LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, - Shelf-IEM UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/notesoflessonsfo01tayl i^ugijes's SEtrucattonal bourse. NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. raftft JHobelg from tfje (Eo&mittwnt iExammatton papers. /BY JOHN TAYLOR, AUTHOR OF 'HOW TO COMPOSE AND WRITE LETTERS,' AND 'GREAT LESSONS FROM LITTLE THINGS.' PRICE ONE SHILLING, LONDON: JOSEPH HUGHES, THREE TUNS PASSAGE, PATERNOSTER SQUARE. 1 MORRISON AND GIBB, EDINBURGH, - PRINTERS TO HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE. PREFACE. Practical teachers have iong felt the need of a small Manual of Notes of Lessons that could be put into the hands of a young teacher at the commencement of his career, and would guide, encourage, and help him to master the great secrets of his profession* Some books contain a vast amount of informa- tion, condensed, arranged in the form of notes, and presented as models for imitation. Other books contain hints and advice on method, and many important notes on the art of teaching. And from these two kinds of books the young teacher has been required to gather his ideas of matter and method. The Author believes that a judicious combina- tion of the two sources of information would be of great service to young teachers. He therefore explains the Essential Features of a Lesson, sketches the Plan of a Lesson, discusses the 4 PREFACE. Subject-matter of a Lesson, gives valuable hints on the Manner of a Teacher, with a short chapter on Tact, and shows how to Prepare and Give a Lesson. The concluding chapters consist of Examples and Answers to Government Examination Questions. The Author has been a pupil-teacher, and has served many of the best years of his life as master of a large school. Twenty years 5 experience of public school life has enabled him to enter into a young teacher's feelings with deep sympathy. He has trained many who are now serving the cause of education successfully and honourably, and the methods he tested and found most valuable to them have been embodied in this little Manual. He trusts that it will render wise counsel, valuable information, and timely help to his young friends. JOHN TAYLOR. 29 Banks Street, DlackI'ool CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION, . . . • 7 CHAPTER I. THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON, . . 10 CHAPTER II. THE PLAN OF A LESSON, . . . .19 CHAPTER III. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON, . . .27 CHAPTER IV. THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER, . . 36 CHAPTER V. TACT, . . . . . . .43 CHAPTER VI. THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON, . . 49 CHAPTER VII. OUTLINE NOTES: MEDITERRANEAN SEA— IDLENESS — RAILWAYS OF ENGLAND— COAL — THE COW — CLIMATE — THE WHALE — BRITISH INDIA— RIVERS GIBRALTAR— SUGAR— THE LION, . . 58 5 6 CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER VIII. PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES : THE CAMEL — A READING LESSON, . . . . .82 CHAPTER IX. FULL NOTES : SEEDS — AUXILIARY VERBS — THE REIN- DEER— A POSTED LETTER, . . -93 CHAPTER X. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS, . . . . 103 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. INTRODUCTION. In teaching, as in all other professions, progress is slow and gradual. A youth begins with the purely mechanical parts of his work, and spends much of his time in learning how to use his tools and handle them efficiently. He must learn to serve before he can be permitted to rule. And it is only by practical experience and skill that he can hope to rise in his profession. A young teacher spends much time in observing and studying the example of other teachers, and in purely mechanical work, such as the examination of the children's lessons, or the oversight of their writing and dictation. As his experience ripens, and his knowledge of the profession improves, he is promoted to a more responsible and important duty. He attempts to give lessons in reading, or spelling, or arithmetic. Thus he gradually gains knowledge, and experience, and confidence, and power. 7 8 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. The highest aim of his ambition is to be able to give a good oral or collective lesson. He has seen a clever teacher take a class, or two or three classes grouped together, and give them a collective lesson; but he has no idea of the difficulty of the task till he attempts to give a lesson for the first time. A good oral lesson is a highly complex and in- tellectual production. It depends for its success on many conditions. There must be suitable matter, wisely arranged on an intelligent plan, and clearly illustrated. There must be a definite pur- pose before the teacher, and he must be able to command and sustain the attention of the children, and present his facts in an agreeable manner. I have sometimes said that a good lesson should be like a good dinner, prepared with a great variety of materials, well cooked, tastefully served, easily digested, and highly nutritious. The teacher who can give a good oral lesson has conquered all the practical difficulties of his profession. He is ready to be thrown upon his own resources, and to feel that the success of the lesson depends entirely on himself. He can supply from his own stores of information facts that will instruct and interest the children. He can direct their thoughts into right channels, and lead them to wise conclusions. Next in importance to the delivery of a good lesson, we recognise the importance of preparing a lesson. We can only teach what we know, and INTRODUCTION. 9 things are easy or difficult according to our know- ledge of them. We must therefore ask ourselves : What is a lesson? How should a lesson be given? How should a lesson be prepared? Can any young teacher become a successful teacher ? If these questions are answered intelligently, and young teachers can be induced to take the hints and follow the advice of an old teacher, they may find themselves some day in the front ranks of their profession. Many of the books on ? Notes of Lessons ' are simply crutches to help the lame to walk. Young teachers require wise instruction, judicious advice, and encouraging words of sympathy, to teach them how to walk without crutches. In the following chapters, advice, and informa- tion, and hints on matter and method are presented to the young teacher as freely and candidly as a master would teach his pupil. If these hints are accepted and adopted, they cannot fail to produce beneficial results. IO NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. CHAPTER I. THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. A lesson is literally a ' gathering ' of information (L. ledum, to gather). It is a term used to describe a conversational method of imparting information that is highly complex in its character, and more easy to illustrate than define. I. A Lesson is not a Lecture. A lecture is an attempt to convey instruction by discourses. A multitude of facts and figures may be given by the speaker. He may clearly express his own opinions, and state the general results of his own investigation and inquiry. But if he neglects to fix information in the minds of his hearers by questions and tests of personal applica- tion, he is not enabling them to gather information for themselves. He must present his facts, and arrange them so that the pupils can arrive at the conclusions by their own reasoning. He must THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. II insist on the pupils acquiring, and understanding, and retaining, and applying the information with which he supplies them. So that a lesson is a method of instruction more powerful, and impres- sive, and valuable, than a lecture, or a sermon, or a speech. II. A Lesson is not a Series of Questions. Socrates the Greek philosopher was a master of the art of questioning. Without affirming any proposition, or making any statement, or expressing any opinion, he would lead his pupils to any con- clusion he desired by a series of questions. His aim was to make his pupils discover truths for themselves. Each answer given was used as a means of attaining a further result. He held the opinion that a wise teacher should expose the ignorance of his pupils by searching questions, and lead them to supply their lack of knowledge by the same method. Where skilful questions lead to successive steps of reasoning, and help children to arrive at a correct conclusion, they have a great educational value. But it is necessary to state facts, and give illustrations, and adduce reasons before children are in a position to answer some questions. The chief value of questioning is to test the amount of information pupils possess, to expose to them their own ignorance, and to awaken a desire for more knowledge. So that while questions may be profitably and wisely used in I 2 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. every lesson, they are not to take the place of exposition, or illustration, or experiment. III. Exposition must have a Prominent Place in Every Lesson. By the term exposition, I mean a statement of facts in their simplest forms — literally, 'a setting out * (L. positum, to set). This statement of facts must remove all difficulties, and give the children a full, clear, and comprehensive view of the subject. It may take the form of — 1. Explanation (^.planus, even). — Figuratively the path of knowledge may be beset with difficulties. There are mountains to climb, valleys to descend, and rivers to cross. A skilful teacher must bring down the mountains, and fill up the valleys, and bridge the rivers. He must make the path plain and even by timely and wise explanation. Every- thing in a lesson that the children do not under- stand must be set out and made plain. They must not be permitted to advance one step in doubt or obscurity. There is a tendency to assume that the children know and fully understand things which seem to the teacher very simple. And the overlooking of one single link in the chain of in- struction may damage the whole of the workmanship. Hence the importance of a few searching questions to reveal the true condition of the pupils' minds. And when ignorance is discovered, the teacher THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. I 3 must promptly remove it. He should remember that 'a lesson is never given till it is received/ If he fails to make his subject plain, he commits an error that no other excellencies of his lesson can redeem. 2. Description (L. scriptum^ to write). — Descrip- tion is copying in words. It is reproducing with the tongue what has been seen with the eye of the teacher. The clear, bold outlines of forms and figures that present themselves to a teacher's mind need to be sketched and traced in words, so that the pupil may see them as he sees them, and form his own opinion of them. Words are the signs of ideas, and by a judicious use of suitable language these forms and figures may be made to appeal to the imagination and understanding, and may live in the memory. But even this valuable help to exposition may be abused. It may be too lengthy. It may distract the thoughts of the pupils from the more important points of the lesson. 3. Picturing out (L.p'rfum, to paint). — Picturing out is the art of presenting truth in striking colours, and giving reality and life to dull, dry facts and figures. Thus in a lesson on the ' whale,' you may describe it in words, and give its length, and form, and size, in clear and plain language. Or you may picture out a whale lying the whole length of your schoolroom. His huge head touches the wall at one end of the room, and his tail touches 14 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. the other end. Open his mouth, and take out his tongue, and you have a place as large as a small class-room. You may give in a few sentences a picture that children will understand, and appreciate, and remember. All these forms of exposition should be studied carefully by young teachers, and used as part of their tools and stock-in-trade. It should be the aim of every teacher not only to speak so as to be understood, but so that it is impossible to be misunderstood. IV. Illustration is an Important Part of a Lesson. To illustrate is to throw light upon a subject (L. luceOy to shine). Figuratively, the landscape of truth is placed before the pupil, and he is asked to admire and enjoy it. But its outlines are hazy and indistinct. The mists and shadows linger in its valleys, and the mountain tops are covered with clouds. But the sun rises. The clouds disperse. The shadows fly. The landscape stands out in the light, clear, distinct, and beautiful. Illustration may take the form of example, ex- periment, diagram, or analogy. 1. Example (L. eximo, to take out). — An ex- ample is a sample or pattern of one taken out of many. The teacher is arriving at certain general conclusions from a series of facts he has noticed. THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. I 5 He may confirm his own teaching, and impress it upon the children, by calling on them to furnish him with examples. For instance, he may arrive at the conclusion that all * animals that chew the cud feed on herbs, have cloven hoofs, and are generally horned.' He may ask the children to give examples and verify in every case the truth of his statement. Or he may descend from the general to the particular in his teaching, and choose a representative case to illustrate and confirm his statement. One good example is worth a thou- sand theories. It stands out as a living witness for the truth. 