when a child spontaneously denies him- self some gratification in order to benefit another. Good conduct is the ox'ganised result of repeated and habitual eftbrt. A child acquires conduct in the measure in which he exerts these efforts. Good con- duct is thus at once the fruit of moral cha- racter, and the means by which this grows and improves. The sphere of conduct in- cludes the whole of the child's life, so far as this can be brought under the control of the will. Thus, industry in study, orderliness, and propriety of deportment fall within the province, as well as the graver moral matters of honesty, veracity, &c. But the educator in estimating any branch of con- duct must carefully examine into the amount of efibrt involved as well as into the quality of the motive at work. He should remember, too, that the perfect type of conduct is the result of free self- guidance, and be on his guard against overvaluing a mere outward conformity to rule that is prompted by the desire of gaining, or the fear of losing, something, ' e.g. ' conduct marks.' (See articles Duty and Virtue.) Congregation (Oxford) has been greatly confused in its meaning by an Act of Parliament in 1 854. Before then the busi- ness of the University was transacted by two distinct assemblies, the Houses of Congregation and of Convocation. The ancient House of Congregation, which con- sists of all the persons who in ancient times were specially charged with the edu- cation and discipline of the University, has now nothing to do with legislation, and its business is confined almost exclu- sively to the granting of degrees. The Act of 1854 created the ' Congregation of the University of Oxford.' It consists of the Chancellor of the University and several other officials, together with ' all those mem- bers of Convocation who reside within one mile and a half of Carfax for twenty weeks during the year ending the 1st of Septem- ber.' The business of this new congrega- tion is chiefly legislative. When the Hebdo- madal Council has framed any new statute, it must first be promulgated, after due notice, here, and then, after three entire days, it is to be proposed here for accept- ance or rejection. A statute approved by Congregation is to be submitted to Con- vocation, after an interval of seven entire days, for final adoption or rejection. At Cambridge the meetings of the Senate in the Senate House are styled Congrega- tions. They are held for the purpose of legislation, examination, or the conferring of degrees. The members of the Senate are the chancellor, vice-chancellor, doctors of the various faculties, masters of arts, law, and surgery, and bachelors of di- vinity, whose names are on the University register. Conscience Clause. See Code. Consequences (Discipline of). — This phrase refers to the proposal of Rousseau, revived and developed by Mr. Herbert Spencer, that children's wrong-doing, in- stead of being visited by punishment (in its commonly understood sense), should be left to be corrected by an experience of its natural consequences. These would in- clude not only the proper physical result of careless, imprudent actions — e.g. play- ing with fire, leaving toys or books in disorder — but also the natural social con- sequences, such as the loss of friendship, trust, &c. The full and consistent carry- 74 CONSTRUCTIVE FACULTY CONSUMPTION AND SCHOOL- WORK ing out of this idea would clearly be im- possible. The child's ignorance of the effects of its action renders a number of prohibitions necessary for its physical maintenance and well-being. Not only so, it may be reasonably maintained that these so-called natural penalties could never take the place of punishment proper — that is, inflictions attached by an authority to dis- obedience to its commands — as a means of moral development. It may, however, be readily conceded that in many cases a child is best left to the discipline of consequences, e.g. by being allowed to indulge within certain limits its greedy propensities. And where the educator has to impose prohibi- tions, the principle of natural consequences may be made use of by selecting such forms of punishment as will be seen by the culprit to be naturally connected with the wrong-doing. {^See Rousseau's ^mile, book ii. ; Herbert Spencer's Education, chap. iii. ; Bain's Education as a Science, chap. iii. ; Buisson's Dictionnctire de Feda- gogie, art. ' Obeissance.') Constructive Faculty. — By this term is meant the mind's power of combining the elements supplied by its experience in new forms. The process of construction is thus not, strictly speaking, one of mental origination, but merely of recasting and rearranging materials derived from the impressions of the past. It implies the retention and the reproduction of these impressions according to the Laws of Association. Beyond this it involves the action of the will in controlling the suc- cession of ideas due to the play of associa- tion, the due selection of what is fitted, and the rejection of what is unfitted to take a place in the desired product. The term refers in common discourse to all forms of practical contrivance and device, whether subserving the end of beauty or of utility. Thus, we speak of the con- structive power of an architect, a me- chanical inventor, and so forth. These practical operations, however, are only particular manifestations of a power which is exercised much more widely. Through- out the acquisition of knowledge by the processes of verbal instruction, as well as in the independent discovery of new facts and truths, the combining of old materials into new forms is illustrated. The child has to construct a new mental picture every time he realises a description of an unknown place, object, or event. The training of the constructive faculty thus enters into all intellectual education, the cultivation of the imagination by the Fine Arts (see Imagination), and, lastly, into all practical exercises, such as those of the voice in learning to speak and to sing, of the hands in kindergarten employments, drawing, writing, tfec, gymnastic move- ments, and so forth. (See Bain, Merited and Moral Science, bk. i. chap. iv. ; and Sully, Teacher's Handbook, chap. xi.). Consumption and School-work. — Consumption is one of the most fatal diseases in this country. In 1884, in Eng- land and Wales, out of a total of 530,828 deaths, 49,325 were caused by consump- tion, and 20,083 by other tubercular and sci'ofulous diseases, which are pro- duced by similar causes to those induc- ing consumption. Thus, 13 per cent, of the total mortality of this country was ascribable to consumptive diseases. Of the total 69,408 deaths from consump- tive diseases, 12,746 occurred under the age of twenty" years, and it is evident, therefore, that the question of the influ- ence of school life on the tendency to consumption is one of great importance. Consumption is a very hereditary disease, and where the hereditary taint is marked, school work should be modified and the pupil's health guarded by generous diet and abundant outdoor exercise. A damp soil has been demonstrated to be a power- ful factor in causing consumption. It has been repeatedly demonstrated that when a neighbourhood is freely drained, thus robbing its subsoil of moisture, the mor- tality from consumption steadily decreases. In Salisbury the deaths from phthisis fell 49 per cent., in Ely 47 per cent., in Rugby 43 per cent., and in Banbury 41 per cent, after free drainage. It is evident, there- fore, that schools should be erected on a dry soil, and all precautions taken against damp floors and walls. Overcroioding has a very important influence in causing con- sumption. Dogs in ill- ventilated kennels, horses or monkeys under similar condi- tions, not uncommonly die from consump- tion, and the same rules apply to children. The influence of lack of fresh air as a cause of consumption is indicated by the fact that of 6,000 cases admitted into the Brompton Hospital for consumption two- thirds had indoor occupations, and a ma- jority of these were milliners, sempstresses, and tailors. Formerly the death-rate from CONTRADICTORIXESS- -CONTEAST 75 consumption in the army was 11 "9 per 1,000 soldiers ; now, with improved ven- tilation and drainage of barracks, it is only 2 "5 per 1,000. Children are especi- ally susceptible to the dangers resulting from impure air. And even if consump- tion is not directly produced in this way, it is favoured by the general debility and malaise caused by chronic exposure to foul air. It has been recently stated that con- sumption is due to a minute organism (the bacillus tuberculosis), and that con- sumption may be caught by breathing the breath of consumptive patients, just as scarlet fever or measles may be caught under similar circumstances. If this be the case, then the dangers of school life in which children are congregated closely together in a vitiated air are indefinitely increased. But, without accepting this view in its entirety, the importance of fresh air in connection with school life cannot be exaggerated. The direct influence of school-work in producing consumption has perhaps been exaggerated. The collateral deficiency of food, exercise, and fresh air are probably the real causes of consumption rather than the mental work in school life. In 1872 the Massachusetts Board of Health in- quired by circular of a number of phy- sicians and teachers whether in their experience consumption is ever brought on by over-study. Of 191 replies 146 were in the afiirmative. There can be no doubt that the strain involved in working for an examination sometimes leads to neglect of hygienic laws, and following on the examination a breakdown may occur ; but there is no reason to think that study in itself conduces to phthisis. It should be remembered that children with a tuber- cular tendency are often unusually bright in intellect, and require holding back rather than stimulating in their studies. Contradictoriness. — By this term is meant a disposition to dispute and contra- dict others' assertions, not in the interests of truth, but from a mere love of opposi- tion. It corresponds in the intellectual region with self-will and obstinacy in the moral region. It is not a vice proper to childhood, for children are disposed to accept the statements of those who are able to command their respect. The pre- sence of this fault is thus a pretty clear indication of a lack of authority on the part of the teacher, and of a defective mode of instruction. Clever children, who are invited and encouraged to give their opinion on various matters, and to discuss questions with their preceptors, are very apt to develop this unamiable quality. It is no easy matter to exercise the judgment of the child in independent reflection and decision, without at the same time en- couraging a love of dispute. The only true corrective to contradictoriness, love of wrangling, and what Locke calls opi- nionatry, is a genuine love of truth itself, which leaves no place for any form of self- consciousness, and so excludes all desire for self-assertion. (See Locke's Thoughts on Education, sect. 98.) Contrast. — Two things are said to con- trast one with another when they show a marked and striking degree of unlikeness. Thus, we speak of a contrast between a loud and a soft note, a warm and a cold colour. Since all knowledge begins by discriminating objects or seeing differences, and since the child notes broad differ- ences before he detects the lesser degrees of unlikeness, early cognition is occupied to a large extent with the relation of con- trast. For this reason the teacher should make the amplest use of the principle of contrast. Thus, in exercising the senses and the observing faculty, contrasting colours, forms, &c., should be set in juxta- position ; and in communicating any new idea to the child's mind, as that of pa- triotism, its meaning should be brought out by contrasting it with its opposite. Contrast has an important bearing not only upon the operations of the intellect, but on the feelings. The emotional effect of anything pathetic, sublime, &c., is greatly enhanced by setting it in its proper con- trast. Hence the large part played by contrast in literature and the fine arts generally. Owing to this emotional effect of contrast, impressions are apt to attach themselves to and afterwards to recall contrasting impressions ; and this is par- ticularly the case with ideas that are rela- tive one to another, such as bright, dark, high, low, rich, poor, y the children themselves — not complete rules all at once, but rules which gradually grow more complete as experience widens. Even the conjugations of verbs are not to be introduced in com- plete elaborate paradigms ; but bit by bit as they are wanted. The object of the plan is to enal^le children to read with perfect intelligence, and to speak with perfect intelligence, clearness, and accu- racy. For this purpose, Girard maintains that what we want is not codified, ready- made rules, but copious, well-chosen ex- amples, and constant practice in making other statements like them. In the later stages, the grammar is used as a book of reference in which is to be found a careful, clear statement of the results of experience. For more details we must refer the reader to the books themselves — they are well worth study. Girls (Education of). See Education OP Girls. Girls' Public Day Scliools. See Clas- sification. Girton College. See Education op Girls. Gleim, Betty {h. at Bremen, 1781, d. 1827), was a distant relative of the poet Gleim, and the daughter of a merchant at Bremen. She was interested in questions of education early in life, and in 1805 she established a school for young girls in her native town, which she conducted with great success for ten years. In 1815, in order to extend her knowledge of educa- tional subjects and methods, she left Bre- men and visited Holland, England, and some districts on the Rhine. Upon her re- turn, she I'eopened her school, and continued the mistress until her death. She wrote several works — one of which, entitled The Education and Instruction of Woman, is regarded as a classic in Germany. The second volume treats of the method of Pestalozzi, which she adopted in her school. She has unfolded his method with remark- able lucidity. She also wrote a second work on education of women, entitled Wltat has renev-ed Germany the Biyht to exi^ect from its Women? 1814. 136 GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON Goethe, Johann Wolfgang- von (/>. at Em)\kt"ort on-Main, 17-49, d. 183:!), has so far dominated Geriuan thought that any statement of his on education is of the highest intei-est. His father was a man in comfortable oircuni stances, though of no great position in society. Yet he luxd a great k^ve for literature, and great taste in art, so that he exerted a powerful in- fluence on the desiivsand character of the young poet. Goethe is said in his tarlt/ years to have had anxious thoughts about ivligion, and before he was eight to have devised a form of worship to the 'God of Nature.' He entei-ed the university of Leipzig at the age of tifteen. Here his poetical turn tirst showed itself in a pro- nounced manner, and though his fatlier designed him for jurisprudence, instead of studying law he tried to tind some satis- factory theory of poetry. German litera- tui'e \\as simply in its infancy, and he could find nothing to his taste. Here, howeA'er, he beg-an one of the habits of his life, viz. to turn everything that pleased or pained him into verse. He also paid some attention to the history of the fine arts, and even took to etching ; but this impaired his health, and in 17tiS he left Leipzig. To recover his health he was sent to the ivsidence of a lady named Klettenberg, the 'fair saint ' of "Wilhelm ]Meister.' She was a mystic, and exerted a lifelong influence on the poet's chan\cter. When he left her, and went to Sti-asburg to finish his legi\l studies, he neglected them and pursued anatomy and chemistry. Here he met with Herder, who advised hiin to study the Italian poets. On his return home, he produced Cotz von Ber- Uchinffeyi, 1773, and a novel, Werther, 1774. This latter fairly took Gennany by storm, and Goethe's fame was made. He was introduced to the Duke of Saxe- Weimar, where he went to live, and when .the duke came into possession of govern- ment he bestowed every possible honour upon Goethe. There the poet lived for many years. He had complete control over the theatre, and produced the best works of Schillei- on the stage. He was surrounded by the most refined and lite- i-ary society of his time. He was made a privy councillor, and afterwards travelled in Switzerland and Italy for a long time. Meanwhile, he was constantly producing those great works which, for their power and variety, have placed him at the head of Gernaan literature. His dnxma IIcr)»a)i itud Dorothea, and his novel WiUifhn Jfeistcr, sliow las his views on education, though his principles are only scattered here and there, and not worked out intt> a out-and-dried method. To him, educa- tion was an evolution — diiiwing forth from the individual that which was best — 'the realisixtion, as completely as possible, of the general type of the species.' His great motto was 'In the beginning was action ': therefoi-e, he ever urged 'Do, and by doing you will attain to your highest and best.' In the education of infants, as in the government of nations, he thought nothing more futile than repressive mea- sures. ' Man, ' he says, ' is natin-ally active : open a way for action, and he will follow you.' He says much to this etiect, and re- iterates that 'negati\-e discipline is power- less.' We recognise in all this at a glance nuu'h that stamped itself in Oarlyle, who found in Goethe a mine of riches. In WUIieliu Mtisfer we have something like an educational Vtopia, especially in book ii. Mr. Carlyle translated Wilhehn early in his career, and a most amusing review of the tmnslation is found in De Quincey (Works, vol. xii.). De Quincey did not find (probably did not look for) the lofty principles of 'the mute system of education,' which Goethe then displayed, and which so delighted Carlyle. The first of these lofty principles upon which Goethe insists is ' Revei-ence — honour done to those who ai-e gntnder and better than you, without fear; distinct from fear.' This is all well put by Carlyle in his address to the stu- dents at Edinburgh, when he was installed as Lord Rector. Refen-ing to the pas- sages in which Wilhelm's instructors come to the question of religion in education, Carlyle says: 'Goethe practically distin- guishes the kinds of religion that are in the world, and he makes out three reve- rences. . . . The first and sin^plest is that of reveience for what is above us. It is the soul of all the pagan religions ; thei-e is nothing better in man than that. Then there is reverence for what is around us or about us — re^-erence for our equals, to which he attributes an immense power in the culture of man. The third is revei"ence for what is beneath us — to learn to recog- nise in paifi, soi-row, and contradiction, even in those thing-s, odious as they ai-e to flesh and blood — to learn that there lies in these a priceless blessing.' {See Lewes's GOVERNESSES' BENEVOLENT INSTITUTION- -GRAMMAR 137 Life, of Goethe (Longmans) ; also Carlyle's Wilhehii Meister, itc.) Governesses' Benevolent Institution, incorporated 1848. Office, 32 Sackville Street ; Home and Registration Office, 47 Harley Street; Asylum, Chislehurst. AflPords temporary assistance to gover- nesses in distress, a provident fund, annui- ties to aged governesses, a home for gover- nesses between their engagements, and an asylum for governesses above the age of fifty. Invested funds, 161,612^. Government Schools. — This is a name popularly given to schools known officially as 'public elementary schools.' An 'elemen- tary school' is defined by section 3 of the Act of 1870, as 'a school at which elemen- tary education is tlie principal part of the education there given, and does not include any school or department of a school at which the ordinary payments in respect of the instruction exceed ninepence a week.' By section 7 of the same Act a '■public elementary school ' is defined as an elemen- tary school conducted in accordance with the regulations there laid down. These are: (1) The admission of children must not depend upon their attending or ab- staining from attending any Sunday school or place of worship, or any religious observances or instruction in the school or elsewhere. (2) Religious observances or instruction must come at the beginning or at the end of a school session, and any child may be withdrawn therefrom. (3) The school must be open at all times to Her Majesty's Inspectors, who may not enquire into the religious instruction given or examine in religious knowledge. (4) The conditions laid down in the code (g. v.) must be observed. Public elementary schools are either Board or Voluntary {q.v.). Grading. See Classification. Graduate {grad'as, a step). — This term is used to signify both the act of taking a university degree and the person who takes it, either Vjy examination or honoris causa. In America the term is also applied to the act of conferring degrees by universities. The regulations forgi-aduation differ widely in different universities, but it is usual for candidates to graduate first as bachelors, and subsequently as masters or doctors. In the Scottish universities, however, the Vja- chelor's degree in the faculty of arts (though not in the other faculties) was abolished in 1861, and candidates can proceed to the full M.A. degree by passing an examina- tion in classics, mathematics, and philo- sophy, or can take the degree in three parts by passing an examinatioia in each of these departments separately. Matriculated stu- dents of universities previous to taking their degree are called undergraduates.. {S'ee Df:GREES.) Graham, Isabella {b. in the county of Lanark, 1742, d. in New York, 1814), was a Scotch governess. After the death of her husband, who was an army surgeon, she opened a school in Paisley, 1774. She visited New York in 1789, and there founded an institute for young girls. It is largely due to her charitable initiative that New York is so rich in benefit socie- ties and philanthropic institutions, such as the Society for the Succour of Poor Widows, the Infant School for Orphans, the Society for the Encouragement of Industry amongst the Poor Glasses, a Sunday school for adults, this latter being the first school of its kind in the United States. Her memoirs were published in 1816 by Dr. Mason. Grammar. — Grammar is the science of correct speech, i.e. of certain select usages of speech. A grammar of any language is a systematic classification of the correct usages of that language. Thus, grammar stands to speech as logic to thought. It is true that the term ' grammar ' is often used in a wider sense, to cover an ex- amination into the relations of different families of languages (comparative gram- mar), or even an inquiry into the origin of language. But these questions belong to the more general science of language. Etymology and word-formation are no part of grammar proper; they are correctly described as philology, in the narrower sense of that term. Prosody and metre are admitted into grammars only by cour- tesy. In a word grammar is only part of the greater science of speech. The laws of correct speech may be summed up under two headings : (1) Accidence, or the doctrine of correct forms [Formenlehre) ; (2) Syntax, or the doctrine of correct sen- tences. These two departments are no doubt in reality merely two classifications of the same set of phenomena from dif- ferent points of view. A correct sentence cannot be constructed without correct forms ; correctness of form has no mean- ing except in relation to the function w^hich forms exercise in sentences. But 138 GRAMMAR for convenience words may be considered both in isolation (accidence) and as con- nected in the sentence (syntax). The value of grannnar has often been called into question during the present century. The great Jacob Grimm, in the preface to his (Terman Gram mar, declared the grammatical method to be pedantic in character and injurious in result. He maintained that grammar impeded the free development of the faculty of speech, which, if left to itself, would grow with the growth of the mind, and reach a far higher degree of perfection than when tutored and tortured by the rigid systems of the grammarians. This criticism was directed in the first instance against the abuses of grammar as taught by the em- pirical methods of the time. The only grammar that Grimm recognised was his- torical grammar — an inquiry into the course of development through which lan- guage has passed and is still passing. But the censures of Grimm undoubtedly ex- press a large measure of truth as against any grammatical system. G rannnar, being the expression of the usages of the literary language, no doubt does act as a retarding force — ' freezing the current of natural speech,' to use Professor Max Miiller's metaphor. ' Dialectical regeneration ' has a less free held when brought under the influence of grammar ; exen the linguistic development of the individual may some- times sutfer from its constraint. But the advantages are not altogether on the side of natural speech. If it is desirable to maintain at any given time a standard of correctness to which individual taste must bow, if it is an advantage to a nation to possess a connuon medium of communica- tion for the educated, with certain well- detined usages corresponding to certain distinctions of thought, then the raiso)i d'etre of grammar is established. It is the function of grammar to resist the intro- duction of such changes as depend, not upon a general consensus of feeling, but upon individual caprice or a mistaken idea of correctness. At the same time the gram- marian must beware of attempting to exer- cise summary jurisdiction over speech. His function is to register the usage of the pre- sent, not to legislate for the futui'e. When the current detinitely sets in a particular direction, it may be strong enough to over- throw grammatical barriers ; and in such cases the grammarian must adapt his rules to reformed usage. lu many cases, how- ever, grannnar may exercise a salutary in- fluence in conserving a sense for the re- finements of speech, which are apt to be obliterated by popular usage. The day may come when English will have no sub- junctive mood, and we shall say, ' If I was you ' instead of ' If I were you.' There is a tendency in some parts of Germany to use the ' conditionals ' in the if-clauses of conditional sentences (' Wenn er es thun wiiixle,' itc). But grammar is as yet jus- tified in prohibiting such constructions. There have indeed been found scholars, such as Mr. H. Sweet, ready to defend ' It is Die,' and similar constructions. But they will hardly find support at present among the cultivated. The practical question for the teacher as to the use of grammar may be con- sidered under two heads : 1. The use of grammar in schools where the mothei- tongue alone is taught. 2. The use of grammar in schools where foreign languages are taught. 1. It is perfectly true that children belonging to cultivated homes may learu to use language correctly and efiectively without any formal study of grammar. But on the one hand many children do not hear correct speaking at home, and on the other hand correctness of habit is liable to degenerate when the pupil is bi'ought into contact with the less refined usage of the world at large. Besides, this veiy in- fluence of the cultivated home is an arti- ficial influence, checking the natural ten- dencies of the young mind. Children, if left to themseh-es, proceed to develop their speech by analogy and in total indifterence to accepted usage. They say ' bringed ' for ' brought,' ' mouses ' for ' mice,' ' it is me ' for ' it is I ' (because what usually follows the verb is the object). The half-educated man who has been taught to say ' It is I,' proceeds to infer that he ought also to say ' between you and I.' But we may go much further. Even writers of eminence commit solecisms which they would be far from attempting to justify if their atten- tion were called to them. Mistakes of substituting indicative for subjunctive and subjunctive for indicative in conditional sentences are to be met with even in leading writers. ' I should have liked to have seen him ' is often heard and read. Numer- ous other examples might be quoted from Professor Shadworth Hodfi;son's Errors in GRAMMAR 139 the Use of English. To correct such errors is one of the main functions of grammar. It is maintained by Mr. Fitch {Lectures on Teaching^ 1881, p. 258) that 'the direct operation and use of grammar rules in im- proving our speech and making it correct, can hardly be said to exist at all.' But this view appears to rest upon a mistaken doctrine as to what constitutes grammar. Mr. Fitch considers ' that of pure grammar there is very little in the English language,' grammar being in his view ' the logic of language in so far, and in so far only, as it finds expression in the inflexions and forms of words ' i^thid. p. 261). Why ? Surely there is no sufficient ground for •excluding from the scope of grammar any means which a language may employ to express differences of thought. Inflexion is only one of those means ; a more im- portant means in English is the use of certain substitutes for inflexion. Are we to exclude the modes of expressing time relations from an English grammar because EngKsh has, properly speaking, only two tenses, i.e. inflected forms expressing time relations % Are we to exclude the equi- valents which supplement the subjunctive mood where distinct forms are no longer ■extant ? If so, no doubt English syntax will have a very small scope, and its rules will be mostly valueless in correcting errors ■of speech. ' No warning is needed against such mistakes as "Give /the book;" "Lend the money to he " ' {ihid. p. 259). It was some such view as this which led Dr. Johnson in his English Grammar to treat the whole syntax in ten lines, ' because our language has so little inflection that its construction neither requires nor ad- mits of many rules.' The answer is, that to treat English in this way is to ignore the essential difference which separates it from languages of the classical type, and to some extent from other Teutonic lan- guages. To deny that English has a gram- mar is to deny it law and order, and to reduce it below the level of Chinese. The grammar of English is a very subtle gram- mar, and its usages, if difficult to register, demand all the more investigation and study. There is another use of grammar be- sides its practical use. As a science, gram- mar ' reveals the laws and pi'inciples which underlie, and account for, the speech which I am using every day ' (Mr. Fitch, ihid. p. 260). Here its character is theoretic. and it serves not only to disclose the laws which govern an important object of study, but also to strengthen the reasoning facul- ties. How far such conscious study of the mother tongue is desirable in elementary schools is a question. Some eminent au- thorities hold that one may encourage the young mind too early to processes of ab- straction and reflexion, and that systematic grammar should not be introduced until the pupils have command over a large vocabulary, and have made considerable acquaintance with the concrete phenomena of language. This not only from a psycho- logical point of view, but also in the in- terests of grammar itself : for grammar cannot be profitably pursued in vacuo., especially the grammar of the mother tongue. But at some stage of the pupil's development it is well to make conscious the principles of the speech which he is using. The ear and memory, however well trained by habit, will not always serve as guides, and the mental discipline derived by conscious reflexion on the usages of speech is itself a power which emancipates from the thraldom of words. ' Words, as a Tartar's bow, shoot back upon the under- standing of the wisest, and mightily en- tangle and pervert the judgment' (Bacon). In regard to method, sound educational theory demands that the teaching of Eng- lish be based on analysis rather than syn- thesis. ' Long before a child comes to the commencement of grammar he has learned to speak. . . . That which in teaching French is the ultimate goal of your ambi- tion, conversation and freedom in using words, is the very point of departure in the case of your own vernacular speech . . .' (Mr. ¥itc\\,ihid. p. 261). This maxim is true of the mother tongue of every nation ; it is especially true of the teaching of Eng- lish to English children, for the logical character of the language — its absence of inflection, its dependence on position for indicating function — forces upon the teacher a logical treatment. By breaking up the sentence — by effecting that separa- tion of its parts by which it ceases to Ije an organic whole — the pupil is led to a classification of the parts of speech by way of their function in forming sen- tences. The dead members of the living whole may be then studied in isolation (accidence), and in their relation to other parts of the sentence (syntax). Tlie im- portance of the latter study to pupils who 140 GRAMMAR SCHOOLS are sufficiently developed to enter upon it, can hardly be over-estimated. Syntax in- volves a classification of sentences and sub-sentences (clauses), a nice discrimina- tion o£ the effects produced by mood and mood equivalents in different kinds of sen- tences, an accurate use of tenses. All these things together will not make a great writer, but they will make a careful writer, and to some extent an accurate thinker, and they will encoui^age an attitude of re- spect for the great inheritance which is the birthright of English-speaking children. 2. The utility of grammar in learning other languages is still less contestable. No methods of teaching, except the purely empirical method of the bonne, really at- tempt to dispense with it. For in learn- ing foreign languages synthesis, i.e. the process of building up from simple ele- ments, must play a large part. The pupil's mind is at first a blank ; the first step must be of a very simple and easy nature. It is true that very difierent opinions are held as to the extent to which it is advis- able to imitate the ' natural ' method by which a child learns its own language. And it may fairly be contended that a child whose ear is accustomed to French or German from early years will learn much by simple imitation. But it is found by experience that this process by itself is insufficient ; the impressions left are not strong enough to form a substitute for more methodical knowledge, though they may supplement that knowledge in a very valuable manner. It is impossible to re- produce the conditions under which a child learns its own language ; and some degree of synthesis soon makes itself felt by the practical teacher. Such synthesis must be based on a classification of language — on grammar. Of course it does not at all follow that rules must be learnt by heart ; it may be often desirable to proceed per exempla, as Comenius said, rather than j)er prcscepta ; but the examples will be classified and arranged on grammatical principles. The 'natural' method pro- ceeds by way of unclassified examples. But on the other hand the teacher should be fully alive to the limitation under which grammar labours. As ' subtilitas naturse subtilitatem artis multis partibus superat ' (Bacon), so grammar is ultimately unable to render account of all the phenomena of speech. There is a point beyond which grammar loses itself in a bewildering maze; and though this point may be never reached by the pupil, the teacher, if he thinks to the purpose about grammar, will find it out, and should not be daunted by the fact. He must remember that without grammar no sciejitific classification of speech — no methodical teaching — would be possible. {See Parallel Grammars.) Gra^nmar Schools. —Grammar schools, as their title implies, were founded for the teaching of grammar — for the purpose of providing, not primary or elementary edu- cation for the nation at large, but secondary or higher education for scholars. They were intended, in fact, to prepare boys of more than average ability for the Univer- sities, or at least to- give them such a learned education as would qualify them afterwards for useful service to the Church and the State. From the foundation of Winchester in 1373 — or even from the date of Wantage, which claims King Alfred as its founder — down to the pre- sent century, the staple school subject, sometimes the only one, was Latin ; and the way to learn Latin was to learn its grammar. Of grammar schools whose date is known, there are only eight before the foundation of Eton in 1441. The number of foundations, however, begins to be great even as early as the closing years of Henry VII. 's reign ; and the tide ad- vances steadily till the reign of James II., when it comes almost to a stand. In Henry VIII. 's reign (thirty-eight years) the number of schools founded is forty-nine ; in the six years of Edward VI. the number is forty-four ; in Elizabeth's reign (forty- five years) we have one hundred and fif- teen; and in James I.'s reign (twenty-two years) the number is forty-eight. The statutes of the grammar schools founded by the Crown or by private benefactors, were all, or nearly all, on one model, com- bining Latin with religious instruction. Greek came in with the foundation of St. Paul's School by Colet in 1509. But in the statutes drafted by Wolsey for his school at Ipswich soon after there is no mention of Greek ; nor does BishojJ Old- ham name the subject for Manchester Grammar School in 1525, though he wishes the young who 'have pregnant wits 'to be given the opportunity of learning grammar, 'the ground and fountain of all the other arts and sciences.' In the statutes of Harrow (founded 1571) amongst the au- thors mentioned there is only one Greek GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 141 poet — Hesiod ; but the boys are 'to be initiated in the elements of Latin versifi- cation very early.' The statutes of the later schools generally prescribe Greek and 'verses.' Archbishop Grindal, for example, requires for St. Bees (1583) 'a meet and learned person that can make Greek and Latin verses, and interpret the Greek grammar and other Greek authors.' The same applies to Hawkeshead school in Lancashire (1588), where 'the chiefest scholars shall make orations, epistles, and verses in Latin and Greek for their exer- cises,' and all the scholars ' shall continually use the Latin tongue or the Greek tongue as they shall be able.' So again, Arch- bishop Harsnet wishes for Chigwell (1629) 'a man skilful in the Greek and Latin tongues, a good poet.' In a few cases, Hebrew is required of the head-master, as at Bristol, South wark (1614), and Lewis- ham (1652). But in by far the larger number of schools, Greek and Latin alone are specified ; and in some it is especially said that 'Greek and Latin only,' or 'the classics only' are to be taught. Charter- house (1611) is an exception. Li its sta- tutes (dated 1627) we find that scholars shall be taught 'to cypher and cast an ac- count, especially those that are less capable of learning, and fittest to be sent to trades.' In 1864 a royal commission was appointed to enquire into the revenues, management, and education of certain endowed schools, and to suggest measures of improvement. There had been previously two commis- sions of enquiry: the first in 1858 to report on the education of boys and girls of the labouring class : and the second in 1861 to report on the nine greater public schools — Charterhouse, Eton, Harrow, Merchant Taylors', St. Paul's, Westmin- ster, Rugby, Shrewsbury, and Winchester. The scope of the commission of 1864 em- braced all schools which lay between those dealt with by the other commissions, that is, the great mass of 'grammar schools, and issued its report in 1868. Upon this report was founded the Endowed Schools Act of 1869, which gave authority first to 'Endowed Schools Commissioners,' and afterwards to the 'Charity Commissioners,' to frame new schemes for the better work- ing of these 'grammar schools'; and also for furthering the advancement of edu- cation by diverting for the schools other endowments not originally intended for educational purposes. Nearly all the schools have since been remodelled. A Se- lect Committee of the House of Commons was appointed in 1886 to enquire into the working of the Act, and in the follow- ing year issued their report, in which they state that the sum of the evidence brought before them was conclusive on two points : first, the principles laid down by the com- mission of 1864, and embodied in the Endowed Schools Act, while in some respects they must be modified by altered circumstances and increased experience, are on the whole sound and just; and secondly, that the Charity Commissioners have in their procedure faithfully attempted to carry those principles out. The com- plaints made against the working of the Act, the Committee add, are founded on a failure to appreciate the value of these principles and their Ijearing on national welfare. The subject is, however, they admit, difficult and complicated ; ' and till it is more widely and carefully studied, till greater publicity has been given to the results of the schemes Ijy inspection and parliamentary returns, till such adap- tation of schools to technical and commer- cial purposes has taken place as the Committee suggest, and till the schools have been allowed time to develop their beneficial results, complaints will continue to be made.' The denominational diffi- culties which occupied so large a place in the enquiry of the Select Committee of 1873 appear in nearly all cases to have been accommodated by the lapse of time and a better understanding of the real questions involved. Disputes of class, in some localities, have now replaced them, but may in their turn die away under a ju- dicious administration governed by an in- telligent popular opinion. The tendency to attach excessive importance to theoretical excellence of educational machinery under a fixed system of gi^aded schools, rather than to adapt the schools to the practical needs of the locality, is now, the Committee state, corrected by experience. 'A more pressing need now seems to be that we should not forget, in the search for more immediate advantages of an obvious nature, the importance of preserving, even at some cost, a high ideal of secondary education, both on its own account, and in its con- nections either with the Universities, or with the excellent colleges which have been recently established in our large towns with the special object of education 142 GRAMMATICAL SOCIETY GRANTS (GOYERNMENT) in relation to the needs of manufacturing and commercial communities.' The Com- niittee find that the work done by the Charity Commissioners under the Endowed Schools Acts, while it has not lost sight of this ideal, has done much to bring higher instruction, in popular and necessary forms, within the reach of classes which otherwise would have been shut out from it. Grrammatical Society. See Parallel Grammars. Grants (Government). — It was in 1832 that Parliament made the first grant in aid of elementary education. The sum voted was 20,000/., and a similar sum was voted annually down to 1838. The grant was administered by the Treasury, subject to conditions laid down in a minute dated August 30, 1833. These were, briefly, that the money was only to be used in aiding local efibrt towards the building of schools ; though the grant was in no case to exceed half the cost of the buildings ; the applications were to be endorsed by the National Society {q.v-), or the British and Foreign School Society {q.v. ) ; and that pre- ference was to be given to applications 'from large cities and towns in which the necessity of assisting in the erection of schools' was 'most pressing.' In 1839 the grant was raised to 30,000/., and its administration was entrusted to a specially created committee of the Privy Council — the Committee of Council on Education, or the Education Depai-tment {q.v.). The first minute issued by the new body (that of June 3, 1839) recommended 'that the sum of 10,000/., granted by Parliament in 1835 towards the erection of normal or model schools, be given in equal portions to the National Society and the British and Foreign School Society {q.v.) for that purpose. The right of Government inspec- tion was to be a condition of all future aid, and the minute provided for the ap- pointment of inspectoi's. The bulk of the grant was to be applied, as before, in the erection of schools. The minute of No- vember 22, 1843, added the building of teachers' houses, and the purchase of appendages, to the objects for which money might be given. On August 25, 1846, a very important minute was issued, greatly extending the sclieine of State aid. Its terms were general, but it was followed, on December 21, l)y another minute con- verting them into definite regulations. These dealt, fii'st of all, with pupil-teachers. In schools properly furnished, organised^ and disciplined, and possessing a head- teacher competent to instruct and train pupil-teachers, one such pupil-teacher for every twenty-five scholars might be ap- prenticed to the head-teacher. The ap- prenticeship was to be for five years, at the end of each of which there was to be a Government examination. If the result was satisfactory, the pupil-teacher received from the Education Department a stipend beginning at 10/., and rising by annual increments of 2/. 10s. to 20/., while the head-teacher received 'the sum of 5/. for one, of 9/. for two, of 12/. for three pupil- teachers, and 3/. per annum more for every additional apprentice.' Pupil-teach- ers who had served their time might submit themselves to an examination con- ducted by one or more of Her Majesty's Inspectors, together with the pi'incipal of a normal school or a training college 'under inspection.' Those who satisfied the ex- aminers became 'Queen's Scholars,' and received an exhibition of 20/. or 25/. ten- able at one of the colleges. The training there might be for one, two, or three years. At the end of each year there was an examination, and for every successful student of the first year the college received 20/., of the second year 25/., and of the third year 30/. When these trained stu- dents left, and entei'ed upon school-work, they received, in augmentation of salary, Government grants varying from 15/. to 30/. according to the length of their train- ing. For teachers rendered incapable by age or infirmity the minute promised pensions. In 1847 a 'broad sheet' was issued containing the conditions on which Certificates {q.v.) were to be obtained by untrained as well as by trained teachers, and offering from 10/. to 20/. a year 'cer- tificate money ' according to class and division. These regulations exercised a very powerful influence upon education. By 1851 twenty-five training colleges had been established, six thousand pupil- teachers were at work, moi-e than eleven hundred certificates had been issued, the grant had risen to 160,000/. a year, and nearly 3,800 schools had been built at a cost to the State of 400,000/. and to the localities of about 600,000/. more. The next important step was taken in 1853. A minute (dated April 2 of that year) es- tablished capitation grants for tlie suppoi't of schools ' in rural districts and small un- GRASER, JOHN BAPTIST 143 incorporated towns '('small 'being defined as containing not more than five thousand inhabitants), the amount of grant per head varying with the number of scholars. If there were under fifty it was 6s. in boys' schools, and 5s. in girls' schools; if above fifty and under one hundred, 5s. and 4s. respectively ; if above one hundred 4s. and 3s. The payment of the capitation depended upon the amount raised locally for the school, the fee charged, the salary of the head-teacher (who must be certifi- cated), and the results of the examination. By a minute of January 26, 1856, urban as well as rural schools became eligible for capitation grants. In 1860, when Mr. Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) was the guiding spirit of the Education Department, the many minutes which had been issued were combined into a code, generally known as the Original Code. In 1861, after the Duke of Newcastle's Commission had reported, the Revised Code was issued. It i^emodelled the whole system of aid. All grants to head-teachers and to pupil- teachers were abolished ; pupil-teachers were to be apprenticed, not to the head- teacher, but to the managers of the school, and the promise of pensions was withdrawn. The Revised Code intro- duced the principle of 'payment by re- sults ' (q.v.). There was to be an absolute grant of 4s. a head on the average atten- dance, and each child who had attended at least two hundred times (half-days) during the year might earn an additional grant for the school. In the case of children under six it was 6s. 6d., subject to the inspector's approval; in the case of children above six it was 8s., subject to the results of an indi-\ddual examination. For each one who passed a specified 'standard' in reading, 2s. 8d. was to be paid, for each 'pass' in writing 2s. 8d., and for each 'pass' in arithmetic 2s. Sd. Building gi'ants were continued. In the normal schools the training was to be for two j'ears, and the college was to receive 100?. for each master trained, and 701. for each mistress. On the passing of the Elementary Education Act of 1870 a new Code (q.v.) became necessary. The Act provided that after December 31, 1870, no application for a building grant could be entertained. The absolute grant was raised from 4s. to 6s., the number of attendances qualifying for examination from two hundred to two hundred and fifty, the conditional grant for infant schools from 6s. 6d. to 8s. or 10s., and for older scholars from 2s. 8d. to 4s. per 'pass.' In 1875 this 4s. was re- duced to 3s., but grants for 'class subjects ' and for 'specific subjects ' were introduced. 'Class subjects' were geography, grammar, and history ; and a grant of 4s. on the average attendance was to be paid if the classes (not the individual pupils) passed satisfactorily in two of them. The 'spe- cific subjects' were more advanced, and a grant of 4s. per subject was to be paid for every child in the upper standards who passed in not more than two of them. When Mr. Mundella became Yice- Presi- dent of the Committee of Council, the regulations were once more recast. The transformed code was issued on March 6, 1882. It introduced a 'merit grant,' varying as the inspector pronounced a school to be 'fair,' 'good,' or 'excellent.' It abolished a minimum number of atten- dances as a qualification for examination, and required all children to be presented who had been on the rolls during the last twenty-two weeks of the school year. In infant schools there was to be on the average attendance a fixed grant of 7s. or 9s.; a merit gi^ant of 2s., 4s., or 6s.; a needlework grant of Is.; and a grant of Is. for singing from notes. In schools or classes for older scholars the grants for needlework and singing were to be the same ; the fixed grant was to be 4s. 6d., and the merit grant Is., 2s., or 3s. There was also to be 'a grant on examination in the elementary subjects (reading, writing,' and arithmetic) at the rate of one penny for every unit of percentage.' Thus, if one hundred children were examined the number of possible passes would be three hundred ; if the number actually olrtained was two hundred and seventy the per- centage would be ninety, and the grant ninety pence on the average attendance. For 'class subjects' (extended to five, of which only two could be taken) the grant was Is. or 2s., according as the results were 'fair' or 'good.' The regulations respect- ing specific subjects underwent no mate- rial change. The Mundella Code remains, with very slight modifications, still (1888) in force. {See Craik's State and Editca- tion.) Graser, John Baptist {b. at Eltmann, 1766, d. 1841), an eminent Bavarian school- master, who in 1804 becanie professor of theology at Landshut, and the same year 144 GREEK was appointed by the Bavarian Govern- ment inspector of schools at Bamberg. In 1810 he was transferred to Bayreuth, where he wrote his first work, entitled Divinity, or the Principle of the only Trtie Education. He was influenced largely by the philosophy of Schelling, and ui-ged that man could raise himself by education to the 'divinity of his nature,' i.e. to a life in harmony with 'the divine ideal.' In the eyes of the Orthodox Catholic Church Graser appeared as a heretic, and incurred the hostility of the priests. In 1817 he published the first volume of his great work on educational method, called The Elementary School for Life. The work is in three volumes, the last of which did not appear till 1834. Long before this Graser had been driven into retirement, and he spent his last years in the quiet of study and family life. Graser criticised the method of Pestalozzi, and declared that there was an absence of the practical in it, and that one could not talk about the ' general education of man,' for education must be individual, and the first duty of a master was to discover the special ca- pacity of each child. His view of educa- tion was emphatically religious. Owing to his influence schools for deaf mutes were annexed to many of the Bavarian schools. Greek. — No one who has ever mastered Greek can have any doubt of the advan- tage of learning it. It is the vehicle in which Greek civilisation, a unique product of the human mind, expressed itself. It is the language employed by many of the men who occupy the highest places among the thinkers, the poets, the philosophers of the world. The Greek mind gave rise to nearly all the forms of literatui'e which are now prevalent. Many of its produc- tions are among the freshest, the most original, and the most beautiful that exist. And the Greek writers have been sin- gularly stimulative. It was the works of the Greeks that created the Renaissance. It was criticism of the Greeks that led to the outburst of German literature in the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries. And what it does for nations it does for individuals. Schiller was determined hx his career by the en- thusiasm with which Euripides inspired him. The value of Greek literature to the modern mind is inestimable, and no one who has ever enjoyed the Greek works in the language in which they were written could ever imagine that translations can convey an adequate idea of their beauties. Besides this supreme excellence from a literary point, a special interest belongs in the eyes of some to the Greek language, because we can trace in its words the first dawnings of science ; and in the eyes of others because the authoritative docu- ments of Christianity were written in it. Its place as an instrument of educa- tion has been a subject of keen discussion. It is necessary that in the training of a boy from eleven to eighteen years of age some one language and literature should form the central educative force, and the great majority of educationists have held that this language must be Latin (q.v.). But some of the greatest philosophers and educationists have assigned that place to Greek, and among them stands out pre- eminently Herbart. This philosopher main- tained that the literature ought to deter- mine the question of priority. Greek literature opens with Homer. Homer deals almost exclusively with the con- crete. There are no ideas in him beyond the reach of a boy of ten or eleven. And he is fascinating reading for a boy. There is no Latin book that can at all approach the Odyssey in its power to interest a young boy. The Iliad and the Odyssey are products of the early youth of the world, and they picture the ideas and pursuits of early youth, but it is an early youth noble and generous. What could be more useful for a boy than to permeate him- self with these heroic ideals ? What more likely to lay the foundation of a noble and lofty character 1 Then from Homer the boy can advance to the charming narra- tive of Herodotus, and at a further stage he could read Plato and Xenophon with enjoyment, for most of their ideas are within his grasp, and Plato especially surrounds them with every literary grace. The boy, then, having saturated himself with the best and most beautiful parts of Greek civilisation, could pass on to Roman, and fromRoman to modern times. On such a system language forms a subordinate element of training. It is not necessary to drill the boy in all the minute details of grammar. He should learn only so much as is required for the comprehension of the author. And then, even in respect to language it is urged that the plan has its advajutages. A knowledge of the GR^GOIRE, L'ABBE GRESHAM COLLEGE 145 Homeric dialect is essential to a true con- ception of the origin of the Attic. The boy can see how the forms of the one have grown to some extent out of the forms of the other. The idea that Greek ought to be taught before Latin was not first suggested by Herbart. A list of those who preceded him in this plan is given in Herbart's Fdclagogisclie Schriften, vol. i. p. 77, and among them is mentioned the famous printer and scholar, Henricus Stephanus (Henri Etienne, 1528-1598). In recent times Alirens prepared a Homeric gram- mar, adapted for beginners ; Dissen and Passow strongly approved of the plan, and some of Herbart's followers carried it into practice. Within the last few years Her- bartism has revived in great force in Ger- many amongst those who take an interest in secondary education, and the question of the priority of Greek will again come to the front. The same questions have been discussed as to the mode of teaching Greek which we have noticed in connection with Latin {q.v.), but not with the same intensity. After one language has been employed in training a boy, there is no need of the same elaborate process in teaching a second. The boy is advanced in age, and can learn a language much more rapidly; and he is advanced in logical power and streng-th of memory, and can dispense with many of the processes necessary during the learning of a first strange language. There- fore Greek is learned in its elements much more easily than Latin, after Latin has been mastered. It is for this reason that it is very injudicious to begin Greek at too early an age if it is to succeed Latin, and the whole tendency of the present day is to defer the learning of Greek until very considerable progress has been made in Latin. Then, again, there is no longer the same necessity for such frequent exercises in turning English into Greek. In recent times the application of comparative philology to Greek grammars has become prevalent. The laws of the combination of the root with the inflection have been carefully laid down at the com- mencement and carried out through all the paradigms. Mention should also be made of the suggestion that access should be made to ancient Greek through modern, ■w'hich has retained or adopted many of tie forms of the ancient. But generally the Attic dialect is regarded as the form of the language which must be mastered first. Some have a superstitious reverence for this form, and refuse to proceed further. But most proceed from the Attic and ex- plain the other dialects by means of it or in comparison with it. The works which treat of the value of Latin in education and the methods of teaching it generally discuss also the value of Greek and the methods of teaching it. To the works mentioned in the article on Latin we must add the Erlduterungen of Curtius to his Greek Grammar, which treat exclusively of Greek. Gregoire, L'Abbe {h. Yeho, 1750; d. Paris, 1831), was the son of poor parents, and was educated by the Jesuits at Nancy. He became Professor of Belles-Lettres at the College of Pont-a-Mousson. Early in life he showed a veliement love of liberty, which in the end led liim to advocate the abolition of royalty. ' The history of kings,' he said, 'is the martyrology of nations.' He plunged into all the disquiet of his time, through which we cannot follow him, but he frequently presented reports on education. In 1797 he spoke against a system of free education. In the same year he presented a report for the suppres- sion of academies, and appealed to history (Pome, Gi-eece) in support of his view. He afterwards brought out a detailed account of eleinentary education, specify- ing the subjects, treatment, &c. He pre- sented a report on the ' Necessity, and the means of destroying the patois, and of rendering the usage of the French language universal.' In this he took what may be' called a Republican view of language, and on the strength of it the Convention passed a decree for a new grammar to be written, but the decree was never carried out. After this appeared his celebrated Report on Vandalism. When he came to die, the Archbishop of Paris refused to give him the sacraments. Gregoire said in his will that he died ' a good Catholic, and a good Republican.' Gresham College, Basinghall Street, London, was founded in 1501, by Sir Thomas Gresham, with a view to providing free scientific instruction to the people. He gave directions for the delivery of lectures by qualified professors. Lectures are still delivered by professors appointed by the Gresham Committee at three diffe- rent periods in the year, commencing L 146 GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG GUIZOT, F. P. W respectively the first Monday in October, on the fifteenth Monday after that date, and on tlie twenty-sixth Monday after the first Monday in October, or on the neai-est Monday to such twenty- sixth Monday which will allow of the condition that no lectures be given in Passion Week and Easter Week. The value of the original bequest of Sir Thomas Gresham has, it is believed, enormously increased, and gi-eat complaints ai-e made that the accumulation has not been devoted to the purpose which the munificent founder of tlie lectureships intended. In his will Gresham prayed that tlie curse of God might rest on those who misappropriated his bequest. Gresham Lecture. iSee Prelections. Grimm, Jacob Liidwig {h. 1785, d. 1863), the distinguished philologist, was a native of Hanau in Hesse. Pie studied law at Marburg, and while Secretary for War lectured on the literature of the IMiddle Ages. Pie was librarian at Kassel from 1816 to 1829, and in 1830 became ])rofessor in Gottingen, where he lectured on German language and literature and on legal antiquities. In 1841 he was ap- pointed professor at Berlin. The grand result of Gi'imm's work was his effective tracing of the growth and chaiucter of the spirit of the German race as displayed in its language, poetry, religion, laws, and customs. His chief works were Deutsche Grmnmatik (1819-37), Deutsche JRechts- alterthiimer (1835), and Geschichte der dentschen Sprache {\Si8). Along with his brother, Wilhelm Karl Grimm {b. 1786, d. 1859), he edited in 1835 Kinder- iind JIausmdrchen, and in 1854 began lus gi-eat dictionary Deutsches M'drterbuch, which lias been continued by Wildebi-aud, Heyne, nnd Wiegand. Growth of Children. — A fair know- ledge of the physiological laws of health Avould pi-event dangerous mistakes in the education of children. It should be re- membei-ed tliat every organ of the body is rapidly growing, and that height and weight are being steadily increased. Children not only have to replenish waste tissues, but also to build up new tissues. Hence, it is necessary that they should be supplied with an abimdance of food and fresh air, and that their rapidly growing organs should not be over-exerted. This is espe- cially true of the brain, which in the early yiHxrs of life grows more rapidly than any other organ. A pexiodical record of the height and weight of children would be of great ^'alue in the preservation of health and detection of early disease. If a child ceases to grow or inci-ease in weight, or if on the other hand he grows too rapidly, he requires a comparative cessation of school-work and careful home attention. One of the earliest symptoms of incipient consumption is a diminution in weight, and such loss of weight should at once receive medical attention. The following statements of the average height and weight of boys of the non-labouring classes are taken from Dr. Newsholme's School Hygiene, wliich may be consulted for other tables and charts on the same sub- ject. Age last Average height Average weight bii-tUiliiy ill inches ill jiouuds 7 ■16-10 50-16 8 47-66 56-10 9 50-30 61-96 10 52-65 67-22 11 53-93 73-31 12 55-90 78.96 13 58-30 85-27 14 60-27 96-40 15 63-00 107-25 16 65-34 115-96 17 66-91 131-93 IS 67-38 136-68 19 67-74 142-00 20 68-09 145-23 During the first twelve years of life boys are from one to two inches taller than girls of the same age. At about 12^ years of age, girls begin to grow faster than boys, aiid during their four- teenth year are about one inch taller than boys of the same age. At about 14A years of age, boys again become the taller, girls at this age ha\'ing nearly completed their growth, while boys continue to grow rapidly till nineteen years of age. Guizot, F. P. W. (h. at Nhnes, 1787; d. at Val Richer, 1874). — This eminent French statesman and wi-iter had an im- portant position in the history of education in France, on account of the reforms he instituted as Minister of Public Instruction. He passed measures which have been a lasting honour to his name. The right of education was freely and fully discussed, and Gviizot undertook to establish, at least primary education. He recommended iics being compulsory, and touched upon thie question of free education, but thought GUTTER TO UNIVERSITY^ -GYP 147 that though the State should offer education 'to all, it could only give it to the children l. a year for instruction, even in the best schools/ The masters do not receive the fees, but are paid fixed salaries out of the funds thus raised. The maxi- mum salary scarcely ever exceeds 300/. a year and a house. There are 144 Gymna- sien, containing about 47,000 boys, and 28 Progyrnnasien, containing about 2,600 boys. In England, the term gymnasium is applied strictly to a school for the improvement of bodily strength, grace, or agility, or for gymnastic exercises. Gymnastics. See Athletics, Calis- thenics, and Physical Education. Gyp (Greek yvxl/, a vulture). — -A term applied at Cambridge to the male atten- dants on University men in their rooms. It is equivalent to scout, the name by which the college attendants are designated at Oxford. l2 148 HABIT HAMILTON, JAMES H Habit is the name of the principle or j law according to which every action be- j comes easier by repetition. The result of such repetition or practice when the pro- cess is complete is called a habit. Habits ^ are thus acquired possessions, and so dis- tinguished from original or instinctive en- dowments. The principle of habit operates throughout the whole of development, bodily as well as mental. Thus all mus- cular actions become perfected by re- petition and habit, requiring less and less co-operation of the conscious mind. We thus see that habit, like memory, to which indeed it is so closely allied, has its basis in certain properties of the physical or- ganism. In the region of mental activity we observe the efiect of habit in the way in which thoughts become firmly associ- ated one with another in definite groups or series, as the consequence of repetition or custom, and also in the way in which the thinking processes gain in facility and exactness through practice. The emo- tional sensibilities again are under the influence of the same law, though in a less obvious manner. The operation of the principle here is seen in the building up of firm attachments and permanent affections towards the objects and persons in the child's environment, with their cor- relative sense of want and craving when these are absent. Finally, habit rules in the domain of voluntary action. All the higher exercises of will in checking impulse and controlling the thoughts and feelings become perfected by customary perform- ance, and in this way the so-called Moral Habits, as temperance, truth, &c., are built up. Habits have been divided into In- tellectual and Moral, and also into Active and Passive, habits. From this short ac- count of the nature and scope of Habit we may easily see that it is the great guiding principle of education. According to Locke it is ' the secret of instruction in all arts, and, indeed, in conduct too, to get what we Avould teach settled in the pupil hj jjractice till it becomes a habit. [*S'ee Mr. Quick's edition of the Thoughts concerning Educa- tion, Introduction, p. liv.] The whole training of the body and of the mind pro- ceeds on the principle of habit ; and the great object of moral education is to induce by steady practice in well-doing a fixed dis- position towards d uty. Since the formation of habit is only possible where the bi^ain and the connected mental faculties have a certain plasticity or pliability, it is of the greatest consequence in education to lay the foundations of good habits in the early years of life. While the law of habit is thus of the greatest service to the educator, he must bear in mind that it tends to pro- duce a mechanical and vinconscious mode of action, and he must seek to counteract this tendency, where it is injurious, by exercising the child in the processes of reflection and deliberation. {See Bain's Mental and Moral Science, bk.iv. chap, ix.; Sully's Teacher'' s Handbook, p. 446 and fol- lowing, 467 and following ; and P. Rade- stock's Gewohnung xind ihre Wichtigkeit fur die Erziehiing.) Half-Timers. See School Boaeds. Hamilton, James {b. London, 1775; d. Dublin, 1829), the author of the Hamil- tonian Method of acqui7'ing Languages, commenced his career as a merchant, and visited Hamburg, where he studied French under the direction of a military exile, General d'Angely, by whom he perfected the method to which he has given his name. This method consists in translating word for word short pieces, and obtaining mastery of a vocabulary befoi^e learning grammar. By this means he was able to read French authors with an occasional reference to the dictionary. On the same plan he learnt German and Italian. He did this at first merely for self-culture, but owing to losses in trade he determined to go to America, whei^e he commenced to teach languages. The novelty of his me- thod and the success of his pupils attracted great numbers. For a while he taught in New York and Philadelphia, then he returned to England and taught Greek, Latin, French, German, and Italian to many thousands, both privately and in classes, till he realised a considerable for- tune. He issued a number of books com- piled on his method, and in which passages from the works of classical and foreign au- thor's are given with interlinear English translation. Some have criticised the me- thod of Hamilton as addressed too much to mere memory. Hamilton has been fol- HAMILTONIAN METHOD HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM F. 149 lowed by others, who have made great improvements, notably W. Prendergast in his Mastery Series. Hamilton's system was, after all, but a practical application of the method recommended two centuries before him by Roger Ascham. Hamiltonian Method. See Hamilton^, James. Hartlib, Samuel. See Milton, and Petty, Sir William. Harrow. See Public Schools. Harvard. See Uxiversities. Haiiy, M. See Education of the Blind. Head Masters (Qualifications of). See ■School Management. Hecker, J. J. [h. Werden, 1707; d. 1768), a distinguished German theologian -and schoolmaster. He studied at the Uni- versity of Halle, and in 1729 became one of the masters of the Pcedagogium there. He thus came under the influence of Semler, who founded the first Realschulb {q.v.) at Halle in 1739. In 1735 he was made Professor of the Military Orphanage at Potsdam ; three years after he became pastor of a church at Berlin. There he "threw great zeal into the work of educa- tion. Not content with founding free elementary schools, he wished to create an institution like the RealscUide at Halle. This school he opened in 1746. The plan of study embraced all the branches which could be of any practical utility in life. Hecker's ambition was to give universal technical instruction in this institution. Many other schools sprang up on the model of this one, and Felbiger went to Berlin to see it. Hecker received instruc- tions from Fxederick II. to prepare a gene- ral regulation for the Prussian schools, but circumstances prevented the order from being carried out. Hedge Schools. — Under the terrible Penal Laws by which Ireland was coerced in the last century, instruction in the Catholic faith, or by Catholic priests, was prohibited under pain of death. In spite of the terrible persecution and prohibi- tions to which they were subjected, how- ever, the priests carried on instruction of the people with remarkable courage and heroism. ' They were active,' says Mr. J. H. McCarthy, M.P., in his Ireland since the Union, p. 13, 'in offering to their scattered flocks that education which the harsh laws denied them. On the high- -way and on the hillside, in ditches and behind hedges, in the precarious shelter of the ruined walls of some ancient abbey, or under the roof of a peasant's cabin, the priests set up schools and taught the chil- dren of their race. With death as the penalty of their daring — a penalty too often paid — they gave to the people of their persecuted faith that precious mental food which triumphantly thwarted the efforts of the Government to brutalise and degrade the Irish Catholic off" the face of the earth. In those " hedge-schools," as they were called in scorn, the principles of religion, of morality, and of patriotism, were kept alive, and elements of educa- tion, which are the life-blood of national existence, freely dispensed. Eagerly as it was given, it was no less eagerly sought for. The readiness of the priests to teach was only equalled by the readiness of the people to be taught. The proudest place of honour in Irish histoiy belongs to those hedge-schools and their heroic teachers. But for them the national cause and the national existence would have withered away under the blighting curse of the Penal Laws. From those hedge-schools came some of the brightest ornaments of modern Irish history. That great Church- man who died a few years ago passed his childhood under the shadow of the Penal Laws. John IMacHale, Archbishop of Tuam, received at a hedge-school those early lessons which developed into that ecclesiastical scholarship and profound piety which would have done honour to the proudest epoch in the history of the Church of the AVest.' The hedge-school master has also played a prominent part in the history of Indian education (.see Law (Educational), sect. ' India '). Hegel, Georg Wilhelm F. (6. Stutt gart 1770; d. Berlin 1831), was educated at Wiirtemberg and Tiibingen. He was a fellow-student with Schelling, who long exercised a great influence upon Hegel philosophy. After acting for some time as a private tutor in Switzerland and Frankfoi"t, he became possessed of a smal property by the death of his father, and was able to give up his tutorship, and take up his residence at Jena, where he published his first work, and became ac- quainted with Goethe and Schiller. Here also he was a lecturer, with four listeners. When, however, Schelling left Jena, Hegel was appointed his successor. He only held the chair for one year, for, as he was 150 HEIGHT OF CHILDREN HERB ART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH writing the close of his rhenomenology of Mind, Jena was stormed by the French. He quitted Jena and went to Bamberg, where he edited a newspaper, till 1808, when he was appointed rector of the Gymnasium at Nuremberg. In 1816 he was called to the chair of philosophy at Heidelberg, and in 1818 was invited to the chair at Berlin, where he continued till his death by cholera. It would be out of place here to attempt to give an account of the Hegelian philosophy — a kind of idealistic pantheism — which has exerted so powerful an inlluence in Germany. We have only to refer to his work as a prac- tical educationist. At Nuremberg, where he was for some time rector, his rules and his discipline still largely obtain. An idea of his position may be gathered from some of the fragmentary expressions to be found in his writings, as: 'Teaching is the ai-t of rendering man moral;' 'It is especially the mission of the State to render attend- ance at elementaiy schools compulsory.' In Hegel's eyes Greek was the founda- tion of all higher culture. He insisted upon a close study of the classics, and maintained that the study of these lan- guages and their grammar was in itself an instrument of high intellectual culture. He made religion the principle of all edu- cation, and the foundation of all instruc- tion. Hegel's views on education and in- struction may be found scattered amongst his voluminous writings, esjctecially in the EncycJojmdie der Wissenschaften, and the GyvmasiaJreden. Height of Children. See Growth op Childeek. Herbart, Johann Friedrich (b. 1776; d. 1841), an eminent German educationist and philosopher, was born at Oldenburg, where his father held the position of Jtistizratli , and was educated at the Olden- burg gymnasium and the university of Jena. Young Herbart was intended for the law, but he eschewed it, and gradually directed his attention to the study of philosophy and the science of education. The works of Leibnitz and Kant formed his introduction to philosophy, and at Jena he had personal relations with Fichte, whose Wissenschaftslehre (Theory of Sci- ence) awakened in him a spirit of opposi- tion, as is evideiiced by his critique on the first two works of Schelling. In 1797 he accepted the position of private tutor at Berne, in Switzei'land. During the next four years he made a study of the- pedagogical works of Pestalozzi, whom he visited at Bingdorf in 1799. In 1800 he returned to Germany, and, after a brief residence at Bremen, settled at Gottingen. Here, until 1809, when he accepted a call from Konigsberg as prqfesso)- ordinarins- of philosophy and pedagogy, he published the first results of his mature thought.. Among these may be mentioned Pesta- lozzi's Idea of the A B C of Observation Scientifically Treated (1804), Universal Pedagogy (1806), and the Principles of Metaphysics (1808). In Konigsberg he divided his time between his own re- searches, his academic duties, and work as a practical teacher in directing a seminary of teachers founded at his instance, and held after 1812 in his own house. In thus uniting under his own roof the advantages of school and family, Hei'bart endeavoured to utilise the powerful influence of each by making them supplement and assist each other. His ideal was education in the family, guided and assisted by the counsel of an experienced and a profes- sional teacher, and his ideal method em- braced brevity and vividness. In 1833 he accepted a call to Gottingen, where in 1 841 his studious and uneventful life came to a close. Shortly before his death he published a Plan of Lectures on Pedagogy (1841). Pedagogics is, according to Her- bart, closely connected with ethics and psychology, and really depends upon both. He divides the complete work of educatioi^ into discipline {Regierung), instruction (Unterricht), and dialectic training [Zucht), These are necessary since the child has no ability to concentrate the action of his organs upon one object to the exclusion of the rest, and since his individual will is the result of practice. It is the office of discipline to keep order and to subject the naturally unruly inclinations of the indi- vidual. Such subjection, howevei^, can only be effected by a power strong enough^ and acting so frequently as to be completely successful, before indications of a genuine will persisting in wrong are exhibited by the child. But all discipline must cease before training ceases, and should as soon as possible be relieved by the latter. In- struction must be educative. The aim of instruction should not be solely, or even predominantly, the amount of knowledge; nor should it be the acquisition of merely technical skill, but culture of the per- HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON^ HISTORICAL NOVELS 151 sonality. Dialectic training embraces all direct action upon the disposition of the pupil which is prompted by the intention to purify and supplement his energies and to lead him towards objective liberty. It has thus to deal with the character of man. Character manifests itself by in- dividual preferences and is twofold, either objective or subjective. The objective factor of character consists of the indi- vidual's particular construction of incli- nation, indicated by the relative proportion of action, and the subjective in the en- joyment of complementary opposites, criti- cising the individual inclinations. In- deed, the great problem running through the whole of Herbart's writings on educa- tional science is — how to realise the five ideas of freedom, perfection, right, equity, and benevolence within the province of education. Herbart's philosophy was in great part a protest against the idealistic systems founded on Kant by Fichte and Hegel. His works have been collected in twelve volumes, and edited by his disciple Hartenstein (18.50-52). Herder, Johann Gottfried von (6. Moh- rungen, 1744; d. 1803), sometimes called the German Plato, became in 1764 assis- tant-teacher in the school of the cathedral at Riga, and preached there. He subse- quently became acquainted with Goethe, and in 1775 was appointed professor of theology at Gottingen. He spent his last years at Weimar. Richter often saw him, and has left us some pleasing sketches of him. He was appointed inspector of schools at Weimar, and carried out many important practical reforms, and caused new institu- tions to be founded, so that he takes an important place in the history of German education. In his Ideal of a School (an ap- pendix to his Sophron, or Collected School Speeches) he sketched a plan of studies. He divided his ideal school into two parts — the school proper or practical {Real), and the school of languages. The former he divided into three classes. In the ' School of Language ' he rose against the excessive importance attached to Latin, and placed French very largely in its place. In this latter idea perhaps he stands alone amongst German educationists. He made three divisions of French, according to the age of the pupil. He said Latin should follow French, and Greek follow Latin. When, however, in 1783 he was required to furnish a plan for the reorganisation of schools, he did not proceed according to this theory. Heredity (Law of). — By this is meant the tendency of peculiarities, physical or mental, to transmit themselves from parent to offspring. This may show itself in a more general and uniform manner, as in the transmission of the typical characters of the species, or of some variety of that species, as a particular race of mankind. Thus, the English child may be said to inherit all that is distinctively human as well as the more special traits, physical and mental, which distinguish our par- ticular race and national type at its pre- sent stage of development. More com- monly, however, heredity refers to the handing down of more special and vari- able characters in particular families. Thus, children frequently inherit pecu- liarities of bodily structure, as features, of bodily action, as gesture, together with well-marked mental and moral peculiari- ties. It is not yet known how far the action of this principle extends, and what proportion of the peculiarities which make up what we call individuality are referable to it. According to the doctrine of evolu- tion the results of habitual modes of action of ancestors tend to transmit themselves by heredity to posterity (.see Evolution). Viewed in this way heredity corresponds in the development of the race to the laws of memory and of habit in the smaller domain of individual growth ; it is the conservative force by which the race re- tains all useful acquisitions, organising them into perfect habits or instincts. The study of the laws of heredity is useful to the educator as helping him not only to account for, but to anticipate, family traits, and also as accustoming him to look upon his work as su.bserving not merely the edu- cation of the individual but of the race, [See Th. Ribot's work. Heredity.) Heuristic Method. See Method. Hibbert Lectures, ^'ee Prelections (Extra Academic). Higher Grade Schools. .S'ee Classi- fication. Historical Novels. — Teachers have found that the history work of a school is considerably freshened and enlivened if, when any period is being treated, care is taken to let the pupils know what are the best novels and tales which relate to that period, and to persuade the pupils to read them. The little harm which the fancy 152 HISTORY (THE TEACHING OF) and invention of the writer niay clo — note- worthy perhaps in the case of adult stu- dents, but hardly perceptible in the case of children — is amply compensated for by the extra brightness of interest which is sure to be gained. To interest beginners in the work which they are just entering is, after all, the main thing ; n thoroughly scientilic inquiry may come afterwards — it certainly will not come before. Moi-e- over, the ' sportive instruction ' afforded by a novel does not absolve the pupil from the necessity for real exertion. It will rather, when the interest has been created, not only facilitate, but even necessitate, the strongest exertion on his part ; par- ticularly if the teacher is careful to start with his pupils a discussion of one or two of the novels read. In order to help teachers in this matter a descriptive cata- logue of historical novels and tales has been compiled by Mr. H. Courthope Bowen, and published bv Mr. Stanford, 55 Charing Cross, S.W.' History (the Teaching of). — In the teaching of history, as in that of every other subject, it is necessary for us to begin by deciding why we teach it. Do we seek to produce a scientific, well- reasoned knowledge of humanity — at least of civilised humanity ? As far as school is concerned we can only create a desire for this knowledge ; we can render our pupils capable of gaiiiing it hereafter ; and ill the latest periods of school-life we may even enable them to begin to acquire it. Are the facts of history in themselves of direct utility 1 We must answer. Sel- dom or never. Can the subject be used to train the mental faculties 1 Yes, all of them ; but in especial the imagination and the higher sentiments. Probably the most valuable results of the teaching of history at schools are the love of fatherland, an interest in humanity, and a delight in all those nobler feelings classed under the head of ethic or moral sentiments. Then must follow questions as to choice of sub- ject-matter and method. Should we begin with English or with universal History 1 The people about whom children are most i-eadily interested are those with whom they come in contact — who in some way inliuence their lives; who bear names fa- miliar to them; who dAvell or have dwelt at places they know, or know at least by- name. The things they care about are those which they can see and touch; which they can be enabled readily to imagine ; which can be connected in some way with them and their lives. For these reasons it is best for English children to begin with English history. But they should not stop there. In the later stages they should proceed to acquire a general know- ledge of universal, or at least of Eui'opean, history. On the continent almost every country begins with national history ; and only very few schools h-.xxe followed the example of the Seminary School of Berlin, and stai-ted their curriculum with bio- grai:)hical sketches from universal history. Poi'tugal and France are the only countries whose codes recognise universal history. It is set down as a subject for the later periods. At the great public schools of England English history is almost wholly neglected — at least on the classical sides — epitomes of tlie histories of Greece and Rome tak- ing its place ; the modern sides, however, generally add English history to these, and occasionally glimpses of continental epochs. The next question is: Should we begin with the present and work back to the past, or continue to use a plan the reverse of this ? There is much to be said for both views. Tliis at least is agreed to by all, tliat the teacher when planning his lessons should himself work back from the present to the past, and should be always keenly alive to the great questions of the day, both at home and abroad, and to the bearing of the past upon them. On the whole it seems that though the present should always be the goal to be aimed at and reached by our pupils, it is better for them to begin ^\•ith the past and to work up to and into the present. Events of to-day are too complicated, too unfinished, too out of perspective for children to pro- perly appreciate their value and meaning at fii'st. They want something less crowded and varied, with cleai-er outlines, with a more decided beginning and end. A child's interest, hoAvever, is in the present, and the past is only interesting to him by its connection Avith the pi'esent, and as food for imagination and feeling. Should we begin with skeleton outlines to be gradually filled in, or take epoch by epoch ? Neither plan is quite satisfactory. It is waste of time to learn the outlines of anything which is itself still unknown. At best the memory only is exei'cised, and that at considerable disadvantage. The study of epochs is apt to produce scrappy and dis- HISTORY- -HOME AND COLONIAL SCHOOL SOC. 153 continuous knowledge, while attention is directed to matters of secondary import- ance within the epoch instead of to others of primary importance witliout it. It would seem best to comhiae the advantages of both plans by choosing a series of the most remarkable personages and events stretching from some point in the past down to the present ; to treat these more and more fully in successive stages, con- necting them in each stage by a brief narrative; and to fill in the interstices more and more in each successive stage with events and persons next in import- ance — the continuity and oneness of the Avhole history being carefully kept up in every stage. Should the subject-matter be political or social ? Although university professors may decide upon the former for their adult students, school-teachers will answer, ' Both.' They will not enter much at first into treaties and constitution ; they will be moderate in the use of ' drums and trumpets,' and, while eschewing wide gene- ralisations and vague abstractions, they will attend most to what illustrates and reveals social character and life. The de- tails of politics and constitutional matters are interesting to children in the last stage only of school-life. The teacher will find the following division into stages useful : In the first stage what interest children most are: action, personal adventure, per- sonal charactistics. Let everything be striking, dramatic, single — not compli- cated with argument or reflection ; with not too great a variety of interests. In the second stage children will want to know something of why and wherefore, and will be capable of maintaining more than one interest at a time. We may begin to criticise actions and character, and to look for causes and consequences of events. Individuals Avill cluster into classes, as classes will hereafter cluster into the nation. We may begin to sketch the first ideas of a State; and to get first ideas of public duty; and a curiosity as to what other nations were doing and think- ing about at the time may be started. In the third stage all this will advance a step. We may now treat of the nations as a whole ; enlarge and continue the ideas of a State and of public duty ; touch upon the greater matters of constitutional history; inquire more into the doings of foreign nations ; and gain larger and clearer views of social growth and progress. Holland (ITniversities of). See Uni- versities. Holloway College. See Provincial Colleges. Home and Colonial School Society. — The founder of this society was Mr. John Stuckey Reynolds, a distinguished civil servant. After filling in succession many important offices in the Treasury, he re- tired in 1835, and thenceforth devoted his whole time to the religious and philan- throphic work which had till then been the occupation of his leisure. His interest in the establishment of infant schools brought him into contact with Dr. Mayo of Cheam (the chief apostle in England of the views of Pestalozzi) and with Miss Mayo. The result of their intercourse was a determination on the part of Mr. Reynolds to introduce the principles of the Swiss reformer into English schools. With the co-operation of other public- spirited men and women, in the beginning of 1836 he established the society. The committee was formed on February 23, arid the institution opened on June 1. The object of the association was indicated by its original name — 'The Home and Colonial Infant School Society.' ■ The society was at first unsectarian. Its aim was stated in the orighial rule ii. to be the 'extension of the infant school system on Christian principles.' In 1841 a more definite meaning was given to the expres- sion by the addition, after 'Christian, principles,' of the words : ' As such prin- cij)les are set forth and embodied in the doctrinal articles of the Church of Eng- land.' The original rule iv. ran: — 'That considering it the province of the local committees of infant schools to select their own teachers, the society will educate teachers of different religious denomina- tions if holding the fundamental prin- ciples of the Bible, and of decided piety.' Though the rules were recast in 1848, no change was made in the wording of the two quoted, and no change has been made since. A change has, however, been made in the practice of the society. At first, most of the students trained were Dissenters ; most of the applications for teachers, on the contrary, came from Church schools. The committee, therefore, sent a circular to the clergy asking them to use their influence in increasing the number of Conforming candidates, and also tried to attract such candidates by inserting ad- 154 HOME AND COLONIAL SCHOOL SOCIETY vertisements in tlie newspapers. As a consoqnenoe, the (.'onimittt^e was able to announee, in their Tenth Animal Report, that 'nearly three ont of four now trained in the institution ai^e members of the Establishment.' The next step was the introduction of the present plan of insist- ing upon candidates for admission and students in training taking the archbishops' examination in religious knowledge. This maile the college practically a Church institution, though managed by a society nominally unsoctarian. From the begin- ning the Home and Colonial ditlei-ed in one important respect from the British and Foreign and the National Societies. The primary object of the older bodies was the establishment of schools, and they only opened colleges because they found trained teacliers essential to the success of tiieir schools; on the other hand, the pri- mary object of the younger body was the* provision of teachers specially prepared to educate infants, ai\d it left the establish- ment of schools to the enlightenment of managers. The society's students were originally male and female. Single men were not i-efused, and married couples were particularly invited. The number of single men tnxined was always insigni- ficant, and the eleventh report states that the supply of \narried couples was greatly diminished. Soon afterwaixls it ceased altogether, since when only mistresses have been trjxined. It was in 19 South- ampton Street, Holborn, that the society beg-an its operations in 1836. Next year a house was taken in Gray's Inn Road, with a large stable at the back. The stable was converted into a school, and the house (the middle one of the nine now occupied by the institution) became the nucleus of a college. The society saw clearly that if ti-aining is good and neces- sary for the teachers of the poor, it is equally good and necessary for all other teachers. The First Report dAvelt on the desirability of forming a class for the instruction of nursery governesses and teachei'S for infant schools of a supei'ior social grade, and the Fourth announced that an adjoining house had been taken and a separate department established for this branch of the work. The two de- partments have gone on side by side ever since, and it will thus be seen that for neaj-ly forty years the Home and Colonial School Societv was the only institution whicli offered even the rudinients of pro- fessional training to secondary teachers. In 1839, when the Education Pepartmei\t was established, the society carefully con- sidered the question of State aid. 'Without entertaining any very strong feeling on the question of parliamentary intei'ference with education,' the committee reported: ' The majority of the committee would certainly have wislied that the Government should have confined its plan to the manufacturing districts until it had been ascertained what the public, intei-ested as it is now, could have accomplished, and they are more inclined to this opinion from the doubt they entertain whether any goven\ment would be disposed to give to the people an education as decidedly I'eligious as this committee would deem indispensable.' In 1843 the committee asked the Department ' to direct an exa- mination to be made into the system of education pursued' by the society, and Mr. Seymour Ti'emenheere accordingly visited, the establishment. His report describes the state of the institution, and speaks (generally with approval) of the method of training, which, if not the best possible, was perhaps as good as could be expectetl under the circumstances. When the famoxis minutes of 184(.> were issued the grants to colleges induced the com- mittee to apply for Government aid. The application was preceded by mature con- sidei'ation oi\ the part of the society, and followed by considerable correspondence with the Department ; but the Twelfth Report announced that thirty ' Govern- ment students' would be trained for a year or more. The next Repoi-t stated that the plan was working well, and it was extended gradually till it embraced the whole of the ' Government department.' To the Revised Code of ]Mr. Lowe the society ofiered long and uncomprou\ising resistance. Of the Act of Mr. Forster, the society, on the whole, approved. The 'Government de- partment ' of the college at presei\t provides accommodation for a hundred and forty students. Connected with it are foiir schools — a model infant school ; a model and practising school for boys and girls in Standards lY.-VII. ; an upper practising school for boys and girls in Standanis II.- IV.; and the Reyiwlds practising school for boys and girls in Standards I.-IV. The 'Non-Government department' otfers. accommodation for an indetinite number of? HOME EDTJCATION- -HOME-LESSONS 155 students. Connected with this department is a middle-class school. Home Education. — By this term we mean the instruction and training of the young in the house of their parents, by the parents themselves and by tutors and go- vernesses. The advantages of such a plan are : the greater individual attention (as to mental powers, temper, physical health, etc.) which each child may receive ; greater security from evil influences, physical, in- tellectual, emotional, &c., which may be provided ; gTeater room and opportunity for individual development of poAvers, tastes, Arc. ; less publicity, more quiet, more gentleness, and the possibility of a closer and moi'e constant intercourse with pai'ents and brothers and sisters. The disadvantages, however, even in the best of homes, are great ; and in ordinary homes are almost overwhelming. At home, even when the family is large, there is great danger of there being too much supei'intendence and interference. The child has less incentive to exertion, less opportunity for measuring himself oi- her- self than at school. The general stimula- tion of numbers, the mutual education of those of like age, is lost. The ethical training produced by companionship with, and interests and i-esponsibilities in com- mon with, those who are not related to or connected with the child, and come from a distance — of all that may hereafter pro- duce social and civic virtue — is niissed. The self of the child is too prominent an object at home, and the discipline at home is apt to lack sound experience and to be fitful and uncertain. The play of child- hood, which is now recognised as a valu- able part of a child's training, requires numbers for its full, healthy enjoyment. The teachers employed at home are likely to be much inferior in skill, learning, and experience, and less varied in accomplish- ments. At school everything is arranged and continuously condu.cted for the special benefit and training of children ; while at home this can rarely or never be the case. The children at home are liable to too constant intercourse with adults; are ex- posed to dissipations, distractions, irregu- larities of all kinds ; and are likely to be thrown too much with servants, who, though kindly and Avorthy in many ways, are neither well-educated nor skilled trainers of the young, and are prone to * spoil ' them. The peculiar prejudices. narrownesses, &c., of the home and family are almost certain to be left uncorrected, and even to be emphasized. Other points might be mentioned ; but enough has been said to show that true wisdom lies in care- fully apportioning the time of the young between school and home; and that edu- cation requires the co-operation of both. (See Miss C. M. Mason's llonie Education ; Dr. Abbott's Hints on Home Teaching , etc.) Home - Lessons. — This is the name given to the work which a day-pupil is set to do betAveen the final dismissal of the school in the afternoon and the hour of reassembling next morning. It may consist either of Avritten woi-k or of learn- ing from a book ; and this Avork may take the form of either the practice, applica- tion, completion, revision of lessons pre- viously given; or it may be preparatory to lessons yet to come. Except Avhen written it is mainly an exercise of the memory. The younger the child the fcAver and shorter should the home-lessons be, and the less should they take the form of pi'e- paratoiy work. It is very doubtful whether an ordinary child under the age of nine can ever pi^operly pi'epare new work except while under careful guidance and super- vision. Eor children in a day-school under this age, therefore, it is generally wise to deA'ote the last hour of afternoon school to what would otherwise be 'home-lessons.' Few homes, except of the comparatively Avell-to-do, can provide the children with the isolation and supervision which home- lessons require ; and even Avhen these are provided, if the lessons are not very short there is no time left for free intei-course between parents and children. Moreover, in schools where the teaching is really good, and Avhere the boys and girls play heartily, pupils are generally too tired in the evening for much mental effort. In a day-school where the hours are from 9.30 a.m. to 4.30 p.m., home-lessons for normal pupils under ten should never ex- ceed one hour, for those between ten and thirteen, one hour and a quarter, for those between thirteen and sixteen one hour and a half. The Avork done as ' home- lessons ' should be tested and corrected without fail on the following day. Its subjects should, therefore, be taken from those of that day, and the correction or testing of the home-lessons should occupy the first part of the divisions of time set 156 HONOUR- -HYGIENE OF SCHOOL LIFE down to those subjects on the time-table. In the case of written work, the teacher Avill, of coarse, have to inspect and mark it afterwards as well. Exercises should be corrected orally in class as soon as possible after they have been written : the marking (with red ink or chalk) of the mistakes made may come later. In very large classes it is easier to make sure that irrlften home-work has been done than that lessons have been learnt. But, on the other hand, the correction of this written work may become very burden- some. This again points to the necessity of care as to the kind of work chosen and of moderation in the amount set. Honour. — Tlie thirst for distinction or honour is a powerful motive in the young, and is directly appealed to in education, not only by the whole system of scholastic rewards and distinctions, but by the or- ganised system of physical contests that grows up in the playground, &c. As an intense degree of the love of reputation, ambition to gain honours is specially open to the objections that maybe urged against this moti^'e in general. The term ' honour ' lias come to have a special ethical signi- ficance. In addition to the common rules of right and wrong which bind us all, special rules, known as ' codes of honour,' are adopted by particular classes of the community, or coteries, for the purpose of maintaining their dignity and reputation. As we see in the case of duelling, such laws of honour are often mischievous, as overriding the plain dictates of morality. The formation of a standard and rules of honour by every community of school-boys is a valuable supplement to the moral dis- cipline of the schoolmaster. At the same time the tendency to impose a code of honour in the playground and classroom must be cai'ef ally watched, lest it tend to pervert a boy's notions of moral distinc- tions. The schoolmaster can help to form a higher notion of the claims of honour by throwing a boy on his honour, as, for ex- ample, when allowing him to go out of bounds. An appeal to the feeling of honour in this way, which was often resorted to by Dr. Arnold, may prove the most etiectual way of inciting a boy to moral effort, by encouraging him to act worthily thi'ough another's belief in him. (See Schmidt's EncycJopadie, ai-ticle ' Ehrgefiihl.') Horn-book. See Criss Cross Row. Hulsean Lecture. See Prelections. Humanities. — The Romans gave the title ' humanitas ' to the study of letters and the liberal arts, since by these man distinguishes himself from other animals and raises himself to the true dignity of his natui'e. Aulus Gellius (xiii. IG, quoted in the Dictionnaire de Pkiagogie) says : ' Humanitas, that is, instruction in good arts, the which whosoever truly take to and seek after are in very deed most human. For the caring for this know- ledge and its discipline out of all living things is given to human beings only ; and therefore liath it been called hii- mnnitas.' The first and the chief leaders of the Italian Renascence called them- selves ' humanists,' and the name was adopted elsewhere. Later on the term ' humanities ' was used in colleges and universities to signify that part of the studies which includes all that is, strictly speaking, litei'ary and classical. In this sense tlie term 'humanists' has often been used, from the seventeenth century down to our day, in contradistinction to ' realists ' — the name given to cliampions of the study of things (instead of 'words) and of physical science generally. The term ' Professor of Humanity' is still used in the universities of Scotland, as equivalent to Professor of Latin. Sre Middle Ages (Schools op). Hygiene of School Life. — The subject of health in relation to school life naturally divides itself into that of healthy schools and healthy scholars. Under the former head the i-eader should refer to articles on Architecture of Schools, Ventilation, Temperature of Air, Impurities op Air, Dormitories, Warming Apparatus, Sana- torium ; under the latter head refer to articles on Overpressure, Physical Edu- cation, Rkcreation, Sex, Smoking, Eye- sight, Epidemic Diseases, Communicable Diseases, Sleep, School Surgery. ILLUSTRATION IMITATION i5r I Illustration in its most comprehensive meaning is the rendering of an idea or truth clear to another mind. This is effected by setting what is presented in a relation of likeness to some known thing, and so promoting the process of mental assimilation. Hence all illustration pro- ceeds by connecting by some link of similarity, affinity, or analogy, what is new and obscure with what is old and familiar. Illustration may be employed in the description of some concrete object, as in the use of illustrative analogies in setting forth geographical or historical facts. It is chiefly required, however, in expounding all abstract ideas and prin- ciples. Here intelligibility depends upon a selection of suitable examples or in- stances which may serve to exhibit the abstract idea in a living concrete form. This illustration of the general rule by the particular case may be regarded as an extension of the inductive method, which proceeds by leading a child to grasp a general principle through a comparison of particular instances. [See Method.) It may be added that illustration, though it commonly refers to bringing out points of similarity, inckides the setting forth of contrast as well. {See Contrast.) Imagination is the name of that faculty or power by which we form or make a mental representation of a concrete object which is not presented to the senses at the time. It may be popularly defined as the power of mentally picturing things. If this pictviring means the recalling to mind of something which we have actually seen, it is known as Reproductive Imagination, whereas if it means the formation of anew mental image it is known as Constructive Imagination. It will be seen from this definition that imagination is exercised not merely about the fictitious creations of poetry and art, but about common realities. The cultivation of the imagina- tion thus subserves two main ends, know- ledge and aesthetic delight. The first is illustrated in the teaching of concrete sub- jects, as geography and history, where the pupil is required to reproduce the impres- sions of his past experience, with a view to constructing images of the new objects, scenes, and events, described by the teacher. It is further illustrated, though in a less- obvious way, in science-teaching, the ab- stract principles of which can only be reached by preliminary processes of imagi- nation. The cultivation of the imagination for aesthetic purposes is carried on in close connection with the development of the feelings and the taste. Here the object of the educator should be to render the child's mind sensitive and responsive to what is. beautiful, pathetic, or sublime in the poet's creations, so that his imagination may be stimulated to a vivid realisation of the same. The imagination is commonly in- cluded among the faculties which are strong or highly developed in the child; yet it is important to distinguish between the ran- dom, unguided movements of childishfancy and the orderly progress of a trained, imagination (cf. Coxstructive Faculty). {See Sully, Teacher's Handbook of Psyclio- logy, chap, xi.) Imitation is the name for the propen- sity or impulse to copy the actions which we see others perform. In a comprehensive sense we may be said to imitate or repro- duce the modes of thought and feeling as well as the actions of others, but in mental science imitation is regarded as a principle which especially governs the actions — as where a child imitates a bodily movement or a vii'tuous action. Imitation is com- monly spoken of as instinctive or original, but it has recently been shown that the first imitative movements occur about the end of the fourth month. This fact sug- gests that in order to imitate another's action, the child must have progressed a certain way in the association of the sight of a movement as executed by another, and the impulse to perform a similar movement. This association is brought about, first by looking at his own organs when in movement, and then recognising the similarity of others' movements. Imi- tation plays a very important part in the early development of the bodily powers. Children learn to use their limbs and their voice under the lead of others' example. The impulse to adopt the movements of others tends also to the reproduction of their emotional states as manifested in certain definite expressive movements, e.g. frowning. Besides such imitation pure 158 IMPOSITIONS IMPURITIES OF AIR and simple, whii'li aims at iiognititioatiou beyond itself, there are eertaiu mixed forms. C">f these we may iustanee mi- micry, which, as now understood, implies the gratiticatioi\ of the feeling- of the ludicrous, a childish propensity which needs to be kept within proper bounds; ai\d that emulative form of imitation which is a conspicuous feature in all kinds of youthful contests. Imitation takes on ii more conscious and dignitied form in all deliberate attempts at copying N\hat is felt to be worthy in the sentiments and conduct of others. This kind of imitation, which is correlated with what we call the force of example, is one of the chief iiids to moral education. The influence of companions, and of the personality of the parent and of the teacher, owes its moral signilicance to tlio operation of the principle of imita- tion. This often works unconsciously, as where a ehild passively adopts the man- ners and even the feelings aiui nuttives of others without any conscious etibrt. Imi- tation, liowever, only attains its highest moral value when the child distinctly sets up aiiother's mode of feeling and conduct as an example, and a model for his own. Such imitative etfort plays a larger part as years advance, and ought to become a powerful means of ntoral growth towards tlie end of the school period. It is in re- lation to the imitative tendency of child- hood and youth that the teacher's per- sonality and character become a matter of the highest moral consei.]uence. Know- ingly or unknowingly he is always acting upon this impulse, and moulding the ways of his pupil into conformity with his own. (See Bain, Art')ital and Moml Science, book iv. chap, ii.; SuUy, 'Teacher's Ifandbook, chap, ix.) Impositions. ^V(> Rewards. Impurities of Air are more likely to collect in schoolrooms than in private houses, owing to the close aggreg-ation of children. It has been well said tlu\t ' our own breath is our greatest enemy,' and it is fivm this source that the most danger- ous impurities arise. The air expii-ed from the lungs contains a large excess of car- bonic-acid gas. Ordinary out-door air con- tains four parts of carbonic acid in ten thousand of air, but in expired air this is increased to four hundred parts. Five liundred children asaembled in one room produce in an hour as much carbonic acid as is equivalent to tlje solid charcoal or carbon contained in '20 lbs. of coal. Expired air also contains volatile organic matter in suspension, which is of a highly putretiable nature, and gives to a crowded room its characteristically close and stuffy smell. The carbonic acid is far from harmless, but this organic matter is still more poisonous and injurious to the health. The fact that expired air contiuns considerable aqueous vapour is another reason why free ventila- tion is I'equired. Testtt /or Aeriallmpui'ities. — The sense of siurU is perhaps one of the best ; only it must be exercised after a few minutes' exposure to the open air, and before it has become blunted by staying in a vitiated air. On entering a. room of which the atmo- sphere is impure, it will be found percepti- bly stufiy if the carbonic acid in it reaches six parts in ten thousand of air, and the degree of stufUnessor closeness as perceived by the educated smell is a very fair indi- cation of the amount of impurity present. The stufty smell is not due to the carbonic acid, but to the organic matter associated Avith it. Inasmuch as the two are in fairly constant proportion to each other, and the quantitative tests for carbonic acid are much easier to apply than for organic matter, the amount of cai'bonic acid is usually taken as a criterion of the state of a given atmosphere. The following simple c/ni)iical test may be applied : Take a bottle capable of holding ten and a half fluid ounces, blow the air of the room into it by nu\it\s of a bellows, pour in a table- spoonful (half an ounce) of clear lime- water, and after corking tightly, shake the bottle well. If no milkiness is produced — by the chemical combination of lime and carbonic acid producing chalk — then the amoxmt of carbonic acid is below what is regarded as the limit of purity: viz. six parts in ten thou&md of air. £^'ects of Jiespiratory Impurities. — When these are very concenti'ated, head- ache, giddiness, and faintness are pro- duced. When the impurity is less ex- treme there is a general lowering of the system, owing to the excess of carbonic acid and the organic matter preventing the oxidation processes of the body, and poisoning the blood. A general lassitude results, and an increased proneness to fall the victim to respiratory and other diseases. Drowsiness, languor, and yawning in schools are an indication for thorough flushing of the rooms with fresh air. INATTENTION- -INDUCTION 159 Mental work cannot be successfully carried on when the blood which supplies the brain is vitiated with impure air, and the mind is therefore kept in a sort of mental fog. Where furnaces and stoves are used carbonic-oxide gas is ajot to get into the rooms, producing giddiness, headache, and depression of the general Jiealth. The use of coal-gas for lighting purposes is another common source of polluted atmosphere. Both carbonic acid and sulphurous acid are produced in the combustion of coal- gas. By the combustion of 1 cubic foot of coal-gas 2 cubic feet of carbonic acid are produced. A medium gas-burner burns 3 cubic feet of gas per hour, and therefore produces 6 cubic feet of carbonic acid, i.e. about as much carbonic acid as ten adults produce in the same time. Inattention. See Attention. India (Educational Law of). See Law (Educational). Indian Association (National) was •established under influential auspices in 1870, for the promotion of social and educational progress in India. The as- sociation {inter alia) gives grants in en- couragement of education — especially fe- male education — in India, for promoting the employment of Indian medical women, for selecting English teachers for Indian families, and for helping Indian teachers and students in England. There are several branches of the association in India. Hon. Sec, Miss E. A. Manning, 35 Bloomfield Road, Maida Hill, Lon- don, W. Indian Universities. See Univer- sities. Individuality, so far as it needs to be considered here, may be defined as the sum of mental and moral qualities which characterise a particular person, distin- guishing him from other persons. Such individual peculiarities have their condi- tions in the physical organism, a fact clearly recognised in the doctrine of Tem- perament [see Temperament). Accord- ing to the universal biological law, that all living forms tend to differ one from another (within certain limits), every child's brain, together with its constitu- tion as a whole, has its own peculiar stamp from the first. And these physical pecu- liarities serve to determine the special mental traits, intellectual and moral. Within the limits of the typical human development every child is impelled to follow a line of development of its own. This impulse is much more marked in some children than in others. A strong individuality is an integral element in that later moral product which we call Character (q.v.). The educator is per- haps naturally inclined to regard indi- viduality as an obstacle and a limitation, since in extreme cases it implies resistance to his moulding influences. Here, how- ever, we must distinguish between indi- viduality which involves no deviation from the normal type, and eccentricity which implies such deviation. Rightly con- sidered, individuality is not something wrong which the educator has to correct, but one chief aim of the work of educa- tion itself. The object of tlie teacher should be to make a careful study of every child's intellectual and moral peculiarities, with a view to develop all that is valuable in these, and so produce a fine individual. This furtherance of individuality has to be harmonised with the development of a typically complete human being. Thus, in intellectual education we should aim at securing a certain general culture of the faculties by a common plan of study, and, at the same time, a special training of individual aptitudes by selected or optional studies. The value of individuality as an element of personal and social well-being has been emphasized by a number of recent thinkers, among whom may be mentioned W. von Humboldt and J. S. Mill. {See J. S. Mill, On Liberty, chap, iii., and the article 'Individuality,' in Schmidt's Ency- clopddie.) Induction is reasoning from particular cases to a general truth or principle, and so is the converse of deduction, which is reasoning from a general truth to a par- ticular case {see Deduction). In induc- tion we start from experience, employing the instruments of passive observation and active experiment. Children begin to reason spontaneously by passing from particular facts or experiences to similar concrete cases. This may be called a crude or imperfect form of induction. Induction proper only begins when the mind frames a general proposition, as : ' All plants have roots.' The early inductions or generalisa- tions of childhood are characterised by haste and want of a sufficiently wide com- parison of facts and an adequate inspec- tion and analysis of the facts observed. Scientific induction, which is concerned 160 INDUCTIVE METHOD- INSPECTORS OF SCHOOLS with the discovery of the causes of natural phenomena, proceeds by the employment of a method which it is the special busi- ness of inductive logic to formulate. Such methodical induction is best illustrated in the so-called inductive sciences and — so far as they employ experiment — experi- mental sciences, such as experimental physics, chemistry, &c. The study of these sciences is, therefore, the best training in inductive reasoning. [See Mill, Logic, bk. iii. chaps, i. and ii. ; or Jevons, Ele- inentary Lessons, xxv. and following; Bain, Education as Science, p. 154, &c.) Inductive Method. See Method. Industrial Schools, as defined by the consolidating Industrial Schools Act of 1866, are schools in which industrial training is provided, and children are lodged, clothed, and taught. They are really schools for the reclamation of juve- nile vagrants, and the neglected children of criminal parents. Any child found begging, or wandering homeless or desti- tute — whether an orphan or having one or both parents in prison; or living in the company of thieves and prostitutes; may be taken by any person before a magistrate, who may order the child to be sent to a cer- tificated industrial school. Refractory children whether in the workhouse or in charge of parents or guardians may also be sent by the justices to such a school, as may also children under twelve on convic- tion for a criminal ofi'ence. Provision is made for sending the child, if possible^ to a certified industrial school controlled by the religious denomination to which the parents or guardians belong. There are also day industrial schools for children whom it is not thought desirable to send to the ordinary elementary schools. Pa- rents, if able, are required to contribute to the maintenance of children during their detention iia industrial schools, which are mainly supported, however, by contribu- tions from the Treasury, the local rates, and private individuals and societies. (See Truant Schools.) Infant Schools. See Home and Colo- nial School Sojiett, and Classifica- tion. Infectious Diseases of School Life. See Communicable Diseases. Inspectors of Schools. — The appoint- ment of Government Inspectors of Schools in the United Kingdom dates from 1839, when Parliament voted 30,000/. to assist in the work of erecting and enlarging- schools. The duty of the inspectors at first cotLsisted in seeing that this and subsequent building grants were properly appropriated. It was not until 1846 that a regular system of examining and report- ing upon schools receiving Government aid was instituted. This was the year of the celebrated Minutes under which augmen- tation grants to teachers for pupil-teachers were made, and the Queen's Scholarships (q.v.) instituted. Still greater importance was attached to the work of inspection in 1863, when capitation grants (see Grants) were first voted by Parliament. Another memorable date in the history of school inspection is 1861, the year of the Code (q.v.) drawn iip by Mr. Lowe (afterwards Lord Sherbrooke) as the result of the report of the Duke of Newcastle's Commission. The report urged that the only way to secure the efliciency of elementary education was 'to institute a certain examination by competent authority of every child in every school to which grants are to be paid, with a view of ascertaining whether those essen- tial elements of knowledge are thoroughly acquired, and to make the prospects and position of the teachers dependent to a considerable extent on the results of the examination.' Inspectors were appointed to carry out this recommendation. Though the system of inspection under the Code is much more rigid than under the Minutes of 1846, the inspectors under the former have been relieved of much of the respon- sibility which was imposed upon the in- spectors under the latter, who wei'e required to give their opinions upon the religious as well as the intellectual merits of each school. It is now no part of the duty of the inspector to enquire into any instruc- tion in religious subjects. Various objec- tions have been raised, however, against the present system, and especially against the practice which prevails in England, Scotland, and Wales, though not in Ire- land, of appointing inspectors, without requiring them to give conclusive evidence of special qualification for the duties they have to discharge. In Ireland candi- dates for the ofiice of inspector of schools are required to give proof of their knowledge of the theory and practice of education, and of school management, by examination as well as by a subsequent course of pro- bation under a chief inspector. In the rest of the United Kingdom, however^ INSTRUCTION INSTRUCTION (COUr.SE OF) 161 this precaution is not taken, and official favouritism and political exigency have much to do with the appointments of inspectors of schools. Elementary teachers themselves are not eligible for inspector- ships, though Mr. Matthew Arnold, Dr. Fitch, and other important witnesses before the Education Commission of 1887, gave evidence in favour of appointing successful teachers. Mr. Matthew Arnold expressed the opinion tlaat the great bulk of inspec- tors might with advantage be drawn from the ranks of elementary teachers, as they are in France, Germany, Switzerland, Bel- gium, and indeed almost every European country. Mr. Arnold further expressed his preference for the Continental system of inspection generally, inasmuch as it is not so mechanical as our o"wn. The Con- tinental insjDectoi-s merely have to see that the law is observed, that the school programme is carried out, and that the teachers do not neglect their duty, but they have little or nothing to do with the examination of the children. Instruction (from the Latin instruere, to build up or form) means the informing of the mind by a communication of know- ledge. It is commonly distinguished from education, which aims not so much at the distribution of knowledge as at the deve- lopment' of faculty or power {see Intellec- tual Education). Instruction or teach- ing is correlated with learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, and its methods must be determined by the conditions of this last (see Teaching and Learning). Instruction (Course of). — It has been stated under the article Classification that great convenience arises from defining the several grades of schools by the average age at which the school life of the scholar ends. So that an elementary school may be usefully defijied as one in which the course of instruction is laid down for those whose school life ends at thirteen or thereabouts; and a third-grade secondary school, as one in which the course of instruction is laid down for those who leave school at four- teen or thereabouts ; a second-grade, at sixteen or thereabouts ; a first-grade, at eighteen or nineteen. Yet although age is the principal factor, there are other factors to be taken into account in determining the course of instruction to be pursued in each school ; some external, as the social aims of the parents and the future careers of the scholars; and some internal, as the number of hours each week, and the num- ber of years, for which a given subject can find a place in the time-table, having due regard to the claims of the other subjects. The chief thing, however, to be borne in mind is that the average age of leaving school does essentially differentiate the curriculum of a school of a particular grade, from the schools of other grades. This point needs strongly enforcing, because a popular fallacy has associated itself with the idea of the ' Educational Ladder ' through the schools of various grades, from the elementary school to the university, which requires to be disposed of in the in- terests of the scholars for whom it is desired that that ladder should be provided. This fallacy consists in supposing that a talented child 'from the gutter' should be kept at an elementary school until he has finished the course there, and should then be passed on to a third- or second-grade secondary school till he has reached the limit of age for that school; and then, again, be transferred to a first-grade school to be prepared for the university. The fallacy takes another form, injurious to a more numerous, though less able, class of young persons, when it is assumed — as it is by many parents — that a boy who stays at a first-grade school until he is sixteen or thereabouts gets the same kind of educa- tion, and has been as well fitted for his future career, as if he had been under in- struction in a second-gTade school up to that age. But the facts are that it is almost fatal to keep a talented lad at any grade of school in the ladder until he has completed the course laid down in that school, before passing him on to the next ; and it is highly prejudicial to the interests of an average boy to place him in a higher grade of school than that which corresponds to the limit of age at which it is intended that his education should cease. The mis- conception has arisen partly from the impression that a scholar of a given age is doing very much the same kind of work in whatever grade of school he may be ; partly from inability to realise the fact that a widening of the course of instruc- tion, according to the grade of school and increased length of school life, takes place from the very lowest class in each school upwards. The curricula of schools of various grades cannot in fact be com- pared to so many inverted frusta of cones piled one on the other, the base of each of M 162 INSTRUCTION (COURSE OF) INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION which, as you ascend, exactly fits on to the upper side of the tViistuni ininiediately below; but rather to a series of frusta, each of which starts from a wider base as the grade of the school is higher. Some of the subjects may be taught in all the grades of schools, and yet the mode of treatment of the subjects, the particular stage taught to a scholar of a given age, and the extent to which the subject is ulti- mately carried will vary according to the grade of school. Thus English, Latin, science, mathematics, may be taught in elementary schools and in all three grades of secondary schools. But a scholar in each of these classes of schools will be at an entirely different stage of knowledge in these subjects, at a given age. Again, a boy of sixteen leaving a first-grade or second-grade school will, in either case, have spent so many hours of school life, at Latin, for instance; but, in the first case, his knowledge, though wide, Avill be in- complete, as the curi'iculum contemplates his staying at school until eighteen or nineteen; in the other case, it will be complete for its purpose, as the curriculum was laid down with a view of giving such a course of instruction in that language as, though narrower, would meet certain well- defined I'equirements, possible of attain- ment by the leaving age. Two things fol- low from wliat has been said : first, that one subject of instruction cannot be definitely called an ' elementary ' subject, and another a 'secondary' subject, for a subject may be common alike to the cui'ricula of every grade of school : only its treatment and range will be diftei*ent ; secondly, that it is absolutely necessary for the effectiveness of the educational ladder that the scholar who is to be passed up it should leave the elementary school some years — prob;i,bly two — before he has reached the superior limit of age for such a school, and should be transferi'ed to a second-grade school, if it is proposed to pass him on to a scientific or engineering course at sixteen or seven- teen, or to a first-grade school, if circum- stances are favourable, and he shows signs of such literary or other ability as would promise him a successful career at one of the older universities. It is similarly true that, if such a scholar as this should be found at a second-grade school, he should have facilities given him for passing on to a first-grade school at thirteen or fourteen, rather than at sixteen years of age. The question of the retention of Latin (see Latin ; Classical Culture) in other than first-grade schools in England has been mooted again and again, as in Gei'many in connection with the curricula of Real- sciiULEN {q.v.). Up to this time the genei'al feeling has been in favour of its retention. If this language were excluded it is certain that boys of exceptional talent would find a serious impediment to their rising to the higliest education. Looking generally upon Education as the 'social bridge which unites all classes of society in England,' some have averred that ' the cement is furnished directly or indirectly by tlie Latin language. ' It is felt, too, that the divorce of the second-grade schools and grammar-schools in small towns (wliicli ai'e in reality second-grade) from the medical and legal professions — both of which re- quire Latin in their preliminary examina- tions — and from the univei'sities Avou.ld be a formidable price to pay for the abandon- ment of Latin. Up to the pi'esent time, then, Latin holds its own; and, subject to the common-sense maxim ' Either good Latin or none,' has justified its position. But whether it will do so always, in presence of the increasing cry for ad- vanced technical training, and for better and more colloquial knowledge of French and German to fit English pupils to com- pete successfully in connuerce with youths of foreign nationality, is doubtful. It is certain that the curriculum of second- and third -grade schools does not admit of any great extension in either a technical or modern-language direction, without the dropping out of some other subject; and, as the cry for tliis gains in intensity, it looks as though Latin would be the subject that will have to drop out. But this would mean a great revolution in English modes of thought and methods of education ; and as, in general, English movements do not progress by revolution, the abolition of Latin, if it takes place at all, will probably come about very gradually. (For the course of instruction in public elementary schools in England and elsewhere see under Standards.) Intellectual Education is that branch of education which concerns itself with the intellectual faculties, and seeks to develop these harmoniously, and in the order of their development. This can only be efiected by putting the child's mind into an attitude of inquiry in relation INTEREST JANSENISTS (THE) 163 -fco certain materials of knowledge which are presented to it, either in the shape of objects to be observed by the senses, or Tvords to be interpreted and understood. That is to say, faculty is developed in and by the process of gaining knowledge. And i;o this extent the aims of instruction and education are identical. Interest (from inter-esse, to be of importance) describes the effect of feeling, and more particularly pleasurable feeling, in rousing and sustaining the attention. The feeling may be the immediate result of the action of an object on the mind, as •when a child is attracted by a pretty pic- ture; or may be due to a process of asso- ciation and suggestion, as when a child is interested in watching the preparation of its food. Interest is closely connected with curiosity. A child desires to know what can be known about objects that are interesting to him, such as his pet animals, his toys, &c. From this it is apparent that the intellectual educator has at the ■outset to seek to awaken in the child's mind a feeling of interest in the subject presented to it. This he will do partly by "bringing out all that is striking, pretty, &c., in the subject, and partly by connect- ing it with known sources of interest in the child's surroundings. One chief aim of the instructor should be to develop new interests, answering to the different domains of knowledge to be dealt with, as history and natural science. It is evident that in order to awaken such a feeling of interest and study attention must be paid to individual differences of sensibility; cf . Attention. (See Sully, Teacher's Hand- book, p. 87 and following.) Intermediate Schools. See Classifi- cation. Intuition, Intuitive Method. — In its original and proper sense intuition is the apprehension of an object by one of the senses, and more particularly the sense of sight — in other words, the act of percep- tion (q.v.). In a secondary manner it has come to mean the grasp or understanding of an idea in so far as this approximates in character to a perception of the senses. Thus the distinct imaginative picturing or realisation of any object, as a volcano, is a mode of intuition. We may thus be said to have an inttcitive knowledge of any object or idea that we can distinctly per- ceive or imagine. Such intuitive know- ledge is marked off from symbolic know- ledge, e.g. that of large numbers, which does not admit of being reduced to a sensible or picturable form. From this definition it will be evident that the In- tuitive method in teaching consists in re- ducing abstract ideas as far as possible to sensible concretes, in setting out in the exposition of any abstract notion, such as an angle, a verb, justice, with concrete illustrations addressed to the senses or to the pictorial imagination. It thus corre- sponds pretty closely with the Inductive Method (see Method). On the nature of Intuition and the Intuitive Method see Jevons' JEJl. Lessons in Logic, p. 57 and fol- lowing; Compayre, Coursde Pedagog., pp. 265-69; Buisson, Diet. dePed., art. 'In- tuition ' ; and Schmidt, EnGyGlopddie, art. ' Anschauung.' Ireland, Education in. See Law (Educational). Irish Universities. See Univeesities. Italian. See Modern Languages. Italian Universities. See Univer- sities. J Jansenists (The). — This was the title given to the recluses, both men and women, whose chief retreat was the Abbey of Port-Royal, fifteen miles s.w. of Paris, and who had adopted many of the views of the learned Jansen, Bishop of Ypres (died 1638). The women of this sect lived chiefly at the Abbey and in a re- tired convent in Paris; the men chiefly in the neighbourhood of the former; some- times on the farm of Les Granges, or at Chesnai, sometimes at the Chateau des Trous, not far off. The sect was never a large one, and suffered much persecution through the instrumentality of the Jesuits, who were completely triumphant in 1660. The last trace of a Jansenist house disap- peared in 1790; but many of their reKgious views and most of their educational prin- ciples are still powerful in France. In the petites ecoles, or little schools, which they established about the year 1643 — but m2 164 JANSENISTS (THE) Tiphich were only fully at work between 1646 and 1656, and ceased to exist in 1660 — the Port-Royalists (as they are often called) sought to realise Erasmus's idea of a place of education which should combine all the good qualities, and avoid all the drawbacks, both of home and of a public school. Their aim was neither to proselytise nor to make profit of any kind by their little schools; but 'with God's blessing to be of some service to little children.' Never was a more earnest, unselfish, loving endeavour made to put into practice the most liberal and en- lightened views possible at the time to educational thinkers. Into t]\e,\v religious views, which were ascetic and gloomy, we cannot here enter. We shall restrict our- selves to stating some of their most marked opinions on the education of boys. It is in the character of the teachers and of the teaching, not in any outward advantages enjoyed by the schools, that we must look for the explanation of the fame of the Port-Royalist system of edu- cation. The master-mind of the Port- Royalists was Hauranne de Yerger, Abbot of St. Cyran. He had hoped to establish a church- seminary, and had thought of Lancelot as a man who had that gift, 'one of the rarest,' of fitness for the work of education. But St. Cyran fell under Richelieu's displeasure, and an imprison- ment, to last till within a very few years of his death, prevented him from carrying out in person his scheme. The very intentions, however, of men like St. Cyran are worth more than the deeds of ordinary men. Those who had come under the spell of his influence seldom rested till they found means of realising the ideas with which he had inspired them. His hopes were to be realised in the j^etites ecoles, whose existence, curiously, dates from the same year as that of his death. Of these schools, Lancelot was always to be, to say the least, one of the moving spirits. Both he and his colleagues were men of singular energy, piety, and devoted- ness. Lancelot writes to a friend, ' II faut que les precepteurs s'estiment heureux de sacrifier leurs travaux, leurs interets et leur vie pour ces petits, que Dieu leur a confi^s '; and this feehng that their pupils were a sacred charge lies at the root of all their character and conduct as teachers. It leads them to startling conclusions on the subject of discipline', it makes them memorable reformers in matters of instruc- tion. The Jesuits had substituted for the- old monastic regime of incessant punish- ment, mainly corporal, an elaborate system of rewards. Appeal to the spirit of emu- lation was, in fact, a leading principle of the Jesuit schoolmaster. The Port- Roy- alists, on the other hand, thought of this^ spirit as a relic of the old Adam. A striking sentence in Pascal's Pensees shows us how he was alive at once to the beauty of the Port-Royal theory, and to the dan- ger in its practice : 'L'admiration gate- tout des I'enfance. Oh ! que cela est bien. dit ! qu'il a bien fait ! qu'il est sage ! Les. enfants de Port-Royal, auxquels on ne- donne point cet aiguillon d'envie et de gloire, tombent dans la nonchalance.' Dis- ci2yline siipjjorted by little punishment and no reivards — this seeming like a counsel of perfection. Yet Pascal's hint at the failure in practice is not, so far as we know, borne out by the facts of the case. In. estimating its probabilities, too, it must be remembered that there were never at one time, and perhaps not in the whole sixteen, or seventeen years during which the schools lasted, more than fifty pupils ; that each- teacher seems to have been responsible for only six pupils ; and, above all, that Port- Royalist scholars, as well as teachers, were choice spirits : the pupils were sent to these schools on no conventional grounds, but because their parents ^e^ieveo? in the system. Yet even more interesting than the dis- cipline is the instruction of these teachers^ Like the Jesuits, they treated the Huma- nities as at once the root and the flower of their education. But there was an im- mense diflference in the methods pursued.. The Jesuits taught the classical languages mainly through books of extracts; the Port- Royalists preferred to read the authors, themselves, or, at least, large portions of them. The phrase-books, which had been introduced by the Jesuits to help their scholars while struggling with the difii- culties of composition, were disliked by the Port-Royalists. For again, while the- Jesuits cultivated composition at the ex- pense of translation, the Port-Royalists argued that familiarity with the languages themselves should precede the attempt to compose in them. Consistently with this,., they recognised that while Latin verse- making might be a useful and refining study for a limited number of pupils, there' must also be a considerable number quite- JANSENISTS (THE) JESUITS (THE) 165 unequal to the task — in this, again, unlike the Jesuits {q.v.). These, again, used, grammars wi'itten in Latin, while the Port- Royalists introduced grammars written in Erench. With the Jesuits, once more, form or style was the first, and almost the sole, consideration, whereas the Port- Roy- alists argued that 'the utility of things should, be joined with that of words, in order to form the judgment of the young while their memory is stocked, and even to ease the memory by fixing the words to things, which always make a greater im- pression on the mind.' In brief, while other educators were putting words be- fore things, the Port- Royalists were put- ting things before words. This is the ground on which Ste. Beuve assigns to them the same high rank among educa- tors as he assigns to Descartes among philosophers. The fact that Latin had ceased to be necessary as a medium of conversation, and was ceasing to be necessary as a literary instrument, enabled the Port- Royalists to carry out reforms which could not have been expected from the Jesuits, whose schools had been in full working order half a cen- tury when the petites ecoles were founded. In the teaching of Latin itself, composition had been emphasised as the readier way to conversation. It could now be subor- dinated to translation just because there was no longer need for this accomplishment. Similarly, now that it was not necessary to give Latin so large a place in the school curriculum, more room could be found for Greek. And thus the greater attention given to this language is among Port- Royalist reforms. It has been said that the Port-Royalists wrote grammars in Erench. The importance, indeed, attached to the teaching of the mother tongue in their schools is among the most memorable of their reforms. That Erenchmen in the second half of the seventeenth century came to write true Erench, and not, as hitherto, a kind of Latin-Erench, is, ac- cording to Ste. Beuve, largely to be attri- buted to Port-Royalist wisdom. Other subjects found a place in the curriculum. Pascal and Arnauld, the two men whose influence far outweighted that of all others in the Port- Royalist Society, were both geometricians. Arnauld wrote a work on Elements of Geometry, on reading which in manuscript Pascal burnt his own essay •on the same subject. Lancelot was ap- pointed to teach mathematics (and Greek). So that we may reasonably conclude that geometry, at any rate, had its fair share of attention. Lancelot wrote books upon the me- thods of learning Italian and Spanish ; and Racine, the most famous of Port- Royalist pupils, knew both languages within a short time of leaving school. Eor promising pupils, then, the range, if we except science, may well have been as wide as that of the most advanced of modern schools; that is, it probably in- cluded the classics, taught by methods on which, according to Breal {Qttelques Mots sur V Instruction, p. 183), in France at least, no improvement has been made — modern languages, mathematics, and care- ful instruction in the mother tongue. The best authorities on the subject are the Port- Royalists' own books, e.g. the Logic, of which there is a good English edition by T. S. Baynos, the General Grcornmar, the Greek and Latin Grammars, many editions of the classics, and the books referred to in the course of this article : Ste. Beuve's Port-B,oyal, bk. iv. ; Gom- payre's Histoire Critique des Doctrines de V Education en France, bk. ii., chap. iii. ; Beard's Port- Royalists; and Verin's Etude sur Lancelot. Japan, Imperial University of. See Univbesities. Jesuits (The). — -The order of the Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534, was formally authorised and established in 1540. It was an attempt — and a highly successful one — to check the progress of the Reformation, and to bring back tlie wanderers to the fold of Rome. The means employed were preaching, confes- sion, and education. Despite of strong and often violent opposition, the order rapidly increased, and spread its schools and houses all over Europe. At the end of the seventeenth century it possessed 180 colleges, 90 seminaries, 160 resi- dences, and its members numbered 21,000. Here we shall confine ourselves to speaking of that part of their educational work in which the Jesuits most excelled — their secondary schools. Their universities were never very brilliant successes ; and though the teaching they provided was gratuitous, they never sought to make it primary or elementary. The school system of the Jesuits received its definite and permanent form under Acquaviva, the fifth General 166 JESUITS (THE) of the order, who ruled between 1581 and 1615. In 1599 the Ratio Studiorum, or plan of studies, was produced; and has continued, with very few additions, to be the plan down to the present day. The most important additions to the Latin, Greek, and religion of the earlier period have been a little history, some slight attention to the mother tongue, and some- thing in the way of modern languages. Latin and religion (a catechism and scrip- ture history) have, however, always been the most prominent subjects. As a rule, no one but a member of the society is allowed to be a teacher in the schools; and his watchwords must be kind- ness, thoroughness, repetition. It was an admirable, but in those early days an almost revolutionary, innovation, that masters should be directed 'to unite the grave kindness and authority of a father with the tenderness of a mother,' and 'to become as little children amongst little children,' so that they might win the young to study with pleasure. The thoroughness was best set forth in the advice to seek to teach a few things clearly and distinctly, rather than to give indistinct and confused im- pressions of many things; while the value of repetition was rated so highly that one whole day was devoted to it every week; and in the second half of the year the classes generally went over again the work of the earlier half. At the head of the school stood the rector, who did not him- self teach, but appointed the staff, and care- fully watched the progress of the pupils. He held his office for three years. Under him were the masters, who also were somewhat frequently moved about. Out- side boarding establishments were some- times connected with the schools, in which the children of the rich and noble were received at a moderate charge. Sometimes there were day-schools, which, under cer- tain restrictions, were open to Protestants. Otherwise, the children were 'interned' all the year round, and cut off as much as possible from their families and all other outside influences. This contempt for, and destruction of, the home life is probably the most fatal mistake of all in the Jesuit school system. Its evil effects are visible in every country where their schools have been numerous. The course of study may be broadly described as follows. It occupies six years, usually those between fourteen and twenty. Tlhe first year is devoted to the rudiments of Latin, viz. the forms and correct sounds of the letters, and how ta read; the second to grammar in its first elements; the third to syntax. These are called the grammatical classes. The fourth year is given to philology and verses ; and ihe fifth and sixth to rhetoric. These last two are called the Humanity classes. The chief object is to produce a mastery over Latin, as over a modern language. The classics are read for their style, not for their ideas; and for this reason considerable portions of them are committed to memory,, so as to supply words and phrases. Greek is also studied, as a rule, in every class ; but it occupies a very subordinate place. Of arithmetic, geography, history, at first we hear nothing ; and only of late years has attention been paid to them at all, and that very grudgingly. The same may be said with regard to the mother tongue. Religious instruction — that is, a catechism, and some facts of Bible history — is, of course, a distinct feature throughout. The work has never been excessive ; generally two and a half hours in the morn- ing, and the same amount in the afternoon, with an interval of about three hours. In the summer there is generally one whole holiday a week. The masters are directed to make the lessons as pleasant as possible,, consistently with their being thorough. Amusements within the school walls are plentiful. The bodily health of the pupils is carefully attended to; and on holidays excursions are made into the country. There is nothing ascetic in the regulations. The punishments, too, are always made as light as possible ; only the graver offences being visited with flogging. Where flog- ging does not have the required effect the offender is expelled. Emulation and ri- valry of every kind are employed to induce the boys to work. Sometimes individual boys are pitted against each other ; some- times one half of a class against the other;; and prizes, praises, marks of distinction,, (fee, are profusely distribu.ted. To manners and deportment special attention is paid. The boys are taught to speak distinctly and elegantly, to write a clear and hand- some hand, to walk with an erect and easy carriage, and to conform to all those external habits which mark a well-bred gentleman. To aid them in gaining ease and assurance of manner, and readiness of address, great use is made of the acting o£ Latin plays. JUDGMENT JUSTICE 167 We may add that the master in Jesuit schools is generally rather a lec- turer than a teacher. He expounds some- times a piece of a Latin or Greek author, sometimes the rules of grammar. He does not aim at developing and training his pupil's intellect. The boys are required to get up the substance of his lectures, and to learn the rules of grammar and passages from classical authors by heart, 'When the young man,' says Mr. Quick, in his excellent account of these schools, ' had acquired a thorough mastery of the Latin language for all purposes, when he was well versed in the theological and philoso- phical opinions of his preceptors, when he was skilful in dispute, and could make a brilliant display from the resources of a well-stored memory, he had reached the highest point to which the Jesuits sought to lead him. Originality, independence of mind, love of truth for its own sake, the power of reflecting and of forming correct judgments, were not merely neglected — they were suppressed in the Jesuits' sys- tem.' They have fallen behind in the progress of the world ; and in nothing is this so marked as the text-books used. In conclusion, we may note that the great public schools of England have taken Bacon's advice, and copied freely the schools of the Jesuits ; but they have progressed somewhat, and their pupils are given a chance of a freer and wider de- velopment. But practically — even in their system of monitors or prefects — they are modelled on the outlines of the Batio Studiorum. Judgment. — This term refers to the mental act by which we determine the relations of our ideas one to arnother, as when we decide that mercury is a metal, or that an ellipse is not a circle. The result of the act of judgment is a proposition which affirms or denies something. That of which we affirm or deny is called the subject, and that which is affirmed or denied the predicate. We are able to judge just in proportion to the variety and clearness of the notions gathered by way of observation and tradition, and stored up in the memory, and also to the degree of care with which we reflect on these. Children are weak in judgment, partly because they lack experience and ideas, and partly because they are not capable of that sustained effort of will which is involved in comparing objects or ideas one with another on all sides, so as to see exactly how they are related. Hence, the rashness and crudity of many early judg- ments. The faculty of judging requires careful training in special directions, as that of the probable in human affairs, the good and bad in art, the right and wrong in conduct. Here the object of the edu- cator must be to help the child by careful observation and reflection gradually to buildup a correct standard of truth, beauty, and goodness, by a reference to which sound decisions may at once be reached. Care should be taken further by a sufficient, and yet not excessive, assertion of autho- rity, to restrain, without repressing, the impulse to form independent judgments. Lastly, the teacher should closely watch all the influences which tend to warp or bias the judgment ; more particularly the effect of prejudice and antipathy. Judg- ment is viewed by the logician as the second stage in thought, following abstraction or conception, and preceding reasoning. The three operations are, however, very closely connected. An element of inference enters into most judgments ; and it should be the object of the educator in training the judgment, to exercise the child in connecting his decisions logically with the facts and principles on which they depend. In truth, to train the judgment is a part, and an important part, of training the reasoning faculty {see Reason). (On the nature of Judgment see Bain, Education as Science, p. 122; SuUy, Teacher's Hand- hook, chap, xiv.) Justice. ^ — The nature of justice has given rise to much discussion. The idea is closely related to that of equity or fairness, and it has actually been defined as 'equality as between man and man.' It refers, too, to the recognition and satis- faction of all rights, which rights, so far as natural, are regarded as equal or alike in all cases. The idea of justice is thus ethically correlated with that of right, and of duty or obligation. The feeling of justice in its crude form is the instinctive impulse of the individual to resent injury, an impulse that forms the prominent ingredient in the instinct of self-preservation. Children are keenly sensitive to any invasion of their rights, and particularly to anything like an arbitrary withdrawal of a customary privilege, and to all appearance of parti- ality. This feeling, however, is largely personal. The higher moral sentiment of 168 KANT, IMMANUEL justice presupposes the development of tlie social feelings. It is the resentment of an injury, not to oneself, but to the community of which one feels oneself a member. This higher sentiment has to be gradually developed by a cultivation of sympathy and a habit of reflection. The parent and, in a more limited region, the teacher have much to do with determining the child's ideas of what is just. The customary manner of dealing out favours and rewards, as well as punishments, sup- plies to the young mind its first standard of justice. Hence the importance of strict impai-tiality, and of a clear definition of the boundaries of individual liberty and obligation in all our dealings with children. {See on the nature of Justice J. S. Mill, Utilitarianism, chap. v. ; and Prof. Sidg- wick. Methods of Ethios, bk. iii. chap, v.; and on its educational aspects, Schmidt's Encyclopcidie, article ' Rechtsgefiihl.') K Kant, Immanuel (1 724-1 80i), the German philosopher who has exerted the widest and most profound influence on the thought of this century, has left his mark, among other subjects, upon that of educa- tion. When Professor of Philosophy at Koiiigsberg he was required by an old regulation to lecture publicly on Pedagogy, or, as the subject appeared in one of Kant's courses (1776-7), 'Practical directions for educating children.' These lectures, Ueber Pddagogik, were published later on (1803) by F. T. Rink, one of Kant's pupils. Kant's occupation with the problem of education was not, however, wholly due to an external necessity. He felt himself drawn' to the subject in more ways than one: He had had considerable experience in teaching, having been private tutor nine years before entering on his academic career as Frivatdocent. Not only so, he was led to think of education by Montaigne (q.v.), who, for a time at least, was his favourite author, and still more by Rousseau (q.v.), whose influence on Kant's mind in the earlier stages of his philosophic activity was very powerful. The Lectures unmis- takably betray the influence of Rousseau's Emile. How deeply questions of education interested him is attested by the fact that he warmly advocated the schemes of Basedow and Campe in a Konigsberg journal. In order to understand Kant's views one must eke these out by references to some of his philosophical works. Thtis, his ideas on the moral education of the young are sketched out in the second part of the Critic of the Practical Reason. In the later period of his literary activity, in which he fairly broke with the teaching of Rousseau, he seems to have given less attention to education. Still, there are evidences that he now and again reverted to the subject, as when he gives us a fragment of a moral catechism at the close of his Meta- •physih der Bitten. Kant's general conception of education flows from his philosophical principles, and more particularly his idea of man and his destiny. The true end of man is moral free- dom, that is, freedom from all external con- trol, and a willing self -subjection to the moral law. Intellectual development is in this view subordinated to moral. The at- tainment of this moral freedom is the result of self -improvement. The self-development of the individual is, however, connected with, and in a manner included in, the self- development of the race. Man, says Kant at the beginning of the Lectttres, can only become man by education. The education by each generation of its successor is viewed by him as a necessary factor in the upward striving of the race towards per- fection. Hence, he conceives of the object of the educator as the adaptation of the child, not to the world as it exists at this particular moment, but to the idea of humanity and to its destiny as a whole. In defining the scope of education, Kant touches on the question since named ' na- ture and nurture.' He Avoukl like to see ' the great ' busy themselves with the work of teaching, so that we might know how much education can accomplish. He is also strongly in faA^our of freedom of edu- cation from State control, so that experi- mental schools may be established. This, and other remarks, clearly show how fully he recognised the difliculty of the art, and the need of illuminating it to the utmost on the side of experience, as well as on that of science. He divides edu- cation into two chief branches, physical KANT, IMMANUEL KINDERGARTEN 169 and practical. In illustrating the first Kant, like Locke, does not disdain to •enter into the homely details of children's diet. He has some good things to say- about the training of the- senses, and par- ticularly the eye, by means of throwing and other games. He follows Rousseau and Basedow in emphasising the need of a hardening regimen in physical education. Practical education has for its end the development of personality. Under this head Kant makes, according to his habit, a number of distinctions of his own. It has a negative side, discipline, which consists in keeping away faults, and a positive side, instruction and guidance. This last is either scholastic, aiming at skill {Ge- sehicklichkeit), -pragmastic, at wisdom {Klug- ?ieit), or moral, at morality (Sittlichkeit). By the first (the work of the Informator) the child gets worth as individual; by the second (the woi'k of the Hofmeister), worth as a citizen; and by the third, woi-th as a man. Kant places moral training or morali- ■sation in strong contrast to culture, the latter of which prepares for all sorts of ends, whereas the former prepares for good ends only. He deviates from Rous- seau in his method of moral education. Though he distinguishes a lower obedience derived from compulsion, and a higher and free obedience derived from trust, and ■emphasises the greater importance of the latter in moral development, he insists also on the necessity of the first in the earHer years. He is strongly opposed to an indiscriminate indulgence of children's wishes, and especially to gratifying them when they make themselves burdensome to others by crying. At the same time the influence of Rousseau is seen in his observations on punishment. After obe- dience to law, which Kant regards as the first chief feature of moral character, the moral educator has to develop truthful- ness and sociability. As may be seen from these extracts, Kant's chief contri- bution to education is the elevation of its end. The Lectures are the outcome of a strenuous efibrt to harmonise the claims of freedom and duty, and as such form a valuable corrective to the one-sided theory of Rousseau. With respect to intellectual education, Kant's remarks are very un- satisfactory. The bearing of intellectual on moral development is not dealt with, nor is there any adequate recognition of the disciplinary value of learriing. The only approach to this point of view is when he sets the lower faculties, and more especially memory, in subordination to the higher (understanding and reason), and urges that the former should only be exercised so far as necessary for the best discharge of the latter. {See Dr. "Will- mann's edition of the Lectures, with in- troduction, itc, in Karl Richter's Pad. Bihliotliek, Band x. Of. article 'Kant' in Schmidt's EncyclojKidie.) Kindergarten. — Frederick Froebel founded the first Kindergarten at Blank- enburg in 1837. The name expresses the analogy between child and plant life, to which he constantly referred. The system which he elaborated is intended for chil- dren old enough to speak and to run alone, and was the practical embodiment of the philosophic study and experience of years, devoted to the science of education. He maintained that the mother should begin the child's training from the cradle, she being the teacher provided by Nature. In accordance -with the indications of Nature, he sought to develop the child's body by wisely directed jDhysical movements. He saw that the cliild's inborn desire for acti- \\tj manifests itself in play, and that chil- dren love to play together. His system, therefore, guides this inclination into or- ganised movement, and invests the 'games' (unknown to the child) with an ethical and an educational value, teaching, among other points, besides physical exercises, the habits of discipline, self-control, har- monious action, and purpose, together with some definite lesson of fact. Thus, the Kindergarten games develop the all -sided activity of a child, of its body, mind, and spirit. The same method is followed in the development of its sensibiKties. The child's eye is trained, its sense of colour, of size, propoi'tion, distance, form ; the ear, its sense of sound, articulate and inarti- culate, and in conjunction with its voice, as in music ; the hand, the organ of touch, of manipulation, of mechanical skill ; all these are brought into play, both singly and in relation to each other, and also in co-operation with the mental and moral faculties. The child's will, observation, perception, memory, thought, ingenuity, are all considered in the properly organised Kindergarten. The Kindergarten training has, however, a far wider sphere than a mere systematic organisation of the activi- 170 KINDERGARTEN ties and sensibilities of a child as regards the child individually. It recognises Eroebel's principle of the threefold relationship of the child, that is to say, to Nature, animate and inanimate, to Man, and to God. This gives to the Kindergarten a high standard of moral and religious training. The child is brought, in every good Kindergarten, into actual practical contact with Nature. The care of plants and of animals, which Froebel designed as part of his system, quickens the child's sympathies, enlarges its sphere of interest. This interest, this sympathy, will by wise direction be gradually ex- tended, and the child will recognise the duties which it owes to its fellow-men, and begin, as it were, to enter into its social duties. It will also see both in nature at large and among its fellow-men, the work- ings of the supreme power and wisdom of God the Creator, providing for and over- ruling His creatures, and thus its religious instincts will be guided and brought into action. If the Kindergarten is to be worked out to its full, it has need of wise and ob- servant teachers to fulfil its designs. Its virtue depends upon the right understand- ing of its principles, and also upon the proper application of them. The whole system may be turned by an ignorant teacher into a mere mechanical contrivance, its teaching vitiated, its spirit misinter- preted, and its significance lost. There- fore, teachers must themselves be taught before they can hope to carry out the system in its full, though simple methods. Not only must they learn the games, the occupations, the songs, and the various methods of which each good Kindergarten has many in its repertoire not learnt from books, but they must study the child's nature, must understand not only its phy- sical structure, the laws which govern its health, but, also, they must learn what they can of its inner life. For a child is a plant to be trained, not a piece of clay to be moulded by outward force, by the ex- ternal will of the teacher. Its growth, like a plant's, is from the inner to the outer world. A teacher must therefore under- stand something of that inward development of the growth, not only of the body, but of the child's mental and moral natui-e, must actually be able to comprehend the reason of a child's action before that action can be properly dealt with. Not only must a teacher be able to understand children in general, but a good Kindergarten teacher should make a special study of each indi- vidual child, for, as plants vary in the treatment they require, so also do children. For the purpose of obtaining good Kin- dergarten teachers, training colleges have been started in many countries, and it is principally because of the want of good teachers that the Kindergarten has not, until lately, taken a greater hold in Eng- land. Further, though a teacher may have learnt both the mechanical and the theore- tical part of the system, the practical part, the actual teaching, has at first to be done under supervision, in order that practice and theory may coincide, and for this pur- pose training colleges have Kindergarten schools attached to them. In order to ob- tain a uniform system of teaching, and to avoid what may be called spurious Kinder- garten teaching, the Joint Board of the Froebel Society and the Kindergarten As- sociation, Manchester, hold examinations and confer certificates on successful candi- dates. Candidates for the Elementary Certificate have to pass, among other sub- jects, in natural science. Kindergarten gifts and occupations ; in the biographies, prin- ciples,, and methods of Pestalozzi and Froebel ; in class teaching, and in music and singing. For the Higher Certificate, they must also pass in geometry, in two out of four sciences, in theory, history, and practice of education and hygiene. It will thus be seen that the teachers of the Kindergarten system are required to know far more than the mere occupations and games, and it is hoped that teachers thus trained may be able to carry out the true spirit of Kindergarten teaching, and train not only the memories, brains, and mechanical and physical faculties of the children, but also their whole natures, bringing into full and healthy activity the moral and religious part of their being, so that the development of the whole may be harmonious and symmetrical. Students can be trained at the various colleges, which send up candidates to the examina- tion of the Joint Board.- The following list may give the reader some idea of the methods employed in the Kindergarten to carry out the principles already mentioned; and it is well to remember that form, geometrical and symmetrical, and numbers enter largely into these methods. Kinder- garten Occiqyatio^is may be generally de- scribed as below. I. Six Gifts, i.e. — KINDERGARTEN 171 Gift 1. Six coloured woollen balls — teaching colour, roundness, softness, tex- ture, exercising the body in the game, and teaching dexterity, quickness of eye, accu- racy of aim. 2, A wooden ball, roller, and undivided cube. Teaches comparison of forms, detail of forms, i.e. corners, edge, sides, qualities and motions of each form, difference of appearance when in motion. 3, Cube formed of eight small cubes, being halved across each of its faces, to teach number, simple exercises in the four rules, and an elementary idea of fractions. 4, 5, 6. Cubes still further divided, and teaching not only number, but design and symmetrical forms, and the inter-relations of numbers. II. The further occupations are stick- laying, laths, bead-work, drawing, rings, sewing, bead-threading, paper-twisting, paper-folding, paper-cutting (in the Board Schools weaving in list and in cane are also practised), mat-plaiting, colouring, planes of wood, i.e. tablets. To these may be added singing, gymnastics, which are greatly used in the games, and also object lessons, and stories illustrated by natural objects and by blackboard drawing. At the end of the article are the names of some of the books which best illustrate both the practice and theory of Froebel's teaching. The Kindergarten has flourished in many countries, and though in Germany, the land of its birth, it has not been adopted, as in some other Continental States, by the Government, still, in the large cities, there are a good many schools for the poorer classes conducted by cultivated and phi- lanthropic ladies upon the principles of I'roebel. Among others, may be noted the Pestalozzi and Froebel House, of which Frau Schrader is the promoter and orga- niser, and which combines with the Kin- dergarten industrial and cooking schools, and classes for Kindergarten students. In Germany private training colleges have also been started, and are exceedingly useful to students from foreign countries. The theories of Froebel have also found many expositors among his own country- men, and the philosophical nature of his work is ably maintained in treatises and periodicals which have greatly promoted the spread and knowledge of the system. In Italy, where education is closely allied with the growth of a young and vigorous State, Froebel's principles have been carried out with great success and energy. The Italian Government has recognised the work done by Mrs. Salis Schwabe, and the Froebel Institute at Naples, originated and designed by her, is now under the per- sonal direction of Madame de Portugall. The Government has granted a large build- ing in which a remarkable organisation of a series of graded schools is based upon the Kindergarten, and includes a normal school for Kindergarten teachers. This valuable institution now forms a part of the public educational system, and, as a model school, its permanence and position are thus en- sured : its name is to be associated with that of the late King Victor EmmanueL In Belgium, as in Italy, Froebel's principles were adopted by the State at an early period of its existence, and the Kindergarten is part of the public educational system in that country, and Government inspectors recognise the value and importance of the '■jar dins d'enfants.' In France, the Creche, Salles d'Asile, in some degree fill the ground which would be covered by the Kindergarten. But gradually Froebel's principles are permeating the soil, and have been more widely adopted in infant education. In Austria and Hungary the Kindergarten system is looked upon with more favour than in Germany, and has been partially introduced into the elemen- tary schools. In Switzerland it is also favourably regarded, and has been en- grafted on to the public schools in the canton of Geneva. In America, Brazil and the Argentine Republic have adopted the method in some degree — but it is in the United States that the Kindergarten has found, as Froebel prophesied, its most genial soil. Since its introduction there, some fifteen years ago, it has become a popular institution. In Philadelphia, it has been incorporated with the State schools, and public schools in general throughout the States are more and more unreservedly adopting the system. Free Kindergartens are numerous throughout the States, notably in San Francisco, Cin- cinnati, Philadelphia, New York, and Bos- ton. Training colleges have also multiplied very rapidly of late, and several public normal schools consider a Kindergarten class a necessary adjunct to their practice- schools. Among the names connected with the rise of the Kindergarten system in. America are those of Dr. Adler and Mrs. Quincy Shaw. Miss Peabody, whose enthu- 172 KINDERGARTEN KNOWLEDGE . siasm and generosity have given the move- ment powerful assistance, has identified herself with the objects of the system, and has written and lectured with great success on the subject. In Canada, Ontario has adopted the Kindergarten as part of the State system in many of its schools, notably in Toronto, where a Kindergarten forms part of a model school under the Education Department. In India the Kindergarten has been introduced into some of the schools of native children with great success, the materials for the occupations, the songs, the games, having been carefully adapted to the new soil and to the circumstances of the far East. In Japan the Kindergarten is a part of the school system. The history of the Kindergarten in England is as follows : In 1854, two years after Froebel's death, the Kindergarten system was introduced into England, almost simultaneously in London and Manchester, and Madame von Marenholtz Biilow published in that year a pamphlet in England on Infants' Gardens. In 1869 Eraulein Heerwart and Madame de Portugall were working separately at Manchester. Later Eraulein Heerwart worked at Dublin and Belfast, and Miss Praetorius and Miss Douck in London. But it was not till about 1874 that much energy was displayed. The Kindergarten Association of Manchester had been started earlier, but from that year date the Froebel Society and the Croydon Kindergarten under Madame Michaelis. In 1874 the London School Board appointed their first lecturer on the Kindergarten system to the teachers in their infant schools. Miss Bishop being the instructor. In the same year the British and Foreign School So- ciety established a Kindergarten Training School at Stockwell. Since that year the system has made much progress throughout England. The Froebel Society, under the able presidency of Miss Shirreff, and aided by Mrs. William Grey, has established a high standard of excellence for Kindergarten teachers who take its certificate, and seeks to difiuse throughout the United Kingdom general interest in and knowledge of the system. There are Kindergartens in most of the large towns, such as Bedford, Chel- tenham, Liverpool, Manchester, Inverness, &c. The British and Foreign School So- ciety established a most admirable Kinder- garten in connection with the training college at Safii'on Walden. The vaidous School Boards throughout the country re- cognise more or less the excellence of the system. The London School Board have continued to approve it, and have appointed a Mistress of Method, who, with her as- sistant, holds classes for the elementary teachers, and instructs them in the princi- ples of the method. The system is also adopted in the Jewish Free Schools, and in the schools for the deaf and dumb. On the whole there seems to be good reason to expect the further successful application in England of the wise and simple principle of the German village schoolmaster to the problem of education among the working as well as among the richer classes. {See Fboebel and Pestalozzi.) The following books on the Kindergarten may be consulted : Froebel's Education of Man. Translated by Miss Jarvis. (Lovell and Co., New York, U.S., 6s. M.) The Child and Child-Nature. Baroness de Maren- holtz-Biilow. Translated by A.M. Chiistie. (Sonnenschein, 3s.) The Kindergarten at Home. Miss Shiri'eff. (Hughes' Teachers' Library.) Kindergarten Essays. Miss Shir- reff" and others. (Sonnenschein, 3s.) Edu- cation in the Home, the Kindergarten, and the Primary School. Eliz. P. Peabody. (Sonnenschein. ) Principles of the Kinder- garten. Miss Lyschinska. (Isbister, 4s. 6c?.) The Kindergarten and Child - Gttlture. Henry Barnard. (Hartford, U.S., 15s.) Froebel's Mittter- und Koselieder. Trans- lated by Miss Lord. (W. Rice, 86 Fleet Street, 7s. 6d.) Kindergarten Songs and Games. Mrs. Berry and Madame Michaelis. (Myers, Is. 6d) Knowledge. — By knowledge we under- stand the product and end of all intellec- tual activity. It is something more than a mere subjective state of certainty, for we may feel certain and yet not know. It has an objective reference, and implies a correct grasp of reality or truth, or, in other words, a legitimate or justified cer- tainty. In the case of the direct appre- hension of objects by the senses (immediate cognition) knowledge implies a careful method of obsei'vation, and a comparison of our observations one with another and with those of other persons. In the case of all inferred knowledge (mediate cogni- tion) the validity of the mind's convic- tion depends on a due observance of the logical conditions of correct thought. It is now commonly admitted that the ultimate purpose of intellectual education is not so much to furnish the learner's mind with KNOWLEDGE-YAI.UES KNOWN TO THE UNKNOWN US' a definite amount of information, as to put it in the way of gaining true knowledge of any kind, and to supply it with a criterion by which it may discriminate real know- ledge from doubtful opinion. And this result will be reached in the measure in which the teacher succeeds in rousing to activity the child's faculty of thought in the process of communicating information. The more clearly the pupil thinks out every new acquisition for himself, connecting it logically with that he already knows, and so recognising its inherent probability, the more skilled will he become in the detection of what is true and what is false. Know- ledge has been divided into different kinds. Besides the distinction between immediate and mediate cognition already referred to, there is the contrast emphasised by Leibnitz between intuitive knowledge, such as we gain by the senses, and symbolic knowledge, as that of all vast numbers, which cannot be clearly imagined, and are only known symbolically. (On the nature of Knowledge see Fleming's Vocabulary of Philosophy, art. Knowledge ; on the distinction between in- tuitive and symbolical knowledge, consult SeYon?,' Elementary Lessons in Logic, lesson vii.) Knowledge-Values. — The expression knowledge- or education-values refers to the comparative worth of the various sub- jects of instruction. This may be deter- mined either by the practical utility of the positive results, as by the informa- tionalists, or by the gymnastic efficacy of the study in training the intellectual powers, as by the educationalists or dis- ciplinarians. Commonly, both standards of value are referred to. Thus, in the modern discussion of the comparative worth of languages and science, and of ancient and modern languages {see Classical Cul- ture and Science Teaching), emphasis is laid now on the practical usefulness of the particular information gained, and now on the benefit accruing to the learner's mind from the discipline involved. It is not by any means obvious antecedently that the two scales of value as thus deter- mined will coincide. At the same time, the attempt has been made, notably by Mr. H. Spencer, to show that the subjects which are best for guidance are best also for discipline. [See Spencer, Education, chap. i. ; Bain, Education as Science, chap. V. ; Payne, Contributions to the Science of Education, chap, iii.) Known to the Unknown. — To know a thing is not merely to be aware or con- scious of its existence, but to perceive its relations to other things, and of its. parts and properties to one another. We know a demonstration of Algebra when we perceive the relations of its parts to one another and of it as a whole to other de- monstrations and facts of Algebra — these relations in their most general and com- prehensive form consisting of difference and agreement, or unlikeness and likeness. Knowing therefore means discriminating or detecting the differences of one impres- sion, object, or idea from another or others;, and assimilating or detecting the agree- ments of this same impression, object, or idea with yet another or others. It is plain that we cannot discriminate a thing from,, or assimilate it with, another or others of' which we know nothing. That with which we compare and contrast it, or to which we liken it, must itself be in some measure- known. In other words, Knowledge {q.v.y advances from the known (not necessarily completely known) to the unknown ; and its growth depends not only upon the number of things known, but also upon the number and truth of our perceptions, of their relations to one another and of the relations of their parts to one another. To know a flower we examine' and distinguish its parts and properties ;. and further, we endeavour to learn in what it differs from and in what it re- sembles other flowers previously seen. If we are asked to give the value of, say, the' sum of the angles of a polygon, we search^ amongst those facts of geometry which we already know to find one or more to which we may attach it. We find that we know the sum of the angles of a tri- angle, and then by dividing our polygon into triangles we arrive at the knowledge required. The fact that knowledge ad- vances from the known to the unknown has been recognised from the earliest times. The first to make it markedly prominent when dealing with practical school-work were Ratke, Comenius, and Rousseau. The first to make it largely influence their practice were the Jansenists of Port- Royal \q.v?j But even at the present day there is no fundamental truth which is so widely and so persistently ignored in school- work;, and in no subject more than that of lan- guage. Not only do we begin with gram- mar, or generalised and abstract statements. 