Sin 
 
 Hi 
 
 BSlliil 
 
Class 
 Book. 
 
 SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT 
 
A DICTIONARY 
 
 MODERN GARDENING. 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE WILLIAM JOHNSON, ESQ., 
 
 FELLOW OF THE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF INDIA ; 
 
 CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF 
 
 THE ROYAL CALEDONIAN AND MARYLAND HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES J 
 
 AUTHOR OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PRACTICAL GARDENING J . 
 
 THE GARDENER'S ALMANACK, ETC 
 
 ONE HUNDRED AND EIGHTY WOOD CUTS. 
 
 EDITED, WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS, 
 
 BY DAVID LANDRETH, 
 
 OF PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 LEA AND BLANCHARD 
 
 1847. 
 
TO 
 
 JOHN LINDLEY, Ph.D., F.B.S., 
 
 VICE SECRETARY OF THE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, AND PROFESSOR OF 
 BOTANY IN ITN1VERSITY COLLEGE, 
 
 AS ONE OF THE MOST EFFICIENT 
 
 PROMOTERS OF MODERN HORTICULTURE, 
 
 THIS VOLUME 
 
 IS DEDICATED BY 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 Entered, according to die Act of Congress, in the year 1S47, by 
 
 LEA AND BLANCHARD, 
 
 in the Office of the Clerk of the District Court for the Eastern District of 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 ^ 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 
 T. K. AND P. &. COLLINS, 
 
 PRINTERS. 
 
s 
 
 *1 
 
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 Utility, more than either originality of contents or elegance of phraseology, 
 has been the author's principal object in the following pages. He has endea- 
 voured to gather together in one volume, attainable at a moderate price, an 
 arranged, easily consulted, record of Gardening, as it is. To effect this object, 
 has obtained aid from the best living authorities, as well as from their 
 lished works ; but he has not neglected those of other periods, where he 
 found in them directions upon which the moderns have suggested no im- 
 vements. Of all the authorities consulted, none has afforded such abundant 
 irmation as the Gardeners' Chronicle, of which it is not too much to say that, 
 t is the best of modern journals devoted to promoting the cultivation of the 
 : , so, whoever is fortunate enough to possess a complete copy of its five 
 jlished volumes, has a work of reference from which he will rarely turn away 
 <atisfied if seeking for information relative to its peculiar subjects, 
 n every instance, the author has endeavoured to give tribute where due, and 
 ie has erred in this, or in any other particular, he will be highly obliged by 
 rection. Besides the work already quoted, he has been much indebted to 
 j. ^xton's Botanical Dictionary ; Whateley's Landscape Gardening ; Glenny's 
 Practical Gardener and Florist; Maund's Botanic Garden; Lindley's Theory 
 of Horticulture; and The United Gardener and Land Steward's Journal. The 
 author does not wish to mislead his readers into the belief that this is a Botanical 
 Dictionary. On the contrary, he has confined his notices to such genera of plants 
 as deserve a place in some department of the garden ; and, for the most part, 
 even in enumerating the number of species in each genus, only those have been 
 reckoned that are worthy of cultivation. 
 
 It only remains to be explained that, in the monthly calendars, b. intends the 
 beginning, or first half of the month, and e. the end, or its closing half. 
 The following works have also been freely consulted and quoted : — 
 Cuthbert Johnson, On Fertilizers. 
 
 Farmers' Encyloptzdia. 
 
 Loudon and Westwood's Kollar on Predatory Insects. 
 [ Loudon's Gardeners' Encyclopedia. 
 
 Gardeners' Magazine. 
 
 Johnson's Principles of Gardening. 
 
 Abercrombie's Gardeners' Dictionary. 
 
 Johnson's Gardeners' Almanack. 
 
 Transactions of the London Horticultural Society. 
 
 Caledonian Horticultural Transactions. 
 
 Horticultural Magazine. 
 
 Decandolle's Philosophy of Plants. 
 

 PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. 
 
 The ordinary form in cases of reprint, with additions and explanatory notes, 
 has been departed from in the present instance with a desire to preserve the 
 book from the awkward aspect which it would necessarily present, if every 
 addition by the American editor had been included within brackets, or printed 
 in varied type. 
 
 This edition has been greatly altered from the original. Many articles of 
 little interest to Americans have been curtailed, or wholly omitted, and much 
 new matter, with numerous illustrations, added; yet the present editor freely 
 admits, and has desired the publishers to state, that he has only followed in the, 
 path so admirably marked out by Mr. Johnson, to whom the chief merit of the 
 work belongs. It has been an object with the publishers, and editor, to increase 
 its popular character, thereby adapting it to the larger class of horticultural 
 readers in this country, and they trust it may prove what they have desired it to 
 be, an Encyclopaedia of Gardening, if not of Rural Affairs, so condensed as to 
 be within reach of most persons whom those subjects interest. 
 
 THE PUBLISHERS. 
 
 Philadelphia, April, 1847. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 It is evident that with a territory extending over so large a space, a monthly calendar, 
 or direction for cropping, &c, cannot uniformly apply : Those who reside north or south 
 of Pennsylvania, can readily make the necessary calculations as to time. 
 
THE 
 
 GARDENERS' DICTIONARY 
 
 ABE 
 
 ABELE TREE. (Populus alba.) 
 
 ABLACTATION, the same as In- 
 arching, and so called because it is 
 a gradual withdrawing of the scion from 
 its parent, the same as weaning, which 
 in Latin is ablactatio. 
 
 ABLAQUEATION, baring the bodies 
 of a tree's main roots. This was an old 
 mode of checking the tree's over luxu- 
 riance, for the purpose of making it fer-. 
 tile. A much less injurious plan is to 
 drain the soil, and mix it with sand, 
 chalk, or other less rich addition. An- 
 other method successfully pursued is to 
 open a trench around the body, at a 
 suitable distance, thus shortening the 
 roots, and arresting the tree's rapid 
 growth. 
 
 ABNODATION, cutting off excres- 
 cences and the stumps of branches 
 close to the stem. The intention of 
 this is to have the wound heal over, 
 but it is very doubtful, in the case of 
 branches, whether the extremity of a 
 stump properly treated will not heal 
 quicker than a wound close to the 
 trunk. The unsightly aspect of pro- 
 truding stumps will, however, induce 
 close pruning. 
 
 ABRICOCK, an old mode of spelling 
 Apricot, Armeniaca vulgaris. 
 
 ABRAXAS grossularia. Magpie 
 Moth. The caterpillar of this moth 
 often infests the leaves of the gooseber- 
 ry bush, as well as the currant, sloe, 
 and even the .peach, in early summer. 
 " The caterpillar," says Mr. Curtis, " is 
 white, slightly tinged with blue, and 
 having numerous black spots on the 
 back ; it is called a looper, from its pe- 
 culiar mode of walking ; it fixes itself 
 first firmly with its hind feet, and then 
 extends its body fully ; after which it 
 puts down its fore feet, and draws the 
 hind part of its body as close after them 
 2 
 
 AC A 
 
 as possible, thus forming an arch or 
 loop." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 ABROMA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Seed or cuttings. 
 Loam and peal. 
 
 ABRONIA. Two species. Hardy 
 perennial trailers. Rooted slips. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 ABRUS precatorius. Wild Liquorice 
 Stove climber. Cuttings. Sand and 
 peat. 
 
 ABUTA rufescens. Stove evergreen 
 climber. Rooted slips. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 ABUTILON. Three species. One 
 stove, and two green-house evergreen 
 shrubs. Cuttings. Light rich loam. 
 A. striatum. Green-house shrub. " As 
 this seems likely to suit a bed in the 
 flower garden, to increase it keep it in 
 the stove, as it will there push even in 
 winter, and every two joints will be 
 sufficient for a cutting, which will make 
 a plant in a fortnight or three weeks. 
 By the time the cutting has pushed far 
 enough to admit of being topped, ano- 
 ther cutting may be made of it, and pro- 
 ceeded with as before. If kept in the 
 green-house during winter it will not 
 move at all." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 ACACIA. 274 species, stove and 
 green-house evergreens. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 ACiENA splendens. Green-house 
 evergreen. Seed. Loam and peat. 
 
 ACANTHOPHIPPtUM. Three spe- 
 cies. Stove epiphytes. Offsets. Sandy 
 peat and light loam. 
 
 ACANTHUS. Bear's Breech. Eight 
 species. Six hardy herbaceous peren- 
 nials ; division of roots. One green- 
 house perennial seed. One stove 
 evergreen ; cuttings. All require sandy 
 peat and loam. 
 
 ACARUS, the Plant Mite. Class 
 
AC A 
 
 ACC 
 
 Arachnids. The following are the 
 chief of those known to the gardener. 
 Acarus tellarius. the Red Spider, is one 
 of the gardener's most troublesome 
 foes. Its colour varies from yellowish 
 to red-brown, and though almost invi- 
 sible from its minuteness, yet it preys 
 most destructively upon some trees and 
 herbaceous plants in our hot-houses, 
 as well as upon the kidney-bean, lime 
 tree, &c, out of doors in dry summers. 
 A. holosericeus is another species, dis- 
 tinguishable to an unscienced eye 
 chiefly by its scarlet colour. To de- 
 stroy them in the hothouse, there is no 
 plan so effectual as healing the flues or 
 pipes, and sprinkling upon them sul- 
 phur. The air is thus gently impreg- 
 nated with the vapour of sulphur, for it 
 begins to evaporate at a heat of 170 c . 
 This vapour is fatal to the insect where 
 the air is thoroughly impregnated with 
 it, and the work of destruction is com- 
 pleted by syringing the infested plants has been propagated from, and the dan 
 with water. This last is the only piac- 
 
 A. pseudo-platan aides, or Sycamore, are 
 also desirable varieties. Seed, cuttings, 
 and lavers. Common light garden soil. 
 
 ACERAS. Two species, both tube- 
 rous-rooted hardy perennials. Seeds. 
 Light loam. 
 
 ACERATIOI oppositifolium. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Peat and loam. Cut- 
 tings. 
 
 A^ETARIOUS PLANTS. Salading. 
 
 ACCLIMATIZATION is rendering a 
 plant capable of the production desired 
 in a climate differing from that in which 
 it is native. In our climate it is usually 
 required to induce a plant to endure 
 lower temperatures than those to which 
 it has been accustomed, and this, though 
 some are intractable, is more easy than 
 is inducing the natives of colder re- 
 gions to live in our latitudes. When a 
 new plant arrives from a tropical coun- 
 try, it is desirable to use every precau- 
 tion to avoid its loss, but so soon as it 
 
 tical remedy to plants in our bordeis, I 
 unless they can be covered over so that i 
 the fumes may be confined, whilst the j 
 sulphur is volatilized over a hot-water 
 plate. Potted plants maybe submitted j 
 to the vapour of sulphur in a similar 
 way. The vapour of spirit of turpen- 
 tine is said to be as effectual as sulphur. 
 Acarus hortensis, the Garden Mite, tho- 
 rax ochreous, abdomen white, has been 
 found upon the roots of the cucumber, 
 upon which it is said to prey. I believe 
 it to be the same Acarus often so abund- 
 ant upon the root of cabbages affected 
 with the Ambury. A. geniculates is a 
 minute, red, shining mite, gregarious, 
 and congregating during spring in pro- 
 digious numbers upon the bark of the 
 plum and other fruit trees, near the base 
 of the twigs, and looking like a gummy 
 exudation. By extracting the sap they 
 doubtless weaken the tree, and reduce 
 its productiveness. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 ACER. Maple. Twenty- seven spe- 
 cies, all hardy trees except Acer oblon- 
 gum, which is half-hardy. The Sugar 
 Maple, A. saccharinum of the Ameri- 
 can forests, is perhaps one of the finest night, than gardeners of a previous cen 
 
 ger of such loss is removed, from that 
 moment ought experiments to com- 
 mence, to ascertain whether its acclima- 
 tization is attainable. That this should 
 be done is self-evident; for the nearer 
 such a desirable point can be attained, 
 the cheaper will be its cultivation, and 
 consequently the greater will be the 
 number of those who will be able to de- 
 rive pleasure from its growth. Hence 
 it is very desirable that an extended se- 
 ries of experiments should be instituted, 
 to ascertain decisively whether many of 
 our present green-house plants would 
 not endure exposure to our winters, if 
 but slightly or not at all protected. It 
 may be laid down as a rule, that all 
 Japan plants will do so in the southern 
 states, but it remains unascertained to 
 what degree of northern latitude this 
 general power of endurance extends. 
 Experiment, and experimentonly, ought 
 to be relied upon ; for we know that 
 the larch was once kept in a green- 
 house in England. Many tropical 
 plants of every order and species, have 
 been found to require much less heat, 
 both during the day and during the 
 
 species. It forms a full round head, its 
 
 deep green leaves changing in autumn 
 
 to many shades of orange. The Silver 
 
 Maple, A. desycarpum y l$B a light airy 
 
 tree, of quick growth, and extensively 
 
 planted in the streets of Philadelphia, but it endures uninjured the stern cli- 
 
 A. platanoides, or Norway Maple, and ; mate of Sweden. Aucuba Japonica and 
 
 tury believed. Other plants than those 
 'ready noticed have passed from the 
 tropics to our parterres, and even to 
 those of higher northern latitudes. The 
 horse chestnut is a native of the tropics, 
 
ACC 
 
 ACH 
 
 Pceonia Moutan, we all remember to 
 have passed from our stoves to the 
 green-house, and now they are in our 
 open gardens. Every year renders us 
 acquainted with instances of plants 
 being acclimatized : and, in addition to 
 those already noticed, we find that Mr. 
 Buchan, Lord Bagot's gardener, at 
 Blithfield House, in Staffordshire, has an 
 old cinnamon tree (Laurus Cinnamo- 
 mum) under his care, which ripens seed: 
 from these many plants have been raised 
 that endure the winters of England in a 
 conservatory without any artificial heat. 
 Then, again, there is no doubt that all 
 the coniferas of Mexico, which flourish 
 there at an elevation of more than 8000 
 feet above the sea's level, will survive 
 our winters in the open air. Among 
 these are Pinus Llaveana, P. Teocate, P. 
 patula, P. Hartwegii, Cupressus thuri- 
 fera, Juniperus Jlaccida, Abies religiosa, 
 and some others. Many natives of the 
 southern states have been gradually ac- 
 climated in Pennsylvania; experience 
 has, however, demonstrated that the na- 
 ture of the soil is all-important. On 
 sandy or light loamy land with gravelly 
 subsoil, many plants are found to with- 
 stand the winter, which would surely 
 perish on heavy or wet land. So also 
 the aspect as regards exposure to the 
 sun, it having been found from repeated 
 observation that tender plants, espe- 
 cially if evergreen, suffer less from cold 
 when screened from the sun's rays. The 
 cause is obvious. An extensive impor- 
 tation of European Holly received at 
 the Landreth Nurseries, were, as a pro- 
 tection from the summer sun, planted 
 on the north side of a high board fence, 
 where they safely resisted the severity 
 of winter : subsequently they were 
 placed in open positions, and all were 
 killed by the combined action of heat 
 and cold. The following general rules 
 are the results of experiments in the 
 London Horticultural Society's Garden, 
 conducted by Mr. Gordon. 1. " Plants 
 intended to be acclimatized, should 
 never be subjected to artificial heat dur- 
 ing the winter that precedes their being 
 planted out; if obtained from seeds, as 
 little heat as possible should be em- 
 ployed in raising them ; and starved or 
 stunted plants are more likely to suc- 
 ceed than such as have been forced into 
 a rapid and luxuriant growth. 2. The 
 plants should not be committed to the 
 open ground earlier than the end of 
 
 May ; the soil should be poor, dry, and 
 thoroughly drained; if against a wall, 
 the border should be protected through 
 the entire winter by a roof of hurdles 
 thatched with straw, and projecting 
 about three feet." 
 
 ACHILLEA. Milfoil. Sixty-four spe- 
 cies, all, except A. JEgyptica, herba- 
 ceous perennials. Common garden soil. 
 Divisio-n of roots. A. JEgyptica is a 
 green-house evergreen. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 ACHIMENES. Six species. Stove 
 bulbs. " After the plants have done 
 flowering, and the tops die down, in 
 November, allow the bulbs to remain 
 undisturbed in the pots, laid on their 
 sides beneath the green-house stage, or 
 some other place where frost and wet 
 cannot reach them, where they may re- 
 main until the latter part of January, 
 then to be placed in a gentler heat, and 
 watered until the soil becomes suffi- 
 ciently moist to encourage vegetation. 
 When the small scaly bulbs have made 
 shoots about two inches in length, plant 
 them singly in small sixties, in a mixture 
 of leaf mould and a small portion of sil- 
 ver sand. At the subsequent shifting, 
 until the plants are finally placed in six- 
 teens in June, the compost consists of 
 light rich turf loam and peat, or leaf 
 mould, when peat cannot be procured 
 in equal proportions, and on no account 
 sifted. The pots are thoroughly drained, 
 a point which forms the basis of all 
 good culture, both in pots and in the 
 open ground. For growing several 
 plants in one pot, take No. 12 size, into 
 which turn five of the plants previously 
 kept in sixties, placing one in the cen- 
 tre, and four round the edges. These 
 forma noble mass when in bloom ; but 
 never assume the uniform conical shape 
 of a single specimen. The main stem 
 and side branches are to be neatly 
 sticked and tied out as they advance in 
 growth. The temperature of an early 
 vinery is well adapted for these plants 
 until the end of May, at which period 
 they should be taken to a cool pit, where 
 a steady moist heat can be maintained. 
 They should be shaded in hot days be- 
 tween 11 A.M. and 2 P.M., to prevent 
 the sun from scorching the foliage, and 
 they should never be watered over- 
 head. The pots should be placed upon 
 others, inverted, and the bottom of the 
 pit should be kept moist, closing up 
 early in the afternoon, and giving air ia 
 
ACH 
 
 ACT 
 
 clear weather about eight in the morn- 
 ing, so that the damp may disperse be- 
 fore the rays of the sun fall directly up- 
 on the plants." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 A. Long* 'flora. "The bulbs of this 
 may be started in a warm cucumber 
 frame towards the end of February. 
 Each plant, when it has formed a few 
 leaves, should then be potted off, sepa- 
 rately, into small pots, or, preferably, 
 several may be planted together in a 
 shallow box. The temperature of a 
 warm green-house suits them admira- 
 bly." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 ACHYRONIA villosa. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 ACIANTHUS. Three species. Tu- 
 berous green-house plants. Division. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 ACICARPHA spatulata. Herba- 
 ceous stove perennial. Division. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ACIOTIS. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 ACIS. Four species. Hardy bulbs. 
 Offsets. Sandy loam. 
 
 ACISANTHERA quadrata. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 ACMADENIA tetragona. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ACMENA floribunda. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
 Joam. 
 
 ACONITUM. Eighty species hardy 
 deciduous tubers; and thirty-four spe- 
 cies hardy herbaceous perennials. "A. 
 Napellus, from napus, a turnip, its gru- 
 mous roots resembling little turnips, is 
 a well known poisonous plant. Lin- 
 naeus says, that it is fatal to kine and 
 goats, especially when they come fresh 
 to it, and are not acquainted with the 
 plant; but that it does no injury to 
 horses, who eat it only when dry. He 
 also relates (from the Stockholm Acts) 
 that an ignorant surgeon prescribed the 
 leaves, and on the patient refusing to 
 take them, he took them himself and 
 died. The ancients, who were ac- 
 quainted with chemical poisons, regard- 
 ed the Aconite as the most violent of 
 all poisons. Some persons, only by 
 taking in the effluvia of the herb in full 
 flower by trtie nostrils, have been seized 
 with swooning fits, and have lost their 
 sight for two or three days. But the 
 
 root is unquestionably the most power- 
 ful part of the plant. Matthiolus relates, 
 that a criminal was put to death by 
 taking one drachm of it. Dodonaeus 
 gives us an instance, recent in his time, 
 of five persons at Antwerp, who ate the 
 root by mistake, and all died. Dr. 
 Turner also mentions, that some French- 
 men at the same place, eating the 
 shoots of this plant for those of master- 
 wort, all died in the course of two days, 
 except two players, who quickly evacu- 
 ated all that they had taken by vomit. 
 We have an account, in the Philosophi- 
 cal Transactions, of a man who was 
 poisoned, in the year 1732, by eating 
 some of this plant in a salad, instead of 
 celery. Dr. Willis also, in his work De 
 Anima Brutorum, gives an instance of a 
 man who died in a few hours, by eating 
 the tender leaves of this plant also in 
 a salad. He was seized with all the 
 symptoms of mania. The Aconite, ' 
 thus invested with terrors, has, how- 
 ever, been so far subdued, as to become 
 a powerful remedy in some of the most 
 troublesome disorders incident to the 
 human frame. Baron Stoerck led the 
 way by administering it in violent pains 
 of the side and joints, in glandulous 
 scirrhi, tumours, ulcerous tubercles of 
 the breast, &c, to the quantity of from 
 ten to thirty grains in a dose, of an ex- 
 tract, the method of making which he 
 describes." — Encyc. Plants. Division. 
 Common garden soil. All are poison- 
 ous. 
 