2. Experiment (L. experior, to try). — An ex- periment is a trial. Its object is to discover something unknown, or to establish and confirm what has been already discovered. In a lesson on chemistry, or electricity and magnetism, for example, experiment must have a very prominent place. It would be impossible to state in words all that can be shown by experiment. And the actual test has a force and conviction of truthful- ness that language could not convey. Wherever an experiment can be successfully and quickly performed in presence of the pupils, it should be adopted as one of the most powerful expedients at a teacher's command. 3. Diagram or Picture. — Pictures appeal to the eye, and help the mind to realize the facts of 1 6 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. the case more readily than mere words. They may be printed and mounted on sheets as maps, or they may be sketched by the teacher on a black-board. The art of using a black-board and clalk skilfully should be acquired by young teachers. It is a valuable aid to instruction, and saves many words and much time. 4. Analogy. — Analogy points out features of likeness in some respects between things that otherwise differ. Thus a bird and a fish differ in many respects, and yet for the sake of illustration by analogy several points of resemblance suggest themselves. The tail, for example, is used as a rudder, and steers the bird through the ocean of air as it steers the fish through the ocean of water. The wing, again, propels and helps to guide and steady the bird, as the fin performs a similar service for the fish. Examples might be multiplied, but the young teacher will see the value of this form of illustration, and will find in it a powerful aid to success. All these forms of illustration are within every teacher's reach. They will arrest attention, and carry conviction, and produce permanent results. IV. A Lesson must produce Practical Results. By a judicious mixture of questioning, and ex- position, and illustration, the teacher must make THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. I 7 an impression on his pupils that will be real and abiding. I have indicated resources of strength that should enable him to overcome all difficulties, and produce the best practical results. 1. Knowledge must be imparted. — New truths must be learned and understood. The area of the pupil's mental vision must be enlarged and ex- panded. He must be richer in his stores of knowledge, and the lesson must result in a clear and decided gain of information. A conscientious teacher will insist on each lesson aiming at giving every child a step onward and upward in the path of knowledge. 2. Intelligence must be awakened. — It is often very difficult to awaken thought and arouse in- telligent activity. Children do many things mechanically, and remember facts by the effect of repetition. A great result is gained when a teacher can ' set them thinking. ' If he can provoke thought, he stimulates inquiry, and arouses curiosity, and calls into activity the highest mental faculties. A glorious victory has been won when apathy and indifference, and purely mechanical efforts, have been crushed, and when children can be induced to take an intelligent interest in their lessons. 3. Good moral effects must be produced. — The discipline of a school greatly depends on the quality of the teaching. Instruction that is thorough, and 1 8 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. painstaking, and conscientious, and intelligent, will stamp its own likeness on the children. They will catch the energy, and force, and fire of the teacher. They will breathe his spirit, and copy his example, and bear his likeness. On the other hand, teaching that is cold, and lifeless, and aim- less, and unattractive, will depress and damage the children. They will form habits of inattention, indolence, and indifference. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, that the manner as well as the matter of the instruction should receive attention. A good teacher will make an attractive and useful lesson out of very very poor materials, and a bad teacher will make a worthless lesson out of the best materials. There is no profession in which so much depends on the tact and skill of the workman. Having pointed out the essential features of a lesson, we now proceed to consider the plan of a lesson. We have answered the question, What is a lesson? and must now consider how to give a lesson. THE PLAN OF A LESSON. CHAPTER II. THE PLAN OF A LESSON. Every lesson must be wisely introduced, clearly arranged, and practically applied. I. Introduction. 1. The subject should be introduced attrac- tively. — You will not attempt to begin the lesson till you have perfect quietness and can command the attention of the children. The first few minutes of the lesson will be your golden oppor- tunity, and must be wisely improved. If you can awaken interest, or excite curiosity, or enlist sympathy during that brief period, the rest of your task will be comparatively easy. But if your own manner is dull and drowsy, if your matter is dry and uninteresting, or if you begin to depreciate your own abilities, or make any apologies, you will destroy all chances of success. Your aim is to gain attention that you may keep it throughout the lesson. Study therefore to create a favourable impression at first by presenting your subject the best side out. 20 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 2. The subject should be introduced simply. — It is sometimes necessary to recall a previous lesson and refer to what has been said before, for the sake of gathering up facts and conclusions that may serve you now. But nothing should be mentioned that will not help to concentrate atten- tion on your subject, or illustrate and enforce your teaching. Lengthy introductions are always to be avoided. They distract attention by leading the children to think of foreign matters, and they waste precious time. Choose the most direct .intro- duction you can find, and plunge into your subject without apologies. 3. The subject should be introduced easily. — If it is entirely new to the children, you might mention some other subject with which they are familiar that is either very much like it, or in striking contrast with it. Your purpose may some- times be served by comparing things like and contrasting things different. Find out what they know by a searching question or two. Start from the level of their knowledge, and proceed to make them wiser by your teaching. Never ' train out ' a subject, or ask them to guess it. I heard a young teacher trying to ■ train out' the word 'sugar.' He began by telling the children that as he came down the street he passed a shop window and saw something that was to be the subject of his lesson. The children guessed bread, boots, pictures, fish, tea, butter, tripe, beef, bacon, THE PLAN OF A LESSON. 2 I etc., and at last one said 'sugar.' In this case no good end was served by these answers, valuable time was wasted, and much disorder occasioned. II. Arrangement. 1. The subject should be arranged logically. — The true starting-point of all teaching is the level of what your children know. Having discovered that, place them in a position to increase their wealth of knowledge, and teach them how to use their facts logically. If you have an effect and wish to find a cause, throw all the light on the subject you are able, and patiently work till you have discovered it. But there must be no con- fusion of cause with effect, or conduct with motive. You must produce facts and give information to enable your pupils to arrive at some new con- clusion beyond their present attainments. But these facts and conclusions must be stated in the order of their dependence upon each other. Take the following examples of logical arrange- ment, and observe that each fact is the result of observation that may be verified by experiment at any time. Remember also that these results are uniform and unvarying, so that we can deduce from the facts a law that never changes. Having the fact and the law clearly made known, we can apply our new knowledge to various useful calculations and contrivances. The logical order of fact, law, and application will illustrate the value of the arrangement suggested. NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. J> T3 QJ £ s <+-. JZ o bf) tn H-l G O a a 2. w £ a rC G -G too cJ ^_, T3 to G .G cu G "G co g~B rt CO ci G o ^_ ^ >-h P en 1 a 3 CO CD . cu co co >-. 5 o co O *o S cu 13 ,G cu *-> o to — ' JH Gh o ^ ^ CU -^ « G O h a G fi co .G O^ w' 2.G ^ G G ^'5 ° O ^ co co a t a Uh ^ O | ^ CO ^ G O A 'rG CTJ a ^^ ^ c 4-> C3 CO o a to U G «u 2 G O O Gh-G g ^ c o <1 cu • «i| cu "*?5 -G -a ^ ^CJ cu >, CO "*j " CO ^3 G biO ^ cu G ^^J= 'to cj T3 rt t3 § •G co r-i THE PLAN OF A LESSON. 23 2. The subject should be arranged correctly and naturally. — No definite law of arrangement can be stated that will apply to all cases and meet all circumstances. You must be guided by your own judgment in the end, but hints and sugges- tions may help you to a right and wise conclusion. Like a wise master-builder, you must make sure of your ground first. Lay a good foundation. Measure and contrive your walls, doors, and win- dows. Build wisely, prudently, and patiently, till the roof is completed and the windows are fixed. Do not worry about the roof till you have secured the foundation. Let the chimneys alone till you have built the walls. There is a natural order of proceeding with everything. First the seed, then the blade, then the stalk, then the flower and fruit, then the harvest. Follow this natural order of dealing with your lessons. Do not invert nature's order, but imitate it, and make it a source of strength to you. In giving a history lesson, for instance, on the life and character of any man, you may gather up the leading events of his life. You may present these actions and indicate his motives. If the life is plainly sketched, the man's character will be accurately judged by your pupils. In giving a geography lesson on any river, you may describe its surroundings. You may show the character of the mountains near it, the extent of its gathering ground ; and if you give the children 24 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. sufficient data to form an accurate estimate of the causes at work, they will give you the general results. It is most important that your arrangement should be correct. A single false statement may lead to a false conclusion, just as a single worth- less plank may sink a fine ship. Verify every fact before you make use of it. Turn to your notes or your books of reference if you have any doubts. A teacher is utterly worthless when he ceases to be accurate. 3. The subject should be arranged clearly. — You need not indicate the arrangement of your lesson to the children ; you must avoid the firstly, secondly, and thirdly of sermon-makers. But there must be a methodical treatment of your subject that omits nothing, and gives due prominence to each part of the lesson. The different stages or divisions of the lesson should follow each other logically and naturally ; they should be crisp, clear, and complete in their treatment of the subject. 1 It is a great art to give clearness and system to the body of the lesson without obtruding the divisions too nakedly.' Keep this aim steadily before you, and with patience and practice you will learn one of the most valuable secrets of your profession. III. Application. 1. The application should be short and clear. THE PLAN OF A LESSON. 2$ — In a few well-chosen sentences you should review the whole lesson, and bring into prominence the general results. Many things you have said will be forgotten, but if your lesson is a success it will add to their stock of information, it will leave them wiser than it found them, and they will apply the principles they have understood. Two or three minutes spent in a powerful recapitulation of the leading points of your lesson will be of immense service to the pupils. 2. The application should be testing. — You may vary the form of your words and sentences so as to put the information in different aspects, and satisfy yourself that your teaching is successful. The great test of a successful lesson is the amount of information that the children retain. Nothing can be more distressing to a conscientious teacher than a conviction that he has been labouring in vain. Bring your work to the test of careful scrutiny. By a few earnest, direct, searching ques- tions, find out how much of the lesson remains in their minds. 3. The application should be practical. — The aim of all teaching is to make us wiser, and stronger, and more powerful for good. Each lesson should instruct, and lead, and encourage the children to better and higher aims. All that is base, and mean, and selfish, and wrong must be unsparingly con- demned. All that is noble, and true, and good 2 6 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. must be fostered and encouraged. The meanest task a teacher can attempt is honourable if it makes one poor child wiser, or stronger, or braver, or better. Many devoted teachers have spent their lives, and denied themselves many of life's enjoyments, in battling against ignorance, vice, superstition, bigotry, and crime j and many more are entering the same noble, self-denying army. They have not only bad habits to conquer and subdue, but they must cultivate a thirst for know- ledge, a love of self-denial and self-culture, a determination to rise in the world to a position of usefulness and honour, and a willingness to work for the good of others. No work on earth can be more honourable or important. Amid conflicting opinions and warring interests, let us be pure in our aims and faithful to our purpose. Let us be practical. Our names may die, but our deeds will live ; "We shall leave some marks behind us. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. 27 CHAPTER III. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. The raw materials of which a lesson must be constructed are information and illustration. I. Information (L. forma, shape) is the act of putting facts into convenient shape. We must carry about with us everywhere a large amount of knowledge, and it is the duty of the teacher to present it in a convenient form, that it may always be at our service. 1. It must be full and accurate. 'All the facts that children ought to know should be stated fully, clearly, and without reserve. No material truth should escape notice or be kept back. A common error into which young teachers fall is that of supposing that because they know a thing, therefore everybody must know. The con- sequence is that many important statements are purposely omitted. The opposite error is that of telling the children too much. 28 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. Be quite sure that your information is correct. If you have any haziness or uncertainty about your facts, verify them by a reference to standard text- books and notes. The school-room is not the place to display your ignorance, and if you are in doubt about your information, the lesson will be a feeble, halting failure. 2. It must be digested. Your lesson must be the result of much reading, and labour, and thought. It matters not where your facts came from or how you obtained them. Knowledge is common property, and you have as much right to it as to the sunshine or the rain. But you must master your facts, and appropriate them to your own use, and make them serve your purpose. You must not reproduce them in the fragmentary, haphazard way you found them. You cannot commit them to memory and recite them. You cannot safely trust to memory, or notes, or books. You must convert the facts to your own use. As the food you eat is digested, and becomes blood, and muscle, and bone, and helps to sustain and prolong life ; so the facts you glean must be understood and applied to give intellectual nourish- ment and strength. Or, to change the figure, you are in want of money to pay your way. I show you a mine where nuggets and grains of gold are to be won by hard labour. You must gather them, put them into the THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. 29 crucible, melt, refine, mould, and stamp them with your own image and superscription. Do not try to pass off another man's coin as your own. This secret can only be discovered by continued effort and steady labour. 3. It must be graphic. It must appeal to the intellect. It must catch the eye and win the ear. It must be attractive and telling. Two men will speak on the same subject with equal knowledge, but with different results. One will pour a mass of information on his hearers, and read to them long extracts from books, and take great pains to make himself clearly understood. He will go into minute details, and descend to par- ticulars. He will speak for an hour and utterly weary everybody. If you could question the audience you would find that his speech had made no impression for good. It had been stale, flat, and unprofitable. But the second speaker arranged his facts and condensed his information into two or three strong points. He presents his case clearly and intelli- gently, and advocates it warmly. He speaks deliberately, powerfully, and convincingly. He arrests attention, he evokes sympathy, he commands approval, and he rouses and stimulates his audience to a high pitch of enthusiasm. In half an hour he has stated his case, produced a profound impression, and the memory of that speech will live for years. 30 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. Seek the power to seize upon the strong points of your subject. Describe events with force and accuracy. Delineate with boldness and skill. Paint in striking colours. If there is any real power in you, dare to be singular. 4. It must be adapted to your circumstances. (i) Consider the time at your disposal. — Half an hour will be about an average length of time for a good lesson. Do not attempt too much. Con- dense your matter and concentrate your thoughts on a few strong features of the subject. MaTce it incisive and telling. A modern humourist has compared public speaking to boring in an oil cask. He says that if you are boring three-quarters of an hour and fail to strike oil, you are either boring in the wrong place, or you are using very bad tools. (2) Consider the capacity of the children. — Your matter must be made very plain and simple if you are teaching infants. It must be increased in quantity and varied in quality if you are speaking to junior or senior scholars. One of the philoso- phers uses the allegory of a small bottle with a narrow neck being filled at a pump. If you pump heavily and pour out a large volume of water, most of it runs down the sides of the bottle. You must adapt the stream to the capacity of the bottle, if you would fill it easily. In other words, you must present your information in such quantities and THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. 31" forms as young minds can absorb and retain it best. (3) Consider the nature of the subject — If it is simple, you will need fewer illustrations than if it is complex. If it is elementary, you can make more rapid progress than if it is advanced. Decide in your own mind the nature of the work you have set before you, then adopt the expedients that will enable you most effectually to carry it to a successful issue. II. Illustration (L. lueeo, to shine) is the act of throwing light on a subject. Illustrations may be given by words, by pictures, or by objects. 1. By words. — You may compare your subject with another of a similar kind by a simile, or a metaphor, or an allegory. A simile is a comparison which is limited to one point. Thus, in the phrase 'the light of truth/ we have light and truth compared. They are two widely different things, and yet they have one pro- perty in common. They are both diffusive. You can no more cover truth, and limit its area, than you can hide the light of the sun. A metaphor is a figure of speech by which the name and properties of one object are ascribed to another. Thus, in the phrase 'the clouds of adversity,' we compare adversity to the clouds. They are differ- ent in many respects, and yet they have several 32 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. things in common. They come without our control. They serve some beneficent purpose. They are gloomy. They are temporary. An allegory is the representation of one thing by another analogous to it. It is a continuous meta- phor. Perhaps the finest allegory in the English language is Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, in which human life is compared to a journey. The meta- phor is preserved throughout, and adapted to all the changing circumstances of life. A fable is a co?n?non form of allegory. The qualities or acts of a higher class of beings are attributed to brutes and creatures of a lower sphere. The creatures thus introduced always follow the law of their nature, but their acts are used to represent those of a higher race. Thus the fables of ^sop represent human motives and conduct by the motives and conduct of brutes and beasts. This is a most powerful form of illustration, but requires great skill to use it successfully. A parable is a higher form of allegory. It requires thought, and effort, and intelligence to make it plain. Its chief purpose is to illustrate and enforce moral and religious teaching. The parables of the Old and New Testaments are the best ex- amples of this method of illustration. You may contrast your subject with others that differ from it. The mind gathers vividness and clearness by contrast. This mode of expression is called antithesis. Antithesis, or placing against, is an opposition of THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON, 33 thoughts or words that bring out a clear and striking contrast Thus we speak of * life and death/ ' peace or war/ ' honour and shame/ i light and darkness. ' These figures of speech require skill and experi- ence to use them profitably. You may employ anecdote, or emblem, or pro- verb, or any figure of speech or mode of expression that will place your subject in a clearer light. The resources of the English language are inexhaustible, and they are all at your service. Study the art of putting things. Vary the illustration, and change the figure till you have made a lasting impression. 2. By pictures. — Let every description be illus- trated by a picture or sketch on the black-board. Knowledge comes to a child as readily through the eye as the ear. But it comes with great weight and power if both eye and ear unite to receive instruc- tion. The power of observation is encouraged also. If children can be trained to use their eyes intelligently, they v/ill note and observe and corns- pare facts for themselves, and become successful students. It is a great advantage to unlock the stores of knowledge to a child, and place the wealth of learning before him. But it is of more import- ance that he should be trained to gather information for himself, and supply his own needs by his own efforts. The power of imitation is also called forth. Children watch with admiration and delight the few bold strokes drawn on a black-board by an in- telligent teacher. They admire the ease and skill c 34 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. with which the outlines of a figure are made plain, and they are sure to imitate the drawing, and try to reproduce it. The poorest child in your class may have latent genius slumbering within him, that some light word or kindly deed of yours shall call into activity. Who knows but in the dullest pupil you have a sleeping giant, who shall be roused by your fairy touch ? 3. By objects. — In some of the best schools I have seen cabinets of objects stored by the children and teachers for purposes of illustration. Foreign coins, and curiosities of dress and fashions from distant countries, were to be found side by side with specimens of minerals, and metals, and fossils, and stones. Cotton, wool, flax, and silk were shown in the raw material, and in every stage of manufacture. The special productions of the neighbourhood were represented in every variety and form. The children were familiar with every kind of manufacture, and left the school to become intelligent and superior workmen. They were trained to habits of observation and investigation, and in after-life they became successful students of botany, or geology, or some other favourite science, and skilful in the use of the microscope or other scientific apparatus. (i) Use illustrations to impress what is new on the children's minds. — In teaching a class of young children to read, the word shallow occurred, and THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. 35 no one could tell me the meaning. I contrasted a cup and saucer, and asked them to tell me the difference. They told me a cup was deep, but a saucer was e not deep.' I asked them to use the word shallow instead of the words not deep^ and they remembered its meaning in connection with the saucer, The illustration was valuable because it was familiar. (2) Use illustrations to impart interest and give reality to a subject. — One hot day I had to teach the properties of a circle, and show how to find the area if the radius was stated. It was a dry, tedious lesson in mensuration, and required some expedient to arouse the flagging interest. I repre- sented the centre of the circle as a post The radius became a rope tied at one end, and stretched out to the circumference. It only required another stretch of imagination to tie a donkey so that it should feed on an acre of ground, and no more. This vivid and appropriate illustration served my purpose, and sustained the attention of the children. (3) Use illustrations to meet and remove particular difficulties.— K model, or a picture, or a diagram, or a sketch on the black-board, will often make plain what would otherwise remain obscure. A wise teacher will use every opportunity of these powerful aids to instruction. 36 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. CHAPTER IV. THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER, The success of a lesson greatly depends on the personal bearing of a teacher, and the fertility of his resources, L His Personal Bearing, By his personal bearing is meant the 'way he carries himself/ This part of the subject can be more easily illustrated than defined, Suppose a skilful teacher is about to give a lesson to a group of children* We are to stand aside, and observe, and criticise, Let us notice his attitude, his voice, his temper and spirit. 