174 KNOX- -LACED^MONIAN EDUCATION concerning what is still quite unknown, Itut we even in the grammar itself begin with defining what we have not yet ob- served. The true method in language, as in all knowledge, is to begin with observa- tion, and proceed with comparison, dis- crimination, and assimilation in the way already indicated. Knox, John (b. 1505; d. 1572), the Scottish Reformer, was the prime mover in the reorganisation of the educational system in Scotland in the sixteenth cen- tury. Born in East Lothian of well-to-do parents, Knox enjoyed a liberal education at the Grammar School of Haddington, at the University of Glasgow, and at Geneva. Before 1530 he became a regent at St. Andrews University in the department of scholastic philosophy, and subsequently entered orders. His philosophical studies led him to believe that the children of the people belonged as much to the nation as to the family. Hence, he reasoned, the State ought to see that every child had the bene- fit of the whole educational resources of the country, if found likely to profit by them. This was the first duty a State owed to its people, for Knox's theory of political liberty was not that all men have an equal right to interfere with, to help, or hinder the afiairs of the commonwealth, but that all men have an equal right to the same means of training and educating themselves, and so finding out and prov- ing whether they are ' fit to rule in civil policie, or to live in godly reverence and subjection.' His scheme, therefore, con- tained in the First Book of Discipline, pre- sented to the Scottish Parliament and sub- scribed by the Secret Council in 1560, by taking advantage of the survey of the country which was then being made by the superintendents, was to plant a school wherever they recommended a church. ' If the parish be upland,' i.e. thinly popu- lated, ' where the people convene to doc- trine but once in the week, then must either the reider or the minister there ap- pointed take care over the children and youth of the parish, to instruct them in their first rudiments, and especially in the catechism.' In all towns and populous parishes there was to be a thoroughly good school taught by a master ' able to teach at least grammar and the Latin tongue.' Such schools were meant to be training grounds for the children of every class in the community, whether noble or com- moner. The scholar was to be taught to read, write, and cipher, the catechism and Bible lessons, grammar, Latin, frequently also French and music — those branches of mental training which would really educate and enable a lad to show whether there might be ' a spirit of docilitie in him or not.' The teaching must be thorough. Each school was to be examined every quarter by 'discrete, learned, and grave men.' If the examiners found any 'apt to letteris an d learnyng ' at the end of their school course, they were to direct them to ' proceid to farther knowledge.' If not, they were to be taught some handicraft. Education was to be compulsory, the pun- ishment being visitation on the parents with the censures of the Church, a social punishment deterrent enough in the days of Knox. Second-class schools were to be established in all the principal towns, to fit boys for the university by being trained in logic and rhetoric, and also the ' tongues,' i.e. Latin and French, probably Greek, and also Hebrew. The Scottish Universities were also to be remodelled in accordance with the spirit of the Re- formation. The several institutions were to be endowed out of the surplus property of the Church. The great feature of Knox's scheme was its thoroughly na- tional and non-ecclesiastical character. Foiled by the nobles, Knox appealed to the people, and they answered his call. Within fifteen years after he had pro- pounded his scheme there was scarcely a town or parish that had not its school and schoolmaster. Laboratories. See Architecture op Schools. Lacedaemonian Education. — Tradi- tion connects this system with the semi- or wholly mythical lawgiver, Lycurgus. The training of the young at Sparta con- sisted almost entirely of physical exercises. If the new-born child was weakly it was not allowed to live ; if healthy and strong it was £civen over to the care of its mother LANCASTER, JOSEPH 175 up to the age of seven. At that age the boys were taken from the mother once and for all, and sent to a large boarding esta- blishment, where they were placed under a director appointed by the ephors. Here they were kept and trained at the public expense — being divided into three classes (boys of from seven to twelve, those from twelve to fifteen, and those from fifteen to eighteen) — and these again subdivided and officered by the boys. Every citizen had the authority, and was bound, to punish or reprimand any boy he found committing a wrong act. It is not to our purpose here to enter into details concerning the military and gymnastic exercises, and the harden- ing processes through which the children and young men had to go, with the object of making them fine human animals, and of teaching them obedience, courage, and frugality. We may mention, however, that besides gymnastics the young were taught to sing and to play on the seven-stringed cithara. This music was used partly as an accompaniment to the dance (which itself was an exercise or ceremony rather than an amusement), and partly under the idea that it would exercise and train the mind and emotions in the same way as gym- nastics exercised the body. Not many of the Spartans could read or write^these accomplishments not being part of the plan — and some could not even count. On the moral side the children were often led, after the evening meal, to discuss the morality of some recent public deed, or the honesty of some noted fellow-citizen, and were flogged if they answered at random. At the age of eighteen the boys — still under the control of the State — passed into the hands of other directors. It was only at the age of thirty that a young man could leave the establishment, marry, and enter on active military service. The train- ing of the girls difiered but slightly from that of the boys, and the two sexes were often mingled in their gymnastic exercises. In both cases the idea of a family life, of domestic influence, was wholly absent. The child, the youth, the adult, all lived solely under the guardianship of the State, and for the State. Lancaster, Joseph, educational re- former, was born in Kent Street, South- wark, 1778. His father was a Chelsea pensioner. When the boy was about fourteen years old Clarkson's essay on the slave-trade fell into his hands, and so impressed him that he resolved to go to Jamaica to teach the negroes to read the Bible. He walked all the way to Bristol, where he found a ship, but he was, after a few weeks, restored to his parents. After returning to London, Joseph became usher. His friends (who were Calvinists) destined him for the ministry, but he destroyed their hopes by turning Quaker. Before he was eighteen he began teaching on his own account 'under the hospitable roof of an afi'ectionate ' father. In a very short time the young schoolmaster ' had occasion to rent lai'ger premises,' which in turn became too small. Aided by benevolent Quakers, he half maintained many of his pupils, and thus drew around him larger crowds of children than his skill as a teacher would alone have attracted. His school grew too large for him to manage unaided, and yet he could not afibrd to employ assistance, so he hit upon the plan of setting the most advanced scholars to teach the rest. One change led to another, till in the course of four or five years the innovations embraced a complete scheme of primary instruction. This scheme was at once religious and unsectarian. Lan- caster held that from a school meant for the children of all denominations the pe- culiar tenets of all denominations should be excluded. In 1803 he published an account of his Improvements in Education^ and began to appeal for public subscrip- tions. The Duke of Bedford, Lord Somer- ville, and other powerful patrons responded to his appeal, and he erected a large house and schoolroom in Belvedere Place, Borough Road, on a site now fitly occupied by a Board School. The new building was opened in 1804. Next year Lancaster had an opportunity of explaining his plans to George III. At the end of the inter- view, the king said: 'I highly approve of your system, and it is my wish that every poor child in my dominions should be taught to read the Bible.' To aid in the realisation of so pious a wish, he promised to subscribe a hundred pounds a year, and several members of the royal family also became subscribers. Thus encouraged, Lancaster began lecturing all over the country, and his missionary journeys re- sulted in the establishment of many schools on his method. These schools could "only be conducted by teachers familiar with his plan, and as early as 1805 he began to train the most promising of his boys as 176 LANCELOT- LATIN masters. Being formally apprenticed to him, they were lodged in the new house in Belvedere Place, boaixled and clothed with- out charge, and, after a certain period of instruction, sent out to schools. Lancas- ter's vanity had never been weak, nor his discretion ever strong. Sunned by the patronage of the wealthy and the noble, his vanity grew apace, and his discretion died. There seemed to be no end to the number of his projects, although he had not sufficient business tact to manage any one of them successfully. The result was that by the end of 1807 he owed nearly 6,500Z., and he was arrested for debt. His arrest marks an epoch in the history of English popular education, for, more or less directly, we owe to it the establish- ment of the British and Foreign School Society {q.v.). William Corston and Jo- seph Fox, believing profoundly in the potentialities of Lancaster's system, came to his rescue. On January 22, 1808, these .two, 'with a humble reliance upon the blessing of Lord God Almighty, and with a single eye to His glory, and with a view to benefit the British Empire, . . . unani- mously resolved' to form themselves into a society for the purpose of advancing the education of the poor. They assumed the responsibility of Lancaster's debts and took the management of his pecuniary affairs into their own hands. During the next five years Lancaster was engaged in superintending the central institution, in improving his systera, and in lecturing and writing about it, and in maintaining against the supporters of Dr. Bell his claim to the merit of discovering it. Mean- while the society started by Corston and Fox was growing rapidly, but not so rapidly as the pretensions of the man whose im- providence and enthusiasm had been the cause of its establishment. He wished to control every department of the Society's work, and to spend on a boarding-school, which he had opened for his own benefit ' at Tooting, funds subscribed for promoting the education of the poor, and as he could not have his own way he severed his connection with his old friends. They had released him from all liabilities in- curred by him in his public work, but by October, 1813, his private and personal debts, greatly augmented by the failure of the Tooting venture, amounted to 7,500^., and he was made bankrupt. Of his move- ments during the next five years little is known. In 1818 he determined to begirt life afresh, and sailed to Philadelphia. He was well received in the Quaker city, but rumours of creditors unsatisfied and friends estranged followed him across the Atlantic, and sent him again upon his travels. He wandei'ed through North and South Ame- rica, and we find him in Caraccas, in St. Thomas, in Santa Cruz, and in Canada, sometimes lecturing and sometimes teach- ing. On October 23, 1838, he was run over and killed in one of the streets of New York. The character of Lancaster requires no subtle analysis. His love of children, his enthusiasm, his indiscretion, his greed of praise but not of gold, lie on the surface. He was not a great nor altogether a good man, and the permanent value of the system which he made popular was very small ; but he deserves to be remembered because he gave a strong impetus to the education of the people, and showed how all sects and parties- could unite in advancing it. Lancelot. See Jansenists. Languages. See Classical Culture^ Latin, Greek, and Modern Languages. Latin.- — The position which the Latin language occupies in education depends partly on its history, and partly on its in- trinsic educative power. In the schools of the middle ages {q.v.) Latin was the only language taught, because it was then the only language used for literary pur- poses, and it contained all the information on every subject which an educated man desired to possess. This state of matters continued practically till the Reformation. But with the rise of modern nationalities and modern languages and literatures, Latin became gradually less and less the vehicle of thought. It ceased almost en- tirely to be employed for purely literary purposes, and was restricted to treatises, which expounded philosophy, philology, and science. Within this century even this restricted use of Latin has reached almost the vanishing point, and it has be- come the custom for philosophers, scholars, and scientific men to convey their dis- coveries in their native language. There is therefore now no need to learn Latin in order to communicate thoughts or facts to others. But survivals of old practices are still to be found in the educational arrange- ments of various countries. Thus in many schools of Germany pupils are trained to speak Latin, and an original essay in Latin LATIN 177 'was obligatory at the final or leaving ex- amination of the scholars, and though the obligation has been recently removed, the discussions which have followed on its re- moval render it not improbable that it may be replaced at some future time. In England, on the other hand, great attention has been paid to composition in Latin verse, and in the public schools an enor- mous amount of time has been spent on this exercise, though within the last quarter of a century strong protests have been uttered against the practice, and much less time is now given to it. Latin, then, is no longer learned that it may be spoken or written. This change in the object of teaching the language has altered the question of its expediency. The present state of the question may be exhibited thus. A boy has to be trained in some intellectual pursuits from the age of ten or eleven to that of seventeen or eighteen. What are the pursuits that are best calculated to produce a man of vigor- ous intellect, of sound heart, and of prac- tical power ? Has Latin a place among these subjects, and if it has, what is this place ? An adequate discussion of this matter would involve a treatise on educa- tion ; but in dealing separately with Latin as a subject of instruction, it has always to be remembered that no just view can be taken of it unless it be viewed in con- nection with the other subjects that ought to be employed in education. The reasons which determine the place of Latin among educational subjects may be stated thus. One essential part of the education of human beings must be training in the thoughts, interests, actions, and all that concerns the welfare of men. This train- ing can be given only through language which is the vehicle of human thought, and literature which is the expression of the best and noblest human thought. What language, then, and what literature are likely to be most successful as instruments in the training of a boy from ten or eleven to seventeen or eighteen, not apart from, but alongside of, the other subjects which he must learn ? The answer of educational experience up to the present day is unques- tionably that the Latin language and the Latin literature are the best for the pur- poses of education. Arguments have been adduced to show that other languages are better adapted for the purpose. Some have suggested English, some have sug- gested French or German ; but as yet no experiment has been tried in schools with any of these languages which has proved a success. These languages ought to be learned, but in teaching them the teacher has not the same materials and opportunity for developing the powers as he has with Latin. Both the Latin language and the Latin literature are specially suited to a boy of from eleven to seventeen. The lan- guage is such that the connection of one word with another in a sentence is indi- cated by the terminations. There is thus a clear, visible sign of the connection of the words. The words themselves connote things and ideas not too familiar to the boy, and he thereby rises from a state of routine and almost unconscious knowledge to a clear consciousness of his thoughts and their bearing on reality. The boy from eleven to eighteen is at the stage when it is his work to advance from the concrete to the power of dealing with the abstract, from the individual to generali- sations more or less wide. The Latin lan- guage and the Latin literature afford him the most varied opportunities of this pro- cess, as the Romans were at that stage of mind when the tendency to the concrete was powerful, and abstraction and genera- lisation were only partially employed. The literature of the Romans is thus to a large extent within the comprehension of the boy of sixteen or eighteen. Roman history also presents simple characters and simple problems, and exhibits few of the com- plexities which cause action of the highest kind in modern times to demand great powers of abstraction and generalisation. These and various other considerations render Latin peculiarly appropriate as the dominant language for teaching purposes in the case of a capable boy who has time to spend on the complete education of his mind in all directions. Both language and literature are well adapted to his years ; the lessons can be so arranged that he shall always have difficulties, but such difficulties as he can overcome. The teacher can always employ the lesson to make the boy think, and a teacher is always needed to help the boy out of the difficulties or un- certainties which lie across his path. And in the end Latin literature confers on him a knowledge of a civilisation on which our own is based. Various methods of teaching Latin have been advocated. At the earliest stage, N 178 LATIN when Latin was the language of all culture, the boy learned it in his father's house from conversation, and his training in it was carried on by means of conversations in Latin. To make him acquainted with all the forms of the language, grammars had been prepared long before the fall of the Roman Empire. These grammars were based on philosophical ideas derived from Aristotle and the Stoics, and were intended to co-ordinate all the grammatical facts of the language. When the practice of train- ing in Latin by conversation ceased, these grammars still remained in use, and the Latin grammars of the present day are loaded with terms derived from the meta- physical ideas of the ancients. Pupils were expected to begin their course with learning these grammars, which were usually written in Latin down to a recent time, and there are still schools in which boys are drilled solely in grammatical forms and rules for a considerable period before they read an author. A reaction against this method took place, and it was urged that pupils should learn Latin as they learn their mother tongue. School books were prepared in harmony with this idea, and in order to carry it out easily the names of all objects familiar to the pupil were set down for committal to memory, and con- versations including them were to be dili- gently studied. But objections to this method were soon strongly presented. There were few teachers that could them- selves talk Latin fluently and accurately. The boy's intellectual powers were not ad- vanced by learning the equivalents in Latin for the common material objects which he met with daily, and they were of little or no use in helping him to read the Latin authors,' the comprehension of whose ideas was to form one main instrument in his culture. A kind of medium way was sug- gested, especially by Locke and Hamilton Xq.v.) The language ought to be learned by induction. A Latin sentence must be placed before the pupil. The teacher must tell him the meaning of the sentence. And then the pupil is to discover what forms indicate this connection in a sentence, and what forms indicate that, and thus he learns to form a grammar for himself, and by a similar process in regard to words he forms a dictionary for himself, tracing the various meanings of the words to some ori- ginal notion. Jacotot added to this that the pupil must be confined at first to one book which he is to commit to memory. He must know every word and sentence of it at his fingers' ends, and having mas- tered this he will be able to find within some part of it the solution of all the difii- culties which he may encounter in his further reading of books in the language. In more recent times a further change has taken place in the teaching of Latin. It is now generally recognised, as a result of comparative philology, that inflections are the remnants of words. There is thus in an inflected language like Latin no simple word in a sentence, but every word con- tains at least two portions. The first is the root, the other indicates the relation of the idea of the root to the other ideas expressed in the other words of the sen- tence. The pupil, it is argued, should be taught to distinguish from the very first between these two portions of the word, and he should learn as soon as possible the radical idea of the root and the original meaning of the inflection. A knowledge of the radical idea of the root is the basis of all lexical knowledge. A knowledge of the original meaning of the inflection is a knowledge of syntax, and therefore a know- ledge of the inflection should not be sepa- rated from a knowledge of its meanings. Many of the more recent Latin grammars have carried out more or less successfully this mode of teaching Latin, based on com- parative philology. The great point of discussion in con- nection with the teaching of Latin is how we should begin to teach Latin. The sub- sequent stages of the process admit also of discussion, but there is no serious difier- ence among educators, except in regard to two points mentioned already, the writing of Latin prose and the writing of Latin verse. Speaking generally, the conclusion to wliich most educationists have come is that Latin prose should be employed solely as a means of impressing the grammatical forms accurately and firmly on the memory, and that Latin verse should be left to those who have a taste for it. The literature on this subject is im- mense, very many discussions of the sub- ject appearing in pamphlet form. In regard to the value of Latin as a means of education, mention may be made of Her- bart, Beneke, Schmidt, Newman, Schrader, a very good pamphlet by Jones, and Essays on a Liberal Education, edited by Farrar, and on the other side Paulsen, Hodgson, LATIN LATIN (PRONUNCIATION OF) ir and Bain. On the teaching of Latin a lucid historical account is to be found in Raumer's Geschichte der Pddagogik^ Dritter Theil, p. 59. Most of the books on the value of Latin also discuss methods of teaching. More modern efforts can be seen in the works of Wilhelm, Lattmann, Per- thes, and Eckstein. Books on Gymnasial Pddagogih, such as Nagelsbach's, Roth's, Schmidt's, and Thi^ing's, discuss the ques- tion. Dr. Donaldson, senior principal of the University of St, Andrews, has pro- posed a new method of teaching Latin as an embodiment of the ideas of this age in his Elementary Latin Grammar (Nelson, 1880). See also Classical Cul- ture. Latin (Pronunciation of). — The ques- tion of the pronunciation of Latin has come into great prominence since the syllabus of Latin pronunciation prepared at the request of the head masters of public schools of England appeared in 1872. The need of a change in the Eng- lish pronunciation of Latin had come to be strongly felt. Each nation is inclined to follow in the pronunciation of Latin the same method which it follows in the pronunciation of its own language. Thus the Italians pronounce ci as chi, the Ger- mans eu as o^, and the French articulate everj syllable with a slight accentuation. The result of this practice in England was a wider divergence from what was acknowledged on all hands to be the pro- nunciation of the Romans themselves in the time of Cicero than was to be found in any other country. All other nations retained the sounds of the vowels a, e, i, u which were given to them by the Romans ; the English alone pronounced <(, e, i, u, as a in /ate, e in meet, i in pine, and tt in hicm. They also uniformly sounded c and g before e and i soft, as in city, gin. These pronunciations create •obstacles to a ready apprehension of many of the facts and principles of comparative philology, and some scholars resolved to make an effort to restore in English schools the exact pronunciation of vowels, conso- nants, and diphthongs practised in the time of Cicero. For the settlement of this question ample materials were sup- plied by the mastei'ly work of Corssen, Ueber Aussprache, Vokalismus und Beto- nung der lateinisclien Sprache, 2nd edi- tion, 1863. The task was assigned to Professors Palmer and H. A. J. Munro. The principal points in their scheme are that the vowels should be pronounced as by all Continental nations, that c and g should always be pronounced hard, and that u or v should always be pronounced as w. Thus viva voce and vicissirn, are to be pronounced toiioa woke and loikissim, and Cicero as Kikero. This mode of pro- nunciation, though recommended by the greatest authorities, has not succeeded in gaining a permanent footing, and has been adopted only sporadically. The innova- tion is deemed too great. It is easy to determine broadly what was the pronun- ciation of Latin in Cicero's time, but there are many points that still remain un- settled, and all that can be done is an approximation. A new attempt, how- ever, is to be made to bring the pronun- ciation of the Augustan age into vogue. The Cambridge Philological Society has issued a pamphlet entitled The Pronun- ciation of Latin in the Augustan Period, which has received the general approba tion of nearly all the classical professors and lecturers in Cambridge University. It is expected, therefore, that this pro- nunciation will be widely adopted in the lectures of that University. The pam- phlet was submitted to the Oxford Philo- logical Society and obtained its approval, and accordingly it is likely that its pro- posals will be carried into practice in the University of Oxford. And if the pro- fessors and lecturers of both Universities employ the suggested pronunciation, it is probable that schoolmasters will follow {see an article by Mr. Postgate, in Classi- cal Review, April 1887). But there are difficulties in the way, and the success of the effort cannot be predicted with cer- tainty. Besides the pronunciation of the let- ters, teachers have raised the question of pronouncing according to the quantities. These quantities are ordinarily neglected, except when the Roman accentuation compels attention to them. The general law of Roman accentuation requires that if the penult is long the accent must be on it ; if the penult is short the accent is on the antepenult. Thus Romanes has the accent on the penult, nobiles has the accent on the antepenult. But ordinarily both these words are grossly mispro- nounced. Bomanos is pronounced Bo- mdnos, whereas it should be Bomanos, and nohiles is pronounced nohiles, whereas n2 180 LATIN (PEONUNCIATION OF) LAW (EDUCATIONAL) it should be noMIes. Our pronunciation is thus generally very far wrong in quan- tity, and it is likely that a Roman would not have understood us, even if we had spoken their language quite accurately as respects grammar and choice of words. A further proposal was made by Ritschl that not only should all syllables that are long be pronounced long, but an efi'ort should be made to distinguish in the case of words long by position, those that are naturally long and those that owe their length to position. Thus as the a of mater is long and the a of pater is short, a in matris should be pronounced longer than the a in patris. For the same reason esse, to eat, should be pronounced longer than esse, to be {Opuscula, vol. iv. p. 766). The age of Cicero is adopted as the norm for the pronunciation. There can be no doubt that alike in earlier and later times the pronunciation, both in regard to the accentuation and individual letters, differed from that which prevailed at the end of the Republic. Corssen's work is the great work on the subject of the pronun- ciation and accentuation of Latin. The subject has also been discussed byMunro, Ellis, Roby (in his Grammar), and on accentuation Henri Weil and Louis Ben- loew have written a treatise. Latin Verse. See Yeese Writing and Public Schools. Law (Educational). — In this article a summary is given of the Education Law at present in force in England and Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Austria, Bel- gium, France, Holland, Russia, India, Italy, the State of Massachusetts (typical of the United States, where each State has its own education law), the Province of Ontario (typical of the Dominion of Canada), Saxony (typical of North Ger- many), the Province of South Australia (typical of the Australian Provinces), and the Canton of Zurich (typical of the Can- tons of Switzerland). ■ England and Wales. — The develop- ment of popular education, side by side with the extension of the franchise, oc- cupies a most 23rominent place in the his- tory of England for the last fifty years. Previous to 1839 Parliament exercised no direct control over any of the educational institutions of the country. And even now, though several Acts of Parliament have been passed amending and remodelling the constitution of the various corporate bodies which provide superior and secon- dary education — the universities, colleges,, endowed public and grammar schools — yet the Legislature has stopped short of actual interference in the educational work done under the control of these bodies. With regard to elementary edu- cation, however, it has gone a step further. In 1839 it found this branch of educa- tion entirely in the hands of private individuals or voluntary associations. Prominent among these latter were the ' British and Foreign School Society,' founded in 1808 as the result of the edu- cational revival initiated by Joseph Lan- caster, and the ' National Society for Pro- moting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the Church of England,' established three years later (1811) to give aid in money and books to those elementary schools in which the Church Catechism was taught. In that year Par- liament voted 30,000?. for the purpose of elementary education, and formed a Com- mittee of the Privy Council to administer and distribute the sum voted. This Com- mittee at first restricted its grants in aid to the erection of schools which were in connection either with the National Society or the British and Foreign School Society. Some years later it extended its grants to Roman Catholic and other denominational schools. The principle upon which these grants were administered was that of sup- plementing local effort in the building of schools. They offered 10s. per head for every child to be accommodated, and re- quired that the rest of the cost should be provided by local subscriptions. In re- turn the Committee insisted that the Scrip- tures should be read daily in the schools, and that the schools should submit to in- spection by its officers. In 1843 grants were made towards the erection of school- masters' houses and training colleges. In 1846 minutes were issued by the Com- mittee providing for annual payments in augmentation of salaries of teachers in charge of schools which obtained certifi- cates of merit by examination. The next step taken (in 1846) by the Committee of Council was to recognise pupil-teachers of thirteen years of age and upwards, and to make payments to them on condition of their parents consenting to an apprentice- ship of four or five years. Substantial aid was also granted to the training colleges which received these pupil-teachers at the LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 181 •end of their apprenticeship. In spite of these encouragements it was found that very many districts were unable to take advantage of the benefits offered by the Committee of Council. By the principle adopted the Committee only helped those who were able to help themselves, and in many poor districts the schools were un- able to maintain themselves in efficiency for want of adequate funds. Accordingly in 1853 Parliament increased its annual grant so as to enable a capitation grant to be earned by rural schools on each scholar in daily average attendance who should make a minimum of 192 attendances in the school-year. This grant was extended to toion schools in 1856. In 1860 the minutes of the Committee of Council were digested into a code ; and in 1862, after considerable discussion in the country and in Parliament, the ' E,evised Code' became law. Under the Revised Code direct pay- ments to teachers were abolished : the grant earned was to be paid directly to the managers, who were left to appoint what teachers they pleased, provided that the requirements of the Code were complied with. Grants were to be paid as hereto- fore upon the average attendance, and, for the first time, ujion the individual ex- amination of the scholars. In 1870 the sum voted by Parliament had reached 840,000/J. The schools under inspection had accommodation for 1,878,584 scholars, and 1,693,059 scholars on the books. There were nearly 15,000 certified teachers, and 2,500 students resident in the training colleges. This takes us down to the year 1870, the close of the purely voluntary era of elementary education. In February of that year a bill was brought into the Parliament elected on the extended fran- chise by Mr. W. E. Forster, and, after a long and animated discussion throughout that session, became law (on August 9, 1870) under the title of ' an Act to provide Elementaiy Education in England and Wales.' The provisions of this Act have been further amended, supplemented, and strengthened by subsequent Acts passed in 1873, 1876, 1879, and 1880. This Act, while recognising the existing schools under Denominational Bodies, and giving facilities for their further development, placed side by side with them ' Board ' Schools, managed by publicly - elected School Boards, and supported by local rates, school fees, and Government grants. This piece of legislation has resulted in very largely increasing the supply of schools under inspection, so that they had in 1885 accommodation for 4,998,718 scholars, and 4,412,148 scholars on the books. For the leading provisions of the Elementary Education Law as at present (1887) in force see articles School Boards and School-attendance Committees and Code. Scotland. — For three centuries prior to the passing of the Elementary Edu- cation Act for Scotland, the system of parochial schools, which were born of the impulse given by John Knox {q.v.) to popular education, and were established in every parish by an ordinance of King James in 1696, sufficed for the educational wants of the Scotch people. The Act of the Scotch Parliament of that year re- quired a parochial school to be opened in every parish under a schoolmaster, who was to be chosen on the advice of the parochial minister ; and the proprietors were bound to meet and vote the sum necessary for the maintenance of the school and for the salary of the teacher, and to furnish the teacher with a suitable dwelling. But the split which took place in the Church of Scotland in 1843, and the founding of the Free Church by the side of the national Presbyterian Church, brought two rival ministers into each parish, and thus created insuperable diffi- culties to the harmonious working of a sys- tem which depended largely for initiative and efficient working upon the minister of the parish. Rival schools were established in many cases, and education in Scotland languished from lack of means and divided interests. This state of things continued down to 1872, when the feeling became general that the time had come to put an end to a system which had had its day, and that an Act on similar lines to the Act which had been passed in England in 1870 was necessary to place public educa- tion in Scotland on a proper footing. Accordingly the English Parliament passed the Education (Scotland) Act, and placed its administration under a Com- mittee of the Privy Council for Scotland (commonly called the Scotch Education Department). This Act established a School Board in every parish, with mode of election and general powers similar to those laid down in the English Act. The School Board was to have the control o is: LAAV (EDUCATIONAL) all parochial schools existing at the pass- ing of the Act, whether they were ele- mentary or town schools, academies, high schools, or grammar schools ; and in addi- tion had the power of erecting and main- taining new schools where the need of such was proved to the satisfaction of the Scotch Department to exist. Provisions as to liberty of conscience, compulsory school attendance, payment of fees of in- digent children by the ' parochial board,' are made ; regulations for the inspection of schools, payment of Government grants, the qualifications of teachers, &c., on the same principles as those laid down in the English code, which is also annually laid on the table of both Houses of Parlia- ment by the Scotch Education Depart- ment, and becomes part of the education law for Scotland. Grants are paid on behalf of all schools under School Boards, except the ' higher class public schools ' as defined by the Act. It will be noted then that, in contradistinction to England and Wales, School Boards are universal in Scotland, and further, that they have the management of schools covering a wider range than mere ' elementary education,' as the term is understood in England. In other respects the Scotch and English education laws are practically identical, Ireland. — The system of national edu- cation is based on the principle of com- bined literary and moral, and separate religious instruction to children of all per- suasions. The system is administered by a board of twenty commissioners, called the Commissio7iers of National Education in Ireland, incorporated by Royal charter. Ten of these must be Protestant, and ten Roman Catholic. Appointments to vacan- cies are made by the Lord-Lieutenant. This Board administers the Parliamentary grant, and reports annually to the Lord- Lieutenant. The schools eligible for the grant are first, vested schools, i.e. schools vested either in the Commissioners or in trustees for the purpose of being main- tained as National schools ; and secondly, non-vested schools, the property of private individuals. Both these classes of schools are under the control of patrons or local managers, who must be either clergymen or persons of good position. There are also model schools, of which the Commis- sioners are themselves the patrons. The Commissioners award aid towards the payment of teachers, and supply of books and school requisites, and (in the case of vested schools) towards building and fur- nishing school-houses, and (in some cases) towards providing teachers' residences. The aid granted to non- vested schools consists of salary, results fees, gratuities, books, and school requisites, and the benefits of inspection and training. Be- sides the ordinary schools, vested and non- vested, there are (1) three kinds of model schools for the promotion of united educa- tion, to exhibit to the suiTounding schools the most approved methods of literary and scientific instruction, and to educate young persons for the office of teachers. In these schools the Commissioners ap- point and dismiss all teachers and officers,, regulate the course of instruction, and exercise all the rights of patrons. There are also (2) Agricultural National schools, . to which farms or gardens are attached, and (3) a few schools in which special in- dustrial instruction — principally in em- broidery and other advanced kinds of nee- dlework — is given. Special regulations are in force for providing that any child may be withdrawn from any religious in- struction of which his parents or guar- dians disapprove. Only laymen can be recognised as teachers. Teachers must be persons of Christian sentiment, imbued with a spirit of obedience to the law and loyalty to their sovereign ; of good health, and must have been examined and pro- nounced competent by the inspectors. The Commissioners have under their ex- clusive control a boarding training college, entirely supported by the Government grant. The salaries of National teachers are regulated by a fixed scale, according to the class of certificate held by the teacher. In addition to their salaries teachers receive ' results fees,' according to^ a fixed scale for each class and each sub- ject taught. In one particular the Com- missioners exercise a power unknown to the law in England and Scotland, and that is in exercising control over the books used in the schools receiving aid. The Board has itself published some of the books and sanctions others. The use of the books specified in the Board's list, whether published or sanctioned by the Commissioners, is not compulsory, but the titles of all other books which patrons or managers of schools intend to use must be notified to the Commissioners before introduction, and must not be used if they LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 183 object. Grants of books are made by the Board. A programme of instruction and examination is issued, according to which results fees are paid. The standard of at- tainments reached and required in each year of school life is considerably lower than for the corresponding year in Eng- land and Scotland, as might naturally be expected from the condition of the popu- lation, the absence of any law of com- pulsory school attendance, and the com- paratively lower ' average attendance ' secured. Aitstria. — Public elementary schools are of two kinds, primary schools and burgher schools. The public law of Austria requires that there shall be a primary school wherever there are forty children of school age within a radius of an hour's walk, and a burgher school, or superior primary school, in each school district. The sexes are, as a rule, mixed throughout the primary and the lower classes burgher schools, but are sepai^ated in the higher classes of the latter schools. Primary education is free through- out both elementary and superior grades in most of the provinces of the Austrian em- pire, but in a few provinces only the ele- mentary gi'ade is free. Schools are classified according to the number of classes into which they are divided. A complete ele- mentary school, comprising both a primary and burgher school, should have eight classes of about eighty scholars each, but many schools have fewer — seven, six, or even five — classes. Attendance is compulsory from seven years of age. It is the custom in many parts of Austria for a master to take charge of a class of scholars on their en- trance into the school, and to carry them through all the classes of the school from the lowest to the highest. The elementary schools are supported by a local authority, which has also control over the subjects of instruction and the methods employed, but generally accepts the guidance of the State authorities. Most burgher schools have connected with them continuation schools for those who do not attend the higher grade schools, at which attendance is com- pulsory till the age of fifteen. Small fees are charged, but, in cases of poverty, they are remitted. The continuation schools are supported partly by the State and partly by the local authorities. Below the elementary schools the Kindergarten, or infant school, is found in very many places, andis ofi&cially recognised, though not aided by State grant. In these schools the maxims of Froebel are carried out with a thoroughness and success which has made the Austrian infant schools the models for all recent improvements in the methods of instruction of children under seven years of age. Above the elementary schools stand the secondary schools, classified, as in Saxony (q.v.), into Real schools. Real gym- nasia, and gymnasia. Above these again are the polytechnic schools and the univer- sities. There are also normal schools for teachers, supported by the State, of which the Psedagogium at Vienna has a very high reputation for the excellence of its train- ing of teachers for the public elementary schools. Belgium. — The elementary schools re- cognised in Belgium are either public (i.e. Govei"nment) schools or private (clerical) schools. This dual system of schools is the outcome of the long and successful struggle of the clerical authorities against any control of primaiy education by the State. As a consequence of this the law permits any person to establish, or teach in, a school without control or inspection of any kind. The result is that illiteracy abounds to an extent unknown in any other State of Western Europe. Attendance at school is not compulsory. On the other hand, the law requires that there must be at least one public school in each com- mune. These schools are under Govern- ment inspection. About 60 per cent, of the child population is being educated in public schools. The cost of the public education is defrayed to the extent of about 50 per cent, by the State, 17 per cent, by the province, and 33 per cent, by the commune. Many of the communal (public) schools and clerical (private) schools are free, partially or entirely. Secondary school education is largely sup- plied by the Government in schools of two classes : (a) higher elementary or middle- class schools, with a fee of about 50s. a year ; and (b) secondary schools or Athenees, with a fee of about 80s. a year. The build- ings are usually erected at the cost of the town, and the expenses of maintenance over and above the school fees are de- frayed by the State. The Athenee at Brussels contains about 900 pupils. There are four universities in Belgium, but no polytechnic schools. The normal school for the training of teachers at Brussels is justly celebrated. There are also Govern- 184 LAW (EDUCATIONAL) ment normal schools at Liege and Ghent, the former for teachers of classics, the latter for teachers of science, in secondary schools. All the schools aided by Govern- ment are subject to Govei-nment inspec- tion. France. — The education of France is in the hands of the State, represented by the Minister of Public Instruction and the Pref ets of departments. The Minister is assisted by a ' suj)erior council,' which consists of members elected by various university bodies, and representatives of various other interests — the faculties, the lycees, primary education, &c. — ninety- eight in all. The members are elected for four years. They sit in general sessions twice a year, but an executive committee ' of fifteen sits constantly. Subject to this superior council the affairs of the schools are managed by academic councils for secondary and superior education, and for primary education departmental councils. All the schools are under the inspection of a staff of inspectors, who are directly under the control of the Minister of Pub- lic Instruction. The duties of these in- spectors is limited to seeing that the law is being duly obeyed. Subject to the general laws and regulations issued by the Minister, secondary and superior schools may be conducted by persons not in the pay of the State. But the whole power as to appointment of teachers, pro- gramme of studies, inspection, Ac, of primary schools, is in the hands of the State. For the purposes of primary educa- tion there is a School Board (law of March 1881) in every commune, com- posed of the maire and others, and the inspector of primary schools. Attendance at school is now (since 1882) compulsory. Exemption is obtained by examination at the age of eleA^en. Primary instruction is gratuitous (since 1881) ; higher ele- mentary, which includes technical instruc- tion, is also gratuitous in Paris and many of the large towns. A sum equal to 4 per cent, of the four so-called ' quatres contributions directes,' viz. : (1) real pro- perty tax, (2) window tax, (3) movable property tax, (4) license fees, must be pro- vided (by the law of January 1, 1881) by every commune for the service of primary instruction. Besides this sum, every com- mune (except the poorest) must devote to the service of its primary schools, before it is entitled to departmental or State aid, one-fifth of the income derived from the following local sources of revenue : (1) income from its real property, (2) its share of horse and carriage duty, (-3) the dog tax, (4) the net income from the octroi, (5) income from highways, markets, and fairs. If the total amounts thus raised are insufficient for the service of the schools, the State provides the deficiency. The ordinary elementary school age in France is from the beginning of the seventh to the end of the twelfth year, and is divided into three courses. The ordinary com- pulsory school course comprises moral and ' civic ' instruction, reading, writing, arith- metic, grammar, geography, the history of France, dra.wing and music, gymnastics, military exercises (boys), needlework (girls), and it is strictly carried out in the large towns. The elements of science are also taught as object lessons. Instruc- tion in manual work has lately been intro- duced into a considerable number of the primary schools of Paris. The higher elementary schools, complementary, and apprenticeship schools are entitled (since 1880) to share in the subventions made for public instruction. Corporal punish- ment in all French schools of every grade is forbidden, and is absolutely unknown. The salaries and allowances of the teachers are determined each year by the Minister on the proposal of the prefet, and by the advice of the departmental council. From the fact that the funds for primary educa- tion are raised by the commune, it will be seen that the power of the purse rests with it and not with the prefet and the departmental council, and consequently in the larger and more public-spirited com- munes the real controlling authority over primary education is the communal coun- cil. Secondaiy and superior education is usually subsidised by Imperial taxa- tion. In this case the local control is very slight. Holland. — Here, as in Belgium, the law pei'mits any competent person to esta- blish or teach in a school without control or inspection ; the sole provision for en- suring primary instruction being that there must be at least one elementary school in every commune. Attendance is not compulsory ; school-fees may be demanded, but it is calculated that about 50 per cent, of the scholars are excused fees. The State contribution to the cost of primary instruc- LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 185 tion may reach 30 per cent, of the total cost. Holland, alone of Continental nations, employs the Pupil-Teacher System in staff- ing its schools. Facilities for secondary education exist, but the education afforded by the majority of the secondary schools is not of the highest grade, most of the schools contenting themselves with the curriculum of the German Real Schools. There are about thirty gymnasia for a population of four millions. India. — Education forms the subject of a special department in every province of British India, but there is no coi'respond- ing department in the Government of India. The head of each provincial de- partment is styled Director of Public In- struction ; subordinate to him are a staff" of inspectors of various grades, and a staff" of teachers, ranging from principals and professors of colleges to assistant masters in primary schools. Both the inspecting and teaching staff" are divided into a su- perior and inferior list. The Education Department, as at present constituted, owes its origin to the famous Despatch of the Court of Directors of the East India Company in 1854, which has been called the charter of education in India. It re- commended : (1) the constitution of a separate department of the administra- tion for education, (2) the institution of universities at the presidency towns, (3) the establishment of institutions for training teachers of all classes of schools, (4) the maintenance of the existing Go- vernment colleges and high schools, and the increase of their number when neces- sary, (5) the establishment of new middle schools, (6) increased attention to ver- nacular schools, indigenous or other, for elementary education, (7) the introduction of a system of grants-in-aid. The atten- tion of Government was specially di- rected to the importance of placing the means of acquiring useful and practical knowledge within reach of the great mass of the people. These recommendations were confirmed by a despatch of the Secretary of State in 1859. The English language is the medium of instruction in the higher branches, and the vernacular in the lower. English is taught wherever there is a de- mand for it, but is not substituted for the vernacular languages of the country. The system of grants-in-aid is based on the principle of perfect religious neutrality. Aid is given (so far as the requirements of each particular district as compared with other districts and the funds at the disposal of Government render it possible) to all schools imparting a good secular education, provided they are under ade- quate local management, and are subject to Government inspection, and provided that fees, however small, are charged in them. Grants are for specific objects, and their amount and continuance depend on the periodical reports of the Government inspectors. A comprehensive system of scholarships connects lower schools with higher, and higher schools with colleges. At no time known to history were the inhabitants of India an uneducated people. Their indigenous institutions date from an early antiquity, and may be divided into two classes : (1) the Hindu tols or seats of Sanskrit learning, and the Mu- hammadan madrasas and maktabSySbt each of which the instruction given was mainly religious ; and (2) the patsalas or hedge schools, to be found in almost every, vil- lage, where reading, writing, and arith- metic were taught to the children of every class but the very lowest. The religious in- stitutions were supported by endowments in land, and it was a point of honour that all teaching should be free. The village schoolmaster received fees, generally in kind, from the pupils. The first European impulse towards secular education came from the missionary bodies, who had esta- blished themselves in Southern India to- wards the end of the eighteenth century. In 1781 Warren Hastings founded and endowed the Calcutta Madrasa, with the special object of encouraging the study of Persian, then the language of courts of justice as well as of diplomacy ; and ten years later the Government founded the Sanskrit College at Benares. The next stimulus came from the Act of Parliament which renewed the charter of the East Ixadia Company in 1813. In this statute it was specially provided that ' a sum of not less than one lac of rupees (10,000^.) in each year shall be set apart and applied to the revival and improvement of litera- ture, and the encouragement of the learned natives of India, and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories of India.' At about the same time English began to take the place of Persian as the ofl&cial language (though Persian was not formally super- 186 LAW (EDUCATIONAL) seded until 1837), and a demand arose at the presidency towns for instruction in English instead of in the vernacular or the classical languages of the East. For many years a hot controversy was waged between the partisans of either view, known as the Anglicists and the Orien- talists ; and the two were fairly balanced until Macaulay (then legal member of council) lent all his influence to the cause of English education in 1835. The ques- tion was finally settled in 1839 by a minute of the Governor-General to the following purport : although English was to be retained as the medium of the higher instruction in European literature, philo- sophy, and science, the existing Oriental institutions were to be kept up in full efficiency, and were to receive the same encouragement as might be given to the students at English institutions. Verna- cular instruction was to be combined with English, full choice being allowed to the pupils to attend whichever they might in- dividually prefer. The usual division of educational institutions in India is five- fold : (1) universities, (2) colleges, (3) se- condary schools, (4) primary schools, (5) normal schools and places for technical instruction. The universities are pui'ely examining bodies. Excluding the newly- founded Punjab University they are three in number, at Calcutta, Madras, and Bom- bay — all incorporated in 1857 — their con- stitution being modelled upon the Univer- sity of London. Though in their origin independent of the universities, the arts colleges of India may be regarded as their teaching- branches. They were founded, whether by the Government, by missionaries, or by private enterprise, to promote higher education generally ; but since the esta- blishment of the universities in 1857 the colleges have been affiliated to them, and have been obliged to adapt their cur- riculum to the university examinations. Besides the arts colleges, thei-e are Oriental colleges, of which the principal are the Calcutta Madrasa, the Canning College at Lucknow, the Oriental College at Lahore, and the Muhammadan Anglo- Oriental College at Aligai'h in the North- West Provinces. At some of these in- struction is given in English ; but the main object of their existence is to pro- mote the study of the Oriental classics according to Oriental methods. Classes in law are usually departments of the arts- colleges, but Calcutta, Madras, and Bom- bay each possess a medical college (besides medical schools) and an engineering col- lege. In this connection also may be mentioned the School of Arts and Design at Calcutta, the Madras School of Indus- trial Arts, and the Sir Jamsetji Jijibha School of Art at Bombay. Secondary schools are those intermediate between colleges and primary schools. The higher limit is fixed by the matriculation stan- dard of the universities ; the lower limit depends upon the definition of primary in- struction, which is not uniform through- out India. Secondary schools are classi- fied into (1) High Schools, whose curri- culum is framed upon the examination required for matriculation at the univer- sities ; and (2) Middle Schools, which are sub-divided into Middle English and Middle Vernacular. The middle schools may be regarded either as a development of the primary schools, or as an introduc- tion of the high schools ; but their actual position between the two varies greatly in. the several provinces. It is impossible to institute any trustworthy comparison between the secondary schools in the several provinces, owing to difi'erences of classification. In Bengal and Assam the pupils in primary departments of the secondary schools have been included^ while in the other provinces they have been excluded. Primary schools are na less difficult to define than secondary. The lower limit, of course, is elementary in-, struction in reading, writing, and arith- metic ; but the higher limit passes imper- ceptibly into secondary education, the line being drawn differently in different pro- vinces. In 1879 an attempt was made by the Government of India to enforce greater uniformity by prescribing a stan- dard, known as the upper primary exami- nation, which should mark the boundary between primary and secondary instruc- tion. This standard, however, was ob- jected to, partly as introducing an arbi- trary and not a real uniformity, and partly as identifying primary instruction with the lower stage of a course ending in, and determined by, matriculation at the uni- versities. As a matter of fact, the pro- vinces still retain wide divergencies in their system of primary instruction. The' methods of supporting primary schools in, the provinces differ yet more widely than, LAW (EDUCATIONAL) isr the standai'ds of instruction. The most important distinction depends upon the amount of encouragement given to indige nous schools. In Bengal, since the reforms of Sir George Campbell in 1872, the domi- nant policy of the Government has been to incorporate the numerous patsalas or village schools into the educational system by means of moderate grants to the giirus or sclioolmasters. In Bombay the Govern- ment has always favoured the opposite policy of founding departmental schools put of the local rate, and trusting that the indigenous schools will benefit by their example. The North- West Provinces and the Punjab have, on the whole, fol- lowed the same system. So also have the Central Pi'ovinces, though with increasing efforts to encourage the few indigenous schools that exist. Assam, on the other hand, has imitated the neighbouring ex- ample of Bengal, with this difference, that the Government in Assam has had to stimulate private schools into existence by much more liberal grants. Madras enjoys a system of its own, which it owes largely to the successful growth of mis- sionary enterprise from an early date. Hei'e the most prospei'ous schools are probably those maintained by missionary bodies, and aided by the Government. The number of departmental schools is small, btit these, as well as the missionary schools, have indirectly done much to raise the standard of the indigenous schools, which are both numerous and flourishing. There remains to mention the professional and technical schools which are attached to primary or secondary schools. The great majority of these are normal schools for training masters or mistresses ; but there are also a few industrial schools and special classes for engineering. The sys- tem of training teachers for primary schools varies greatly in the several pro- vinces. A certificate does not everywhere mean the same thing. In Bombay and the Central Provinces it is awarded only to those who have passed a course of two or three years in a normal school. Else- where it is given to any one who has been pupil-teacher in a primary school for a comparatively short time. In Bengal, since 1875, the policy of the department has been to discontinue normal schools, and to recognise as a qualified teacher any young man who had been trained in the middle or lower vernacular schools. Female education has made considerable- progress in recent years, mainly through missionary effort ; but it still remains in a very backward condition, as compared even with the education of boys. The Government of India, properly so called, has no concern with education, which is entirely under provincial administration. It rests with each provincial government to allot to education as much as it pleases out of the sum assigned to it for all pro- vincial expenditure. Local rates or cesses for education, as well as for other local purposes, have been levied in most pro- vinces for many years ; but the system of appropriating local rates to education is not uniform throughout India. In the North- West Provinces, the Punjab, and the Central Provinces, the entire proceeds of the local rate are credited to provincial revenues, and then a portion is allotted to education. In Madras, the local rate is administered by bodies that are to some extent independent of the provincial gov- eniment. In Bombay alone is a propor- tion of the local rate appropriated from the first to education. The extension of district and other local boards has aug- mented everywhere the importance . of local rates in education finance. The con- tributions of municipalities towards edu- cation are entirely voluntary ; but it may be exj)ected that they will increase with the recent measures of municipal reform. Italy. — The present system of public elementary education in Italy dates from the passing of a law for free and com- pulsory primary education in 1877. This law requires all those who are not under efficient instruction at home or in private schools to be sent to a communal elementary school from six years of age till they have completed the obligatory (lower) elementary course. This is generally passed through at nine or ten years of age. After com- pleting the lower course scholars are ex- pected, though not compelled, to attend continuation evening schools where such exist. The sexes are taught in separate schools. Good Kindergarten schools on the Froebel plan are to be found at Milan and elsewhere. The State authority con- sists of a Minister of Public Instruction,, assisted by a Superior Council of twenty- one members nominated by the King. A subsidy from the State, or from the pro- vince, or both, is accorded to those com- munes which conform to the law and show^ 188 LAW (EDUCATIONAL) grounds for such relief from tlie heavy incidence of local burdens. Secondary education is either classical, provided in gymnasia and lycees, or technical, provided in technical schools and institutes. Day (secondary) schools for girls have been provided in some towns, notably at Milan, but most of the girls' schools are boarding schools. There are seventeen universities in Italy, eight of which are of the first rank. MassaclniseUs (State of). — The State educational authority is a Board of Edu- cation consisting of the governor and lieu- tenant-governor, and eight persons ap- pointed by the govei'nor, with the advice and consent of the State council, each hold- ing office for eight years, one retiring each year. All vacancies are tilled the same way. The board holds all grants of lands or bequests in trust for educational pur- poses. The board prescribes fox-ms of re- gisters for all schools, and can require statistics of officers of schools and others respecting the condition of the schools. It also has the general management of the State normal schools. It also arranges the holding of ' teachers' institutes,' and de- frays to a certain extent the necessary expenses for procuring teachers and lec- tures for such institutes. The school fund of the commonwealth — arising from sales of State lands — is administered by the board; one half of the annual income arising from the fund is distributed among the towns complying with the State law for the support of public schools. Each town is required to keep its schools open for at least six months in each year under teachers of competent ability and good morals ; a sufficient number of schools for the instruction of all children who may legally attend school (five to fifteen years of age) in orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, geography, arithmetic, drawing, the history of the United States, and good behaviour. Algebra, vocal music, agriculture, farming, physiology, and hy- giene are required to be taught where expedient. Every town of five hundred families must also maintain a high school which must be open for ten months, and in every town of four thousand inliabitants the high school curriculum must be widened by the introduction of the Greek and French languages, astronomy, logic, moral science, and political economy. Any town of one thousand inhabitants must provide free instruction in industrial and mechanical drawing to persons over fifteen years of age in either day or evening schools. The several towns must tax themselves in sup- port of their schools, on pain of forfeiture of twice the sum ever voted by the State from the State fund. Every town must annually elect a school committee, to have the general charge and superintendence of all the public schools of the town, one third to be elected annually, to hold office forthree years. The appointment and dismissal of teachers, of the superintendents of schools, choice of books, course of studies, cfec, rest with this committee. The Bible must be read daily in the public schools without note or comment. All public schools are open free, and when parents are unable to pay for books the books are supplied at the cost of the towns. Attendance at school is compulsory between eight and fourteen years of age. Every person ha^dng control of such children is required to cause them to attend a public school for at least twenty weeks annually, on penalty for every neg- lect of such duty of a fine not exceeding twenty dollars ; but attendance at certain private schools is accepted under condi- tions. Truant officers and the school com- mittee are responsible for inquiring into all cases of violation of this law, prosecu- tion, ifcc. The school committee also de- termines the number and qualification of the scholars to be admitted into the high school. No child under ten years of age can be employed in any manufacturing or other establishment in the State, under a penalty, exacted from parent or guardian permitting such employment, of from twenty to fifty dollars. No child under fourteen years of age can be so employed, unless during the preceding year he has attended for at least twenty weeks, under a penalty, exacted from the owner of such establishment and from the parent, of from twenty to fifty dollars. Towns may make provision for habitual truants by truant schools, and for the special education of neg- lected, destitute, and abandoned children. Ontario (Province of). — Each province of the Dominion of Canada has exclusive jurisdiction over its own school system. The administration of the educational system of Ontario is in the hands, of a De- partment of Education, consisting of the Executive Council, or a committee thereof appointed by the lieutenant-governor, and one of the executive council, nominated by LAW (EDUCATIONAL) ISO*' the lieutenant-governor, holds the office of Minister of Education. The educational institutions in Ontario subject to the Edu- cation Department embrace both primary and secondary education, and are (a) ele- mentary schools ; (b) model and normal schools and teachers' institutes ; (c) clas- sical or country high schools ; (d) technical schools ; (e) schools for deaf and dumb and blind ; (/) the University of Toronto. There are a few institutions, principally art schools, partly aided by Government ; and some universities, colleges, and schools (chiefly medical) not under Government control. The pi'ovince of Ontario pos- sesses a system of municipal self-govern- ment which is uniform throughout the province. In each municipality or unit of local government, rural or urban, school trustees or school boards are elected by the ratepayers, who are liable to support the public schools in their respective lo- calities, and are practically the owners of them. The trustees appoint the teachers, who must possess the qualifications re- quired by the department. They arrange and pay the salaries, purchase the school site, build the school-house, and estimate the rates for collection by the township council for all funds which are required for school purposes. They are bound to provide adequate school accommodation, to employ the required number of qualified teachers, to permit the children of all resi- dents between the ages of five and twenty- one to attend school free of charge. They are required to visit their schools, to see that the law is carried out, and may appoint inspectors. A sum of money is annually granted by the Legislature, and each muni- cipality is required to raise by rate at least an equal sum. These two sums constitute the sch ool fund of the municipality. School grants are apportioned to each school by the inspectors according to the average at- tendance of the scholars, and may be with- held in certain cases. A central committee of examiners is appointed by the depart- ment to examine teachers for their certifi- cates. First- and second-class certificates are valid throughout the province, and are held during good behaviour, whilst third- class certificates are limited to a period of three years, but are renewable by exami- nation. Every public and high school must be opened with the Lord's Prayer, and closed with the reading of the Scriptures, subject to a conscience clause. The clergy of any denomination or their authorised representatives have the right to give reli- gious instruction to the pupils of their own church in each school-house at least once a week after afternoon school. Schools called 'separate schools' constitute an ex- ception to the general public school system.. The right to maintain a ' separate school ' is chiefly conceded to the Roman Catholics^ but Protestant families may combine to support a separate school if they reside in a district where the teacher of the public school of the district is a Roman Catholic. Families of coloured people may also com- bine to have a separate school. The prin- ciple of these schools is that the Roman. Catholic, Protestant, or coloured ratepayer may elect to support a separate school, and,, upon giving the prescribed notice, he is exempted from the public school rates ; but as long as he subscribes to a separate school he is not allowed to vote at the election of any trustee for a public school m his district. The separate schools are subject to the visitation of the Minister of Education, the judges, members of the Legislature, the heads of the municipal bodies in their respective localities, and the inspectors of public schools, and to such inspection as the Minister of Educa- tion may direct. They are entitled to a share in the annual grant from the Legis- lature of the province, but not to a share in the local assessment. General courses of instruction are prescribed for all schools in the province, elementary and higher, to be followed by the teachers ' as far as the circumstances of their schools wall permit.' Hygiene, drill, and calisthenics, moral in- struction, and, in rural schools, agriculture, are provided for in the general directions for courses of study. The salaries of the teachers are determined by the school trustees, and are 'fixed.' Attendance at school is not compulsory. Russia. — Elementary education has- only quite recently been organised in Russia. The social conditions of that country made common action for the edu- cation of the people difficult of accom- plishment, either as regards secondary or elementary education. The aristocracy, the clergy, the military and naval profes- sion, the trading community, live entirely apart, and each class has provided its own educational establishments, not only for what special training is required after general education is completed, but also^ 190 LAW (EDUCATIONAL) for the general education itself of the children of that class. Even members of the theatrical profession have their own schools for both the general and special instruction of their children. The schools of theology are entirely managed by the ecclesiastical authorities of the Greek Church, but the army, navy, and theatri- cal schools are controlled by the several Government departments. The organisa- tion of all public instruction is in the hands of a Minister of Public Listruc- tion, who has under him an advising council, with a staff of inspectors. The public elementary schools were organised in 1874, to make elementary education accessible to both sexes of the working classes throughout Russia. They are supported by the combined subsidies of the State, the zemstvos (or territorial popular councils), and either the communes or private bodies. Attendance is practically compulsory. In- struction is given free of charge, and in many cases even books and appliances are provided gratis. Success at an examina- tion on leaving these schools entitles the boys to a partial reduction of the compul- sory term (six years) of military service. Infant schools are also found in the more important towns, taught on Froebel's me- thods. The machinery for secondary edu- cation comprises gymnasia for both sexes, and Real Schools. No important town in Russia is without a school of the latter kind, where the three obligatory languages are taught, viz. Russian, German, and French, besides mathematics, commercial geography, and drawing. Russia has nine universities, of which that of Moscow is the most ancient (founded 1755) and the most renowned. The education of the girls of the upper classes is provided for, and is carried on, to a much greater ex- tent than in almost any other European country. Courses of instruction for women similar to the University courses for men have been laid down since 1872, and are taught by the professors of the University, a, movement which has its parallel in England in the recent facilities for the higher education of women by means of Girton and Newnham Colleges at Cam- bridge, and Somerville Hall at Oxford. Saxony. — The remarkable impulse which has made Germany, as has been said, 'a land of schools,' arose from the influence of the Protestant reformer Lu- ther, as that of Scotland did from that of his fellow-evangelist, John Knox (q.v.). It was Luther who said : ' If I were not a minister of the Gospel, I should wish to be a schoolmaster,' Luther died in 1546, and the first outlines of the Saxon system of national education appeared in a law of January, 1580. From these outlines the whole present system has been developed, following through the centuries the de- velopment of the social life of the people, and receiving fresh extensions as the sense of the vital importance of intellectual force, as a set-off against the physical force of the nations arrayed against them, was quickened by the defeats of the early years of the century. It was in 1805 that attendance at school was made compulsory in Saxony. Successive reorganisations of the school system have taken place in 1835, 1848, 1851, and finally in 1873. The fundamental idea of the new law of 1873 was that the whole system of educa- tion of the country should be placed under the sole control of the State, and that the management of the schools should be taken out of the hands of the clergy, as clergy. But this action of the State did not imply that it was henceforth to be in antagonism with the Church on the subject of education. On the contrary, it is distinctly stated that the 'Volksschule (Elementary School) has for its object the religious training as one part of universal human education.' The religion taught by a particular school is the religion of the majority of the parish, but the rights of the minority are preserved. It is in the power of the minority (as in Canada) to establish a school for itself, provided it can find the means to maintain it. When the minority cannot afford to do so, the children receive their secular education in the public school, and their religious education from their own deno- mination. Every child is required to attend the elementary school for at least eight consecutive years, from six to four- teen. This is the case all throughout Germany, but in Saxony, as in some other states, children who have not made satis- factory progress in the elementary school at the age of fourteen are obliged to at- tend a Fortbildungsschule, or continuation school, held in the evenings and on Sundays, for two years longer. Parents and guar- dians are required to see that their children attend regularly. In general, only ill- ness or infectious complaints are accepted as a reasonable excuse for absence. Pa- LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 191 rents render themselves liable to a fine for the non-attendance of their children at any elementary school, and both parents and employers of labour incur a similar punishment in the case of non-attendance of a scholar at a Fortbildungsschule. The school parish (Schulgemeinde) is required to furnish the requisite funds for the erec- tion and maintenance of the schools of the parish. Those parishes which are not in a position to meet the whole expense receive a grant from the State. The payment of a school fee is demanded of all children attending school. It is levied by the ma- nagers, who are bound to adapt it to the means of the parents. It therefore varies considerably in amount, from 3s. or 4s. a year, in town schools, to 3^. or 4:1. Children whose parents are very poor have their fees paid out of the local poor-chest. There are a few free schools in Saxony, but they are foundation schools, or schools main- tained by charitable societies. Throughout Germany the secondary schools consist of higher elementary schools, and secondary schools proper. There are three kinds of se- condary schools : the Gymnasium or classi- cal school ; the Ileal Gymnasium, answering somewhat to the 'modern side' of an En- glish public school, in which Latin is taught but not Greek, additional time being given to science and mathematics ; and the Ober Ileal school, in which neither Latin nor Greek is taught, but greater attention is devoted to modern languages, science, and drawing. The complete course in any one of these schools occupies ten years. Pupils from the gymnasium who have obtained the leaving certificate are entitled to enter any of the faculties of the university, or the polytechnic school. The leaving certi- ficates of the Heal Gymnasium and the Ober E-eal schools carry with them similar though not such extensive privileges. There are also Lower Ileal schools receiving boys from the elementary schools at twelve, and carrying through a four-years course, in some parts of the country. The secondary as well as the elementary schools are under State supervision, and the course of instruc- tion is practically the same in all schools of the same grade in the same State. The elementary schools are supported entirely by the parish or municipality in which they are situated. With regard to the cost of secondary schools the practice varies, but most of them are supported by the locality. In some cases the local authority erects the buildiiags and the State defrays, in whole or in part, the current expenses ; in others, a portion of the cost is borne by the province. Some few, however, are wholly or partially supported by ancient endowments. The school fees in the se- condary schools are extremely moderate, and thus secondary instruction is placed within reach of parents of limited means to an extent altogether unknown in Eng- land. South Australia (Province of). — • Previous to 1875 the control of elemen- tary education, subject to the supreme authority of the Legislature of the pro- vince (i.e. the Governor, the Legislative Council, and the House of Assembly) was in the hands of a council of education. But by an Act of the Legislature passed in that year the functions of the council were placed in the hands of a member of the executive council of the province, who, under the title of the ' Minister controlling Education,' was constituted a body corporate for the exercise of all the powers in educational matters placed in his hands by legislative enactment. Un- der this Act of 1875 (as since amended) this minister has the power (1) to decide as to the efficiency of any school not being a public school ; (2) to take a census of the school population; (3) to appoint an in- spector-general and inspectors of schools, whose duties are to make themselves ac- quainted with the general condition of all schools in their districts, by two visits at least in each year, to advise the teachers as to the best way of making improve- ments, to examine the scholars, and to report the results of their ^inspections to the minister; (4) to establish and main- tain public schools; (5) toappoint teachers; (6) to define the course of instruction and character of the school books ; (7) to esta- blish scholarships open for competition among scholars at public and other schools; (8) to make regulations for the training, examination, appointment, and classifica- tion of teachers, and for fixing the salaries and fees to be paid to teachers, &c. The minister is also entrusted with the ex- penditure of all the sums of money appro- priated by the Legislature for elementary education. No money can be appropriated in aid of building school premises unless the site has been vested in the minister. At the commencement of each year a sum of money is placed to the credit of each 192 LAW (EDUCATIONAL) school vested in the minister in proportion to the average attendance. This money is placed in the hands of the board of advice, and is available for the purpose of repair- ing and improving the school buildings. The province is divided into districts, and boards of advice are appointed in each district by the governor of the province, to exercise general supervision over edu- cational matters, and to report to the minister on any matters affecting the general welfare of the schools. A board of advice consists of not less than three persons, who hold office for three years. Children of not less than five years or of more than thirteen may attend school, but attendance is compulsory for not less than thirty-five days in each quarter upon all children between seven and thirteen years of age ; and a parent who neglects to send such child to school is liable to be sum- moned, at the instance of the board of ad- vice, before a justice, and on conviction to pay a sum not exceeding 5 s. for a first offence, and 20s. for every succeeding of- fence. School fees are fixed at %d. per week for children above eight years of age, and 4o?. per week for those under that age. They are paid to the treasury. In the case of parents unable to pay these fees the board of advice has power to re- duce the fee to ?>d. per week, provided the reasons for the reduction are clearly stated to the minister, who shall have the right of veto. Children of the following classes are entitled to free education : (1) chil- dren whose parents are dead, children of widows without sufficient means, (2) chil- dren whose fathers are incapacitated, (3) children boarded out by the authorities having control of destitute or orphan children. But applications for free edu- cation must be signed by the chairman of the board of advice and forwarded to the inspector-general, and be subject to the veto of the minister. The mode of staff- ing the schools is similar to that adopted in England, and monitors and pupil- teachers are recognised. The head teacher of a public school must be certificated. The course of instruction, which is laid down by the minister, follows the lines of the English code, but is drawn up with a greater regard to the training of the in- telligence of the children ; the learning of definitions by heart is depi'ecated until the children have formed clear ideas of the meaning of the thing defined. The Holy Scriptures in the Authoi'ised or Douay version may be read, but the attendance at such reading is not compulsory ; and no sectarian or denominational religious teaching is allowed ; the teachers must strictly confine themselves to Bible read- ing. Moral lessons — the outcome of the cir- cumstances of the school and the teachers' own thoughts — to enforce the necessity of cleanliness, punctuality, industry, obedi- ence, truthfulness, honesty, and considera- tion for others, must be given ; but no text-book is specified. The scale of sala- ries of teachers is determined by the mini- ster, and fixed salaries are paid to them by the treasury. Zurich {Canton of). — The school system of Switzerland, of which that in force in the canton and city of Zurich is taken as- an example, bears a close resemblance in many respects to that of Germany. The elementary and higher elementary (called in Switzerland secondary) education is free, and attendance is compulsory upon all children between six and fourteen years of age. They must remain in the elemen- tary school until the age of twelve, and then they must either attend the secondary school, or, if they enter into practical life, they must attend a supplementary school (Erganzungsschule) for four years. This latter school is held on two half-days a week, and its chief aim is bo act as a continuation school. Elementary instruc- tion in private schools is permitted, but a. very small proportion of the population (barely 3 per cent.) make use of such schools. This plan of supplementary schooling is, however, found to work un- satisfactorily, and a law is about to be- passed making attendance at the ordinary elementary school compulsory up to four- teen years of age. Even now no child can be employed in a factory until the com- pletion of the fourteenth year. The so- called secondary — really higher elemen- tary — school has a course extending over four years, and those entering such schools and remaining in them for two years (un- til fourteen years of age) are exempt from further school attendance. The higher schools consist of the gymnasium and classical school, and the industrie-schule or trade school, which prepares for the polytechnic or for direct entrance into trade. The gymnasium is entered at twelve years of age, after an examination, and consists of six classes, corresponding to LAW (EDUCATIONAL) LIBERAL EDUCATION 193 one year each, so that the pupils would obtain the leaving-certificate at eighteen or nineteen, which qualifies them to enter the university or polytechnic. The in- dustrie-schule is entered at fourteen, and consists of four classes, extending over three and a half years. The first class is pi'eparatory. From the second class on- wards the school bifurcates into a techni- cal and a commercial section, the former again dividing in the third and fourth years into a mathematical and a natural science section. The commercial section ends with the third year. The educa- tional vote of the canton of Zurich ab- sorbs nearly one-third of the total ex- penses of the canton. Law relating to Schools and School- masters. — As between parent or guardian and the school proprietor the law has long been settled that the pupil cannot be re- moved without giving a full quarter's notice or paying a quarter's fees, unless, of course, there has been a special agree- ment to the contrary. If the pupil remains even only four days of the new term, and then is obliged to return home on account of illness, the parent is bound not only to pay for the incompleted quarter, but also for the subsequent one (^Collins v. Price, 5 Bing. 132). Indeed, without notice, and in the absence of special agreement, the pupil can only be removed when there is a clear case of negligence on the part of the master {^Clement v. May, 7 C. & P. 678). Even in the case of a parent's bankruptcy, the bankruptcy does not bar the master's claim for the accruing quar- ter's charges (Thomas v. Hopkins, 6 Jur. IST.S. 301). The prospectus constitutes the agreement between the parent and the master, in the absence of special agree- ment. The schoolmaster, however, can- not sue the parent or guardian for cloth- ing supplied or extras taught the pupil in the absence of agreement (Clement v. May, supra). Again, the master will be liable in damages if he knowingly permits a pupil to indulge in dangerous games, whereby the pupil receives an accident, and a fortiori, he cannot sue for the medi- cal expenses connected with the child's recovery which he may have discharged {King V. Fork, 1 Stark. 423). As to the services of tutors and governesses in the absence of special agreement, tutors and governesses are entitled to a year's notice, the hiring being a yearly one (Todd v. Kenrick, 8 Ex. 151 ; Todd v. Kellage, 17 Jur. 119). As to engagements in schools, on the other hand, a quarter's notice is necessary to be given prior to one of the four usual quarter-days. Thus notice will not take place as from the time at which it is given, if given any time during the quarter, but three months after the ex- piration oi the current quarter (Meuzies V. Ja7neson). But immediate dismissal may take place where the teacher uses pi'ofane or seditious language before the pupils, speaks disrespectfully of his em- ployer to his iDupils, is guilty of drunken- ness, or acts in disobedience to the rea- sonable orders of his employer. Engage- ments for a longer period than a year should be in writing, in accordance with the Statute of Frauds. Board schools are governed by the Elementary Education Act 1870. The law carefully protects pupils from being cruelly treated, but teachers may chastise them in a reason- able manner for disobedience to reason- able orders. Each case of alleged cruelty must be considered on its own merits, and teachers must ever use their own discre- tion. This, however, may be said, that the pupil must not be hit about the head or face, there must be no wounding or discolourisation of any part of the body, and no such treatment as might tend to injuriously afiect the health of the child. For any such maltreatment the teacher may be liable in fine, imprisonment, or damages. In the case Hoberts v. Fal- mouth Urban Sanitary Authority, tried in the Queen's Bench Division February 6, 1888, it was decided that a head-master of a public elementary school cannot secure compensation for loss of school fees when the school is closed by order of the autho- rities during an epidemic. Learning^. See Acquisition of Knowledge. Lesson. See Notes of Lessons, Ob- ject Lessons, and Method. Liberal Education. — This term is fre- quently used synonymously with collegiate or university education, but there is no good reason for thus restricting its mean- ing. It signifies generally an education which embraces a fair knowledge of litera- ture, science, and art, acquired for its own sake rather than for an objective purpose. It is difficult, however, to define the term accurately. According to Lord Brougham, the liberally educated man is he who has o 194 LIBRARIES LICENCE (TEACHER'S) learnt ' something of everything and every- thing o£ something/ and according to Pro- fessor Huxley, he ' who has learnt to love all beauty and his neighbour as him- self.' _ Libraries. — In giving a brief account of some of the largest educational and refer- ence libraries in England of the present day, it may be interesting to trace the ear- liest known approaches to such institutions in ancient days ; and to indicate correspond- ing collections of valuable manuscripts and books in the neighbouring cities of Europe. To Osymandyas of Memphis is ascribed the honour of being the earliest librarian on record^ while Pisistratus first founded a library among the Greeks at Athens. Alexandria boasted of one of the most famous libraries of antiquity. Both Julius and Augustus Csesar founded libraries at Rome ; and no less than twenty-eight public libraries existed in that city prior to the inroads of the barbaric hordes, Charlemagne was the patron and founder of the public libraries in France ; and Pope Nicholas V. of the priceless treasures of the Vatican library. The capitals of nearly all European countries boast of splendid public and private libraries, containing precious manuscripts and historical re- cords : those of Gottingen, Munich, Paris, Vienna, St. Petersburg, Berlin, Bologna, and Prague, having an average of 400,000 volumes. Our own country is not far behind, having the valuable collections of ancient manuscripts and books deposited both at the British Museum and Bodleian Library at Oxford, in addition to which are the splendid possessions of the Oxford and Cambridge universities, bestowed on the various college libraries of either city. There are also immense educational refer- ence libraries attached to the universities of Edinburgh, Dublin, Glasgow, London, St. Andrews. There are the libraries of Lambeth, the House of Commons, Foreign Office, Guildhall, Inner Temple (founded 1540), Lincoln's Inn (1497), Patent Office, London Library, Sion College, Thames Embankment, South Kensington (which includes education, science, Dyce L., and Forster L.), the University Library, and over forty others, containing over ten thousand volumes each. The libraries attached to the various hospitals, scientific institutions of London, and other large cities, constitute an important factor in the educational statistics of the day, while many places are rapidly adopting the Free Library Act, by means of which Birming- ham has already (1887) accumulated some 100,000 volumes, Birkenhead 60,000, Bris- tol 50,000, Dundee 35,000, Leicester 20,000, Manchester Free Public Library 150,000. The university libraries for the most part are accessible only to men students, though the books they contain are to some extent obtainable by resident women students. South Kensington libraries are open by students' tickets to eligible persons of either sex, as also the British Museum and Free Libraries. The College of Preceptors and the Teachers' Guild Library, both very small modern institutions, are especially adapted to the wants of school teachers, though they should perhaps find mention here as supplying a want long felt in the world of education. The immense re- sources open to English, Scotch, and Irish students may be better appreciated when we consider the fact that a list of no less than 160 libraries, each containing over 10,000 volumes, is given in the Encyclop. Brit., eleventh edition, and most of which contain nearer 20,000, some as many as 50,000 and 90,000 volumes. A further list is given of 170 other libraries, containing under 10,000 volumes in each case. In Great Britain any attempt that has been made at the formation of elementary and secondary school libraries has been due chiefly to purely voluntary efibrt, no assist- ance being given by the State. In many of the States of North America, as well as in some other countries, legislative pro- vision has been made for supplying schools and school districts with libraries. The first grant that was made for that pur- pose in America was. in 1827. The value of such libraries depends wholly upon ad- ventitious circumstances ; but to be of real use they should be composed of in- structive books and those interesting to children. They should be informative, and should be such as would incite in the pupil a taste for reading. They will thus train the pupil's mind from a love of the 'penny dreadful,' and assist the mental and moral training. Teachers can greatly help in popularising school libraries by illustrating the subject of instruction with reference to some work in the library. Licence (Teacher's). — Such a licence is a legal qualification to give instruction. It is conferred after examination, and at- tested by a diploma or certificate. The LICENCE (TEACHER'S) LING, PETER HENRIK 195 holder becomes a certificated teacher. The object of the licence is to ' protect the interests of the community against the evils arising from the employment of incompetent persons by those who might not be able to test the qualifications of ap- plicants, or who might, from favouritism or corrupt motives, be willing to employ as teachers persons not possessing the requisite qualifications.' The Elementary Education Act, 1870, provides for Eng- land that ' before any grant is made to a school the Education Department must be satisfied that the principal teacher is certificated ' ; and that teachers, in order to obtain certificates, must ' be examined and must undergo probation by actual service in school.' The Act further pro- vides that ' after successfully passing their examinations they must as teachers con- tinuously engage in the same schools, ob- tain two favourable reports from an in- spector within an interval of one year between them, and if the first of these reports be not preceded by service of three months (at the least) since the examina- tion, a third report must be made at an interval of one year after the second re- port, and, if favourable, a certificate is issued.' ' Teachers under probation satisfy the conditions which require that schools be kept by certificated teachers.' The Scottish Education Act, 1872, provides that ' no person shall be appointed to the office of principal teacher who is not the holder of a certificate of competency,' which is obtained after examination. Two years' attendance at any one of the normal schools is a condition precedent to such examination. The Scottish uni- versities confer the degree of Literate in Arts (L. A.), a teacher's degree, on those who have been students in the faculty of arts for two sessions, and have attended five classes in that faculty, so as to include four at least of the seven subjects for graduation in arts. The University of Edinburgh grants a schoolmaster's diploma to graduates in arts on passing examina- tion in education and kindred subjects, and the University of London grants cer- tificates to those who, being graduates of that university, have passed the examina- tion in the art, theory, and history of education. The College of Preceptors also grants diplomas, for which principals and teachers of private schools are eligible, and the joint examination board of the Eroebel Society, and the Kindergarten Association of Manchester, grant certifi- cates after examination to students and teachers of the Kindergarten system. Lichtenberg, Georg Christoph (h. 1742, d. 1799), a German man of letters, was the eighteenth child by the same marriage of the pastor of Ober-Ramstadt, near Darmstadt. From an early age Lichtenberg had been interested in the system of education prevailing in German schools and colleges. He had witnessed some changes introduced on account of the writings of Rousseau and his French followers, and of Basedow of Hamburg. Of some of these he approved, but to the greater part he applied the unsparing ridicule with which he always assailed the pedantic affectations of originality and the senseless love of change. Al- though fully aware of the advantages of a regular education, he never forgot that the substantial improvement of the cha- racter depends upon artificial instruction to a very small extent. The most careful education, he perceived, cannot create a single new faculty ; and in a civilised age no neglect can prevent the develop- ment of the faculties that exist ; their growth may be retarded by unfavourable circumstances, but their vigour may be more radically injured by excessive cultiva tion. Education should not be mechanical or coercive, and discipline should not be bookish. His dictum was that ' the object of all education is to form virtuous, intel- ligent, and strong-minded men ' ; and he maintained that true education consisted in developing the body by exercise, the mind by fitful and varied ease, and the morals by a grand simplicity. In 1777 Lichtenberg discovered the electric dust- figures ; in 1778 he published a work against the physiognomists ; and in 1794 he began the Explanations of Hogarth's Works (1794-1808). Lighting of Schoolrooms. See Archi- tecture OP Schools. Ling, Peter Henrik (&. 1766, d. 1839), the Swedish gymnast, a native of Sma- land, and graduate of Upsala University, was, on account of his weakened consti- tution, led to direct his attention to fenc- ing and gymnastics as a means of cure for rheumatism and partial paralysis, with which he was attacked in his right arm ; and his success was the first incentive to the exertions he afterwards made ta o 2 196 LITERS HUMANIORES LITERATURE EOR CHILDREN establish a treatment of diseases by these means. He was at the University of Lund in 1805, where he lectured on Norse mythology, taught modern lan- guages and fencing, while he at the same time wrote poetry of no common merit. As he saw that the body and soul of men reacted upon each other, he aimed at ' the perfection of the organism by means of the combined and harmonious action of these two principles restoring by his system the equilibrium which indolence, disease, or a too exclusive cultivation of the intellectual faculties may have dis- turbed.' Thus his system led him to in- quire into the laws of therapeutics, and by studying the motory action of the body he was led to devise a system of movements, varied both in their character and in the degree of strength. He con- tended that the mechanical agency of the body, equally with the chemical and men- tal actions of certain organs, should be considered in the treatment of disease, and he believed that to the neglect of this side of the question many of the ailments of the body were to be attributed. He was an ardent advocate of his system, and his Theory and Principles of Gymnastics (Stockholm, 1840) is considered a work of power. Literse Humaniores. See Schools. Literature. See English. Literature for Children. — It is neces- sary to distinguish between books about children and- books /or children. The for- mer are numerous, the latter comparatively few. Not many writers of children's books have the art of looking at the world with a child's eyes, feeling with a child's heart, speaking with a child's ideas and a child's words. More often than not, situ- ations, experiences, ideas, feelings, are in- troduced quite out of keeping wnth the little actors in the story, and quite beyond the mental reach and sympathy of young readers. False and unreal views of life are given, and what is in its essence wrong is unwittingly rendered amusing and attrac- tive. A thorough scapegrace is made a charming hero ; and the tales are strongly sensational, or full of morbid sentimentality or mere goodiness. The reverse of all this is what is wanted. Literature for children may be divided into fairy tales, fables, and tales with a moral fxirpose, domestic tales, tales of adventure, tales of science and useful information, historical tales, travels. and b iograpliies. Fairy tales are the poetry of the early world, and of childhood. They are admirable in their imaginativeness, simplicity, and manner of talking. But they require caution, for they are apt to be full of old prejudices, and to introduce matters not proper for children. All elder brothers and sisters, and all stepmothers are not selfish and wicked ; Jack takes too ' keen a delight in slaughtering, and Puss in Boots lies, and makes others lie, with too charming an ease. But many are wholly unobjectionable, and all are delightful ; while the exercise they aflford to the imagination is of great value. Fables are frequently amusing if told with real humour as are some of ^sop's ; and if the moral be not too prominent, and the characters fairly in keeping with those of the animals, kc, which are introduced. Tales loith a moral pttrpose are usually dull and heavy. Hans Andersen's, however, are delightful exceptions ; and some of Miss Edgeworth's can still be read with pleasure by children. Domestic tales for the young are apt to be morbid and sentimental ; nevertheless, many good examples exist in English. Of these the best of the more recent examples are by Mrs. Ewing and Mrs. Molesworth. Both of these writers, however, have a strong tendency to write about, rather than for, children. Tales of adventure are pro- verbially delightful to children, who love action above all things ; but indulgence in them is dangerous. Many are of the ' nightmare ' class ; nearly all abound with unjustifiable and even wicked doings hidden in a glare of romance ; and all are liable to be too exciting, and to render the simple doings and duties of every-day life stale and distasteful. Taken in moderation, however, the best of them compensate for the harm they do by the widening of in- terests, the manliness (not to be confused with mere fierceness and recklessness) and the fidelity which they tend to produce. Tales of science and useful information may often serve to create and to feed a very valu- able curiosity. Historical tales, when not wholly of blood and murder, will do this for the special department of history. The best are too well known to need mention. Travels and biographies, when the subjects are well chosen and worthy of attention, and when they are well told, have long charmed and will never cease to charm both young and old; and it is difiicult to imagine a better way of gaining a general knowledge LITERATURE OF PEDAGOGY LOCKE, JOHN 197 of the earth and of man's doings on it than by reading the numberless fine examples of both which we possess in English. Literature of Pedagogy. See Peda- gogy (Bibliography of). 'Little Go.' See Previous. Examina- tion. Local Examinations are examinations of boys and girls conducted by the several universities and kindred institutions on the various subjects which tend to test the general knowledge and culture of the candidate. The examinations are con- ducted by the universities of Aberdeen, Cambridge, Dublin, Durham, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Oxford, and St. Andrews, the London Society of Arts, the College of Preceptors, and Trinity College, London. The university of St. Andrews confers the degree of LL.A. in connection with these examinations. The examinations are held at local centres, and certificates of having passed these examinations do for a pass to the preliminary examinations of some of the universities and other examining bodies. Each university has its own rules for con- ducting the examination, but the subjects of examination are nearly the same at all the universities. There are some valuable bursaries and scholarships awarded at these examinations. The examinations in connection with the universities of Oxford and Cambridge consist of two divisions, junior and senior. {See Oxford and Cam- bridge Schools Examination Board). Locke, John (1632-1704), the author of the Essay on the Human Understanding, and the founder of the English school of psychology, claims attention also as the writer of a short treatise on education. This work, entitled Some Thouglits con- cerning Education (pub. 1693), grew out of notes of letters which Locke, during his first stay in Holland, had written to his friend Edward Clarke, on the best way of bringing up his children. Locke had the rare advantage of speaking on education from the double platform of psychological theory and personal experience. As the first great English psychologist who syste- matically attempted to analyse mind into its elements, and who, rejecting the hypo- thesis of innate ideas as unnecessary, traced all intellectual products to experience (sen- sation and reflection), Locke naturally attached a new importance to education. To him the infant mind is a blank sheet (tabula rasa) on which experience has to write, and he is consequently disposed to ascribe the manifold difierences of intelli- gence and character that we see among men much more to diversities of circum- stances and education than to any original differences of aptitude and disposition. He may, as Hallam maintains, greatly exaggerate the effect of external influences ; and read in the light of the new evolution psychology, which accentuates the fact of individual variation and the part played by heredity, Locke's account of the pro- cess of mental growth seems almost naive in its simplicity. At the same time his psychological standpoint compelled him to trace out in a much more careful and thorough way than is usually done the many less obvious efiects of circumstances, example, and habits of life on the growing mind. While Locke was thus particularly well qualified to deal with education from the theoretic side, his own experience, both as pupil and teacher, supplied him with ample material for attacking its practical problems. Like other independent youths, he was wearied and disgusted by the barren pedantries of the scholastic system under which he was brought up (at Westminster and Oxford), and was first stimulated by these experiences to reflect on the right methods of education. To this there suc- ceeded a fair amount of experience as tutor, of which that in the Shaftesbury house was the most important. This per- sonal contact with the work of teaching, combined with the decidedly practical bent of mind which makes Locke so typical an English thinker, accounts for the thoroughly practical character of the Thoughts. The influence of previous writers on education seems to have been very slight, that of Montaigne being the only one which is distinctly traceable in the Thoughts. The little treatise is faulty enough in point of arrangement and style, a fact to be ac- counted for by the manner of its production. As its title suggests, it consists rather of stray reflections than of a carefully reasoned theory. At the same time, it deserves the place it now firmly holds among educational classics. It must be remembered that Locke is avowedly dealing with the cir- cumscribed, if highly complex, educational problem of fashioning a gentleman. Hence it is home-training by a tutor, such as Locke had himself carried out in Lord Shaftesbury's family, that is exclusively discussed. Physical education, including 198 LOG-BOOK LOGIC the furtherance of health and bodily vigour as well as the acquisition of physical ac- complishments, naturally receives a large share of attention, the more so as Locke had not only studied medicine, but held the double post of physician and tutor in the Shaftesbury home. Next to bodily health, come as essential requirements of the gentleman, virtue, wisdom, breeding, and learning. With respect to intellectual education Locke has been accused of carry- ing his utilitarianism too far, by insisting on estimating knowledge only by its bearing on the work of life. But this is to do scant justice to his teaching. ISTo writer is more profoundly impressed with the value of intellectual training itself. This may be seen by the emphasis he lays on the general or varied culture of the facul- ties, both in the Thoughts and in the short essay Conduct of the Understanding, which should be read with the first. In truth, as a recent editor of Locke puts it, he understood by education 'rather the train- ing and disciplining of the mind into good habits, than the mere tradition of know- ledge.' With respect to moral education, Locke aimed at the production of a dis- passionate being in whom reason is supreme. Locke's ideal of physical and of moral training may alike be criticised as erring by excess of severity. His recommenda- tions for hardening the bodies of children, as well as his counsels against indulging children's wishes, were actually objected to by his friend Molyneux ; yet it is curious to note that the greatest of German thinkers, Immanuel Kant, follows Locke pretty closely in both these particulars. The central principle of the Thoughts is that the end of the educator is to settle in the pupil, by steady unremitting practice, in- tellectual and moral habits; and, though the reader may now and again be disposed to resent the repetition of the dictum, he can hardly complain that its importance has been exaggerated. Although adopting private tuition as preferable to school, because of its more complete supervision, Locke fully recognised the influence of companions on the mind and character of the young ; and he seeks to evade the difficulty of solitary education by exacting the maximum in the way of attention from the father and the tutor. The value of Locke's Thoughts resides partly in the force with which he illustrates the funda- mental principle of his theory already indicated, and partly in the good sense and impartiality with which he handles all questions of detail. His remarks on the way to deal with children's weaknesses, on their timidity, on praise and blame, on pun- ishment, on satisfying curiosity, and many other pressizig problems of every-day educa- tion, will always be worth a careful perusal by all who have to guide and control chil- dren, whether in the home or in the school. (See Some Thoughts concerniyig Education, with introduction and notes by the Bev. R. H. Quick, M.A.; also. Conduct of the Understanding, edited by Prof. T. Fowler. The German reader may consult Dr. Schuster's introduction to the translation of the Thou,ghts in Karl Richter's Pdda- gogische Bihliothek.) Log-Book. — The log-book is a diary or journal, the keeping of which is com- pulsory in all public elementary schools. It must be stoutly bound, and contain not less than 300 ruled pages. It is kept by the head teacher, who is required to record in it such events as the introduc- tion of new books, apparatus, or courses of instruction, the visits of the inspector or of managers, absence or failure of duty on the part of any member of the staff", or any incident or circumstance to which it may be useful or interesting to refer at some future time. Entries must be con- fined to matters of fact ; ' reflections or opinions of a general character ' are ex- pressly forbidden. All reports made by the inspector, whether after a ' surprise visit ' or after the annual inspection, must be copied ' verbatim,' and signed by the correspondent of the managers. When the annual report has been received the school staff" must also be entered, and all changes afterwards occurring in it must be recorded. Logic. — Logic is commonly defined as the science of reasoning, or of the ' laws of thought ' which underlie reason- ing. As employed about the reasoning process it is connected with, and indeed based on. Psychology (which see). It diff'ers from psychology in that it seeks to deter- mine the necessary conditions of sound or correct reasoning. Logic, in short, is not only the science but the art of reason- ing. It is now commonly divided into two parts, (1) deductive or formal, and (2) inductive or material logic. Pormal logic is concerned with the formal cor- rectness of our thinking processes, and its LONDON UNIVERSITY LUTHER, MARTIN 199 rules guide us in seeing clearly all that is necessarily implied in our propositions. It deals successively with terms, proposi- tions, and syllogisms, that is to say, the verbal forms in which the three growingly complex products of thought, concepts, judgments, and reasonings embody them- selves. The formulation of the true prin- ciples of inductive research is an exceed- ingly difficult matter ; and, in spite of the recent contributions of J. S. Mill, Stanley Jevons, and others, it is far from being finally settled. Hence the study of inductive logic ought to follow that of deductive. Very dijfferent opinions have been held as to the practical value of logic, but it is agreed by most writers that the study of the science, by supplying us with a simple method of analysing and testing our reasoning processes, enables us to carry these out with greater certainty and ease. To the teacher the study of de- ductive logic, connecting itself so closely as it does with the science of Grammar (q.v.), may be said to be of the highest value. Familiarity with the logical dis- tinctions among terms, propositions, and arguments will serve not only to clear up his own thoughts, but to guide him in presenting facts and truths in the clearest way to the learner's mind. This applies with particular force to certain portions, such as the doctrine of logical division and definition, and of the obversion and conversion of propositions (immediate in- ferences). The doctrine of method, or the scientific arrangement of thoughts, which has been proposed by some writers as an additional division of the subject, has a very close bearing on the teacher's work (see Method). The study of the principles of inductive logic, by rendering the mind familiar with the methods of scientific investigation and the grounds of scientific certainty, will be found very useful to all who have to teach science. It is worth considering whether certain portions of logic might not with advant- age be introduced at the end of the school curriculum. (For an account of the nature and scope of logic see Jevons, Ul. Lessons, i. ; Bain, Deduct., Logic, Introd., p. 30, and following ; EncyclofCKdia Britann. (9th ed.), article ' Logic.') London University. See Univer- sities and Provincial Colleges. Long Sight. See Eyesight. Long Vacation. — At both Oxford and Cambridge the majority of the men are down before the end of June, and do not come up again until the second week in October. The interval is the ' long vaca- tion.' At Oxford the men who keep Trinity term remain up until the Satur- day after the first Tuesday in July. At Cambridge, men reading for a tripos may obtain permission to be in residence dur- ing July and August. It is not counted as a term, but it is a most valuable op- portunity for coaching free from the dis- tractions of term time. Look -and -Say Method. — This is a method of teaching reading without spell- ing ; children being taught to recognise at sight, and to pronounce, words as wholes. A child is given a general impression of the look of a word, and then this ' visual impress ' is made vivid by analysis and lasting by repetition. An easy sentence is written on the black board or exhibited on a tablet. The teacher points to the words and pronounces them one after the other, the children several times repeat- ing the sounds simultaneously after the teacher. Then the teacher points to the words and requires the children to pro- nounce them without help — forwards, backwards, and taken anyhow. Then single children are called on to pronounce the words pointed to in any order. Then comes the analysis. The teacher asks the children the number of letters in each word ; tells them the names and sounds of each letter; calls on them to pick out the same letters on an alphabet card ; and sets them to print the words on their slates. The eye, like the ear, more readily takes in things as wholes, remembers a word as a whole, and associates its meaning with its foi-m — just as the ear associates its meaning with its sound. The method has, therefore, much to be said in its favour. No one can really be said to read until he takes in words at a glance. This method teaches him to do so from the very first. It likewise helps him considerably to learn how to spell English words — for in this the memory of the eye, the ' look ' of the word, is generally our chief practical aid. Unless care be taken, however, the pro- nunciation — which depends on the dis- tinct articulation of every separate sound — is very likely to suffer. Luther, Martin (6. Eisleben 1483 ; d. 1546), was the son of a miner and metal worker. His parents gave him a good ?00 LYCEUM MAINTENON, MARQUISE DE education. At the age of fourteen they sent him to study Latin at Magdeburg and at Eisenach. His father designed him for law, but his piety led him to join the order of St. Augustine. We have not here to deal with his long search after truth in the Bible, his fearless quarrel with the popish authorities, and his work as a reli- gious reformer, but merely with his views as a practical educationist. ' If I were not a minister of the Gospel,' he said, ' I should like to be a schoolmaster.' He boldly proclaimed the necessity of educa- tion for all, and exposed the absurd methods of ' darkening knowledge ' in vogue in schools previous to the Reformation. In 1520 he came out boldly on the question in his Letter to the German Aristocracy, and in 1524, in his Letter to the Governing Bodies of all the Toions of Geronany. In the former he demanded the reorganisa- tion of the universities and schools, whilst in the latter he urged that it was the duty of the authorities to ameliorate the con- dition, intellectual and moral, of the people. In 1525 he even organised a school at his native Eisleben. Amazed at the ignorance of the people, he drew up in 1529 his Great and Small Catechisms, and introduced them into the schools for religious instruction. In 1530 he published a sermon On the Necessity of sending Children to School. These were followed by various other sepa- rate works, besides the numerous passages which abound in his writings in favour of sound education. Whilst he maintained that parents ought to educate their chil- dren, he openly avowed that, where they failed to do so, it was the duty of the ma- gistrates to interfere, and take the matter into their own hands. He advocated that boys and girls should not be taught more than two hours a day, as the former ought to have time to learn a trade, and the latter to learn domestic duties. In his instruc- tions to inspectors he gave a detailed ac- count of the work to be done, and the authors to be read, &c. The list is full of sound sense and sound religion. See also Law (Educational), section Saxony. Lyceum (Gr. Xwetos = the wolf-slayer). This term has assumed various meanings in different ages and countries. Among the Greeks it signified the gymnasium with covered walks in the eastern suburb of Athens, where Aristotle taught, so named from the neighbouring temple of Apollo Lyceus. Among the Romans it signified an educational establishment, such, for instance, as that in the Tuscula- num of Cicero, or in the villa of Adrian at Tibur. Nowadays it generally denotes a second-class training school, a school or literary seminary between a common school and a college. In France it is the highest class of secondary school, containing eight classes, while in Italy it fills the place of the higher classes of the German gymna- sium. In English-speaking communities the term is applied to an association for literary improvement by means of lectures on science and literature. M Madras System. See Monitorial System. Maintenon, Marquise de (6. 1635 ; d. 1719). — The family name of this re- markable woman was Frangoise d'Aubigne. She was the granddaughter of a distin- guished French Protestant writer, Theo- dore A. d'Aubign^, and was born in a prison, where her father was incarcerated for his heretical opinions. After her father's death Frangoise was converted to the Catholic faith, and at sixteen mar- ried the poet Scarron. On his death in 1669 she was reduced to poverty, and ulti- mately became governess to the two sons of Louis XIV. by Madame de Montespan. The devotion with which she discharged the duties of this position made the king her friend for life. He gave her a hundred thousand livres, with which she purchased the Maintenon estate, and created her a Marchioness. Her influence over the king gradually increased, and in 1685 she was privately married to the Grand Monarque. Her ascendency, which remained undimi- nished down to the king's death in 1715, she employed, among other purposes, to found at St. Cyr an important school for poor girls, which she supported and super- intended with the greatest devotion from 1686 down to her death there in 1719. Her letters, edited by Lavallee, are among MANAGEMENT MANN, HORACE 201 the most cliarmiiig in the French language, and show the deep interest she took in her educational work. See (1) her Lettres sur Veducation des filles ; (2) Entretiens sur Veducation desjilles ; (3) Conseils aux de- inoiselles ; (4) Memoires des Dames de St. Cyr, &LG. Management. See School Manage- ment. Managers. — Every voluntary school is under the direction of a body of managers, whose duty it is to make all necessary arrangements for its efficient working. School Boards are the managers of all schools provided by them, but they may delegate the charge of any particular school to managers appointed by them. Every body of managers must consist of at least three persons, and if the school be not pro- vided by a Board, a form signed by three managers miist be sent to the Education Department, authorising one of the three to sign the receipts for grants. Managers are also required to appoint a correspon- dent with the Department. Managers are held responsible for the conduct of their schools, for their maintenance in efficiency, for the care of the health of individual scholars who may need to be withheld from examination or relieved from some part of the school work throughout the year, and for the provision of all needful fur- niture, books, and apparatus. Mann, Horace (1796-1859), a native ■of Massachusetts, was the most eminent and successful promoter of popular educa- tion in the United States during the nine- teenth century. After acting as classical teacher at Providence, he, in 1821, took up the study of law, and for a few years pursued the profession of advocate. In 1827 he was elected a member of the Le- gislative Assembly, and six years later of the senate of Massachusetts, becoming pre- sident of the latter body in 1836. His earliest public labours were in the cause of religious liberty, the suppression of lot- teries, the promotion of temperance, and in favour of the introduction of railways. As a lawyer, statesman, and philanthro- pist, he had achieved a great reputation among his fellow countrymen, and was already selected for the important work of codifying the statutes of his native State, when, in 1837, he abandoned all his other public and professional pursuits in order to accept the ill-remunerated post of . secretary of the newly established Bureau of Education, and to devote himself thence- forward exclusively to the promotion of popular education. In this office, which he filled for twelve years with untiring energy, working as a rule sixteen hours a day, he rendered to the cause of education services for which Americans will never cease to be grateful. In the performance of his task of spreading elementary educa- tion and improving the methods of teach- ing, Mann had recourse to three agencies : (1) he instituted a series of periodical conferences of teachers ; (2) he published a monthly periodical, The Common School Journal, and (3) he wrote Annual Reports to his committee of the progress made from year to year in the work of education. Of the nature of the subjects discussed in the periodical conferences, a volume which he published in 1840 presents a sample. The subjects of the sev(>n conferences therein reported are: 1. 'Means and Object of Popular Schools.' 2. ' The Professional Preparation of Teachers.' 3. ' The Neces- sity of Education in a Republic' 4. ' What God does, and what He leaves us to do in Education.' 5. ' Historical Survey of Edu- cation ; its Dignity and its Degradation.' 6. 'District School Libraries.' 7. ' School Punishments.' On the third of the pre- ceding subjects Mann delivered a stirring speech, in which he contended, with con- vincing eloquence, that the safety of society under a republic (and therefore under any form of government where the suffrage is practically universal) depends on the moral and mental education of the masses. In his Common School Journal, which he edited for ten years, he dealt with the school topics of the day, and urged his ideas in detail on teachers. His twelve Annual Reports to the Board of Education are a collection of real historical value. In 1843 Mann paid a visit to Europe for the pur- pose of making himself personally familiar with the condition of elementary educa- tion in the most advanced countries in this quarter of the globe. The results of this journey he embodied in his seventh Annual Report, which attracted unusual attention, not only in America, but also in England and other parts of the world. The subjects dealt with by Mann in his Annual Reports embraced school architecture, school li- braries, the synthetic method of teaching reading, school hygiene, school singing, the uniformity of school text-books, the or- dinary faults of scholars, and school pun- 20: MANUAL INSTRUCTION ishments, &c. The professional training of teachers and the question of the ad- mission of women as teachers in boys' schools also largely engaged Mann's at- tention. He was, in fact, the real founder of the first Normal School in America — that which was opened at Lexington in 1839, and to which females were admitted. In the maintenance of discipline in schools, and in the formation of the personal cha- racters of the scholars, Mann attached very great value to the influence of reli- gion, in the sense of the spirit of unsec- tarian Christianity, and to this end he ad- vocates the reading of the Bible in schools. On the death of John Quincy Adams in 1848, Horace Mann was elected by a large majority to represent Massachusetts in the senate of the United States, whereupon he resigned his position as secretary of the Massachusetts Educational Bureau. At Washington he advocated the creation of a National Educational Office for the whole of the United States, similar to the insti- tution which he had conducted with such salutary results in his native State ; but he was not destined to see the realisation of this idea, which was not carried out until the year 1867. Towards the end of his life he accepted the rectorship of the unfortunate Antioch College in Ohio, where he died in 1859. His widow wrote a life of Mann, and edited his correspondence. In 1865 a statue was erected to his memory, the expense being defrayed by a general subscription of all the teachers and pupils in the schools of Massachusetts. Manual Instruction is a vague phrase for the different schemes wherein pupils are to be taught : (1) to use their hands as well as their heads, and (2) not to be ashamed of manual labour. In this sense writing, the mechanism of arithmetic, and drawing, form parts of all ordinary Eng- lish education, whilst Gymnastics, Model- ling, Turning, Slojd (q.v.), &c., are gradu- ally being introduced. Colonel Parker (School Journal, New York, December 10, 1887) defined manual training as ' one of several modes of thought-expres- sion.' The mode of expression by means of language and symbol is most largely taught in schools. A second mode of ex- pression by forms which exhibit the idea or ideal to some extent is seen in drawing. The third mode would use actual models, specimens, and things as free as possible from conventions. It would use these for its own purposes only, lest we should have the reverse-action fault which caused a youth to define ' an atom ' as ' round balls, of wood invented by Dr. Dal ton.' Such plans assume (1) that the present systems- of primary education are too ' bookish ' and unstimulating ; (2) that the education begun in the primary schools should be continued in some form, more or less op- tional, and supplied, either from local or national funds, after the youth has passed the standards or has gone to work, usually without any knowledge of the most ele- mentary facts and principles which under- lie his work. A useful article in The Spectator, January 21, 1888, states that manual instruction has been recommended from three standpoints : (1) The increase of skill on the part of the workman. (2) The necessity of '■'practical teaching,' not ' book learning,' for the labouring classes. This is somewhat akin to the common answer of the Lancashire work- man to his apprentice, ' Tha wants to know ta mich. Tha do exactly what a tell tha and tha'll do reet.' (3) The ne- cessity of teaching by means of things as well as by notions. This standpoint is of coiirse part of the general platform for the teaching of science, with experiments when possible, and with the object of training the faculties of observation and manipulative skill at the same time as the mental faculties. In this respect good work has long been done at a few Englisli public schools, and notably Clifton Col- lege. In practical chemistry and physics the little manuals by Messrs. Shenstone and Worthington (Bivingtons) are in- stances of good pioneer work in our first- grade schools. The university colleges are making wonderful strides, and even at Oxford and Cambridge manual instruc- tion, not only in physics but in engineer- ing, may be obtained by the undergra- duates. Thring led the way by institut- ing a carpenter's 'shop' at Uppingham. But the general lack of provision for prac- tical work with mental discipline is patent in the majority of our schools. To head- masters it means trouble (especially until more teachers are trained), and to gover- nors expense. Hence misapprehension ex- ists. In the United States the cause of manual training is warmly taken up. The centre of activity is the Industrial Edu- cation Association, 9 University Place, New York ; resident and first head of MANUAL INSTRUCTION- -MAPS 203 the Training College (1887), Dr. Nicholas M. Butler. The importance of the move- ment is seen by the fact that in its third, year of existence it could take the old Union Theological Seminary at a rent of 1,200?. a year. Its fundamental article of faith is, ' That the complete develop- ment of all the faculties can be reached only through a system of education which combines the training found in the usual course of study with the elements of manual ti"aining.' The Association claims as a fact generally recognised, that the Kindergarten System {q.v.) produces the best results with young children, and it would combine a modified development of this system with ordinary book-learning. Industrial education comprises (1) techni- cal education, (2) manual training. The Association desires to remove the wrong impression that manual instruction means teaching trades. ' The argument is psycho- logical and educational. It is not econo- mic or utilitarian.' It takes no account of the social and economic benefits known to result from manual training. The schools are not established for the pur- pose of teaching pupils how to make a living, but to teach them how to live. A wide-spread disinclination for manual labour is confessed ; hence this supple- mentary, or rather complementary, move- ment is expected, in the words of the Re- port from Springfield, Mass., ' to foster a higher appreciation of the value and dignity of intellectual labour, and the worth and respectability of labouring men.' Chicago has not only a Manual Train- ing School, but a ' Women's Institute of Technical Design.' Generally speaking, where the manual feature has been intro- duced ' the kitchen and the sewing- room for the girls have held an equal place with the bench and the forge for the boys ' {Albany N.Y. Report, October 3, 1887). The Americans seem to have been par- ticularly impressed by the Imperial Tech- nical School at Moscow, the pioneer in 1868, and Government commissioners have reported in the wake of the English Tech- nical Commission. These reports, the scholastic journals, and the above Associa- tion, whose object is the creation of public interest and belief in the value of indus- trial education, should be referred to. The position of many thoughtful public men was thus given by the Governor of the State of New York in his last message to the Legislature (1877) : ' The present sys- tem is insufiicient for the future needs of our American youth. I would therefore recommend making manual training, with- in certain limits, a part of the public school system, certainly in the cities and larger towns of this State.' (*S'ee Bain, Science of Educatio7i, pp. 169, 235-36, 272-80 ; George Combe, Education : its Principles and Practice, p. 313 (Macmillan & Co., 1869) — a posthumous edition by Mr. Jolly ^ and R. Galloway's Education, Scientific and Technical (Triibner & Co., 1881). Mr. Galloway gives many practical hints.) Maps, — -The rapidly increasing popula- rity of maps in newspapers, school text- books, (fee, is intimately connected with the development of geographical teaching. It is a general fault that text-books are used too much, and maps too rarely. Even in distinguished schools it is too commonly supposed that the use of an atlas is quite analogous to the use of a dictionary. Yet all teachers are aware that to teach pupils to read a map intelligently involves con- siderable training, great pains, and the use of appliances. A map (from mapj^a, Latin, napkin, c.f. the old titles mappa mundi, &c.) is not so much a pictorial representation of a portion of the earth's surface viewed from above, as a record of the larger and more permanent features of parts of the earth's surface which is the standpoint of geography. These features are primarily recorded on physical maps, and they should be first used. The conven- tional distinctions between charts, maps, and plans should be noticed. It is not possible to classify the difierent sorts of maps here ; the teacher must make the selection for his own purposes, basing subsequent meteorological, political, and historical investigations upon the physical and geological maps accessible. It is always unfortunate for pupils to have ordinary politically-coloured maps ('full- coloured' as publishers call them) placed before them in the first instance. This is a fault encouraged by limiting pupils to the use of one atlas ; it serves to keep up the artificial barriers between 'political' and 'physical' geography, and produces bad effects in the study of history. Sepa- rate maps should be bought as they are needed. Teachers and pupils should also prepare maps for their own purposes. It is often most advisable to make a graduated series of maps in the same scale of any 204 MAPS- -MASON COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM important country. The statigram maps, i.e. those marking statistics of a complex or political nature upon the ordinary phy- sical features, would then naturally follow the latter. The logical order is well illus- trated by Huxley's treatment of the Thames basin in his Physiography (Macmillan, 6s.). Detailed suggestions on the physical side of maps, &c., will be found in Geikie's book on The Teaching of Geography (Macmillan, 1887, 2s. U). Maps are the characteristic instruments of the geographer, just as much as intra- molecular structure is the special field of the chemist. Maps are also measures of the progress of geographical science. They should not, therefore, be hastily thrust upon the beginner, any more than they should be overlooked at later stages. Erom the topography of the neighbourhood is to proceed in the most natural way from the known to the unknown. Simple plans based on (i.) familiar bearings, (ii.) the cardinal points, should lead to further knowledge 'out of bounds.' Scale should be attended to at a very early stage. The maps of the Government Ordnance Survey (agents : Stanford s, Charing Cross, London, S.W., or local map publishers) should be used by the teacher, and introduced to the elder stu- dents. The usual English method of a scale of one inch to the mile is a re- duction of ~^. These representative fractions are conveniently given on Conti- nental maps in exact round numbers, e.g. 1 : 20,000,000 for a small map of Europe. The metric system should not be neglected, and a table of comparison scales kept for use. It is well worth remembering that thirteen square, or eight linear kilometres equal about five English statute miles. The distinction between statute miles and geographical miles or knots should be carefully taught, and the latter preferred. Localisation by means of meridians and parallels should come later, and the amount of geometry and astronomy to be taught is a matter of circumstances. The reading of maps as a selection of geographical matter is the first thing to be aimed at, and the constant reference of the geogra- pher's material to places and to maps involves a supply, variety, and selection of the latter in schools which is not yet (1888) recognised by the majority of them. The public have also to learn to discrimi- nate between good and bad maps. The publishers of good maps in Britain are few in number. Teachers should therefore encourage those who make cartography a speciality, and it will soon be found that British publishers are prepared to compete with the leading Continental ones. The education of teachers in this matter will soon react on the publishers' stocks. Mean- while the teacher should always make free use of the blackboard, globes, pictures, and occasionally, at least, of the magic-lantern. Map-drawing is too much treated as a drawing, not a geographical exercise. Time and common sense are both against elabo- rate home lesson maps drawn on blank paper. The insertion of meridians after the outline defeats one of the objects of the lesson. Outline maps for 'filling in,' either in or out of school, can be purchased. The 'blank projections ' sold are very useful in testing knowledge, or for use in school lessons on contours. Much greater variety with more intelligent system is needed. The chief object here should be to get pupils to know the main outline of the world as they know the multiplication table. Advanced students with some knowledge of mathematics may usefully acquire some of the elements of surveying, checking their results by the ordnance maps. Provided that jorinciples and me- thods are studied, the work has much educational value, and is much practised in military schools. The Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society contain papers by eminent travellers describing how their observations were made. Young men likely to visit comparatively unknown regions should learn the use of the chief.. instruments before they go abroad. Faci- lities are provided by the Society (Address : The Secretary, 1 SavileRow, London, E.C.). Intending travellers can now, by arrange- ment, be instructed in (1) surveying and mapping, (2) geology, (3) botany, (4) pho- tography ] fee, 2s. 6o?. an hour. The mag- nificent collection of maps is open free to teachers from 10 to 5, on Saturdays from 10 to 2 p.m. The Teachers' Guild (17 Buckingham St., Strand, W.C.) has a use- ful circulating library of books, &c., for its members. [See also Mathematical Geo- graphy.) Map Projections. See Mathematical Geography Marking-. See School Management. Mason College, Birmingham. See Provincial Colleges. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 205 Mathematical Geography is an elas- tic term. It does not mean ' a description of the earth on mathematical principles,' nor even such portion of the field of geo- graphy as involves mathematics. In the latter case it would tread upon much phy- sical geography and geo-physics, and upon the advanced treatment of political geo- graphy by the discussion of comparative statistics. The almost uniform subdivision of geography, like Ancient Gaul, ' in tres partes,' is familiar' to every teacher. The opening chapter of text-books is usually devoted to mathematical geography. On the pi"inciple of proceeding from the known to the unknown this method is unscienti- fic. It begins by asking a young student to disbelieve his senses, and then to accept a crude summaiy of what are strictly as- tronomical facts. This educational extreme was exhibited in the older generation by ' the use of the globes ' as an advertise- ment for a ladies' school. We have the other extreme now in the infrequent use of globes. The true work of geography is to give answers to the question. Where ? These soon lead to (1) the reading and (2) the making of Maps (q.v.). Teaching about meridians and parallels leads to inquiries about (1) shape and (2) 'motions of the earth. This may, of course, be indefinitely expanded into the domain of Astronomy. But the problems involved in the investi- gation of the earth's shape have conve- niently been focussed around the subject of Geodesy. The standard book is Col. A. R. Clarke's Geodesy (Clarendon Press, 1882). This subject involves advanced mathematics, astronomy, and practical sur- veying. In connection with the motions of the earth, the main facts first and then the explanation of the facts of (i.) day and night, (ii.) the seasons, (iii.) air and water currents should be taught, (i.) and (ii.) are usually given in ' mathematical geo- graphy,' and (iii.) in 'physical geography.' Tides are, however, very mathematical, and even the bare explanations usually given involve a knowledge of the solar system and dynamical laws. See Prof. Haughton's Manual on Tides (Cassell & Co.). Hence the importance of teaching some simple elementary physics and me- chanics before these matters are discussed. The use of orreries and other mechanical contrivances to teach planetary motions is a vexed question. If not dangerous in the hands of a skilful teacher, they are cer- tainly very expensive and liable to easy derangement. It is better to spend money first on globes and maps. The mathema- tical principles of (iv.), climate, are closely connected with (i.) and (ii.). The advanced discussion has usually been claimed by geological text-books. The teacher who is also a student will enjoy Croll's Climate and Time, where the controversies between the astronomers and geologists are sum- marised. But they proceed outside the sphere of the scientific geographer, except so far as the latter can deal with the pro- blems of terrestrial physics. Practically it will be found that carto- graphy and m^ap projections are more closely allied to geography, for they in- volve the most scientific answers to the question, Where ? A very brief account of the principal projections is given in many text-books. Grove's Primer of Geo- graphy (Macmillan & Co., Is.) shows what is possible for young pupils when the teacher begins to deal with a large portion of the globe at one view. There are some ingenious thi'ead and wire models on sale, but ample scope exists for the ingenuity of teachers. The notions of projections do not come easily to most minds. The various schemes for ' projecting' the whole or less of the earth's surface on a flat paper surface have for centuries — with long in- tervals of neglect — taxed the ingenuity of astronomers. They form, however, the delights of the advanced mathematician or, in a small way, the business occupation of professional cartographers. Various mi- litary engineers and marine surveyors have also contributed to the study. There is a text-book in English by the lateW. Hughes, who was both a geographer and a carto- grapher. Treatise on the Construction of Maps (Longmans, 1864), but the best treatises are in French, German, Italian, and Russian. Mercator's projection is the only one here needing notice. It is most dangerous to use it exclusively. Its special purpose and the great exaggerations of area (about thirty- two times in lat. 80°) should be pointed out by the side of the globe and the hemisphere projections. In some of the late Keith John- ston's maps, in a map of the world pub- lished by J. Hey wood, Manchester, and in others the projection is not, as at first sight, Mercator's, but Gall's, devised about 1840. Mr. Gall corrected the longitude at the forty-fifth parallel, and the exagge- 206 MATHEMATICS r.ation in important parts is only half that of Mercator's. It has other advantages. The difficulties of projection are humour- ously illustrated in Mr. Ravenstein's paper ' On the Reading of Geography ' {E. G. S. Report, 1886 — Educational Supplement). Mercator,i.e. Gerald Kaufmann, of Rupel- monde, near Antwerp, deserves honour from evei'y true teacher. He was an ar- dent geographer, who lived a bright un- selfish life, and did much for the progress of Europe. He spent his long life in pro- ducing the first Atlas, and allowed his friend, Ortelius, to first publish his volume of maps, Theatvuin Mundi. Mercator had been working forty years at cartography before he put foi'th, in 1569, the projection which has immortalised his name. Before liim the maps had been, dui'ing many cen- turies, without parallels, and even in the present century there have been gross ab- surdities in many maps. In schools where surveying is a subject the science of car- tography is taught in some detail with the help of the British Ordnance maps and others. The use of such maps is also ne- cessary to tlie practical geologist. Young travellers do well to consult the officials at the Royal Geographical Society, or other- wise to acquire practical knowledge of the use of observing instruments, itc, and of map-making under travelling conditions, and to take Hints to Travellers (Stanford, London, 5s.) with them. Teachers on the Continent sometimes have ai'rangements made for them to take pupils on observing tours. This is, of course, in cases where geography is made the subject of separate professorships ; but in English-speaking countries this is not yet usual. The most practical side of ' mathematical geography ' is seen in the training of commercial tra- vellers, tfcc, to bring home adequate re- ports, or in training officers, such as the learned pundits of the Indian Survey De- partment, to make the best use of their chances of observation. See Col. Holdich on The Art of acquiring Geograjihical In- formation (Asiatic Quarterly Review, 1888, p. 154). The general literature on mathe- matical geography is scattered and not easily accessible. It is bound up with pSee Mnemonics). On the nature and cultivation of the memory see Dugald ! Stewart, Ms. of the Phil, of the Htiman ' Mind, pt. i. chap. vi. ; Bain, Education as I a Science, p. 20 and following ; Sully, I Teacher's Handbook, chap. ix. and x. with references at the end. I Mercator. See Mathematical Geo- i GRAPHY. Merit Grant. See Payment by Re- sults. Method. — By method (/aeOoSos, /xera and oSos) is meant the way in which we pro- ceed to attain any object so far as this can be formulated in definite rules. Me- thod has thus to be distinguished from a mere orderly sequence, which may be simply a traditional rule-of-tlmmb manner of proceeding. Every true art possesses its method. In its logical signification method may be defined as the art of arranging our thoughts, whether for the purpose of discovering truth or for that of making it known to others. In this sense method or methodology is sometimes marked off as a special department of logic. This double object gives rise to one main dis- tinction of method, viz. that of discovery and that of instruction. Another distinc- tion of method related to this is that between the inductive and the deductive method, the first of which proceeds by ex- amining particular instances and deriving the general principle or rule from these, whereas the second follows the converse order of deducing particular results from general principles. {See Deduction and Induction.) These two modes of distin- guishing method must not be viewed as identical. The discovery of truth, though to a large extent proceeding by induction, requires deduction as a supplementary pro- cess. On the other hand, the true method of instruction must combine the inductive process of detecting general rules through and by means of concrete examples with the deductive explanation of new facts by 214 MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF THE) tlie aid of g-oueral truths already leariit. Anotlier distiuotion of method related to that of iuduetiou and deduetion is that known as analysis and synthesis (see Analysis). In addition to these funda- mental distinetions we tind writers on education speaking of other varieties of method. Thus we have the contrast be- tween the en^pirical and the rational or scientitic method [see EmpiktoaljNIetuod) ; the distinction between the intuitive or concrete and the abstract method, between tlie heuristic or inventive and the dogmatic metliod. and so fortli. It can easily be shown, however, that these distinctions, so far as tliey embody a real ditierence of logical method, and not merely a difference of mode or manner of proceeding, take us back to tlie fundamental distinction be- tween induction and deduction, that is to say. the setting out with concrete fact or example and with abstract principle. (See Jevons, Ul. Lessons, xxiv. ; Compayre, Cours de Pedai^ogie, pt. ii. sec. i. ; Schmidt's Enci/clopddie, art. ' Methode.') Middle Ag^es (Schools of the).— The social conditions iinder which people lived in the Middle Ages were such that, ex- cept for those intended for ecclesiastical offices, education was not only not a neces- sity, but even a superfluity. Accordingly we should expect to tind that the tirst schools bi'ought into existence when Wes- tern Europe emerged from its political and social convulsions into comparative repose would be ecclesiastical in character, and that for many years these would be the only schools. We should further expect to tind that, where the desire for some in- tellectual training arose among the laity, it would lirst show itself among the lei- sured and wealthy classes, in the courts of princes and the castles of nobles. This natui-al process of development is the actual one. Passing over the earlier and more spasmodic efforts to train candidates for the priestly office, it will be sufficient here to start from the first oi'ganised effort in this direction made by the great founder of Western monasticism, St. Bene- dict (480—34:1). The monasteries under his rule included ^^-ithin their precincts schools — schools in the oldest and widest sense of the term, not as now limited in the age of the scholars and the range of the instruction — where the regiilar clergy themselves attended for instruction as part of the discipline of the monastery, and also where the your.g children and youths dedicated by their parents to the religious life were pi-epared for the strict profession which they would in due course adopt. It is natural, and, as far as can be gathered, it is the case, that the monastic theory of education in those times entirely excluded attention to secu- lar learning. Gregory the Great (544- 604), who was such a zealous suppoi'ter of the Benedictines, undoubtedly opposed any such inclusion ; and the energies of Archbishops Theodore and Hadrian, the patrons of clerical education in England in the seventh century, though vigorously directed to the education of both the regu- lar and secular clergy, were equally vigo- rously directed against the introduction of secular learning into their scheme of education. Coming to the eighth cen- tury, the names of Bishop Aldhelm, hiui- self educated at Hadrian's monastic school at Canterbury, and ' of the ' Venerable ' Bede, also educated at Canterbury after passing through the monastic schools at Wearmouth and Jarrow, stand out con- spicuously as the promoters of education in England. The former founded a school at Malmesbury, and the latter, the famous cathedral school at York, Avhich not only opened its doors to the seciilar clergy, but also soon expanded its curriculum to in- clude the more liberal studies, such as the " pagan ' Latin and Greek writers. Here Alcuin (735-807), who was not a monk, and was a widely-read Greek and Latin scholar, was educated, to become the most learned man of his age. His reputation j was such that Charlemagne sent to York to implore his assistance in the efforts tlie great king was then making for the re- vival of letters in France ; and there is no doubt that the monastic and cathedral schools founded in France under Alcuin's influence have had lasting results upon the progress of education all through Western Europe. But Charlemagne went further, and the next step in the extension of the field of learning was reached by his ear- nest promotion of lai/ schools. Education had become, at last, a desired luxury, if not a necessity, for the ruling classes ; and Charlemagne instituted the palace school, where the children and youth of the king and his nobles could be pi-epared in all coui'tly accomplishments, which were now no longer confined to proficiency in the old unintellectual pas- MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF THE) 215 times, but which included literature, espe- cially poetry, music, and the fine arts. This step of Charlemagne's marks a distinct epoch in the history of education, and henceforth we note, by a distinct and easy transition, the development of liberal education both in England and France, the widening of the curriculum in monas- tic and cathedral schools themselves, and the extension of their advantages to other classes of society downwards through the social scale. The monasteries and cathe- drals added to the scope of their functions already named that of training the young of the laity residing in their neighbour- hoods, now every day growing more and more populous. Accordingly we find two kinds of schools existing : the internal school for the clergy and those preparing for the profession, which was situated within the precincts of the cloisters ; and the external school for the laity, which was held in a building outside the monas- tery or cathedral proper, but usually within its precincts. And then another development took place. As monasticism declined, and education fell almost ex- clusively into the hands of the bishops and secular clergy, the range of liberal studies became further enlarged, and a consequent increase in the complexity of school education followed. The disad- vantages arising from the training of both the young and the adult in the same school became increasingly obvious ; and the principles of the division of labour and centralisation were called into action to produce the desired improvement. First the bishops, and then, following their ex- ample and actuated by similar motives, the nobles, founded those schools for the more adult students, and for the highest education, at Oxford and Cambridge in England, at St. Andrews in Scotland and elsewhere, which we know under the name of Universities, but which still re- tain in their local nomenclature the fact that they are, in the old sense of the word, ' schools,' like the ' school at Wittenberg,' to which Shakespeare makes Prince Ham- let desirous of proceeding. The colleges, as places for the resi- dence and supervision of the students at- tending a university, must be looked upon as institutions naturally, but not neces- sarily, arising out of the conditions under which students from all parts of the coun- try attend a central place of instruction. The university was the ' school ' in con- nection with which each college was the ' boarding-house.' A university can exist without colleges ; it is the cause of their existence, not its effect. This conception of the university as an institution not in- dependent of school, but part of school, really the highest and final stage of school, is most conspicuously apparent by the ac- tion of Bishop William of Wykeham, who conceived simultaneously (a.d. 1370) the boarding-house and school, comprising his college at Winchester for boys up to six- teen or seventeen years of age, and the boarding-house at Oxford, known as New College, for those of his scholars at Win- chester who intended completing their scholastic studies at that university. The whole movement was alike a protest against the illiberal conception of school fostered by the monks, which had nar- rowed, rather than widened, under their growing demoralisation, but was also a tangible proof of the enlightened convic- tion of the bishops that the standard and character of the education of the English gentleman must be raised more and more if he was to fulfil the duties devolving upon him. And Bishop Wykeham does not stand alone. The same large-minded scheme presented itself in the next cen- tury to Bishop Chichele, who founded All Souls', Oxford, in connection with his school at Higham- Ferrers, in Northamp- tonshire; to Bishop Waynflete, who founded Magdalen College, Oxford, and connected with it both Magdalen College School at Oxford itself and his Grammar School at Waynflete, in Lincolnshire ; and notably to Henry YL, who erected and endowed within a few years of each other King's College at Eton (1441) and King's College at Cambridge (1446). The movement to meet the educational needs of the burgesses and traders in the towns — the middle classes, as we now term them — comes next in historic order, and must be briefly touched upon. This por- tion of the community, wholly left out of account by the monasteries, was not alto- gether lost sight of l;y the cathedral chap- ters. The inhabitants of the cathedral cities themselves, of course, enjoyed all that the learning of the cathedral clergy could supply ; but, in some dioceses, the cathedral authorities established branch or subordinate schools in other towns, which were known as collegiate schools. 216 MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF THE) At the same time it was to the fi-iars, or mendicant ordei's, that the trading classes are chiefly indebted for the educational advantages which reached them by their efforts in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The work of the Franciscan or Dominican was not carried on in the retirement of cloisters, but in the busiest haunts of men ; and they inspired a reli- gious revival in the towns, which created, as a necessary consequence, a conscious- ness of ignorance and a thirst for know- ledge. The trade guilds, organisations which had in their inception the sole purpose of regulating trade dealings, pro- tecting trade interests, settling the condi- tions of apprenticeship, and acting as a court of appeal in trade disputes, became also, under the influence of the friars, organisations for spiritual ministration by the erection of chantries and the main- tenance of preaching friars and secular priests, for the offering of masses for the faithfvil departed, for the exercise of Christian charity towards the aged and infirm, and, finally, for the education of the young. The guild of Corpus Christi at Cambridge is a case in point. Founded originally as a purely trade guild in Ed- ward I.'s reign, it obtained in Edward IIL's reign (1352) letters patent enabling it to acquire and manage a house of scholars, chaplains, and others, which is now known as Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. The growing thirst for knowledge among the townsfolk reacted upon the friars themselves, and they sought admission and obtained a welcome at the universities. There they applied themselves with ardour to the studies of the place, and became consummate masters of rhetoric and dia- lectics. What knowledge of the physical laws of the universe was then possible to the world became their inheritance by right of earnest and untii^ing intellectual effort. Thomas Aquinas (1227-1274), the most learned of the ' schoolmen,' and Roger Bacon (1214-1292), the greatest physicist of the Middle Ages, were both friars, while Simon de Montfort (1206- 1265), who must have been conspicuous among his fellows in these early times for the keenness of his political instinct, was a pupil of the friars. Besides the schools above mentioned, the following are some of the schools Avhich were in existence at the time of the Schools Inquiry Commis- sion, 1862-68, and which date their original foundation as far back as the Middle Ages : — Carlisle {temp. William II.), Derby (1160), Huntingdon {temp. Henry II.), Salisbury (1319), St. David's (before 1363), Hereford (before 1385), Penrith (1395), Oswestry {temp. Henry IV.), Sevenoaks (1432), Ewelme (1437), Wye (1447), Rotherham {temp. Edward TV.). It remains to give some account of the curriculum of the schools of the Middle Ages. The complete course of education comprised the seven so-called liberal arts — grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, music, arith- metic, geometry, and astronomy, the uses of which were set forth in the well-known lines — Gramm loquitur, Dla vera doeet, Bhe verba colorat, 3Ius canit, Ai- nuuierat, Geo ponderat, ^s colit astra. The three first formed the trivium, the four last the quadrivium, the whole making a course of at least seven yeai's. Religion, as a subject of study, is not ex- pressly mentioned, because it was univer- sally regarded as the object and crown of the whole system. But only those monas- tic and cathedral schools which were or- ganised to do the work now undertaken both by the school and the university attempted the complete course ; indeed, it is doubtful whether the large majority even of these schools went beyond the trivium, except the select few which made it their function to give that special train- ing to those of the regular or secular clergy who were qualified to receive it, and who, as the ' schoolmen ' of the eleventh to the fourteenth century, made their names famous for their application of Platonic and Aristotelian dialectics to their schemes of speculative theology. And even of the trivium,, the first subject, grammar, princi- pally Latin, imparted from the works of Priscian and Donatus, was the only one taught to the youths of the neighbourhood of the monastery or cathedral in the ex- ternal schools provided for them. Hence, although the term ' grammar school ' does not occur in deeds of foundation until that of Magdalen College School, founded by Bishop Waynflete (1480), yet the re- ferences to these scliools in contemporary • records contain no allusion to any other subject of instruction than grammar, except occasionally music, and, in the case of cho- rister and cathedral schools, also chanting. One other point is worthy of notice — all the schools of the Middle Ages, with only a few expressly noted exceptions. MIDDLE-CLASS SCHOOLS 217 gave education gratuitously. Their prin- ciple is expressed in the line — Discere si cupias, gratis quod quffiiis liabebis. The scholars for whom the monastic and ■cathedral schools Avere provided were of no one class in particular, but comprised all the children or youth of the neigh- bourhood who desired an education based •on grammar. Among these would be some of all classes, and naturally only a few of the labouring classes. But the oppor- tunity of education was open to all. In some instruments under the seal of the founder, as that of Wye, founded by Archbishop Kempe in 1447, the school is distinctly stated to be ' a college for the instruction of youth, gratis, both rich and poor.' The example thus set by earnest men interested in education in the Middle Ages was followed by the earliest founders of the Reformation and post- Reformation periods. The grammar schools of the Tudor period, whether revived on the ruin and decadence of the monastic schools, or newly endowed by the educational zeal of the 'Revival of Learning' (q.v.), were free schools, in the sense of affording edu- cation gi^atuitously. In another way also we can trace the influence of the school system of the Middle Ages. The grammar of the triviiLin was the germ from which the humanistic education of our English schools, holding the field almost exclusively doAATi to our own day, was developed. This first of the liberal studies, elaborated and perfected by the scholars of the Re- formation, constituted the main — it may fairly be said the only — educational instru- ment for the intellectual training of Eng- lishmen for three centuries afterwards. An interesting and detailed account of the system of endowed schools founded since the Reformation may be found in vol. i. of the Report of the Schools Inquiry Com- missioners, published in 1868. Middle-class Schools. — In the year 1858 a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the education of boys and girls of the labouring class. In 1861 a second Commission was appointed to re- port on the nine greater public schools (q.v.) of the country. These inquiries, however, did not cover the whole ground ; and so in 1864 a third Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into and report on all the schools not included in the re- ports of the former commissions. The work of this third Commission extended over the years 1865-67, and the results of the investigation appeared in 1868 in a Blue-book of twenty volumes. Upon this report was founded the ' Endowed Schools Act' of 1869, which gave au- thority first to the 'Endowed Schools Commissioners,' and afterwards to the ' Charity Commissioners,' to frame new schemes for the better working of the schools dealt with by the inquiry, and, where advisable, to divert to the benefit of the schools other endowments not ori- ginally educational. The report, amongst other things, recommended that the schools should be marked off into grades, accord- ing to the prevailing type of education to be given in each. This type should mainly depend upon the length of time the chil- dren were allowed by their parents to remain at school {Report, vol. i. p. 15). The grades recommended were : third- grade schools, for those whose education is to stop at the age of fourteen or fif- teen ; second-grade, for those remaining up to sixteen or seventeen ; and first- grade, for those continuing their educa- tion up to eighteen or nineteen. With regard to the second-grade schools the re- port advises that they should ' prepare youths for business, for several profes- sions, for manufactures, for the army, for many departments of the Civil Service. Many of the farmers, many of . the richer shopkeepers, many professional men, all but the wealthier gentry, would probably wish to have their sons educated in schools of this sort, if the education were tho- roughly good of its kind.' ' Latin would be a necessity in all but a very few of these schools, since most of the occupa- tions presuppose it in some degree, and many of the examinations prescribe it.' In addition to Latin, one or two modern languages, English literature, and mathe- matics (practical), should be taught {ihid. vol. i. p. 84). Third-grade schools should train boys to become skilled artisans by providing them with ' that basis of sound general education on which alone tech- nical instruction can rest ' (ihid. vol. i. p. 79). They would supply the needs of artisans, smaller shopkeepers, and smaller farmers, and generally of ' the whole of the lowest portion of what is commonly called the middle class.'' In them should be taught reading, writing, arithmetic, 218 MILTON, JOHN English grammar, English history, either some modern language or the elements of Latin, drawing, and a little mathematics (ibid. vol. i. p. 80). The basis of length of time at school on which these grades rested was a sound one ; but the division between the second and third grades did not prove to be rightly placed, either with respect to subjects or parents ; and hence schools of an intermediate type came more into vogue, to which unfortunately the title of ' Middle-class Schools ' has com- monly been given. After the 'Elemen- tary Education Act' of 1871 was passed, and schools of the third grade were prac- tically handed over to the care of the State, the need for middle-class schools became greater than ever. In the best of these schools Latin is now an optional and extra subject, the other subjects be- ing : Erench (and sometimes German), English language and literature, English history, geography, mathematics (prac- tical and theoretical), physical scieiice, drawing, vocal music, reading, writing, and arithmetic. Of late years these schools have been and are very largely used by the cleverer boys from the ele- mentary schools who have passed the fifth, sixth, or seventh standard, and their cur- riculum and organisation are consequently undergoing a new development. (See also an excellent pamphlet on Middle-class Education, by J. B. Lee, Rivingtons, Is.) Milton, John (1608-1674), known to his own age chiefly as a vigorous political pamphleteer and a learned theological con- troversialist, and to all after ages as the author of Paradise Lost, has liere to be considered only as a schoolmaster; the most notable man, we may safely assert, who ever pursued the 'homely, slighted trade.' It was in 1639, soon after his return from Italy, that Milton undertook the education and instruction of his sister's two sons, John and Edward Phillips, and from the younger of his two nephews is derived the little that we know directly of Milton's practice as a teacher. In 164:0 he removed from a lodging in St. Bride's Churchyard to ' a pretty garden house in Aldersgate, 'then almost a suburban quarter of London. Here in 1643 he received other pupils, ' the sons of some gentlemen that were his intimate friends,' so says Phillips, who wishes to present his uncle as an amateur, not a professional school- master. Of the course of studies pursued we only know that it was multifarious and unremitting, even Sundays being fully oc- cupied with divinity lessons. As far as numbers went Milton was a successful master; in 1645 he had to remove to a larger house in Barbican ; but we do not know that any of his pupils . attained to eminence, and the after career of his two nephews must, as Mr. F. D. Maurice re- marks, have been one of those bitter dis- appointments which attend the life of every great I'eformer. But it is with Milton as a theorist rather than as a practical school- master that we are concerned ; yet it is well to bear in mind that though his great tract on education seems purely utopian, yet it has a basis of personal experience, and the methods therein advocated had, in part at least, been tested in the school- room. The tractate Of Education : to Master Samuel Hartlih, Avas first published on June 5, 1644. It is described by the author as ' that voluntary idea which hath long in silence presented itself to me of a better education, in extent and compre- hension far more large, and yet ofttimes far shorter and of attainment far more certain than hath been yet in practice.' Of such a well known book an analysis would be superfluous, and it has been re- cently edited for the Pitt Press by Mr. O. Browning. All we can here attempt is to define Milton's historical position, and consider his claims to be numbered among educational reformers. In Milton's trac- tate we see the advance which even literary men nursed on the writings of Greece and Rome had made towards the study of nature. Unfortunately we have no Eng- lish word answering to the German Real- isnius, so when we speak of 'I'eal realism' and ' verbal realism,' we must explain our meaning. The scholars of the Renascence turned away from the material world to study first the style, then the thoughts, of the great writers of antiquity. But from Rabelais onwards there was a protest raised against this idolatry of the classics, and ' things, not woi'ds,' were proposed as the true subjects for teaching. But so ac- customed was every one to turn to books for instruction, that the first i-ealists were what the Germans call ' verbal realists,' i.e. they would teach indeed about things, but for this teaching they would use not the things themselves, but books about them. Milton shows a great advance on the classicists of his day in declaring that MILTON, JOHN MISCHIEVOUSNESS 219 the learning of languages was in itself use- less, and that the scholar might be inferior to the unlettered man who knew his mother tongue ; but he hardly went so far as Ra- belais in recommending the study of actual things, and he would use the ancient wri- tings to give information which would have proved totally out of date and worthless. Thus he would incite and enable his pupils hereafter to improve the tillage of their country by the study of the great authors of agriculture, Cato, Varro, and Columella. For all that appears in the Tractate, the works of Bacon were to Milton a book with seven seals. And in the study of literature there is the same blind reverence for antiquity. Among the poets which will be read with care and pleasure are third-rate authors, such as Nicander, Op- pian, Dionysius; but Chaucer, Spenser, and Shakespeare are ignored, and indeed the only modern authors recommended are those who write of the use of the globes. Judged from a modern point of view, the Tractate has another and even more radical defect. Its chief aim is the communica- tion of knowledge, not the training of faculty. It inculcates omniscience, and there is not a hint of the desirability of specialisation, or the duty that is laid on every master to study and further the in- dividual bent and inclination of his pupils. Milton's ideal pupil is equally ready to be prime minister, command the Channel fleet, and occupy the chair of poetry, rhetoiic, or philosophy. Milton takes his own powers as the standard of human capacity, and would form men in his own image. With haughty self-reliance he formulates his own scheme of education, and sneers at Modern Janua's and Didactics, the two monumental works of his great contemporary which were revolutionising the art of teaching. In spite of these radical defects we shall not with Mr. Pattison pronounce the Trac- tate valueless as a contribution to educa- tional theory, and of purely biographical interest. 