 ACRONYCHIA cunninghami. Green- 
 house shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ACROPERA loddigesii. Stove epi- 
 phyte. Division. Peat and potsherds. 
 
 ACROPHYLLUM verticiUatum. 
 Green-house shrub. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ACROSPIRE is the name whereby 
 malsters, gardeners, and others describe 
 the sprouts from barley and other seeds 
 when germinating, and which are the 
 radicle and plumule, the infant root and 
 stem. 
 
 ACROSTICHUM. Sixteen species. 
 Chiefly stove herbaceous perennials. 
 A. alcicorne and A. grande are green- 
 house plants. Division and seed. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ACROTRICHE. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy peat. 
 
 ACTINOMERIS. Four species. 
 
ACT 
 
 21 
 
 AGA 
 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. Divi- 
 sion. Peat and loam. 
 
 ACTINOTUS. Two species. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennials. Division. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 ACYNOS. Eleven species. All 
 hardy. Seeds. Dry sandy soil. 
 
 ADAMIA cyanea. Stove evergreen 
 shrub. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 ADAM'S NEEDLE. Yucca. 
 
 ADDER'S TONGUE. Opioglossum. 
 
 ADELIA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 ADENANDRA. Thirteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 ADENANTHERA. Two species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 ADENANTHOS. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy peat and loam. A. obo- 
 vata is best from seed. 
 
 ADENOCARPUS. Six species. A. 
 foliolosus and frankenioides are ever- 
 green shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 The others are hardy deciduous shrubs. 
 Seeds. Common garden soil. 
 
 ADENOPHORA. Sixteen species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. Com- 
 mon garden soil. Peat and loam. 
 
 ADESMIA. Eight species, of which 
 A. viscosa is hardy. The others are 
 green-house plants. A. viscosa and us- 
 pallatensis are propagated by cuttings. 
 The others from seed. All in sandy 
 loam. 
 
 ADIANTUM. Maidenhair. Twen- 
 ty-nine species. All green-house or 
 stove plants, except A. capillus veneris 
 and pubescens. They are hardy herba- 
 ceous perennials. Division. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 ADINA globiflora. Stove evergreen 
 shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 ADLUMIA cirrhosa. Hardy climb- 
 ing biennial. Seeds. Sandy loam. 
 
 ADONIS. Thirteen species. All 
 hardy. Seed. Common garden soil. 
 
 jEGIPHILA. Seven species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 iEGLE marmelos. Bengal Quince. 
 Stove evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Loam. 
 
 ^ECHMEA. Three species. Stove 
 perennials. Suckers. Loam, peat, and 
 sand. 
 
 ^EGOCHLOA. Six species. All hardy 
 
 annuals. Seeds. Light rich garden 
 soil. 
 
 iEOLLANTHUS suaveolens. Stove 
 annual. Seeds. Sandy loam. 
 
 iEONIUM Youngianum. Green- 
 house. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 
 ^SCHYNANTHUS. Two species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Cuttings. Peat and 
 potsherds, or wood. 
 
 ^ESCULUS. Horse-chestnut. 
 JE. glabra. (Grafts.) 
 JE. hippo cast anum, flore pleno. (Lay- 
 ers.) 
 JE. hippocastanum, fol. argenteis. (Lay- 
 ers.) 
 JE. hippocastanum variegatum. 
 JE. ohiensis. 
 M. pallida. (Grafts.) 
 JE. rubicunda. (Grafts.) 
 All hardy deciduous trees. The com- 
 mon European horse-chestnut JE. hip- 
 pocastanum, is a truly magnificent tree, 
 at once grand from its magnitude and 
 massy form, and beautiful when in 
 bloom from being covered with large 
 spikes of white and pink flowers, pro- 
 truding beyond its elegant digitate 
 leaves. Seeds (except where other- 
 wise described). Common garden soil. 
 
 AERANTHES. Two species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Division. Peat and pot- 
 .sherds, or wood. 
 
 AERIDES, (air plant.) Nine spe- 
 cies. All stove epiphytes. Cuttings, 
 except A. cornutum, which is multi- 
 plied by root-divisions. Peat and pot- 
 sherds, or wood. 
 
 iERUA. Two species. Stove her- 
 baceous perennials. Cuttings. Rich 
 moist soil. 
 
 ^ESCYNOMENE. Eleven species. 
 JE. viscidula a green-house, and JE. 
 hispida a hardy annual, the rest stove 
 plants. Seeds. Sandv loam. 
 
 ^ETHIONEMA. Six species. All 
 hardy. Seed or cuttings. Common 
 soil. 
 
 JETHIONIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Common soil. 
 
 AFRICAN ALMOND. Brabejum. 
 
 AFRICAN FLEABANE. Tarcho- 
 nanthus. 
 
 AFRICAN LILY. Agapanthus. 
 
 AFRICAN MARIGOLD. Tagetes 
 Erecta. 
 
 AGAPANTHUS. African Lily. 
 Three species. Nearly hardy bulbs. 
 Common soil. Offsets. 
 
 AGASTACHYS odorata. Green- 
 
AGA 
 
 22 
 
 AGR 
 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 AGATH.F.A. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 AGATHOPHYLLUM aromaticum. 
 Madagascar nutmeg. Stove evergreen 
 tree. Cuttings. Peat or rich loam. 
 
 AGATHOSMA. Twenty-two spe- 
 cies. Green-house evergreen shrubs. 
 Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 AGATHYRSUS. Seven species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Cuttings and di- 
 visions. Common soil. 
 
 AGATI. Two species. Stove ever- 
 green trees. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 AGAVE. Aloe. Nineteen species. 
 Chiefly stove plants. Suckers. Rich 
 loam. " The name is altered from 
 ay&vcc, admirable, which this genus may 
 well be said to be, considering its ap- 
 pearance, its size, and the beauty of its 
 flowers. In mythology, Agave is the 
 name of one of the Nereids. A. america- 
 na is a popular succulent throughout Eu- 
 rope. It grows wild or is acclimated in 
 Sicily, the south of Spain, and Italy, and 
 is much used in the latter country, plant- 
 ed in vases as an ornament to piers, pa- 
 rapets, and about houses. About Milan 
 and other towns in Lombardy, where it 
 will not endure the winter, they use 
 imitations of copper so well formed and 
 painted, as to be readily mistaken for 
 the original. Tn France and Germany 
 it is still very common ; and in this 
 country formerly used to be the regular 
 companion of the orange, myrtle, and 
 pomegranate, then our principal green- 
 house plants. An idea used to prevail 
 that the American Aloe only flowered 
 once in a hundred years; but, inde- 
 pendently of this unnatural application 
 of time to the inflorescence, it has long 
 been known to flower sooner or later 
 according to the culture bestowed on 
 it. : > — Encyc. Plants. 
 
 AGERATUM. Six species. Chiefly 
 hardy annuals. Seed. Light rich soil. 
 
 arts and sciences." It is " the basis of 
 all other arts, and in all countries co- 
 eval with the first dawn of civilization. 
 Without agriculture, mankind would be 
 savages, thinly scattered through inter- 
 minable forests, with no other habita- 
 tions than caverns, hollow trees or huts, 
 more rude and inconvenient than the 
 most ordinary hovel or cattle-shed of 
 the modern cultivator. It is the most 
 universal as well as the most ancient of 
 the arts, and requires the greatest num- 
 ber of operators. It employs seven- 
 eighths of the population of almost 
 every civilized community. — Agricul- 
 ture is not only indispensable to nation- 
 al prosperity, but is eminently condu- 
 cive to the welfare of those who are 
 engaged in it. It gives health to the 
 body, energy to the mind, is favourable 
 to virtuous and temperate habits, and to 
 knowledge and purity of moral charac- 
 ter, which are the pillars of good gov- 
 ernment and the true support of nation- 
 al independence. — With regard to the 
 history of agriculture, we must confine 
 ourselves to slight sketches. The first 
 mention of agriculture is found in the 
 writings of Moses. From them we learn 
 that Cain was a ' tiller of the ground,' 
 that Abel sacrificed the 'firstlings of 
 his flock,' and that Noah 'began to be 
 a husbandman, and planted a vineyard.' 
 The Chinese, Japanese, Chaldeans, 
 Egyptians and Phoenicians appear to 
 have held husbandry in high estimation. 
 The Egyptians were so sensible of its 
 blessings, that they ascribed its inven- 
 tion to superhuman agency, and even 
 carried their gratitude to such an ab- 
 surd excess as to worship the ox, for his 
 services as a labourer. The Carthagin- 
 ians carried the art of agriculture to a 
 higher degree than other nations, their 
 cotemporaries. Mago, one of their 
 most famous generals, wrote no less 
 than twenty-eight books on agricultural 
 topics, which, according to Columella, 
 ere translated into Latin by an express 
 
 AGNOSTUS sinuata. Green-house decree of the Roman senate. — Hesiod, 
 evergreen tree. Cuttings. Sandy peat, j a Greek writer, supposed to be cotem- 
 AGRICULTURE, as compared to [ porary with Homer, wrote a poem on 
 Horticulture, is the culture and man- ! agriculture, entitled Weeks and Days, 
 agement of certain plants and animals I which was so denominated because hus- 
 bandry requires an exact observance of 
 times and seasons. Other Greek writ- 
 
 f'or the food and service of man : it is, as 
 Marshall observes, "a subject which, 
 
 viewed in all its branches, and to their; ers wrote on rural economy, and Xeno- 
 ftillest extent, is not only the most im- 
 portant and the most difficult in rural 
 economies, but in the circle of human 
 
 phon among the number, but their 
 works have been lost in the lapse of 
 ages. — The implements of Grecian agri- 
 
AGR 
 
 culture were very few and simple. He- 
 siod mentions a plough, consisting 
 of three parts — the share-beam, the 
 draught-pole and the plough-tail ; but 
 antiquarians are not agreed as to its 
 exact form ; also a cart with low wheels, 
 and ten spans (seven feet six inches) in 
 width; likewise the rake, sickle and j said to ridge.' Pliny mentions a plough 
 
 \ AGR 
 
 curious antiquarian, than of the practi- 
 cal cultivator. The plough is repre- 
 sented by Cato as of two kinds — -one for 
 strong, the other for light soils. Varro 
 mentions one with two mould-boards, 
 with which, he says, ' when they 
 plough, after sowing the seed, they are 
 
 ox-goad ; but no description is given of 
 the mode in which they were con- 
 structed. The operations of Grecian 
 culture, according to Hesiod, were 
 neither numerous nor complicated. The 
 ground received three ploughings — one 
 in autumn, another in spring, and a third 
 immediately before sowing the seed. 
 Manures were applied, and Pliny as- 
 cribes their invention to the Grecian 
 king Augeas. Theophrastus mentions 
 six different species of manures, and 
 adds, that a mixture of soils produces 
 the same effect as manures. Clay, he 
 observes, should be mixed with sand, 
 and sand with clay. Seed was sown 
 by hand, and covered with a rake. 
 Grain was reaped with a sickle, bound 
 In sheaves, threshed, then winnowed by 
 wind, laid in chests, bins or granaries, 
 and taken out as wanted by the family, 
 to be pounded in mortars or quern mills 
 into meal. — The ancient Romans vene- 
 rated the plough, and, in the earliest 
 and purest times of the republic, the 
 greatest praise which could be given to 
 an illustrious character was to say that 
 he was an industrious and judicious hus- 
 bandman. M. Cato, the censor, who 
 was celebrated as a statesman, orator 
 and general, having conquered nations 
 and governed provinces, derived his 
 highest and most durable honours from 
 having written a voluminous work on 
 agriculture. In the Georgics of Vir- 
 gil, the majesty of verse and the har- 
 mony of numbers add dignity and grace 
 to the most useful of all topics. The 
 celebrated Columella flourished in the 
 reign of the Emperor Claudius, and 
 he wrote twelve books on husbandry, 
 which constituted a complete treatise 
 on rural affairs. Varro, Pliny and Pal- 
 ladius were likewise among the distin- 
 guished Romans who wrote on agricul- 
 tural subjects. — With regard to the Ro- 
 man implements of agriculture, we 
 learn that they used a great many, but 
 their particular forms and uses are very 
 imperfectly described. From what we 
 can ascertain respecting them, they ap- 
 pear more worthy of the notice of the 
 
 with one mould-board, and others with 
 a coulter, of which he says there were 
 many kinds. — Fallowing was a practice 
 rarely deviated from by the Romans. 
 In most cases, a fallow and a year's 
 crop succeeded each other. Manure 
 was collected from nearly or quite as 
 many sources as have been resorted to 
 by the moderns. Pigeon's dung was 
 esteemed of the greatest value, and, 
 next to that, a mixture of night soil, 
 scrapings of the streets and urine, 
 which were applied to the roots of the 
 vine and olive. — The Romans did not 
 bind their corn into sheaves. When 
 cut, it was sent directly to the area to 
 be threshed, and was separated from 
 the chaff by throwing it from one part of 
 the floor to the other. Feeding down 
 grain, when too luxuriant, was practised. 
 Virgil says, 'What commendation shall 
 I give to him, who, lest his corn should 
 lodge, pastures it, while young, as soon 
 as the blade equals the furrow!' (Geor., 
 lib. i., 1. 111.) Watering on a large 
 scale was applied both to arable and 
 grass lands. Virgil advises to ' bring 
 down the waters of a river upon the 
 sown corn, and, when the field is 
 parched and the plants drying, convey 
 it from the brow of a hill in channels.' 
 (Geor., lib. L, 1. 106.) — -The farm man- 
 agement most approved of by the sci- 
 entific husbandmen of Rome was, in 
 general, such as would meet the appro- 
 bation of modern cultivators. The im- 
 portance of thorough tillage isillustrated 
 by the following apologue: A vine- 
 dresser had two daughters and a vine- 
 yard ; when his oldest daughter was 
 married, he gave her a third of his vine- 
 yard for a portion, notwithstanding 
 which he had the same quantity of fruit 
 as formerly. When his youngest daugh- 
 ter was married, he gave her half of 
 what remained ; still the produce of his 
 vineyard was undiminished. This re- 
 sult was the consequence of his bestow- 
 ing as much labour on the third part left 
 after his daughters had received their 
 portions, as he had been accustomed to 
 give to the whole vineyard. — The Ro~ 
 
AGR 
 
 24 
 
 — * 
 
 AGR 
 
 mans, unlike many conquerors, instead 
 of desolating, improved the countries 
 which they subdued. They seldom or 
 never burned or laid waste conquered 
 countries, but laboured to civilize the 
 inhabitants, and introduce the arts ne- 
 cessary for promoting their comfort and 
 happiness. To facilitate communica- 
 tions from one district *or town to an- 
 other, seems to have, been a primary 
 object with them, and their works of 
 this kind are still discernible in nume- 
 rous places. By employing their troops 
 in this way, when not engaged in active 
 service, their commanders seem to have 
 had greatly the advantage over our 
 modern generals. The Roman soldiers, 
 instead of loitering in camps, or rioting 
 in towns, enervating their strength, and 
 corrupting their morals, were kept re- 
 gularly at work, on objects highly bene- 
 ficial to the interests of those whom they 
 subjugated. — In the ages of anarchy 
 and barbarism which succeeded the fall 
 of the Roman empire, agriculture was 
 almost wholly abandoned. Pasturage 
 was preferred to tillage, because of the 
 facility with which sheep, oxen, &c, 
 can be driven away or concealed on 
 the approach of an enemy.— The con- 
 quest of England by the Normans con- 
 tributed to the improvement of agri- 
 culture in Great Britain. Owing to that 
 event, many thousands of husbandmen, 
 from the fertile and well-cultivated 
 plains of Flanders and Normandy, set- 
 tled in Great Britain, obtained farms, 
 and employed the same methods in cul- 
 tivating them, which they had been ac- 
 customed to use in their native coun- 
 tries. Some of the Norman barons 
 were great improvers of their lands, and 
 were celebrated in history for their skill 
 in agriculture. The Norman clergy, 
 and especially the monks, did still more 
 in this way than the nobility. The 
 monks of every monastery retained such 
 of their lands as they could most con- 
 veniently take charge of, and these they 
 cultivated with great care under their 
 own inspection, and frequently with 
 their own hands. The famous Thomas 
 a Becket, after he was Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, used to go out into the field 
 with the monks of the monastery where 
 he happened to reside, and join with 
 them in reaping their corn and making 
 their hay. The implements of agricul- 
 ture, at this period, were similar to 
 those in most common use in modern 
 
 times. The various operations of hus- 
 bandry, such as manuring, ploughing, 
 sowing, harrowing, reaping, threshing, 
 winnowing, &c, are incidentally men- 
 tioned by the writers of those days, but 
 it is impossible to collect from them a 
 definite account of the manner in which 
 those operations were performed. — 
 The first English treatise on husbandry 
 was published in the reign of Henry 
 VIII., by Sir A. Fitzherbert, Judge of 
 the Common Pleas. It is entitled the 
 Book of Husbandry, and contains direc- 
 tions for draining, clearing and enclos- 
 ing a farm, for enriching the soil, and 
 rendering it fit for tillage. Lime, marl 
 and fallowing are strongly recommend- 
 ed. ' The author of the Book of Hus- 
 bandry,' says Mr. Loudon, s writes 
 from his own experience of more than 
 forty years, and, if we except his biblical 
 allusions, and some vestiges of the su- 
 perstition of the Roman writers about 
 the influence of the moon, there is very 
 little of his work which should be omit- 
 ted, and not a great deal that need be 
 added, in so far as respects the culture 
 of corn, in a manual of husbandry adapt- 
 ed to the present time.' — Agriculture 
 attained some eminence during the 
 reign of Elizabeth. The principal writ- 
 ers of that period were Tusser, Googe 
 and Sir Hugh Piatt. Tusser's Five 
 Hundred Points of Husbandry was pub- 
 lished in 1562, and conveys much use- 
 ful instruction in metre. The treatise 
 of Barnaby Googe, entitled Whole Art 
 of Husbandry, was printed in 1558. Sir 
 Hugh Piatt's work was entitled Jewel 
 Houses of Art and Nature, and was 
 printed in 1594. In the former work, 
 says Loudon, are many valuable hints 
 on the progress of husbandry in the early 
 part of the reign of Elizabeth. Among 
 other curious things, he asserts that the 
 Spanish or Merino sheep was originally 
 derived from England.— -Several writers 
 on agriculture appeared in England dur- 
 ing the commonwealth, whose names. 
 
 with notices of their works, may be seen 
 in Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agricul- 
 The famous Thomas I ture. From the Restoration down to 
 the middle of the eighteenth century, 
 agriculture remained almost stationary] 
 Immediately after that period, consider- 
 able improvement in the process of cul- 
 ture was introduced by Jethro Tull, a 
 gentleman of Berkshire, who began to 
 drill wheat and other crops about the 
 year 1701, and whose Horse-hoeing 
 
AGR 
 
 25 
 
 AI T 
 
 Husbandry was published in 1731. 
 Though this writer's theories were in 
 some respects erroneous, yet even his 
 errors were of service, by exciting in- 
 quiry, and calling the attention of hus- 
 bandmen to important objects. His 
 hostility to manures, and attempting, in 
 all cases, to substitute additional tillage 
 in their place, were prominent defects in 
 his system. — After the time of Tull's 
 publication, no great alteration in Bri- 
 tish agriculture took place, till R,obert 
 Bakewell and others effected some im- 
 portant improvements in the breed of 
 cattle, sheep and swine. By skilful 
 selection at first, and constant care 
 afterwards to breed from the best ani- 
 mals, Bakewell at last obtained a va- 
 riety of sheep, which, for early maturity 
 and the property of returning a great 
 quantity of mutton for the food which 
 they consume, as well as for the small 
 proportion which the weight of the offal 
 bears to the four quarters, were with- 
 out precedent. Culley, Cline, Lord 
 Somerville, Sir J. S. Sebright, Darwin, 
 Hunt, Hunter, Young, &c. &c, have all 
 contributed to the improvement of do- 
 mestic animals, and have left little to 
 be desired in that branch of rural econo- 
 my. — Among other works on agricul- 
 ture, of distinguished merit, may be 
 mentioned the Farmer's Letters, Tour 
 in France, Annals of Agriculture, &c. 
 &c, by the celebrated Arthur Young ; 
 Marshall's numerous and excellent 
 works, commencing, with Minutes of 
 Agriculture, published in 1787, and 
 ending with his Review of the Agricul- 
 tural Reports in 1816; Practical Agri- 
 culture, by Dr. R. W. Dickson, &c. &c. 
 The writings of Kaimes, Anderson and 
 Sinclair exhibit a union of philosophical 
 sagacity and patient experiment, which 
 have produced results of great import- 
 ance to the British nation and to the 
 world. To these we shall only add the 
 name of John Loudon, F. L. S. H. S., 
 whose elaborate Encyclopaedia of Gar- 
 dening and Encyclopaedia of Agricul- 
 ture have probably never been sur- 
 passed by any similar works in any 
 language. — The establishment of a 
 national Board of Agriculture was of 
 very great service to British husbandry. 
 Hartlib, a century before, and Lord 
 Kaimes, in his Gentleman Farmer, had 
 pointed outthe utility of such an institu- 
 tion, but it was left to Sir John Sinclair 
 to carry their ideas into execution. To 
 
 the indefatigable exertions of that wor- 
 thy and eminent man the British public 
 are indebted for an institution, whose 
 services cannot be too highly appre- 
 ciated. ' It made farmers, residing in 
 different parts of the kingdom, acquaint- 
 ed with one another, and caused arapid 
 dissemination of knowledge amongst 
 the whole profession. The art of agri- 
 culture was brought into fashion, old 
 practices were amended, new ones in- 
 troduced, and a degree of exertion call- 
 ed forth heretofore unexampled among 
 agriculturists in this island.' " — Encyc. 
 Am. 
 