1. Attitude, In approaching the children he takes up a com- manding position. He stands where he can see every child, and where all can see him. His ex- perienced eye sweeps round the group instantly, and sees everything at a glance. He arrests and commands attention. THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER. 37 His movements are easy and natural. He is neither fussy nor awkward. His materials and illustrations are in order, so that he can point to a map or a picture, or draw a sketch on the black- board, without breaking the continuity of his lesson. He is free from affectation. He seeks to make his lesson useful rather than showy. He has no tricks of style. He does not imitate other men's looks or gestures, but modestly and quietly gives his own lesson in his own way. He commands the respect of the children. They see in him nothing to condemn, but many things to admire. There is a soberness and dignity about his behaviour they are compelled to acknowledge and respect; 2. Voice. He speaks in a cheerful tone. While his voice is loud enough to be heard by every child, there is no waste of strength by shouting or using too much force. He avoids a harsh and scolding tone. His voice is carefully modulated and well managed. He speaks kindly, gently, and effectively. His articulation is clear. Every syllable is dis- tinctly uttered. He avoids drawling on the one hand, and gabbling on the other. He speaks deliberately, clearly, and distinctly. He pronounces his words correctly. He avoids provincialisms. He makes no grammatical blunders. His language is pure and correct, and serves as an 38 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. excellent pattern that the children may safely imitate. 3. Temper and spirit. He is etiergetic. From the beginning of the lesson to the end the interest never falters. There is no listlessness, no apathy, no indifference. You can see that he is in earnest, and his energy is infectious. The children catch his spirit, and are roused by his example. The force and power of his energy carry all before them. He succeeds where a quieter man would fail. And much of his success in life is due to the energy and force of his character. He is sympathizing. He recognises children's difficulties and discouragements. He remembers that he was once a child, and had to contend with a child's trials and sorrows. He is able to enter into their views and feelings. He knows exactly how to help them. If they are disheartened by failure, he can rouse them to renewed effort. If they are unkindly treated, he will protect them. He recognises every good quality, and gives it a word of praise. He defends the weak from the tyranny of the strong. He is the children's friend, and they know that he will pity and help them when they are needing sympathy. He is attractive. He seldom loses the attention of the children. He rarely threatens and seldom punishes. A look or a hint will usually suffice to bring a thoughtless child up to its duty promptly. THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER. 39 He finds it much easier to draw than to drive. As honey attracts more flies than vinegar, so a good temper and a cheerful spirit will gain more love than peevishness or sourness. His good temper and kindly spirit win the admiration of his pupils, and make the lesson run smoothly and agreeably to its close. Let us now consider— II. His Resources. As the lesson proceeds we begin to see what large and varied resources are at the teacher's com- mand. He is like a plain, unassuming merchant who would pass for a poor man, but who has a large capital and a valuable stock-in-trade. It is only as he needs these resources that he makes them public. 1. Language. He speaks with fluency. He never falters or hesitates for a word. He is able to choose the word that will most clearly express his meaning, and can always put the right word in the right place. His language is choice, and varied, and expressive. He speaks correctly. He seldom calls back a word after he has uttered it. He not only avoids grammatical mistakes and errors of pronunciation, but he never offends good taste. He uses words well and wisely, to express his meaning clearly and fully. 40 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. His language is simple. He uses words that can be understood by the youngest child, and yet they are not silly or childish. They are clear and dignified. He calls things by their right names. He describes things in plain, vigorous words. It is impossible to estimate the value of such a command of language. The English language is so full, and rich, and expressive, that it can describe every conceivable position and circum- stance. And the teacher who is master of his own mother-tongue is well equipped for his duties. 2. Apparatus. The children of this generation have enormous advantages over their parents. And the teachers of the present day are richer than those who pre- ceded them. Patent desks, black-boards, good maps, pictures, and diagrams, cheap slates, books, paper, pens and ink, are to be found in every school to-day. A generation ago many of these aids to instruction were utterly unknown. Some of them existed, but they were so poor in quality, and so high in price, that they were of little service to the teacher. The teacher of the present day knows the value of scientific apparatus. He is quick to seize oh any thought or figure that will illustrate his teaching. He makes diagrams, pictures, maps, objects, and specimens familiar to the eye, and thus enforces and impresses information on the mind. He readily applies any new thought or clearer light THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER. 4 1 that may come to his mind. He is skilful in drawing on the black-board any figure that may be helpful to the children. He neglects no opportunity of calling in any method of illustration that will save time and economize labour. 3. Questioning. The teacher makes a skilful use of questions. If a child becomes careless, a direct personal question arrests his attention, and provokes thought. If a child is too confident, a question reveals his ignorance and points out his weak places. These questions are never suggestive. They can never be answered by a * yes ' or ' no.' They are problems requiring thought. They call for a prompt, a wise, and a definite answer. They are distributed impartially. They come to the heedless, and restless, and thoughtless, at most inconvenient times. They cannot be ignored. They must be answered, or disgrace and exposure will overtake the delinquent. In the hands of a judicious teacher, the power of wise questioning must have a high educational value. 4. Discipline. The teacher can maintain order. He checks inattention and restlessness promptly. He will not allow the eyes to wander or the thoughts to stray from his subject. He is prepared at all times 42 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. to enforce his own authority and compel obedience. But he forbears threatening, and rules by wise and firm discipline. He secures mental activity. It is impossible for any child to take part in his lesson without being made to think, and compelled to reflect and try to understand the subject. He appeals to eye, and ear, and understanding. He rouses, and stimu- lates, and directs the mental powers. He makes every child think and act, and directs their thoughts and actions to a wise and practical purpose. It is clear, therefore, that a good teacher has enormous resources at his command. But in order that he may make a wise and extensive use of them, he must have peculiar skill in adapting him- self to his circumstances. It is evident that an untrained teacher would be unable to use them successfully. Let us consider how this peculiar skill may be acquired. TACT. 43 CHAPTER V. TACT. In the preparation and delivery of a lesson, the young teacher will need tact. Tact (L. lactus, touch) is peculiar skill in adapt- ing ourselves to circui?i stances. It is a power that is not easily defined or lightly acquired. It is one of the most valuable secrets of the profession, and should be sought and prized more than gold. It requires presence of mind, keen perceptive powers, ingenuity, promptness to seize an advantage, and a good address. 1. Presence of mind. A teacher should never be thrown off his guard by any unforeseen circumstance. He should never be taken unawares by any disaster or disappoint- ment. Other people may be nervous and excited, but he must always have his wits about him. Others may use random words and do unwise things, but he should keep cool, and know exactly what to do, and do it at the most convenient time. 44 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. He should never lose his self-possession or self- control, but maintain under the most trying cir- cumstances his calmness and confidence. He can only do this by self-denial and discipline. He must learn to ' rule his own spirit/ and he will have gained a greater victory than ' he that taketh a city.' 2. Keen perceptive powers. A teacher must have eyes that see everything at a glance, and comprehend all the circumstances in a moment. He must have ears that catch the faintest indication of change or movement. He must have a delicacy of touch that will enable him to feel and understand the intellectual and moral atmosphere in which he moves. He must be able to tell whether his teaching makes any impression on the children or not. He must find out intui- tively the weak and strong points of his lesson. He must be able to note instinctively every cir- cumstance in his favour, and every difficulty he must surmount. Nothing must escape his notice. He must be quick to see, prompt to understand, and keen and clever in supplying a remedy for every emergency. Just as the practised eye of a sailor discerns a sail on the distant horizon where a simple lands- man would fail to see anything, so he must note what a stranger would overlook. As the trained ear of a musician would detect one false chord in the music where a novice would fail to notice it, TACT, 45 so he must be able to discover what others would not even suspect. These powers can be acquired only by continued exercise and careful training, 3* Ingenuity. The best4aid plans will sometimes fail The most promising schemes will occasionally end in disaster and disappointment. The tools we thought would serve us best will now and then spoil the work and wound our hands; but a teacher who possesses tact will never throw down his tools in despair. He will never say fail. Out of the materials of his failure and disappointment he will somehow manage to serve his purpose and carry his scheme. By his ready mother-wit he will be saved from sticking fast in every slough of despond. By his power of ready invention he will make a bridge when retreat is cut off, and save his reputation when all seemed to be lost. By his quickness in combining ideas, and his skill in using them, he will prove himself a workman that needeth not to be ashamed. We have seen in the preceding chapter the enormous resources at the command of a teacher, and the great value of his stock-in-trade. By ingenuity he may make them all contribute to his success, and promote his own advancement. Ingenuity is partly natural and partly acquired. Like every other mental power, it may be stimulated and improved by cultivation and exercise. 46 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 4. Promptness to seize an advantage. In teaching, as in all other human affairs, there are golden opportunities that now and then fall in our way. We have only to stretch out the hand and seize them, and hold them fast, to make them our own. If we neglect to seize them at the right moment, they will drift away from us on the ebbing tide, and be lost to us for ever. By the exercise of tact we may save ourselves from loss and disappointment. We may take advantage of every tide and current that will serve our purpose. We may catch and use every breeze that will aid our progress. But there must be no hesitation. He who hesitates is lost. Opportunity is the forelock of time. Father Time is represented as an old man with a scythe and hour-glass. He has a venerable beard, but his head is bald, except one single prominent lock on his forehead. If we mean to get any good out of him, we must be ready as he passes to seize that lock of hair, and make him do our bidding. If we let him pass a moment, we need not clutch at the back of his bald head, for there is nothing to hold him by. Once lest may be lost for ever. Make hay while the sun shines. Strike while the iron is hot. Be prompt to seize every advantage. 