1. Negatively, as a protest against the Public School Education of England, which still in a great measure survives, its influence has been great. It is the armoury whence our modern reformei"s — Farrar, Huxley, Seeley, Quick — have bor- rowed their keenest shafts. 2. Positively, it sets before the teacher a noble, if some- what vague and shadowy ideal. Even Mr. Pattison allows that Milton's definition of education has never been improved upon : ' I call a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war.' 3. Although the intellectual curriculum he proposes is absurdly ambitious on the one hand, and pedantically narrow on the other, as deriving all knowledge from the medium of books, yet Milton was the first of the moderns to insist on the co-ordina- tion of physical, moral, mental, and aesthetic training. ' The best teachers of the present day may well have the same object at heart ; and they need not be ashamed to learn from a man who may have made a thousand mis- takes, but who nevertheless had a wisdom and a righteousness of purpose in him which the best and truest living will most delight to honour and to possess.' (From notes of an unpublished lecture by F. D. Maurice, delivered before the Royal In- stitution.) Mind (Science of). See Psychology. MiscMevousness. — This term refers to the disposition to do harm rather from carelessness and wantonness than from any malicious motive. A large part of children's mischievousness springs out of their destructive propensities. That the love of destruction is a strong force in the yotmg and in the untamed adult, is a fact of everyday observation. When the brutal instinct is clearly present in a boy's mischie- vous act, as when he breaks a thing in a fit of passion, the action is a proper subject for reprehension, and, if need be, for punish- ment. At the same time the moral edu- cator must be careful to distinguish savage destruction from the more venial mis- chievousness which springs from mere exuberance of activity and high spirits. It is to be remembered, too, that a good deal of children's mischief-making is the outcome of curiosity and the natural im- pulse to experiment with things. As a quality whose moral gravity cannot safely be estimated by the amount of incon- venience it causes others, mischievousness requires very careful handling. No doubt the child must be trained to see the con- sequences of his wanton acts ; but full allowance must be made for the absence of intention. Much the same line of remark applies too to that form of mischief which, though involving an intention to provoke, springs out of childish roguishness or a love of fun. A wise parent, or teacher will often prefer to pass by such mischief alto- 220 MIXED EDUCATION MODERN LANGUAGES gether than to run the risk of betraying personal annoyance by inflicting an exces- sive penalty. {See Locke, Thoughts on Education, §116; also article ' Unart/ in Schmidt's Encyclojoddie.) Mixed Education. — The education of students of both sexes together. {See Provincial Colleges.) Mixed Schools. See Classification. Mnemonics (from Gr. (jlv^imt], memory) is the art of assisting the memory by defi- nite rules. Various devices have been proposed in ancient and modern times for facilitating the retention and reproduction of what is learnt. These refer to verbal retention, as in learning ofi'a speech, a series of names, &c. The underlying principle of the classical mnemonic system was the association of the consecutive heads of a verbal composition with the divisions of an extended surface or enclosed space, as the compartments of a building, so that when the eye or the imagination ran over these, the order of their arrangement in space would at once suggest the order in time of the words. It is now commonly recognised that these devices can have but a very limited value, and are likely to be a hindrance rather than a help in certain cases. In modern educational systems verse-form, rhyme, and alliteration, to- gether with the investing of disconnected matter, e.g. list of exceptions to a gram- matical rule, with the semblance of a con- nected meaning, have commonly been re- sorted to for the purpose of aiding the memory. The utility of presenting verbal material, such as the chief events of a reign, in a visible form by means of a dia- gram, is well known to every teacher. All such contrivances depend for their efficiency on the working of the Laws of Association, Contiguity, and Similarity, apart or in combination {see Association). It is in- disputable that we all instinctively tend to shorten the process of memorising by a number of such ingenious devices, and these may properly be made use of by the teacher. At the same time, great care must be taken lest, by an excessive use of these, the learner lapse into a mechanical way of learning. It is a far better exer- cise for the mind, and for the memory too, to associate things to be learnt by their natural ties, rather than by artificial ones. And a truly scientific management and control of memory will consist in forming .a habit of concenti'atinc: the mind on the subject matterto belearnt, of judiciously se- lecting important points, and arranging the whole with reference to these, and finally of making the fullest use of the laws of association in linking part with part, and the whole with what is already known. {See D. Stewart. Els. of the Phil, of the Human Mind, chap. vi. § 7 ; Sully, Teacher's Hand- hook, p. 203, &c. ; and Encycl. Brit., art. 'Mnemonics.') Moderations ('Mods '). — The public ex- amination at Oxford before the masters of the schools, which has to be passed by successful candidates for the Bachelor's degree between responsions or 'smalls' (which corresponds to the Cambridge Pre- vious Examination, or 'Little Go') and the second public examination before the public examiners. Modern Languages. — Modern or liv- ing languages are so named in opposition to ancient and dead languages, the most important of which from a scholastic point of view are the so-called classical languages of ancient Greece and Rome — the Greek {q.v.) and Latin {q.v.) — and the Hebrew, in which the Old Testament or religious literature of the ancient Israelites is written. The in- trinsic value of a living language and its educational importance may be deter- mined by the following tests : (1) whether it is the key to a great literature, (2) whether it is spoken by a numerous more or less civilised population, and is there- fore useful for the purposes of commerce, and industry, or diplomacy. The modern tongues answering these tests are very few as compared with the total number of living languages. They are divisible into two great sections, (1) the Western or Occidental, and (2) the Eastern or Oriental languages. Of the latter sec- tion, including Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Chinese, Japanese, and the languages of Hindostan (Hindostani, Bengali, Hindi, Telugu, Tamil, Burmese, &.C.), nothing fur- ther requires to be said in this place, as their study is not comprised within the ordinary curriculum of elementary or se- condary English schools. The Occidental languages comprise the languages of the nations of modern Europe and their nu- merous colonies in North and South America, Africa, and Australia. Of these the most important are : — I. The Teutonic Family (daughters of the Gothic) : MODERN LANGUAGES 221 (a) English. (b) German. (c) Danisli and Norwegian. (d) Swedish. (e) Dutch, Flemish, Frisian, &c, II. The Grteco- Romanic Family (daugh- ters of the Latin and Greek) : (a) French. (6) Italian, (c) Spanish. (d) Portuguese. (e) Roumanian. (/) Modern Greek. III. The Slavonic Family : (a) Russian. (b) Ruthenian or Little Russian. (c) Polish. (d) Czech. (e) Serbian. (f) Bulgarian, Slovenian, &c. In addition to the preceding, the modern European tongues include : lY. The Celtic Family : (a) Welsh. (b) Gaelic. (c) Erse. (d) Manx. (e) Armorican. y. The Lithuanian and Lettish. VI. The Albanian, spoken by the Arnauts in the centre of the Balkan Peninsula. The foregoing six groups represent the modern European section of the great family of languages known as the Aryan or Indo-European. Of non-Aryan tongues there are spoken in Europe : the Finnish, Hungarian, and Esthonian, belonging to the Altai-TJgrian Family ; the Turkish ; the unclassifiable Basque, the ancient language spoken in Northern Spain and the neighbouring dis- tricts of South- Western France ; the lan- guage of the Laplanders, and some other dialects of minor importance. Of all the living languages of Europe there are only six that can on various grounds claim to be regarded as of un- questionably first-rate importance, to wit, English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, and Russian. Five of them are politically important as the native tongues and State languages of the six great Powers. All are commercially important as the languages spoken by races numbering from thirty to forty millions in the case of Italian and Spanish, about forty-five millions in the case of French, sixty millions in the case of German (including the Germans of Austria and Switzerland) and Russian, and one hundred millions in the case of English (including the United Kingdom, the United States, and other Anglo-Saxon colonies). In these languages, too, almost all that is valuable in modern literature is written, and each contains a special and valuable literature of its own. In the conventional phraseology of the scholastic profession in England, however, the term ' modern languages ' is generally used in a still more restricted sense, and is under- stood to mean, not the mother tongue, but only two, or at the most three, foreign living languages, namely, French, German, and Italian. French, Gerinan, and Italian. — Leav- ing, therefore, the English laxiguage, which is dealt with in a separate article (q.v.), we shall proceed to deal with the chief foreign living languages usually taught in English schools. The possession of a competent know- ledge of a foreign living language — the ability, we mean, to speak, to read, to write it, and to translate it accurately, within the limits of ordinary non-technical discourse — is an accomplishment of high and often in- dispensable value, whether for the purposes of commerce, of literary and artistic culture, of travel and international intercourse, or of diplomacy and other professional pur suits. This fact is now so universally ac- knowledged that it would be unnecessary, even if our space permitted, to attempt to prove it in detail. The disadvantages of a total ignorance of foreign languages are keenly felt from the moment one steps on foreign soil to the moment one leaves it. The advantages of linguistic attainments, on the other hand, are every day illustrated by the increasing employment of foreigners, to the detriment of Englishmen, in all our great commercial centres, and in all posi- tions in which a knowledge of a foreign lan- guage (French, German, Spanish, or Rus- sian) is indispensable. The notion that foreigners have a talent for the acquisition of foreign tongues not possessed by Eng- lishmen is, we may parenthetically ob- serve, a pure hallucination. The class of foreigners who best succeed in the way above mentioned in England are Germans, and it is only because (1) the Germans in their own country devote to the gramma- tical and oral study of tongues not their own, years of dogged, persistent labour, 222 MODERN LANGUAGES and because (2) the methods of teaching in German schools are superior, that Ger- mans become more accomplished linguists than Englishmen. No doubt the want of success of young Englishmen in this branch of knowledge is in no small degree attri- butable to the repeated disappointments and false notions arising from the pro- mises of charlatan professors who under- take to teach a foreign language in 'twelve easy lessons of an hour each.' But how any rational English student, who, how- ever old he may be, is aware that he does not yet even know his own language per- fectly, can be deceived by such impostures it is difficult to understand. Not only in commerce are linguistic attainments of very material value, but in diplomacy, and some other professions connected with literature, science, and the arts, a knowledge of one or more foreign living languages is the conditio sine qud nan, the indispens- able qualification for admission to the most distinguished and lucrative positions. The value of the study of language as a mental discipline has been highly es- teemed in all ages, and indeed cannot be over-estimated, except whenit is permitted to exclude all other subjects of study, or to prevent a due share of attention being devoted to the mathematical and physical sciences. Hitherto in England this train- ing has been sought almost exclusively in the study of the classical or dead lan- guages — a choice justified by the fact that those tongues are the repository of the laws and literature, the history and the philosophy, of the two great peoples who laid the foundations of European civilisa- tion, and further by the fact that those tongues are the parents of all the Romance languages, and have supplied all the modern Western languages with almost all their vocabularies of art, science, politics, and philosophy. It is now generally admitted, however, that the attention devoted to Latin and Greek in the leading English public schools is excessive. The classics, in fact, have been allowed to monopolise an amount of time and labour out of all proportion, not only to their educational value, but to the period spent at school, to the ordinary length of human life, and even to the value of their literatures for the purposes of purely liberal culture. The educational value of linguistic study depends very largely on the correct- ness of the method of teaching, and in this point living languages have in England always had an advantage over those of antiquity. Modern languages are far more generally taught in a natural and rational manner than the dead tongues, and their utility, when properly taught, as a means of training pupils to think and to employ words with accuracy in the expression of thought is, in the opinion of some autho- rities, in no way inferior to Greek and Latin. French. — By reason of its prevailing clearness in point of grammatical construc- tion and logical analysis, and of the trea- sures of its literature, the French language, when rationally taught, is capable of being made a very effective instrument for train- ing the mental faculties of the student. On somewhat different grounds this may also be affirmed of German and Italian. For English youth the study of French is not only an indispensable part of a really liberal education, but it has peculiar claims on at- tention, (1) because since the Norman Con- quest the histories of England and France are so intimately connected with each other; (2) because the French language has ex- ercised so profound an influence in modi- fying the English tongue, both in its grammatical, and especially in its lexico- logical elements ; and (3) because the two nations, owing to their proximity to one another, are brought into closer and more constant intercourse, and exercise a more potent influ.ence on one another by the ex- change of ideas, as well as of commodities, than any other two independent nations in Europe. The characteristic style and spirit of the French form a strong recom- mendation to its study. No other tongue, ever spoken or written, is clearer or more logical in construction, or presents such a perfection or finish in style ; nor is there any other language whose analytical and synthetical study is more beneficial as a training in the accurate expression of thought. In this respect French is much preferable to German, as writers in the latter language, though often more pro- found, are seldom so perspicuous as the French. The French is, moreover, the easiest foreign language for an English- man to learn. It has given to the English tongue so many of its words, and of its formative or word-building elements, that a large portion of French grammatical forms and vocables are already familiar to English beginners. It is true that France MODERN LANGUAGES 223 and the French owe their name to the German conquerors of old Gaul, the Franks ; but though the language contains a number of traces of the speech of this Teutonic tribe, yet it is marvellous how small is the proportion of words and forms thus de- rived. Of the old Celtic language of Gallia the proportion existing in modern French is still smaller, hardly more than of the •old British in modern English. Both in its vocabulary and in its grammatical forms French is a daughter of the Latin, with, however, a considerable addition of words, chiefly scientific and philosophical, coming from the Greek. As to the history of the French language, it arose out of the lingua Bomana ricstica, the dialect of Latin spoken in Gaul, where in the tenth century it finally prevailed over the language of the ruling Frankish race ; but chiefly by the modifications they introduced French be- came distinguished as the lingua Jrancica or Jrancisca, otherwise the langue d'dil (oui), both from the Provencal, the langue d'oG, and from the Italian, the langue de si. The langue d'o'il, the dialect of Northern France, became the language of the law, of the court, and of literature, under Francis I., who reigned from a.d. 1494 to 1547. The Provencal, or langue d'oc, is still the spoken dialect of Southern France. On the decline of Latin, as the medium of intercourse between scholars of different nations, French began to take its place, and in the department of diplomacy, and for the purposes of travel and international intercourse, French has for the past two centuries held undisputed pre-eminence. It has in fact been, and still is employed as, the quasi-universal language of the polite and educated classes of allEuropean nations. German. — In spite of the fact that German and English are far more closely related to each other than either to French, the first mentioned tongue is found I'^'ss easy of acquisition than the last by Eng- lish students. This is partly due to the retention of the old ' Black Letter,' the so-called German characters. Almost all other civilised peoples have long abandoned that variety of type for the far more legible and elegant Roman alphabet. The greatest German scholars, like the Brothers Grimm, long advocated in vain the entire aban- donment of the former in favour of the latter. Fortunately this reform is gra- dually being introduced in modern scien- tific works, but the movement generally is making but slow progress, although all German children are taught both alpha- bets at school. Another more serious diffi- culty the German presents to English learners is the elaborate inflexional deve- lopment and the complicated grammatical structure of the language. In the matter of style ordinary German compares most unfavourably with French.' The one fault which is not forgiven in a French writer is inelegance and want of clearness of ex- pression. The one virtue of a German writer is to be, or at least to appear, pro- found. A German who writes anything approaching to a clear and easy style is apt by his fellow-countrymen to be deemed a charlatan. The effect of these perverted notions is that in no other modern language is there so much slovenly writing. Ger- many has within the past century produced a larger number of profound scholars — men of deeper research in every depart- ment of literature and science — than any other country of the woi'ld ; but German scholars habitually neglect the study of style, and the consequence is that while the press of Germany year by year turns out double or treble as many publications as either England or France, there are relatively far fewer additions to permanent literature — fewer works that will live — produced by German than by contempo- rary French and English writers. German works are, accordingly, more generally valuable for their substance, French for their style, and hence it would be difficult to over-estimate the value of the study of French as a supplement and corrective to that of German. Methods of Teaching. — The ease and rapidity with which a language may be ac- quired, and the value of the study as a discipline of the mental faculties, depend mainly if not exclusively on the correct- ness of the method of teaching. There is proverbially no royal road to learning, or in other words no sound progress can be made in any department of knowledge without steady application, without sus- tained concentration of attention, without resolute devotion — in a word, without hard mental labour. But there is a right way as well as a wrong way in going about the work of learning a foreign tongue, and a given amount of mental effort under a correct method of teaching will produce incomparably superior results to many times the labour under a perverse method. 224 MODERN LANGUAGES MODERN SCHOOLS In the teaching of languages the correct method is indicated by the nature of the subject. All speech is something essen- tially oral, and no language, living or dead, can be soundly or profitably taught, espe- cially to beginners, where this fundamental characteristic is ignored. At the outset a language should always be taught by word of mouth. The pupils should learn first to recognise simple names or short sen- tences by ear ; secondly, to repeat the same with their own tongue, and not till then should they be taught to write them down, to spell, and to read them. The correct mode of teaching languages is by what is called the inductive method. It proceeds from particular instances to general rules, and not till the student has gathered the rules for himself from concrete examples, should he proceed to apply them deduc- tively or synthetically in forming new ex- amples. The vice of the old style of teaching the dead languages arises from the fact that the first half of this process is either wholly or partially omitted, and the pupil is hurried on to the second half without the indispensable real knowledge that can- not be gathered otherwise than by going thoroughly through the former process. Oral teacliing, familiarising the ear, the tongue, the eye, and the hand with each individu.al word, and every separate model in words and sentences, is the indispensable foundation of sound teaching in this de- partment of education. The rules of acci- dence as well as of syntax are to be ga- thered by the pupil one by one from the comparison of a sufficient selection of model words and sentences, and in each case he must be required to use the knowledge he has thus gained by its deductive appli- cation in the formation of fresh examples without further aid. Thus introduced to the study, the pupil will find the work attractive, and he will make sound and rapid progress, while under the vicious system too frequently in vogue with Latin and Greek, the labour becomes repulsive, and he wastes the best years of his youth without making a tithe of the progress he would have done under the natural and rational method of instruction above in- dicated. Wherever any progress, in fact, has been made in the pedagogic art, it will be found that as regards the teaching of languages, native or foreign, the improve- ment is in principle always reducible to the introduction of the inductive method, or its application in some improved form— the system of rising from particular cases to general rules at once followed up with the deductive employment of the rules in oral and written exercises. With regard to the teachers who have been successful in the department of foreign tongues, the names of Hamilton, Ollen- dorff, and Ahn, and others may be men- tioned as owing their success to the adoption,, though but in a more or less incomplete form, of theinductivemethod. Themanuals of Mr. Prendergast, the so-called Mastery Se7'ies, may also be mentioned as very effi- cient introductions to the severallanguages to which the system has been applied. The various German schoolbooks of Herr Karl J. Plotz, which are also mainly founded on the correct method, likewise deserve the attention of English teachers, as amongst the most successful of their class in Ger- many during the past generation. Dr. Otfco's grammars, and the Toussaint-Lan- genscheidt series will also be found among the best recent manuals published in Ger- many. See ai-ticles Prendergast, Pa- rallel Grammars, and Mr. Colbeck's Lec- tures on the Teaching of Modern Languages. Modern Schools, or Sides. — Modern sides may practically be considered ta have originated in Dr. Arnold's opening the doors of Rugby (somewhere about the year 1830) to the subjects of modern his- tory and geography, modern languages, and mathematics, which had long cla- moured for admission into the curricula of public schools. It is true that Dr. Ar- nold set no veiy great store by these sub- jects; but, nevertheless, under his rule they obtained a recognised footing on the list of studies. Since his time, the public demand for 'modern' subjects has con- tinually increased; and in the Endowed Schools Commission Report of 1868, re- ceived a still more authoritative sanction. In that report the Commissioners recom- mend that in schools of the First Grade (i.e. classical schools) opportunity should be given for the advanced study of modern lano-uaofes, and mathematics, or science. The introduction of these ' modern subjects into most, if not all, of our public schools has rendered the organisation of modern sides or schools necessary. As a rule, the modern side is distinct from the classical side as far as regards school-work. The boys on the modern side do no Greek, and somewhat less Latin than those on the MODS -MONITORIAL SYSTEM 225 classical side. They also learn French, German, mathematics, and generally some physical science (usually chemistry), a little history (usually of Greece and Rome), sometimes a little geography, and occa- sionally a little English literature. Up till quite lately, no boy of any marked ability had much chance of being allowed to go on to the modern side, that side being reserved for the incapable and back- ward. But since the universities of Ox- ford and Cambridge have more distinctly recognised 'modern' subjects, it is not wholly improbable that the Public Schools {q.v.) will before long treat these subjects with greater respect. The subjects taught on a ' modern side ' are almost exactly those recommended by the Report of 1868 for second-gradeschools, (see Mid.-class Schools). Occasionally second-grade schools organised on the lines of this report are termed ' modern schools.' * Mods.' See Moderations. Monastic Schools. See Middle Ages (Schools of the). Monitorial System. — The rival preten- sions of Lancaster and Bell to the honour of discovering the monitorial system oc- cupied a very large share of public atten- tion, and provoked a controversy which was carried on with much bitterness. Had, however, Lancaster and Bell been students of the literature of pedagogy they would have known that the discovery on which they prided themselves was already more than a hundred and fifty years old. In a work so well known as the Didactica Magna, Comenius distinctly advocates the division of a school into classes of ten (which he calls decuriae) and the putting of each class under one of the best boys (whom he calls a decurio). Still, though Dr. Bell (6. at St. Andrews, 1753) was not the first to discover a monitorial system, he undoubtedly did adopt such a system, during his superintendence of the Military Orphan Asylum at Madras. Hence his system is sometimes called the Madras system. In 1797 he published an account of it. It was the unwillingness of adult teachers to carry out his wishes that led Bell to employ boy teachers. Southey tells how the idea first occurred to him. ' Happening on one of his morning rides to pass by a Malabar school he observed the children seated on the ground, and writing with their fingers in sand which had for the purpose been strewn before them. He hastened home repeating to himself as he went ^vpqKa, "I have dis- covered it," and gave immediate orders to the usher of the lowest class to teach the alphabet in the same manner, with this difierence only from the Malabar mode, that the sand was strewn upon a board. These orders were either disregarded, or so carelessly executed as if they were thought not worth regarding; and after frequent admonitions and repeated trials made with- out either expectation or wish of succeed- ing, the usher at last declared that it was impossible to teach the boys in that way. If he had acted on this occasion in good will, and with merely common ability. Dr. Bell might never have cried Evp-qKa a second time. But he was not a man to be turned from his purpose by the obstinacy of others, nor to be bafSed in it by their incapacity ; baffled, however, he was now sensible that he must be if he depended for the execution of his plans on the will and ability of those over whose minds he had no command. He bethought himself of employing a" boy on whose obedience, disposition, and cleverness he could rely, and giving him charge of the alphabet class. The lad's name was John Frisken ; he was then about eight years old. Dr. Bell laid the strongest injunction upon him to follow his instructions, saying he should look to him for the success of the simple and easy method which was to be pursued and hold him responsible for it. What the usher had pronounced to be impossible this lad succeeded in effecting without any difficulty. The alphabet was now as much better taught, as till then it had been worse than any other part of the boys' studies, and Frisken, in consequence, was appointed permanent teacher of the class. Though Dr. Bell did not immediately per- ceive the whole importance of this suc- cessful experiment, he proceeded in the course into which he had been, as it were, compelled. . . .Accordingly, he appointed boys as assistant-teachers to some of the lower classes, giving, however, to Frisken the charge of superintending both the assistants and their classes. . . .The same improvement was now manifested in *-hppp classes as had taken place in teaching the alphabet. . . .Even in this stage he felt confident that nothing more was wanting to bring the school into such a state as he had always proposed to himself, than to carry through the whole of the plan upon Q 226 MONTAIGNE, MICHEL EYQUEM DE which he was now proceeding. And this, accordingly, was done. The experiment which, from necessity, had been tried at first with one class was systematically extended to all the others in progression. . . As to any purposes of instruction the master and ushers were now virtually superseded.' [See Southey's Life of Bell, i. 173.) Lancaster (h. Kent St., Southwark, 1778) began to make use of monitors about 1800, and in 1803 he published an account of his plan. He did not deny that Bell had anticipated him, but he claimed, nevertheless, the credit of being a discoverer, in that he had employed monitors before he had ever heard of Bell or of his work. Speaking of the doctor's pamphlet, he remarks : ' From this tract I got several useful hints. I beg leave to recommend it to the attentive perusal of the friends of education and youth. I much regret that I was not acquainted with the beauty of his system till some- what advanced in my plan: if I had known it, it would have spared me much trouble and some retrograde movemerits.' Lancaster, in his first letter to Bell — a letter asking for counsel and help — says : * In puzzling myself what to do, I stumbled on a plan similar to thine,' and the doctor, in a perfectly friendly reply, did not dispute the claim. The distinguishing features of Lancaster's plan are, to quote his own words : 1. ' That by his system of order and rewards, together with the division of the school into classes, and the assistance of monitors, one master is able to conduct a school of one thousand children.' 2. ' That by printing a spelling book or any other lessons for reading in a large type. . . .they may, when suspended with a nail against the wall, be read by a number of children, a method whereby one book will serve for a whole school. 3. The introduction of slates and dictation, 'a method whereby five hundred boys may spell and write the same word at the same instant of time.' 4. ' An entire new method ■of instruction in arithmetic, whereby any 18)that ' i>t>th men and women are taught to spend tliose hours in which they are not obliged to work in reading, and this they do through the whole pro- gress of life,' and in his insti'uctious for tlie education of his children he advocated the theory that girls sliould bo taught the same subjects, and be atVorded the same educational facilities, as the boys. Morpholog'v. ^sv^ Biology. .Mnlca-«t9r, Kichu\l ( 1 530 ?-l 61 1 ), was the tirst. head master of Merchant Taylors' School, founded in lolU. He was born of a good county family of Cumberland, pro- bably at the old border town of Bracken- hill Castle, on the river Line. He was educated ;it 'l<]ton and at King's College, Cambridge, whence he migrated to Ox- ford, and was elected student of Christ Church in 1555. After distinguishing himself at Oxford by his knowledge of Hebrew and Eastern literature he be- came a schoolmaster in London in 1558. Three years lator, as has been said, he was appointed head-master of JMeivhant Tay- lors' School at Laurence Pountney Hill, between Cannon Sti-eet and the river. It may be mentioned here that Edmund Spenser was one of his pupils, and it is said that amongst other pupils he num- bered nine of King James's translators of the Bible. In 1581 he published his Fo- sitions/or the Trai)ti)H/ vp of Children, either for Skilli)t their JJookv oo' Health in their Bodie, and in the next year his Ele- vietitarie, or tirst steps in education. In the former he sketches a really excellent all-round education for body and mind, and anticipates many of the newest ideas of our own day. The ' natural abilities of children, whereby they become either fit or unlit to this or that kind of life,' are to be considered. He lays great stress — for the tirst time in England — on the mo- ther tongue and the ability to read, write, and spell it in advance of, and, if neces- sary, to the exclusion of Latin. ' As co- sen germain to faire wi-iting is the ability to draw with pen or pencil,' and this should be taught, ' whih> the linger is llexible ' — another antiinpation of the views of our day. ' It is good,' he stoutly asserts, ' to have eA'^ery part of t\\o body and every power of the soul lined (or polished) to the best.' He would have every child taught music by voice and instrument, as he taught them at his own school. The younger the boy the nmi-e skilled his n»as- ter should be : ' the lirst grounds should be laid by the cunningest workman.' He insists that ' yt)ung maidens are to be set to learning, which is proved by the custom of our country, by our duty towards them, by their natural ability, and by the worthy ellects of such as have been well trained.' The book is dedicated to Queen Elizabeth. He deplores ' the incurable intirmities which })osting haste malceth in the whole course of study,' and points out ' how ne- cessary a thing sutlicient time is for a scholar.' He ends up with a vigorous plea for the tmining of all sclioolmastiM-s. These are but a few of the most striking points of a book well worth study. It has lately been reprinted by Mr. Quick. The Ele- meniarie only the tirst part of which has ever been published — is most notable for its splendidly eloquent plea in behalf of the study and use of English. We have only space for a very short quotl members. Counocted with the N.IT.E/r. there area 'Teaehers' Bene- volent Fund,' a 'Teaehers' Orphana^i^ and Orphan Fund,' and a ''IVaohers' ProNideut Society.' The BenevoUmt Fund grants temporary relief in oases of distress, ill- ness, aeoident, or sudden enuM-geney, gives loans for short periods, makes grants to widows, and pays annuities to ineapaci- tatetl teaehers. The Orpluinage and Or- phan Fund maintains an orphan sehool for boys at Peek ham Rye, and another for girls at Sliertield, and pays 'home allow- ances' when the orphans are living with friends. The Provident Society offers means whereby teaehers can be, in sickness or old age, beyond the need of benevolence. The ortioes of the Union are at 30 Fleet Street, and the General Secretary is Mr. T. E. Heller. National ITnion for Improving- the Education of Women. See Education of Girls. Nations. aS^c' Rkctou. Natural Aptitude. Natural Talent. — By these terms is meant a special degree of innate capacity for some particular mode of intellectual or practical activity. Thus we speak of a. natural aptitude for scientitic discovery, the study of languages, artistic desigix, or mechanical contrivance. Such original aptitude commonly involves not merely a superior degree of mental power of a special kind, but a high degree of perfection of one or more of the organs of sense and of the muscular organs. It also implies a predominant taste for and impulse towards the particular pursuit. Individuals ditl'erwidely in their particular aptitudes, and these differences constitute much of what we nuwn by individuality on its intellectual side. As the history of great men tells us, natural aptitudes are frequently inherited. It behoAes the educator to make a careful study and estimate of the natural aptitudes of chil- dren, so as to adapt the course of educa- tion to some extent to these. (See Indi- viouALrrv and Ouuuxality.) Natiiral Philosophy. See Physics. Nature is the name of the sum total of the processes aiul laws of the material woT'ld in which we live. It is a sphere Avlvich contrasts with that of conscioi;s and purposive human action. Hence nature is commonly opposed to art, which is ac- tion elaborated into a rational nu)thod. All that is instinctive in ourselves is re- ferred to nature as its source, and distin- guished from that which is designedly produced by the art of education, or, to use Air. Galton's antithesis, by nurture. Nature is a term that has played a con- siderable part both in etlucal and eiluca- tional writings. The prect^pt 'follow na- ture ' has been erected by aiu-ient and by ntoderu moi'alists into the ultimate nun*al principle. And nuideru pa'dagogic writ- ings are full of references to nature and her methods of teaching as our proper model. It is probable that the word is frequently used in this connection with a certain degree of vagueness. The work of tlie educator is, pace Rousseau, to make good the deticiencies of nature, i.e. the spontaneous tendencies of the child, and to a considerable extent to oppose and counteract its forces. In order to do this, however, he must carefxilly study the workings of nature, and atljust liis pro- cedure to its unalterable laws. Thus it is a lixed principle in modern education that the order of instruction must follow that of the developuuuit of the child's faculties (.s-cc Okdeu of Stuwes). The teacher must, therefore, work with nature, that is, according to natural and unalter- able conditions, even though he aims at an ideal I'csult far above the reach of nature's unaided powers. (See for a care- ful analysis of the term 'Nature' Mills's article ' Nature ' in his Essays on Beli- (lio)i ; of. Payne, Confribiitions to the Science of Bducaf ion, chap. vii. ; and Com- payre, Cottrs de Fed., p. ill.) Navy (Education for the). See Edu- CATU^X FOK THE NaVY. Needlework. — (1.) In the scheme of piiblic elementary education needlework is obligatory for girls in day-schools, and it is frequently taken up by boys as well. One of tlie conditions required to be ful- filled by a school in order to entitle it to an annual Parliamentary gi-ant is, that the Department must be satistied ' that the girls (in a day-scliool) are taught plain needlework and cutting-out as part of the ordinary course of instruction ' (Xen' Code, Art. 96 (b) ). Tlie grant for needlework is l.s\, and it is calculated on the average attendance of girls only, unless the boys are taught the subject (Art. 10(> (c) ). In 1886 the grant of I*', under this article was earned in 11,484 schools and classes NEEDLEWORK 237 (97*75 per cent.), and by an average at- tendance of 883,418 ; it was not earned in 264 schools and classes (2"25 per cent.). The infant boys obtained a fair share of the grant ; out of an average attendance of 528,592 boys the grant was earned by 422,258 (80-07 per cent.) In schools for older scholars also thei'e may be obtained a similar grant of Is., calculated on the average attendance of girls only (Art. 109 (c)) ; and needlework is one of the recognised class subjects for which there may be obtained ' a grant on examination amounting to Is. or 2s. for each subject, if the Inspector's report on the examina- tion is fair or good' (Art. 109 (/) ), but this grant cannot be obtained along with the grant under Art. 109 (c). In 1886 the grant under Art. 109 (c) was recom- mended on account of the girls in 10,493 (58 '74 per cent.) departments ; it was not paid in 560 departments (3*14 per cent.), with an average attendance of 21,326 (1'84 per cent.) ; the remainder of the schools eligible for a grant for needlework 6,809 (38'12 per cent.), with an average attendance of 681,080 (58-89 per cent.), made their claim for it as a class subject under Art. 109 {/) vi. ' It is the smaller schools that claim for needlework under Art. 109 (c), the average " number for pay- ment " per school under this article being 43 as against 100, the average for schools claiming grant as a class subject' {Report for 1886-87, p. xxi.) The requirements of tho Code are set forth in Schedule III., and the Department is of opinion that ' the obligatory parts contain no more work than can be fairly mastered by any girls' school in which four hours weekly have been devoted to this subject ' {Report, 1886-87, ' Minutes and Instructions,' sect. 42, p. 169). In the first two standards hemming, seaming, and felling are re- quired. Standard sewing-on straight, (only on canvas or darning (on canvas troduces oratherins:. III. adds stitching, herring-bone stitch flannel), and simple I. Standard IV. in- setting-in, button- holing, and sewing on buttons, with simple marking (on canvas), plain darning (as for thin places) in stocking- web material, and herring-bone jDatch (at least 3 inches square) on coarse flannel. Standard V. requires the running of a tuck, plain darn- ing of a hole in stocking- web material, and patching in calico and flannel. Standards YI. and VII. add whip-stitch and setting- on frill, with plain darning on coarse linen, and patching in print. Besides, garments must be shown in each standard, in the same condition as when completed by the scholars: in Standard III., say a pinafore, shift, or apron; in Standards IV. and V., say a plain night-shirt, night-gown, or petticoat ; in Standards VI. and VII., say a baby's night-gown or child's frock. In Standard V. cutting-out is reached, the requirement being the cutting out of any garment, such as is required in Standard III. ; in Standards VI. and VII. the cutting out of any under-garment for mak- ing up in Standard I V. In the first three standards each garment must be entirely made by its own Standard ; in Standard IV. and upwards each girl must present a gai-ment made by herself. Further, knit- ting is included, and runs through the grades of comforters, mufiatees, socks, stockings, and the lik e. The pupil-teachers' (girls) requirements, which are also set forth in Schedule III., correspond largely with the four highest standards of the girls' and infants' departments, but are somewhat more advanced. My Lords specially urge that ' the material used should not be so fine as to strain the eye- sight of the children.' ' In many schools,' says Mr. Blakiston {Report, 1886-87, p. 274), ' the teacher's effoi'ts are marred, and systematic teaching hindered, by mothers- being allowed to send garments, not only of unsuitable material, but involving un- suitable stitches, to be made up in school. We do our utmost,' he continues, ' to in- duce managers to supply suitable ma- terials, and to recoup the cost by the sale of garments sensibly planned and cut out and made up under the eye of the teacher. It is the latter's fault if any serious loss ensues, as is the case where she takes no pains to consult the taste of her customers.' This latter responsibility cast upon the mistress we consider to be most unfair, wholly extraneous to her proper duties, and calculated to keep her mind in cruel anxiety. The scheme of requirements and the mode of inspection are by no means generally accepted as satisfactory. One lady witness before the recent Royal Com- mission on the working of the Elementary Education Acts, declared that ' the needle- work is all wrong throughout the country, every bit of it.' For example: ' It is ridi- culous for a gentleman to examine needle- work ; he may do it to a certain degree — 238 NEEDLEWORK NORMAL SCHOOL OF SCIENCE ETC. he may sec evonuoss, but ho does not know whether that evenness is in the riij;ht di- rection or in the wrong direction ' (iSccond Report, 1887, C. 505(5, p. 17G). Some of tlie inspectors, however, do know ; but tluM-(> is undoubtedly not a little point in (lie I'l-itii'ism. (2) In the syllabus for f(Mii;ile c.indida,tes for the Tniining Col- leges the requirements (1887) are as fol- anvs — Pirst year : the cutting out, making, and repairing of any plain article of under- clolhing ; the drawing of diagrams on sec- tional paper — a woman's chemis(>, an in- fant's shirt, a pair of drawers for child of five; the answering, on pa.per, of ciuestions on needlework. Second yeai- : the higher branches of plain needlework, including tucking, whipping, and feather-stitching, the repairing of linen and print, and darn- ing in stocking-web stitch ; the drawing of diagi-ams on sectional paper — a wo- man's nightdress, a boy's shirt, a. child's nuislin pinafore; the cutting-out and mak- ing of the above gai-ments; the a.nswering, on paper, of questions on needlework. (See riahi Nccdh'irork and P/ahi Cntfi)i(f-oi(f, both by the Examiner of Needlework to the School Board of London (GrilHth, Fa.rra,n, Okeden, it Welsh) ; and Flaiu JWrdlt'irork and KnUtitnj, by Briet/.cke and Rooper (Swan Sonnenschein, Lowrev to time determine, not being inconsistent with the provisions of the memorandum of association, which requires that the shareholders shall not take any personal protit out of the asso- ciation. There are classes for the instruc- tion of amateurs in every kind of stitch in crewel, silk, and gold, and the School holds itself prepared to supply all sorts of eccle- siastical embroidery. Applicants for ad mission as qualijied loorkers must (1) be gentlewomen by birth and education, and (2) be able and willing when employed to devote seven hours a day to work at tlie School. Every applicant is required to go through a course of instruction, consisting of nine lessons in Art Needlework of five hours each, for which the charge is N.. When the coui'se is completed, and the teacher has certilied to the due attendance and sulHcieiit skill of the applicant, her name is registered in the list of the qualihed workers of the school. Such registration does not entitle the lady to any employ- n>ent frou\ the school, but simply renders her cpia,litied for employment whenever tlie School may have need of lier services. The School has agencies in the principal towMis of England, and in Canada and in the Ihiitetl States of America. Newnham College. iSec. Education OF CiHi.s and Tkaining of Teachers. New Zealand University. See Uni- versities. Niemeyer, August Hermann (h. 1754, d. 1828), (lerman educationist, became in 1770 professor of theology in the Univer- sity of llalle, and inspector of the Halle Theological Seminary, and in 1787 prin- cipal of the teachers' seminary in the Erancke Institution. His Principles of Educaiion and I)i,s(ruc(ion, (1799) was the lirst attempt at systematising Ger- man pedagogy and at aiming at a history of education. This work has run through nuiny editions, the first eight editions being edited by himself. ]Viglit Schools. See Apult Educa- tion. Normal College and Academy for the Blind. ^V(^ EnuoATioN of tiik Rlind. Normal Schools. See Training op Teaouers. Normal School of Science and Royal School of Mines, South Kensington and Jermyn Street, is an institution to sup- ply systematic instruction in the various branches of physical science to students of all classes. While the school is pri- marily intended for the instruction of teachers and of students of the industrial classes selected by competition in the examinations of the Science and Art De- partment, other students are adniitted so far as there may be accommodation for them, on the payment of fees tixed at a scale sufficiently high to prevent undue competition with institutions which do not receive State aid. NOTES OF LESSONS OBEDIENCE AND DISOBEDIENCE 239 The Royal School of Mines is affiliated to the Normal School. Students enter- ing for the associateship of the School of Mines obtain their general scientific train- ing in the Normal School. Instruction is given in the school in the following subjects : mechanics and mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and botany, geology and mineralogy, agriculture, me- tallurgy and assaying, mining, elements of astronomical physics, practical geo- metry, mechanical and freehand drawing. Occasional students may enter for any course of instruction, or for any number of courses, in such order as they please ; but students who desire to become asso- ciates of the Normal School of Science, or of the Royal School of Mines, must fol- low a prescribed order of study, which occupies from three to three and a half years. In the first two years the students must all go through the same instruction in mechanics and mathematics, physics, chemistry, elementary geology, astronomy, and mineralogy, with drawing ; afterwards they must elect to pass out in one or other of the eight divisions, to the subjects of which the third and fourth years' studies are entirely devoted, namely : (1) me- chanics, (2) physics, (3) chemistry, (4) biology, (5) geology, (6) agriculture, (7) metallurgy, (8) mining. A student who passes in all the sub- jects of the first two years, and in the final subjects of divisions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, becomes an associate of the Normal School of Science ; while, if he takes the final subjects of divisions 7 or 8, he be- comes an associate of the Royal School of Mines. The work of the school is arranged in such a manner as to permit the student to concentrate his attention upon one sub- ject at a time, and he is never occupied with the subjects of more than two divi- sions in the same term. There are twelve Royal Exhibitions to the Normal School of Science and Royal School of Mines, besides a number of free studentships and scholarships. Notes of Lessons. — Dr. Arnold of Rugby, though unusually well acquainted with Roman history, used to prepare all his lessons on the subject as carefully as if it were new to him, and when some one ex- pressed surprise at this he replied, ' I want my boys to drink out of a running stream, rather than out of a stagnant pool.' No teacher can be successful who does not give thought beforehand to the matter and the method of his lessons. A general, even a minute, knowledge of the subject is not enough. We must consider what are the facts to which we will draw atten- tion, which of these we must tell, and which we can elicit, what illustrations we can employ, and what exercises will best impress the whole upon the pupil's memory. The fulness of a teacher's notes of a lesson will depend largely upon whether they are meant for his own use only, or for the inspection of another. If for his own use only, they will, so long as he is dealing with a familiar subject, give the merest outline of the matter, and the briefest hints of the method and illustra- tions ; when the subject is unfamiliar the matter will be given more fully. Pupil- teachers in elementary schools, students in training-colleges, and all who submit to the examinations of the Education Depart- ment have very often to write notes, not for their own use, but to show an in- spector how they would give a set lesson. In these cases the notes must be self- explanatory, and indicate clearly not only what would be taught, but how it would be taught. O Obedience and Disobedience. — By an act of obedience we understand an action performed in response to some command. The external form must here be distin- guished from the internal reality. A true act of obedience involves not merely the outward compliance with a command, but the inward attitude of submission to au- thority. Thus, a boy who refrains from a prohibited action merely to escape a dreaded form of punishment, whilst he hates the preceptor who imposes the pro- hibition, does not in the full sense obey. Obedience is of two kinds. Of these the first is that which is given without any recognition of the reasonableness of the command and solely in deference to a per- sonal authority. This is Kant's ' absolute 2tO OBJECT LESSONS obodieuoc' The second kind is the intel- ligent and free obedience to law which the subject cordially accepts as good. The educator of the young is directly concerned with securing the lirst kind of obedience. Here the iutluence of respect and atlection for the personality of the governor counts as an important condition of securing true obedience. This respect is to be gained partly by the habitual display of impar- tiality or fairness in administering disci- pline, by a perfectly consistent example of good conduct, and by a^ judicious mixture of kindness and tlrmness. The principle of habit is strikingly illustrated in the practice of obedience. A child that has always been accustomed to obey does so at last without any sense of etibrt (str Habit). Of all the nioral habits obedi- ence most imperatively demands to be cultivated in the tirst years of life. An infant should be trained in the rudiments of obedience as soon as it understands a prohibitory word or sign. And when the utmost has been done by the parent to lay the foundations of the habit there need be little fear of disobedience after- wards to any properly enforced autho- rity. Disobedience has been divided into two kinds : that proceeding from a dull, sluggish will, as wliere a child fails to attend to a command ; and that which arises from energy of the individual will, or self-will. Each of these requires its o\\ni mode of treatment. In dealing with the secoi\d kind the teacher should remem- ber that the energy of will which shows itself in the disobedient act is itself good, and requires directing luther than sup- pressing. He should be careful to avoid the appearance of a struggle of individual wills for mastery. In all cases alike, as Kant has shown, the preceptor should have as his goal the free self-imposed obedience to law of the good will, and should seek by all the agencies of moral educatioii to train the young mind in a clear discern- ment of the grounds of the commands im- posed and in free acts of moral choice. (,S't;t?M. Edgeworths Practical Uducatioi, vii., articles ' Gehorsam ' and ' Ungehor- sam,' in Schnudt's £)ici/cIopddh', cf. articles 'Discipline' and 'Moral Education.') Object Lessons. — Prof. Bain complains (Education a^ a Scioice, page KU) that ' object lessons ' is a ' very ambiguous and misleading phrase.' Here it means lessons on sensible things, and on the phenomena of nature. The purpose of such lessons is : — (i.) To form habits of observation: One of the chief defects of school methods is that, to a large extent, telling takes the place of teaching, cramming of education. Facts which children are told are artiticial tlowers ; facts which they are made to iiud out are living plants, and it is the very essence of a good object lesson to make the pupil discover for himself everything which his senses can reveal, (ii.) To form habits of reasoning. A skilful teacher does not I'est content Avith getting his scholars to observe for themselves (though that is a great point gained) ; he also tries to make them think for themselves. The Urst step is to note a fact, the next to seek the cause. Little ones, probably, cannot find that without aid, but by careful ques- tioning it can generally be elicited, (iii.) To ■increase knotrledge of '■common things.' It is possible to inform without educating, but it is not possible to educate without informing, and as to the kind of informa- tion, it may be said that good teaching, like charity, begins at home. Object lessons ought to ha^'e the first place in infant schools, and not the last place in junior schools ; in senior schools they ought to be replaced by specific science lessons for which they prepare the way. Object lessons should be gi\en in courses carefully planned and leading up to clearly detined ends. The scheme issued by the School Board for London, as a suggestion to its teachers, is so thoughtfully devised as to be woi'th quoting. It is, brieiiy, as follows: — For infants. A few objects should be selected from each of the four following groups : — (a) Domestic Group. — The school- room itself, with door, chair, table, desk, tire-place, and clock. The child's coat, cloak, frock, cap, shawl, and boots. Pins, needles, knife, scissors, bell, and kettle; to which may be added any other articles of school or house furniture, clothing, or common utensils, (b) Animal Group. — First in importance comes the child itself, afterwards the cat, dog, hoi'se, cow, sheep, cock and hen, sparrow, herring, fiy, beetle, to which may be added any other familiar animals, such as donkey, rabbit, mouse, goose, caiuvry, lark, pigeon, shrimp, crab, lobster, sole, plaice, spider, butterfly, bee, periwinkle, oyster, earth- worm, itc. The parts of animals may form the subject of lessons, such as head, hand, foot, paw, eye, ear, mouth, nose, OBJECT LESSONS- -OPTIMES 241 hair, feathers, wool, etc. (c) Plant Groxip. — The choice will depend upon the season of the year, and should include the nearest trees, and such smaller plants as are ac- cessible, as the pi"imrose, violet, daisy, crocus, dandelion, wallflower, hyacinth, geranium, and fuchsia, holly, cabbage, pea, bean, potato, onion, carrot, turnip, wheat, barley, oats. The parts of plants may also form subjects of lessons, as the wood, bark, leaves, flowers, seed, root, stem, &c., or special products, as apples, nuts, starch, sugar, gum. Attention should also be drawn to the simple phenomena of vegetable growth, by means of actual ob- servation or experiment. id) Mineral Group. — This should include any acces- sible stone, with chalk, sand, coal, salt, blacklead, and water, together with iron, brick, clay, sulphur, glass, &c. Opportu- nity should be taken of bright sunshine, black clouds, fogs, heavy showers of hail, rain, or snow, strong wind, a rainbow, or a thunder storm, to draw attention to these natural phenomena. Standard 1. Extension of the Object Lessons in the Infant School, with simple illustrative experiments. Standard II. Comparison of different plants or animals. Ordinary phenomena of the earth and atmosphere. Substances of domestic use. Standard III. Simple principles of classi- fication of plants and animals. Further phenomena of the earth and atmosphere. Substances used in the Arts and Manufac- tures. Standard IV. More complete clas- sification of plants and animals, with typi- cal examples. The three forms of matter familiarly illustrated. Standard V. (a) Animal and plant life, with the most useful products, or (b) more definite notions of matter and force, illustrated by simple machinery or apparatus. Standard VI. (a) Animal and plant life, with special reference to the laws of health ; or (6) the commonest elements and their com- pounds ; the mechanical powers. Standard VII. (a) Distribution of plants and animals and the races of mankind ; or (6) light, heat, and electricity, and their applica- tions. The most common faults in object les- sons are : — (i.) In the Hatter. This is often too hard, sometimes too easy. It is uninteresting in the one case because it is unintelligible, in the other because it is familiar. All that there is to teach on a subject cannot be taught in a lesson, and thus a teacher, while choosingmatterwhich is neither too hard nor too easy, may yet from the facts at his disposal make an unwise selection. The general rule is that besides being within the comprehension and beyond the knowledge of the children, the information introduced should be useful and interesting, (ii.) In the Illustrations. If the teacher is talking about an object he should always show a specimen of it. It may be quite common, but for children familiarity as well as novelty is attractive, and, besides, the teacher may wish to call particular attention to some feature which has hitherto escaped the pupil's observation. Pictures, valuable as they are, are only worth having when the thing itself can- not be got. A picture of a fish, for in- stance, will show the shape and position of the fins and of the gills, but a goldfish in a bowl, or even a stickleback in a bottle, will show fins and gills at work. Lessons which involve something of science are too often given without experiments ; they might as well not be given at all. Some- times when experiments are carefully pre- pared and skilfully performed, they are not properly explained. It must be borne in mind that an experiment is not neces- sarily an illustration, (iii.) In the Lan-- guaye. The most common fault in this is 'bookishness.' It is only after years of experience that teachers fully realise how small is the vocabulary of a child, especially of a child coming from an illiterate home. Lessons to little ones are sometimes quite unintelligible because the language is too difficult, (iv.) In the Questioning. With questions, as with illustrations, the most common fault is one of omission. The chief faults of commission in questioning are making the questions long and involved so that the pupil can scarcely follow them ; or vague, so that it is impossible to say what the teacher wants; or clearly ad- mitting of two answers, and thus encourag- ing guessing. Observation. See Perception. Open Queen's Scholars. Candidates who, not having been pupil-teachers, pass the examination for admission into a train- ing college (the 'Queen's Scholarship' Ex- amination). Ophthalmia. See Communicable Dis- eases. Optimes. — The title of those who gain honours next to the wranglers at the Cam- bridge Mathematical Tripos {q.v.) ; they R 242 ORAL INSTRUCTION ORGANISATION are divided, according to merit, into Senior and Junior Optimes. Oral Instruction. — ^Tlie work of the teacher consists in training his pupils by inducing them to exercise their faculties, and in helping and enabling them to ac- quire knowledge quickly, soundly, and lastingly. To train the faculties properly the exercise employed must be suitable to their degree of developmeut at the par- ticular time. To ascertain what this is, and what mode and subject of exercise are most suitable, the teacher must enter into personal communication with his pupil; must question him, and make use of the answei-s he gives ; and having found one mode or one subject of exercise unsuc- cessful, must try another. In the same way personal communication between the teacher and his pupil, and question and answer, are necessary when any person seeks to enable another to acquire know- ledge quickly, soundly, and lastingly. For the teacher must ascertain what knowledge his pupil possesses, and how far it is sound ; must exercise him in the use of that knowledge, and must make perfectly clear and interesting the connection of the new knowledge to be acquired with that already possessed. When we add to this the fact that the thing shown, the spoken word, and the living interest of the teacher are, by the nature of the child, much more readily intelligible to him, much more powerful in creating interest, and much more easily and quickly varied to suit every circumstance than thewritten symbol ever can be, we shall see the absolute necessity for the young of what is called 'oral instruction ;' and that this necessity increases witli the youth of the child. For the particular characteristics of good oral instruction see articles on Object Lessons, Question and Answer, Teacher, Teaching and Learning,' &c. Orbilius Pupillus, the schoolmaster of Horace, and nicknamed by him Plagosus on account of his ilogging propensities, was a native of Bcneventum. Before adopting the profession of a teacher at Rome, where he settled in 63 B.C., he served first as apparitor (magistrate's officer"), and afterwards as a soldier. He is said to have lived to be a hundred years old, and died about 15 B.C. Orbis Pictus. See Comenius. Order of Studies. — The proper order of studies, so far as this can be determined | by theoretic considerations, must be de- cided by a reference to psychological and to logical principles. The former, by showing us that the faculties develop in a fixed order (see Development), require us. to adapt the subjects of teaching to this, order. Thus branches of instruction which, like the simple aspects of natural history and of physical geography, appeal mainly to the observing faculty and the imagi- nation should, on psychological grounds, precede other branches, as grammar and mathematics, which make heavy demands, on the faculty of abstract thought or I'eason. At the same time, these conclu- sions from psychological laws are modified by logical considerations which impose on the teacher the necessity of beginning with, what is relatively simple and fundamental, and gradually going on to what is complex and derivative. Thus, mathematics, as the most general or abstract science, needs to> be studied to some extent at the outset as the groundwork of all the sciences (see Abstract Science). The best order of studies is that which most completely satisfies the general conditions of psycho- logical development, and the more special conditioiis of logical dependence. {See ar- ticle Instruction (Course of); also Bain, Education as a Science, chap. vi. and vii.) Organisation.— The woi-k of a school naturally arranges itself under three heads i. (1) oo'gariisation, which includes all that relates to the material and machinery of the school; (2) discipline, or that which has to do with the government and conduct of the pupils; and (3) teaching, or the training and instruction of their minds. Organisation includes the following mat- ters : The site of the school and its sanitary arrangements ; the size, shape, and dispo- sition, etc., of the rooms; the playground and gymnasium ; the dormitories; the mode of lighting, ventilating, and warming the class-rooms ; the furniture and fittings of class-rooms, lecture-rooms, laboratoi'ies, etc. ; apparatus, maps, pictures, &c. ; books ; registration of admission and attendance ;. oflice-work, &c. — all these refer to the material of the school. With regard tO' the machinery of the school tlie points to be considered are : the qualifications, duties, and distribution of the head of the school,, the adult assistants, the pupil-teachei-s, monitors, officers, and servants ; the clas- sification of pupils, their arrangement in forms, sets, parallel classes, &c. ; their pro- ORIGINALITY- -OVERPRESSURE 243 motion, superannuation, dismissal; place- taking, marking, and prizes; arrangements of subjects of instruction; hours for lessons and for preparation of lessons; playgi^ound and out- of -school regulations ; dormitory- regulations. Most of these points will be found treated in separate articles under their respective titles. Originality. —This quality, the charac- teristic property of genius, is the most striking and interesting feature of indivi- duality {fi. v.). The original Ijoy or girl is one whose ideas do not readily adjust themselves to the prescribed pattern, but arrange themselves in new forms. Ori- ginality thua always involves deviation from the average type of intelligence. At the same time, it is not necessarily abnormal as eccentricity always is. Originality im- plies exceptional mental power, but it differs from the superior aptitude for learning which takes a boy to the head of his class {see Natural Aptitude). Hence the practical difficulties which arise in con- nection with the education of the gifted or original boy or girl. As the biographies of the great show us, the ordinary disci- pline of the school and the college is apt to obstruct rather than to promote the development of genius. The great mind must always be in an exceptional sense its own educator (see Self-education). A consideration of the rarity and high value of originality should put the preceptor on his guard against suppressing it by a too severe and inelastic mode of instruction. Orthoepy. A'ee Elocution. Orthography. ^S'ee Gramjiar. Overpressure is the name now com- monly given to the overwork in connection with school life. A knowledge and appli- cation of the physiological principles under which the brain works would prevent the possibility of its occurrence. The brain during the period of school life is a rapidly growing organ. At birth its average weight is from eleven to fourteen ounces, while in the European adult it averages between forty-nine and fifty ounces. Just as in- creased muscular exercise leads to increased size and strength of the muscles, so may increased brain exercise, durmg the period of its natural growth, increase the indivi- dual growth of brain. Growth in size and increase of complexity of the brain struc- ture (which is involved in education) are, however, in some degree antagonistic to each other. If complexity of structure, with its corresponding mental maturity, is obtained at an early age, it is at the expense of size of brain and real mental power. Precocity is generally followed by inferior mental organisation. The impor- tant point is so to combine work and recreation (always remembering tliat the brain requires abundant food and fresh air) as to obtain the best results in mental development. Ordinary school work, in- terrupted by vacations, seldom produces excessive strain of the mental powers of children. It is only in exceptional cases, where children are insufficiently fed, or are of a peculiarly nervous and excitable temperament, or the hours of study are unduly prolonged, that this result is likely to occur. Headache in such cases is one of the earliest symptoms, though this is more commonly the result of indigestion, bad atmosphere, or defects of vision (see Eye- sight). The brain may become congested from overwork, and this would predispose to the production of meningitis (inflam- mation of the membranes of the brain). The most common cause of meningitis is, however, tubercular disease, and school work only at most tends to hasten the at- tack. Chorea (St. Vitus's Dance) has also been ascribed to school work, though with doubtful accuracy. After acute illnesses, as fevers, &c., it takes many weeks before the brain recovers its former condition of nutrition and power. Similarly, after severe blows on the head or concussion of the brain, prolonged mental rest should be allowed. Overpressure in school work is apt to occur when the school work is excessive or badly arranged, or when the scholar's health is depreciated from any cause. Deficient exercise, impure air, de- ficient clothing, or insufficient or unsuit- able food, are all causes of incapacity for mental work, especially the last. Hotne- lessons are frequently given which require unduly prolonged attention ; and when to this is added the fact that they usually have to be prepared in the evening, and frequently encroach on the time for amuse- ment and meals, it will be evident that they are frequently a cause of mischief. A had arrangement of school loork, as by having too long lessons, and no changes of occupation, may be responsible for some mischief. A change of subjects, as from languages or history to mathematics, means that different parts of the brain are exer- cised, and so a balanced action is secured, k2 244 OVERPRESSURE without overwork of any one part of the brain. The introduction of manual in- struction in schools has an important part to play ill the teaching of the future. Examinations are chiefly sources of over- pressure when they are competitive in character ; and gii-ls, who have a more mobile nervous system and a greater preponderance of the emotional faculties, are peculiarly prone to suffer from them. When properly conducted an examination may be of great educative value, by finding out weak points, and stimulating the future efforts of scholars. It is when undue strain is put on children for some weeks before the date of an examination, that mischief may result. In Prussia and various other States of Germany the question of overpressure has occupied much attention. In 1881 the whole question was ref en'ed by the Prussian Government to a special Commission, con- sisting of Professor Virchow and other eminent medical authorities. The report presented by this body is the last and most authoritative word that has yet been spoken on this question, so far as Germany is con- cerned. Overpressure is defined by the Prussian Commission as existing where ' the brain-work demanded of scholars is excessive, either as regards quantity or time,' or as ' the imposition of excessive labour on certain organs, to wit, the brain and nervous system, whether by demand- ixig too much work of them in a given time, or by habitually keeping those organs .at work too long a time together.' In Prussia overpressure has been inferred from the fact that the number of children ■of school age who commit suicide has been on the increase of late years. The Prus- sian Statistical Office repoi'ts that the number of children between ten and fifteen years of age who committed suicide in the year 1869 was 19. By the year 1881 the number of suicides of the same age had risen to 53. Between ten and twenty years of age the number of suicides had increased from 165 in 1869, to 260 in 1881. These figures are, however, rather misleading, as the percentage had remained the same in proportion to the population. Insanity was the cause to which a large proportion of the suicides of youths and girls from ten to fifteen years of age was attributed ; but the Commission held that no proof had been adduced of the alleged tendency of education in the higher classes of schools to produce mental disorders. In various districts of Prussia such mala- dies as headache, bleeding at the nose, and congestion of the brain among scholars appeared to be increased by their school work ; but even on this point the Com- mission held that the evidence before them was quite inconclusive. It may be re- marked that in Germany the question of overpressure has arisen mainly in con- nection with the higher grade schools, such as the Gymnasia and Real-Scliulen, while in England complaints of this cha- racter have been connected chiefly with elementary education. In spite of the fact that the quantity and kind of mental work in the former make far greater demands on the scholars than in the latter, the Prussian Commission state their opinion that no conclusive evidence of overpressure has been produced as regards Prussian schools. On the general question of the eft'ect of school work on the health of chil- dren, the following passages from the official report will be read with interest : — ' It is matter of common observation,' the Commissioners remark, ' that upon a large number of scholars, especially those of tender age, school life exercises a visibly weakening effect. The children lose their freshness of appearance ; they become pale, show a loss of appetite, and feel fatigued and exhausted ; their vision and energy decrease, and they become indifferent and inattentive, while their memory becomes uncertain, and their thoughts confused. The holidays, especially if spent in the country, restore them ; the colour returns to their cheeks, they regain their vivacity of movement, and their mental activity is reiiewed. A few weeks after the resump- tion of school-work, however, the favour- able effects of the holidays disappear, and after a few months the pupils are in ui'gent need of a fresh period of rest and I'ecreation. The extent of the changes is exceedingly various in individual cases. With many scholars it is the central ner- vous system that is affected ; in others the organs of digestion ; in a third class the muscles and respiratory organs. The symptoms are sometimes fatigue and ex- haustion, and in other cases nervous irri- tation of every degree up to spasmodic convulsive fits. The removal of such chil- dren from school for a longer or shorter time is often then advisable. Many chil- dren no doubt date their permanent con- OWENS COLLEGE-^OXFORD 245 dition of mental or physical weakness from this period, ' Yet it is our opinion,' continues the report, ' that this weakness is not at- tributable simply to overpressure. The vitiated atmosphere of schools, and in many cases faulty domestic arrangements, have much to do with it.' The Commis- sioners recommend teachers to study the individual characters of pupils. ' There is no constant standard,' they add, ' by which the limits between overpressure and an admissible amount of work can be deter- mined. What in some cases is allowable is in others overpressure. The symptoms of the latter are only to be perceived after- wards ; but whether they can always be properly distinguished by teachers without medical assistance is very doubtful.' The Commissioners hold that competent me- dical assistance is required to collect the materials to foi'm a conclusive judgment on the question of overpressure in Germany. Still, ' overpressure depends more on the teacher and the method of teaching than on anything else.' For the influence of school work in producing phthisis see Con- sumption. Owens College. See Provincial Col- leges. Oxford. See Universities. Oxford and Cambridge Schools Exami- nation Board was established by articles of agreement between the Schools Exami- nation Delegacy and Syndicate of Oxford and Cambridge respectively, November 8, 1873. The Board consists of the Vice- chancellors and twelve other members of each University, appointed from time to time by election and nomination. There are two secretaries. The organisation of the Joint Board is quite distinct from that of the Syndicate and Delegacy of Local Ex- aminations {see Syndicate). The work of the Joint Board, which is concerned with ' secondary ' schools (schools with a regu- larly constituted governing body, or which send a fair proportion of pupils to the Universities), is of two kinds : I. To examine and report on the work of schools and parts of schools by arrange- ment with the head-master or governing body. II. To hold a yearly examination at such schools as desire it, and at Oxford, Cambridge, and other centres, and to award certificates on the examination. There are three kinds of certificate examination, for (i.) Higher certificate, (ii.) Lower certificate (first examination, July 1883), (iii.) Commercial certificate (first examination, July 1888). (i.) Higher Certificate. — To obtain this the candidate must satisfy the examiners in four subjects, taken from not less than three of the following groups. (Distinc- tion may be obtained in each subject ex- cept II. (1).) Group I. (1) Latin, (2) Greek, (3) French, (4) German. Group II. (1) Elementary, (2) Addi- tional mathematics. Group III. (1) Scripture knowledge, (2) English, (3) History. Group IV. (1) Natural philosophy, mechanical division; (2) Natural philo- sophy, physical division ; (3) Natural phi- losophy, chemical division ; (4) Botany ; (5). Physical geography and geology ; (6) Biology. In the case of girls, (1) The examina- tion may be taken in two parts, the can- didate being required to pass in two sub- jects at each examination. (2) A choice is given of three other subjects : a. Italian (Group I.), h. Drawing (II.), c. Music (IV.) Fee, 21., or \l. 10s. for candidates who hold a certificate. (ii.) Lower Certificate. — A candidate must pass in five subjects, taken from not less than three groups, of which I. and II. are compulsory. Group I. (1) Latin, (2) Greek, (3) French, (4) German. Group II. (1) Arithmetic, (2) Addi- tional mathematics. Group III. (1) Scripture knowledge, (2) English, (3) English history, (4) Geo- graphy. Group IV. (1) Chemistry, (2) Physics. Geometrical drawing may be taken, but not as one of the five necessary sub- jects. Fee, 21s., with extra fee of 10s. for a candidate examined away from his school. (iii.) Commercial Certificate. — A can- didate must pass in (1) at least one of the following : French, German, Italian, Spanish ; (2) Arithmetic and algebra ; (3) English and geography ; (4) One of the following : («) Latin, (6) English history, (c) Political economy, {d) Drawing, (e) In- organic chemistry, (/) Organic chemistry, {g) Mechanics, (li) Electricity and mag- netism, (i) Sound, light, and heat. Fee, 1/. 5s., with an extra fee of 10s. for a can- 246 OXFORD PARALLEL C RAlNOt ARS didato oxnuunod awiiv U-om his srhool. Tliero are two classes in i\u'h siilijei't in botli (ii.) and (iii.) .Statist ies for 1887. — Scltools cxaDtijivd : 73 boys", o8 girls' soliools. JJii/JirrcertiJt- cnte. — Candidates, 902 ; certilieates, r)84. Lower certificate. — Candidates, 1^7 ; cer- tiiieates, 273. Cost of School IJ.va))ii)iatio)i. — Tliis varies Mith tlie staiidard of papers set and the size of elasses examined. A set of liigher oertitieate papers set to a elass eosts about 1 r^s'. per paper abo>'o the eertitieate fees if the boys or girls in the elass are all i-audidates for eertiiieates, and if tlie authorities of the sehool want the marks before the results of the eertitieate exa- uiination are published. The eharge for exaauiniug lower forms deereases in pro- portion. ' Inspeetioual ' papers, examined first by a master and inspected by the examiner, are charged at a lower rate. A reduction of one-tliird in the total charge is made, under certain conditions, to schools of less than 100. In the case of the lower and commercial eertitieate exa- uunation there is a charge of one guinea a day for a super\ isor. Ji.ir)uptio)is.— The higher eertitieate exempts, under certain conditions, from respcMjsions, the preliminary examination for JNlus. Bac. at (.)xford, the previous examination at Cambridge, the preliuvi- naiy examinations of the Incorporated Law Society, the Ceneral Council of Me- dical Education, from parts of the exami- nations of the Royal Institute of British Ari'hitects, of the Surveyors' Institution, and from part of the examinations for Sandhurst and Woolwich. The lower eer- titieate exempts, uiuler certain conditions, from the preliminary exivminations of the Pliarmacinitieal Society and of the Royal JNlilitary College, and of the Ceueral Coun- cil of JNledical Kducation. Application for school examinations should be maile to one of the secretaries before Februaiy 15, .and names of candi- dates for certilicates sent in before JNIay 20. Further inforuu\tiou may be obtained from the Report of the Joint Hoard for 1 880-7, and the Regulations for 1888 (Oxford : at the Clarendon Press, and at IIG High Street ; Cambridge : at the University Press, and at Messrs. Deighton, Bell ife Co., Trinity Street), and from the secre- taries — E. J. Gross, M.A., Caius College, Cambridge, and P. E. Matheson, M.A., New College, Oxford. Pansopliic Method. ^'('<• Comextus. Parallel Classes. — Thereareboth maxi- nunn and mininunn limits to the lunuber of pupils who can with advantage be placed together in one class, however skilful the teacher may be. INloreover, tJie nximber of grades or steps in a school sliould never be more than a normal pupil can ascend during his school life, without being unsettled by a too frequent and irregular promotion. Hence, in a. school of any size, it is connnonly found necessary to separate pupils of the sauu^ proticicncy into two or more classes, and to reduce the number of grades by placing two or more classes in the school ladder upon the same level. These two considerations produce the same result ; viz. that in certain parts of the school there are classes whose work is the same — which are^)(?>-(?//(7 ami not successi>-e to one another. These are called ^jjaralhl clasttctt.' The same thing also occurs in the lower stasres of schools by no means large, when the iiewly entercil pupils are too numerous for one class, and yet have shown so far no marked diflerence in proticicncy. Parallel Grammars. — The need for uniformity of method in dealing with the grauuuatical phenomena of ditierent lan- guages Avas early felt by ediicational re- formers. Ratich {q.i\) enunciated the principle, 'Uniformity in all things, as well in the nu^thod of teaching as in the books, rules, i^'c. ; so that the grammars of the various languages taught nuiy be as far as possible harmonised.' Comenius {q.r.) held the same view : 'Let there be one and the same method for instructing in all tongues.' In more modern times several scholars of high repute have lent the authority of their names to this prin- ciple. For an eloquent appeal on behalf of uniformity the reader may be referred to the delightful work of Prof. D'Arcy Thompson called Da>/ I)rea»is of a ScJtoolmaiiter. PARALLEL GRAMMARS 247 '' We still separate by arbitrary boundaries studies that we know, or should know, to be cognate. If Latin, Greek, and Teutonic are really sisters, and French a daughter of one of them, why should it be thought impossible to teach them all on some catholic plan? At the very least, the grammatical terms employed in one school- room might be employed in another. If a boy were called upon to parse such a sentence as "/ should like to know," in three consecutive class-rooms, he would find a Conditional Mood in the French room, a Subjunctive one in the Latin, and an Optative one in the Greek. A very Proteus of a mood; now a bear, now crackling fire, now running water, that slips through one's fingers.' The evils of anarchy in grammar are obviously of no slight magnitude. When the pupil finds terms used in different senses in different books, he either ceases to attach any meaning to them or be- wilders himself in the attempt to reconcile what is irreconcilable : the result is that .grammar appears to him to l)e an arbitrary puzzle, and his only safeguard seems to lie in keeping a separate compartment of his mind for the grammar of each separate language. To take a single example : what idea can a pupil attach to tense names, when he is presented with no less than five different names for the five forms wrote, schrieb, scripsit, ecrivit, eypaxf/e, the use of which appears to him to be identical? In French it is Definite, in Greek Indefitiite (doptcrros), in German '(generally) Imperfect, in Latin Perfect, in English simply Past (or Past Indefinite). Were these names really distinctive of various shades of meaning in these forms, Ihey might be justified on scientific grounds, if not from the point of view of teaching ; but, as a matter of fact, the diversity depends, not on anything in the nature of the forms — though, of course, the scope of the Greek and French tenses is less wide than that of the English and German forms — but simply upon different points of view in the writers of grammars. Each name has sprung into existence from a desire to express some important aspect of a grammatical fact ; but none has been dictated by consideration for the needs of other languages. These tense-names are in fact not adapted to be used side by side. Similar anarchy prevails in the nomencla- ture of cases and moods, and the parts of speech. Nor is this surprising. Our grammars are based upon systems derived from such different sources as Roman emperors. Stoic philosophers, the French Academy, and English headmasters. Thus the term Mood is used in two quite diffe- rent senses — sometimes denoting a distinct form, sometimes a certain class of sentences. Hence the term Potential Mood, which has not yet died out, in spite of Mr. Ma- son's vigorous protest against it. . The description of the Subjunctive is very dif- ferent in different books ; in some it is the mood of possibility (Morris), in others the mood of doubt or uncertainty, in others the mood of unreality, in others the thought mood, in others the mood of unll (Del- briick, Brugmann), as distinct from the Optative, or mood of vmh. The pupil infers simply that it is the mood of vague- ness. (Compare article Grammar.) In the parts of speech the greatest confusion pre- vails. What is a pronoun in one grammar is an adjective or adjective-pronoun or pronominal adjective in another. The Pub- lic School Primer and many other gram- mars call all words like qiiurn, si, dum, nt, 'Subordinate Conjunctions.' Mr. Roby, in his Latin Grammar, calls them all' Con- nective Adverbs. ' Mr. Mason, in his En- glish Grammar, distinguishes the corre- sponding English words as: L Relative Adverbs [tvlien, vihere, as, &c.), 2. Subordi- nate Conjunctions (J)ecause, after, vnhile, if). The article is for the most part given up, as a separate part of speech, in en- lightened English grammars, but still lin- gers on in French and German. When we come to the verbals (Yerb-Nouns, Yerb- Adjectives) we find that while En- glish grammars adopt a scientific line of treatment, in French the gerund is, as a rule, not recognised at all; the pupil is told that in the phrase en jxissant, he has to deal with a participle (Yerb- Adjective). In the analysis of the sentence we have much confusion. The term sentence de- notes sometimes the expression of a 'com- plete thought ' (i.e. a thought containing both subject and predicate) by means of a finite verb, sometimes the expression of 'a complete thought,' whether by means of a finite verb or not. Subordinate groups containing subject and predicate of their own are called sometimes sentences (adjec- tival sentences, &c.), sometimes clauses (adjectival clauses, &c.). The term phrase is used by most teachers of French as 248 PARALLEL GRAMMARS inoauing srn'cucr : in KngHsIi ^Taianiai's it denotos a group i^t' words having tlie t'uuo- tiou of a single part of speech, and con- taining no finite verb. The simple sentence is analysed on difterent principles (.s-tt' Analysis of Skxtkxcks); the varieties of the compound sentence are sometimes treated under one heading, soraetimesundev two headings (Compound and Con\plex sentences). The arrangement of the phe- nomena of syntax proceeds sometimes on the lines of accidence (this maybe described as the old-fashioned method); sometimes on the basis of analysis. The latter method is followed by ^Ir. ^Mason and by Pr. Ken- nedy in the Public School Latin Grannnar (partly, too. in the Public School Latin Primer). Teachers of naodern la)\guages, as a rule, prefer the old n\ethod ; the new method is, at least partly, followed by n\ost recent English grammars. These two schools of grammarians ditTer foto caJo in their views as to teaching syntax ; the old method discusses the «.v't\s' 0/ /on»s, and arranges its matter imder the headings of eases (nominative, accusative, t.^'c.), moods (indicative, subjunctive, *.te.). The new metliod may be called the method of sen- tences; it begins by classifying sentences and then asking how (i.e. by what^o/v^.s-) each kind is expressed. The lirst nu^hod aims at presenting in one place the whole doctrine of, say, the subjunctive mood, the other exhibits the unity of tlie Subject, the Object, the Co))>j^fe))ie)it ; the Statement, the Questio)!, the Coiinnand, ikc. Xeither systen\ can be quite rigorously carried out in practice; but it is obvious that the onler of syntax will ditier in most vital points according as the one or other method is preferred. And it is clear that the pupil cannot be expected to translate grammatical facts from the one system to the other. Rules which might be ex- pressed in identical terms for difterent knguages are expivssed in various and even contradictory terms. For example, a mai-ked feature common to Aryan lan- guages is the use of the Intinitive after cei-tain verbs, e.g. : / can (rrite, icli kann schreiben, posftnm ^cnbere^je judg ecrire, Si'ja/ioi yfnif^eir, etc. In Liitin, the pupil at many of our public schools is nowadays taxight that the Intinitive is rrolative, i!e. , carries out' the construction of the tinite verb. In German, on the contrary, the tinite verb is called Anxiiian/ to the Intinitive: each mode of treatment is partially justi- iied, neither expresses the whole truth. In Greek and French this use of the Intinitive is often not named at all ; the rule simply speaks of ' 'T/te Intinitive.' The term Coniplenicnfari/ is sometimes used. To determine which is the best tenn may be ditlicult ; but any one employed consis- tently Avould be an improvement on the present st^vte of things. xVgain, the sphere of the Indirect Object is ill detined. The- Public School Primer treats not only the Dative after verbs of 'giving,' «fec., but also the Dative after /aveo, parco, rideo)\ itc., and eA-en that after adjectives, as. Datives of the Indirect Object (though no Direct Object is expressed or understood in the latter case) ; others even treat the second Object after verbs of 'teacliing,' i^'C, as an Indirect Object. But, it may be asked, are not thes& incongruities in the grannnars of ditl'erent languages inevitable? No doubt the ques- tion is hedged round withditViculties ; and the idea of uniformity must not be inter- preted in a narrow spirit. If there are- striking resemblai\ces between the mem- bers of tlie Indo-European family — re- semblances which have often been ob- scui-ed by the current treatment in school j books — there are also radical dift'erences- I between the languages of Teutonic origin I and those derived from Latin. To ignore then\ would be to do violence to the genius of the one or the other group. But there are two considerations which may be of service in solving that problem: (1) If the method be adopted of laying down certain distinctions of thought, and then asking how twch language expresses them, or whether it leaves them confused, a parallel treatment is quite possible. Such a method might very well be based on tlie analysis of sentences as now widely prac- tised in English-speaking countries. It would be necessary to guard against the encroachment of mere logic upon the do- main of grammar {see Analysis of Sen- TKXCEs); any revival of the attempt to deduce the laws of grammar from categories of thought would be an anachronism. It Avould be necessary to draw up a carefully selected list of constructions worth consi- deration and explanation, ami to limit the- grammars to them only. {'2) Mi;ch ad- vantage might con\e froni n\aking English, the point of depai-txn-e : pantllel grammars, for Englisli schools slioiild tind a centre ia a grammar of English. The other gram- PARAPPIRASE PASCAL, JACQUELINE 249 ixiars would tlien have to provide an answer to the question : How far does the usage of a particuhir foreign language coincide with that of English, and in how far is it different? The advantage of such a treat- ment would be that it would illustrate the one language by the help of the other, and thus lead to clearer ideas about both. In current grammars it is often difficult to distinguish what is common to the two from what is a special feature of one of them. To quote the words of the Great Didactjic of Comenius: 'Let the precepts of a new language be first known as diffe- rences from languages already known. . . . It is not only useless to teach what is com- mon to a new language with one already acquired, but it is confusing and over- whelming.' Greek grammar may safely be treated in connection with Latin, because few people learn Greek first; but other languages ought to be based directly upon the mother-tongue. At the present day there are many teachers who regard uniformity in the teaching of grammar as a not merely fanciful ideal, but one from which they expect great results; believing that the difficulties involved in applying the method may be overcome, and that grammar will then become a more useful instrument of teaching than it is at present. Several schools, both in England and America, have formulated schemes for use, and the results, so far obtained, are pronounced to be encouraging. In 188.5 a society called the Grammatical Society was formed by a number of teachers representing all kinds of schools and colleges, with the express purpose of introducing uniformity of ter- minology into the teaching of English, Latin, French, German, and Greek (Pre- sident, Rev. A. R. Vardy, M.A., Head Master of King Edward's School, Bir- mingham). Paraphrase. — This term is not infre- quently taken to signify an attempt to change the vjordiny of a sentence or para- graph without changing its mea7iing. Such an attempt is not only in most cases en- tirely hopeless, but seldom or never has it any educational value — especially when the original is the work of a real artist in language. To change the wording m^ust, to some extent, change the meaning — ex- cept, perhaps, as far as the substitution of modern for obsolete words is concerned — and must change or destroy the beauty of the passage. As a school term paraplorase should (and does generally) signify the expansion and ex]> licit statement of all that is im,plied Vjy the metaphors and similes, references and associations, of a passage of prose or verse. Its educational value, in this sense, is considerable ; for it is only by unravelling and carefully exa- mining the material used by a skilled • writer to produce his effect — be the mate- rial figure of speech or associations con- nected with the words, or even the cadence of the sentences — that we can learn to do likewise, or can give evidence that we understand and appreciate the passage set before us. By this process the passage- is not disfigured or destroyed, but search- ingly, clearly, and completely expounded. Parsing. S'ee Analysis op Sentences.. Pascal, Blaise. >^ee Jansenists. ^Pascal, Jacqueline (b. 162.5, d. 1661),. sister of the celebrated Blaise Pascal, achieved a considerable reputation in con- nection with the education of children at the institution at Port Royal des Champs. After the death of her father, Jacqueline, in January 16.52, joined the Port Royalists as a religieuse, and next year assumed the name of Soeur Sainte-Euph^mie. In 1655 she was appointed submistress of the novices, charged to conduct their educa- tion, and for tlie rest of her life remained at the head of that department. In this position she greatly distinguished herself. The principles slie pursued in the educa- tion of her pupils she described in a special treatise entitled Reylement des Ecoles de Filles de Fort-Royal. Among otlier things Sister Euph(imie attempted to introduce an improved method of teaching reading, originally devised by her brother. In the first part of her Reglement pour les En- fants she gives a minute account of the method she pursued in the physical, men- tal, and religious education of her girls- at Port Royal. The second part of the treatise is of most pedagogic interest. It describes the character and behaviour of the schoolmistress as she ought to be according to Catholic Jansenist ideas, and discusses the whole field of the manage- ment of children, the question of rewards and punishments, the course of reading, and the training of the moral character of pupils. However obsolete many of the special recommendations in this treatise, its general character is such as to extort our admiration for the authoress, as an 2r>o PAUPE 11 ED r ATION oxnmplo ot" lot"ty sclt'-saoritu'o and ikno- tiou to duty iiv the work ot" trtiiiiiug the youTig. The suppvossion ot" the school, whk'li was etleotod in April UU>1, and the perseoutvon to wliioli the Port Royalists weiv svibjeeted, oliiotly throusih Jesuit jealousy, was a eruel blow to Sister Eu- pheuiie, aud she died iu October in the sauu> year of a broken heart. (N»(' Jan- .SKXISTS.) Pauper Education. — The sixteenth Annual Report of the Local (.Tovernnunit Boanl, J uue 1887 (^lCyreai\d 8pottis\voode, ox. Wl.), showed that in our workhouses, woi'khouse schools, and distinct union schools, there were 55,472 children of the iState, excluding o,ll77 boarded out iu pi*i- vate families. Of these iU,Oll were 'or- phans or other children ivlieved without their parents," the latter phnxse applying chietly to children pinictically orphans, v^*- •deserted by parents who cannot be found. Of the 55,47- children for whom the Poor Law provided education, 7,0t.>9 were in dis- trict schools, •J4,58o were tavight in work- houses aiui separate Poor l^aw schools other ! than district schools ; the ren\ainder were sent out to public elementary schools. There i are four inspectors of Poor I^aw schools ; o7,o"J;V. waspaid forteachers in the schools. ' This total has steadily decreased since 188'J, owing to the increasing favour with which boards of guardians look upon the plan of sending their cliildreu out to school instead j of keeping them night and day in the same i atmosphere and euvironnunxt. In "JOO of I the 047, i.e. 41 percent, of the unions, the 1 ohildivn aiv now (1888) sent out to public i elementary schools ; in "J 71 they are taught iu the workhouse (but 1 2 of these unions seiul some of the children out) ; in 58 they aiv taught iu detached or separate schools other than district schools ; in ."U cases they are sent to district schools ; and iu :21 they (being few) are sent to the schools <>f another union. Public attention has been of late years much diivoted to the inadvisability of keeping children in pauper establislnnents, wheivby the pauper taint aiul characteris- tics an\ it is urgvd, inevitably civated, especially in the case of girls. Air. Nassau Senior (whose works should be consulted) was perhaps the piovieer in this direction, and public opinion has been enlightened a;ul diivcteil also by the labours of the Metro- politan Association for Befriending Young iServants (15 Buckingham 5>tivet, Adelphi, W.O.) ; the Association for Promoting the Poanlii\g out of Pauper Children (Miss W. Hall, Devonshire Place, Eastbourne, hon. sec.) ; Aliss EUice Hopkins (Percy House, Bnghtoi\) and her Ijadies" Associa- tions for Befriending Friendless Girls ; Mr. F. Peek's iSoaal Wirckaijt' ; aud the work of the Church of England Society for Providing Honu^s fo)" Waifs and Stnvys (;>-J Charing Cross. 8.\V.), and others. It is widely admitted that the old plan of keeping children ami adults together in workhouses is thoroughly bad, and not to be thought of, except when parents accom- pany their children aud arepi'obably only in for a short time. Sepai'ate schools and disti'ict schools ai-e also open to many ob- jections, as ingraiuing pauperism by keep- ing and tniining children apart from any healthy contact with the outside world. The huge district schools, chietly metropolitan, wherein 000 children may be barracked together, are found to produce most evil results, from u\oi';il, ecoi\ou\ical, and social points of view. On the other hand, it has been argued that to keep down pauperisni the pauper stigma must be kept on the children. Our colonies at tirst naturally copied the English Poor Law system, but have discovennl its faults. Several Aus- tralian colonies now have no State children in any State institution of the workhouse- school type. Good u\ay be done by sendii\g the chil- dren out to mingle in a National or Board school with others whose lot is move happy aud life more uatuiul. In Leeds this is not only done, but the ordinary pauper uniform is discarded. Put the depauperi- sation of children may best be etl'ected in the following ways, all of which are beii\g increasingly adopted : (1) By boarding out all orphan and deserted children of tender years with foster-parents, mxder certitied committees of ladies in the country. This is the most econon\ical, as well as the best plan, aiul has for many years been tho- ivughly worked in Scotland, Ireland, our colonies, and ii\ fact nearly eveiy country except England. In 1888 our 047 boards only thus benetited 1,1 7 il childivn, i.e. not two per board. (_) The childnm are placed with foster-parents, but within the limits of the union to which they belong, ai\d ai-e inspected by the ivlievingothcei'S andguar- diatis. Theiv were LM05 thus placed out in 1888. This is really only a kind of out- door ivlief, preferable, however, to keeping PAUPER EDUCATION 251 the children in the workhouse, or destroy- ing their individuality and depriving them of home education in a district school. (3) Placing elder children, especially girls, in voluntary homes or industrial schools established and managed by private indi- viduals. The Waifs and Strays Society had in 1888 six of this kind certified and inspected by the Local Government Board, besides others affiliated to it. In the same year tliere were 143 of such schools in England and Wales. (4) By emigration to Canada under the special care of pri- vate persons or philanthropic societies — e.g. the Waifs and Strays Society — who are recognised by the Local Government Board. Great care is here necessary in the selec- tion of children. Canada readily distin- guishes between a workhouse or institution child and one who has had the more natu- ral training of a small home, and it is de- sirable for guardians to send to such homes for at least six months those whom they wish to emigrate. Emigration costs about 10/., or about one-third of the cost for one year of a child in some of our district schools. Yet only 166 were emigrated in 1886. The emigration officei'S of the Ca- nadian Department of Agriculture now report to the Local Government Board the results of their inspection of the children placed out, and these reports are described as ' generally satisfactory.' The Board prefer girls to be under ten years old. It is generally believed that if these four plans were more commonly adopted the number of children reared as paupers would very rapidly diminish, the saving to the rates would be great, and the gain to the health and wealth of the State greater still. In this article distinctions are assumed between paupers and tlie indigent poor. The education of the poor and their chil- dren involves questions merging in various articles on primary and State education {see articles Ragged Schools, Waifs and Strays, Vacation ScnooLS, Royal Com- missions). The National Society (Sanc- tuary, Westminster, S.W.) is the recog- nised handmaid of the Church of England for promoting the education of the poor in distinctive religious principles. By means of the ofFer-ingsof Churchmen it did a great work for the nation before School Boar-ds were thought of. Between 1811 and 1886 it spent 1,191,000/^. voluntarily contributed by Churchmen, the largest item, 586,800Z., being on schoolhouses. It publishes weekly tlie School Guardian. Since the Government ceased to inspect in religious subjects Diocesan Inspectors of schools have been appointed for these schools. The education of the poor is also fostered by the following organisations, chiefly by grants of books and apparatus both to teacliers, pupils, school and parish libraries, missions, &c. Details are sent to teacliers and managers on application. Society for Promoting Christian Know- ledge (Northumberland Avenue, Charing Cross, S.W.) ; Religious Tract Society (56 Paternoster Row, E.C.) ; Pure Literature Society (11 Buckingham Street, Stx-and, W.C.) ; Church of England Book Society (11 Adam Street, W.C.) ; Book Hawking Association (hon. sec. Rev. P. Lilly, Col- laton St. Mary, Paignton, Devon ; depot, 190 Oxford Street, W.). The S.P.C.K. is publishing a new Penny Library of Fic- tion, also Parish Magazine, Dav)n of Day (200,000 monthly), Home Words, Day of Days, tfec. Among other parochial maga- zines are the Gospeller, Things New and Old, the Evangelist, and the Banner of Faith. There are other good magazines issued by the various Sunday school organisations. There are two broad questions con- nected with pauper education which are subjects of controversy. They involve problems of (1) localisation, (2) distribu- tion. That is : (i.) Are pauper children to be treated as the children of the State or of a small local community % (ii.) Are the children to be massed together or dis- tributed in small homes here or in the colonies % The first question has been answered in England since the days of Elizabeth by the Poor Law system, which may almost be called the eldest daughter of Protestant Christianity (see Fowle's Poor Law, Macmillan's English Citizen series, 2s. 6f/.). We see in fact that Church prevision preceded State provision. This is still the case, although the unity of Church and State (purporting to act for the benefit of the nation) is not as marked now as it was in the early days of the poor laws. We have now arrived at an age of great cities, when about half the total population of England are crowded into the towns, as contrasted with about one tenth even in India. Hence new difficulties. For the efficiency of the pre- sent system depends too much upon the varying characters of local boards, and the •253 PAurKii EDUCATION — rAYiMF.NT r>Y iu:8iu;r8 oompnititivo bivnkdown of thoiv systoiu in donling with pauper children in the great eities has led to the great ineivnse ot" supplementary methods during Vic- torias reign. It is i\ot unnatural for local boards to ivgard the children as burdens, to be disposed of as soon ns possible. They ha\e therefore sometinies to be Avatched. say, by l^tate otlicials, Avho see that a labour proticicncy certificate is propei'ly granted. The child, it is also argued, is liable to be turned out less able to resist the pauper taint, at\d more likely to become a burden in the workhouse. It is theivfoit^ proposed by some that the childivn slioxild not be treated as those of a locality, but ns those of a nation. The second question is i\ow being keenly dis- cussed. It is often i-eferivd to ns the ' barracks ' ^rrsH$ the ' boai-ding-out ' system. Ii\stead of being kept ii\ the \vorkho\ise or industrial school, children are now placed with widows and families wlio are paid to bring them up. The average cost of children is abo\it 5,^". a week. The controversy au\ong boards of gufiiiiians often turns upon the relative cost, r}\ther°than the ethciency either to the childrex\ or the State. Some of the guaniians are making experiuumts in mi- gration to other parts of the empire. The bi'ight side of the large school systeui is the regular and constant occupatioii of the xnind, and a discipline which eixsures both order ai\d genei-al con\fort. In a cottage home the discipline may or may not exist, but it is urged that the girls are moi-e likely to be better tniiued as do- mestic servants than iu the schools. The children are, it is complained, too much sliut out of the world. The children be- come weary of the monotony and the walls. In large towns, if they' are let out for a few houi-s weekly, there is the danger of their bringing infection to the school, but this and other dithculties could pix^b- ably be overcon\e. The ' n\oral ' ditticul- ties exist in both cases, and are not entirely dependent on the tone or watchfulness of school or home. Teachers and friends may do much by visiting the childi-en by arrangement with the niaster or mistress, giving simple lectui-es. experiments, pic- tures, asking questions, and thus showing pei-sonal sympathy with the children and teachers. Ladies and geittlemen of leisure can still do a great work iu this direction. Theassistant-tt'^achers need encouragement a\ul sympatliy ; for it must be remembered that the uatui'o of the inspection system is essentially a spy systen^, and the fact that assistants and chajOaius are appointed and disu\issed by the lioard, not by the master as in public schools, encoui-ages suspicion at\il seltishness. Annual treats and yearly kind words ai-e not ei\ough ; nvoi'eover, Christmas reuuMubrauces are never overwhelming, as they are some- tinu^s said to be iu infirmaries or oi-phan- ag-es. Thei-o is, lastly, the great ditliculty of parental control. Ought dissolute and ui^worthy parents to have the legal con- trol of their children ? If not, would measuivs with the children otrerapremium to such parentage'^ It is impossible to punish the vnnvorthy parents thromjh their childrtm. ^Ve seem to have other questions also being put, e.g. Is it the duty of the State or the con\mut\ity to thid work for the unemployed of ai^y age ? Is idleness a sin or a crime, or both '? Payment by Eesiilts. — The origin of the controversy which has stij'red to its very depths that portion of the education world which is it\terested in public elemen- tary education dates from the year 1801, whetx the Connuitteeof Council, under the Yice-rresidency of Mr. Robert Lowe (^Lord Sherbrooke), framed and presented to Par- liament the Jit'ri^t-d Codt' of Minutes and Kegulations for the future distribution of the parliamentary grant. By that code — which followed iu this particular the recom- mendations of the Koyal Commission on Popular Educatioii, which had sat since 18o8 — grants were for the lirst time to be appoi'tioned to schools, in part, oi\ the I'esults of the ixdiridita/ examination of the scholars. This is what is nu^ant by 'payn\ent by results.' This principle, thus introduced, was not rendered any the more palatable to the body of teachers in public elenientary schools, by the gi-ounds upon which jNlr. Robert Lowe recomn\ended its acceptance to the country. In his speech in the House of Counuo\is oi\ February 14, 1882, he used the following words : 'It seems to me that tlie only possible condi- tions under which, without a i-eckless expeiuliture of public money, we can pos- sibly ivconnnet\d that teachers of an in- ferior class should be entployed in these schools, woiild be on the understanditig that thei-e shall be some collateral and independent pwof that such teachers do PAYMENT BY RESULTS 253 their duty;' and he proceeded to show that that proof could only be obtained by indi- vidual examination of the scholars, and to recommend that a sensible portion of the grant should depend on that examination. He dwelt, too, on the vague nature of a report based on examination by classes, and described such terms as 'general effi- ciency,' 'general impression on the whole,' 'moral atmosphere,' &c. in inspectors' re- ports, as 'impalpable essences,' which it was not wise for Parliament to treat as substantial tests that its money was well spent. It was natural that the tone of this reference to the elementary teachers, and the implication that they would not rise to the level of their duty as conceived by the nation, except under the pressure of the aryuinentum ad crumenavi, should cause the deepest offence. A bitterness has, therefore, been imported into this controversy that is only intelligible when this episode is borne in mind. But expe- rience has shown that, on purely educa- tional grounds, the principle of ' payment by results ' has worked considerable mis- chief. No doubt it has remedied the evil it was called into working to remedy. The charge brought against previous codes was that they encouraged the teachers to pay attention to the regular, the bright, the well-to-do scholar, and to neglect the irregular, the dullard, and the poor scholar, and that the utterly ignorant were left in their ignorance. But ' payment by results ' is charged with introducing other great evils, which were not wholly unforeseen, and which have more than fulfilled the forebodings of practical educationists. These evils may be summarised as follows : — a. It has organised a system of cram, under which 'results,' measured by the standard examinations (see Standards), as opposed to 'methods,' have received undue recognition and reward, b. All scholars, whether clever or dullards, pro- gress at the same rate — one standard per annum; and at the same rate in all subjects simultaneously, c. The degree of success, with neglect, incapacity, and the bad influences of home surroundings, meets with little recognition as compared with the success in 'passing' a high percentage of scholars. d. The profession of the teacher is degraded by persistent and obtrusive appeals to the desire of gain. In the absence of monetary inducements, teachers are tempted to neglect scholars who are not likely to earn good grants. e. Little encouragement is given to teachers to forwaixl the higher moral and intellec- tual training of their scholars, as opposed to the mere acquisition of mechanical facilities in the subjects of examination. /. Scholars trained under this system, and subsequently passing on to secondary schools, are characterised by a lack of mental alertness, and frequently disappoint their early promise. The bad effects brought to light in the practical working of this principle have forcibly stirred many of the succeeding Vice-Pi-esidents of the Committee of Council to retrace, in part at least, the steps which the Royal Com- mission of 1858 and Mr. Lowe prevailed upon Pai'liament to take in 1862. During the period of his vice-presidency, Mr. Mun- della consulted the leading advisers of the Education Department and other educa- tionists, and presented a body of recom- mendations to Parliament which were adopted in subsequent codes, and have, though only partially, remedied the evils inveighed against. Of these, what is known as the 'Merit Grant' is the most con- spicuous. This grant consists (see Code) of a payment of Is., 2s., or 3s. per scholar in average attendance — according as a school is reported to be fair, good, or excellent. The following extract from the Instructions to H.M. Inspectors point- ing out what, in the opinion of the Edu- cation Department, should be the attributes of a school deserving of the 'excellent' Merit Grant, will show how much may be done under its provisions to counteract the evil effects of the principle of 'payment by results.' The principle itself, however, has at most been ' scotched ' thereby, not killed. Extract from Instructions: — 'It is the intention of their Lordships that the mark " Excellent " should be re- served for cases of distinguished merit. A thoroughly good school in favourable conditions is characterised by cheerful and yet exact discipline, maintained without harshness, and without noisy demonstra- tion of authority. Its premises are cleanly and well-ordered ; its time-table provides a proper variety of mental enjoyment and of physical exercises; its organisation is such as to distribute the teaching power judiciously, and to secure for every scholar — whether he is likely to bring credit to the school by examination or not — a fair share of instruction and of attention. The 254 rAYNK, joiSKrn toaohing- is animatod aiul iutorostiui;;, and voti tlun'ou,i>h aivd aoouvato. Tlio n>a.din<>; is (IiumU, caroful, and oxprossivo, and tlu* I'luldivn an^ holpod by t|uostionini;' and oxplanaiion to t\>llo\v tho nu\vnin<>-ot' what l(Mliosoholav,snot only to obtain oonwt answors io sums, hut also to undorstai\d (ho roason of tho prooossos onipUnod. If hiii'hor suhjoots avo attoniptod, tho h^ssons aro not oonfinod io n\onu>ry work and to tlio U\arninn- of toohnioal tonus, but aro dosij^noil to givo a. oh^ar kno\vhHl!>'0 i>f fa^'ts, and to tniin tho loarnor in tho pravtioo of tliinking and obsorving. Bo- sidos t'ultilling all thoso conditions, whioh JUV all ox{>tvssod or impliod in (ho Oodo, suoh a srliool sooks by othor moans to bo of sor\ ii'o to tho ohiUhon who attond it. It providos for tho uj^por olassos a rosi'niar systom of Ivomo-oxoroisos, and arnvngo- nionts for oorrootinu' thom oxpoditiously antl thoroughly. W'horo i-^roumstanoos pormit., it has also its londing' library, its saviniis bank, and an ordorly ooUootiou of simplo objoots and apparatus adapted to illustrato tho sohool lossous. and fonuod in part by tho oooponvtion of tho Si-holars thouisolvos. .\bo\o all, its toaohiui;- and disoiplino aro suoh as to oxort ;v riiiht in- tluonoo on tho m.-uvnors. tho conduct, and tho charaotor of tho childrou, to awakou in thon\ a lovo of reading, and such an inteivst in thoir own uvontal iniprovomout !vs may iwisoiiably bo oxpoctod to last boyond tho perioti of school life." Tho system of payment by results has not been adopted in any ooui\try outside the British Isles except the Pi-ovince of Victoria. Australia, fvnd oven theiv its evils are now fully recognised by the authorities. Payne. Joseph (^1808 187(5).— A theo- ivtical and practical educator, ami teacher of teachei"s. of whom it was said in the £tftu'afio)ial 'riiinsiov duiu'' 1. 187G. just over a n\ontl\ after his decease, that 'it would be ditlicult to over-estimate the loss which the cause of educational progivss and reforn^ has sustained by the ivcent death of Mv. Joseph Tayne. At the pi'e- sei\t juncture, when so givat an impetus hivs been given to popular education, and such rapid strides aro being taken. i\ot always with the cleaivst light or it\ the wisest diivotion, and when the guidance and iixtluence of mei\ of wide experience, caivful thought, and untiring devotion is n\ore than ever necessarv. few could be named whose place it wiudd be more ditli- cult to su[>ply.' Ti\e business of ]Mr. Paym^'s lif»^ was to n»;ike education a reality rather than a pretence; and with this purpose in view he exposed the futility of the unintelligei\t routiiu^ with which educators have too commonly contented themsel vos.and sought to nnise them to substitute for it n\ethoils which would call the expanding faculties of the young into healthful activity, and sympathetically guide them in the course of their develo[)ment to the best and wisest ends. The only teaching which he regarded as worthy of tlio name was that which impartoil tho power of self-teaching ; and,, whilst awakening in tho loarnor a desire for knowledge, guided him by tho surest and ivadiest means to its atta.inn\ent. In oixlor to oarry out the intelligent and scientific principles which are essential to the achioNoment of such a. result, it was necessary that the teacher nnist learn how to teach — nuist have aci]uired. that is, not only a thorough knowledge of the subject to be taught, but of the laws which govern the exercise and development of the facul- ties of those whom he teaches. He must know, indeed, both tho lesson and tho scholar, ai\d the means by which the two may be brought into edifying and fruitful contact. * These aims JNlr. Payne pursued throughout his life, unobtrusively indeed, yet with single-minded enthusiasm, and unswerving tenacity of pux'pose.' Joseph Payne was born at Bury St. Edmunds, on JNlay *J, 1808. His early education was very incomplete, tvnd after a short experience, which comnieuced when he was alnnit fourteen years of age, of ivally competent instruction, he was early thrown on his own resources for procuring a livelihood. He bec;une an assistant in a London school ; and, as he hin\self main- trained, he would have fallen into the ordi- nary groove of routine teaching if he had not accidentally become acquainttxl with tho principles of the French refonner Jacotot, and been Hivd with the enthusiasut which Jacotot succeeded in kindling far and wide, both in his own country .and in Belgium. In lli(*Ari()N oihtM'H m-o UwxuHhod with i'om[H>i»sa(.ii\,n' ov^aiis Nvliiuli b.MilaiKit* th(^ j^ooil or (.luun il, ami ilwis roiidtM' botli iin*lUH-tivt\ 'Vhua Mio orjjjaii of stHir<>t.iviM\tv^s iuiUivitc^M m. (liuvf mx woll as a iiovt>list. Tho I'umlaiutMitivl dov triiio with rosptvt to tlio lit ilitiy o( an orpvu is that its si/.o dotonniiu^s tlio po\vt>r of (li(> alU>^"0(l t'aoulty or pi^iiu^iisity l»oloi\s>;'mij; t.o it. But it oau hardly bo admit (tul that, sizo alout> is a triu^ oritorion, for it is n. wt^ll asotn-taiiuHl faot that X\\o vij^our ol' any faoulty juay ho iiun'oasod l>y tHhu'a tion or o\tn\nso, oi'ovoii of iU>sirt\ \vithi>ut niiy i'orrt>spomlinu; iui-n^aso in its si/,t\ llonoo tlit^ jihrtMioloi'V is doprivod of (Mio of its host, niarics io tout iiio int(>lKH'tiinl slro patitM\t. It is indtHnl sui- }>risiun' how litthi solid pi"i\n'rtvss rosidttnl ivowx thisoouti'ovorsy ; iiuUHHl,fiirtJun*th;ui a somowhat stii>iidatiM!>" n^s(>(in'h xnlo tho anatomy of tlu> hrain, inching was dout^. Most of tho auatomioal (h^tails ooutniuod in tho wnn'ks oii phroiioKijjy rohito to con tmvtxraial luattors oi soooiidary import anoo, and jM-t>supposo tho truth of tho thoory, but <^\imi in oouuoot>ii>u with thoui thoy jj;ivt> us no statistioal dotails of any \ahu'. Physical Education. -It is uow woll i-tHH\i;nisod that io ho ' a i^'ood aiiinial' is iu\tu)f thtvtirst rt>(|uisitos ti>s\UHH*ss in lifo, and tlmt for this purposo propor iood and <<\tnviso aro of primo iunH>rtanot\ W'hoii wo rtnuondtor that' ont^ fourth of thi> whiiKi bUiod of tho body is oontainod in tho sub- st^vni'O <>f its n»usoU''S, i\\o impoitanoo of duo oxoroiso of thorn booonitvs t>vidont. Musoidar t^xoroiso is in»portant in its in tluouot* tM» tht^ gouoral lioalth and on tho brain. Tho umsolos iuoi'oaso iu sij;o aiul strtuxgih by steady ai\d systonuvtio oxov- oiso. The aotii>n of tho lungs is ii\oivasod, \noit^ puw air boing i(\spiivd, and uu^ro iu\puritios oxpirod, whilo tho ai^tual girth of tho olvost and si2;t> of tho lungs \)ooonios iiu-ivnsod. l»y its moans a tlat-ohostod oomlition may bo ourod, and oousumptivo tondonoit\s obvijvtod. Tho aotiou of tho skin is inonwsod. tho oireulatiou is inv- pw\od anil i-tnivltM-od n\(uv oipiablo, tho pmihu'tion of boat is inoroasod, and oold foot a»\d ohilblains btH'ouio a thii\g of tho past, Tho nuisoKvs oauivot aot of thorn- solves; their moxomouts tin> eontrollod aud vt\gulatod by uor\os which havo thoir ultinuito origin in tlu> biuiu. Thoiv is a niotor part of tho brain oonvspoudiug to tho musilos which is in intimate coiumu- nii'a.tit>n with tho int(^ll(H'tua,l |>arts of tho brain, and which cai\ oidy attain its fidl vigour wlum tht^ wlioli^ nuisculai' .systciui is in a w(>ll ihnH>lopoil ami tunUthy con- dition, hiach nt^rvous ol^ntl•c n>nuiros (^xtt'iMial stimuli to dov(>lop its potiMitial pinv(n". Th(^ motor part of tho liiuin ro- «pui'os muscular i^xorciso, tho sonstu'y part rtHjuinvs oxovciso of tho special senses, and tlu< intellectual part (wliich is probably in^l(^pemlent of tlu^ other two parts, thi>ugh it co-iu'dinativs and regulates tiunr action) n^piirt^s (^xercise of tlu> intMuory atul reasoning ,pow»>rs. It is luily when thest^ iUroo kinds of exorcise are duly proju>rtiom»d, ami oiwU fully extH-utiHl, that tlu^ higlu^st attfiiuablo developnuMit. of tJH^ brain is stHHirtnl. h'.vci'ssirt' iiiitsrn/ttr t\ft'rclst- vt>ry seUlom iHHUirs in chililren. It is only in I'luupe- titi\ t^ running lU- rowing (orsimilai* suddtMi and viohnit oxortiinis) that dangtn* arises. Palpitation and occasiin\ally dilatation of the heart u»a.y b^^ productnl, sometiinos also spitting of bloinl. (\nupt>tit ivt> exer- cises shouhl be carefully n\gulated and graduated in tho }>rovious training, anil no boy should be allowed to join in thoni unless ho h.as passinl a searching medical oxaniinatioij. Then> is no necossjiry an- tagonism between mtnital culture and ath- leticism. Tho 'proverbial stui'idity of tho ;ithU>te' simply nutans that the mojttal f.'icult ios h.ave become rusty from want of use. J>ut where one person sutlers from oxoossive exorcise, multitvules sutler frou\ iilleness. Ihilcifut CAnvinf- is especially couunon in girls, and iu coi\seipieuce tho genoml health is eonsidm-ably inn^airod, the digestion is enfeebled, tho circulation becomes uneipuvl, ami ner\ ous irritability and sleoplessi\oss often follow. The ten- dency to lung diseases, especially consump- tion, is gwatly iixcroasod. The figure is lamentably atlected, the shouldei's tend to droop, the chest beco\nes tlat, the gait stooping, and the spine nmy become late- nilly twisted, owing to the tlabby condition of the nvuseles supporting it. The impri- sonn^tuxt of the tiguro in tight corsets is a couunon cause of deticient exercise of the trunk muscU^s in girls. In taking exer- cise tho following rules are vaUuvble. The clothing vshould always consist of tlaunel m^xt tlu^ skin, jind shouKl be loose enough to allow fn>e play of the liu\bs and ex- pa,nsion of tlie clu^st. Theiv is iu> dangvr trom excessive pei'spimtion, but oidy after- PHYSICS 269 wards : honco sitting in a drauglit or keep- ing on wet clothes (when flannel has not l)e(!n worn) should be carefully avoided. The exercise should bo systematic and regular, not sudden and violent. li^very j)art of the body should be exercised, and the exercise should be taken as far as pos- siljle in the ojjon air, and not directly after meals. The value of girls' calisth(!nics is gi-eatly reduced by tluur bcdng commonly taken indoors. Physics.- This term may be defined in many ways, but the following eqiiiva- l(Mit models of expr(!ssing its meaning will assist : - (1) It is the science which treats of the phenomena presented by bodies. {'2) It treats of matter, energy, and motion. (3) Hence it includes the discussion of gravitation and molecular attraction, and other general properties of solid bodies, li((uids, and gases. (4) The following sub- jects are therefore branches of this science : Mechanics, hydrostatics, including pneu- matics, heat, sound, light, magnetism, and eh^ctricity. (5) The scicnice of natui-e has tliree divisions according to the point of vi(!W under wliicli th(! bodies of the uni- vej'se are studi(!d. Th(!se bodies may b(; examined with r'clation to thcii' (jenardl jjroperties, with relation to their consti- tuent pai-ts and peculiar properties, and with relation to their a})pearances and ex- tc/nial fjualities. rihysics (in its moder-ii acceptation replacing the term Natural Pliilosophy) has for its object the general ])i()perti(!s of bodies, their mutual actions oil each otlier, tlieir causes, effects, pheno- mena, and hiws. Chc/miatry studies the ]»(H;uliar properties of bodies, their ele- Mumtary principles and cond)inations; and Natural History, in its widcsst sense, ob- .sei'ves their external characters and ap- ])(?ai'ances, classifies, and arranges them, it will be seen that the lines of division of these three divisions of science are not always distinct ; hence, in text-books on physics we frequently have a chapter on chemical physics, and in works on chem- istry a chapter on physical chemistry. But for the purposes of school teaching it is not necessary that the facts dealt with should be kept rigidly and strictly to tlieir own section ; and liowever different the case may be with advanced j)rofessors of the sciences, teachers and scholars who ai-e intending chiefly to deal witli one sec- tion may make excursions into the; others Avithout fear of exciting jealousy and re- sentment. Let us now first ask, Wliat is the aim of physics when used in school- teaching, and then consider differences in the methods of dealing with the subjects at different stages of education. The ob- jects to be aimed at aj-e as follows : To teach the children (l)To ol)se7'V(i objects and operations. (2) To <;i?e,wr« accurately what is S(;eii and done. (3) To reason on simple pluinoTiKMia. Now, there should b(^ tln'(!e cours(!S, or thrcio periods, in which these thi'(!e objects in succession ljav(; th(! chief consideration. In the first course of sciencci-Iessons given to the youngest children we should tell litth; or nothing: we should tell only the names of tilings used, and as few of those as possible. The object being to excite a love of observation and a longing for scientific knowledge, the lessons will prin- cipally consist in exhibiting differ-ences, and getting them S(!en and pointed out. In the first stage the t(iacher will be satis- fi(;d with evidences of observation, but in the second stage he will be bent on re- ceiving the answers to all (Questions in sci(uitiiic and graTrimatical language. Fi- nally, h(5 will put off to the last stage, or leave to be fornuid at a later time, the more geiK^ral laws and the theories of science. The reason for this will on a little thought be (ividcuit. These theories and laws will form the crowning stones of the pyramid, and must be placed last, a broad base with many stones having been laid fir-st. We must begin with the common and familiar properties of things — a glass of water or a bottle of air, — and from the beginning we should urge the young student to perform the experi- jiKHits with his own hands. Wlicm we have procecided far enough to split physics into its elementary sub- jects, the branch claiming att(!ntion first is mechanics and dynamics. At pnisent we ai'e troubled by a difference of custom in the use of tluisc; terms. The older classi- fication is as follows : Mecfianics, iiicliidirif;- StaticK, llic scieiK^e of loreos acting? on bodies at rcHt ; ami DyiiaiiiicH, tlie science of forces wliicli produce motion. The more modern mode of division uses the term ' dynamics ' as the science of force gore rally : I. Kinematics, (lie science of pure mo- tion indeiieudently of force. 270 PHYSICS PHYSIOLOGY (ANIMAL) II. Dynamics, including (a) Kinetics, the science of force producing mo- tion. (b) Statics as above, and including mechanics, the science of machines iu equilibrium. Now, when we look on these sciences in their relation to the teaching of physics generally, we are di'iven to conclude that there are educational advantages in taking- statics and the theory of simple machines before the more general dynamics. An argument adduced in favour of the treatment of dynamics before statics is, that the second law of motion simplifies the exposition of the parallelogram of forces ; and another, that the study of work should properly precede the study of the common machines. But in education we frequently lose more than we gain by at- tempting to deal with the most general ideas before we have established a sufficient number of elementary notions to make the comprehension of the generalised notion an easy matter. Again, dynamics is dif- ficult to teach experimentally without con- siderable expense and some skill in experi- menting ; whereas the theorems of statics are capable of being easily verified by inex- pensive apparatus, consisting chiefly of ordinary weights, rods, and strings, and requiring no great delicacy of manipula- tion. Finally, the subject of dynamics teems with fundamental difficulties which are not met with in statics ; for example, the measure of a variable velocity, the difficult proofs of the fundamental for- mulfe for even uniform acceleration, the great difficulty of explaining the funda- mental ideas concerning mass and force, the imperfectly-treated second law of mo- tion, the immense labour of change of units, as from the pound to the gramme, from the weight of one pound to the dyne, from the food-pound to the erg, and so on. On these grounds the teaching of statics should begin first. After this the order will be as follows : the measurement of velocity and acceleration, force, mass mo- mentum, and energy. A very useful piece of school-work will be done by grouping portions of all the branches of physics about the concept Energy in the way described in the article on Mathematics. The term enei'gy, and the great prin- ciple of the conservation or persistence of energy, the establishment of which will live in the history of science as the great achievement of the central part of the nineteenth century, have a scope far be- yond the purely mathematical treatment of dynamics and the allied branches of physical science. The concept and the principle have already profoundly modi- fied the views of the physicist as to the natural laws with which he is concerned, and are, destined to form the starting- point and firm foundation for all his con- quests in the future. While the concep- tion of energy has naturally arisen out of the higher mathematical treatment of dynamics, it has necessitated a very ma- terial recasting of that treatment in its- most elementary as well as in its more advanced stages, if it is to bear any fruit- ful relation to physical science in general. Of the other branches of physics that of heat presents many simple expei'iments which may be repeated in a school labora- tory, and electricity is the branch which has most points of connection with the other branches. {See Electricity.) Physiology (Animal) ((^vVts, nature; Xoyos, a discourse) deals with animal or- gans and their functions. As taught in schools, it takes man as the most perfect- animal, and treats of human structure,, organs, and functions, the illustrative dis- sections being made on any mammal, pre- ferably on a rabbit or a guinea-pig. The study of the body commences %vith the structure of the internal, or endo- skeleton^ and for the thorough comprehension of this it is necessary to have a complete skeleton, properly jointed, so as to make clear the connections of the various parts, and the mechanical adjustments which facilitate and limit the movements of the trunk and limbs. The points of insertion of the great muscles — -which, with the bones to which they are attached, form levers of the three kinds in the body — can be marked on the skeleton, but it is not necessary for an ordinary science student to concern himself -wdth the details of the muscular structure of the human frame ; he may content himself with a sound knowledge of the large muscles of the limbs, of the larynx, and of the chest. In addition to the skeleton, the teacher should have a complete set of human bones, sepa- rated from each other, and the student should learn to recognise and name each bone apart from its position in the skeleton. Next comes the study of the great organs PHYSIOLOGY (ANIMAL) 271 of the body, those concerned in digestion, absorption, circulation, respiration, and secretion. A clear comprehension of the relative positions of these organs is indis- pensable, and to this end two illustrative dissections are made by wise teachers : L A guinea-pig, spread on a board on its back, with its limbs attached severally to four nails driven into the corners of the board, has the skin from the throat to the pubes slit down the middle and laid back; with a pair of sharp scissors or bone-forceps the ribs are severed from the breast-bone a.nd carefully removed; the muscles covering the abdominal cavity are slit down the middle and reflected. Thus the two great cavities of the thorax and abdomen, sepa- rated by the diaphragm, are laid open to inspection. Then the intestines can be lifted out, the membrane which holds them in place being sufficiently cut through to permit of their extension, and thus the deeper organs of the abdomen can be exposed. 2. A guinea-pig is laid on its side, the skin reflected, the ribs severed from the vertebral column, and the whole bony and muscular coating turned from the centre of the back across towards the chest, the diaphragm being carefully dis- sected ofi*; a complete side view of the organs in situ is thus again obtained. After this has been done, the organs are separately studied. (All animals required for dissection should be killed with chlo- roform; the animal should be placed in a jar; a piece of cotton-wool, steeped in chloroform, should be dropped in, and an airtight cover securely fastened down.) The tissues of the body should next engage the attention of the student, and he should learn to recognise under the microscope osseous, adipose, fibrous, cartilaginous, muscular, nervous, vascular, and epithe- lial tissues ; his attention should be care- fully drawn to the differences between voluntary and involuntary muscular fibres, and to the various kinds of epithelium. He is then ready to appreciate the signifi- cance of the histological peculiarities of the organs to which his study is next directed. Each organ should be studied (a) in its minute structure, (b) in its function. A lesson on food-stuffs should precede the study of digestion, and the teacher can show such simple processes as the turning of starch into sugar — contrast- ing the non-dialysable starch with the dialysable sugar — and the emulsion of fats. The circulation of the blood is best shown by placing a living frog in a bag with one hind leg left out, and carefully stretching the toes of the foot over a hole in a piece of thin wood, so that the web is over the aperture; pains must be taken to secure the foot without hurting the frog, and the frog must be supported so that the foot can rest on the stand of a microscope, A quarter-inch objective will give sufficient magnification to show the corpuscles rolling along the capillaries of the web. A slieep's or bullock's heart, with a few inches of the great vessels attached, serves conve- niently as illustration of the mammalian heart, the chambers being laid open, while a large vein from any mammal's leg can be used for the demonstration of the valves. A practical study of the sense-organs pre- sents considerable difficulties. A bullock's or sheep's eye makes a good demonstration, cut transversely; another should be dis- sected out, coat by coat; a good double convex-lens should be used to illustrate the formation of images on the retina. The external and middle ear can be de- monstrated, but the dissection of the in- ternal ear is beyond the powers of the ordinary student; notes sounded from vibrating strings and stretched membranes may, however, facilitate the conception of the many-stringed lyre of the human ear. The tissues of the eye, tlie tongue, the skin, and the nasal chambers, must be studied under the microscope. For the explanation of the nervous system it is necessary to remove the skull and part of the vertebral column of a rabbit, so that the connection between the cerebral mass, the spinal cord, and the sensory and motor nerves may be demonstrated ; a dissection of the fore- or hind-leg serves to show the distribution of nerves to muscles. The sympathetic sys- 1 tem is illustrated by the ganglia and fibres I lying on each side of the backbone. A I brain, preserved in spirit, is absolutely { necessary for comprehension of its various j parts, and sections of the spinal cord j should be carefully studied under the mi- \ croscope. Specimens, in spirit, of the ; bi"ain and cord of a fish, a frog, a bird, a rabbit, and a man, are useful as showing j the change in relative position and in size of the cerebral hemispheres, as the animal rises in the evolutional scale. There is, , perhaps, no science the teaching of which j is of more vital importance than that of i physiology, with its bearing on hygiene 272 PK^'rirRKs- -ri.ATO m\d sjinifcy o( lil'o oomhu-t. Half Uio dis- voasoa juiioug" ricvli ami poor nlikt^ n^sult tVoin gross ignoranoo of tlio body jind its iui(^ds, and a sound, tliougli oloniontary, kuowlodgo of physiology would provtMit many a. sliattoring of roustitutii)n and ruining of liftv l'roft>ssor llu\U\v and \^y. Vo>^lcv, in n. recont. r(>por(. on tlio (»\a.niiiiations in phy- siology of Mio SiuoniH> and Art. 1 )i>par(nuM\i, istato that a hM•g^^ nuiubor of l\w i-t^joetions woro duo to tho i-ainlidatos bring ignorant for aitiy ono to understand physiology who is wholly ignorant of these two scnonees; 'but/ add the exa- ininoi'S, 'the teachers do not seen\ to re- tntgnise this ; they think they are teaching physii>logy wh(ni they make their pupils l(>aa'n certain physiological stattnnents in- \()l\ing physics or cheuiistry, without at- tempt ing to make then\ undtn-stand those iitatemeuts. Thus in several pap(>rs there is evidence that the writ t>r (U>es not in thci least know thedilUM-ence between, and the inflations betwt>en, carbon and carbonic acid ; and yi^t. he attempts to answer a tpiestiou on respirat iim. We do not wish to suggest that camlidates in physiology should pnniously satisfy the exauiiners in physics and chemistry ; there are many \alid objections against such a n\gulation. But teachers who send up candidates in phvsit^logy should vinderstaiid that, fron\ the \cry nature of the case, physiology cannot be studied in the absence of all knowledge of }»hysics and chemistry, and that it is their duty to see that this knowledge is in sonie way or other sup- plitnl.' Pictures. — There are two main uses for pictures in scIuhUs: one to exercise and (lev(>lop the aesthetic sentiment, or the t'eeling for beauty- -with which object the walls of the class rooms, halls, and corri- dors should be hung with pictures (which can be done for a suxall outl.Mv by applying to the Art in iSchoola AttiUHuation, Queen Sijuatv, W.O.) ; the other to convey infor- mation to the u\ind, to tix it then\ and to extn-vnse the faculty of constructive imagi- nntion. AVith regard to the latter use it n»ay be pointed out that it has long been accepted as aa\ axiom that the best expla- nation of a thing is the sight and study of the thing itself; and the itext best is a photograph or exact uneud>cllished picture of the thing. This nu")de of explaining and conveying information has been largely used from ipiito early times, but is still capable of considerably greater develop- ment — (vspecially in the departments of get\gra.phy and history. .But btvsides con- veying information, pictures may be used, aiul indeed are almost iiulispensable, for the cultivation of one of the most valuable of the ii»telh>ctual faculties — the construc- tive imaginatiiMi ; both when the mental imagi^s constructed are exact or nearly exact copies of souie original which exists or has existed (as in geography and his- tory), and when the constructions are new combinations of material already acquired (as in science and in art, both litei'ary and pictorial) ; in which latter case — when the combinations are new — pictures servo the purpose of suggestive models. The use of pictures as aiils to the memori/ is tot> widi>ly recognised to need more than uuM\tion. There is one iiiisuso of them, however, which cannot be too often pro- tested against ; and that is in lessons of ol>s6rrafio)i. In such cases pictures cjvn never be properly used except when pic- tur(>s themselves are the tilings to be observed. To study a picture instead of the thing itself iliflers hardly at all from studying a written account of the thing. Plato (l-O ;U7 B.C.) — An ancient C«reek philosopher, and the most distin- guislunl of the pupils of Socrates. In his fortieth year he began in the groves of tlie Academy at Athens to teach his celebrated systei\i of philosophy, which, in contra- ! distinction to the schools of Ivealism and INlaterialism, is known as Idealism. Ideas i (ea^*/), accoriling to Plato, are the eternal j divine types or forms, constituting the essences of things according to their several i species, geT\era, fa\nilies, and classes. These I ideas are the substance of all knowledge, and the human intellect attains to £he I knowledge of them by ' DiaJtrticii,' thixt is, j systen\atic examination and argument, by which the non-essential are distinguislied from the essential elements. Plato, how- e\er, had a far higher aira than to lay down a correct science of the intellect. His objei't was to establish a sound theory of hun\an life, and in his AV7>»6/ic he describes in detail his ideal of a perfect human conin\unitt. That tn>atise, whicli starts with showing virtue to be the iii'st necessity of a sound social life, describes at ii"i"eat length how men nmst be taught PLATO- PLAY 273 find ti'ained to perform tlieir several parts ill such a coimnunity. While iu Plato's Jieptcblic there is much that was exclu- sively adapted to Greek notions, there ai-e at the same time, botli in that and in most of his otlier works, many inspiring passages and profound observations bearing on the general question of education. Plato's educational tlieory cannot be understood apart from his peculiar views of man and virtue. The supreme idea, according to him, was the idea of the good (to ayaOov), and tlie highest virtue or lui- man perfection consisted in acquiring the knowledge of the good and bringing one's life into conformity with it. Human nature is tripartite, embracing mind (in- tellect or reason), seated in the head; the will, seated iu the heart or breast; and the passions, or lower animal nature, seated in the stomach. Each division has its special virtue; that of the mind being- wisdom; that of the will manliness, courage, or valour ; and that of the passions mode- ration or sobriety. In Plato's ideal State men divided themselves into classes corre- sponding to these virtues. The lowest were those who supplied man's physical wants, the labourers. Above them stood the guardians of the law and of the safety of the State, the police, the warriors, &c., the representatives of courage and manli- ness. Highest of all stood the philosophers and rulers of society, by virtue of their approaching nearest to tlie knowledge and practice of wisdom. Such are in brief the most essential features of Plato's ideal State, and by these liis theory of education is naturally determined. From the first to the tenth year education, according to Plato's view, should be chiefly physical, giving the child a sound body by gym- nastic training, while his higher faculties are developed by the oral narration of suitable stories, myths, legends, fables, &c. From the tenth to the twentieth year the youth is taught reading and writing, poetry, music, and mathematics, and is put through a course of military drill and discipline. Most men have not the faculty to advance beyond this stage to any higher knowledge, but there is a minority who are capable of more advanced attainments in true philosophy. After studying to their thirtieth year the less capable of the minority will be fitted for administrative functions iu the State, while the most gifted should study dialectics or philosophy five years longer, in preparation for superior offices. For fifteen years the latter should then be employed as com- manders or managers in dittbrent depart- ments of government. Finally, at the age of fifty Plato deemed the citizen-philo- sopher fitted at length for the contempla- tion and study of the highest good, an occupation which he would at times have to interrupt, in order to discharge the active duties of the highest and most responsible positions in the State. After the death of Dionysius, Plato made two journeys to Sicily, and attempted practi- cally to realise his ideal State at Syracuse, but his efforts proved fruitless. If, accord- ing to modern notions, Plato's scheme appears fantastic and impracticable, his fundamental views on human education and perfection bear great resemblance to Christian doctrine, and his writings abound in profound truths, observations, and re- flections beariiTg, on the development of the faculties of human nature. Play. — Play is commonly defined as activity carried on for the sake of the pleasure which attends it, and not of any ulterior object. As a variety of action, play is marked off from work and all serious occupation by its spontaneity, its freedom, and its want of the serious atti- tude which accompanies the latter. Play includes the exercise of limb and of mental faculty, so far as this is spontaneous, and not consciously subordinated to the ends' of efficiency and growth. As Schiller and Mr. Spencer have shown, play is closely allied to art-activity. From this definition it is evident that much of children's ac- tivity is playful. This applies to their spontaneous bodily movements, as well as to their well-recognised varieties of play or games. It has been pointed out by Mr. Spencer that much of children's play is imitative of the actions of adults, and may be viewed as an anticipation of the functions of mature life. The region of play is an important field of observation for one who wishes to study the charac- teristics of childhood. It has moreover its educational uses. This applies to all games that exercise the muscular organs and the senses, and those that call into action the mental faculties. The well- known class of social games, again, which involve a measure of organisation and a comuion submission to rules, are of un- doubted value as an aid to moral educa- 274 PLAYFAIR REGISTRATION BILL POLITICAL ECONOMY tion. The educator has something to do both in the way of restraining and in guiding the phxy-impulses of children. An absorbing passion for games and any degree of interest in them incompatible with necessary work must be strenuously opposed. On the other hand, the play- impulse may be directed into new and healthier channels, and so its value as a source of pleasui'e increased. Any such control, since it tends to destroy the spon- taneity which is of the essence of play, should be attempted with much caution and judgment. The question how far it is possible to regulate the play-impulse for educational purposes has been much dis- cussed in connection with the Kinder- garten system of Froebel. (On play, toys, and games, see Locke, Tlio lights, § 1 30, and Mr. Quick's note ; Maria Edgeworth, Prac- tical Education, chap. i. ; Beneke, Erzieli- ungs- und VnterriclitsleJire, §§ 23, 24; Waitz, Allg. Pddag. §10 ; Ptisterer, Pdda- gogische Psychologic, § 15. See also the article 'Spiel' in Schmidt's Encyclopddie.) Playfair Registration Bill. See Re- gistration OF Teachers. Playground. See Architecture of Schools. Pleasure and Pain. — This is the fun- damental contrast which runs through all our emotional experiences. Our pleasures and pains are either bodily, as those con- nected with hunger and its satisfaction, or mental, as those of intellectual activity. Pleasure is the proper attendant of all nor- mal activities which further life, whereas pain, in most cases at least, is a sign of over-activity, or of the need of activity. The educator seeks to invest study with pleasure, partly because we ought all to pi'omote pleasure rather than its opposite, and partly because we can only be sure that intellectual activity is healthy, and consequently efficient, when it is pleasura- ble. {See article Cheerfulness.) While, however, pleasure has thus in general to be sought by the educator, he "must not shrink, when occasion requires it, from familiarising the young mind with painful experiences. This may be necessary for intellectual progress, for we are not as yet able to cai'ry out Locke's agreeable idea of transforming study into delightful play. And it is still more needed for moral progress. The stinuilus of pain is required to call forth all the energy of the will, a fact illustrated in all wise and ethcient punishment. Not only so, it is a part of the work of the moral educator to exer- cise the will in facing and enduring pain. {See Courage.) {See Locke, Thouglits, § 73 and following ; Sully, Teaclier's Handbook, ch. xvi.) Plbtz. See Modern Languages. Poetry. See English. Political Economy is the science which treats of the production, distribution, ex- change, and consumption of wealth. From the teacher's point of view this definition shows the natural divisions of the subject, about in the order in which they should be handled. Consumption is but slightly treated by most economists, thus leaving almost the whole available resources of the teacher to be devoted to the other three. The leading thought, around which all economic exposition should be grouped, may be discovered on analysis of the com- plex idea of wealth. The human being has many wants. Some of these are satis- fied without any exertion of his own, such as the want of air and sunshine. Others there are for whose satisfaction he must toil ; and the means of satisfying such wants may, when obtained, be described as Wealth. Here, then, we have the key- thought for a deductive exposition of economics, ' Want and its Supply.' The tracing out of this leading thought must of course vary much with the age and ca- pacity of the pupils. For very young pupils the early lessons in economics are almost identical Avith object-lessons. The facts that when it rains Ave want a house to shelter us, that Avhen it is cold Ave tvant a fire to warm us, are readily apprehended by quite young children ; and Avhen so apprehended the skilful teacher Avill have little trouble in getting the pupil to notice for himself hoAV many men must have helped one another in constructing the house, or in bringing us the lump of coal now blazing in the grate. The whole skill of the teacher should be exerted, especially with young pupils, to provide copious, striking, and picturesque illustrations of this great fundamental necessity of social life, that men must help one another. This ha\'ing been fully realised, a classifi- cation may be entered upon of the degrees of this help and of the circumstances of its rendering. When many men help one another in doing exactly the same thing, as in pulling at one rope, Ave have Simple Co-operation. When Ave aid one another POLITICAL ECONOMY 275 an doing quite diiferent things, as bakers and butchers do, we arrive at Complex Co- operation ; and when we have different people doing different parts of the same ithing, as when different men make dif- ferent parts of a watch, their mutual help has reached its highest development, and goes by the name of Division of Labour. The advantages and disadvantages of this division of labour can now be examined, .and as soon as its advantages are seen to enormously outweigh its drawbacks, the foundation can be laid for the futui'e full investigation of Free Trade. For even thus early it may be shown that the bur- den of proof lies heavily on those who, allowing that division of labour is a good as between man and man, city and city, •county and county, would yet deny its •benefit as between country and country. Pupils who are of age and knowledge ■enough are generally much interested to find themselves at this early stage of their -economic studies in possession of material enough for framing at all events a first -opinion on one of the greatest contro- versies of the day. But next it may be pointed out that men labouring and helping each other in that labour can do but little unless other men have already laboured before them. Labour requires tools to work with and materials to work upon : in other words, it requires Cajntal, whose nature, kinds, and uses should be now ■explained. The devices adopted for ob- taining capital enough for large under- takings may now be explained, and will naturally lead the way to a comparison of joint-stock and individual management, a question which may be treated as widely as may seem desirable, since the idea of joint-ownership of the means of produc- tion, as in a company, may be extended in such a way as to include something of a first statement of the meaning and aims of Socialism. And the materials on which man labours may now be traced to their origin in the earth we inhabit. We have placed the pupil in a position to estimate the exhaustiveness of the enumeration of Labour, Capital, and Land as the requisites ■of prodxiction. This investigation over, a return to first principles becomes neces- sary, and the leading idea of vKint must now be used comparatively and histori- cally — the man of to-day differing from the man of long ago, and the civilised man ■of to-day differing from the savage of to- day in the number and complexity of his wants. Hence, economically. Civilisation will mean wanting many things and getting them, and Progress will imply wanting more and more things and getting them. And since, in order to obtain anything we require, labour, capital, and land, progress must imply increase of labour, of capital, and of produce from land. Here we are face to face with the investigation of the greatest of economic laws, and the law of the increase of labour, the law of the increase of capital, and the law of the increase of land- produce (or law of Diminishing Return) should not be left until thoroughly mas- tered. The last in particular, great central law as it is, the very keystone of the eco- nomic arch, is too often passed over by eco- nomic teachers in a way which leaves with the pupil no realisation of its enormous importance. These laws having been care- fully investigated separately should then be combined and their united results ex- amined ; which accomplished, the treat- ment accorded to Production, or the first bi-anch of economics, may be considered complete. A similar method of treatment should be accorded to the remaining divi- sions of economics, the teacher throughout aiming to tell the pupil as little as may be of economic laws and principles, display- ing his information to his pupils only by means of his copious examples and com- mand of illustrative facts, and endeavour- ing always to lead his pupil along some such path as an original discoverer might have been supposed to travel. One or two cautions it seems very necessary to offer to young teachers of economics. In the first place, the subject is exposed in a peculiar degree to the danger of a ' fatal facility.' The subject-matter of economic science is the everyday life of all of us, and not only does every man think himself fully quali- fied to pass opinion upon it with or with- out preparation, but all pupils are apt to assent at first to almost any proposition in economics put before them by the teacher, under the impression that it is quite obvi- ous and has always been familiar. Hence the existence of much of that ' after-dinner' economy which does so much to bring the science into disrepute ; and hence, also, endless confusion of thought in the stu- dent, unless the habit of too ready assent is rigorously eradicated by the teacher. A good means to this end, but one re- quiring judicious use, is to obtain now and T 2 276 'POLL' DEGREE PRECEPTORS, COLLEGE OF then the pupil's assent to some economic blunder, and then expose that blunder by the process of reductio ad ahsurdum. Another caution is that the language used cannot possibly be too simple. The econo- mics that cannot be put into plain lan- guage, with short words, is bad as science. An elaborate terminology should be rather the mental shorthand of the trained econo- mist than the tool of the explorer, whose character the junior student should be en- couraged to assume. * Poll ' Degree. See Degbees. Port-Royalists. See Jansenists. Portugal, TTniversity of. See Univer- sities. Praise and Blame. — These constitute one of the most natural and proper means of influencing children's actions, and mould- ing their moral character. The child is in general very sensitive to the good opinion of others. . As Locke puts it, ' they find a pleasure in being esteem'd and valu'd, es- pecially by their parents and those whom they depend on.' An infant shows the germ of this love of approbation wdien it turns to its mother for an approving re- cognition of some little feat. On the other hand, the withholding of such approval, or the manifestation of disfavour, is a source of pain. This susceptibility in relation to others' good opinion, and to what Locke calls reputation," is only one phase of chil- dren's dependence on others. The edu- cator has to make use of this desire for others' commendation, especially in the early stages of education. Before the child can itself judge what is right, and before the love of goodness is sufficiently strong, praise and blame are a valuable means of prompting and guiding its actions. Care must, however, be taken not to resort to either in excess. Lavish praise bestowed on actions which have little moral value is injurious. Commendation of what is meritorious and in excess of bare duty must be distinguished from the colder ap- proval which is proper to the fulfilment of this last. On the other hand, too frequent censure is apt either to lose it's sting by familiarity, or to discourage and embitter the child. Finally, it should be remem- bered that praise and blame have only a subordinate and temporary function in moral education. It is not well that the child lean too much on others' favourable opinion, (^ee Vanity.) It should be the object of the educator to exercise the child in the discrimination of valuable from valueless commendation, and gradually to lead oS" its thoughts from the approbation itself to the moral standard which deter- mines it. In other words, the child should be led to do what is right for its own sake, and to find its highest satisfaction in an enlightened self-approval. (^See Locke, Thoughts, § 57 and following ; Bain, Edu- cation as a Science, p. 79, (fee. ; Sully, Teacher's Handbook, p. 384, &c. ; Beneke, Erziehungs- unci Unterrichtslehre, § 61.) Preceptors, College of. — This institu- tion was founded in 1846, mainly through the efforts of the late Mr. Stein Turrell, a- schoolmaster- of Brighton, and received three years later a Royal Charter of In- corporation. In this charter the object of the College is set forth as being ' to pro- mote sound learning and to advance the' interests of education, more especially among the middle classes, by affording fa- cilities to the teacher for the acquiring of a sound knowledge of his profession, and by providing for the periodical session of a competent board of examiners to ascer- tain and to give certificates of the acqiiire- ments and fitness for their office of persons engaged in or desiring to be engaged in the education of youth, particularly in the private schools of England and Wales,' tfec. In order to carry out this, the ori- ginal aim of the College, the council has instituted three classes of examinations for teachers (of either sex), and gives three cor- responding diplomas, viz. those of A.C.P., L.C.P., F.C.P., i.e. Associate, Licentiate, and Fellow of the College of Preceptors, the standard for the latter two being that of pass and honour degrees respectively ; but, in addition, every candidate for a pre- ceptor's diploma must pass a satisfactory examination in the ' Theory and Practice of Education,' and it is this which dis- tinguishes the College examinations from those of other examining bodies. With a, view to encouraging the study of education as a science, and in order to afford syste- matic instruction in pedagogy, the council of the College founded a professorship of the Science and Art of Educcttion ; this was then (1873) the only one of its kind in England, and its first holder was the late Professor Payne [q. v.), whose valuable educational library is now the property of the College. Coui-ses of lectures are now held every session on various subjects con- nected with the science of education, the PRECOCITY PRELECTIONS (EXTRA-ACADEMICAL) 277 .■services of specialists being secured for the | purpose ; while, in addition, the members meet monthly, and read papers, and discuss educational questions, rejDorts of their pro- j ceedings being published in the College ■organ, the Educational Times. But the main business of the College is one which the founders of the society had evidently ] not foreseen, viz. the examination of pupils. Every half year examinations are held at various local centres throughout the coun- try, and certificates of three classes (the classes being themselves further subdi- vided) are awarded to the successful can- didates. These certificates at one time were much looked down on, as being gained with extreme ease ; but the examination has been gainmg every year in public fa- vour, and there is no doubt that the cer- tificates now carry considerable weight, the first class being about equivalent to Lon- don University Matriculation, or Oxford or Cambridge Senior Local, the second to the Junior Local, &c. Moreover, it must be remembered that the College was the pio- neer in the matter of examination of schools by an external corporation, as they were some years before both the University Local and the Society of Arts examina- tions. Some idea of the magnitude of their operations may be obtained when it is said that (in 1887) about 15,500 pupils were examined ; while it is claimed that ' more than 4,000 schools, both public and pri- vate, in all parts of the country are now brought under the influence of the College examinations.' Remembering that the go- vernment of the College is in the hands of a council wliich includes many of the most ■eminent teachers and educationists of the time, and that the College examiners are for the most part men of eminence in their own departments of learning, and that its ■operations are Avith girls' as well as boys' schools, it must be admitted that this in- stitution has been a powerful agent in as- sisting the advance which has taken place in education and educational matters during the last few decades. Precocity. — By a precocious child we understand one who.se mental powers are •developed in advance of his age. Preco- city is thus tantamount to rapid develop- ment. It may show itself in some .special direction, as in the case of the Ijorn mu- sician, artist, or poet, or as exceptional advancement in intellectual power as a whole, as in more than one instance of famous juvenile scholarship. As already suggested, intellectual greatness has fre quently fore.shadowed itself by precocity. A large proportion of famous men were remarkable in youth, if not in childhood. At the same time precocity is no guarantee of lasting intellectual power. A rapid development seems to mean in many cases a quickly arrested development. Hence the low opinion held of precocity by clas- sical as well as by modern writers. Enough has been said to show the special educa- tional difficulties in dealing with the pre- cocious child. As something exceptional, he cannot easily be fitted into rules and methods intended for the average mind. The educator must recognise intellectual forwardness, and not attempt to force superior abilities into a too narrow and cramping mould. At the same time he must be alive to the dangers of a rapid mental and cerebral development, and dis- tinctly discourage a clever boy or girl from such a rate of advance beyond the standard of its years as would be detrimental to the proper growth of the physical powers (see Overpressure), and so to a healthy and prolonged process of mental improve- ment (cf. article Originality). (,S'ee article . ' Friihreife' in Schmidt's Encyclopddie.) Prelections (Extra - Academical). — The following are the principal endowed lectures in Great Britain, which, whether in connection with a university or not, are in their nature essentially extra-academi- cal. They have a legitimate claim to a distinctive place in these pages, because their aims and purposes, however diverse in other respects, are at least identical in their intention to favour the spread and development of education. A large pro- portion of them are intended and calcu- lated to aid in the formation of precise and definite opinions in religion, whether in the direction of a dogmatic theology, or of an equally pronounced latitudinarianism which regards all religions as evolved phe- nomena, and their origin and development as legitimate objects of historical investi- gation and of philosophical and critical exposition. But in secular learning, also, the lectures, in their scope and aggregate, are wellnigh encyclopfedic. The B air d Lectures owe their foundation to the late Mr. James Baird, of Gartsherrie, a munificent benefactor to the Church of Scotland, who died in June 1876, having, at the meeting of the General Assembly of 578 PRELECTIONS (EXTRA- ACADEMICAL) the Church of Scotland in 1872, declared his intention to institute a lectureship, to be called ' the Baird Lecture,' for the illus- tration and the defence of tlie vital truths of Christianity, as well as ' for the promo- tion of Christian knowledge and Chris- tian work generally, and for tlie exposure and refutation of all error and unbelief.' In the deed of trust thereafter executed by Mr. Baird his trustees were directed ' to hold an annual sum of 220/. out of the revenue of the funds under their charge for the purpose of said lectureship.' The Baird lecturer must be a minister of the Church of Scotland, or of any of the Scottish Presbyterian Chui'ches, of not less than five years' standing in the cure of a parish or the pastorate of a congregation, a ' man of piety, ability, and learning, and who is approved and reputed sound in all the essentials of Christian truth.' The appointment of the lecturer is directed to take place annually in the month of April, ' at a meeting of the trustees to be called for the purpose, and held in Glasgow.' It is the duty of the lecturer to ' deliver a course of not less than six lectures on any subject of theology. Christian evidences, Christian work. Christian missions. Church government, and Church organisations, or on such subject relative thereto as the trustees shall from year to year fix in con- cert Avith the lecturer. The lectures shall be duly advertised to the satisfac- tion of the trustees at the cost of the lec- turer, and shall be delivered publicly at any time during the months of January and February in each year in Glasgow, and also, if required, in such other one of the Scottish university towns as may from time to time be appointed by the trustees.' The first series of the Baird Lectures was delivered by the Rev. Robert Jamieson, D.D., minister of St; Paul's Parish Church, Glasgow, and moderator of the General Assembly, 1872, in which Mr. Baird first declared his intention of founding his lectureship. The Bampton Zectio-es were founded by the Rev. John Bampton, M.A., some- time of Trinity College, Oxford, canon of Salisbury, who died in 1751, leaving a will in which he bequeathed his ' lands and estates to the chancellor, masters, and scholars of the ITniversity of Oxford for ever,' for ' the endowment of eight divinity lecture sermons, to be established for ever in the said xmiversity,' and to be preached every year at Great St. Mary's. The ' eight divinity lecture sermons ' thus en- dowed are preached on as many Sunday mornings in full Term, ' between the com- mencement of the last month in Lent Term and the end of the third week in Act Term, upon either of the following- subjects : to confirm and establish the Christian faith, and to confute all heretics, and schismatics, upon the divine authority of the Holy Scriptures, upon the authority of the writings of the primitive fathers as to the faith and practice of the primitive Church, upon the divinity of our Lord and Saviour J esus Christ, upon the divinity of the Holy Ghost, upon the Articles of the Christian Faith as comprehended in the- Apostles' and Nicene Creeds.' The lec- turer, who must be at least a Master of Ai-ts of Oxford or Cambridge, is chosen annually by the heads of colleges on the- fourth Tuesday in Easter Term. No one can be chosen a second time. Although the founder died in 1751 his bequest did not take effect until 1780, when the first course of the Bampton Lectures was de- livered by the Rev. James Bandinel, D.D. ,, of Jesus College, and public orator of the- university. The Barlow Lectures are so named after their founder, the late Henry Clark- Barlow, M.D., a large proportion of whose- life was consecrated to the study of Dante, and who was the authoi", inter alia, of a laborious work entitled Critical, Histori- cal, and Philosophical Contributions to the Studi/ of the Divina Commedia. Dr. Bar- low, who died in November 1876, left by- Avill 1,000/. Consols to University Col- lege, London, for the delivery of an an- nual course of twelve lectures on the- Divina Commedia, which should be open to the public of both sexes free of charge. He also arranged that every lecturer who- should be appointed might hold the lec- tureship for three years ; the manifest intention being that the three cantica of Dante's great poem might form the sub-^ ject of the three years' course. The in- troductory lecture to the first of these courses was delivered at University Col- lege by Mr. Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S., on April 25, 1878. The Boyle Lectnres wex-e instituted in conformity with instructions contained in a codicil, dated July 28, 1691, annexed to- tlie will of the Hon. Robert Boyle (seventh- son of Richard, the * great Eai-1 of Cork ') PRELECTIONS (EXTRA- ACADEMICAL) 279 one of the founders of the Royal Society, and a man of attainments so extraordinary as to be described as being ' superior to titles and almost to praise.' Mr. Boyle's object, as expressed in his own words, was to provide ' an annual salary for some learned divine, or preaching minister, from time to time to be elected and resident within the city of London, or circuit of tlie bills of mortality, who shall be en- joined to perform tlie offices following : viz., first, to preach eight sermons in the year for proving the Christian religion against notorious infidels — viz.. Atheists, Theists, Pagans, Jews, and Mahometans, not descending lower to any controversies that are among Christians themselves ; these lectures to be on the first Monday of the respective months of January, Feb- ruary, March, April, May, September, October, November, in such church as my trustees herein named shall from time to time appoint. Secondly, to be assist- ing to all companies, and encouraging of them in any undertaking for propagating the Christian religion to foreign parts. Thirdly, to be ready to satisfy such real scruples as any may have concerning these matters, and to answer such objections or difficulties as may be started to which good answers have not yet been made.' The Boyle Lectures are delivered at the church of St. Mary-le-Bow, and the first course was preached in 1692 by the cele- brated Dr. Bentley, who delivered a second course in 1694. Mr. Boyle died December 30, 1691. The Cantor Lectures, in connection with the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, ordinarily known as the Society of Arts, receive their designation from their foun- der, the late Theodore Edward Cantor, M.D., of Her Majesty's Indian Medical Service. Dr. Cantor, who by his will, dated March .3, 1859, appointed the ad- ministrator-general of Fort William to be his executor, bequeathed his property, of the value of over 10,000/., in equal shares to the Wellington College, Wokingham, and the Society of Arts, declaring it to be his desire that the moneys so given should be applied by the governors of the college and by the president of the Society of Arts in such manner as they might deem most conducive to promote the objects of the college and the society. Under the terms of the Cantor bequest, amounting to 5,042/., invested in the purchase of Indian securities, it became the duty of the council to make some special appropria- tion of the fund towards the promotion of arts, manufactures, and commerce, and they determined to apply a portion of the interest of the fund for the society's ses- sion of 1863-4 in providing, at an esti- mated cost of 150/., three courses of lec- tures by eminent men on the following subjects : — (1) International Commerce ; (2) Chemistry applied to Manufactures ; and (3) Industrial Art. Accordingly, the first course of Cantor Lectures, four in number, which were delivered by Mr. C W. Hastings, a barrister of the Middle Temple, and now M.P. for East Worcester- shire, respectively on December 7 and 14, 1863, and January 25 and February 1, 1864, had for their subject 'The Operation of the Present Laws of Naval Warfare on International Commerce ' ; the second course of lectures, seven in number, on ' Fine Arts applied to Industry,' were delivered by Mr. AV. Burges on conse- cutive Monday evenings, beginning with February 8 and concluding on March 21 ; and Dr. F. Crace Calvert, F.R.S., F.C.S., (fee, delivered a thiixl course, of six lectures, on ' Chemistry applied to the Arts,' on Thursday evenings, beginning on ]March 31 and ending on May 5, 1864. From the first session of their institution the Cantor Lectures have been characterised by the same diversity and catholicity of interest as are presented in the aggregate pro- ceedings, scope, and purposes of the society under whose auspices, and in the theatre of whose house, John Street, Adelphi, they are delivered. It will have been seen that the lectures of the three several courses of the first session of their delivery amounted alto- gether to seventeen ; and it remains that the average number of lectures, whatever their distribution or grouping into courses may be, is estimated at alDOut eighteen for the entire session — a session which, be- ginning in November, runs on to May of the follo^ving year. The Cantor Lectures are open to members of the Society of Arts free of charge, and a member has the privilege of introducing one friend to each lecture. On receiving the intimation of the Cantor Bequest, the council of the society placed on record their peculiar gratification in being selected to enjoy a moiety of the benefactions of a gentleman 280 PRELECTIONS (EXTRA-ACADEMICAL) who was not known to have ever been on their list of members, which they further regarded as a pledge of the interest taken in their proceedings by their fellow- countrymen all the world over. The C ongregational Lecttires were in- stituted in 1833 — when the first series was delivered by the late Rev. Ralph Ward- law, D.D. — by the committee of the Con- gregational Library, ' to be delivered an- nually at the library, or, if necessary, in some contiguous place of worship,' and to partake ' rather of the character of aca- demic prelectionst\\a,-n. of popular addresses,' The design was to provide ' courses of lec- tures on subjects of interesting importance, not included within the ordinary range of pulpit instruction. To illustrate the evi- dence and importance of the great doc- trines of Revelation ; to exhibit the true principles of philology in their application to such doctrines ; to prove the accordance and identity of genuine philosophy with the records and discoveries of Scripture ; and to trace the errors and corruptions which have existed in the Christian Church to their proper sources, and, by the connection of sound reasoning with the honest interpretation of God's Holy Word, to point out the methods of refu- tation and counteraction, are amongst the objects for which the Congregational Lec- ture has been established. The arrange- ments made with the lecturers,' continues the Advertisement of the Committee of the Congregational Library, dated November 19, 1833, 'are designed to secure the pub- lication of each separate course without risk to the authors ; and, after remune- rating them as liberally as the resources of the institution will allow, to apply the profits of the respective publications in •aid of the Library.' The Congregational Union Lectures, a resumption or continuation of the above after an abeyance of several years, were established in 1873, when the lecturer was the late Henry Rogers. The Advertise- inent by the Committee of the Congrega- tional Union of England and Wales, dated January 1874, declares that ' the Congre- gational Union Lecture has been esta- blished with a view to the promotion of Biblical science and theological and eccle- siastical literature. It is intended that each lecture shall consist of a- course of prelections, delivered at the Memorial Hall, but when the convenience of the lecturer shall so require the oral delivery will be dispensed with. The committee hope that the lecture will be maintained in unbroken annual series ; but they pro- mise to continue it only so long as it seems to be efficiently serving the end for which it has been established, or as they may have the necessary funds at their dis- posal.' The Croall Lectures are named after their founder, the late Mr. John Croall, of Southfield, Liberton, Midlothian, who died in 1872, and who, being 'deeply in- terested in the defence and maintenance of the doctrines of the Christian Religion, and desirous of increasing the religious literature of Scotland,' bequeathed in the hands of trustees the sum of 5,000Z. ster- ling, ' to found and establish a Lecture- ship, to be called " The Croall Lecture- ship." ' The trustees, according to Mr. Croall's settlement, are certain ministers in Edinburgh, the Professors of Divinity in the University of Edinburgh, and the Moderator, Senior Clerk, and Procurator of the Church of Scotland. The lecturers ' shall be Licentiates of the Presbyterian Churches of Scotland,' and occasionally a clergyman of any Reformed Church other than Presbyterian, ' provided such ap- pointment be made by at least two -thirds of the trustees.' The Lectures shall be delivered biennially in Edinburgh during the winter session of the University of Edinburgh, ' shall be not less than six in number,' and shall be devoted to a con- sideration of the Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion and the Doctrines of the Christian Religion. The first series of the Croall Lectures, on the ' Christian Doctrine of Sin,' was delivered in 1876 by thelateVeryReverend John TuUoch, D.D. , Principal of St. Mary's College in the University of St. Andrews, and one of Her Majesty's Chaplains for Scotland. The Cunningham Lecttires were founded in 1862 by William Binny Webster, a sometime surgeon in the H.E.I.C.S., who made over to the general trustees of the Free Church of Scotland the sum of 2,000^., in trust for the pur- pose of endowing a lectureship in memory of the Rev. William Cunningham, D.D., Principal of the Free Church College, Edinburgh, and Professor of Divinity and Church History therein, who died Decem- ber 14, 1861, after whose name the lec- tures are called. They are for the general PRELECTIONS (EXTRA-ACADEMICAL) 281 pui'pose of ' advancing the theological literature of Scotland/ and the lecturer must be a minister or professor of the Eree Church of Scotland ; with an occa- sional appointment of a minister or pro- fessor from other denominations by the consent of not fewer than eight members of the council. The appointment cannot be for less than two years or for more than three, and the lecturer is ' at liberty to choose his own subject within the range of apologetical, doctrinal, controversial, exegetical, pastoral, or historical theology, including what bears on missions, home and foreign, subject to the consent of the council.' The lectures, not less than six in number, must be delivered at some time immediately preceding the expiry of the appointment of the lecturer, and during the session of New College, Edin- burgh, and in the presence of the profes- sors and students of that institution. The council, which includes the principal of New College, ex officio, and two annually elected members of the Senatus, the moderator of the Free Church General Assembly, ex- officio, and five members annually chosen by that body, the procu- rator or law adviser of the Church, and others, have been at liberty, since the expiry of five years from the date of the foundation of the lectures, ' to make any alteration that experience may suggest as desirable in the details of this plan, pro- vided such alterations shall be approved by not fewer than eight members of the council.' The Duff Lectures, known more pre- cisely as the Duff Missionary Lectures, were instituted under the provisions of the will of the late Rev. Alexander Duff, D.D., for many years a prominent mis- sionary in India, at first as minister of the Established Church of Scotland, and afterwards, from 1843, of the Free Church. During a visit to Scotland Dr. Duff was called by acclamation to be moderator of the Free Church General Assembly which met in 1851 ; and the distinction was re- peated in 1873. On his final return from India on account of ill-health in 1863 Dr. Duff was elected to the first professor- ship of Evangelistic Theology — a charac- teristically missionary chair — in the New College, Edinburgh, v/hich, as well as the convenership of the Foreign Missions Committee of the Free Church, to which he was appointed about the same time. he held until his death, February 12, 1878. ' Desirous in death to secure the comple- tion of his missionary propaganda, Dr, Duff,' in the M^ords of his biographer, Dr. George Smith, ' bequeathed to trustees se- lected from all the Evangelical churches what personal property he had as the foundation of a lectureship on Foreign Missions, on the model of the Bampton.' In the arrangements he made for the establishment of the Duff Missionary Lectureship the founder's son, Mr. Wil- liam Pirie Duff, com^Dlied with the dying instructions of his father, only deviating therefrom to the extent of designating the lectureship by his father's name. In terms of a trust-deed executed by Mr. Duff a course of lectures, not fewer than six in number, ' On some department of Foreign Missions or cogiiate subjects,' is to be delivered once in eveiy four years, each lecturer to give only one course. They are to be delivered in Edinburgh and re- peated in Glasgow, or delivered in Glasgow and repeated in Edinburgh, or delivered and repeated in such other places as the trustees may direct. The lectures are then to be published, and copies are to be presented to certain libraries in this country, continental Europe, America, India, Africa, and Australia. The trus- tees, in accordance with the direction of the founder, are men belonging to different denominations, and the lecturer must be ' a minister, professor, or godly layman of any Evangelical church.' The first in- cumbent of the Dufi" Missionary Lecture- ship was the Rev. Thomas Smith, D.D., who had been long associated with Dr. Duff in mission work in Bengal, and afterwards in the home management of the missions of the Free Church of Scotland, and who was his successor in his college professorship of Evangelistic Tlieology. The subject chosen by Dr. Smith for treatment in the first series of the Dufi' Lectures, which were delivered in 1880, was 'Mediaeval Missions ' ; and the practical conformity of the trustees to the formal catholicity of the foundation is approved by the cir- cumstance that the lecturer for the cur- rent year, 1888, was Sir Monier Monier- Williams, D.C.L., the Boden Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford, the subject of whose discourses was the, to him, familiar one of Buddhism. The Fernley Lectures are so named after their founder, the late John Fernley, 282 PRELECTIONS (EXTRA-ACADEMICAL) Esq., of Southport, a munificent bene- factor to various schemes of Methodist activity. These lectures, whicli are of annual I'ecurrence, are delivered ' in con- nection with the assembling of the Wes- leyan-Methodist Conference,' and in the cities or towns, therefore, at which the conference holds its successive annual meetings. They were instituted ' for the purpose of explaining and defending the theological doctrines or the ecclesiastical polity of the Wesleyan-Methodist Con- nexion, with special reference and adap- tation to the necessities of the times, and with a view to the benefit of the candi- dates who are about to be ordained by the Conference to the ministry, and also the laymen who usually attend the Con- ference committees.' The first of the Fernley Lectures was delivered at Hull, by the Rev. George Osborn, D.D., in 1870. The Gifford Lectures, which are in connection with St. Andrews University, are so named after their founder, Lord Giftbrd, a judge of the Court of Session, Edinburgh, from 1870 to 1881, when he I'etired from the Bench. The income of the lecturer is derived from the interest of a sum of 13,000^., less expenses of advertising and making arrangements for the lectures. These are to be devoted to an exposition of ' Natural Religion, in the widest sense of that term ' ; and the lec- turer is to ' be subjected to no test of any kind,' and ' may be of any denomination whatever, or of no denomination at all.' The lecturer holds his appointment for two yeax's, but he may be reappointed for other two periods of two years each ; but no person can hold the lectureship longer than six years. The election to the lec- tureship has been placed in the hands of the Senatus of the University of St. An- drews, which has laid down amongst the conditions of its occupancy that the lec- turer is expected to deliver not fewer than twenty-five original lectures, and not more than two lectui-es each week. The first Giftbrd Lecturer, who was appointed on March 14, 1888, with a view to the performance of his duties during the session of 1888-89, is Mr. Andrew Lang, an alumnus and graduate of St. Andrews. The Gresham Lectures, as well as the college in which they are delivered, are so called after their founder. Sir Thomas Gresham, the ' Royal Merchant ' of Queen Elizabeth. By his will, dated July 5, 1 .575, Sir Thomas bequeathed certain rents grow- ing out of the Royal Exchange — which he built — in trust severally to the Cor- poration of the City of London, and to the masters and wardens of the Mercers' Company, for the ' erecting and maintain- ing of divers lectures in sundry faculties ' — divinity, law, physic, geometry, astro- nomy, music, and rhetoric. He also left for the professors who should be appoiiited under his will his house in Bishopsgate Street, with its gardens and other appur- tenances, ' for them and every of them there to inhabite, study, and daylie to read the said sevei'all lectures.' He en- joined that the lecturers should be un- married at the time of their appointment, and also that marriage subsequently con- tracted sh ould void their preferment. This injunction, after many years of neglect or abeyance, was formally set aside by Act of Parliament. The bequest of Sir Thomas Gresham, who died November 20, 1579, did not come into efiect until the death of his widow, Dame Anne Gresham, in December 1596 ; and the lectures were organised and commenced in June 1597. The buildings of Gresham College were pulled down in 1768, and the General Excise Ofiice ei'ected on the site, the pro- perty having been acquired by the Crown for an annuity of 500^. From that time and for many years the lectures were read in a room over the Royal Exchange ; and finally, in November 1813, they were removed to the present building in Basing- hall Street, which had been erected by the Gresham committee as the headquarters of the college. The Hihbert Lectures are one of the particular expressions of the wish of the Hibbert trustees to carry out the will of the late Mr. Robert Hibbert, who died in. September 1819, after bequeathing a sum of money with directions that the income should be applied in a manner indicated in general terms by him, but with large latitude of interpretation to the trustees. For many years the trustees appropriated their funds almost entirely to the higher culture of students for the Christian ministry, thus carrying out the instruc- tion to adopt such scheme as they ' in their uncontrolled discretion from time to time ' should deem ' most conducive to the spread of Christianity in its most PRELECTIONS (EXTRA-ACADEMICAL) 283 simple and intelligible forms, and to the unfettered exercise of private judgment in matters of religion.' In succeeding years other applications of the fund were suggested to the trustees, some of which have been adopted. One of the latest has been the institution of a Hibbert Lecture on a plan similar to that of the ' Bampton ' and ' Congregational ' Lectures. The in- stitution of the lectures was the imme- diate result of a memorial addressed to the trustees ' by a few eminent divines and laymen belonging to different churches,' but united in a common desire for the ' really capable and honest treatment of unsettled problems in theology,' ' From the fact,' say the subscriber's of this me- morial, ' that all the chief divinity schools of this country are still laid under tradi- tional restraint, from which other branches of inquiry have long been emancipated, the discussion of theological questions is habitually affected by ecclesiastical inte- rests and party predilections, and fails to receive the intellectual respect and con- fidence which are readily accorded to learning and research in any other field. There is no reason why competent know- ledge and critical skill, if encouraged to exercise themselves in the disinterested pursuit of truth, should be less fruitful in religious than in social and physical ideas ; nor can it be doubtful that an audience is ready to welcome any really capable and honest ti-eatment of unsettled problems in theology. The time, we think, is come when a distinct provision for the free consideration of such problems by scholars qualified to handle them may be expected to yield important results. . . . Such institutions as the Bampton Lecture at the University of Oxford, and the younger foundation of the Congregational Lecture among one branch of orthodox Nonconformists, have done much to direct the public mind to certain well-defined views of Christianity. We believe that a similar institution might prove of high service in promoting independence of judgment combined with religious rever- ence by exhibiting clearly from time to time some of the most important results of recent study in the great fields of philo- sophy, of biblical criticism, and compara- tive theology. We venture, therefore, to ask you to consider the expediency of establishing a " lecture " under the name of the " Hibbert Lecture," or any other designation that may seem appropriate.' The practical answer to this memorial was the institution of the Hibbert Lec- tures, the first series of which was given in April, May, and June 1878, by Pro- fessor Max Miiller, in the Chapter House of Westminster Abbey. Of late years the lectures, which from their earliest esta- blishment have been of annual occurrence,. have been delivered concurrently, but on difierent days of the week, in London and Oxford. The Hulsean Lectures were instituted in conformity with the will of the Rev. John Hulse, of Elworth, Cheshire, a some- time member of St. John's College, Cam- bridge (B.A. 1728), who died at the age- of 82 on December 14, 1790. Mr. Hulse bequeathed his estates to the University of Cambridge, first, to maintain two scho- lars at St. John's College ; secondly, tO' found a prize for the best dissertation upon some subject connected with the direct or collateral evidences of the Christian reve- lation ; thirdly, to found and support the office of Christian advocate, for which, by a statute confirmed by the Queen in Coun- cil, August 1, 1860, was substituted that of the Hulsean professor of divinity ; and fourthly, that of Christian preacher, more familiarly known by its alternative de- signation of Hulsean lecturer, which was considerably modified by the statute and Order in Council just referred to. By Mr. Hulse's will, dated July 21, 1777, it was directed that the incumbent of the lec- tureship, which was avowedly in pious imitation of the example of the Honour- able Robert Boyle, should be a ' clergy- man in the University of Cambridge, of the degree of Master of Arts, and under the -age of forty years.' The lecturer was- te be elected annually ' on Christmas Day, or within seven days after, by the Vice- chancellor for the time being, and by the Master of Trinity College and the Master of St. John's College, or any two of them.' In case the Master of Trinity or the Master of St. John's should be the Vice-Chan- cellor, the Greek professor was to be the third trustee. The duty of the lecturer was 'to preach twenty sermons in the whole year — that is to say, ten sermons during the months of April and May and the two first weeks in June, and likewise ten sermons during the months of Sep- tember and October and during the two- first weeks in November.' The place of 284 PRELECTIONS (EXTRA- ACADEMICAL) preaching was to be ' Saint Mary's Great Church in Cambridge,' and the time ' either on the Friday -morning or else on Sunday afternoon.' The subject of the said dis- <;ourses was to be ' the evidence for re- vealed religion ; the truth and excellence of Christianity ; prophecies and miracles ; direct or collateral proofs of the Christian religion, especially the collateral argu- ments ; the more difficult texts or obscure parts of the Holy Scriptures,' or any one or more of these topics, at the discretion of the preacher. The subject of the dis- courses was not to be ' any particular sects or controversies amongst Christians them- selves ; except some new and dangerous error, either of superstition or enthusiasm, as of Popery or Methodism, or the like, either in opinion or practice, shall prevail. And in all the said twenty sermons such practical observations shall be made, and such useful conclusions added, as may best instruct and edify mankind. The said twenty sermons are to be every year printed,' at the preacher's expense, ' and a new preacher elected (except in the case of the extraordinary merit of the preacher, when it may sometimes be thought proper to continue the same person for five, or at the most, for six years together, but for no longer term), nor shall he ever after- wards be again elected to the same duty.' On the petition of the Chancellor, Masters, ^nd Scholars of the University of Cam- bridge it was directed by an order of the Court of Chancery, December 21, 1830, ihat the number of discourses required to be delivered and printed by the lecturer within the year should be reduced to -eight — the number exacted from the Boyle lecturer. By more recent changes the ■election to the ofiice of Hulsean lecturer now takes place on some day in February, not later than the 20th ; and the duty of the lecturer is to preach during his year of ofiice not less than four sermons, the time of the delivery of which is to be prescribed by the university. If the duties be not dischai'ged by the person appointed, his salary is to be divided among the six senior fellows of St. John's College. The •electors are theVice-Chancellor, the Master of Trinity, the Master of John's, and the four divinity pi'ofessors, the Vice- Chan- cellor haAdng a casting vote ; whilst the services of the regius professor of Greek as a member of the electoral body are pi'O- vided for under the same contingency which was originally foreseen. Although Mr. Hulse died in 1790 it was not until 1820 that the first series of discourses was delivered, the lecturer being the Rev. Christopher Benson, who was successively of Trinity College and a fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge, and rector of St. Giles- in-the-Fields, London, who officiated a second time in the same capacity in 1822. ' One principal reason ' for this delay, ob- serves Mr. Benson in the Preface to his Hulsean Lectures for 1820, ' among many others, I believe to have been this : that the proceeds of his estates were not at an earlier period sufficient to repay the preacher for the expense of printing, much less to remunerate him for the anxious labour of composing twenty discourses fit to be delivered before such an audience and aftei'wards submitted to the criticisms of the world.' The Merchcmts^ Lecture was established in the year 1672, during the reign of Charles II., by the Presbyterians and In- dependents conjointly, at Pinner's Hall, Broad Street, London. It was supported by contributions from the principal mer- chants of the city of London, and its pro- fessed design was ' to uphold the doctrines of the Reformation against the errors of Popery, Sociniauism, and infidelity.' From Pinner's Hall it was removed in July 1778 to New Broad Street Chapel ; and thence, in 1844, to the Poultry Chapel ; to the Weigh House Chapel in 1869 ; and thence, in the spi'ing of 1883, to Finsbury Chapel, Moorfields. The lecture is delivered on every Tuesday moi"ning, commences at noon, and concludes at 1 p.m. There are several bequests connected with the lec- ture, intended in most cases for the benefit of poor ministers of the Independent deno- mination. There is no fund for the pay- ment of the lecturer or for other expenses, the founders of the trusts not anticipating that there would be any diificulty in meet- I ing the expenses so incurred. ! The Rede Lectures are so named after i their founder, Sir Robert Rede, whose i name- varies as Read and Reade, and who was Lord Chief Justice of the Court of ' Common Pleas in the reigns successively \ of Henry VII., of whose will he was one I of the executors, and Henry VIII. He ! was educated at Buckingham Hall, after- I wards Magdalene College, Cambridge, and became a fellow of King's Hall, on the i site of which part of Trinity College was PRELECTIONS (EXTRA-ACADEMICAL) 285 built. He died January 8, 1519, having, by an endo"\vment which seems to have accrued to the university in 1524, esta- blished three public lectures, respectively in philosophy, logic, and rhetoric ; Avhich, together with a mathematical lecture, founded at a very early period in the his- tory of the University, were known as Barnaby Lectures, from the circumstance of the lecturers being annually chosen for their several preferments on St. Barnabas's Day, June 11. The Rede Lectures were consolidated by a statute approved by Her Majesty by Order in Council, April 6, 1858 ; and in 1859 were replaced by an annual lecture, which it was directed should be delivered in Term time every year. The appointment of the lecturer is vested in the Vice- Chancellor, who exer- cises his power of election during the Lent Term in every year, and who determines the day on which the lecture, which is or- dained to be given in the Senate House, should be delivei'ed. A lecture which perpetuates in one three several lectures on philosophy, logic, and rhetoric is, of course, extremely versatile in its subjects, embracing the exposition of the latest re- sults of research and speculation in various branches of science, art, ethics, philology, history, and archaeology. The first of the Rede Lectures, as reconstructed, was de- livered in 1859 by Dr. (now Sir Richard) Owen, F.R.S., who took for his subject the * Classification and Geographical Dis- tribution of the Mammalia.' The Sioiney Lectures are so called after the name of their founder, the late George Swiney, M.D., formerly of Exeter and afterwards of London, the history of whose intentions in their establishment is to be interestingly traced in the varying phrases and purposes of his testamentary benefac- tions. By his will, dated May 27, 1831, Dr. Swiney bequeathed ' 5,000^. stock in the Three per Cent. Consolidated Annui- ties to the trustees of the British Museum and their successors duly elected and ap- pointed for ever, in trust for the purpose of establishing a lectureship on natural his- tory. ' To this will was appended a first codi- cil, dated November 1 4, 1 8 35, which revoked the bequest, and then established a lecture- ship of geology; whilst a further codicil, of date April 25, 1843, made 'at my rooms in Camden Town, writing with my left hand,' sets forth that ' whereas it may contribute more to the interests of religion and goodness if lectures in astronomy be added to the lectures in geology, I desire that the lectureship be of geology and of astronomy alternately.' The first course of the Swiney Lectures was delivered by the late Dr. W. B. Carpenter at the Royal Institution, Albemarle Street ; and except on two or three occasions, upon which the lectures have been given at Edinburgh, they have ever since been delivered in difi'erent places in London, including the Museum of Practical Geology, the Royal School of Mines, University College, and the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, South Kensington. In the last-named institiition, as may be gathered from the following ' conditions of appointment,' it is at present intended by the trustees that the Swiney Lectures shall be habitually delivered. These ' condi- tions of appointment ' set forth that ' can - didates must have taken the degree of Doctor of Medicine at the University of Edinburgh. The stipend of the lecturer is 150?. a year. The appointment will be for a term of three years. All charges incurred for the delivery of the lectures are to be defrayed by the lecturer. The number of lectures is not to be less than twelve in each year, nor more than three in the same week, to be delivered between the 1st of November and the end of July following, at the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, South Kensing- ton, and illustrated, when practicable, from specimens in that museum. The public to be admitted to the lectures without fee. No lecture must be repeated. The lec- turer will be required at the termination of each course, and previously to receiving his annual stipend, to deposit a copy or full digest of the lectures with the direc- tor of the British Museum (Natural His- tory). The trustees reserve to themselves the power of making any alterations which they may think fit in the foregoing condi- tions.' The Warhurton Lectures, which are annually delivered in the chapel of the Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn, were founded by Dr. Warburton, Bishop of Gloucester, 1759-79, and a sometime preacher of Lincoln's Inn, his appointment having been made in April 1746, eight or nine years after the publication of the first edition of his celebrated treatise on the Divine Legation of Moses. By an inden- ture bearing date July 21, 1768, Bishop 286 PRENDERGAST'S METHOD PREPARATION OF LESSONS Warbiirton transferred tlie sum of 500^. Bank Four per Cent. Annuities Consoli- dated to Lord Chief Justices Lord Mans- tield and Sir John Eardly Wilmot, and to the Hon. Charles Yorke, second son of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke — who died soon after his own appointment to the same dignity, in January 1770 — upon trust, for the purpose of founding a lec- ture, in the form of a sermon, ' to prove tlie truth of revealed religion in general, and of the Christian in particular, from the completion of the prophecies in the Old and New Testaments which relate to the Christian Church, especially to the apostasy of Papal Rome.' The same deed further ordains ' tliat the trustees shall appoint the preacher of Lincoln's Inn for the time being, or some other able divine of the Church of England, to preach this lecture ; that the lecture sluiU be preached every year in the chapel of Lincoln's Inn (if the Society give leave), and on the following days — viz. the tirst Sunday after Michaelmas Term, the Sunday next before and the Sunday next after Hilary Term ; that the lecturer shall not preach the said lecture longer than for the term of four years, and shall not again be nominated to preach the same ; and when the term of four years is expired, that the said lec- turer shall print and publish, or cause to be printed and published, all the sermons or lectures that shall have been so preached by him.' The lirst series of Warburton Lectures, being Ttoelve Sermons introduc- torii to the iStiidi/ of the Prophecies, Avas delivered and published in 1772 by Dr. Richard Hurd, Avho was at that time preacher to the Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn, and who afterwards became successively Bishop of Coventry and Licii- field (1775-81), and of Worcester (1781- 1808). Dr. Hurd was the tirst biographer of Bishop Warburton, and the first editor of his collected works, 1788. Prendergast's Method. — The main ob- ject of this method is to give learners, young and old, the habit of speaking a foreign langiiage tluently, idiomatically, and with the utmost readiness, witliin the range of a limited vocabulary. To know a language is to be able to put its words to their natural uses ; that is, to employ them in sentences. Children pick up their native tongue, and residents aliroad ac- quire a foreign language, by imitation. They hear words used, not singly, but in sentences ; and they imitate these sentences — not in one stereotyped forui, but with numei'ous slight variations. This is the principle on which the method is based. A set of typical sentences, containing from twenty-five to thirty words each, are se- lected, exemplifying the most character- istic constructions, and containing all the words most frequently used for tlie pur- pose in hand. These ai-e accompanied by a, literal translation and a free idiomatic English version of each of them. Each foreign sentence is divided into clauses of four or five words each, with their cor- responding versions attached ; and the sentence is mastered clause by clause till it can be repeated with utmost readiness and perfect accuracy with and without the English. Having mastered the typi- cal sentences, we turn to their component clauses, and ring all the changes on each clause, one after the otlier, which are pos- sible without changing the infiections ; never letting the old clauses drop, but working theni in again and again with the new. Wlien all the sentences are used up we can add more ; and now in ringing the changes on the clauses may introduce the simpler changes of inflection ; and so on till our stock of words and idioms is large enough for our purpose. Attention is called to the changes in the forms of words by reference to a table of inflec- tions, bxxt nothing more in the way of grammar is required. Instead of gram- mar the learner has acquired the habit of using naturally a large number of words and idiomatic phrases, and of putting them in their right places in sentences. He may learn the grammar later if he wishes to extend and strengthen his grasp of the language ; but in any case lie should do much reading of authors by means of in- terlinear translations, on which again ex- ercises in retranslation should be done. No better method has ever been invented for ' winding up and setting in motion the talking machinery ; ' and it might well be used for the first stages in learning any language, even when something more is desired than the mere power of speaking. It is a most valuable adjunct to the plan of AsciiAM (q.v.) Preparation of Lessons. — Lessons may be prepared either by the pupil alone, or by the pupil under the direction of a tutor. Both of these cases ai-e considered in the article on Home Lessoxs. The art of pi*e- PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PRIVATE-VENTURE SCHOOLS 287 paring lessons does not come by nature, and consequently a good teacher makes sure that when a lesson is set every pupil knows one method at least of preparing it. Previous Examination. See Degrees. Primary Education. 8ee Law (Edu- cational), Royal Commissions, and School Boards. Primary Schools. See Classification. Primer. — The original meaning of this Avord appears to have been a ' book of prime ' (or ' hours '), where prime denotes the first canonical hour (Skeat) ; we find * prymer ' coupled with ' paternoster ' in Piers Plowman, and with ' my great masse book ' in Fabyan's Will. The word, how- ever, has gradually had its signification •extended so as to cover any work dealing with the elements of any subject, so that a primer of German literature, of che- mistry, or of pianoforte-playing, would mean a work dealing with each of those subjects in a manner to be understood by a, learner who had no previous acquaint- ance with any of them, the essential of a Primer (as we now use the word) being that it deals with the subject of which it treats ah initio. A typical example of this class of book is the Public School Latin Primer, a work edited with the sanction of the chief English head-masters, and designed to be used as a first book of in- struction in Latin accidence and syntax throughout the public schools. Private Tutor. See Tutor. Private -Venture Schools. — These are schools kept by private individuals for the sake of private profit. In days gone by a large number of such schools were of a very unsatisfactory character, the teaching being mainly done by those whose only fitness consisted in their desire to gain a livelihood. But, though unsatisfactory schools have not yet entirely disappeared, matters have very much improved since the public began to take a greater interest in education, and to understand more clearly in what a sound education consists. Very few private- venture schools can now be successful for any length of time which •do not in a measure satisfy many of the requirements of skilled teaching. Never- theless, in all grades above the elemen- tary, and even to some extent in that grade also, it is still quite possible for schools which are never really successful to main- tain their existence, though the teaching i)hey afford may be wholly inadequate. In the elementary grade it is quite within the power of the Local School Attendance Committee to declare that the results of the instruction given at a particular school do not satisfy the requirements of the Edu- cation Acts (1870, 1876, 1880), which would practically close the school or result in its reformation. But it is possible to escape the notice of the committee ; and above this grade there is no authoritative body to declare whether a school is effi- cient or not. It is to be hoped that before very long England will follow the example of the other great European nations, and recognise the vital importance of education in every grade by requiring all who under- take the work of teaching to satisfy some public test of fitness to teach ; or that she will at least place those who do not satisfy such a test under distinct civic disabilities, such, for instance, as disabling them from recovering fees in a court of law. Beyond this it would not be wise to interfere with private enterprise, especially since such advance as we have made in the science and art of education has been almost en- tirely due to the genius and free inventive- ness of private teachers ; and since there must always be large numbers of children for whom the comparative quiet, homeli- ness, and greater personal attention of a small private school must — for at least part of their career — be much better suited than the bustle and expense of a large public institution. It will be of interest to note the regu- lations of other countries with regard to the liberty of teaching. Austria. — -The State reserves to itself the right of general surveillance over all educational establish- ments, but any one can engage in the work of education provided he or she possesses a certificate or warrant of professional fit- ness. Bavaria. — Home education is en- tirely free from regulations. But no one can open a private school except with the leave of the municipality, and on condition of being a Bavarian citizen, and of fur- nishing proof of moral and professional fitness. Private establishments are placed under the surveillance of competent au- thorities. Belgium, which has of late years retrograded considerably in educational matters, leaves education wholly unre- stricted, and makes no requirement as to professional knowledge or skill. France. Here all education is under the direc- tion or surveillance of the State, and over 288 PRIZES PROVINCIAL COLLEGES (NON THEOLOGICAL) and above municipal regulations as to the sanitary arrangements, &c., of a school, every teacher is required to produce proofs of civil, moral, and professional fitness. In Greece and in Italy the regulations are almost exactly the same as in France. This is also the case in the Netherlands. In Prussia parents and guardians are required to see that their children and wards are given the same instruction as that in the public schools. Every one has the right to give lessons or establish a school, on giving the State authorities proof of moral, theoretical, and practical fitness. All edu- cational institutions, public or private, are under the surveillance of authorities no- minated by the State. The regulations for Saxony do not difier much from those of Prussia, except that teachers in private schools must have diplomas in addition to having passed at least one of the exami- nations instituted by law for teachers. In Spain teaching is unrestricted by regula- tions, except that the sanitary condition and morality of all schools are subject to State inspection. In Switzerland the re- gulations vary considerably in the different cantons. For elementary or primary edu- cation, which is universally under State direction, the general type of regulations is very like that of Prussia ; but in most cantons education above the primary is almost without regulations, except in so far as concerns the education undertaken by the canton itself, and in that case the regulations, as a rule, are very similar to those for primary education. In the United States free trade in schools and teaching is without restrictions. In our larger colo- nies, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the regulations, at any rate as far as primary instruction is concerned, tend more and more in general type to resemble those of Prussia. In Canada this is also true with regard to higher education, in so far as it is undertaken by the State. But this ten- dency has not up to the present in the case of any of these colonies become an accom- plished fact. {See also Day Schools.) Prizes. See Rewards. Proctors. — Officers of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge whose duty it is to attend to the discipline and behavi- our of all persons in statu pupillari, and to search houses of ill-fame. In the even- ing they go their rounds, accompanied by their ' bull-dogs ' (attendants who pursue delinquents), and demand the name and college of any undergraduate or bachelor who is found without cap and gown, or whose conduct is unsatisfactory in any way. The offender is generally required to call upon the proctor the following morning, and is fined or otherwise pun- ished according to his offence. Procurators. See Rector. Professors. — The title of 'professor'' is given by courtesy to the regular lec- turers at universities and colleges of re- cognised university rank. The professors at Oxford and Cambridge, of whoin there are abou.t forty at each university, are usually required to be in residence about six months of the academical year, and during that time to deliver a certain num- ber of lectures open to all members of the univei'sity. They are expected to assist students attending their lectures, and each one to promote the study of his own sub- ject. Many of the professorships at Oxford and Cambridge, however, are mere sine- cures, the real work of teaching being left to the tutors (g.v.) or 'coaches.' In the Scot- tish and Irish universities, and in the Lon- don and provincial colleges (q.v.), the office of professor is of much greater importance. Promotion. See Classification. Pronuiiciation of Latin. See Latin (Pronunciation of). Prosody. See Grammar. Protoplasm. See Biology. Provincial Colleges (Non-Theologi- cal). — The foundation of Owens College, Manchester, in 1851, led the way to a movement which, aided by the stimulus of University Extension {q.v.), has during the last fifteen years spread to most of the non-university towns of first-rate import- ance in England, Scotland, and Wales. The following is a list of such institutions, with date of foundation : — Owens Col- lege, Manchester, 1851 ; Durham Uni- versity College of Physical Science, New- castle-on-Tyne, 1871 ; University College of Wales, Aberystwith, 1872 ; Yorkshire College, Leeds, 1874 ; University College, Bristol, 1876; Firth College, Sheffield, 1879 ; Mason College, Birmingham, 1880; University College, Nottingham, 1881 ; University College, Liverpool, 1882 ; University College, Dundee, 1883; Uni- . versity College of South Wales and Mon- mouthshire, Cardiff, 1883 ; University College of North Wales, Bangor, 1884. The scheme of these colleges is to provide a higher education of university character PROYINCIAL COLLEGES (NON-THEOLOaiCAL) for non-resident students of both sexes. Institutions of essentially the same cha- racter in the metropolis are : University College (founded in 1828 as the 'Univer- sity of London'), and King's College. The recently founded Holloway College at Eg- ham (opened 1886) is a college for resi- dent women-students only. Several of the provincial colleges commenced their careers as colleges of physical science, e.g. the Yorkshire College, and the ]\Iason College, Birmingham ; but they now all (except Newcastle) include chairs of Greek, Latin, English, French, and German, and some of them chairs of History, Philo- sophy, and Fine Arts also. They may be said in general to be equipped with a fa- culty of Ai'ts as well as a faculty of Science. All except the Mason College have a prin- cipal, who acts as chairman of the senate or academic board, composed of the pro- fessors, and represents the college gene- rally. The government is vested in a council, and also a board of governors or trustees. The curriculum may be gene- rally divided under two heads : (1) Re- gular or systematic training in the day classes, (2) popular instruction in the even- ing classes. Some of the colleges are tak- ing steps to provide systematic evening instruction, and co-operating with school boards for the training of elementary teachers in preparation for the Govern- ment (teacher's) certificate. The regular day-students usually study for a degree at London University (women-students have also, since 1884, the privilege of entering for examination at Oxford with- out the condition of residence), or else are engaged in preparation for technical or industrial pursuits. The colleges are also largely attended by non-regular students (mostly women) who have no professional object in view, but welcome the oppor- tunity of studying under the direction of a professor. The average proportion of men and women students may be roughly stated at two-thirds men and one-third women. The colleges have for the most part secured for their teaching staff men of the highest academical standing. This the first experiment of importance in viixed education in this country may be pro- nounced an unqualified success; the experi- ence of the governors has been that here, as in America, no difficulties have arisen, and the presence of women in the classes is universally pronounced to have a bene- ficial effect upon discipline and a refining influence upon the men. Many of these institutions show signs of a vigorous col- lege life in unions and other college clubs, in all of which the women take an active part. Most of these colleges have been endowed by the private liberality either of a single person (e.g. Birmingham, Dundee), or of a number of persons acting together (e.g. Liverpool). ISTottingham depends partly upon a benefaction, partly upon a rate levied by the Town Council. The Welsh colleges are in receipt of a Govern- ment grant (4,000^. per annum each). The question of the extension of Government support to all these institutions is one of vital interest to them ; though in some cases handsomely endowed, they nearly all feel the pressure of pecuniary difficulties, or else are cramped in their development by lack of money. The master of Balliol has recently deserved well of the colleges by promoting the movement for inducing the Government to make agrant of the 50,000^. per annum which is necessary to place the higher education in our provincial towns upon a satisfactory footing. Another ques- tion of great importance for the future is that of the development of these institu- tions into provincial universities, i.e. bodies with the power of granting degrees. It is a question hedged round with many diffi- culties. On the one hand the present posi- tion of affairs is no doubt unsatisfactory : in the examinations of the University of London, for which students have to enter in order to get degrees, the professors of these colleges have no official voice or part. The result is a divorce between the teach- ing and examining functions. The work of the professors has to be entirely accom- modated to the rigid demands of an ex- ternal examination. This is stimulating to neither the teachers nor the taught. It is for the higher interests of the students that the professor should not degenerate into the mere ' coach.' And this is best secured by the Scotch or German system, in which the professors have a share in fixing the standard of examination and testing the candidates' work. It has cer- tainly not been found that there is any tendency in new universities in England to allow the standard of examination to sink. The Victoria University (founded in 1880, and now including as constituent colleges Owens College, Manchester, Uni- versity College, Liverpool, and the York- u 290 PSYCHOLOGY PUBLIC SCHOOLS shire College) grants its degrees on terms certainly not less severe than any univer- sity in the country. Again, the establish- ment of pro^•incial viniversities, in lending dignity and importance to the colleges, would do much to correct the provinciality of English provincial towns, and, like the nineteen universities of Germany, carry culture into all parts of the country. On the other hand, there are many serious difficulties in carrying out such a scheme. The work of a university involves great expenditure of time and money, and it would obviously be an extravagant ar- rangement if a separate set of examina- tions were conducted at each college. Pos- sibly some way will be found of reconcil- ing the real need for a closer relation be- tween college and university than exists at present, with considerations of economy. The whole question is intimately connected with the future development of London University, which is now considering the possibility of giving the professors of the provincial colleges a voice in the direction of its examination system. Psychology. — Mental science, or psy- chology, is the science which has for its special subject-matter the various activities which make up our mental life. As deal- ing with the phenomena of the inner Avorld of mind or 'consciousness,' it stands in contrast to the physical sciences, which have to do with those of the external material world. At the same time, psy- chology holds a close connection with one branch of physical science, viz. Physiology {q-v.). We have to study mental pheno- mena not only in themselves as we observe "them directly in our own minds, or indi- rectly by means of their outward manifes- tations in the minds of others, but also in connection with their physiological accom- paniments and conditions, that is to say, the activities of the brain and nervous ■system as a whole. From this brief defi- nition of the scope .of the science it will be seen that it is the chief source of the principles or laws which make up the science or theory of education (see Theory OF Education). Since the educator has to work on mind as his material, he re- quires to understand its inherent properties and the laws by which it is governed. 'The successful training and developing of the mind in any direction depends on our satisfying the necessary conditions of men- tal growth. Thus the exercise and im- provement of a child's memory can only take place by a fulfilment of the natural laws of memory (interest and association). Hence a knowledge of these laws is indis- pensable to one who would carry on the work of training minds intelligently, and with the assurance of following a right method. The science of psychology deals with mind in each of its three principal phases. Knowing or Litellect, Feeling or Emotion, and Activity or Will. And the special laws of each of these three great departments of mental life furnish the basis of a corresponding branch of educa- tion, viz. (1) Intellectual Education, (2) the culture of the feelings, or -^J^sthetic Education, and (3) the development of the will and character, or Moral Education. (See Sully, Teacher's Handbook, chap. i. ; Herbart, Briefe ilber die Anwendung der Psychologie auf die Pddagogik.) Public Schools. — The term public school is difficult to define. In England it has a meaning difiei'ent from what it has in America. The American public school is a school supported by the com- munity and open to all the world. When it is said that Public Schools are the back- bone of the American system of education it is implied that there exist all over America a number of scliools afibrding a liberal education either fi"ee or very inex- pensive, accessible to all classes. An English public school implies something exclusive and privileged. A public school man is difierent from other men. The question as to whether a particular school is a public school or not depends, not upon its size or its efficiency, but upon its social x'ank. The American public schools are day schools ; the English public school, in the strict sense, is essentially a boarding school. Our public schools are few in number, confined to particular districts, costly, and very diverse in individual character, yet it is said that they represent, more completely than any other English institution, the chief peculiarities of our national life. It is the public school that forms the typical Englishman ; it is the ordinary English boy of tlie upper classes who gives his character to the public school. We have to inquire first, what are the English public schools; secondly, how did they come to be what they are; thirdly, what are their principal charac- teristics, and what relation do they bear to the educational system of England? PUBLIC SCHOOLS 291 "When the English Government undertook some twenty-five years ago to inquire into the condition of our secondary education, nine schools Avere singled out from the rest as pi-e-eminent. These were Win- chester, Eton, Westminster, Charterhouse, Harrow, Rugby, Merchant Taylors', 'St. Paul's, and Shrewsbury. Captain de Car- teret Bisson, in Our /So/tools a7id Colleges, disputes the right of the last three, and reckons our public schools at six. These six between them do not educate much moi-e than 4,000 boys, and yet they are so typical of all schools which may have a claim to the title of public, that we may ■conveniently contine our consideration to them, without disrespect to many new foundations of the highest distinction. Of these, Winchester dates from the four- teenth century, Eton from the fifteenth, Westminster, Harrow, and Rugby from the sixteenth — these three having all been founded within eleven years of each other — and Charterhouse from the seventeenth ■centuries. Winchester, the oldest of the schools, 'has probably kept its character most un- changed. It has never been a fashionable 'Or a court school. It has maintained, xmimpaired, its close connection with NeAv College at Oxford. Nothing can show more clearly the strength and unity •of English traditions than the fact that five hundred years after the establish- ment of the two foundations of William of Wykeham, they should stand in the face of England holding the highest place, one ns a college and the other as a school. Eton, the next on our list, is confessedly the first of public schools, but it was not always so. During the first eighty years of the ■seventeenth century, Westminster un- doubtedly held the position of pre-emi- nence. Dr. Busby (q.v.), who read the prayer for the king on the morning of Charles I.'s execution, and who refused to take off"his cap in the presence of Charles II., Avas the first schoolmaster of his time in England. But Westminster was faithful to the Stuarts^ Eton supported the cause of the Whigs. Its supremacy, beginning in the reign of William III., continued in that of Anne, reached its height under the Hanoverian kings. George III. took a strong personal interest in the school. Eton boys walked on the terrace of Wind- sor Castle in court dress, and the king often stopped to ask their naines and to speak to them. William IV., with boiste- rous good humour, continued the favour of his dynasty. He took the part of the boys in their rebellion against the masters, and he used to invite the boys to enter- tainments, at which the masters stood by and got nothing. During this period Eton becaiiie a political jDower in England. The upper school at Eton is decorated with the busts of statesmen who swayed the destinies of England, and who were the more closely connected together fi-om hav- ing been educated at the same school. Chatham, North, Fox, Grenville, and Gray are among the ornaments of that historical room. Eton and Christ Church had the monopoly of education for public life, and the claim of the school to this distinction received its fullest recognition when Lord Wellesley, after a career spent in the most important offices of the State, desired that he might be laid to his last rest in the bosom of that mother fi-om whom he had learnt everything which had made him famous, successful, and a patriot. Better known, perhaps, is the boast of his brother, the Duke of Wellington, that the battle of Waterloo was won in the playing- fields of Eton. Charterhouse, established in London, has held since its foundation a position very similar to that of Winchester, not of great importance in politics or fashion, but highly influential and respected. These four schools were probably founded for the purposes which they have since succeeded in carrying out. Eton was always a school for the governing classes. Winchester and Charterhouse have received the un- interrupted support of the gentry and clergy of England. The history of Harrow and Rugby has been different. They have been lifted by circumstances into a position for which they were not originally intended. They were founded as local schools, one in the neighbourhood of London, the other in the heart of the Midlands, for the in- struction first of the village lads, and then of such strangers as came to be taught. But they have reached, owing to special circumstances, a position equal to any of their rivals. Harrow emerged from ob- scurity in the middle of the eighteenth century, owing, as it is said, her success to head masters who were sent to her from Eton. Rugby is known throughout the world as the school of Arnold (q.v.), who d2 292 PUBLIC SCHOOLS wrmIiciuI in;i,H[,f'f from 1 8'J7 in 1 Hil . Evcjin m, subject ]>rema- tun^ly !iiS to nen'IcHit it in its due time. Manyof Sturm's arrantj;ements!i,r(^ familiar to public; school uhm) now livinn;, but in the followinfj;(Mintiiry they underwent a, furtlun* chantijo. This was due to the .lesm'ts, who obtained their reputation partly by their devolion to the study of Creek, and pai-tly by the j>!iins iJiey took to understand tho individual character of their pupils, Tho Jesuits have y)robably done mon; luiriti to sound edu(!ation than any prominent body of men who over undcjrtook thf) task. They h;ul two objects in view, to /fain tho favour of the rich and powerful, and to prevent tho human, mind from thinkinf,'. Ifuman- istio education skilfully eiriploycid was an julmiral)le instrument to this end. J t Mat- tered the prid(i of parents, whilst it cheated tho ambition of scholars. ''.I'lie pre-emi- nence j^iveii in educitiou to orif,nnal Latin verses is typical of the whole system of tho Jesuits. No exorcise (!ould bo more' pretty and attracitivf), or bear more clearly the outwa.rd semblance of culture and hiarnini^', yet no (5m|)loynient could more ellectually dehuhi ths. They are not all in London. Thus, Winchester has one at Portsmouth, and Rugby has a mission (the Rugby Fox Memorial) to Indian boys at Masulipatam, and Haileybury a lectui'er at Agra. The following public schools had missions in 1888 : (i) Eton (Hackney Wick, E.) ; (2) Harrow (Latimer Road, W.) ; (3) Charterhouse (Southwark, S.E.) ; (4) Clifton (Bi-istol) ; (f)) Felstead (Brom- ley, E.) ; (6) Haileyburv (Agra, India) ; (7) Mai-lborough (Totteid^ani, S.E.) ; (8) Magdalen College School, Oxford (Umba, E. Africa, and Fulhan\); (9) Rossall (New- ton Heath, Manchester) ; (10) Tonbridge (King's Cross, N.E.) ; (11) Uppingham (Poplar, E.) ; (12) Wellington, Berks (Walworth, S.E.) ; (13) Winchester (Land- port, Portsmouth); (14) Radley ; (Ifi) Cheltenham ; (16) Bradtield ; (17) Alden- ham ; (18) Malvern. Several masters have .testified that the tone of their schools has improved since their boys thus learned to sympatliise intelligentlv with the strug- gles of the poor. Details will be found m the Church of Emjhind Year-Book (S.P.C.K., 2.^. 6(/.). (See also articles Uni- versity Settlem ents, Paupeu Education, Ragoed Schools, ikc.) Punctuation.— It is important to ar- range our words carefully if we desire our meaning to be clear. But sometimes the words may be excellently arranged, and yet it may be ditlicult to decide\vliether a word refers to the one before it or the one after it, or whether certain words are to be taken as forming a phrase or a sen- tence by tliemselves apart from the rest. We indicate our meaning in sucli cases, when spiniking by ma-king a pause between; the words which we do not wish our hearers, to take together ; or we pause before and after a set of words which we do wish to. be taken together. In writing we repre- sent these pauses by marks, or stops, placing them between the words we wish to sepa- rate, and before and after the words wo- wish to group together. To place these stops amongst the words of a sentence is. to punetuate it. The stops most frequently used are the eoiii»ia (,) and the full-stop (.) ;, and besides these there are the semicolon (;), the cokni (:), and the drtsh ( — ). The fill-stop indicates that we have come to the end of our statement so far, and that if any other statement follows, it must be takeii iis a new and somewhat independent one. The comma generally indicates that, for some reason of emphasis or clearness,, a word is separated from that to which it more particularly refers. The intruding word or phrase will, by what we have just said, have a comma both before it and after it, unless it directly describes the word on which it intrudes. Compare, for^ instance : ' The jury, having retired for an liour, brought in a verdict of guilty ; ' and ' A king depending on the support o£ his subjects, cannot rashly declare Avar.' The object in using couimas being to indi- cate that the ANords cut off by then\ are to- be taken together, it follows tluit when the subject of a sentence is made very long by reason of its phrases we should place a connna after it, especially if it contains, some noun which might be mistaken fer- tile subject — e.g. ' The danger of leaving his rear unprotected by even a handful of cavalry, was beginning to show itself clearly.' The first of a pair of commas is. not expressed when it comes at the begin- ning of a sentence, and the second of the pair is always mei'ged in any weightier stop with which it coincides, and hence the bi'acketing or parenthetic nature of commas — whieh is the more frequent — is often missed. Of course, if a word or plu'ase closely refen-ing to some other word or phi'ase is placed (for convenience or em- phasis) out of its usual position, we should, by our general rule ixaark it off from the rest of the statement by commas. This will most frequently be the case with ad- verbial phrases or clauses placed at the PUNCTUATION PUNISHMENT 295 beginning of a statement. A string of words all on the same footing in a sentence, whether single or in pairs, are divided up by single commas when there are no con- junctions employed to link them together ; e.g. ' We have lost in him a good, wise, true and loving friend. He was indeed kind and iirm, gentle and strong, simple and wise.' If a word or phrase of mere explanation, an intei'jection, or the name of the person spoken to, be inserted in a sentence, it will of course be marked oft' by commas. These are the main uses of commas. When a statement is long, and contains many clauses placed together to throw light on one another, we shall usually find that we want a stop more marked than a comma, and yet not so marked as a full-stop. The stop employed in such cases is the semicolon ; or, if in addition a slightly Aveightier mark be required, a colon. The dash is used to mark that the construction of a sentence is suddenly broken ; or in a long paragraph to mark the return to the main thread of the state- ment ; or to draw together and sum up all that precedes. The following are good examples of the use of semicolons and colons : ' Sloth makes all things difficult, but industiy all things easy ; and he that riseth late must trot all day, and shall scarce overtake his business at night.' ' If this life is un- happy, it is a burden to us which it is difficult to bear ; if it is in every respect happy, it is dreadful to be deprived of it : so that, in either case, the result is the same ; for we must exist in anxiety and apprehension.' As a rule, however, colons are nowadays generally replaced by full- stops. As examples of the use of the clcosh the following will be found suggestive : ' Oh that you had only — but why cry over spilt milk 1 ' ' The flaws and flecks in his cha- racter — for even the best of us have flaws and flecks — I do not care to discuss.' ' He wept and moaned ; he looked dolorous, and shunned his friends ; he put up the shutters, and dressed himself in black — this was what he called " showing due respect." ' In addition to the above, there are cer- tain other marks used — not exactly stops, but somewhat of their nature — which cor- respond rather to the tone of a speaker than to his pauses. They are the note of interrogation (1), which marks a question ; the note of exclamation (!), which marks surprise or excitement ; inverted co'nimcos {" "), which tell us that the words between them are borrowed from somewhere else ; single inverted commas (' ') sometimes in- dicate that the sense, not the wording, is quoted. Lastly, there is the 2J(-''renthesis ( ), which is used to mark 09" entirely from the rest of the sentence some explanatory word or phi-ase, the insertion of which clearness seems to demand, or which some association or feeling prompts. But the jKtrenthesis is often replaced by a couple of dccshes, as will be seen above in this very jDaragraph. Punishment is commonly defined as pain or sufl^ering inflicted by one in au- thority, and as the consequence of some oflence or violation of command. The power to punish is essentially involved in what we call authority. Tlae control of the individual by the community is carried out by a system of commands backed by punishment; whether legal penalties en- forced by the magistrate, or social penalties e.g. loss of reputation imposed by society for extra-legal ofiences. The question of the true grounds of punishment has been much discussed, some viewing it as retri- butive, or a self-protective reaction of the community against an injury; others laying emphasis on its deterrent function in rela- tion to other possible offenders; others, again, insisting on its ameliorative or re- formatory purpose in relation to the indi- vidual that is punished. What has beer called paedagogic punishment, that is, as inflicted by the parent or other governor of the child, is mainly dealt with by educational writers on its reformatory side, that is, as a means of correcting and improving a faulty will in the individual punished. Difficult problems surround the subject of punishment, such as the questions : What cases are meet for punish- ment, what are the most suitable kinds of punishment, and how can the degree of punishment be best proportioned to the fault ? These have been dealt with in a luminous way by Bentham ; and though his principles relate primarily to punish- ment by the State, they will be found to have an important bearing on the correction of the young. 1 The tendency of recent writers, due in part to the growth of humanitarianism, in part to the influence 1 For a resume of Bentham's principles, see Bain, Education as a Science, p. 106, note. 296 PUPIL-TEACHERS of authorities like Locke aud Rousseau, has been to attribute less value to punishment as a means of moral education. As an artificial stimulus, needed only because the proper motives which impel to right con- duct are weak, punishment is to be used sparingly, and dispensed with as soon as possible. The child is to be led to feel the natural results of wrong actions, e.g. the displeasure, or loss of the confidence, of its parent or teacher, to be a sufficient penalty. {See art. Consequences, Discipline of.) It is seen, too, in connection with school discipline, that while the power to punish must exist and be recognised, its frequent exercise is apt to be frustrative of the teacher's object. An affectionate concern for the learner's good, and the endeavour to attract, rather than repel, him to school- work, and to help him over his difficulties which springs out of such a concern, will very much reduce in number, if not entirely eliminate, the occasions for punishment. Cf. articles Corporal Punishment and Discipline. {See Locke, Thoughts, § 43 and following ; Bain, Education as a Sci- 67106, p. 11 4 and following; Thring, Theory and Practice of Teaching, chap. xiii. ; Be- neke, Erziehungs- unci Unterrichtslehre, § 77; "VVaitz, Allgem. Pddagogik, § 13, and article 'Strafe' in Schmid's Encyclopddie.) Pupil-teachers. — The Minutes of the Committee of Council which, in 1846, under the inspiration of Sir James Kay Shuttleworth, then chief secretary, insti- tuted the ' certificate of merit' for elemen- tary teachers, also inaugurated the pupil- teacher system (imitated from Holland), as a means of ensui-ing a succession of such teachers, and of supplying an adequate teaching staff for the rapidly increasing elementary schools. The latter was, on the surface, the most pressing need. Pre- vious to this an elementary school was staffed on the monitoricd system, originated by Lancaster and Bell, by which some of the older and more proficient scholars of the school were the (sole) assistants of the head teacher. These monitors, as they were called, at best were children of only thirteen or fourteen years of age, and con- stituted an ever-shifting body, as each, after a year or two's work in that capacity, was removed by his parents and sent to work. The real teaching power (beyond mere rote-work) of such a staff as this was ob- viously of the poorest kind. If, however, these children could by adequate pecu- niary inducements be attracted from pro- ceeding to other spheres of work, in order to take up the career of a teacher as a means of livelihood, the school-assistant staff would be composed of ex-scholars of at least thirteen years of age, instead of scholars of at most fourteen years of age, and thus one weakness, that of the extreme youthfulness of the staff, would be partially remedied. The enforcement of a term of apprenticeship would remedy the other weakness. It was to replace the moni- torial system by some system on these lines that the Minutes of 1846 established 'pupil-teachers.' By these Minutes the Committee of Council offered to every pupil-teacher whose parents or guardians consented to apprentice him (or her) for a term of years (usually five), commencing at thirteen years of age, an annual stipend of 10^. for the first year of apprenticeship, rising by annual increments to 20^. for the last year. The pupil-teacher was required to be of good character, and to come from a respectable home. He was further re- quired to pass an examination before her Majesty's inspector at admission, and at the end of each year of apprenticeship. He was to be a teacher, assisting the head teacher in the instruction of the scholars during school hours, and he was to be a pupil, receiving separate instruction from him out of school hours for one hour and a half daily. As an inducement to the head teacher to secure good candidates for pupil-teachership, and to instruct his pupil-teachers efficiently, the Committee of Council offered him an annual gratuity of 2)1. to 4zl. for each pupil-teacher who passed with credit the examination at the end of each year of apprenticeship. In its broad features the pupil-teacher system remains to this day in the same form as it was established by the Minutes of 1846. The grants from Government on behalf of pupil-teachers are, however, now (since Revised Code, 1862) paid to the managers of the school, who are free to make their own terms with this, as well as with every other part of the school staff. At first no limit was placed upon the number of pupil-teachers which a head teacher could employ, nor upon the number of scholars who might be placed under his charge. But it soon became obvious that there were limits to the proportion which the amount of unskilled labour of the pupil-teachers in a school should under any PUPIL-TEACHERS 297 circumstances bear to that of the skilled labour of the adult teachers, and from time to time (since 1862) the Code regulations have limited the number of pupil-teachers who may be employed for each head teacher or adult (certificated) assistant. This now stands at three for the principal teacher, and one for each certificated assistant. Moreover, the age at which apprenticeship 'Can be commenced has been raised from thirteen to fourteen years of age, and the number of scholars which (in estimating what is the minimum school staff required) is considered sufficient for a pupil-teacher is now forty in average attendance, and for a candidate pupil-teacher, twenty. The standard of attainments required to be shown by candidates for pupil-teach- ership, and by pupil-teachers at the end of each year of apprenticeship, has been gra- dually raised by successive codes, and now stands at a pass in Standard YI. or VII. in the three elementary subjects, and two ■of the class subjects (see art. Code), of which English must be one. The require- ments for each year of apprenticeship are laid down in Schedule V. of the Code, and embrace English grammar and composi- tion, arithmetic and mathematics (algebra and quadratics, Euclid, bk. i., ii.), geography, history, teaching, all of which are obliga- tory subjects, and ancient and modern lan- guages, science, drawing, and music, which are optional. The ' Queen's scholarship' examination (see Training of Teachers) is accepted as equivalent to the examina- tion for the end of the last year of appren- ticeship. On passing the examination the pupil-teacher acquires the right to obtain two years' training in a training college, at a cost to the country of 75 per cent, of the expenditure on his behalf (see Train- ing OF Teachers). The efficient instruction of the pupil- teachers to meet the requirements of these annual examinations has long been felt to be one of the greatest difficulties inherent in the system. The physical strain on these young persons, who, either before or after a hard day's work in school, have to prepare and say their own lessons, has been made the subject of repeated anim- adversions, and, in the face of the obvious overpressure to which they have been sub- jected, the Department has considerably reduced their hours of labour in school, which now stand at not less than three, or more than six, upon any one day, nor more than twenty-five hours in any one week. This has the effect of releasing the pupil- teachers from school work for one half day in each week, besides Saturday. Their own instruction must occupy at least five hours per week, of which not more than three shall be part of one day. But under the most favourable circum- stances, the process of instructing pupil- teachers must involve a great waste of power, which (except in purely rural dis- tricts) might be avoided. Under the regu- lations detailed above, a head teacher will have his three or four pupil-teachers, most probably in different years of their appren- ticeship, and therefore, though perhaps studying the same subject, yet studying different stages of it. In another school building close at hand, or perhaps in an ad- joining department of the same building, another head teacher is doing likewise. An obvious remedy for this state of things suggests itself as applicable in towns, and that is the grouping of all the pupil-teachers from all the schools within a given radius into a central building, where they could be organised in classes according to subject and year of apprenticeship— in fact, creat- ing a pupil-teacher college, to be in session for from five to ten hours each week. The proposal thus to establish a central system of instruction of pupil-teachers was made by the London and other School Boards, and met with acceptance from the Com- mittee of Council, who modified their re- gulations so as to admit of a pupil-teacher receiving instruction from any certificated teacher or other qualified teacher approved by them. The schemes of central classes which have been carried out by the School Boards of London, Liverpool, Birmingham, and other towns have been shown in prac- tice to possess other advantages besides the saving of power and the proper grading of the pupil-teachers. The appointment of one organising head, or director, of these classes, with a staff of teachers (selected from among certificated teachers of the School Board) who are specially qualified to teach each subject, gives a unity of aim to the work, and ensures that that work shall be of the best, and be equally good throughout. By class teaching and class ex- aminations the pupil-teachers can measure their relative capacity and knowledge, and thus a stimulus and a zest are supplied which are unknown under the individual system. The head teacher of the school 298 PURITY IN SCHOOLS is not understood to be released from all responsibility towards his pujDil-teachers, but it is still his duty to instruct them in the art of teaching by model and criticism lessons, and to exercise tutorial supervi- sion over the home lessons prepared for the central classes. It has been feared by some that the intimate and quasi-pa- ternal relationship between head teacher and pupil-teacher which is fostered by the individual system, and which has great value in presence of the youthfulness of the pupil-teacher, would be weakened by the central system, and there is some ground for such fears. But the answer is that this tie has been already considerably weakened by the mode of selecting can- didates for pupil-teachership, which is ne- cessitated by the modern conditions under which School Boards supply their schools with adequate staff. Candidates are no longer necessarily or actually taken from the more promising scholars of the school, nor selected by the head teacher. A school in a poor neighbourhood, for instance, yields no eligible candidates at all. Then, again, it has been felt undesirable to re- cruit the ranks of the pupil-teachers en- tirely, or even to large extent, from the classthat usually attend elementary schools, but rather to seek for recruits from among the scholars of secondary schools. The difficulties surrounding the whole working of the pupil-teacher system, the meagre intellectual results accruing from instruction given by such young and un- skilled teachers, the disparity between the number of pupil-teachers (28,000) in- duced to adopt the profession of teaching, to the number with any real aptitude for teaching, has led many educationists to ad- vocate the entire abolition of the system. Purity in Schools. — The question to be treated in this article is a difficult and delicate one, but it is one of great im- portance in connection with education. The subject of purity is one that needs constant watchfulness on the part of those entrusted with the care of the young, and it is a cause of thankfulness that they have become more alive to the existence of dangers connected with it, and the ne- cessity of guarding against them. They have to steer between two extremes : the carelessness which shuts its eyes to evils and makes no attempt to counteract them, and the overfussiness which never dis- misses them from its thoughts, but sus- pects them at all times and everywhere. The object of this article is rather tO' direct the attention to possible dangers,, and mention safeguards that have been tried, than to pronounce any positive- opinions. The evil of impurity exists in different schools in different forms, which cannot be spoken of in an article intended for general reading. The following dangers, however, are such as may be mentioned, and are sometimes overlooked : the mix- ing of the young of widely different ages in the same school ; the use of unex- purgated editions of classical authors ; the introduction into a school of the adver- tisements of quack-doctors, or of bad pho- tographs under apparently innocent titles. Precautions may be taken by the pi'oper arrangements of closets, lavatoiies, baths, above all of dormitories. It is a much disputed question whether cubicles or open dormitories ai-e the greatest protection against evil. It has been suggested as a safeguard against the introduction of bad printed matter into schools that the out- sides of the contents of the letter-bag should always pass under the eye of the master, so that if any suspicious document appears he may require the pupil to open it in his presence ; in this way some very dangerous attempts against the virtue of boys in great public schools have been discovered. Expurgated editions of nearly all the principal classical authors are pro- curable, and are generally used in most of the higher schools. It is a vexed question to what extent athletics are a safeguard and help against the vice of impurity. But, after all, if "a low moral tone pre- vails in a school the most elaborate pre- cautions will be evaded ; the true safe- guard is the maintenance of a high moral standard on the subject of purity. Vari- ous means towards this end have been suggested : — 1. A warning addressed by a parent to his child before he enters school, and from time to time repeated. 2. A similar warning from a master when the boy first comes. 3. Occasional ad- dresses from a master to his whole school, or to certain sections of it, distributed according to age ; this method, however, is open to the objection that to boys of impure mind it gives occasion for scoff- ing comments afterwards. 4. In Church schools, warnings at the season of Confir- mation, which may often serve to reclaimi PURITY IN SCHOOLS QUESTION AND ANSWER 299 a boy, but may come too late to preserve him from contamination ; in some cases a card containing a special promise and prayer against tliis particular sin have been given at this season. A committee of head and assistant masters from schools which are repre- sented at the Head Masters' Conference, or which pi-epare for those schools, has been formed under the auspices of the Church of England Pnrity Society. The committee in 1888 consisted of the follow- ing head masters and others : — Rev. G. C. Bell (Marlborough) ; Mr. H. M. Draper (Lockers Park School, Hemel Hemp- stead) ; Rev. J. T. H. Du Boulay (Assist- ant Master at Winchester College) ; Rev. J. H. Edgar (Temple Grove School, East Sheen) ; Hon. and Rev. E. Lyttelton (Assistant Master at Eton) ; Rev. J. Robertson (Hail ey bury) ; Rev. Dr. Stokoe (King's College School, London) ; Rev. R. S. Tabor (Cheam) ; Rev. J. E. C. Well- don (Harrow) ; Rev. E. C. Wickham (Wellington), (Chairman) ; Rev. Dr. Wood (Woodbridge) ; Rev. Dr. Blore (late of the King's School, Canterbury), (Secre- tary). They have issued a printed paper which a master may, if he thinks fit, place in the hands of a parent before his boy is received into the school, calling his atten- tion to this particular danger, and the advisability of warning his boy against it. They have also recommended books giving useful hints on the subject of purity, /or the use of teachers or parents — viz. School- hoy Morality : an Address to Mothers, by E. C. P. ; Letter from a Head-Master, Purity the true Guard of Manhood ; Your Innings, by Rev. George Everard (price Is.) ; Moral Education of the Young, by Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell ; Paper read at the Church Congress, 1884, by (the late) Rev. E. Thring , Morcdity in Pidjlic Schools, by the Very Ptev. Dr. Butler, late Head-Master of Harrow ; Letter to a Lad, Anon. Copies of these and a classified list of other books may be obtained from the C.E.P.S., 111 Palace Chambers, West- minster, S.W. The minimum subscription to the Central Society is 5.s. Teachers should notice the small periodical The Vanguard, Is. ^d. a year post free. Handy papers on the subject have been published also by the White Cross Society (a list may be obtained from Hatchards', 187 Piccadilly, or from the secretary, Mr. J. S. S. Vidal, Museum Close, Oxford), and by the Social Purity Alliance (secretary, Rev. R. A. Bullen, 33 Vincent Square, S.W.). This Alliance admits ladies as members and on the committee. Mini- mum subscription Is. A further attempt is being made by the C.E.P.S. to form a committee representing classes of schools other than those mentioned. In the diocese of Chichester the dio- cesan branch of the C.E.P.S. have adopted the plan of calling together from time to time meetings of masters of all classes of schools for papers and discussions on purity. In general it may be said that in many directions attention is being called to this question, and encouraging efforts are being made to promote purity in schools, and to combat and repress the opposite vice. In connection with help- ing old pupils, whether boys or gilds, especially those leaving villages for em- ployment elsewhere, teachers will find it useful to communicate with the vaidous centralising institutions, such as the Young Men's Friendly Society, Girls' F. S., Y. M. Christian Association (Exeter Hall, Strand, W.C), Central Vigilance Associa- tion, and the National Vigilance Associa- tion (267 Strand, W.C). Q ftuadrivium. See Middle^ Ages (Schools of). Queen's Colleges and Royal Uni- versity, Ireland. See Universities. Queen's Scholarships. See Certifi- cated Teachers. Question and Answer. — As has al- ready been pointed out in the article on * Oral Instruction,' one of the teacher's primary objects in putting questions to children is to enable him to ascertain what they know and the degree of development which their various intellectual faculties have reached. Until the teacher has learnt this he cannot properly proceed either to instruct or to train. At the same time and by the same means he will ascertain, and make evident to the child himself, 300 QUESTION AND ANSWER what is almost as important, viz. what the ■child does not know, and what are his misconceptions and difficulties. This was the general character of Socrates' question- ing. When these things have been done, the teacher has next to excite the child's curiosity and interest, and to set his facul- ties to work ; in other words, to induce him to make use of what he knows, to take an active part in the lesson, and to maintain that activity. Here the questions should be stimulative, and suggestive of lines and modes of thought and inquiry. They should also serve to keep the teacher in touch with the pupil, and make evident whether the latter is following the lesson, d. rate he had at the same time greatly under-estimated the educational destitution of the country, of which he had formed no adequate idea until after the Act came into operation. The average School Board rate in England in 1885-86 was 7d ; in 1884-85 it was 6'6fZ. ; in 1883-84, 6-3c?. ; so that in three years the increase was 'Id. At the same time, however, the average number of chil- dren attending Board schools increased by 130,132. The total expenditure in 1886-87 for School Board purposes in England amounted to 5,124,66U. Of this total 2,442,347^., or 47'7 per cent., was raised out of the local rates. Ratich, Wolfgang (from Ratichius, the latinised form of Ratke), (1571-1635), is well known for his plan of teaching lan- guage, which created so much interest in Germany and elsewhere at the time of its publication. The following are some of the general principles or maxims on which Ratke based his practice. They are highly suggestive, but must be given here with- out comment : 1. Everything after the order and course of nature. 2. Only one thing at a time. 3. One thing should be often repeated. 4. Everything first in the mother tongue. 5. Everything without compulsion. 6. Nothing should be learnt by rote ; if thoroughly understood and made familiar a thing will be remembered, as far as it is necessary to remember it, without rote-learning. 7. Due time should be allowed for recreation, and there should be breaks between lessons. 8. Mutual conformity (of method) in everything, e.g. all grammars should be on the same plan, and universal grammar should be learnt in connection with the modern tongue. 9. First the thing itself, and afterwards what explains the thing — e.g. first the material for a rule, and then the rule ; or again, first a circle exhibited, and then its properties and definitions. 10. Everything by experiment and analysis. It has been the way with some to laugh at Ratke and to call him a charlatan. But Ratke was no fool. On the contrary, he was full of insight and originality, and possessed some of the very highest qualities of a skilful teacher. (See Dr. Henry Barnard's Ger- man Teachers and Educators.) Ratio Studiorum. See Jesuits. Raumer, Karl Georg von ib. 1783, d. 1865). — An eminent German writer on ptedagogy, as well as on geology and geo- graphy. While studying in Paris in 1808 he became acquainted with the writings of Pestalozzi, and was so much struck with the improved method that reformer was introducing in teaching that he aban- doned the mineralogical and other scien- tific studies he had up to that year been pursuing, and proceeded direct from the French capital to Iserten, where he acted as voluntary assistant in Pestalozzi's es- tablishment from October 1808 to April 1809. He then returned to Germany with his enthusiasm somewhat sobered, but ever afterwards devoted a large share of atten- tion to educational affairs. He was pro- fessor of geology, natural history, &c., successively at Breslau, Halle, and Erlan- gen, at which last place he died. The four years from 1823 to 1827 he spent as assis- tant to Dittmar at his educational esta- blishment at Nuremberg, where he also founded an institution for the rescue and education of orphan and deserted boys. He was the author of numerous writings on several departments of the natural sci- ences, especially geology, geography, and geognosy, but his most important work was his Gescliichte der PddagogiJc vom Wiederaufbluhen klassischer Studien bis auf unsere Zeit, originally published in three volumes between 1843 and 1851. In 1877 a fifth edition appeared in four volumes. This is one of the most valuable treatises ever published in the German language on the subject it deals with, and has been translated into English under 304 READER (UNIVERSITY) READING the title of History of Pcedagogy from the Bevival of Classical Studies down to our oton Times. Although somewhat one- sided in dealing with theological matters, Von Ranmer's treatise in the main shows such sound judgment and contains such numerous quotations from original docu- ments and the older writers that it must long remain a standard work on pseda- gogy. The section on Die ErzieMcng der Mddchen (education of girls) was pub- lished separately in 1869, reaching a third edition in 1866. The chapters on Dexitsclier Unterricht (German instruction) were also edited and published as a separate work by the author's son, Rudolph von Raumer (h. 1815, d. 1875), professor of the German language and literature at Erlangen. The autobiography of Karl von Raumer (A"". V. Raumer's Lehen von ihm selhst erzdhlt) was also published after the author's death in 1866. Friedrich von Raumer, the cele- brated historian (b. 1781, d. 1873), was a brother of Karl von Raumer. Reader (University). — A university reader is practically a professor at Oxford and Cambridge. Readerships are out- comes of the last Commission. The stipend is generally about 300?. a year, the common funds being supplied by a kind of college income tax. For names and details see University Calendars. Reading, — Reading ' is the art of pro- nouncing words at sight of their visible characters ' (Bain) ; the process of ' learn- ing to recognise in written signs words which are already familiar to the learner in spoken language' (Currie). The eye and the ear of the pupil must be exercised together on the forms and sounds of letters and words ; and at an early stage the sense of the matter will come in aid of the sheer efforts of memory to retain the discrimina- tions of eye and ear. Certain general preliminary conditions are accepted by most theorists : — (1) Before beginning to read the child should have considerable practice and facility of distinct enuncia- tion of the vocabulary of early childhood ; (2) the first reading lessons ought to be formed from matter and words within the child's familiar knowledge and experience ; (3) they should be composed of complete sentences, precisely as the spoken language which the child knows consists of complete sentences. But at this point the general agreement ceases, and there is a division of methods. I. The Alphabetic Method. — This me- thod is so called ' because it associates- the sound of a word with its sign through the medium of the series of its letter- names, taken either collectively or sylla- bically.' The alphabet is first taken up. The first act is to distinguish the letters by the eye, and especially to discriminate such as are nearly alike — a process which is effectively helped forward by writing or drawing. Concurrently with this proceed- ing the child connects with the printed characters or letters their names, or vocal representations. The practice of giving^ the child small tablets, each of which has a letter on one side and a figure (of a well- known animal or other object whose name commences with that letter) on the other, is of ancient origin. Quintilian ' recom- mends the use of letters in ivory, which children take pleasure in handling, seeing, and naming' (Compayre's History of Po',- dagogy, transl. by Professor W. H. Payne, p. 49). St. Jerome similarly writes : 'Put into the hands of Paula letters in wood or in ivory, and teach her the names- of them. She will thus learn while play- ing. But it will not suffice to have her merely memorize the names of the letters, and call them in succession as they stand in the alphabet. You should often mix them, putting the last first, and the first in the middle. Induce her to construct words by ofiering her a prize, or by giving her, as a reward, what ordinarily pleases- children of her age. Let her have com- panions, so that the commendation she may receive may excite in her the feeling^ of emulation ' (ibid. p. 67). Ei'asmus men- tions that 'the ancients moulded tooth- some dainties into the forms of the letters,, and thus, as it were, made children swal- low the alphabet ' (ibid. p. 90). The same view is taken by Locke : ' Give me leave here,' he says [Thoughts on Education), ' to inculcate again what is very apt to be- forgotten — viz. that great care is to be taken that it be never made as a business- to him, nor he look on it as a task. I have always had a fancy that learning might- be made a play and recreation to children, and that they might be brought to desire to be taught, if it were proposed to them as a thing of honour, credit, delight, andl recreation, or as a reward for doing some- thing else. . . . Children should not have anything like work, or serious, laid on them ; neither their minds nor their bodies READING 305 will bear it. It injures tlieir healths ; and their being forced and tied down to their books, in an age at enmity with all such restraint, has, I doubt not, been the reason why a great many have hated books and learning all their lives after.' If possible, then, the judicious teacher will wile the child into learning to read, while it sup- poses it is simply playing. ' I know a person of great quality,' Locke goes on to eay, ' who, by pasting on the six vowels (for in our language y is one) on the six sides of a die, and the remaining eighteen consonants on the sides of three other dice, has made this a play for his children, that he shall win who, at one cast, throws most words on these four dice ; whereby his eldest son, yet in coats, has played him- self into spelling with great eagerness, and without once having been chid for it, or forced to it. . . . When by these gentle ways he begins to be able to read, some easy, pleasant book, suited to his capacity, should be put into his hands, wherein the entertainment that he finds might draw him on, and reward his pains in reading. To this purpose I think -i^sop's Fables the best, which, being stories apt to delight and entertain a child, may yet afford useful reflections to a grown man ; and if his memory retain them all his life after, he will not repent to find them there, amongst his manly thoughts and serious business. If his ^sop has pictures in it it will entertain him much the better, and encourage him to read, when it carries the increase of knowledge with it ; for such visible objects children hear talked of in vain, and without any satisfaction, whilst they have no ideas of them ; those ideas being not to be had from sounds, but from the things themselves or their pictures. And, therefore, I think, as soon as he be- gins to spell, as many pictures of animals should be got him as can be found, with the printed names of them, which at the same time will invite him to read and afford him matter of inquiry and know- ledge. And, if those about him will talk to him often about the stories he has read, and hear him tell them, it will, besides other advantages, add encouragement and delight to his reading when he finds there is some use and pleasure in it.' Locke does not seem to appreciate the difficulty that modern educationists have found in bridging the chasm between individual letters and letters as joined in syllables. He, no doubt, contemplates a much more deliberate study than is now permitted to children in these days of steam-pressure and ' standards.' The combining opera- tion at once brings us face to face Avith the consideration that the conventional names of the individual letters, when re- peated in succession, hardly ever give any- thing even approaching to the conven- tional sound of the particular word or syllable : rat, as pronounced, is not recog- nisable in r, a, t (ar-a-tee), as spelled. Still, a certain association is very rapidly formed, and this association is certainly suggestive. But the plain fact is, that this method is not, and is not designed to be, a pure reading method ; it is 'a method for teach- ing reading and spelling simultaneously, and the reading through the spelling.' Dr. Currie points out clearly the real difficulty. ' That these branches should be taught together,' he says {Cominon School Educa- tion, par. 278), ' is obvious, since the labour requisite for learning the one may all be made available for learning the other. The objection to this method is, not that it combines the two, but that it does so in an unnatural and awkward manner ; so that, instead of helping, they interfere with each another. Spelling rests on a habit of the eye, which is best acquired as the result of reading ; this method, which inverts their proper relation, not only deprives the learner of the natural facilities which reading gives for spelling, but distracts his attention from the one thing with which he is supposed to be occupied, the reading.' The difficulty was recognised in the JPort Royal method. ' What makes reading more difficult,' says Arnauld {General Grammar, chap, vi.), ' is that, while each letter has its own proper name, it is given a different name when it is found associated with other letters. For example, if the pupil is made to read the syllable/ny, he is made to say ef-ar-y, which invariably confuses him. It is best, therefore, to teach children to know the letters only by the name of their real pro- nunciation, to name them only by their natural sounds.' He proposes, then, ' to have children pronounce only the vowels and the diphthongs, and not the conso- nants, which they need not pronounce except in the different combinations which they form with the same vowels or diph- thongs, in syllables or words.' This brings us to the second method. 306 READING ■ II. The Phonic Method. — This metliod differs from the alphabetic in associating the sound of the word with the letter sounds composing it, instead of with the letter names. It claims two conditions, however, as necessary for its efficient work- ing : (1) 'It does not subject to phonic analysis those monosyllabic words which the child has occasion to learn first, be- cause they are for the most part anomalous in their sound'; and (2) 'when it does enter upon analysis it groups the words of the language according to the vowel or diphthong sounds which they embody, that the learner may have all the help which re- sults from classification' (Currie). Tlu-ee objections ha vebeen offered to this method: (1) An exhaustive classification leads to a great complexity of rules, and, when all is done, no inconsiderable part of the lan- guage is left outside the rules. This objec- tion applies Avith much greater force to English, which is phonically very irregular, than to such a language as German, whose phonic structure is regular. (2) Even with- in the regularities of the alphabet the aggregate of the sounds of the letters in a Avord does not really suggest the sound of the word itself ; it makes just a little nearer approach to this result than is attained by the alphabetic method. ' The pupil is ex- pected,' says Dr. Currie (par. 279), 'to aiTive at the sound of the word hat, for example, through this analysis, he-a-te (the two consonants being uttered upon a sound here denoted by e, but which is in reality something lilce the sound of the e in French, or the ^^, in hut). This threefold sound may be a nearer approach to the single sound of hat than the threefold hee-a-tee of the alphabetic method, but it certainly does not constitute that sound. In fact it cannot.' (3) The third objection 'lies against its whole principle. It does not follow that, because the words of a lan- guage may have their sounds analysed and classified, the way to learn to read lies through this analysis and classification. Whether it does or not depends on the mental circumstances of the learner ' (Currie, par. 279). III. The Phonetic Method. — This method meets the irregularities of the alphabet by employing for a time a special alphabet provided with characters repre- senting all the sounds of the language, and each possessing a uniform power. After a course of discipline in this alphabet the child is transferred to the ordinary letters by being set to read from a book printed in the ordinary letters the same lessons as he has already learned in the phonetic characters. Against this method has been urged the same objection to its principle as we have seen urged against the phonic method, as well as two special objections : (1) It does not overcome, but only delays, the difficulty of mastering the irregulari- ties ; and (2) if introduced at all it would require to be introdu.ced universally. Cer- tain modifications have been proposed in obviation of these objections, such as special markings to difterentiate the vowel sounds, and special modes of printing the difficult letters. But these would seem only to add to the young learner's confusion. TV. The ' Look-and-Say ' Method, or, Eeadiyig tvithout Spelling. — This method directly associates the sound of the word Avith its form taken as a Avhole (see article Look-and-Say). The learner sees the Avord as he hears it — as a Avliole. Continuously, as his experience adA^ances, he analyses the repeated association of sounds Avith signs, unconsciously perhaps at first, pei'haps Avithout much pointed attention at any time. ' This instinctiA^e phonic induction he in\'aribly makes for himself.' And the teacher may silently assist this operation of induction by grouping resemblances or directing special attention to such. ' This is phonic comparison, but it is a process very different from that contemplated in the " Phonic Method '" (Currie, 281). In the system of Professor Jacotot this method Avas carried to a harsh extreme of practice, and Avas required to produce other important educational results besides mere reading. Jacotot advocated the principle, ' Learn something thoroughly, and [ refer CA^erything else to it.' The pupil therefore is at once required to apply this principle, and is thus from the very outset compelled to obserA'e likeness and unlikeness of words, ' to exercise his judgment, to analyse, to generalise, and, in short, to bring into play nearly the Avhole of his intellectual facul- ties.' Jacotot puts aside the usual appara- tus of alphabets, primer, spelling-book, first reader, and so forth, and engages his pupil at once on some standard classical Avork, Eenelon's THemaque for Erench children. Take the opening sentence : ' The grief of Calypso for the departure of Ulysses Avould admit of no comfort.' The teacher points to 'The,' and pronounces it very distinctly, READING 307 and the pupil repeats it after him. He then starts again and adds on the next word, ' The grief,' and the pupil repeats the two words after him. In like manner the third stage of trial includes the third word, and the fourth the fourth word, each stage having started from the beginning. The teacher now pauses, and exercises the pupil thoroughly in pointing out now this now that word, until he can infallibly dis- tinguish them. The book is then opened at random, and the teacher points to some particular sentence, and requires the pupil to state whether he can recognise any one of his four words there. Assuming that the four words are thoroughly known, the teacher proceeds with the remaining words in the same way, always starting from the first. ' The process of interrogation pur- sued at the end of the first four words is repeated with each word of the sentence until the child learns accurately to distin- guish those words which are different, to recognise the likeness between those which are similar, and to point out any word of this sentence in any page of the book that may be opened before him.' The teacher, having finished the sentence, now breaks up the words of more than one syllable into their component syllables, requiring the pupil to distinguish the syllables just as he distinguished the words ; and by- and-by the same plan is applied to the letters. After a little the teacher ceases to pronounce the words first, and requires the pupil to attack his sentence with the training he has received, helping him only ill cases where new words or syllables crop up. ' Still, however, he must recommence toith the first loord learned, as it is by this means only that all his previous acquisi- tions are permanently retained. He soon begins to have the first three or four sentences thus so frequently repeated impressed on his memory, and is told to spell them, dividing them into their component syllables and letters from re- collection. After about sixty lines have thus been gone through, he cannot fail to be acquainted with nearly all, if not all, the letters of the alphabet, and with a vast variety of their combinations. It is in- deed considered that he is now taught to read. If any hesitation, indicative of im- perfect perception, is evident in the pupil, the master must return to the same words, syllables, or letters, until they are thoroughly distinguished and compre- hended. By this means every new ac- quisition becomes permanent, and every effort brings with it the proof of some progress. Hence there is no lost labour. If the pupil should learn only one word in an hour, yet is that word for ever leai-ned and indelibly stamped on the memory by the incessant rejyetition of the first thing required, which is the very life of the system. The pupil is never to be assisted except in what is introduced to his notice for the first time. . . . The ob- ject of the process desci-ibed is simply to make the pupil acquainted with the forms of words, syllables, and letters. What may be called declamatory reading is re- served for a more advanced stage of his progress, and the general rule given for the attainment of it is Bead as you looidd speak ' (J. Payne, Lectures on Education, pp. 349-351). V. The Phonic - Ancdytic Method. — For all the warmth that is sometimes de- veloped for or against the foregoing me- thods, there is practically not much differ- ence between them. The great thing is to hold by the principle that 'the acquisition of both sound and sign should be based on a perception of the sense.' Perhaps the best of all methods is constructed from, hints collected from all the preceding me- thods. This is the method of 'reading without spelling,' ' preceded by oral in- struction in the use of words and in the forms of the letters, and supplemented after a time by a certain kind of phonic com- parison.' It has been called the 'Phonic- Analytic ' method ; but Dr. Currie (who describes it admirably, par. 282) is con- tent to call it simply ' Reading without Spelling,' in order to avoid confusion with the ' Phonic ' method. It is exemplified with most careful elaboration in Professor Murison's Globe Readers (Macmillan). Passing beyond the mere mechanical exercise of reading, we proceed towards Elocution (q.v.) Reading, to be good, must be intelligent and expressive — that is, it must bi'ing out the sense of the matter, and do so with effect through skilful use of the tones of the voice. In- telligent I'eading is forwarded by every- thing that exercises and increases the power of the mind. Expressive reading has been analysed into the following chief elements : puiuty of utterance, distinct- ness of utterance, correctness of accent, deliberateness, correctness of pitch, modu- x2 308 READING BEALSCHULE lation, fluency or facility. Instruction, imitation, and practice ai'e all necessary conditions of success. Simnltaneoiis reading rests on the principle ' that the inferior readers of a class are compelled for the time to con- form to the standard of the better readers.' It secures distinctness ; it improves the rate, slowing the quick reader and quick- ening the slow ; and it tends to remove asperities of tone and modulation (Currie, 291). With us the process is not profit- ably resorted to before the pupils have attained some mastery over the difficulties of reading. M. Renan states [Vie de Jesus) that Jesus doubtless learned to read and write according to the method of the East, which consists in putting into the hands of the child a book, which he re- peats in concert with his comrades till he knows it by heart (Compayre, transl. Payne, p. 10). The German methods of teaching read- ing sin more seriously than our own in mixing up with the strict reading exercise a number of other educational purposes, all good in themselves, but in this par- ticular case misplaced. The following passage from Mr. C. C. Perry's Reports on German Elementary Schools and Training Colleges (Rivingtons) is of much interest in this coianection : ' The reading-book,' says Mr. Perry (p. 103), 'occupies a cen- tral position in the instruction of the language. An especially thorough treat- ment is given to the normal subject-matter contained in the reading-book, as well as to the extracts intended for repetition, in the selection of which form, contents, and authors are to be the main considera- tions. With respect to the form, the pieces selected must represent the most important species of style, as well as the chief kinds of poetry. Their contents must be calcu- lated to foster an ideal tendency in a boy's spirit, and to enlarge his range of thought, to render his mind active, and give a lasting impulse to his will. Amongst the authors, none of the more important na- tional Avi'iters who are represented in the reading-book must remain unnoticed. The treatment which should be given to the pieces selected principally consists in (1) good reading on the part of the teacher ; (2) explanation of difficult expressions, figurative modes of speech, etc. ; (3) re- peated reading, in which special attention is to be given to correct emphasis and ex- pressive delivery; (4) stating the main contents of a piece, and following out the difierent ti-ains of thought ; (5) a free and independent rendering of the contents (either in a concise or compressed form, or adding what can be read between the lines, paraphrasing the passage, putting it in different order, using different expres- sions, etc.); (6) written and oral exercises set in connection with the subject (such as imitations of style, detailed explanations of diffei'ent expressions, synonyms, com- parisons of two extracts, etc.) Requisite information is also to be given as to the form of the piece and its author. A number of the poems which have been discussed, especially those of a narrative form, are to be learned by heart. The re- maining contents of the reading-book form the general reading material. They include, especially, extracts on history, geography, natural science, which serve to illustrate the instruction in these subjects, and are, as far as possible, to be treated in connection with them. Pupils must always read with correct pronunciation, logical accuracy, a good accent, and in an agree- able tone.' {See Elocution.) Realschule. — The Realschule is essen- tially a product of the nineteenth century. The political condition of Germany during the last decade of the eighteenth and the first of the nineteenth cetitury, the impulse given to education by Pestalozzi, the fall of Napoleon, and restoration of general peace and prospei'ity — these were all fac- tors in the movement. A general need was felt for 'modern education,' which should meet the requirements of a society in which art, science, trade, and industries were making rapid strides. There were many attempts at solving the educational problem of the times. In some places the municipal authorities founded 7ioAere^»'r- gerschiden. The Bavarian Government opened Bealsclmlen (1808). In other places the experiment of grafting modern subjects on to the old classical school (Gymnasiton) vra,s tried, but without much success. It became clear that a new type of school was needed, and the result was that after the War of Liberation a large number of Realschiden sprang into exist- ence, for the most part without the assistance of the State. But the first be- ginnings of the Realschide must be sought in a much earlier time. The movement really began in the sixteenth century, REALSCHULE 309 under the influence of the new develop- ments of physical science. Its early history is closely associated with the name of Bacon, who may be fairly said to have inspired much of the educational doctinne of Comenius. The educational ideal of the latter, as well as that of his disciple Francke, bore a distinctly modern stamp. The Mathematical and Mechanical Real- schule of Semler, founded in 1706 in Halle, and reopened in 1738, was one of the earliest attempts at a technical school; the Economical and Mathematical Real- schule, founded by Hecker in 1747 in Berlin, was a school of great importance, directed to giving a technical education in a number of special branches. These efforts, sporadic and transitory as they were, all contributed to the solution of the question of an education based on the practical needs of life. The writings of Rousseau and the philanthropists gave a farther impulse to the movement. But it was not till the year 1832 that the Real- schulen received State aid in Prussia. In that year the Government took a tentative step towards reorganising and organising them, by providing for a fixed curriculum, and opening certain branches of the public service to pupils who had completed a full school course at a Realschule. These privileges were, however, made conditional upon the attainment of a certain proficiency in Latin, in addition to modern subjects ; hence this language was generally intro- duced into Realschulen, at least as an optional subject. A still more important step was taken by the Government in 1859, when an improved scheme for the organisation of these schools was produced. A distinction was drawn between Real- schtden of the first and second rank and hohere Biirgerschiden, according to the length of the school course, the character of the curriculum, and the equipment of the school in the matter of teachers and apparatus. The ideal at which these schools should aim was, according to the Prussian Government, a liberal education of a modern type. 'Their organisation should be based not upon the immediate needs of practical life, but on the aim of giving to their pupils that degree of intellectual capacity which is a necessary condition of a free and independent comprehension of their future work in life. They should not be technical schools, but should concern them- selves, like the Gymnasia, with general culture. Between Gymnasium and Real- schule there should be no difference of principle, but the two should be mutually complementary.' (Unterrichts- und Pril- fangsordnung der Realschulen tmd der hoheren Biirgerschulen, 1859.) This ex- presses the attitude which the Prussian Government has consistently maintained in regard to Realschulen. It was the attitude of Frederick the Great, who held that a purely utilitarian curriculum de- prived a school of all title to rank as a High School. Thus reorganised, the Real- schulen enjoyed increased prosperity, and it became clear to men of insight that Realschulen of the first rank would soon knock at the doors of the universities and demand for their alumni equal privileges with the pupils of Gymnasia. This demand many of the universities met by conceding the right to attend lectures {Horfreiheit) — a right already enjoyed by many stu- dents from foreign countries who had not passed the leaving examination (Abiiurien- tenexamen) at any Gymnasium. In 1870 the Government took action by throwing open to students who had passed the leaving examination at a Realschule the right of matriculating in the Faculty of Philosophy, which corresponds to our fa- culties of Arts and Sciences: this was equivalent to admitting them to the full privileges of a course in this faculty, with the right of entering for the degree of Ph. D. at the close of it. The State examination pro facidtate docendi was also thrown open to Realschuler (pupils of aReal- schule.) Against this innovation the Phi- losophical Faculty of Berlin entered a vigo- rous and unanimousprotest in theyear 1880, maintaining that ten years' experience had shown bad results (see article Classical Culture). But the Government made no change in their policy, and in the year 1882 a new scheme was produced which confirmed the privileges of Realschider, and at the same time effected a new clas- sification of the schools before comprised under the names Realschide and hohere Bilrgerschtde. By this arrangement, which is in force at the present time, two classes of these schools are recognised. 1. Those which include Latin in their curriculum (Realgymnasium, Realprogymnasitim) ; 2. Those which do not teach Latin {Oherreal- schide, Realschide, hohere Biirgerschule). The Realgymnasium and Oberrealschule have, like the classical Gymnasium, a 310 REASON- -KECITATION" course of nine years ; the Realprogymna- sium and Realschule a course of seven years; the hohere Biirgerschule a course of six years. At the same time the curri- culum of the classical Gymnasium was modified, the number of hours devoted to Greek and Latin was decreased, and Greek composition excluded from the leaving examination; time was thus found for more mathematics, Prench, and natural science. In the Realgymnasium more Latin is taught than in the old Realschule of the first rank, as organised in 1859, and less German, mathematics, natural science, and drawing. The Oberrealschule makes higher demands than the Realgymnasium in German, mathematics, natural science, drawing, French, and English ; physiology and some technical department is added. The Oberrealschule is State-supported, and its pupils enjoy many privileges. If they pass a leaving examination in Latin, they are put on the same footing as pupils of the Realgymnasium. Similarly, if the latter pass a leaving examination in Latin and Greek equal to that imposed upon pupils of the gymnasium, they are admitted to equal privileges. The tendency of re- cent legislation has been to make the classical schools more modern in character, and the modern schools more classical. The result is that the distinction between some of the different kinds of schools is not very clearly marked. Of the modern schools popular favour inclines more to the ObeiTealschule than to the Realgym- nasium, which is in fact a kind of cross between a modern and a classical school. Whether the latter kind of schools will survive in the struggle for existence is an open question. In Alsace-Lorraine they have all been already abolished. But the future of Realschulen in the widest sense of the term is assured. (See L. Wiese, Das hohere Schtthoesen in Freussen.) Eeason, Processes of Reasoning. — The faculty of reason is that by which we are able to infer from the known to the un- known, or to follow out the logical conse- quences of what we know. It is the higher part of man's cognitive oi-. intellectual na- ture, and that which specially distinguishes him from the lower animals. Reason is sometimes (as by Kant) distinguished from the understanding, or faculty of judgment. In recent psychology, however, reason and judgment are brought together under Thought, or the thinking faculty, the ope- rations of which include conception, judg- ment, and reasoning. The first crude germ of reasoning shows itself in children's inferences from one fact of experience to another which resembles it more or less closely. At this stage, however, reasoning is hardly distinguishable from animal in- ference. It is only as the child gains abstract ideas, and is able to understand general propositions, that the process of human reasoning becomes distinct or ex- plicit. Logic considers the reasoning pro- cess as falling into two main forms, deduction and induction. The education of the reasoning powers of the young in- cludes a gi-aduated series of exercises in each of these forms (cf. articles Logic, Deduction, and Induction). Recitation. — -Education consists partly in the acquirement of knowledge, and partly in the training of faculty. Besides learning facts, we must learn how to make use of them ; while, again, if we would make use of knowledge, we must learn how to express it. The expression of knowledge in language is speech ; or, when written, literature. Recitation, according to the common school use of the term, includes both the learning by heart of chosen pieces of prose and poetry, and the living utter- ance of them in speech. Besides leading to the mind's- being stored with well- framed expressions of noble, wise, and beautiful thoughts, recitation is one of the means we employ for training the young to express what they know with right pronunciation, with clear significance, and with harmonious eloquence. The other means is oral reading. Now in order to express ourselves rightly and adequately in speech, we must not only knoio that about which we are to speak, but we must also feel it — or, if we but repeat the language of another, we must at least appreciate his position and point of view, as well as understand the subject-matter of what he says or writes. We must know and, for the occasion at least, feel his meaning. To recite the language of an- other, therefore, with full effect, we must not only commit his words to memory, but we must also know his subject-matter, understand his point of view, and appre- ciate his feeling. This shows us not only the value of recitation as one of the means of education, but also how we are to employ it. We must master the subject- matter and words ; we must understand RECREATION RECTOR 311 the situation and point of view ; and we must appreciate the feeling of wliat we are to recite. Then we must learn how to give audible expression to these by means of the right tones, the right pauses, and the riglit accents. We must learn to use, in short, not only the instrument of speech — voice — with skill, but we must also employ our intellect and feelings. Some teachers seem to regard mere verbal accu- racy in reproduction as eveiything. But accuracy in fact, though valuable in itself, counts for but very little in the total effect which good recitation ought to produce; and to gabble, however accurately, through a, passage, however well composed, is like liammering on a piano with a closed iist. It would be well if j^fose were more fre- quently used for purposes of recitation. It is a little harder to remember than verse, but has a more direct practical bearing on everyday speech and everyday writing. Collective recitation might also be more commonly practised. An excellent effect is produced when an animated pas- sage descriptive of action is recited by a whole class at once — especially when por- tions here and there can be taken up by single voices. Recreation signifies such rest and change of occupation as will allow time for, and actually facilitate, the building- up again of exhausted organs. Hence its great importance in relation to brain-work. An exciting game of chance or novel-read- ing may amuse, but will hardly produce that recreation which follows a vigorous walk or row, or a game at cricket or foot- ball. The importance of exercise has been discussed under Physical Education. The higher value of games over gymnastics is generally acknowledged. In the former the activity is spontaneous, and more con- ducive to general invigoration than the formal and less varied exercises in gym- nastics. The more purely recreative the exercise, the greater the relief from school-work ; running, leaping, rowing, swimming, cricket, rackets, tennis, and even football, under proper restrictions, have all their place and utility. Where playgrounds of insufficient size exist, gym- nastics come in useful, and in all cases they are desirable to supplement games. Recreative Evening Classes. See Adult Education. Rector. — I. A high dignitary in a uni- versity. Originally, the rector was the head of the 'nations' as nations. The nations were divisions of members of the university grouped according to the coun- tries or districts they came from — ^aggrega- tions chiefly for purposes of discipline, and for mutual protection and defence of privi- leges. In the University of Paris there were four nations (including masters as well as students), each of which was a perfectly independent body, electing its representative procurator from its own number, having its own patron, church, meeting-place, and seal (quite sepai^ate from the university seal), passing its own statutes and rules, and superintending the lodging-houses of the students. The rector was elected by the four procurators ; and rector and procurators, sitting as his as- sessors, together constituted the governing body. The nations were in existence about the middle of the twelfth century, but their formal organisation as just outlined cannot be positively assigned to an earlier date than the first quai-ter of the thirteenth century. Meantime, the regulation of the studies was in the hands of the consortium, magistrorum. By the year 1274 the rector had advanced to be, not merely head of the nations, but head of the faculty of Arts. 'After 1266, he might be elected either by the procurators, or by four men chosen for this special duty ; and regulations made in 1281 evidently contemj)lated the possi- bility of the electors not being the acting procurators. In these regulations it is ordered that the electors shall be shut up in a room, and not allowed to commu- nicate with the external world until a wax candle of a prescribed length is burned to the socket. If they have not decided by that time, other electors are to be chosen. If two of these agree, the outgoing rector is to be called in to give his vote with them, and so make a majority' (Laurie, Rise and Constitutions of Universities, p. 186, note). The rector was eligible from the artistes (graduates in Arts) alone, in consequence of the superior antiquity of the Arts faculty ; and he held office for three months (later for a year), but was re-eligible. He presided at the general meetings of the university, took charge of the register and public money, and administered generally the government of the university. In 1341 he is head of the whole university : the form Nos rector et universitas magis- trorum et scholariitm is found in use. The rector has ousted the original official 312 RECTOR head of the -university, the chancellor of the primary theological school at Notre Dame, who retains but a fragment of his pristine authority, the conferment of de- grees, together with some vague powers over the theological school. Within the city the rector's precedence was unques- tioned ; not only did all other officers and members of the university give way to him, but even bishops, papal nuncios, and legates also. At Bologna there were for long two rectors ; it is not till 1514 that we find only one, and one seems to have been the rule before 1552. In the beginning of the thirteenth century (1200-1220) there were thirty-six nations (excluding the students belonging to the town of Bologna). The German nation was subject to two procu- rators of its own, and to them alone. The remaining thirty-five nations were grouped into two universities — universitas ultra- nnontanorum, eighteen nations of students from beyond the Alps ; and universitas citramontanorum, seventeen nations of Italians ; and each of these corporations elected its own rector and other authorities. The rector was elected annually by the outgoing rector, the counsellors {consiliarii =2)roc2iratores) of the nations, and a cer- tain number of electors specially appointed by the general body of the students. He was selected from the different nations in a regular order of succession. He must be not under twenty-five years of age ; he must be a clei-iciis, but not a member of any religious order ; and he should have studied law for at least five years at his own expense. With each rector sat the eighteen, or seventeen, counsellors as asses- sors. ' The teaching doctors or professors, no less than the students, were subject to the rectors. A professor could not leave his duties for a few days without obtaining formal permission from him, and if the term of absence exceeded eight days he had to get permission from the whole uni- versity ' (Laurie, 137). The rector's civil jurisdiction was clear as between two parties belonging to the university, or as between a scholar and a citizen who con- sented to sue the scholar before him ; but when a suit against a scholar was brought before a city magistrate, and the rector claimed jurisdiction, violent conflicts not unfrequently arose, till ultimately the pope confirmed the university privileges. His criminal jurisdiction was generally limited to matters of academical discipline, and in 1544 the pope confirmed it in all cases where both parties belonged to the univer- I sity and the offence was not capital. The I University of Prague presented a slight, variation. 'The members of the univer- sity were divided into four nations. The highest official was the rector, who was- . chosen half-yearly. Each of the nations chose an elector ; the four so chosen co- opted seven others, and the united body then selected five, by whom the rector was i chosen. The office could not be filled by I any one belonging to a religious order. The | most important duty of the rector was ' jurisdiction over all members of the uni- versity, not only in ordinary cases of disci- pline, but also in civil and in criminal processes. A court was held by him twice a week. His next most important duties, were to see that the statutes of the uni- versity were observed, to take precedence in all functions of the university, and to- administer its property ' (Laurie, 258). In modern Germany the highest university official is the Rector Magnificus, who, when not a local magnate, is chosen yearly, or- half-yearly, from among the ordinary pro- fessors who form the Senatus Academicus, Where custom has given the rectorship to the local prince or other magnate, then the acting official, elected from among the- ordinary pi'ofessors, is called pro-rector. The University of France is scarcely pa- rallel. It is composed of seventeen acade- mies, the heads of which bear the title of rector ; they are appointed by the Minister of Public Instruction, and assisted by a secretary and staff of inspectors. In Eng- land there is no university official with the title of rector, except the heads of Lincoln College and Exeter College, Ox- ford. The chancellor retains his ancient- pre-eminence. In Scotland, also, the chan- cellor is the formal head of the university, but the rector comes in next, and his elec- tion is mainly on the lines of the earliest universities of Europe. After various- vicissitudes the order of election was settled by 21 & 22 Vict. c. S3 (1858), and the' ordinances of the Scottish Universities Commissioners made and issued thereupon {see paper C. 3174 of 1863). At Aberdeen University the rector is elected by the matri- culated students voting in four nations (Mar, Buchan, Moray, Angus), by four pro- curators, one procurator being chosen by and representing each nation ; and in case of equality of the votes of the procurators REFORMATION (THE) 313> the chancellor has a casting vote, provided he intimate his choice within twenty-one days from the day of election ; and failing such intimation, the principal has the cast- ing vote (Report of the Scottish Universities Commission, Ordinance No. 6). At Glasgow University the rector is elected by the matriculated students voting in four nations (Glottiana, Transforthana, Rothseiana, Loudoniana), the chancellor (or the princi- pal) having a casting vote (as above) in case of equality of nations (Ordinance No. 3). At Edinburgh and St. Andrews the rector is elected by a general poll of the matricu- lated students, and in case of equality the casting vote of the chancellor or the prin- cipal (at St. Andrews the senior principal) decides (as above) (Ordinances Nos. 1 and 4). The rector holds office for three years, and names an assessor who sits with him. He is always a man of distinction, political, scien- tific, or literary ; sometimes a popular local magnate. The Aberdeen and Glasgow stu- dents have recently done themselves honour by the election of ex-Professor Bain (bis) and ex-Professor Lushington. There is a strong feeling among the students that the rector should attend the meetings of the university court, of which he is presi- dent; and frequently a pledge to this effect is asked from candidates who live at some distance, sinecurist rectors being looked on with disfavour. II. In Secondare/ Schools. — The heads of the ' higher class public schools ' and of most other schools of secondary instruction in Scotland bear the title of rector. On the continent also a similar practice prevails to a considerable extent. (See Laurie's work generally ; also Maiden's Origin of Universities, and the references to original authorities there given.) Reformation (The) in relation to Edu- cation.— The simple etymology of the word Reformation sufficiently defines it as the act of reforming or forming again ; or, taken passively, as the state or con- dition of being reformed or formed again. "When, as is usually the case, the idea of improvement is incorporated into its phi- lological indifference, it is equivalent to a correction of life or manners, or of any- thing corrupt, vicious, or objectionable. In a very specific and technical sense it denotes the great spiritual and ecclesi- astical movement, directed at once against the doctrines and the domination of the mediaeval Church, which culminated in the sixteenth century in the division of the Western Communion into the two sections known respectively as Roman Catholic and Protestant ; and as the re- sult of which the National Churches of Great Britain and Ireland, of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Holland, and of many parts of Germany and Switzerland,, became separated from the Roman juris- diction. In other countries, as, for ex- ample, in Hungary and France, the same movement, whilst too feeble or limited to lead to a national repudiation of the Papal Supremacy, was still powerful enough to^ efiect a detachment of large portions of the population from the faith and the' obedience of Rome. Thus, although the most potent and, indeed, the essential and inseparable motive of the Reformation was a strong spiritual impulse, it will be seen that there was still room for the working of other elements, as those, for instance, of nationality and ethnology. It was the representatives of the Teu- tonic race in England, Scotland, Germany, Switzerland, Holland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark that embraced the Reforma- tion ; which was, on the other hand, re- jected for the most part by the Latin and Celtic races, the chief exception being that Teutonic Austria remained Catholic, while- the Celts of Wales and of the Scottish Highlands, with the reservation of a few remote glens only, became Protestant. And everywhere, whether it be supreme- and of the majority, or subordinate and of the few, whether frankly and royally, or scornfully and cynically, conceding in some places the toleration for which it gasps in vain in others, the intellectual impulse which was precipitated in the Reformation is a force with which the world will have to reckon, as it has had to reckon for more centuries than it has the gift of generally remembering, at every moment of its future history. The Reformation was no isolated event ; it was rather a genius and a ten- dency. Its causes were manifold ; and it was closely connected with the intellectual and social changes which marked the tran- sition from the Middle Ages to the modern era of civilisation. The medifeval Church had possessed an amount of power never before or since reached by any other eccle- siastical organisation. It attained the height of its glory in the thirteenth cen- tury, when the Papal power was spread and strengthened by the preaching of the 314 REFORMATION (THE) friars. In the fourteenth century the im- petus thus given had died out and the authority of the Church had begun to decline. Erom being zealous and active preachers, the friars had degraded into bigots and mendicants, whose character was a reproach and whose manner of life was an impediment. The secular clergy were hardly less corrupted ; and in many cases the higher dignitaries of the Church had no" interest in the spiritual duties of their office, and gave themselves up en- tirely to the pleasures of a worldly life, or, at best, to the requirements of political or military activity. The revival of the old classical literature in Italy, the spirit of the Renaissance (q-v.), accelerated the pro- cess of spiritual decay ; and the Papacy itself became half-pagan, sometimes even ostensibly and with profession and circum- stance. The Church was little cared for, even as an organ of government, and was used as an engine of self- aggrandisement •and the most extravagant luxury. The roots of the Reformation wei'e as deep as the altitude of its branches. Its system bad been variously nurtured through a protracted season of preparation. Its final appearance as a controlling or as a grandly dividing movement was but the expres- sion of sentiments and principles which had for ages been struggling, more or less locally and occasionally, and with more or less of observation, to find formal and commensurate utterance. The disaflfection towards the Papacy which disclosed itself in the rise of sects like the Waldenses, and, within the Church, in the reforming Councils of the fifteenth century held at Pisa (1409), Constance (1414), and Basle (1431) ; the rise of radical reformers, such as "WyclifFe and others ; the spiritual doc- trine of the Mystics ; the political oppo- sition to the Roman see, dating from the old contests of the empire with the Pope — all these are amongst the more memorable of the events and the phenomena which combine, as antecedents of the Reformation, with the influence of the revival of learn- ing in promoting general culture, in hasten- ing the downfall of scholastic theology, and in producing a diligent study of the Bible and of Christian antiquity. Protestantism, as a religious system, had two main prin- ciples, the first of which was the exclu- sive authority of the Bible as the rule of faith, as opposed to the normal authority of the Pope or the Church — a principle that involves the right of private judg- ment ; whilst the second was the doctrine of justification by faith alone, in contra- distinction to salvation by works or human merit. Protestantism claimed for the in- dividual a direct access to the blessings of the Gospel without the intermediary im- pertinence of the Church or the priesthood. But, whatever may have been the relation- ship of other causes to the Reformation as, so to say, ranking amongst its collateral ancestry, it is as nearly as possible beyond all reasonable challenge to claim it as the lineal descendant of the Renaissance. As the Renaissance was a secular Refoi"ma- tion, so the Reformation was a baptised Renaissance. ' It is now admitted by most competent judges,' to cite Mr. Lecky in lucid confirmation, ' that the true causes of the Reformation are to be found in the deep change effected in the intellectual habits of Europe by that revival of learn- ing which began about the twelfth cen- tury in the renewed study of the Latin classics, and reached its climax after the fall of Constantinople in the diffusion of the knowledge of Greek and of the philo- sophy of Plato by the Greek exiles. This revival ultimately produced a condition of religious feeling which found its expres- sion sometimes in Protestantism, and in other covintries in the prevalence among the educated classes of a diluted and rationalistic Catholicism entirely different from the gross and absorbing superstition of the Middle Ages. Which of these two forms was adopted in any particular coun- try depended upon many special political, or social, or even geographical considera- tions ; but, wherever the intellectual movement was strongly felt, one or other appeai-ed. It is surely a remarkable coin- cidence, that while the literature of anti- quity was thus on a large scale modifying the medieeval modes of thought, the an- cient sculptures should on a smaller scale have exercised a corresponding influence upon the art that was their expression. And, although the sesthetic movement was necessarily confined to the upper classes, and to the countries in which civilisation was most prominent, it represented faith- fully a tendency that in different forms was still more widely displayed. It repre- sented the gradual destruction of the as- cendency which the Church had once exer- cised over every department of intellect, the srowins difference in realised belief REFORMATION (THE) 315 between the educated and the ignorant, and the gradual disappearance of anthro- pomorphic or idolatrous conceptions among the former.' Whilst the Renaissance was a rebellion or revolt, sometimes with a profane insouciance, against the scholastic theology and ascetic theories of morals, and the cloistered ideal of mediaeval Chris- tianity, it was in its second and more spiritual stage of development scarcely less powerful within the limits of Chris- tian belief and practice. The curiosity which explored the records of classical genius and achievement did not leave untouched the symbols and the charters of primitive Christianity. An appeal was made from the canons and the traditions of the Church successively to the Fathers and to the New Testament. The latter in its original Greek, the Septuagint, the Hebrew Bible, took the place of the Vul- gate in the hands of the learned ; whilst the Scriptures in the vernacular languages of Europe brought home to the minds of the people the wide diffei-ence between the Church of the Apostles and the eccle- siastical system over which presided a Julius II. or a Leo X. Now at length the abortive efforts after reformation, which in the thirteenth, the fourteenth, and the fifteenth centuries had flickered and died away, rose into a great and con- suming flame of revolt, the end of which was the severance from the Papacy of Northern and Western Europe. The Re- formation was not only the first great triumph of the scientific spirit, but also a very effectual assertion of human liberty. It was brought about by the application of certain keen and independent minds to the study of theology — minds which, as a consequence of that study, broke away from tradition, the Schoolmen, and the Church, and, with an audacity the extent of which can scarcely at present be real- ised, dared to take their religious fate into their o\vn hands. The Reformation, subject only to its profession of an uncon- ditional submission to the authority of Scripture, itself the result of an exercise of the faculty, was the recovery of the right of private judgment, the crowning of individuality, and, as was inevitable, the spur and incentive to divergence. For religious individualism is notoriously inapt to organise itself ; and when it has at- tained its highest development is then the most likely to exhibit itself as a dividing force. The Reformation was, therefore, a movement of strong, self-contained, self- reliant, and daring personalities — of such personalities, indeed, as it was calculated to produce and to foster. Names, inde- pendence, eccenti'icity, and even extrava- gance and wilfulness, are found in the sedate exemption or the wilder freedom from the fetters of a hard and fast system of routine, or the unaccommodating bur- den of a uniform and universal organisa- tion. The culture of the Renaissance was but for the few ; it was dainty, fastidious, and exclusive. The general ardour for the restoration of the arts and of learning created an aristocratic public whose su- preme pontiff was Erasmus. This scholar, whom the Rev. Mark Pattison happily describes as the first ' man of letters ' who had appeared in Europe since the fall of the Roman empire, whilst he shared the doctrines of the Reformers, had a horror of party and its perils of clamour and vulgar excesses. It is claimed for him, in the face of all detractors, that from the begin- ning to the end of his career he remained true to the purpose of his life, which was to fight the battle of sound learning and plain common sense against the powers of ignorance and superstition ; and that amid all the convulsions of his time he never once lost his mental balance. On the one hand, he scornfully denounced the ignorant hostility to classical learning which pre- vailed in the colleges and convents under the control of the orthodox clergy, whom he stigmatised as an obscui-antist army arrayed against light ; and on the other he ' abhorred the evangelicals, because it was through them that literature was everywhere declining, and upon the point of perishing.' More than once Erasmus complains, with quite sufficient bitterness, that ' wherever Lutheranism reigns, there good letters perish ' ; but the names of Luther and Melanchthon are personally excepted from this general censure. Luther was all his life a zealous promoter of edu- cation. He held that the establishment of schools was the duty of every city and village, and wished to divert in that direc- tion a portion of the revenues of the Church. He was, indeed, so far in ad- vance of his age as to advocate the foun- dation of girls' schools. The whole of his active life was spent as a teacher in a university of which he was the animating and guiding spirit. At the same time he 316 REFORMATION (THE) looked upon classical learuiug as suboi'di- iiate and ancillary to theology, and as valuable only, or at least ehietly, for theo- logical purposes. Ei'asnuis had been born Avith the hopes of the Renaissance, with its aiitieipatiou of a new Augustan age, and had seen this fair promise blighted by the irruption of a new horile of theolo- gical polemics, worse in his eyes than the old scholastics, inasuuich as they were I'e- volutionary instead of conservative. Whilst Erasmus is to be regarded as tlio corypluvus of the Renaissance, the education of the Reformation is best re- presented by the names of Luther and Melanchthon. One of the logical conse- quences of the fundamental principles of the Reformation was the development of primary education. In attaching to each man the responsibilitv of his creed, and in placing the sources of faith in the Holy (Scriptures, the Reformation contracted the obligation to put eveiy person it had so splendidly and so perilously endowed in a condition to lay hold of the salvation to be found in the reading and the intelli- gence of the Bible. The necessity of ex- plaining the Catechism and making com- ments upon it was for teachers an obliga- tion to acquire the art of exposition and analysis. The study of the German mother-tongue and of singing was asso- ciated with the reading of the Bible in Luther's translation, and with religious services. Luther brought the schoolmaster into the cottage, and laid the foundations of the system which is the chief honour and strength of modern Germany : a sys- tem by Avliich the child of the humblest peasant, by slow but certain gradations, I'eceives the best education the country can afford. The purification and widening of education went hand in hand with the purification of religion ; and the claims thus established by Luther to affectionate regard have been ever since indissolubly united in the minds of his countrymen. The Reformation contained, in fact, the germs of a complete revolution in educa- tion ; for it enlisted the interests of reli- gion in the service of instruction, and as- sociated knowledge with faith. It is in virtue of this combination that for over three centuries the Protestant nations have led the van of human progress in the matter of primary instruction, the zeal for which, however, was by no means equally exhibited by all the leaders of Protestant reform. Melanchthon, for in- stance, who for his persevering labour in annotating classics and preparing editions of school-books, as well as for his prac- tical activity in the direct processes of instruction, earned the title of rnraytor OcniKDiia', worked more for high schools than for schools for the people. He was distinctly a humanist — above eveiytliing- else, a professor of bcllcs-lcftres ; and it was with chagrin that he saw his courses in the university of Wittenberg deserted by students when he lectured on the Oli/)ithiacs of Demosthenes. He was so far in accord with Erasmus that, in 1522, he speaks of the signal folly of those ' who at the present day think that piety con- sists only in the contempt of all good letters, of all ancient erudition.' In the same year, and subsequently, Melanchthon implores Spalatin to have an especial care of the university, complaining that the students are rather overwhelmed than in- structed by the mass of theological lec- tures. He accuses those who profess their dislike of profane letters as having ' no better opinion of theology, for tliis is only the excuse which they put forward for their laziness.' And in a declamation written by Melanchthon in 1557 he be- wails in the strongest terms the decline of science and letters. In face of this evi- dence, and much more of the same kind, we can readily believe Erasmus when he says that it was easier to find professors than students to attend their lectures ; that the booksellers declared that before Lutheranism came up they could sell three thousand volumes in less time tlian six hundred afterwards ; and that at Stras- burg and elsewhere there were those who thought that the only thing a theologian needed to learn was Hebrew. ' No doubt the old humanist,' says Dr. Beard, ' grew bitter in his last days, as he watched the triumphant progress of the movement from Avhich he had deliberately turned aside. But it is plain that, in spite of Melanchthon, there was a tendency to go back to the spirit of a time at which it was considered a perilous thing for a Christian to read heathen books. But the tide of reviving interest in classical cul- ture, which had been slowly gathering strength for a century and a half, was far too mighty to be even temporarily ar- rested by any defection of the Reformers. While they were occupied in internecine REFORMATION (THE) 317 quarrels and the building up of rival sys- tems of dogmatic theology, the work of recovering the mind of antiquity went steadily on. It was a longer and a more laborious task than from our present standpoint of culture we are easily able to conceive ; and the men who accom- plished it are not to be measured by the worth of their visible contributions to literature. When the convent libraries of East and West had been ransacked, and every fragment of ancient literature con- signed to the safe keeping of the printing- press, the work was only begun. Texts had to be emended, grammars to be slowly compiled, the materials of dictionai-ies col- lected with almost infinite toil. The whole mass of learned tradition, on the basis of which a scholar now begins his work, had to be painfully brought together. When, by the labours of several generations, the philological pai't of the task was accom- plished with tolerable completeness — when all educated men could read the classical authors in the original, and Greek and Latin were written by scholars with faci- lity and even elegance — there remained the work of reproducing the life of the ancients ; of understanding their law, their worship, their military systems, their amusements ; of re-writing their history, and reducing their chronology to order. And this was a toil which lasted through the eighteenth century, if indeed it can be said to be even yet at an end. Italy soon gave up her place in the van of classical culture. Her scholarship became mere phrase-mongering and Ciceronianism. Not what a man had to say, but how he said it, was the all-important thing ; while platitude was no offence at all, solecism was a mortal sin.' There was a ' lack of moral fibre in the Italian scholars of the age of the despots : when Rome became serious under the influence of the counter- Reformation, humanists were warned ofi" debateable ground, and bidden to employ their pens in her service, if at all. The study of Greek fell into disfavour ; and when Jesuit influence came to predominate in schools and colleges, those admirable educators had practical ends of their own, which they cared for more than the pro- .gress of philology. So the literary hege- mony passed to France and to Holland. Budaeus, Turnebus, Casaubon, Salmasius, .are the glories of French scholarship. If the Scaligers boasted an Italian descent, the elder lived and wrote in France ; the younger and greater, who was Huguenot to the heart, taught in Leiden. It would be difficult to enumerate the many pi'O- found scholars who toiled in the univer- sities of Holland to complete the long task the nature of which I have endeavoured to indicate. Their labours lie concealed in the grammars and dictionaries which to-day smooth the path of classical culture to our children ; in the annotations which elucidate every difficult passage and ex- plain every obscure allusion ; in that knowledge of ancient life which is part of the intellectual air we breathe. The re- sult was at once to restore that living connection with the mind of antiquity which Christian Europe deliberately aban- doned in the sixth century, and to accu- mulate the materials upon which the higher and more constructive criticism of a later age has worked.' Aristotle had been dethroned from his pre-eminence in the schools, and Melanch- thon attempted to supply his place. He appreciated the importance of Greek, the terror of the obscurantists, and is the author of a Greek grammar. He wrote elementary books on each department of the Trivium — grammar, dialectic and rhe- toric — and made someway with the studies of the Quadrivium. It is also noteworthy that he wrote Initia Doctrines Physicm, a primer of physical science. Horace was his favourite classic ; and his pupils were taught to learn the whole of it by heart, ten lines at a time. 'He died in 1560, racked,' as Mr. Browning says, 'with anxiety for the Church which he had helped to found. If he did not carry Protestantism into the heart of the pea- sant, he at least made it acceptable to the intellect of the men of letters.' The work of extending and difiusing popular education in Germany under the impulse of the Reformation and the per- sonal influence of Martin Luther finds an instructive analogy in the same work in Scotland at the hands of John Knox {q.v.). The First Book of Discipline, drawn up by the great Scottish reformer, and presented to the Estates of Scotland, and subscribed by the Secret Council in the year 1560, contains Knox's Plan of Educational Organisation in Scotland, which provides for the equal distribution of the means and institutions of educa- tion among the whole population— recog- 318 REFORMATION (THE) nising a gradation of schools, and (1) a primary school by every parish church, in which, in lack of a schoolmaster, the minister with his reader or clerk should ' take care over the children and youth of the parish to instruct them in their first rudiments, and especially in the Cate- chism ; ' (2) in all large parishes there was to be a good school, with a schoolmaster ' able to teach at least grammar and the Latin tongue ' ; (3) in the several towns which were centres of the superintendent's districts, there were to be colleges, where the students should be ' taught logic and rhetoric and the tongues'; and (4) univer- sities. All of these schools were to be subject to inspection — the parochial and burgh schools by ' discreet, grave, and learned men, to wit, the ministers and elders, with the goodly learned men in every toAvn, who shall every quarter make examination how the youth have profited.' They were charged ' to discover if there be a spirit of docility in any of the pupils,' and to direct such ' to further knowledge ' in the colleges and universities ; and those who do not shovv" signs of fitness for higher learning are to be taught some handicraft, or set about some other occupation. It was ordained that no parent of whatever condition may ' use his children at his own phantasy/ especially in the days of their youth, but must bring them up in learning and vii-tue ; that the rich should be compelled to educate their sons at their own expense, but that the children of the poor should be supported at the charge of the Church, the sons of rich and poor alike, if they had aptness for learning, continu- ing at the schools until the commonwealth shoiild have profit of them. It will be observed that this scheme separates the parish from the burgh or higher schools, and establishes grades of seminaries for conducting the scholar from the primary through the secondary schools to the uni- versities ; and that it provides also for the moral, intellectual, and technical training of the youth, places within the reach of the poorest child in the community, if he have 'vigour,' the blessings of a liberal education, and makes school attendance compulsory. If the Parliament had been liberal and patriotic enough to have seconded at that time the endeavours of the Church to plant, ' no country in the world,' as the late Principal Lee remarks in his History of the Church of Scotland, 'would have been so well supplied as Scotland with the means of extending the benefits of a liberal education to every man capable of intellectual improvement.' Educationists have called the outline of this system a perfect one — a plan, indeed, so far in advance of the times of its pro- jectors, that we are now only attaining towards the high standard at which they aimed ; and Dr. MacCrie, the biogi'apher of John Knox, is justified in his sagacious inference that, in ' obliging the nobility and gentry to educate their childreia, and providing at the public expense for the education of the children of the poor who discovei-ed talents for learning,' 'they seem to have had it in their eye to revive the system adopted in some of the ancient republics, in which the youth were con- sidered as the property of the public rather than of their parents.' The curriculum of the Scotch schools about the middle of the sixteenth century was in some respects broader than what is found in those of the nineteenth. At the Grammar School of Aberdeen, as appears fi'om the statutes dated 1553, the boys were strictly forbidden to speak in the vulgar tongue ; but only in Latin, Greek, He- brew, French, and Gaelic. To show that the instruction was thorough and not con- fined to the embryo clergy, appeal may be made to a statement of Knox, who affirmed that, in a debate in Parliament in 1543, the lay members showed better acquaint- ance with Greek than the clergy. Classi- cal knowledge continued for centuries to be the chief subject of instruction ; but what are now called English and commer- cial subjects have little mention in the records of the larger grammar schools, although in the smaller ones reading and spelling . were recognised from an early date. In Aberdeen, music appears to have been taught with more energy than in any other of the Scotch burghs. From an early date down to the end of the seventeenth century, music formed one of the regular branches of study, and was taught as a part of the ordinary curri- culum. As time passed on it was found necessary to add reading and other subjects — as writing and arithmetic, which were somewhat late in attaining their proper place as branches of regular instruction — to the work ; but as these became promi- nent the study of music receded, and the ' sang school,' which in pre-Reformation REFORMATION (THE) 319 times was generally an appurtenance of the cathedral or the monastery, became a thing of the past. Religious instruction formed a prominent, if not an essential, part of the course of study pursued in the old hurgh schools from the Reformation till the end of the last century. In 1567, Parliament declared that if God's Word be not rooted in the youth, their instruc- tion shall be ' tinsell loaith to their bodyis andsaulis;' and in 1616 the Assembly ordained a catechism, to be made easy, short, and comprehensive, of which every family might have a copy for instructing the children and servants in the articles of religion. The municipal authorities were as willing as the ecclesiastics to en- force and to extend religious instruction ; and this custom has not unreasonably been appealed to as having in no small degree contributed towards making a poor and thinly-peopled country not only one of the freest, most enlightened, and inde- pendent, but also one of the most pro- sperous in the Avorld. Thus it will be understood how it was that, partly in accordance with the na- tional genius, and partly under the im- pulse of the Reformation and the direct or traditional authority of John Knox, the people of Scotland anticipated many of the political and educational cries of the pi-esent day. They recognised the Necessity for education, and made it com- pulsory within certain limits. Fines and penalties were devised to counteract the negligence or indifference of parents. Sub- stantial means were provided to furnish the various towns with good secondary schools, and the education was excellent of its kind. The qualifications of teachers were tested, and wise laws were made to secure their continued efficiency. Good salaries, respectful treatment, and conside- ration in the days of old age or infirmity Avere all adopted to encourage the teacher and retain the services of thoroughly qualified schooolmasters. The women were trained in domestic duties, and in those arts that tend to make the home a place of comfort. All these things com- bined to pour blessings on Scotland, and to achieve for her a reputation second to none for the excellence of her educational work. Although until lately there has been a dearth, and although there is even now a relative scarcity, of English works on the subject, it is not difficult to trace a picture of the education which the Re- formation offered to the middle classes of Europe ; for ample materials, even to such matters of detail as programmes and time-tables, are extant in German histories of education. In following the history of education in the sixteenth century, however, it is necessary, as in other investigations, care- fully to distinguish the theory from the practice. For theory, which is concerned with effort, and which stands for the ideal, the perfect, and consequently the unat- tainable, is not only generally in advance of the age in which it is conceived, but is always and necessarily in advance of prac- tice, which is measured by result and ap- proximation only, and which is kept back by the inharmonious working of variously impeded energies. The educational theory of the sixteenth century is to be found in the works of Erasmus, Rabelais, and Mon- taigne, of whom it may be said that before pretending to surpass them, even at this day, we should rather attempt to over- take them, and to equal them in most of the precepts of their ideal instruction. The practice of the time is to be found, first in the development of the study of the humanities, particularly in the early colleges of the Jesuits ; and, before the Jesuits, in certain Protestant colleges, especially in the college at Strasburg, so splendidly administered by the celebrated Sturm (1507-89). Then it is to be recog- nised in the revival of the higher instruc- tion, as emphatically denoted by the foun- dation of the College of France (1530), and by the brilliant lectures of Peter Ramus (Pierre la Rame'e), who, having secured the reception and progress of his system of logic in the German universities, and the filling of France, England, and pai"ticularly Scotland, with his disciples, fell a victim to the massacre of St. Bartho- lomew's Day, 1572. Finally, it is the progress, not to say the birth, of primary instruction, through the efforts already referred to of the Pr-otestant reformers, and especially of Luther. The school of John Sturm (Laiine Sturmius) stood pre-eminently before the rest amongst those movements which were of vital influence in the development of the science of education. Situated in that border city on the debateableland between France and Germany, the school of Stras- burg, which was first organised as a 320 llEFORMATION (THE) gymnasium in 1537, promoted in 15G7 to the status of a college by the Emperor Maximilian II., and linally invested by Ferdinand II. in 1621 with the rights and privileges of a university, discovered how to combine and reconcile the pecu- liai-ities of French and German culture — the profoundness of the latter with the clearness and vivacity of the former. Sturm, who was one of the most variously .accomplished and most uui\'ersally in- formed men of liis time, and who achieved the honourable t^obriqvef of the Cicero of Germany, was much consulted in the drafting' of school-codes and in the organ- isation of gymnasia ; and liis treatise, Dc Litemrum Ludls recte aperie)idis (1538), and his Classiar Epistolce: sive Schohv Argentiiiensis rcstUufai (1565), addressed to the teachers of his own school, entitle him to a prominent place amongst the pioneers of the reformed education. He corresponded with Erasmus, Melanchthon, Bucer^ and others, who in divers spheres and vocations were amongst the most dis- tinguished men of his age. He was, in particular, the friend and correspondent of Roger Ascham, the celebrated author of The S eh oohii aster (1570), which has been repeatedly said to contain the best advice that was ever given, if, indeed, it did not incorporate the only sound method, for the study of languages. Sturm was ever keeping pace with those about him, learning Hebrew, for instance, in his fifty- ninth }^ear, and inspiring his teachers with his own enthusiasm. He enjoyed the re- spect of the Emperors Charles V., Ferdi- nand I., and Maximilian II., as well as of Queen Elizabeth of England, the pupil of his friend Ascham. His fame as a teacher and educator was European ; and the area from which he drew his scholars was co- extensive with his reputation. Whilst his pupils were among the men of mark throughout Germany, his halls were fre- quented by contingents from Portugal, Poland, and England. At one time there were two hundred noblemen, twenty-four counts and barons, and three princes -under his instruction. In 1578 his school numbei-ed several thousand students ; he supplied at once the place of the cloister and the castle. Sturm was the tirst great head-master, the progenitor of Busbys, if not of Arnolds. What he most insisted upon was the teaching of Latin, not the conversational linguaj'ranca of Erasmus, but pure, elegant, Ciceronian Latinity. Nowhere, perhaps, had he more effect than in England. Our older public scliools, on. breaking with the ancient faith, looked to Sturm as their model of Protestant edu- cation. His name and example became familiar to us by the exertions of his friend Ascham. Westminstei', under the long reign of Busby, received a form which was generally accepted as the type of a gentleman's education. The Public Schools Commission of 1862 found that the lines laid down by the great citizen of Strasburg, and copied by his admirers, had remained unchanged until within the memor}^ of tlie present generation. It is impossible to detine exactly the extent of the formative influence of his doctrine ; for besides directly organising many clas- sical schools, his pupils rose to be head masters of many more, and his principles Avere embodied in the School Code of Wiix'temberg in 1559, and in that of Saxony in 1580, and in the educational system of the Jesuits. In the first half of the seventeenth century, Wolfgang Ratke, Ratich, or Ratichius (1571-1635), a native of Wil- ster in Holstein, and Jan Amos Komen- sky [Latin6 Joannes Amos Comenius) (1592-1671), a bishop of the INloravians, were, with very different degrees of merit, tlie heirs of the educational thought of Luther. [See article Ratioii.) The glory of applying the new spirit to actual practice must be surrendered by Ratich in favour of Comenius (q.v-), the son of a miller -who belonged to the Mora- vian brethren. Comenius, who was born at the Moravian village of Comna, in 1592, and finally attained the dignity of being the senior bishop, or liead of the church of the Moravian brethren, was for a long tin\e unknown and unappreciated. Yet he is now recognised as the tirst who brought the mind of a philosopher to bear practically on the subject of education. Montaigne, Bacon, and Milton merely advanced principles, leaA'ing others to see to their application. Michelet speaks of Comenius with enthusiasm as ' that rare genius, that gentle, fertile, universal scholar ' ; and he calls him the first evan- gelist of modern pedagogy — Pestalozzi being the second. It is not ditficult to justify this appreciation. The character of Comenius is worthy of his intelligence. Through a thousand obstacles he devoted REFORMATION (THE) 321 his long life to the work of popular in- struction. With a generous ardour he consecrated himself to infancy. ' He wrote twenty works,' says Compayre, ' and taught in twenty cities. Moreover, he was the first to form a definite concep- tion of what the elementary studies should be. He determined, neaxiy three hundred years ago, with an exactness that leaves nothing to be desired, the division of the different grades of instruction. He exactly defined some of the essential laws of the art of teaching. He applied to pedagogy, with remarkable insight, the principles of modern logic. Finally, as Michelet has said, he was the Galileo, we would rather say, the Bacon, of modei'n education ' (see article Comenius). It is in the first grade of instruction, the school of infancy, the school by the mother's knee, the school of the maternal bosom, materyii gremii, that the genius of Comenius is the most characteristically and most profoundly illustrated. And it Avas in this that the Protestant doctrine of individuality found its ne ^^^its ultra ; for it was this that was the final co-ordi- nation of individual privilege and oppor- tunity with individual peril, duty, and responsibility. ' The Reformers,' says Mr. S. S. Laurie,' were educational philan- thropists in the truest sense, and hence the people's school is rightly called the child of the Reformation. ... To the same union of the theological with the philan- thropic spirit was due the noble schemes of popular education embodied in the Book of Polity of the Reformed Church of Scotland, written so early as 1560.' It is with Comenius, therefore, whose spirit is so faithfully reproduced, and the compass of whose design is so magnificently enlarged, in the winged and sonorous words of the Tractate of Education addressed by John Milton {q.v.) to their common friend Samuel Hartlib, that the consideration of the influence of the Reformation on edu- cation may be concluded — not that the impulse or genius of the Reformation had spent its force, but rather because in the system and method of Comenius may be found the germ, suggestion, and potenti- ality of all the principles, and all the applications of them, which have since been evolved in the course and the history of the movement. Approaching the sub- ject quite independently, and looking at it from another and larger, although strictly analogous, point of view, the late Dr. Charles Beard ' regarded the English Re- formation as having come to its close in the year 1662, when the Act of Uniformity at once settled the Church of England on a basis whicli has not since been disturbed, and necessitated the separate existence of Dissent.' It is observable that the year 1662 coincided with the seventieth year of Comenius, who died in 1671. It is not to be supposed, however, that all the influences of the Reformation, and still less all its motives, circumstances, and accidents of detail, were directly favour- able to education. Melanchthon's experi- ence at Wittenberg, and the scathing de- nunciations of Erasmus, as called forth by the fanaticism of certain adherents of the Reformation who were intolerant of all learning which was not directly available in the interests of human salvation, have shown that in Germany, as in other Re- formed or Reforming countries, a period of transition, or of scarcely completed achievement, is not the ideal foster-period of intellectual or scholarly progress, or of full- orbed development. Naturally, it was the centres of the higher learning, and, within these centres, the most exquisite and most elegantly formative of the studies they affected, that chiefly suffered at the hands of persons whose prudence and spiritual anxieties led them to distrust and discredit, and proportionally to neg- lect, all erudition which was not negoti- able on the exchange of an eternal woi-ld. In its most acute and virulent manifesta- tion the jealousy which refused to detect the real divinity of any culture which was not formally or in terms theological did not hesitate to make bonfires of academical libraries, and to debase by uses more ignoble than destruction the literary treasures of antiquity. Even theology was not sacred, and in fact was occasionally the more obnoxious because it ivas the- ology ; and books of patristic and scho- lastic divinity, of doctrine and discipline, were consumed in market-places and in learned quadrangles on the same pyres with ti-eatisea on useless mathematics and impertinent astronomy. The formula de- lenda est, once current in pagan Rome as applied to a rival for the secular supremacy of the world, was now turned against Rome herself, whose spiritual domination was to be scattered to the winds with the ashes of the literature she had tolerated and con- Y 322 EEFORMATION (THE) served, and to a certain extent assimilated and taught. But there were other reasons why the Reformation was not immediately helpful, but rather detrimental, to the in- terests of education, especially of the higher education — reasons which were not of the essence or the nature of the movement, and which, whether with or apart from the speciousness of pious pretence, are to be recognised in acts of diversion, spolia- tion, confiscation, and sacrilege. It has been alleged, indeed, that in Scotland, from divers causes, the Reformation extinguished learning ; but the expression has more verbal point than literal accuracy. The statement is at once more moderate and more correct that in the ecclesiastical and political agitation of the sixteenth century the Scottish universities were the sufferers, and, with the ti'iumphs of the new, or Pro- testant, party over the old Church, old in- cumbents of chairs and old sources of in- come were cut off, and although the uni- versities obtained grants of Church lands, which were increased on the abolition of episcopacy in the next century, still the thorough reorganisation contemplated by John Knox and James Buchanan in the First Book of Discipline was not effected. With regard to the English universities, it is remarkable that the late Professor Huber, successively of Rostock, Marburg, and Berlin, a German and a Protestant, avers, as ' one undeniable fact,' that up to the time of the Catholic reaction under Mary ' the Reformation had brought on the universities only injury, outward and inward. There are a thousand results of this great revolution which we must needs deplore and disown. Its benefits are not to be looked for from the side of the uni- versities at all, but in quite another quar- tei' — in the deepening of spiritual religion. In contrast to the older Church, which was troubled with Pelagian elements, it estab- lished a purer evangelical doctrine ; and this is its true glory. But in regard to the constitution and discipline of the Church, and the moral and scientific cultivation of the community, if it had any advantages over the old system, they are balanced "by concomitant evils. The higher we esti- mate the spirituality of the Reformed doc- trine the more are we authorised, and in duty bound, not to conceal the price at which this jewel was bought ; the more also should we cling to the hope that the spirit of the truth so dearly purchased may at length penetrate and fashion the material frame Avhich has received it.' What there was of reformation under Plenry VIII. chiefly consisted in the spolia- tion of the monasteries, and the substitution of the Royal for the Papal supremacy. The former was so entirely a financial experi- ment as to be altogether unworthy of notice in any religious connection. What- ever may have been the sins and laxities of the monasteries, no one who looks at the character of the king, the ageuts whom he employed, and the uses to which the pro- ceeds were put, can believe that they were dissolved in the interests of morality. The complaints of the most trusted exponents of contemporary discontent at the state of the universities about the middle of the sixteenth century are concei'ned in the first place with their general condition, and in the second with the character of their studies. Under the former head they deplore especially the irregular exercise of patronage, and the gradual disappearance of the non-collegiate or unattached ele- ment from the student body; and under the latter head they bewail the want of men who, by virtue of their recognised ability and mature experience, might sti- mulate and guide the younger students, and the injurious influence of theological polemics on genuine study. With refer- ence to the relative injury done to the well-being of the universities, a passage of rough pathos occurs in a sei'mon preached at St. Paul's Cross in 1 550 by Thomas Lever, who asserts that ' one courtier,' viewed as a despoiler, 'was worse than fifty tun- bellied monks.' ' Ho^v^ was it possible,' asks Professor Huber, ' in the midst of universal and increasing insecui'ity ; when the violence and evil passions of the king broke out more and more immoderately ; when all free religious movement, all free enquiry into the basis of religious belief, dwindled more and more away ; when the burning pile was lit for Papist, Protestant, and enthusiast ; when the University of Cambridge saw two of its chancellors, Fisher and Cromwell, perish on the scaf- fold ; when, with the noble head of Sir Thomas Moi'e, virtue, religion, wisdom, and learning appeared all together to perish ; while the most contemptible and hateful passions not only had free play, but, by help of most impudent hypocrisy, obtained legal validity and form ; — how was it possible, we ask, for any freedom, peace, REFORMATION (THE) 323 and liberty of the spirit to prevail, without which there can be no successful, intellec- tual activity at the universities 1 ' But so great a movement was not to be arrested by an occasional or incidental unreadiness of adjustment; and the minor impediments of progress were not to be treated as permanent or formidable obsta- cles to the march of a genius which was by hypothesis so variously resourceful as that of the Reformation. It was not long befoi'e the Protestant schools acquired the reputation of being the best in Europe. From this circumstance it results that the last phase in which the educational signi- ficance of the Reformation is to be con- sidered is that in which it is seen in the process of provoking an activity outside its own borders, a counter-energy to its own of alienage and antagonism. The Roman Catholic Church showed herself sensitively conscious of the scholastic changes which the spirit of the time had made inevitable ; and the challenge which had been thrown down by the champions of the Reformation was accepted with a smiling defiance by Ignatius Loyola and his brethren of the Society, or rather his fellow-soldiers of the Company, of Jesus, who, in a time when defection and desertion were common and widespread, came for- ward to bind themselves by a vow of obe- dience to the Holy See, so absolute as to include their obligation to go into any country whither the pope might desii-e to send them, among Turks, heathen, or here- tics, instantly, without discussion, condi- tion, or reward. The new order was first authorised — with some limitations, as, for instance, with regard to numbers — in 1540 by Pope Paul III., who, three years after- wards, removed the original disabilities by a full and unreserved sanction. The special function of the Jesuits was the threefold one of preaching, confession, and education. In discharge of their first obligation they engaged amongst each other to preach mainly for the common people, and to strive rather after impressive and touch- ing discourse than after choice phrases. They affected the confessional on account of its intimate and immediate connection with the guidance and the government of consciences ; and with regard to education they had desired to bind themselves to this occupation by a special clause in their vows. But, although they abandoned that design, they made the practice of the duty impera- tive by the most cogent rules. Their most ardent wish was to gain over the rising generation. The programme of studies, which dates from the latter part of the sixteenth century, and in which the most ap- proved portions of the methods pursued in the schools of their predecessors or contem- poraries in the art of teaching were incorpo- rated, is in use, with certain modifications, in English Jesuit schools of the present day. Their extension and their success were extraordinary. As late as the year 1551 they had no firm station in Germany; in 1566 their influence extended over Ba- varia and the Tyrol, Franconia and Suabia, a great part of the Rhineland and Austria, and they had penetrated into Hungary, Bohemia, and Moravia. About the middle of the sixteenth century the society had several colleges in France, particularly those of Billom, Mauriac, Rodez, Tournon, and Pamiers. In 1561 it secured a footing in Paris, notwithstanding the resistance of the Parliament, of the university, and of the bishops themselves. A hundred years later it counted nearly fourteen thousand pupils in the province of Paris alone. The College of Clermont in 1651 enrolled more than two thousand young men, and in 1695 had three thousand students. The middle and higher classes assured to the colleges of the society an ever-increasing member- ship. At the end of the seventeenth cen- tury the Jesuits could inscribe on the roll of honour of their classes a hundred illus- trious names, including those of Conde and Luxembourg, Flechier and Bossuet, La- moignon and Seguier, Descartes, Corneille, and Moliere. In 1 7 1 the order controlled 612 colleges, 157 normal schools, 59 novi- ciates, 340 residences, 200 missions, 29 pro- fessed homes, and 24 universities. In Catholic countries they were the real mas- ters of education, and they maintained their educational supremacy till the end of the eighteenth century. Various opinions are extant with regard to the merits of the system of the Jesuits. Bacon speaks of them in more than one passage as the re- vivers of the art of education, declaring of them, inter alia, that as to whatever relates to the instruction of the young we must consult the schools of the Jesuits, for there can be nothins: that is better done. ' Ad Pxdagogicam quod attinet,' he says, ' hre- vissimum foret dictu, Consule scholas Je- suitarum : nihil enim, quod in iisum venit, his melius.' Descartes approved of their y2 324 REFORMATION (THE) system, and Chateaubriand regarded their suppression as a calamity to civilisation and enlightenment. On the other hand, Leibnitz affirms that ' in the matter of education the Jesuits have remained below mediocrity' ; and Voltaire declared that 'the fathers taught him nothing but Latin and nonsense.' The Jesuits devoted themselves with great assiduity to the direction of their Latin schools ; and it was, indeed, one of the principal maxims of Lainez, the first general of the order after its founder, that the lower grammar schools should be pro- vided with good masters. With accurate discrimination he chose men who, when they had once undertaken this subordinate branch of teaching, were willing to devote their whole lives to it ; for it was only with time that so difficult a business could be learned, or the authority indispensable to a teacher be acquired. Here the Je- suits succeeded to admiration ; it was found that their scholars learned more in one year than those of other masters in two, and even Protestants recalled their chil- dren from distant gymnasia and committed them to their care. Schools for the poor, modes of teaching suited to children, and catechising followed ; and the whole course of instruction was given entirely in that enthusiastic and devout spirit which had characterised the Jesuits from their earliest institution. While the superiority of the Protestant schools lay in the greater free- dom of spirit which characterised them, and the greater regard paid to the sub- stance of literature, the great and distinc- tive excellence of the Jesuits consisted in the possession and the inculcation of a de- finite educational method. ' It was the want of method,' says Professor Laurie, ' that led to the decline of schools after the Reformation period ; it was the study of method which gave the Jesuits the superiority that in many parts of the con- tinent they still retain.' It is to their possession and exemplification of the same quality that the late Professor Ranke at- tributes their success — a success which, viewed in combination with its causes, seems to him to pi-esent a case perhaps without parallel in the history of the world. ' Without any striking manifesta- tion of genius or originality,' he remarks, 'neither their piety nor their learning moved in any undefined or untrodden paths. They had, however, a quality which distinguished them in a remarkable degree- — rigid method, in conformity with which everything was calculated, everything had its definite scope and object. Such a union of appropriate and sufficing learning with unwearied zeal, of study and persuasive- ness, of pomp and penance, of widespread influence and unity, of a directing principle- and aim, never existed in the world, be- fore or since. They were industrious and visionary, woi'ldly-wise and full of enthusiasm, well-bred men and agreeable companions, regardless of their personal interests, and eager for each other's ad- vancement. No wonder that they were- successful.' The Jesuits were probably the first to bring the teacher into close connection with the taught ; but they are open to the accusation that the watchful care over their pupils, dictated to them by love, devotion, and self-sacrifice, degraded into surveillance, which lay-schools have borrowed from them, whilst their study of nature has led them to confession and di- rection. ' They have tracked out the soul to its recesses,' is the charge roundly brought against them by Mr. Oscar Bi'own- ing, ' that they might slay it there, and generate another in its place ; they edu- cated each mind according to its powers, that it might be a more subservient tool to their own j)urposes. They taught the accomplishments which the world loves, but their chief object was to amuse the- mind and stifle enquiry ; they encouraged Latin verses because they were a conve- nient plaything on which powers might be exercised which could have been better employed in understanding and discussing" higher subjects ; they were the patrons of school plays, of public prizes, declamations, examinations, and other exhibitions, in which the parents were more considered than the boys ; they regarded the claims of education, not as a desire to be en- couraged, but as a demand to be played with and propitiated ; they gave the best education of their time in order to acquirer confidence, but they became the chief ob- stacle to the improvement of education ;. they did not care for enlightenment, but only for the influence which they could derive from a supposed regard for en- lightenment.' Another of the ' teaching congrega- tions ' which subsequently arose to exer- cise its benevolent functions within ec- clesiastical limits, which were nominally REFORMATION (THE) 325 Homan, was that of the Jansenists of Port- Royal. They were named after a Belgian theologian named Cornelius Jansen (1585- 1638), who, devoting himself to the study of the Fathers, and especially of St. Augus- tine, wrote a treatise, entitled Augustinus, 1640, against the doctrine of freewill, and other heresies of the Pelagians and Mas- silians. The publication of this work, which is generally taken as marking the foundation of Jansenism in France, took place in 1640, two years after the death of the author, and exactly one hundred years after the first papal consecration of the Society of Jesus. From their earliest organisation the Jansenists manifested an ardent and affectionate solicitude for the education of youth ; and in 1643 founded their Petites ^coles at Port-Royal des Champs, in the seclusion of the forests of Versailles. Here they commenced with only a small number of pupils, and de- veloped their method as they proceeded ; and ' here we find, for the first time in the modern world, the highest gifts of the greatest men of a country applied to the business of education.' Rivals and anta- gonists of the Jesuits, they differed from the latter at once in their statutes, their constitution, and their destinies ; and even to a greater decrree in the motive and the spirit by which they were animated. ' For the Jesuits,' to quote the pointed anti- thesis of Professor Compayre, ' education is reduced to a superficial culture of the brilliant faculties of the intelligence ; whilst the Jansenists, on the contrary, aspire to develop the solid faculties, the judgment, and the reason. In the col- leges of the Jesuits, rhetoric is held in honour ; in the Petites E coles of Port- Royal it is rather logic and the exercise of thought. The shrewd disciples of Loyola adapt themselves to the age, and are full of allowance for human weakness ; the recluses of Port- Royal are as severe upon others as towards themselves. In their suppleness and cheerful optimism the Je- suits are almost the Epicureans of Chris- tianity ; with their austere and somewhat sombre doctrine, the Jansenists would rather be its Stoics. The Jesuits and the Jansenists, those great rivals of the seven- teenth century, yet face each other, and contend against each other, at the present moment.' The success of the Jansenists has seldom been surpassed ; and, indeed, it was too much for the jealousy of the Jesuits. Neither piety, nor wit, nor virtue could save them. Persecution did not long grant them the leisure to continue the work they had undertaken. By 1660, when they had completed only some seven- teen years of their career of instruction, the enemies of Port- Royal had triumphed, and the Jesuits obtained an order from the king closing the schools and dispersing the teachers. Pursued, imprisoned, exiled, the solitaries of Port- Royal were allowed to do little more than to consolidate in imperishable works the principles of a pedagogy which might have given an en- tirely different direction to the education of France and of Europe. The roll of the great teachers whose community was graced by the polemical renown of Blaise Pascal includes also the names of Pierre Nicole, the moralist and dialectician, one of the authors of the famous La Logique, ou I'Art de Penser, and the writer of a treatise entitled L' l^ducation d'un Prince, a series of re- flections on education, and applicable, as he himself says, to children of all classes ; of Claude Lancelot, the grammarian, the author of various Methodes for learning respectively the Greek, Latin, Italian, and Spanish languages ; and of Antoine Ar- nauld, called ' the Great,' the joint author of Leo Logique and of the Grammaire Generale, who also produced the Reglement des i^tudes dans les Lettres humaines. Other names of less celebrated Jansenists are still worthy of mention, as, for instance, those of Lemaistre de Sacy, the author of various translations ; of Coustel, who pub- lished Regies de V Education des Enfans ; and of Varet, the author of L' Education Chretienne. Fenelon may be reckoned as belonging to the same school, but he was more fitted to mix and grapple with man- kind. With regard to the relative dura- bility and value of educational methods Professor Compayre judiciously observes that ' the merit of institutions should not always be measured by their apparent success. The colleges of the Jesuits, during three centuries, have had a countless num- ber of pupils ; the Petites Ecoles of Port- Royal did not live twenty years, and during their short existence they enrolled at most only some hundreds of pupils. And yet the methods of the Jansenists have survived the ruin of their colleges and the dispersion of the masters who applied them. Although the Jesuits have 326 REFORMATION (THE) REFORMATORY SCHOOLS not ceased to rule in appearance, it is the Jansenists who triumph in reality, and who have to-day the control of secondary education.' To the same purport is the estimate of the work of the Jansenists and its abiding character and influence recorded by the judicial pen of the late Leopold von Ranke. ' Whilst the Jesuits,' he writes, ' were hoarding up learning in huge folios, or were losing themselves in the revolting- subtleties of an artificial system of morals and dogmas, the Jansenists addi-essed themselves to the nation. They began by translating the Holy Scriptures, the Fathers of the Church, and Latin pi^xyer- "books ; they happily avoided the old Frankish forms which had till now been so prejudicial to the popularity of all works of that kind, and expressed them- selves with an attractive clearness of style. The establishment of a seminary at Port-Royal led them to compose school- books of the ancient and modern lan- guages, logic and geometry, which, ema- nating fi-om minds not trammelled by ■antiquated forms, contained new methods, the merits of which have been universally admitted. . . . Men of the lofty genius and profound science of Pascal, of the poetical originality and perfection of Racine, and of the wide range of knowledge of Tilleraont were formed within their walls. Their labours extended, as we see, far beyond the circle of ascetic theology which Jansen and Du Yerger had traced. It would not be too much to assert that this union of men of high intellect and filled with noble objects, who, in their mutual intercourse and by their oi'iginal and unassisted efforts, gave rise to a new tone of expression and a new method of communicating ideas, had a most remarkable influence on the whole form and character of the literature of France, and hence of Europe ; and that the literary splendour of the age of Louis XIV. may be in part ascribed to the Society of Port-Royal.' For the space of some two hundred years the educational systems of the Refor- mation, as well as of the Catholic Avorld, suffered arrest, if not retrogression. From the genei'al stagnation and the general pedantry which was the result, the colleges of the Jesuits, owing to their eftective tradition of method, suffered less than those of their rivals or their confederates in the art and practice of instruction. So early as the latter half of the sixteenth centuiy complaints loud and long, and proceeding from men of the highest intel- ligence, were rife as to the waste of time, the severity of the discipline, and the bar- barism and intricacy of the grammar rules, which gave an evil tone to the schools of the period. There were, however, extenu- ating circumstances ; for it has to be remembered that all Europe had been embroiled in civil and ecclesiastical con- tentions, and that the seeds of popular education and of an improved secondary system could not possibly have developed themselves in an atmosphere so unge- nial. Indeed, until the remodelled school code of Saxony appeared in 1773, the dawn which had been so full of promise was overcast ; the spirit that actuated the Refoi-mers had died, and there had been a relapse into the old scholasticism, A couple of centuries wei-e lost. Scotland alone, remote at least from continental imbrog- lios, and one of the typical centres of the Reformation — Scotland alone, as is claimed by one of her two Professors of the History, Theory, and Practice of Education, was dux'ing this period busily carrying out, in a truly national sense, the programme of the Reformation and the humanists ; but this, in accordance with the genius of Protestantism, mainly on the popular side. (Mr. Oscar Browning's article on ' Edu- cation ' in the Encyclo2)n'dia Britannica, 9th edition ; American Journal of Educa- tion, passim ; Professor V. A. Huber's Die Englischen Universitdten, 1839-40 ; Rev. R. H. Quick's Essays on Educational Reformers, 1868 ; Mr. James Grant's His- tory of the Burgh Schools of Scotland^ 1876 ; Professor Gabriel Compayre's i/is- foire de la Pedagogie, 1881 ; Dr. Charles Beard's ' Hibbert Lecture ' on the Refor- mation of the Sixteenth Century, 1883 ; Professor S. S. Laurie's John Amos Co- menius, 2nd edition, 1884 ; Mr. James Bass Mullinger's University of Cambridge, from the Royal Injunctions of 1535 to the Accession of Charles I., 1884 ; and others.) Reformatory Schools are institutions for the reception and reformation of juve- nile offenders under sentence for criminal oftences. They were the outcome of the efforts of the Philanthropic Society, of Avhich Sir Stafford Northcote (afterwards Lord Iddesleigh) was one of the most active members, and the first general law relating to them was passed in 1854, 'for the better REFORMATORY SCHOOLS REGISTRATION OF TEACHERS 32V care and reformation of youthful offenders in Great Britain.' This was followed by the Irish Act of 1858. Any juvenile offender convicted of an offence punishable with penal servitude or imprisonment, who, in the opinion of the court, justices, or magistrates before whom he is charged, is under the age of sixteen years, and who is sentenced to imprisonment for not less than ten days in Great Britain, and not less than fourteen days in Ireland, may also be sentenced to be sent, at the expiration of his period of imprisonment, to a certified reformatory school, to be there detained for a period of not less than two years, and not more than five years. Juvenile offenders are only sent to such reformatory schools as are under the exclusive manage- ment of pei'sons of their own religious persuasion. A capitation grant is made by Parliament for the support of reforma- tory schools, and the usual average is about 5s. lid. per head per week, the balance, about Is. Qd. per week, being taken out of the local rates. In Great Britain there were in 1888 sixty-four re- formatory schools, and in Ireland ten. These schools include the ' Cornwall ' ship off Purfleet,' the ' Akbar ' hulk and the ' Clarence ' ship, both at Liverpool. The number of offenders committed to these reformatory schools in Great Britain in the year ended September 29, 1886, was 1,269, of whom 1,082 were males and 187 females. 