 AGRIMONfA. Agrimony. Nine 
 species. Hardy. Division. Common 
 soil. 
 
 AGROMYZA viola. Pansy Fly. 
 It attacks the flower by puncturing the 
 petal, and extracting the juice; the 
 puncture causes the colouring matter to 
 fade. This very minute fly is shining 
 black, bristly, eyes green, head orange. 
 It appears in May and lives throughout 
 the summer. Where it deposits its 
 eggs is unknown. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 AGROSTEMMA. Four species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Division. Common 
 soil. 
 
 AILANTUS. Two species. Hardy 
 deciduous trees. The glandulosa is o f 
 rapid growth, and thrives admirably on 
 light thin soils, where many forest trees 
 do not succeed — it is objectionable by 
 reason of suckering, and to many from 
 the unpleasant odour of the flowers. 
 Cuttings. Loamy peat. 
 
 AIR. Atmospheric air is uniformly 
 and universally composed of 
 Oxygen .... 21 
 Nitrogen ... 79 
 
 Every 100 parts, even in the driest 
 weather, containing, in solution, one 
 part of Water; and every 1000 parts 
 having admixed about one part of Car- 
 bonic Acid. The average proportions 
 are 
 
 Air 98.9 
 
 Watery Vapour . 1.0 
 Carbonic Acid Gas 0.1 
 
 All these are absolutely necessary to 
 every plant to enable it to vegetate with 
 all the vigour of which it is capable; and 
 on its due state of moistness depends, in 
 a great measure, the health of any plant 
 requiring the protection of glass. See 
 Leaves, Roots, Stove. 
 
 AITONIA capensis. Green-house. 
 Cuttings. Rich mould. 
 
A JU 
 
 ALS 
 
 AJUGA. Bugle. Eleven species. 
 Hardy. Division or seed. Sandy peat 
 or loam. 
 
 AKEE-TREE. Blighia sapida. 
 
 ALANGIUM. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 ALBUCA. Nineteen species. Green- 
 house bulbs. Offsets. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ALBURNUM. The soft white sub- 
 stance which in trees is found between 
 the liber or inner bark and the wood, 
 and in progress of time acquiring solid- 
 ity, becomes itself the wood. A new 
 layer of wood, or rather of alburnum is 
 added annually to the tree in every 
 part, just under the bark. 
 
 ALCHEMILLA. Ladies' Mnntle. 
 Eleven species. Chiefly hardy. Seeds 
 or division. Common soil. 
 
 ALCOVE, is a seat in a recess, 
 formed of stone, brick, or other dead 
 material, and so constructed as to shel- 
 ter the party seated from the north and 
 other colder quarters, whilst it is open 
 in front to the south. 
 
 ALDER. Alnus. 
 
 ALETRIS. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous plants. Offsets. Peat or 
 leaf soil. 
 
 ALEURITES. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loamy 
 soil. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN LAUREL. Rus- 
 cus Racemoms. 
 
 ALHAGI. Manna. Two species. 
 Green-house plants. Young cuttings or 
 seed. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 "ALKALI, in chemistry; from the 
 Arabian kali, the name of a plant from 
 the ashes of which one species of alkali 
 can be extracted. The true alkalies 
 have been arranged by a modern che- 
 mist in three classes: — 1, those which 
 consist of a metallic basis, combined 
 with oxygen ; these are three in num- 
 ber — potash, soda and lithia; 2, that 
 which contains no oxygen, viz., ammo- 
 nia ; 3, those containing oxygen, hydro- 
 gen and carbon ; in this class are placed 
 aconita, atropia, brucia, cicuta, datura, 
 delphia, hyoscyamia, morphia, strych- 
 nia. And it is supposed that the vege- 
 table alkalies may be found to be as nu- 
 merous as the vegetable acids. The 
 original distribution of alkaline sub- 
 stances was into volatile and fixed, the 
 volatile alkali being known under the 
 name of ammonia; while, of the two 
 
 fixed kinds, one was called potash or 
 vegetable, because procured from the 
 ashes ofvegetables generally; the other, 
 soda or mineral, on account of its hav- 
 ing been principally obtained from the 
 incineration of marine plants." — Encyc. 
 Am. The sulphate of ammonia has 
 been used with success as a stimulant to 
 vegetable growth — and is now prepared 
 and sold by chemists for that purpose. 
 
 ALLAMANDA cathartica. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich 
 loamy soil. 
 
 ALLANTODIA. Five species. 
 Green-house herbaceous plants. Di- 
 vision. Loamy peat. 
 
 ALLEYS are of two kinds. 1. The 
 narrow walks which divide the com- 
 partments of the kitchen garden ; and 
 2. Narrow walks in shrubberies and 
 pleasure-grounds, closely bounded and 
 overshadowed by the shrubs and trees. 
 
 ALLIONIA. Three species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Sandy peat or loam. 
 
 ALLIUM. Garlic or onion tribe. 
 126 species. Hardy bulbous plants. 
 Offsets or seed. Common soil. 
 
 ALLSEED. Polycarpon. 
 
 ALLSPICE. Calycanthus. 
 
 ALLSPICE-TREE. Pimenta. 
 
 ALMOND. Amygdalus. 
 
 ALNUS. Alder. Nineteen species. 
 Hardy deciduous trees. Layers or 
 seeds. Moist soil. 
 
 ALOE. Forty-seven species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Suckers. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 ALOMIA Ageratoides. Half-hardy 
 dwarf evergreen plant. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 ALONSOA. Five species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs, except A. cau- 
 lialata, which is half-hardy. Cuttings 
 or seeds. Rich mould. 
 
 ALOYSIA citriodora. Green-house 
 deciduous shrub. Cuttings or seeds. 
 Rich mould. 
 
 ALPINIA. Twenty-five species. 
 Stove herbaceous perennials. Division. 
 Rich sandy soil. 
 
 ALSINE. Chickweed. Six species. 
 Hardy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 ALSODEIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ALSTONIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Rich light 
 soil. 
 
 ALSTRCEMERIA. Twenty-five spe- 
 cies. The seeds should be sown im- 
 
AL 
 
 27 
 
 ALT 
 
 mediately, in sandy loam and rotten 
 dung, and kept in a green-house, as 
 they will not require heat. When the 
 plants are about an inch high, they may 
 be potted singly into very small pots, 
 and kept in a growing state till they 
 have formed their tubers; if suffered to 
 die down before that period, they will 
 never shoot again, which is the cause of 
 many persons losing them after they 
 have got them up from seeds. A. acu- 
 lifolia is hardy. The seeds are sown 
 in heat in February or March, and the 
 young plants make their appearance 
 in about six weeks afterwards. When 
 strong enough, they are potted singly in 
 sixty-pots and shifted progressively into 
 larger sizes, as they require more room ; 
 and by autumn many of them are full 
 four feet in height. These should be 
 kept cool, and rather dry during winter, 
 and then planted out against a wall, 
 where they are finally to remain. The 
 soil for potting them in is light sandy 
 peat and loam : and when planted out 
 they should be also placed in a light 
 sandy soil, two feet deep, on a perfectly 
 dry bottom. 
 
 ALTERNANTHERA. Twelve spe- 
 cies. Stove herbaceous ; except A. 
 frutescens, which is a green-house ever- 
 green. Cuttings. Light rich soil. 
 
 ALTHAEA. Marsh mallow. Seven- 
 teen species. Hardy plants. Division 
 or seed. Common soil. 
 
 ALTINGIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen trees. Cuttings and 
 seeds. Deep loamy soil. 
 
 ALTITUDE, or elevation above the 
 sea, has a great influence over a plant's 
 vegetation. The greater that altitude 
 the greater the reduction of tempera- 
 ture, so much so that every 600 feet of 
 altitude are believed to reduce the an- 
 nual temperature as much as receding 
 a degree from the equator, either to the 
 north or to the south. But this rule is 
 far from universally applicable, for the 
 limit of perpetual snow at the equator 
 is at the height of 15,000 feet, whereas 
 in the 35th degree of north latitude, the 
 limit is at 11 ,000 feet, being an average. 
 of about 120 feet of altitude for every 
 degree of recession from the equator. 
 In the 45th degree, the limit is 8,400 
 feet, being an average of 146 feet for 
 every degree ; in the 50th degree, 6,000 
 feet, or ISO feet for each degree ; in the 
 60th, 3,000 feet, or 200 feet for a de- 
 gree ; and in the 70th, from 1,200 to 
 
 2,000 feet, or about the same for each 
 degree as to the 60th degree of latitude. 
 Now I know of no reason why the tem- 
 perature of elevations below the snow 
 line should not follow the same gra- 
 dations ; and if this be so, these may 
 be taken as a rule. All plants growing 
 above 7,000 feet under the equator, 
 ought to grow in the open air, in the 
 latitude of London. In general, the 
 same vegetation is produced at the same 
 distance from the snowline in the same 
 latitudes; though, when a place is very 
 near to the pole, a better vegetation is 
 produced in a short period of summer 
 than in places near the snow line under 
 the equator, the plants in the former 
 being there exposed to uninterrupted 
 sunlight. 
 
 " At the foot of Mount Ararat, Tour- 
 nefoot met with plants peculiar to Ar- 
 menia ; above these he met with plants 
 which are found also in France ; at a 
 still greater height he found himself 
 surrounded with such as grow in Swe- 
 den, and at the summit, with such as 
 vegetate in the polar regions. Baron 
 Humboldt, in his Personal Narrative, 
 gives us a similar account of the several 
 zones of vegetation existing in a height 
 of 3,730 yards on the ascent of Mount 
 Teneriffe. The first zone is the region 
 of vines, extending from the shores of 
 the ocean to a height of from 400 to 
 600 yards, well cultivated, and produc- 
 ing date trees, plantains, olives, vines, 
 and wheat. The second zone is the 
 region of laurels, extending from about 
 600 to 1,800 yards, producing many 
 plants with showy flowers, and moss 
 and grass beneath. The third zone is 
 the region of pines, commencing at 
 1,920 yards, and having a breadth of 
 850 yards. The fourth zone is the re- 
 gion of Retama, or broom, growing to 
 a height of nine or ten feet, and fed on 
 by wild goats. The last zone is the re- 
 gion of grasses, scantily covering the 
 heaps of lava, with cryptogamic plants 
 intermixed, and the summit ofthe moun- 
 tain bare." — Farmer's Encyclop. 
 
 " Of perfect plants, the Daphne Cne- 
 orum seems in Europe to hold the most 
 elevated station, since, on Mont Blanc, 
 it stands at 10,680 feet, and on Mont 
 Perdu at 9,036 feet high. The growth 
 of woody plant's ceases on the Alps of 
 central Europe at the height of 5,000 
 feet ; and on theRiesengebirge at 3,800* 
 Oats grow on the southern Alps at 
 
AL Y 
 
 28 
 
 AMB 
 
 3,300, and on the northern, scarcely at 
 1,800 feet. The fir grows on Sulitel- 
 ma, in Lapland (6S degrees north lati- 
 tude), scarcely at the height of 1,200 
 feet. On the other hand, upon the Alps 
 which divide Italy from France and 
 Switzerland, oaks and birches grow at 
 3,600; firs at 4,800; and the same 
 plants grow on the Pyrenees above the 
 height of 600 feet. In Mexico, the 
 mountain chains, and in particular the 
 Nevado of Toluca, are covered, above 
 12,000 feet high, with the occidental 
 pine (Pinus occidentalis), and above 
 9,000 feet, with the Mexican oak (Quer- 
 cus Mexicana spicata), as also with the 
 alder, of Jorullo (Alnus Jorullensis). 
 On the Andes, palms grow at the height 
 
 mental plunged at the side of a warm 
 sandy pond, forming a good contrast 
 with Crinum, capense, Nymphcea alba, 
 &c. About October they are removed 
 into winter quarters, increase pretty 
 fast by offsets, taken off and fresh potted 
 in April, and treated as theparent bulbs, 
 which should at that time have their 
 decayed outer skin removed." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 AMBURY is a disease peculiar to the 
 Brassica tribe, and is known by the 
 various names of Hanbury, Anbury, and 
 Club Root. Fingers and Toes, a name 
 applied to it in some parts, alludes to 
 the swollen state of the small roots' of 
 the affected plants. 
 
 Cabbage plants are frequently in- 
 
 of 3,000 feet. The woody ferns (Cya- fected with ambury in the seed-bed, 
 
 thea speciosa, Meniscium arborescens, 
 
 Aspidium rostratum) are found as high 
 
 as 6,600 feet; as are also the pepper 
 
 species, Melastomece, Cinchonas, Dor- 
 
 steniae; and some Scitaminese rise to 
 
 the same elevation. At the height of 
 
 14,760 feet, we still find the wax palms, 
 
 some Cinchonas, Winters, Escallomas, 
 
 Espelettise, Culcitia, Joanneae, Vallea 
 
 stipularis, Bolax aretioides, and some 
 
 others." — Be Candolle's Philos. of 
 
 Plants. 
 
 ALYSICARPUS. Two species. Stove 
 herbaceous perennials. Seeds, and root 
 division. Rich light soil. 
 
 ALYSSUM. Twenty-one species. 
 All hardy plants. Seeds, cuttings, and 
 division. Common soil. 
 
 ALYXIA. Five species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 ALZATEA verticillata. Green- 
 house evergreen tree. Root cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 AMARANTHUS. Eighteen species. 
 Hardy annuals. Seed. Rich garden 
 soil. 
 
 AMARYLLIS. Seventy-six species, 
 and many varieties. A. aulica and bel- 
 ladonna are hardy ; the others, a few 
 green-house, but mostly hot-house bulbs. 
 
 A (Vallota) purpurea. " Pot in good- 
 sized pots, in a mixture of loam, sandy 
 peat, and leafmould, being merely 
 kept in a green-house, with but little 
 water through the winter, and about 
 May set in the open air inpans of water, 
 under a south wall, where about June 
 or July they throw up their splendid 
 scarlet flowers, which last fully a week 
 or more. They would be very orna- 
 
 and this incipient infection appears in 
 the form of a gall or wart upon the 
 stem immediately in the vicinity of the 
 roots. If this wart is opened, it will 
 be found to contain a small white mag- 
 got, the larva of a little insect called 
 the weevil. If, the gall and its tenant 
 being removed, the plant is placed 
 again in the earth, where it is to re- 
 main, unless it is again attacked, the 
 wound usually heals, and the growth is 
 little retarded. On the other hand, if 
 the gall is left undisturbed, the maggot 
 continues to feed upon the alburnum, 
 or young woody part of the stem, until 
 the period arrives for its passing into the 
 other insect form, previously to which it 
 gnaws its way out through the exterior 
 bark. The disease is now almost be- 
 yond the power of remedies. The gall, 
 increased in size, encircles the whole 
 stem ; the alburnum being so exten- 
 sively destroyed, prevents the sap as- 
 cending, consequently, in dry weather, 
 sufficient moisture is not supplied from 
 the roots to counterbalance the transpi- 
 ration of the leaves, and the diseased 
 plant is very discernible among its 
 healthy companions by its pallid hue 
 and flagging foliage. The disease now 
 makes rapid progress, the swelling con- 
 tinues to increase, for the vessels of 
 the alburnum and the bark continue to 
 afford their juices faster than they can 
 be conveyed away; moisture and air 
 are admitted to the interior of the ex- 
 crescence, through the perforation made 
 by the maggot; the wounded vessels 
 ulcerate, putrefaction supervenes, and 
 death concludes the stinted existence 
 of the miserable plant. The tumour 
 
AMB 
 
 AMB 
 
 usually attains the size of a large hen's 
 egg, has a rugged, ichorous, and even 
 mouldy surface, smelling strong and of- 
 fensively. The fibrous roots, besides 
 being generally thickened, are distorted 
 and monstrous from swellings, which 
 appear throughout their length, appa- 
 rently arising from an effort of nature to 
 form receptacles for the sap, deprived 
 as it is of its natural spissation in the 
 leaves. These swellings do not seem 
 to arise immediately from the attacks 
 of the weevil, for I have never observ- 
 ed them containing its larva. 
 
 Mr. Marshall very correctly describes 
 the form which this disease assumes 
 when it attacks the turnip. It is a large 
 excrescence appearing below the bulb, 
 growing to the size of both hands, and, 
 as soon as the hard weather sets in, or 
 it is, by its own nature, brought to ma- 
 turity, becoming putrid and smelling 
 very offensively. 
 
 These distortions manifest themselves 
 very early in the turnip's growth, even 
 before the rough leaf is much developed . 
 Observation seems to have ascertained, 
 that if the bulbs have attained the size of 
 a walnut unaffected, they do not subse- 
 quently become diseased. The maggot 
 found in the turnip ambury is the larva 
 of a weevil called Curculiopleurostigma. 
 " I have bred this species of weevil," 
 says Mr. Kirby, " from the knob-like 
 galls on turnips called the ambury, and 
 I have little doubt that the same in- 
 sects, or a species allied to them, cause 
 the clubbing of the roots of cabbages." 
 
 Marsham describes the parent as a 
 coleopterous insect of a dusky black 
 colour, with the breast spotted with 
 white, and the length of the body one 
 line and two-thirds. The general ex- 
 perience of all the farmers and garden- 
 ers with whom I have conversed upon 
 the subject, testifies that the ambury 
 of the turnip and cabbage usually at- 
 tacks these crops when grown for suc- 
 cessive years on the same soil. This 
 is precisely what might be expected, 
 for where the parent insect always de- 
 posits her eggs, some of these embryo 
 ravagers are to be expected. That they 
 never attack the plants upon a fresh 
 site is not asserted ; Mr. Marshall's 
 statement is evidence to the contrary ; 
 but it is advanced that the obnoxious 
 weevil is most frequently to be observed 
 in soils where the turnip or cabbage has 
 recently and repeatedly been cultivated. 
 
 Another general result of experience 
 is, that the ambury is most frequently 
 observed in dry seasons. This is also 
 what might be anticipated, for insects 
 that inhabit the earth just beneath 
 its surface, are always restricted and 
 checked in their movements by its 
 abounding in moisture. Moreover, the 
 plants actually affected by the ambury, 
 are more able to contend against the in- 
 jury inflicted by the larva of the weevil, 
 by the same copious supply. 
 
 In wet seasons, I have, in a very few 
 instances, known an infected cabbage 
 plant produce fresh healthy roots above 
 the swelling of the ambury. Mr. Smith, 
 gardener .to M. Bell, Esq., of Woolsing- 
 ton, in Northumberland, expresses his 
 conviction, after 'Several years' expe- 
 rience, that charcoal-dust spread about 
 half an inch deep upon the surface, 
 and just mixed with it by the point of a 
 spade, effectually prevents the occur- 
 rence of this disease. That this would 
 be the case we might have surmised 
 from analogy, for charcoal-dust is offen- 
 sive to many insects, and is one of the 
 most powerful preventives of putrefac- 
 tion known. Soot, I have reason to 
 believe, from a slight experience, is 
 as effectual as charcoal-dust. Judging 
 from theoretical reasons, we might con- 
 clude that it would be more specifical ; 
 for, in addition to its being, like char- 
 coal, finely divided carbon, it contains 
 sulphur, to which insects also have an 
 antipathy. 
 