5. A good address. A teacher must seek to make himself agreeable. He cannot win the confidence and respect of his TACT. 47 pupils, or gain their esteem and affection, without attending to the courtesies and acts of kindness that beget esteem and respect. He must preserve his own dignity and self-respect. He must be clean and neat in person. He must be gentle- manly and courteous in behaviour. He must be a pattern of integrity, honesty, and uprightness. But he must not be cold and hard as an iceberg. He must have a tender heart and a kindly sympathy. He must be attentive to the needs, and difficulties, and trials of his pupils. He must give them the opportunity of knowing, and trusting, and loving him. He must occasionally unbend himself, and throw off his official reserve, and approach them kindly. He must gain the power of personal friendship, and be able to guide, and mould, and influence their characters for good. He must study the art of putting things. He must make truth agreeable. He must habitually present facts in such attractive forms that he can always command eager and willing hearers. He must cultivate a love of learning. The feeblest effort to gain information should have his approval and smile. And if he sees a child struggling with difficulties, and manfully striving to master some difficult task, he must aid it by kindly sympathy and wise counsel. A word fitly spoken may some- times influence the whole of a child's future life. A new way of putting an old truth will often impress that truth on the mind for ever. An original illustration, or a quaint and humorous 48 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 4 comparison, will frequently make a truth plain when all other modes of presenting it had failed. Young teachers should cultivate their talents by exercise, and observation, and self-denial, and discipline. It is only as we conquer our tempers, our natural dispositions, and inclinations, and habits, that we can rule our own spirits. We may learn much from books and from teachers, but we may learn more from observation and experience. A young soldier may learn to drill, and march, and use his weapons in the barracks for years ; but one short campaign, in which he helps to defeat the enemy, will teach him more than years of drilling, So in teaching ; we may give hints, and in- formation, and advice, but it is only by actual experiment that the full value of our instruction can be appreciated. We have now answered the questions, ■ What is a lesson ? ' and ' How should a lesson be given ? ' We believe that any young teacher may become a successful teacher by diligent and intelligent appli- cation. Let us now consider ' How a lesson should be prepared.' THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. 49 CHAPTER VI. THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. Many books have been published during the last few years containing full notes of lessons. These notes are valuable, because they contain facts in a condensed and convenient form, and pro- vide methods of illustration suggested by practical teachers. They save much time in reading, com- paring, grouping, and arranging facts ; but they are of little practical use to young teachers. A young teacher should not be furnished with a perfect example and merely told to imitate it. He should be trained to select his own materials and finish the work on well-defined principles. The builder's apprentice is not taken to a new house and told that the walls are of bricks and mortar, the floors and rafters of wood, the windows of glass, and the roof of slate, and then sent home to construct a house for himself. He helps to draw plans and prepare estimates. He assists in choosing and buying bricks, and stone, and timber, and other building materials. He takes part in every department of his master's work, and D 50 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. gains his knowledge by practical experience and labour. So a young teacher should be taught to prepare his own notes, and construct his own lesson. It will be a real kindness to throw him on his own resources early in life, and give him the means of providing for his own necessities. Let us therefore consider the nature and method of preparation. I. The Nature of Preparation. It is a mistake to suppose that the best speakers need no preparation. Our most talented actors, actresses, and vocalists never present to the public what they have not rehearsed privately repeatedly. Most of them have a few stock pieces that they have performed hundreds of times, in which every tone, look, gesture, and accent has been carefully studied and interwoven with the text. Our popular lecturers and orators carefully prepare the matter of their discourses, and study every art and device that can adorn the style and make it attractive. Even the pulpit serves to illustrate this truth. No great preacher would risk his reputation by preaching a sermon that had not cost him hours ol labour and thought. In many cases the manu- script is read in the pulpit. In some cases the manuscript is not produced, but every line of it has been committed to memory. And in all cases THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. 5 I where a preacher hopes to gain the public ear, and move popular sympathy, he must devote much time and attention to careful preparation. If it is necessary to prepare whatever must catch the eye, and gain the ear, and attract the sympathy of adults, surely it must be necessary to prepare for the instruction of children. 1. The object of the lesson. We must have some definite aim before us. We must have some practical end in view, such as increasing the knowledge of the children, or exercising their mental powers, or providing for their moral improvement. And we must adapt all our means to reach that result. An increase of knowledge should be one object of every lesson, but it is often necessary to arrange a carefully graduated series of lessons, by which children may be led up from one standard to another. Each lesson in the series gathers up the results of the previous lessons, and after a careful recapitulation, enables the children by natural and easy stages to make decided progress. The mental powers may be exercised by any lesson that will compel them to think and express their thoughts intelligently. Mental arithmetic, for example, is an excellent method of sharpening children's wits. Much good often results from object lessons, but perhaps the most powerful weapon for breaking down mental apathy is the power of skilful questioning. 52 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. Questions of morality often occur in connection with school discipline, and valuable truths are illustrated and enforced by the common occurrences of everyday life. A teacher must ask himself: What is the point I wish to reach ? Which is the wisest way to reach it? 2. The plan of the lesson. Having chosen a topic that will answer our purpose, we must arrange the matter clearly and definitely. We must bring out the leading features of the subject in bold and striking colours. We must adapt all the parts of the lesson to the end we have in view. In our own thoughts we must be able to see the end from the beginning, and clearly understand the relation of all its parts. We must decide the method of treatment. This will vary according to the subject. Analysis, or ' taking to pieces,' will explain one subject best. Synthesis, or ' putting together,' will help you to understand another more readily. While a third will need a judicious mixture of exposition and illustration. For example, if I were giving a lesson on a human heart, I would buy a sheep's heart for the sake of illustration. I would show its position in the body, and briefly explain its functions. Then with a knife I would analyze, or take it to pieces. I would expose the cavities and valves. I would THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. 53 show their action, and compare them with the action of the human heart. Analysis would explain and illustrate that subject best, and would make it interesting and impressive. Synthesis is the opposite of analysis. It gathers many scattered particles, and puts them together to build up a conclusion. Thus in the history of a king's reign we may note the leading events in the history of the time, the causes that are at work to influence particular movements, the motives that urge the king to certain conduct, and from all these sources form our opinion of his character. But perhaps the most common form of treat- ment is the judicious mixture of exposition and illustration. We must be guided by our own judgment as to the mode of treatment, arrangement, and delivery of the lesson. No absolute rule of conduct can be devised to meet every case. 3. The matter of the lesson. In selecting matter, the children must guide us. For infants we require simple facts and elementary principles, that can be readily explained and easily understood. For junior classes we require a larger quantity of matter, of a more advanced character, and adapted to their ages and attainments. For seniorclasses the matter should be more complicated and difficult, with fewer illustrations, and it should make a greater demand on their attention, patience, and intelligence. 54 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 4. The illustration of a lesson. In providing illustrations, we must also consider the children. Pictures, models, objects, and speci- mens of every kind should be used freely among little children. Lessons on form, size, and colour can only be taught by example and illustration, and we should accustom infants to an inspection of the form, colour, and qualities of every object around them. But senior scholars need more verbal illustration. Figures of speech should be freely used and explained, especially the figures and emblems occurring in poetry. They should also be familiar with maps, charts, and diagrams of every kind, and be able to make an intelligent use of them. All these points must be considered before we commit our thoughts to paper in the form of notes. II. The Method of Preparation. 1. Text-books. Use any reliable, trustworthy book on the sub- ject of your lesson as a text-book. Gather in your memory all the facts it can supply. Do not con- fine your reading to one author, but read several, and gather your facts from widely different sources. If different authors express different opinions, read both sides, and try to form a fair and candid opinion of the whole question for yourself. The wider your range of knowledge of your subject, the better opportunity you will have of THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. 55 presenting it attractively. Remember that the first condition of successful teaching is, know your subject well. Facts are the raw material ; a lesson is the manufactured article. Text-books are only to be used for obtaining facts. Do not seek for method, arrangement, or language from them. Trust to other sources for these. 2. Matter. The facts you have gleaned from text-books are now at your service. You need not try to remem- ber the form or language in which you found them, because they will be of little use till you have appro- priated them and made them your own. If you attempt to state facts in another man's language, you will be found out and condemned. Condense your information into a few definite, convenient, prominent thoughts. Let your matter be suitable to the intellectual condition of the children. Let it be interesting and graphic. Do not attempt to use too much, or introduce anything irrelevant. Digest your facts, and verify them by reference to the most reliable authors. Arrange your matter to the best advantage. Set it out in the most attrac- tive style. Make the most of your intellectual capital by a wise arrangement and a judicious investment. 3. Illustration. .Provide more than one illustration for the same 56 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. difficulty. Present truth in various aspects and under different forms. A verbal illustration or ex- planation may be perfectly clear to one mind and obscure to another. Change the figure and vary the illustration till the dullest mind perceives it. If you have a choice of illustrations, provide a real object instead of a picture. If you cannot obtain a specimen or model, of course you must be content with a picture. But do not be content with a simple description of anything without a picture or diagram to illustrate it. If you use the black-board and chalk, do not draw your picture before the lesson, but sketch it during the lesson, and allow the children to notice your every move- ment. They will be greatly interested, and will try to reproduce it afterwards. 4. Notes. Take a sheet of note-paper, or use a page of an exercise-book for your rough outline notes. Your full notes should be entered in a large exercise- book, or kept for reference in some permanent form. (i) Outline notes. — Gather the facts you intend to use into a few brief words and phrases. Com- press it into small space, and condense it into a few leading thoughts expressed in a few simple words. Note every particular that you intend to employ, and write it in logical order. Keep the different parts of your notes separate and distinct, so that THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. 57 when they are complete you may run your eye over the page and take in the whole at a glance. Verify every statement by a reference to your text-book, and see that all your figures are accurate. A little experience of this kind will enable you to give the essence of a book in a few pages. By patient practice you may soon be able to classify rough notes, and group them into convenient and natural classes, so as to give a comprehensive view of any subject. (2) Full notes. — You will have greater difficulty with full notes, because they require a wider ex- perience and riper judgment than most young teachers possess. They should include chief heads, condensed matter, method, object, class, and time of a lesson. The most important points are the heads, matter, and method, which had better be arranged in three columns, as in the exercises and examples in this book. Under the first head, the chief divisions or parts only of a lesson should be stated. The second column should contain all the in- formation in the outline notes arranged according to the divisions in the first column. The third column should contain all the verbal illustrations, introduction, and hints for the teacher. Young teachers are advised to study carefully the outline notes given in the next chapter, and try to imitate them by making notes on other subjects. 