79*7 per cent, of the total num- ber committed were committed for larce- nies or attempts to steal ; 4*9 per cent.for housebreaking, shopbreaking, or burglary; and 5 '6 per cent, for vagrancy. The re- maining 9 "8 per cent, were for various other offences. Of the numbers committed in each of the three years, 1883-84, 1884-85, 1885- 86, the percentage under the different decrees of instruction was as follows : — 1885-86 1884-85 1883-84 w S' m S w a; a s ^ § S 3 fe & Neither read nor write 19-3 24-1 22-2 18-0 22-3 36-2 Eead or read and write imperfectlv . 72-7 58-8 66-G Gl-9 6G-3 47-5 Eead and write well . 8-0 iV-i yyv 2U-1 11-3 lG-3 Of superior instruction — "" 0-2 — 0-1 The total amount payable by Her Majesty's Treasury on account of the re- formatory schools for the year 1885-86 was 66,660?. 10s. 10c?., being a decrease upon the amount for the year 1884-85 of 875?. 7s. 5d. The amount recovered from parents in 1885-86 was 5,030?. 16s. 7c?,, being an increase of 213?. 6s. Id. in com- parison with the sum recovered in the previous year. The importance of making reformatory schools a part of the public penal system was first practically recog- nised by Massachusetts in 1848. Registration. — In private schools, and in public scliools above the elementary class, custom and convenience determine what registers shall be kept, but in public elementary schools registration is subject to definite and rigid rules. The books prescribed are an Admission Poegister, a Daily Attendance P^-egister, anda Summary. (1) The Admission Register must be kept by the head teacher. It must show dis- tinctly for each child admitted, its number, date of admission, full name, name and address of its parent or guardian, whether exemption from religious insti-uction is claimed, date of birth, the last school attended, highest standard in which it was there presented, the successive standards in which it is presented in the new school, and, lastly, the date of leaving. (2) The Attendance Register shows the daily and weekly attendances of each scholar through- out the school year. At the foot are en- tered, at each school meeting, the number present, and, weekly, the number on re- gister, the number present at all, and the total number of attendances for the week. (3) The Summary shows for the whole school, class by class, and week by week, the numbers entered at the foot of the attendance registers. In Board schools a Fee and Stock Book has to be kept, in addition to the three books already named. Registration of Teachers. — In all countries where education is regulated by the State it follows, almost as a logical consequence, that the State should impose some test of aptitude on its teachers. Thus in France there is the brevet de cajjacite, without which no primary teacher, whether public or private, can exercise his calling. There is likewise the brevet de capacite de Venseignement secondaire special, which is compulsory on the se- condary teacher who has not the degree of bachelor. In Germany the Zeugniss corresponds to the French teacher's brevet, and in nearly every Continental State some similar certificate is required. In 328 REGISTRATION OF TEACHERS RELIGIOUS EDUCATION England the certificate, or ' parcliment,' of elementary teachers {see Certificated Teachers) is tantamount to registration, although only one-half of our elementary teachers have undergone any professional training (except as pupil-teachers), and no list of acting teachers is issued by the Edu- cation Department. On the other hand, for secondary teachers, whether in public or private scliools, no credentials are de- manded by the State, and till within quite recent years no attempt has been made either to provide for them a professional training or to exclude impostors from the profession. The movement in favour of the registration of teachers began rather more than a quarter of a century ago with an association, consisting mainly of private teachers, formed for the object of influenc- ing public opinion in this direction, and ultimately obtaining an Act of Parliament. It was not, however, till 1869 that the subject of registration was brought before the Legislature. In that year Mr. Forster introduced, together with his Endowed Schools Bill, a second Bill for the organisa- tion of higher education and the registra- tion of teachers other than elementary, commonly known as Mr. Forster's Bill No. 2. This Bill met with little favour ; it was regarded by the general public with indifference, supported only by a section of the profession, and suspected even by the Liberal party in the House as an un- warrantable interference with the liberty of the subject. But though it did not reach a second reading, it is of historical interest as the first assertion of the prin- ciple that it is the business of the State to supervise all education, and as tracing the main lines on which subsequent Bills have been drawn. The backbone of the Bill ^^'as an Educational Council, to whom the examination and registration of teachers were committed. In 1879 a Bill, which was promoted by the College of Preceptors, was introduced by Dr. Lyon Playfair. This Bill, commonly known as the ' Lyon Play- fair Teachers' Registration Bill,' repro- duced Mr. Forster's Educational Council, with one important change in its consti- tution. One-fourth of the council were eventually to be elected by the general body of registered teachers. Thus the council, instead of being a State depart- ment, tempered by university syndics, became, to a certain extent, a democratic and representative body. The same Bill, with some important modifications, was undertaken in 1881 by Sir John Lub- bock. For the provisions of this Bill we must refer our readers to a pamphlet. The Registration of Teachers, by F. Storr (W. Rice, 1887), where the text is given as an appendix. Space will only permit us to call attention to some moot points raised by the Bill, and to indicate what are the present views and wishes of the profession. (1) Teachers are generally agreed that a Registration Act will be of little effect un- less it is compulsory. The Medical Act affords a precedent exactly to the point. The first clause of the Teachers' Bill must run : ' No teacher, after a certain date to be fixed by the council, shall be able to recover tuition fees in a court of law un- less his name is upo^i the register.' (2) For admission to the register some professional test must eventually be imposed. Here, again, there is an exact analogy between, the teaching and the medical profession. (3) That all teachers, including the ele- mentary, should be included in the register is greatly to be desired. There are prac- tical difliculties in the way, but these would disappear if a Minister of Education were created. (4) The council to whom is com- mitted the administration of the Bill should be elected mainly by the teachers them- selves; but it is generally thought that delegates of the various educational bodies — the Universities, the College of Precep- tors, the National Union of Elementary Teachers, &c. — would be preferable to di- rect representation. We may add. Lord Salisbury's Government, in a debate in the House of Commons (April 27, 1888), pledged itself to consider the Registration of Teachers in a forthcoming bill affecting secondary education. For further informa- tion see Proceedings of International Con- ference on Education, vol. iv. p. 136, and Journal of Education, Feb. 1888, contain- ing Report of Conference of Teachers' Guild. Religious Education. — All that this article is called on to deal with is the efforts made by the State, and the ChurcheSj assisted by various benevolent societies, to arrange for or to further the suitable religious education of the classes who at- tend primaiy schools. Even were it possible it would scarcely be advisable to attempt an account of the innumerable methods devised both in school and pulpit to meet the require- EELIGIOUS EDUCATION 329 ments of those who are in a position to choose for themselves the systems they consider best. I. The attitude of the State towards Religious Education. — It has gradually come to be held as an axiom that the State has no direct concern with religious education. Secular knowledge the State is bound to give. Religious knowledge it leaves to the different denominations. The Government grants in England, Scot- land, and Ireland are regulated on this principle. They are made («) to denomi- national training colleges, (h) to primary schools. («) To the denominational training colleges the State contributes three- fourths of their annual expenditure, pro- vided that expenditure is confined within certain strictly defined limits. The re- maining fourth is contributed by the reli- gious bodies under whose management the colleges are. In this way the State pays for the secular training of the teacher, but allows the utmost liberty of action to the denomination in the matter of their religious teaching. Of these denominational training colleges there are in all fifty-three : forty-three in England, seven in Scotland, three in Ireland. (6) Government schools in England. — The division of State-aided schools into School Board and Voluntary arises largely from the different regulations in force in each with regard to religious instruction. It dates from the passing of Mr. Forster's Act in 1870. The changes with regard to religious instruction introduced by the Act are comprehensively summed up by Dr. Rigg {National Education, chap, x.) as follows : — ' The new Act retained existing in- spected schools, but it made a time-table Conscience Clause imperative in all schools in which religious instruction was given ; it also did away with all denominational classifications of schools, and with denomi- national inspection, treating all inspected schools as equally belonging to a national system of schools, and under national in- spection, the distinction as to inspectors and their province being henceforth purely geographical. But the new Act no longer required that public elementary schools, established by voluntary agency and tinder voluntary management, should have in them any religious character or ele- ment whatever, whether as belonging to a Christian Church or denomination, or as connected with a Christian philanthropic society, or as providing for the reading of the Scripture in the school. It was left open to ally party or any person to esta- blish purely voluntary schools if they thought fit. But furthermore, the Act made provision for an entirely new class of schools, to be established and (in part) supported out of local rates, to be governed by locally elected School Boards, and to have just such and so much reli- gious instruction given in them as the governing Boards might think proper, at times preceding or following the prescribed secular school hours, and under the pro- tection of a time-table Conscience Clause, as in the case of voluntary schools, with this restriction only, that in the schools no catechism or denominational religious formulary of any sort was to he taught.^ In the School Board schools so founded there is nothing derived from their con- stitution to prevent a considerable amount of religious instruction being given ; but the differences of opinion among the mem- bers of the Board are generally so marked, that it is not possible to agree upon any- thing further than the reading of the Bible without note or comment. (See School Boards.) In Voluntary schools the only restric- tions as to the amount and nature of the religious instruction are (1) that such in- struction must be given either before or after the time required for secular sub- jects, and (2) 'any scholar may be with- drawn by his parent from such instruc- tion without forfeiting any of the other benefits of the school.' The full Liberty thus allowed has been found, when pro- perly employed, to permit of as thorough and systematic a religious education as could be given under any school system. It is on this account that the Voluntary schools are so highly valued and so warmly supported by those who are principally in- terested in religious education. Government Schools in Scotland, — In Scotland the system of School Boards pre- vails very widely, though not exclusively. This is to be accounted for partly because it falls in with the tradition of Scotch edu- cation, partly also because there is no re- striction in Scotland as to what religious instruction shall be given in the schools. A Conscience Clause similar to that in England protects individual liberty of 330 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION opinion, but with this exception denomi- national teaching may be freely given. The Presbyterians have, therefore, no in- ducement to maintain separate schools, as the Board schools fully meet their require- ments. The voluntary principle is, how- ever, fully recognised. There is nothing to prevent the denominations retaining their schools under the Privy Council, and it is probable that Episcopalian and Roman Catholic schools will be permanently so retained. In Ireland the provisions made by the National Board for Religious Education closely resemble those in force in the Vo- luntary schools in England. The schools are divided into two classes : (1) Those whose ownership is vested in the Commis- sionei-sof Education or trustees ; (2) those not so vested, whose ownership is retained by those who build them. The rule with reference to religious instruction is that, provided four hours are devoted each day to secular instruction, as much time as the manager wishes may be devoted to dis- tinctly denominational teaching, either before or after secular school business, and at one, but only one, intermediate time between the commencement and close of the secular school business. In Vested schools accommodation must be provided so that such pastors or other persons as shall be approved of by the parents or guardians of the children shall have access to them in the schoolrooms for the purpose of giving religious instruction there at times convenient for that purpose. In Non- Vested schools no such obligation exists. The teachers give whatever course of instruction the managers may approve ; but all children whose parents disapprove of the course must be dismissed till the time for religious instruction is over. In cases in which the managers do not permit religious instruction to be given in the schoolroom, the children whose parents or guardians so desire must be allowed to absent themselves from the school at rea- sonable times, for the purpose of receiving such instruction elsewhere. A special feature of the Irish system is that grants are made to monastery and convent schools, in which the teaching is done by the monks and nuns. There are upwards of 200 such schools, attended by upwards of 50,000 pupils. II. The Religious Education Work of the different Denominations. — Leaving the passive attitude taken up by Govern- ment on the question of religious instruc- tion, and proceeding to consider the work done by the different denominations and the societies in connection with them, we find great activity prevailing in all three countries. In England sectarian repug- nance to the School Board system, with its prohibition of denominational formu- laries, has i"oused the Churches to strenu- ous exertions in support of Voluntary schools. A desire to develop to the ut- most such religious teaching as the Board system does permit has led them to frame elaborate organisations for stimulating the earnest study of the Bible in Board schools. (1) Training Colleges, as the means whereby religious influence maybe brought to bear upon \he schools, occupy a large share of attention. The Cliurch of England possesses thirty. Of these one has been built and maintained by the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge ; three by the Home and Colonial Society {q.v.) ; three are the especial charge of the Na- tional Society {q.v.). The rest may be classed generally as diocesan, but almost without exception they are largely aided by the National Society. With a view to securing a high standard of religious know- ledge, an inspector is appointed by the Arch- bishops of Canterbury and York to visit and report upon the colleges. There is also an Examining Board for Pv,eligious Know- ledge, to examine the candidates for en- trance to the colleges and the students in training. The Board consists of the arch- bishops' inspector, who is chairman, two representatives elected by the principals of the colleges for masters and mistresses respectively, of a member appointed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, of one appointed by the National Society, and of the secre- tary of the National Society. The Board is assisted by a staff of eight experienced ex- aminers. All the expenses connected both with the inspector and the Board are de- frayed by the National Society. The So- ciety further pays a capitation grant to the colleges according as their students pass in first, second, or third class. This work is further assisted by the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, which makes grants of 21. to all who pass in first-class and subsequently enter a re- cognised training college. Of the other religious bodies the Wes- RELIGIOUS EDUCATION- SSI leyans have two training colleges, the Congregationalists one, and the Roman Catholics three, the latter being largely supported by the Catholic Poor Schools Committee. In all these colleges special and earnest attention is paid to religious instruction. The Roman Catholic colleges have the advantage of a regular system of religious inspection provided by the Poor Schools Committee. (2) Schools. — Great exertions are made by all denominations to maintain and de- velop the Voluntary School system. The following table taken from the Tear-Book of the Church of England shows the large sums which are raised for the purpose : — YoLUXTARY Contributions. Day scliools, year ended August 31 1885 1886 Church British, &c. . Weslej'au . Roman Catholic . Board . & ^. d. 583,936 3 4 96,832 6 3 15,934 7 11 69,233 8 10 891 11 11 £ .!. d. 586.950 19 74,693 19 8 15,691 9 2 64,600 2 4 660 19 3 Total . 756,827 18 3 742,597 9 5 In connection with the Church of Eng- land, in addition to diocesan and parochial efforts, the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge and the National Society give large grants for building and enlarging schools. The work of testing the religious instruction in Church schools, which was discharged by the State until 1870, is now carried on by the Church it- self. A large body of experienced ex- aminers, acting in each case under insti'uc- tions from the bishop of the diocese, are engaged in the work. The maintenance of these inspectors involves an expenditure of not less than 15,000?. a year on the part of the Diocesan Boards. Large grants towards the salaries of inspectors are made by the National Society. Prizes for pro- ficiency in diocesan examination are given in many cases by the S.P.C.K. The religious instruction given in Board schools is also the object of much atten- tion. Grants are made by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge to pro- mote the systematic religious instruction of Board school pupil-teachers in the dio- ceses of London and Rochester, and hand- some exhibitions are awarded. A large work with a similar object, but dealing with all the classes in Board schools, has been undertaken by the Re- ligious Tract Society. Liberal prizes are offered for proficiency in Biblical know- ledge, and immense numbers are induced to compete. As an illustration of the work, it may be mentioned that last year 228,021 children offered themselves for examina- tion in connection with the London School Board, and prizes to the value of 500L were distributed. The Wesleyans, by means of the Com- mittee of Education, watch carefully over the interests of their Voluntary schools. The severe competition of the Board schools prevents any great advance in the number of these schools ; but the attendance at them has increased upwards of 25 per cent. There is a regular system of exami- nation of pupil-teachers in religious know- ledge in Wesleyan schools ; but no general system of examination for the scholars. The Roman Catholics, largely through the instrumentality of the Poor Schools- Committee, have so successfully resisted the Board school system that not only has it made no inroad on their schools, but the number of their schools, the number of their teachers, and the number of their pupils has been more than doubled since 1870. These circumstances are particu- larly creditable Avhen it is remembered that the childi^en of the Roman Catholic poor are among those least able to pay high school fees. The religious instruction in these schools is superintended and en- couraged by means of a thorough system of inspection, on the results of which liberal prizes are awarded to pupil-teachers and others. Sunday Schools. — The work done in Sunday schools forms a very important part of the religious education given by the different denominations. Since the Act of 1870, and the consequent spread of Board schools, the importance attached to Sunday schools has increased, and there has been a corresponding increase in their numbers and efficiency. In connection with the Church of England, the Sunday School Institute (Serjeants' Inn, Elect Street, London, E.C.), since its foundation in 1843, has done much fco extend and im- prove Sunday school teaching. It has now under instruction in England and Wales some 6,000,000 scholars, taught by nearly 600,000 teachers. The chief branches of the Institute work are (1) providing suit- able lessons for the use of teachers. The 332 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION books and papers issued with this object have attained a very wide circulation. (2)^ Instruction in the art of teaching. This instruction is given not mei-ely in Lon- don, but by the deputation secretaries, who visit all parts of England and Wales, and some counties in Ireland, to lecture and give model lessons. Other important branches are the examination of Sunday school teachers at different centres, the founding and organising of branch associ- ations all over the country, of which there are 363, and the publication of literature of all kinds suitable for helping on Sunday school work. In connection with the various Dis- senting bodies the following agencies exist for furthering Sunday school work : ' The Connexional Sunday School Union ' (2 Ludgate Circus Buildings, London, E.C.), for Wesleyan Sunday schools ; ' The Sunday School Association,' established 1833 (37 Norfolk Street, Strand, London, W.C), and 'The Sunday School Union' (56 Old Bailey, London, JE.C), established 1803, not connected with any one denomination. The work done by the Sunday School Union is very extensive. On its books it has nearly 150,000 teachers, and nearly 1,500,000 scholars. Its objects are (1) to stimulate and en- courage Sunday school teachers at home and abroad to greater exertions in the promotion of religious education; (2) by mutual communication, and by means of a valuable training class held all the year round in London, to improve the methods of instruction; (3) to ascertain where Sun- day schools are needed, and promote their establishment; (4) to supply books and stationery suited for Sunday 'schools. In Scotland, the fact that distinct de- nominational teaching is permitted in the Board schools has made it possible to secure efficient religious teaching without such special effort as has been re'quired in England. Training CoIIeges.—The Church of Scotland and the Free Church manage between them six training colleges— four for masters and mistresses, two for mis- tresses. These Churches examine the candidates for admission to traininc^ in religious knowledge, and prescribe a course of study to be followed. They also •examine the students at the end of each year of their course, and the results are printed. The Episcopal Church manages one college for masters and mistresses. The students receive the same religious instruction as is given in the English Church colleges, and it is tested by the same examiners. Schools. — Among Pres- byterians the Board school system is universal. ' Use and Wont ' secured be- fore 1872 in the vast majority of schools the teaching of the Bible and the shorter catechism. Under the Act of 1872 the matter is wholly in the hands of the School Boards. As the result of the elections during all the years which have elapsed since 1872, ' Use and Wont ' has been maintained. In a few isolated cases the catechism is not taught, but Bible teacliing holds its ground. Many of the Boards in Scotland appoint examiners in religious instruction, wlio report to them. In addition, an association (office, 3a Pitt Street, Edinburgh) exists for the pur- pose of encouraging inspection in reli- gious instruction, and some of the Boards avail themselves of its inspectors. The Episcopal Church maintains in all some seventy-five schools. Religious instruc- tion is carefully given in them, and dio- cesan inspectors are employed to test the proficiency of the pupils in religious sub- jects. As the Poor Schools Committee represents in matters which concern elementary education Scotland as well as England, the account of its operations given above may be taken as referring to both countries. Ireland. — (1) Training Colleges. — It was only in 1883 that the system of de- nominational training colleges was ex- tended to Ireland. Up to this date the only place where teachers could be trained was at the College of the Commissioners of Education in Marlborough Street. This college has always been managed in accordance with the fundamental prin- ciple of the National Board, combined literary and moral, and separate religious instruction. Clergymen of the difierent denominations are permitted to visit and instruct the students separately at fixed times ; at all other times no distinction whatever is made on the score of religion. This system was always profoundly dis- tasteful to the Roman Catholics and a large section of the Chui'ch of Ireland, and the result was that most of the Irish teachers were untrained. When the offer of denominational ti'aining colleges was made by the Government in 1883, the RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 333 Roman Catholics immediately founded one for masters and another for mistresses. In 1884 the Church of Ireland founded one for masters and mistresses. The reli- gious instruction in the Roman Catholic colleges is managed by the college au- thorities. In the Church of Ireland Training College the candidates for en- trance are examined by the college. The students in training are examined by the Board of the General Synod, as explained below. The Presbyterians and Wesleyans have as yet no training college. They get their teachers from Marlborough Street, and provide religious education for them by sending their catechists at such times as the Time-Table permits. (2) Schools. — Since disestablishment in 1870, the Church of Ireland has done much towards maintaining schools and improving the religious instruction given in them. The Church 'educational organ- isation consists of a Central Board ap- pointed by the General Synod, and of Dio- cesan Boards appointed by the different Diocesan Synods. Most of the schools under Church management are in connec- tion with the National Board. Of the rest some, through not accepting the sys- tem of the National Board, remain in con- nection with the Church Education So- ciety, a society originally formed to resist the advance of the National Board. Others, owing to the smallness of their numbers, can get no grants from the National Board, and have to depend upon grants from such sources as the Diocesan Board, the Eras- mus Smith Board, the Islands and Coasts Society, the Ladies' Hibernian Society, and private benevolence. The Board of the General Synod and (with one or two exceptions) the Diocesan Boards work alike for all classes of schools. The Synod's Board provides the catechists for the Marl- borough Street Training College, a work in which it is sometimes assisted by the English Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. lb also organises, and with the help of the Irish Association for the Pro- pagation of Christian Knowledge gives liberal prizes at, examinations in religious knowledge, held twice a year, for teachers in charge of schools, and also for the stu- dents of the Church of Ireland Training College. The Diocesan Boards, in addition to helping poor schools, have two important duties : (1) to provide diocesan inspectors to inspect national schools in religious knowledge, and other schools in both re- ligious and secular knowledge ; (2) to or- ganise and give prizes for the annual dio- cesan examinations of Sunday and day schools. It has not as yet been found possible to appoint diocesan inspectors fo? all the dioceses, but, with scarcely an ex- ception, the annual examinations have been everywhere organised with great success. Special examiners are appointed by the Boards, who make the tour of their diocese. The children come in large numbers to the different centres, and liberal prizes are awarded on the results of the examination. In connection with the Diocesan Boards a Church of Ireland Educational Association has been formed. By this association calendars of religious instruction, accom- panied by notes for Sunday school teachers, are compiled. The calendars and notes are expected to circulate through the whole of the Irish Church. The Sunday schools of the Church of Ireland are for the most part organised so as to work for the annual examination held by the Diocesan Boards. In the diocese of Dublin a system of lectures and exami- nations for Sunday school teachers is main- tained by the Diocesan Board. In the northern and southern diocese Sunday school teachers avail themselves of the ex- aminations of the English Sunday School Institute. The schools of the Presbyterians and Wesleyans are placed under the National Board whenever their numbers make it possible. Diocesan inspectors are not em- ployed. In the Presbyterian Church the- rule is that every minister shall be respon- sible for his own immediate charge, and the Presbytery supervise him. A Com- mittee of the General Assembly on Ele- mentary Education exercises a general superintendence. In the Methodist Church the rule is : The schools shall be syste- matically visited by the ministers, and they are required to keep an account of such- pastoral visits, to be handed to the chair- man of their district. In each of the ten districts a minister is annually appointed to visit and inspect all the schools within his district. An Education Fund exists- for helping schools too small to receive aid from the National Board. The supervision of the education work forms part of the du- ties of the General Committee of Manage- ment. Both among the Presbyterians and Wesleyans the Sunday school system is; 334 EEMORSE RENAISSANCE (THE) vigcft'ously worked, .ind in most schools yearly examinations are held. IVie Roman Catholics have from the first used the Na- tional system of schools, and as a result they have splendid national schools all ■over Ireland, not even the most remote parts being excepted. The religious in- struction given in these schools is closely ■watched and superintended. Besides the ordinary national schools the Roman Ca- tholics have tlie convent and monastery schools referred to above. Their religious education is also largely assisted by the religious orders. Chief among these are tlie Christian Brothers. Their schools number nearly 100, and are attended by about 30,000 pupils. These schools ax-e, of course, unreservedly denominational in character. Remorse. See Penitence. Renaissance (The) in its relation to ilducation. — Renaissance is a term which in its French and more current ortho- graphy is identical with its less commonly •employed English form of Renascence, both being derived from the Latin verb renascor, to be born again, and both also being equivalent in general meaning to new birth, regenei'ation, or renewal, and applicable in general to the revival of anything long- extinct, lost, or decayed. It is more deti- nitely and piarticularly used, however, to designate the transitional movement in Europe from the Middle Ages to the modern world, and especially the time of the revival of letters and the arts in the fifteenth century. The term Renaissance is, therefore, susceptible of use alike in literature, sculpture, painting, architec- ture, and decorative art ; whilst in a nar- rower sense than any which has been yet described, it is referred to the style of architecture which succeeded the Gothic, and that peculiar style of ornamentation revived by Raphael in the pontificate of Leo X. (1513-1522), as the result of the discoveries made by him of the frescoes and other works of art in the then recently ex- humed Therma^ of Titus and in the Septi- zonia. It was in most intimate connec- tion with the uprising of the passion for the old Roman literature, that there arose also this desire for the study of classic art, to be followed before long by the attempt after its reproduction. Traces of the imitation of Roman architectural forms are observable of so early a date as the middle of the fourteenth century. But the true Renaissance dates from the time of Brunelleschi, or the early part of the fifteenth century, in whose hands it assumed character and consistency. There are several reasons why it is only natural that the Renaissance should have its origin in Italy, where at best Gothic architecture had never secured any other than a precarious hold, and where the new style attained its zenith or full develop- ment in the course of the centuiy of its introduction. At the beginning of the centuiy subsequent to this, the Renais- sance of Italy had become a model for the art of other countries. During the eai'ly period of its existence the new style of architecture displays not so much an alteration in the arrangement of the spaces and of the main features of the edifices, as in the system of ornamenta- tion and in the aspect of the pi'ofiles. At tliis epoch there was an endeavour to adapt classical forms with more or less freedom to modeni buildings ; Avhilst later, that is, in the sixteenth century, a scheme based on ancient architecture was universally prescriptive. Two distinct styles belong to this first period, each possessing and illustrating its especial peculiarities — the Early Florentine and the Eai-ly Venetian Renaissance. And, in accordance with the rule of individual divergence, although every country derived its Renaissance from that of Italy, yet each had its pecu- liar presentation of the same, and was described as French, German, Spanish, or English Renaissance, in virtue of its ex- hibition of traits which were exclusively its own. The Renaissance style was in- troduced into Fi'ance, the first country north of the Alps to import the new style, by Fra Giocondo, in the reign of Louis XIL, the 'Father of his People' (1499-1515), and by Sei'lio and other Italian architects under his son, Francis I., 'the Father of Letters' (1515-1547), and Henry 11. These architects modified their ideas to suit the French taste ; the gene- ral arrangement of the Gothic churches being retained, and the Renaissance sys- tem of decoration being substituted for the Gothic, exclusively or chiefly in the details of the ornamentation. In its best examples the French Renaissance illus- trated a richness which was without prodigality or excess, and a symmetry which did not degenerate into stifthess. It was not before the middle of the six- EENAISSANCE (THE) 335 teenth century that the Renaissance style was employed in Germany, where it ex- emplified the fault of a certain degree of heaviness, the penalty paid for an undue exuberance, not to say extravagance, as well in its constructive character as its decorative details. In Spain an Early Renaissance style appears — a kind of transitional Renaissance belonging to the first half of the sixteenth century. It consisted of the application of Moorish and pointed-arch forms in conjunction with those of classical antiquity. In this way a conformation was produced which was peculiar to Spain ; and the style is characterised by bold lightness, by luxu- riance in decoration, and by a spirit of romance. The Italian Renaissance style was introduced into England about the middle of the sixteenth century by John of Padua, the architect of Henry VIII. English buildings of this style are distin- guished by a capricious treatment of forms, and a general exhibition, at least to alien critics, of a deficiency of that grace and dignity, both in details and ensemble, which to Italian structures in the same style impart a peculiar charm. Tlie arts, and indeed the methods of culture in general, are so intimately con- nected, so sensitive to each other's influ- ence, so amenable to like conditions of prosperity and progress, that the forms of the life of one of them being ascertained, the forms of the life of the others as embodi- ments of the same spirit of the time may be at least approximately inferred or un- derstood. Each of the arts ofiers a miiTor to the lineaments of the sister arts, and especially to such of these as are fugitive or mutable ; in each of the arts the others are reflected, and, if the expression were allowed, each might be said to allegorise the others. In particular, the phenomena of architecture, here used as the typical or interpreting art of the Renaissance, may be regarded as declaratory and explana- tory of the other arts of the period and the movement, including that liberal art which is known as learning or literature, and the transmission and extension of which is known as education. In order to appreciate the influence of the Renaissance on education, or, in other words, to understand the Renaissance as expressed in education, it is necessary to devote a few sentences to the methods of the latter before the advent of the day which, in the course of several antecedent ages, had been heralded at irregular in- tervals by auroras which were not of the morning. The education of the Middle Ages (q-v.), broadly stated, was alterna- tively that of the cloister or the castle. The two methods stood in sharp contrast to each other. The object of the one was to form and to furnish the young monk ; of the other, to fashion and equip the young knight. It would be ungrateful indeed to forget the services rendered to education by many illustrious monasteries, in which the torch of learning was kept alight throughout the dark ages — as, for instance, those of Tours, Fulda, and Monte Cassino, the monks of which, and espe- cially of the last, were distinguished, not only for their knowledge of the sciences, but for their attention to polite learning, and their acquaintance with the classics. They composed not only learned treatises on music, logic, astronomy, and the Vitru- vian architecture, but they likewise em- ployed a portion of their time in trans- cribing Tacitus and other masters of the ancient literature ; and their example in these respects was followed, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, with great spirit and emulation by many English monas- teries. But the value, because the validity, of cloistered education was impaired by reason of the long hours which the pupils and the members of monasteries were required to abstract from their studies and to devote to elaborate and unfruitful ceremonies, to what Milton calls a ' tedious number of liturgical tautologies,' or rosarial iterations, or to other exercises which were often exacting, exhausting, and un- timely. The culture of the Scriptorium itself was to a great extent uncouth and me- chanical. The discipline was hard, and was made purposely and conscientiously repulsive. The rod was the sole, or at least the sufficient, symbol of an educa- tional regime, the guiding principle of which was that no training could be efl"ec- tual which was not forbidding and dis- tasteful, and that no worthy subject of instruction could be approached except through the portals of suffering. This forcible imposition of asceticism upon the learners induced in them a spirit of revolt against the teachers, and a disgust of the learning which they misrepresented. The seven ' arts ' of monkish training signified 336 RENAISSANCE (THE) the whole circle of subjects studied by those who desired and sought a liberal education. These extended to science as well as to art, and included grammar, logic, and rhetoric, Avhich formed the Trivium — and arithmetic, music, geo- metry, and astronomy, which formed the Quadrwium. These two, the Trivium and the Quadririum, combined to make up the seven years' coui'se, the divisions of which have profoundly affected our modern training ; and it is a survival of this classification, which was in vogue as early as the fifth century, that we still speak of the curriculum of arts at a university, and that students become graduates in ' arts,' as bachelors or mas- ters. So gloomy a view is taken of the mon- astic training of youth that to some students of history it would seem that the joy of human life would Lave been in danger of being obliterated if it had not been for the warmth and colour of a young knight's boyhood. He was equally well broken into obedience and hardship with the youthful student of the cloister ; but the obedience was the willing service of a mistress whom he loved, and the hardship was the permission to share the dangers of a leader whom he emulated. Against the Trivium and Quadrivium which measured the achievements of re- luctant monkish study, were set the seven knightly accomplishments of riding, swim- ming, shooting with the bow, boxing, hawking, playing chess, and weaving the verses of romance or tenderness. Every feudal court and castle was in fact a school of chivalry, in which the sons of the sovereign and his vassals, together com- monly Avith those of some of their allies or friends, were reared in its principles and habituated to its customs and observances. And, although princes and great person- ages were rarely actually pages or squires, the moral and physical discipline through which they passed was not in any impor- tant particular different from that to which less exalted candidates for knight- hood were subjected. The page com- menced his service and instruction when he was between seven and eight years old, and the initial phase continued for seven or eight years longer. He acted as the constant personal attendant of both his master and mistress. He waited on them in their hall and accompanied them in the chase ; he served the lady in her bower, and followed the lord to the camp. From the chaplain and his mistress and her damsels he learned the rudiments of religion, of rectitude, and of love ; from his master and his squires he learned the elements of military exercise, to cast a spear or dart, to sustain a shield, and to march with the measured tread of a soldier ; and from his master and his huntsmen and falconers he acquired the mysteries of the woods and rivers, or, in other words, the rules and practices of hunting and hawking. When he was between fifteen and sixteen he became a squire ; but no sudden or great alteration was made in his mode of life. The details of his service, however, acquired more dignity according to the notions of the age ; and his military exercises and athletic sports occupied an always in- creasing portion of the day. He accus- tomed himself to ride the ' great horse,' to tilt at the quintain, to wield the sword and battle-axe, to swim and climb, to run and leap, and to bear the weight and overcome the embarrassments of armour He inured himself to the vicissitudes of heat and cold, and voluntarily suffered the pains or inconveniences of hunger and thirst, fatigue and sleeplessness. It was then, too, that he chose his ' lady-love,' whom he was expected to regard with an adoration at once earnest, respectful, and, if possible, concealed. When it was con- sidered that he had made sufficient ad- vancement in his military accomplish- ments, he took his sword to the priest, who laid it on the altar, blessed it, and returned it to him. He was now eligible to become a ' squire of the body,' and truly an ' armiger ' or ' scutifer,' for he bore the shield and armour of his leader to the field, and, what was a task of no small difficulty and hazard, cased and secured him in his panoply of war before assisting him to mount his courser or charger. It was his function also to dis- play and guard in battle the banner of the baron, or banneret or the pennon of the knight he served, to raise him from the ground if he were unhorsed, to supply him with another — if need be, his own — if his horse were killed or disabled, to receive and keep any prisonex'S he might take, to fight by his side if he were unequally matched, to rescue him if captured, to bear him to a place of safety if wounded, RENAISSANCE (THE) 337 and to bury him honourably when dead. And after he had worthily and bravely borne himself for six or seven years as a squire, the time came when it was fitting that he should be made a knight. Perhaps in nothing is the difference be- tween the two forms of education, those of monkery and chivalry, more clearly shown than in the relations to women respectively of the youthful monk and the youthful can- didate for knighthood. The former was brought up to regard a woman as the worst among the many temptations of St. Antony, and his life, as of one surrounded and cared for by celibates, to be himself a celibate, knew nothing of domestic tenderness or affection. A page, on the other hand, was trained to recognise as his best re- ward the smile of the lady of the castle, or her frown as his worst punishment ; and as he grew to manhood, to cherish an absorbing passion as the strongest stimulus to a worthy life, and the con- templation of female virtue in its most noble forms of illustration, whether these occurred within his own observation and experience, or had to be sought as glorified and idealised in romance, as the truest earnest of future immortality. Both these forms of education disappeared before the Renaissance and the Reformation. But it is not to be supposed that no efforts were made to improve upon the narrowness of the schoolmen or the idleness of chivalry. Certainly it cannot be said that the Church was indifferent to the cultivation and ex- tension of such learning as she approved ; and she claims to have shown from the earliest times, through her councils and prelates, an earnest solicitude for the enlightenment of the people. In the ninth century alone, more than twelve councils urged upon priests and people the esta- blishment of schools, monastic or paro- chial, for the culture of sacred and secular learning, the study of divine and human sciences ; and from the beginning of the eleventh century the papal bulls and briefs took notice of the most minute de- tails of management, even to the super- intendence of the schools, so far as the age permitted. The Emperor Charle- magne (742-814) eai-ly turned his atten- tion to the establishment of episcopal seminaries, to which he added grammar and public schools, as preparatory both to the seminaries and to secular professions. Not that they were confined to grammar, for they recognised the Triviitm and Quadri- vium ; but grammar, in the sense of lite- rature, seems to have been the principal subject of their teaching. These schools were established in connection with the cathedral or the cloister. Cardinal New- man regards it as probable that Charle- magne did not do much more than this ; for, 'after all, it was not in an emperor's power, though he were Charlemagne, to carry into effect in any case, by the re- sources peculiar to himself, so great an idea as a university.' It is his merit to have ' certainly introduced ideas and prin- ciples, of which the university was the result.' Whatever the necessary limitations of his power and influence, however, it is in the period of Charlemagne, as he helped to make it, that the common consent of experts finds the era which forms the true boundary line between ancient and modern history. The influences transmitted by the reforms and policy of Chai-lemagne were of greater permanence than the fabric of the empire itself, and in no respect have they had a more enduring effect than in connection with the history of mental culture in Europe. It is, indeed, not a little remarkable, that in this somewhat unduly neglected ninth century may be discerned, as in miniature, all those con- tending principles — the conservative, the progressive, and the speculative — which, save in the darkest times, have rarely since ceased to be apparent in the great centres of our higher education. It is chiefly as the scholar and the founder of schools that the great emperor must live with posterity. He found men ignorant and unwilling to learn ; no schools or col- leges existed in all Germany or Gaul, and the intellect of Europe had sunk into un- wonted apathy. He filled his empire with seats of learning, and left behind him a throng of accomplished scholars — a gene- ration of poets, historians, and progressive priests. ' Alcuin,' the English ' Restorer of Letters in France,' it has been said in a rapture of estimating the educational and the political movements of the Carlo- vingian period by their relative powers of perpetuation and survival — 'Alcuin was greater than Charlemagne, and Erigena than Coeur de Lion.' While the priests instructed the children of the commonalty, the bishops performed the same office for youths of rank or of exceptional ability. 338 RENAISSANCE (THE) ■Wilfrid, Archbishop of York, who was driven out of his splendid benefice in 668, received the sons of many great men who were sent to him for education, whether they were designed for clerical or lay pur- suits. And Egbert, Archbishop of the same see, and a disciple of the Venei-able Bede, ' loved to take under his care youths of good capacity, and, supporting them from his own purse, to guide them afFec- tiontitely in the paths of learning.' Many other prelates zealously spent themselves and their substance in the instruction of youth. In addition to cathedral, monastic, and parochial schools, there existed in the me- diaeval era what were known as ' chaptral schools,' which seem to have been gene- rally under a mixed jurisdiction, and the authority over Avhich was vested in vary- ing proportions, co-ordinately or A\'ith a correlative superiority and subordination, in lay or clerical inclividuals or corpora- tions. Still other schools existed in various parts of Europe, unconnected with any organisation, though generally directed by monks or clergy. ' Such were the schools,' says Mr. Leicester Ambrose Buckingham, ' founded by the Counts of Raperschwil, in the neighbourhood of St. Gall, which, though independent of the abbey, were protected and encouraged by the monks ; such were the schools which flourished in some parts of England in the reign of Henry III., of which FitzStephen makes mention of three established in London, and holding high repute for learning; such were probably the eight schools which Lothaire I. founded in 823, in the principal towns of Italy ; such were the schools for the poor which were frequently created by pious benefactors, as the Ecole des Bons Enf ants, which existed at Rheims from the thirteenth centuiy, the esta- blishment bearing the same name at Brussels, which was endowed by Pierre "Van Huffele, Chaplain of St. Gudule, in 1358, with all his property, and farther enriched in 1377 by Jean t' Serclaes, Archdeacon of Cambray, who provided it with the means necessary for the lodging and nourishment of twelve poor scholars between the ages of nine and eighteen years, and the many similar foundations which existed in other parts of Europe ; such also were the schools of the Hierony- mites, a pious confraternity bearing con- siderable resemblance to the Christian Brothers of modern days, and instituted by Gerard Groote in 1396, whose esta- blishments were numerously diffused throughout Central Europe.' ' Benefactors and patrons,' says Car- dinal Newman, in continuation of his remarks on the inability of Charlemagne to found a university, ' may supply the framework of a Studium Generale ; but there must be a popular interest and sympathy, a spontaneous co-operation of the many, the concurrence of genius, and a spreading thirst for knowledge, if it is to live. Centuries passed before these conditions were supplied, and then at length, about the year 1200, a remarkable intellectual movement took place in Chris- tendom ; and to it must be ascribed the development of univei'sities.' These in- stitutions are usually considered to have grown out of the schools which previous to the twelfth or thirteenth century were attached to most of the cathedrals and monasteries, providing the means of edu- cation both to churchmen and laymen, and bringing together the few learned and scientific men who were to be found in Europe. On all hands it is admitted that the new intellectual impulse sprang up, not only on the domain and under the guidance of the Church, but out of the ecclesiastical schools ; to whose teaching of the Trivium and the Quadrivium, the seven liberal arts, the Scholee Majores added medicine, law, and theology. ' From Rome as from a centre,' to quote the bold directness of Cardinal Newman, ' as the Apostles from Jerusalem, went forth the missionaries of knowledge, passing to and fro all over Europe ; and as metropolitan sees were the record of the presence of Apostles, so did Paris, Pavia, and Bologna, Padua and Ferrara, Pisa and Naples, Viemia, Louvain, and Oxford, rise into universities at the voice of the theologian or the philosopher.' In the latter portion of the mediaeval epoch the universities arose in considerable abundance ; so that not less than fifty-six were founded in Europe before the close of the fifteenth century. As all these institutions, like the schools from which they were deve- loped, were the daughters of the Church, so their teaching perpetuated and petri- fied, as jealousy and narrowness and in- tolerance, the spirit which in earlier times had appeared as self-preservation, and had led so largely to a cenobitic or eremitical RENAISSANCE (THE) 339 seclusion, protected by the horrors, diffi- culties, or inaccessibilities of nature from Hhe. world' of the period, which was at once vile, cruel, and persecuting, to con- front or to challenge which, by way of antagonism, was probably death to the body, and to come into accommodating contact with which was certainly corrup- tion, and probably death, to the soul. The very graces and refinements of such a society were to be withstood, even in their resurrection after centuries of abey- ance and purgation and in the midst of another ' world ' in which the Church marched at large with the pomp and dig- nity of a triumphal procession. Yet the power of the Church when brought face to face with the Renaissance fell short of omnipotence, and her influ- ence of universality. Some of the most pious of her educational agencies and or- ganisations were paralysed by the evolu- tion of a bigotry which was often in the direct ratio of their devotion and single- ness of heart and purpose. Thus the ex- emplary Brethren of the Common Life, the best known name among whom is that of Gerard Groote, and who devoted them- selves with all humility and self-sacrifice to the education of children, had not, with all their purity and sweetness, sufficient strength to preserve amongst the necessary developments of the age the supremacy they had enjoyed for a hundred years. They could not support the glare of the new Italian learning ; they obtained, and in a certain sense it may be feared that they deserved, the title of Obscurantists. The Epistolfjn Ohscurorum Yiroruin, the wittiest squib, notwithstanding its breadth and exaggeration, of the Middle Ages, which was so true and so subtle in its satire that it was hailed as a blow struck in defence of the ancient learning, consists in great part of the lamentations of the Brethren of Deventer over the new age, which they could neither comprehend nor withstand. INIr. Oscar Browning very reasonably affirms the education of the Renaissance to be best represented by the name of Erasmus, that of the Reformation by the names of Luther and Melanchthon, Erasmus has been called the ' Voltaire of the Renaissance,' a partial truth, obscuring a vast difference which cannot properly be forgotten. For although Erasmus in- veighed against the clergy as ' an obscu- rantist army arrayed against light,' he did not attack the Church, in which, were it not free from the polemical strife and the party excesses which his soul abhorred, he hoped to enjoy the delights of a revived literature in a new Augustan age. Con- currently with the great name of Erasmus it is proper in this connection to mention those of Vittorino de Feltre, who died in 1477, after having reached the highest point of excellence as a practical school- master of the Italian Renaissance, and of Count Baldassare Castiglione, the author of II Lihro del Cortegiano, or Book of the Courtier, in which he portrays a cultivated nobleman in those most cultivated days. ' He shows,' says Mr. Browning, in a con- venient summary of his doctrine, ' by what precepts and practice the golden youth of Verona and Venice were formed, who live for us in the plays of Shakespeare as models of knightly excellence.' For our instruction it is better to have recourse to the pages of Erasmus. He has written the most minute account of his method of teach- ing. ' The child is to be formed into a good Latin and Greek scholar and a pious man. He fully grasps the truth that improvement must be natural and gradual. Letters are to be taught playing. The rules of gram- mar are to be few and short. Every means of arousing interest in the work is to be fully employed. Erasmus is no Cicero- nian. Latin is to be taught so as to be of use — a living language adapted to modern wants. Children should learn an art — painting, sculpture, or architecture. Idle- ness is above all things to be avoided. The education of girls is as necessary and important as that of boys. Much depends upon home influence ; obedience must be strict, but not too severe. We must take account of individual peculiarities, and not force children into cloisters against their will. We shall obtain the best result by following nature. It is easy to see what a contrast this scheme presented to the monkish training — to the routine of use- less technicalities enforced amidst the shouts of teachers and the lamentations of the taught.' It is difficult for students of education to attach too much importance to this great revolution. For nearly three cen- turies the curriculum in the public schools of Europe remained what the Renaissance had made it, although the signs are scarcely ambiguous that we have again entered on an age of change. ' The Renaissance,' ob- z2 340 RENAISSANCE (THE) serves the Rev. Mark Pattison, in his Isaac Casanbon, 1559-1614, 'had dealt with antiquity, not in the spii'it of leanied research, but in the spirit of free creative imitation. In the fifteenth century was revealed to a world, which had hitherto been trained to logical analysis, the beauty of literary form. The conception of style or finished expressions had died out with the pagan schools of rhetoric. It was not the despotic act of Justinian in closing the schools of Athens which had suppressed it. The sense of art in language decayed from the same general causes which had been fatal to all artistic perception. Banished from the Roman empire in the sixth century, or earlier, the classical con- ception of beauty of form re-entered the circle of ideas again in the fifteenth cen- tury, after nearly a thousand years of ob- livion and abeyance. Cicero and Yirgil, Livius and Ovid, had been there all along ; but the idea of composite harmony, on which their works were constructed, was wanting. The restored conception, as if to recoup itself for its long suppression, took entire possession of the mind of edu- cated Europe. The first period of the Renaissance passed in adoration of the awakened beauty, and in efforts to copy and multiply it.' Under the reawakening of this sense of beauty it happened that the classics, however they miglit be prized for their matter, were valued above all things for their form and expression. In this spirit the scholars of the Renaissance did all they could to discourage translations. Thus it happens that in the period of change, when Europe was rearranging its insti- tutions, men who were most influential in education were entirely fascinated by beauty of expression as exemplified in two ancient languages. To such men the one thing needful for the young seemed to be an introduction to the study of the ancient writings. Education became in conse- quence a mere synonym for instruction in Latin and Greek, and the only ideal of culture was that of the classical scholar. From this it followed that acquirement was placed before achievement. The high- est distinction was awarded to the student of other men's words and other men's thoughts, so that doing and thinking came to be considered of far less importance in education than learning and remembering. Thus the scholars of the Renaissance, 'not- withstanding their admiration of the great nations of antiquity, set up an ideal which those nations would heartily have despised. The schoolmaster very readily adopted this ideal ; and schools,' Mr. Quick com- plains, ' have been places of leai-ning, not training, ever since.' Such an ideal was, in the nature of things, generally impossible of attainment except to the rich and leisurely, who alone possessed the opportunities necessary for its effective contemplation. In practice the learned ideal has the further disadvantage of offering no compensating benefit for rudimentary effbrts, and it knows little or nothing of proportional rewards for inter- mitted study, interrupted advance, or arrested approach. The first stage, the study of the ancient languages, is so totally different from the study of the ancient literatvires to which it is the preliminary, that the student who never goes beyond this first stage either gets no benefit at all, or a benefit which is not of the kind in- tended. It is almost a corollary from the en- thusiasm for literature as an exclusive educational instrument, that literature, properly so called, is forbidden to the schooh'oom, in which the subject of in- struction is not so much the classics as the classical languages. That which is to be effectively the literature of the young must have its form and expression in the ver- nacular. The ideal of the Renaissance, again, in its relation to education, ' led the school- masters,' to quote further from the ob- jections of Mr. Quick, 'to attach little importance to the education of children. Directly their pupils were old enough for Latin grammar the schoolmasters were quite at home ; but till then the children's time seemed of small value, and they neither knew nor cared to know how to employ it. If the little ones could learn by heart forms of words which would after- wards ' come in useful,' the schoolmasters were ready to assist such learning by ready application of the rod; but no other learning seemed worthy even of a caning. Absorbed in the world of books they overlooked the world of nature. Galileo complains that he could not induce them to look through his telescope, for they held that truth could be arrived at only by com- parison of manuscripts. No wonder, then, that they had so little sympathy with chil- RESEAPX'H, ENDOWMENT OF 341 (Iren, and did not know how to teach them. It is by slow degrees that we are Vjreaking away from the bad tradition tlius esta- blished, and getting to understand chil- dren, and, with such leaders as Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel, are investigating the best education for them. We no longer think of them as immature men and women, but see tliat each stage has its own completeness, and that there is a per- fection in childhood which must precede the perfection of manhood just as truly as the flower goes before the fruit.' {See ar- ticles on ' Education,' by Oscar Browning, and ' Knighthood,' by F. Drummond, in EncydopcHdia Brito/anica, 9th edition ; Leicester A. Buckingham's Bihle in the Middle Ages, 1853 ; Cardinal Newman's Historical Sketches : Eise and Progress of Universities, 1873 ; Rev. Mark Pattison's Iso/ic CasoMhon, 1875 ; J. Bass Mullinger's Schools of Charles the Great and the Resto- ration of Education in the Ninth Century, 1877 ; Rev. R. H. Quick's ' Renascence, and its Influence on Education ' in Edu- cation : an International Magazine, Sep- tember a.nd November 1880.) Research, Endowment of. — For some- thing like a quarter of a century the public mind has been becoming more and more familiarised with the idea of the endow- ment of scientific research, and at the same time the idea of ' science ' has been ac- quiring a wider meaning. Indeed, the question has now almost assumed the form : Shall the prosecution of learning in all its great branches be assisted more liberally and more systematically ? The supreme national importance of the question is acknowledged by all, although with very wide discrepancy as to the value of par- ticular studies. Unless w^e gird up our loins we shall be outstripped by our con- tinental neighbours. The great difficulty is Avhence to find the indispensable money ; minor, yet not inconsiderable, difficulties are to find the right men to endow, and to work out a scheme for the regulation of the endo\\Tnent. Considering the enormous masses of money available for the promo- tion of learning at the university seats, public men naturally resist any claims on the public treasury until the universities and colleges have turned their wealth into channels that accord with the modem spirit and with modem deeds, and yet can show a clear case for public consideration. Academic conservatism is naturally strong. and it is powerfully backed up by the last wishes of the pious founder. The recon- ciliation of the conflicting claims was well expressed by Lord Derby : ' Respect the founder's object,' he said, ' but use your own discretion as to the means. If you do not do the first, you will have no new endowments ; if you neglect the last, those which you have will be of no use.' How- ever firmly fixed the present system at our great universities may be, still, as a matter of fact, ' nothing could be more alien to the whole purport of the original statutes than that the period of study should be limited by the undergraduate course, and that fel- lowships should then be given as prizes for past exer-tions or as subsidies for ordinary teaching ' {Essa.ys on the Endovrment of Research, p. 58). 'With regard to the bulk of the college endowments,' says Mr. J. S. Cotton, ' the right mode of appropri- ation is perfectly clear. The intentions of the founders, the teaching of history, and the wants of the present day, all point in the same direction. The money should be devoted to study, and to study alone ; en- forced as a duty, and protected by ade- quate guarantees, but unencumbered by any obligation to impart common instruc- tion. By this one bold and necessary re- form the Universities of Oxford and Cam- Ijridge may once again pick up the torch of intellectual progress, which has for a while fallen from their hands ; and at the same time England, in fulfilling the designs of her gi'eat patrons of learning, may re- gain her place among the nations as the chosen home of literary erudition and sci- entific inquiry ' (p. 63). In other essays in the same volume the late Dr. C. E. Appleton inquir-es into the economical character of subsidies to education in all grades (pp. 64-85), and then examines the endowment of research as a productive form of expenditure. On the latter head he points out that 'the investigation of truth, considered as a vocation, is an instance of that class of industry whose economical condition seems to be one of inherent and permanent incapability to maintain itself,' and concludes that ' it is scarcely conceivable that any alteration, however radical, could be made in the arrangements of society which could render the labour of scientific discovery of any appreciable pecuniary value to the man engaged in it.' Consequently, in order to live, a 'researcher' must engage in some 342 RESEARCH, ENDOWMENT OF other occupation, which supports him and leaves him some spare time and energy for his special research. The alliance of research with incumbency of a benefice, while rendering research possible, camiot be serviceable for the cure of souls ; neither can the research amount to what it might under conditions not hampered by the duties of the benefice. But the increased zeal of the Church is steadily driving other interests away from the incumbencies. A good school appointment, while less com- promised by research, cannot but cumber the efforts of the researcher. 'It is a melancholy fact,' says Dr. Appleton, 'that the connection of the profession of learning and science with that of the higher educa- tion in this country, owing in large measure to the great improvements which have been made in the latter, and the engrossing- character of the duties which it imposes, has gone far to choke the spirit of original investigation altogether ' (p. 90). Again, however, there is the fact that scientific men get attached to commercial enterprise as advisers of large firms, or as themselves patentees. Still, ' with respect to the enor- mous proportion of scientifically trained persons who are directly or indirectly sup- ported by commerce, it should be remarked that this source of maintenance is not only the exclusive privilege of physical science, but almost the exclusive privilege of one only of the physical sciences. There is no commercial career open to a biologist, for instance ; and the existence of a com- mercial career, and frequently a very lu- crative one, for the chemist, has the effect of starving all the other sciences for the benefit of one of them. One of our fore- most teachers of biology complained to me not long ago that he was compelled to ad- vise his best pupils, who were desirous of devoting themselves to a life of research, to give up their own study and enter upon that of chemistry, as there was no prospect of a career for them in any other science ' (p. 96). Besides this disturbance of the pro- portions of knowledge, another disadvan- tage, arising from being compelled to de- pend on commerce for support, is this, that the introduction of the utilitarian motive destroys the strictly scientific character of research. There remains the case in which the expenses of a life devoted to research are provided from the private fortune of the inquirer. This, says Dr. Ap- pleton, with bitter keenness, 'is a way of paying for research which is very charac- teristic of this country.' Yet, 'judged by its results, it would seem to be more ad- vantageous to the cause of knowledge than any of the preceding expedients. Whilst, in Germany the case of Humboldt is an exceptional one, it is a remarkable fact that some of the greatest scientific work, both as regards quality and quantity, has. been carried out in England by men of property. The possessor of private fortune who engages in research is indeed more nearly in the position of the recipient of an endowment for research than any other, because he is entirely free from the dis- traction of extraneous duties. But the- system of letting research be paid for in this way is not witliout grave disadvantages. In the first place, this kind of support is. sporadic and fortuitous, and though favour- able to the development of pai-ticular studies, it resembles the dependence of science upon commerce in this respect,, that it is quite inconsistent with the har- monious development of the body of human knowledge as an organised and interdepen- dent whole. Secondly, there is unfortunately no necessary connection between wisdom, and the inheritance of riches, and conse- quently it is always within the bounds of possibility that a man of property may subsidise in his own person, not knowledge- but error, a mischievous crotchet or a perfectly fruitless and impossible inquiry, and may employ the contents of a bottom- less purse in compelling the attention of the world to it. This possibility, thirdly, is analogous to another disadvantage at- tending this mode of suppoi-t. There is no guarantee in the case of the private- person, as there is to some extent in the csise of all the preceding expedients, and as may be secured by the proper adminis- tration of public endowment, that the in- vestigator is sufficiently furnished with the preliminary knowledge or discipline to- make his researches fruitful. In short, work supported by private means is very likely to be mnateur work, or du2)Ucate work. It may be added, finally, that from an economical point of view the employ- ment of private wealth upon research stands on the same footing as endowment. If the object is unproductive the community at large is in either case poorer by all that is consumed by the investigator while em- ployed in research' (pp. 97-99). The va- rious artificial means by which scientific RESEARCH, ENDOWMENT OF 343 research has hitherto been supported being attended with grave disadvantages to sci- ence itself, the only means of maintaining knowledge which remains is that of public endowment. The endowment of scientific investigation out of the taxes — and Dr. Ap- pleton rightly recognises that the commonly talked of opposition between the physical sciences and other branches of study is entirely without foundation — has been re- commended on a variety of grounds : 'from considerations of the dignity of knowledge and the honour of a nation ; from the ex- amples of other nations who are under a paternal form of government; or as one of the functions and expenses of the sove- reign. Bentham justifies it as a work of superfluity, the expense of which is trifling as compared to the mass of necessary con- tributions. Let any one, he says, under- take to restore to each his quota of this superfluous expense, and it would be found to be imperceptible, so as "to excite no distinct sensation which can give rise to a distinct complaint." Others, again, have held that the endowment of science involves considerations which do not come within the view of political economy, and therefore, if not sanctioned, that such endowment is a little condemned by it.' Dr. Appleton, however, faces the economical aspect of direct endo^nnent and science, and con- cludes that 'the application of endowments to the maintenance of scientific research is economically sound, because, although knowledge is a kind of wealth, there are apparently insuperable diSiculties in the way of making it an exchangeable commo- dity, out of the sale of which the scientific observer can make a living.' There might also be urged 'the beneficial efiect which purely abstract ideas — such as, e.g., that of the universal brotherhood of mankind — have exercised indii-ectly on the produc- tion of wealth, by bringing about changes in the relations of men and nations to one another.' The case of Tycho Brahe is certainly a remarkable example of the princely fashion in which the sixteenth century thought fit to endow research, and might shame a less material age into some attempt at imitation. There can be no question that the exa- mination system is in direct antithesis to original research. 'Competitive examina- tions and original I'esearch,' says Professor Sayce (p, 139), 'are incompatible terms. The object of the one is to ai^i^ear wise. the object of the other to he so. The one is mercenary, the other unselfish; and however advisable it may be to drive a boy through a mental treadmill, the process must degrade a man into a piece of ma- chinery.' No learning is reckoned of any account unless it will ' pay ' in examinations. 'Professor Max Miiller offered in vain, term after term, to read the Rig- Veda with any one of the 2,400 members of the Uni- versity of Oxford ; none would go to him, since a third-hand acquaintance with a few words and forms from that oldest specimen of Aryan literature is sufficient for the schools. The same professor, one of the most interesting and lucid of lecturers, when lecturing on the fascinating subject of comparative mythology, which he has made so peculiarly his own, could collect but a miserable fragment of an audience around him, and even of this the larger part consisted of college lecturers, who intended to retail to their own pupils some of the crumbs which had fallen into their note-books.' This is all very humiliat- ing. Mr. Sayce goes on to sum up the mischievous results of the examination system ' at these "ancient seats of learning," though now of cram, under the general charge of its destruction of intellectual morality, and alienation of science and research.' The testimony of Dr. Henry Clifton Sorby is very striking. 'Judging from my own experience,' he says (p. 151), 'I do not hesitate to say that for the successful prosecution of original inquiry, two of the most essential requisites are abundance of time for continuous and extended experi- ments, and freedom from all those disturb- ino- cares and ensrasjements which either interrupt the experiments at critical times, or so occupy the attention as to prevent the mind from properly digesting the re- sults, and deducing from them all the conclusions to which they should conduct the investigator.' The same reasoning applies to all other subjects of scientific investigation, as well as to physical science. The examples Dr. Sorby cites from his own studies are remarkable, and he concludes emphatically that, ' whatever the experience of others may lead them to think, mine has been amply sufficient to convince me that I never could have done what I have been able to do if it had been necessary for me to attend to any business or profession as \ a means of support' (p. 163). One excep- 3U RESEARCH, ENDOWMENT OF tion he makes — and it may be said to prove the rule— in the case of those who are employed to carry out what really are original inquiries in connection with some of our large manufactories. Such positions do indeed present great facilities for the advancement of cei'tain branches of science — indeed, they may almost be called an endowment for research ; but the care of a business and profession is a totally diffe- rent thing. Assuming that the money difficulty is overcome, there would still remain the further difficulty of obtaining the right young men as ' researchers,' and of regu- lating their appointment. Dr. Sorby has no doubt that such men could be found, ' and in fact I could name several noble examples of the very sort wanted.' Be- sides, 'looking at the question from a national point of view, one cannot but feel that to enable such men to occupy their whole time over the A'aluable work which they are both able and willing to do, is out of all proportion more important than rewarding a youth Avho has passed a suc- cessful examination in such a way that the public gains little or nothing from the expenditure.' As to the regulation of such appointments, Dr. Sorby has some very pointed remarks. 'Much of what has been urged against such endow- ments,' he argues, ' appears to me to have force not so much against the general principle as against what I regard as a wrong application of it. Some have urged that it would lead to no good result, be- cause, when once such an appointment has been obtained, a person who had worked hard as a candidate would become idle as soon as the need for work ceased to exist. Precaution should be taken to avoid a conclusion so lame and impotent as this. Everything should be so regu- lated that good and efficient men may not be driven back by the feeling of uncertain tenure, and at the same time that it may be impossible for a man, when once he has obtained an appointment, to pocket the money and do no more work. Unless such a thing were rendered impossible, there would be little advantage in chang- ing the present system. The conclusion to which I have come is, that any one who has the will and ability for original work may very safely be appointed for a certain number of years, and aftei- that reappointed every year, or every two years, as long as he continues to discharge his duties in an efficient manner. I do not think there would generally and in practice be any •difficulty in deciding whether he did so. Though a great amount of excellent scientific work may produce a very small show, yet almost any one who had had practical experience of original research could easily see whether adequate work had been done, or time passed in laborious idleness. In the case of residents in a university I can scarcely believe a mistake to be possible.' Further, ' in making re- gulations for the endowment of research, care should be taken to avoid dictation, and to allow as much room as possible for the intellectual expansion of the in- dividual.' As to the amount of annual income to be paid to a ' researcher ' that would be most conducive to the general advancement of science, Dr. Sorby natu- rally finds it difficult to pronounce any very confident opinion, on account of the whole system having been so far almost untried. ' The character of the occupation and social position must be taken into account, as well as mere money value. This latter, however, should be sufficient to attract and permanently attach to the work of research men of the highest in- tellectual capacity, and enable them to enjoy those material advantages which they could obtain if they devoted their time and talents to any business or pro- fession not necessarily involving a greater amount of personal discomfort.' Perhaps this estimate is highly liberal. The well- paid posts in universities at the present time do not encourage large stipends. The man of science should not be ex- pected to enter on contests of social dis- play ; on the contrary, it will be all the better for himself and for science that he rather err on the other side. Professor Max Miiller (Chijjs from a German WorJishop, vol. iv. pp. 4-10) makes a strong argument for reform at Oxford and Cambridge, which may be usefully applied to other endowed institu- tions as well, and which supports power- fully the views indicated in the foregoing portion of this article. ' Unless I am mistaken,' he says, ' there was really no university in which more ample provision had been made by founders and bene- factors than at Oxford, for the support and encouragement of a class of students who should follow up new lines of study, RESEARCH. ENDOWMENT OF- -REWARDS 345 •devote their energies to work which, from its very nature, could not be lucrative or even self-supporting, and maintain the fame of English learning, English indus- try, and English genius in that great and time-honoured republic of learning which claims the allegiance of the whole of Europe — nay, of the whole civilised world. That work at Oxford and Cambridge was meant to be done by the Fellows of col- leges.' Something has already been done, but ' something remains still to be done in order to restore these fellowships more fully and more efficiently to their original purpose, and thus to secure to the univer- sity not only a staff of zealous teachers, which it certainly possesses, but likewise a class of independent workers, of men who, by original research, by critical edi- tions of the classics, by an acquisition of scholarlike knowledge of other languages besides Greek and Latin, by an honest devotion to one or the other among the numerous branches of physical science, by fearless researches into the ancient history of mankind, by a careful revision of the matei-ials for the history of politics, juris- prudence, medicine, literature, and arts, by a life-long occupation with the pro- blems of philosophy, and last, not least, by a real study of theology, or the science of religion, should perform again those duties which, in the stillness of the Middle Ages, were performed by learned friars within the walls of our colleges. ... If only twenty men in Oxford and Cambridge had the will, everything is ready for a reform — that is, for a restoration of the ancient glory of Oxford. The funds which are now frittered away in so-called prize fellow- ships would enable the universities to- morrow to invite the best talent of England back to its legitimate home. . . . Why should not a fellowship be made into a career for life, beginning with little, but rising, like the incomes of other professions ? Why should the grotesque condition of celibacy be imposed on a fellowship, instead of the really salutary condition of — No work, no pay ? Why should not some special literary or scien- tific work be assigned to each Fellow, whether resident in Oxford or sent abroad on scientific missions ? Why, instead of having fifty young men scattered about in England, should we not have ten of the best workers in every branch of human knowledge resident at Oxford, whether as teachers, or as guides, or as examples ? The very presence of such men would have a stimulating and eleva- ting effect ; it would show to the young men higher objects of human ambition than the baton of a field-marshal, the mitre of a bishop, the ermine of a judge, or the money-bags of a merchant ; it would create for the future a supply of new workers as soon as there was for them, if not an avenue to wealth and power, at least a fair opening for hard work and proper pay. All this might be done to-morrow without any injury to anybody, and with every chance of producing results of the greatest value to the universities, to the country, and to the world at large. . . . Much of the work, therefore, which in other universities falls to the lot of the professors ought in Oxford to be per- formed by a stafi" of student Fellows, whose labours should be properly organ- ised, as they are in the Institute of France or in the Academy of Berlin. With or without teaching, they could perform the work which no university can safely neglect, the work of constantly testing the soundness of our intellectual food, and of steadily expanding the realms of know- ledge. We want pioneers, explorers, con- querors, and we could have them in abun- dance if we cared to have them. What other universities do by founding new chairs for new sciences, the colleges of Oxford could do to-morrow by applying the funds which are not required for teaching purposes, and which are now spent on sinecure fellowships, for making either temporary or permanent provision for the endowment of original research.' It ought to be acknowledged that there are a few prizes at the universities which may be regarded as so many en- dowments of research ; and certain others have been founded by London City Com- panies, notably the Grocers, Mercers, and Goldsmiths. (See Essays on the Endow- tnent of Research hy various Writers, H. S. King & Co.) Responsions. See Moderations. Results. See Payment by Results, Rewards. — The term reward in con- nection with education may be defined as something bestowed by one in authority in recognition of a good or virtuous act. The reward may have an intrinsic value, as in the case of school prizes, or may be coveted and prized merely as a mark or 346 REWAEDS- -RHETORIC symbol of approval and commendation. Most rewards bestowed on the young owe a part of their value to the distinction and honour which they bring to the winner. From this definition it will be seen that it is the essence of a reward that it be given as a consequence and in acknoAvledg- ment of an effort of will. Hence a school- prize, position in honoiirs' lists, and so forth, is only a reward so far as the attain- ment of it depends on effort, and not on superior ability. Rewards are correlated with punishments, constituting together the sjreat means of stimulatins; the will to right action before the higher motives are sufficiently developed. A reward incites the will to effort by the prospect of a pleasure, whereas punishment stimulates it by the compulsory force of pain (cf. article Punishment). It is evident that in the apportioning of rewards regard must always be paid to the amount of effort involved. Hence it may often be desirable to reward backward children, the more so as they are shut out from the distinctions and prizes which depend on superior ability. Rewards, like punish- ments, may easily be given thoughtlessly and in excess, in which case they are likely to do harm rather than good. Giv- ing things to young children for doing what they ought to do without such in- ducements, a fault common among weak and indulgent parents, is detrimental to moral character. It is peculiarly foolish to reward children for acts of kindness or benevolence, the very essence of which is disinterestedness.^ It should be the aim of the educator to dispense witli tangible rewards as far as possible, to lead the child to set a higher value on the approval which the rewai-d represents than on the object itself, and gradually to emancipate it from the sway of such artificial stimuli by exercising it in the pursuit of virtue for its own sake. {See Locke, Thoughts, §§ 52, 53 ; Sully, Teacher'' s Handbook, p. 480 and following ; andarticle 'Belohnung,' in Schmidt's Encydo'pcidie; cf. references to Beneke and Waitz at end of article Punishment.) Reynolds, John. See Home and Co- lonial School Society. Rhetoric (from Greek p-qnup, an orator) meant in ancient times the principles which underlie the art of oratory. It is 1 See Miss Edgeworth, Practical Education, chap. now used in a more extended sense tO' denote the theory of eloquence, or the effective employment of language, whether spoken or written. The end of speech is either to convince the vmderstanding, gra- tify the feelings, or rouse the will. We are moved to act, however, only in so far- as our judgments are convinced and our feelings excited ; hence there are but two main rhetorical ends, the intellectual oi- logical, and the emotional or festhetic. The inquiry into the best means of attain- ing these, leads on the one hand to the- consideration of the conditions of clear un- derstanding, such as clearness of language and logical correctness of argument, and on the other hand to the treatment of the elements that make up impressiveness and beauty of style. Rhetoric seeks further to classify the different kinds of composi- tion, and to consider the special rules which are applicable to each. These are commonly divided into three : 1. Descrip- tion, which has to do with the objects and scenes of still life ; 2. Narration, which aims at presenting a series of actions in their proper connection and dependence ; and 3. Exposition, which seeks to set forth the general truths of science. Prom this brief sketch of the science of rhetoric the reader may see that it has a close bearing on the teacher's work. A study of the rhe- torical principles of clear statement forms in comiection with logical study a neces- sary preparation for all intellectual educa- tion ; and the study of composition on its aesthetic or artistic side will be of ser-vice to the teacher in setting forth the beauties of our great writers, and in exercising the taste of the young in literary composition. It is evident, further, that the special prin- ciples of each of the three main varieties of composition have their value for the teacher. Thus the rules of good description, which is required in the teaching of all concrete subjects, as geography, history on its pic- turesque side, and descriptive science, are of special u.tility. The art of description means the most effective way of represent- ing an object, scene, or incident, so as to help the hearer or reader to the utmost in the imaginative realisation of the same ; and the teacher who has studied the rhe- torical principles of the subject vfiiW. be in a better position to describe clearly and vividly, so as to leave a lasting impression on the child's mind. Again, in history- teaching of the more advanced kind, a EICHTER, JOHANN PAUL FRIEDRICH 347 knowledge of the rules of clear orderly narration is necessary to the teacher's success. And, finally, in expounding scien- tific truths, a knowledge of the rhetorical principles bearing on the management of the proposition, the choice of examples and so forth, will be fovmd to l^e of very great value. {See Bain, English Co))ipositio7i and Rhetoric, enlarged edition, 1887.) Richter, Johann Paul Friedrich (gene- rally .known under the Gallicised form ' Jean Paul,' which he adopted), h. 1763, the year after the publication of Rous- seau's J^mile, at Wonsiedel, a town in the Fichtelgebirge to the north-east of Ba- varia. Richter came of a race of peda- gogues, both his grandfather and his father having been schoolmasters. Of his early life and education we have a voluminous but by no means clear account in the fragmentary autobiography. The general impression left upon us is that from his regular pastors and masters Richter learnt but little. He was a dreamy child, living in a self-created world of fancy, and de- vouring from his earliest years every book he could lay his hands on. Among them he notes as epoch-making volumes the Dialogues of the Dead and Rohinson Crusoe. In 1781 he left the university of Leipzig, where he was studying theo- logy, in order to gain his own livelihood and support his mother, now a widow and in destitute circumstances. Having failed in his first literaiy ventures, he was driven to teaching as a last resource, and for two years acted as private tutor to the brother of a rich friend, but he found the work uncongenial and irksome. His next ex- perience as a teacher was a complete con- trast to the first. In 1789 he started for himself a school in the small town of Schwarzenbach. His pupils numbered only seven, most of them the sons of friends, and varying in age from seven to fifteen. What to most men with his genius would have been a repulsive drudgery was to Richter an inspiring task. To use his own metaphor, he was the planet Saturn with his seven satellites. The planet must, we fancy, have often appeared to his class a comet or an ignis fatuus, leading them a wild dance through earth, air, fire, and water. Of formal instruction there was little, but all his pupils loved their master, and he had from the first firmly grasped the fundamental principle of education, not to instil knowledge but to evoke faculty, to teach not to preach. It was during these five years that the materials were gathered and the ideas matured which were given to the world some five years later in Levana, when the author had ' graduated as a parent.' Jean Paul is the direct lineal descendant of Jean-Jacques, and the Levana is one of those winged seeds blown out of France which fell and ger- minated on German soil, though the differ- ences between the two men and their works are at least as striking as their resem- blances. Richter, like Rousseau, is a senti- mentalist, and approaches the problem of education from the emotional rather than from the intellectual side. Both regard the child as a tender plant to be reared and nurtured, not as a lump of clay to be moulded on the schoolmaster's wheel. Both sympathise with the joyous freedom of childhood and preach deliverance from the hide-bound traditions of the schoolroom. But hei^e the I'esemblance ends. Rousseau starts with cex'taiia aphorisms — the innate goodness of human nature, the corrupting influence of society — and deduces there- from a complete system with the logical accuracy and neatness of a Frenchman.. Richter is the most eccentric of writers and repudiates all attempts at systematic exposition. Levana is a mighty maze, and that without a plan, yet not without fixed ideas and principles. In fact, as the out- come of personal experience, it is a far- safer guide to parents and masters than the doctrinaire theory of his master. At starting he joins ^issue with the main prin- ciples on which Emile's education is based. Rousseau's is a system of elaborate checks- and safeguards, a negative education which could be fully realised only in a cofiin. To' educate by illusions and carefully-prepared accidents is both immoral and futile, for sooner or later the boy will discover the trickery. To reward and punish by phy- sical consequences only (the doctrine that Herbert Spencer has revived) is to sacri- fice the growing man for the sake of the adult. Life is too short and the conse- quences too grave. Moreover, the theory is not really in accordance with nature.. The will of a superior is as much a fact of nature as that fire burns or water drowns, and a child must be made to recognise one fact no less than the other. Lastly, Rous- seau's system treats the pupil as a solitary unit and would cut him off from all human intercourse except with his governor, who 348 ROCHOW, FREDERIC EBERHARD VON ROUSSEAU follows him like his shadow. Richter lays full stress on the cultivation of social sympathies, and has no belief, at least for boys, in a cloistered virtue. In conclusion, we may glance at a few of the salient features in Richter's own system. In his sti'ictui'es on the ' classical parrots ' and his vindication of the mother tongue as the chief subject-matter of instruction he is a true modern. In his insistence on religious teaching without forms or for- mulas, catechisms or church-going, he is the worthy follower of Lessing. In his philosophic analysis of play and the peda- gogic importance that lie attaches to games, music, and fairy stories, he is a forerunner of Froebel. Lastly, in the broad view that he takes of life as a whole, neither magni- fying nor belittling the functions of the teacher, he deserves among educators, even more than among writers, his epithet of ' unique.' Of the Levana a useful con- densation has been edited by Susan Wood, B.Sc. Among Richter's other writings bearing on education Qiiintus Fixlein and Maria Witz (an exquisite idyl depicting the inner life of a village dominie) deserve mention. For his doctrines see G. Wirth's Richter als Pddagog. Robes (Academic). See University Robes. Rochow, Frederic Eberhard von (1734-1805). — A German educationist, a native of Berlin, was trained to the ■army, and smelt powder at Prague in 1756. Becoming acquainted Avith Base- dow's Aims and Methods of Education, he devoted himself with sound judgment and discriminating charity to improving the schools and homes of his own peasantry. As a first instalment to improving their school system he published in 1772 a School Book/or Children of Country People and for the Use of Village Schools, the •chief object of which was to elevate the intelligence and practical skill of teachers, and to inaugurate free education. He next published the Reader (1770), Manual ■of Catechetic Forms for Teachers (1783), Catechism of Sound Reason (1786), and Corrections (1792), which is a collection of definitions full of pedagogic suggestions, and finally translated Mirabeau's Discourse on National Education (1792). He was really the first advocate of a reformation of the elementary school system of Prussia. RoUin (1661-1741) was first as pupil, and afterwards as professor, connected dur- ing the greater part of his life with the University of Paris, to which he considered that next to God he owed everything. His name — ' bon Rollin,' as the phrase goes — has been honoured among his countrymen rather for what he was than for what he did, rather for the disinterested sincerity of his character than for any striking originality of intellect. Thus in his fa- mous Traite des Etudes he emphatically advocates, with very many discriminating suggestions as to curriculum (e.g. domestic economy is ranked next to religion in im- portance), a more thorough education for girls ; but in this first book he is avowedly following in the steps of Fenelon. In other matters he follows the Port- Royalists, and like them he is, from our point of view, prudish ; among the French books recom- mended for the young, Corneille (bk. ii.) and Moliere do not find a place. Occasionally he is almost retrogressive ; the Oratorians had laid great stress on the teaching of the national history ; Rollin admits that by postponing it to Greek and Roman history he virtually excludes it from the university course (bk. vi.). Indeed he is altogether an exponent of existing practice, especially that of the University of Paris, rather than an originator. It is, however, in his eighth and last book of the Traite that Rollin is at his best. Villemain has described him as the 'veritable saint del'enseignement'; and on the matters of discipline considered in this book we feel that he at once by character and by experience is qualified, as few have ever been, to be a teacher of teachei'S. Rousseau. — Jean -Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was born at Geneva, his mother dying in giving him birth, thus making his birth, as he pathetically said, the first misfortune of his life. Of weak body and morbid mind, his destiny was for himself gloomy and filled with pain, but he stands out for ever in history as one of those brilliant spirits of the eigh- teenth century who made the French Re- volution possible, and in the ' azure of the past' he is one of that constellation in which the other stars of first magnitude are Voltaire and Diderot, d'Holbach and d'Alembert. His Contrat Social may be said to have been the very bible of the Revolutionists, with its passionate throb of liberty, its appeal to right and to justice. The 'gospel of Jean- Jacques Rousseau'— which rang over France, stirring the sleep- ROUSSEAU 349 ing people as with a trumpet-blast and breathing into their hearts the longings which burst into the flame and the whirl- wind of the Revolution when he himself lay sleeping for ever in the j)eaceful shades of Ermenonville - this gospel was, in a word, the cry that ' man is born free, but is in fetters everywhere.' ' To renounce liberty is to renounce manhood ; it is to renounce the rights of humanity ; yes, it is to renounce its duties. ' Never book had mightier force than this Contrat Social, and though to-day its truths have become truisms and its mistakes absurdities, it yet remains as a monument to the man who grasped and held to a fundamental verity which had scarce been dreamed by his contemporaries. In 1750 Rousseau made his debut in the world of letters with an essay, which won a prize offered by the Academy of Dijon, on the question, 'Has the restora- tion of the sciences contributed to the puri- fication or to the corruption of manners 1 ' In this essay he endeavoured to prove the thesis that riches gave birth to luxury and idleness, and that the arts sprang from luxury, the sciences from idleness. Hence he argued that a return to simplicity of life would conduce to purity of morals. Out of this opinion grew his theory of education, a theory fully expounded in his famous £mile, published in 1762 : a work which, he said in his preface, was ' commenced to please a good mother who was capable of thought,' and which was based on the idea that education should ' commence at birth,' and should be guided by a comprehension of child -nature grow- ing out of a careful and sympathetic study thereof. In the very first sentence of his book Rousseau strikes the key-note in which all his writing is set : ' All is good as it comes from the hand of the Creator ; all degenerates in the hands of man.' The object of education, then, is to follow the indications given by nature, and since ' men are moulded by education as plants by culture,' it is of vital importance that this education shall be sound. ' We are born feeble and have need of strength ; we are born stripped of everything and we need help ; we are born stupid and have need of judgment. Everything which we lack at birth, and which we require in our ma- turity, is given to us by education. This education comes from nature, from men, or from circumstances. The internal de- velopment of our faculties and of our organs is the education of nature ; the use which we are taught to make of this development is the education of men ; and the acquisition of experience about the things which afiect us is the education of circumstances.' Of these three kinds of education that only which is given by men is really under our control. Primarily the pupil is to be trained to be a man. ' How to live is the trade I would teach him. In passing from my hands he shall not be magistrate, or soldier, or priest; he shall be first of all man.' To this end education must begin in the cradle; the mother must nurse her babe that she may stand first in his affections ; the father must be his first tutor ; if the mother is too delicate to nurse, the father too busy to teach, the family has no real existence. As soon as the child begins to observe, care must be exercised in the ob- jects he sees ; he must be accustomed to the sight of new things, of ugly animals, that he may feel fear of nothing. As children are easily frightened by masks, Emile is first to see a pleasant-looking mask, and then the mask is put on by somebody and everybody laughs, so that the child laughs too ; gradually ugly ones are introduced until, 'if I have managed my gradation well,' he will laugh at a hideous one as at the first. Thus a child may be made intrepid, and ' when reason begins to frighten them let habit reassure them.' As Emile begins to speak and to walk no over-solicitude is to be shown. If he hurts himself, ti-anquillity on the part of the elder teaches self-control and cour- age ; and as a child, unless carelessly placed in danger, cannot hurt himself seriously, he should be left to face small injuries and so learn endurance. Thus nature teaches, and thus the child should be trained. He should not obtain a thing because he asks for it, but because he needs it ; he should not act from obedience, but from necessity. Do not forbid him to do a thing, but pre- vent him from doing it ; let that which is granted be granted at his first request, and let a refusal be irrevocable. Thus he will become patient, equable, peaceable, for it is in man's nature to endure the necessity of things, but not the whims of other people. Let the child be free to follow his own fancies, putting out of his way valuable things that he might injure, and let him be left to grow witliout chastisement and 350 ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION without forcing. In similar fashion is his education to progress as he grows older ; experience is to be allowed to teach him lessons, and control is to be minimised as much as possible. His body is to be trained, but no direct instruction is to be given to his mind until he passes out of actual childhood. Then let him learn his first geography in the town he inhabits ; stimu- late his curiosity by expressing wonder as to the occurrence of natural phenomena ; answer when he asks, and thus lead him to knowledge. Gradually, carefully pre- pared experiments give rise to new cui'i- osity, again to be satisfied ; and so step by step his education progresses, always na- turally, and therefore always surely. Such is an outline of the famous edu- cational scheme of Rousseau, a work which may still well be studied by those who have in their hands the guidance of the young. Rousseau died on July 2, 1778, and was buried in the Isle of Poplars, Ermenon- ville ; his tomb bears the inscription : * Here lies the man of nature and of truth. Vitam im^yendere vero.^ Royal Commissions on Education are appointed by the Queen in council. They consist of a certain number of persons, members of either or both Houses of Parlia- ment, with whom are associated individuals possessing a special knowledge of educa tion, or in a special sense representing educational interests secular or sectarian. They are charged with the duty of reporting in terms of their ' order of reference. ' They have ample power to examine Avitnesses, and to call for the produ.ction of all docu- ments which they deem necessary for their inquiry. The evidence which they collect, and the report which is founded on it, are published in a Blue-Book, which is pre- sented to members of both Houses of Par- liament, and may be bought by any one from the ' Queen's Printers ' (Messrs. Eyre & Spottiswoode, New - Sti'eet Square, E.C., or Messrs. Stanford, Charing Cross) for a small sum, charged to cover the cost of printing and publication. Reports, old and new, and odd volumes of reports can also be obtained from Messrs. P. King & Co., Canada Buildings, Westminster, S.W., Parliamentary publishers and book sellers. The report of a Royal Commission should be signed by all the members of the commission. If unanimity has not pre- vailed, it is signed by the majority, and appended to it is published the report of the dissentient minoxity or minorities. Reports on education have also been drawn up by Select Committees of the House of Commons, and both kinds of reports are usually made the bases of legislative and administrative reform. It will be found, for example, that before the first great exhaustive inquiry by a Royal Commission into the state of public instruction in Eng- land was ordered in 1858, several Com- mittees of the House of Commons had in- vestigated and reported upon education, e.g. Brougham's Committees of 1816 and 1818, and the Select Comanittees of 1834 and 1838. The first important Royal Commission on education was, however, that appointed by Lord John Russell's Administration in 1850 to inquire into the state of the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin. The report of this Commission led to the legislation of 1854, by which the old University system was revolutionised and brought into har- mony with modern requirements. (^S'ee article University Reform.) The famous 'Newcastle Commission' of 1858 was a Royal Commission, and consisted of the Duke of Newcastle, who was chairman, Sir John Duke Coleridge, now Lord Cole- ridge and Lord Chief Justice of England, the Rev. W. C. Lake, now Dean of Durham, Professor Goldwin Smith, Mr, Nassau Senior, Mr. Edward Miall, and the Rev, William Rogers. Mr. Fitzjames (now Mr, Justice) Stephen was the secretary. The Commission was helped by several assistant commissioners, who conducted special in- quiries into the state of education in i-e- presentative agricultural, manufacturing, mining, and fishing communities, not only in England, but in foreign countries. By its ' order of reference ' the Newcastle Commission was charged with the duty of inquiring into ' the state of popular edu- cation in England, and the measures re- quired for the extension of sound and cheap elementary instruction to all classes of the people.' Its chief recommendations were (1) that grants for elementary edu- cation should be expressly apportioned upon the examination of individual chil- dren ; (2) that means should be taken for reaching more rapidly the places not pre- viously aided with Parliamentary grants ; (3) that the administration of the grants in aid should be simplified not merely as regards the clerical work of officials, but also by ' withdrawing Her Majesty's ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION 351 Oovernment from direct financial inter- ference between the managers and teach- ers of schools.' Thus the Report of the Newcastle Commission was the parent of {1) the ' Revised Code ' ; (2) 'payment by- results ' ; and (3) the great reforms which were ultimately embodied in Mr. Forster's Act of 1870, and in the subsequent Acts, into the working of which another Royal Commission was appointed to inquire in January 1886. On July 18, 1861, a celebrated Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the condition of ' certain public schools in England.' The schools were Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, St. Paul's, Merchant Taylors', Harrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury. The members of the Commission were the Earl of Claren- don, the Earl of Devon, Lord Lyttleton, Sir Stafford Northcote, the Hon. E. T. B. Twistleton, the Rev. W. H. Thompson, M.A., and Mr. Halford Vaughan, M.A. They were ordered to inquire into the ad- ministration of the school revenues, the condition of the foundations and endow- ments, the course of studies pursued, and the methods of teaching adopted. Professor Montague Bernard, B.C.L., was the secre- tary of theCommission . The Commissioners ■obtained at the outset written answers to questions addressed to the governing bodies and head-masters of the schools scheduled. Then they personally visited each school and inspected its arrangements. Finally they took evidence from a vast array of witnesses — including even some junior boys — who could presumably throw light on the subject. Though Marlborough, Cheltenham, Wellington College, and the City of London School were not included in the order of reference, the Commis- sioners, finding that these seminaries had attained a position entitling them to be ranked with the great public schools, also investigated their system of teaching from information voluntarily supplied, and re- ported on it. The Commissioners recom- mended that great modifications be made in the constitution of governing bodies of the great public schools — chiefly with the object of giving them permanence and stability of character, and of protecting them from the domination of local and personal influences. They suggested the appointment of some Crown nominees to each governing body. They recommended that governing bodies have power to amend their statutes, subject to the sanction of the Crown, to appoint and dismiss the head-master, who was to have the sole right of selecting his assistants. The Commissioners reported in favour of adding at least one modern language, French or German, and one branch of natural science, to the classical curriculum then in vogue. Every boy, it was recom- mended, should be subjected to an entrance examination, designed to test his know- ledge of classics and of French or German, and boys who failed to make reasonable progress were to be liable to dismissal. The Commissioners thought that charges and fees should be revised — the charge for instruction being in all cases separated from the charge for boarding and for domestic superintendence. The working of the monitorial system, according to the Commissioners, needed immediate vigi- lance, as did the system of fagging. They recommended that fags should be released from all work that ought to be done by domestic servants, and that fagging must never be allowed to encroach on a boy's time for lessons or for needful recreation. Holidays too ought, in the opinion of the Commissioners, to be arranged so that they should occur at the same time in each school. As to the existing system, the Commissioners reported that the course of study lacked flexibility and breadth, that the schools were ' too in- dulgent to idleness,' or struggled ineffectu- ally with it, and as a result that they turned ' out a large proportion of men of idle habits and empty and uncultivated minds.' At the same time it was admitted that the schools had been for many years progressing in the right direction. The manners of the boys had improved, and the masters had maintained classical studies as the staple of an EngKsh educa- tion, ' a service,' said the Commissioners, which far outweighed the error of having clung to these studies too exclusively. The report was dated February 13, 1864. Mr. Yaughan dissented from the recom- mendation that a modern language should be one of the subjects included in the entrance examinations. (See Farl. Papers, 1864 [3288], vol. xi. p, 1,) On December 28, 1864, a Royal Com- mission was appointed to inquire into the education given in schools not touched by the Newcastle Commission of 1858, or by the Public Schools Inquiry Commission, 352 ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION of which Lord Clarendon was chairman, in 186L The scope of this inquiry included all schools which educate children ex- cluded from the operation of the Parlia- mentary grant, except the nine great public schools already reported on by the Public Schools Inquiry Commission of 1 86 1 . The Commissioners were Lord Taunton (chairman). Lord Stanley, Lord Lyttleton, Dr. Hook, Dean of Chichester, Dr. Temple, now Bishop of London, Rev. A. T. Thorold, M.A., Mr. T. Dyke Acland, Mr. Edward Baines, Mr. W. E. Forster, Mr. Peter Erie, Q.C., and Dr. John Storrar. The Commissioners divided the schools they examined into (1) Endowed, (2) Private, and (3) Proprietary. By En- dowed Schools they meant schools main- tained wholly or partly by means of a permanent charitable endowment. The term Private Schools they limited to such as were the property of the head-master or head-mistress. The remaining schools, which were either the property of indi- viduals or corporations, who in some cases appropriated the profits of them, and in others applied these to the reduction of the cost of their own children's education, the Commissioners described as Frojyrie- tary Schools. The investigations into the condition of the endowments of these schools and into the education of girls, a matter steadily kept in view by the Com- missioners, rendered the inquiry specially interesting. Assistant Commissioners made reports on selected districts. Mr. D. R. Fearon, H.M. Inspector of Schools, reported on the metropolitan area ; Mr. H. A. Giffard, M.A., on London outside the postal district ; Mr. C. H. Stanton on Devon and Somerset ; Mr. T. H. Green, M.A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, on Staffordshire and Warwickshire ; Mr. J. Hammond on East Anglia ; Mr. Fitch, H.M. Inspector of Schools, on the West Riding of Yorkshire ; Mr. James Bryce, afterwards Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, on Lancashire ; and Mr. H. M. Bompas, M.A., on Wales. Mr. Matthew Arnold reported on the system of education existing in France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. The Rev. James Eraser, afterwards Bishop of Manchester, reported on the schools of the United States and Canada. Baron Mackay, of the Hague, at one time an attache to the Dutch Legation in London, reported on the schools of Holland. At the instance of Dr. (now Sir) Lyon Playfair, who ad- dressed a strong letter on the subject to the Commissioners, they also made inquiry into his assertion that the Industrial Ex- hibition at Paris in 1860 furnished evi- dence of a decline in the superiority of certain branches of English manufacture over those of other nations — a decline that was due in Dr. Playfair's opinion to the absence of technical education in Eng- land. In fact, the whole modern move- ment in favour of technical education in Great Britain may be said to have origin- ated with Dr. Playfair's letter and the Report of Lord Taunton's Commission upon it. The Commissioners reported that reform must begin with the endowed schools, because unless they were com- pelled to do good work they did positive harm by standing in the way of better institutions. Whilst regard was to be paid to the wishes of those who had origin- ally bequeathed the endowments, the Com- missioners advised that this sentiment ought not to be carried too far, for many of the bad existing arrangements were themselves departures from the intentions of the ' pious founder.' Rules, said the Commissioners, should be remodelled to suit the purpose of each school. Special constitutions of governing bodies should be discarded where they did not work well. The narrow curriculum of education should be enlarged. Gratuitous instruc- tion should not be given indiscriminately where it was found to be lowering the character of the school, and with its cha- racter the standard of its teaching. Gra- tuitous instruction given at haphazard, and not as a reward of merit, actually defeated the intentions of the founders. It did not supply opportunities for poor children of exceptional talent, and it gradually prevented the school from giving high education. Three grades of schools, according to the Commissioners, should be organised : (1) schools which taught boys up to the age of 18 or 19 ; (2) schools which stopped their teaching at the age of 16 ; (3) schools which stopped it at the age of 14. In the first grade Greek was admissible in the classical course. In the second it was recommended that Greek be left out, and attention paid to two, and in the third to one modern language, in addition to Latin. The schools should be reorganised on a harmonious plan, so that those in a district or county might be made ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION 353 to supply each other's deficiencies. Limits should be set to the fees, and trustees should not be chosen exclusively from members of the Church of England. The restriction of masterships to persons in holy orders, it was reported, should be abolished, and with it the rule which assumed that all religious teaching must be that of the An- glican Church. As for endowments, their application, the Commissioners said, must be regulated by Parliament. All close foundations, whether in favour of the rich or the poor, were stigmatised by the Com- mission as evils. The fixed salaries and freehold tenure of masters the Commission thought should be done away with, the plan they favoured being payment by capi- tation fees, under a guarantee for a time that such payment would never fall under a certain annual sum. Exhibitions, said the Commissioners, should not be confined to the universities, but holders of them ought to be allowed to proceed to technical schools. The same recommendations in the main were made for girls' schools, and it was recommended that they should, in every case where it was possible, be allowed a share of all redistributed or available endowments. The establishment of boarding-houses on the ' hostel ' or col- lege system rather than on that of sepa- rate houses was also recommended, the plan having worked well at Marlborough, Haileybury, Wellington, and Felstead. On the whole, the Commission did not approve of the establishment of a normal school to train the masters. Masters so trained in France they had discovered became mere teachers rather than educators. Strong powers were recommended to be given to head-masters over their subordi- nates, and it was pointed out that a universal demand for a good system of official inspection existed. Small endow- ments, which just because they were small were wasted, the Commissioners suggested should be consolidated. Among the powers to be given to the governors were those of settling the programme of in- struction and of preparing reorganisation schemes to be laid before the Charity Com- missioners and Parliament for their sanc- tion. Three authorities, it was suggested, should be constituted: governors for the local management of each school, a provin- cial authority to regulate the relations of schools in each district one to another, a central avithority to exercise a general control over the working of the system. By enlarging the powers of the Charity Commission a central authority might be found. The Charity Commission, it was said, should appoint for each provincial district an oflicial Commissioner for secon- dary education, with whom six or eight unpaid Commissioners should be associated as the provincial authority. On the other hand, it was to be left to a district, if it chose, to form a representative board out of chairmen of boards of guardians and Crown nominees as a provincial authority. As for the governing bodies, it was pointed out that they were inefficient for many reasons, among others that they were chosen by co-optation. The new governing bodies, it was recommended, should consist of a small number of the existing trustees, to which were added trustees elected by the ratepayers and nominated by the provincial board. The schools, it was recommended, should be worked in close concert with the universities by means of a council of ex- aminations. As for private and proprietary schools, it was pointed out that if they were to be efiective their fees must not put them out of the reach of the class for whom the corresponding public schools were needed, and they must be registered and subjected to the same conditions of examination and inspection as the public schools. The re- port is to be found in Pari. Papers., 1867- 1868 [3966], vol. xxviii. pt. i. 1. The Commissioners, whilst reporting generally that the answers of experts to their ques- tions as to technical education shewed that it would be desirable to promote the teach- ing of physical science in secondary schools, did not present any elaborate report on the question. (See Pari. Papers., 1867 [3898], vol. xxvi. 261.) In 1881, a Royal Commission, consisting of Mr. (now Sir) Bernhard Samuelson, F.R.S., Professor (now Sir) Henry Roscoe, F.R.S., Mr. (now Sir) Philip Magnus, Messrs. John Slagg, M.P., Swire Smith, and William Woodall, M.P., was appointed to inquire into the instruction of the in- dustrial classes of certain foreign countries in technical and other subjects, and gene- rally into the subject of technical educa- tion at home and abroad. Their first re- port is dated February 17, 1882, and deals with technical education in France. The Commissioners spoke with approval of the instruction in the use of tools, which had just been introduced into French elemen- A A 354 ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION tary schools, but seemed in doubt as to the value o£ the new apprenticeship schools for training ordinaiy workmen, such as those which had been established at La Yillette and Havre. Till this manual teaching was introduced into the French schools, the Commissioners reported that the French workmen got as little technical education as Englishmen. The gratuitous courses of lectures given in French towns on scientific and literary subjects the Com- missioners thought highly valuable. They spoke with approval of the excellence of the gratuitous Art teaching given at an early age to children, and continued in adult schools, as beneficial to the French workman. In this report they made no practical recommendation, except the in- troduction of manual work into elementary schools frequented by children of the in- dustrial class {Pari. Pcqjers, 1882 [c. 3171], vol. xxvii. 40). The second and final re- port is dated April 4, 1884, and it stated that foreign industry, as tested by the Paris Exhibition of 1878, had revealed an unex- pected capacity for development. In the production of some kinds of machinery France, Switzerland, and Germany were abreast of England. In industries involving chemical processes Germany was ahead of her. This was also the case with respect to the construction of roofs and buildings where accurate mathematical knowledge had to be applied. The soft woollen fabrics of Rheims and Roubaix excelled those of Bradford, especially in dyeing. Yerviers exported to Scotland woollen yarns carded and spun by English machines from South American wool, at one time bought in Liverpool and London, but now purchase- able in Antwerp. Great, however, as the progress of continental industry had been since 18 50, the Commissioners reported that on the whole the English people still held their place at the head of the industrial world. They had not lost it : they were only losing it. The advantages gained by their continental rivals were due chiefly to the superiority of foreign manu- facturers, their managers and their fore- men, in technical skill, and in their sound knowledge of the sciences upon which their trades depended. The technical education given to the workmen also told on the competition between foreign and English industries. The Commissioners therefore recommended that action should be taken to promote technical education in the United Kingdom by the Legisla- ture and public authorities. They sug- gested that in every trade where a know- ledge of science or art is of advantage, it be made a condition of employment imposed on young persons by masters and trades unions that they shall take steps to get that knowledge — either in schools attached to works or groups of works, or in such classes as may be available, these classes to be partly maintained by the employers and trade organisations. Pro- moters of technical classes were urged to make the emoluments of the teachers suf- ficient to tempt them to continue the in- struction of their pupils beyond the rudi- mentary stage, and group the teaching of science subjects in accordance with the regulations of the Science and Art Depart- ment. It was recommended that techni- cal scholarships be founded in elementary schools, and that agricultural societies promote and encourage classes in secon- dary or county schools for teaching agri- culture. {Pari. Papers, 1884 [c. 3981], vol. xxix. p. 539.) The Commissioners further recommended the introduction of drawing as a necessary subject like the ' three R's ' in elementary schools ; the encouragement by grants, as for a ' specific subject,' of skill in using tools for work- ing wood or iron in elementary schools ; that object lessons in agriculture in all rural schools be given ; that the Scotch rule that children under the age of four- teen shall not be allowed to work full time till they pass the Fifth Standard be extended to England ; that School Boards have power to organise technical classes under the Science and Art Department, which should be empowered to arrange that the scientific teaching shall be better adapted to the wants of the working classes than it is at present ; that it shall not be a requirement of the Department that fees be exacted from artisans under technical instruction ; that in awards for industrial design more attention be paid by the Department than is the case at present, to the applicability of the design to the material it is to be wrought out in ; that training colleges for elementary teachers desirous of imparting technical education be established ; that local autho- rities be empowered to organise and main- tain higher technical schools and colleges ; that museums and libraries be opened on Sundays, and that the limit imposed by the ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION RUSTICATION 355 Free Libraries Act on the expense which local authorities may incur for the esta- bhshment of museums and galleries of ai"t be abolished. They also recommended the abolition of the maximum of 500/. as the grant which the Science and Art De- partment may make in aid of the erection of local schools of art and of museums in connection with them. (See Teciinical Education^ by F. C. Montague, M.A. ; Cassell & Co. (1887).) In January 1886 a Royal Commission ^vas appointed to inquire into the working of the Elementary Education Acts of Eng- land and Wales. The Commissioners were Lord Cross, chairman, Cardinal Manning, the Duke of Norfolk, Lord Harrowby, Lord Beauchamp, the Bishop of London, Lord Norton, Sir Erancis Sanford, Mr. Lyulph Stanley, Sir John Lubbock, Sir Bernhard Samuelson, Rev. Dr. Rigg, Dr Dale, Canon Gregory, Canon Smith, Rev. T. D. C. Morse, Mr. C. H. Alderson, Dr. J. G. Talbot, Mr. Sidney Buxton, Mr. T. E. Heller, Mr. Rathbone, Mr. Henry Richard, and Mr. George Shipton. Mr. Mundella and Mr. B. MoUoy, M.P., were ■also members. Mr. Mundella retired on joining Mr. Gladstone's third Administra- tion. Mr. Molloy resigned because Lord Salisbury's Government refused to grant a Select Committee to investigate charges of complicity with assassination brought against him and several Irish members by the Times, and which were reproduced in the House of Commons by Lord Harting- ton. The constitution of the Commission of 1886 differs from that of the Newcastle Commission in one important point. The Newcastle Commission was a body repre- senting the general public interest in edu- cation. The Commission of 1886, on the other hand, represents special education interests, professional and sectarian. The points which the Commissioners were i"e- quested to inquire into were : 1. The existing law — how it grew up: (a) the law previous to 1870 ; (&) the Acts from 1870 to 1880 ; (c) the codes and instructions after 1870. 2. The ex- isting state of facts — as to («) buildings ; (h) number of scholars ; (c) income and expenditure ; (d) staff and salaries ; (e) comparison of Voluntary and Board schools ; (/) merit grants ; (g) small schools ; (A) training colleges ; (k) average duration of school life. 3. The provision made — (a) for the supply of schools ; (b) for the management [of schools ; (c) for inspec- tion ; (d) for supply of teachers ; (e) training colleges ; (/) for regular attend- ance of children. 4. The efficiency of machinery, both central and local : (a) for religious and moral training ; (b) secular instruction. 5. Board schools. 6. Spe- cial schools and their difficulties. 7. Re- lations of ordinary elementary schools to other schools. 8. The burden of the cost : (a) On the central Government ; (b) on the rates ; (c) on voluntary subscribers ; (d) on the parents. 9. School libraries and museums. 10. School Boards. 11. Grievances. 12. Committee of Council on Education. The Commissioners had not concluded their deliberations when the present work went to the press. Royal Military Academy. See Edu- cation FOR THE Army. Royal Military College. See Edu- cation FOR THE Army. Royal School of Mines. See Normal School of Science. Ruddiaaan, Thomas (1674-1757), the Scottish grammarian and classical critic, was a native of Banffshire, and was edu- cated at Aberdeen. After spending some time as schoolmaster in Kincardineshire, he repaired in 1699 to Edinburgh, and re- ceived an appointment in the Advocates' Library. In 1714 he brought out hiswell- kno^vn Rudiments of the Latin Tongue, which at once superseded other works of a similar kind in Scottish schools. In 1714 he started as a publisher and printer in conjunction Avith his brother Walter, and subsequently published for the University. He next became proprietor of tlie Ccde- donian Mercury. He was chief librarian in the Advocates' Library from 1730 to 1 752, in which latter year he was succeeded by David Hume. Ruddiman was regarded in his day as a very able classical critic, and his edition of Livy was long spoken of as immaculate. Russia, Education in. See Law (Edu- cational). Russian TJniversities. See Univer- sities. Rustication. — In ordinary usage a person who lives in town during 'the season ' is said to ' rusticate ' in the coun- try when he goes there. Hence an under- graduate who has been ' sent down ' by either his college or the university au- thorities (vice-chancellor and proctors) is aa2 356 SAFFRON" WALDEN TRAINING COLLEGE SCHMIDT, KARL said to have been 'rusticated.' This may- be for one or more terms, or ' for good.' The distinction between ' gone down ' and ' sent down ' is therefore important. At Oxford a man ' goes down ' in the ordinary course at end of term of eight weeks, or because he is ill or has 'leave to go down ' ; but he is ' sent down ' as a punishment, which obviously must often fall as an expense upon the pai"ents rather than upon the man liimself. At the beginning of term men ' go wp ' on the day of meeting. Saffron Walden Training College. See Beitish and Foreign School So- ciety. Salle, Abbe Jean Baptiste de la, Canon of Rheims (who died in 1719), founded in France about the year 1680 an order known under various names, as, e.g., the Freres ignorantins, the School Brethren, or Brethren of the Christian Doctrine. The vocation to which the members of the order devoted themselves was that of ele- mentaiy teachei's, the education they im- parted being in harmony with the doc- trines of the Catholic Church. The order became closely associated with the Jesuits, but enjoyed sufficient popularity to save it from the fate of the latter when they were expelled from France in 1764. A decree, dated March 17, 1807, publicly re- cognised the Freres ignorantins as a law- ful institution. The order still possesses numerous schools in various parts of Fx'ance, and, as a congregation autorisee, the body was not affected by the decree issued by M. Jules Ferry in 1880, which excluded the Jesuits and other unauthorised religious societies from the work of edu- cation. Sanatorium. — A school infirmary or sanatorium should be attached to every boarding-school. It should preferably be in a separate building from the rest of the school, but in small schools where this is unattainable the top storey should be ap- propriated. A perfect sanatorium should have nui'ses' rooms, a small kitchen, bath, and water-closets, complete in itself and isolated from the rest of the school. The medical responsibility should be un- divided, one medical man attending all the cases of sickness in a school, otherwise there may be clashing of instructions, and thus infection may spread. The provision for sickness is not complete, especially for scarlet fever, without arrangements for the quarantine of doubtful cases. There should be rooms for distinct cases of fever, and other I'ooms in which doubtful cases may be watched until their true character be- coaaes evident. The schoolmaster may with advantage learn the use of a clinical thermometer, and any patient showing a rise of temperature (above 99° Fahr.) should not be allowed to sleep in the com- mon dormitories till lie has been examined by a doctor. Cex'tificates should be de- manded from the guardians or parents of children on their return after vacations,, stating that there has been no known ex- posure to infection for at least three weeks. When a boy returns to school without such a certiticate he should be placed in quarantine ; lie should have a warm bath, strong carbolic soap being used, and his clotlies and books sliould be disinfected. The best disinfecting appai-atus is Wash- ington Lyon's disinfecting oven, in which superlieated steam is employed, though this can only be afforded in large schools. Baking in an ordii\ary oven such clothes, as cannot be washed is quite efficacious. Sandhurst. See Education for the- Army. Saxony, Education in (typical of that of North Germany). See Law (Educa- tional). Scandinavian Universities. See Uni- versities. Schmidt, Karl (1819-1864), a German educationist, was educated at the Univer- sities of Halle and Berlin, and became in 1846 teacher at theGymnasium atKothen. In 1863 he was nominated director of the teachers' seminary and school councillor at Gotha, in which latter position he was called upon to re-organise the school sys- tem of the duchy. His chief work was a general history of pedagogics (Gescldchte der Pddagogik, 1862, 4 vols.), which was reviewed by Wicharcl Lange in 1872. In 1857he published his Gymnasialpddagogik. Schmidt's great principle was, that an- SCHOLARS- -SCHOLASTICISM 357 thropology, and not psychology alone, was the only safe and adequate foundation of pedagogy. Schmidt was a staunch advo- cate of phrenology. Scholars. — The term applied (1) to persons of high academical attainments ; (2) to boys and girls attending public ele- mentaiy or other schools ; (3) to the foun- dation members of endowed schools or colleges. Foundation scholars at Oxford and Cambi-idge liave their commons free, their rooms rent free, and certain other allowances ; sometimes they have fixed stipends. They are usually elected by examination. Scholars, Classification of. See Clas- sification. Scholarships are prizes of money (some- times given as remission of fees) to en- courage promising boys to become better scholars. A clever boy may by these means work his way from the lowest primary schools to university honours. This has been done, and the 'ladder system ' is now developing in many places. In some lai-ge towns, e.g. Liverpool, there is a 'Council of Education,' composed of leading citizens, who encourage primaiy education by pay- ing for scholarships. Some schools offer them on entrance by examination. Clever lioys from expensive preparatory schools generally get these scholarships at the great public schools. There are often scholar- ships competed for within the school, de- pendent mainly on place and age. If a parent has certain schools in his mind, it is best to write direct to the seci-etary or head master for information as to the scholar- ships, and then see the school. The bare facts relating to them are often found in the local directory. Brief summaries of scholarships, their value, (fcc, are given in Cassell's annual Educational Year-Book (6s.), or in Bisson's Our Schools and Col- leges. Some old schools have either close or preference scholarships to certain colleges .at Oxford, Arc. Thus Eton and King's College, Cambridge, Winchester and New College, Merchant Taylors' and St. John's College, Oxford, are connected. Certain ■counties have sometimes a preference, and Welsh students have many such scholar- ships at Jesus College, Oxford. Scholar- ships are ofiered by the various university •colleges. Private trust funds supply some scholarships (e.g. the Tancred Studentships, 100^. for seven years, in divinity, law, and medicine at Cambridge). Government gives many Queen's scholarships in connec- tion with training schools. Science and Art Department (see Whitworth Scholar- ships), the Indian Civil Service, foreign colleges, &c. There are also scholarships to the Royal Academies for Art and Music, to technical and other colleges. {See Bur- sary ; University Scholarships, and University Scholarships for Women.) Scholasticism is the name applied to the system of mediaeval thought in the departments chiefly of logic, metaphysics, and theology. It originated in the schools founded by order of Charlemagne, and its main object was the reconciliation of the philosophy of Aristotle with orthodox theology. The Neoplatonist, Erigena, in the ninth century, is regarded as its founder. Till the end of the twelfth century the main subject of discussion was the nature of universals. Plato had held that, besides the individual members of a class, there had existed before them from all eternity a universal form (tSea), of which each of them was an embodiment ; so that, before any individual man existed, there was a universal type of man, which was the model on which each man was created (universalia ante renn). Aristotle, while denying that universal forms existed before or apart from the individual members of a class, yet affirmed that these forms existed in the individual members {tmiversalia in re). Realism, in one of these forms, was generally accepted till the time of Roscel- linus (d. 1125), the founder of nominalism, who held that the universal had no existence either in things or in the mind, but was a mere name used by us to group together individual things, which in themselves had no real relation to one another (universalia jwst rein). On this theory he denied the unity of God, maintaining that the three persons of the Trinity formed three separate Gods, with no real relations to one another. This provoked a vigorous defence of realism from Anselm (1033-1109), who, taking for his motto the words ^ Credo ut intelligam^ endeavoured to prove the harmony of faith aiid reason in regard to the Trinity and the Incarnation. A modified realism was formulated by William of Champeaux (1071-1121), who, admitting that only individuals had a substantial existence, regarded the universal as consisting of those similar qualities which were common to all the members of a class. This 'theory \ of indiff'erence ' was attacked by Abelard 358 SCHOLASTICISM SCHOOL ATTENDANCE COMMITTEES (1079-1140), the pupil successively of Ros- cellinus and of William, and the founder of conceptualism, a ^•ia media between nominalism and realism, which maintains that the universal exists as a concept in the mind, but not in things (uHiversalia in vienfe). The application of Abelard's rationalistic principles to theology caused his condemnation for heresy. With the thirteenth century began a new period of scholasticism, marked by greatly wider interests. Abelard and the earlier schoolmen had access only to Plato's Timo'us, and two or three logical treatises of Aristotle ; but, during the twelfth century, the rest of Aristotle's surviving works on logic, ethics, psychology, etc., were trans- lated mainly from Arabic Aversions. The main subject of dispute now was the principle of individuation. The first results of the application of the new knowledge to theology were numerous heresies, but Thomas Aquinas (1227-74), the 'Angelical Doctor,' following mainly his master, Al- bertus Magnus (11 93-1 280), the 'Universal Doctor,' reduced the whole Aristotelian philosophy to a system seemingly consistent with the doctrines of the Cliurch. On the question of universals their attitude was that of Aristotelian realism ; but they maintained that universals existed also ^wsi! rem, inasmuch as we can think of universals apart from their particular manifestations, and ante rem, as ideas in the mind of God. This view became generally adopted. The principle of individuation, that is, the thing which made the individual an indi- vidual, was, according to Aquinas, matter. Against this view his great opponent,' Duns Scotus, the 'Subtle Master,' pointed out that if individuality depends on matter the individuality of each human soul must be destroyed at death. Scotus held that the species became the individual by the addition of the qualities which distinguished the individual from other members of the same species. The freedom of the will Aquinas regarded as consisting in the power to obey reason rather than instinct ; he held that even God's will was subject to I'eason, and that God commanded what was right simply because it was right. Scotus, on the other hand, maintained the most absolute freedom of the will ; to him free will was the power to act in either of two ways without any motive. He held that what was right was right simply be- cause God had willed it, and that tlie exact opposite would have been riglit had God willed it. The scholastic world was long divided into Thomists and Scotists ; but Thomism, which Avas the creed of Dante, e^'entually became the official doc- trine of the Roman Church. In fact, as in Aquinas faith and reason seemed to have arrived at the same conclusions through different paths, the climax of scholasticism was reached. Still, even Aquinas abandoned the attempt, made by Anselm, to defend several doctrines, such as the Trinity, on rational grounds. Scotus added the omnipotence of God, the immor- tality of the soul, and other doctrines to the class of mysteries. Finally, the last great schoolman, William of Occam {d. 1347), an extreme Nominalist, denied that any theological doctrine was demonstrable by reason. The schoolmen, however, having proved a theological doctrine inconsistent Avith reason, called it a mystery, and con- tinued to believe it, inasmuch as they assumed to be as premisses, Avdthout exa- mination, the truth both of Aristotle's philosophy and the Church's doctrines. Their neglect of the premisses of an argu- ment Avas seen also in their numerous, subtle discussions on such points as the jurisdiction of archangels, and the question Avhetlier devils can repent, Avhich later philosophers haA'e abandoned for lack of data. In fact, ignoring the example of their master, Aristotle, the schoolmen en- deaA^oured to prove everything bydeduction, Avithout examiziing the facts of nature. As the interest in nature increased, this, defect Avas increasingly felt, and so at the beginning of the fifteenth century scholas- ticism practically expired. The interest in science began to OA^ershadoAv the interest in philosophy, and it Avas recognised that in both alike induction must take its place side by side Avith deduction. (For further details the histories of philosophy, especially those by Maurice,' Lewes, and UberAveg, should be consulted ; also Cousin's introduction to Ouvrages ineditsd' Abelard, 1836 ; Haui-eau's //^ssolute rule of the head master of a public school. But the amount has been tlius limited recently by the action of the Public and Endowed Schools Commissioners and the Charity Connnissioners, who in their schemes for the management of endowed schools have legislated on the principle that, as between the governors and the head master, the latter should have a full share of respon- sibility and therefore an ample share of power. Tlie functions of school management devolving upon governing bodies under the schemes of the Charity Comn\issioners are: (1) The superxision and control of the income, expenditure, and property of the foundation, subject in certain cases to tlie supreme control of the Commissioners ; {-) the erection, enlargen\ent, or altera- tion of school buildings, subject to the consent of the Connnissioners ; (3) the framing of regulations for religious in- struction, subject to the scholar's right of exen\ption ; (4) the appointment and dis- missal of head masters and mistresses; (5) the fixing the number and remunera- tion of the teaching stati" ; (6) the deter- mination of the ipialitications and terms of appointment of the stalf ; (7) the power to prescribe the general subjects of in- struction, the relative prominence and value to be given to each group of sub- jects, and the organisation of the different departuients and subjects of study, the division of the year into tei'ms and vaca- tions, and the number of school hours in each week and of holidays to be given in each term, the general supervision of all the school buihlings and arrangements ; but before exercising any of these powers the governoi's are enjoined in all cases to con- sult the head nuxster or mistress ; (8) the determination of the number of scholars I to be admitted, the limits of age at admis- 1 sion and lea\-ing, and the qualifications for i admission ; (9) the tixing the amount of I entrance and tuition fees, subject to the approval of the Connnissioners. The head nuister or mistress usually has the power of appointment and dis- i missal of all assistant teachers, and, sub- SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 365' ject to any discretion of the governors, has under his or her control the choice of books, the method of teaching, the arrange- ment of classes and school hours, and gene- rally the whole internal organisation, man- agement, and discipline of the school. The power of expulsion of a scholar is also usually given, suljject to a full report of the case being made to the governors. The power of dismissal of assistant teachers has sometimes been qualified by a right of appeal to the governors, or by some stand- ing orders intended to check the caprici- ous or arbitrary use of that power. Public opinion is divided as to the wisdom of giv- ing this power to head masters and mis- tresses, but the Charity Commissioners have generally been in favour of 'dismissal without appeal.' 2. Internal. — The principles that guide the internal arrangement of a school are common in essence to all schools alike, whatever may be the social class or range of ages of the scholars. For they assume the common attributes of immaturity and dependence in the taught, and of maturity of knowledge and judgment, together with practical and moi'al authority, in the teacher. School management then, in this sense, may be looked at in its most general aspect. An efficient public school and an efficient elementary school are alike produced and maintained by the faithful application of similar means, appliances, and laws of good management. To a cer- tain extent it is true that schools are dif- ferentiated in their characteristics, their methods of discipline, their treatment of individuals, by the more or less favourable social condition of the scholars, or by their greater or less youthf ulness. For instance, an appeal to the sense of honour or of es]orit de corjjs may be made with success in one kind of school but not in another ; and, the greater the average age of the scholars, the less need is there to rule them, individually or collectively, as creatures of mere instinct rather than of reason ; and the greater consequently is the range of action over which, under the influence of the teacher, principle rather than precept can exercise its restraining and governing power. But these differences are of degree, not of kind. For successful school man- agement well-planned school buildings are the first essential (see Architecture). However perfect the teacher, the ideal of a good school is unattainable in defective buildings. ' A place for everything and everything in its place ' reduces friction of all kinds — the opportunity of offending, the number of punishable offences, the neces- sity for vigilance and for fresh legislation — to a minimum. The few regulations that exist are borne in upon the scholar's mind as requisite for the preservation of his property, the peace both of his lesson- time and recreation-time, and his freedom from anxiety and irritation at every mo- ment of the school day ; and a greater percentage of the scholars are therefore instinctively enlisted on the side of law and order, and assist in maintaining them. But at the best of times the position of a school, as of any large, highly-organised^, and compact community, is a position of unstable equilibrium ; it is always liable' to be resolved into its naturally volatile and impressionable components. Hence an able and vigorous administrator is of prime importance. The qualities of a good head teacher are, first, belief in the value of knowledge ; secondly, organising and administrative ability ; thirdly, profes- sional experience. The first implies that the teacher is not only himself a student, but can create and foster the student's zeal in his scholars ; the second covers all that goes to make a good disciplinarian, neither a martinet nor a bully on the one hand, nor, on the other, one that shrinks from sternness when confronted with an ofience which, if unpunished, demoralises the individual and threatens the commu- nity ; the third includes the knowledge of the science of his profession as well as the possession of the foresight which comes from actual practice of the art — the latter enabling the teacher to measure the effects and defects likely to show themselves in a given course of action, and so making him prudent ; while the former assists him more readily to the cause, and from the cause to the cure, and so equips him with wisdom. The detailed points of school manage- ment coming under the head of Organisa- tion are : The cleaning of the premises, buildings and furniture ; the warming and ventilation of corridors and class-rooms ; the classification of the scholars and their re-classification for special subjects ; the sslection of the text-books ; the drawing up of the time-tables, giving in each class the subjects taught, the range of each sub- ject, the number of hours per week to be 366 SCHOOL MAITAGEMENT devoted to each subject, and the length o£ each lesson ; the laying down of regula- tions for opening and closing school, for the simultaneous movements of the classes between class-room and class-room, and between class-room and recreation-ground; the determination of the form of school registers (if not determined already by the Code, as in public elementary schools), and of the periodical reports to parents. Un- der the head of Government the most im- portant point is Discipline {q.v.), steady, certain, just, and kind. By such discip- line, together with careful attention to every detail of organisation, and a skilful use of the indirect means of discipline by which obedience becomes a matter of self- interest or self-choice, it is possible to conduct a school without any resort to physical force. Doubtless, it would be going too far to say with Mr. Wild, that whenever a master found it necessary to flog a boy he deserved to be flogged him- self. But the presence of corporal punish- ment {q.v.) in a school is a confession of weakness, a confession either that the teacher does not know how to use the best means of discipline, or that the scholars are not amenable to such means. A school with such a teacher or such scholars is not an ideal school. In the ideal school there would be a graduated process of dealing with offenders, through admoni- tion, warning, deprivation of privileges, formal reprimand to head teacher and to parents, and detention, leading up to the ultimatum — suspension and dismissal. In a day-school, where the parent is accessible to the teacher, and both parent and teacher are in sympathy on the subject of a cul- prit's reformation (as would naturally be the case), the mere possession of the power of dismissal lying behind the milder forms of reproof and punishment, would be suf- ficient to procure the submission demanded and the reformation sought. But offenders must be punished, and in the infliction of punishment the other object, the good of the school at large, must be steadily kept in view. The just punishment of offenders not only preserves a school from evils which might grow, but also raises its TQoral tone by thus emphasizing the dif- ference between right and wrong. The third element of school manage- ment is that of histruction -itself the end and object of school, towards which orga- nisation and good government are only the means. Here the tests of quality as well as quantity have to be applied; and a head teacher's primary duty — when he is allowed the appointment of his assistants — is to secure a teaching staff by whose handling of every subject of instruction the scholars will derive mental and moral discipline, as well as acquire knowledge. Next to the careful selection of teachers who have this capacity, who are, besides, in sympathy with the aim of the school, who are intelligently appreciative of the head teacher's ideals, and are prepared to accept and apply the routine, discipline, and modes of punishment which he has formu- lated, the most important point is for the whole teaching staff to come to an agree- ment on good general methods for the treatment of each subject, for the handling of the scholars in classes, and for the gauging and registering their individual work, so that, as far as practicable, each scholar may feel that he is being treated on definite and well-understood principles, both as to work and conduct, which are the same everywhere, at every hour, and with every teacher. Supervision of every part of the school work and periodical examination are essential parts of a head teacher's duty ; but it is all-important that he should teach as well. The propor- tion of time to be devoted to supervision and teaching respectively must be deter- mined by the age and experience of the assistant staff. Of the various questions relating to internal school management, too numerous to be treated of here in any detail, that of the mode of gauging the value of the work done by each scholar at each lesson is one of the most essential. It is important for the teacher to be con- tinually making a conscious estimate of each scholar's work, that he may be guided in his treatment of him by the more accu- rate knowledge thus obtained of his mental state ; and it is most desirable that the scholar — especially the young scholar — should have his teacher's estimate of his work continually presented to him side by side with that of his classmates', in order that the stimulus of emulation may be applied. It must be borne in mind, how- ever, that, in using emulation (q.v.) as. a stimulus, the teacher is dealing with a good servant but a bad master, and that careful bounds must be placed upon its use. It is quite possible for a teacher dexterously to employ the stimulus of SCHOOLMASTER ABROAD SCHOOL SURGERY 367 place-taking, marking, and other devices, so as to produce high examination results, and yet, at the same time, to distinctly lower the character of his scholars, and to destroy in time his own freshness, enthu- siasm, and influence. Of these methods, place-taking is, perhaps, the most danger- ous, from the fact that it projects emula- tion more immediately and more incessantly across every educational effort that the scholar makes. But this, the most time- honoured method of marking, is now almost ■obsolete ; at the best, the system only did very rough and ready justice; it was noisy in process, it involved in nearly •every case either the standing of the class for the whole of the lesson, or the being seated on forms ; and now that single or dual desks are coming into general use, and ■order and quiet are really getting to be understood in schools, it will die a natural death. No marking of any kind takes place as a rule in elementary schools ; and the teacher is thus able to employ freely that best of all methods of questioning, which consists in asking the question to the whole class before naming the scholar ivho is to answer it. But marking is regularly practised in secondary schools, and the methods adopted are various. The plan most prevalent (especially in junior classes), because it is considered most eco- nomical of a master's time, is that in which the exercises are first distributed among the class, so that no scholar looks over his own exercise, and then the correct version is read out, or written on the board, and the mistakes of each exercise are marked by the class. This is open to the obvious ■objection that the mistakes of the indivi- dual scholars do not come under the teacher's eye, so that he loses touch of their mental condition, and much of his teaching- misses the mark. And yet, again, the teacher has constantly to guard, on the one hand, against a system of marking which makes his teaching m school dull, -wooden, mechanical, uninspiring, and, on the other, against the effect of the dreary routine of looking over exercises oicf of school, which exhausts that store of fresh- ness and elasticity of spirits so essential to his success as a teacher. Schoolmaster Abroad (The). — Lord Brougham's famous expression, in con- trasting coercion and education : ' There is another personage abroad . . . the school- master is abroad ; and I trust to him. armed with his primer, against the soldier in full array.' Schoolmen. — The name given to the philosophers and theologians of the Middle Ages who were devoted to the teaching of Aristotle. Dialectical subtlety was their distinguishing characteristic. They lec- tui-ed in cathedral schools, and their writ- ings were ' wrangled ' about or discussed in the University Schools (q.v.). They were chiefly learned theologians, and lived between the ninth and the sixteenth cen- turies. Anselm (a.d. 1050-1117) was ' Doctor Scholasticus ' ; Epiphanius, an Italian scholar of the sixth century, was surnamed ' the scholastic' The word sur- vives in the phrase ' the scholastic profes- sion.' (See art. Scholasticism.) School Surgery. — Some such know- ledge as is obtained by attending the first course of lectures given in connection with the St. John's Ambulance Association is of great value to all teachers. It will be impossible to give in detail the first treat- ment of all the accidents which occur in school life ; a few principles and the com- moner examples only can be given, leaving the reader to refer to one of the many popular text-books on the subject, and especially in all doubtful cases to obtain medical aid as quickly as possible. The application of the following simple rules, when fits, or fainting, or haemorrhage, occur, might, however, prevent danger to life. Panic is generated by ignorance, and it is important that the teacher should know how to proceed until the doctor comes, Fainting is not infrequent when a school is overcrowded or ill-ventilated. The patient should be laid flat on his back, and all tight clothing removed from his neck and chest ; overcrowding round him should be avoided, and windows should be thrown wide open. Do not attempt to pour anything down the throat while the patient is unconscious, or he maybe choked. Smelling-salts to the nostrils are useful. Fits, either epileptic or hysterical, are apt to occur, the latter more particularly in girls' schools. In both, the patient should be laid gently on the floor, tight clothing loosened, and no further attem2Dt at active treatment made. If the fit is hysterical it is necessary not to allow the patient to attract much attention, or a repetition of the fit may be expected. In apparent drowning the patient should be placed on 308 SCHOOL Sl'KOKllY his bivolc, tho iwoutli cloausiHl from mud, A'O., and tho tougiu> hoUl drn.wu fm-wiird init. of tho moiitli. Thoti tho arms shouUl bo o-i-ivspod uoar tho olbows, and shouUl bo altorua.ti>ly ib'a.wu ovor tho patiout's hoad and prossod tlowu (irmly against tlio sidos of i\\o ohost. This mauipulatiou shoidd bo ropoatod tiftoou timos o\-iM'y minuto, and pt>rso\orod in for somi^ timo, even thoui;'h thori> ai-o no signs of rotnrn- ing lifo. During tliis timo othor porsous shouUl proouro hot botthvs and blank(>ts, and rub tho K\gs stoadily to promoto tlio circulation. Ohildron occasionally thrust /or>'i(/>t. bodies into the oar or nostril. In tho latter case thoy can gonerally be seized by a pair of tweezers or hooked down by a tine wire hoop ; sometimes a dose of smifl' will serve to dislodge them. If a foreign body is lodged in the oar, the only manipulation that is justifiable by the teacher is syringing out the ear with wai-m water. If this is unsuccessful tho patient should bo sent homo or to a n\odical man. If a. pea. is lodged in tho ear, syringing is bottm- ou\ittod, as the pea may swell and thus become more tinnly impacted. Pur- tides of dxsf, itc, frequently cause great irrit^ition in the eye. 