 I have a strong opinion that a slight 
 dressing of the surface soil with a little 
 of the dry hydro-sulphuret of lime, that 
 may now be obtained so readily from 
 the gas-works, would prevent the oc- 
 currence of the disease by driving the 
 weevils from the soil. It would proba- 
 bly as effectually banish the turnip fly or 
 flea, if sprinkled over the surface im- 
 mediately after the seed is sown. I 
 entertain this opinion of its efficacy in 
 preventing the occurrence of the am- 
 bury, from an instance when it was ap- 
 plied to some brocoli,ignorantly endea- 
 voured to be produced in successive 
 crops on the same plot. These had in- 
 variably failed from the occurrence of 
 the ambury, but the brocoli was now 
 uninfected. The only cause for this 
 escape that I could trace was, that, just 
 previously to planting, a little of the 
 hydro-sulphuret of lime had been dug 
 in. This is a very fetid powerful com- 
 
AMB 
 
 AME 
 
 pound. Where dry lime purifiers are 
 employed at gas works, it may be ob- 
 tained in the state of a dry powder, but 
 where a liquid mixture of lime and wa- 
 ter is employed, the hydro-sulphuret 
 can only be had in the form of a thick 
 cream. Of the dry hydro-sulphuret I 
 would recommend eight bushels per 
 acre to be spread regularly by hand up- 
 on the surface after the turnip seed is 
 sown, and before harrowing. If the 
 liquid is employed, I would recommend 
 thirty gallons of it to be mixed with a 
 sufficient quantity of earth or ashes, to 
 enable it to be spread over an acre in 
 a similar manner. For cabbages, twelve 
 bushels, or forty-five gallons per acre, 
 would not probably be too much, spread 
 upon the surface and Turned in with the 
 spade or last ploughing. To effect the 
 banishment of the turnip-flea I should 
 like a trial to be made of six or eight 
 bushels of the dry, or from twenty-two 
 to twenty-eight gallons of the liquid, 
 hydro-sulphuret being spread over the 
 surface immediately after the sowing, 
 harrowing, and rolling are finished. 
 Although I specify these quantities as 
 those I calculate most correct, yet in 
 all experiments it is best to try various 
 proportions. Three or four bushels 
 may be found sufficient, perhaps twelve, 
 or even twenty, may not be too much. 
 In cabbages the ambury may usually be 
 avoided by frequent transplantings, for 
 this enables the workman to remove 
 the excrescences upon their first appear- 
 ance, and renders the plants altogether 
 more robust and ligneous; the plant in 
 its tender sappy stage of growth being 
 most open to the insect's attacks. The 
 warts or galls that so frequently may be 
 noticed on the bulbs of turnips, must 
 not be mistaken for the ambury in a 
 mitigated form. If these are opened, 
 they will usually be found to contain a 
 yellowish maggot, the larva probably 
 of some species of cynips. This insect 
 deposits its eggs in the turnip when of 
 larger growth than that at which it is 
 attacked by the weevil, and the vegeta- 
 ble consequently suffers less from the 
 injury.; but from some slight observa- 
 tions, I am inclined to conclude, that 
 the turnips thus infested suffer most 
 from the frosts of winter, and are the 
 earliest in decay. — Johnson's Principles 
 of Gardening. 
 
 The Ambury occasionally exhibits it- 
 self around Philadelphia, principally in 
 
 small gardens, where the same crop is 
 too frequently repeated : also in market 
 gardens. In the latter case it may be 
 attributable to the putrid manure used 
 to produce excessive luxuriance. Lime, 
 change of manure, rotation of crops, but 
 above all deep tillage, bringing the 
 subsoil to the surface, are the remedies 
 adopted. 
 
 AMELANCHIER. Four species. 
 Hardy deciduous shrubs. Layers. 
 Common moist soil. 
 
 AMELLUS. Three species. A. 
 LyrJmitis, green-house evergreen ; 
 others hardy and deciduous. Cuttings. 
 Loam. 
 
 AMERICAN ALOE. Agave Ameri- 
 cana. 
 
 AMERICAN COWSLIP. Dodeca- 
 theon. 
 
 AMERICAN BLIGHT, (Aphis la- 
 nigera — Eriosoma lanigera.) The cot- 
 tony matter in the cracks and excres- 
 cences of apple tree branches in the 
 spring envelops an insect known by 
 the above names, and which, when 
 crushed, exudes a reddish fluid. These 
 insects are injurious by piercing the sap 
 vessels with their probosces, sucking 
 the juice of the tree, and causing 
 wounds which ulcerate and finally de- 
 stroy the branch attacked by corroding 
 through all the sap vessels. The cot- 
 tony matter is abundant, and, wafted to 
 other trees, probably conveys to them 
 infection, by bearing with it the eggs 
 or embryo insect. But this is not the 
 exclusive mode of diffusing the disease, 
 for although the females are usually 
 wingless, yet, like many other insects, 
 some are probably produced with wings 
 at the season propitious to coloniza- 
 tion. The males are uniformly winged. 
 In the winter these insects retire under 
 ground, and prey upon the roots of the 
 apple tree. A tree thus ravaged at all 
 seasons will soon be killed, if prompt 
 and vigorous remedies are not adopted. 
 The affected roots may be bared and 
 left exposed for a few days to the cold, 
 and the earth, before being returned, 
 be saturated with ammoniacal liquor 
 from the gas works. In early March 
 the branches should be scraped, and 
 scrubbed with the same ammoniacal 
 liquid, or a strong brine of common salt; 
 but whatever liquid is employed, the 
 scraping and hard bristles of the brush 
 should penetrate every crack in the 
 
AME 
 
 bark. This treatment, repeated and 
 persevered in so long as the least ap- 
 pearance of the insect is observed, 
 never fails of a cure. Linseed or rape 
 oil or spirit of tar applied to the infected 
 part, and repeated a second or third 
 time with a brush, are also effective 
 remedies. They suffocate the insects. 
 Strong pyroligneous acid applied in the 
 same mode is also said to destroy this 
 as well as the scale insect. The codlin 
 and June eating, are particularly liable to 
 be infected ; but I never observed it upon 
 any of the russet apples: and theCrofton 
 pippin is also said to be exempted. 
 
 AMERICAN CRANBERRY, (Oxy- 
 coccus macrocarpa.) 
 
 Soil. — A light soil, well incorporated 
 with peat, and occasionally manured 
 with rotten leaves. 
 
 Situation. — It requires a constant 
 supply of water, and on a south bank 
 where this supply can be obtained, it 
 may be planted in rows four feet apart 
 each way, and the water made to circu- 
 late in a small ditch between the rows. 
 But the edge of a pond will suit it al- 
 most as well. 
 
 After -culture. — The shrubs require 
 no other attention than to be kept free 
 fi-om weeds. 
 
 Produce. — This is so abundant that a 
 bed six yards long is sufficient for the 
 largest family. 
 
 AMERICAN CRESS, (Barbarea pre- 
 cox.) 
 
 Soil and Situation. — For the win- 
 ter standing crops, a light, dry soil, in 
 an open but warm situation, should be 
 allotted to it; and for the summer, a 
 rather moister and shady border is to 
 be preferred. In neither instance is it 
 required to be rich. 
 
 Time and mode of sowing. — It is pro- 
 pagated by seed, which must be sown 
 every six weeks from March to August 
 for summer and autumn, but only one 
 sowing is necessary either at the end of 
 August or beginning of September, for 
 a supply during winter and spring. It 
 may be sown broadcast, but the most 
 preferable mode is in drills nine inches 
 apart. Water may be given occasion- 
 ally during dry weather, both before 
 and after the appearance of the plants. 
 If raised from broadcast sowings, the 
 plants are thinned to six inches apart: 
 if in drills, only to three. In winter 
 they require the shelter of a little lit- 
 ter, or other light covering ; and to pre- 
 
 AMH 
 
 vent them being injured by its pressure, 
 some twigs may be bent over the bed, 
 or some light bushy branches laid among 
 them, which will support it. The only 
 cultivation they require is to be kept 
 clear of weeds. 
 
 In gathering, the outside leaves only 
 should be stripped off, which enables 
 successive crops to become rapidly fit 
 for use. 
 
 When the plants begin to run, their 
 centres must be cut away, which causes 
 them to shoot afresh. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — For the production 
 of seed, a few of the strongest plants, 
 raised from the first spring sowing, are 
 left ungathered from. They flower in 
 June or July, and perfect their seed be- 
 fore the commencement of autumn. 
 
 AMERICAN PLANTS. In England 
 and the European continental gardens, 
 apartments are allotted to collections 
 ofour native plants, and usually denomi- 
 nated the American department. It is 
 somewhat amusing to read the direc- 
 tions laid down as to its soil, situation, 
 &c, as if our country, which presents 
 the greatest diversity of soil, climate 
 and altitude, with corresponding vege- 
 table productions, some delighting in 
 the swamp, others in the mountain, 
 some sustaining the frosts of high north- 
 ern latitudes, others luxuriating in the 
 sunny south, each choosing for itself 
 its own peculiar soil — were as bounded 
 and contracted as the British Isle. We 
 annex a specimen. " American Plants. 
 These comprise many very different 
 species, which, resembling each other 
 in requiring a peaty soil and abundance 
 of water, are usually cultivated in a 
 separate department, where the garden 
 establishment is extensive; and, wher- 
 ever grown, should have a compart- 
 ment to themselves, a very acutely 
 sloping bank, facing the north or east; 
 and some of them, as the Rhododendron, 
 Andromeda, and Azalea, do not object 
 to being overshadowed by trees. The 
 soil, as already stated, must be peat; 
 and the best annual dressings that can 
 be applied are such matters as decayed 
 leaves, and the bottom of old wood 
 stacks ; or any other mixture of de- 
 cayed woody fibre." 
 
 AMERIMNUM. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam. 
 
 AMETHYSTIA ccerulea. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seed. Peat. 
 
 AMHERSTIA nobilis. Stove ever- 
 
A Mil 
 
 32 
 
 ANE 
 
 green. A most lovely tree. Cuttings. 
 Rich clayey loam. 
 
 A MIC I A zigomeris. Stove ever- 
 green climber. Cuttings. Loan}. 
 
 AMIROLA nitida. Stove: evergreen 
 tree. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 AMMONIUM. Two species. Half- 
 hardy herbaceous. Cuttings. Peat and 
 sand. 
 
 AMMOCNARIS. Brunsvigia. 
 
 AMMYR8INE. Two species. Hardy 
 evergreen shrubs. Layers. Sand and 
 peat. 
 
 AMOMUM. Thirteen species. Stove 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Light 
 rich hoi!. 
 
 AMORPHA. Eleven species. Chiefly 
 hardy deciduous shrubs. Layers and 
 cuttings. Common light soil. 
 
 AMPELOPSIS. Four species. Hardy 
 deciduotls climbers, except A. bipin- 
 natct, which is B shrub. Layers or cut- 
 tings. Common soil. 
 
 AMPELYGONUM chinense. Green- 
 house herbaceous. Seed. Sand, loam, 
 and peat. 
 
 AMPHEREPHI8. Three species. 
 Hardy annuals. Send. Common soil. 
 
 AMP11 [CARP A* Two species. 
 Hardy deciduous twiners. Seed or cut- 
 tings. Loam, peat and sand. 
 
 AMPHICOME arguta. Half-hardy 
 evergreen. Seeds or cuttings. Loam, 
 sand, and peat. Suited lor rock-work. 
 
 AMPIHLOIMUM paniculatum. Stove 
 evergreen climber. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat.. 
 
 AMSONIA. Three species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Cuttings or division. 
 Common soil. 
 
 AMYGDALUS. Almond. Six spe- 
 cies, and many varieties. Seed and 
 grafts. Rich loam. For culture, see 
 Peach. 
 
 AMY HIS. Ten species. Stove ever- 
 green trees. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 ANACAMPSEROS. Ten species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Suck- 
 ers. Common li^ht, soil. 
 
 ANACARDIUM. Two species. 
 
 Stove, evergreen trees. Cuttings. Light 
 loam. 
 
 ANACYCLUS. Three species. 
 Hardy annuals. Seed, Common sod. 
 
 AN A I) EN I A pulchella. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 ANAGALLIS. Pimpernel. Ten 
 species. Some are hardy annuals — 
 seed ; others green-house biennials ; 
 
 these and the perennial species are 
 propagated by cuttings. Common light 
 soil suits all. 
 
 ANAGYRIS. Three species. Half- 
 hardy evergreen shrubs. Cuttings or 
 seed. Rich light soil. 
 
 ANANASSA. Pine Apple. Four 
 species and many varieties. See Pine- 
 Applb. 
 
 ANANTHERIX viridis. Hardy pe- 
 rennial. Seed or division. Light rich 
 soil. 
 
 ANARRHINUM. Three species. 
 Hardy biennials. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 ANASTATICA hierochuntina. Rose 
 of Jericho. Hall-hardy annual. Seed. 
 Common soil. 
 
 ANCHIETEA pyrifolia. Stove ever- 
 green climber. Peat and loam. 
 
 ANCHOVY-PEAR. Grias cavlijlora. 
 
 ANCHUSA. Twenty-seven species. 
 All hardy but A. capensis. This re- 
 quires to he raised in a frame ; the 
 others may be sown in open borders. 
 
 ANDFRSONJA sprengeloid.es. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 ANDIRA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 ANDROCYMBIUM. Three species. 
 Green-house bulbs. Offsets. Peat and 
 sandy loam. 
 
 ANDROMEDA. Twenty-nine spe- 
 cies and many varieties Mostly hardy 
 evergreens. A. buxifolia, fasciculata, 
 jamaicensis, and rubiginosa are stove 
 evergreens. A. hypnoides, jnponica, 
 oval if oli a, sinensis, and tetragona are 
 half-hardy. The United States has 
 contributed the larger portion of this 
 interesting genus. Seed. Peat. 
 
 ANDROSACE. Eighteen species. 
 Mostly hardy. Seed or division. Peat 
 and turfy loam. 
 
 ANDRYAI.A. Nine species. Some 
 hardy, others green-house plants. Seed 
 and division. Common soil. 
 
 ANEILEMA. Eleven species. Stove 
 and green-house. Division or seed. 
 Peal and sandy loam. 
 
 ANEMIA. Eleven species. Stove 
 ferns. Division and seed. Light loam. 
 
 ANEMONE. Wind- (lower. Forty- 
 seven species ; numerous varieties. 
 Some hardy herbaceous, others hardy 
 tuberous ; A. vitifolia'lB half-hardy, and 
 A. capensis green-house. A. thalic- 
 Iro/i/fs fipre plena is a very beautiful and 
 chaste (lower, an artificial product from 
 
ANE 
 
 33 
 
 ANE 
 
 a well known American species. Divi- 
 sion, offsets, or seeds. Light loam. 
 
 The anemone, the florist's flower of 
 our gardens, is the offspring of the A. 
 coronaria (poppy anemone), and A.hor- 
 tensis (star-leaved anemone). Sprung 
 from these there are now about eighty 
 varieties in our catalogues. A variety 
 lasts about twelve years. The follow- 
 ing is a good selection. 
 
 Agnita. 
 Belle Hortense. 
 Bellona. 
 
 Couleur de Sang. 
 Court de France. 
 Cramoisie Superbe 
 Grand Duke. 
 High Admirable. 
 Imperatrice. 
 Incomparable A- 
 
 zure. 
 Olyinpia. 
 Regina Augusta, 
 
 Regina Rubrorum. 
 Heine Caudale. 
 
 des Fleurs. 
 
 - of Anemones. 
 
 Remarkable. 
 
 Rosalia. 
 
 Rose Agreeable. 
 
 Jolie. 
 
 Mernette. 
 
 Parfaite. 
 
 ■ Surpassante. 
 Superbe Royale. 
 Triu mphante. 
 
 Characteristics of a good anemone. — 
 The stem should be strong, elastic, and 
 erect, not Jess than nine inches high. 
 The blossom or corolla should be at 
 least two inches and a half in diameter, 
 consisting of an exterior row of large 
 substantial well-rounded petals or 
 guard-leaves, at first horizontally ex- 
 tended, and then turning a little up- 
 wards, so as to form a broad shallow 
 cup, the interior part of which should 
 contain a great number of long small 
 petals imbricating each other, and 
 rather reverting from the centre of the 
 blossom : there are a great number of 
 small slender stamens intermixed with 
 these petals, but they arc short and not 
 easily discernible. The colour should 
 be clear and distinct when diversified 
 in the same flower, or brilliant and 
 striking if it consists only of one colour, 
 as blue, crimson, or scarlet, &c, in 
 which case the bottom of the broad ex- 
 terior petals is generally white; but the 
 beauty and contrast are considerably in- 
 creased when both the exterior petals 
 are regularly marked with alternate 
 blue and white, or pink and white, &c, 
 stripes, which, in the broad petals, 
 should not extend quite to the margin. 
 
 Propagation. — All the varieties are 
 propagated by offsets from the root, 
 and new varieties are obtained from 
 seed. 
 
 By offsets all the kinds increase ex- 
 ceedingly every year, so the roots ot 
 all the host kinds should be taken up 
 3 
 
 annually at the decay of the leaf, and 
 the root may be divided or broken into 
 as many pieces or knobs as are furnished 
 with an eye or bud, observing, how- 
 ever, that if they are divided very 
 small, they flower very weak the first 
 year ; therefore, if you would have 
 strong flowers from the main root, only 
 break off' those small ones that are 
 slightly affixed thereto, but they should 
 not be thus divided until autumn, or 
 near the time for planting them again. 
 
 The time for taking up the roots is in 
 May and June, when the leaf and stalk 
 are withered, for then the roots cease 
 to grow for a month or six weeks; but 
 if they arc permitted to stand to put 
 forth fresh fibres again, they should not 
 be removed that season. 
 
 They should be taken up in dry 
 weather, and spread in an airy place 
 out of the sun for about a week, then 
 cleared from earth and put up in bags 
 or boxes till the planting season arrive. 
 
 The seed should be sowed from the 
 best single or semi-double flowers; the 
 full doubles afford none. 
 
 The time to sow it is March, either 
 in boxes, large pots, or pans, of light 
 compost, or in a bed of such earth ; sow 
 it moderately thick, and cover it near a 
 quarter of an inch deep with sifted 
 mould. From this time occasional shade 
 and moderate waterings in dry weather 
 are necessary, and in six weeks the 
 plants will appear. Keep them clear 
 from weeds, and when the leaves decay, 
 sift a quarter of an inch of earth over 
 the bed, which is all that is necessary 
 till the second summer, when they are 
 to be taken up at the decay of the leaf, 
 and managed as the old roots in the 
 manner already directed. 
 
 Time for planting. — The best time to 
 plant the principal sorts for the general 
 bloom is October, or early in. Novem- 
 ber, and the plants will come into flower 
 in April and beginning of May ; but if 
 some are planted in the middle of Sep- 
 tember, and a second parcel towards 
 the middle or latter end of October, 
 they will afford a succession of bloom 
 from the beginning of April until the 
 middle of May ; and if a third plantation 
 is made in February or beginning of 
 March, they will come into flower about 
 the middle of May, and continue until 
 the middle of .lime. 
 
 Those planted early in autumn come 
 up before Christmas, and always pro- 
 
ANE 
 
 34 
 
 ANG 
 
 duce the largest flowers, and continue 
 in beauty ; the roots too afford a larger 
 increase than those planted in spring. 
 
 Soil and site. — The situation proper 
 for the anemone should be thoroughly 
 drained, and open to the south, and un- 
 incumbered by the shade of trees. The 
 anemone 'will prosper and flower in 
 tolerable perfection in any common 
 moderately light earth, only observing 
 to avoid planting in overmoist and stiff 
 soils, which rot the roots in winter ; 
 and if any addition is necessary to raise 
 or form the beds, no more is needful 
 than common light soil from the quar- 
 ters of the kitchen garden, or any other 
 well-wrought garden earth, working 
 the whole one good spade deep. The 
 
 row, and two inches deep, and when 
 one bed is planted, run over it lightly 
 with the rake. 
 
 Those of the autumn plantation will 
 come up in leaf in November, but as the 
 plants are hardy, nothing is needful to 
 be done till the bloom begins to ap- 
 pear; and then, if you think proper to 
 bestow a little care upon the superior 
 sorts, by arching the beds with hoops, in 
 order to cover the bloom with mats 
 occasionally, to protect it from cutting 
 black frosts, which often prevail in 
 April. 
 