58 . NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. CHAPTER VII. OUTLINE NOTES. Outline notes should be brief, comprehensive, and clear. In an examination you cannot afford to devote many minutes to any particular question, and it is of the utmost importance that you should be able to express much in little time and space. The following subjects are selected from the Government examination papers, and the outline notes are offered as models for imitation. It is presumed that every young teacher knows enough about the subject to find materials for a useful lesson. The hints and advice will enable him to use his knowledge to the best advantage. I. Give Notes of a Lesson on the Mediter- ranean Sea, its Physical Character and Commercial Importance, now and in Past Times. This is a subject peculiarly adapted to Standards IV. -VI., and should be studied by the aid of a OUTLINE NOTES. 59 map of the Eastern Hemisphere and a good bold map of Europe. THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA. Mediterranean — literally, 'the middle of the earth;' so called because ancients believed that all the land in the world lay around it. Point out every place named on the map. 1. Physical character. — Large inland sea — 2320 miles long, 1080 miles broad, nearly 1,000,000 sq. miles — bounded N. by Europe, E. by Asia, S. by Africa, W. by Atlantic, but approached only by the Straits of Gibraltar. Land-locked on every side — coast broken up into numerous inlets, afford- ing many safe harbours — containing important islands belonging to many different nations. Water deep — in some places over 6000 feet — tides scarcely perceptible — seldom 5 feet — subject to peculiar winds, as ' solano ' or ' Levanter ' — rich in corals, sponges, and other fishing industries. 2. Commercial importance. — Surrounded by countries rich in natural productions, and in ancient times skilled in arts and manufactures, it gathered the world's commerce to itself. From Africa cara- vans came with ivory, ostrich feathers, slaves, gold- dust, etc. From Egypt came grain, spices, slaves, etc. From Asia came coffee, spices, rich damasks, silks, swords, etc. From Europe' came grain, cattle, 60 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. slaves, etc. These were gathered and again dis- tributed by Egyptians, Phcenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, etc. All the great nations of antiquity flourished near it ; the greatest events in the world's history occurred in its vicinity. On its waters the ships of all nations have sailed. But time has changed its commercial importance. The discoveries of Columbus, Vasco di Gama, etc. diverted commerce from the shores of the Mediterranean. Venice, Rome, Carthage, Athens, Alexandria, declined as the Dutch, British, Ameri- cans, etc. acquired commercial supremacy. The Suez Canal will always be the highway of vessels from Western Europe to Asia. Its natural produc- tions, and the productions of the lands on its shores, will always be sought and acquired, but it can never again regain its ancient supremacy. There are peaceful victories yet to be won. The Nile must be made the highway to Central Africa. Syria, Armenia, etc. must be developed. The Volga will contribute some of Russia's enormous food supplies, and the Danube will bring Central Europe within the influence of Mediterranean commerce. II. Write Notes of a Lesson on Idleness. This is a subject applicable to any age or class of children. We will adapt it to children from seven to nine years of age. OUTLINE NOTES. 6 1 IDLENESS. Idleness — vain and profitless use of time. ■ He is idle who might be better employed.' 1. Nature of idleness. (i) Dislike for work. — Shown in want of attention and application — time wasted in useless trifling — constant change and restlessness. Describe con- duct of a lazy boy in school — generally late — always unprepared for his lessons — usually full of excuses — lazy people always clever at excuses. (2) Uselessness. — Never to be trusted unless con- stantly watched and urged to duty — needs as much driving as an ass or a mule — spends in idleness time that others spend in study and work. Does as little as he can help, and complains all the time. Goes to work unwillingly — wastes time thought- lessly — produces no good results. ■ An idler is a watch that wants both hands, As useless when it goes as when it stands.' 2. Effects of idleness. (1) On the idler himself. — Idleness ruins his prospects in life. — All his plans will fail — the situation he would like will be given to another — his friends will find him out, and be unable to help him. Our prisons, workhouses, asylums, and hospitals are filled with idle people who might have been doing well. Idleness wastes his oivn powers. — Picture two 62 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. boys leaving school for work. One reads, studies, works at his books. The other flings books aside and neglects them. In five years one will be wise and clever, the other ignorant and helpless. The more we do the more we can do. The less we do the less we are able to do. Idleness impoverishes. — A shabby hat, a torn coat, a wretched home, a miserable family, are signs by which we may know where idleness dwells. There can be no fire without smoke, no idleness without poverty. (2) On others. — Idleness is infectious. — One lazy boy will soon ruin a class. An idle man corrupts a workshop, and sometimes spoils a whole street by his bad example. Idleness demoralizes. — Admit laziness, and you must admit other vices. Gambling, drunkenness, bad language, dishonesty, and crime will follow. Idleness is often the first step to the prison and the gallows. Hard work is often a great blessing by keeping men out of mischief and danger. Beware of the beginnings of evil. Habits of industry and thoughtfulness contracted now will save us from future sorrow and suffering, and help others by our example. III. Write Notes of a Lesson on the Railways of England. This subject may be used with advantage in the Third Standard. It should be illustrated by a OUTLINE NOTES, 63 large map of England. It is an excellent subject for combining geographical information with a knowledge of the social and commercial benefits conferred by railways. THE RAILWAYS OF ENGLAND. Rail-ways — name given to lines spread over the country on which rails are laid for conveying trains. Idea of railways first suggested for carrying coals smoothly and easily in days when roads were rough and bad. First trains drawn by horses, then by fixed engines, till the locomotive was invented. Watt, Stephenson, Newcomen, etc. perfected loco-^ motives, and railways began to be used for public, convenience. 1. The chief lines of railway. These usually take^ their names from the direction in which they run. (1) Great Northern starts at King's Cross, London, and runs to the north, through Peter- borough, Grantham, Newark, Doncaster, and York, with branches to all the large towns in its way. Passengers can go by this route to Edinburgh, Perth, Aberdeen, and all parts of Scotland. (2) Midland starts at St. Pancras, London, and runs through the middle of England by way of St. Albans, Bedford, Leicester, Nottingham, Derby, Sheffield, Leeds, Bradford, Keighley, Skipton, Settle, to Carlisle, and by Lancaster to Morecambe. 64 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. It has branches to Manchester, Liverpool, Bristol, Birmingham, etc. (3) London a?id North- Western starts at Euston, London, and runs to the north-west of England by way of Rugby, Lichfield, Stafford, Birmingham, Crewe, Liverpool, Manchester, Preston, Lancaster, to Carlisle, with branches to Holyhead, Leeds, etc. (4) Great Western runs from Paddington to the west of England, by way of Oxford, Bristol, Bath, Gloucester, Cardiff, and South Wales to Milford Haven, with branches to Shrewsbury and Devon and Cornwall. (5) Great Eastern runs from Cannon Street, London, to the east of England, touching Ipswich, Colchester, Yarmouth, Norwich, Cambridge, and Chelmsford, etc. (6) South- Eastern runs from London Bridge to the south-east of England, touching Rochester, Canterbury, Maidstone, Dover, etc. (7) Lancashire and Yorkshire runs through the counties named, from Liverpool to Bolton, Man- chester, Rochdale, Leeds, Wakefield, and Norman- ton, with branches to Southport, Preston, Fleetwood, Blackpool, Blackburn, Accrington, Burnley, Colne, Clitheroe, Staleybridge, Oldham, Bacup, Bradford, Halifax, etc. (8) North-Eastern, from Normanton and York to Berwick-on-Tweed. (9) Other lines, such as the London, Chatham, and Dover; the Furness Railway, from Carnforth to Barrow and Whitehaven ; the Manchester, Sheffield, OUTLINE NOTES. 65 and Lincolnshire, from Manchester to Hull and Lin- coln ; the North Staffordshire; and the Metropolitan, in and around London, should be pointed out. 2. The advantages of these railways. (1) Every part of the country can be reached. Travelling becomes easy, cheap, and rapid. We can breakfast in Liverpool, dine in London, and sleep in York on the same day. (2) Railways improve the value of land and pro- perty where they exist. A new station soon causes a new village or town to spring up. Employment is found for the poor; all classes derive some benefit. (3) They save time, labour, and money, by enabling men to do business more quickly and comfortably. (4) They are great educators. We learn geo- graphy quickly when we are travelling constantly. One of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools told me that he had set the previous question to all the pupil-teachers in his district for a whole year, and, to his surprise, it had never been answered. He was prepared to award high marks to any paper that showed an intelligent acquaintance with the subject, but it had never even been attempted. He accounted for this by a rigid observance of text-books among young teachers, and a want of familiarity with subjects outside the immediate range of the schoolroom. E 66 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. IV. Write Notes of a Lesson on Coal. This subject is one that can be made interesting to young children, so we will adapt our notes to infants, or Standard I. COAL. Show a piece of coal ; ask what it is ; train out its properties. 1. Properties. Black and bright to the eye — hard and brittle to the touch — easily burned by fire. 2. Where found. Mines in many parts of England, and in distant countries. In England, name some places, as Newcastle, and parts of Northumberland and Durham, in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Staffordshire, South Wales, etc. Found by boring a hole to a great depth in the earth, sinking a shaft, and sending men to dig out the coal with pick-axes, spades, etc. 3. How obtained. Coal lies in beds or layers underground. Roads are made as coal is taken out, so that men and small horses can bring coal from all parts of the mine. These roads are small and dark. Some- times men are in danger of being drowned in floods, choked for want of air, or burned by ex- OUTLINE NOTES. 6 J plosions. The mines are dangerous, and the work is difficult. 4. Uses. (i) Fuel for our fires. — For warmth in our houses and cooking our food. (2) Fuel for manufacturing purposes. — Engines worked by steam made from coal. (3) Making gas, gas tar, and other valuable products. V. Write Notes of a Lesson on the Cow, This subject is best suited to infants or Standard I., and must be made sufficiently simple and ele- mentary in its treatment for young children. THE COW. Show a picture of a cow, ask its name, and how many children have seen a cow. 1. Description. A large animal, about four and a half feet high — a quadruped with cloven hoofs, and generally with horns — covered with short hair, generally brown, or white, or black — feeds on grass, hay, and vegetables — after eating, and when resting, it chews the cud. In some countries cow is used like horse as a 68 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. beast of burden. In this country it is kept by the farmer for the sake of its milk, and does no work. 2. Uses. (i) Alive. — Its milk is used for food, and is most suited for children. Butter comes from the milk by churning. De- scribe a churn, and mode of making butter. Cheese is made from the milk after it has been made sour. (2) Dead. — Beef vs. flesh of the cow. The flesh of a calf is called veal. Leather is made from the skin after tanning; Glue, etc., made from the hoofs and horns. 3. Habits. Harmless and gentle — loves to pasture quietly at home — fond of herding together. VI. Write Notes of a Lesson on Climate. This subject would be best understood by children in Standards IV. -VI. A terrestrial globe or a map of the Eastern Hemisphere should be used for illustration, and a black-board and chalk might profitably be employed for the same purpose. CLIMATE. Ijitroduction. — Some countries are very hot and dry; others are very cold and wet] others are OUTLINE NOTES. 69 neither very hot nor very cold, and are called temperate. When we speak of these differences of heat and of the quantity of moisture in the atmosphere, we use the word 'climate.' 1. The causes of differences of climate. (1) Distafice from the equator. — Countries near the equator are always hot, because they receive the perpendicular rays of the sun. Countries near the North and South Poles are always cold, because they receive the rays of the sun obliquely. Thus Greenland is colder than Norway, and Norway than France, and France than Egypt. (2) Elevation. — In climbing a mountain, the higher we rise the less is the heat. Mountains, even in the hottest parts of the world, have their tops covered with snow. Quito, the highest city in the world, is just under the equator, at an eleva- tion of 9600 feet. Two men have been known to meet in its streets, one shivering with the cold from the snows of the mountains above it, and the other perspiring with heat from the hot valleys beneath. (3) Nearness to the sea. — The sea remains about the same temperature all the year. The land changes temperature rapidly. In summer a sea-breeze cools the land, while in winter it makes it warmer. Towns near the coast are more temperate than towns far away from the sea. (4) Nature of the winds. — A south wind from the 70 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. deserts of Africa makes Italy and Spain hot. A north wind makes Central Europe cold. (5) Nature of surrounding country. — High moun- tain ranges shelter some countries from cold or heat, as the Himalayas affect Thibet or India. 