'Pry anil invert the upper eyelid, and then the speck i-an usually be seen and ren\o\ed with tho coi*ner of a handkerchief. If it cannot be seen, drop a little castor-oil into the eye and keep tho eye dosed and free f rou\ movements by nvoaus of a wot compress and bandage over it. In a few hours tho speck gonerally works its own way down to tho inner corner of the eye. If a ■)h\'dlr becomes imbedded in the skin keep the artectoil part tlxod in one position and see a. surgeon. jSpli»f('rs and thorns may usually be removed by cutting through the top skin (epidermis) carefully with a shai'p knife, and then seizing tho fiugmeut with a pair of tweezers. If the splinter is under the nail, it is sou\etimes necessary to cut down the nail. The stlnxjs of bees and ^^^^sps and nettle-stings ai-e best relieved by bathing with hot water and squeezing out the poison, and then applying a strong solutioi\ of bicarlionate of soda to the atTeoted part. The bite of a do(f is not in itself serious, unless the dog is mad. If the dog is captured it is a gi'eat mistake to killit, as thus the patient niay be kept in painful suspense as to whether he really was bitten by a mad dog or not. Tho best plan is to keep tho dog in safe contino- mentand watch if any symptoms of rabies, tlovolop. The wound should be bathed with Imt water, and its blooding freely encouraged, if necessary by enlarging it with a sliarp pocket-knife. Lunar caustic is of little use to apply afterwards, as it does not penetrate deeply. IMost schools, have strong nitric acid on tho promises, and this should bo applioil, by means of a penhohler clipped in tlu> aicid, to tho in- terior of the wound. Wo/oids of varying dogret> and se\erity are apt to occur in school lifi\ Tho wound should be tho- roughly washed and freed from dirt or otlier foreign matter. Then tho edges should bo brought close together, and a pad of linen soaked in carbolised water applied by means of a bandage. Wounds of the head and all the more severe M^ounds should receive a surgoim's attention, uibra- sions in which the skin is rubbed ott' should be washed M'ith c^old water and then some' Friar's balsani or colh>dion applied. Never apply sticking-plaster uex.t to a wound or a.l)rasion ; it is almost certain to produce suppuration. J/?a, where also mathematics, mea- sures of time and capacity, weights and scales, and all the sciences of ancient times received study and attention, and where the arts of building, sculpture, painting, gem-engraving, metal-work, SCH00L8 OF ANTIQUITY 371 Aveaving, and many others made propor- | tionate progress. Assyria possessed but [ little native literature, but was essentially a land of soldiers ; while tlie more peace- ful pursuits Iiad their home in Babylonia, where tlie scribe caste comprised many of the highest in the land, and where tlie , universities of Erech and Borsippa were | renowned down to classical times. It was not till the reign of Assur-bani-pal that any attempt was made to rival Baby- lon in learning ; then for the first time | original compositions came from the pens of Assyrian scholars, and works were even written in the dead language of Accad. In the palace of Assur-bani-pal at Nine- veh lias been discovered a large library consisting of many thousand tablets, large numbers of which are now stored in the | British ]Museum. This library, in all ' probability, owes its origin to the keen political foresight of Esar-haddon, but was completed by his son Assur-bani-pal, , whose name occurs on most of the tablets. ; Primitively, it may be stated par paren- \ tlifise, the Babylonians appear to have used 1 for writing materials papyrus, bark, and other vegetable suhistances. Considering, ' however, that all documents of so fragile and, comparatively speaking, of so ephe- , meral a nature have long since perished, it is fortunate that the Babylonians at an early period of their history adopted for the purpose of receiving their inscriptions •small cakes of clay varying in size from a square inch to that of a page or a sheet of note-paper. These clay tablets were, in fact, their paper, and on them, with a wooden style, all their documents were written ; which had thus the advantage of being able to resist the atmospheric influences of the damp climate of tlie country of their production better than the Egyptian papyri or the leather rolls of the Jews. At a certain period, about B.C. 2000, the BaVjylonians even took the precaution of covering the tablets, after they had been written upon, with a coat- ing of clay, on which the documents were re-written. These are what Assyriolo- gists call case-tablets. A careful study of the taljlets of the library of Assur- h»ani-pal has made it evident that it was chiefly composed of copies made from more ancient originals in the temple- liVjraries of Chaldtea ; the Assyrians, before the closing period of their empire, having been chiefly satisfied to translate the an- cient Accadian literature, or to re-edit the contents of Babylonian liVjraries. The library was evidently founded to prevent the youth of Assyria from going to be taught at Babylon or Borsippa, where they might be subjected to dangerous po- litical influences. Its educational charac- ter is shown by the discovery of a number of syllabaries, grammars, dictionaries, and reading-books of Assyrian and Accadian, together with lists of Semitic synonyms — a collection in which lay the germ of comparative philology. Thus the inscrip- tions found in the royal library of Assur- bani-pal at Nineveh, which first revealed to us the important fact that Assyria was possessed of a most extensive literature, having another than a merely monumen- tal character, also afforded a clear indica- tion that there was a definite system of public instruction in use among the As- syrians. This system, the principal details of which are now accessible to us, was not of native origin ; but, like the literature which the kings stored in their temple and palace libraries, was based upon, and indeed almost entirely copied from, the older system of the more southern mother- land of Babylonia. Before passing in review some of the details of the older system which is now to be studied with astonishing fulness of information derived from works originally belonging to the great libraries of Baby- lon, it is necessary to ascertain upon what basis the statement rests of the existence of a system of public instruc- tion in Assyria. In the library at Nine- veh, which we now know to have been formed in the early part of the seventh century before the Christian era by Esar- haddon or Assur-bani-pal, there were found a number of tablets of an educa- tional character carefully compiled and edited. These tablets were arranged in a, series ; and this series, again, was so constructed as to offer a progressive sequence to the reading of the student. First and foremost, we have the sylla- haries or spelling-books which contain tlie explanations of the most common of the cuneiform characters. The standard tablet- book of this class is known as Syllabary A, and contains the explanations of about two hundred of the most ordinary signs. It is well here to mention that every cunei- form character had a dual use, first as a phonetic and then as an ideogram repre- B B 2 372 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY senting a whole word ; and in this list only the most frequent ideogrammatic and phonetic values are selected. The next works in the series. were tablets con- taining short phrases arranged in the manner of Ollendorf with the old Baby- lonian or Sumerian in the left-hand column, and the Semitic translation in the other. It is these works which aiFord evidence of the fact that the tablets were but Assyrian editions of older Babylonian productions. This class of tablets were called ana itti su, ' to be with him ' ; and were companion or haind-books for the student. Tablets of this series have a colophon or title page, as it were, attached to them, which affords important infor- mation. Each document is said to be ' like its old copy.' Now, as no tablet of a literary character as distinguished from historical records has been found older than the time of Esar-haddon, or at the earliest of Sennacherib, it is evident that the more ancient editions must have been Babylonian — a circumstance which is still further proved by the statement in some cases that the tablets are like the old tablets of Sumer and Accad, that is, of North and South Babylonia. The facts revealed by tlie Assyrian tablets are am- ply substantiated by the discovery of duplicate copies of these works in the libraries at Borsippa and Babylon. A second fact to be learned from these tab- lets is that the library was for public instruction ; for the king states, ' on tab- lets I wrote, I engraved, I made clear, and for the inspection of my subjects within my palace I placed.' It is evident, therefore, that to understand the system of education in practice in Western Asia in ancient times, we must study the docu- ments of the temple schools of Babylonia. The tablets discovered in the ruins of the ancient cities of Babylonia now very clearly set before us the nature and sys- tem of the education in use in that coun- try in early times. From these we learn that all the youth of any station above that of the lowest and poorest wei'e edu- cated in reading and writing at least ; and this is substantiated by the variety of the handwritings which are found in the documents of a popular character. An old text-book, dating back from the earliest period of the Babylonian mon- archy, gives special information, inter alia, upon this subject. It enjoins that when a child is born the father must receive him ; and it was by this act that he re- cognised the relation and the obligations of paternity. When the child had arrived at the proper age, the father was bound to teach him how to read the inscriptions, and to provide him with suitable food and clothing. Contracts and legal docu- ments as early as the twenty-first cen- tury before the Christian era, and deeds of the thirteenth and fourteenth centu- ries, exhibit many varied handwritings ; and as the documents become more and more numerous, reaching their most pro- lific period in the time of Nebuchadnez- zar, B.C. 606, and his successors, the evi- dence of the knowledge of writing becomes most ample. The system we know was that in use to the present day in Oriental schools. Certain standard texts, such as the table of laws, the table of precedents, and certain hymns of the highest class, were copied over and over again by the pupils until they were thoroughly ac- quired ; and many rough copies bear on their surface the marks of the master's corrections. In like inanner, tables of kings, short epitomes of history, lists of stars and of the principal gods of the Pantheon, were learned. Attached to all temples were schools corresponding to the Madrasah of the mosques of Islam, and presided over by the talmudai, or teachers. Most of these edifices were small shrines placed under the protection of Nebo, the Hermes of Chaldfea, who bore the epithet of the Teacher. These small schools were the elementary schools feeding the larger colleges attached to the great temples. In a land where literature held so high a position as in Babylonia, there naturally grew up certain centres of intellectual development. Thus in Borsippa medicine and astronomy were chiefly studied ; in Larrak, the Laranchse of Berosus, a city where the king held his court who sent Memnon to the siege of Troy, mathematics and mensuration were the ruling pursuits; Nipur, known at the present day as Nif- fer, and to be probably identified with the Calneh of Moses and the Calno of Isaiah, characteristically affected magic and divi- nation ; while Cuthah was celebrated for its devotion to the studies of eschatology ■> and philology. The great centre of learn- l| ing, however, was certainly Borsippa, the site of the important temple of Merodach, which was entirely rebuilt by Nebuchad- SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 373 nezzar, and from which a part of our Baby- lonian educational tablets are derived. It is not only evident that the system of in- struction was of a most liberal kind, but it is moreover clear that it was prolonged to a much later period than was formerly imagined : for tablets are found dated as late as B.C. 215, which are copies of older works. The tablets were arranged accord- ing to a catalogue, portions of which have been found, and were to be asked for by definite titles and numbers. It is curious to note that this system of cataloguing is the same as that of arranging the Hebrew books by the first word or line, and may have given rise to that mode of arrange- ment ; as also to observe that great at- tention was paid to the study of prece- dents in the schools of law — a system which we know to lie at the basis of Talmudic teaching. China. — China has been civilised and educated from time immemorial, and at the pi'esent day it is probable, on the testimony of enlightened and impartial foreigners, that primary education is more widely spread among the male population of the 'Middle Kingdom' than in any other country of the world. The society of thousands of years ago is photographed in the description of a German historian of education, who afiirms that in China there is no village so miserable, no hamlet so unpretending, as not to be provided with a school of some kind. The importance of the difiusion of instruction amongst the masses was recognised at a period long an- terior to that of Confucius (b.c. 551-479), and a certain system of elementary edu- cation prevailed for generations before other nations had awakened to a conscious- ness of its political and social advantages. Even in the early feudal times the way was open for talent and character to rise from the lower ranks in the social scale, and to be admitted to official employment. The system of competitive examinations was even then casting a shadow before, and although offices and rank were not attainable in the same manner as they afterwards came to be, yet magistrates and noblemen considered it necessary to have a sound acquaintance with their ancient writings. It is said in the Li Kt, or Book of Rites (about B.C. 1200), ' that, for purposes of education amongst the ancients, villages had their schools, districts their academies, departments their colleges, and principalities their universities.' This, so far as can be ascertained, was altogether superior to what obtained among the Jews, Persians, and Syrians of the same period. Towards the sixth century B.C. two reformers appeared in China, Lao-tsze and Khung-tsze, or Confucius. According to the legends attaching to his name, Lao-tsze, the founder of the sect of the Rationalists of China and other regions of the far East, and of the system of Taoism —the system of the Path or Road, of Reason or Doctrine — was born B.C. 604, more than half a century before the birth of Confucius. He was the representative of the spirit of emancipation, of progress, of the pui-suit of the ideal, and of protest against routine and the tyranny of custom. He was an ardent and enlightened advocate of popular education. ' Certain bad rulex's,' he said,. ' would have us believe that the heart and the spirit of man should be left empty, but that instead his stomach should be filled ; that his bones should be strengthened rather than the power of his will ; that we shoul^ always desire to have the people remain in a state of ignorance, for then their demands would be few. It is difficult, they say, to govern a people that are too wise. These doctrines are directly opposed to what is due to humanity. Those in authority should come to the aid of the people by means of oral and written in- struction ; so far from oppressing them and treating them as slaves, they should do them good in every possible way.' In other words, it is by enlightening the people and by an honest devotion to their inte- rests, that a ruler becomes worthy to govern them. The career of Lao-tsze was com- paratively a failure, or a mere succes d'estime ; for his nominal adherents have long since, for the most part, degraded into the lowest idolatry, and the priests of his system into jugglers and necromancers, among whom scarcely a trace of the pure spirit of their master can be discovered. The fate of Confucius, the younger contemporary of Lao-tsze, the apostle of the idea of practical utilitarian morality, founded upon the authority of the State and that of the family, as well as upon the interest of the individual, to whom tradi- tion ascribes more than three thousand personal disciples, has been happier in the actual potency of his principles, and in the extent and perduration of their authority and acceptance. Confucius, indeed, has 374 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY enjoyed a continued renown, aii ever- repeated triumph, nioi-e extended than any other member of the human x-aee. Through all the changes of Chinese dynasties, by whatever causes brought about, his descen- dants have received peculiar honours. At this day they number more than eleven tliousand males, and are said to constitute the only hereditary nobility in China. From his own time to the present the writings of Confucius have been the prin- cipal objects of study in all the schools of that vast empire. It has, however, been observed, not unjustly, that the aim and scope of the Confucian philosophy were limited to the present life, and none of liis sayings indicate that he had any definite belief in a continued existence after death. His life and teachings tended to the pro- motion of the useful and practical only ; and combined — even after an admiring allowance is made for his beautiful con- ception of tilial piety — to form the expres- sion of an ele'S'ated and refined secularism. The formal institution of the competi- tive examinations which have been from age to age so nearly omnipotent in their influence on Chinese life and society, and a predetermination to which may be de- tected in the national institutions many centuries before, took place about a.d. 600, when Taitsung, of the Tang dynasty, es- tablished the still existing plan of preparing and selecting the servants of the State by means of study and degrees, founding his system on the facts tliat education" had always been esteemed, and tliat the ancient writings were accepted by all as the best instructors of the manners and tastes of the people. Centralisation and conserva- tism were the leading features in the teachings of Confucius which first recom- mended them to the rulers, and have de- cided the course of public examinations in selecting officers who would readily uphold these principles. The efiect has been that the literary class in China has uniformly held the functions of both nobles and priests, a perpetual association, gens (rterna ill qua nemo nascitur, holding in its hands public opinion and the legal power to main- tain it. The geographical isolation of the people, the nature of the language, which is regarded as the most ditiicult known to the speech of articulating men, and the absence of a landed aristocracy, combined to add efliciency to the system. Dr. Martin exhibits the safeguards of this competitive system, the incidental advantages of which may be comprehended under three heads. In the first place, it served the State as a safety-valve, pro- viding a career for those ambitious spirits who might otherwise foment disturbances or excite re^■olutions ; in the second place, it operates — or operated, for in the history of a country like China, where traditions, once established, survive for ever, the past and present are nearly convertible — as a counterpoise to the power of an absolute monarchy, as without it the great ofiices would be tilled by hereditary nobles, and the minor ofiices would be farmed out by thousands to imperial favourites ; and thirdly, it gives the Government a liold on the educated gentry, and binds them to the support of existing institutions, whilst at the same time it renders the literary class eminently conservative. Education, as the only high road to place, honour, and emolument, has always been, in consequence, largely sought after by all who were desirous of following an ofiicial career ; while the uni^'ersal respect for letters has encouraged all of eveiy de- gree to gain at least a smattering of learn- ing — except the women, upon whom no prospects of ofiice, the reward of literary distinction, have ever smiled. Hitherto, therefore, ^ery little trouble has been taken with regard to the education of girls, from whom little more was to be required than that they should be good needlewomen and expert cooks, and that they should learn to act modestly, and to show due deference to their superiors. With the men the case was different indeed, for as no one could hold any State prefer- ment unless he had passed the first of the three great literary competitive examina- tions, the whole education of boys was. arranged with the object of enabling them to pass successively through these ordeals. Unfortunately for the real education of the aspirants to ofiice, the only subject required of them was, as it still is, a know- ledge of the Nine Classics, concluding with the Shili King, or Book of Odes, and the Lt Kt, or Book of Bites — the ultima Thule of Chinese learning. The result is that from childhood upwards these works are the only text-books which are put into the hands of Chinese schoolboys. These they are taught to regard as the supreme models of excellence, and any deviation, either from the opinions they contain or SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 375 from the style in which they are written, would be looked upon as heretical. Year after year these form the subjects of the study of every aspii-ing scholar, until every character and every phrase is, or should be, indelibly engraved on the memory. This course of instruction has been exactly fol- lowed in every school in the empire for many centuries, and the result is that there are annually turned out a vast number of lads all cast in the same mould, all pos- sessed of a certain amount of ready-made knowledge, and with their memories unduly exercised at the expense of their thinking powers. The minds of the scholars are not symmetrically trained, and they are encouraged superciliously to disparage all requirements which are not of direct utility to their advancement as candidates and place-holders. China has produced gene- ration after generation of men who have learned to elevate mere memory above genius, and whose intellectual faculties have been damaged by servile imitation, and by the paltry literalism of the schools. It is a corollary from the veneration paid to learning in all the stages of Chinese history, that the person and the vocation of the teacher have been proportionately venerable. Boys commenced their studies at the age of seven with a teacher ; for, even if the father were a literary man, he seldom instructed his sons, and very few mothers were able to teach their offspring to read. One of the most authoritative treatises for the guidance of teachers, when establishing the elements of education, advises fathers to choose from among their concubines those who are fit for nurses, seeking such as are mild, indulgent, affectionate, bene- volent, cheerful, kind, dignified, respectful, and reserved and careful in their conversa- tion, whom they will make governesses over their children. The treatise in ques- tion is the Nei-tsze, forming the tenth book of the LI Ki, and its title, which means the Pattern of the Family, is given to it, as Kang Hsiian says, because it records the rules for sons and daughters in serving their parents, and for sons and their wives in serving their parents-in-law in the family home. Among the other treatises of the Lt Ki it may thus be differenced as giving the rules for children. And because the observances of the harem are worthy of imitation, it is called the Pattern of the Interior. Ku Hsi says that ' it is a book which was taught to the people in the an- cient schools, an ancient classic or sacred text.' After giving the directions about the selection of a likely nurse for an ex- pected infant, the Nei-tsze proceeds, in the form of a didactic narrative, to give other directions. ' When the child,' it says, ' was able to take its own food it was taught to use the right hand. When it was able to speak, a boy was taught to respond boldly and clearly ; a girl, submis- sively and low. The former was fitted with a girdle of leather, the latter with one of silk. At six yeax^s, they were taught the numbers and the names of the cardinal points ; at the age of seven, boys and girls did not occupy the same mat nor eat to- gether ; at eight, when going out or coming in at a gate or door, and going to their mats to eat and drink, they were required to follow their elders : — the teaching of yielding to others was now begun ; at nine, they were taught how to number the days. At ten, (the boy) went to a master outside, and stayed with him (even) over the night. He learned the (different classes of) cha- racters and calculation ; he did not wear his jacket or trousers of silk ; in his man- ners he followed his early lessons ; morning and evening he learned the behaviour of a youth ; he would ask to be exercised in (reading) the tablets, and in the forms of polite conversation. At thirteen, he learned music, and to repeat the odes, and to dance the Ko (of the duke of Kau).i When a full-grown lad, he danced the hsiang (of King Wu). He learned archery and chariot-driving. At twenty, he was capped, and first learned the (different classes of) ceremonies, and might wear furs and silk. He danced the ta hsia (of Yii), and attended sedulously to filial and fraternal duties. He might become very learned, but did not teach others ; — (his object being still) to receive and not to give out. At thirty, he had a wife, and began to attend to the business proper to a man. He extended his learning, without confining it to par- ticular subjects. He was deferential to his friends, having regard to the aims (which they displayed). At forty, he was first appointed to ofiice, and according to the business of it brought out his plans 1 It is difficult to describe exactly, amid the con- flict of different views, these several dances. Dances were of two kinds, the civil and military. The Ko was perhaps the first of the civil dances, ascribed to the duke of Kau ; and the hsiang, the first of the martial. The two are said to have been combined in the ta hsia. 376 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY and communicated his thoughts. If the ways (which he proposed) wore suitable, he followed them out ; if they wei-e not, he abandoned them. At tifty, lie was ap- pointed a great otiicer, and laboured in the administration of his tlepartment. At seventy he retired from his duties. In all salutations of males, the upper place was given to the left hand. ' A girl at the age of ten ceased to go out (from the women's apartments). Her governess taught her (the arts of) pleasing speech and manners, to be docile and obe- dient, to handle the hempen fibres, to deal with the cocoons, to weave silks and form fillets, to learn (all) woman's work, how to furnisli garments, to watch the sacrifices, to supply the liquors and sauces, to till the various stands and dishes with pickle and brine, and to assist in setting fortli the appurtenances for the ceremonies. At fifteen, she assumed the hair-pin ; at twenty, she M'as married, or, if there were occasion for the delay, at twenty-three. If there were the betrothal rites, she became a wife ; and if she went without these, a concubine. In all salutations of females the upper place was given to the right hand.' With reference to the numbering of the days, in which children were instructed at nine years of age. Dr. Legge observes that ' to number the days was, and is, a more complicated atiair in China, than in this country, requiring an acquaintance with all the terms of the cycle of sixty, as well as the more compendious method by decades for each month.' With reference to what is enjoined as to the education of girls. Dr. Legge remarks that ' tliere is nothing in what is said of the daughters to indicate that they received any literary training. They were taught simply the household duties that would devolve on them in their station in society ; though among them, be it observed, were tlie forms and provision for sacrifice and wor- ship. It will be observed, also, at how early an age all close intercourse between them and their brothers came to an end, and that at ten they ceased to go out from the women's apartments." That this with- holding of literary culture from the educa- tion of women M-as not felt by the sex universally as a hardship or an injustice, is shown on the authority of Pan-Hwui- pan, also known asPan-Chao, perhaps the most celebrated female writer of China, who flourished in the first century of the Christian era, and who devoted her life and talents to the elevation of the character and position of women, and to their ad- vancement in all the virtues. 'The virtue of a female,' says this accomplished lady, ' does not consist altogether in extraordi- nary abilities or intelligence, but in being modestly grave and inviolably chaste, observing the requirements of virtuous widowhood, and in being tidy in her person and e^'ery thing about her ; in whatever she does to be unassuming, and whenever she moves or sits to be decorous. This is female virtue.' On the whole it may be concluded, i with the slight necessary reserve, with j Professor Compayre, that at eveiy period j of her long history China ' has preserved j her national peculiai'ities. For move than three thousand years an absolute unifor- mity has characterised this immobile peo- ple. Everything is regulated by tradi- tion. Education is mechanical and formal. The pre-occupation of teachers is to cause their pupils to acquire a mechanical ability, a regular and sure routine. They care more for appearances, for a decorous man- ner of conduct, than for a searching and profound morality. Life is but a ceremo- nial, minutely determined and punctually followed. Tliere is no liberty, no glow of spontaneity. Their art is characterised by conventional refinement, and by a prettiness that seems mean ; there is nothing of the grand or imposing. By their formalism, the Chinese educators are the Jesuits of the East.' Egypt. — It is one of the marvels of Egypt and its early civilisation, that it starts already full gi-own into life in the valley of the Nile, as a nation highly advanced in language, painting, and sculp- ture, and ofiers the enigma as to whence it attained so high a point of development. There is no monumental nation which can compare with it for antiquity, except perhaps Babylonia ; and evidence is yet required to determine which of the two empires is the older. The arts of Egypt exercised an all-powerful influence on the ancient world. The Phoenicians copied their types, and Greece adopted the early Oriental style of architecture, for the Doric style came from Egypt, the Ionic from Assyria, the later Corinthian again from Egypt. If Phaniieia conferred an alphabet on Greece, Egypt suggested the use of such characters to Phoenicia. Already in SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 377 the seventh century B.C., the hieroglyphs represented a dead form of the Egyptian language, one which had ceased to be spoken ; and Egyptians introduced a con- ventional mode of writing simpler than the older forms, and better adapted for the pui'poses of vernacular idiom. Egyp- tian philosophy, the transmigration doc- trine of Pythagoras, that of the immor- tality of the soul of Plato, pervaded the Hellenic mind from the colleges of Thebes. The wisdom of the Egyptians was em- bodied in ethical works of proverbs and maxims as old as the Pyramids, and as venerable for their hoar antiquity as the days of the Exodus. The frail papyrus, the living rock, the temple, and the tomb, have all preserved an extent of literature found nowhere else. The motive was a i-eligion which looked forward to an eter- nal duration, or the return of the past to the future. The national psalm of Pentaur is found on the walls of Thebes, and the papyrus of SalHer. The Book of the Dead was alike sculptured on the tombs and written on the roll ; it em- bodied much of the symbolic, though less of the esoteric, doctrine. The Elysian fields, the streams of Styx, burning Phle- gethon, the judges of the dead, are Egyp- tian conceptions ; the sun-worship is Egyptian ; medicine and astronomy, geo- metry, truthful history, and romantic fic- tions are found in the extensive literature. Many dogmas and practices of an Egyp- tian origin have descended to the present ■day, and exercise more influence than is generally supposed on modern religious thought. The schools of Egypt, like those of Judea, were ecclesiastical ; but whilst the Jews had but little efiect on the progress of science, the obligations of the rest of the world to the priests of the Nile Yalley were, as has just been indicated, more than considerable. Much of their learn- ing is obscure to us, and their methods of instruction, in spite of the fairly rewarded efibrts of recent enquirers, and especially those of Professor Georg Ebers, who in his learned romances, and otherwise, has sought to realise and to reproduce the student life of the temple-schools of the country, are to a provoking extent still unascertained. Sufiicient is known, how- ever, to justify the reasonable conclusion of scholars, as stated by Mr. Oscar Brown- ing, that ' there is no branch of science in which they did not progress at least so far as observation and careful registration of facts could carry them. They were a source of enlightenment to surrounding nations. ISTot only the great lawgiver of the Jews, but those who were most active in stimulating the nascent energies of Hellas, were careful to train themselves in the wisdom of the Egyptians. Greece, in giving an undying name to the literature of Alexandria, was only repaying the debt which she had incurred centuries before.' In the dearth of details as to the actual methods of imparting instruction in a country the reputation of whose learning is as extended as it is perennial, every glimpse which can be gained is precious beyond what would otherwise be its pro- portionate value. Such a glimpse is af- forded in the Maxims of Ani, one of the several collections of precepts and maxims on the conduct of life which have descended to this generation from what is colourably the remotest antiquity which can be ap- proached within the limits of the literature or civilisation of mankind. Of these col- lections are the Maxims of Ptahhotep con- tained in the Prisse Papyrus, the Instruc- tions of Amenemhat, and the Maxims of Ani, just mentioned ; whilst fragments of other important works are preserved in the museums of Paris, Leyden, and St. Peters- burg. The most venerable of them is the work of Ptahhotep, which dates from the age of the Pyramids, and yet appeals to the authority of the ancients. It is almost certainly, as M. Chabas called it, in the title of the memorable essay in which its contents were first made known (Eevtie Archeologique, 1857), 'le plus ancien livre du monde.' The manuscript at Paris which contains it was written centuries before the Hebrew lawgiver was born ; but the author of the work lived as far back as the reign of King Assa Tatkara of the fifth dynasty. The Maxiins of Ani, in the matter of antiquity, may be said to rank with, but after the collection of Ptah- hotep ; and they comprise a section upon maternal love, which describes the self- sacrifice of an affectionate mother from the earliest moments of the child's exist- ence, and continues as follows : — ' Thou wast put to school, and whilst thou wast being taught letters she came punctually to thy master, bringing thee the bread and the drink of her house. Thou art now come to man's estate ; thou art married 378 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY and hast a house ; but nevex" do thou forget the painful labour which thy mother en- dured, nor all the salutary care which she has taken of thee. Take heed lest she have cause to complain of thee, for fear that she should raise her hands to God, and He should listen to her prayer.' The social restrictions and disabilities, which less or more prevailed amongst the most cultured nations of antiquity, have been recently shown not to have attached in any purely prohibitive degree to the liberal and aspiring youth of Egypt. Un- til lately it was believed without reserve, and asserted without misgiving, that, while of all the Oriental nations Egypt is the one in which intellectual achievement seems to have reached its highest point, the attainment of scientific eminence, with the rewards of official distinction, autho- rity, and emolument which scientific emin- ence involved, was limited to persons only of a favoured class and of high hereditary function. The hierarchy was supposed not merely to have appropriated, but to have monopolised, the learning of the day, and to have jealously guarded from vulgar intrusion the stores of the mysterious knowledge which was communicated or communicable only to the sovereign and the nobility. The common people, who were by the same hypothesis inevitably destined from father to son to an identi- cal social status, learned scarcely more than was necessary in order to practise their ancestral trades or handicrafts, and to be initiated into the religious beliefs which became their station. Moi-e hap- pily conducted researches into the subject, however, have practically demonstrated the fact that the hereditary tendency, which, without doubt, powerfully existed, to the adoption by the son of the paternal calling, was so susceptible of modification or solution as to be frequently inoperative — so frequently, indeed, as to invalidate the long-current accusation. Dr. Hein- rich Brugsch-Bey has some vivid and suggestive words with regard to the elas- ticity and generosity, in this respect, of ancient Egyptian institutions : — ' In the schools where the poor scribe's child sat on the saroe bench beside the offspring of the rich, to be trained in discipline and wise learning, the masters knew how by timely words to goad on the lagging dili- gence of the ambitious scholars, holding- out to them the future reward which awaited youths skilled in knowledge and lettei-s. Thus the slumbering spark of self-esteem was stii-red to a flame in the youthful breast, and emulation was stimulated among the boys. Even the- clever son of the poor man might hope by his knowledge to climb the ladder of the higher offices, for neither his birth nor position in life raised any barrier, if only the youth's mental power justified fair hopes for the future. In this sense the restraints of caste did not exist, and neither descent nor family hampered the rising career of the clever. Many a monu- ment consecrated to the memory of some nobleman gone to his long home, who during life had held high rank at the court of Pharaoh, is decorated with the simple but laudatory inscription, " His ancestors were unknown people." It is a satisfaction to avow that the training and instruction of the young interested the Egyptians in the highest degree. For they fully recognised in this the sole means of elevating their national life, and of ful- filling the high civilising mission which Providence seemed to have placed in their hands. But above all things they regarded justice, and virtue had the highest value in their eyes. The law which ordered them " to pray to the gods, to honour the dead, to give bread to the hungry, water to the thirsty, clothing to the naked," reveals to us one of the finest qualities of the old Egyptian character, pity towards the unfortunate. The forty - two commandments of the Egyptian reli- gion which are contained in the 125th chapter of the Book of the Dead, are in nO' way inferior to the precepts of Christianity; and, in reading the old Egyptian inscrip- tions concerning morality and the fear of God, we are tempted to believe that the Jewish lawgiver Moses modelled his teach- ings on the patterns given by the old Egyptian sages.' In another connection Brugsch-Bey carries his optimism with reference to the affairs of Egypt to the extent of posing as an apologist for the misrepresented Cambyses, whom he couples with Darius I. as being benevolently disposed towards the interests of Egyptian education. In one of the inscriptions he records that ' Cambyses appears in a totally different light from that in which school-learning places him. He takes care for the gods- and their temples, and has himself crowned 1 a 1! SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 37^ in Sais after the old Egyptian manner. Darius I., whom the Egyptian XJza-hor- en-pi-ris had accompanied to Elam (Ely- mais), took particular pleasure in rescuing the Egyptian temple-learning from its threatened extinction. He provided for the training of the energetic and gifted youth in the schools of the priests, to be the future maintainers and teachers of the lost wisdom of the Egyptians.' The question of the existence of caste — varying, as it may do, from an iron and unbending tyranny to an expediency so unjDretentious as scarcely to assert, or even to seek, a sanction external to itself — is of such vital and characteristic importance in the working of any system of education that it is convenient in this connection to quote the judicial generalisation of one of our most trusted masters in Egyptology. 'As long,' says M. P. Le Page Renouf, ' as our information depended upon the classical Greek authors, the existence of castes among the Egyptians was admitted as certain. The error was detected as soon as the sense of the inscriptions could be made out, A very slight knowledge of the language was sufficient to demonstrate the truth to the late M. Ampere. Among ourselves many men may be found whose ancestors have for several generations fol- lowed the same calling, either the army or the Church, or some branch of industry or trade. The Egyptians were no doubt even more conservative than ourselves in this respect. But there was no impassable barrier between two professions. The son or the brother of a wai-rior might be a priest. It was perhaps more difficult to rise in the world than it is with us ; but a man of education, a scribe, was eligible to any office, civil, military, or sacei-dotal, to which his talents or the chances of fortune might lead him, and nothing prevented his marriage with the daughter of a man of a different profession. Not less interesting are the words of the Pev. Canon Rawlinson, in regard to the chances open to youth of talent ir- respective of their social position, words which lose nothing of their weight because they manifest some hesitation in accepting as proved the position which Brugsch-Bey has so uncompromisingly assumed. Canon Rawlinson introduces the words to which we now dii'ectly refer by a passage de- scribing the respect with which the young, with whom was the future, treated the aged, with whom was the past. 'The consideration shown to age in Egypt was remarkable, and, though perhaps a rem- nant of antique manners, must be regarded as a point in which their customs were more advanced than those of most ancient peoples. "Their young men, when they met their elders in the street," we are told (Herodotus, ii. 80), " made way for them and stepped aside ; and if an old man came in where young men were present, the latter rose from their seats out of re- spect for him." In arrangements with re- spect to education, the ancient Egyptians, seem also to have attained a point not often reached by the nations of antiquity. If the schools wherein scribes obtained their instruction were really open to all {see Brugsch, Geschiclite Aegyptens, p. 24), and the career of scribe might be pursued by any one, whatever his birth, then it must be said that Egypt, notwithstanding the general rigidity of her institutions, provided an open career for talent such as scarcely existed elsewhere in the old world, and such as few modern communi- ties can be said even yet to furnish. It was always possible, under despotic go- vernments, that the capricious favour of the sovereign should raise to a high, or even to the highest, position the lowest per- son in the kingdom. But in Egypt alone^ of all ancient States, does a system seem to have been established whereby persons of all ranks, even the lowest, were invited to compete for the royal favour, and, by distinguishing themselves in the public schools, to establish a claim for employ- ment in the public service. That em- ployment once obtained, their future de- pended on themselves. Merit secured promotion ; and it would seem that the efficient scribe had only to show himself superior to his fellows in order to rise to the highest position but one in the empire.' India. — Hindu civilisation is im- mensely old ; and, with regard to the bulk of the population of India, may be said to have changed so little in the course of ages that if an ancestor of a thousand years ago could visit a descendant of the thirtieth degree, there would not be much to suggest to either a wider secular chasm than if one had followed the other in the way of direct and immediate succession. For as soon as we look below the SLirface, as soon as we pass from the large towns to the country, it is found that the cur- 380 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY rent of Hindu life and manners has been but slightly affected by Western influence. The upper crust of society may have altered, but the movement has scarcely penetrated to the great mass below. English law and English customs are, no doubt, gradually working a change, but generations will have to pass before the change will have penetrated very deeply. Even railways have failed to produce more than a superficial effect, and the majority of the most highly 'Europeanised' of the natives still cling to the system of caste. This last alone is sufficient to ac- count for the still deathless perpetuation of customs in general, and of educational subjects and matters in particular, along- side of the aggressive vigour of foreign institutions which have been introduced into the Indian system on the principle of inoculation rather than that of incor- poration. The indigenous culture of India goes back to a period when the Greeks had not yet entered upon their heroic age ; and it is possible to trace its origin and growth, with the aid of contemporaneous litera- ture, almost from the fifteenth century before the Christian era. This, at least, is the probable date of that wonderful collection of hymns known as the Veda, or, more strictly, the Rig- Veda, which con- stitutes the oldest literary monument of the great Aryan race. Some of the poems, indeed, are later than others ; but the whole collection cannot well be regarded as less than three thousand years old. It is upon this ancient collection of poems that Hindu civilisation rests ; it forms the starting-point not only of Hindu the- ology, but of Hindu philosophy, Hindu law, and Hindu art and science as well. To understand the Rig- Veda is to under- stand the history of Hindu thought and civilisation. But the language, as well as the life and belief, of the Hindu has changed more than once since the times when the hymns of the Rig- Veda were composed. They are written in an archaic form of Sanskrit, which differs very con- siderably from the classical Sanskrit of a later period both in vocabulary and in grammar. It brings us nearer to the common Aryan language spoken by the ancestors of the Hindus and the Persians, of the Greeks and the Italians, of the Slavs and the Celts, before they set out on their long wanderings. It is true that a traditional interpretation of the hymns has been handed down along with the hymns themselves, and that, four or five centuries before the Christian era, the more obscure words and forms had been discussed in treatises Avhich display the most profound acquaintance with the principles of phonology and grammar ; but it is also true that the tradition is not uniformly correct, and that the real force and meaning of much of the Vedic language can only be discovered by a minute examination of the text, and the assistance of comparative philology. One of the most important of the Hindu writings for purely linguistic purposes is the Prdtisdkhya of Saunaka, a treatise on Vedic phonology, which seems to be as old as the fifth century B.C. This par- ticular Prdtisdkhya is only one out of many which once existed, and were de- signed to preserve the pronunciation of the sacred hymns from being corrupted. The practical aim, however, is attained by means of a marvellously minute and accurate investigation of phonetic utter- ance; indeed, so thoroughly scientific is the analysis and classification of sounds as to have been made the basis of modern researches into phonology. Considering that the education of In- dia was effected in, by, and for the Vedas, and that its primary and ultimate aim was their safe transmission, a few words of more particular desci-iption of these sacred books may here be profitably supplied. The Veda, or knowledge, was invested with divine authority ; its mere words, apart from any meaning they might con- vey, were believed to have a religious efficacy, and the theory of inspiration invented to support their sacred charac- ter goes much beyond the most extreme theoiy of verbal inspiration ever held in the Christian or the Jewish Church. The Rig- Veda, or Veda of Praise, which con- tains prayers and hymns in verse, had to share its place of honour with three other collections, two of which, the Yajur-Veda and the Sama-Veda, contain little be- sides what is found in the Rig- Veda. They are, in fact, only prayer-books com- piled from the older collection of hymns, and were intended for the use of choristers and ministers of the priests at the sacri- fices, just as the Rig- Veda was assigned to the Hotri, or the priest proper. The fourth, or Atharva-Veda, is of later origin SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 381 than the rest, which were peculiarly- termed the Trayi, or Triad, and consists of a number of poems mixed up with popular sayings, medical advice, magical formulfB, and the like. In process of time, commentaries on the Vedas were called into existence, on which, under the title of Brahmanas, the sacredness of the Vedas came to be reflected : so that they also, in the long run, began to be regarded as authoritative, and to be superseded in their original ancillary position by the Sutras, the ' Sti'ings ' or manuals of the gramma- rians. It is to this, the Alexandrine age of the Hindu literature, that the Pratisa- khyas, already referred to, belong ; and the results of the labours of the period are truly astonishing. Not only were the very syllables of the Rig- Veda counted with absolute accuracy, and lists of obso- lete words and synonyms drawn up, but one of the most perfect systems of phon- ology and grammar ever known was ela- borated — a system which has been taken as the foundation of the scientific gram- matical investigations of our own day. Grammar, or Vyakarana, however, was only one of the six Vedangas, or branches of Vedic doctrine, that were studied, and which comprised also Siksha (pronuncia- tion), Chhandas (meti^e), Nirukta (ex- planation of words), Jyotisha (astronomy), and Kalpa (ceremonial). Indeed, all the other subjects of enquiry were but sub- sidiary to the last ; it was to prevent mistakes being made in the performance of divine worship, and to preserve the Key of Knowledge, sacred and profane, in the jealous keeping of a learned priestly caste that both Vedas and Brahmanas were so closely investigated. The ultimate aim, then, of Hindu education — ^to repeat more emphatically what has already been incidentally men- tioned — was to produce mnemonic custo- dians of the Vedas, and of other sacred books in the order of their production, who should ensure, by the power of mutual checks, the purity and integrity of the treasures committed to them, whether by oral or literary transmission. This exact and perfect memory of sacred words and sacred things was all the more necessary in the ages that preceded the art of writ- ing, of which there is no evidence that it was known in India much before the beginning of Buddhism, or the very end of the ancient Vedic literature. From the earliest times, as far back as we know anything of India, we find that the years which we spend at school and the uni- versity, were spent by the sons of the higher classes in acquiring, from the mouth of a teacher, their sacred learning. This was a solemn duty, the neglect of which entailed social degradation, and the most minute rules were laid down as to the mnemonic systems that had to be followed. Before the invention of writing, there was, indeed, no other way of preserving literature, whether sacred or profane; and, in consequence, every precaution was taken against accidents. 'Those Brahmans,' says Professor Max Miiller, ' who even in this Kali age, and during the ascendency of the Mlekkhas, uphold the sacred tra- ditions of the past, are not to be met with in the drawing-rooms of Calcutta. They depend on the alms of the people, and live in villages, either by themselves, or in colleges. These men, and I know it as a fact, know the whole Rig- Veda by heart, just as their ancestors did, three or four thousand years ago ; and though they have MSS., and though they have now a printed text, they do not learn their sacred lore from them. They learn it, as their ancestors learnt it thousands of years ago, from the mouth of a teacher, so that the Vedic succession should never be broken. The oral teaching and learning become, in the eyes of the Brahmans, one of the " Great Sacrifices," and though the number of those who still keep it up is smaller than it used to be, their influence, their position, their sacred authority are as great as ever.' To the same efiect the editor of the Indian Antiquary, writing in 1878, says that, 'there are thousands of Brahmans who know the Rig- Veda by heart, and can repeat it in Sanhita, Pada, Jata, Ghana, and Krama, without making any mistakes ' — the Sanhita and others being five dififerent methods of learning the Veda, by either reciting each word separately, or by repeating the words in various complicated ways. The Rig- Veda, it may be stated, consists of 1,017 or 1,028 hymns, each on an average of ten verses. The total number of words, if we may trust native scholars, amounts to 153,826. ' They,' says Professor Max Miiller, mean- ing the Vedic students of the present time, which also includes all time, even to the remotest antiquity — •' they learn a few lines every day, repeat them for 382 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY hours, so that the whole house resounds with the noise, and they thus strengthen their memory to that degree that, when their apprenticeship is finished, you can open them like a book, and find any pas- sage you like, any word, any accent.' Professor Max Miiller proceeds to picture a ' half-naked Hindu repeating under an Indian sky the sacred hymns which have been handed down for three or four thou- sand years by oral tradition. If writing had never been invented, if India had never been occupied by England, that young Brahman, and thousands and thou- sands of his countrymen, would probably have been engaged just the same in learn- ing and saying by heart the simple prayers first uttered on the Sarasvati and the other rivers of the Penjab by Vasishtha, Visvamitra, Syavasva, and others.' The method of oral teaching followed in the schools of ancient India is care- fully described in the fifteenth chapter of the Pratisakhya of the Rig-Yeda, that is, probably, in the fifth or sixth century B.C. It is constantly alluded to in the Brahmanas, but it must have existed even during the earlier period, for in one of the hymns of the Rig-Yeda, in which the re- turn of the rainy season, and the delight and croaking of frogs are described, we read : — ' One repeats the speech of the other, as the pupil repeats the words of the teacher.' In the description of the method of oral teaching in the Pratisakhya in question, ' the teacher, we are told, must himself have passed through the recognised curriculum, and have fulfilled all the duties of a Brahmanical student (brah- makarin), before he is allowed to become a teacher, and he must teach such stu- dents only as submit to all the rules of studentship. He should settle down in a proper place. If he has only one pupil or two, they sliovild sit on his right side ; if more, they must sit as there is room for them. At the beginning of each lec- ture the pupils embrace the feet of their teacher and say, "Read, Sir." The teacher answers, "Om, Yes," and then pronounces two words, or, if it is a compound, one. When the teacher has pronounced one word or two, the first pupil repeats the first word, but if there is anything that requires explanation, the pupil says "Sir; " and after it has been explained to him (the teacher says), " Om, Yes, Sir." ' In this manner they go on till they have finished a prasna (question), which consists of three verses, or, if they are verses of more than forty to forty-two syllables, of two verses. If they are pankti- verses of forty to forty -two sylla- bles each, a prasna may comprise either two or three ; and if a hymn consists of one verse only, that is supposed to form a prasna. After the prasna is finished, they have all to repeat it once more, and then to go on learning it by heart, pronouncing every syllable with the high accent. After the teacher has first told a prasna to his pupil on the right, the others go round him to the right, and this goes on till the whole adhyaya or lecture is finished : a lecture consisting generally of sixty prasnas. At the end of the last half- verse the teacher says, " Sir," and the pupil replies, " Om, Yes, Sir," repeating all the verses required at the end of a lecture. The pupils then embrace the feet of their teacher, and are dismissed.' These are the general fea- tures of a lesson, but the Pratisakhya contains some minute rules besides. Por instance, in order to prevent small words from being neglected, the teacher is to repeat twice every woi-d which has but one high accent, or consists of one vowel only. A number of small words are to be followed by the particle ' iti,' thus, others are to be followed by iti, and then to be repeated again, e.g. ka-iti ka. These lec- tures continued during about half the year, the term beginning generally with the rainy season. There were, however, many holidays on which no lectures were given ; and on these points also the most minute regulations are given both in the Grihya and Dharma-sutras. The syllable ' Om,' which occupies so prominent a position in the conversation which is prescribed between pupil and Guru, or teacher, as a preliminary and a concomitant of Yedic instruction, is defined as being ' the door of heaven. Therefore,' says Apastamba, representatively for him- self and other commentators on the Sacred Laws, ' he who is about to study the Yeda shall begin (his lesson) by (pronouncing) it. If he has spoken anything else (than what refers to the lesson, he shall resume his reading by repeating the word " Om "). Thu.s the Yeda is separated from profane speech. And at sacrifices the orders (given to the priests) are headed by this word. And in common life, at the occasion of SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 383 ceremonies performed for the sake of wel- fare, the sentences shall be headed by this word, as, for instance, " (Om) an auspicious day," " (Om) welfare," " (Om) prosperity." Without a vow of obedience (a pupil) shall not study (nor a teacher teach) a difficult (new book) with the exception of (the texts called) Trihsravana and Trihsahava- kana.' There are several series of canons still extant which were formulated by various sages of old to regulate the status of stu- dentship. These, as exemplified in the Institutes of Vishnu, enjoin that students, after initiation — a rite, ceremony, or sacra- ment, which, in the case of Brahmanas, should take place ' in the eighth year after conception,' and must not be delayed be- yond the sixteenth year — should dwell at the house of their Guru, or spiritual teacher. They must recite their morning and evening prayers, and each student ' shall mutter the morning prayer standing, and the evening prayer sitting.' Twice a day he is to perform the religious acts of sprinkling the ground (round the altar) and of jDutting fuel on the fire. ' He must plunge into the waters like a stick,' and is to study when called upon to do so by his teacher, to whom he is to be serviceable in every respect. The institutes proceed to regulate the garments and the diet of the student ; to restrict and define his mendicancy, and to prescribe the acts of ■courtesy and reverence he is to render to his teacher, whom, whether in gait, manner, speech, or any other particular, he is for- bidden to mimic, and whose reputation is to be precious to him. In the practice of such exercises the student is to ' acquire by heart one Yeda, or two Vedas, or (all) the Yedas. Thereupon, the Vedangas (that treating of phonetics and the rest). He who, not having studied the Yeda, applies himself to another study, will de- grade himself, and his progeny with him, to the state of a Sudra. From the mother is the first birth ; the second, from the gird- insf with the sacrificial string. In the latter the Savitri hymn is his mother, and the teacher his father. It is this which entitles members of the three higher castes to the designation of the " twice-born." Previous to his being girded with the sacrificial string a member of these castes is similar to a Sudra (and not allowed to study the Yeda). ... A Brahmana who passes without tiring (of the discharge of his duties) the time of his studentship will attain to the most exalted heavenly abode (that of Brahman) after his death, and will not be born again in this world.' A Guru must not admit to his teaching one whom he does not know ; neither may he initiate such a one. ' If by instructing a pupil neither religious merit nor wealth is acquired, and if no sufficient attention is to be obtained from him (for his teacher's words), in such soil divine knowledge must not be sown : it would perish like fine seed in bai-ren soil. The deity of sacred knowledge approached a Brahmana (and said to him), " Preserve me, I am thy treasure, reveal me not to a scorner, nor to a wicked man, nor to one of uncontrolled passions : thus I shall be strong. Reveal me to him, as to a keeper of thy gem, O Brah- mana, whom thou shalt know to be pure, attentive, possessed of a good memory, and chaste, who will not grieve thee, nor re- vile thee." ' The Institutes go on to pre- scribe conditions, sometimes fantastic, under which the pupil may not study. ' Let him avoid studying at times when there ought to be an intermission of study, even though a question has been put to him (by his teacher) ; ' a regulation which is especially to be understood by remem- bering that every lesson consisted of ques- tions put by the teacher and the student's answer to them. The sanction of this so- lution of the habit and course of study is based on the circumstance that to study on forbidden days does not advantage any one in this or in the other world ; and that, indeed, to study on such days destroys the life of both teacher and pupil. ' Therefore should a teacher, who wishes to obtain the world of Brahman, avoid improper days, and sow (on proper days) the seed of sacred knowledge on soil consisting of virtuous pupils.' It would be difficult to conceive of a more exalted estimate of the vocation of the Guru — of which the injunctions for the student to embrace his feet on all suitable occasions, and to perform other acts of service and veneration, are ordinary ex- pressions — -than is contained in the follow- ing verses of the Institutes, which place the teacher, once for all, on the most ele- vated plane of dignity which it is possible for one human being to occupy in relation to another. ' Let (a student) never grieve that man from whom he has obtained worldly knowledge (relating to poetry, 384 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY rhetoric, and the like subjects), sacred knowledge (relating to the Vedas and Vedangas), or knowledge of the Supreme Spirit. Of the natural progenitor and the teacher who imparts the Veda to him, the giver of the Yeda is the more venerable father ; for it is the new existence ac- quired by his initiation in the Veda which will last him both in this life and the next. Let him consider as a merely human exist- ence that which he owes to his father and mother uniting from carnal desire and to his being born from his mother's womb. That existence which his teacher, who knows all the Vedas, effects for him through the prescribed rites of initiation with (his divine mother) the Gayatri, is a true exist- ence ; that existence is exempt from age and death. He who fills his ears with holy truths, who frees him from all pain (in this world and the next), and confers immortality (or final liberation) upon him, that man let the student consider as his (true) father and mother : gratefully ac- knowledging the debt he owes him, he must never grieve him.' Further light is thrown on the method of the Vedic studies of antiquity, in an interesting account of the state of native learning which appears in the Indian An- tiquary for May 1874, to which it was contributed, with the title of The Veda in India, by Professor Ram Krishna Gopal Bhandarkar. This account is to the effect that every Brahmanic family is devoted to the study of a particular Veda, and a particular sdkhd, or recension of a Veda ; and the domestic rites of a family are per- formed according to the ritual prescribed in the sutra connected with that Veda. The study consists in getting by heart the books forming the particular Veda. In Northern India, where the predominant Veda is the White Yajush, and the sakha Madhyandina, this study has almost died out, except at Banaras, where Brahma- nic families from all parts of India are settled. 'It prevails to some extent in Gujarat, but to a much greater extent in the Ma- ratha country, and in Tailangana there is a large number of Brahmans who still devote their life to this study. Numbers of these go about to all parts of the country in search of dakshind (fee, alms), and all well-to-do natives patronise them accoixling to their means, by getting them to repeat portions of their Veda, which is mostly the leir I Black Yajitsh, with Apastamba for their sutra. Hardly a week passes here in Bombay in which no Tailanga BrPdiman comes to me to ask for dakshind. On each occasion I get the men to repeat what they have learned, and compare it with the printed texts in my possession. With reference to their occupation, Brahmans of each Veda are generally divided into two classes, Grihasthas and Bikshukas. The former devote themselves to a worldly avocation, while the latter spend their time in the study of their sacred books and the practice of their religious rites. Both these classes have to repeat (daily) the Sandhyd- Vanda7ia, or twilight prayers,, the forms of which are somewhat different for the different Vedas. But the repetition of the Gayatri-mantra Tat Savitur varen- yam, &c., five, ten, twenty-eight, or a hundred and eight times, which forms the principal portion of the ceremony, is com- mon to all.' The Vedic learning of the Grihasthas is limited as compared with that of the Bhik- shukas, some of whom are what are called Yajnikas, who follow a priestly occupation and ai'e skilled in the performance of the sacred rites ; whilst a more important class still are the Vaidikas, some of whom are Yajnikas as well. Learning the Vedas by heart, and repeating them in a manner never to make a single mistake, even in the accents, is the occupation of their life. The best Rigvedi Vaidika knows by heart the Sanhitd, Pada, Krama, Jatd, and Ghana of the hymns or inantra portion of the Veda, and the Aitareya BrdJimana and Aranyaka, the Kalpa and Grihya Sutra- of Asvalayana, the Nighantu, Nirukta, Chhandas, Jyotish, and Sikshd, and Pani- ni's Ashtddhyayt on Gravimar. A Vaidika is thus a living Vedic library. The San- hitd, Pada, Kraraa, Jatd, and Ghana, it may be repeated, are different names for peculiar arrangements of the text of the mantras, or hymns. The object of these different arrangements, with all their diffi- culties and intricacies, is simply the most accurate presei^vation of the sacred text ;. and the triumph of a Vaidika consists in i-epeating his Veda fluently, in all the ways just indicated, without a single mis- take in the letters or accents. The Vaidikas support themselves gene- rally on the gifts or dakshinds of those of their countrymen who are charitably dis- posed. Often I'ecital-meetings, known by SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 385 the name of mantra-jdrgaras, are held by rich Grihasthas in their houses, to which the principal Vaidikas in the town or vil- lage are invited. The Veda-reciters are also patronised by native princes ; the more munificent of whom have occasionally es- tablished regular boards of examiners, by whom every candidate coming up from any part of India was to be examined and recommended for dakshind according to his deserts. ' But with all these sources of income, the Vaidika is hardly in easy circumstances. Hence the class, ' according to Professor Bhandarkar, ' is gradually dying out, and the sons of the best Vaidikas in Puna or the Konkan now attend Govern- "nient English schools — a result not to be much deplored. Though the time and energy wasted in transmitting the Vedas in this manner, from the times of Katyayana and other ancient editors of the Vedas, has been immense, we should not forget that this class of Vaidikas has rendered one important service to philology. I think the purity of our Vedic texts is to be wholly attributed to this system of get- ting them up by heart, and to the great importance attached by the reciters to perfect accuracy, even to a syllable or an accent.' Thus the great practical result of the venerable system of mnemonic education in India is to be recognised in the precise and jealously preserved purity and integ- rity of its sacred books — a result of which Professor Max Miiller is not inclined to underrate the importance. ' The texts of the Veda,' he says, when expatiating on the triumph of memory as instrumental to the preservation of an ancient literature, 'have been handed down to us with such accuracy that there is hardly a various reading, in the proper sense of the woi"d, or even an uncertain accent, in the whole of the Rig- Veda. There are corruptions in the text, which can be discovered by critical investigation ; but even these cor- ruptions must have formed part of the recognised text since it was finally settled. Some of them belong to different Sakhas, or recensions, and are discussed in their bearing by ancient authorities. The autho- rity of the Veda, in respect to all religious questions, is as great in India now as it has ever been. It never was uncontested any more than the authority of any other sacred book has been. But to the vast majority of orthodox believers the Veda forms still the highest and only infallible authority, quite as much as the Bible with us, or the Koran with the Mohammedans.' Some comprehensive, suggestive, and pi'actical words of Sir W. W. Hunter may aptly conclude these remarks upon the schools of India and their peculiar erudi- tion, the details of which are set forth very amply in chapters of the Institutes oj Vishmi, and other ancient treatises which have recently been made accessible to the English reader. ' Through all changes of government,' writes Sir W. W. Hunter, ' vernacular instruction in its simplest form has always been given, at least to the children of respectable classes, in every large village. On the one hand, the tols, or seminaries for teaching Sanskrit philo- sophy at Benares and Nadiya, recall the schools of Athens and Alexandria ; on the other, the importance attached to instruc- tion in accounts reminds us of the picture which Horace has left of a Roman educa- tion. Even at the present day knowledge of reading and writing is, owing to the teaching of Buddhist monks, as widely diffused throughout Burma as it is in some countries of Europe. English efibrts to stimulate education have ever been most successful when based upon existing indigenous institutions.' Still a last word, in order to render to India the tribute of having successfully practised the method of mutual instruction from the remotest antiquity ; for it was from India, in fact, that Andrew Bell, at the close of the eighteenth century, borrowed the idea of this particular instrument of education. Persia. — The schools of the ancient Persians, who were a military rather than a theocratic nation, were schools in which the moral and intellectual virtues and faculties were built up chiefly through a course of bodily training, in which cha- racter was nobly formed by physical exer- cise, endurance, frugality, abstinence, self- denial, and self-control. Having regard to the instruments and the aims of their culture, it is scai-cely surprising to find the Persians making considerable advances in the direction of a general education, and their State, of all the governments in the world, appearing amongst the first as a distinct "agency in its promotion. Their religion — a typical and exemplary expres- sion of that dualism the central idea of which maybe strictly defuied as the deifica- tion of two co-ordinate but antagonistic c c 386 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY principles of good and evil, .and the spirit of which asserts itself in every system that refuses to recognise a dynamic God only, of whom may be predicted ethically an absolute exclusion and neutrality, or an absolute comprehension and indiflerence — their religion incited them to make it the duty of each man to contribute to the final victory of Ormuzd over Ahriman, of good over evil, by devoting himself to a life of virtue, to a continued and consistent endea- vour after physical and moral perfection. To certain Greek writers tlie education of the Persians, and the quality of the career and character which it formed or fostered, seemed to approach, if not to realise, the heroic ; and Xenophon in particular, in his scorn for the institutions and the corrupt administration of his native State, essayed, in his Ci/ropa'dla, tlie composition of a tableau, the foremost figure of which as- sumed to be historical, and the others to bo living in conditions that had a basis in existing institutions. Upon this work the author impressed so deeply the stamp of feasibility as to leave it debateable whether it was intended for a romance or a history. Of course, the purely romantic side of the argument has had its supporters, and Cicero, for one, says the Cyropcedia was written, not to suit historical fidelity, but to exhibit a repi'esentation (rffigies) of an excellent government. In many important respects it fails of the truth of history ; chronology, for instance, is disregarded, and the sequence of events anticipated by a development not short of the miraculous. Tlie political afiinities of Xenophon, an Athenian of high rank, were with the moi'e aristocratic economy of Sparta, and he has set the idealised institutions of this State to work themselves out in unison with those of Persia, and in the latter country as an arena. Whilst serving un- der the younger Cyrus he had enjoyed an opportuiiity of gaining an insight into the actual and the possible of the Persian r('ltish they are niostly disposed tobeatlec- tionate if only the etlucator can disco\er the way of toui'hing and drawing forth their love (cf. art. SvMPATnY). (^^■<' Fere/, I.\Editcafi(Ui dts /t'Jicnraii, vi. i. ; Wait/., Alhj. rddtu/0(fil,\ p. 171 and following ; Dittes, Onmdniis der Erzifhionjs- mtd Unterrii'JifsIrJir*', '^ GO.) Self- Command. Self- Control.- These terms refer to the higher exercise of the will in restraining and controlling the- natural impulses and propensities. Thus, when a child makes an etlbrt to abstain from a forbidden action, or to master a feeling of anger, it is exercising self-con- trol. This self-regulation shows itself in three directions answering to the three domains of the mental life, viz. the con- trol of the thoughts, of the feelings, and of the actions. The perfect control of the whole mind by a. good and rational will is the highest result of mei\tal de\clopment, and sliould be the end of education {s>r INIoKAL Education). Such complete self- mastery involves a tinnly-tixed habit, the establishment of which is a long and ditli- eult process, especially in the case of im- pulsive and passionate children. The edu- cator must early begin to exercise the child's will in an etVort at self-command. Thus intellectual instruction reqxiires aj\ etlbrt of attention, a restraint of the im- pulses to bodily n\ovement aiul wandering thoughts. Again, the moral educator has from the tirst to encourage the child to restrain its feelings, and more especially to govern its temper. The moral educator is further concerned with the dcvelopuuM\t of that species of self-control which con- sists in denying ourselves the satisfactioi^ of our own desires, an exercise in which, according to Locke, the principle of all virtue and excellency lies (cf. article Tkmpek). {Sec Locke, 2''Iuni(/hts, § 107 ; Bain, ^fetital and i]f()rid Scirjice, *Tho AVill,' chaps, iii. and ix. ; Sully, Teacher's J/aiidhoo/K-, p. '[i\'2 and following.) Self-Education is that part of the work of mental development which the indi- vidual carries out for hin\self. It is a necessary supplement to the early school education, in which the learner is sur- rounded by external incentives and aids. While, hoAvever, it is customary to divide the process of ediu-ation into these two stages, it must not be forgotten that the undei'lying motives of self-education — the desire to gain knowledge and to improve character — must be appealed teas soon as the child's intelligence and will are suf- ticiently dcNeloped to citable it to appre- ciate and co-operato with the teacher's aims. The teat-her's etlorts too often fail to be followed up in later y(\vrs by the independent exertions of the pupil, just because the desires and aspirations which prompt to and sustain self-education have not been dcAcloped. Thus the methods of intellectual instruction adopted have not succeeded in kii\dling a love of know- ledge which would burn on when the years of school are over. In moral training, too, it should be the edxicator's aim, as Kant athrms, to exercise the wall in a pursuit of virtue for its own sake, and in a conscious etVort at self-development and self-improvement. While the work of self- education is necessary in every case, it tills an exceptionally large place in the case of the few, endowed with a preternatural degree of intellectual capability or force of will, who have been to a large extent self-taught and self-made (cf. article Oiu- GiNALiTv). In a certain sense all educa- tion is self-education. The acquirement of knowledge is made, the power to use knowledge — to think, to feel, and to will— is developed by, and in proportion to, the activity of oneself. The term, howevel", is generally applied, in a some- what ditl'erent sense, to the etlorts of a person who, having passed the usual school age, tinds himself without the means of external help and guidance, and seeks by his own unaided or but slightly aided exertions to continue or to com- mence his education. It is in this sense that we shall consider the expression. Now, what is the service which a skilful teacher renders to a learner ? He selects the subjects to be studied, and the parts of each subject ; and he decides how part SELF-EDUCATION SENSES, EDUCATION OF THE 399 shall follow part, and subject subject. He chooses the method or manner of study — so that the right faculties shall be exercised — and by his wide knowledge and constant suggestivencss he exhibits and maintains a living connectedness not only between the parts of each subject, but also between the subjects themselves. He guides and stimulates the learner to make use of, and to test by use, the knowledge acquired ; and is ever on the watch to regulate and direct exertion, to supply explanations where needed, and to recall the learner's attention to any know- ledge which ceems likely to slip away. This service of the skilled teacher is of vital importance to the young beginner ; but, except in suggesting connectedness and in general guidance and stimulation, it tends to grow of less and less import- ance as the learner himself grows in knowledge and in development of power to use knowledge. To one who has been properly educated during the school period it would seem sufficient to give advice, following as nearly as may be the practice of the teacher. Do not choose too many subjects ; select in preference _;?rs^ subjects of which you already know something and which have a bearing of some kind on the work of your everyday life, and tlten those which grow out of these ; having ascertained from some competent authority the best text-books, seek to master the main points first, and fill in the lesser matters later ; constantly test your knowledge by employing it in every available way — not only knowledge newly acquired, but also old knowledge with it — and, when the chance offers itself, at times test its amount and readiness also by entering some good public competition. By every means in your power maintain a connectedness in all that you learn, do not let old knowledge slip away, and always endeavour to gain knowledge by personal experience rather than at second- hand ; always try to see how the new knowledge just gained aff'ects what you already know. Ally yourself with other students when you can, although their subjects may not be yours. What they learn and care about will often prove unexpectedly suggestive with regard to your own knowledge ; and community in study is always stimulative and refreshing. Lastly, remember that the best education is one which enables you to live out your life effectively in many directions, and does not consist in the mere accumulation of facts ; it is tlie result of well-mingled knowledge which you know how to em- ploy, and is not the knowledge itself. A person who has had no school edu- cation is now so rare a being that it seems hardly necessary to offer him ad- vice. This, ho.wever, may be said : Choose some subject of observation such as you have the best means of studying practi- cally; and work from it as a centre gradually outwards in different directions, never losing the connection with your central subject ; observe, classify, experi- ment, reason, and then again observe. Your best central subject will be one of the following : botany, natural history, physiography, or perhaps geology. Do not, at any rate for some considerable time, attempt to make any but your central subject a special study ; and fol- low up your other subjects which branch from it simply for the sake of that cen- tral subject. For the rest note the ad- vice already given to the more instructed student. {See Professor Blackie's work, Self- Education, and art. 'Selbsterziehung ' in Schmidt's Encycloijddie.) Seminaries. — This is one of the terms used in Germany for training colleges for teachers. Senses, Education of the. — In its widest and ordinary meaning this phrase includes both the exercise and strength eniiag of the organs of sense, and the training of the mind in the perfect use of these. It is important, however, to distinguish the education of the senses as the mechanism by which external impressions are received, from that of the observing f acidly as the power of combining and interpreting such impressions. In the present article only the former will be dealt with. The senses claiming attention are the higher intellec- tual senses, sight and hearing, together with touch and the muscular sense. The object of training these senses as above defined is to render them quick and exact in transmitting or reporting the impressions received from without. This presupposes, first of all, an exercise of the organs themselves, as the eyes and the hand, and a perfect command of the muscular actions necessary to the reception of clear impres- sions, e.g. the adjustive movements of the two eyes necessary to distinct and rapid seeing. This training of the physical 400 SENSIBILITY SEX IN RELATION TO SCHOOL-LIFE organs connects itself with physical educa- tion as a whole ; for the organs of sense, and particularly the eye, are the most delicate of the bodily structures, -and easily aifected by excessive stimulation as well as by disturbances of bodily health. With this exercise of the organs must be con- joined the calling forth of the activity of the child's mind in attending to the im- pressions received from without, so as to note accurately their precise character. The child only exercises his sense of sight when he discriminates degrees of light and shade, varieties of colour, length of line, and so forth. Such discrimination is a gradually acquired attainment. The infant, though endowed with normal powers of vision, cannot distinguish the finer nuances of colour. Hence the training of the sense rightly begins with placing objects in juxtaposition, so that impressions may be compared and discriminated. In conjunc- tion with this, the child must be exercised in recognising impressions when they recur. Thus, in training the colour sense, the instructor should lead the child to identify the several colours by name. In addition to this training of the senses on the intel- lectual side, there is a cultivation of them on the side of {esthetic sensibility. Thus the child can be exercised in appreciating and delighting in the beauties of colours and musical tones, and their relations. Such exercises form the first step in {esthe- tic culture. Of. articles Discrimination, Eye, Ear, Touch, and Perception. {See H. Spencer, Education, chap. ii. ; Bain, Educatio7i as a Science, p. 16 and follow- ing, and 170 and following ; Sully, Teacher's Handbook, chap. vii. ; Schmidt's Encyclo- pddie, article ' Sinneniibung ' ; Buisson's Dictionnaire de Pedagogic, ai'ticle 'Sens.') Sensibility, Sensitiveness. — By the term sensibility is meant first of all the susceptibility of the organism (or rather certain portions of it known as 'sentient ') to the action of stimuli. Sensibility is an endowment of all animal organisms, but differs greatly in its forms. In its simplest phase it involves merely the capacity of being affected by the pleasurableness or painfulness of impressions. This is the emotional side of sensibility. In its higher manifestations it includes the capacity of distinguishing impi^essions according to their intensity and their qtiality, e.g. the particular strength or louclness and pitch of a sound. This is the intellectual side of sensibility, and must be carefully dis- tinguished from the emotional side. In- tellectual sensibility, or discriminativeness, varies greatly among individuals, ranging from extreme incapacity, as illustrated in colour-blindness, up to the most delicate discriminativeness as seen in the artist's finely graduated colour- vocabulary. It is on the degree of discriminativeness pos- sessed by a sense that its intellectual value immediately depends ; and a child's whole range of knowledge is limited by the discriminativeness of its senses. On its emotional side sensibility means prima- rily the capability of being affected agree- ably or disagreeably by sense-stimuli, as pressure, sound, &c. In a secondary manner it refers to the mind's emotional susceptibility, or the capability of feeling sorrow and joy, fear, anger, &c. In this sense it forms the basis of the life of feeling or emotion. It is important to bear in mind that there is no uniform connection between the degrees of intellectual and of emotional sensibility. Thus a child may be very discriminative of sounds, but not necessarily susceptible to the disturbing effects of sounds in the same degree. The more acute degrees of sensibility on its emotional side are often marked off" by the term Sensitiveness. A sensitive eye is one that is quickly affected by the pleasurable and painful aspects of light and colour. A sensitive child responds quickly to emo- tional excitements, is moved to fear dis- pleasure &c. by slight causes which others would not feel. (See Sully, Teacher's Hand- book, p. 122 &c.; Galton, Inquiries into Hitman Faculty, p. 27 &c.) Sessions. See Terms. Sex in Relation to School-Life.— An impoi'tant physical distinction between boys and girls is commonly lost sight of. It is that while the growth of boys con- tinues fairly steadily up to manhood, girls concentrate a large share of their growth in a few years, especially between the age of twelve and a half and fifteen years. For this and other reasons the age of puberty is a more critical time for girls than boys, and schooling requires to be carefully regulated at this period. Another fact bearing on the same question is that girls, as a rule, have fewer games and less muscular exercise of any kind than boys, and for this reason are much more apt to suffer in consequence ,chool-work. It is only fair to say that tho Jl effects ascribed SHAKSPERE IN SCHOOLS SHORTHAND 401 to school- work are oftener due to the ex- citement of novels or other forms of dissi- pation, to late hours and impure atmo- sphere, or to defective exercise. Undue devotion to music seems to have a specially exciting influence on some girls, acting on their emotional faculties. Similarly, emu- lation in connection with examinations is more likely to be injurious to girls than boys. "With due care for the physical system, however, there can be no doubt that girls are quite as competent for the higher branches of study as boys, and may pass on to university life without any de- triment to their general health. Shakspere in Schools. — Shakspere may be used in schools for reading aloud, in which case the plays may very well be abridged, so as to bring each of them within the scope of two, or at most three, lessons. The plays are chiefly used, how- ever, as the subject-matter of literature lessons— at least of lessons which go by that name, though in fact they are anything but literary. There are certain things necessary for making the study of these plays as literature thoroughly effective. They should not be the first literature which school children study. They are not simple enough in subject, feeling, or expression. Quite young children may read them for their interesting stories, but they cannot study them as literature. Let children begin with something as simpl as John Gilpin, and be led up gradual. ^ through two or three stages to the plays. Then, and not till then, will they get a full and valuable training and delight from the plays. Children should not have their study of the plays over- whelmed with dates, and grammar, and archaeology, and antiquarianism, and philo- logy. Just so much of these should be used as really enlighten the learners as to the text and its full meaning — just so much and no more. The plays should be treated as plays, and as masterpieces of literature ; as works of art, that is, not as mere stalking-horses for pedants. The introductions should throw light upon the art of the plays, their human value, and beauty — not merely upon dates of compo- sition and original sources. They should put the learner in the right position and give him the right point of view for tho- roughly understanding and appreciating what is before him. In studying the plays the learners should be led to see and feel the value and force of speeches as indications and revelations of character ; and they should be enabled to appreciate the language for its skilful expression of thought and its beauty of sound ; and hence they must also understand the thought itself, and the mode in which it expresses itself, as well as the meanings of the words used. These are some of the chief points to be attended to. For the rest see the article on English Litera- ture. Shame. — By the feeling of shame is meant the painful emotion which we ex- perience in presence of or at the thought of another's ill-ppinion, and more particu- larly moral condemnation. It answers as a pain to the pleasurable feeling indicated in the expression love of approbation, the two together being the source of the value set upon praise and blame. The feeling of shame implies a distinct form of self- consciousness, and is in ordinary cases an accompaniment of the state of remorse and self-condemnation {see Penitence). It is a feeling to which bashful children, preternaturally sensitive to others' opi- nion, are peculiarly liable. It is excited in its most intense form by public ex- posure, as when a child is severely rebuked or punished before the whole school. As a form of punishment which tells unjustly on sensitive children, and is apt by repe- tition to blunt some of the best feelings of the child, the humiliating exposure of faults is open to grave objections. (Cf. articles Bashpulness, Praise, and Blame.) {See Locke, Thoughts on Education, § 60 and following ; Miss Edgeworth, Prac- tical Education, vol. i. p. 372.) Shorthand. — The first system of short- hand is attributed to Cicero, but from the decline of the Roman empire there is an interval of about a thousand years during which nothing is heard of that or of any other system. The credit of reviving stenography belongs to an Englishman, Timothy Bright, who in 1588 published Characterie, the Art of Short, Swift, and Secret Writing by Character. Only one copy (that in the Bodleian Library) is known to exist. An examination of it shows that, compared with any recent system, Characterie was very cumbrous, difficult, and uncertain. Of the eighteen signs which formed its alphabet seventeen were compound, and hundreds of words were represented by signs purely arbi- D D 402 SHORTHAND trary. Since Bright's day nearly two hundred English systems have appeared, but to describe or even name a twentieth of them would be foreign to the purpose of this article. It will be enough to men- tion those only which have found any con- siderable number of students. The Art of Stenography . . . invented by John Willis, Bachelor in Divinity, was published in 1602, and reached a tenth edition. In 1654 was issued Sernigraphy, or Art's Rarity, by Jeremiah Rich, but the real author was William Cartwright, who was Rich's uncle. After Rich's death appeared an exposition of his system by another hand. For many years this was the chief system. ' Pepys wrote his diary in it, and Locke commended it in his Treatise on Education. Rich's method, however, was not so good as Mason's, published in 1672, and still written in a modified form, under the name of Gurney's (Thomas Gurney having adopted and improved the system early in the eighteenth century), by the official shoi'thand writer to the Houses of Parliament. About 1720 John Byrom completed a system which was an improve- ment on anything that had yet been seen. Till the death of an elder brother made him a man of property he lived by teaching his method, which consequently was not made public till after his own death. In 1786 Taylor's system appeared. It was as brief as Byrom's, simpler, and more success- ful. Three years later appeared Dr. Ma- vor's, which, though not quite so successful as Taylor's, passed through many editions. In 1815 James Henry Lewis published his successful Ready Writer, or neplus ultra of Shorthand, being the onost easy, exact, lineal, sjjeedy, and legible method yet discovered. The author, speaking of it in his very use- ful Historical Account of Shorthand, says : ' The unparalleled success which has at- tended the dissemination of the above system precludes the necessity of descant- ing on its peculiar advantages ; it is amply sufficient to observe that it has completely superseded all others,' &c., &c. The last system which need be noticed is Pit- man's Phonography, which has found more writers than all other English systems combmed. The first edition appeared in 1837. The characteristics of a good system are : (1) The alphabet is simple. The simplest elements are the straight line and the curve, and unless most letters consist of these the system must necessarily be long, and therefore useless for the pur- poses of the reporter. A straight line may be perpendicular, horizontal, oblique with a right slant, or oblique with a left slant. A curve may be written in the same four directions^ and in each direction may face two ways. We have thus twelve characters consisting of a simple straight or curved stroke, but these are manifestly insufficient for an alphabet, and various devices have been adopted to increase them, such as writing them of two thick- nesses or of two lengths. (2) Allied sounds are represented by allied signs. In writing quickly the proper slope, or length, or thickness may not always be observed, but the possibility of a serious mistake in reading is greatly re- duced if the principle indicated be ob- served. Thus |j)ai^, bail, fail, and vail, each beginning with a labial, differ only in the initial, but if the characters of these initials be somewhat similar the most likely error is the transposition of two of them, and the context will suggest the right word, if, for instance, pail be written for hail. (3) The vowels are detached from the consonants. In following a speaker it is absolutely impossible to write every letter of every word he utters, and in all sys- tems most of the vowels are omitted. If, as in the older systems, the vowels are an integral part of the word, its appearance will be completely changed by their omis- sion, and in its brief form it will be hard to recognise. If, on the other hand, the vov/els are detached, the ' outline ' of the word is the same whether they be written or omitted. Thus in Phonography com- munication is written in full -.jy^ and without the prefix and vowel signs .^^-^ , and an experienced writer recognises the second as rapidly as the first. (4) Provision is made against the con- fusion which would be caused if all the words having the same consonants were written with the same outline. Pair, peer, appear, poor, pyre, pure, pray, prow, parry, and perry, for instance, are by no means all the words in which p and r are the only consonants. (5) There are few or no awkward joins between the letters. In some systems the joins are so awkward that words can only be written correctly by being written very slowly. SHORTHAND- -SINGING 403 (6) No word goes so far above or below its own line as to interfere with the words in the next. The confusion which would ensue were this rule disregarded is evident. Apart from its immense practical value shorthand has a high educative worth which should commend it to all good teachers. The first point which a prin- cipal, thinking of introducing shorthand into his school, has to decide is the system to be adopted, and no hesitation need be felt in recommending Pitman's Phono- graphy, • because it is easy to write, easy to read, and easy to learn. Even those who deny that it is the best system admit that it is a good one. It is, moreover, the most popular system. This popularity is of advantage in several ways. The sym- pathy of numbei's is in itself helpful. The learner is certain to find phonographers everywhere ; his chances of being able, to use the system for correspondence are in- finitely greater than if he wrote any other, and there are hundreds of enthusiasts who will correct his exercises free of charge. For the learner, practice in reading is as important as practice in writing. The instruction books must be supplemented by a study of the best models for writing, and no system can furnish a twentieth part as many of these as Phonography. The New Testament, Bible, the Psalms, the Common Prayer, The Vicar of Wcoke- Jield, Pilgrim' s Progress, Gulliver's Travels, and Tom Brown's School Days are only a few of the books published in it ; there are five monthly periodicals printed en- tirely in it, and the Phonetic Journal gives sevei'al pages of shorthand every week. It has been suggested that Phono- graphy being, as the name implies, a pho- netic system, the practice of it tends to injure the writer's spelling ; but this ob- jection is groundless. Correct orthography is a matter of the eye, and so long as words have to be represented in one way it is dangerous to make the eye familiar with any other way. Thus if we habitually saw rong we might write the word so when wrong was required ; but although in pho- nography the 10 is omitted, what the stu- dent sees is not rong but /"^ and this cannot affect his spelling. A principal who is about to introduce ^ It should be stated that the writer of this article is a Fhonographer. the study should be careful that the in- structor he employs is competent. If the system be Phonography let him insist upon, a certificate of proficiency from Mr. Pit- man, and a speed certificate up to at least a hundred and twenty words a minute from the Society of Arts or from Mr. Pitman. The following note has been added by a member of the Parliamentary Reporters' gallery (not a phonographer) : — Besides phonography, the following systems have at the present time (1888) adherents among professional shorthand writers practising in London : — Gurney's, Taylor's, Lewis's, and Mavor's, already re- ferred to ; and Purton's, which is sup- posed to have originated with William Purton, known to have been a school master in London in 1819. Nearly two hundred systems have been published since 1837. Most of these have disappeared. But the great position which phonography has gained is now (1888) challenged by several authors. An active propaganda is carried on by J. M. Sloan, an adapter to English of the popular French system of Duploye,inwhich vowels and consonants are joined in their natural order. J. D. Everett, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen's College, Belfast, is the author of a system in which there is great representation of vowels. What may be termed the school of Alexander Melville Bell (1854), in which the presence or absence of vowels is inferred from the writing of the consonants, is represented by ' Legible Shorthand,' the invention of E. Pocknell, a London shorthand writer, and ' Audeography,' by F. Valpy. Of a cognate character is the system of A. M. Browne. A system by E. Guest repre- sents the ' compendious ' school. A. Janes's ' Shorthand without Complications ' goes more upon the old lines, but it is notice- able as the first system in which thick and thin characters have been combined in the alphabet with the ' looped ' characters of Taylor. Script systems have been revived, and among authors who are working in this direction may be mentioned P. Kings- ford, who entitles his method ' The Ox- ford Shorthand.' The general character- istic of the new systems, with the excep- tion of Janes's, may be said to be the fuller representation, or indication, of vowels. Sides. See Modern Schools. Singing has been defined as the use of 404 SINGIKGI the voice in accordance with the laws of music. This definition, however, lands us where we started from. A more practical definition would be given by saying that singing depends first on the utterance by the voice of sustained sounds, and second on the ordered relationship of these sounds in the musical scale. Between speech and song there is merely this difierence, that in speech the voice is perpetually chang- ing its pitch by minute and indefinite degrees, and in song the changes of pitch, however rapid, proceed by definite and measurable intervals. It is conjectured by Mr. Rowbotham, in his History of Music, that song is a survival of that lan- guage of cries which preceded speech in the history of mankind. Quite apart from the definite emotions raised by the words in song, there is an undefinable yet all compelling emotion which the voice itself kindles in us. This fact has led an in- genious American writer to speculate on the future of vocal music, and to assert that the coming singer will merely warble vowel sounds without any words. Such an issue is, however, impossible so long as speech retains its power in the world. We are provided in the music of artificial in- struments with the vague and mystical aspect of music ; what the singer does over and above this is to draw out our sym- pathy by his personality, and to direct our thoughts in fixed and common directions by the words he utters. Physiologically, speaking and singing are the same act. The same nerve which, communicating with the brain, prompts the larynx when we speak, prompts it when we sing. It follows from this that every one who can speak can also sing, and in a general sense this is undoubtedly true. The statement, however, needs qualifica- tion. Just as the speaking voice in dif- ferent people is harsh or mellifluous, so the singing voice varies from a rasping strain to smooth and easeful roundness. But in the power to command the various pitches required in song, to strike them accurately and sustain them on a perfect level, ■ persons vary greatly. It is this power that is described as ' having an ear for music' The gift is, indeed, far more general than is supposed. If dormant, it can be cultivated ; it is trained in child- hood more easily than in adult age ; and the best authorities are of opinion that persons who are ' tone blind ' are not more numerous than those who are ' colour blind.' The value of singing in education arises from several causes. It is in the first place a healthy exercise. Dr. Affleck has said that if there were more singing there would be less coughing. Singing requires that deep respiration which in ordinary speech we seldom use. It causes a large quantity of air to be brought in contact with the lungs, and thus renews and purifies the blood. Deep breathing exercises are recommended by several American hygienists, and they are said to possess all the advantages which change of air brings. These exercises can be had, pleasantly and without formality, in the process of singing. The second function of singing in education is as a relief from severer studies. The localising of the brain functions enables us to understand how singing, appealing to another part of the mind, and to the whole nervous sys- tem through its rhythm and tone, performs the same function in school work which oil performs to a heated and labouring machine. It soothes and refreshes, indeed repairs, brain fag, and enables the pupil to return to studies which occupy the memory and the reason with a new supply of vital force. A third purpose in sing- ing, especially with young children, is to store the memory pleasantly and without effort with a quantity of bracing and formative verse, calculated to strengthen the will and the principles of conduct, teaching patriotism, love to parents, kind- ness to the weak and suffering, to animals, and so on. The inculcation of religious principle through music is too obvious to need remark. The teaching of singing in schools is in the fourth place important because it is the beginning and foundation of all musical study. This is a point on which the late John Hullah was never tired of insisting. If you wish to learn the piano- forte, the violin, &c., he would say, learn first to sing. The reason of this is as fol- lows. The difficulties of mastering an artificial musical instrument may be di- vided into two classes. First, we have to train the ear to recognise and imitate at will musical tones, to comprehend rhythm and measure, to feel and produce light and shade and phrasing, and to read musical notation. Second, we have to master the technicalities of the particular SINGING 405 instrument, and to train the fingers quickly to obey the dictates of the eye and the mind. All the first class of subjects can be studied fully and most satisfactorily in the process of learning to sing. When this is done, and a pupil takes up an in- strument, he will find that a great deal of the work which he thought was before him is really behind him. Much of the discord and halting which beginners upon instruments inflict on themselves and others are caused by their own mental uncertainty as to the tone or the time re- quired. They are learning music and mechanism at the same time, instead of separating them. The pupil who begins an instrument having first learned to understand music and to read musical notation, makes far more rapid and satis- factory progress than one who is weighted with the double care we have described. The first caution necessary for all teachers of singing, whether their pupils are adults or children, is that the voice must be gently used, because of its deli- cacy as an instrument. There is danger both in strain and in fatigue ; in singing too loudly and in singing too long. We cannot say much, within the limits of the present article, on the physiology of the voice. The recent works by Liennox Browne and Behnke and by Sir Morell Mackenzie may be consulted by those who wish to master the subject. There is, no doubt, a tendency to overrate the import- ance of a knowledge of vocal physiology to the teacher of singing. The great end of the teacher is to produce pure and smooth tone, to develop the voice in power and control, to watch every sign of deterioration. As a rule, if the pupils sing naturally they will sing rightly. The registers of the voice are seldom misused except when the singing is too loud. Nasal and throaty tone, which arise from a wrong employment of the mouth and nostrils, can generally be corrected by the teacher's own judgment. As the voice ascends in pitch the larynx (the voice- box which is in all our throats) performs its functions in a diSerent way, and the change of mechanism is called a change of register. The registers of girls' voices do not commonly trouble the teacher, but those of boys' need care. Boys speak in a stronger register than girls, and are prone to force that register upwards in singing beyond its proper limit. The lower register should not be used by boys above A, at which point they i should change into a softer and more fluty voice, which will be at once recog- nised by the teacher. At first this higher register is thin and weak, but practice strengthens it greatly. Boys' voices are naturally as high as girls', and if they find that an ordinary tune tires them it is in all probability because they are using the wrong register. The way to cure them of this is to pitch the tune in question a fourth or even a fifth higher, so that they are forced to employ and strengthen the higher register. In singing, the teeth must be fairly opened and the lips drawn open with them, but exaggeration should be avoided. The management of the breath is all impor- tant. It should be taken in by lowering the diaphragm and distending the ribs, not by raising the upper chest or collar- bone. Abdominal breathing is natural and powerful ; collar-bone breathing is feeble and artificial. Standing is the true position for singing. This is proved by the spirometer, a little machine for testing the quantity of breath that can be drawn into, and consequently exhaled fromi, the lungs. The spirometer proves that the same person can inhale and retain most breath when standing, less when sitting, and still less when lying down. Let the pupils stand erectly, but not stiflEIy, when singing ; they should assume the posture of ' stand at ease ' of the soldier. Stooping to look at the music and bending over a book shared by another pupil are both bad. The pupils should sing from me- mory or from a blackboard or chart. Fail- ing these they must learn to- hold their books without lowering their heads. Boys and girls should never be allowed to sing during the period of mutation. The few — very few — writers on the sub- ject who have given contrary advice have done so recklessly. There is a very power- ful consensus of opinion against the use of the voice during tliis period. Dr. Stainer attributes the loss of his singing voice to the fact that he sang solos as a boy at St. Paul's Cathedral after he was sixteen years of age. The change in the girl's voice is so much less marked than in the boy's .406 SINGING SIZAR tluit it is liable to be overlooked. But there is always a time -when the girl's voice becomes husky aud veiled. Singing should then stop. The oon\uion faults of singing flat and singing sharp give great trouble to teachers. They are especially observable when the singing is accompanied by an instrument. Both faults may be lai'gely corrected by a study of the ment^il etiects of the tones of the scale, which is part of the tonic sol-fa system (en are often confounded with each other. This condition is known as tobacco amblyopia, and is especially apt to occur when excessive smoking is com- bined with alcoholic drinking. Society of Arts, or, in full, The Society for tho Encouragenumt of Ai'ts, Manu- factures, and CoTumerce, otl'er prizes of money, medals, certiticates, and scholar- ships to both teachers and pupils, and publishes weekly a useful journal. Apply to the Secretary, 1 1 J ohn Street, London, W.(.\ The aiiuual subscription for mem- bers is IV. -J.s-. Socratic Method. »S('f Question and Answku. Sol-faing'. — The Italian syllables em- ployed in singing, do re iiti jli nol la si, are supposed to be derived from an ancieiit monkish chant to Latin words. The syllables are merely the tii-st two or three letters of each line of tho verse. Origin- ally, however, do, the tirst of the series, was nan\ed at, and this is still its desig- nation in France, The syllables are of value as containing broad vow^els which are congenial to song, and improve the voice. There is no meaning in them : any other set equally open in tone would do as well. The syllables are employed in several ways : 1. In Italy and in France they are attached to certain tixed pitches (or their octaves) as follows : This is called the ' fixed do,' and will be fan\iliar to all who have practised Italian solfeggi. For vocal purposes this use of the syllables is all right, but for educa- tional ends it is open to this grave objection, that when key is departed from there is no longer a constant asso- ciation between names and intervals. The following examples illustrate this point : Kov 0. Kov E flat. ■% To : C?' P^S'ee Education for the Army. Stage Children (Education of). — The labour of children has frequently in Eng- land been made the subject of legislative enactment. The general principle of the law, as embodied in the Factory and Workshops Acts and the Education Acts, is based on the right of the State entirely to prohibit the labour of children under a certain age (now fixed at 10 years), and to regulate the hours and conditions of their employment up to a certain further age (now varying in different industries from 14 up to 16). The Education Act aims at more than this ; for it not only prohibits the premature employment of children, but, as its title implies, it is based on the principle that it is the duty of the nation to secure at least the rudi- ments of education to every child in the country. It is fortunately now unnecessary to argue on behalf of the principles under- lying this legislation. It is universally acknowledged that the welfare of the State demands that children shall not be ruined by physical toil during infancy or by want of elementary education. We have abundant proof of the good results that have followed from the Factory Acts and from the spread of elementary education, in the lower death rate, espe- cially among the children of the poor, in the decrease of crime and drunkenness, in the lower percentage of pauperism to population throughout the country, and in the increase of thrift among the people. The wholesome principle that parents ought to support their children, not chil- dren their parents, has taken firm root among large sections of the population where, comparatively few years ago, child labour, with all its miserable consequences, was rife. In every class in which this principle has been frankly accepted and acted upon, a very great improvement. moral, physical, and educational, is visible in the general condition of the people. There is one out-of-the-way corner, as it were, of the industrial world, where the labour of very young children is still permitted, or at any rate not effectually prohibited by the law. The children who take part in the infantine dances and ballets, which are so popular at many theatres, music-halls, and places of popu- lar entertainment, are very often appren- ticed to those who train them for their profession as early as four years of age, for a term of nine years. During this term the children are at the disposal of the person to whom they are apprenticed, who accepts engagements for them in London or in the provinces, as often and as continuously as possible. Troupes of little children, from four years old and upwards, are sent by the proprietors of dancing academies to any theatre in London or in the provinces, or even abroad, if they can obtain a profitable engagement. It should be distinctly understood that so far as children employed in theatres are concerned, no charge of cruelty, as the word is generally used, is made either against those who train, or those who em- ploy, the children. The same thing can- not be said of those who train children for circuses and to take part in acrobatic performances. The fear little children naturally entertain of the feats here re- quired of them can, in many cases, only be overcome by a still greater fear of cruel chastisement from the map. in whose power they are. A case of this kind, in which a baby of four years old was bru- tally ill-treated by a man who was train- ing it to become a * contortionist,' was in March 1888 brought to justice, and the delinquent was sentenced to six months' imprisonment. But children who are required only to dance or to appear on the stage as butterflies, mice, shrimps, and so on, are not treated cruelly ; the injury done to them is, however, none the less real and lasting. If the prin- ciple of the Factory Acts and of the Edu- cation Acts is good, the employment of baby children as wage-earners cannot be defended. School teachers. School Board visitors, clergymen, and other people who are brought into contact with these children concur in the opinion that physically, 414 STAGE CHILDREN (EDUCATION OF) morally, and educationally their employ- ment only too often means their ruin. Their health suffers from the physical strain of the labour they endure. Even when they come to school by day, they are generally good for nothing from fa- tigue, and teachers hardly expect any work from them. To estimate what the physical strain is upon these children, let any one who knows from pi-actical ex- perience the powers of endurance of a child of five or six years old, picture the work which these little ones go through. First, before a performance, there is the practising and the rehearsals. Since the London School Board has exerted itself to keep up the school attendances of the children engaged in this work, rehearsals haye, at any rate in one theatre, been fixed in the hour allowed for dinner. The physical effect of rehearsing is hardly a substitute for that of eating ; no wonder that the children are spoken of by those who try to teach them as good for nothing from fatigue. At nearly all the principal pantomimes there are afternoon as well as evening performances, if not every day, generally twice a week. Eight perform- ances in six days are by no means infre- quent, and it must be remembered that the evening performances are not con- cluded until a very late hour. The Factory Acts protect the health of the children, to whom they apply, by absolutely pro- hibiting their employment during the night ; but baby children have no similar protection from employment in theatres. The conditions of stage employment are in many respects very injurious to health. The excessive variations of temperature from the over-heated ' flies ' to the draughty ' wings ' and stage, are very provocative of coughs, colds, and chest complaints among the children. The teachers of the children speak of their ' endless colds and coughs.' Many in- stances of the cruel efi'ects of the em- ployment of stage children can be given. One child who began her stage life at four years old, after a series of illnesses bi'ought on by colds and general debility, has quite broken down physically. An- other child is dying of overwork at twelve years old, and her condition is due to the too great physical strain of her profes- sion as a stage dancer. This little girl had been deserted by the woman who had lived on the child's wages as long as she was able to earn them. When she broke down in health, the woman decamped, de- claring she was not, as she had hitherto pro- fessed to be, the child's mother. Children returning to their homes in London after their performance in the Crystal Palace pantomime can seldom reach their desti- nation till nearly twelve o'clock at night. To appreciate what this means, readers are requested to follow in detail the return journey of one of these chil- dren, a little mite looking as young as five, but pi'obably two or three years older. This child, a pretty attractive little thing with curly black hair, was so frightfully worn out that she could hardly keep awake in the train for two minutes together ; she was quite alone, and had no one either to meet her or to take care of her on the journey ; it was necessary for her to change trains twice on her way home, and then she had a walk of three-quarters of a mile through low streets between eleven and twelve o'clock at night, to her home. This walk through the streets alone frightened her ; but she was too tired to run. The physical results of such work as this bear directly in its educational re- sults ; how can any mental work be suc- cessfully performed by children so phy- sically overstrained? The classes from whom the audience of theatres are drawn demand afternoon performances for their own children, because fatigue, excite- ment, and late hours form a compound injurious to children. If fatigue, excite- ment, and late hours ai-e bad even once in a way for the children in the stalls and boxes, are they not tenfold more injurious to the children on the stage, re- peated as they are, night after night, for months and sometimes for years con- tinuously 1 It is a very common mistake to sup- pose that the children on the stage are taken from the poorest and most desti- tute homes. Children who are emaci- ated from disease and semi-starvation would never be selected by theati'ical managers, who naturally wish to gratify the public by the exhibition of pretty and attractive children. Very seldom indeed are the theatre children drawn from homes of extreme poverty. More frequently than not, they are the children of dis- solute but clever workmen, who could easily earn enough to maintain their STAGE CHILDREN- STANDARDS 415 families in comfort, but prefer two or three off-days in every week, especially if the consequent deficit in the domestic exchequer can be made good by the chil- dren's earnings. Parents of this kind care little for their children except the money they get from them. That the theatre children are not half-starved waifs and strays, who, if not in the theatre, would be in the gutter, is capable of proof to any one who will take the trouble to watch the children as they leave the the- atre. They very frequently go home in omnibuses, and sometimes two or three club together to take a cab. These are not the habits of extreme destitution. The children really selected for this work are the healthiest and most intelligent of those whose parents are willing to subject them to the well-known dangers and evils of such a life. The children are there- fore the best of this class, so far as regards physical and mental attainments ; and this good material is wasted by premature toil and want of education. It must also be borne in mind that these children in the vast majority of cases are not being trained for what will hereafter become their profession. After the age of childish prettiness is past, there is no demand on the stage sufficient to take off the large supply of these children. They are obliged, in nine cases out of ten, to leave the stage because there is no further demand for them ; but the excitement and glitter of their stage life too often unfits them for the daily routine of the ordinary em- ployments within their reach. It may be asked why the School Boards have not dealt efficiently with these children. In the first place, the Education Act only empowers School Boards to protect chil- dren who are within the school age, which commences at five ; and a very large num- ber of stage and other performing children begin their professional career at four, and even earlier. Secondly, there are many loopholes in the Education Act, through which those who profit by the employment of children can evade its provisions. If a child keeps a certain number of school attendances she is held to be receiving an efficient education, even if she is too tired to attend to her lessons ; or parents can remove their children from public elementary schools to private schools, where attendance need be only nominal and in which very often the so-called ' education ' is a complete farce. In the third place, the most effi- cient means of protecting the children, viz., by prosecuting their employers, is one which most School Boards have been very reluctant to use. School Boards, like other elected bodies, depend on the good- will of their constituents ; if the prose- cutions under the Factory Acts could only have been undertaken at the in- stance of the members of Parliament for the district in which the offence had taken place, the Acts would not have proved so efficient as has actually been the case. The power of prosecution for breaches of the Education Act should either be ex- tended to the general public, or should be vested in independent officials corre- sponding to factory inspectors, whose ap- pointments are not subjected every three years to the exigencies of a popular elec- tion. In the United States the law pro- hibits the employment of any child under sixteen in any kind of public performance; but a special licence enabling a particular child to perform for a cei-tain limited time is issued upon application, if the health and general condition of the child can be proved not to be endangered by the exemption. A law to a similar effect is under the consideration of the French Chamber. The moral, physical, and edu- cational results of our own factory legis- lation, so far as it relates to children, have been so satisfactory that it may be hoped that similar protection will ere long be extended to children employed in theatres and other public places of amusement. Standards. — By this term is meant, primarily, the Standards of Examination laid down in the Codes of the Education Departments for England and Wales and for Scotland, according to which the Go- vernment inspectors are to test each school year's work of children of seven years of age and upwards in public elementary schools, with a view to the award of that portion of the Government grant which is paid on ' results.' Each ' standard ' (of which there are seven) consists of a por- tion (one-seventh in fact) of each of the subjects taught — reading, writing, arith- metic, English, geography, &;c. — and the inspector is required to keep his examina- tion questions within the range of the par- ticular portion assigned for that standard 416 STANDARDS (or for a lower standard). It is obvious from this that the standards do not lay down courses of inMructioii, but are, on the face of them, merely guides to the in- spectors in the demand they a.re to make on the scholars, year by year, at the annual t\ra))ii)ia(io)i, with a view to the award of Co\-ernmeut grants to the school-managers according to the greater or less degree of proticiency shown by the scholars. Strictly, then, they should only serve to prescribe the mhiimio)} year's wox'k of each scholar for which a.n annual grant will be paid to the school. But experience has shown that it is practically impossible to parcel out a subject into several sections for the purpose of annual exan\inations without the sequence so laid down becoming also a sequence for purposes of instruction. Hence it has come to pass that, almost universally in England, the standards of examination have become successive parts of the annual course of instruction, and the scholars of the schools are arranged in classes according to the particular standard of the Code in which they are preparing to be examined in a given year. Accord- ingly the word ' standards ' in public ele- mentary schools has set up a secondary nu^xning, which is synonymous with ' class ' in other schools. The scholars doing the work of Standard III. in the Code are grouped and known as Standard III., and so on. The drawbacks and evils inseparable froni this state of things, due chietly to the double object for which the standards were drawn up, viz. testing re- sults and paying for resiilts, have been subjects of nuich discussion among educa- tionists for some time past. {See Payment BY Results. ) The point to be noticed here is that in no other country ' except Eng- land and Scotland (and Ireland, where ' results" fees ' ai-e paid upon examination) does such a system obtain. The courses of instruction drawn up by governments or states or cities in Europe or the United States, or in the Colonies of North America and Australia, are n\ade with the single aim of directing the teaching stati" of the schools towards the best methods of in- struction, and the best sequences for pre- sentiitiou of a subject, year by year, to the scholar's mind, which the practical ex- * The Australian provinoe of Viotoria is the solitary exception ontside the British Isles. But it is said that the edueational authorities there reeosnise the evils of • payuient by results,' jiud are seeking to re- verse their policy. perience at the comn\and of the school authorities can devise. In many cases these authorities coitteitt themseh'es with simply suggesting courses of study, with- out any intention of restricting the me- thods of teaching, provided that they are sound, which the individual teacher may adopt, or the sequence in which the parts of a subject are presented to the scholar, provided they are rational, and tend to produce the desired educatioital end. Ac- cordingly, it is extremely difficult, arid in maity cases impossible, to institute n.ny contpai-ison between the standards of the English Code and the courses of instruc- tion of other comntunities. This difficulty is increased by the fact that the English standards do not commence until paymeiit on the examination-result of the indivi- dual child comntences, i.e. at seven, years of age. But a child mm/ be in an infants' school ior /ok r years, and imist, bylaw, be there for two years previous to this, and yet there are no standards laid down for infants' schools. The Code leaves every such school in the land absolutely free to adopt any course of ittstruction, provitled it leads to preparing the children for Standard I. at seven years of age. But all other connnunities, in laying down a course of ittstruction, begin at the tirst year of school-life — tive or six years of age most frequently — and carry it through from beginning to end. Consequently, the first year's course (or standard) on the Continent or the United States, lirc, does not in any way correspond to Stajidtvrd I. in an English or Scotch school. The complete course of study put forward in 1878 for the schools of the city of Boston, Massachusetts, is given below, for the pur- pose of instituting a con:iparison of great educational interest. But it ntust be bori\e in mind that two years of school- life may, and probably will, have preceded the year's course given below, which cor- responds (as nearly as possible) to Stan- dard I. Full provision is made in the Boston Course of Study for a graduated course of ittstruction during these earlier years, but this has been omitted, in order that no confusion may arise. The Stixte of Massachusetts is the foremost of the Ameiican States in its educational ideals, and, of the cities in that State, Boston is pre-eminent in its concern for the intel- lectual culture of its youthful population ; so that it makes provision in the curricu- STANDARDS 417 lum of its so-called Grammar Schools (corresponding to the higher classes of our Elementary Schools) for two years hayond what in England is implied by Standard VII. In relation to this it should be remembered that all classes of society use the Public Schools of America. /Standards. — Code for England and Wales. School life may commence at three years of age, and must commence at five. Up to seven years of age a child remains in the Infants' School. Conse- quently, there are xxsuaMj four classes in an Infants' School below Standard I. Children of seven years of age must be presented in Standard I. /Standard I. (seven years of age). — Heading. — To read a short paragraph from a book, not confined to words of one syl- lable. Writing. — Copy in manuscript cha- racters a line of print, and write from dictation not more than ten easy words commencing with capital letters. Copy- books (large or half-text hand) to be shown. Arithmetic. — Notation and nu- meration up to 1,000. Simple addition and subtraction of numbers of not more than three figures. In addition not more than five lines to be given. The multipli- cation table to 6 times 12. English. — To repeat twenty lines of simple verse. Geo- graphy. — To explain a plan of the school and playground. The four cai'dinal points. The meaning and use of a map. Standard II. (eight years of age). — To read a short paragraph from an ele- mentary reading-book. Writing. — A pas- sage of not more than six lines from the same reading-book, slowly read once, and then dictated word by word. Copy-books (large and half-text hand) to be shown. Arithmetic. — Notation and numeration to 100,000. The four simple rules to short division. The multiplication table and the pence table to 12s. English. — To re- peat forty lines of poetry and to know their meaning. To point out nouns and verbs. Geography. — The size and shape of the world. Geographical terms simply explained and illustrated by reference to the map of England. Physical geography of hills and rivers. /Standard III. (nine years of age). — Heading. — To read a passage from a more advanced reading-book, or from stories from English history. Writing. — Six lines from one of the reading-books of the standard, slowly read once, and then dic- tated. Copy-books (capitals and figures, large and small hand) to be shown. Arithmetic. — The former rules with long division. Addition and subtraction of money. English. — To recite with intel- ligence and expression sixty lines of poetry, and to know their meaning. To point out nouns, verbs, adjectives, and personal prohouns, and to form simple sentences containing them. Geography. — Physical and political geography of England, with special knowledge of the district in which the school is situated. /Standard IV. (ten years of age). — Heading. — To read a few lines from a reading-book or history of England. Writ- ing. — Eight lines of poetry or prose, slowly read once and then dictated. Copy- books to be shown. Arithmetic. — Com- pound rules (money) and reduction of com- mon weights and measures. English. — To recite eighty lines of poetry, and to explain the words and allusions. To parse easy sentences, and to show by examples the use of each of the parts of speech. Geography. — Physical and political geo- graphy of the British Isles and of British North America and Australia, with know- ledge of their productions. /Standard V. (eleven years of age). — Reading. — To read a passage from some standard author, or from a history of England. Writing. — Writing from me- mory the substance of a short story read out twice ; spelling, handwriting, and correct expression to be considered. Copy- books to be shown. Arithmetic. — Practice, bills of parcels, and single rule of three by the method of unity. Addition and subtraction of proper fractions, with de- nominators not exceeding ten. English. — To recite one hundred lines from some standard poet, and to explain the words and allusions. To parse and analyse simple sentences, and to know the naethod of forming English nouns, adjectives, and verbs from each other. Geography. — Geography of Europe, physical and poli- tical. Latitude and longitude. Day and night. The seasons. /Standard VI. (twelve years of age). — Reading. — To read a passage from one of Shakespeare's historical plays, or from some other standard author, or from a history of England. Writi7ig.—A short theme or letter on an easy subject ; spell- ing, handwriting, and composition to be considered. Copy-books to be shown. 418 STANDARDS Arithmetic. — Fractions, vulgar and deci- mal ; simple proportion and simple in- terest. English. — To recite 150 lines from Shakespeare or Milton, or some other standard author, and to explain the words and allusions. To parse and analyse a short complex sentence, and to know the meaning and use of Latin prefixes in the formation of English words. Geography. — Geography of the world generally, and especially of the British Colonies and de- pendencies. Interchange of productions. Circumstances which determine climate. Standard VII. (thirteen years of age). — Reading. — To read a passage from Shake- speare or Milton, or from some standard author, or from a history of England. Writing. — A theme or letter ; composi- tion, spelling, and handwriting to be con- sidered. Note-books and exercise-books to be shown. Arithmetic. — Compound proportion, averages, and percentages. English. — To recite 150 lines from Shake- speare or Milton, or some other standard author, and to explain the words and allusions. To analyse sentences, and to know prefixes and terminations generally. Geography. — The ocean. Currents and tides. General arrangement of the plane- tary system. The phases of the moon. The age named in connection with each standard denotes the age at which that standard should be passed by the average scholar who passed in Standard I. at seven years of age. As a matter of fact, owing to past neglect, indifference, migration, and the ineffective operation of the law of compulsory school attendance over large areas of the country, children of much older years are to be found in each standard, and the average age at which a standard is passed would be found in most places to be one year, and in some to be nearly two years, greater than the ages named. As time goes on, and the opera- tion of the law becomes more certain and effective, this difference between what is and what should be the average age of the scholars in a given standard may be ex- pected to diminish. In connection with the work in the standards the Code requires reading with intelligence in all the standards, and in- creased fluency and expression in succes- sive years. Two sets of reading-books must be provided in Standai-ds I. and II., and thfee, one of which should relate to English history, for each standard above the second. In the examination in arith metic the inspector may examine scholars in any standard lower than that in which they are presented. English, geography, elementary science, or needlework (girls), are class subjects {see under Code), but no more than two can be taken, the first of which must be English. The second subject, where taken, is almost universally geography in Boys' schools and needlework in Girls' schools. There is a schedule for the needlework re- quired in each standard. Drawing may be taught under the re- gulations of the Science and Art Depart- ment. Singing may also be taught. There is still a further schedule, viz. that of ' Specific Subjects,' any two (but not more) of which may be taken by. scholars who are presented in Standards v., YI., or VII. Each subject is divided into three stages, and the examination is limited each year to these successive stages. The specific subjects are : algebra, Euclid and mensuration, mechanics, Latin, French, animal physiology, botany, prin- ciples of agriculture, physics, domestic economy (girls). City of Boston (^Massachusetts^ Course of Study (1878). — Class in Primary School corresponding to Standard I., first part. — Reading and Spelling. — Reading from a Reader of a proper grade. Sup- plementary reading. Spelling, by sound or by letter, words from the reading les- sons and other familiar words. Writing. — Capitals and small letters ; short easy words ; names of pleasing familiar ob- jects ; pupil's name. Arithmetic. — Num- bers from 1 to 20 : (1) combinations of 10 with numbers smaller than 10; (2) add- ing, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing, with results in figures; (3) relations of numbers from 1 to 20 ; (4) Roman nume- rals to XX ; (5) metre and decimetre. Language and oral instruction. — Oral les- sons. Purpose, to accustom pupils to ex- press what they know in sentences. Ma- terial : reading-lessons, pictures, plants, and animals, or whatever the ingenuity of the teacher may suggest. Simple conver- sational studies of familiar plants, ani- mals, and things, to distinguish form, colour, and prominent qualities, introduc- ing freely comparisons between like and unlike, and studying less familiar plants, animals, and things. With number-les- sons — pint, quart, gallon, quart, peck. STANDARDS 419 bushel. Simple poetry recited (through- out the course). Class in Priinary School corresponding to Standard I., second part, and Standard II., first part. — Heading. — As before. Spelling. — As before, written and oral. Writing. — Letters, words, and short simple sentences : the proper use of capitals. Roman numerals. Arithmetic. — Numbers from 1 to 100 : (1) combinations of tens, and of tens with smaller numbers ; (2) add- ing, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing numbers from 1 to 50, with results in figures ; (3) relations of numbers from 1 to 50 ; (4) Roman numerals to L. ; (5) square and cubic decimetre. Language and oral instruction. — Oral exercises as in preceding lessons. Pupils to write the sentences made in their oral exercises so far as they are able. Grouping of ani- mals by habits, traits, and structure, and of objects by form and qualities. Lessons in size and distance by simple measure- ment — inch, foot, yard. Class in Primary School corresponding to Standard II., second part. — Heading and Spelling. — As before. Writing. — Letters, words, and sentences from dicta- tion and from the blackboard. Sentences used in the language-lessons to be used for writing-exercises. Arithmetic. — Num- bers from 1 to 100: (1) adding, subtract- ing, multiplying, and dividing, with results in figures ; (2) relations of numbers from 1 to 100; (3) Roman numerals to C. ; (5) litre and dekalitre, dekametre. Lan- guage and oral instruction, — As before, with observation of the less obvious quali- ties of objects, and of tints and shades of colour. Study of strange animals from pictures, to infer mode of life from structure, or structure from mode of life. Simple lessons on weights and on divisions of time. Talks about the human body and hygiene continued. Fables, anecdotes. Class in Primary School, correspond- ing to Standard III. — Reading and Spell- ing. — As before. Writing. — Words and sentences. Sentences used in language- lessons will furnish material for exercises. The proper form of dating, addressing, and signing a letter ; also the correct me- thod of superscribing an envelope. Arith- metic. — Numbers from 1 to 1,000: (1) combinations of hundreds, and of hun- dreds with smaller numbers ; (2) adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing numbers from 1 to 144, with results in figures; (3) relations of numbers from 1 to 144 ; (4) adding and subtracting, ntulti- plying and dividing, numbers from 1 44 to 1,000, no multiplier or divisor larger than 1 being used ; (5) Roman numerals to M. ; (6) centimetre, gram, and kilogram. Lan- guage and oral instruction. — Work of Standard II. continued. Complementairy colours and harmonies of colours. Plants and animals gathered into families. Vege- table, animal, and mineral products dis- tinguished. Observation of the qualities and mechanism of things as adapted to their use. Class F/., the lowest in the Grammar School, corresponding to Standard lY. — Reading and Spelli7ig. — As before, with spelling from the reading and other lessons, chiefly written exercises. Writing. — Two books each half year. Blank books at alternate lessons. Arithmetic. — (.1) Com- bination of thousands, writing and read- ing integers ; (2) relations of tenths, hun- dredths, and thousandths to units, writing and reading decimals to thousandths ; (3) addition and subtraction of integers to millions, of decimals to thousandths, and of money; (4) the units of money, with relations to one another ; also of liquid and dry measure. Language and oral instruc- tion. — Oral and written exercises in the use of language as the expression of thought. Exercises the same in kind as those of the Primary Schools, adapted to the capacity of pupils of this class. Letter--writing. Elementary studies in Natural History. Plants, May to November. Animals, No- vember to May. Qualities and proper- ties of objects. Talks about trades, occu- pations, and articles of commerce. Poetry recited. Geography. — Oral lessons, with the use of the globe and maps as soon as the class is prepared for them. Class v., Grammax School, correspond- ing to Standard Y. — Reading and Spell- ing.— As, before. Writing. — As before. Arithmetic. — (1) Multiplication and divi- sion of integers, of decimals, and of money ; (2) the units of avoirdupois weight and of troy weight, with their relations. Oral exercises. Language and oral instruc- tion. — Former subjects continued. Talks about common phenomena. Stories, anec- dotes. Poetry recited. Geography. — Oral lessons continued, with . appropriate map- drawing. Class LY., Grammar School, corre- sponding to Standard YL— Reading and E E 2 420 STATICS SUNDAY SCHOOL Spelling. — ^^As before. Writing. — As be- fore.* Arithmetic. — (1) Factors, measures, and multiples ; (2) common fractions ; (3) the units of long, square, and solid measure, with their relations ; (4) decimal fractions reviewed and completed. Oral exercises. Language and oral instruc- tion. — Same as preceding. Elementary natural history continued. Common me- tals and minerals. Useful woods. Stories from mythology and ancient history. Poetry and prose recited. Geography. — Study of the earth as a globe, reference to form, parallels, meridians, zones with their characteristic winds, currents, and the life of man as varied by climate and civilisation. The physical features of the six grand divisions studied and compared with map-drawing. Class III., Grammar School, corre- sponding to Standard YII. — Reading and Spelling. — As before. Writing. — As be- fore. Arithmetic. — Metric system. Per- centage, simple interest and discount. Oral exercises. Language and oral in- struction. —As before. Grammar begun, the parts of Speech. Analysis of simple sentences. Elementary natural history continued. Physiology begun. Stories of life in the Middle Ages. Poetry and prose recited. Geography. — Physical and political geography of the countries of the grand divisions begun, with map-drawing. History. — United States history through the Revolution. Physics. — Outlines to be taught as far as practicable by the experi- mental method. Provision is also made in the course of study for drawing and singing through- out all the classes of the Primary and Grammar Schools. Statics. See Physics. St. Benedict. See Middle Ages, Schools op. St. Cyran. See Jansenists. Strasburg, College of. See Refor- mation. String Alphabet. See Education of THE Blind. Stupidity, Dullness. — By these terms we understand an exceptional degree of mental incapacity, as showing itself more especially in slowness of perception and understanding. Stupidity, always hard to put up with, is in a peculiar sense the crux of the teacher. It directly frus- trates his efforts, and therefore has to be fought against ; yet it is apt to prove itself the most invincible of foes. Stu- pidity has to be distinguished from mere idleness or indisposition to give the atten- tion to a subject. We are apt to call children stupid when they are merely pre- occupied {see Absent-mindedness). Again, when slowness of mind is clearly shown, it may be due to more than one cause. Thus it is well known that a defect in the organs of hearing is apt to induce a dull- ness in the understanding of what is said. Genuine stupidity points to a want of mental activity, which may show itself, in a general form, as inertness of mind, or, in a more special form, as want of retentive p'ower, imaginative power, and so forth. Such inertness of faculty may be to some ex- tent constitutional, and due to feebleness of brain-power, in which case it must be put up with. On the other hand, it may be the result of the want of an appropriate mode of mental stimulation. Hence a lov- ing and painstaking teacher has often suc- ceeded in arousing to something like vigor- ous activity what seemed a hopelessly dull child. The fact that some of the most dis- tinguished men were deemed stupid by their parents, schoolmasters, and in some cases their teachers, should make the edu- cator loth to pronounce any child who is not imbecile, but in possession of normal mental faculties, incorrigibly stupid. [See Locke, Thoughts, § 123 and following; Miss Edgeworth, Practical Education, i. 140 and following ; Thring, The Theory and Practice of Teaching, pt. i. chap. iv. cf. pt. ii. chap, v.) Sturm. See Public Schools and Reformation. Suicide of Scholars. See Overpres- sure. Sunday School. — The Sunday School was the outcome of the movement started by Robert Raikes {q.v.) at Gloucester in 1780. As soon as Raikes's plan of Sun- day teaching of the young was made pub- lic it attracted much attention, and in 1784 it was adopted in nearly all the manufacturing towns of Yorkshire and Lancashire. In 1786 it was estimated that 250,000 children were receiving in- struction in Sunday schools (vide Gentle- man's Magazine for 1786, p. 410). The scheme has grown to such an extent and has taken such deep root that it now forms one of the constituent parts of our social system. It is an efficient auxiliary in the cause of popular education on ac- SWEDEN, UNIVERSITIES OF SWEDENBORGIANISM 421 count of the elevated position which the schools occupy in the cause of education. In 1803 the Sunday School Union, chiefly composed of Nonconformists, was formed, and a few years later a similar society was formed in connection with the Church of England. In Scotland the system of biblical instruction in parochial schools sketched by John Knox (q-v.), and of family catechising, had already provided in large measure for the adequate train- ing of the young; but as early as 1782 some ladies setup a small school onRaikes's principle, and in 1797 a Sunday School Society was formed in Edinburgh. The influence of the Rev. Dr. Chalmers greatly popularised the movement in Scotland. According to the latest returns the num- ber of children attending Sunday schools in Scotland is 407, 329,with 44,591 teachers, and the number in England and Wales is 1,255,300, with 132,475 teachers. Sunday schools are generally connected with some religious congregation, although latterly attempts have been made to establish them on a broader pi-inciple. The mission school is also a kind of Sunday school, being gene- rally planted among the more neglected portions of the population, and very much corresponding to Ragged Schools (q.v.). For rating purposes Parliament has defined a Sunday school to be any school used for giving religious education gratuitously to children a,nd young persons on Sunday, and on week-days for the holding of classes and meetings in furtherance of the same object and without pecuniary profit being derived therefrom. The rating authority may exempt any building or part of a building used exclusively as such Sunday school from any rate for any purpose what- ever which such authority has power to impose or levy (vide Stonday and Ragged Schools Exemption from Rates Act, 1869). ■ Sweden, Universities of. See Univer- sities. Swedenborgianism in relation to Education. — The doctrines of the New Church or New Jerusalem, the community founded by Emanuel Swedenborg, are assumed by its adherents to throw much new light on the subject of education, whether the word be employed in a larger sense for the education of the will as well as of the understanding, or with the more limited signification of a synonym for in- struction. These doctrines lay it down as a fundamental principle that man is to be educated for heaven ; not in f orgetf ul- ness of the circumstance that we are born in a natural world, and that we have a body as well as a soul to provide for ; but in emphatic recognition of the fact that, while ' in the person to be educated there is a portion of his being on the level of nature,' there is ' another higher portion of his being on a level of heaven, and that both these portions in man require the utmost care and attention on the part of the educator. This same fundamental principle also implies that, as the spirit is superior to the body, and as a man's spirit will last to eternity, while his body enjoys only a limited period of existence in this world, the care of a man's immortal spirit must be of a paramount importance to the educator; that in a New Church system of education, therefore, the de- mands of a life in heaven overbalance the demands of a life in this world. And from this it follows that practically in a New Church school there will be the most thorough instruction given in all those points which are taught in the doctrines of the New Church, namely, the heavenly doctrines of the New Jerusalem, the philo- sophy of the New Church as exemplified in the doctrine of degrees, the science of correspondences, and the spiritual sense of the Divine Word. These subjects con- stitute the centre and nucleus of a New Church system of education ; and the various subjects of the natural sciences, of history and philology, are treated in it as subservient branches of knowledge, and as simply confirmatory of the princi- ples of the New Church.' Man's mind at his birth is a tabula rasa, an unwritten page, on which every- thing may be inscribed ; and man is, therefore, in a great measure the creature of his education. The New Church thus denies, with Locke, the existence of innate ideas in man; holding that all informa- tion, whether on natural or spiritual sub- jects, has to be conveyed to him through the medium of the senses. ' According to the New Church, also, man nowadays is born without a conscience, which is in a great measure found through the agency of education.' The New Church, how- ever, diverges from the author of the Thoughts, in teaching that the process of education is carried on simultaneously in two worlds, the natural and the spiritual, in the latter of which there anfe schools, 422 SWEDENBORGIANISM IN RELATION TO EDUCATION gymnasia, colleges, and all the jyersonnel and apparatus of instruction ; and that the educational process in the spiritual world commences even before the child is born into the natural world, just as it is angelically continued, after a man's natural death, in the spiritual world. ' The angels of the inmost heaven, as we are taught, are then around the man in pro- cess of formation, and instil into his spiri- tual composition states of innocence and peace ; and this they continue throughout the whole of the period of a man's in- fancy, childhood, and youth. The doc- trine of remains is one of the greatest im- portance for all those who wish to treat the subject of education from a New Church point of view. The basis of re- mains, which by the educators in the other world, the guardian angels, is im- planted in the spirits of all persons born in this world, forms the soil which is re- ceptive of all those ideas which, through the agency of educators in the natural world, are communicated to the infantile mind. . At first, when a child is born into this world, his mind grows apparently without much effort on the part of his natural educators. The child then learns by example more than by precept. Yet his guardian angels, his educators in the other world, are busily employed at that time. ' The plane of remains, which, as we are taught, is constructed during the first period of a cliild's life, is formed into a likeness of the second heaven. And this plane is receptive, on the one hand, of spiritual life and light from the Lord; and, on the other hand, by the connection with the lower parts of a man's mind, and thence with the senses of the body it forms an orderly plane of influx foi' the impressions which enter into a man's memory through the senses. Unless there was from the first such an orderly, hea- venly arrangement of the interiors of the human mind, the impressions which from the world rush in upon the mind of a child would be hopelessly mixed there. But, as it is now, every impression as it enters the mind has its appointed place in the memory ; and this in a great mea- sure is due to the constant loving attend- ance of the guardian angels, the child's educators in the other world. Many of these important results ai'e, of course, also caused by the constant presence in man of the life and light of the Lord our heavenly Father. By the presence of spiritual light in the mind, there is especially caused there that faculty which by Kant is called the faculty of pure reason. That faculty of pure reason is not the result of educa- tion, but by education it is educed or led forth into words and deeds. It flows in- discriminately into the souls of all human beings, but for its reception there are required vessels of knowledge, and these vessels are prepared by education.' The difierence between a child and a man is not one of more or less knowledge. 'A man's mind does not consist of one story only which is expanded on the prin- ciple of continuous degrees.' The human mind, in fact, ' consists of several stories,' and Swedenborg's own words with refer- ence to this architectural view of the in- tellect are to the effect that ' the human mind is like a house with three stories, communicating with each other by means of stairs, in the highest of which dwell angels from heaven, in the middle men from the world, and in the lowest genii. Where the three universal loves — the love of heaven, the love of the world, and the love of self — are in due subordination, the man has power to ascend or descend at pleasure : when he ascends to the highest story, he is in company with angels as an angel ; when he descends thence to the middle story, he is in company with men as a man-angel ; and when he descends thence below, he is there in company with genii as a man of the world, and instructs, reproves, and brings them into subjection. In that part of a man's spirit, or of his soul, which is within nature there are three degrees, of which one is above the other, and which three degrees are gene- rally opened as a man passes through the hands of his natural educators, and as from a child he is matured into a youth, and finally into a man.' In infants, up to the fourth or fifth year of their life, the external sensual or the corporeal faculty of their being is in process of develop- ment, by means of the insemination of ex- ternal sensual ideas, of such ideas as strike the mind in the form of pictures and ex- ternal forms. After the fifth year the second degree is attained, in which ' the internal sensual faculty begins to be opened, the active power of which is called ima- gination,' which ' works up the contents of books into higher visual ideas, and en- SWEDENBORGIANISM IN RELATION TO EDUCATION 423 riches the memory with what in the writ- ings are styled scientifics or matters of knowledge. In proportion as this second degree of the natural mind, or its memory- part, begins to be more and more filled with scientifics or items of knowledge, and in proportion as the youth advances in years, and begins to show the signs of manhood, the third degree of his natural mind is being opened, and out of his memory age he begins to pass into his rational age.' Common sense admits the existence of these three degrees of the mind within nature, although the systems and methods of instruction at present in vogue disastrously neglect them. The distinction between the first and the se- cond degree, that is, between the picture age and the reading age of childhood, is, however, beginning to be practically ad- mitted, especially in the ' useful institu- tions ' of the Kindergarten order ; but the distinction between the second and third ages of man, or between his memory age and his thinking age, is still wofuUy ignored by practical educators. Again, Swedenborg, in one of his works, lays down the doctrine that ' sciences in general are nothing else than a means of forming a man's rational faculty,' and in another affirms that ' on our earth the sciences are means of opening the intellec- tual sight, which sight is in the light of heaven.' Such, therefore, from a New Church point of view, is the use of that knowledge wliich children and youth ac- quire at school and in colleges. ' It is a means for developing their rational, that is, their thinking powers, and thus a means for ascending from the second into the third story of the mind. This use of the sciences, and thus of the material of edu- cation, is at the present day universally ignored by our systems and methods of education. The memory is the only faculty in which man is appealed to in our schools and in our colleges,' and whilst the differ- ence in the age of students is acknow- ledged in the choice of subjects which is made for younger and for older pupils, the method of instruction practically remains the same in all ages. ' And this one me- thod is the method of learning by rote, which when intensified is called cramming.' It is OAving to this unnatural method that the zeal for learning has to be quickened by prizes and scholarships. ' As the strength of a man's body depends upon his digestive powers, and not upon the size of his stomach, so also it is with the mind of man. It is not the cramming of his mental stomach, of his memory, with all sorts of knowledge which makes him an intelligent and a rational man, but it is his mode of digesting his knowledge. A little knowledge well digested, and raised from the second to the third story of a man's natural mind, goes a great deal farther in making him a useful citizen in this world than any amount of certificates showing that he has successfully crammed into his mind a given number of scientific subjects. The curse of our schools and of our whole age is the synthetic method of study which is universally followed to the exclusion of the natural method of instruction, the analytic, which is the method by which children learn their mother-tongue.' Ingrammar, for instance, children have first to learn abstractions, the so-called parts of speech, and then they have to commit to memory rules of gram- mar which they do not understand. While an infant, by following and attending to the analytic or natural method of instruc- tion, acquires a knowledge of its mother- tongue in less than a year, the whole pro- cess of acquisition being an easy, almost playful enjoyment to him, the labour of acquiring Greek and Latin, or French and German, becomes afterwards a task of peculiar difficulty, and, on account of the perverseness of the method which is fol- lowed by the teachers generally, the lan- guages thus acquired are always more or less an artificial product in the mind. To teach by the analytic method, and thus to develop the rational or thinking powers of the students, requires a thorough knowledge of his subject on the part of the teacher ; and it will not do for him to be simply one or two lessons ahead of his students. According to the analytic method of instruction a teacher is an educator in the highest sense of the word, and the plan by which he works is that of a builder and also of a gardener. An analytic teacher has before his mind's eye the whole of those departments of learning which he is de- sirous of building up in the minds of his students, or, rather, which he desires^ his students to build up in their own minds with the help of their teacher. He lays the foundation first, and then commences to build up first one branch of the subject and then another, and he never leaves a 424 SWEDISH DRILL SYMPATHY subject until he is fully satisfied that the student thoroughly understands it. The analytic teacher never loses out of sight the New Church truth, that good and truth, affection and thought, delight and know- ledge, must ever be combined, in order that a subject may remain permanently in their memory. While directing the attention of his students to knowledge, he is, there- fore, ever anxious to interest them in their subject, that is, to arouse the affection and delight of knowing in their mind at the same time. This, however, he does by always adapting his instruction to the then state of their mind ; his instruction must be the continuation of something which they already know, and it must lie within the grasp of their understanding. The teacher, therefore, is always sure of com- manding the attention of his students, if he goes on building on the foundation of any subject that has been laid in their mind. But it is also a function of the educator, whether the parent or some other person, to watch over the formation of the morals of the young. It is necessary that the natural mind of children in which they live should be under the control of a rational mind, until the development of a rational mind of their own. With respect to the young under their charge, educators are in the place of this rational mind, and thus also in the place, provisionally, of a conscience ; ' for conscience is built up in the rational mind. But when young people are old enough to have their own rational mind, and their own conscience built up within them, then it is injurious to them to be constantly tied to the leading-strings of their parents. The personal obedience then falls away, but the rational obedience to the principles taught by their parents and teachers still continues. The effect of a sound education, therefore, ought to be, in conclusion, to educate the young to the same level of freedom and rationality which is enjoyed by their educators ; and when they have reached that level, then they are in the charge of the Lord alone and His truth, and He continues the process of education which is now called regeneration, until they are re-born and educated into angels of heaven ; and thus until they have reached the destiny for which the Lord has intended every human being at his birth, namely, to become an angel of heaven.' (Emanuel Swedenborg's True Christian Religion ; containing the Universal Theo- logy of the New Church, and other works ; Statement of the Doctrines of the New Jerusalem, Church ; ' and the Rev. Dr. R. L. Tafel's Education, from which the foregoing quotations, when not otherwise authenticated, are taken.) Swedish Drill. See Ling. Swiney Lectures. See Prelections. Switzerland, Education in. See Law (Educational) (section Zurich). Syllabaries. See Schools of Anti- quity. Sympathy. — The etymology of the word sympathy (Greek avv and Trci^os) at once tells us that it is a feeling with, or ,'. sharing in the feelings of, others. Sym pathy is a representative feeling, that is, a feeling which depends on the imaginative representation of a state of mind not actually experienced at the moment. As such, it presupposes a certain amount of personal experience of pleasure and pain. The want of sympathy which is so often ascribed to children is explained by the limitation of their experience, their ina- bility to realise states of feeling different from their own, and their preoccupation with personal interests and pursuits. At the same time, the germ of sympathy, viz. the tendency to reflect others' feelings, is plainly seen in the readiness with which they are excited to laughter, fear, &c., by example and contagion. This tendency has a high educational importance. It is by the contagious propagation of feeling that the teacher's cheerful manner induces a willingness to learn in the pupil {see Cheerfulness). The advantage of teach- ing children in numbers rather than alone depends on the sympathy of numbers, which is merely another name for the disposition of the young to take on the mental attitude of those by whom they are surrounded. The higher kind of sym- pathy or fello"v\^- feeling has to be cultivated by the educator, both as an aid in intellec- tual education and as one chief element in moral development. Where there is affection between teacher and pupil, and the disposition to sympathise which this implies, not only is the child's happiness promoted, but a powerful motive is sup- plied to effort and industry. The sympa- thetic child finds it a pleasure to do what it knows the teacher likes and wishes it to do. Hence the importance of the SYISTDICATE- -TAYLOR 425 teacher's drawing out the affectionate im- pulses of the child, by manifesting on his side a loving, sympathetic interest in the latter's welfare and happiness {see Affec- tion). The impulse of sympathy is, fur- ther, that on wliich the moral educator must ultimately rely for the correction of the selfish propensities of children, as shown in greediness, envy, cruelty, and the bitter feeling of rivalry. Since it is agreed that duty consists essentially in a recognition of the interests and claims of others, it is evident that virtue, or the fixed disposition to the right, must have its chief root in a wide and impartial sym- pathy. Hence the moral importance of • cultivating the sympathetic feelings of children, first of all in relation to their immediate associates, human and animal, and then in relation to wider and wider circles, those of other social grades, other races, and so forth. (AS'ee Miss Edgeworth, Practical Education, chap. x. ; Fitch, Lec- tures on Teaching, p. 24 and following ; Es- says on the Kindergarten (Sonnenschein), No. 4; The Happiness of Children ; Sully, Teacher'' s Handbook, p. 388 and following ; Jean Paul Richter, Levana, edited by Miss S. Wood, p. 67 and following ; Compayre, Cours de Pedagogie, i. legon ix.) Syndicate. — The committee of resi- dent graduates who conduct the local examinations under the authority of their university are known at Cambridge as syndicates and at Oxford as delegates. The members are generally elected by the Senate for four years. They are un- paid, like the members of a Committee of the House of Commons ; but they appoint a paid secretary, to whom all communica- tions must be addressed. They also no- minate the actual or superintending ex- aminers, and have often been examiners themselves. The delegates draw up all the details of the local examinations, syllabus, rates, &c. It is they, and not the University generally, who should be approached for consultation through their secretary, probably a resident Fellow and tutor. The names of the members are published in the university calendars. The joint Committee of Syndicate of the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examina- tion (q.v.) is conveniently spoken of as the Joint Board. It is quite, distinct from the Local Examinations syndicate and delegacy, with separate secretaries and syllabuses. Syntax. See Grammar. Synthesis. See Analysis and Syn- thesis. T Taylor, Jeremy, D.D. (b. 1613, d. 1667), is chiefly known as one of the most emi- nent divines, eloquent, learned, and pious, of the Anglican Church. But many of the best years of his life he spent as a schoolmaster in South Wales. As a youth he showed much talent, and entering Caius College, Cambridge, at the age of thirteen, he obtained his B.A. in his eighteenth year, and was elected Fellow of his college. His brilliant parts attracted the attention of Archbishop Laud, who appointed him in 1635 to a fellowship at All Souls', Oxford, and about a year later chaplain to King Charles I. In 1638 he became rector of Uppingham, where he spent four busy and happy years devoted to the duties of his parish. In the Civil War Taylor warmly espoused the royal cause, and leaving Uppingham remained as chaplain at the king's side from 1642 to 1646. After the battle of Naseby, having been deprived of his living and lost all he possessed, he took refuge in South Wales, and in 1647 had established himself as master of a school in Glamorganshire. While in this position he published A New and Easie Institution of Grammar. In which the labour of many years usually spent in learning the Latine tongue is shortened and made easie. In Usum Juven- tutis Cambro-Britannicce. This book,which was printed in London in 1647, is very rare. In an English dedication to the ' most hopeful Christopher Hatton, Esquire, son and heir to the right honourable Lord Hatton of Kirby,' Taylor reveals his ideal of education in a characteristic passage, in which he addresses his pupil thus : 'However nature and the laws of the kingdom may secure you a great fortune and mark you with the exterior character of honour, yet your fortune will be but a load of baggage and your honour an empty 426 TEACHERS TEACHING AND LEARNING gaiety, unless you build and adorn your Louse with the advantages and ornaments of learning upon the foundations of jn^ty' (For further details see Educational Times, Eeb. 1, 1888, pp. 66, 67.) Taylor, who was appointed Bishop of Down and Con- nor in 1660, after the restoration of Charles II., also compiled A Short Cate- chism for the Use of the Schools in South Wales in 1652. Teachers, Associations of Foreign. — The two best known of these associations are ' The German Teachers' Association,'' 15 Gower Street, London, Hon. Sec. H. Reichardt, and the ' Societe Rationale des Frofesseurs de Frangais,' 20 Bediord Street, Strand, London. In connection with both there are agencies whose object is 'to recommend to principals and headmasters of schools, as well as to private families, efficient masters and tutors' — and in the case of the latter, governesses also. The German Association, which is under royal patronage, and is managed by a committee including some English 'modern' masters, also undertakes 'to supply information to parents and others as to the most suitable schools in England and on the Continent, to which pupils can be sent for the purpose of education.' Both associations annually hold conferences, at which all matters connected with the teaching of the re- spective languages are discussed, and con- sultations held concerning all matters likely to be of value to foreign teachers. Teachers' Benevolent Fund. See National Union of Elementary Teachers. Teachers' Guild of Great Britain and Ireland, incorporated May 15th, 1885. Chairman, Rev. John Percival, D.D., headmaster of Rugby; secretary, H. B. Garrod, M.A. ; offices, 17 Buckingham Street, Adelphi, London, W.C.