 Protection. — An easy way of protect- 
 ing Anemones and Ranunculuses is to 
 bend across the beds wooden or iron 
 hoops, securely fixed in the ground; 
 
 beds, however, are often formed of upon these mats can be thrown in cases 
 
 composts. Take maiden loam from the 
 surface of a pasture, the top spit turf 
 and all ; to every load of this add one 
 of neats' dung, and half a load of sea 
 or drift sand ; blend the whole together, 
 and form it in a ridge, in which let it 
 remain a year at least, turning it over 
 once in two or three months. 
 
 But in default of pasture earth, a good 
 compost may be formed of common 
 light garden soil and rotted neats' dung, 
 adding to every load of the former half 
 a load of the latter, and about a quarter 
 of that of drift or sea sand; and of either 
 of which composts the bed is to be form- 
 ed, about twelve or fifteen inches in 
 depth, and three feet and a half broad. 
 
 Planting. — In the borders, plant them 
 in patches three, four, or five roots to- 
 gether, in a patch of five or six inches 
 breadth, putting them two or three 
 inches deep. 
 
 Beds. — Mark out three feet and a half 
 broad, the length according to the num- 
 ber of plants, with alleys eighteen inches 
 wide between bed and bed. The beds 
 must be worked fifteen or eighteen 
 inches deep; break the earth small, but 
 do not sift it, observing that to prevent 
 lodgment of wet, and to give the beds 
 a good appearance, as well as to show 
 the flowers to the best advantage, it is 
 eligible to elevate them three inch 
 
 above the common level or general sur- celery 
 
 of frost or snow, but care must be taken 
 that they are firmly secured to the hoops 
 by pegs. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Forcing. — "Double Anemones may 
 be potted in October, and the soil should 
 be composed as follows: — One-half 
 maiden loam, fresh from the pasture, 
 with one-quarter well-rotted cow dung, 
 and one-quarter fine sand (sea or river 
 sand if possible). After potting, they 
 may be placed in a cold frame or pit, 
 and watered but sparingly until the fol- 
 lowing spring, when they may be put 
 into a warmer place. They will not 
 stand much forcing by artificial means." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Mildew. — This disease first appears 
 as pale spots on the under sides of the 
 leaves. These spots gradually rise into 
 tubercles, and a minute fungus bursts 
 through, shedding its seed, and diffusing 
 the disease. This parasitical fungus is 
 JEcidium quadrifidum. Sea sand, or a 
 little salt mixed with the compost of the 
 bed, is a good preventive ; and a syring- 
 ing with very diluted gas-water, is a 
 good application after infection. 
 
 ANETHUM. Four species. All 
 hardy, including Fennel and Dill, 
 which see. 
 
 ANGELICA, (Angelica Archan- 
 gefica.) Stalks cut in May, for candy- 
 ing. Formerly blanched and eaten like 
 
 face, but if there is danger of moisture 
 standing in winter, double or treble that 
 is a proper height, working the whole 
 a little rounding and raking the surface 
 smooth. 
 
 In each bed plant six rows lengthwise, 
 the roots at six inches distance in each 
 
 Soil and Situation. — It may be grown 
 in any soil and exposure, but best in 
 moist situations, consequently the banks 
 of ponds, ditches, &c, are usually allot- 
 ted to it. 
 
 Time of Sowing. — Sow soon after the 
 seed is ripe, about September, being 
 
ANG 
 
 ANI 
 
 almost useless if preserved until the 
 spring; if, however, neglected until that 
 season, the earlier it is inserted the 
 better. 
 
 Mode of Cultivation. — Sow mode- 
 rately thin, in drills a foot asunder, and 
 half an inch deep. When arrived at a 
 height of five or six inches, the plants 
 must be thinned, and those removed 
 transplanted, to a distance of at least 
 two feet and a half from each other, 
 
 carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, 
 with a small addition of saline matters. 
 The general consideration of Manures 
 will be found under that title, and other 
 relative information under the heads 
 Dung and Vegetable Matters, and in 
 this place I shall confine my attention to 
 some of the most available of strictly 
 animal matters. See also the article 
 Bones. 
 
 Blubber, or fat of the whale, contains 
 
 either in a bed, or on the sides of ditches, train oil , composed of 
 
 &c. Water in abundance must be given 
 at the time of removal, as well as until I 
 they are established ; but it is better 
 to discontinue it during their further 
 
 I. 
 
 ith 
 
 Carbon .... 6S.87 
 Hydrogen . . . 16.10 
 Oxygen .... 15.03 
 a little animal skin and muscle. 
 
 growth, unless the application is regular I Forty gallons of train oil, mixed with 
 
 and frequent. In the May, or early 
 June of the second year, they flower, 
 when they must be cut down, which 
 causes them to sprout again, and if this 
 is carefully attended to, they will con- 
 tinue for three or four years; but if per- 
 mitted to run to seed, they perish soon 
 after. 
 
 Seed. — A little seed should be saved 
 annually, as a resource in case of any 
 accidental destruction of the crop. 
 
 ANGELICA-TREE, Aralia spinosa. 
 
 ANGEONIA salicariafolia. Stove 
 herbaceous. Cuttings. Sandy rich loam. 
 
 ANGIANTHUS aureus. Green-house 
 herbaceous. Division. Loam and peat. I are ample 
 
 ANGLE-SHADES MOTH. SeeP/io- 
 logophora. 
 
 ANGOPHORA. Two species. Green- 
 
 120 bushels of screened soil, grew 
 twenty-three tons of turnips per acre, 
 on a soil where forty bushels of bone? 
 broken small, and eighty bushels of 
 burnt earth, produced only twenty-one 
 tons. 
 
 Fish generally, such as sprats, her- 
 rings, pilchards, five-fingers, and shell- 
 fish, owe their powerful fertilizing quali- 
 ties not only to the oil they contain, but 
 also to the phosphate of lime in their 
 bones. From twenty-five to forty-five 
 bushels per acre are the extreme quan- 
 tities to be applied broad-cast, but if in 
 j the drills, with the crop sixteen bushels 
 
 They are beneficial to all 
 the gardener's crops, but especially to 
 asparagus, parsnips, carrots, beets, on- 
 ions, and beans. Shell-fish should be 
 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat, broken before being applied. 
 
 sand, and loam 
 
 ANGR^CUM. Nine species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Cuttings. Wood, or moss 
 and potsherds, in baskets. 
 
 ANGUILLARIA. Three species. 
 Half-hardy herbaceous. Offsets. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 ANGURIA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Division. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ANIA bicornis. Stove epiphyte. Off- 
 sets. Peat and potsherds. 
 
 ANIGOZANTHOS. Three species. 
 Green-house herbaceous. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 ANIMAL MATTERS, without any 
 exception, are beneficial as manures, for 
 they all yield during putrefaction eases 
 and soluble substances that are imbibed 
 greedily by the roots of plants. That 
 this is the case affords no cause for won- 
 der, because animal matters and vege 
 
 Blood is a very rich manure, and has 
 been used with especial benefit to vines, 
 and other fruit trees. The blood of the 
 ox contains about eighty per cent, of 
 water, and twenty per cent, solid mat- 
 ter. The latter contains in 100 parts 
 when dried, 
 
 Carbon. . . . 51.950 
 Hydrogen . . . 7.165 
 Azote .... 17.172 
 Oxygen. . . . 19.295 
 Ashes .... 4.41S 
 The ashes contain various salts, as 
 Division, chloride of sodium, (common salt,) 
 j phosphate of lime, with a little oxide of 
 iron. Sugar-baker's skimmings owe 
 their chief fertilizing qualities to the 
 blood used in clarifying the sugar, and 
 which is combined with vegetable albu- 
 men and extractive. 
 
 Woollen Rags, cut into very small 
 pieces, are a good manure, decomposing 
 
 table matters are alike compounded of, slowly, and benefiting the second as 
 
ANI 
 
 36 
 
 ANN 
 
 much as the first crop. Hops and turnips | stove annual 
 have been the crops to which they have | dry soil, 
 been chiefly applied. Half a ton per 
 Wool is corn- 
 
 Division or seed. Light 
 
 acre is a fair dressing 
 posed of 
 
 Carbon . . . 
 
 Hydrogen . . 
 
 Azote . . . 
 
 Oxygen ) 
 iur) 
 
 50.653 
 7.029 
 17.710 
 
 24.608 
 
 Sulphi 
 It leaves a very slight ash, containing 
 minute quantities of muriate of potash, 
 lime, and probably phosphate of lime. 
 Feathers and hair closely resemble it in 
 their components. Horns are composed 
 of 
 
 Carbon. . . . 51.578 
 Hydrogen. . . 6.712 
 Azote .... 17.284 
 
 Oxygen ) 
 iurj * 
 
 . 24.426 
 Sulphury 
 besides minute proportions of sulphate, 
 muriate and phosphate of potash, phos- 
 phate of lime, and other less important 
 matters. 
 
 Shells. — Those of the following fish 
 are thus composed: — 
 
 Oyster . . 
 Lobster . . 
 Hen's Eggs 
 
 Phosphate 
 of Lime. 
 
 1.2 
 
 7.0 
 5.7 
 
 98.3 
 63.0 
 
 89.6 
 
 0.5 
 
 30.0 
 4.7 
 
 They have all been found good in a 
 
 pounded form, as manures for turnips; 
 
 and must be for all other plants, and on 
 
 all soils where calcareous matters are 
 
 deficient. For more extensive notices 
 
 of these and similar manures, the reader I of autumn ^ , 
 
 is referred to a useful work, recently practice of growing annuals and other 
 
 ANISOPIA horticola, is a beetle which 
 often attacks the rose flowers about 
 June. Its maggots live under turf, and 
 feed on its roots. 
 
 ANNUALS, are plants which live but 
 one year, and, consequently, require to 
 be raised from seed annually. By a 
 particular mode of culture some of them 
 may be made to live longer. Thus 
 mignonette will continue to bloom for 
 two or more years if not allowed to 
 ripen its seeds. 
 
 Hardy Annuals are sown where they 
 are to remain in the open borders, in 
 March or April, as the latitude and 
 temperature may make expedient, of 
 which the cultivator can readily judge ; 
 it is usually safe to sow them when the 
 peach expands its blossoms. Whether 
 sown in patches or broad masses, 
 whether mixed or separate, must be left 
 to the taste of the sower — guided by his 
 knowledge of the colours of the flowers. 
 These should be well contrasted. No 
 one but an ignoramus would have many 
 sorts of the same colour together. Every 
 patch should be properly labelled, which 
 is easily done by having some deal laths, 
 one inch broad, planed smooth, cut into 
 nine-inch lengths, and painted white. 
 On these the names can be written with 
 a lead pencil. 
 
 Dr. Lindley truly observes, that "It 
 
 is possible to maintain a garden in a 
 
 state of the greatest beauty from the 
 
 first visit of spring to the last fading ray 
 
 sunshine, by the simple 
 
 published in this country, "The Eco 
 nomy of Waste Manures." 
 
 ANLSACANTHA divaricata. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 ANISANTHUS. Three species, 
 (ireen-house bulbs. Offsets. Sandy soil. 
 
 ANISE, (Tragium anisum.) 'Half- 
 hardy annual, used for garnishing or 
 seasoning. Sow during April in pots 
 plunged in a hotbed ; remove to a warm, 
 light border in May. Thin the plants to 
 six inches apart. The seed is ripe in 
 August or September. It does not bear 
 transplanting. 
 
 ANISEED-TREE, lllicium anisatum. 
 
 ANISOCHILUS carnosa. Stove her- 
 baceous. Cuttings. Rich light soil. 
 
 ANISOMELES. Four species. Three 
 
 plants of a similar nature in pots. And 
 for this purpose an ample variety may 
 be had for three-pence a seed-paper, 
 without having recourse 'to any means 
 more costly. 
 
 "Not that the common method of 
 growing plants in pots will answer this 
 end ; on the contrary, managed as they 
 usually are, annuals, in pots, are the 
 most miserable objects in the garden, 
 for the pots become so dry, from the 
 continual evaporation of water, through 
 their porous sides, that the plants are 
 literally starved. 
 
 " The method to pursue in preparing 
 pots for receiving annuals, is this : — in 
 the first place, lay a crock over the hole 
 in the bottom of the pot, then fill the 
 pot to about one-third or one-half of its 
 
 are stove evergreens, and A. ovata, a | depth with wet moss pressed very close, 
 
ANN 
 
 and over that put rich light soil, in which 
 the annual seeds are to be sown, or 
 young plants are to be pricked out. The 
 pot is then placed in a common pan, and 
 the latter is filled with water in wet 
 weather. The moss absorbs the water 
 freely, and parts with it slowly ; at the 
 same time it forms a mass of moist mate- 
 rials, in which the roots of a plant will 
 freely spread. By these simple means, 
 the annuals are completely guarded 
 from all the evils of dryness, and they 
 grow with the same health, though not 
 to the same size, perhaps, as if planted 
 out in the open border. Such pots can 
 be distributed over the garden, wher- 
 ever a vacancy occurs, and will decorate 
 the borders beneath trees and bushes, 
 where no such plants will grow in the 
 open ground itself. Their sidesj are 
 rapidly covered with their own lower 
 branches, or may be concealed by the 
 foliage of each other: as soon as one is 
 shabby, it is removed, and succeeded by 
 another in full beauty ; and, by a little 
 management, chiefly consisting in re- 
 peated sowings at short intervals, no 
 interruption to the succession of flowers 
 need be experienced. Another advan- 
 tage of this plan consists in the facility 
 with which the arrangement of colours 
 and grouping of individuals can be ef- 
 fected and varied. 
 
 " Bulbs may be treated in the same 
 manner, and then will never be destroy- 
 ed by the careless spade of the garden 
 labourer. The only point to observe is, 
 that each pot should rarely contain more 
 than a single plant, unless in the case of 
 species of very small size naturally, or 
 of bulbous plants." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 The following is a good selection, and 
 may be obtained at most seed stores. It 
 should, however, be observed , in justice 
 to seedsmen, that as the seeds of many 
 annuals are extremely minute and deli- 
 cate, so is" the difficulty of causing them 
 to vegetate increased, especially in sea- 
 sons of too much or too little moisture, 
 and due allowance should be made 
 therefor. 
 
 HARDY ANNUALS. 
 
 Bartonia aurea. 
 Calandrinia discolor. 
 
 (Talinum) speciosa. 
 
 Callichroa platyglossa. 
 Campanula Lorei. 
 Chrysanthemum carinatum. 
 Clarkia pulchella. 
 
 7 ANN 
 
 Clintonia pulchella. 
 Collinsia bicolor. 
 
 grandiflora. 
 
 Collomia coccinea. 
 
 Convolvulus tricolor. 
 
 Coreopsis (Calliopsis) atro purpurea. 
 
 Emilia (Cacalia) coccinea. 
 
 Erysimum Perofskianum. 
 
 Eutoca viscida. 
 
 Gilia tricolor. 
 
 Godetia Lindleyana. 
 
 ((Enothera) rubicunda. 
 
 tenuifolia. 
 
 Hibiscus Africanus. 
 
 Kaulfussia (Amellus) amelloides. 
 
 Leptosiphon androsaceus. 
 
 densiflorus. 
 
 Lupinus Hartwegii. 
 
 nanus. 
 
 Malope grandiflora. 
 Nemophila atomaria. 
 
 ■ insignia. 
 
 Nolana atriplicifolia. 
 (Enothera tetraptera. 
 Phlox Drummondii. 
 Platystemon californicum. 
 Schizopetalum Walkeri. 
 Sphenogyne speciosa. 
 Viscaria (Agrostemma) cceli-rosa. 
 
 HALF-HARDY ANNUALS 
 
 Are sown in a gentle hot-bed early 
 in April, or late in March, then to be 
 transplanted into the borders, and at- 
 tended like other annuals. These spe- 
 cifications as to time, apply to the 
 middle states, and may also serve to 
 guide those north or south. The ten- 
 der annuals may generally be planted 
 out with safety, when the later sprout- 
 ing forest trees put forth. 
 
 Argemone grandiflora. 
 
 Mexicana. 
 
 Aster sinensis. 
 
 Atropa physaloides. 
 
 Bid ens heterophylla. 
 
 Cacalia coccinea. 
 
 Carthamus tinctorius. 
 
 Centaurea Americana. 
 
 Celsia orientalis. 
 
 Chrysanthemum. 
 
 Cistus niloticus. 
 
 Coboea scandens (climber). 
 
 Convolvulus discolor. 
 
 michauxii. 
 
 purpurea. 
 
 Coreopsis (Calliopsis) Drummondii. 
 Cucumis colocynthis. 
 
 dudaim. 
 
 flexuosus. 
 
ANN 
 
 3S 
 
 ANN 
 
 Datura ceratocaulon. 
 
 metel. 
 
 Dianthus sinensis. 
 Elichrysum macranthum. 
 Fumaria vesicaria. 
 Galinsogia parviflora. 
 
 triloba. 
 
 Gnaphalium fetidum. 
 
 undulatum. 
 
 Helianthus animus. 
 Ipomasa coccinea. 
 
 phoenicea. 
 
 Loasa aurantiaca (climber). 
 Lobelia azurea. 
 Lopezia racemosa. 
 Lophospermum scandens (climber). 
 Mirabilis jalapa. 
 lutea. 
 
 longiflora. 
 
 Momordica balsamina. 
 
 luffa. 
 
 Monopsis scintillaris. 
 Nicotiana glutinosa. 
 
 paniculata. 
 
 tabac. 
 
 Nolana prostrata. 
 
 Pharbitis (IpomoEa) hispida (climber). 
 Podolepis gracilis. 
 Polygonum orientale. 
 Ricinus communis. 
 
 inermis. 
 
 ■■ viridis. 
 
 Ricotia segyptiaca. 
 Rudbeckia amplexifolia. 
 Schizanthus pinnatus. 
 Senecio elegans. 
 Spilanthes acmella. 
 Stevia pedata. 
 
 serrata. 
 
 Tagetes erecta. 
 lucida. 
 
 nana. 
 
 patula. 
 
 tenuifolia. 
 
 Trichosanthes anguina. 
 
 cucumeri. 
 
 Tropoeolum atrosanguineum (climb- 
 er). 
 
 peregrinum (climber). 
 
 Verbena Aubletia. 
 
 Viscaria oculata. 
 Xeranthemum lucidum. 
 Ximensia encelioides. 
 Zinnia coccinea. 
 multiflora. 
 
 lutea. 
 
 pauciflora. 
 
 revoluta. 
 
 verticillata. 
 
 violacea. 
 
 TENDER ANNUALS. 
 
 The following are rather more tender 
 than those classed as half-hardy, but 
 may be managed in the same manner. 
 
 Achillea sgyptiaca. 
 
 Agapanthus umb. maj. 
 
 media. 
 
 — minor. 
 
 Amaranthus bicolor. 
 
 cruentus. 
 
 rubicaulis. 
 
 tricolor. 
 
 Amethystea crerulea. 
 Antirrhinum molle. 
 Brachycome iberifolia. 
 Browallia demissa. 
 
 elata coerulea. 
 
 flo. albo. 
 
 Buchnera capensis. 
 
 fetid a. 
 
 Calceolaria pinnata. 
 Campannula capensis. 
 
 debilis. 
 
 mollis. 
 
 Cardiospermum halicacabum. 
 Cassia chamaechrista. 
 
 tora. 
 
 Celosia argentea. 
 
 cernua. 
 
 cristata rub. 
 
 dwarf, red. 
 
 tall, buff. 
 
 dwarf. 
 
 imperial red. 
 
 purple. 
 
 buff. 
 
 ■ varieg. 
 
 Cleome pentaphylla. 
 
 spinosa. 
 
 viscosa. 
 
 Clitoria brasiliana. 
 
 ternata. 
 
 flo. albo. 
 
 Convolvulus pes caprae. 
 
 nil. 
 
 tridendatum. 
 
 Crotalaria juncea. 
 
 ■ verrucosa. 
 
 Datura fastuosa. 
 
 flo. albo. 
 
 Gnaphalium orientale. 
 Gomphrena globosa. 
 
 flo. albo. 
 
 stri. 
 
 Hedysarum gangeticum. 
 
 ■ vespertilio. 
 
 Heliophila integrifolia. 
 Heliotropium indicum. 
 Impatiens balsamina. 
 flesh col. dble. 
 
ANN 
 
 Impatiens bizar, tall, dble. 
 
 dwarf, dble. 
 
 pur. stri., dble. 
 
 scarl. stri., dble. 
 