2. The effects of differences of climate. (1) Animal and vegetable life improved by a warm climate. — In temperate and hot climates, plants, trees, and flowers grow to their natural size, and are strong and healthy. Animals are more numer- ous and diversified. In cold countries animals are few in number ; plants and trees are dwarfed and stunted ; even man seems to be dwarfed by the cold. (2) Different climates necessary for the varied natural productio7is of the earth. — Materials for our food and clothing and comfort require every variety of climate. Silk, cotton, rice, sugar, tea, etc. require hot climates. Wheat, oats, butter, wool, etc. require temperate or cold climates. (3) Men adapt themselves to particular modes of life according to climate. — In hot countries men lose their energy, activity, and skill, and become listless and satisfied with the fruits of the earth. In cold climates men endure hardship, exposure, and cold till they become torpid and inactive. In temperate climates men work with hand and head, and exert their powers to the utmost. The most powerful nations have always lived in temperate climates. OUTLINE NOTES. 7 1 3. Adaptation of man to every climate. A man may live in any climate, if he will care- fully study the effects of the climate, and adapt himself to it by his — (i) Food. — Eating and drinking only what is suited to the man, the place, and the climate. (2) Dress. — Wearing sufficient in quantity and of suitable quality for his health and comfort. (3) Habits. — Working only at the right time, sleeping during greatest heat of the day, avoiding intemperance, exposure, hardship, and the peculiar dangers of the country. VII. Write Notes of a Lesson on the Whale. This subject is treated in the following notes for Standards II. and III., children from eight to ten years of age. A picture of a whale, with a piece of whalebone, may be used for illustration. THE WHALE. 1. Description. Largest animal in the world. Show picture, and compare its length with length of schoolroom. Length: from 30 to 90 feet. Skin: smooth and slippery, usually black, but sometimes grey. Head: about one-third of body. Month : very large, wide, and containing whalebone instead of teoth. In top of mouth two holes allow it to blow water out while it retains its food. Eyes : small for so large 72 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. a creature ; they are about the size of the eyes of a cow, and are set in its head widely apart. Flesh: coarse and red like beef. Tail : large, heavy, and exceedingly strong. 2. Where found. In the ocean, chiefly in cold and temperate climates; often near Greenland, in the Northern Seas. Some varieties are found in the Southern Seas. They migrate in search of food — smaller fishes, etc. 3. Mode of capture. Whales differ from fishes in having warm blood, and in being compelled to rise to the surface of the water regularly to breathe. Hunters strike them with harpoons while they are breathing. If they are wounded, they dive to the bottom, dragging harpoon and rope with them. When they rise again to breathe, they are wounded once more, and so the fight continues till whale dies, and its body floats on the surface. It is then made fast to the ship, and cut up by the sailors. 4. Uses. (i) Flesh. — Greenlanders, Laplanders, etc. fond of its coarse flesh for food. (2) Fat. — The blubber that lies between skin and flesh to keep it warm makes excellent oil. (3) Whalebone from its mouth is used for umbrella frames, etc. OUTLINE NOTES. 73 VIII. Write Notes of a Lesson on British India. Point out on map of Asia the position of India. Show that its fertile soil, warm climate, command- ing position, and immense wealth have made it valuable. It has always been regarded as a prize worthy of a conqueror's highest ambition. 1. History of British Settlements in India. Discovery of Cape of Good Hope by Vasco di Gama gave an impulse to commerce. Portuguese, Dutch, and English began to trade with India. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth granted a charter to a number of London merchants, who formed the East India Company. About 1612 the Company obtained permission from the native princes to establish factories at Surat, Ahmedabad, Cambay, and Gogo. In 1640 they settled at Madras, in 1645 at Calcutta, and in 1665 at Bombay. As merchants, they sent out to India gold, silver, lead, quicksilver, woollens, hardware, etc., and brought home calicoes, silk, diamonds, tea, pepper, drugs, saltpetre, etc. Gradually the Company and their agents took part in the quarrels of the native princes, and began to make conquests and rise to the position of governors and rulers of small states. Lord Clive by his great victories raised the Company to great authority and power. Warren Hastings, Lord 74 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. Cornwallis, Marquis Wellesley, and others increased this authority by subsequent wars, intrigues, and conquests till the Indian Mutiny of 1857, when Queen Victoria was proclaimed sovereign of India, and the power of the Company as rulers came to an end. 2. Extent of British Possessions in India. From Himalayas to Cape Comorin 1800 miles. From Kurrachi in Sinde to Rangoon in Pegu 1900 miles. Area, 1,500,000 square miles. Coast line about 4500 miles. Presidencies. — Bengal, Madras, Bombay. States. — North-West Provinces, Punjab, Oude, British Burmah, Berar, Saugor, Nerbudda terri- tories, etc. Many states, such as Gwalior, Indore, etc, are ruled by native chiefs and princes under the political supremacy and protection of the British Government. 3. Benefits of British rule in India. (1) Peace. — No foreign invader now overruns and devastates. Natives may cultivate soil and live in peace. British power is strong enough to protect them. (2) Order. — British will not permit quarrelsome, ambitious chiefs to rebel and disturb their neigh- bours. Good government is enforced in every state. OUTLINE NOTES. 75 (3) Ju^ice. — Rich and poor have protection of just laws, honestly administered. IX. Write Notes of a Lesson on Rivers. A river is a stream of water which flows into the sea, or into some other portion of water. 1. Parts of a river. ( 1) Source or spring where the water first appears. (2) Bed or channel within which its banks are confined. (3) Right bank or border on the right-hand side of the stream looking from the source to the mouth. (4) Left bank or border on the left-hand side. (5) Mouth or termination where the water enters the sea. (6) Affluent or tributary, a smaller stream that flows into the river. (7) Confluence or place where the two streams unite. (8) Basin, the part of a country drained by a river with all its tributaries. (9) Watershed, the elevated land which divides one basin from another. (10) Waterfall, the sudden change in the level of the bed of a river causing the water to fall. (n) Cascade or cataract, a broken watertall. 76 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. (12) Rapid or part of the stream that runs swiftly. (13) Estuary, a very wide mouth of a river. (14) Z>e/ta,the land included between the extreme mouths of a river. 2. Uses of rivers. (1) Fejiility. — Nile makes Egypt fertile. Rivers in hot countries prevent land from becoming desert. (2) Commerce. — Mississippi brings N.W. States of America into communication with other countries. (3) Drainage. — Danube drains districts that would otherwise be marshes, with malaria, etc. X. Write Notes of a Lesson on Gieraltaf. 1. Description. Gibraltar, a rocky promontory in the south of Spain — 3 miles long, f mile broad — inhabited by 26,000 persons, chiefly English, Spaniards, Jews, and Moors. The Rock is 1439 ^ eet m o n > contains many large caverns, and is most strongly fortified. The town is built partly in the British and partly in the Spanish style of architecture, and has a strange appearance. It is a free port, at the entrance of the Mediterranean Sea, and 16 miles from the coast of Africa. It has no rivers or OUTLINE NOTES. 77 springs of fresh water. The people store the rain in tanks and cisterns. It is a garrison town, always well stocked with ammunition, provisions, eta 2. History. Known from a very early period. Phoenicians called it and Ceuta, on the other side the strait, the ' Pillars of Hercules,' and considered it the western boundary of the world. It was captured by the Saracens in 711, and frequently changed owners during the long and bloody wars that followed. In 1462 the Spaniards took it from the Moors, and held it till 1704, when it fell into the hands of the English under Sir George Rooke. In 1704-5 it was besieged by the French and Spanish troops, and in 1727 it was attacked by an overwhelming force, but on both occasions the British repulsed their assailants. The great siege lasted 3 years 7 months and 12 days (1779 to 1783). The garrison were saved from starvation by supplies brought by Admiral Rodney in 1780, and Admiral Darby in 1781, and landed in face of the combined French and Spanish troops. A terrific bombardment followed from the land batteries, line-of-battle ships, gun and mortar boats. The English returned the fire, and by using red-hot balls set the Spanish ships and gunboats on fire. In the great attack, which lasted from the 8th to 14th September 1782, the Spaniards lost 2000 men in killed alone, all their 78 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. floating batteries, and most of their ships. The English loss in the same week was only 16 killed and 68 wounded. 3. Government. As a port Gibraltar is not safe. The anchorage is not good, and the bay is exposed to S.W. winds. It is of little use to the English except as a military station. It is governed by a Governor, who is also Commander of the forces. The inhabitants are subject to English laws, and live in peace and good order. XI. Write Notes of a Lesson on Sugar. 1. Uses. (i) Sweetening our food and making confec- tionery. (2) Preserving fruits as jam, candied peel, etc. (3) Treacle is obtained from the molasses or dregs. About 28 lbs. of sugar for each person in England is the annual average consumption. 2. Origin. Sugar, a vegetable production, found in most plants, but especially in the — (1) Sugar-cane. — A kind of tall grass, growing in the West Indies, Brazil, United States, and most tropical countries. When ripe the canes are OUTLINE NOTES. 79 cut and pressed to get out the juice or syrup, which is made into sugar. (2) Sugar -maple. — A tree found in North America and most temperate climates. A hole is made in trunk of tree, syrup drains out into a vessel placed to receive it. (3) Beet-root — A vegetable used for feeding cattle ; is found in most temperate climates. Root is washed, cut, crushed, and syrup made into sugar. During wars of French Revolution, Napoleon cultivated beet-root for making sugar in France with great success. 3. Manufacture. Syrup boiled, strained, purified, refined. Treacle the least valuable part of the syrup. Moist or brown sugar imperfectly purified. White, loaf, or lump-sugar the best. XII. Write Notes of a Lesson on the Lion. 1. Description. Height^ 4 feet ; length, 6 to 8 feet. Tail, about 3 \ feet long. Head. — Large and round. The male has a mane, that grows longer and thicker as the animal grows older. The female has not a mane. Eyes. — Round and very large. When the lion is angry they shine like balls of fire. Feet. — Armed with strong claws, encased in So NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. sheaths like the claws of a cat, but very much stronger. Soles of feet covered with a pad or cushion as soft as velvet. 2. Peculiarities. (i) Fierce. — Will attack any animal of greater size and speed by springing upon it from its lair or hiding-place. Deer, antelopes, etc. are its favourite food. (2) Strong. — Will carry off an ox as easily as a cat carries a mouse. Springs like a cat, and loves to take its prey by surprise. Seldom attacks openly. (3) Courageous. — When hunted will turn upon its pursuers, and sometimes kill the hunters. Lion hunt- ing dangerous sport. Men, women, and children often devoured. 3. Where found. In tropical countries, as Africa and India. Makes its lair near spring or river, to catch animals that come to drink. Hides in jungle, often comes near villages, and does much mischief by carrying off cattle and killing people. In the preceding examples we have adapted the subjects to every class of children in a public elementary school, and have answered each ques- tion as fully as the time and conditions of an examination would require. An intelligent student OUTLINE NOTES. 