— This as- sociation has been formed with three main objects, viz.: (1) To form a body which shall be thoroughly representative of all grades of teachers, and which shall be able to speak with knowledge and authority on all matters of education. (2) To obtain for the whole body of teachers the status and authority of a learned profession. (3) To enable teachers, by union and co-operation, to make a better provision for sickness and old age, and by the same means to do all such other things as may conduce to their own welfare and the benefit of the public. The Guild already possesses over 2,500 members, and is rapidly increasing. There are local branches at Bradford, Brighton, Cheltenham, Glasgow, Halifax, Hastings and St. Leonards', Hull, Oxford, Sheffield, Truro, and West Kent ; and other local branches are in process of for- mation. There are local correspondents at eighty-three important towns. An excel- lent registry for teachers in want of em- ployment has been opened at the offices of the Guild, at very low fees for members. Advantageous terms for members are offered by several leading assurance offices. A good library (circulating) of pedagogy and text-books has been established. A list of holiday resorts has been compiled, giving the names of places in England and on the Continent at which holidays can be passed at a reasonable expense, with (in many cases) special terms for members of the Guild. And much other work is being done. Any teacher, or any one in- terested in education, if properly nomi- nated and approved, can become a member of the Guild at an annual subscription of 5s. (nomination form to be obtained from the secretary). Such a person may either join the metropolitan body, called the ' Central Guild,' or any one of the ' Local Guilds ' affiliated to it. Teachers' Orphanage. See National Union of Elementary Teachers. Teachers' Training Syndicate. See Training of Teachers. Teachers' University Association. — This Association had its origin in a three weeks' visit paid to Balliol College, Ox- ford, in the Long Vacation of 1885, by a number of elementary schoolmasters, on the invitation of the master and fellows of the college. It was formed in January 1886, with the object of promoting the training of elementary teachers, at the Universities and University Colleges. Any person, whether a schoolmaster or not, in sympathy with the object of the Association is eligible for membership. The headquarters of the Association are at Toynbee Hall, Whitechapel, the Rev. S. A. Barnett, Warden of the Hall, being president of the Association. Teaching and Learning. — As pointed out in the article Acquisition of Know- ledge, learning involves the putting forth of activity by the learner's mind, in the act of seizing and appropriating the new material and bringing it into vital con- TECHNICAL EDUCATION 427 nection with previous knowledge. This acti-\T.ty is only put forth when a feeling of interest is excited, which feeling in- duces an inquisitiye and expectant atti- tude of mind. Such a feeling of interest again implies that the new facts or ideas presented have points of contact with what is already familiar. Hence learn- ing cannot proceed by leaps, but only by a continuous movement. Learning is thus a mode of organic growth, in which new ideas by a process of accretion form them- selves about old ideas as centres. This being so, it is evident that teaching can- not properly be described as a putting of new ideas into the child's mind. True teaching, which ends in the production of new knowledge, consists in aiding and directing the organic process of idea- formation. Hence the importance of be- ginning by rousing an inquisitiveness or thirst for knowledge in the child's mind. Hence, too, the value now ascribed to those methods of instruction which incite the child to discover what is discoverable for himself. Hence, finally, the generally ac- cepted maxim that in all teaching the new facts and truths must be presented in their relations to what the child already knows (cf. articles Acquisition of Knowledge and Instruction). {See Thring, Theory and Practice of Teaching, pt. i. chap. x. ; D. P. Page, Theory and Practice of Teach- ing, chap. vi. sect., iii. and following \ Compayre, Cours de Pedagogie, legon iii. j article ' Lehren und Lernen,' in Schmidt's Encyclopddie. Teclmical Education. — By technical education is generally meant the training which includes instruction in the arts and sciences which underlie the practice of some ti'ade or profession. Schools in which this training is afforded are called techni- cal schools. Such schools may provide the general training which is the necessary part of the education of all persons, as well as the special instruction applicable to cer- tain groups of industries ; or they may provide the special instruction only, with or without practice in certain handicrafts. The schools in which technical instruction is given are very numerous, and difier widely in their character and objects. It is now found convenient to restrict the term ' technical ' as applied to educa- tion to that special training which helps to qualify a person to engage in some branch of productive industry. This edu- cation may consist of the explanation of the processes concerning production, or of instruction in science and art in its rela- tion to industry, as well as in the acquisi- tion of manual skill. The necessity for technical education has arisen from the altered conditions under which production is now carried on. The application of steam-power to the ma- chinery used in manufacturing industry has effected a complete revolution in the methods of production and in the rela- tions between employer and employed. The old system of apprenticeship, in which the pupil received instruction from his master in the principles of his craft, has almost ceased to exist, and one of the problems of technical education is to find a substitute for it. The establishment of large factories, equipped with all sorts of labour-saving appliances, has resulted in a great exten- sion of the system of division of labour, in consequence of which artisans are em- ployed almost exclusively in one depart- ment of work, and have little or no op- portunity of becoming acquainted with the general principles of the manufacture in which they are engaged. The progress of science and the rapid succession of new discoveries have led to constant improvements in the machinery and processes of production, and have necessitated very advanced scientific edu- cation on the part of those who are called upon to take the management of any department of manufacturing industry. Many factories are themselves labora- tories on a very large scale, in which, by the application of scientific processes, raw material is altered in substance or in form and converted into manufactured pro- ducts. In order to thoroughly understand the nature of the changes that take place in such a factory, and to be able to apply the most recent discoveries of science to the improvement of the processes of pro- duction, a special education is needed, which can only be provided in technical schools, adequately equipped and directed by a competent staflf of proficient teachers. The general improvement in education and the spread of art teaching in this country, and to a much greater extent in other countries, has created a taste for beautiful things and has elevated the ar- tistic perceptions of the purchasers of all kinds of oods. The saleable value of a 428 TECHNICAL EDUCATION great variety of different works has con- sequently come to depend very much on originality and beauty in design ; and the efficient training of industrial designers, as a part of technical education, has become indispensable. The demand for technical instruction is destined to effect a revolution in the methods and subjects of instruction in all our schools, from the elementary school to the university. It is due to the con- viction that prominent among the causes of the successful competition of foreign manufacturers is the system of technical education which for more than twenty years has existed in Germany, and has since been introduced into other European countries. The strong belief that our commercial interests were severely suffering from the want of fitting instruction for our artisans and manufacturers, led to the appoint- ment in 1881 of a Royal Commission to in- quire into the facilities afforded in foreign countries for the technical instruction of persons engaged in productive industry. The report of the Commission, published in 1884, showed very clearly that the English people were losing ground in con- sequence of the deficiencies in their system of education, and a great impetus was thereby afibrded to the establishment in this country of technical schools. Although great progress has been made during the last few years, England is still behind most continental nations in the provision of technical schools adapted to the requirements of different classes of workers. In Germany the most important industries have been created by means of the education afforded in technical schools. In no other country is the connection be- tween commercial prosperity and the ma- chinery of education so marked. The special feature of German technical in- struction is the lavish expenditure on the education of the leaders of industry. This is provided in the technical high schools and the universities. The success of the great chemical trades in Germany is mainly due to the utilisation of the re- sults of the researches of the army of highly trained chemists who are constantly engaged in making new discoveries, and who are employed in large numbers in every chemical factory. In the same way, German engineers have received the prin- cipal part of their training in the technical high schools, where engineering labora- tories had been equipped long before any such had been provided in our own col- leges. The main principles of German technical education consist (1) in giving the highest possible scientific training to all those who are likely to occupy any of the higher posts in industrial works ; (2) in giving, either gratuitously or at a very small cost, sound general and practi- cal education to artisans and workpeople ; (3) in providing cheap secondary education for all persons qualified to receive it. Trade schools are only now beginning to be introduced into Germany. The Ger- mans have relied upon the excellence of their system of primary and secondary education, and on the facilities afforded for higher technical instruction. Institu- tions known as Kunstgewerheschulen, for the teaching of industrial art, correspond- ing in some respects to the technical high schools, for the teaching of industrial science, are found in all the large towns of Germany. Moreover, to prevent any break in the education of the children after they leave the primary schools, there exists a more organised system of con- tinuation schools, in which elementary instruction is continued and afterwards specialised with a view to different occu- pations. In France technical education has de- veloped on somewhat different lines. The school has been more generally utilised for the technical training of the workmen. Now for some years apprenticeship schools have been established for the teaching of different tirades. In these schools the pupil learns a trade whilst he is pursuing his general education. The Ecole Diderot in Paris is an example of such a school for the training of workmen principally as smiths and fitters. • Similar schools are found in other large towns of France. Besides these there are schools such as the Ecole des Arts et Metiers at Chalons, for the training of foremen. In these schools, contracts, principally for the government, are completed, and the student is supposed to receive under more favourable condi- tions the same kind of training as he would obtain in an engineer's shop. In many of the principal towns are found collegiate institutions, such as the Institut du Nord at Lille and the Ecole Centrale at Lyons, in which higher technical in- struction, including more advanced science TECHNICAL EDUCATION 429 teaching, is provided. In the Ecole Cen- trale of Paris the principal engineers, not engaged in government service, and the heads of manufacturing works receive their training. A special feature of French industrial education is the evening art school, which is free, and is found in every large town. In Paris there are many such schools, attended by large numbers of artisan students, and it is greatly owing to the instruction provided in these schools, and also to the exhibition of works of art in the museums, which are largely fre- quented by workpeople on Sundays, that the artistic skill of French workmen, and their pre-eminence as industrial designers, are mainly due. The system of technical instruction in Italy is founded to a great extent on that of Germany, but is far less advanced. Every large town has a technical institute, Istituto tecnico, which generally comprises four departments of study, for chemistry, engineering, agriculture, and commerce. These departments vary in different loca- lities. There are also special schools for naval architecture, for the textile trades, and for applied art. Of trade schools similar to those in France there are some, but not many examples. The highest in- struction is afforded in the higher technical institutes, which are situated in Milan, Turin, and Naples. Evening schools, prin- cipally for art training, are found in the principal Italian towns. A review of foreign systems of edu- cation shows us (1) the importance of adapting technical instruction to local re- quirements ; (2) the intimate connection which ought to subsist between general and technical instruction ; (3) the difficulty of formulating any complete system of technical education. (1) In order that technical instruction may be adapted to local requirements, the direction of technical schools ought to be largely in the hands of local authorities. This is generally the case abroad. Indus- trial societies, chambers of commerce, mu- nicipal and county councils jointly con- tribute to the support and maintenance of these schools ; and although they receive in most cases a subvention from the State, the management and control of the schools, subject to government inspection, are left to a great extent to local bodies. (2) In order that education may sub- serve the purposes of industry, it must be adapted to the changed conditions under which productive and commercial enter- prise are now carried on. Technical educa- tion cannot be regarded as something apart from general education. It is to a great extent nothing more than a modification of a system of education which has pre- vailed for many centuries, but is no longer adapted to present industrial require- ments. This fact is recognised abroad. In Germany, Austria, Italy, and Switzer- land secondary education is organised with a view to the enlargement that has taken place in the area of the so-called learned professions, and to the necessity that now exists of allowing an adequate and fitting preliminary training to all persons who are to be engaged in industrial pursuits. (3) No country can be said to possess a complete system of technical education. Such a system should provide necessary instruction for the different classes of workers engaged in productive industry. It is usual to divide persons so engaged into three groups : (1) Workmen or journeymen. (2) Foremen or overseers. (3) Managers or masters. The different trades or industries can- not be so easily classified, but they may be divided roughly into manufactures and handicrafts — that is, into trades in which machinery is largely employed, and in which the finished product passes through a large number of different hands and is subjected to a variety of different pro- cesses ; and trades in which the finished product is mainly the result of the skill of one or more individual workers. The ad- vance of science is constantly tending to transfer trades from the latter to the for- mer class, and this fact alone shows the primary importance of the general diffu- sion of scientific knowledge among all classes of persons engaged in productive industry. The inquiries which have been made into the systems of education adopted abroad have shown us the kind of instruc- tion which is needed for the efficient train- ing of these different classes of persons. As regards workmen, what is wanted is practical primary education, in which the teaching of the three R's is supplemented by rudimentary science lessons, by instruc- tion in drawing, and by manual training having for its purpose the discipline of the hand and eye. The aim of the science teaching should be to quicken the observ- ing faculties of the children. The in- 430 TECHNICAL EDUCATION strviction should be given, as far as pos- sible, by way of object lessons, and the subjects should be varied according to the district in which the school is situated. The drawing lessons should consist of linear drawing for all pupils, and of free- hand drawing, supplemented by modelling, for those who show any special art aptitude; and the manual training should consist of lessons intheuse of ordinary wood-working tools, some skill in the manipulation of which is likely to facilitate the acquisition of any trade. The real training of the workman must be obtained in the factory or shop ; but facilities should be afforded for supplementing workshop practice by evening instruction, which should be spe- cially adapted to the industry in which he is engaged. Evening technical instruction for workmen should include lessons in art and science and in their application to different trades, and also in certain cases in the technology of different departments of trade cognate to the one in which the workman is daily occupied. The foreman, who is generally selected from the more successful and better-informed workmen, may obtain his special training in evening technical schools ; but it is also desirable that children from the elementary schools, showing aptitude for profiting by higher instruction, should be encouraged, by means of scholarships, to continue their education in higher schools, with a view of giving them the preliminary training which may qualify them to occupy more readily higher posts in industrial works. In these schools the instruction should be practical, and should consist mainly of physical science, mathematics, drawing, and further practice in the use of tools. For those who are to take charge of manufacturing works, or who are to be engaged as engineers in constructive in- dustry, the best training is that which may be obtained in a good secondary modern school, in which the teaching of science and modern lai:iguages is substi- tuted for that of classics. This training should be svipplemented by such higher technical instruction as is now provided in a technical institute or in special de- partments of some of our universities. The two principal agencies in this country for the encouragement and direc- tion of technical education are the Science and Art Department and the City and Guilds of London Institute. The Science and Art Department (q.v.) encourages, by means of grants on the results of the examinations of students, the formation of classes : (1) for the study of art and industrial design ; (2) for the study of the different branches of science. The City and Guilds of London Institute is a volun- tary association of some of the principal livery companies of London, who annually subscribe money for the advancement of technical education. The Institute was incorporated in the year 1880. It has es- tablished and maintains a technical college at Finsbury and a Central Institution at Kensington. The object of the Finsbury College is to afford evening instruction to artisans, and to train youths who may have received their earlier education in a public elementary or middle-class school to occupy intermediate posts in industrial works. The object of the Central Insti- tution or Technical University of London is the education of technical teachers and of young men preparing for any branch of engineering or manufacturing work. The Institute also encourages, after the man- ner of the Science and Art Department, the formation throughout the kingdom of classes in technology and in the applica- tion of science to different trades. Ancient endowments, which are no longer applicable for the purposes for which they were originally intended, are now being applied by the Charity Com- missioners to the establishment and main- tenance of technical schools, especially evening schools, such as that in connec- tion with the People's Palace ; and pri- vate benevolence, assisted in many cases by contributions from the livery companies, and notably from the Clothworkers' Com- panies of Londctn, has been the means of establishing technical colleges in different parts of the country, as well as university colleges in which the instruction largely piartakes of a^ technical character. In 1887, a Bill was introduced into Parlia- ment to confer powers upon local autho- rities to levy rates for the erection and maintenance of technical schools, and to enable the Science and Art Department to make grants on handicraft instruction in elementary schools ; and although this Bill was dropped, owing mainly to the pressure of other business, it has this year (1888) been again introduced in an amended form, and is certain, should it become law, to facilitate the establish- TECHNICAL EDUCATION 431 ment of technical schools adapted to local wants. One of the many results of the demand for technical instruction has been the improvement in general education by the introduction into the different grades of schools, from the higher elementary school to the university, of the laboratory, the drawing-office, and the workshop. Several attempts to legislate on this subject have been made, and three Bills for providing technical instruction have been introduced into the House of Com- mons. The first of these was the Bill brought in on July 19, 1887, by Sir W. Hart-Dyke on behalf of the Government. In this Bill it was proposed to give power to school boards and local authorities to provide technical schools or contribute to their support. A poll on the question of putting these powers into force might be demanded by fifty ratepayers, except in the metropolis. No payment might be made from the rates with respect to any scholar who had not passed the Sixth Standard, and technical instruction was defined as covering those subjects for which grants are made, or which may be sanctioned by the Science and Art Department. The Bill was read a second time on August 9, but was dropped before reaching the com- mittee stage. In March, 1888, Sir Henry Roscoe in- troduced a second Technical Education Bill, embodying the -views of the National Association for the Promotion of Technical Education. This Bill proposed that autho- rity should be given to the School Boards to provide for technical education in schools under their management, or that the local authority should make such pro- vision if necessary. This Bill had from the beginning but little chance of pass- ing, in view of the avowed intention of the Government to introduce a Bill of their own, which they did on May 17, 1888. This Bill differed from its prede- cessor of 1887, and also from Sir Henry Roscoe's Bill, in several important points. The clause requiring a poll on demand of fifty ratepayers was omitted, but the re- quirement of a poll (so far as concerns all but elementary schools) was retained by a provision placing the control of secondary technical instruction in the hands of the ' authority empowered to carry out the Public Libraries Acts.' School Boards were required by the Bill under certain conditions to aid the supply of technical and manual training in voluntary schools. For the first time ' manual ' was separated from 'technical' instruction, and the mini- mum standard limit ^the standard speci- fied in the schedule is nearly equivalent to the Sixth — applied to ' technical ' in- struction only. Where School Boards exist, the local control of elementary technical instruction is separated under the Bill from that of secondary technical instruc- tion, the former being in the hands of the School Board, the latter in the hands of the authority empowered to carry out the Libraries Acts. A condition introduced was the limitation of the rates raised by the School Board and by the local autho- rity for purposes of technical education to one penny in each case. Commercial Education may be re- garded as a branch of technical education. It means instruction in the art of dis- posing of the products of industry to the best advantage. It is thus to be distin- guished from that part of technical edu- cation which relates to instruction in the art of growing, winning, or making these products. In an address delivered before the Teachers' Guild, Dr. Wormell points out (1) that a good, broad, and thorough gene- ral education is the best basis for a special course of professional training and instruc- tion ; (2) that the range and depth of this general education must be determined by the range of knowledge, and the amount of intelligence and skill necessary to cope with the special professional instruction which is to be built upon it (Journal, of Education, February 1888). The art of the pedagogue will be shown in the dex- terity with which he selects in the course of general education subjects that have the closest bearing on the course of special professional instruction. It is fully re- cognised that the course of school studies for a boy entering on business life must differ materially from that which is fitted for a boy destined for the learned pro- fessions or for the career of scholarship. The Germans, with characteristic thorough- ness, have organised special schools for these two classes of boys {see Gymnasium and Realschule)! The English, on the other hand, have endeavoured to combine the two courses in the same school. Thus the boy who in Germany would go to a gymnasium, in England proceeds further and further with the classical and literary studies included in the school programme ; 432 TECHNICAL EDUCATION whereas the boy who is to become a man of business, dropping the classical studies, proceeds further and further with modern languages and the scientific subjects in that programme. There is this to be said in favour of the English plan— that it avoids the unnecessary multiplication of schools ; it promotes in early life an inter- mixture of classes which must be bene- ficial to a democratic community ; it in- terests the professional and mercantile classes alike in the efiiciency and pro- sperity of secondary schools, which must depend greatly on private munificence for their endowment. It is difficult to decide what course of study should be prescribed as afibrding the best commercial education. :1) Ethics and morality are of course essential as the basis. (2) Next in im- portance comes the language of instruc- tion—viz. English as read, written, and spoken. This cannot be taught too thoroughly. (3) Latin. (4) French and German. Where practicable, it should be optional to substitute Spanish for Latin ; or if Latin be not chosen, then higher in- struction in French should take its place. (5) History and geography ; (a) English history, together with the history of Scot- land, Ireland, the United States, and the chief British colonies and dependencies; (6) the modern history of Europe ; (c) Greek and Roman history ; {d) the earth's sur- face and products, and its natural and political divisions, with special reference to the British Empire. (6) Mathema- tics. (7) Natural science : (a) survey of animal and vegetable kingdoms with special relation to the commercial products derived from them, form and character- istics of the more important minerals ; (6) the rudiments of geology. (8) Physics and mechanics demonstrated (a) by simple_ ex- periments and (b) by simple calculations or elementary mathematics. (9) Chemistry demonstrated by simple experiments, to- gether with a survey of chemical processes, elements, and combinations, with special reference to their iiidustrial importance. (10) Freehand drawing. (11) Writing, in- cluding bookkeeping, shorthand, the art of displaying simple statements of account, business letter- writing, said precis writing. (12) Rudimentsof political economy taught with a special bearing on trade, the duties of citizenship, and the constitution of the country. For lads who must enter busi- ness early in life as clerks, the course must be simplified. The necessity of re- cognising two kinds of commercial edu- cation was forcibly pointed out in the Chamber of Commerce Journal for July 1888. There are two classes to be con- sidered : (1) employes or clerks, and (2) principals, managers, agents, and other responsible heads of business firms. ' The class of clerks and assistants must, from the complicated and generally technical nature of the duties which they have to perform, devote several years, which really constitute apprenticeship, in acquiring in an office a knowledge of, and familiarity with, the duties from the exercise of which their livelihood is to be derived. From four to six years, according to capacity, have to be devoted to such an apprentice- ship before a living can be earned, al- though some wage is obtainable after the first year or two. This comparatively long training, in what is really technical edu- cation for the clerkly craft, makes it ne- cessary that youths should commence the practical part of their career as early as possible. Experience has proved that the best age is between fourteen and fifteen. There are some large firms in London who do not take juniors who are older than fifteen years. It therefore becomes urgent to provide for the requirements of this large class by supplying a curriculum which will afford a maximum of bread-earning knowledge at this minimum age. A good handwriting, a fair grasp and comprehen- sion of arithmetic, an average grounding in grammar and history, a fuller acquaint- ance than formerly with geography, a cer- tain developed capacity in shorthand, and free or colloquial, as well as grammatical, familiarity with one or two foreign lan- guages, appear to be generally considered as the necessities and the minimum of the bread-earning education of the lad of fif- teen henceforward. Opinion is, moreover, unanimous as to the necessity of thorough- ness and soundness in the acquirement of this " foundation " education, as it is fit- tingly termed, the idea being to impart a basis or- foundation of knowledge so sound and thorough that it will admit of any sub- sequent development or cultivation. Con- tinuation, evening, and technical classes will, it is expected, play an increasing part after business hours in the intellec- tual development of the young clerk of the future who is ambitious and anxiouiS to qualify for the higher and more remu- TECHNICAL EDUCATION 433 nerative posts which are ever open to a combination of capacity, prudence, and enterprise. Self-culture will become more and more of a necessity in the future, under the pitiless pressure of competition, hence also the necessity of qualifying young men, more carefully than in the past, to acquire that capacity and know- ledge which alone will enable the minority to rise above the ranks of the plodding and drudging majority. Given a fitting basis or foundation of education to all, it will be the fault of those interested if they do not make the necessary sacrifice of time and labour which will enable them to attain to superior acquirements, and to improve the position of the entire nation together with their own.' The education of the clerk, however, is not more important than the education of those who aspire to hold the posts of com- mand in the commercial army — officers of all degrees, who are largely recruited from the more fortunate class of lads referred to above. It is at last admitted, says the Cliamher of Commerce Journal, that the merchant is as worthy of a special train- ing as is the doctor, the lawyer, the engi- neer, the artist, or the musician. ' What is astonishing is not this very late national conversion to a self-evident principle, but that it should have ever been possible for the incapable of all classes to seek a refuge in a mercantile career. The present general demand for the means to attain a higher status of capacity, and the equally gene- ral feeling that many posts occupied by foreigners, simply because they are expert and modest, ought to be filled by equally capable British subjects, proves that spe- cial knowledge will in future be exacted, and that in trade, as in other professions, the " fittest " alone will survive. Compe- tition, as is proper, has found out our weak point. It has proved that a national error, however general, will not long be allowed to prevail, and that the law of demand and supply goes far to correct our educational mistakes. Whilst we failed to train competent clerks other nations did {sic), the result being that we were con- strained to give preference to foreigners in an alarmingly large number of employ- ments and trades. The same implacable rule applies to principals, and to the trade which they conduct. It stands to reason that the education or system which pro- duces the best clerks will also produce the best principals, and by their united efforts they develop the most successful national trade. Education, then, is an element of competition of the most dangerous kind. By its means it is clear that a nation may gradually acquire a commercial superiority, without capital or special products, such as we obtained early in the century through our metals, our machinery, and our ship- ping. It is equally clear that it is only through education that we can hope to retain our hold on what we have gained, and to maintain our position as a commer- cial country.' In 1888 a committee was appointed, as a result of several conferences convened by the London Chamber of Commerce, to consider the best means of introducing a system of commercial education which would meet the requirements of a modern business. It included the following gentle- men : — Sir J. Lubbock, Sir B. Samuelson, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Sir C H. Chubb, Mr. H. Kimber, Mr. Magniac, Mr. J. H. Tritton, Mr. E. H. Carbutt, Mr. Charles Morley, Mr. Walter Leaf, Mr. Frank De- benham, Mr. E. Power, and the Rev. Dr. Wace. The committee held several sit- tings, and issued to leading commercial firms in London and the provinces a scheme prepared for the improvement of commer- cial education. This step was taken to elicit the opinion and criticism of practical business men in regard to the suggested- curriculum, whilst revisions in detail were sought also from masters of schools and other authorities on practical education. The scheme proposed as obligatory subjects for examination for a commercial certifi- cate : (1) English, (2) Latin, (3a) French, (36) German, Spanish, or Italian, (4) his- tory of British Isles and Colonies, general and modern history, including commercial history, (5) geography, physical, political, commercial, and industrial, (6) mathema- tics, (7) drawing. Proficiency was also required in at least one of the following : Physics, chemistry, natural history, com- merce, and political economy. The final report of the committee was issued by Isbister & Co. while the parent work was in the press. Cambridge has taken the lead of the universities in acknowledging the necessity for giving commercial education special recognition. The syndicate of the Uni- versity on February 22, 1888, requested that the Local Examination and Lecture F F 434 TECHNICAL EDUCATION TEMPER Syndicates be empoAvei'ed to hold examina- tions for commercial certificates, and that these might be organised under the ex- isting system of December examinations for secondary schools. They suggested that the commei'cial examinations should be so arranged that students might prepare for a great part of them along with those who were being prepared for the ordinary local examinations. But they wisely estab- lished a separate examination for commer- cial certificates and quite apart from the local examinations, so that there should be no papers of questions common to the two, and no common classification of successful students. As to general education they decided not to exact any test of it. They concluded, justly, that it would be prac- ticable to set a paper for the commercial certificate on such terms that no student could attack it unless he had a general education sufiiciently sound to enable him to pass the ordinary local examination for junior or senior students. The regulations may be summarised as follows : (1) Writ- ing a letter in English on some commercial subject ; precis writing ; shorthand, i.e. taking notes of a passage read, and then extending them verbatim. To pass, the student 7;(?/.§; satisfy the exaininers in letter- writing and in precis writing. (2) Arith- metic with special reference to commercial problems — e.g. weights and measures in British dependencies and foreign countries; currencies and exchanges ; book-keeping by double entry ; algebra up to the Bino- mial Theorem, with positive and integral indices, logarithms, and the application of algebra to calculations of interest and annuities. But no pass can be obtained unless the student satisfies the examiners in arithmetic. (3) Physical and commer- cial geography, with special knowledge of sea and land routes, centres of industry and products ; English history from the reign of Queen Elizabeth, with special re- ference to the development of commerce. (4) Modern languages, French, German, Spanish, Italian. No books for study are set. In each language the student must write a commercial letter, translate from the language into English, and from Eng- lish into the language ; no student can take botli Spanish and Italian, but they must take both French and German. (.5) The elements of political economy with sj^ecial reference to value, money, credit, bank- ing, foreign trade, and foreign exchange. (6) English Literature. — The student is examined in a play or a book. (7) Ele- mentary Science." — Organic and inorganic chemistry ; mechanics, including hydro- statics and pneumatics ; sound, heat, and light, and electi'icity and magnetism, geo- metrical and mechanical drawing. The first four sections are absolutely compul- sory. Of the others not more than two can be taken. The defect in this scheme is that it ignores natural science. Phy- sical science is not included in the neces- sary subjects. Moreover, it makes no provision for boys who must leave school and become junior clerks about their four- teenth year. Latin is not even made an optional subject. After obtaining the Cambridge 'Commercial Certificate,' the education of the young man of business may be carried still further by means of night classes in mercantile institutes or commercial colleges. According to Dr. Wormell, a commercial college should pro- vide ' for about one hundred and fifty stu- dents a two years' course in modern lan- guages, actuary's work, features of foreign trade, &c.' Courses of lectures on the history and development of ti'ade and tariffs, on economic science and statistical science, mercantile law, international law, and commercial geography, ought also to form part of the curriculum of such a college. But it must not be forgotten that the training of the commercial school will not make a boy a clever buyer and seller. It cannot teach him the work of the counting- house, the exchange, the wharf, or what commercial travellers call 'the road.' It can only prepare him for it, and give him the best possible equipment for a useful and practical career. The National Association for the Pro- motion of Technical Education (14 Dean's Yard, Westminster) made arrangements in 1887 with the University Extension So- cieties of Oxford, Cambridge, and London, for the delivery of lectures on commercial geography, commercial history, commercial law, and commercial economics in localities for which no provision is made. Temper. — This term, which originally meant a due mixing of elements, refers to the constitution and habitual disposition of the mind on its emotional side, or to its emotional complexion. Thus we speak of a violent, an irritable, a calm or equable, and a good or cheerful temper. The dif- ferences of temper which characterise in- TEMPERAMENT- -TERMS 435 dividuals are in part due to physical and constitutional causes. A strong and healthy physique is the foundation of a good temper. Disturbances of health affect the temper in all cases, and lasting physical suffering may sour it for life. On the other hand, temper is to a large extent a subject of con- trol by the will. This control consists in governing our moods by suppressing feel- ings of annoyance and anger, and also in cultivating a cheerful and hopeful frame of mind. The educator is concerned with the management of temper both in him- self and in his pupils. The art of ruling others presupposes self-government as one of its prime conditions. Anything in the shape of violence or morbid irritability of temper is fatal to the discharge of the teacher's function ; for though it is well for the educator on occasion to be angry, and to manifest his anger, he must never be carried away by his passion. The exer- cise of the cliild in the government of its temper forms one important part of early moral education. Since the child is as a rule liable to be overcome by strong pas- sion, and since its will is at first weak in resisting and overcoming this, the parent and the teacher should do their utmost to stimulate it to make an effort to govern its passions. Thus, as Locke and Rous- seau contend, passionate crying should be cured by firmly refusing to gratify the child's wishes under these circumstances. As the child grows older appeal must be made to its intelligence and its better feel- ings, in order to induce it to control its feelings of discontent and anger (cf. articles Cheerfulness and Self-Command). {See Locke, Thoughts, § iii. and following ; Miss Edgeworth, Practical Education, chap. vi. ; Fitch, Lectures on Teaching, p. 15 and following. Temperament. — By the temperament of a person we understand his natural complexion or bent of mind as fixed by his physical organisation. The common division of temperaments is a fourfold, viz. (l)the sanguine (full-blooded), warm, impressionable, and changeable in its moods ; (2) phlegmatic (with abundance of phlegm), calm, deliberate, and per- sistent ; (3) choleric (with abundance of bile), energetic, with prevailing objective attitude ; and (4) melancholic (with black bile), sentimental, with tendency to sub- iectivity. This fourfold division has been handed down from ancient times, and, as its terminology suggests, is based on a crude and obsolete notion of the physical basis of mental dispositions. Nevertheless, it has been used as the starting-point in recent attempts to classify the leading facts of temperament. It is now recog- nised that the manifold individual differ- ences of mental constitution are very incompletely described by this scheme. Ingenious attempts have been made by recent writers to group these by combin- ing the four leading types in various ways. A truly scientific classification of mental peculiarities must set out with the radical psychological distinctions. Thus we have a well-marked contrast of temperament in the emotional or sensitive and the active constitution. With respect to the precise physiological basis of these dif- ferences science is as yet able to tell us very little. We know that intellectual difierences, e.g. in respect of fineness of discrimination, or of vividness and reviv- ability of impressions, are connected with peculiarities of the brain and sense organs. We know, too, that the active, energetic temperament is correlated with special vigour of the muscular system and the motor side of the nervous system -as a Avhole. A thoroughly scientific classifica- tion of the leading types of natural dis- position with their pliysical counterparts is greatly needed by the educator as an aid to an intelligent classification of chil- dren (cf . article Individuality). (On tem- perament and the classification of mental dispositions see A. Stewart, Our Teiwpera- ments ; Dr. Bain, On the Study of Cha- racter ; and A. Martin, L^ Education du Caractere, chap. iii.). Terms are the division of the educa- tional year in England. In Oxford Uni- versity there are four terms: Michaelmas, October 10 to December 17; Hilary or Lent, January 14 to the day before Palm Sunday; Easter, from the Wednesday after Easter-day to the Friday before Whitsun- day ; and Trinity, from the day before Whitsun-day usually to the Saturday after the first Tuesday in July, but this term may be extended by the Congregation. If the beginning or end of a term fall on a festival day, the term is held to begin or end the day after, and in the case of Easter, the day before, such festival. Michaelmas and Hilary terms are kept by six weeks' residence in each ; Easter and Trinity by three weeks' residence in each, F F 2 436 TEXT-BOOKS- -TEXTUAL CRITICISM or forty-eight days' residence in the two terms jointly. In Cambridge University there are three statutory terms, which must include at least 227 days in all, viz. Michaelmas, beginning on October 1 ; Lent, beginning not later than the Thursday next before Easter- day ; and Easter, begin- ning not earlier than the Tuesday next after Easter-day, and ending on June 24. The legal year is also divided into the four terms of Michaelmas, Hilary, Easter, and Trinity ; and the Council of Legal Education furnish to the students of the bar lectures on legal subjects during each of these terms. The Scottish educational year is divided into two sessions : the winter session from about the middle of October to the end of Mai'ch or the be- ginning of April ; and the summer session from the beginning of May to the end of July. There is no summer session in the Faculty of Arts, Text-Books. — The selection of text- books is one of the most important func- tions of the head-master, and not of the governors of a school. On many subjects he would doubtless defer to the judgment of a tried assistant-master. The excessive multiplication of inferior text-books is a great evil, which may be diminished by teachers meeting together more for con- sultation, as is done at the conferences of head-masters and head-mistresses, and at the meetings of the Teachers' Guilds {q.v.) The Guild provides a reference library, and most of the publishers will send specimen books to teachers of position on easy terms. The best text-books go through the hands of several expeiienced teachers, but are unified in the hands of one man. 'Com- mittee books ' have not so far been suc- cesses. Textual Criticism attempts, by a com- parison of manuscript evidence, to restore as far as possible the text of any given work to the form in which it originally left the author's hands. Owing to the numerous errors incident on frequent copy- ing we can never be sure that we are read- ing the actual words of an ancient author, unless we know that the editor has followed a sound method of textual criticism. Of the importance of textual criticism to the New Testament even the English reader may form some idea by noting the differ- ence between the Authorised Version and the more scientific text of the Revised Ver- sion (e.g. 1 John V. 7, 8 ; 1 Tim. iii. 16 ; John V. 3, 4 ; Mark xvi. 9-20 ; Acts viii. 37). All scientific textual criticism must start from the examination of manuscripts. Hence a knowledge of palaeography, or the history of handwriting, is indispensable in order to determine what corruptions, are most probable. Thus the confusion be- tween Greek AAAA and AMA in uncials is much easier than between the same words when written in the cursive charac- ters {aXXd and a/xa) which from the sixth century a.d. began to supersede them. Palaeography enables us to classify the chief kinds of errors in manuscripts. Fraudu- lent changes in ancient manuscripts are very rare; Iliad, ii. 553-555 and 558 are said to be examples. The chief classes of errors are due to (1) Dictation. Thus, owing to similarity of pronunciation, there are constant confusions in Greek manu- scripts between t and et (itacism), and in Latin between v and b ; e.g. in Sen. Ep. xcv. 54, the manuscripts have jactaviinus- for jactahimus. (2) Wrong division of words is very frequent in ti-anscriptions from uncials (in which words were not divided), and especially in proper names ; e.g. the manuscripts in Strabo, xi. 51 6^ have corrupted Tr]v vtto ^rao-dvopi ^aKTpiavrjv into TTjv viroa-Taa-av opei, and in Thuc. i. 6 1 , 'iTrl'^rpeij/avinto eTrtcTTpei/'ai/re?. So Seneca's derivation of ' philosophy ' in Bj). Ixxxi. 4 - — philosojohia unde dicta sit, apparet : ipso enim nomine fatetur, quid amet — is ob- scured by the reading of the manuscripts and Haase — quidam et. (3) Confusion of similar letters and words. To such con- fusion are due the words in the Te Detmi, ' Make them to be numbered with thy saints ' ; munerari (rewarded), contained in all Latin manuscripts before 1492,, was corrupted into numerari (numbered). Hence the constant confusion, even in the best editions, of dirigo and derigo, de- scribere and discrihere, &c. The numerous abbreviations, occurring with inci'easing- frequency in later manuscripts, have been a most fertile source of errors ; hence it is often difficult to tell whether we are to read dvOpoiirovi (men), or avov? (fools), or oVoDs (asses), all being written in nearly the same way. (4) Transposition ; e.g. the Medicean manuscript of Vergil, Georg. ii. 356, ends an hexameter with suhmoveret ipsa for sub vomere et ipsa ; and the first words of Li vy, whichQuintilian notes as part of an hexameter — Facturusne opercz p'e- TEXTUAL CRITICISM 437 tium sim are transposed in our manuscripts into Facturusne sim. Sometimes whole lines are transposed or even omitted, gene- rally through the similar ending of two lines (homoeoteleuton). (5) Omission or addition of similar letters or syllables (homoeoteleuton); e.g. in Velleius Pater- culus, ii. 882, Erat tunc urbis custodiis 2)rcepositus Maecenas, the manuscripts, by omitting erat, in consequence of inierat, the word before, apparently make the author guilty of an historical iDlunder. So in Sen. De Tranq. An. v. 5, Dentatus aie- hat malle esse se mortuum quam nequam vivere, the manusciipts, by omitting ne- quam, bring a false accusation against Den- tatus. On the other hand, in Heb. ix. 12, the Sinaitic manuscript repeats els ra ayta twice; and in Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 11, some manuscripts have celebrahitur for celahitur. (6) Assimilation of neighbouring terminations, e.g. Onosander, iv. 50, wrote KaiovTOiv 8e ol 4>u\aKi.ography, EncycJ. Brit. art. 'Palaeography'; I. 'M.xxWev's, Handbilcher, i. 275-327 ; Gardthausen's Griechische Pa- laograpliie ; Wattenbach's Lateinische P. Facsimiles have been published by the Pahvographical Society ; also of Greek manuscripts by Wattenbach, and of Latin by Arndt, Zangemeister, and R. Ellis. Por textual criticism, Madvig's Adversaria, vol. i. ; Cobet, prefaces to Varice and NovcB Lectiones ; I. Midler's IlandbUcher, i. 226-271 ; as an introduction, Gow's Handbook to School Classics. For New Testament criticism. Scrivener's Criticism of ^^. T. ;_ Wosteott and Hort's X. T., vol. ii. ; as introductions, Hammond's Ont- lines of T. C. of K T. ; Wartield's T. C. of^\ T.) Thring, Edward, late head-master of Uppingham, was born in 1821, and died 1887. He Avas the third son of the Rev. J. D. Thring, the squire and rector of Alford-with-Hornblotton, Castle Gary, Somersetshire. His mother, who survives him, and at the time of his death was in her ninety-seventh year, was the daughter of the Rev. J. Jenkyns, vicar of Evei'creech, and sister of the late master of Balliol, Dr. Jenkyns. He was a brother of Lord Thring, who was raised to tl;e peerage in 1886 for long service as Chief Draughts- man of parliamentary bills, and of the Rev, Godfrey Thring, rector of Horn- blotton, the writer of many beautiful Church hymns. As a child, Edward Thring Avas fond of books, and distin- guished for truthfulness. ' If you Avant to tell lies tell them yourself,' was a retort he once made to one who wished the boy to give an inaccurate account of Avhat had happened. He Avent at eight years old to a private school at Ilminster ; thence to Eton in 1832, Avhere he seems to have been remembered for his pluck and energy at iiA-es, on the riA'er, and at football. He obtained the nickname of ' Die-Fii'st ' at Eton, because of his obstinate bi'aA'cry in A\diat he thought AA'^as a just cause. He rose to be captain of the school. His Avas the last Montem.^ At nineteen he entered King's College, Cambridge.. He stuck close to reading under his 'coach,' Shilleto. He became Person prizeman in 18-13, B.A. in 1814, M.A. in 1847. It is said that had he been alloAved to enter the examination for the first classical tripos he Avould haA-e been one of the faA'ourites of his year for the place of first classic. But as a King's man he Avas debarred from this. He Avas a born teacher ; Avas Avilling to go to Eton as inider-master Avhen Goodford succeeded HaAvtrey, but no A^acancy oc- curred. He contested unsuccessfully the election to the Dui'ham Grammar School. UnAvilling to remain at Cambridge, being far from strong, and at the same time having determined upon taking orders, he Avent doAvn to Gloucester, and was ordained to the curacy of St. James in that city in 1846. There his health gaA-e Avay, hia vicar died, and in 1847 he Avent to help his father as curate at Alford. AfterAvards. at Great Marlow, 1848-49, and Cookham Dean, 1850-51, he joined to a curate's Avork the taking of pupils. He always spoke of his Avork in the parish schools of Gloucester and at Alford as the best piece of train- ing for masterhood he did. He Avent to Uppingham as head-master, September 10, 1853. On the 20th December folloAving he married Miss C. Marie Koch, daughter 1 Formerly the scholars of Eton had a. custom of going every third yeiiroii Whit-Tuesday to a hillock (ad moiitcm') to exact money from ]iav hoardiii^jf-liouso, an old school-room, a liaudful of boys, forty-three boarders and eigliteen (hiy scholars, and an usher to help liim. He lias h>ft beliiud him the 'great school,' 'School CIia,pe],' a, sanatorium, a gynnia- sium, a forge, a workshop), a swimming bath, (ileven boarding-houses, a prepai'a- tory S(!liool, twc^lve ilves-tuiurts, two cricket grounds, an aviary and public gai-den, and ten acres of land for scliool purposes in addition. irnd(>r his head-niiistership not less than 25,000/. of school pro])orty lias been added to tho trust, and not less than 90,000/. has been invested ])y the mastiu's insciiool machincny and (Mit(u-[)ris(^. In 1875, to avoid an outl)reak of fever at Upi)ingham, lie conceived the idea of carry- ing the whole school, bag and baggage, to IJorth, on tho Welsh coast, and so saved the school's existence. A forcible preacher, and a poet, ho is best known in America and l*higland as the author of Ediu'dtioji ((lid Sc/iool, 1st edition, LSdl ; I2n(l edition, 18GI); TlumglitH on. JAjv, /Science, 2nd edi- tion, 1871 ; The TIi,eory mid Fractice of IWicJiimj, 1st edition, 1883; 2nd edition, 1885. Also four volumes of school ser- mons. Since liis death have been })ubh"sh(!d by .Fish(M; Unwin, three vols, uniform : (I) Poeini^ and Trandatioui^, (2) Ujtjmuf- ]i,am School Songx (md BoolJe Lyricn, (3) Addresses hij Edinard Thring. An original thinker, his writings and addrcisses arc packed with epigram and illustration. His greatness as a man lay in his spiritual idealism, his belief in the ultimate victory of truth, his fearlessness, and powers of .self-saci-ilice ; as a teacher, in his asser- tion that education meant not cram, but cliara.ctor. lie was the originator of tho Annual Conference of Head-masters, and was honoui'cd by all, as a leader, not of ))oys oidy, but of tiiought upon education, and tlie sci(vnce of public sciiool life. Timidity. Sc^e Fioau. Tonic Sol-fa Method. — Tln'sterm covers two things: (1) the; nmsical notation of letters, punctuation marks, etc., and (2) tho carefully ordered educational system, which is used in connection witli tiie nota- tion. Casual observers are often repelled by thesight of the Tonic Sol-fa notation, which seems to them perhaps wanting in graphic and pi(5t,ures(iue foi'ce after th(! si/M^d" nota,- tion. Tiiey forg(!t tliat the system (U'|)en(Is largely for its su(!C(;ss u])on the ])rincij)les of e(luca,tion which Pestalozzi, Fi'ocilujl, a,n(I a host of others have laid down, and which are now universally approved. The originator of tho Tonic Sol-fa sys- tem wa,s John Curwen (born in. 18l(), died in 18S0), who was a CcmgregationaJ min- islei-, educated at Univer'sity C()ll(\g(;, Jjondon, and very nmch occupiiul during a,ll liis life with educational problems. Mr. Cui'wen was not trained as a musician. He ha,d no natural quickness of ear or voice, and ta,ught hims(!lf to I'ead nuisic ^yith some dilliculty. This very tremble, and his own nujdiocre nmsical ca.j)a,city, gave him sympathy with b(!ginners, and (Miablcul him to assume their ati/itude, a,p- })reciat(^ their hindranc(!S, and smooth tlunr path with a care and minuteness that had never before been attempted by a,ny teacher of singing. Mr. Curwen, about 18.39, w.as (Migaged in seeking out plans for im- proving the singing of children in schools, a,nd had woi-ked for some time improlit.'i,l)ly, when he came .across .a little work by Miss Glov(M', daughter of a clergym.an at Nor- wich, wlio was ."i practical musici;in and had published ;i scjusme of t(!a,ching sight- singing. The leading ideas which Mr. Cur- wen conceived from Miss Clover were that it w.as possible, wwi^ indeed ea,sy, to sing from letters without the use of the musical start", .and tli.at tlu; scale was a, unity, in whatever key it was sung. Upon this foundation ho worked for forty yea,rs, ex- panding and altering, preachijig his views and methods with the fervour of an ev.an- gelist, and winning thousands of sup- porter's. The Tonic Sol-fa notation must now be expl.ained. It is based on the seven It.alia,n. syllables : do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si. These Mr. Cui'wen, in view of j)opular uses at a time when the pronun;;iation of Italian was but little understood by ordin.ai-y people in tliis country, spelled phonetically. He .also altered sol to soh,, in ord(!r to get a more open vowel, a,nd chang(!{l the lirst hitter of si to t%,'\\\ order that, for purposes to be subseciucsntly ex- plained, each syllable inight have a, flifFer- ent initial The result w;is as follows : doll, ray, me, fah, soh, lah, to For tho purposes of teaching these names are printed vertically on adi.agram, called the modulator, with the distances (toiuis and semi-tones) accurixtely mea- 440 TONIC SOL-FA METHOD sured. When they have become fcamiliar through a course of practice in following with the voice the pointer of the teacher as it passes from note to note, the pupil is ready to sing them in hori- zontal form, the initials only being used : drmfsltd' When the notes are thus horizontally written it be- comes necessary to use a mark to distinguisli the several oc- taves of the same note one from the other. For this purpose figui"es ai^e used, thus : In order to express the chromatic notes the sol-fa syllables are modified, the sound ' ee ' being added for sharps and ' aw ' for flats. dohi te ta lah la soli fe fah ine ma rav ra doh To save space in printing, the ' w ' is omitted from the end of the names of the flats. The only additional note used is the sharpened sixth of the minor mode, which is ^zzfQzzg^ me ba lah called bay, spelt ba or b. In remote changes of key certain other notes are needed for doubly flattened or sharpened notes, but they are rare, and need not here be given. A complete nomenclature of the key-sounds of modern music is thus provided, and the next point is rhythm or time. This will be best understood by comparison with passages in the ordinary notation. Key Ct. |. d ;d I d,r.m,f ; , d I r : — .m.f ! m The bar lines are the same in both old and new notations, but in the Tonic Sol-fa the pulses or beats are also marked ofi". This is done by the use of the short bar line and the colon (see example). A pulse or beat is divided into halves by a full stop, and into quarters by commas (see example). A sound is continued thi'ough part of a pulse, a whole pulse, or several pulses, by the use of a dash — . When a pulse, or part of a pulse, is silent there is merely a vacant space between the accent marks. It must be understood that in Tonic Sol-fa notation there is only one way of representing a pulse or beat. In the following examples 1 liiE^-Eiil^^ElELi^^l we have three ways of writing the same passage, difference of speed being the onlj'" qualification. In Tonic Sol-fa all three would be written Key G. I d : — :d I t, :— :d I r :in :r I d : — : — || and the rate of movement would be indi- ctited by a metronome mark or an Italian word. Change of Key, one of the commonest facts in music, is provided for in the Tonic Sol-fa system by shifting the pitch of doh. Thus, in the following phrase — ,--, — I ^• =i^B: =1= iHfeg there is a change from F to C. This can either be expressed by the i;se of the chro- matic syllable fe, already explained : — • Key F. ;d|r:fim:r|m:fe|s [| or it can be more perfectly shown by changing the doh, giving a double name to the fifth note : — Kky G. :d I r :f Ct. l:t I d' The words ' Ct.' over the mutation note indicate the name of the new key and tlie TONIC SOL-FA METHOD 441 new note (t) which the change involves. This plan is applicable to the most distant changes — Key G. s.d.f. Bb.lah is G. :a I m: r I d : ti [ d :— I — :"1, | d : t, 1 1, : se, [ 1, : — | — ^; The notes s, d, f, being placed on the left, indicate that the change is in that direction on the extended modulator, a diagram which contains several scales side by side. ' Lah is G ' reminds us that we are in the minor mode, of which G is the tonic. The marks of expression vised in Tonic Sol-fa are the same as in the old notation. Tlie words are printed under the letters just as they are under the staff, with slurs if necessary. Undoubtedly the reason why the Tonic Sol-fa is so easy to sing from is because it is more graphic than the old nota- tion. The mind conceives music chiefly by its key relationship, not by its absolute pitch. Thus in these cases :^:!EfB: E^jlJEJ =l=T=i=;:=i iiig=gi^° z±- :=1: the immense majority, even of musically educated persons, hearing (not seeing) the notes, would say they were the same. The sense of relationship is infinitely more common and more vivid than that of ab- solute pitch. The Tonic Sol-fa notation puts to the front this relationship between notes, which is quite constant in all scales and keys. It confines attention to it. On the other hand, the staff notation gives directly the absolute pitch of a sound, and only indirectly its key relationship. To borrow the language of logicians, the stafi" notation denotes absolute pitch and con- notes relative pitch, while the Tonic Sol-fa notation denotes relative pitch and con- notes absolute pitch. This is the psycho- logical basis of the new notation. Mental Effects. — The sense of relation- ship between the tones, their individuality as part of a family, is rendered still more vivid by impressing the mind with the fact that each of the seven tones of the scale leaves a peculiar and characteristic impression on the mind. This was one of the most valuable and original of Mr. Cur- wen's doctrines. The characters which he gave to the tones were : Doh, final, conclusive ; Ray, rousing ; Me, calm, peaceful ; Fah, awe-inspiring ; Soh, bold, rousing ; Lah, plaintive ; Te, piercing. These characteristics, however, are by no means to be taught dogmatically. The pupils are to be drawn to feel them by lis- tening to fragments of melody sung by the teacher in which striking examples of the individuality of these tones occur. The process of impressing the mental ef- fects of the tones upon pupils is gradual. When complete its practical effect is this. When they want to sing a certain tone its character comes up in their mind, and their intonation is sure ; when they want to name a sound that they hear its character suggests its note. Ear Exercises, or musical dictation, is practised from the first in Tonic Sol-fa classes. From recognising by its sound a single note the exercises proceed to the highest grade, when full chords are written down by ear. Of course all these exercises are in relative pitch. The chord of the key is sounded, and then, the ear being tuned, the various notes are sounded. Pupils are, however, encouraged to me- morise the sound of C, in order to be able to pitch songs and tunes without the help of an instrument. Harmony, upon whatever system it is taught, whether through the old notation or the new, is a matter of key relation- ship. The compass and best region of whatever instrument is being Avritten for has to be considered, but, this being borne in mind, all the rest is key relation- ship. Tonic Sol-fa notation, therefore, lends itself very readily to the teaching of har- mony. Mr. Curwen originated a set of symlDols for chords and their inversions which may here be partially explained. ■ I 1 I I i Till :=r^-p:— rq=^=, m et= g w=rr D 'Sd Db 'Sc D Sb D Dc 'S U2 TONIC SOL-FA METHOD The simple rule is to call a chord by the initial letter of its root, which is printed in capitals. Thus D means the chord of doll (doh, me, soh). The first inversion of this is Db, the second inversion Dc, and in dissonant combinations the letters d and e are required. Instruments. — TheTonic Sol-fa notation has been applied with success to nearly all musical instruments. There are not, how- ever, many players from it, and some Tonic Sol-fa teachers discountenance its use in this way. It is probably too early as yet to express a proper opinion on the value of the notation for instruments. The full orchestral scores of several symphonies, ttc, have been published in Tonic Sol-fa. PrinGi2^les of Teaching. — -Mr. Curwen laid down in his Teachers' Manual seven principles of teaching, as follows : — 1. Let the easy come before the diffi- cult. 2. Introduce the real and concrete be- fore the ideal and abstract. 3. Teach the elemental before the com- pound, and do one thing at a time. 4. Introduce, both for explanation and practice, the common before the uncom- mon. 5. Teach the thing before the sign, and when the thing is apprehended attach to it a distinct sign. 6. Let each step as far as possible rise out of that which goes before, and lead up to that which comes after. 7. Call in the understanding to assist the skill at every step. 8. Use an illustrative and suggestive style of teaching. These principles, which will command the universal assent of teachers, are con- stantly illustrated in the procedure of Mr. Curwen's books and exercises. They are applicable, of course, to teaching music from the staff notation, but the Tonic Sol-fa notation tits in with them, and enables them to be thoroughly applied. It is to this minutely educational work that the success of Tonic Sol-fa teachers is so largely due. The Staff N'otation. — It is desirable to correct the common impression that learn- ing Tonic Sol-fa is no help to learning the old notation. The fact, as daily proved, is the opposite. Pupils trained by Tonic Sol-fa possess, as it were, a secret key, a mental habit, which makes them sure and certain interpreters of the old notation. This is true, not only of singing, but of play- ing. Tonic Sol-fa cultivates the musical intelligence, and makes the pupil see into the nature of music. The modulator be- comes so impressed upon the mind that the memory of it guides the eye when singing or playing from the staff. It is calculated that two-thirds of those who learn Tonic Sol-fa pass on to the old nota- tion and become competent readers of that notation. Examinations. — The carefully graded presentation of tune and time in the Tonic Sol-fa method is rendered thorough by fre- quent testing and examining. Mr. Curwen established a series of examinations consist- ing of practical tests, which, roughly speak- ing, may be taken during every six months of the learner's career. The lower examina- tions are, of course, easy, and are meant rather to sort the pupils, and re-classify them, than to give any public status to those who pass. The higher examinations are of the nature of diplomas. Tonic tiol-fa College. — The authority which regulates all these examinations, and issues certificate cards and papers, is the Tonic Sol-fa College, Forest Gate, Lon- don. The secretary supplies details of the work of the correspondence classes, exami- nations, training classes, &c. Musical authorities were formerly di- vided in their opinion as to the merits of the Tonic Sol-fa system. The leading musicians are, however, now agreed in its favour. Among those who have endorsed it are Sir Robert Stewart, Drs. Stainer and Bridge, Messrs. Barnby, Heniy Leslie, E. H. Turpin, Brinley Richards, E. Prout, A. R. Gaul. The acousticians are all in its favour, including Lord Rayleigli, Mr. Bosanquet, Professor Helmholtz, Mr. A. J. Ellis, Mr. Ledley Taylor, &c. Pro- fessor Helmholtz speaks of it as ' the na- tural way of learning music' Sight Singing is rendered certain and easy by the Tonic Sol-fa notation. Tonic Sol-fa choirs have repeatedly read, all at first sight, in public compositions specially Avritten for them by Sir G. A. Macfarren, Mr. Henry Leslie, &c. Tonic Sol-faists, also, according to the testimony of Mr. Stockley, choir-master of the Birmingham Musical Festival, and other authorities of equal weight, make better readers of the old notation than singers trained upon any other system. Government ReturiisYQlvdins toelemen- TOUCH, EDUCATION OF TRAINING 443 taiy schools show that at the present time (1888) between 12,000 and 13,000 schools in the United Kingdom employ the Tonic Sol-fa system, while only about 2,000 em- ploy the staff notation exclusively. Nearly every choral ivork of importance is now issued in the Tonic Sol-fa notation. Music publishers usually issue a Sol-fa edition simultaneously with an old nota- tion one of all their principal cantatas, oratorios, anthems, and parts-ongs. The leading choral works of Handel, Haydn, Mendelssohn, Beethoven, Mozart, Gounod, Sullivan, Mackenzie, are issued in Tonic Sol-fa. Touch, Education of. — By the sense of touch, or the tactile sense, we mean sensibility to impressions of contact. This is possessed in a measure by all portions of the skin, but is found in its higher degrees only in particular regions, as the hands, and more especially the finger-tips, the lij)s, and the tip of the tongue. It is by this tactile sensibility that we distin- guish degrees of pressure (when the hand is passive), also distinctness of points of pressure, as when we distinguish the two extremities of a pair of compasses brought close together and applied to the hands. "With this passive sensibility of the skin, or tactile sense proper, is associated the so-called muscular sense. This term refers to the sensations we gain when we actively exercise our muscular organs, either by moving a limb, or by bringing pressure to bear on an object. This active function of the hand is of great importance to the child, not only as a means of doing things, and so realising his desires, but as a direct source of knowledge. The child comes to know the position, form, and size of objects by means of tactile discrimination of points supplemented by the muscular sensations which accompany the movements of the hand. Again, it leams about the hardness, elasticity, and weight of bodies, partly by its tactile sensations of pressure, partly by the experiences of muscular effort which it has in pressing, striking, lifting, itc. The psychologist regards the sense of touch as the fundamental sense, and more particularly as the avenue by which the child gains the root ideas of material things and their qualities. Much of what the eye in later life appears to see immediately is known in the first instance by the sense of touch {see Eye, Culture of). This being so, it is evident that the sense of touch on its passive and its active side makes special claims on the attention of the educator in the first years of life. The utility to the child in the nursery of a variety of objects to touch, examine, and experiment with, is due to the important intellectual function of touch at this period. Pestalozzi and Froebel were the first to assign to the sense of touch its proper place in a practical scheme of training. The delicacy of touch i^eached by the blind and those whose special occupations uivolve an exceptional exercise of the sense, sug- gests that this last might, by a suitable series of exercises, be much more highly developed in the case of children generally. Such a higher education of the sense of touch would constitute one element in any improved system of hand and eye training which should serve as the basis of future technical skill. {See Bain, Mental Science, p. 43 and following ; H. Spencer, Educa- tion, p. 72 and following ; Sully, Teacher's Handbook, -p'p. 108 and following, 128, 151 and following ; Pfisterer, Fad. Psychologie, p. 43 and following.) Trade Guilds : their relation to Medi- aeval Education. See Middle Ages (Schools of). Training. — By this term, so prominent in educational writings, we mean the pre- paration by suitable exercise of a bodily power or mental faculty for its proper work or function. It may be of a more special kind, as in the case of training a musician, an athlete, and so forth. Or it may be of a more general and fundamental character, as when we speak of the train- ing of the mental faculties by the educator. In this latter sense the meaning of the term coincides approximately with that of edu- cation, though the former points to the final result, viz. fitness for work, whereas the latter refers rather to the process of de- veloping latent faculty. Training, like education, is opposed to instruction when viewed as aiming at so much definite knowledge. Thus the value of a subject of study may be estimated either by its utility as information or by its worth as a training for the mind. Training necessa- rily proceeds by exercising, that is exciting, the faculty to its proper mode of activity. Such exercise, in order to subserve the ends of trauiing, must be prolonged and systematic, varied and graduated so as to meet the grooving capacity for work of the orsran. Occasional and intermitted acti- 4-14 TRAINIKC, OF TEACHERS vity, ."i IkuI or xmsiiitablo mode of oxoiviso, involviui;' ovorstraiii nml fatigue, or tiually, a too narrow and oue-sidod kind oi oxor- <'ise, is unfavourable to ettioieuey. Mental training, like all otlier training, presup- poses a skilled trainer, who in his turn has to be trained for his peeuliar f unetion. The importaTiee now attaehed to training for teachers is the result of a. large and more enlightened eoneeptiou of the work of edueation, its high place among the arts, and the special knowledge and skill re- quired for a successful pursuit of it. {See article Training ok Tkacheus ; also Baiu, Uditcation as a ^\•/t'»(•f', p. loo and follow- ing; Thring, £ihieatio>i aud Seltool, chap. iv. ; Prof. Jos. Payne, Lecturefi on the tSci^-nce and Art of' Jl ducat ion , vii.) Training of Teachers — It was stated in the article on Pupil-Teachers (q-r.) that one object of the institution of the pupil-teacher system, in 1841.5, was to en- sure a succession of well-trained teachers. By that systen\ young men and women were attracted into the profession of ele- mentary teaching as a means of liveli- liood at thirteen or fourteen years of age, and served an apprenticeship to it until eighteen years of age. The object above named would only have been partially secured if these young people, or the most efficient of them, were allowed to drift back into other calliug-s at the expiration of their apprenticeship. Accordingly, the Committee of Council ottered a consider- able money inducement to ex-pupil- teachers to enter Training Colleges. This took the form of scholarships — Queen's Seliolarships, as they were called — which consisted of payments of 20/. to '2i^L a year for each pupil-teacher who passed a prescribed examination and entered a Training College. Substantial annual aid Avas also otteretl to the Training Colleges themselves which reeci\cd these Queen's scholars. This system, in its essential features, still prevails. The Education Pepart- luent has ceased to make any payments direct to the Queen's scholar, but n\akes a grant on his behalf on a liberal scale to the Training College which accepts hiu\ as a student (chai-ging him a small fee, not exceeding '20/. for a two years' course). This gnmt cannot exceed, on the whole, To per cent, of the expenditure of the college for all its students for the year, but mav reach 50/. a vear for each male, and ;>")/. for each feu\ale Queen's scholar. The course of training usually extends o\er two years, but may be terminated at the end of one year. The first etlbrt to found a Training College in England was maile by the British and Eoreign School Society ('/.''.) as early as 1817, when they opened new buildings in the Borough Koail for the purposes of both a normal college and normal schools. The college was rebuilt by aid of a grant from Covern- ment ii\ 184^.. The earliest Training College iu connection with the Church of England was that founded at Battersea, in l8;)9-40, by Dr. James Philipps Kay (afterwards Sir Jauics Kay Shuttleworth) and Mr. Carleton Tufuell for the training of schoolmasters. In Novend>er 1843 the Couunittee of Council tii'st atlbrded aid towards the eiyctio)i of training colleges. But the ample grants in aid of niaintenance of Training Colleges offered under the Minutes of 184G gave a further iu\pulse to the movement, and soon produced a rapid increase in their nunibers. Dio- cesan Societies were formed for the pro- motion of colleges in connection with the Church of England ; and the AVesleyans and other denou\inations followed this exau\ple. Voluntary subscriptions were raised, and grants were made by the National Society (q.r.) and the British and Foreign School Society (q.v.) to n\eet tlie grants from the Connuittee of Council. The result of this movement has been that in 1 887 there were in England forty-four (boarding) training colleges, eighteen for male and twenty-sixforfemale students, of which thirty are in connection with the Church of England, six with the British and Foreign School Society, two are Wesleyan, three Roman Catholic, and three undenominational, and they contain in all o,-272 students. In Scotland there were eleven training colleges, four for male and seven for female students, of which tive are in connection with the Established Church of Scotland, tive with the Free Church iu Scotland, and are day or non- boarding colleges, and one in connection with the Episcopal Church in Scotland, which is a boarding college. These col- leges contain in all 8,rvJ5 students. The English colleges have been erected at a cost of nearly 400,000/., of which 280,000/. was derived from voluntary contributions, and 120,000/. fron\ grants. The Scotch colleges, which only make provision for TRAINING OF TEACHERS 445 tlie teacliing, and not for the boarding of the students, cost 48,000Z., of which 29,000^. was raised by subscription, and 19,000^. was provided by grants. At the present time all but a small percentage of the students in the English colleges have passed this pupil-teachei'ship before admission, and accordingly the organisa- tion and curriculum of the colleges are laid down on lines which assume the pre- ceding pupil-teachership of the students, and seek to carry on the instruction, per- sonal and professional, from the point where it stood at the completion of the apprenticeship. The Training Colleges are inspected and examined annually by H.M. inspectors,and syllabuses of examina- tion, both for male and for female students, are drawn up by the Committee of Council for each year, and form the outlines of the course of instruction for that year. These syllabuses, together with the Reports of H.M. inspectors on the Training Colleges, and various statistical tables relating to them, are published in the aiuiual Blue Book of the Education Department. On the results of these examinations the teachers' certificates of various grades are granted. Attached to the Colleges, both in England and Scotland, are day schools (recruited from the neighbourhood, and recognised as ' public elementary ' schools), which are used as practising and model schools for the instruction of the students in the art of teaching and school-keeping, and each student is required to spend at least six weeks, or 150 hours, during his two years' residence in the practising school. But although all the students of Training Colleges, with few exceptions, have been pupil-teachers, it is far from being the case that all the pupil-teachers completing their apprenticeship in a given year pass on to Training Colleges. Those who do not enter Training Colleges are allowed to take posts in public elementary schools as assistants or 'acting teachers,' and in due course to attend the same exa- minations as those which are laid down for students in Training Colleges, and to obtain their certificates on the same, or somewhat lower conditions. They can obtain their certificates on the examina- tion in the papers for the first year of training, but this certificate has not (since 1884) carried with it the right to have the superintendence of pupil-teachers. Their preparation for these examinations is made by private study or by private tutoring in the time at their disposal after each school- day or during the school holidays. Thus the adult staff in the public elementary schools of the country is composed of two classes of persons, the smaller (about one- third of the whole) and, as a rule, the better educated class, who at the end of their ap- prenticeship proceeded for two years to a Training College before taking service in the schools, and the larger (about two-thirds of the whole) and, as a rule, the less edu- cated class, who at the end of their ap- prenticeship took service in the schools directly as acting teachers. Of this latter or untrained class there are in round numbers, in England, .39,000 out of a total of 75,000 adult teachers, of whom 18,000 ai-e certificated and 21,000 uncertificated. Now it is, not without reason, asserted that the education and training of the great majority of these are very inadequate to the requirements of the country, and are incapable of being brought up to those requirements under existing conditions. Thus a strong case is made out for addi- tional Training College accommodation as the only effective remedy for the existing low level of attainments and skill of a large proportion of the teaching staff" in public elementary schools. It has been calculated that, to meet the demand for trained instead of the present untrained adult staff" in the schools, additional Train- ing College accommodation is required for 2,200 students, in the proportion .of about 700 males and 1,500 females. It has been suggested that these additional colleges should be day or non-resident colleges, and should be placed in large centres of population, on the model of the existing Scotch Training Colleges which are situated at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, and that the places selected should be towns where local colleges have been founded, in order that the more advanced student's, may obtain their purely literary and theo- retical or scientific training under the cul- tured influence of the local college pro- fessoriate, and get all those social and ini- tellectual advantages which are now found to accrue to the students in Scotch Train- ing Colleges by their affiliation with the Scotch Universities. An important ques- tion will arise in this connection, as to whether these new Training Colleges, resi- dent or non-resident, should presuppose in their students an antecedent apprenticeship 446 TRAINING OF TEACHERS TRIPOS for tliree or four years as pupil-teachers, or should look to recruiting its students largely from other sources, such as the upper classes of the secondary schools in the towns in which they are situated, con- tact being still retained with the public elementary schools by a generous system of scholarships to the former schools for pi-ou\ising boys and girls from the latter. When we'turn from the training of the elementary teachers to that of teachers in secondary' schools there is not much to record. The subject has been discussed at several conferences of head-masters of the chief public schools of the country; but opinion has been very divided as to the practicability, even as to the need, of training instit uti'ons for the masters in those schools. Teaching in secondary schools is rather looked upon as an avocation than a profession. What little has been done to secure some instruction in the principles and practice of the art of teaching was done by the University of Cambridge in 1879. *In that year, in compliance with numerous memorials froai head-masters on the subject, the Senate of the University of Cambridge appointed a 'Teachers' Training Syndicate,' and that body put forth a scheme of examination in the his- tory, theory, and practice of education, and also provided for a course of lectures by men eminent in educational and mental science, such as Mr. Quick, Mr. James Ward, and Mr. Fitch. This act of the "University of Cambridge was looked upon as a signikcant fact in "the history of edu- cation in England. It has proved to be also, up to the present, a solitary fact. Mention, however, ought to be made of the recent attempt by a few intluential people to establish a Training College for masters of secondary schools at Finsbury, in asso- ciation with the City of London Middle Class Schools in Cowper Street, which was iised as a practising and model school by arrangement ^^■ith the Corporation and the head-master. But this has since been given lip for want of support. Greater success has been achieved by Mrs. Grey and others in their eftbrts to obtain train- ing for the mistresses of the numerous girls' public high schools which have been so successfully" launched in the last few years; and institutions with this object established at Bishopsgate Street, in the City, at Newnham, near Cambridge, at Bishop Otter's College, near Chichester, and elsewhere, though on a small scale, have all met with an encouraging measure of success, and testify to a real desire on the part of those who have the charge of girls' high schools, and of those who seek employment as teachers in them, for a solid groundwork of psychological and technical knowledge as a preliminary to entrance into the profession of teaching. Tripos is the name given to the whole system of honours examinations at Cam- bridge by which the candidates for the lionours degree in Arts are tested and classed. The name Tripos is applied both collectively to the system and singly to the jNlathematical Tripos, Classical Tripos, itc. The derivation of the word is interest- ing, dating back to a very remote period. Originally it denoted 'the three-legged stool ' (modelled presumably on the tripod of the Delphic Oracle), on which sat the bachelor who used to dispute with the candidates for honours in the schools on Ash-Wednesday, the Bachelors' Com- mencement. Each of these Questionists, as the candidates were called, had to pro- pound two questions to the bachelor, and to carry on an ai-gument in Latin ii^ pre- sence of the vice-chancellor, the proctors, and the doctors of the iii\i%'ersity. If he approved lumself in the argument lie was admitted duly to tlie degree of Bachelor of Arts. An account of these proceedings is preserved in the books of Mr. Slokys, an esquire, bedel, and registrar, who wrote about the middle of the sixteenth century. (See Deax Peacock, On the Sfatufes, Ap- pendix A.) ' And when every man is placed, the Senior Proctor shall, with some oration, shortly move the Father ' (i.e. the Fellow of the Foundation who goes as patron of the candidates of his college, wlio are called his sons) ' to begyn, who, after his exhorta- tion unto his children, shall call forth his eldest sone, and animate hym to dispute with an ould bach Hour, which shall sit upon a sfooh before Mr. Proctours, unto whome the sone shall propound 2 Ques- tions, and in bothe them shall the sone dispute. . . .' The next glimpse we get of these pro- ceedings is from Beadle Buck's i)OoA-, 1665 A.D. In his account we hnd the ' ould bachilour ' propounding the thesis himself, and utilising the occasion to bring in allu- sions, of a satirical and even scurrilous nature, to the contemporary proceedings TRIPOS 447 and dignitaries of the university — in fact, lie lias become a licensed buffoon, one of the most important contributors to the waggery of the university. Possibly owing to the contempt for ceremonies which was rife in England in the Reformation period, possilily owing to the general licence of the Restoration and the example of its royal hero, the ceremony of Quadragesima had lost all its dignity. Hence v/e find the univorsity authorities continually falling foul of the ' ould bachilour,' or ' Mr. Tripos ' (i.e. Mr. Three-legged iStool, a name not inappropriate for a clown) as he was now called, and taking severe measures for his correction (see Cooper's Annals, vol. iii. 58G. Dr. Smallwood suspended from his B.A. degree 'for his scurrilous and very ofFensive speech made in ye schools '). The old bachelor's speeches, which generally had a quasi-philosophic title, and were coi iiposed in Latin hexameters, were known as the Tripos Speeches, or Ti-ipos Verses. They were printed on sheets of paper and distributed by the bedels to the vice- chancellor, the noblemen, doctors, and others whilst the disputation was going on. Specimens of Tripos verses are given in Chr. Wordsworth's Social Life at the English Universities in the Eighteenth Cen- tury, pp. 231 ff. The title of one runs ' Mutua oscitationum propagatio solvi po- test mechanice ; ' it is followed by facetious allusions to the drowsy effects of the uni- versity sermons, &c. In course of time the list of the Questionists, 'Baccalaurei quibus sua reservatur senioritas Comitiis Prioribus,' was printed on the back of this ' Tripos-sheet,' as it was called, the names being drawn up in three classes, viz. 'Wranglers,' 'Senior Optimes,' and 'Junior Optimes ' ; and to this list of names, which included all who graduated in honours, the name of Tripos became exclusively attached ; those who had no seniority reserved, and no place on the list, were known as ol ttoXXol, a term which survives in the modern Poll degree. The office of Mr. Tripos was abolished probably with the opening of the present Senate House in 1730, when a new and improved system of examination was in- troduced, carried on chiefly in writing; but the Tripos sheets were still published, with the list of candidates on the one side, and on the other two sets of satirical verses in Latin, written by two bachelors nominated by the moderators. These verses are still published annually, and are known as the ' Tripos Verses.' Among the composers of these Tripos verses have been Gray, Hook- ham, Frere, Vincent Bourne, C. S. Cal- verley, G. O. Trevelyan, and H. Sedgwick. Until the institution of the Classical Tripos in 1824 there was but one examina- tion in Arts, The Trij)os, including mathe- maticsand philosophy. rroml824-51 there were two Triposes, distinguished as the ' Mathematical' and the 'Classical ' Tripos. Since 1851 eight new Triposes have been established: for moral sciences and natural sciences in 1851, law in 1858, theology in 1874, history in 1875, Semitic languages in 1878, Indian languages in 1879, mediaeval and modern languages in 1886. Of late a project for a Mechanical Sciences Tripos has been submitted to the Senate, but, being imperfectly drafted, did not find acceptance. The growth of the Tripos system is the index of the recent expansion of the Cambridge educational system, and may fairly be taken as a sign of its vitality. The Natural Science Tripos, from small beginnings, has gradually grown, till it now stands on a par, in point of numl^ers, with the two old Triposes, the mathe- matical and the classical. The examinations are held about the end of May or beginning of June every year. After a reasonable interval the class-lists are published on a day fixed by the regulations. The names of those who have passed are arranged in three classes, the names in the classes being placed in alphabetical order, except in the case of the Mathematical and Law Triposes, in which the names are placed in order of merit,' and the Classical Tripos, in which each class consists usually of three divi- sions or brackets, the order in the division being alphabetical. The examiners are authorised to declare candidates who may not have deserved honours to have acquitted themselves so as to deserve an ordinary degree, or so as to deserve to be excused the general examination for the B.A. de- gree. The Ti'ipos is usually taken at the end of the third year of residence, and, in order to equalise the competition, no can- didate is allowed to enter who has kept more than eight full terms, or, in the case of the Mathematical Tripos, more than nine. The first part of the Classical and Natural Sciences may be taken at the end of the second year, i.e. in one's fifth or sixth term, but in that case it is necessary 448 TRIPOS to take either the second part of the same Tripos or some other Tripos in thefoUowiug veai*. in order to gain an honovirs (U\iiree. Special arramiemeuts are also made for candidates -wishing to take more than one Tripos, e.g. a candidate who has passed Part 1. of the ^Mathematical Tripos may proceed to take Part II. of the Natural Sciences in the following year, i'(:c. The Jfatlwniafical 'fripoii is divided into two parts. Part I. extends over two periods of three days, there being an in- terval of eleven days between the two pei'iods. In the first three days the exa- mination is confined to the more elemen- tary parts of pure mathen\atics and natural philosophy, including the tirst three sec- tions of Newton's Principia, the subjects being treated without the use of ditl'erential calculus or the methods of analytical geonaetry. On the tenth day after this examiviatioii a list, in alphabetical order, is posted of those who ha^•e passed ; those appearing on this list proceed to the second lialf of the examination, and. though they do nothing in tiie later papers, are entitled to an honours degree. The second half consists of six papers, including trigono- metry, plane and spherical, analytical geometry, theory of equations, ditierential calculus, integral calculus, ditierential equations, dynamics of a particle and easier parts of rigid dynamics, optics, and spherical astrot^omy. Part II. is taken at the end of the fourth year, only those wlio have obtained honours in Part I. being admitted. The candidate has a dioice of eight divisions, in any two of which he is required to show proficiency in order to qualify for a first-class. The reading, of course, is moiv specialised and extensive than for Part I., and includes the latest French aixd Oerman works on the subject. The Classical Tripos was instituted in 1824; up till 1850 only those who had taken honours in iiiathematics were allowed to take the examination. Hence the impression, still prevailing, that classics are on a lower footing at Oaiubridge than mathematics. As reoi'ganised in 1881, the Classical Tripos is divided into two parts. Part T. consists of four composition papers, in which passages from English authors are set for translation into Oreek and Latin prose and verse, no original composition being required ; two papers on Oreek and Roman historv, including; literature and antiquities ; two papers on grammar and criticism, including elen\eu- tary philology; and five papers containing passages for translation from Oreek and Latin authors into English. Part II., open only to candidates who have obtained honours in Part I., otters a choice of five sections : [a) language, [b) ancient philo- sophy, ((•) ancient history and law, (32™ which + 1 0^ = 1 6^^ 3 2"\ This means that the time required is 16'^ 32"" p.m. or gh 32™ A.M. The convenience of the astro- nomical system of twenty-four hours is obvious and is coming into greater use. The International Congress at Washington agreed to count the Greenwich meridian as zero, and the time from Greenwich at midnight. Thus 19 o'clock at Greenwich would be, as it were, 17 p.m. all over the world {see Mathematical Geography). The mean solar secondis the -jT-^^-fi~jyth equal i:iart of the average length of a solar day. It is the ■HT3'iiVTT2"Tr*^^ <^^' ^ solar year, and ^^'^^ 3 1 g 5^8 1 5 ^M ^ of a sidereal year. The 23endulum which ticks seconds at Green- wich has a 'length 'of 39-139 inches, or 99"41-t centimetres. The teacher should take great pains Avith this difficult subject of units. Very many popular science text-books grossly offend in this matter, especially in ele- mentary mechanics. Legal, popular, and scientific units should be distinguished in some cases. International units are being arranged or corrected. An important book of reference, the result of ten years' work. at the request of the International Meteoro- logical Congress, are the Tables edited by Pi'ofs. Mascart and Wild (Paris, Gauthier- Yillars, 400 pp. 4to, price 35 francs). See also Tables of the Physical Constants of Xatnre (Washington, Smitlisonian Insti- tute). A useful little book on units, full of tables, is Lupton's Nu.merical Tables and Coyistants in Elementary Science (Macmillan, 1884, 2s. 6c?.) See also Mr. Lupton's two papers in I^ature, January 1888. Scientitic units are dealt with in Prof. Everett's Units of Physical Measure- ment (Macmillan, 4s. Gd.) A larger book by an American is Jackson's Modern Me- trology (London, Crosby Lockwood ife Co., 1882). Universal Language. — Many at- tempts have been made at different times to invent a means of communication which might obviate the necessity of persons of different nations learning one another's tongue. Latin may fairly be said to liave been the ' universal language ' of the let- tered portion of the community during the Middle Ages, but with the Renascence and the growth and spread of the Reformed religion and of printing nations have more and more adhered each to its OAvn ver- nacular. One of the first attempts to supply a common medium was that of George Dal- garno, a native of Aberdeen and student of Oxford, whose Ars Signorum, sive Cha- racter Universalis appeared at London in 1661 and formed the basis of the better known work of Bishop Wilkins, An Essay towards a Philosophical Language, printed for the Royal Society in 1668. The bishop tells us (in his preface) that his main ob- ject is 'the distinct expression of all things and notions that fall under discourse . , .' and to attain that end he divides all woi'ds into integrals and transcendentals ; his integi-als (which comprise all nouns, &c.) he then divides intoforty (7e?2?fs's (the expression is his own), which he again sub- divides into species, &.c. etc. ; his transcen- dentals — which are to embrace all such words as ai-e non-integrals — have to sub- mit to a more complicated classification, and finally the whole arrangement (which, be it noted, must comprehend every single word in the language) is to be committed to memory before the ' Philosophical Lan- guage ' can be used ! Under these cir- cumstances, it is perhaps not very sur- prising that Bishop Wilkins's scheme has never been put into practice : indeed it is doubtful whether anybody but the author of the system and his ciitics has ever had the patience to plod through the long dreary folio with its wearisome list of words ' philosophically ' arranged, and its ingeniously cumbrous methods for the better concealment of thought. Perhaps one example of his system may be of inte- rest. He names one of his genera. Element : to this he affixes the symbol De — then Deh signifies what he calls the first difference, which (according to the tables) is fire : Deha the fii'st species, i.e. flame ; Det, the fifth difference (of that genus), viz. Ap)- jieai'ing meteor ; Deta, the first species thereof, i.e. Bainhoiv, and Deta the second, Halo, etc. To write this. ' Philosophical Language ' he invented a ' Philosophical Character,' which is extremely difficult to learn, and ill-suited for either writing or printing. But Wilkins's attempt excited mucli intei'est, and was the cause of many other experiments in the same direction. J. G. Vater, in his Pasigraphie nnd Antipasi- graphie . . . ■id)er die Schriftsprache fiir I cdle Volker (Weiszenfels, 1799), gives a UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE 455 succinct account of several systems, with remarks on those of Wolken, Kahndr, and Leibnitz, together with one of his own. In this he endeavours to represent words by the Arabic numerals, as these are the ■common property of all civilised races. Like Wilkins, he endeavours to classify iill tilings, and not with much better suc- cess, and his system is useless without a knowledge of the complete arrangement of liis Squares (Eahmen), Columns, Divisions (Theile), Lines (Zeile), and Sections (Ab- schnitte) ; thus 1346ii denotes ' Ham- merschlag ' (' blow with a hammer '), because that word is to be found in Square (1), Column (3), Division (4), Line (6), Section (ii) ! This scarcely rises above the dignity of a clumsy crypto- gram, yet enormous pains must have been given to the preparation of the word- lists, which are drawn up with sufficient acuteness. But Leibnitz had an idea which — though he did not live to work it out — he lias expressed with distinctness in a letter to a friend (quoted by Vater from Raspe's edition of Leibnitz, Oj:). Omn.) : ' I might hope,' he writes, ' to produce a sort of ■universal calculus (cdlgemeiiie liechnung) by means whereof truthful inference could be deduced in a certain manner from all rational statements. You would thus have a sort of universal language or code of wi'iting, but very different from all those that have been proposed hitherto, for correct inferences would be produced by the combinations of the characters and word-symbols themselves, whilst errors, if they did not lie in the actual statement of facts, would be merely mistakes of cal- culation.' Of course, if any such scheme as this could be devised, it would have an educa- tional and intellectiial value far beyond any that it might possess as a mere means of communication, but at present we are apparently as far from it as Leibnitz was, though Jevons has shown by his Logical Abacus the possibility of drawing correct inferences by merely mechanical processes, which was one of the objects Leibnitz seems to have had in view. Babbage also gave some thought to the possibilities of a language calculus, but without producing anything. Referring the reader curious in such matters to A. Charma's *S'^^r V Etahlissement d'une Langue Universelle' (Paris, 1856), and to the same author's Essai sur le Lan- gage (Paris, 1846), where a list of some scores of names of inventors of ' Pasigra- phies,' 'Pasilogies,' ' LanguesUniverselles,' 'Langues Philosophiques,' and the like, will be found, we pass to the considei^ation of a system which has sprung up within the last decade, and seems really likely to become a code of communication in com- merce at any rate, seeing that it has al- ready something like a quarter of a mil- lion adherents, while a dozen newspapers, &c., are printed in it. The inventor is Johann Martin Schleger, a Roman Catho- lic priest, who, having a wide knowledge of languages, has devoted himself to the task of (a) selecting the roots he considered best adapted for the bulk of civilised people, and (/3) building up a simple and regular system of grammar. The roots are for the most part monosyllables chosen or adapted from Aryan tongues, and may be roughly divided into three classes : (a) Teutonic, e.g. giv (gift), do {though), zug {ch-aio), (/?) Ptomance mod {mode), vin {toine), cem {room), (y) Roots, apparently arbitrary (or so slightly connected with existing ones as to be irrecognisable), e.g. fad {chance), fun {coiyse), nam {hand). It is claimed that more than forty per cent, of these roots are connected with EnglisH, but a lai^ge number of these belong to class (y). The pronunciation of the con- sonants is such as the inventor has thought best suited for the world in general, thus h, d, f, h, k, I, m, n, j), s, t, v, x, have their English sounds ; so has r, but it is used very sparingly ; g is ahvays soft (f/ave not gin) ; j is English sh ; c = English j, i, z, English ts ; the vowels are a, e, i, o, u, with their long and continental pronuncia- tions, together with the modifications a, o, u — which last two sounds are the only ones in the system not easy for English lips. Combinations difficult for any par- ticular people, e.g. th, dh, gh, ch, &c., are avoided. Tlie grammar is drawn up with a view to perfect symmetry and freedom from all irregularity, while the syntax resembles English very closely. A bare outline of the accidence of Volapiik (as its inventor names it), i.e. World's speech, may fitly close this sketch. The reader desii-ing more information may obtain it from KerckhofFs, Schleger's, Walther's, or Sprague's handbooks. Nouns and pronouns. — Nominative the stem ; Gen. add a, Dative e. Accusative i ; 456 UK 1 V KKSAL LANG U AG E ITNIYEKSITTES Sing-. Norn. Ob (,!> (ion. Ol>!i ^Mvino') P;it. Olio (,t» luo) for tho plunxl ailil .< to tho oorrospouding case of tho singular, o.g. : — Sini;. j;om. Vol OV^>iW^ Phi. Vol-. lu'U. Volii A olis l>;if. Vo'o N iilos Aoo. YoU VoHs lH>;is n>\\i> CUios (^10 u.-i) Obi.-i t^u.-;) Thoro is, of course, no grauiuiatioal goiidor for nouns nor for juljoi-tivos whioh need no intUwion, as tlioy inuuodiately Jollow tho noun thoy qualify ; any i\ouu gives rise to an adjeotivo by tlie addition of -ik, e.g. vol-ik {irorhili/) ob-ik {i)u)it') ; adverbs are adjeotives or noxms, plus tho tenuination -o, e.g. neit {nti/Iit), neit-ik {)ioctHr)Hxl), noit-o {at )U(fht), neit-ik-o (^uoctuntalli/). In the verb each person is denoted by thosutliKingof the personal pronoun, tense, and voice by augnuMits ; moreover, every grammatical function has a distinct intlexion, so that it is impossible to hesitate as to what part of speech, num- ber, tense, case, i<:c., a word nuiy be. The following illustrates the tense scheme : — Intiixitivo Ivom-iin (to ooiuo") Pivsont Tart. lvi>m-ol .Verfoot Pivvt. o-kom-ol Futuiv l';»rt. okom-ol liKlkiitivo Trcsout (^tv-'tkom-ob (^a-'lkiiinobs (a-Mvoiu-ol (a-'Ikom-ols (^a-'lkom-om {a-Mvoni-oms Imporfoot ji-kom-ob VoitVot o-kiim-ob riuportoot i-kom-ob Futmo o-koiu-ob Fmmv rert'oot vi-kom-ob The passive is precisely the same with a pi-otixed 'p/ e.g. p-u-let-ob = I shall have been left. ^Whether the A'olapiikists will bo able to justify their motto, ' ]Menade bal, Fiiki lial ' (* for oi\e mankind, one speech "), is a very doubtful n\atter ; but the careful way in which the '\Veltsprache" has been constructed, and the method in which its inventor has adapted Scandinavian, .Hel- lenic, lUuuance, <.iernuin, and other pecu- liarities to his own system are worthy of the highest commendation, and should certainly connuaud the attention alike of the educator and the philologist. That any system of artiticial language would ever displace natural ones seems extremely improbable, but just as an aritluuetical calculation or a piece of music is at once intelligible to educated people of any na- tion whatever, so son\e such systent as A'olapiik might, like international signal- or telegraph- codes, be used in the trans- actions of con\mercial life, ai\d for other purposes where a limited number of ideas are required to be represented with accu- racy, but without tine shades of feeling^ or subtleties of thought. ' Words,' says Robertson in one of his sermons, ' are bvit couTiters the coins of intellectual ex- change." Adopting the metaphor, wo n\ay say that for some transactions it might be possible to have an ' international currency.' iruiversities. — The term university, like n\ost others that have lost their ori- ginal n\eaning, has come to be used so vaguely that it is in\possiblo to detine it in such a way as to be gejun'ally appli- cable. In America, especially tlie term has been so much abused that no one can form any accurate conception of the nature of any particular institution bearing that designation. The detinitions of the nature and functions of a university which havo been givei\ from tiu\e to time by leading scholarsdifler considerably from each other, but they usually range within certain re- cognisable limits. Speaking of a teaching- university. Professor Huxley recently said that by that term he did not mean a mere CO operative society of teacher-examiners, but a corporation which shall embrace a professoriate charged with the exposition of the higher forms of knowledge in all its branches. Cardinal Newman, more vaguely but still accui'ately enough, has detined a university to be a ' school of universal learning.' He envd, however, in thinking that this was the literivl mean- ing of the mediaeval designatioiv (ttudiitDt i/nu-rah: This loi\g-popular error has been abundantly refuted, aixd there can now be no doubt that the phrase had no reference to the sun\ total of knowledge, but n\crely to the catholic nature of the institution itself. The .ididinni (ft'uerah' of the Middle Ages was not a place in which instruction in every branch of human learning was imparted, but a counnon or public place of study — a centre of superior instruction open to every one who was ij\ a position to avail himself of it. This cosmopolitan feature characterised all the pre-Eeforma- tion universities. Like the Church, they recognised the Pope as their head. No university could be ei*ected without his coi\tirmaton' bull, and the papal intluenc*^ was maintained in the government of the university through its chancellor, who was [ almost invariably the bishop or archbishop UNIVERSITIES 457 of the diocese in wlucli it was located. On the overthrow of the supremacy of the papacy at the Reformation tlie universities lost their cosmopolitan character and be- came national or merely provincial. The gradual disuse of the Latin language in the class-rooms still further tended to iso- late them from one another, and to lessen the migration of scholars from the univer- sities of one country to those of another. It was long the custom to carry hack the origin of universities to a fabulous an- tiquity ; but the legendary nature of the claims formerly put forth on behalf of the antiquity of such universities as Bologna, Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge has now been demonstrated, and the researches of competent scholars are gradually placing academic history on a thoroughly scientific and trustworthy basis. Passing over what have been called the universities of clas- sical antiquity, Italy appears to have been the cradle of the mediaeval and modern university systems. At all events there appears to have been an institution at Salerno as early as the ninth century, having strong claims to be regarded as at least a rudimentary university. The earliest documentary evidence, however, of a satisfactory nature regarding the ex- istence of such institutions dates from the close of the twelfth century. It is scarcely possible to determine with exactness the relative antiquity of the oldest univer- sities. None of them was founded by a special act of any individual or commu- nity ; they all grew out of pre-existing educational institutions, but at what par- ticular time they ceased to be schools and developed into universities is a problem exceedingly difficult to solve. Looked at as a whole, the European universities present comparatively few points of contrast. They differ from each other in many minor details, but in the main they follow the same lines and seek to attain the same results. Their main object is to furnish a liberal education in the most advanced branches of knowledge to young men who have to some extent proved their fitness to profit by such in- struction by previous examinations. This instruction is designed to promote intelli- gence and culture, and to qualify men for the learned professions. They seek also to encourage, so far as their respective endowments permit, the prosecution of original research by men of exceptional ability after they have passed through the ordinary curriculum and taken their de- gree ; and in this connection they esta- blish libraries, museums, laboratories, and other agencies, with a view of affording facilities for increasing and perpetuating knowledge. And they further Vjestow re- wards in the shape of titles and degrees, not only upon meritorious students before leaving their walls, but upon all who dis- tinguish themselves in their respective pro- fessions or who make valuable contribu- tions to literature and science. Until the second quarter of the nine- teenth century university education in England was centred in Oxford and Cam- bridge. While in other countries univer- sities sprang up in most of the principal towns, and thus brought a university training within reach of the great bulk of the people. Englishmen were forced at much cost and inconvenience to send their sons to Oxford and Cambridge, or aban- don the idea of giving them a university education altogether. One characteristic which at once distinguishes these univer- sities from those of other countries is the great extent to which the college system has been carried on in them. Originally intended as feeders of the universities, they in course of time greatly exceeded them in wealth, and almost altogether su- perseded them as teaching bodies. The great wealth which gradually accumulated in these colleges from the donations of pious benefactors, while a source of un- doubted strength, was at the same time the generator of many of the weaknesses which so long hampered their usefulness. The extreme conservatism displayed all through their history also tended to the perpetuation of numerous abuses aiid to making their methods and subjects of in- struction lag far behind the actual re- quirements of the country. But since the public interest in university education was fairly aroused by the discussions connected with the erection of the University of London, the older universities have been subjected to much criticism as well as to legislative interference on the part of the Government. For some years they have been passing through a period of transi- tion amounting almost to a revolution. Opinions still differ as to the wisdom of many of these changes, but the general result has unquestionably been beneficial both to the universities themselves and to 458 UNIVERSITIES tlio oountry. One of tlio most striking defects of the Oxford and Cambridge sys- tem has been its exelnsiYeness, and in- ability to meet the ^vants of all elasses. This, ho^yeyer, has to a hvvgo extent been remedied, and the juunber of students has consequently steadily increased, although the percentage is still lower than it nnght be. These uniyersities are no^v open, ^Yith- out respect of birth, age, or creed, to all persons avIio can produce eyidenco that they fii't? likely to deriNO educational ad- vantage from their membership ; and every member is eligible to compete for all their prizes and distinctions, subject only to the necessary limitations of academical stand- ing. The only restricted degrei^s are those in diyinity, Ayhich are confined to meudiers of the Church of England. There is a decreasing display of Avealth an\ong the xmdei-graduates, and it is no^y possible for a student to live unattached to any college in a frugal manner without losing the re- spect of his richer associates. A general feeling in faA'our of economy has of late yeai's been steadily gixnviug, and the iiuthorities of most colleges make e\oi'y otVort to promote simplicity of li\ing and to provide for poorer students. Notwith- standing this, an Oxford or Candu-idgo career is still far from being inexpensiye. T"'he undergraduate ^yho wishes to li\e in comfort and to enjoy a few luxuries must ivckon on spending from 175/. to 200/. a year at Oxford, and from 120/. to 150/. at Cambridge. Many men of course eontriye to live upon much less, but tliey are obliged to deny themselves many of those social amenities Avhich are an impoi'tant fac- tor in academical culture. This influx of the plebeian elenient, wliich was so much dreaded in some quarters, has had no detrimental effect upon undei'gra- dnate life. Indeed, the tastes of the stu- dents as a Avhole ai-e more refined ai\d their manners more gentle tlian they were fifty years ago. The relations of the imi- versities to the genei-al educational system of the covi^dry are becoming closer every year. Their local examinations, conducted nt ditYd'ent centres ; their extension lec- tui-es, and their recogiution of the clainis of Avomen to the higliest educational train- ing, have brought tliem n\ore and more into contact with the people. These and other results of recent legislation, as well as of the voluntary action of the univer- sities themselves, have iindoubtedly tended to make tlicin more truly national, and they }n-obably neyer at any previous period exercised a greater intellectual inthu^nco o\ er the whole country than they do now. The go^■ernment of the C^iiiiyraiti/ of O.i'J'ord is vested in the following bodies : (1) Convoeation, which consists of all the nuMubers of the university who have taken the degrees of M.A., M.D., D.C.L., or P.P., whether resident or not ; (2) the Congregation, which consists of certain c.f ('///('<() nuMubers and of all members of ConNOcation who reside in Oxford for 110 days in the academical year; and (;')) the 1 1 ebilomadal Council, which con- sists of the chancellor, the A'ice-cLau- cellor, tlie ex-vice-chancellor, for a cei'- tain period after the expiry of his term of otlice, the two pi'oetors, and eighteen n\embers elected by the Congregation. The Hebdomadal Council alone has the power of initiating legislation. A new statute framed by it must be pronudgated in the Congregation, Avhicli may adopt, reject, or amend it. In its approved form it must be subnutted to Convocation, which may adopt or reject but cannot amend it. Besides confirming or reject- ing statutes subnutted to it. Convocation transacts much of the ordinary business of the university by means of decrees ; con- fers honorary degrees, aiul degrees granted by decree or diploma ; sanctions petitions to Parliament ; authorises the atUxing of the iniiversity seal when necessary ; and its n\end»ers elect the university represen- tatives in Parliament. But no proposals can be made to Convocation which have not been sai\ctioned hf the Hebdomadal Council. The chancellor of the uvdversity being non-resident, the executive power of the x\niversity is chiefly in the hands of the vice-chancellor, who is nominated by the chancellor from among tlie heads of colleges, and \isually holds otttee for four years. The A-ice-chancellor is as- sisted in his duties by the proctors, who are annually elected by the colleges and halls in rotation ; ami by ^■arious com- mittees appointeil by the three governing bodies. The university is a body corpo- rate, invested, in addition to the usual powers of corporations, with various pecu- liar privileges, such as the right of exer- cising jurisdiction, civil and criminal, over its nuMubers, the right of returning two representatives to the House of Commons, and the power of conferring degrees. The UNIVERSITIES 459 members of the university are divided into two classes : (1) graduates, number- ing upwards of eight tliousand, and (2) undergraduates, numbering about three thousand. Only a small propoi'tion of the graduates are in residence, and these are chiefly engaged in the educational work of the university or in research. The non-resident graduates are those who have left Oxford after taking their degree, but have retained their position as mem- bers of the university by the payment of certain dues. Only those members who have taken a degree qualifying for mem- bership of Convocation have a share in the government of the university. The colleges are also corporate bodies, and, as such, are distinct from the uni- versity, and independent of its laws and regulations. They manage their own property and elect their own officers, and the university proctors have no power Avithin their walls. On the other hand, an intimate and harmonious relation be- tween the iiniversity and the colleges is maintained by the fact that the great majority of the members of the university belong to the colleges, and that all who belong to the various colleges are at the same time members of the university. The colleges were originally founded for the maintenance of a limited number of members, consisting, as a rule, of the head, the fellows, and the scholars, and sometimes a few other members with various titles ; but it is now the custom to i-egard as members of a college not only the persons who are on its foundation but all membei-s of the university whose names are on the college books. TJie duty of ascertaining the titness of candi- dates for admission to the university is in the hands of the colleges, and it is by them that scholarships and exhibitions are offered to those who are beginning or intending to begin their university course. The number of scholarships, exhilji- tions, and other endowments attached to the various colleges is very large. Scho- lars! lips are usually tenable for two years in the first instance, but this period may be extended to four or even to five years. They are partly open and partly restricted to students from particular schools or localities. The annual value of open scholarships was fixed by the University Commissioners of 1877 not to exceed SO/., inclusive of all privileges and allowances. But a number of valual^le foundations are exempted from this order, and there are in many colleges special funds for in- creasing the value of scholarships when necessary. Exhibitions are usually of less value than scholarships, averaging from 40/. to 50/., but they are less restricted as to age, and are frequently confined to persons who produce evidence of their need of assistance. Both scholarships and exhibi- tions are, as a rule, awarded after a com- petitive examination. Besides the college scholarsliips the university possesses a number of scholarships and prizes which are awarded to persons after examinations or competitions, which are open only to members of the university of a specified standing. {See University SciiOLARsniPs). College fellowships are of two kinds : (1) prize fellowships and (2) official fellow- ships. The election is made after exami- nation, and candidates for the former must have passed all examinations required for tlie degree of B.A., and must be un- married, and not in possession of more than a certain income. The yearly emo- luments of a fellowship amount to 200/., together with, in most cases, rooms rent free, and an allowance for dinner in hall. The tenure is for seven years. These fellowships are simply rewards for pro- ficiency in the various subjects studied in the university, and the holders are, as a rule, under no obligation to reside, or to remain unmarried after election, or to serve their colleges in any capacity. The official fellowships are mainly intended to be held by members of the educational staff in the college, but they are also, in many cases, tenable by other college of- ficers. Their yearly value is generally 200/., besides free rooms and allowance for dinner in hall. The length of tenure varies from two to fifteen years. Tlio following is a list of the twenty- one colleges in the University of Oxford, with the reputed dates of their founda- tions and the number of their members in 1887. In addition to the colleges there are two academical halls, St. Mary, founded in 1333, Avith 87 members; and St. Ed- mund, founded in 1557, with 129 mem- bers. Their constitution difl'ers from that of the colleges, inasmuch as they are not corporate bodies, and have neither fellows nor scholars. Provision has recently been made for their dissolution on the occur- 460 UNIVERSITIES rence of the next vacancy in their respec- tive principalships. St. Mary Hall will be merged in Oriel College, and St. Ed- mund Hall will be partially united to Queen's College. College Date Jlenibers University 87-2 541 Ualliol ." . . . 12G3 820 Merton .... 126-1 481 Exeter .... 1314 808 Oriel .... 1326 429 Queen's .... 1340 566 Nevr .... 1379 684 Lincoln .... 1427 325 All Souls 1437 115 Magdalen 145S 604 Erasenose 1509 524 Corpus Christi 1516 341 Christ Church 1546 1,303 Trinity .... 1554 570 St. John's 1555 575 Jesus .... 1571 244 Wadham 1612 384 Pembroke 1G24 323 Worcester 1714 450 ' Keble .... 1870 532 ' Hertford 1874 329 Thei'e are, moreover, two private halls — Charsley's, with 60 members, and Tur- rell's, with li members — founded under a statute passed in 1882, which enacted that any member of Convocation above the age of twenty-eight may, under cer- tain conditions, obtain from the vice- chancellor, with the consent of the Heb- domadal Council, a licence to open a suitable building as a private hall for the reception of academical students, with •the title of 'licensed master,' and make provision for the proper government of the students under his charge. They are subject to all other statutes of the uni- versity, and they partake in its privileges and are admissible to its degrees in the same way as other students. Previous to 1868 no one could become a member of the vmiversity ^\ho was not already a member of a college or hall. In that year an enactment was passed under which per- sons are permitted, luider certain condi- tions, to become students and members of the university without being members of any college or hall. Such persons are known as 'non-collegiate students,' and keep their statutable residence in houses or licensed lodgings situated within a pre- scribed area. They enjoy all the rights of collegiate students, including that of being admitted to degrees and to all the subsequent privileges. Such students are placed under the supervision of a censor, who is charged with the care of their conduct and studies. In 1887 the number of non- collegiate students was 385. The University of Cambridc/e is an incorporation of students in the liberal arts and sciences, incorporated by the name of the chancellor, masters, and scholars of the university. In this commonwealth are in- cluded seventeen colleges and two public hostels, each being a body corporate, bound by its own statutes, but likewise controlled by the paramount laws of the university. The legislative body of the university is called the Senate, and comprises the chan- cellor, the vice-chancellor, doctors of di- vinity, law, medicine, science, and letters, bachelors of divinity, and masters of arts, law, and surgery, whose names are upon the university register. There is a council of the Senate, which must first sanction everything before it can be sub- mitted to the Senate for confirmation. This council consists of the chancellor, the vice-chancellor, four heads of col- leges, four professors of the university, and eight other members of the Senate. The Executive branch of the university is committed to the chancellor, the high steward, the vice-chancellor, the com- missary, and a number of other oificers. There is a general board of studies, and also special boards for the difterent de- partments of study, as well as a financial board for the care and management of the income of the university. The relations of the university to the colleges are prac- tically the same as at Oxford, and the general organisation of the whole institu- tion is someAvhat similar. The two uni- versities are, however, by no means copies of each other. Each has its own aims and methods, and they present numerous points of contrast to the student of academical constitution and administration. The public hostels are (1) Cavendish College, founded in 1876, with 141 mem- bers ; and (2) Selwyn College, founded in 1882, with 156 members. There is also a private hostel named Ayerst Hall, founded in 1884, and having thirty-eight members on its books. Its object is to enable theological and other students to keep terms at Cambridge at the same cost as at the younger univei'sities and at theological colleges. As at Oxford, non-collegiate students have been admitted to the uni- versity since 1869, In 1887 these students UNIVERSITIES 461 numbered 203, and the total number of matriculations in the same year was 1012. The following is a list of the seventeen colleges at Cambridge, with the dates of their foundations and the number of mem- bers upon their boards in 1887 : — College Date Members St. Peter's . 12,57 327 Clare . 1326 503 Pembroke 1347 481 Gonvilleand Caius 1348 ■ 742 Trinity Hall . 13,50 642 Corpus Christ! 13,52 477 King's . 1441 393 Queen's . 1448 235 St. Catharine's 1473 218 Jesus 1496 522 Christ's . 1505 657 St. John's 1511 1,750 Magdalene 1519 233 Trinity . 1546 3,523 Emmanuel 1584 553 Sidney Sussex 1594 211 Downing 1800 216 Although the University of London, as it now exists, dates only from 1836, it actually had its origin ten years earlier. An institution bearing that title was founded in 1826, the primary object of its founders being to create in London a centre of research where the sons of Dis- senters, to whom the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were at that time inacces- sible, might obtain a liberal education entirely dissociated from all connection with religious sects or parties. The ex- clusiveness of the two ancient universities was not the only argument brought forward in favour of the establishment of a new seat of learning. The great cost of resid- ing at Oxford and Cambridge made these universities prohibitive to many who were not dissenters, and, besides, the natural ■sciences, and especially medicine, were not taught in these universities. The Tiew university was founded by private munificence, and was opened on October 1, 1828. A draft charter for its corporation, and for enabling it to confer degrees, was ^approved in 1831 by the law officers of the Crown, but a change of Government prevented it from being granted. In 1836 the institution was eventually incorporated, not, however, as a university, but as a •college of a university, under the title of University College, and a new body en- tirely distinct from it was empowered to assume the name of the University of London, and to grant degrees in the faculties of Arts, Law, and Medicine. At first it was necessary that candidates for these degrees should receive their education in colleges afiiliated to the university, but in 1858 the examinations were thrown open to all candidates, without restriction as to place of education. In 1867 a sup- plemental charter was obtained enpowering the university to hold examinations for women. The University of London has exercised an important influence on higher education all over the country, and its examination-statistics have increased from decade to decade. During the first ten years of its existence the number of persons who matriculated was 763, and during the same period 522 obtained degrees of various kinds. During the last ten years the num- bers reached 8,469 matriculated, and 2,375 graduated. During these fifty years the total number of candidates who presented themselves for examination was 58,962, and altogether 18,832 persons matriculated, and 6,489 obtained degrees. It will be noticed that while the matriculations have increased more than tenfold, the gradua- tions have only been quadrupled. This seems to point to the conclusion that the middle-class schools of England are more and more adopting the London matricula- tion as their leaving examination. But while the University of London has been on its own lines a recognised success, there has of late been much discussion as to its future. A merely examining university does not commend itself to many educa- tionalists, and an association has been formed for the promotion of a teaching universty for the metropolis. This asso- ciation aims at the organisation of univer- sity teaching in and for London, in the form of a teaching university with the usual faculties, the conjunction of exami- nation with teaching, and the direction of both by the same authorities; the conferring of a substantive voice in the government of the university upon those engaged in the work of tuition and examination; the adoption of existing institutions as the basis or component parts of the university, to be either partially or completely incor- porated with the minimum of internal change, and an alliance between the uni- versity and such professional societies or corporations as the Royal College of Phy- sicians of London and the Royal College 462 UNIYERSITIES of Surgeons of England. This scheme has been in the main approved by the Councils of King's College and of University Col- lege, and has otherwise met with consider- able support. The University of Durham was instituted in 1832, under an Act of Parliament which empowered the Dean and Chapter of Dur- ham to appropriate an estate for the esta- blishment and maintenance of a university for the advancement of learning in con- nection with the cathedral church. The educational system and arrangements of the university were assimilated to those of Oxford and Cambridge, provision being also made for the residence of students within certain colleges and halls. In 1870, however, a regulation was passed providing for the admission of persons as members of the university who might be unattached to these colleges and halls, provided only they resided in lodgings approved by the warden and proctors. In course of time, the university extended its sphere of use- fulness by the incorporation and affiliation of colleges situated at a distance from the university seat. Consequent upon this change, the College of Medicine and the College of Physical Science at Newcastle- on-Tyne now form an integral part of the university, and Codrington College, Bar- bados, and Eourah Bay College, Sierra Leone, are affiliated to it. The university enjoys the power of conferring the custo- mary degrees in all the faculties. Victoria University was founded by Eoyal Charter, dated April 20, 1880, mainly on a petition of Owens College, Manchester (in which it was stated that in this country there exists a widespread and growing demand for the extension and benefits of university education, together with a conviction that, in respect of the opportunities of such an education, Eng- land, compared with several other coun- tries, remains deficient). The Yorkshire College of Science at Leeds concurred in this petition, and further sought to obtain the incorporation in the proposed univer- sity of other colleges than Owens. The constitution of the Victoria University, which resembles that of London in some respects, is essentially different in others. Colleges are not merely to be affiliated to it, but they are to be incorporated with it, so as to form part of the same organisation, and have a share in its general manage- ment, while retaining their own autonomy. At present (1888) the activity of the Vic- toria University is confined to Manchester and Liverpool — the only colleges incor- porated with it being Owens College, Manchester, which was constituted a col- lege of the university by its charter, and University College, Liverpool, which was admitted a college of the university by resolution of the Court of Governors on November 5, 1884. Degrees are granted by Victoria University in the faculties of Arts, Science, Law, and Medicine, and candidates are required on presenting them- selves to furnish certificates of attendance upon approved courses of instruction. The first Scottish Uni versity was founded at St. Andrews in 1 41 1 . This was followed by the University of Glasgow in 1450, and the University of Aberdeen in 1494. The University of Edinburgh was not founded until 1582. St. Andrews folloAved closely the organisation of Paris and Ox- ford, where its founder had been educated, and, in spite of repeated legislation, still retains distinct traces of its mediaeval origin, The constitution and organisation of the four Scottish universities has been practically uniform since the passing of the Universities (Scotland) Act of 1858, and the ordinances of the Executive Com- mission following thereon. For the ordi- nary four years' arts course students enter the universities in many cases direct from the primary schools at a comparatively early age, and without previous examina- tion. Eor the three years' course, however, an entrance exammation is compulsory. At the end of either course, and the passing* of satisfactory examinations in the so-called seven arts subjects, the degree of M.A. is obtained. In addition to the arts degree and the degrees in the professional faculties, degrees in science were recently instituted at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews. The universities are the recognised training colleges for the ministry of the Scottish Churches, and for the legal, medical, and teaching professions. Great advances have recently been made in the department of medicine, and the University of Edinburgh has attained the position of one of the leading medical schools of the world. The Scottish universities have always been essentially popular institu.tions, in the sense of being accessible to rich and poor alike. This has been accomplished partly by the bm-sary system (see Bursaries), which is more closely identified with Scotland than UNIVERSITIES 463 with any other country, and partly by the moderate cost of living in the university towns, together with the lowness of the class fees. Women are not admitted to their class-rooms, but local examinations are conducted which are open to both sexes, and the University of St. Andrews has instituted a higher certificate for women, with the title of Literate in Arts. Although it may be claimed for the Scot- tish universities that they have hitherto fairly met the wants of the country, there has been during the past twelve years an urgent demand in various quarters for a comprehensive scheme of reform. Special stress has been laid upon the need there is of a more popular and representative element in the governing bodies of the universities, the necessity of an entrance examination, and a consequent elevation of the standard of teaching. The opening up of the M.A. curriculum has also been insisted on, so as to include a greater num- ber of subjects than at present. Also the specialisation of studies after a certain stage, somewhat after the manner known as the elective system in several of the leading American universities. Increased facilities are likewise required for the prosecution of special lines of study and original research by distinguished students after graduation. Still more liberal treat- ment on the part of the Imperial Treasury is also called foi', so that the financial condition of the universities may be less strained, and the respective senates enabled to make better provision for more thorough practical teaching in science subjects, which is a new departure in the Scottish Univer- sity system. Irish Universities. — Trinity College, Dublin, was founded by Queen Elizabeth in 1591, and was the only university in Ireland until the middle of the present century. Although frequently assailed from various quarters, it has throughout its history been the recognised centre of learning in Ireland. In its general orga- nisation Trinity College closely resembles the older English universities, on which it was to a large extent modelled ; but in several particulars it differs from them, as well as from most other universities of long standing. One noticeable peculiarity is the system of non-resident students, which appears to have sprung up, in con- travention of the statutes, about the middle of last century. In this way students may keep terms in certain faculties' by merely enrolling their names in the uni- versity books and coming up for the neces- sary examinations. This method of keep- ing terms has been as much as possible discouraged in recent years, but it is still in use, and has been taken advantage of by colleges outside Ireland as a means of enabling their students to acquire univer- sity degrees. In 1S45 colleges were esta- blished by Government at Belfast, Cork, and Gal way, aiid in 1850 the Queen's Uni- versity in Ireland was founded for the purpose of conferring upon the students of these colleges such degrees and distinc- tions as were usually conferred by other universities in Great Britain and Ireland. This university, however, was dissolved on February 3, 1882, and its place has been taken by the Royal University of Ireland (chartei-ed on April 27, 1880), which is an examining body framed on a wider and more popular basis than the Queen's Uni- versity, With the exception of theolog}', it confers degrees in all the faculties, in- cluding music. Its degrees, scholarships, and other distinctions are open to students, of either sex who have passed the matricu- lation examination, and its examinations are held not only in Dublin, which is the headquarters of the university, but in dif- ferent towns throughout Ireland. Although mainly an Irish university, its operations are not limited to that country, as its ex- aminations are open to students from the university colleges of England and Wales. The Universities of France. — At the end of last century there were twenty-three provincial universities in France, founded at dififerent epochs from a very early period. Of these Toulouse was the oldest, next to the central University of Paris, dating from 1233 ; Montpelier was founded in 1289, and Orleans iii 1312. All these univer- sities were suppressed by a decree of the Convention on March 20, 1794 — the sup- pression including even the university of Paris itself — education at all its stages being turned over to private enterprise. Under the name of the Imperial Univer- sity of France, Napoleon I. instituted, by a law of May 10, 1806, a great lay corpo- ration, of which all the members were nominated by the Government, and which was exclusively charged with the conduct of public instruction throughout the French- teri-itory. In this vast organisation were comprised all the educational institutions 46i UNIVERSITIES of the country, from tho primary school to the university — tlie central point of tlie scheme being that the Imperial University alone possessed the right of teaching. Su- perior instruction was given by the Facul- ties, which took the place of the old pro- vincial universities. No establishment for instruction of any kind could be foi-med outside tlie University and without the authoi"ity of its chief. To open a school and teach publicly it was necessary to be a member and a graduate of the Univer- sity. This unique organisation has been greatly moditied by repeated acts of legis- lation, but its general outline has not been essentially altered. In 187G, however, it became possible for the Roman Catholic Church to establish denominational uni- versities ; and by the decree of Decem- ber 28, 1885, concerning the organisation of the faculties and the schools for supe- rior instruction, the University of Paris has been again revived. It embraces the faculties of Protestant theology, law, me- dicine, science, and letters, togetlier with the school of pharmacy, and claims to be the most numerously attended university in the world. The following are the sta- tistics of attendance during its lirst ses- sion, 1885-86 : faculty of theology 35, law 3,786, medicine 3,696, sciences 467, letters 928. pharmacy 1,767 — total 10,679. This total is not quite accurate, as a num- ber of students are enrolled in more than one facultv, but the exact number is be- lieved to be not less than 10.000. There were foreign students in all the faculties ; and in the faculties of medicine, law, sci- ences, and letters there Avere in all 167 women. Germcin Universities. — Nowhere have more thought and pains been taken for the development of a university system than in Germany. No people take more pride in their universities than the Ger- mans, and certainly no Government has lieen more liberal towards such institu- tions than the Geruian. The German uni- versities have thus reached a high degree of perfection, and their methods have been closely followed in other countries. The educational system of Germany resembles a vast and highly-organised machine, every pai-t of whicli tells on the other, and the popularity of tlie universities is so great and the cost of attending tliem so cheap that the increase of students has be- come such that it has been found neces- sary to make an eflort to clieck it. The Prussian Government lately requested the heads of gymnasia and high schools to cautitm young men who were leaving them against entering a university, as the chances of obtaining employment in the civil service were extremely small. The faculty of law is especially overcrowded, l^'rom 1860 to 1875 eveiy student of phi- lology was sure of an appointment on leaA'ing the university, but now they have to wait as long as law students. In Ger- many the imiversity is the recognised me- dium of admission to all the learned pro- fessions and all important offices of State. While largely engaged in purely tlieoreti- cal training, tending to the over-produc- tion of specialists in every department of knowledge, the German universities also gi\'e direct professional training, enabling men to become lawyers, judges, school- masters, physicians, and clergymen. The watchwords of the German system are ' freedom of teaching ' and ' freedom of learning.' There is practically no curri- culum, and a student passes during his academic course from one university to another in a way scarcely known in other countries. Tlie number of universities throughout the empire is '22. Of these the largest in point of numbers is Berlin and the smallest Braunsberg. The follow- ing are some of the statistics of the winter session, 1886-87 : Berlin 2'd(}> teachers, 6,880 students ; Leipzigl80 teachers, 3,328 students ; Munich 165 teachers, 3,209 students; Halle 110 teachers, 1,583 stu- dents ; "NViirtzburg 71 teachers, 1,531 students ; Breslau 131 teachers, 1,448 students. The Universities of Switzerland and Ai( stria closely resemble those of Gennany. The largest of these is Vienna, which in the winter session of 1886-87 had 301 teachers and 6,157 students. The Hun- garian universities of Budapest and Klau- senberg have likewise a similar organisa- tion. The former was attended in 1885-86 by 3,445 students dui'ing the tirst session and 3,255 during the second ; the latter by about 500 students, there being a slight increase in session 1886-87. J^ehjian Universities. — In Belgium there are State universities at Ghent and Lit^ge, and independent universities at Brussels and Louvain. The University of Brussels was inaugui-ated on November 20, 1834. Being a new departure in academic UNIVERSITIES 465 usage its career lias been watched with much interest, and it is generally admitted that the experiment has been eminently successful. Its promoters designed that it should be a home of intellectual free- dom, where the search after truth might be absolutely unfettered. It was in fact a protest against the predominance of clerical influence in the educational sys- tem of the country. When at length the Roman Catholic Church obtained posses- sion of the ancient university of Lou vain, the leaders of the liberal party felt that this action on the part of the State could not be disregarded. The erection of a new university was at once resolved upon, and the community of the capital responded so heartily that almost immediately the de- sign was accomplished. Its method of erection was a new factor in academic history. It owed nothing to the two powers — the Church and the State — which had hitlierto been regarded as indispensable to the institution of such seats of learning. Its endowments were raised by subscrip- tions contributed between the years 1834 and 1843. The number of students has steadily increased from 96 in the first ses- sion to 1,686 in the fiftieth. It embraces the faculties of philosophy and letters, law, science, medicine, and a polytechnical school. In one respect the Free Univer- sity of Brussels has been brought closely into contact with England, inasmuch as its system of medical graduation has en- aVjled many English practitioners to obtain by examination the doctorate of their faculty — a much coveted distinction not easily procured at home. Dutch Universities. — In Holland there are now no less than five universities, viz. the three State Universities of Leyden, Utrecht, and Groningen, the Communal University of Amsterdam, and the Free University, also located in the capital. Until 1876 the State universities pre- sented no distinctive features worthy of special notice ; but in that year a new law was passed under which the theological faculties in these universities were abo- lished. The State thus cut itself free from the recognition of divinity as a branch of academic study ; but the Dutch Reformed Church was allowed to appoint two professors in each of the universities, who might furnish the necessary dogmatic instruction to candidates for the ministry. This change led to much dissatisfaction throughout the country, which readied its climax when it became known that nearly all the new theological professors belonged to the modern or rationalistic school. The orthodox party at once set a movement on foot, under the leadership of Dr. A. Kuyper, a divine and statesman of marked ability and infiuence, which culminated in the foundation of the free university in 1880. Although the university was mainly established for the teaching of divinity on ultra-Calvinistic principles, it also aims at ultimately providing instruction in all branches of secular knowledge. It has had a fair amount of success since its foundation ; but its lectures are not as yet recognised as qualifying for direct admis- sion to the ministry of the National Church. The University of Amsterdam dates from 1877, and is an expansion of the Athenaium, which flourished there for two and a half centuries. Scandinavian Universities. — The first Scandinavian University was founded at Upsala in 1477. It was immediately fol- lowed by a similar institution in Denmark, the University of Copenhagen being opened on June 1, 1479. Nearly two centuries afterwards (in 1668) a second Swedish University was founded at Lund, and, contemporaneously with the union of Sweden and Norway, a university was founded at Christiania in 1814. The.se universities follow, in the main, the Ger- man system, and are all flourishing and well-equipped institutions. The University of Copenhagen is under the control of the Minister of Public Instruction, but the di- rection of internal affairs and discipline is entrusted to an academic council, presided over by a rector. The university is richly endowed, and embraces the five faculties of theology, law and political science, medi- cine, philosophy, and the mathematical and natural sciences. In the faculty of theology the professors are not appointed to particular chairs, but divide the course of study among themselves. AVith a few ex- ceptions, the public courses of lectures are free, the professors receiving fixed salaries, which are regulated according to length of service. A matriculation examination must be passed before entering the uni- versity. There are no religious tests, and women are admitted to the classes and examinations for degrees on equal terms with men, but they are not allowed to proceed to degrees in divinity. Acade- II II 466 UNIVERSITIES mical degrees being of little practical value in Denmark, the number of gradu- ates is very small in proportion to the number of students. Admission to the professions and to public employment de- pends upon the passing of certain exami- nations, and not upon the possession of degrees. The academic year is divided into two sessions, the one extending from February 1 to June 9, and the other from September 1 to December 22. There are between forty and fifty teachers in the university, and over 1,200 students. The number of students at Christiania is even larger, there being as many as 1,510 in the second session of 1886. Of these the medical faculty had 313, the legal 340, the philological 130, and the theological 120. Russian Universities. — The number of Universities in Russia is seven, viz. Dor- pat, founded in 1632 by Gustavus Adol- phus of Sweden, and entirely remodelled in 1802 by Alexander I., after having ceased to exist for some years ; Moscow, the first Russian university properly so called, founded in 1755 ; Kazan and Khar- kofF, both founded in 1804; St. Peters- burg, founded in 1819 on the basis of a pedagogical institute established in 1804; Kieff, formed in 1832 from a lyceum, in place of the University of Wilna, which was closed on account of political disturb- ances ; and Odessa, founded in 1865, also previously a lyceum. The course of Rus- sian academical legislation has in some im- portant respects been very peculiar. At one time the universities had the superinten- dence of the inferior schools, but this was withdrawn in 1835. In 1849 a decree of the Emperor Nicholas limited the number of students in each university to three hun- dred ; but this restriction was revoked in 1856, In 1863 the universities were the sub- ject of comprehensive legislation, with the view of placing them on a uniform basis, and numerous changes have since been in- troduced. Severe measures were taken in 1885. Explicit regulations for the inter- pretation of science were laid down, and restrictions laid upon the teaching of phi- losophy and natural science generally. Comparative legislation was excluded from the programme, and teaching in Russian instead of in German was ordered at the University of Dorpat. At the same time the students were placed under rigorous regulations in regard to their life outside the universities. These repressive mea- sures, and the undercurrent of Nihilism which appears to prevail at most of the university seats, have frequently brought the students into collision with the autho- rities, and not a few of them have in conse- quence found their way to Siberia. The university statutes of 1885 are extremely unpopular, and were the occasion of serious disturbances at nearly all the Russian uni- versities during the winter of 1887-88. They have also had a depressing effect upon the attendance, as may be inferred from the following statutes of the Univer- sity of St. Petersburg. On January 1, 1886, the number of students in thaV university amounted to 2,880 ; on the same day in 1887 they numbered 2,627; and on the cor- responding day in 1888 they had fallen to 2,053. The Russian students, as a rule, are hard-working, and usually very intelligent. Mostly sons of the peasantry, they live in extreme poverty, and support themselves by tutorial and other work. The standard of teaching in the universities is high, and may be favourably compared with that of the German universities. In ad- dition to the universities in Russia proper, there is a university at Warsaw, founded in 1869, in place of a high school, and another at Helsingfors in the province of Finland. A university has also been pro- jected for Tomsk in Siberia, the first insti- tution of its kind in that part of the Russian Empire. Universities of Spain and Portugal. — Education in general is in a very back- ward state in Spain. But it is a curious fact that while 75 per cent, of the popu- lation are iinable to read and write, the proportion of university graduates to the whole population equals that of France and Germany. These graduates are absorbed almost wholly in the professional classes, journalism, etc. The number of univer- sities in the country is ten ; but it is very difficult to obtain an accurate idea of the state of instruction within them ; for even where the programmes and methods are similar the value of the teaching is widely different. The most important are at Madrid, Barcelona, and Salamanca. The reforms effected at the last mentioned in 1878, whereby a number of small bursa- ries were formed, are said to be Avorking well. In Portugal the University of Oo- imbra has faculties of theology, law, me- dicine, and philosophy, and enjoys a fair reputation for efficient teaching. UNIVERSITIES 467 Universities of Italy. — Superior in- struction in Italy is furnished by collegiate institutions, special schools, and universi- ties. The universities are twenty-one in number, seventeen of which are State universities and four free universities. The latter, although maintained by the province or commune, ai-e subject to the State as far as uniformity of study is con- cerned. During the five years ending 1885-86 the number of students has in- creased from 12,442 to 14,768. The largest attendance is at Naples, which had 3,398 students in 1885-86; Turin had 2,073; Bologna 1,298; and Eome 1,216. The free universities are all small — Came- rino, the largest, having only ninety-nine students. American Universities. — According to the Report of the Commissioner of Edu- cation, the number of universities and colleges in the United States in the year 1885 amounted to 365, with 4,836 in- stx'uctors and 65,728 students. No State or territory in the Union is Avithout its university or college, and in Ohio there are as many as thirty-three. In connection with these statistics it has to be borne in mind that educational terms are very much abused in the United States. Scores of institutions which call themselves univer- sities are quite unworthy of this desig- nation ; and, judged by the European standard, there are few institutions in America which can be called complete universities. Nevertheless, there are some well-planned and prosperous foundations that are full of proixdse for the future. The older colleges — originally organised on the English type — began early in this century to develop into universities. Thus Harvard, in addition to its college, has now its schools of law, medicine, and theology, its museum of comparative zoology, its botanical garden, astronomical observatory, and its scientific and tech- nical schools. A similar development, though less extensive, has been made by Yale and Columbia Colleges, and several others. It is admitted that the American college system, as such, is capable of im- ! provement in details, and that it might be rendered more liberal, efiicient, and complete. But it is also claimed for it that it is an indigenous growth adapted to the people, and that it is doing good ' work. What is chiefly needed is pro- vision for the prosecution of studies be- i yond the undergraduate course, which would qualify men thoroughly for histori- cal and scientific investigation. There is even now a considerable number of post- graduate students at such universities as Johns Hopkins, Harvard, Princeton, Yale, Cornell, and Vanderbilt ; and the Illinois Wesleyan University has established non- resident andpost-graduate courses of study, with the view of afFoi'ding inducements to graduates to prosecute studies for the pur- pose of earning advanced degrees. Much interest has also been taken in the experi- ment projected by Harvard, and imitated in a restricted sense by other three pro- minent colleges. This experiment is the alternative presented between a prescribed curriculum and an elective one. Experi- ence, so far as it has gone, is wholly favourable to the elective system, and this success in the universities has unfortu- nately led to its adoption in schools, for which it is of course altogether unsuited. This elective curriculum is by no means a new thing in American universities. It has been pursued, on a somewhat difierent plan, by the University of Virginia from its opening in 1825. The organisation of this university is unlike that of any others, but it holds an important place in the maintenance of a high order of educa- tional work in the States. The distinctive feature of the Virginia system is the ar- rangement of the subjects of instruction into nineteen separate schools. Of these six are literary, six scientific, and seven are professional schools. Each is inde- pendent of all the others, so far as its methods and course of instruction are concerned. Within the limits of each par- ticular chair the greatest freedom is al- lowed in the selection of subjects and arrangement of the course, 'freedom of teaching' being thus secured. A student who enters the university is supposed to have arrived at such an age as to know what he wishes to study (and the average age of an entrant at Virginia is nineteen and three-quarter years). On entering he finds at least ten schools open for his se- lection, three of which he is required to take. If he is a candidate for a titled degree he will find these schools grouped in accordance with the requirements of that degree, but the order in which he shall take up the specified schools is left entirely to his own selection. If he is not a candidate for a titled degree he may HH 2 468 UNIVERSITIES select any three schools he pleases. There is absolutely no restriction upon his choice but that necessarily imposed by the schedule of lecture hours. In this way ' freedom of learning ' is also secured. Subsidiary to the titled degrees there is attached to each school the degree of graduate in that school, to obtain which a rigorous examination must be passed, and at least three-fourths of the total available marks secured. The degree of M.A. is conferred upon candi- dates who have in this way 'graduated' in Latin, Greek, French, German, moral philosophy, pure mathematics, natural philosophy, and chemistry. Canadian Universities. — In Canada the American system of denominational college-universities largely prevails, but a scheme of federation has been recently under discussion, which is expected to issue in the grouping together of most of the existing universities. In the province of Ontario alone there are at present six universities, viz. (1) the University of Toronto, projected in 1798 and chartered in 1827, but, for want of sufficient endow- ment, not opened until 1843 ; (2) the Uni- versity of Victoria College, Coburg, founded in 1832, and opened in 1841 ; (3) the Uni- versity of Queen's College, Kingston, pro- jected in 1839, incorporated in 1841, and opened in 1843 ; (4) the University of Trinity College, Toronto, founded in 1851, and opened in 1852 ; (5) the University of Ottawa, founded in 1848, and opened in 1866 ; (6) the Western University, London, founded in 1877, and opened in 1878. The University of Toronto was by its foundation charter virtually placed under control of the Episcopal Church. This circumstance led to a fierce contro- versy in Upper Canada, and the charter was subsequently modified in deference to public opinion ; but it was not until 1849 that a law was passed under which the university became a purely national in- stitution and free from denominational control. This change largely increased the popularity of the university, and it is now in a highly efficient state. Under the new statutes the University of Toronto became an examining body only, which prescribes the requirements for degrees, scholarships, and prizes ; appoints exam- iners, and confers degrees in the faculties of law, medicine, and arts, and in civil en- gineering. The teaching institution is Uni- versity College, with which the university is incorporated. Women are admitted to the college lectures as well as to the uni- versity examinations. The University of Victoria College at Coburg originated with the Wesleyan Methodists, and was the first institution of the kind established by royal charter unconnected with the Church of England throughoiit the British colonies. It has been administered with conspicuous ability, and has taken high rank among the Ontarian universities. Queen's College and University at Kingston is a Presby- terian foundation. It opened with eleven students only, and for many years had a chequered, and at times precarious, ex- istence. Its financial condition, however, has considerably improved, and in recent years new buildings have been provided and the teaching staff has been increased. There are faculties of arts, theology, and law, attended by a total of about two hundred students. The University of Trinity College, Toronto, is in connection with the Church of England, and had its origin in the nationalisation of the Uni- versity of Toronto, which included the suppression of the faculty of divinity. The university embraces faculties of arts and divinity, together with an affiliated medical school and women's medical col- lege. The course of study for women was established in 1883; and candidates who may pass any of the university examina- tions are entitled to receive certificates, but they are not admitted to degrees. One of the distinguishing features of the col- lege curriculum is the place assigned to theology as an art subject, including an honours course in that department. The University of Ottawa is under the direc- tion of the Roman Catholic Church. It confers degrees in arts, science, and litera- ture, and has a total of about three hun- dred students. The classical course lasts seven years, and the commercial course four years. The Western University at London, the latest addition to the On- tarian universities, is an institution in connection with the Church of England in Canada, and is empowered to confer degrees in arts, medicine, law, and di- vinity, subject to certain conditions con- tained in the act of incorporation. Huron College, a similar Church of England in- stitution, has been incorporated with it, and forms its faculty of divinity. It is a small and tentative institution, its absorp- tion into a larger university system being UNIVERSITIES 469 specially provided for in its constitution. In the province of Quebec there are three universities. The principal of these is the M'Gill University at Montreal, which re- ceived its first charter in 1821, and an amended one in 1852. The university itself is an examining body, all educa- tional work being carried on in M'Gill College and in the affiiliated colleges and schools. Its statutes and regulations are framed on the most liberal principles, with a view to affording to all classes the greatest possible facilities for the attainment of mental culture and professional ti-aining. It embraces the faculties of arts, applied science, law, and medicine, and the usual degrees are granted in each. A new build- ing for the medical faculty was opened in 1885, which has the reputation of being- one of the most complete structures of its kind in existence. The facilities it gives for the thorough and practical teaching of the primary branches are said to be equal to those of the most advanced European medical schools. The other two univer- sities in the province are of a denomina- tional character, the University of Laval (1852) being governed by the Roman Catholic Church, and the University of Bishop's College in Lennoxville (1853) by the Protestant Episcopal Church. The earliest academical foundation in Nova Scotia was King's College and University at Windsor. It originated in a recom- mendation made by a committee of the House of Assembly in 1787, was founded by Act of Parliament in the following year, and received a royal charter from George III. in 1802. It is an institution of limited extent, and is cotanected with the Church of England. Dalhousie College and University at Halifax was founded in 1821, but did not come into operation until 1838. Even tlien it had a struggle for existence, and for some years was actually closed altogether. The college was reorganised in 1861, and received further legislation in 1875 and 1881. In 1868 a faculty of medicine was added, W'hich ultimately developed into an affili- ated college ; and in 1883 a faculty of law was established. Between 1879 and 1884 several new professorships were endowed by the liberality of private persons, and the erection of new buildings was com- menced in 1887. In South America universities and kindred institutions are spreading rapidly. The Imperial College of Brazil at Rio de Janeiro has a staff of more than twenty professors. Its course of study extends over seven years, at the end of which the degree of Bachelor of Aits may be ob- tained. There are also in Brazil faculties of law and medicine, the latter of which confers degrees after a curriculum of six years. A number of Brazilians are usu- ally in attendance at the University of Coimbra in Portugal, where not a few have gained considerable distinction. In the Argentine Republic superior educa- tion is given in two universities, com- prising faculties of law, medicine, and engineering, and attended by a total of about 900 students. Universities and colleges were founded in Peru very soon after the Spanish Conquest. The central university of San Marcus at Lima is the most ancient in the New World. Its charter was granted by the Emperor Charles V. in 1551, who conceded to it all the privileges enjoyed by the Univer- sity of Salamanca, and the existing build- ings were commenced in 1571. It has faculties of theology, jurisprudence, medi- cine, political science, and applied sciences. The University of Chili has a staff of nearly forty professors, besides assistants, and is attended by about 700 students. It is a free university, and embraces the faculties of theology, law, medicine, hu- manity, and mathematics, in all of which it grants degrees. In the United States of Venezuela there are two universities, with nineteen federal colleges and over 2,500 students. In accordance with a recent decree of the President of the Re- public the central university of Venezuela commenced the publication of a monthly Revista Cientifica in September 1887. Indian Universities. — In India the Universities of Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras were founded in 1857, on the model of the University of London. These universities are therefore merely examining boards, all instruction qualifying for their degi'ee examinations being carried on in colleges and other institutions recognised by or affiliated to them. The special function of the Indian universities, accord- ing to their charters of incorporation, is to ascertain by means of examinations the persons who have acquired proficiency in different branches of literature, science, and art, and to reward them by academical degrees. Originally, the granting of de- 470 UNIVERSITIES grees was confined to the departments of arts, law, medicine, and civil engineering, but in 1860 an Act was passed enabling the universities to confer additional degrees in other departments of knowledge, and in 1884 the power of granting honorary- degrees was also granted. The universities control the whole course of higher educa- tion in India by means of their examina- tions. The matriculation examination is open to all, but when that is passed candi- dates for higher stages must enrol them- selves in one or other of the affiliated colleges. Many fall off at this stage, and few proceed to the higher degrees. Cal- cutta possesses the great majority of gra- duates in law and medicine, while Bombay is similarly distinguished in engineering. The number of native institutions recog- nised by the University of Bombay for the purposes of graduation examination is fifteen. The number recognised by Cal- cutta University is much larger, viz.; in arts, up to the B.A. standard, forty-nine ; up to the first arts standard, twenty- six ; in law, nineteen; in medicine, one; in engineering, two. Such recognition is only obtainable by institutions which have the means of educating up to the standard of the highest degree in the faculty in which recognition is desired. Reasonable assurance is also required that they are established on a more or less permanent basis. At Bombay, within the past few years, there has been a great increase in the number of candidates presenting them- selves for examination. The course of study for the science degree has been revised and extended. The study of French has been introduced, and Indian palaeogra- phy has been added as an optional subject for the degree of M.A. in languages. At the matriculation examination of 1886-87, 2,452 candidates presented themselves, of whom only 527 passed. The large percentage of failures is accounted for by the defective state of primary and secon- dary education in the provinces. By far the greater number of failures occui'red in the case of candidates who had been pri- vately educated. Of these only 42 out of 1,066 were successful. These examinations are taken advantage of by candidates of various religions and nationalities. The lists regularly include Parsees, Brahmans, Hindoos, Mahommedans, Jews, native Christians, and Europeans. A fourth university has been founded at Lahore, for the Punjab. Its constitution is similar to that of the other three, but it includes the teaching element, and follows more Oriental lines. It dates from 1882, when its first convocation was held at Lahore, in the presence of the Viceroy. The in- stitution rapidly gained in popularity, and even in its second session it may be said to have rivalled Calcutta University, so far as natives of the Punjab are con- cerned. A singularly unfortunate circum- stance affecting the Indian universities is the difficulty of preventing frauds in con- nection with their examinations. This circumstance was the subject of a Govern- ment inquiry at Lahore in the spring of 1888, and the syndicate of Bombay Uni- versity was about the same time urged to appoint a committee to investigate into the real cause of the failure of so many candidates at the university examinations. Australian Universities. — New South Wales has the credit of having founded the first university, not merely in the Australian colonies, but in the southern hemisphere. The Act of Incorporation of the University of Sydney received the royal assent on December 9, 1851. It empowered the new university to confer, after examination, degrees in arts, law, and medicine, and endowed it with an annual income of 5,000/. The University Extension Act of 1884 increased its gradu- ation powers to all branches of knowledge except theology. The same Act admitted women to all its privileges equally with men. There are nominally four faculties in the university, but there are as yet no professorships in the faculty of laAv. The object of the university is to supply the means of a liberal education to all orders and denominations without any distinction. The lectures of the professors are accord- ingly open to persons not members of the university, on payment of a moderate fee for each course, and undergraduates of other universities are received ad eundem statum under certain regulations. Provi- sion was made as early as 1854 for the foundation of colleges within the univer- sity in connection with the various religious denominations, iia which students of the university might enjoy the advantages of residence, instruction in the doctrine and discipline of their respective Churches, and tuition supplementary to the professorial lectures. Three such colleges have been established — one in connection with the UNIVERSITIES 471 Church of England, another with the Presbyterian Church, and a third with the Roman Catholic Church. In addition to the ordinary courses, evening lectures are provided by the university, embracing all the subjects necessary for the degree of B.A. This evening curriculum extends over a period of five years, but attendance only qualifies for graduation in the case of those who have matriculated, and whose circumstances are such as to preclude them from attendance during the day. The University of Melbourne was estab- lished under a special Act of the Legislature of Victoria, which was assented to on January 22, 1853. This Act, as amended in 1881, provides for the endowment of the university by an annual payment out of the general revenue, as well as for the government and administration of its af- fairs. The foundation stone of the uni- versity buildings was laid on July 3, 1854, and the opening ceremony took place on October 3 in the following year. In 1880 the university was thrown open to women, who are now admitted to all its privileges, except as regards the study of medicine. Two colleges have been afliliated to it — one in connection with the Church of England, and another in connection with the Presbyterian Church. Since the open- ing of the university 2,084 students have matriculated, and 955 degrees have been granted, of which 694 were direct, and 261 ad eundem. In 1886, 908 candidates presented themselves for matriculation, of whom 327 passed. Among recent changes may be mentioned the introduction of biology as the subject of a new professor- ship, the division of mental and moral philosophy into separate courses, and the fuller and more practical teaching of chem- istry, botany, and zoology. The University of Adelaide dates from 1875, and largely owes its origin to the generosity and public spirit of a wealthy colonist. It has been further endowed by Government, and has received a constitution and organisation similar to those of the two older Australian universities. The University of New Zealand is a .colonial institution not confined to any particular province, estabKshed under an Act of the General Assembly in 1870. Its work is chiefly carried on by afiiliation to it of the higher educational bodies in the different provinces. The university does not, however, confine itself entirely to working through the affiliated institu- tions, but grants degrees in the same mamier as other universities, and from the funds at its disposal establishes scho- larships and other aids to the prosecution of study. Besides some minor establish- ments, the following important educational institutions have already been affiliated to the university: the University of Otago, Dunedinj the Canterbury College (Christ- church), and University College, Auckland. Another university college is to be estab- lished at Wellington, the capital of the colo- ny, and a scheme is in contemplation for the reorganisation of the university as a whole. The University of Otago was founded in 1869 by an ordinance of the Provincial Council, with a view of promoting sound learning in the province, and was opened in 1871 with the modest staff of three arts professors. In the following year its endowments were materially increased, and considerable additions made to the staff" of professors and lecturers. On its affili- ation to the University of New Zealand in 1874, the University of Otago relin- quished the power it had received of con- ferring degrees — all examinations for gra- duation, as well as for scholarships and matriculation, being thereafter conducted by the more comprehensive university. This agreement was the means of still further increasing its revenues, and in 1877 the colonial Government voted an annual grant for the establishment and support of a school of mines. The univer- sity now contains a faculty of arts, and schools of medicine, law, and mines. There is no theological faculty, and no religious tests are imposed upon its members. The library, laboratory, and museum are in an efficient state, and a number of valuable scholarships are open to competition. The University of the Cajje of Good IIo2:>e was established by an Act of Parlia- ment assented to on June 26, 1873, and is an examining body forming the cope- stone of the system of public instruc- tion in the colony. Grants in aid are voted from the public revenue towards the general expenses of the university, including bursaries, and also towards the salaries of professors and lecturers in colleges which offer facilities to students to qualify themselves for degrees in the university. In the year 1885 the university and colleges absorbed 8,000Z. of the Govern- ment expenditure for public education. 472 UNIVERSITIES There are over nine hundred matricuhxted studpnts in the llvo oollogos rocoiving siu^h (iovonui\out assistaiioo. I'p to 18S7 the iuuhIkh' of graduatos was ir)r>, i-hiotly in arts. The Impevtal Unhrrsltii of Japan at Tokio had its oiigiu in the iuteUeotual activity whieh t'olUnved tlu^ politieal revo- lution of I8t)8. The oUl system of edu- eation was then east aside and a new system devised, wliieh shortly aftia-wards beeame established by law. The history of tlu> university, although brief, is some- what eomplioated, the institution haAing passed through various phases before it was placed on its present basis. The faculties of law, inathematieal and physieal science, and literature, spring from a school which in 18()9 received the name of the ' Uni- \ersity of tlu^ Soxith,' to distinguish it from another which was founded about the sauui tinu\ and which afterwards came to be called tlie ' Ihiiversity of the East.' In 1877 tliese two imiversities were united, the latter becoming the me- dical faculty of the new university of Tokio. In 1881 the university received a new constitution, which provided for the appointn\eut of a president, four deans of faculties, professors, assistant professors, teachers, and other officers. The faculties were also to some extent rearranged, and regulations regarding the curriculum of studies issued. In the following year the curriculum was enlarged, so as to include the study of the Japanese language and antiquities and other subjects ; and in this year the custom of sending selected stu- dents to Europe to prosecute their studies was inti'oduced. A new degree was in- stituted in 188;>, and changes of ditferent kinds were etVected in succeeding years, ending with the reorganisation of the uni- A-ersity and its erectioii into the Imperial University of Japan in 1880. The new university comprises live colleges or sec- tions : (1) law, {-2) medicine, (o) engineer- ing, (4) literature, (A) science. Each of these is placed under a Japanese director, and the whole institution is under the control of the IMinister of State for Edu- cation, and depends for its revenue on annual allowances from the treasury of the imperial Government. The constitu- tion of the univei'sity eud)races many of the best features of the European systems. Students before entering must ha>e under- gone a satisfactory preparatory training. In at least two of the faculties the study of English and German is compulsory, ami tlu> ailditiou of French is reconunended where prai-tii-able. T'he course of study in the medical faculty extends over four years ; in tlie other faculties it is one year shorter. The university is well eipiipped with libraries, laboratories, and museums ; and a marine zoological station was esta- blished at JNlisaki in December 1880. Its nuunbers h;ue latterly displayed consider- able literary activity, as well as capacity f(U' scientitic investigation. The official publications of tlie xuiiversity incliuh' Joarxa/ft of the tSclcnce axd Medical Co/- /('(/cs-and Mfiitoirs of the LUemture Co/hu/r. Tlie number of students on the roll for the year 1887-88 was 097, of whom "J') were prosecuting original research in the University Hall Lite rat tor. — There is a distinct want of a comprehensi\e work giving a general account of uni\ersities and university systems throughout the world. Such iu- forniation can only be gleaned from a great variety of sources, many of them more or less unsatisfactory and incom- plete. Professor C Meiners' (iesehichte der hohen Schulen, 4 Bde., Gottingen, 1802-5, was never a satisfactory perform- ance, and is now quite out of date. The iirst serious attempt to deal adequately with the early history of universities Avas that made by E. C. von Savigny in his (leKchiehto des Q'oDiischen liechfa, Bd. o, iHe. Ausg., Heidelberg, 1834; but this, too, has been superseded by Eather Hein- ricli Henitle s really epoch-making work, /)/(■ I'll irersifdteii den Jlifte/a/ters bis 1 400, of which only the tirst volume has yet appeared (Berlin 1885). Alongside Denitle may be placed E. Paulsen s (lesehiehte. des (/elehrfen Uiiferriehtti, Leipzig, 1885, and the same author's articles on Die Oriin- diDKj, Otyaiiisatiou uvd Lehensordnutn/en der dentscheik Univen>ifdte)i des Mittel- alters in von Sybel's JUstoriscke Zeit- schrift, Bd. 45, 1881. Among less im- portant but suggesti\e works may be mentioned ^'oll Hollinger's Die Universi- tdteii sonst ■and Jetzf, Miinchen, 1807 ; J. H. Newman's Idea of a Universiti/ defined a lid ill list ra ted, 'ovdcd\t\on,ljondou, 187o (Pickering) ; INIatthew Arnolds Schools and Uiiiirrsitiesoii the Coiitinenty London, 1808 (Macmillan); and Professor S. S. Laurie's Lectures on the Rise and Early Constitution of Universities, Lou- n UNIVERSITIES 473 don, 1886 (Kegan Paul). Much accurate and interesting information regarding some of the more noted German, Austrian, Belgian, Dutch, and English universities is contained in the Etudes de la Societe 2)our V etude des questions d'enseigne'ment superieur, Paris, 1878, Dr. A. Kuyper's Ilet recht tot universiteitsstichting, Am- sterdam, 1880, although mainly a contro- versial dissertation, contains an able dis- cussion of an interesting constitutional question. An intelligent account of university education in Great Britain is given in the elaborate report by MM. Demogeot et Montucci, De I'enseignement superieur en Angleterre et en Ecosse, Paris, 1870. On the English universities F. W. Newman's translation of V. A. Huber's Die englisclien Universitdten, 3 vols., London, 1843, will still be found worth consulting. Mr. H. C. Maxwell Lyte's History of the University of Oxford, Lon- don, 1886 (Macmillan), extends only to the year 1-530 ; the only general history of recent date being the short sketch by the Hon. G. C. Brodrick, London, 1886 (Longmans). Valuable documents illus- trative of Oxford University life and study are to be found in the Munimenta Academica, edited by the Rev. H. Anstey, 2 vols., London, 1868 (Rolls Series), and in the publications of the Oxford His- torical Society, commenced in 1884. Eor a full and trustworthy view of the current working of the university, reference may be made to Oxford : its Life and Schools, edited by A. M. M. Stedmaji, London, 1887 (Bell & Sons) ; and to the Student's Handbook to the University, 9th edition, Oxford, 1888 (Clarendon Press). The statutes as revised by the University Commissioners were published at the Clarendon Pi-ess in 1885. The standard history of Cambridge University is Mr. J. Bass Mullinger's, of which two volumes have appeared, bringing the narrative down from the earliest times to the ac- cession of Charles I., Cambridge, 1873-84 (University Press). It is a work of con- spicuous ability and of permanent his- torical value. The magnificent Architec- tural History of the University, by Pro- fessor R. Willis and J. W. Clark, 4 vols., Cambridge, 1886 (University Press), is by no means so restricted in its scope as the title would seem to indicate. A fourth edition of the indispensable Student's Guide was issued in sections between 1880 and 1882 by Deighton, Bell & Co. ; and the revised Ordinances of the Uni- versity were published at the Cambridge Warehouse in 1885. Tlhe Story of the University of Edinhtirgh has been told by Sir Alexander Grant, 2 vols., t London, 1884 (Longmans) ; but the other Scottish universities have not as yet found his- torians, although the muniments of Glas- gow and Aberdeen have been printed by the Maitland and Spalding Clubs. The Scottish university system may best be studied in the various reports of Royal Commissions extending from 1830 to 1878, and in the numerous occasional publications connected with them. The history of the University of Paris has been very fully but not very accurately recorded in the six stout folios of Bulseus, Paris, 1665-73, condensed and translated into French by Crevier, 7 vols., Paris, 1761, and continued to its suppression, with an index of documents by Jourdain, Paris, 1862-66. The early regulations of the University of France are given in the various editions of the Code Universi- taire, and a short record of progress is given by Jourdain in his Rapport sur Vinstruction puhlique, Paris, 1867. An interesting work of a popular kind is Vallet de Viriville's Histoire de Vinstruc- tion publiqice en Europe et pirincipalement en France, Paris, 1849. The most recent work on the Universities of Germany is J. Conrad's German Universities for the last fifty years, translated by J. Hutche- son, Glasgow, 1885. J. M. Hart's Ger- man Universities, New York, 1874, is a well-written sketch from personal observa- tion, and there are chapters of a similar kind but from a different point of view in Father Didon's Tloe Germans, Edinburgh, 1884 (Blackwoods). The older works of Schaff", Tholuck, Howitt, Mayhew, and others, may still be consulted with advan- tage. The work of C. Laverrenz, entitled Die Medaillen tend Geddchtnisszeichen der deutschen Hochschulen, 2 Bde., Berlin, 1885-87, is not of much historical value, but it treats of the subject in a new Kght. K. von Raumer's Die deutschen Universi- tdten, 4te Aufl., Gutersloh, 1874, is a good outline of the German University system in moderate compass. J. F. W. Koch's Die preussischen Universitdten, 3 Bde., Berlin, 1839-40, is a collection of ordi- nances bearing upon the constitution and government of these universities. There •I7tl rMVi:K81TlKS ITNlVl'.KslTV KX TKNSlON juvalso histoi'ios of most ol' tlio iiuli\ idual univorsitios of (^orumny, so»m> of tluMu lioing AvorkvS of jyivut morit. M\w\\ has also boon doi\o in tho way of pviutinij orii^iual iloouinonts, inohuliuij uiHtrioula- i\o\\ ami ^Tadnation ivijistoi"s. t"ounda(ioi\ ohartors, stntutos. Ao. A lu-iof oompari vson botwoou Itulian aiul Uonna»\ luiivor irtitv motluxls is givou in L. Oooi's La ri/ornm to»Mv*v»/<»n(r, lvo\ua, IS8J» ; and aUo in l.ru/i'tlinioiif* .f^'ohtntii'ii t'oiii}>(U'U\y;na I'nivtM'sity woro pviblislioil in oonnootion with tho oolobnx- tionof its oiiihth oontouarv in .luno l^v'^S. Tho bo^t aoooviutof tho Spanish uuivoi*si- tvos is that ijv\ou by O. N'ioouto do la Kuonto in l»is //iatoria dt' fas iniiiYmi- t AriAv, t'tc, fut Kitpai)a., of whioh t wo voluinos havo boon publishod, Madrid. 188t-;">. A ourious tablo of stntistios Nvjis issuod fivtu Madrid in 1870 xnulor the hoadiug of /id f*i,NV /)<»*» ;r» unirrrsitat'ia f*» /Caitttfia. Tho boginninsi-s of univoi-siiy history in liussia may bo tniood in Count O. A. Tolstoi's />*V «fX'(n/f'mj\vv/(<' Vnirrmitat iiu 18. JaJtr/nnhi<'rf, St. IVtorsburiv. 188(5. Tl»o subsoquont history, orsianisation. and rosults must bo gsvtliorod from otlioial publioations and fix>m tho works of suoh writors as l"\'ka»iU. Stopuiok, and Tik- homiixu". Tho most- roooi\t lo^islation is disoussod in tho Corman publioation, A\- j'orm (/f-r r»vs>*»,sv/if*» VnitYr^itafr'ih Leipzig, 1880. Thoiv is no gvnonvl dosoriptiou of tho i^oandinavian univorsitios. but thoiv JUY' oxooUont historios of oaoh — Matzen's A'johr-iiJniniii rniirr.tittts Krtitfii'^tonf- bo- ing quito a nuistorly work. Tho annual roports of tho Couvmissionor of Kduoatiou publishod at Washington sinoo 1870 con- tain tho bost availablo infonnation in sliort spaoo on .\n\orioan univoi-sity odu- oation. but dotailsof sopanito institutioiis must bo sought for in thoir otUoial publi oations or in spooial monogniphs. N oarlv i all tho British, .VnuM-ioan. a»\d Colonial I univorsitios issuo aiuxual oalondavs or } oataloguos which ai\> iiulisponsablo to ; i»\tonding students and to all who wish I to ui\dorsta>»d tho soopo at\d woi"king of ! partiovdar institutions. In tunnnaiw a goi\oiul Cnh't'rititatiiktdi^uJtr \» publishod ; iwioo ;v yoar at Inn-lin. and tho various lootuiv lists aiv also ivgularly pritxtovl in ; tho Likninixht}^ CiittntlbUxtt at Leipzig. I I'oriodioul publioations in oonnoot ion with univorsitios havo usually boon shortlived. Tho bost o.