 Ipomcea Phoenicea. 
 
 quamoelit. 
 
 flo. albo. 
 
 Linum flavum. 
 
 suffruticosum. 
 
 Lotus creticus. 
 Lobelia gracilis. 
 
 ramosa. 
 
 Martynia fragrans. 
 
 proboscidea. 
 
 Mesembryanthemum crystallinum. 
 
 glabrum. 
 
 pinnatifidum. 
 
 (tricolor) pyropoeum. 
 
 Mimosa pudica. 
 
 sensitiva. 
 
 Ononis natrix. 
 
 ANT 
 
 crispa 
 
 Pentapetes Phoenicea. 
 Physalis prostrata. 
 Portulaca splendens. 
 
 Thellussoni. 
 
 Rhodanthe Manglesii. 
 Salpiglossis atropurpurea. 
 Sedum caeruleum. 
 Sida cordifolia. 
 
 dilleniana. 
 
 hastata. 
 
 Solanum melongam 
 
 fruct. purp. 
 
 Sowerbia juncea. 
 
 Statice mucronata. 
 
 Thunbergia (alata) aurantiaca. 
 
 albiflora. 
 
 Trachymene (Didiscus) coerulea. 
 
 Watsonia corymbosa. 
 
 ANODONTIA. Four species. Hardy 
 and half-hardy plants. Seeds, cuttings, 
 or division. Common soil. 
 
 ANGECTOCHILUS setaceus. Stove 
 terrestrial orchidaceous plant. 
 
 ANOMATHECA. Two species. 
 Half-hardy bulbs. Seeds. Common 
 light soil. 
 
 ANON A. Custard apple. Seventeen 
 species. Cuttings or seeds. Rich loam. 
 
 ANT, (Formica.) To drive this in- 
 sect away, sprinkle flowers of sulphur 
 over its nests and haunts. To kill it, 
 pour over the nest at night a strong de- 
 coction of elder leaves. To trap it, 
 smear the inside of a garden pot with 
 honey, invert it over the nest, and when 
 crowded with them, hold it over the 
 steam of boiling water. They may be 
 kept from ascending standard and espa 
 
 lier trees, by tying a piece of wool round 
 the stems and the supporters. 
 
 ANTENNARIA. Eight species. 
 Chiefly hardy herbaceous. A. hyperborea 
 is an evergreen creeper. Cuttings or 
 divisions. Light rich soil. 
 
 ANTHEMIS. Forty-six species. All 
 hardy except A. apifolia and punctata, 
 which are green-house plants. Seed. 
 Common soil. See Chamomile. 
 
 ANTHERICUM. Twenty-six species. 
 Green-house herbaceous, except J., scro- 
 tinum and sulphureum, which are hardy. 
 Cuttings or seed. Loam and sandy peat. 
 
 ANTHOCERCIS. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cutr 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 ANTHOCLEISTA macrophylla. 
 Stove evergreen tree. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 ANTHODON. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Rich loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ANTHOLOMA montana. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Rich loam and 
 peat. 
 
 ANTHOLYZA. Three species. 
 Hardy bulbs. Offsets. Sandy south 
 border. 
 
 ANTHOMYIA, a genus of fly, very 
 injurious to the gardener. 
 
 A. brassica, cabbage fly, says Mr. 
 Curtis, " is found on the wing through 
 the summer, and is the parent of a mag- 
 got which has been known to lay waste 
 whole fields of cabbag%s by diseasing the 
 roots, in which they feed, as well as at 
 the base of the stalk. Successive gene- 
 rations are feeding until November; the 
 latter families lying in the pupa state 
 through the winter, and most probably 
 some of the flies survive that season, 
 secreted in holes and crevices. 
 
 " When the Cabbage-leaves assume a 
 lead or yellow colour, and droop in mid- 
 day from the effect of the sun, such 
 plants being diseased should be taken 
 up, carried away, and burnt, and brine 
 or lime put into the holes. Gardeners, 
 in some instances, have collected large 
 quantities of the pupa? from the roots, 
 by drawing away the earth; and as these 
 insects are exceedingly rapid in their 
 transformations, it is very likely that it 
 may have a very material effect in check- 
 ing their increase, and giving the suc- 
 ceeding crop a better chance of escap- 
 ing the fate of the preceding one. 
 
 "The male of A. brassica is dark 
 bright grey, with black bristles; there is 
 
ANT 
 
 ANT 
 
 a black stripe halfway down the middle ing towards the head, which is pointed, 
 of the thorax, and a curved one on each j and armed with two short, black claws 
 side ; the body has a more decided black at the nose. 
 
 stripe down the centre-, and the seg- 
 
 These maggots live in the involucra 
 
 ments are marked by a line of the same of different varieties of Lettuce, feeding 
 colour; legs and antennae blackish; wings upon the grains and receptacle; and 
 a little smoky. The female is pale ashy | when these are consumed they wriggle 
 
 themselves out backward, either to en- 
 ter another seed-vessel or fall to the 
 
 grey; the eyes remote, with a dark 
 chestnut-coloured stripe on the crown; 
 the wings are similar in tint to those of I ground and become pupa?. 
 
 the foregoing species, but the insects are 
 considerably smaller." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 A. ceparum, Onion fly. For the fol- 
 lowing particulars I am indebted to the 
 work of M. Kollar. 
 
 " The fly lays her eggs on the leaves 
 of the onion, close to the earth. 
 
 "The newly-hatched maggot bores 
 through the first leaf and then descends 
 
 When the seed-stems are gathered 
 and dying, the larvae change to pupae, 
 called shucks in Surrey, being bright 
 chestnut-coloured, oval cases, which 
 are rough when viewed under a lens, 
 with two minute tubercles at the head, 
 and two hooks and a few other tubercles 
 at the tail. 
 
 6 In the second week of May a few 
 
 between the leaves into the onion to its i of the pupae hatch ; they have, however, 
 
 been observed as early as April, and as 
 late as July. The male is intense black, 
 clothed with short hair and bristles; the 
 eyes reddish-brown and meeting above; 
 face inclining to chestnut colour, with a 
 bright spot of the same on the crown ; 
 the fore part of the trunk bears four 
 v-arying whitish stripes ; the body is ashy 
 grey, the segments blackish, at the base 
 a deep black ; wings two, stained with 
 black, and beautifully iridescent; the 
 base and poisers ochreous, the nervures 
 of the wings pitchy. 
 
 ' The female is entirely ashy grey, 
 
 base, when it entirely destroys the bulb 
 which soon becomes rotten. It leaves 
 the onion to undergo its transformation 
 in the earth, and becomes an elliptical, 
 reddish-brown, wrinkled pupa, out of 
 which the perfect fly is developed in 
 summer in from ten to twenty days. 
 The later brood pass the winter in the 
 pupa state. 
 
 " The perfect insect or fly is entirely 
 of an ash grey colour in the female, or 
 with black stripes on the back of the 
 male; the wings clear like glass, with 
 broad iridescent reflections, and vellow- 
 
 ish-brown veins. It is found through- i and less bristly; the eyes not meeting 
 out the summer in several generations, on the crown, with a bright chestnut- 
 " The larva lives during that season coloured stripe between them; body 
 singly, and also gregariously, on the dif- j oval, the apex cone-shaped; horns and 
 
 legs blackish; wings and nervures lighter 
 than in the male, which it equals in 
 size." — Gard. Chron. 
 ANTHONOMUS. 
 
 A.pomorum, Apple weevil. Mr. Curtis 
 of the lime from the dry purifiers of the : truly observes, that "this insect com- 
 gas-works be dug in and a less quantity mits great devastation in apple orchards, 
 raked in with the seed. This may now by destroying the stamens, pistil, and 
 be obtained almost in every district of receptacle of the flower. As soon as 
 Great Britain; but should it be neglected, j the blossom buds begin to swell, the fe- 
 or not obtainable, soot applied in the j male beetle begins to deposit her eggs. 
 
 ferent sorts ofleeksand onions, and does 
 great damage among the white onions." 
 The maggot is conical, white, and 
 smooth. It will never make its appear- 
 ance, if, at the time of sowing, a little 
 
 same mode, with the addition of one or 
 two plentiful waterings, during April 
 and the present month, with strong 
 soapsuds, will generally prevent the 
 evil. — Johnson's Gard. Almanack. 
 
 A. laetucce, Lettuce fly. Mr. Curtis 
 says, " The larvae first make their ap- 
 
 In calm weather she selects a good bud, 
 and makes a hole in it with her pro- 
 boscis ; she fixes herself at the hole, 
 lays one egg, and goes on till she has 
 deposited a considerable number of eggs 
 in separate buds. 
 
 " The bud continues to swell and the 
 
 pearance in August, but they are abund- ' petals nearly expand, when suddenly 
 ant in September ; they closely resemble the growth ceases and the petals wither 
 
 those from the Cabbage and Turnip, 
 being of a yellowish-white colour, taper- 
 
 and assume a shrivelled appearance. If 
 one of these flower buds be examined 
 
ANT 
 
 41 
 
 APH 
 
 when nearly expanded, a small white 
 grain with a black head will be found in 
 the centre, which begins to assume a 
 yellowish colour; a few days later the 
 grub will be found either wholly or 
 partially changed to a beetle, and should 
 there be a small hole on the side of the 
 receptacle the beetle will have escaped; 
 the transformation from the egg to the 
 perfect state not having occupied more 
 than a month. When this beetle, which 
 is dark brown with grey stripes, leaves 
 the receptacle, it feeds during the sum- 
 mer on the leaves of the trees, and is 
 seldom to be seen. In the autumn, the 
 weevils leave the trees and search for 
 convenient hiding-places under stones 
 about the trees, or under the rough bark, 
 in which they pass the winter. 
 
 "Consequently, as they commence 
 their operations early in the spring, care 
 should be taken to remove all stones, 
 dead leaves, and other litter from under 
 the trees, as well as to scrape off the 
 rough dead bark from them in the winter 
 season. 
 
 " The apple weevil is also very in- 
 jurious to pear trees." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 ANTHOPHYUM lanceolatum. A 
 stove fern. Seed. Light rich soil. 
 
 ANTHOSPERMUM cethiopicum. 
 Green-house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 ANTHYLLIS. Twenty-two species. 
 Hardy herbaceous and green-house ever- 
 greens. Seeds or cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ANTIDESMA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Rich loam. 
 
 ANTIRRHINUM. Snap-dragon. 
 Twelve species. Hardy herbaceous, 
 except A. marina and molle, which are 
 half-hardy evergreens. Cuttings or seeds. 
 Common soil. 
 
 ANTLER MOTH. Char anas. 
 
 ANTWERP HOLLYHOCK. Althaea 
 ficifolia. 
 
 ANYCHIA dichotoma. Hardy bien- 
 nial. Division and seed. Sand and 
 loam. 
 
 A T U S . Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam and sandy peat. 
 
 APEIBA. Four species. Stove ever- 
 green trees. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 APHANANTHE celosioides. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 APHANOCHILUS incisus. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Cuttings. Light soil. 
 
 APHELANDRA cristata. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 APHELEXIS*. Four species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat 
 and sandy loam. 
 
 APHIS, the Plant Louse, Puceron, or 
 Vine fretter. This insect, so destructive 
 from its multitude, attacks fruit trees, 
 juicy kitchen vegetables, and other 
 plants, weakening and rendering them 
 incapable of development by sucking 
 from them their juices. The exhaustion 
 thus occasioned is sometimes so com- 
 plete as to destroy the plant. Each 
 vegetable subject to its ravages has its 
 peculiar species. 
 
 Aphis pyri mali is of a grass green 
 colour, attacking the apple and pear. 
 
 A. persica is dark green, and is pe- 
 culiar to the peach and nectarine. 
 
 A. pruni ravages the plum tribes, and 
 is a very light green. 
 
 A. roscB. Light green, found upon 
 the rose genus. 
 
 A.fabce, known popularly as the Black 
 Dolphin and Elephant, is black, and at- 
 tacks the common bean. 
 
 The tops of beans attacked by the 
 Black Dolphin should be forthwith re- 
 moved ; and smaller plants may be sy- 
 ringed with tobacco-water, or water in 
 which elder leaves have been boiled ; 
 which applications are all fatal to the 
 aphis. 
 
 A.pisi is green, and affects the pea. 
 
 A. lonicera, Woodbine louse. Dingy 
 green. 
 
 A. cerasi, Morello cherry louse. Ap- 
 pears black. Infests the under sides of 
 the leaves, especially on wet soils. 
 
 A. coryli, Nut louse. Pale green. 
 
 A. Dahlia, Dahlia louse. Amber 
 coloured. 
 
 A. ribis, Red currant louse. Blackish. 
 
 A. ligustri, Privet louse. Dark brown. 
 
 A. ribis-nigri, Black currant louse. 
 Transparent green. 
 
 A- lathyri, Sweet pea louse. Dark 
 purple. 
 
 A. (Cinara) raphani, Radish louse. 
 Females, green ; males, lightish red. 
 
 The aphides on the peach appear the 
 earliest, being, as are all the others, the 
 produce of eggs deposited during the 
 previous autumn. During the spring and 
 summer they are viviparous, and breed 
 with extraordinary rapidity. The gar- 
 dener does well, therefore, to scrub the 
 branches of his wall trees, and to boil 
 
APH 
 
 42 
 
 APP 
 
 or change the shreds every winter, for 
 he thus destroys the pest in embryo. So 
 soon as they appear in spring, over each 
 wall tree a mat should be fastened, and 
 tobacco burnt beneath it. Peas, whilst 
 the dew is upon them, may be dusted 
 with Scotch snuff. Over the apple, plum, 
 and other standards, the only available 
 remedy is a repeated application of 
 quicklime, at the same early period of 
 the day, by the means of Curtis' Lime 
 Duster. Most of these insects are readily 
 destroyed by an application of diluted 
 whale oil soap; it is probable a solution 
 of common soft soap would be equally 
 effective. The inexperienced operator 
 should be careful lest he apply it in too 
 powerful a state. 
 
 The larvae of the Coccinella or Lady- 
 bird, especially C. punctata, the Syrphus 
 or bee-like fly, the Hemerobius or golden- 
 eyed fly, the ant, some caterpillars, and 
 many of the Ichneumonidce, are great 
 destroyers of the Aphis, and should be 
 encouraged rather than removed. See 
 American Blight. 
 
 APHYLLANTHES monspelien- 
 sis. Half-hardy herbaceous. Division 
 and seed. Sandy peat. 
 
 APICRA. Twelve species. Green- 
 house succulents. Suckers. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 APIOS tuberosa. Hardy tuber. Root. 
 Sand and peat. 
 
 APIUM. Six species. See Celery, 
 Celeriac, and Parsley. 
 
 APONOGETON. Four species. 
 Stove or green-house aquatics. Offsets 
 or seeds. Loam and peat in water. 
 
 APPLE. (Pyrus malus.) 
 
 Varieties. — There are 1,496 named 
 varieties in the last edition of the 
 London Horticultural Society's List of 
 Fruits, of which they have 897 cultivat- 
 ed in their gardens. It may readily be 
 presumed that in such a multitude there 
 are many of inferior quality: indeed it is 
 not improbable there are some utterly 
 unworthy of culture. The object in thus 
 congregating them was praiseworthy — 
 to determine their comparative value. 
 The true policy is evidently to select 
 from the mass those which, from some 
 special quality, are most deserving of 
 perpetuity. The following named va- 
 rieties are believed to be eminently 
 worthy of culture. We copy from the 
 catalogue of D. Landreth and Fulton. 
 
 Explanation of Abbreviations. — Colour — r red ; str striped; y yellow ; 
 g green. Size — l large ; m medium ; s small. 
 
 Those marked * are of American origin. 
 Those marked t are celebrated for the table. 
 
 SUMMER APPLES. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 CO- 
 LOUR. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 Of 
 
 1 
 
 SEAS ON. 
 
 Red Astrachan . . . ■ . 
 
 r 
 
 roundish 
 
 M 
 
 July 
 
 to Aug. 
 
 *tBevan 
 
 
 
 
 str r 
 
 flat 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 English Codlin 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 'conical 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 tEarly Queen 
 
 
 
 
 r str 
 
 roundish 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 *tEarly Harvest 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 roundish 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Summer Queen 
 
 
 
 
 str 
 
 roundish" 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 *Lippincott 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 oblong 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Siberian .Crab 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 conical 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Oct.'j 
 
 Woolman's Harvest 
 
 
 
 
 str 
 
 roundish 
 
 *M 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 *tSummer Pearmain 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 oblong 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Juneating Red - . 
 
 
 
 
 y str 
 
 ovate - 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 FALL AND WINTER APPLES. 
 
 
 Alexander 
 
 y str 
 
 conical 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 to Dec. 
 
 tBaldwin 
 
 
 . 
 
 r 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 *tBellflower, Yellow 
 
 
 . 
 
 y 
 
 conical 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 *Carthouse 
 
 
 , 
 
 r 
 
 flat 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Apl. 
 
 Codlin Irish 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 conical 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Dec. 
 
APP 
 
 APP 
 
 NAME. 
 
 CO- 
 LOUR. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 h 
 
 N 
 
 >< 
 
 H 
 
 9 
 
 SEASON. 
 
 Codlin White 
 
 y« 
 
 conical 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 Oct. 
 
 to Dec. 
 
 *Cumberland Spice 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 flat 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Doctor or Dewitt 
 
 
 
 
 str 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 *tGreening, Rhode Islanc 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Ladies' Sweeting 
 
 
 
 
 y r 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Apl. 
 
 Gates' Apple . 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 roundish 
 
 M 
 
 ] 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 *Grindstone 
 
 
 
 
 str 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 Oct. 
 
 June 
 
 Gravenstien 
 
 
 
 
 str 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Hawthornden . 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Harrison 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 conical 
 
 M 
 
 2 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Apl. 
 
 Lady Apple, pomme d' Ap 
 
 '. 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 flat 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Tolman's Sweeting . 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 roundish 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Lady Finger 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 oblong 
 
 M 
 
 2 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 *tMaiden's Blush . 
 
 
 
 
 y r 
 
 flat 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 *Morgan 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 *tNorthern Spy 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 conical 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 April 
 
 Pearmain, Blue winter 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 conical 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 *Pennock's Red 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Pippin, Bullock 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 roundish 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 " Golden 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 roundish 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 " ^American . 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 " *Michael Henry 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 oblong 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 " Fall, or Holland 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 flat 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 " Blenheim 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 " Ribston 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 roundish 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 «« *Hollow Core 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 " *tGreen Newton 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 roundish 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 April 
 
 « *tYellow Newton 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 roundish 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 April 
 
 Priestley 
 
 
 
 str 
 
 oblong 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 April 
 
 Pound Apple 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 *tPorter 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 oblong 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 *tRoxbury Russet . 
 
 
 
 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 May 
 
 Roman Stem . 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Rambo 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 flat 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 *Seek-no-further, Red 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Apl. 
 
 Newton Spitzenburg 
 
 
 
 
 y r 
 
 roundish 
 
 M 
 
 2 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 *tSpitzenburg, Esopus 
 
 
 
 
 str 
 
 conical 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Apl. 
 
 *tSpitzenburg, Kaighn's 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 April 
 
 Sweeting, Moore's 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 *Swaar 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 roundish 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 *tTewksbury Blush 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 round 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 Jan. 
 
 May 
 
 *tVandervere 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 flat 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 *Wine, or Hay's . . 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 *Winesap 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 round 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Apl. 
 
 *Winter Queen 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 conical 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Yorkshire Greening . 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 The following outlines and descrip- 
 tions of a few prominent varieties of 
 apples, may be interesting to those who 
 do not possess a more elaborate work, 
 or one wholly devoted to Fruits, and are 
 inserted with a desire to increase the 
 popular character of the Dictionary, and 
 render it of increased interest to the 
 mass of readers. 
 
 Summer Queen. Coxe. (Fig. 1.) 
 This is quite a distinct variety from one 
 long known around Philadelphia as the 
 Early Queen. It is of full medium 
 size, the outline in some specimens 
 rather longer than broad, the blossom 
 end occasionally quite pointed. Skin 
 yellow, clouded and striped with red, 
 so much so in some instances as to 
 
APP 
 
 44 
 
 — ♦- 
 
 APP 
 
 obscure the ground colour. Flesh yel- 
 low, rich and aromatic. Stem long, 
 deeply planted. Ripe in August, but 
 fit for cooking in July. Coxe describes 
 it as an apple of the finest quality^ and 
 
 of uncommonly beautiful appearance. 
 It is certainly a superior dessert fruit ; 
 its sprightly aroma is agreeable to most 
 palates, and makes it a popular apple in 
 the Philadelphia market. 
 