8 1 should now be able to imitate these models, and produce excellent outline notes of his own on any subject with which he is familiar. He should re- member the hints and advice given in previous chapters, and make his notes as brief, clear, and comprehensive as possible. The facts should be plainly written, and arranged in such a form that the inspector may comprehend them at a glance. Taste, neatness, and sound judgment are nowhere more conspicuous than in the arrangement of good notes of lessons. We must now turn our attention to the prepara- tion of * full notes ' ; and in addition to the chief heads and condensed matter of the outline notes, we must add notes on method, with hints, explanations, and illustrations for our guidance in giving the lesson. As a practical example of how to prepare ' full notes,' we will take outline notes on the camel, and expand them by the addition of notes on method. We shall be able to make this plain to young teachers by the remarks, hints, and sug- gestions in the following chapter. 82 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. CHAPTER VIII. PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. If you are required to give outline notes of a lesson on ' the Camel,' you may summarize your facts in some such form as the following : — THE CAMEL. 1. Found. — Africa, Arabia, Central Asia, etc. — hot countries with great deserts. 2. Description. — Large quadruped, two humps on back, one hump on back of dromedary, long neck, small eyes, flat nose, dark brown hair, soft pliable feet, two stomachs. 3. Peculiarities. (i) Adapted to desert life. — Feet, eyes, nostrils, stomachs, humps on back, teeth, food. (2) Domesticated. — Trained to kneel, obey, serve; but quarrelsome, sometimes unruly. 4. Uses. (1) Alive. — As beast of burden. — Kneels to be PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. 83 loaded, strong, patient, enduring. Will carry a load of 1000 lbs. Dromedary lighter, smaller, swifter, will carry twice as much as a mule. Milk.< — A favourite article of food among Arabs. (2) Dead, — Flesh as food ; often salted or dried in the sun. Fat, melted, used for oil or butter, Hair, for painters' pencils, and coarse cloth. Skin, for leather, harness, etc, These notes express in the briefest and clearest terms the chief heads of the lesson, and the con- densed matter. We have enough material here for an intelligent, practical, and interesting lesson. Our next question must be how to present it in the most attractive form, and make the best use of the facts we have gathered. Let us consider, under the head of method, the introduction, with such illustrations, explanations, hints, and suggestions as may be helpful to young teachers. Introduction,'— A lesson to young children in this country on the camel should be introduced by a good picture. Few British children see a camel except in a show, or at the Zoological Gardens. They should be enabled by picture and comparison to form a correct idea of its form, size, and appear- ance. It is not enough to say it is eight feet high, the teacher should point to some object or piece of furniture in school that is the same height, for the sake of comparison. 84 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. Illustrations. — Children eight years of age should know something about a map. The map of Asia should be shown, and the native home of the camel pointed out. It should be explained that the camel has been imported to other countries having a different climate from its original home. In describing camels' hair, a painter's pencil should be shown, or a coarse piece of hair-cloth should be obtained, if possible. Any tradesman would lend a specimen for such purposes. In deciding what points of the lesson require illustration, we must be guided by the mental condition of the children, We must ask ourselves what a child of average intelligence in the class would be likely to fail to understand. We know that young children form ideas of what they have not seen by comparing them with things that they have seen. It is important, therefore, that our comparisons should be apposite and exact, Explanations. — Words that fully express our meaning should not be substituted for less expres- sive words because they happen to be a little above the children's present attainment. There is often a high educational value in the use of a new word that represents a new truth. Phrases that contain a figure of speech or poetic reference must be illustrated and explained. Hints and Suggestions. — Waste no time in need- less description, explanation, or illustration. Keep closely to the subject, and progress as rapidly as you can with safety. Conclude as soon as you PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. 85 reach the end of your matter. Do not talk when you have nothing new to say. One of the greatest vices of the age is the habit of talking when the matter is not of the slightest value. Close the lesson with a brief recapitulation, bringing out the leading features of your outline notes, and impress the facts by a few direct per- sonal questions. Bearing these remarks on the method of treat- ment in mind, let us now proceed to apply them in the following full notes on the camel. At the head of the paper write the subject, and give particulars of the age of the children for whom it is intended, the length of time you intend to occupy, the object of the lesson, and the apparatus you will require. Then rule your paper so as to allow three columns, for chief heads, condensed matter, and method, as in the following examples. Underline the most important words and phrases, such as are printed in different type, so as to arrest the attention of the inspector. Write plainly, arrange the matter neatly, and put your thoughts in the most attractive forms. Carefully study the examples of full notes given in Chapter IX., and try to imitate them and re- produce the ideas in different forms. 86 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. S O c p. tS £ il o T3 *"8 o c "^ C ^ "a3 I o » i w - j_ t_, ,-. t< <■> o ois— ' <8 i ci O i- III lilt 2 s %j vj Q rt u u g y .S-Su u S «« rt 4) £3 O rt C £ „ O jj o ... i^ e 53 tn O £"2 s ft t: g rt rt So e-rt-3 o Co 55"*. ° 13 §£ .8* S ft J b£ I ».l - 1 ■2'S.S a. g -73-? o 3 J3 p < d o H +3 X cS ft W 0) u M o o OQ r r3 0) U E P PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. 87 B&SI.3 tJ'ii «j Pi! 8 S5» ft bfl.S Oh TO T3 ^to to ,d u So cJ _, u S n> -hi d H o TO cu d 1/3 ft 1) d)Sg ft * t5 o b S w fli J3 TO 03 qj s ll fa x g - S3 •a oj-2 s > >» 'd -tt VC w c y d « c3 si Si b- d-s o b * w . « sg <_. en o °£? S--S.5 £ s ^*. i 3 5 * w^ls JS"i d ^ S- § &$'« I » .Th c, 5; j/j TO >*2 'w TO >> rt 'O ^ flJ 3 fttC .r ra r ^ju U C3 to o -H h » 2 s a i, d .g fcJD w co ^ C cj S^ - ^ en's |.c1^^2 ft^ ^ ^« - S s 1 S "2 g .S W to CO TOv£S^t3 % fl 3 n 1»r ill cu O cr 1 >> . Z 2 S • CU Cj TO T3 t cu TO^ d « 'o •- J3 TO > ^ S^2 TO— ' g fcj 2.2 to '3 vi cu 3 C r/l I- "a . d e * T3 CU iJ cS O o d a. 5 r ' £! o> ds&S to , > H3 s cu co 88 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. tt> ° G o Pi +j ,£2 » i/i S it ^ d u S 11 Illustrate effect butter. Show that instead of butter in tries. 12 Show camel-hai Conclude with rec and questions. d o X H W 3 , ass, mu ountries 'here th r carriag .3 5 8 U to cj > r3 ,W X u 3 Ss? ,£5 £ O ^ r-J ill! 52 ^ <" s ■ - c 3 >^ w £ ■S P "^ s fi ^ c a, 2 SPQ.J2 S 5 £ h ,£i • -flow*-" <*- O QJ O T3 « :*-* j I j- nd -£ nd f_ tJ3 S^-S o.S PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. 89 The following examples of outline and full notes of a Reading Lesson for Standard IV. may serve as a model for imitation. They convey valuable hints on the preparation of notes. THE GOOD LIFE A LONG LIFE. It is not growing like a tree In bulk doth make man better be ; Or standing long, an oak three hundred year, To fall a log at last, dry, bald, and sere. A lily of a day Is fairer far in May, Although it fall and die that night ; It was the plant and flower of light. In small proportions we just beauties see, And in short measures life may perfect be. Ben Jonson. After reading the poetry carefully through, and considering the grammatical construction of its sentences, we see the ideas expressed very clearly, and may write them in the following order : — Outline Notes of Reading Lesson. I. Human life is compared to three things, — a tree, an oak, a lily. 1. The tree grows only in bulk or size ; we never understand it perfectly. 2. The oak grows only in age; we never see the full measure and purpose of its life. 90 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 3. The lily grows and becomes perfect, though it blooms only for a day. II. The practical lessons taught by the poet are : — 1. It is better to grow in usefulness than in size and age. 2. It is wiser to use our opportunities well now than trust to the future. 3. Life must be measured by deeds, and not by years. We have now before us the matter of the lesson in a convenient form. Let us consider the method. Children in the Fourth Standard will be about eleven years of age. They should be able to point out a figure of speech, and explain it intelligently. They should know that poets often present plain, homely truths by emblems ; and they should be taught to remove the beautiful drapery of poetry and expose the truth for themselves. In the practical work of a school we should never do for a child what it is able to do for itself. The truest kindness is to insist on self-reliance and personal effort. A few questions will bring out the three emblems — the tree, oak, lily, and the different forms of growth. The teacher should then take the emblems one by one, and in the poet's own way bring out his teaching. He may vary the illustrations so as to present it in a new light, but he must use up all the poet's materials, and bring out the meaning of every phrase and figure of speech. PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. 9 1 o to a> 1-51 bfj d ft Q c X W 3 Let children read the extract a few times. Bring out emblems by questions. Explain * bulk ' — size. 1 Example. — In old fables giants are represented as strong to do mischief; fairies are pictured gentle and good. Better be a fairy than a giant. Explain ' bald ' = without leaves ; ' sere '= withered. 2 Example. — A bent sapling will become a crooked tree. That which is crooked cannot be made straight. Explain ' fairer ' = more lovely; 'light ' = truth or wis- dom. « w H H Z w Q 2 O blooms, shows its beauty, scatters fragrance, and does all a lily's work. If it lived a thousand years it could do no more. Its life was perfect. Growing in usefulness makes even a short life perfect. 3 Judged by results, a busy man lives longer than a sluggard, a wise man lives longer than a fool. Measure life by deeds, and not by years. I. It is better to grow in usefulness than in size or age. To be admired, loved, and prized like a lily is better than to die neglected like an old tree. 2. It is wiser to use well the present than to wait for the future. The lily that blooms and smiles to- day makes a greater impression 4 on men than the tree whose slow growth can never be appreciated in a lifetime. 3. Measure life by deeds, 5 and not by years. Many a young man has lived longer than Methuselah. He has seen more, travelled more, learned more, enjoyed more in twenty years than was possible in early times in a thousand years. < a X % a X U to J a I s FULL NOTES. 93 m H u .11 ^^ .53 «J» •-! fr* a. a> o oq3 -. tf) 7, *> v en T3 * >> S- G 1 ri O .G a bflcs w ft OS S « 2 8,8 Eg S3 0J o ... bjO . >H G O ra W Ph"S, S — i »5 O rf^ « ► £• £.G 2 g oj s- 3-5 G3 P-'O en ^ G OS O, O ^^ H * ri 8=3° TO 'SoO.S ^ to I D D O 4) 1) _ s § 1 1| a^ -MCOOOOttai r. a> DQ cm g o 94 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. J 72 "2 2 s a 0> O ■73 ^ 1/3 .2 « rt S — |S| CO* 1 Till C ^ cJ o a -• T ® 'S 2 (A § »- -3 o <*« -a w^ d O M j3 rt O < ou'sg 2 S 2 a^^= o^ 6 £ d «■* .3 O *** o &>2 a £^^2 d ** 8 g d t« c C - ci „, £2 "t3 d wa o c V r- i- 5- S ^ 3 .a u « 2 o s ^^O^ CS- Oh >-d d d ,d -> . H s ^ - d o ■8-2 «s 3 n a* a -3 0/3 rr-5 "" - "55 , OJ.S'g H a s > b 3 ^ „u d ■S-S s l^d^fc? - a >> o -• > -d*« *E) O -Q it! c3 flj w cs "p. CL.S d m U« o 2 SI s u .5 a s X d 9 6 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 8 s 13 c . 2 "5 IS ^-1 .£ 3 J2 "^ II •^ « T, ||1 8 ^ ■ a B H C . H 'I S « g i ° •5\s"2§P 82-8 o b Q O X „, 3 -J3 -2 ^B ,B 2 •*« Sis S2° H aj 5 o-~ ^3 -3 H h H £2 ^3~ * a -3 2 2 s^-sj ,B g O m £- K tfl „-"B rC tO 0) . ^V pj c S o o W) i Ui > ^^ ^ v> o o 55 BOOB 2 £ S JB w rt B £ 2 W 2 O O e»_ 2 •2 *r > +-> b >-. % v -'3 2 £ ^ o 3 M £j t*> r2 w eS 3 *-* . 3 £ o .> £ ;r - ^ §2* 2 3^ * ^ o2 = .S 15 o t/J >^— 1 S £ > 2 ^£-523 0) o o i> -i-» in < b o s K '■£» 'ft fa w •a a ca c3 X 0) H w p W FULL NOTES. 97 So *J _ CD > cc 2^^ > s s a r- ^ &•* Si* I .to ^ +3 *?V£ o "¥ CD r ~" o S O T3 S3 8 £-3:3 T3 O ft o ft <2 w •. Ill Ml i£2 * Ik 'a a d .a £ $3 8 s a U ft ^ «) O ft O (L) It u NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. B J *3 .p tn r-3 - « ►« -sin &§ - o S u g * * So o.g ,| o § 53 «-§ « S S OJ M - "qu-S rt O b -^ "£ rt g _ 2 ° t.o OS'S ■J/2 rt 111 ■si! ■H 2 « o £ H a*g **-!-< rt .2hCJ 2^ go a * II Sh £< „ |.2 -6 S ^ I— ' s S +- 3 2 2 ID 'w •*• •5 & 2 Jl o g :^'- FULL NOTES. 99 ■d si .23 w -E »rd £^ S — > o S -^ j-i g o's o §3 6 £ ^3 kS .3 o 8P c/2^ 11 "*£ O B O tf & O c/3 +-; _ <^ OT JS rd 3 .g &£ o o«i pQ in "d oj kj c rd o S i si 'd '■•si s^ o ^ "d -m s ,2 M42 s.d~ *d r* S ;d -d g 0J- gj "d i £;d<: .81 ! rd ^3 s ^ o > OJ !> > O rt d ci aj *d s s s ^£ H d pQ T3 cS o rt P Si g ^ S 3 g -rt a^ si s w ro o d c^^ d S 3 S2 >> £ a 'd u 5 ftp ?Sdi M d c3 c3 f5 ^-: IOO NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. ^ buQ 01 * T J_, to o rt * ^ .g o is O •- rj'3 n to **■£ S .2 > rt Q W • c a to hjO j S fl E « £^ rt "2^ £ Cu +J *j T3 o « o aj ST, to *-• 5? ,5 g 5 o a cu o ■d •— M S O o w (u*s i? 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