\isting organ of superior in- struction is the /I'fTja' iiitcninfioiuilfi (/<« rhiafntctlon linpt'i'lrHtiy, publishod at Varis since 1881. // T'/j/rov/M isagood Itiilian periodical, issued by a iSocioty of Piv fossors at i^ologna since 1887, although soniowhat local in its ;utus. TJiiiversity Collego, London, t^m l^NlVKi;srriKS. University CoUeg'es, Liverpool, Dun- dee. SoutJi Wales. &c. Sr*e Puovincial Coi.i.ki;k.s. University Extension. - .\ university oihu-atiou. in its fullest sense, oai\not be obtained without residence at a univivrsity seat. But exporionco lias sliown that \inivoi-sity teaching nuiy, to a coi'tain ex- tent, bo oarriod on successfully in towi\sfar removed fixun a univorsity^cnt re. This has luHM\ accon\plishod by nu\ins of UkuI lec- tures anil classes conducted by university men. ai\d isthoivsuH of what is ki\own as thol' i\ivorsity V^iXtonsion Movement. This movement dates frou\ 1 87 'J, and owes its origin to an invitation which was sent to ri"ofessiir iStuart of Trinity College, Cam- bridge, by an association for tho higluu* odvu'ation of women (^with vsocietios in Li- verpool, Manchester, Shotliold, and IahhIs), asking him to give a. course of loctuivs on tho art of teaching, rrofossor 8tuart do- clinod-to lecture oi\ teaching, but engaged to give a course of lectmvs on a«t ixnunny in all four towns, going fixnn one to tlie other each week. This experiment -wjis in tho highest degree successful, and soon after its completion Professor Stuart began .a t\ow course at Uochd.ilo. th\ tho expo- rionct^ g-ivinod at those two courses the I'nivorsity Kxtonsion schen\o as it now exists was founded and org'jxnisod. Tho aiuv of tho inovonuMit is tho for- niatioi\ of ai\ itiiuM-ant teaching organis;i- tion connecting the universities with the t\atiot\ at largo. It is uuxinly occupied with carrying university teaching to the doors of peopK^ who cannot conu'> up to the universities. At tho saute tinvo it endeavours by its institution of athliatod students to oncouriigi^ and facilitate tvsi- deuco in tho uni\ersity as a civwuing point in the educational systotn of whicli it is a pjvrt." It has throughout been a joint movoiueitt between tho universities and tho towns, tho intluence of tho oiu» being as iutportant as that of tho other. UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 475 The universities undertake the educational organisation ; the towns provide the funds and attend to the local management ; the whole constituting a network of local branches, working independently in asso- ciation with the universities as a common centre. The cost of each course of lec- tures to a locality varies from 601. to 701. The university fee for the lecturer and examination is 461., to which must be added the local expenses of printing, ad- vertising, hiring rooms, &c. In a period of ten years up to 1887 eight hundred courses of lectures were delivered, with an aggre- gate attendance of eighty thousand stu- dents, of whom about thirty-eight thousand did home-work and over ten thousand pre- sented themselves for examination. The session extends from the end of September to April, and contains two terms of three months each. No limit is placed on the subjects of the lecture-courses, but in practice they may be divided into three groups — (1) literature and history, (2) sci- ence, and (3) art. The method pursued in the movement is based upon the recogni- tion in all that is done of two kinds of people to be dealt with : (1) popular lec- ture audiences, (2) in every audience a nucleus of students. Those are regarded as students who are willing to do some home-work, however little, between one lecture and another. The combination of these two kinds of people is found to be for the advantage of both. The presence of students raises the educational character of the lectures, and the association of students with a popular audience gives to the teaching an impressiveness that mere class teaching could never attain. For such audiences and students the movement provides courses of lectures accompanied by classes, weekly exercises, and examina- tions for certificates. The lectures are given weekly in connected courses, and in order to ensure a complete and thorough handling of the subject each course con- sists of not less than twelve lectures. In no case can single lectures be given, or series of lectures on disconnected subjects, the movement having no intention of competing with regular institutions for popular lecturing. The lecturers are for the most part young men who are willing to devote themselves to teaching as well as to lecturing, and the intention is that the lectures should be as interesting as other popular lectures, with the differ- ence that they chiefly aim at the interest of continuity. The substance of every course of lectures is laid down in a printed syllabus, which is meant to avoid the ne- cessity of note-taking on the one hand and of forming a condensed text-book of the course on the other. References to other books, for fuller details, are made whenever necessaiy. This syllabus con- tains, among other things, weekly exer- cises in the subjects of the lectures adapted to students of all sorts, and intended to be done by them in working at home and at their leisure. The working of these exercises is entirely voluntary, and stu- dents may even send in their answers anonymously. The lecture usually lasts an hour, another hour being taken up witli class work, in which the lecturer, in a less formal way, seeks to elucidate and drive home the matter of his subject. At the close of each course of lectures and classes a final written examination is held (conducted, not by the lecturer, but by an independent examiner selected by the university) upon the matter of the lectures as indicated in the syllabus. This examination is also voluntary, but is only open to those who have done the weekly class exercises to the satisfaction of the lecturer. In connection with each three months' course certificates are granted by the university to students who satisfy a double test, viz. (1) the lecturer's report on the weekly exercises, and (2) the spe- cial examiner's report on the final exami- nation. Great importance is attached to this double basis upon which the certifi- cates are awarded, as it entirely obviates many of the disadvantages of the more common system of examination-tests. The certificates granted are of two kinds. Pass and Distinction ; but order of merit and competition generally have no place in the working of the movement. The chief fea- tures of the University Extension scheme are thus the circuit, the lecture, the class, the syllabus, the examination, and the cer- tificate. An extended plan of study has been laid down by the syndicate of Cambridge University, in the form of a combination of single courses, for w^hich special university privileges are offered. This extended course will occupy, as a rule, three years, and will be accepted by the university in place of the first year of the regular university course. Students who have followed this 476 UNIVERSITY EXTENSIOK university extension course and obtained certificates for the different parts of it will receive the title of 'Students affiliated to the university/ and have the right at any subsequent time to proceed to the university and obtain its degrees after two years' residence in place of three. But the purpose of this institution of affi- liated students goes further than this. It is intended to encourage continuity of study, and to give the arrangement of a properly organised plan of work ; and in fulfilling their functions as national insti- tutions the universities believe that it is eminently desirable that, in addition to those who can become full members of them by residence, they should have a large body of students all over the country attached to them as associates, with every encouragement given them to become full members. The principle on which this course for affiliated students is arranged is as follows : (1) The greater part of it belongs to the special department of study to which the student's inclinations lead him ; (2) as in the full university course, it is recognised that special studies require to be supplemented with a certain amount of introduction to more general studies; (3) this combination of special and general constitutes the scheme of study, but before admitting to the position of an affiliated student it is necessary for the university to take some guarantee that the student has received that minimum of elementary education which all the universities agree in requiring before they admit persons into formal connection with them. Ac- cordingly, the course for affiliated students falls into three parts: (1) the special series of courses, (2) the general series of courses, and (3) the elementary examination, which embraces Latin and one other foreign language, the first three books of Euclid, and algebra to quadratic equations. The extension movement has reached all classes of society without distinction. Audiences as miscellaneous as those of the congregation of a church or chapel have been repeatedly secured — an important feature of the scheme being that it is entirely free from religious or political bias. In some towns the lectures have been so successful as to lead to the founda- tion of permanent educational institutions. The University College at Nottingham is a conspicuous instance of this — the original endowment of 10,000/. having been given on condition that the Town Council would erect buildings for the ac- commodation of the university extension lectures, and to the satisfaction of the University of Cambridge. Similar results have followed in Liverpool, Sheffield, Leeds, and other places. Although the University Extension scheme has been chiefly identified with Cambridge, the other universities have by no means stood aloof from it. Durham University has actively co-operated with Cambridge in the north of England, where the movement has been remarkably suc- cessful ; and the University of Oxford has since May 1885 taken its share of the work. Within two years its weekly courses of lectures and classes had been conducted in twenty-two towns and attended by more than 6,000 students, of whom the greater part were working men. The delegates of the University have also established travelling libraries containing the chief text-books and authorities recommended by the lecturers. These libraries have proved to be of the greatest value to stu- dents in towns where access to suitable books for study and reference is difficult. In London the movement is associated with the Universities of Oxford, Cam- bridge, and London, and is carried on with much energy by the London Society for the Extension of University Teaching, which was instituted for the purpose in 1876. The work of the movement has also extended to Wales, where it is now carried on independently by the three University Colleges at Bangor, Aberystwith, and Cardiff. Each of these colleges arranges for Extension lectures in its own district, and, especially in North and South Wales, they have been taken advantage of by an encouraging number of regular students. The University Extension movement has been somewhat slow in taking root in Scotland. This may to some extent be accounted for by the general accessibility of the Scottish universities themselves, for there is much truth in the remark once made by Lord Reay, that the prin- ciples of the Church of Scotland and of John Knox had made such a movement in Scotland superfluous. Notwithstand- ing this, the scheme has been agitated, and experiments have even been tried. Perhaps the most favourable of these was in the case of the University of St. UNIVERSITY EXTENSION UNIVERSITY REFORM 477 Andrews, which, as early as the winter of 1875-76, conducted five courses of lec- tures in the neighbouring town of Dundee. In point of attendance these lectures were a decided success, and those who underwent the prescribed examinations acquitted thenaselves in the main with considerable credit. But the enthusiasm which met them at the outset was not maintained, and in the second and third series the attendance fell off by about one- half. The lectures were accordingly dis- continued, and are now rendered unneces- sary by the subsequent foundation of a University College in Dundee. In the winter of 1886-87 a provisional com- mittee was formed in Edinburgh for the purpose of elaborating and, if possible, carrying out a scheme of Scottish univer- sity extension. The subject was also brought under the notice of the senates of the four Universities, and several of the larger towns were visited by the promoters of the scheme, with a view to securing their co-operation. A circular was drawn up and distributed, together with syllabuses of some of the proposed courses of lec- tures, the result being highly encouraging. At Perth, Montrose, Dunfermline, and Dumfries, societies were immediately es- tablished that those towns might avail themselves of the advantages offered by the movement. A course of lectures on botany was delivered to about seventy students at Dunfermline in the summer of 1887, and was followed by a more largely attended course in the autumn. At Dumfries a course on geology was equally well attended ; while at Perth, the more ambitious, two courses before and two after Christmas was tried with a success that exceeded all anticipation. The courses on English literature, phy- sical geography, political economy, and Greek literature were attended by over 600 students in all. In each case the evening lectures had to be repeated next day. The tutorial classes following the lectures were in all cases successful, and much work was done in the form of exer- cises and essays ; while the final exami- nation conducted by external examiners showed that a high standard had been attained. From Perth the movement spread to neighbouring towns, in which the course in English literature was re- peated to audiences even larger, in pro- portion to the population, than in Perth itself. These towns, by forming a joint local committee, secured the advantages of the scheme at a very moderate expense. The University of Glasgow has established a University Extension Board consisting of seventy-three persons, with an execu- tive committee of sixteen, to take charge of the western district of Scotland. This is more especially the outcome of the Queen Margaret Guild, in connection with the Queen Margaret College for women in Glasgow, by which in 1886 courses of in- struction were organised in Ayr, Helens- burgh, Paisley, Hamilton, Kilmarnock, and Lenzie. The general council of the University of Glasgow made a represen- tation to the university court in favour of the movement, and the senators, with the approval of the court, definitely or- ganised its extension scheme. The Uni- versity of St. Andrews formed a similar Board in March 1888, consisting of eighty persons, for the promotion of the move- ment, more especially in the counties of Fife, Forfar, and Perth ; and about the same time the University of Edinburgh prepared an Extension programme. Lec- turers licensed by any one of these uni- versities are eligible as lecturers in con- nection with any of the others. The provisional extension committee of 1886 is now superseded by these formal uni- versity boards. See The U7iiversity Ex- tension Movement, by R. G. Moulton, M. A., London, 1886; The Health Exhibition Lite- rature, vol. 16, London, 1884 (papers by Albert Grey, M.P., and E. T. Cook, with discussion) ; and the official publications of the various University Extension Boards. University Reform. — All that can here be attempted is an account of the reforms that have been carried within this genera- tion, and a suggestion of those reforms which are called for in the immediate fu- ture. The legislation of 1854 forms the natural starting point. The agitation for this reform was set on foot by Mr. Hey- wood, a Unitarian educated at Cambridge, who, in 1850, moved ' a humble address for a commission of inquiry into the state of the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, with a view to assist in the adaptation of these important institutions to the requirements of modern times.' A royal commission was granted by Lord J ohn Russell's G o vernm ent, which reported in 1852. In accordance with this report a Bill was introduced in 1854, which, in. 478 UNIVERSITY REFORM spite of violent opposition from the Church tincl Tory party, and with considerable modifications in committee, passed both Houses. The Universities Reform Act of 1854 (17 & 18 Yict., cap. 81) and the College Ordinances framed under its pro- visions effected wide and sweeping reforms both in the constitution of the universities and their curriculum. For the Hebdo- madal Board, consisting of heads of houses and the proctors, it substituted an elective council (with only four ex-officio members). The old Congregation, which had as little real power as the Homeric Agora, was re- placed by a deliberative assembly embrac- ing all resident members of Convocation. Fellowships generally were thrown open and awarded for other subjects besides classics and mathematics, and the number of scholarships was largely increased. Lastly, religious tests were abolished, ex- cept for the M.A. and higher degrees. The stimulus given by this Act to higher education may be roughly gauged by the growth of numbers. At Oxford, in the thirty-four years that have elapsed since the passing of the Act, the total of under- graduates in residence has risen from about 1,300 to over 2,500. A new college bear- ing the honoured name of John Keble has been erected, and another foundation, Hertford College, has been revived. A new class, the unattached or non-collegiate students, has been added to the univer- sity. But the Act of 1854 had no claim to be a settlement of the university. It was merely an enabling Act. The colleges were not remodelled, nor were incomes touclied. But the Act settled once and for all two fundamental principles : first, the right of Parliament to overhaul the accounts of the universities, and to deter- mine how its corporate property should be disposed of ; secondly, the right of all intellectually qualified students, whatever their creed, to be admitted to the univer- sities, as national institutions. It was not till 1877 that these principles were pressed home. The commission to inquire into aca- demical property and revenues appointed by Mr. Gladstone in 1873 resulted in the Oxford and Cambridge Universities Bill, passed by the Conservative Government of 1877. The principle of the bill is to make larger provision out of college reve- nues for university purposes. A commis- I sion for each university with large execu- tive powers was appointed, but the interests of the colleges were in some measure safe- guarded by a provision that each college, while its affairs were being discussed, should be represented on the commission by assessors elected ad hoc. The commis- sions sat for several years, and their pro- ceedings resulted in the transference, in round figui'es, of some 25,000/. a year from the colleges of each university to the uni- versity, the assessment being determined in each case by the wealth of each college as compared with its numbers. A respite also was allowed before enacting the full subsidy fixed by the commissioners. The income thus accruing to the university was assigned to various new pi'ofessor- ships, readerships, and lectureships, and a certain amount of university income was, by the same process, set free for the main- tenance of buildings, libraries, and mu- seums. The commissioners, moreover, in conjunction with the college assessors, remodelled the whole system of fellowships. 'Idle fellowships,' i.e. prize fellowships to which no conditions of residence or teaching are attached, were reduced in number and made terminable in seven years, and the majority of fellowships were attached to university or college offices. Clerical tests on fellowships and headships were, with a few exceptions, abolished. The value of college scholarships was restricted to 80/. a year, and nineteen was fixed as the limit of age. To pass to reforms which have origi- nated within the universities it will be sufficient to mention the Oxford and Cam- bridge Local Examinations, dating from 1858, by means of which the univex'sities have to a great extent assumed the control and supervision of middle-class education ; the Joint Board Examination, instituted at the instance of the Head-masters' Con- fei^ence, wliereby the same regulation was extended to the public schools and the su- perior class of grammar schools ; the Uni- versity Extension (q.v.) movement, ori- ginated in 1867 by a course of lectures that Pi'ofessor James Stuart delivered in Liverpool and other northern towns, has taken firm root in London and in several of the northern centi-es of industry ; and lastly the admission of women to the ex- aminations, though not as yet to the degrees of the older universities. It will be convenient to begin with UNIVERSITY REFORM 479 the last point mentioned in the discussion of impending reforms. Students of Newn- ham and Girton College were first allowed by the courtesy of individual examiners to take the papers in certain Tripos exa- minations ; then these informal examina- tions were recognised first by Cambridge, and afterwards, with certain restrictions, by Oxford ; but the Cambridge Senate in 1888 refused even to entertain a motion pressing this permission to its logical conclusion, and granting to women who had passed the required examinations the university degree. The main argument adduced by the opponents of this reform is most instructive. If, it was said, we admit women to honours degrees we must also admit them to pass degrees. But examinations for a pass represent such a narrow circle of studies and such a low intellectual standard that to admit women to these examinations would invite a class of idle women undergraduates, and would react injuriously on the curriculum of the high schools. Such an admission shows how far Oxford and Cambridge are still from being pure seats of learning. An Oxford professor has characterised re- sponsions and pass moderations as ' exa- minations which it is an indignity to re- quire a man to undergo who has arrived at years of discretion.' According to Prof. Sayer they represent ' the power of perpe- trating a piece of Latin prose, which would have made even a provincial stone-cutter of the fourth century sick to read, of reproducing in a mangled shape the im- possible English of some third-rate crib, without the faintest understanding of the thought or language of the original, and of setting down Greek forms which have no existence save in the pages of obso- lete and unscientific grammai^s.' Yet no reformer has yet had the courage to propose a i-aising of the standard, because a severer test would scare away young men of rank and wealth whose presence lends to Ox- ford and Cambridge their peculiar social charm. Yet Oxford and Cambridge have survived the extinction of the fellow- commoner, and we cannot doubt that they will proceed on the path of reform by enforcing more strictly the "Winchester motto, Aut disce aut discede. Another cognate reform that has often been mooted presents a more difficult pro- blem. That scholarships founded for the maintenance of indigent scholars should be held," as they too commonly are, by the sons of well-to-do or even wealthy men is an obvious abuse, yet it is not easy to suggest a remedy. To modern notions an enforced test of poverty would appear invidious and inquisitorial, and past ex- perience shows that such tests are sure to toe evaded. We must rather look to the growing influence of public opinion which will make it seem as disgraceful for a rich man to accept a scholarship for his son as it is for himself to accept a Ci\dl Service pension. At the same time, though much has been done, particularly in the case of Keble College, to diminish the cost of a university education, it is clear that it is still artificially enhanced. Another and a more pressing question remains — the relation of the university and the colleges. The last commission sought to strengthen the central authority and to increase its teaching power. This augmentation of the university was neces- sarily made at the expense of the colleges, and the colleges have, in consequence, been straitened in their means, and their efficiency has, to a certain extent, been im- paired. Whether this loss has as yet been compensated by the extension of the pro- fessoriate is doubtful. On this point some statistics gathered from a parliamentary re- turn, granted on the motion of Mr. Thorold Rogers, 1886, are instructive. At that date there were at Oxford and Cambridge 617 fellows ' ; of these 245 were employed in college work, and 79 were employed in university work. The attendance at the lectures of university professors varies from a maximum of 122 at Oxford (the Regius Professor of Divinity's lectui'es) and of 140 at Cambridge (the Professor of Anatomy's) to nil in either case. At Oxford the Camden Professor of An- cient History reports that in 1885 he of- fered a course of lectures, but no students sending in their names, he has not since attempted to lecture. At Cambridge the Professor of International Law had not lectured since 1880, when he was deterred from lecturing by his ministerial duties, and allowed to appoint a substitute. The Professor of Latin offered classes in three consecutive terms, but no classes could be formed. The defence advanced for these classless professors and the plea which some of them put forward is that they are 1 This is exclusive of fellowships at All Souls' College, most of which are honorary. 480 UNIVERSITY ROBES engaged in the work of research. But in this plea there seems to lurk a fallacy. The examples of Faraday, of Huxley and Tyndall, and a crowd of German professors, show that original investigation is stimu- lated rather than impeded by being pur- sued in conjunction with educational duties, provided these duties are not too onerous. ' Experience has shown that in any uni- versity where education is duly cared for re- search will take care of itself. '^ The present is a state of transition ; the university has ceased to be an aggregate of colleges, but it has not yet assumed its pi'oper function, to supply the highest teaching in every branch of knowledge, and at the same time to co-ordinate the tutorial teaching of the colleges. It has not yet perceived that something more than learning is re- quired in a professor, that he must be able to attract students and to kindle en- thusiasm. It would be well if his salary were made in part dependent on fees, and if the professorship were held only for a stated period and subject to re-election. A larger question remains which we can only glance at. To many it seems that the older universities have already reached a point at which accession of num- bers is no longer an accession of strength, and that the best hope for the future of higher education in England lies in the foundation of new institutions in the chief centres of industry and commerce on the lines of the Victoria University. A Royal Commission was appointed in 1888 to consider the requirements of London. The University of London, as has been often pointed out, is a misnomer. It is nothing but an Imperial Board of Examinations. Its degrees and diplomas have a high com- mercial value, and justly so, but the only genuine work of a university, the pursuit of knowledge and the training of facility, is not even attempted. A university, to borrow the words of Burke, is ' a part- nership in all science, in all art, in every virtue, in all perfection.' University Robes. — Academical life, and indeed educational life generally, has in all ages and amongst peoples of every kind and variety of confession sustained a close relation, whether in the way of parallelism or of reciprocal action, with the life of the cloister and the temple. The school has commonly been the ex- 1 Paper by G. W. Hemming, Q.C., International Conference on Education Proceedings, vol. iii. p. 334. pansion and the perpetuation of the shrine ; the college has frequently been the appanage and the survival of the con- vent. Thus it happens that the rise and progress of public schools and colleges, with the peculiar nomenclature inherited, developed, or affected by them, as well as the distinguishing habits which they adopted, are to be so largely traced in the history of monasteries or other ecclesias- tical foundations. The scholars— ior fel- lows, notwithstanding that the expression is met with in Chaucer, is a name of com- paratively later date — were monks and clerks, clerici ; the abbot was the custos, rector, warden, or magister of the dif- ferent orders ; bishops and abbots were (/radicates, and were so denominated, and distinguished by their dresses ; and the different habits are but habits of the old religious orders, somewhat improved. The monastery itself was called coUeghim ; and its language, its rules, and discipline all passed, by an easy transition, into the college forms still existing in the more ancient of our universities. Mr. Edmund Carter, a somewhat en- thusiastic historian of the University of Cambridge, forbears the endeavour ' to ascertain the original appointment of the several sorts of dress which have from time to time been appropriated to each degree ' conferred by the university. * I am of opinion,' he says, '■tha.t Acadetnical, or graduate habits of Universities, are much more ancient than those used by monastic orders ; yet, at the same time, it must be allowed that the present set of Academical habits are much altered from those worn by the Greeks, Romans, or ancient Jeivs, or by the Magi in Per- sia, or by the Druids in our own nation. Nor was it possible for them almost to escape the general alteration which was made by the long dominion of the Monks, Friars, and Canon-Regidars, over the minds, persons, and constitutions of this land. Thus it is we see an undergraduate in a gown of a novice of the Friars- Preachers ; the Masters of Arts in the habit of a Canon-Pegular of St. Augus- tine, a Doctor of Divinity nearly approach- ing to the dress of a Benedictine Monk. The cap is exactly borrowed from the said Canons ; and the colour of all those habits that are not black, and the shape of the hoods belonging to the several degrees, are only small variations from the dress ; UNIVERSITY ROBES 481 and the large cowl, which, to this day (1753), some of the Monastics wear, more for ornament than for use. But in this thing we are very happy, we use these dis- tinctions as the most pure ages have set us an example, for the well ordering the body politic, and not superstitiously to persuade the people they contain any merit in themselves, or convey any virtue or grace. Some badges of honour and ornament of learning have always been allowed of, amongst the most conscien- tious : and as the present habits of our graduates serve only to convey an imme- diate idea of their standing in the Univer- sity upon sight, they are not to be con- sidered evil in themselves, nor as conveying any of those superstitions which the Re- formation has banished from our Univer- sities.' A more particular reference — seeing that it is conversant about one religious fraternity only — of academical or univer- sity robes to the distinguishing habits of monastic orders, is made by Anthony a Wood, the annalist and historian of Ox- ford, a scholar with whom the honour of his Alma Mater was a ruling passion, strong in his life, strongest of all in his death. ' The next distinction for scholars, besides degrees, are habits and formalities, which have been used in this university,' says' Wood, ' from the days of King Al- fred (if not before) to these times. For when literature was restored by certain Benedictine monks whom that king ap- pointed to read in Oxford, the scholars did from that time, as we may suppose, take their fashions, that is to say, Ocreee, aut Vestes, vel Habitus de pulla chimera, i.e. boots, and garments, or habits of a black colour or resemblance. As for other formalities, which they did wear, as cap and hood, I am not certain whether the scholars followed the fashions of them or not, but as far as I can yet under- stand they did. Joh. Wolfius in speak- ing of the order and habit of the Bene- dictine monks, saith thus : " In vestitu veteres usi fuerunt cuculla, tunica, et scapulari : cuculla est cappa supra tuni- cam inferiorem quam Meloten quidam appellant : a nonnullis Tax dicitur : scapu- lare etiam a scapulis, quod scapulas tegit, &c." Which hood, coat, and scapular (the last being a narrow piece of cloth hanging down before and behind) were used (though since much enlarged) by our old scholars, as I have seen it on ancient glass windows, seals, &c.' The wide-sleeved gown which has for ages been the cliai-acteristic habit of the Benedictines, an order to whose members literature owes the gratitude due to splendour of service, was anciently used by the generality of scholars ; being at first, according to trusted authorities, ' no more than an ordinary coat, tunica, and i^ each ing only a little lower thaii the knees. The shoulders were but slightly gathered, if they were gathered at all ; and the sleeves, which afterwards gradu- ally came to be much enlarged, were ori- ginally not much wider than an ordinary coat. The form of the gown suggested the fashion of the surplice, or dahnatica — so called from the circumstance that, it was first produced in Dalmatia, where it was originally worn as a royal robe — which was in the beginning very scanty and slender, but afterwards wider than the gowns. When degrees ca'me to be more frequent, as. they did towards the close of the twelfth century, certain modi- fications of the gown were introduced for the sake of distinction, not only in rela- tion to the degrees themselves, but also to the various faculties in which they were taken ; the wide sleeves still being worn withal by bachelors, and by undergraduate holders of scholarships — 'worn at first black, then in several colours, and at length, when Dr. Laud was chancellor, black again by every scholar, unless the sons of noblemen, who may wear any colour. To conclude,' Wood proceeds, ' though there was a common distinction in vestitu made between the masters or doctors of theology, medicine, law, and arts, yet in solemn assemblies and peram- bulations or processions of the university, the fashions of their vestitus were all the same, only differenced by colour ; as for example, the fashion that masters or doc- tors or professors of theology used, was a scarlet gown with wide sleeves (not of a light red as now, but red with blue or purple mixt with it) faced with certain beast skins furred both costly and pre- cious. Over that was a habit of the same, viz. half a gown without sleeves, close be- fore, and over all a hood lined with the same matter that the gown is faced with. The fashion of a doctor or professor of law or medicine was the same with the- ologists, only distinguished by the facing and lining of another colour ; but that 1 1 482 UNIVERSITY ROBES of artists was commonly black, as their habits also were, but faced and lined with furs or minever. As for bachelaurs of arts, law, and physic, their gowns, which were of various colours, as russet, violet, tawny, bkie, &c., were also wide-sleeved, but not faced, and their hoods (for they had no habits) of the same colour with their gowns, but not lined, only edged with lamb or cony skin. The gown that a doctor of divinity now wears, as also that by a master of arts, or such that are in holy orders, hath no cape, only long sleeves with a cross slit to put the arms through. Which gown is not ancient, and never known to be worn by any be- fore the time of John Calvin, who, as 'tis said, was the first that wore it, but had the slit longways, and facing lined with fur.' With reference to the cap, pileum, or cappa, Wood remarks that the wise men of the ancient world and the priests were wont constantly to appear with the head covered, velato capite, i.e. pileato ; and that this custom was demanded of them severally by considerations of dignity and religion. ' The fashion being taken up by the philosophers at Athens did give occa- sion to the Parisians and afterwards to Oxonians to use them, they being imitators of their customs. Of what form we at the first used them, whether close, stepled, plaited, square or round, I know not. 'Tis probable we did in process of time imi- tate the Benedictines, as in other matters we did ; but then again, whether they in most ancient time did use the same fashioned cap as now, it may be a ques- tion, because by the acts of several coun- cils and chapters among them, alterations have been made. The square form, with the upper part something stepled, is an- cient, as hath been proved by pictures in ancient glass windows ; but when the laws and school divinity entered the uni- versity, the doctors of those faculties and of medicine wore round caps; the first and the last wear them still ; but some years before the Reformation of the Church of England, the theologists wore square, with- out any stifning in them (which caused each corner to flag), such as judges andjus- tices itinerant now use ' (Wood's History and Antiquities of Oxford). It is prob- able that the use of round caps Avas con- fined to doctors or mastei-s in divinity, who in the reign of Henry III., and an- tecedently, wore them when they preached either ad clerum or to the people. ' And as divines,' to revert to the ijysisshna verba of Wood, ' preached in caps (as they did in square afterwards, used by the Catho- . lick party in England, till Queen Mary died, and religion altered) so the auditors, if scholars, sate in them, which continued so till the late unhappy times ; but when K. Ch. II. was restored, then the auditors sate bare, lest if covered, should encourage the laical party to put on their hats, as they did all the time of rebellion. Some before the Reformation would preach in cappis clausis, but that they could not do without a dispensation.' In a note upon the foregoing extract from Anthony a Wood, it is stated that ' divines preached in square caps in the reign of Q. Mary, as may be seen .in the burning of Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer, recited by Mr. Fox. Dr. Smith preached at the burn- ing of Ridley and Latimer ; Dr. Hen. Cole at Cranmer's recantation.' And Wal- cott remarks that 'until the Restoration, the preacher and academical congregation wore their caps in sermon time at the universities.' Du Cange thinks that the square cap of the university was formerly that part of the amice — or furred hood, having long ends which hung down the front of the dress, something like a stole, and which was worn by the clergy for warmth when officiating in the church during inclement' weather — which covered the head, and afterwards became separated from it, that is from the amice. Mr. Fairholt, flavour- ing his remarks with a soupgon of raillery, says that ' the square caps, still worn at our universities, originated about the time of the Reformation, and were generally worn by grave and studious men.' It has undergone some modification from its original form; and, ' in its descent to our own days, the warm overlapping sides are discarded, and a plain, close skull-cap takes the place — the broad pointed top being imitated by a hard, square, flat piece of pasteboard and cloth, destitute of mean- ing and utility : preserving the form of antiquity, deprived of its spirit.' With regard to the hood, of which there have been several kinds, it is to be observed that the most ancient variety was that which was sewn or tied to the vipperpartof the coat or gown, and brought over the head for a covering, like a cowl_ UNIVERSITY ROBES 483 * Such a hood,' as Anthony a Wood says, ' which was for the most part used as an ornament for the head, was Latin'd capa, and sometimes cappa, epitheted several times with categorica, which probably did belong to sop listers or bachelaurs. I find it also to signify a hood for the shoulders, as in one of the University Registers, wherein 'tis ordered that no regent in arts or decrees or divinity read his lectures "in capa manicata, sed in pallio, vel in capa clausa.'" But the prin- cipal variety of hood requiring mention in this connection ' is such,' according to Wood, ' that is worn for an ornament of the shoulders, lined formerly with certain beasts' skins, but now and for several years since with taffeta, and hath its ori- ginal from the form. The Latin word being cucuUum, or caputium, is explained by some to be " os tunicje vel alterius vestis, nnde caput mittitur;" whence in the book of Job 'tis said, "capucio tunicse succinxit me." At fii'st the hood was but little and veiy scanty, and was used sometimes as a covei'ing for the head ; but when caps came to be generally used, then those hoods became only an ornament for the shoulders and back, and being by degrees enlarged, were lined with skins. A certain author (Dr. Thomas Gascoigne, of whose Theo- logical Dictionary, tlie manuscript of which is in the library of Lincoln Col- lege, Oxford, only "selected passages" have been published) tells us, that in ancient time the justices (itinerant, I suppose he means) of England used hoods Imed with lamb-skins and not with er- mine or minever, for then only bishops, doctors, and masters in the universities used minever and pure white and pure grey ; which lining, being afterward used by others of lower degrees, a statute whicli is ancient, was made, that none should wear such skins or fine linen or .silk in their hoods, but those that were of noble and royal blood, or a master or licentiat in any faculty, or one that had a seat in parliament, or one that could spend sixty marks de claro from a bene- fice, or pati'imony, under the pain of 20s. toties quotios.' Another ' formality ' appertaining to the University of Oxford in ancient times, and still lingering in a modified form in the time of Anthony a Wood, was that of boots, also ' had from the Benedictine monks ; inasmuch that I find it recorded, that there was anciently no master or doctor of arts proceeded but in bootes, as a token of respect to be had to the men of that order, who were the founders and restorers of literature before the time of K. Alfred. The ancient form and fashion of them was but small and came up to the middle of the leg, with little or no tops to them, even almost like to high shoes. . . . Plowever the fashion was, boots, styled in some of our registers botys, were used by masters of arts at their inception ; which continuing till the degrees of Doctor of Divinity and Decrees came in fashion were then used by them; and instead of bootes the masters were afterwards contented to wear pantables, which some have called sandals, others slippers, some again slopps and pynsons, Latin'd in our old books sandalia, liripi- piati, solutaria, &c., which I say they wore at their inception, that is in the time we call the Act and several weeks after, till such time they were dispensed with to leave them ofil The masters wear these by the name of slopps to this day, during the time only of the Act, for the next day after it is ended, at which time they are made regents, they are cut off" from their shoes.' The academical 'formality' of boots is so nearly obsolete, that even its symbolism is generally forgotten. Mr. Walcott is one of those who would rescue it from oblivion. 'The boot,' he says, ' was buttoned up the side of the leg like a gaiter ; hence, probably, the modern use of the latter by the bishops, who have always a doctor's degree. The doctor of divinity stood booted and spurred at his act, as if shod with the preparation of the Gospel, and ready always to preach God's Word.' It may be pertinent in this place to describe the robes of the personnel of the University of Oxford ; which, without any affectation of settling their several claims to precedence in the order of time, may be bracketed with Cambridge as the premier univei-sities of the world-wide empire of Great Britain. For these two venerable institutions present all the ap- paratus of the most fully-equipped uni- versities ; and they recognise, to an ex- tent beyond all others, the distinctions of rank which find expression in the costumes of their students, preserving also, beyond others, the differences between robes of state and ceremony, and of ordinary aca- ii2 484 UNIVERSITY ROBES clemical life. Further, they include in their economy every variety of function and graduation, except only for the omission of some minor or incidental office, or of some exceptional or quasi- local degree. With regard, then, to the robes of the officers of the University of Oxford, it is to be observed that the dress of the chancellor is of black damask silk, richly ornamented with gold embroidery, a rich lace band, and square velvet cap, with a large gold tassel. The proctors wear gowns of prince's stuff, the sleeves and facings of black velvet ; to the left shoulder is affixed a small tippet. To this is added, as a dress, a lai'ge ermine hood, which varies as black silk lined with black silk at Cambridge, and, at Dublin, as black silk lined with ermine. The pro-proctor wears a master of arts' gown, faced with velvet, with a tippet attached to the left shoulder. The col- lectors wear the same dress as the proc- tors, with the exception of the hood and tippet. The esquire bedels wear silk gowns, similar to those of bachelors of law, and round velvet caps. The yeo- man bedels have black stuff gowns, and round silk caps. The dress of the verger is nearly the same as that of the yeoman bedel. Bands at the neck are considered as necessary appendages to the academic dress of the vice-chan- cellor and proctors, particularly on public occasions. The doctor of divinity, the most au- gust of the graduates of any university conferring that distinction, has three dresses : the first consists of a gown of scarlet cloth, with black velvet sleeves and facings, a cassock, sash, and scarf. This dress is worn on all public occasions in the theatre, in public processions, and on certain Sundays and holydays specified in the University Calendar. The second is a habit of scarlet cloth, and a hood of the same colour lined with black, and a black silk scarf; the master of ai-ts' gown is worn under this dress, the sleeves appearing through the armholes of the habit. This is the dress of business ; and it is used in Convocation, congregation, and at morn- ing sermons on Sundays during term (ex- cept on Quinquagesima Sunday and the Sundays in Lent) and at afternoon ser- mons during Lent. The third, which is the usual dress in which a doctor of di- vinity appears, is a master of arts' gown, with cassock, sash, and scai-f. Tlie vice- chancellor and heads of colleges and halls have no distinguishing dress, but appear on all occasions as doctors in the faculty to which they belong. The dresses worn by graduates in law and physic are nearly the same. The doctor has three : the- fii-st is a gown of scarlet cloth, with sleeves: and facings of pink silk, and a round black velvet cap. This is the dress of state. The second consists of a habit and hood of scarlet cloth, the habit faced and the hooci lined with pink silk. This habit, which is perfectly analogous to the second dress^ of the doctor in divinity, has lately grown into disuse ; it is, however, retained by the professors, and is always used in pre- senting to degrees. The third or common dress of a doctor in law or physic nearly resembles that of the bachelor in these- faculties ; it is a black silk gown richly ornamented with black lace ; the hood of a bachelor of laws (worn as a dress) is of blue silk, trimmed with white fur. The- dress worn by the doctor of music on pub- lic occasions is a rich white damask silt gown, with sleeves and facings of crimson satin, a hood of the same material, and a round black velvet cap. The usual dresses^ of the doctor and of the bachelor of music are nearly the same as those of law and' physic. The master of arts wears a black gown^, usually made of prince's stuff or crape,, Avith long sleeves which are remarkable for the circular cut at the bottom. The arm comes through an apei'ture in the sleeve, which hangs down. The hood of a master of arts is of black silk lined with crimson. The gown of a bachelor of arts is also usually made of prince's stuff or crape. It has a full sleeve, looped up at the elbow, and ter- minating in a point ; the dress hood is black, trimmed with white fur. Noble- men and gentlemen-commonei's who take the degrees of bachelor and master of arts wear their gowns of silk. Of the under- graduates the first calling for mention is the nobleman, who has two dresses : the first, which is worn in the theatre, in processions, and on all public occasions-, is a gown of purple damask silk, richly ornamented with gold lace. The second is a black silk gown, with full sleeves ; it has a tippet attached to the shoulders. With both these dresses is worn a square cap of bla,ck velvet, Avith a gold tassel. I UNIVERSITY ROBES 485 Tlie gentleman-commoner — corresponding very nearly with the fellow-commoner, or greater pensioner, of Cambridge — used to have two gowns, both of black silk : the first, considered as a dress gown, al- though worn on all occasions, at pleasure, being richly ornamented with tassels. The second, or undress gown, the only one at present in use, is ornamented with plaits at the sleeves. The dress of com- xaoners is a gown of black prince's stuff, without sleeves ; from each shoulder is appended a broad strip, which reaches to the bottom of the dress, and towards the top is gathered into plaits. The cap is square, of black cloth, with silk tassel. Commoners correspond with the pen- sioners of Cambridge and Dublin. The student of civil law, or civilian, wears — -or, as it might be more correctly said, used to wear, for the status of S.C.L. is now ob- solete — a plain black silk gown, a hood of blue silk, and square cloth cap, with silk tiassel. Students who are unattached to any college or hall wear the dress of com- . moners. The undergi'aduates of the Scottish :universities — except those of Edinburgh, who, in spite of a somewhat spasmodic and desultory agitation of the question, are still unrobed — -wear a red cloth gown differenced by the form of the sleeves, or the absence of sleeves, and the occurrence or the absence of ci'imson velvet as an ornament. The severe and simple basis upon Tvhich is reared the elaborate fabric of academic apparel, in all its wideness of range and its manifold variety, is the "black gown of silk or stuff; an austere and sombre robe which, whilst it forms the principal part of the ordinary dress of evexy rank of the hierarchy of the several faculties about which the most ancient .and the most compr-ehensive of our uni- versities are maternally concerned, refers back the original habits of these to the ancestral habits of the monastic orders, and especially of the learned fraternity who followed the rule of St. Benedict. ' In the fifteenth century,' to adopt a few sentences of pertinent epitome from the article ' Costume' in the JSncyclojycedia JSritannica, ' when distinctions appear £rst to have been introduced into the -costumes of masters and bachelors of .arts, tlie gowns of the latter were shorter than those of masters, and had full sleeves reaching to the wrists and pointed at the back. The capes and hoods of bachelors also were bordered with white fur or wool. By various peculiarities of form, colour, and lining, the gowns, capes, and hoods of graduates of all the higher ranks cer- tainly were distinguished; but in the com- paratively rare examples of monumental effigies represented in academic habit, which almost without exception are de- stitute of colour, these distinctions are not shown in any regular or marked and de- cided manner. Throughout the last 200 years, if not for a still longer period, the academic habits of the University of Ox- ford have retained their forms unaltered. They may generally be classified in two groups — ecclesiastical and civil. The gowns of the former, worn by all graduates in botli divinity and arts, and also by all members on the foundation of any col- lege, have loose sleeves, are destitute of collars, and gathered in in small plaits at the back, and bear a general resemblance to what is known of the more ancient habits, the sleeves of the masters' gowns still having slits (now cut horizontally, instead of vertically) for the passage of the arms. On the other hand, the gowns of graduates in law and the other facul- ties, and of undergraduates who are not on the foundation of any college, besides being of less ample proportions, have fall- ing collars and closer sleeves, which lat- ter in the undergraduates' gowns have dwindled into mere strips ; and they evi- dently derive their origin from parts of the ordinary dress of civilians in the six- teenth and seventeenth centuries. The gowns of graduates of the University of Cambridge for the most part are the same as those worn in the sister university ; but at Cambridge the undergraduates, not being on the foundation, of almost every college have a gown appropriated to their own college.' The black gown, to make a definite statement for which the way has been already prepared, is, academically speak- ing, a universal standard of reference, a standard by which to judge identities, departures, approximations, divergences. For the gown is the article of dress, par excellence, in which the tendency is exhi- bited on the part of the relatively junior universities of the British Empire all the world over, and even of those in their infancy, to select, adjust, or regulate their 486 UNIVERSITY ROBES robes by the robes so long in vogue in the more venerable institutions of Oxford and Cambridge. With ^this tendency, and independently of this tendency, there is a concurrent disposition, as amongst the Scottish universities, to aftect the vestia- rian traditions of the University of France, or other of the moi-e ancient of the Conti- nental universities, several points of whose economy and administration — notably their divisions and their divisional voting by nations, as at Glasgow and Aberdeen on occasions when the body of the stu- dents become an electorate for such acade- mical and non-political purposes as the choosing of a Lord Rector {see Rector) — they have for the most part assimilated. Upon occasions of state and ceremony, as has already been indicated with re- ference to the single, but typical. Univer- sity of Oxford, the ordinary academic robes of the senior graduates are suscep- tible of transformation in the general direction of brilliancy and elaboration. The doctorate in all the faculties of Ox- ford, Cambridge, Durham, Dublin, and the Royal University of Ireland — with the exception of the doctorate of music, to the more efficient splendour of which, as one of the fine arts, a greater prismatic variety contributes — generally affects scar- let as the uniform colour of the full-dress gown, which is faced and lined with the colour of the hood of the respective facul- ties in which the doctorate is taken. In the University of London the ordinary dress of the doctor of music is ' a blue silk gown of the same shape as for the doctor of medicine,' whose ordinary gown, as that of the doctors in the other facul- ties of law, science, and literature, is of black silk or stuff". All the doctors of the University of London — which, it is to be obsei'ved, has no faculty of theology — are entitled, however, if members of Convoca- tion, to wear a gown of scarlet cloth, faced with silk of the colour of that with Avhich their hoods are lined — the Convo- cation hoods being also of scarlet cloth, in all the faculties. A proportionate acces- sion of dignity and significance is also im- ported into the robes of the holders of the lower degrees who are members of Convo- cation ; bachelors of arts, laws, medicine, and science being entitled to wear a white silk lining to their hoods, in addition to the colour of the edging of their degrees. At St. Andrews masters of arts wear ' a gown of black silk, or inferior stuff", still worn by professors in several of the fa- culties in the University of France, with cincture or belt of black silk, and a cap of black velvet, silk, or other material, after the fashion of that still worn in the Uni- versity of France.' For doctors of divinity, laws, medicine, and science it is stipulated that ' if on occasions of high ceremony a distinctive dress is deemed desirable,' they shall wear 'robes respectively of ^dolet, scarlet, crimson, and amaranth silk, or cloth with facings ; cinctui'es and caps after the fashion used by the professors in these faculties in the University of France. The hoods of the graduates in all the faculties to be after the pattern of those of the University of Cambridge, as most nearly resembling the form of the hood on the rector's robe of this university,' that is, of St. Andrews, the bachelors of wliich, in the several faculties, are entitled to wear the hoods of their faculties, with the gown and cap of master of arts. At Glasgow, ' on ceremonial occasions, the graduates are expected to appear in the gown and hood proper to their degrees. The ordinary gowns to be worn by gradu- ates of the University of Glasgow are of black silk or stuiF, of similar shape to those appropriated to the corresponding degrees in the British universities.' At Aberdeen ' the gowns are the same in all the facul- ties, viz. black silk or stuff". The distinc- tive part of the costume is in the hoods,' Finally, 'full dress gowns for doctors of the Univei'sity of Edinburgh are made of superfine scarlet cloth, loose sleeves, lined with rich silk of the colour of the lining of the hood of the graduate's degree.' After all the numerous changes, how- ever, in the foi'm, material, colour, or detail of ornament, of the gown as an academic robe, it remains that the hood is the most salient and distinguishing of all the articles recognised in collegiate costume. By the fifty-eighth Canon, 1604, of the Church of England, it is enacted that ' such ministers as are graduates shall wear upon their surplices such hoods as, by the orders of the universities, are agreeable to their degrees, which no minister shall wear (being no graduate) under pain of suspension. ISTotwithstand- ing, it shall be lawful for such ministers as are not graduates to wear upon their surplices, instead of hoods, some decent tippet of black, so it be not silk.' Much UNIVERSITY ROBES- UNIVERSITY SCHOLARSHIPS 487 has been said, at various times, both for and against the hoods or tippets of the theological colleges in England. On the one hand it has been argued that the Canon just quoted permits only graduates to wear any kind of a hood over their surplices, and restricts all non-graduates alike to a plain stuff black tippet. It is replied, on the other hand, that the Canon was framed before theological colleges were contemplated, and that it cannot apply, therefore, to these recognised insti- tutions for training candidates for holy orders. Besides, it has been said that a distinguishing mark, even a coloured lin- ing to the ' decent tippet of black,' is no infringement of the Canon. On these grounds some of the theological colleges have for years adopted a coloured lining or edging to their hoods, in more than one case with the express permission of the Archbishop of Canterbury at the time it was introduced. In allusion to this practice Lord Grimthorpe, with an out- spokenness which is at least fully flavoured by his characteristic jealousy for academi- cal and ecclesiastical convenances, says that ' sundry theological colleges have taken' upon themselves, with some pre- tended licences from archbishops, to au- thorise their students to wear hoods of their own invention. But they are en- tirely illegal " ornaments " in church, so far as they differ from " a black tippet not of silk," which alone is lawful for non- graduates, accoixling to Canon 58' (article Hood, in Hook's Church Dictionary, 14th edit. 1887). In accordance, Ave assume, with the direction of the Canon, however, it has been authoritatively recommended — as by the Upper House of Convocation of the province of Canterbury, in February, 1882 — that all the Theological Colleges of the Church of England should have a uniform hood for their non-graduate members, to be in substance the same for all, and to be, according to the Canon, ' black, but not of silk ; ' each college, however, being at liberty to add to the hood a coloured edging, border, or bind- ing, by which its own students might be distinguished. Some of the theological colleges promptly adopted the plan pre- scribed in the Resolution of Convocation ; but a difficulty in the way of its univer- sal acceptance arose from the unwilling- ness of such institutions as had formerly adopted or possessed a lining for their hoods, to relinquish this distinction for a narrow border. Nevertheless, at a Con- ference of the Principals and Tutors of Theological Colleges held at Oxford in the month of April following, the Resolution was received and confirmed ; so that it may be takeii as embodying a duly au- thorised custom, and, practically, the law on this subject. Finally, it is to be recorded that the Archbishop of Canterbury has the faculty, one of the few relics of his ancient power, as official Legate of the Pope, of confer- ring degrees in arts, divinity, law, medi- cine, and music, upon persons of approved and competent merit ; and the holders of these distinctions, which are known as Lambeth Degrees, wear, by long-esta- blished custom, the same gowns and hoods as if they had received them from the University of the Archbishop conferring them. ■' (Du Cange's Glossarixim ad Scrijitores MedicB et Infimce, Lcotinitatis, 1733 j Mr. Edmuiid Carter's History of the. Univer- sity of Cambridge, 1753 ; Anthony a Wood's History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford, 1792 ; Mr. F. W, Fairholt's Costume in England, 1846 ; Rev. Mackenzie E. C. Walcott's Sacred Archceology, 1868 ; Mr. J. B. Mullinger's University of Cambridge, 1873; Rev. T.W. food's Degrees, Goivns, and Hoods, 1883 ; Calendars of the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, London, and Vic- toria ; Dublin and the Royal ; St. An- drews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edin- burgh ; Windsor (Nova Scotia); New Brunswick, Toronto, Trinity College (Toronto), Lennoxville, Kingston, and McGill (Montreal) ; Sydney, Melbourne, and Cape of Good Hope; Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay ; and others.) ITniversity Scholarships. — In the strict sense of the term these are scholarships (prizes in money paid for one or more years) open to all members of the univer- sities, including scholars of colleges who have not exceeded a certain number of terms. Thus the Hertford Scholarship at Oxford, and the Bell University Scholar- ship at Cambridge, are 'blue ribbons.' Par- ticulars will be found in the University Calendars. Special subjects, which change annually, are periodically announced in the Oxford University Gazette and the Cam- bridge Reporter. Information is given 488 UNIVERSITY SCHOLARSHIPS FOR WOMEN by the registrars or the proctors. A scholarship at a university is generally understood to mean an entrance scholar- ship at one of the colleges. Men may of course obtain scholarships after they have matriculated as commoners, but few do. School scholarships, or exhibitions, do not entitle the holder to wear a scholar's gown. Each college has its own time and system for election to scholarships; but it is now very usual for several to combine in one examination. In this case the candidate has. to state his order of preference. The dates and subjects do not vary much. The limit of age is gene- rally nineteen ; but some scholarships are quite open. There are usually no restric- tions as to creed or colour. Scholarships are rarely worth more than 80/. for four years. All lOOZ. scholarships, except those at Hertford College, and a few special ones, were cut down at Oxford by the last Commission. It is usual to re-elect after the first two years. At Cambridge scholars are oftener elected with a lower sum than SOI., but this is increased after subsequent examinations. There are a few worth 100/. for seven years at Cambridge. Most scholarships there are for mathematics and natural science ; but this preponderance is not so marked as that for classics at Oxford. There are about five hundred scholars in residence at one time at Oxford. About one hundred and twenty are elected an- nually, and about the odd twenty are elected for proficiency in science, mathe- matics, or modern history. Some only of the colleges give science scholarships. A few depend upon the local or joint-board examinations. A scholar is generally ex- pected to begin residence in the Michaelmas term. Some men have been able to live on their scholarships, but this is not usually the case. Others have been known to live on 60Z. a year as non-collegiate stu- dents. The controversy as to what a man may live on is obviously a complex one. In a college, it is certainly nearer 120/. than 80/. Boys who think of going to the universities should consult their masters in good time. Parents who wish their sons to take up non-classicalsubjects should satisfy themselves that the school has a really good 'modern side,' or much time will be wasted. In selecting a school they should ascertain whether the school has any scholarships attached (see Cassell's Educational Year-Booh). The general par- ticulars about scholarships will be found in the calendars of the respective univer- sities, e.g. Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, St. Andrews, London, Vic- toria University, &c. For Oxford or Cam- bridge it is best to consult The Student's Guide (Cambridge; G-. Bell & Co., London, 2s. 6c^.), or The Student's Handbook (Ox- ford: Clarendon Press; London: Fi-oude, Amen Corner, E.C., 2s. 6c/.) They con- tain outlines of all the university courses. New editions appear at intervals. The Entrance Scholarship papers at Cambridge are annually published with others in Palmer's Cambridge University General Alnia7iack and Register (London: 32 Little Queen St., E.C._, 3s. 6d net). The best general account is in Dr. Pott's Cambridge Scholarshijjs and Examinations (Long- mans, 1883). This explains the ways of the different colleges. There are no exactly similar books at Oxford. Information and specimen papers are given by the senior tutors of the different colleges. The conditions of examination are advertised months beforehand in the Oxford Univer- sity Gazette. There is a handy manual on Classical Scholarshijjs, published by J. Thornton, Oxford, price 3s. 6d. A series of 'guides' to the different schools in the university is also appearing. Candidates on coming up are usually assigned rooms in college by coui'tesy ; but sometimes they have to find lodgings. (See Scholarships and Bursaries.) University Scholarships for Women are awarded partly on the results of the higher examinations, and partly by exa- minations at Cambridge and Oxford. A good general idea of conditions and possi- bilities is given in chapters x. to xii. of Pascoe's Schools for Girls, and Colleges for Women (Hardwicke & Bogue, 1879, 3s. Qd.). Those likely to go to Cambridge should write to the mistress or secretary of Girton College, or the lady principal of Newnham College. At Oxford, to the lady principals of Lady Margaret Hall, Somerville Hall, or St. Hugh's Hall. The average value of scholarships at Lady Margaret Hall is 35/. yearly for three years ; the Hall fees are 75/. yearly, with from 15/. for lecture fees. At St. Hugh's, from 45/., exclusive of lecture fees. (See Scholarships.) There are also scholar- ships and degrees for women at London University. Residence in a college is not always necessary; the chief ones in London USHER UTILITARIANISM 489 areQaeen's College, 43 Harley Street, W.; Bedford College, 8 York Place, Baker Street, W.; North London College, San- dall Road, Camden Road, N.W. There ure other ladies' colleges, as the Crystal Palace, Twickenham (St. Margaret's Ptoyal Naval Female School), Cheltenham (Miss Beale), Exeter (Miss Hall), Hastings (Miss Eaton), Jersey (Miss Roberts), Guernsey {Miss Gilbert), and the new palatial Royal Hollo way College (for those over eighteen), Egham, Surrey (Miss Bishop). The various high schools, the Girls' Public Day Schools (Office : 21 Queen Ann's Gate, London, S.W.), Church Schools Company (Office: 2 Dean's Yard, Westminster, S.W.), usually afford the best preliminary training for uni- versity scholarships for women. They sub- sequently utilise the invaluable provincial colleges (q.v.) at Birmingham, Bristol, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester (Owens Col- lege, Women's Department, 223 Brunswick Street), Nottingham, Sheffield, Aberyst- with, Bangoi", Cardiff, Dundee, &c. Medi- cal scholarships for women are also avail- able. The S.P.C.K. (Northumberland Avenue, London, W.C.) offers scholarships of 7dl. or less for four years under cei^tain conditions of going abroad. Scholarships are sometimes provided under the auspices of local associations, about which the girl- student should make inquiry. In most cases the secretary of the Teachers' Guild (14 Buckingham Street, Strand, W.C.) woukl be able to give addresses of local correspondents and other information. The local secretaries of the Higher Ex- aminations and the University Extension (q.v.) Lectures should also, if necessary, be addressed. Usher. — This word means literally ' a doorkeeper,' or one who introduces strangers. Even as late as the middle of the seventeenth century it was not an uncommon thing for a head-master of a school, especially in a country district, to have no assistant. When he was allowed or could afford one, this assistant teacher was called an usher. Later the term was only applied to the junior assistant in a school, and later still to the poorly-paid assistants of j^rivate schools. The term, which had thus acquired a contemptuous meaning, has now almost entirely disap- peared from use in English schools. It still, however, in the older seiise, lingers on in courts of law. Utilitarianism.— The influence of the principles known severally as Utilita- rianism and Rationalism upon systems and methods of education is so nearly identical, that these names for two streams of tendency may be taken for the purpose of this article as very nearly convertible. It will add to ease and lightness of move- ment, therefore, and to economy of ex- pression, if in the following remarks the more particular Utilitarianism is gene- rally assumed to be included in the more comprehensive Rationalism, and is scarcely ever found to demand a separate and nominal mention. A formal definition of Utilitarianism may on this account be dispensed with ; whilst of Rationalism it may be said that it is a spirit, tendency, principle, or system, which characteristic- ally refers every subject of investigation to the reason, i-atio, as the canon or cri- terion of judgment and authority. In religion, it is a certain cast or bias of thought, rather than any class of definite doctrines or criticisms, which claims for the unaided human reason the right of deciding matters of faith, and which leads men on all occasions to elevate the dic- tates of reason and conscience over dog- matic theology, and, as a necessary con- sequence, greatly to restrict the influence of the latter on life and conduct. It pre- disposes men, in history, to attribute all kinds of phenomena to natural rather than to miraculous causes ; in theology, to esteem succeeding systems as the ex- pressions of the wants and aspirations of that religious sentiment which is planted in all men ; and in ethics, to regard as duties only those of which conscience de- clares the obligation. It is an expression of that decline of the sense of the mii-acu- lous which is assumed to be one of the fruits of civilisation ; and its spirit has shown itself in an analogous movement of secularisation which has passed through every department of political and social life. Such a word as Rationalism could scarcely have escaped the misfortune of so many others which not unreadily lend themselves to abuse and equivocation. As it is incidental to humanity that all persons should profess and believe them- selves to be rational, and should deprecate the holding of any views about religion but such as are founded on good reasons, it has followed that the terms rationalism and rationalist are frequently mere con- ventional epithets, originally assumed by 490 UTILITARIANISM persons who arrogated, severally, for their systems and themselves an exceptional degree of reasonableness. Fondly de- scribed by its friends as ' the grand cha- racteristic of modern thought and civili- sation,' the original specific application of the term Rationalism is to a particular phase of Biblical interpretation. Thus, whilst it is a universal principle running unceasingly through the ages, and already ti"aceable, so far as it is to be regarded in its relation to Christianity, to almost the earliest days of its propagation, it is- not to be supposed that the term Ra- tionalism is of exclusively recent origin either as a word or as expressive of a type of scepticism or modified belief. Neither was the word, whether in a theo- logical or a philosophical sense, an im- portation from Germany into England ; where, at the time of the Commonwealth, there Avas a sect of Rationalists who called themselves such exactly on the same grounds as their successors have done in more recent years. ' The Presbyterian and Independent agree well enough to- gether. But there is a new sect sprung up among them, and these are the Ra- tionalists ; and what their reason dictates to them in Church and State stands for good, until they be convinced with better; and that is according as it serves their own turns ' [State Papers collected hy Edivard Earl of Clarendon, under date October 1647). The word Rationalism has been used, especially in Germany, in various senses; and Bretschneider, for instance, whom Professor Halm praises as having set on foot the best inquiry on this point, says that the word Rationalism has been con- fused with the word Naturalism, since the appearance of the Kantian philosophy, and that it was introduced into theology by Reinhard and Gabler. In fact, Ra- tionalism is at once the antithesis of the Naturalism, or simple Deism, which arose in the sixteenth century and was spent in the seventeenth, and with which it is sometimes confounded, and of Super- naturalism, which is the formal and literal exclusion of Naturalism. The spirit of Rationalism is a projec- tion and continuation of the spirit of the Reformation, and a variety, indeed, of its expression — that of a revolt against au- thority, with its assertion of the right and the peril of private judgment and of individual responsibility. It was the pro- vince of the Reformation to resist the . insolence of the Church in its imposition of fetters upon religious opinion ; and when, with the abandonment of the tra- ditional method, it became necessary to ascertain another basis of belief, it was in no bad faith that the early German Rationalists declared that the evidence for Cliristianity was found in its harmo- nising with the instincts and the needs of the soul. In the Protestant system the supremacy and the appeal were trans- ferred from the Church to the Bible ; against the authority of which the spirit of Rationalism, once docile, tractable, and amenable, came in time to rebel, as au- thority based on claims to insiDiration which were not unimpeachable, and which might be attacked more unerringly than they could be defended. A survey of the course of English theology during the eighteenth century would readily reveal the circumstance that throughout all discussions, under- neath all controversies, and common to all parties, lies the assumption of the supremacy of reason in matters of reli- gion. Whilst the history of the term Rationalism is confessedly hard to trace, the first technical use of the adjective rational, to express a school of philosophy, seems to have taken place early in the seventeenth century. Into this use it had probably passed out of the old sense of dialectical. Sir Thomas North, the translator. of Plutarch's Lives, says, in his life of Plutarch, that ' Morall Philosophy was his chiefest end : for the Rational!, the Naturall, and Mathematicks {the which he had greatly studied), they were but simple pastimes in comparison with the other.' An occurrence of the word Rationalist in the Apophtlieginis of Lord Bacon throws light upon its fortunes and significance : — ' He likewise often used this comparison ; the Empirical philosophers are like to pismires ; they only lay up and use their store. The Rationalists are like to spiders ; they spin all out of their own bowels. But give me a philosopher, who like the bee, hath amiddle faculty, gathering far abroad, but digesting that which is gathered by his own virtue.' About the same time the Aristotelian Humanists of Helmstedt were called Rationalists ; and later in the century Amos Comenius applied the UTILITARIANISM 491 term, also in a depreciatory sense, to the Socinians. The treatise of Locke, who is sometimes called the Father of English Rationalism, on the Reasonableness of Christianity, caused Christians and Deists to appropriate the term, and to restrict it to religion. Thus by Waterland's time it had acquired the meaning of false reasoning on religion. ' All such claims,' says Waterland, in a Charge delivered in 1731, and published under the title of Tlie Wisdom of the Ancients borroived /o'om Divine Revelation; or, Christianity vin- dicated against Infidelity — ' All such claims brought to exclude Scripture are enthusiastic and fanatical, false and vain. But some persons may ask, can those then be enthusiasts, who profess to follow reason 1 Yes, undoubtedly, if by reason they mean only conceits. Therefore such persons are now commonly called reccson- ists and ratiooialists, to distinguish them from true reasoners or rational inquirers. For their great fault is that they will not suffer reason to have its free course or full exercise, nor allow it sufficient light. Reason desires and requires all useful notices, and all the friendly inti- onations that can be procured : but these her most insidious adversaries, under a false plea of sufficiency, confine her to short measures, and shut up the avenues of improvement.' Passing into Germany, Rationalism ap- pears to have become the common name to express philosophical views of religion, as opposed to supernatural, in which sense it is ascertained to have been used so early as 1708. The name has often been appro- priated to the Kantian, or critical philo- sophy, in which Rationalism was distin- guished from that variety of so-called Naturalism which maintained the sufii- ciency of natural religion to the discredit of revelation. During the period when Rationalism was predominant as a method in German theology, the meaning and limits of the term were freely discussed — a period which may be taken as occu- pying the interval when the Wolffian philosophy had given place to the Kantian, and the philosophy of Fichte and Jacobi had not yet produced the revival under Schleiermacher. This form of Rationalism also continued to exist during the lifetime of its adherents, contemporaneously with the new influence created by Schleier- macher. The discussion was not a verbal one only, but was intimately connected with facts. The rationalist theologians wished to define clearly their own position, as opposed, on the one hand, to deists and naturalists, and on the other to super- naturalists. The result of the discussion seems to show two kinds of Supernatural- ists, the Biblical and the Philosophical ; and two kinds of Rationalists, the Super- natural Rationalists, like Bretschneider, who held, on the evidence of reason, the necessity of a revelation, but required its accordance with reason, when communi- cated ; and the pure Rationalists, like Wegscheider, Rohr, and Paulus, who held the sufficiency of reason, and, while ad- mitting revelation as a fact, regarded it as the republication of the religion of nature. This Rationalism stands distinguished from Naturalism, that is, from philosophical naturalism, or deism, by having reference to the Christian religion and Church ; but it difiers from Supernaturalism, in that reason, not Scripture, is its formal prin- ciple, or test of truth ; and virtue, instead of ' faith w"orking by love,' is its material principle, or fundamental doctrine. The sources and the forces of the Rationalism which found its typical arena in Germany were various, and were to a great extent of alien origin. The deism of England, as pointed out by Bishop Hurst, the leading American historian of Rationalism, one of the most polished and powerful of all forms of free thought, was industriously propagated in Germany, ^\^here the works of Lord Herbert, Hobbes, Shaftesbury, Tyndal, Woolston, and Wol- laston were widely circulated amongst the people in their own vernacular. ' In Hol- land,' says Dr. Hurst, ' the philosophy of Descartes and Spinoza was very powerful, and its influence was very decided east of the Rhine, particularly in the universities of Germany. The pantheism of Spinoza was very attractive to many minds, and was regarded as a welcome relief from the cold and heartless banishment of God from His own creation. France, however, was the chief foreign country which contri- buted to the rise and sway of German Ra- tionalism. The influence of Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists was very great, and Berlin became as much a home to these men as Paris had ever been. The domestic causes were, first of all, the philosophy of Leibnitz, popularised and simplified by Wolff at Halle University ; the destructive 492 UTILITARIANISM theology of Semler ; the influence of the sceptical court of Frederick the Great, with its French surroundings ; the Wol- fe iihilff el Fragments, published by Lessing, nnd the Universal Gennati Librari/, issued by Kicolai. Rationalism was in the as- cendant in Germany from 1750 to 1800, but with the beginning of the new century it began to lose its hold upon the best minds. Schleiermacher was the transi- tional theologian from the old rationalistic to the new evangelical faith of Protestant Germany. His Discourses on Religion diverted public attention from the ration- jilistic criticism to the necessity of feeling -and a sense of dependence on God. Jacobi was really the first to introduce the sense of dependence into the domain of religious philosophy, but Schleiermacher was the first to apply it to the man of general cul- ture. Neander, the Church historian, was the first positive theologian of tlie so-called ■"mediatory " school. His historical works breathe a fervent and devout spirit, at the same time that they evince the pro- found scholarship of the original student. In 1835 a new impulse was givei^ to rationalistic criticism by Sti'auss's Life of Jesus — a work proceeding directly from the Hegelian school. It advocated the mythical origin of the Gospels. This work was promptly replied to by ISTeander, Ull- mann, Tholuck, and many other represen- tatives of evangelical thought. The most recent phase of rationalistic thought is ■materialistic. The views of Biichner, Carl "Vogt, Moleschott, and others, have gained TX wide influence. Evangelical theology is, 'however, in the ascendant again in most of the German universities. The Broad 'Church of England, represented by Mat- theAv Arnold and others, has aflinities with the Rationalism of Germany.' Thus it is seen, as has, indeed, already 5jeen indicated, that the Kantian philo- sophy did but bring forward into light, imparting to it at the same time a scientific form and recognised position, a principle which had long unconsciously guided all treatment of religious topics both in Ger- many and in England. Rationalism was ■not an anti-Christian sect outside the 'Church, making war against religion ; it was rather a habit of thought ruling all minds under the conditions of which all alike tried to make good the particular opinions they might happen to cherish. The principle and the priority of natural religion formed the common hypothesis, on the ground of which the disputants as to whether certain given doctrines or miracles were conformable to reason or not, argued Avhether anything, and what, had been subsequently communicated to mankind in a supernatural manner. It is ditficult to fix the position of persons in the very act of oscillating between the exti-emes of the too-much and the too- little of faith, between superstition and unbelief ; and no classification could be regarded as infallible. Hardly one liere and there, as Dr. Newman charges Hume with having done, ' avowed the principle of Rationalism in its extent of Atheism ; ' whilst the great majority of writers were employed in constructing a via media between Atheism and Athanasianism, the more orthodox of them being diligently employed in hewing and chiselling the Christian dispensation into an intelligible human system, which they ' represented, when thus mutilated, as affording a re- markable evidence of the truth of the Bible, an evidence level to the reason, and superseding the testimony of the Apostles ' {Tracts for the Times, No. 73. On the Tntrochiction of Jiationalistic P7'inciples into Religion). The title of Locke's cele- brated treatise on the Reasonableness of Cliristianity may be said to have been the solitary thesis of Christian theology in England for great part of a century. If we are to put chronological limits to this system of religious opinion in England, we might, for the sake of a convenient landmai'k, say that it came in with the Revolution of 1688, and began to decline in vigour with the reaction against the Reform movement about 1830. Locke's first publication of his Reasonable- ness of Christianity, 1695, would thus approximately open, and the commence- ment of the issue of the Tracts for the Times, 1833, thus approximately mark the fall of, the regime of Rationalism. ' Not that chronology,' as the Rev. Mark Pattison has pointed out, 'can ever be exactly applied to the mutations of opinion; for there were Rationalists before Locke, — e.g. Hales of Eton, and other Arminians ; nor has the Church of England unani- mously adopted the principles of the Tracts for the Times. But, if we were to follow up Cave's nomenclature, the appellation seculumrationalisticum might be affixed to the eighteenth century with greater pre- UTILITARIANISM 49S cision than many of his names apply to the previous centuries : for it was not merely that Rationalism then obtruded itself as a heresy, or obtained a footing of toleration within the Church ; but the rationalising method possessed itself abso- lutely of the whole field of theology. With some trifling exceptions, religious literature was drawn into the endeavour to " prove the truth " of Christianity. Every one who had anything to say on sacred subjects drilled it into an array of argument against a supposed objector. Christianity appeared to be made for nothing else but to be " proved" : what use to make of it when it was proved was not much thought about. Reason was at first offered as the basis of faith, but gradually became its substi- tute. The mind never advanced as far as the stage of belief ; for it was unceasingly engaged in reasoning up to it. The only quality in Scripture which was dwelt upon was its "credibility." Even the "Evange- lical " school, which had its origin in a reaction against the dominant Rationalism, and began in endeavours to kindle religious feeling, was obliged to succumb at last. It, too, drew out its rational " scheme of Christianity," in which the Atonement was made the central point of a system, and the death of Christ was accounted for as necessary to satisfy the Divine Justice.' It is when it is found as a dominating factor in theology that the profoundest and most momentous significance attaches to the action of the spirit of Rationalism ; a significance which, for the jDurpose of this article, is intensified when Rational- ism determines the quality of the religious truths and systems in which the young are to be instructed, and the methods by which their education is to be ruled and accomplished. Contemporaneously with the series and succession of literary in- fluences which were the soul of the power and prestige of Rationalism, and which may be said to have culminated with the constellation of genius that has illustrated for ever the otherwise humble archives of Weimar, there was a gradual trans- formation of the training and instruction of the youth of Germany, the saturation of whose minds with doubt seemed all that was needed to complete the sove- reignty of scepticism. Two leaders in this movement are entitled to special attention, Basedow and Nicolai, the former eminent as an innovator in the depai'tment of education^ and the other in that of periodical and popular literature. The education of youth and the periodical popular press, are both agents on whose relation to the Church much is dependent ; and at the- time in question ' the school,' in tlie wordis. of Dr. K. R. Hagenbach, ' stood under the sceptre of the Church, and periodical literature under a censorship. But now began a change : education claimed to be- independent of the fostering care of the Church, and a broad current of literature- spread over a domain of life which had hitherto been familiar only with the Bible, a few books of devotion, and some scanty and barren facts of science. The new educational system and the new popular- philosophy played into each other's handSj, and contested the right of the Church to- be the only instructor of youth, the only guardian of the people. Not content with that, after they had gained an indepen- dent existence, they turned their united forces against the Church. The ancient edifice, with its Gothic towers and windows,, with its gloomy aisles and monuments,, seemed to be no longer a fitting place for the instruction of light-hearted childhood ;. the church must become a cheerful school- room, the quaintly carved pulpit, with its stone staircase, must be transformed into the awkward desk. It would be hard to say whether this great change would more fitly call out the song of triumph o£ one, the elegy of another, or the satire of still a third. For my own part, I con- sider it a matter alike worthy of joy and of sorrow, and to treat it thus is the duty of the impartial historian.' It will not now be disputed that there were serious defects in the educational system of the time ; and that a great' reform in education was needed. The Latin schools instituted by Melanchthon were still in existence, but they had be- come mere machines. Children were com- pelled to learn by heart particulars the least interesting. The most useless exer- cises were elevated into great importance ; and years were spent in the study of many branches that could be of no pos- sible benefit either for tlie handicrafts or the professions. The primary schools were equally defective. There was no such thing as tlie pleasant, developing influence of the mature over the youthful mind. The religious education of youth, 494 UTILITARIANISM to instance a general statement in one vital particular, had been narrowed down to the mere committal of the catechism to memory, and the crowding of the mind with Biblical and theological details which Avere admirably calculated to remain un- digested in their primary receptacle, and utterly without assimilation with the in- tellectual life into the overladen organ- isms of which they were intruded. There was little in the educational field of Ger- many from which good could be expected. Up to the time of the eighteenth century, there was no true science of education. What, hitherto, had been left to nature, to habit, and to traditional prejudices, had to be corrected and raised to the place and dignity of an art. Good ele- ments had to be reduced to laws, and evil elements had to be excluded. It was necessary to regard man as a whole, as truly man ; and his education was in- complete if it did not involve or attain a symmetrical development of body, mind, and soul. It was a noble task, but a diffi- cult one — one to whose accomplishment the rapid years of a single century, what- ever its degree of enlightenment might be, was all unequal. Certainly such a process, as pointed out by Dr. Hagenbach, could not be effected ' without deadly offence to every conservative influence of society ; and as the goal of every educational process is religious development, it is not to be wondered at that this new movement produced instant strife with the theolo- gians — for the ground pi'inciples of edu- cation ai-e connected in the most intimate manner with tlie views wliich are taken of the nature of man. Whoever adopts the old doctrine of human depravity must insist on education as a process from without, inward. Its work must be to break the natural will, as if it were a hard and petrified thing, and to do it, if need be, by the sternest measures. The historical and doctrinal elements of Chris- tianity, according to this view, cannot be too early impressed upon the sou.1 of the child, and it is of prime importance that they be held as an imperishable possession. Whoever, on the other hand, adopted the new ideas which began largely to prevail, re- garded human nature as a germinating seed in which a good and noble impulse dwells, and requiring only fostering care, the edu- cational process going on from within, out- ward. Religion was not only to be cai'ried into the soul of the child, but was also to be drawn from that soul, and only so much was to be carried in as was adapted to its immature grasp, and to the necessity of adequate inward stimulus. Very speedy, however, was the transition from one ex- treme to the other, from the denial of human sensibility to goodness, to the de- nial of sin and a fallen nature ; from an overestimate of historical and positive Christianity, to an underestimate of the same. Then came another change. The old educational system had borrowed much from the Church ; to promote the interests of the Church was its great end. A large proportion of all the studies of the gym- nasium and the university looked towards theology and the clerical profession — hence the value laid on the ancient languages ; but the modernised educational scheme aimed at educating men for the world and for practical life. For what use, tlien, it was said, are the ancient languages and ancient history 1 Even men of the most rigid orthodoxy, like Frederick William I., expressed themselves against the study of Latin; and further, even Thomasius had declared the uselessness of it for those who were not students by profession. Thus education was transferred from a narrow ecclesiastical field to broad cosmopolitan ground, from a positive Christian basis to a so-called philanthropic one. Rousseau had given a great impulse to this move- ment by the publication of his Emile. Basedow was his interpreter and advocate in Germany. To Basedow succeeded Saltz- mann and Campe ; to them the more noble and reliable Pestalozzi.' The great tendency of the Rationalistic movement was to refer everything to the standard of practical utility, under the influence of which the homiletics of the day exhibited a reaction against the stiff and formal presentation of mere doctrine, and in favour of the inculcation of simple ethical practices and principles. The pul- pit became moral, benevolent, beneficent, philanthropic, and, withal, characteristic- ally secular, the vehicle for the dissemi- nation of little more than that kind of instruction which tended to make people happy in this world, honourable and use- ful as citizens, dutiful as children, obe- dient as servants, dignified and paternal as heads of families. To the prophets and interpreters of utility, the interests UTILITARIANISM 495 of the heart and the emotional nature ■were the amiable disguise of a foolish and goalless fanaticism. All thought of the supernatural and of the unseen world was evaded, or crowded to one side, if, indeed, it were not alternatively confronted as being antagonistic to popular elevation and enlightenment. Sermons were every- where preached which were conversant about such subjects as the care of the health, the necessity of industry, the ad- vantages of scientific agriculture, the ex- pediency of acquiring a competence, the correlative duties of superiors and subor- dinates, the evil effects of litigation, and, not least, the folly and imbecility of super- stition of fact or of opinion. The tradi- tion is still extant that the season of Christ- mas was turned to account to lead up from the pathetic story of the Child born in a manger to the most approved methods of feeding cattle ; and that the appearance of Jesus walking in the garden at day- break on Easter morning was used to en- force the benefits of early rising, and of taking a walk before breakfast. ' Not a Avord,' Professor Hagenbach records, ' was heard regarding atonement and faith — sin and the judgment — salvation, grace, and the kingdom of Christ. A selfish love of pleasure, and a selfish theory of life, put a selfish system of morals in the place of a lofty religion. The old-fashioned system of religious service had to be modified and adjusted to this new style of preaching, which was as clear as water, and as thin as water also. Everything symbolical, the relation of which to practical life was not immediately apparent, was cast aside, however instruraental it may have been to the edification and growth of the soul. The sacraments were an empty ceremony ; the festivals of the Christian year were unworthy of commemoration ; and even the person of Christ was of in- different value, provided always that the morals of Christianity should be retained.' Pestalozzi, the ' schoolmaster of the human race,' is currently regarded as Avoi'thily occupying the first place on the roll of the educational reformers who flourished during the meridian strength of the Rationalistic movement ; in common with whose a,dherents he believed in man's natural goodness, and maintained that true education consists not so much in the in- tision or incorporation of what is foreign iQ the nature or character of the child, as in evolving or educing what is native and inherent in the same. But he warmly advocated an early acquaintance with the Bible, and held the history of Christ to be an indispensable ingredient in the training of the youthful mind. But while Pesta- lozzi and a few others of a kindred spirit were contributing by their writings and their practical energies to the improvement of the. youth of Germany, there sprang up a large class of writers whose morbid and multitudinous productions are described as having been as plentiful as autumn leaves. Some of these wei'e sentimental, having imbibed their spirit from Siegwart, La Nouvelle Heloise,dun^ similar works. Their influence worked in the direction of con- verting young men and women into mere dreamers, and children of eveiy social condition were unwholesomely forced into becoming pi-ecocious and portentous specu- lators about love, romance, and suicide. 'Whoever could wieldapen,'says Dr. Hurst, '■thought himself fit to write a book for children. There has never been a period in the whole current of history when the youthful mind was more thoroughly and suddenly revolutionised. The result was very disastrous. Education, in its true import, was no longer pursued, and the books most read were of such nature as to destroy all fondness for the study of the Bible, all careful preparation for meeting the gi'eat duties of coming ma- turity, and every impression of man's in- capacity for the achievement of his own salvation. ' The teachers in the common institu- tions of learning having now become im- bued with serious doubts concerning the divine authority of the Scriptures, their pupils suffered keenly from the same blight. In many schools and gymnasia miracles were treated with contempt. Epi- tomes of the Scriptures on a philosophical plan were introduced. Ammon, in one of his works, tells the young people that the books of the Old Testament have no divine worth or character for us, except so far as they agree with the spirit of the Gospel. As to the New Testament, much must be figuratively understood, since many things have no immediate relation to our times. Christ is a mere man. Dinter was a voluminous writer on theo- logical subjects, and in his books tells children of imperfect notions of former times as to God, angels, and miracles. 496 UTILITARIANISM He gives teachers directions liow to con- duct themselves cleverly in such matters, and afterwards, in agreement with the pi-inciples he recommends, he lays down plans of catechising. For example, there are to be two ways of catechising about Jonah ; one before an audience not suffi- ciently enlightened, and Avhere all remains in its old state ; another for places which have more light. In the pi'ophecies con- cerning the Messiah, a double explanation is given for the same reason. One is the old orthodox way, the other a more prob- able neological plan. A clever teacher is to choose for himself ; a dull one may ask the parish clergyman how far he may go.' The crusade instituted by Rationalism against sentiment and the emotions in religion, no less than against the dogmatic in theology and the miraculous in the evangelic history, at length took the par- ticular form of an attack, which was too often an outrage, upon the affluent hym- nology of German Protestantism. This aggregate of hymns, some eighty thousand in number, and comprising some of the finest sacred lyrics extant in any language, were altered or distorted into scientific precision, decorum, and sterility ; and everything that savoured of inspiration, or of any of the once vital doctrines which had been already rejected from prose lite- rature, was as nearly as possible oblite- rated. Every element of fancy, every appeal to sacred passion, every trace of Oi'ienta.l imagery, was excluded from the various collections of hymns, which were so modified or so composed that congre- gations might sing pure and undiluted Rationalism. Good common sense was the nearest approach to the divine afflatus which the hymnographers or the hymn- manipulators of Rationalism sought after — an excellent quality in its place, but not pre-eminently the quality appropriate to worshippers who are supposed periodi- cally to anticipate in the devotion of the earthly courts the ecstatic service of the heavenly temple. The meagreness of the old hymnology, as the Rationalists under- stood it, was supplemented by hymns of their own production on such themes as a good use of time, on friendship, on thrift, frugality, and moderation. The carol, which had heretofore been a soaring and cloud-dividing song, was so maimed and mutilated as scarcely to flutter above the srround. The music shared the fate of the hymns which it accompanied. From the most venerable melodies all suggestion of sentiment, all idea of sublimity or solem- nity, was pui'posely extracted. Secular music was introduced into the sanctuary ; an operatic overture played the congrega- tion into church, and a march or a waltz dismissed them. Sacred music was no longer cultivated as an element of devotion ; the masses of the people began to sing less, and the period of coldest scepticism in Germany, as in other lands under simi- lar conditions, was the period when the congregations sang least, with the , least earnestness, and with no enthusiasm. But educational Rationalism, or Ra- . tionalism as expressed in systems or me- thods of education, besides its religious ancestry, has also a secular and philoso- phical succession. In this connection the fomnal origin of modern European Ra- tionalism has been regarded as approxi- mately coincident with the first publication of the Essais of Montaigne in 1580. It was Montaigne who raised the earliest articulate protest against the pedantry into which, as if by a necessity of their, organisation, the schools of his time, whether those of the older Church or of the Reformation, had degenerated. Mon- taigne was the advocate of common sense in the direction of practice rather than theory, of wisdom as contradistinguished from learning; of a general or liberal, rather than a professional or technical type of education, Avith a tendency to the secular as a reaction against what had been almost exclusively ethical and reli- gious ; of informal instruction from natu- ral objects, and of first-hand observation and knowledge, as against the formal didactic instruction out of books, the result of which was knowledge at second- hand only ; of the conception of education as a process of growth rather than of manu- facture ; of teaching whose purpose should be, not the aggregation of unordered facts, but the formation and training of cha- racter ; and of a comparatively mild and humane discipline in substitution for a rule that was harsh and repellent, with the consequence, involved in the former, of the substitution of a finer code of con- duct and civility for the antecedent rude- ness and coarseness of manners and dis- position. He conceived of the ideal tutor as one gifted to draw out the pupil's own power and originality, to teach how to live UTILITARIANISM 497 well and to die well, to enf oi'ce a lesson by- practice and example, to put the mother tongue before foreign languages, to teach all manly exercises — in short, to educate the perfect man. He deprecated force and compulsion, and he denounced severity and the rod. ' Notwithstanding some ^rave defects,' Dr. Compayre concludes that ' the pedagogy of Montaigne is a pedagogy of good sense, certain parts of ■which will always deserve to be admired. The Jansenists, Locke, and Rousseau, in diibited one of admiration, if not of envy, to its friends and ueighboui's. . . . Conceit, envy, ;uid fivtfulness, ill i>e- stiuined by fear, were tlio leading moral elements of such a system, and stiiltifying verbal repetition its" chief intellectual e.x- orcise.' By the tin\e of :Mr, Fletchers report, however, a givat impivvement had been wrought, and schools of the kind which he described but to coudeuui were fast disappearing. The theory of all the modern schools which ho had \isited appeai-ed to conten\plate an education at once physical, intellectual, industrial, moral, and i-eli- gious ; and the largest part of tl\e work undertaken by the best of them wvs the implanting of good habits of body, heart, and mind, which should gi\iw with the groAN-th and sti-engthen with the stivngth of the little ones. The children were generally divided into two classes, accord- ing to their agv. Those in the younger class were taught by a series of' contri- vances to talk and to look at pictures with intelligence, and also to gx» throuiih a. va- riety of simple movements in niarching and changing stations at brief interviils. They were also tonight their lettei-s, aiid exeivised in forum\g elementary svUables. As they gi-ew out of the earlier stage they passed into the higher division, where they i-eccived, according to their capacity, some- what more \-aried instruction. The teacher told then\ stories about the anima-ls and other objects represented in tlie pictuivs, iuid about persons and events mentioned in the Bible. They weiv also exeivised in plaiting, tying knots, sewing, and other nuuuial occupatioi\s, and they wei-e in- structed in the elenunitary rules of arith- metic, principjilly by means of phvsical illustrations of them. The elder pupils could read the Xew Testament, write in a copy-book, and work questions in the lirst four rules of arithmetic. Such pupils ought strictly to have been in a senior school, but the infant school was often the only one which poor childivu attended. On leaving that they went to work. Though, compared with the best infant schools of the present day, the best scliools visited by Mr. Fletcher would appear to be for- mal, and their exercises to be ntarkeil by an insuliicient knowledgx^ of child natuiv, it caitnot be denied that enormous pro- gress had been made. This progress was ntaintained. The Boyal Couuuission of lSo8-18(>l (gene- rally named after its chairman, the Duke of Xewcastle) explicitly declares that iii the best inftuit schools much was done and mtich evcit taught. The Commissionei"S further declared tliat infant schools 'form a most important part of the machinery required for a national system of educa- tion, inasmuch as they lay the foundation in some degree of kuowledgv, and in a still greater degree of habits which are essential to edttcatioit, while without them a child may contract habits and sustain injuries which the best school will after- wartis be unable to connect and remedy.' Infant schools possessed the .advantage of being ' contparatively cheap, as they ai"e \tsually tatight by luistivsses." Further, the 'religious ditViculty cotild liardly arise in them, it being scanvly conceivable that the instruction of children under seven yeai*s of age should ever be dogutatic' The Commissioners. howe\"er, beyond sug- gesting that every schooluustress should undergo a coui"se of traiuiitg to adapt her to deal with infants, made no importattt ivconnuendation on the subject, louder the various Codes (.^f >' Ckaxts). infant schools steadily incre.-vsed in nttmber, but there was no material change in the work which they did till the nu^thods of Frebel ((/.r.) beg-an to be practised in them. lu, 187-1: the Scliool Board for London ap- pointed its first lectutvr oi\ the kiitder- gt\rtet\. and other importattt School Boatxls sooit followed the example thus set. Their action, aided by the actioit of the Frobel Society and of kindred associations, and of the Home and Colottial School Society, of the college at Stockwell. aitd, later on, of the collegv at SatVroit Walden. spread a kitowledge of the new system among iti- fant-schoolteachcrs geiterally. At tu-st, as was natural, there was too slavish an adherence to the meiv ntethoils of the master : but gradually it was discoveivd th.it in the domain of education, iis else- YOUNG CHILDREN (EDUCATION OF) 523 Avhere, the letter killeth, and now in many a school where Frobel's cubes and balls are never seen, tlie whole work is bright- ened and vivified by his spirit. The re- formation has been greatly helped by a change in the Code giving absolute liberty of classification in infant schools, and (prac- tically) abolishing tlierein the system of ' payment by results.' In the Blue Book of the Education Department for 1888, the inspectors unanimously testify to tlie improvement which has taken place. One says that the . ' appropriate and varied occupations ' which have been in- troduced are ' popular with the parents and attractive to the children, and that elementary subjects have not suflered in consequence.' Another says that object lessons ' have become more definite, varied, and graphic' Another says : 'The manual exercises in which the children are trained furnish an interesting and delightful di- version from the ordinary school work, and at the same time educate hand, eye, and mind. Drawiiag, embroidery, mat- weaving, moulding in clay, if properly taught, are invaluable instruments for developing at once the mental and physi- cal faculties. And in view of our new departure in the direction of technical education they shovild be cultivated as part of its best foundation. . . . The songs and games, too, have a very bright- ening, civilising effect. ... I only wish we could continue in the first and second standaxTls the same training. But, alas, the children who leave the infant schools for the older departments part, I fear it must be said for ever, with all those special advantages. . . . Could not a change in the principle of the payment of gx'ants to such schools be made which would have the effect of assimilating them to the infant schools ? ' Similar extracts might be multiplied indefinitely. Infant Schools and the Code. — By the Code now (1888) in force a fixed grant is paid of 9s. on every child in average attendance in an infant school. A merit grant of 2s., 4s., or Cs. is further paid if the inspector reports the school to be fair, good, or excellent, 'allowing for the special circumstances of the case, and having re- gard to the provision made for (1) suitable instruction in the elementary subjects, (2) simple lessons on objects and on the phenomena of nature and of common life, and (3) appropriate and varied occupa- tions.' Further grants of a shilling each are paid for needlework and singing. No merit grant is paid if the instruction in the ' elementary subjects ' is not satisfac- tory. In the official ' Instructions ' the inspectors are informed that ' the object of examining very young children in these subjects is to ascertain whether they arc making such progress that there is a reasonable pi'ospect of their passing the examination when they reach the [first] standard.' They are further informed that in order to satisfy the requirement respecting ' simple lessons in objects,' &c., the mistress early in the school year should draw up and enter in the Log Book {q.v.) a course of thirty or forty col- lective lessons — e.g. on animals ; on such subjects as coal, glass, and salt ; on common employments, as paper-making, cotton-mill, liouse-building, one of the trades of the disti-ict being chosen in pre- ference ; on form and colour, food, plants, and clothing; on simple facts in nature, as rain, frost, the seasons ; on familiar scenes in common life, as the Post Office, a shop, a railway, washing, or harvest. Each of these should in the coui'se of the year be given two or three times.' ' The manual or other employments which best satisfy ' the requirements as to ' appropriate and varied occupations,' are ' modelling, simple geometrical drawing, weaving, plaiting, building with cubes, drill, singing, recitation; and other exer- cises, such as will relieve the younger children, especially during the afternoon, from the strain of ordinary lessons, and train them to observe and imitate. It should be borne in mind that it is of little service to adopt the gifts and mechanical occupations of the Kindergarten unless they are so used as to furnish real train- ing in accuracy of hand and eye, in in- telligence, and in obedience.' Statistics. — According to the Blue Book the Education Department issued in 1888, there were G,G 98 infant schools in England and Wales in 1887, and, in addition, 5,173 classes for infants in senior schools. The number of children in aver- age attendance at schools and classes was 1,034,314. Some Foreign Infant School Systems. — The French pride themselves upon the fact that the care and education of young children are more thoroughly organised in their country than in any other. The 524 ZERRENNER, C. C. ZOOLOGY AS A SCHOOL SUBJECT lowest part of their system is the creche, ■which provides for babies up to two or three years of age. Then comes what used to be called the salle d'asile, but what is now known as the ecole maternelle, which provides for infants from about two to six. Then comes the ecole or classe en- fantine, for children of four or five up to seven or eight. Child ren who have passed through the infant school or class are transferred to the ' elementary class ' of the primary school. In Belgium the ecole gardienne receives children from three to six. Thence they are passed to the transition class, which may be either the highest class of the ecole gardienne, or the lowest of the primary school. The transition class must be under the care of a mistress familiar with the methods followed in both the infant and the primary schools. In Switzerland there is no uniformity, each canton being a law unto itself. In Geneva, for example, it is compulsory on each commune to have at least one infant school ; while in Neuchatel public infant schools are permissive, and only the more enlightened municipalities have estab- lished them. z Zerrenner, Charles Christopher (6. 1779, d. 1850). — A German theologian and educationist, was born at Magdeburg. He became a professor in his native city, and afterwards preacher in the church of Saint Esprit. Zerenner was the author of the following among other works on edu- cation : An Auxiliary Work on the Wisdom of Teachers (1803), A Book of Methods for the Use of Pojndar Educators (1814), The Principles of Scholarly Education (1827). Zoology as a School Subject. — Zoology is here to be discussed as a branch of natural history, which may be understood to embrace the study of all the particular aspects of nature that are most striking to the child's mind. These are chiefly phenomena of the universe, i.e. the facts treated of in physical geography; the struc- ture and position of rocks (geology and mineralogy) ; the morphology, classification, and life-histories of plants (botany) ; and similar facts about animals (zoology). It is true that the term ' natural history ' is sometimes used as synonymous with the last, and zoology as a specific science has now become merged in the more general science of biology. But we have not here to do with the study of animals as the most highly organised of living things, this is a subject for the most advanced students at the university, since plainly the most complex of Nature's productions require for their full explanation a pre- liminary study of the less complex ; there- fore zoology as a branch of biology' should come after chemistry and j)hysics ; and since the last requires the mastery of some of the most difficult parts of mathematics^ we are driven to the conclusion that zoology in this sense is not a school subject at alL The questions to ask then are : can natu- ral history be taught profitably in the school ; does it serve useful purposes ; if so, how should we teach it, and when, in the school course ? The answer to. the first question will be clearly in the afiir- mative, if we remember that the objects, and facts that we have enumerated may be looked upon in various aspects, and that their connections are of various de- grees of complexity. The human race is only just emerging from its childhood, so far as its scientific knowledge is concerned at any rate, hence the facts and the modes of looking at them that have interested men at various periods will be interesting to the child at the various stages of his development. Although the question of the suitability of such subjects to the purposes of the schoolmaster, namely, the development of faculty, would seem next in importance, we may postpone the answer since it will be seen to grow out of the discussion of method. Eirstly it is of the utmost importance that the teacher should make his instruction as concrete as pos- sible, he should not begin with abstractions or generalisations, however well based on recent discovery and careful observation. The child's attention must be drawn tO' simple, everyday facts, which he must be made to study in detail ; the skill of the teacher will be shown in the way in which he turns to account the most ordinary fact, in order to exhibit the relation of ZOOLOGY AS A SCHOOL SUBJECT 525 cause and effect, and to show the links ■which unite the fact under observation ■with others more or less analogous that have loeen already noticed. He must then help the pupil to form for himself gene- ralisations that "will embrace all that he has observed. A small number of facts "well kno"wn under all their relations, whose nature, cause, and effects have been well "understood, are of more value for the development of the intelligence than mil- lions of facts over which the mind, as it were, glides, without being arrested by any of them ; for, by the law of associa- tion of ideas, our minds retain well only the things of which we recognise the con- necting links. This method has been advocated and exemplified by our distinguished naturalist Huxley, in his two works Physiography and The Crayfish. In the latter book he shows, as he says in his preface, ' how the careful study of the structure and habits of one of the commonest and most insigni- ficant of animals conducts us step by step from the most vulgar notions to the largest generalisations, to the most difficult prob- lems of zoology, and even to the science of biology in general.' Not that such a course as that proposed in the Cra-jjfish would be exactly suited to any but the highest class in a secondary school. The confinement of the attention to a single animal would present too little variety to minds untrained to observation. Yet his principle may be appKed at all stages of the school teaching, the unity may lie in the class of facts brought under notice, rather than in the object in which they are observed. As he says more explicitly in the introduction to his Physiography, ' It appears to me to be plainly dictated by common sense that the teacher . . . should commence with the familiar facts of the scholar's daily experience ; and that from the firm ground of such expe- rience he should lead the beginner step by step to remoter objects and to the less readily comprehensible relations of things. In short, that the knowledge of the child should of set purpose be made to grow in the same manner as that of the human race has spontaneously grown.' It is in- -dispensable to proceed from the known to the unknown; the first lessons will consist in guiding the pupUs to recognise the facts of which the relations will be estab- lished later ; it is for the teacher to make a judicious choice of facts among those that may present the largest number of relations, or that will awaken and retain the curiosity of the child. As Buffon says, ' Children are easily wearied of things that they have already seen, they will look at them a second time with indifference un- less presented under some new aspect.' Again he says, ' Mystery at this age excites curiosity, whilst a"t a ripe age it inspires only disgust.' Let us apply these general considerations to the natural his- tory of our junior classes. Whei"e shall we begin, with animals, vegetables, or minerals ? Assuredly with that which of itself solicits the child's interest. The animal, by its movements, by its spon- taneity, by its diverse modes of walking, flying, eating, attacking, defending itself, presents such an attraction to the child that the playthings most appreciated are those which are most like animals. Even a very little child looks with curiosity on a crawling caterpillar, a flying butter- fly. In the child's fifth or sixth year it is already possible to direct its attention to the parts of the body, to the manner in which they are employed for walking, eating, and other functions of life — and this in connection with the most common of our indigenous and domestic animals ; thus the bat, the mouse, the spider, the frog, the cat, &c., furnish matter for' the most interesting object lessons. The child will thus learn to observe attentively, to see exactly and quickly without strain or fatigue. From the first drawing should be encouraged, not necessarily of the whole animal, but of striking points. Thus even small children can attempt the owl's beak and the cat's claw. The teacher must of course himself be a keen observer, and must have at his command a store of anec- dotes furnished by his own observation. He "will thus be methodically cultivating another faculty of his pupils, of no less importance educationally, namely, their imagination. These lessons on animals may well be followed by similar ones on plants and minerals, but always of the same kind ; the question to ask about a plant at this stage is not, ' to what class and order does it belong 1 ' but ' what is it like ? what are its parts ? where does it grow best ? when does it bloom ; how long does it live 1 ' &c. Later, we may return to our animals in order to apply more rigidly the methods of science, and from 526 ZOOLOGY AS A SCHOOL SUBJECT this point botany and zoology may be taught side by side, or alternated by short courses of geology and physical geography. There comes a time to most children, usually at the age of twelve or later, when they have a mania for collecting. Seals, stamps, coins, &c., furnish material for gratifying this desire ; but there is no reason why it should not be directed to natural objects, which not only keep up the interest of the previous instruction, but also prepare the way for a new stage, the classificatory. But the formation of these collections has other advantages than their direct bearing on the class lessons. The child is by this means brought into intimate relation with Ma- ture, his physical development gains by the out-of-door walking, climbing, and even by the looking and watching involved, the teacher will no doubt occasionally ac- company some of his class in their ramble, and, whilst sharing their search, will teach them valuable lessons on ' Eyes and no eyes,' none the less valuable for being deprived of the formality of the class- room. On returning home the young' col- lector arranges his objects, observes, tries to identify them ; he thus learns the value of order and method both in his thoughts and actions. The great naturalist, Cuvier, has borne testimony to the value of the training in method furnished by scientific studies. He himself was a man of varied avocations, professor at the university, director of the museum, member and pre- sident of the council of state, &c. He says he would have found it difficult to perform the various duties involved, with- out the application of the method of which he speaks. 'The habit that is necessarily acquired in studying natural history, of classifying in one's mind a very great number of ideas, is one of the advantages of which little has been said, and which will become one of the most important, when the subject shall be generally intro- duced into common education. We by this means obtain practice in the part of logic called method, almost as much as one gets practice in the syllogism by the study of geometry. . . . Now this art of method when once mastered can be applied Avith infinite advantage to studies most foreign to natural history. Every dis- cussion which supposes a classification of facts, every research which demands a distribution of material, is carried on ac- cording to the same laws ; and the young man who thought he had been pursuing this science only as a source of amusement, is himself surprised at the faculty which it has developed in him for business of all kinds.' In order that such a result may be obtained, it is not necessary that large collections should be made. A hundred insects or plants carefully studied would suffice to develop this most valuable spirit of method. The private collection will naturally give rise to a school collection or museum; fortunate possessors of rare objects will be glad to contribute or to lend them to it ; sometimes whole collections of small objects, as eggs, insects, &c., will be lent for a period and compared with others ; thus the esprit de corps of the school is fostered. As the teachers will of course inculcate respect for life, especially of the higher animals, they will encourage the children to bring specimens of birds and small mammals found dead, and will have them stuffed to place in the museum. These will be of use for the class-lessons ; even skeletons can often be found, or portions of them, especially in woods, and will be of use when the time comes for detailed study of anatomy. At this stage much interest will be added to the study of geography by the descrip- tion of the fauna and flora of distant lands, which the children will be in a position to compare with their own. It is impossible in fact to picture to oneself India without the elephant, Australia without its kan- garoos, Madagascar Avithout its lemurs. Good pictures Avill of course be needed for the leading types, and the teacher must read books of travel, with special attention to the desci'iptions of plants and animals. Now will come the time for lessons on classification, based on the resemblances observed in specimens actually handled and the pictures of foreign types. Nor can we avoid touching upon the relations of animals to man and his works. In primary schools it will be of no sinall advantage to the future agriculturist to overcome the many foolish prejudices that abound in rural districts, and the fear of harmless animals ; to understand the true function of these friends of man, and the right way of checking the ravages of those that destroy his crops or decimate his herds. Not that these points need form the subject of formal lessons, Ijut should ZOOLOGY AS A SCHOOL SUBJECT 527 arise naturally out of the teaching of zoology, and when once put upon the right track, the peasant will discover much for himself, in the course of his daily experi- ences after school-days are over. To re- turn to secondary schools, the zoology and other branches of natural history may be dropped for a time when the physical sciences are begun, to be resumed later when these have been pursued sufficiently to throw light upon the physiology and histology of plants and animals, and the causes of the phenomena described under physical geography. At this stage good diagrams are essen- tial ; but if the teacher can draw there will be not much difficulty in providing these. A good microscope should be part of the school furniture, and opportunities may be found for exhibiting sections of tissues, cells, &c.; thus the diagrams of such things will be better understood and appreciated. The physiology of animals should lead up to the much-neglected study of human physiology, so important as guiding to the laws of health. It will be important to encourage the foundation of clubs among the scholars ; when these have been once started by the co-operation and encouragement of the teachers, they can be left to the manage- ment of the more enthusiastic pupils. To the periodical meetings specimens will be brought and short papers read ; minutes should be kept ; and the teacher may show his interest by occasionally taking the chair and reading them. It is well to get up several clubs, as matters that interest the younger children will not be so inter- esting to the elder, and vice versd. Possibly two classes might combine with advantage, especially if studying different branches of natural history in the class-room. To sum up then, by briefly answering the questions with which we set out : 1. Zoology as a branch of history ca7i be taught in schools of every grade. 2. The purposes it serves are manifold. It develops the child's powers of observation and of comparison, leads to methodical arrangement of ideas, promotes accuracy both of thought and word, arouses interest in nature, furnishes a motive for the out-of-door exercise so good for mind and body, encourages esprit de cor2os among the scholars by giving them intellectual pursuits in common out of the class-room, and opportunities for assisting one another to gain knowledge. 3. It must be taught in such a manner that these purposes may be fulfilled to the utmost, in the first years of school by' object-lessons, by directing attention to habits, characters, utility of animals, by en- couragement to form collections, drawings to note down observations in writing to be read at the ' club ' ; later by more sys- tematic lessons on the relations of forms and functions, to which analogies Avill be furnished by the study of plants and fossils brought up to the same stage. 4. The time when it should be taught has also been indicated, namely, in the form of object lessons in the lowest class, and alternately with other branches of natural history, and the physical sciences through- out the school course. In English secondary schools the sub- ject does not usually receive the attention it deserves. In elementary schools it is scarcely recognised, even among the ' op- tional ' subjects. In France, however, natural history is among the subjects that were made obligatory by the law of 1882, and the programme issued is so suggestive that we reproduce it in full. The place occupied by zoology and its relation to the other branches will be readily seen. Infant Class. Little ' lessons on things ' (object-lessons), always with the object under the eyes, and in the hands of the children. Exercises and familiar conver- sations, having for their object to enable the children to acquire the first elements of knowledge concerning animals, .vege- tables, minerals, and above all to lead them to look, to observe, to compare, to question, and to remember. Ehmentary Course. — Object lessons : graduated according to a plan chosen by the master ; but, once chosen, it must be followed regularly. Man, animals, vege- tables, minerals. General notions about the conversion of raw materials into arti- ficial substances in common iise (foods, tissues, paper, stones, metals). Little col- lections made by the pupils, especially in the course of school expeditions. Middle Course. — Very elementary no- tions of the natural sciences. Man, gene- ral description of the human body, the idea of the principal functions of life. Animals : Notions of the four sub-king- doms, and of the division of the vertebrates into classes, by the aid of an animal taken as the type of each group. Vegetables : Study, on certain selected types, of the 528 ZOOLOGY AS A SCHOOL SUBJECT principal organs of the plant. Notions about the large divisions of the vege- table kingdom, indications of useful and poisonous plants, especially in the school ■expeditions. Higher Course. — IsTotions about the Tiatural sciences. Revision with extension of the middle course. Man : Ideas about digestion, circula- tion, respiration, the nervous system, the sense-organs. Practical advice in matters of hygiene. Animals : Broad features of classifica- tion. Animals useful and noxious to agriculture. Vegetables : Essential parts of the plant. Dried collections. Minerals : General notions about the earth's crust. Rocks, fossils, soils. Ex- amples drawn from the district. Excur- sions and small collections. In the normal schools a more strictly scientific course is prescribed for each of the three years of traming. Germany, Switzerland, Norway, and Belgium also render the subject obligatory, but in the primai'y schools tlie knowledge isgenei'ally left to be obtained from the reading-book, a method that by no means serves all the purposes we have indicated. In the United States the teaching is methodical, and on the lines we have seen laid down in France. • A SELECT AND SYSTEMATIC BIBLIOGRAPHY OP PEDAGOGY. BY WILLIAM SWAN SONNENSCHEIN. This List is limited to books which either are in print or being out of print are commonly met with, or ' standard.' School class-books are uniformly excluded. The books asterisked [*] are believed to be specially good in their several depart- ments. [Am.] indicates that the writer is an American ; [ed.] that he is the editor, and not the author, of the book ; o.p. implies that the book is out of print. The other abbreviations will, it is thought, be self-evident. Dates of the nineteenth century are abbreviated [e.g., 41, 80=1841, 1880); but previous dates are given in full ; those within square brackets representing the dates of the first editions, and those without them the dates of the latest editions. I. §ompre^ettsi»e ^orifes on "^e^agogp. (a) CYCLOPiEDIAS, 'ENCYCLOPEDIA,' BIBLIOGKAPHY. ^BxjissoN, F. [ed.] Dictionnaire de Pedagogie et d'Instruction Primaire, Ser. i. [theoretic part] [about 3000 pp.], 2 vols. ab. 45f . r8° Paris 82-87 The best Prencli work ; very full and good in French subjects, but somewhat weak otherwise. Cyclopasdia of Education — the present work Is. M. mS" Sonnenschein 8& Kiddle (H.) + Schem (A. J.) {^1 Cyclopjedia of Education ; pp. 858 /4 m8° JSfew York [76] 83 Deals almost exclusively with American and British subjects ; somewhat restricted in scope. The statistical part [by Schem] is of chief value. Dictionary of Education [abdgmt. of above] ^1.50 12° JVerv York 81 LiNDNEE, G. A. Encyclopadisches Handbuchder Erziehungskunde; pp. 1040 8° Vienna 84 With special reference to the Volksschule ; the best of the smaller alphabetical cyclopasdias ; contains good bibliographies, Sandee, F. Lexikon der Padagogik ; pp. 540 [a pocket handbook] Leipzig 83 *SCHMID, K. A. [ed.] Encycl. des gesammten Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesens, v. i-ix. 76-87 The first ed. (1859-76) was in 11 vols, large 8vo ; second now in progress. The standard G-erman work. * Padagogisches Handbuch ; 2 vols, [abridgment of above] 29«. rS" Gotlia 75-79 Stoy, K. V. Encyclopadie, Methodologie und Literatur der Padagogik ; pp. 478 6s. 8° Leipzig [61] 78 Herbartian ; very suggestive, but weak in bibliography. Systematic arrangement. *V0GEL, Dr. Aug-ust. Systematische Encyclopadie der Padagogik ; pp. 238 8° Bernlwg 81 Best general view ; with copious but not wholly trustworthy (and limited to German) literary references ; systematic and philosophic. "Wagner, J. J. System des Unterrichts [an ' encycloptedia ' of pedagogy] 8° Ulm 81 M M 530 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PEDAGOGY: PERIODICALS Bibliography — ?'. also Lindner, Stoy, and Vogel, sit^ra. Fiihrer durch die padagogische Literatur 8° Vienna 79 Hall (Prof. G. S.) + Mansfield (J. M.) [Ams.] Hints towards a Bibliography of Education ^1 cS" Boston 87 SCHOTT, G. E. Handbuch der piidagogischen Literatur der Gegenwart ; 3 pts. 8° Lei^pzig 69-71 Philosophy of Pedagogics. — v. also II. («■.) s.v. Bennett. KosBNKEANZ, K. The Philosophy of Education [tr.] $l.bO 12° St. Lmis [72] 86 (l) PERIODICALS (GENERAL). Great Britain. Editjoational Times, [ed. Dr. R. Wormell] Secondary. Organ of Coll. of Precept. ^d. 4" Hodgson ; inonthly Jouomal of Education, [ed. Francis Storr.] Secondary. Founded 1869 &d. 4° Rice ; monthly Private Selboolmaster. [ed. Edw. Markwick.] Secondary. Founded 1887 fcp. 4" Carr ; monflily School Board Chronicle, [ed. R. Gowing.] School Bd. topics. Fd. 1871 fcp. f° Grant & Co. ; weeTtly School Guardian. Organ of National Society. Founded 1876 d4"' National Soc. ; monthly Schoolmaster. School Board and Elementary. fcp. f" Educ. Newsp. Co. ; weekly Schoolmistress. Elementary. fp weelily France. Bvlletin de la Societe pour V Instruction Elementaire. Founded 1815 Pai'is lUnstruction Puhlique. [ed. A. Blot] Pa/i-is l/anuel general de V Instruction Primaire. Founded 1874 Paris Bevue Internationale de rEaseignement. Chiefly secondary. Founded 1881 Paris; monthly Bevue Pedagogique. Paris ; monthly Germany and Austria. Allgemeine dexitsche Lehrerzeitung. [ed. W. Stoy.] Organ of Allgem. Lehrerver- sammlung. Founded 1848 Bar7iistadt Centralblatt f. d. gesammte JJnterrichts-Verwaltung in Prexissen Berlin; monthly Deutsche Blatter fUr erziehenden Unteroncht Langensaha ; iveehly Bt'utsehe Schulzeitung . Founded 1870 Berlin ; monthly Erziehung der Gegenrvart. [ed. W. Schroter.] Froebelian. Founded by Baroness Marenholtz-Biilow 4° Dresden ; monthly Evangelisches Schulblatt. [ed. W. Dorpfeld.] Founded 1846 4° Giltersloh monthly Jahrhucli des Yereinsf. wiss. Pddagogik. [ed. T. ZiUer.] 14 vols. Langensalza 69-82 Jahresherichte ilber d. Mhere Schulwesen. [ed. C. Ketzwisch.] Founded 1886. 8° Berlin ; annually Lehrjjrohen und Leho'gdnge. [ed. 0. Frick + G. Richter.] Founded 1884 Halle ; irregularly Neue deutsche Schailzeitung . Founded 1871 Berlin ; weekly Padagogische Blatter filr LelirerMldung. Founded 1871 Gotha Padagogische Studien. [ed. W. Rein.] Founded 1880 8" Leipzig ; quarterly Padagogische Zeitung. [ed. H. Schroder.] Organ of Berliner Lehrerverein. Fd. 1871 Berlin ; weeUy Pddagogischer Jahreslericht. [ed. A. Liiben ; cont. by Fr. Dittes] Leipzig Pddagogisches Archiv : Gymnasien, Bealschulen, Biirgerschulen. Founded 1858 Stettin Pddagogisches Correspondenzhlatt im Auftrage d. Zillerschen Seminar. Founded 1882 li-monthly Pddagogium. [ed. F. Dittes.] Secondary monthly Bheinische Blatter, [ed. W. Lange.] Founded by A. Diesterweg, 1827. sS° Frankfort ; U-mo7ithly Zdtschrift far deiitschen Unterricht. [ed. 0. Lyon.] Founded 1887 Leipzig ; U-vionthly Zeitschrift filr die oesterreichischen Gymnasien Zeitschrift fiir preussisches Gymnasialmesen Berlin Zeitung fiir das hohere Unterrichtswesen. Founded 1871 Leipzig; meekly United States. Academy, The. Secondary. Founded 1886 Syracuse; monthly Amencan Jonryial of Education. Secondary. Founded by Barnard in 1855 Hartford Education. General. Founded 1880 Boston; bi-monthly HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY : GENERALLY 531 n. ^isfors axib ^iograp^^S of ^cbaqoQV:- For the Biographies of writers on Systematic Pedagogy, v. IV (J)^ jjassim. (a) GENEEAL WORKS. Comprehensive. Browning, Oscar. An Introduction to the History of Educational Theories ; 3s. &d. c8» Paul [81] 82 Prom the Greeks to Kant, Ficlite, Herbart, and the English Public School. *C0MPAYEE, Prof. Gabriel. The History of Pedagogy, tr., with introduction and notes by Prof. W. H. Payne ; pp. .594 6s. c8° Sonnenschein 88 The best universal history in English ; concise and comprehensive. DiTTES, Prof. F. Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichtes ; pp. 248 3s. 8° Leijizig [71] 76 Kellnek, L. Erziehungsgeschichte [best Roman Catholic history] ; 3 vols. ea. 3s. 8° Essen [62] 80 MuLLiNGEE, J. Bass. Is said to })e ijreparing a general history Paintee, Prof. F. V. N. A History of Education ^1.50 cS" M^v York 86 Paeoz, Jules. Histoire Universelle de la Pedagogic ; pp. 536 4f . p8° Paris [69] 83 The best book after Cojipatre, sup7'a ; by a Swiss normal schoolmaster. V. Raumee, Prof. C. Geschichte der Padagogik, 4 vols. [standard] 19s. Gd. 8" Gutersloh [42] 80 1. Dante to Bacon ; ii. to d. of Pestalozzi ; iii. special topics (Lat. and Germ, laugs., hist., uat. science, educ. of girls) ; iv. history of Germ. Universities ; vols, i.-ii. tr. in part s.v. 'German Educational Reformers,' 12^. mS" Hartford ; vol. iv. tr. s.v. 'National Education in Germany,' Vis. m8° Hcu-tford. SCHMID, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, vol. i. [pre-Christian] 8° Stuttgart 84 *SCHMIDT, Dr. K. Gesch. der Padag. hrsg. Dr. Wichard Lange ; 4 vols. 37s. r8° Koilien [.59-62] 76 vol. i. pre-Christian, pp. 526, %s. ; vol. ii. to Reformation, pp.494, 6.5. ; vol. iii. to Pestalozzi, pp. 830, 9.s. ; vol. iv. to present time, pp. 1141, 12s. The standard German history ; diffuse, partly antiquated, but still of very great value for purposes of reference. Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts, hrsg. Dr. Wichard Lange ; pp. 551 5s. m8° Kothen [63] 76 SCHOEN (A.) + Reinecke (H.) Geschichte der Padagogik [w. extracts fr. educ. writers] 3s. Qd. 8° Leijjzig [ ] 84 VOGEL, Dr. August. Geschichte der Padagogik als Wissenschaft ; pp. 410, 7s. &d. 8° Giltersloh 77 Philosophic ; an attempt to trace the history of scientific pedagogy, based on the original sources. Hiddle Ages. *Deniple, H. Die Universitaten des Mittelalters bis ] 400 ; vol. i. [origin of the universities], pp. 815 m8"' Berlin 85 By a brilliant young priest, a papal archivist at Rome. Heppe, H. Das Schulwesen des Mittelalters und dessen Reform im XVI. Jahrhundert ; pp. 64 Is. &d. 8° 3Iariurg 60 Laceoix, Paul, in Ms Science and Literature in the Middle Ages [tr,] ; ill. 15s. r8° Virtue [77] 87 Laueie, Prof. S. S. Lectures on the Rise and Early Constitution of Universities, Qs. c8° Paul 86 MiCHAUD, Abbe E. GuiLl. de Champeaux et les ecoles de Paris au 12'= si^cle 8" Pao-is 67 MuLLiNGEE, J. Bass. Schools of Charles the Great in the Ninth Century ; pp. 193 7s. Qd. 8° Longmans 77 ■Contemporary. Arnold, Matthew. Special Report on Elem. Educ. in Germ., Switz., France [Bliie-Bk.] Eyre & Spottiswoode 86 Baenaed, H. [Am. ; ed.] Elementary and Secondary Instruction 12s. m8° Hartford 72 i. German States, pp. 856 ; ii. Switzerland, France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Russia, Greece, Turkey, Italy, Portugal, Spain ; iii. Great Britain and America. [ed.] National Systems of Education ; 2 vols, [chiefly England, France, Germany] each 12s. m8'' Hartford 80 Beer + Hochegger, A. + F. Fortschritte d. Unterrichtswesens in d. Cultur- stadten Europas, 2 vols. [Russia and Belgium.] ea. 12s. 8° Vienna 67-68 International Conference on Education in London, 4 vols. 84 Miscellaneous, including Collective Biographical Works, Drane [Mrs.] A. T. Christian Schools and Scholars ; pp. 738 12s. M. 8" Bums & Gates [81] 81 By a Roman Catholic ; educational- sketches, from original Latin sources, extending from the Christian era to the Council of Trent. Kay, D. Education and Educators 7s. M. c8° Paul 84 M M 2 532 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY : GENERALLY Miscellaneous, including Collective Biographical Works — oont. *Leitch, J. Muir. Practical Educationists and their Systems of Teaching [lectures] ; pp. 302 6s. c8" MacLehose, Glasgow 75< Locke, Pestalozzi, Bell, Lancaster, Wilderspin, Stow, Herbert Spencer. ♦Quick, Eev. E. H. Essays on Educational Reformers ; pp. 351 5s. cS" Author, Redhill [68] ST The Jesuits ; Ascliam, Montaigne, Ratich, Milton ; Comenius ; Locke ; Rousseavi's ' Emile ' ; Basedow ; Pesta- lozzi ; Jacotot ; Herbert Spencer ; about Teaching Children ; Moral and Religious Education. Philosophy of Pedagogics. 4^ Bennett, Dr. C. W. [Am.] History of the Philosophy of Pedagogics New York IT (5) ACCORDING TO COUNTRIES. Arahs. Haneberg, D. Abhandlung iiber das Schul- und Lehrwesen der Muhame- daner im Mittelalter ; pp. 40 Is. pS" MunioJi 50- PiSCHON, C. N. Der Binfluss des Islam auf d. hausl., soc. und polit. Leben; pp. 162 [contains one chap, on Educ] 3s. p8° Leipzig! 81 Vambery, H. Der Islam im XIX. Jahrhundert ; pp. 321 [chaps, on Culture and School, &c.] 6s. 8° Leipzig 75 Austria — vide Germany, infra Belgium. Branle. ^tablissements d'Instruction et d'Education en Belgique ; pp. 121 8° Brussels 72 Conference at Brussels : L'Ecole modele 3s. M. cS" Brussels SO- Lauer, M. Entwickelung und Gestaltung des belgischen Volksschul- wesens [since 1842] ; pp. 194 pS" Berlin 84 Vanderkindere, L. L'Universite de Bruxelles [1834-1884] ; pp. 216 8" Brussels China. BlOT, E. Essai sur I'Histoire de Tlnstruction publ. en Chine, 2 v. 12f. 8" Paris 45- DOOLITTLE, J. Social Life of the Chinese— wi^Ze chaps, xv., xvi., and xvii. 6s. 6d. c8» Bickers [65] 71 Martin, W. A. P. [Am.] The Chinese : their education, philosophy, and letters ; pp. 319 ;^1.75 12° JVew York 81 Denmark. Matzen Kjobenhavns Universitets Retshistorie [a very good work] KeMshestom 79 Egypt. Dor, V. E. L'Instruction Publique en Egypte ; pp. 394 7f. 50c. 8° Paris 72 France. Allain, Abbe E. L'Instruction Primaire avant la Revolution 25c. 32° Paris [76] 81 *Arnold, Matthew. A French Eton ; or, Middle-class Education and the State 2s. Qd. 12° MacmiUan 64 The Popular Education of France o.^?- {jnih. 10s. 6^.] 8° Longmans 61 Babeau, a. L'Ecole de Village pendant la Revolution ; pp. 272 3f. p8° Paris 81 Bernard, Paul. Histoire de I'Autorite' Paternelle en France ; pp. 512 7f . 8° Pm'is 63 Breal, M. Quelques Mots sur I'lnstr. publ. en France ; pp. 407 [I'ecole, lycee, les facultes] 3f . 50c. p8° Pans [72] 86 *CoMPAYRE, Prof. G. Histoire Critique des Doctrines de I'Education en France [since XVI. cent.] 2 vols. ; pp. 458, 438 12s. p8° Paris 80-87 Condorcet Rapport et Projet de Decret sur I'Organ. g^n. de I'lnstr. Publ. [ed. Compayre] Paris 83 Conferences p§dagogiques faites k I'Bxposition Universelle (Paris 1878) 3f. 50c. cr8° Paris [78] 79 Cournot. Des Institutions d'Instruction publique en France ; iDp. 575 8° Paris 64 D'OCAGNE, Mortimer, Les Grandes Bcoles de France ; ill., pp. 399 3f . 50c. p8° Pa/ris 73 DuRUY, A. L'Instruction Publique et la Revolution ; pp. 502 8° Pa/ris 82 *Greard, Oct. Education et Instruction ; 4 vols. [i. prim., ii.-iii. second., iv. super.] ea. 3f. 50c. p8« Paris 87 HiPPEAU, C. L'Instr. Publ. en France ; i. Discours et Rapports ; ii. Debats s8° Pans Muteatj. Les Ecoles et Colleges en Province jusqu'en 1789 ; pp. 600 8° Bijon 82 DE Resbecq, Fr. Histoire de I'Bnseignement Primaire avant 1789 dans les communes qui ont forme le Departement du Nord ; pp. 424 8° Paris 78 SiCARD, A. L'Education morale et civique avant et pendant la Revolution ; pjp. 584 8° Paris 84 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY: FRANCE AND GERMANY 533 Simon, Jules. L'Ecole ; pp. 453 [primary, girls, compulsory, and free] 8° Paris 81 *Thery, a. F. Histoire de rEducation en France [6th cent, to pres. time ; best after Compayre, stqjra] ; 2 vols. ; pp. 360, 503 12f . p8« Paris 58 Tallet de Viriville. Histoire de I'lnstruction Publique en Europe et . . . en France 5f, 30c. 4° Pans 49 Paris University. \ BuDiNSZKY, A. Die Universitiit Paris u. d. Fremden an derselben im Mittel- alter ; pp. 234 7s. 8° Berlin 76 DuBARLE, E. Histoire de I'Universite de Paris, 2 vols. ; pp. 368, 380 8" Paris 44 Du BouLAY. Historia Universitatis Parisiensis, 6 vols, [valuable material] 8" Paris 66 Crermany and Austria. * Arnold, Matthew. Higher Schools and Universities in Germany ; pp. 270, 6s. 08° Macmillan [68] 74 Barnard, H. [Am. ; ed.] German Educational Eeformers [collected articles by various writers] 12s. m8° Hartford ii.d. National Education in German States 12s. m8» Hartford n.d. German Pedagogy [collected articles by various writers] 12s. m8° HaHford n.d. L- Bashford, J. L. Elementary Education in Saxony; pp. 89 London 81 Bird, Charles. Higher Education in Germany and England ; pp. 137, 2s. %d. c8° Paul 84 Breal, M. Excursions Pedagogiques ; pp. 364 [comparison of Germ, and French institutions] pS" Paris 82 OONEAD, J. The German Universities for the Last Fifty Years [tr.] ; pp. 333 10s. ^d. C80 Glasgow 85 Endean, J. Eussell. The Public Education of Austria 6 Parker 45- Erfurt University. Die Universitilt Erfurt in ihrem Verlialtniss zu dem Humanismus und der Reformation KampscUlte 58 Freiburg University. Die Universitat Freiburg [1852-1881] ; pp. 128 Freilmg 81 Greifswald University. KOSEGAETEN. Geschichte der Universitat Greifswald, 2 parts 5T Heidelberg University. Hautz, J. F. Geschichte der Universitat Heidelberg, 2 vols. 14s. 8° Mmmlwim 62-64 Innsbruck University. Peobst, J. Geschichte der Universitat in Innsbriick; pp. 411 10s. 8" Innsbrmli 69' Leipzig University. Statutenbuch der Universitat Leipzigs p8° Leipzig 61 Zaencke, Fr. Urkundliche Quellen zur Geschichte der Universitat Leipzigs, in the Abhandlungen d. sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wis- senschaften ; 2 vols. ; pp. 509, 922 9s. 4° Leipzig 57 Munich University. V. Peantl, K. Geschichte der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat [4th cen- tenary] 2 vols. ; pp. 758, 579 20s. mS" Munieh 72 Prague University. Monumenta Historica Universitatis Pragensis, 7 vols. Prague 30-48 ToMEK, W. W. Geschichte der Prager Universitat; pp. 377 8" Prague 49 Rinteln iJniversity. PiDBEiT,F. K.T. Geschichte der Hessisch-Schaumburg. Univ.Rinteln ; pp. 139 ls.p8° Marburgi2 Bostoek University. Keabbb, 0. Die Universitat Rostock im XV. und XVI. Jahrhundert, 2 vols. 10s. 8" RostocTi 56 Tubingen University. Hoffmann. Oekonomischer Zustand d. Universitat Tubingen gegen d. Mitte d. XVI. Jahrhunderts . 45 Klupfel, K. Geschichte u. Beschreibung der Univ. Tiibingen ; pp. 581 6s. Qd. 8° TiiMngen 49 Urkunden zur Geschichte der Universitat Tiibingen [1476-1550] TiiMngen 77 Vienna University. V. AsCHBACH, J. R. Geschichte der Wiener Univ. in ihrem ersten Jahrhun- dert ; pp. 638 8s. 8° Vienna 65 V. AsCHBACH, J. R. Die Wiener Universitat u. ihre Humanisten im Zeitalter Maximilians I. ; pp. 467 10s. 8° Vienna 77 Kink, R. Geschichte der kaiserlichen Universitat zu Wien, 3 pts. in 2 vols. ; pp. 636, 327, 624 27s, 8° Vienna 54 Wiirzburg University. Wegele, F.X. Geschichte der Univers. Wiirzburg, 2 vols. ; pp. 308, 638 16s. 8° Wurzburg. 82' Great Britain. ^ Adams, F. History of the Elementary School Contest in England ; pp. 350 cS" London 82 Baenaed, H. [Am. ; ed.] English Pedagogy, r. [collected articles by various con- tributors] ; pp. 464 2 series, ea. 12s. mS" PhiladelpMa [66] 76- ^ BissoN, F. S. De C. [ed.] Our Schools and Colleges, vol. i. Boys, 12s. 6d. ; vol. ii. Girls, 7s. Qd. c8° Simpkin [72] 84 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY: GREAT BRITAIN 535 Beisted, C. a. [Am.] Five Years in an English University ; pp. 572 10s. 6d. cS" Low [72] 73 DB CoUBEETiN, P. L'Education en Angleterre 3f. 50c. s8° Paris 88 Dbmogbot + MoNTUCCi, J. + H. De TEnseignement super, en Angl. et Ecosse. [report] 8° Paris 70 Feedericq, Prof. P. De TEnseignement snperieur de THistoire en Ecosse et en Angleterre ; pp. 47 8° Paris 85 FURNIVALL, F. J. Education in Early England — Ms Preface to ' Manners and Meals in Olden Time ' 8° E. E. Text Soc. 67 Gill, J. Systems of Education ; pp. 312 [English; Aschamto Horace Grant] 2s. ^d. 12° Longmans 76 Grant, James. History of the Burgh Schools of Scotland 10s. 6^. r8° Collins 76 Hazlitt, W. Carew. Schools, School Books, and Schoolmasters ; pp. 300 7s. ^d. c8° Jarvis 87 HlPPEAXJ, C. L'Instruction Publique en Angleterre ; pp. 138 3f. 50c. p8" Paris 73 HuBER, Prof. V. A. The English Universities ; tr. Prof. F. W. Newman ; plates ; 2 vols, in 3 o.iJ. {jniib. 50s.] 8° Pickering 43 i. IStli cent, to d. of Eliz. ; ii. to 1843 ; iii. constit. of the universities and student life. A well-known compilation of' considerable research, but contains much that is irrelevant, follows no historical order, and is prejudiced. Our Public Schools [Eton, Harrow,Winchester, Eugby, Westminster, Marlborough,. Charterhouse] 6s. cS" Paul 81 Pascoe, C. E. [ed.] Practical Handbook to the Principal Schools of England; pp. 175 3s. GcZ. fS" Low [77] 78 Public Schools, Our ; pp. 373 81 . . The, with notes on their history and traditions ; pp. 414 8s. &d. f8° Blackwood 67 Winchester, Westminster, Shrewsbury, Harrow, Eugby. By author of ' Etoniana.' Keport. General Digest of Endowed Charities, 38 vols. [Blue-book] f° Eyre & Spottiswoode 67-76 of H.M. Commissioners app. to inquire into Eevenues and Management of Colleges and Schools, 4 vols. [Blue-book] f° Eyre & Spottiswoode 84 of H.M. Commissioners app. to inquire into Property and Incomes of Oxford and Cambridge, 2 vols. [Blue-book] f° Eyre & Spottiswoode 74 of the School Inquiry Commission, 21 vols. [Blue-book] f" Eyre & Spottiswoode 68-69 of Education Conference held in Manchester 8° Heywood, Manas. Eeports of Education Conference held at the Health Exhibition [London 1884] ; 4 vols. each 7s. Qd. 8° Clowes 85 EiGG, Dr. J. H. [Wesl.] National Education in its Social Conditions and Aspects ; pp. 517 0.2J. Ipuh. 12s.] c8° Strahan 73 Staunton, Howard [Am.] The Great Schools of England; pp. 517; ill. o.jJ. Ipuh. 7s. Qd.'\ cS" Strahan [65] 69 WiESE, Dr. L. German Letters on English Education [tr.] 5s. c8° Collins 77 Wordsworth, Bp. C. Schote Academics: some account of Studies at the English Universities in Eighteenth Century; pp. 435 15s. 8° Camb. Press 77 Cambridge University. Baker, Thos. History of College of St. John, w. [elaborate] notes Prof. J. E. B. Mayor, 2 vols. ; pp. 1235 24s. 8° Camb. Press 69 Cooper, C. H. Annals of Cambridge, 4 vols. o.j}. 8° priv. ])rinted 42-52 . Memorials of Cambridge, 3 vols, : pp. 403, 393, 383 ; plates ; each 25s. 8° Macmillan [58-61] 80 LuARD, H. E. [ed.] Graduati Cantabrigienses 1800-1872 10s. M. 8° Bell 73 *MuLLiNGER, J. Bass. History of the University of Cambridge [fr. 1535 to Charles I.] ; 2 vols. 30s. 8° Camb. Press 73-84 Cambridge Characteristics in the Seventeenth Century [Prize Essay] 4s. &d. c8° Macmillan 67 History of Univ. of Camb. [Epochs Church Hist.] ;2s, Qd. f8° Longman 88 *WiLLis (E.) -f- Clark ( J.W.) Architectural History of the University of Cambridge and Colls, of Camb. and Eton. 4 vols. 12s. &d. rl" Camb. Press 86 By no means so restricted in its scope as its title indicates. Vol. iv. contains the maps, plans, and plates. CharterliOTise School. Whitfield, W. H. Charterhouse, Past and Present : a brief History 7s. c8° Simpkin 79 Dublin University. Taylor, W.B.S. History of the University of Dublin, ill. ; pp. 540, o.p. ipvl). 21s.] 8° Bonn 45 Dulwicb College. Blanch, W. H. Dulwich College and Edward AUeyn : a short history ; portraits and ill. 3s. M. 8° E. W. Allen 77 536 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY: GREAT BRITAIN— GREECE Great Britain — cont. Edinburgh High School. Steven, Dr. W. History of the High School of Edinburgh from the Sixteenth Century 7s. %d. 8° McLachlan, EAin. Edinburgh University and School. Dalzel, a. History of the Edinburgh University ; 2 vols. 21s. 8° JEdinlmrgTi 62 *Grant, Sir Alex. Story of the Univ. of Edinburgh during its first 300 years ; ill., 2 vols. ; pp. 384, 510 36s. 8° Longmans 84 Eton College. *Lytb, H. C. Maxwell. A History of Eton College [1440-1875], ill. ; pp. 519 21s. 8° Macmillan [75] 88 Wilkinson, Kev. C. A. Keminiscences of Eton [in Keate's time] 6s. c8° Hurst , 87 Harrow School. Thornton, P. M. Harrow School and its Surroundings ; ill. 15s. 8° W. H. Allen 85 Marlborough College. HULME, F. E. The Town, College, and Neighbourhood of Marlborough; ill., 6s. cS" Stanford 81 Owens College, Manchester. Thompson, Jos. Owens College : its foundation and growth 18s. 8° Cornish, Manes. [86] 86 Oxford University. BoASB, Rev. C. W. [ed.] The Register of the University of Oxford ; vol. i. [1449-63, 1505-71] 16s. 8° Oxf. Hist. Soc. 84 Bkodrick, Hon. G. C. History of the University of Oxford [Epochs of Church History ; the only book brought down to date] 2s. &d. f 8° Longmans 87 DOBLE, C. E. [ed.] Remarks and Collections of T. Hearne, vol. i. [1705-1707] 16s. 8° Oxf. Hist. Soc. 84 Ingram, J. Memorials of Oxford, 2 vols. 0.2}. U^iib. 30s.] 8» Parker [37] 47 Contains an historical sketch of each college, with numerous illustrations by Le Keus. Lang, Andrew. Oxford : histor. and descrip. notes ; w. etchings 21s. fo. Seeley 80 *Lyte, H. C. Maxwell. Hist, of the University of Oxford [only to 1530] 16s. 8° Macmillan 86 Madan, F. Rough List of MS. Materials rel. to the History of Oxford 7s. 6d. 8° Clar. Press 87 MozLEY, Rev. T. Reminiscences of Oriel and the Oxford Movement, 2vols. 18s. 08° Longmans 82 Parker, James. The Early History of Oxford 20s. 80 Oxf. Hist. Soc. 84 Statutes made for the Univ. of Oxford and the Colleges therein.' 5s. 8° Clar. Press ann. A Wood, Anthony. AthenEe Oxonienses : history of writers and bishops educ. at Oxford fr. 1500 to 1695 [1721], ed. Bliss; 4 v. 04}. 4:" Zo7idon 11691-2} 18-20 Paisley Grammar School. Brown, R. History of the Paisley Grammar School [to 1576] ; pp. 609 ; ill. Paisley 75 Rugby School. *Stanley, Dean A. P. The Life and Correspondence of Thomas Arnold, D.D. ; 2 vols. 12s. 08° Murray [47] 87 St. Paul's School. LuPTON, J. H. A Life of John Colet [the founder of St. Paul's School] 12s. 8° Bell 87 Seebohm, Fred. The Oxford Reformers of 1498 [Colet, Erasmus, More] 14s. 8° Longmans [67] 87 Westminster School. FoRSHALL Westminster School • past and present Winchester College. Adams, Rev. H. C. Wykehamica : a hist, of Winchester College, &c. 10s. 6d. c8° Parker 78 KiRBY, T. F. Winchester Scholars : list of wardens, fellows, and scholars 10s. 6d. 8" Clar. Press 88 MOBERLY, G. H. Life of William of Wykeham 7s. dd. c8° Warren, Wmcs. 87 Walcott, M. E. C. William of Wykeham and his Colleges [XIV. Cent.] o.p. \jpui. 14s,] 8° Whittaker 52 British Colonies — vide also India, infra t^ Russell, J. Schools of Greater Britain : educational systems of Colonies •^ and India [from official sources] 3s. 6d. 8» Collins 87 Greece and Some. Capes, W. W. University Life of Ancient Athens [Oxford Lectures] ; pp. 171 5s. cS" Longmans 77 Grasberger, L. Erziehung und Unterricht im klass. Alterthum, 3v. 30s. 8° Wiirzhv/rg 64-81 Vol. i. Leibliche Erziehung, pp. 414, 7s. ['67] ; ii. Musikalischer Unterricht, pp. 422, 10«. 6(i. ['75] ; iii. Die Epheben- Bildung, pp. 642, 12s. &d. ['81]. Scholarly, detailed, and from original sources. HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY : GREECE— SWITZERLAND 537 Jagee, 0. H. Die Gymnastik der Hellenen; pp. 336 ; 6 plates 8s. p8° Stuttgm't [ ] 81 By a German professor of gymnastics ; valuable, but written in a bad style. Keause, C. J. H. Geschichte der Erziehung bei den Griechen, Etruskern und Romern ; pp. 436 [standard] 7s. 8° Halle 51 Die Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen 24s. 8° Halle 41 *Mahapfy, Prof. J. P. Old Greek Education ; pp. 161 3s. 6^. c8° Paul [81] 83 Follows the order of the pupil's age ; based on G-rasberger, supra. UssiNG-, Prof. J. L. Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesen bei den Griechen und den Eomern ; pp. 166 [concise and scholarly] 2s. 8° Altona 70 Erziehung und Jugendunterricht bei d. Gr. u. Eom. 8° Berlin 85 WiLKiNS, Prof. A. S. National Education in Greece in the 4th cent. B.C. ; pp. 167 5s. cS" Isbister 73 Comprises a succinct view of the educational theories of Plato and Aristotle. Holland — vide Netherlands, infra India. Caepentbe, Mary. Education in India, 2 vols. 18s. 8° Longmans 68 Lethbeidgb, Sir R. Higher Education in India ; pp. 216 [English schools] 7s. Qd. c8° W. H. Allen 82 PiNCOTT, Fred. Primary Educ. in India— m Nat. Review, Feb. 1884 ; 2s. M. m8°W.H. Allen 84 Russell, J. in Ms Schools of Greater Britain : Educational Systems of Colonies and India 3s. 6d. 8° Collins 87 Italy. 1/^ Bennett, Dr. C. W, [Am.] National Education in Italy, France, Germany, England, and Wales 20c. 8° Syracuse Ceeeuti Franc. Storia della Pedagogia in Italia dalle Origini 78 83 HIPPEA.U, e. SiciLiANi, Pietro. L'Instruction Publique en Italie ; pp. 415 Scienza dell' Educazione nelle scuole Italiane 3f. 50c. pS" Paris 75 79 Japan, Outline History of Japanese Education ; pp. 202 [prepared for Phila. Exhib.] New Torh 76 Jews, Ancient. Schulgesetzgebung bei den alten Israeliten 4s. 8° Vienna 72 Sketches of Jewish Social Life in the Days of Christ 5s. 16° Rel. Tract Soc. 76 Touches on education. By a learned converted Jew. in Ms Early Hebrew Life 3s. Qd. pS" Sonnenschein 80 Gesch. d. Erzieh. d. Juden in Deutschl. [14-15 cent.] 7s. Qd. 8° Vienna 88 Die Padagogik des israelitischen Volkes ; pp. 55 2s. &d. p8° Vienna 77 L']&duc. des enfants chez les anc. Juifs [ace. to Talmud] Is. &d. 8" Leipzig [ ] 81 DiJSCHAK, M. Bdeesheim, Dr. Fenton, John. gudemann, m. Maecus, S. Simon, J. Spiees, B. Steassbuegee, B. Netherlands. Ceamee, F. The School System of the Talmud ; pp. 48 2s. New Yorh 75 Eaymond, J. H. [Am.] Vassar College : a sketch of its foundation and aims New Yorh 73 Virginia, University of. Jefferson (T.)4-Cubell (J. C.) [Ams.] Early History of the University of Virginia ; pp. 522 8° Richmond 56 Sketch of the History of the University of Virginia Richmond 85 Wisconsin University, &c. Chapin, a. L. [Am.] Historical Sketches of the Colleges of Wisconsin ; pp. 120 Madison 76 Historical Sketch of the University of Wisconsin [1849-1876] Madison 76 Yale College. Dexter. F. B. [Am.] Sketches of Graduates of Tale, with Annals of College Historj^ [1701-45] ; pp. 788 New Yorh 85 Sketch of the History of Yale University . 6s. ', Prof. Th. Cours Complet de Pedagogic et de Methodologie ; pp. 954 m8° Brussels 85 Beyakt, Dr. Sophie. Educational Ends : the ideal of personal development ; Gs.S" Longmans 87 Campe, J. H. [1746-1818]. Theophron, ed. K. Eichter; pp. 296 [Padog. Bibl.] 2s. 6d. 8° Beip-zig 75 Combe, Geo. [178S-185S]. Education: its principles and practice, ed. "SV. Jolly; pp. 772 los. 8° MacmiUan 79 COMENius, J. A. [1591-1671]. Grosse Unterrichtslehi-e, ed. G. A. Lindner 8" 3s. Jlenna 76 Tr. of the Didactica J/iigrjKi, orig. pub. in Bohemian in 1628-32. Orbis Pictus, w. facs. reprod. of the original pictures ;^3 8° St/racvse [1658] 87 The first picture-book for children ever pub. The Latin text is from the ed. of 1658, the Engl. tr. fr. that of 1727. Piidagogische Schriften, iibersetzt Th. Lion 3s. 8° Langensalzn 76 Ausgewahlte Schriften, hrsg. J. Berger + F, Zoubek, 2v. 6s. Qd. 8" Leipzig 76 Laueie, Prof. S. S. Comenius : his life and educational works ; pp. 240, 3s. Qd. cS" Camb. Press [81] 85 Leutbechee. Amos Comenius" Lehrkunst Is. &d. 8" Leipzig 55 Quick, Rev. E. H.— i« Itis Essays on Educational Reformers, ?;/ supra, 11. («) COJIPATEE, Prof. Gabriel. Lectures on Pedagogy [tr. ; theoretical and practical] cS" Sonnenschein, in prep. *DrESTEEWEG, F. A. W. [1790-1866]. Wegweiser zur Bildimg fivr deutsche Lehrer, 3 vols. " S" Essen [34] 79 i. psychology, didactics, methods ; ii. religion, object-lessons, reading, arithmetic, writing, drawing, singing ; iii. geography, history, science, geometry, French, English, deaf-mutes, bUnd, idiots, kindergarten, gymnastics. Ausgewahlte Schriften, hrsg. Langenberg, 4 vols. Franifort 82 Langexbeeg, E. Adolf Diesterweg : sein Leben und seine Schriften ; 6s. 8" FranM'ort 68 DiXTEE, G. F. [1760-1S31]. Leben [autobiography], hrsg. R. Niedergesiiss ; 2s. S" Henna [29] 79 *DlTTES, Dr. Friedrich. Schule der Padagogik ; pp. 1056 10s. 8° Leipzig [76] SO Comprehensive ; psychology, logic, theory of education, methodics of public instruction, history of education. Each part is also sold separately. EVE(H. "W.) + SiDGWiCK (A.) -f- Abbott (E.A.) Three Lectures on the Practice of Education [Pitt Press Ser.] 2s. pS" Camb. Pi-ess S3 On Marking— stimulus— The Teaching of LiUin verse composition. Faeeae, F. W. [ed.] Essays on a Liberal Education ; pp. 3S4 10s. dd. S" MacmiUan [67] 68 . Contributions by C. S. Parker, H. Sidg^vick. J. R. Seeley, E. E. Bowen, F. W. Farnw, J. M. Wilson, J. W. Hales, W. Johnson, L. Honshton. SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY: MODERN 543 ^. FiCHTE, J. G. [1762-1814]. Reden an die deutsche Nation [Universal Bibl. 2 pts.J Qd. 16° Leijjzig — ^ Aphorismen iiber Erziehung — no separate ed. imprint .._ System der Sittenlehre — no separate ed. in jyrint On the Nature of the Scholar, in Ms Popular Writings, tr. W. Smith, 2 vols. 21s. p8° Triibner [46-47] 88 *FiTCH, J. G. Lectures on Teaching [15, at Cambridge ; practical ; topical treatment] 5«. cB" Camb. Press [80] 85 Sums up the best current thought ou teaching. Flattich, I. F. [1717-1797]. Padagogische Lebensweisheit, hrsg. E. Ehmann 2s. 8» Heidelig.lO SCHAFER, C. D. Flattich und sein padagogisches System ; pp. 121 Is. Qd. 8° Frankfort 71 Francke, a. H. [1663-1727]. Schriften iiber Erziehung und Unterricht, hrsg. K. Eichter, 2 vols. 6s. 8° Leipzig 74 Kramer. Francke: einLebensbild, 2 vols.; pp. 304, 510 %" Halle 80-82 Fricke, F. W. Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre ; pp. 810 8° Mannlieim 81-82 Objectivity of judgment and mediation of antitheses are sought by the author; original and comprehensive. Froebel, Friedr. [1782-1852]— rMd VI. {a) ^ Hegel, G. W. F. [1770-1831] Thaulow, G. Hegel's Ansichten iiber Erziehung und Unterricht, 3 vols. 18s. 8° Kiel 58-54 Selections fi-om Hegel's writings, systematically arranged. Heebart, J. F. [1776-1841]. Padagogische Schriften, hrsg. "Wilmann, 2 vols.; pp. 673, 692 {espee. Umriss pad. Vorlesungen] 8° Leipzig [i'.y.] 80 Hennig, G. a. J. F. Herbart nach seinem Leben und seiner padagogischen Bedeutung; pp. 130 Leipzig 77 Weiszner, E, Herbart's Padagogik in ihrer Entwickelung u. Anwendung 8° Bernburg 85 V. Herder, J. G. [1744-1803] Eein, W. Herder als Piidagog ; pp. 60 Is. 8° Vienna 76 Huxley, Prof. T. H. Lay Sermons, Addresses and Reviews 7s. 6^. c8<> Macmillan [70] 71 A Liberal Education ; A Scient. Eduo. ; Educ. Value of Natural Hist. ; the Study of Zoology ; &c. Science and Culture, and other essays 10s. %d. 8" Macmillan 82 Universities, actual and ideal ; Technical Education ; Elementary Instruction in Physiology. Jacotot, J. J. [1770-1840] Enseignement Universel : langue maternelle 6f. S^Paris [23] 54 The same : droit et philosophie panecastiques 4f . 8° Paris [39] 40 The same : melanges posthumes 3f . 8° Paris 40 Payne, Prof. Jos. in his Lectures, wt infra Perez, Bernhard. Jacotot et sa methode d'emancipation intellectuelle ; pp. 210 2s.6<^. s8''Paris 83 Quick, Rev. R. H. in his Essays on Educational Reformers, ut swiJra, II. (a) JOHONNOT, J. [1823-88]. The Principles and Practice of Teaching [tr.] ; j^l.50 8" New York 78 C/ Kant, Immanuel [1774-1804]. Ueber Padagogik, hrsg. Theod. Vogt Langensalza 78 Ir The same, tr. W. J. Cox c8° Boston, in prep. Kehr, C. Die Praxis der Volksschule [for normal pupils] ; pp. 490 4s. &d. 8° Gotha [68] 80 Kellner, L. Volksschiilkunde : ein prakt. Wegweiser [Roman Cath.] 4s. 8° Essen [55] 74 Kern, H. Grundriss der Padagogik; pp. 314 8" Berlin 81 Klopper, K. Grundriss der Padagogik [for women teachers and girls' schools] ; pp. 184 8° Rostock 78 Laurie, Prof. S. S. The Training of Teachers, and other papers; pp. 369 7s. &d. 8" Paul 82 Primary Instruction ; Montaigne ; Bducat. Wants of Scotland ; Secondary and High Schools. Occasional Addresses on Educational Subjects 5s. cS" Camb. Press 88 *Locke, John [1632-1704]. Some Thoughts concerning Education [1693], ed. Rev. R. H. Quick ■ 3s. U. c8° Camb. Press [80] 84 The same, ed. Canon Evan Daniel 4s. c8° National Soc. 80 — Conductof the Understanding [1690], ed.T. Fowler ; pp. 136 2s. 12° Clar. Press 81 Cf. Leitch and Quick in II. (a) Lubbock, Sir John. Addresses : political and educational 8s. &d. 8° Macmillan 79 Mann, Horace [Am.] Lectures and Annual Reports [1839-42] on Education [collected] ; pp. 571 ^3 c8° Boston 72 Lectures on Education ; pp. 348 $1 p8° Boston 55 Mann, Mrs. Horace [Am.] The Life of Horace Mann 12s. M. 8° Boston [81] 88 Mann was Secretary to the Massachusetts Board of Education. 3IILT0N, John [1608-1674]. A Treatise on Education [1673], ed. Oscar Brown- ing 2s. c8° Camb. Press 83 Quick, Rev. R. H. in his Essays on Educational Reformers, iit supra, II. («) 544 SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY: MODERN DE Montaigne, Mich. [1533-92] Essays [1580], tr. Florio, ed. Prof. H. Morley ; 5^. c8° Eoutledge 85 On Education, tr. MacAlister [Am.] cS" Boston, in iirep. MttlCASTEE, B. [1530(?)-1611]. Positions [reprint of a bk. by a City School- master, tirst pub. 1581] 10s. M. 8° Barnard & Quick 8S V. Nag-elsbach, C. F. Gymnasial-Padagogik, hrsg. G. Autenrieth [standard] ; pp. 175 Erlangen 79 NiEDBEGESASS, K. [ed.] Handbuch der speciellen Methodik der elementaren Schnlen [by several contributors] Vienna 85, in prog. NiEMETER, A. H. Grundsatze der Erziehung und des Unterrichts, 3 vols, [stan- dard] ; pp. 572, 73i, 666 18s. 8° Halle [1796] 34-39 PAGE, David P. [Am.] The Theory and Practice of Teaching ;^1.50 s8° New Torh [47] Palmeb, C. Evangelische Piidagogik; pp. 736 [pietistic]7s. &d. 8" Stuttgart [53] 69 *Payne, Prof. Jos. [1808-1876] Lectures on the Science and Art of Education, &c., ed. Eev. K. H. Quick; pp. 386 lis. 8° Longmans [83] 83 Payue \yas the first professor of the Science and Art of Education at the College of Preceptors. The chief contents of this volume are : Curriculum of Mod. Educ. [1st pub. 1868] ; Training of the Teacher [73] ; Theories of Teaching [68] ; the College of Preceptors [68] ; True Poundation of Science Teaching [73] ; .Tacotot, his life and system [67] '; Visit to German Schools [76]. PAYNE, Prof. W. H. [Am.] Contributions to the Science of Education ^1 cS° Blackie 87 Pestalozzi, J. H. [1746-1827.] Siimmtliche Werke, hrsg. L. "W. SeyfEarth, 16 vols. ea. 9^". 8" Brandenhiirg \v.y.'\ 69-73 Leonard and Gertrude [1781], tr. and abgd. Eva Charming ; pp. 181 85c. c8'' Boston 85 Barnard, H. [ed.] Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism [life, principles, methods] 12s. m8<' New York 62 Miscellaneous collection of reprinted papers, with some trss. from his works. Cochin A. Pestalozzi : sa vie, ses ceuvres et ses methodes ; pp. 146 If. 25c. 08" Paris 80 *DE GuiMPS, R. Pestalozzi : his life and works, tr. Russell ; portrait 6s. cS" Sonnenschein 88 Krusi, H. [Am.] Pestalozzi : his life, work, and influence ; pp. 248 ^2.25 12" Cincinnati 75 Leitch, J. Muir, Mi his Practical Educationists, vt siqjo-a, II. (a) Quick, Rev. R. H. in Ms Essays on Educational Reformers, ut supra, II. (a) V. Raumee, K. The Life and System of Pestalozzi, tr. J. Tilleard op. 8° London 55 Russell, J. The Student's Pestalozzi : a brief account of his" life and work Is. &d. 08" Sonnenschein 88 Schneider, C. Rousseau und Pestalozzi ; pp. 86 Is. 8° Bromberg 67 VOGEL, A. [ed.] Die Padagogik Pestalozzi's [verbatim extracts from his writings] ; pp. 138 Bernlwg 82 Rabelais, Frangois [1483-1553] Arnstadt, F. a. Rabelais und sein Traite d'Edttcation ; pp. 295 6s. 8" Leipzig 72 With special reference to Montaigne, Locke, and Rousseau. Rappold, J. Gymnasialpadagogischer "Wegweiser [with bibliog.] ; pp. 30 Is. %°M.enna 83 Ratich, W. [1571-1635] Keause, G. Ratichius, oder Ratke im Lichte seiner Briefe 8s. 8° Leipzig 72 Quick, Rev. R. H. in Ms Essays on Educational Reformers, vt svjjra, II. («) Schumann, I. C. G. Die g.chte Methode Ratke's ; pp. 64 Is. &d. 8° Hanover 76 ElCHTEE, Jean Paul [1763-1825]. Levana ; or, the Doctrine of Education [tr.] 3s. ^d. 08° Bohn's Lib. 76 Levana ; for English readers, tr. and ed. Susan Wood; 3s. cS" Sonnenschein 87 Extracts, with running commentary and elucidatory links. "WiETH, G. Richter als Piidagog [with extracts from his writings] Is. 'ad. 8° Brandenhurg 63 EOSENKEANZ, K. The Philosophy of Education, tr. Anna C. Brackett [Hegelian] ; pp. 148 ^1.50 IS" St. Lords [72] 86 ROSMINI, Ant. Serbati Method in Education, tr. [fr. Ital.] Mrs. "VVm. Grey; pp. 363 ;^1.75 cS'' Boston 87 Rousseau, J. J. [1712-1778]. Emile, or concerning Education, tr. [in extracts] w. notes Ju.les Steeg 85c. c8» Boston 85 GiEARDiN, St. Marc. Rousseau : sa vie et ses ouvrages, 2 vols. 1 8° Paris 75 Quick, Rev. R. H. in Ms Essays on Educational Reformers, ut s^ipra, II. (a) SCHNEIDER, C. Rousseau und Pestalozzi Is. 8° Bromberg 67 A comparison between French and G erman idealism, in two lectures. SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY: MODERN 545 SCHLBIERMACHEE, F. [1768-1834]. Padagogische Schriften, hrsg. C. Platz 5s. 8° Langensalza 76 DiLTHEY, W. Leben Schleiermacher's, vol. i. 9s. 8° Berlin 70 EiSBNLOHR, Th. [ed.] Die Idee der Volksschule nach d. Schriften Schleier- macher's Is. 8° Stuttgart 69 Schumann, Dr. J. C. G. Lehrbuch der Padagogik, 2 vols. 83-84 SCHUTZE, F. W. Evangelische Schulkunde ; pp. 800 8s. 8° Leijnig [70] 76 Schwartz, F. H. C. [1766-1837]. Allgemeine Erziehungslehre [standard]; pp. 448 8° Leipzig [02-13] 80 — Schul-Brziehungslehre ; pp. 740. 8° Leipzig [ ] 82 *Spencee, Herbert. Education : intellectual, moral, and physical 2s. Qd. f8" Williams [61] 83 in his Essays : scientific, political, and speculative, ser. i-ii. 16s. ; ser. iii. 8s. 08° Williams [58, 74] 83, 80 Leitch, J. Muir, in his Practical Educationists, ut supra, II. (a) Quick, Rev. H. R. in his Essays on Educational Reformers, ut siqjra, II. (a) Spuezheim, J. G. [1776-1832]. Education : its elements, princ. founded on nature of man, tr. w. appl. by S. R. Wells [Am.] ; pp. 334 ^1.25. 12° ]Ve7v York 47 Stow, David. The Training System in Glasgow Model Schools ; pp. 569, op. \j}ub.6s. 6d.'] 8° Longman [36] 59 Leitch, J. Muir, in his Practical Educationists, ut sujjra, II. (a) Sturm, Joh. Laas, E. Die Padagogik des Johannes Sturm ; pp. 126 2s. 8° Berlin 72 Thaulow, G. Philosophic der Padagogik [Hegelian] ; pp. 212 4s. 8° Berlin 45 Thring, Rev. Edw. The Theory and Practice of Teaching ; pp. 256, 4s. Qd. c8° Camb. Press [83] 85 Education and School Qs. cS" Macmillan [67] 67 Vernaleken, T, Anf ange der Unterrichtslehre and Volksschulkunde [psycho- logical] ; pp. 192 2s. Qd. 8° Vienna 74 Vico, G. B. [1668-1744]' [Life and Works of] by R. Flint [Philos. Classics f. Eng. Readers] 3s. 6^. f8'' Blackwood 84: ViVES, J. L. Ausgewahlte padagogische Schriften, hrsg. R. Heine; pp. 424 4s. 8° Leipzig 81 Waitz, Th. Allgemeine Padagogik ; pp. 552 7s. 8° Brunswick [83] 83 Herbartian ; by the eminent anthropologist. WiLDERSPiN. System of Education [tr.] ; pp. 487 o.p. 8° London 70 Infant Education [tr.; poor children; to 7 years old] ; pp. 183 75 Leitch, J. Muir, in Ms Practical Educationists, ^vt supra, II. (a) Wyss, F. Padagogische Vortrage zur Fortbildung der Lehrer; pp. 175 8° Vienna 84 V. Zeschwitz, Gerh. Lehrbuch der Padagogik ; pp. 292 8° Leipzig 82 ZiLLER, T. Grundlegung zur LehrevomerziehendenUnterricht; pp. 557,10s. 8° Leipzig [65] 84 In 2 parts — i. on relation of instruction to government and discipline ; ii. on the aim of instruction. Herbartian. — — . Vorlesungen iiber allgemeine Padagogik ; pp. 443 5s, <6d. 8° Leipzig 76 In 3 parts— i. School government ; ii. Instruction, laws, methods ; iii. Discipline, character, culture. V. pedagogical '^ssc^olog:^. Generally. COMPAYRE, Prof. G. Notions. 61ementaires de Psychologie Paris 87 Frohlich, G. Die wissenschaftliche Padagogik in ihrenGrundlagen; pp. 164 Vienna 83 Hass. Die Psychologie als Grundwissenschaft der Padagogik Leipzig 85 Heebart, J. F. Briefe iib. d. Anwendung d. Psych, auf d. Padag. 8" Leipzig [ ] n.d.. Hoffmann, U. J. The Science of Mind applied to Teaching; ill. ; pp.400 $\.^^. 0,%" JSew York 85 Maas, B. Psychologie in ihrer Anwendung a. d. Schulprasis ; pp. 84 Breslati 85 Pfisterer, G. F. Padagogische Psychologie ; pp. 340 6s. 8° Giitersloh 80 An application of the ' newer psychology ' [post-Herbartian] to pedagogy. Stumpell, L. Psychologische Padagogik [Herbartian] ; pp. 368 8° Leipzig 80 * Sully, James. Outlines of Psychology ; with special reference to education ; 12s. &d. 8» Longmans [84] 85 * Teacher's Handbook of Psychology [on basis of above] . Qs.Qd. c8° Longmans 86 *Ward, Prof. James, article Psychology [generally] in Encyclo. Britannica \^th edition~] Children generally— «)i Smith & Elder [49] 76 Mason, Charlotte M. Home Education [A course of lectures to ladies] 3s. 6d. c8» Paul 87 Meyer, Bertha. Aids to Family Government : from the cradle to the school [tr. ; Froebelian] ; pp. 108 50c. f 8« JVew York 79 Eenan, Ernest. La Part de la Famille et de I'Etat dans I'Education 50c. 12" Paris 69 Eosen, K. Die Kindererziehung, mit Eiicksicht auf d. Charakterbildung ; pp. 181 85 Schultz, F. Die hausliche Erziehung in Zusammenhang mit der Schule 6d. Schweinfurth 76 Taylor, Isaac. Home Education 5s. cS" Bell [38] 67 Kindergarten. Bibliography. Walter, L. Die Frobel-Literatur ; pp. 198 3s. 8" Dresden 81 List of KG-, books since 1838, classified both clironologically and by standpoint of writers. Theoretical, &c. *BuL0W, Baroness Marenholtz. The Child and Child Nature, tr. Alice M. Christie 3s. 08° Sonnenschein [79] 87 — Hand-work and Head-work : their relation to one another, tr. A. M. Christie 3s. c8° Sonnenschein 83 ■*Froebel, Fr. Gesammelte padagogische Schriften, hrsg. W. Lange, 3 vols. 8" Berlin 74 sqq. i. Autobiographie ; ii. Mensctenerziehung ; iii. Piidagogik des Kindergartens. Autobiog. of, tr. H. Keatley Moore + Emilie Michaeiis 3s. cS" Sonnensch. [86] 88 — The Education of Man, tr. W. N. Hailman ;^1.50. 12'' New York 87 Letters of, W. H. Keatley Moore + Emilie Michaeiis 3s. c8» Sonnenschein 89 *BUL0-W, Baroness Marenholtz, Eeminiscences of Froebel, tr. Mrs. Horace Mann ^1.50. 08" Boston 77 HANSCHMANN, a. B. Fr. Froebel : die Entwickelung s. Erziehungsidee in s. Leben ; pp. 480 4s. 8» Bisenach [74] 76 N N 2 us METHODS: KINDERGARTEN— SPECIAL SUBJECTS Kiadergarten — Theoretical — amt. Shirreff, Emily A. Froobel : n Sketch of Ms Life ; with his letters to his wife [tr.] 2.x. cS» Chapman [77] ST Feoebel Society. Essiij-s on the Kindergarten delivered before the Fi\->ebel Society 3.*. oS*^ Sonnenschein [SO] 8T By Faixily Shirreff, Ami;* Biioklaiiil. Mrs. Hog^n. H. Koatloy Itooro, Elotuwr Heerwivrts &o. Peabody, Eliz. P. [Am.] The Home, the Kindergivrten, and the School, with introd. by Eliz. A. Manning ; pp. 200 S*. cS" Sonnenschein S7" Pestalozzi. J. H. —('/) DE PoETrCrALL, ilmo. Synoptical Table of the Kindergarten, ah roUt^m ; 2.>f. C\tl. f* Sonnenschein 79 Shikkeff, Emily. The Kindergarten : principles of Fvoebel's system, Is, id. cS' Sonnenschein [76] 87 Home EducntioT\ and the Kindergiirteu l.<. M. 12>' Chapman 84 The Kindorg^irten at Homo ik*. 6tf. cS" Hughes 84 Practical. GOLDAMMER, H. The Kinderg-arten : a guide to FroebeVs svsteni. tr. AV. Wright ; 120 pp. of ilJ. " 10*\ Gici»nati 73 jACOBjs. J. F. llanviol pratique des Jaixlins d'Enfants ; plates sq 8" Brusgt>U SO *KoHLEE, A. Die Y^i\xis dcs Kindergtirtens, 3 vols.. 60 pi. 8" Wnmtir [70] 78 Thesame,tr. MajyCurney.pt. i. [First Gifts] ; ill., 2j?. tW. 12^' Myers 77 KeATJS-Boelte (Miu-ia) + Kraus (John) [Ams.] Kindergarten Guide; ill.; vol. i. [The Gifts] ' ^2. 8<' -Ttvr Tori 77-80 Ft. i. 1st n«a Siui Gifts, pp. 30. S5e.: ii. Srvi to 6th Gifts, pp. IIS, 70o.; iii. Ttt Gift, pp. 93, 5iV.; IT. Sth to ISth Gifts, pp. 215, rOc. *Ltsphix$KA, Mary. Principles of the Kindorgtirten ; ill. i.*. (ui. s-l" Isbister [80] S& *^ViEr>K. Prof. E. The Paradise of Childhood : a manual of instruction and practical guide to Kindergartnei-s : 74 pi., 10,<. 6d. i" Sonnenschein [ ] 88 Songs and Games. *Bekry (Ada~) + MiCHAi:Lis (Em.^ Kinderg-arten Song's and Games 1.*. tW. cS" Myei-s [ ] Froebel. Friedrich. Mothers' Songs and Gan\os. tr. Francos E. Lord : Is. inl. 8" Eiee [85] 88 Hailmax, E. L. [Am.] Songs. Games, and Khymes for Kinderg^xrten i\N\ 12>' SjfH/uifield 88 Heekwaet. Eleanor. Music for the Kindergarten 2.«. tW. 4" Boosey 77 Hubbard, Clara r>. [Am.] ilerry Song-s and Games [for Kindcrg-artens] i?o. 8''' ^¥. Zouh 81 *MULLEY (Jane) + TABRAir (M. E.) Song-s and Games for our Little Ones 1*'. cS'' Sonnenschein [81] 84 SiNGliETOJf, J. E. Occupations and Occupation Games Ss. cS'' J.^rrold 85 Primary : General "Works. 'FORSTEK, Oswald. Has erste Solmljahr; pp. 270 2*. 6d. S" Lt'ij):ii/ 82 <^ll'i', J. The Art of Teaching Young Minds to Observe and Think; 2s. 12'' Longmans 72 *KLArEX. A. Das ei-ste Sclmljahr " LtijKtff 78 Objivt-K^ssons, spesvlviujr, ilrtwvinjr, writiug, reading, memory, singuig, couutiug. Laxjrie. Pivf. S. S. Primary Instruction in relation to Education; pp. 233 2s. Gd. 08" Stewart [73] 74 Education and Primary Instruction 3*\ 6rf. 08" Thin, Edin. 84 Mallesox, Mrs. Frank. Kotes on the Early Training of Children [sound and practical] 1.*. cS'' Sonnenschein [84] 86 Quick, Eev. E. H. Thoiights and Sugg-estions about Teaching Childnm— *« //i>Ess:iys os. 08'' Author, iJ^'rf/u// [68] 85 Eein (W.) I PiCKEL (A.) + SoHELLER (E.) Das erste Schuljahr: theoretisch- praktischer Lehrg-ang ; pp. 178 8<" J^scnai'h n,d. Continued for tho first six school yeai-s ; e.-ioh in ouo TOhimo, o;i. 1.*. SCHIK0LEE. L. . Theoretisch-praktischos Handbuch fiir den erston Schul- unterricht. 2 vols.; pp. 320. 3;U? ea. 5.-t. S* i>i>.% 76-77 Wbbes, a. Die viex ei-steu Schuljahre in Yerbindung mit e. Kindorg-tirten ; pp. 70 Is. (rotha n.d, (h) SPECIAL SUBJECTS— in one alphabet, Agriculture. Eenard. p. L' Agriculture dans les Ecoles ; pp. ISO [vine culture] Paris Si Wrightson, Prof, J. Principles of Agricultvu-e as an instructional sxibjcct 5s, cS" Chapman 88 METHODS: ARITHMETIC— DEAF-MUTES 549 Arithmetic — vide Number, infra Army, Education for the — vide Military, infra Art : Generally — vide also Drawing, infra €hesnau, E. The Education of an Artist [tr.] ; ill. ; pp. 327 .5s. cS" Cassell 86 CouGNY, G. L'Enseignement professionnel des beaux-arts dans les ecoles de Paris 5f . 8" Paris 88 Davidson, Thos. [Am.] The Place of Art in Education ; pp. 44 24c. 12° Boston 87 Hennig, G. a. Die iisthetische Bildung in der Volksschule ; pp. 72 Is. 8° Leij>zig 74 Menge, E. 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