 Fig. 1.— (P. 43.) 
 
 Summer Pearmain. Coxe. (Fig. 2.) 
 This is unquestionably the finest apple 
 of its season, possessing more of the 
 character of the pear than an ordinary 
 apple ; its appearance is by no means 
 prepossessing, and those who look to 
 exteriors only would pass it by unno- 
 ticed. The colour is usually dull red, 
 slightly streaked and spotted, occasion- 
 ally in the sun of a brighter hue. Coxe 
 says it has proved well adapted to light 
 lands, and correctly describes it as 
 singularly tender, bursting from its own 
 weight, when falling. The outline is 
 oblong, uniformly regular; stem and 
 calyx deeply seated ; ripe in August and 
 September. 
 
 Woolman's Harvest. (Striped 
 Harvest.) (Fig. 3.) This apple is 
 known in New Jersey as above ; its ori- 
 gin is obscure, nor have we found it 
 described by any American authority. 
 
 The size is much below medium, weigh- 
 ing scarcely two ounces. Ground colour 
 a delicate whitish yellow, beautifully 
 streaked and pencilled with bright red 
 of different depths, giving it rather an 
 artificial aspect, as though an artist had 
 coloured it to suit his fancy; flesh white, 
 crisp and tender, juicy, but not rich: — 
 its early maturity commends it to notice; 
 ripe in July. 
 
 Maiden's Blush. Coxe. (Fig. 4.) 
 There is not, perhaps, a more popular 
 summer apple in the Philadelphia mar- 
 ket than this; it ripens in August, and 
 is in fruitful seasons abundant until the 
 first of October. The size is above me- 
 dium ; skin smooth, yellow, with a lively 
 carmine cheek ; the general outline is 
 flattened. Flesh white, tender, admi- 
 rably adapted to drying. Stem short, 
 and both it and the eye seated in a 
 deep cavity. The habit of the tree is 
 
APP 
 
 APP 
 
 Fig. 2.— (P. 44.) 
 
 Fig. 3.— (P. 44.) 
 
 vigorous, forming an open and rather 
 spreading head. 
 
 Early Bough. Ken. (Bough Apple. 
 Coxe.) (Fig. 5.) The Early Bough is 
 frequently above medium size ; outline 
 rather longer than broad. Stern seldom 
 rising to the crown of the fruit. Skin 
 smooth, of a pale yellow hue. Flesh 
 white, with more than ordinary juice ; 
 sweet and well-flavoured, though by no 
 
 means rich. It is of fair quality, and 
 because of its early maturity generally 
 esteemed. Ripe in July and August. 
 
 Hagloe. {Hagloe Crab of Coxe: 
 Downing.) (Fig. 6.) There is evidently 
 some blunder as regards this apple, 
 which was imported by Coxe, and de- 
 scribed by him. It is unquestionably 
 not the Hagloe Crab of the English, a 
 cider apple of high repute, to which, 
 
APP 
 
 APP 
 
APP 
 
 APP 
 
 it is believed, this has no pretension. 
 It is said that Coxe himself discovered 
 the error, and designed correcting it in 
 a future edition of his work. It occurred 
 from the label having been lost in the 
 original package, and a loose Hagloe 
 Crab label being found, was supposed to 
 attach to the tree in question. 
 
 It is now well known in Pennsylvania 
 and New Jersey, as the Hagloe, the 
 Crab having been dropped, and is much 
 esteemed in the Philadelphia market 
 as a cooking apple; its fair size, above 
 
 medium, and great beauty, recom- 
 mend it for the table. The prevail- 
 ing colour is yellow, streaked with 
 red of darker or lighter shades, and 
 with a delicate bloom on well-ripened 
 specimens. The outline round, some- 
 times a little irregular. Stem short; 
 the eye deeply seated. The flesh is 
 soft and woolly, as it is termed, which 
 of course detracts from its quality as a 
 table fruit. Ripe, August and Septem- 
 ber. 
 
 Fig. 6.— (P. 45.) 
 
 Early Queen. (Fig. 7.) The ap- 
 ple here represented, has been known 
 for many years around Philadelphia by 
 the above name ; it is one of the earli- 
 est seen in our market, making its ap- 
 pearance early in July and continuing 
 throughout August. When ripened in 
 the sun it ifnearly of a uniform aspect 
 — striped and clouded with red of darker 
 or lighter shades on a greenish-yellow 
 ground, the red frequently the prevail- 
 ing colour : others ripened in the shade 
 have but little red, the stripes more dis- 
 tinctly marked on a greenish ground, 
 thus presenting fruit from the same tree 
 
 of very different appearance. The size 
 is in good specimens, above medium ; 
 outline rather flattened, and narrowing 
 towards the blossom end. Calyx quite 
 small, nearly closed and set in a shal- 
 low basin. Stem short, seldom rising 
 to the crown of the fruit. Flesh white, 
 with occasional pink streaks and clouds; 
 crisp, and when over ripe, mealy. 
 
 Baldwin. Ken : Down. (Fig. 8.) 
 The Baldwin, partially known as the 
 Woodpecker, is nearly confined to New 
 England; but ought to be an apple of 
 the world. It has few superiors, and is 
 above average quality in all respects. 
 
APP 
 
 48 
 
 APP 
 
 Fig. 7.— (P. 47.) 
 
 Fig. 8.— (P. 47.) 
 
APP 
 
 APP 
 
 Its flavour is rich and sprightly. Flesh 
 yellowish and crisp ; few taste it with- 
 out admiration. 
 
 The outline is round, flattened at the 
 stern end and narrowing towards the 
 eye ; ground colour yellow obscured by 
 red and crimson shading and slightly 
 marked by russet near the stem, which 
 is rather deeply planted. In season 
 from November to March. 
 
 Lady Apple. Coxe. (Pomme d' 
 Api, Rouge. Petit and Gros Api. 
 Rouge, of the French.) (Fig. 9.) The 
 small size of this beautiful fruit may be 
 
 an objection with many, but it is un- 
 doubtedly worthy a place in every 
 orchard from its exquisite beauty and 
 fine quality. The Lady Apple is highly 
 prized wherever quality, rather than 
 bulk is considered as the test of value. 
 At Philadelphia it is a great favourite, 
 and commands ready sale. The out- 
 line is flat, colour when well ripened a 
 lively yellow, with a bright carmine 
 cheek. Flesh white and crisp ; juice 
 sprightly and agreeable; bears abund- 
 antly. Ripe in December, and keeps 
 well during winter. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Gloria Mundi. Thomp. Mon- 
 strous Pippen. Coxe. Golden Ball. Ken. 
 (Fig. 10.) Coxe says this imposing ap- 
 ple originated on Long Island, N. Y. 
 Downing supposes it to be originally 
 from Maine; the fact is unimportant. Its 
 large size renders it an object of popular 
 regard; it is an admirable cooking ap- 
 ple though not profitable, from liability 
 to be blown off prematurely. Skin 
 yellow, marked by bright spots or dots. 
 Flesh juicy and sprightly. The outline 
 is round; stem short; eye bushy. In 
 season, November to March. A speci- 
 men at the Pennsylvania Horticultural 
 Society's exhibition, September, 1846, 
 weighed 27 ounces. 
 
 Bell Flower. (Fig. 11.) "A re- 
 markably large, beautiful and excel- 
 lent apple, both for the dessert and 
 for cooking — it is of a pale, but bright 
 and fair yellow colour; the cheek next 
 the sun has sometimes a blush, but more 
 frequently is without any red : the form 
 is oblong, somewhat pointed at the 
 blossom end — both ends are deeply in- 
 dented — the flesh is rich, juicy, tender 
 and sprightly; it has uncommonly large 
 full seeds, which are lodged in a peri- 
 
 carpium of unusual size, and if shaken 
 can be distinctly heard ; it ripens late 
 in October, when its great weight 
 causes it to fall in windy weather — if 
 carefully picked before they are too 
 ripe, they will keep in high perfection 
 through the winter, till late in the 
 spring, especially when they are shrivel- 
 led or wilted — from their beauty and 
 excellence, they are the most popular 
 apple in the Philadelphia market: the 
 tree grows very large and spreading; it 
 should be trained high, or the limbs will 
 touch the ground when in full bearing; it 
 succeeds best on light rich soils." — Coxe. 
 Rhode Island Greening. — Coxe. 
 (Fig. 12.) A well known variety, ex- 
 tensively disseminated throughout the 
 Atlantic States. The size is large; 
 outline round; skin of a yellowish 
 green ; sometimes, though very sel- 
 dom of a faint blush-like hue towards 
 the stem. The flesh is crisp, abounding 
 in juice, finely flavoured; stem short. 
 Calyx rather small for so large an ap- 
 ple, and placed in a shallow basin. In 
 season from October to January, some- 
 times later. 
 
Fig. 10.— (P. 49.) 
 
 New England Russet. Boston or 
 Roxbury Russet or Russeting. (Fig. 
 13.) This is claimed as a native of 
 Massachusetts, and is held throughout 
 New England in high repute. It is 
 usually considered the best of its class 
 popularly termed "leather-coats." The 
 size is full medium ; form irregularly 
 round, flattened at both stem and blos- 
 som end. When fully ripe of a russet 
 hue,, occasionally with indications of 
 blush. It is in season at mid-winter, 
 but may be kept till May or June ; in- 
 deed they may be seen sometimes in 
 
 July. This property of long keeping in 
 connection with its productive habit, 
 has secured it great popularity. 
 
 Yellow Newtown Pippin. (Fig. 
 14.) " This is in most of its varieties 
 the finest apple of our country, and 
 probably of the world. It varies much 
 in quality, with soil, aspect, cultivation, 
 climate and age. The form is rather 
 flat, the size large, the skin a greenish 
 yellow, with black clouds, and fre- 
 quently with red spots or blotches. It 
 ripens in November, and is often kept 
 till May and June. It will produce fine 
 
APP 
 
 APP 
 
 Fig. 11.— (P. 49.) 
 
 apples on even a light sandy soil, aided 
 by the application of river or meadow 
 mud as a manure, two or three cart 
 loads to a tree." — Coxe. 
 
 Wine Apple. (Fig. 15.) This is a 
 well known variety in Philadelphia. It 
 is unusually large, and attractive from 
 its beautifully fair and handsome ap- 
 pearance. The outline is round, rather 
 flattened at the poles; prevailing colour 
 red, shaded and spotted with yellow. 
 Stalk quite short, never rising to the 
 crown of the fruit, which is occasion- 
 ally of a russet hue, Calyx large and 
 deeply seated, ripe in October, and in 
 eating through the antumn and winter. 
 It is equally adapted to the table, 
 kitchen and press. The habit of the 
 tree is open, growth large and hand- 
 
 iEsopus Spitzenburg. Thomp. Lind. 
 Ken. (Fig. 16.) There are but few, 
 very few apples to which higher rank is 
 awarded than to this variety, which has 
 the rare advantage of beauty and good- 
 ness combined. It is said to have origi- 
 nated at ./Esopus on the Hudson river. 
 The size full medium, with an oblong out- 
 line. Skin fair and smooth, of a fine clear 
 red, in some specimens of a brilliant hue 
 on the sunny side, the opposite of a yel- 
 lowish cast. Flesh yellow, and in the lan- 
 guage ofCose, "singularly rich, juicy and. 
 sprightly." Stem of medium length, well 
 planted. Calyx in a shallow depression. 
 In season November to February. 
 
 Kaighn's Spitzenburg. Coxe. (Fig. 
 17.) This variety takes its name from 
 the original cultivator, the late Joseph 
 Kaighn, of Kaighn's Point, New Jersey. 
 
APP 
 
 52 
 
 APP 
 
 Fig. 12.— (P. 49.) 
 
 Fig. IS.— (P. 50.) 
 
APP 
 
 53 
 
 APP 
 
 Fig. 14.— (P. 50.) 
 
 It somewhat resembles the JEsopus 
 Spitzenburg. Colour bright red, deli- 
 cately streaked and marked by white 
 dots, which strongly characterize it. 
 Skin smooth; flesh juicy and well 
 flavoured ; stem rather long, deeply 
 seated ; blossom end frequently more 
 pointed than in the drawing. 
 
 Propagation by seed. — When it is in- 
 tended to raise stocks to be engrafted, 
 the only matter to be observed in se- 
 lecting the seed is, that it be from vigo- 
 rous healthy trees. Keep the seed in 
 sand, or earth moderately damp,*during 
 autumn and winter, and sow quite early 
 in the spring, and in drills, so as to ad- 
 mit of more easy culture. The second 
 season the young stocks may be trans- 
 planted, and again the third season, 
 (each transplantation tending to secure 
 success on the final transfer to the or- 
 chard ground.) When three years old, 
 they will be, if well managed, stout 
 stocks, ready for grafting. 
 
 Where the object is to produce new 
 varieties, select the f seed from favourite 
 fruits and sow as above directed. 
 
 If it be the purpose to allow the seed- 
 lings to bear, they may be suffered to 
 remain where they have first grown, or 
 they may be transplanted to any other 
 position. But a more speedy method 
 
 to reach results is to graft a shoot of 
 the seedling in a branch of a vigorous 
 tree. The second season fruit may be 
 obtained, especially if the shoot is bent 
 downwards, or inclined, so as to arrest 
 the free flow of sap, which would rather 
 tend to preserve wood than fruit. By 
 this means curiosity can be early satis- 
 fied, and those which prove worthless, 
 by far the larger portion, cast out as 
 cumberers of the ground. 
 
 Mr. Knight states that " the width 
 and thickness of the leaf generally in- 
 dicates the size of the future apple, but 
 will by no means convey any correct 
 idea of the merits of the future fruit. 
 
 " When these have the character of 
 high cultivation, the qualities of the 
 fruit will be far removed from those of 
 the native species ; but the apple may 
 be insipid or highly flavoured, green or 
 deeply coloured, and of course well or 
 ill-calculated to answer the purposes of 
 the planter. An early blossom in the 
 spring, and an early change of colour 
 in the autumnal leaf, would naturally 
 be supposed to indicate a fruit of early- 
 maturity, but I have never been able to 
 discover any criterion of this kind on 
 which the smallest dependence may be 
 placed. The leaves of some varieties 
 will become yellow and fall off, leaving 
 
APP 
 
 APP 
 
 Fig. 15.— (P. 51.) 
 
 the fruit green and immature ; and the i 
 leaves in other kinds will retain their I 
 verdure long after the fruit has perished. 
 The plants whose buds in the annual 
 wood are full and prominent are usually 
 more productive than those whose buds 
 are small and shrunk in the bark ; but 
 their future produce will depend much 
 on the power the blossoms possess of 
 bearing the cold, and this power varies 
 in the varieties, and can only be known 
 from experience. Those which pro- 
 duce their leaves and blossoms rather 
 early in the spring are generally to be 
 preferred, for, though they are more 
 exposed to injury from frost, they less fre- 
 quently suffer from the attacks of insects 
 
 — the more common cause of ailure. 
 The disposition to vegetate early or 
 late in the spring, is, like almost every 
 other quality in the apple tree, trans- 
 ferred in different degrees to its off- 
 spring ; and the planter must therefore 
 seek those qualities in the parent tree 
 which he wishes to find in the future 
 seedling plants. The ^best method I 
 have been able to discover of obtaining 
 such fruits as vegetate very early in the 
 spring, has been by introducing the 
 farina of the Siberian Crab into the blos- 
 som of a rich and early apple, and by 
 transferring, in the same manner, the 
 farina of the apple to the blossom of the 
 Siberian Crab. The leaf and the habit 
 
APP 
 
 55 
 
 APP 
 
 Fig. 16.— (P. 51.) 
 
 of many of the plants that I have thus 
 obtained, possess much of the character 
 of the apple, whilst they vegetate as 
 early in the spring as the crab of Sibe- 
 ria, and possess at least an equal power 
 of bearing cold; and I possess two 
 plants of the family which are quite as 
 hardy as the most austere crab of our 
 woods." 
 
 By cuttings. — All the varieties may 
 be raised in this mode, though some, 
 as the Burr-knot, Codling, and June- 
 eating, more readily than others. Trees 
 so raised are said to be not so liable as 
 their parents to canker. In February 
 take cuttings of young shoots from some 
 of the horizontal branches, about eight 
 inches long, cutting off a portion of the 
 old wood of the branch attached to the 
 shoot ; remove all the buds except the 
 upper three. Plant these firmly in 
 sandy loam, giving water and covering 
 with g. hand-glass until the cuttings have 
 well vegetated. Shade from the mid- 
 day sun ; remove the hand-glass in Au- 
 
 gust ; and remove the plants into the 
 nursery early in November. 
 
 Soil. — The most favourable soil is a 
 strong loam, two feet deep, on a dry 
 subsoil, thoroughly drained, for stag- 
 nant root moisture induces canker and 
 moss. 
 
 Planting.— The soil should be trench- 
 ed, and some cultivators place imme- 
 diately beneath each tree, according to 
 the extent of its roots, chalk, stones, 
 or brick-bats rammed so as to form a 
 kind of pavement to direct the roots 
 horizontally. Plant so that the roots 
 nearest the surface are twelve inches 
 below it. 
 
 Espaliers. — In America the apple is 
 seldom trained as an Espalier, though 
 they might thus be cultivated in gar- 
 dens of limited extent, and in some 
 cases serve a double purpose, affording 
 shade and fruit. When first planted 
 the young plant is cut down to within 
 about a foot of the ground, and only 
 three shoots permitted to spring from it, 
 
APP 
 
 56 
 
 APP 
 
 Fig. 17.— (P .51.) 
 
 one of which will be the leader, and 
 the others will form the first or lower 
 tier of bearing branches, which are to 
 be secured to small stakes, so as to 
 keep them in their proper places. 
 
 The following season the upright 
 leader must be shortened to nine inches 
 or a foot above the two horizontal 
 branches, and deprived of all its shoots 
 excepting the three uppermost, which 
 are to be treated the same as before. 
 In this way the leading shoot is to be 
 stopped at the requisite distance above 
 the horizontal ones, until it has reached 
 the height of five feet. It is then cut 
 off, and no more allowed to grow up- 
 right, the whole strength of the tree 
 being directed to the fruiting branches. 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Espalier apple trees should be at not 
 less than twenty feet distance ; but five- 
 and-thirty feet is better, especially for 
 trees grafted on crab or apple stocks, 
 which are free shooters ; for trees graft- 
 ed on codlin and paradise stocks eigh- 
 teen or twenty feet may be a sufficient 
 distance. They should be planted with 
 
 their heads entire, only removing any 
 very irregular growths that do not range 
 consistent with the intended form, and 
 pruning any broken roots. Let all the 
 branches be trained horizontally to the 
 right and left, an equal number on each 
 side, all at full length, five or six inches 
 asunder, and, according as they shoot 
 in summer, still continue them along 
 entire. At the same time train in a 
 further supply of new shoots, to increase 
 the number of horizontals or bearers, 
 and thus continue increasing their num- 
 bers every year, till the espalier is 
 regularly filled from the bottom to top, 
 I preserving all the branches at full 
 | length, as far as the allotted space will 
 admit. 
 
 They must have a summer and a 
 winter pruning annually ; in the sum- 
 mer cut out all the superfluous and ill— 
 j placed shoots of the year, and train 
 regular ones towards the lower parts in 
 vacant spaces, at least to remain till 
 winter, some of which may be then 
 wanted to fill some unforeseen vacancy, 
 clearing out all others at this time as 
 
APP 
 
 57 
 
 APR 
 
 close as possible. And in winter, if I middle of the head, and all dead wood 
 any worn out or decayed parts appear, 
 then is the time to retrench them, re- 
 taining young branches in their places, 
 and if any vacancy occurs, retain some 
 contiguous young shoot to fill it. Cut 
 clean out close to the branches, still 
 continuing all the branches, and any 
 occasional supply of shoots, at full 
 length, as far as their limited bounds 
 will allow; then train the whole regu- 
 larly, tying them in as straight and 
 close to the railing as possible, about 
 six inches asunder. 
 
 Standards, or Orchard Trees. — The 
 standards having been trained in the 
 nursery with tolerably good heads, they 
 should be planted with those heads en- 
 tire ; if any are intended for the kitchen 
 garden, plant them at least forty feet 
 distance; and, for a full plantation, to 
 form an orchard, allow thirty feet dis- 
 tance every way. 
 
 Trim any broken roots, but leave all 
 the others entire. 
 
 As soon as planted, let every one be 
 well staked, to support them firmly up- 
 right, and prevent their being disturbed 
 in rooting by winds. 
 
 Smaller growing standards, such as 
 codlins and dwarfs upon paradise stocks, 
 may, if required, be planted only at 
 twenty feet distance, though, if there 
 is room to allow a greater distance, it 
 will be the greater advantage. 
 
 Let them also, in future, advance with 
 all their branches at full length, taking 
 their own natural growth, and they 
 will soon form numerous natural spurs 
 in every part for bearing. 
 
 With respect to pruning these stand- 
 ards very little is required, probably 
 not more than once in several years, 
 and then only the retrenching any very 
 irregular cross-placed bough, or reduc- 
 ing to order any very long rambler ; or 
 when the head is become greatly crowd- 
 ed and confused, to thin out some of 
 the most irregular growth, likewise all 
 strong shoots growing upright in the 
 
 and suckers from the stem and root. 
 
 Home persons, however, prefer more 
 pruning, and Mr. Clarke, gardener to 
 the Earl of Lonsdale, says, " My sea- 
 son for pruning commences as soon as 
 the fruit is taken off* the trees, and con- 
 tinues to the middle of March ; during 
 that time cut out all the ill-placed 
 shoots, such as incline to grow towards 
 the centre, or into each other, and 
 leave untouched all those that stand in 
 such a way that the tree will form a cup, 
 or something like a well blown tulip, 
 all the branches standing perfectly clear 
 of each other, so that they will bear 
 fruit on the inside, the sun and air get- 
 ting to all parts of the tree alike. Keep 
 fruit trees as low as possible ; this may 
 be done by removing a limb when it is 
 likely to get over tall, leaving a young 
 shoot at a proper place to succeed it. 
 The apple is in America a hardy robust 
 tree, and succeeds admirably through- 
 out the middle and western states, 
 though it were desirable it should re- 
 ceive more attention than is frequently 
 bestowed on it. Its principal enemy is 
 the " Borer," (Saperda bivittata), which 
 deposits its eggs in the body of the tree 
 near the ground. The insects perforate 
 the wood, causing disease, and if un- 
 disturbed ultimately death. The reme- 
 dy is the frequent use of pliant wire 
 thrust into the wound, so as to pierce 
 the grub ; a mound of ashes around the 
 trunk is beneficial — alkali being ex- 
 tremely offensive to insects. 
 
 For full directions as to the manage- 
 ment of apple trees see the "Fruit Cul- 
 turistf by Thomas. " Fruits of Ame- 
 rica," by Downing. " Kenrick's Or- 
 chardist." 
 
 APPLE-BARK BEETLE. Bostri- 
 chus. 
 
 APRICOT, (Armeniaca vulgaris.) 
 
 Varieties. — The following list is from 
 the catalogue of D. Landreth and Ful- 
 ton, Philadelphia :— 
 
APR 
 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 APR 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Color. 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 
 y. yellow. 
 
 
 Size. 
 
 
 Season of 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 o. orange. 
 
 Form. 
 
 m. medium. 
 
 "3 
 
 3 
 
 ripening 
 at Philad. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 r. red. 
 
 
 l. large. 
 
 & 
 
 
 1. Roman. 
 
 y- 
 
 oblong 
 
 M. 
 
 2 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Very produc- 
 
 Abricot Commun. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tive and ex- 
 
 Large French. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cellent. 
 
 2. Breda. 
 
 0. 
 
 round 
 
 M. 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Highly flavor- 
 
 Holland. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ed, produc- 
 
 Brussels. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tive. 
 
 3. Large Early. 
 
 o. 
 
 oblong 
 
 L. 
 
 1 
 
 July. 
 
 Excellent. 
 
 4. Moor Park. 
 
 o. r. 
 
 round 
 
 L. 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Considered 
 
 Abricot Peche. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the finest. 
 
 Be Nancy. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. Masculine Red. 
 
 o. r. 
 
 
 M. 
 
 2 
 
 July. 
 
 Earliest. 
 
 Early Red Masculine. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brown Masculine. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6. Orange. 
 
 0. 
 
 round 
 
 M. 
 
 2 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Abundant 
 
 Royal Persian. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bearer, good 
 
 Early Orange. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 flavor. 
 
 7. Peach. 
 
 o. r. 
 
 round 
 
 L. 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Good and 
 
 De Nancy. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 productive. 
 
 Latimer-s Peach. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8. Turkey. 
 
 y. 
 
 round 
 
 L. 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 
 Large Turkey. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Propagation is best done by budding 
 on a plum or peach stock in August 
 or September, as the state of the 
 wood may make expedient. European 
 gardeners usually, for dwarfs, bud 
 at eight inches from the ground ; for 
 half-standards at three feet; and for 
 standards at five feet. But that is un- 
 important, the subsequent treatment of 
 the tree may adapt it to the required 
 purpose. With us it is the general 
 practice to bud near the ground, and 
 the usage would imply the practice has 
 proved correct. 
 
 Planting. — The best plants are with 
 one stem, free from gum, clean barked ; 
 and the more vigorous the better. They 
 may be safely transplanted at any time 
 in autumn after vegetation has ceased, 
 until the buds are about to expand in 
 spring. 
 
 Aspect. — An eastern or western wall 
 is best ; for on a south aspect the fruit 
 becomes mealy even before it is ripe. 
 A northern exposure sometimes proves 
 most successful, as the bloom is late, 
 and escapes frost, which is fatal to those 
 in more sheltered situations. As a 
 standard, the apricot is some years be- 
 fore it bears, but it is then very prolific 
 and high flavored. 
 
 Soil. — The usual mellow loam of 
 gardens is well suited to the apricot ; 
 
 but its roots should be kept at less than 
 eighteen inches from the surface, and 
 the border be well drained. 
 
 Training. — The branches should be 
 on an average six inches apart, and 
 kept as horizontal as possible. The 
 nearer the form can be kept to the fol- 
 lowing (Fig. 18) the better, unless the 
 tree be weak, in which case the 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 branches may be trained a little more 
 vertical. 
 
 Pruning must be regulated by the 
 knowledge that, with the exception of 
 the Moor Park, each variety bears 
 chiefly on the shoots of the previous 
 
APR 
 
 APR 
 
 years. The Moor Park mostly on spurs 
 upon two and three years' old branches. 
 
 Summer Pruning. — Take off all fore- 
 right shoots and others that are irregular 
 and misplaced ; reserving those that are 
 vigorous and that will train in well for 
 next year's bearing. If done early in 
 May the finger and thumb will super- 
 sede the knife for this pruning. Con- 
 tinue to nail the shoots to the wall as 
 necessary during all the summer. Over- 
 vigorous shoots may be topped in June, 
 and be thus induced to put forth more 
 fertile laterals. 
 
 Winter Pruning had best be done as 
 soon as the leaves have fallen, though 
 it may be carried on until the buds be- 
 gin to swell in March. Cut out the 
 most naked of the two previous years' 
 shoots, and old branches not well sup- 
 plied with young wood, to have their 
 places re-occupied by younger and bet- 
 ter branches. Keep a leading shoot at 
 the end of each branch. Vigorous 
 shoots of the last year shorten about 
 one-eighth — weaker shoots about one- 
 half. This promotes the production of 
 laterals for next year's fruiting, and 
 gives a fuller supply of sap to the blos- 
 som buds ; but if the shortening is too 
 great, the latter will be converted to 
 leaf-buds. Cut off all fore-right spurs ; 
 but lateral spurs may be retained, as 
 they sometimes produce blossom buds, 
 as they always do in the Moor Park. 
 
 Espaliers are to be formed as those 
 on walls, and standards only require 
 dead, crowded, or chaffing branches to 
 be removed. 
 
 When an apricot gets old and dis- 
 eased, it is much more profitable to re- 
 place it by a younger, than to attempt 
 its renovation. 
 
 Gathering should take place before 
 the fruit is quite ripe, or it will be 
 mealy. 
 
 Thinning, as soon as the fruit is large 
 enough for tarts, in May or early in 
 June, should be boldly done, no fruit 
 being left nearer than six inches to 
 another. 
 
 Insects. — Wasps and flies are best 
 kept off by a net, not nearer than a foot 
 to the wall. 
 
 Mildew is often the most formidable 
 assailant of the apricot, as it usually 
 arises from excess of moisture to the 
 root ; draining the border, and mixing 
 lime with the soil, will be in such case 
 found efficacious as a preventive, and 
 
 at the time a syringing with water 
 containing one-eighth of gas ammonia- 
 cal liquor. 
 
 APRIL. In this fickle month the 
 sheltering of wall fruit requires particu- 
 lar attention. Easterly blighting winds 
 always prevail towards its close, and 
 early in May. 
 
 The work required to be attended to 
 in the various departments in the lati- 
 tude of Philadelphia, is as follows. It 
 should be performed early or later as 
 we reside south or north of that lati- 
 tude : — 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN . 
 
 Alexanders, sow. — Angelica, sow. — 
 Artichokes, plant, b. or dress. — Aspara- 
 gus, sow, plant, force, and dress beds. 
 — Balm, plant. — Basil, sow. — Beans, 
 sow, hoe. — Beets, sow, b. — Borecole, 
 sow, prick out, leave for seed. — Bro- 
 coli, sow. — Borage, sow. — Burnets, 
 sow, and plant. — Cabbages, sow, plant. 
 — Capsicum, sow. — Cardoons, sow. — 
 Carraway, sow. — Carrots, sow, weed. 
 — Cauliflowers, late, sow in open 
 ground, b. — Celery, sow, leave for seed. 
 — Chamomile, plant. — Chives, plant. — 
 Chervil, sow, leave for seed. — Cole- 
 worts, plant. — Clary, sow. — Cress, sow. 
 — Cucumbers, sow. — Dill, sow. — Earth- 
 ing-up, attend to. — Fennel, sow or 
 plant. — Finochio, sow. — Garlic, plant, 
 b. — Horse-radish, plant, b. — Hotbeds, 
 make and attend. — Hyssop, sow, plant. 
 — Jerusalem Artichokes, plant, b. — Kale 
 (Sea), sow and plant, b. ; dress beds. — 
 Kidney beans (dwarfs), sow ; (runners), 
 sow, e. — Lavender, plant. — Leeks, sow, 
 b. e. ; leave for seed. — Lettuces, sow 
 weekly; plant from frames. — Marigolds, 
 sow. — Marjorams, sow and plant. — 
 Melons, sow. — Mustard and Cress, 
 sow; leave for seed. — Mushroom beds, 
 make ; attend to. — Mint, plant. — Nas- 
 turtiums, sow. — Onions, sow, b. e. ; 
 weed ; plant and for seed ; (Potatoe and 
 Tree), plant, b. — Parsley, sow ; leave 
 for seed ; (Hamburgh), sow. — Parsnips, 
 sow, b. ; hand weed. — Peas, sow ; hoe; 
 stick. — Penny-royal, plant. — Pompions, 
 sow, b. — Potatoes, plant; attend forc- 
 ing. — Purslane, sow. — Radishes, sow ; 
 thin. — Rape, sow. — Rocambole, plant.— 
 Rue, plant. — Salsafy and Savory, sow, 
 e. — Scorzonera and Skirrets, sow, e. — 
 Shallots and Sage, plant, b.— Sorrels, sow 
 and plant. — Spinach, sow; thin ; leave 
 for seed. — Tansy and Tarragon, plant. 
 — Thyme, sow and plant.— Tomatos, 
 
APR 
 
 60 
 
 APR 
 
 sow. — Turnips, sow, 
 for seed. — Turnip 
 Wormwoods, sow. 
 
 b. e. ; plant and 
 Cabbage, sow. — 
 
 ORCHARD. 
 
 Apples may be planted. — Blossoms of 
 wall fruit, protect. — Budded (Trees), last 
 summer, remove insects from buds, and 
 shoots from stocks below. — Cherries 
 
 I move from borders to some place where 
 they can complete their vegetation ; 
 their decayed leaves are unsightly. — 
 I Carnations, in pots, give liquid manure, 
 | and water often ; stir the earth ; sow, 
 e. ; plant into borders, b. — Climbing 
 plants, train and regulate. — Dahlias, 
 plant to remain, b., or in pots to for- 
 ward in a frame until May. — Dress the 
 borders, &c, indefatigably. — Ever- 
 
 may be planted.— Disbud wall trees of greenS} p i an t, b. ; it is the best season 
 
 superfluous buds. — Forcing fruits, in 
 hot-house, attend to. — Grafting (late 
 kinds of apples, pears, and plums), may 
 be done still, b. — Grafts, lately inserted 
 
 Frames, raise, by supporters at the 
 bottom, as the plants within grow tall. 
 — Roll ; trim edges ; dress with earth if 
 poor. — Gravel, turn and lay afresh in 
 
 see that the clay is firm, and rub off", dry wea ther ; roll once a week.— Hya- 
 shoots below the scion.— Heading down { c i n tfa, shelter from sun by an awning 
 
 wall and espalier trees, finish, b, if not 
 done last month — Insects, search for 
 and destroy. — Lime (early in the morn- 
 ing), dust over the leaves of trees infest- 
 ed by caterpillars. — Liquid Manure, 
 give to trees newly planted. — Mulch 
 round the roots. — Peaches may be 
 planted. — Pears may be planted. — 
 Plums may be planted. — Propagating 
 by layers, cuttings, suckers, and seed, 
 finish, b. — Pruning, finish, b. ; stop 
 young shoots. — Stake trees newly 
 planted. — Strawberries, water daily in 
 dry weather those in bloom, if dry. — 
 Vines, propagate by layers and cut- 
 
 tings, 
 
 summer dress 
 
 or matting over the beds, from nine to 
 four; give the same shelter in bad wea- 
 ther day and night ; those done flower- 
 ing take up ; separate offsets and store. 
 — Insects, destroy with tobacco smoke 
 or dusting of Scotch snuff. — Mignonette, 
 sow in any warm border. — Mulch, put 
 round trees newly planted. — Pinks, 
 sow. — Polyanthuses, sow; plant out 
 and propagate by offsets, b. ; last year's 
 seedlings now in bloom, mark best for 
 propagating. — Potted Plants, give fresh 
 earth to, if not done last month ; shift 
 into larger; water freely. — Perennials, 
 those sown last spring may still be 
 
 stake and hoe frequently ; old borders 
 manure. — Wall-fruit, thin generally. — 
 Wasps, destroy; every one now killed 
 prevents a nest. 
 
 ; m vineyard I p] an ted, and propagated by offsets 
 
 FLOWER GARDEN. 
 
 Annuals (Tender), prick out those 
 sown in February and March into a hot- 
 bed ; water often ; sow in hotbed ; 
 (Hardy), may be sown in borders, &c, 
 to remain; thin those advancing. — Au- 
 riculas in bloom, shelter. (See Hya- j abundant light ; syringe to destroy red 
 
 finish sowing. — Sticks are required to 
 blooming plants. — Tulips, take off pods 
 to strengthen bulbs. — Watering plants 
 in pots is now required more frequent- 
 ly, yet moderately ; give it early in the 
 morning. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit freely during the day. — 
 Bark Beds, renew if not done in March. 
 — Figs, first crop ripening, require 
 
 cinth.) Supply with. water often ; those 
 for seed plunge pots in a sheltered bor- 
 der, where they can have sun until ele- 
 ven o'clock ; piant offsets ; propagate 
 by slips ; seedlings shade during mid- 
 day. — Anemones and Auriculas done 
 flowering, take up and separate offsets. 
 — Box edgings may be made, and old 
 taken up, slipped and replanted. — Bien- 
 nials, finish sowing, b.; plant out those 
 sown last spring. — Bulbs, in water 
 glasses, done flowering, plantin ground 
 after cutting down stalks ; autumn flow- 
 ering, take up and store, ready for 
 planting in July; spring flowering, re- 
 
 spider ; give little water, and air freely. 
 — Flowering Plants in pots, for succes- 
 sion, continue to introduce. — Grafting 
 flowering stove plants is worthy of prac- 
 tice, either to get dwarfs or taller spe- 
 cimens. — Insects, destroy by tobacco 
 fumes. — Leaves, clean occasionally, 
 either with the sponge or syringe. — Li- 
 quid Manure, apply to fruiting vines and 
 other plants requiring vigour. — Mush- 
 room House, keep air in moist ; wood- 
 lice destroy. — OrchidacecB, shade. — Pot- 
 ted Plants, shift into larger as required. 
 — Pines, continue to treat as in March ; 
 shade during bright sun ; those shifted 
 
AQU 
 
 61 
 
 AQU 
 
 in that month or February shift again, 
 e. ; suckers remove ; plant crowns. — 
 Propagate by layers, suckers, cuttings, 
 and seed, according to the plants' ha- 
 bits. — Red Spider is now apt to prevail ; 
 put sulphur upon the flues to drive 
 away. — Steam, admit frequently into 
 house. — Syringe every plant that will 
 bear the treatment to prevent the Red 
 Spider. — Vines, treat as last month ; 
 thin grapes, and tie up shoulders of the 
 bunches ; water abundantly ; remove 
 superfluous shoots, e. ; temp. about75o ; 
 in the late green-houses, train up the 
 rafters. — Water requires to be given 
 oftener; sprinkle frequently about the 
 house, and keep the pans full. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit daily, as weather permits. 
 — Camellias, sow and graft. — Earth in 
 pots stir frequently ; and add fresh if 
 not done in March. — Greenfly or Aphis 
 usually indicates the house has been 
 kept too cold. — Hardiest Plants keep 
 in coldest parts of house, near the 
 ventilators. — Head-down irregular grow- 
 ing shrubs, — Heat* increase if neces- 
 sary. — Inarch shrubby exotics. — Leaves 
 and Wood decayed, remove as they ap- 
 pear; clean with sponge or syringe. — 
 Liquid Manure apply to sickly shrubs. — 
 Potted Plants, shift as they require 
 room ; and water immediately. — Pro- 
 pagate by seeds, cuttings, inarching, 
 and other modes, as the species permit. 
 — Prune Or Pinch off free growing 
 shoots, to make shrubby growths. — 
 Succulent plants shift ; plant cuttings 
 and suckers. — Water often, guided al- 
 ways by the plant's habits. 
 
 AQUARIUM is the place devoted to 
 the cultivation of aquatic or water 
 plants. The majority of those culti- 
 vated are exotic, and require the pro- 
 tection of glass. If there are only a few 
 of these they may be successfully 
 grown in cisterns placed in a stove ; 
 but if the collection be extensive, it re- 
 quires a separate edifice. The tank 
 system of heating by hot water offers a 
 very superior mode of keeping the wa- 
 ter at a fitting temperature. The leaden 
 cistern in which the plants are sub- 
 merged may rest readily upon the slates 
 forming the cover of the tank. 
 
 Mr. Loudon recommends an aqua- 
 rium to be thus constructed : " The 
 cistern to be close under the front 
 glass, and have that glass rather flat, say 
 
 at an agle of fifteen degrees, or two cis- 
 terns might be formed, one in the back 
 part of the house for tall plants, and the 
 other in front, for plants with floating 
 foliage, with a broad path between. 
 But the most elegant plan would be to 
 have a circular house, having glass 
 on all sides, to have a cistern in the 
 centre for river plants, and a surround- 
 ing cistern for those which grow in 
 stagnant water. To imitate the effect 
 of the motion of water in the central 
 cistern, the mould or pots in which the 
 plants grow might be placed on a bot- 
 tom, apart from that of the cistern, and 
 this bottom being on the end of an up- 
 right shaft, might, by the aid of proper 
 machinery in a vault below, be kept 
 in perpetual circular motion. Those 
 plants which grow naturally in rapid 
 streams, might be planted or placed on 
 the circumference of the bottom, and 
 those requiring less agitation towards 
 its centre. If reversed motion was re- 
 quired to imitate tides, (where marine 
 aquatics were cultivated,) nothing could 
 be easier than by the sort of wheel used 
 in the patent mangle to produce it to 
 any extent, or by another still more 
 simple plan known to every engineer, 
 it might be changed seldomer, say only 
 once or twice in twenty-four hours. If 
 a rapid and tortuous motion was re- 
 quired, then let the bottom on which the 
 plants are placed be furnished with 
 small circular wheels placed on its mar- 
 gin working on pivots, and furnished 
 on their edges with teeth like a spur 
 wheel. Then let there be a correspond- 
 ing row of teeth fixed to the inside of 
 the wall, or side of the cistern, into 
 which they are to work, like a wheel 
 and pinion. 
 
 " By this means pots of plants set on 
 the small wheels will have a compound 
 motion, one round the centre of the 
 small wheels, and another round that of 
 the large bottom, something of the na- 
 ture of the planetary motion, but more 
 like that of the waltz dance. It is al- 
 most needless to add, that exotic aqua- 
 tic fowls and fishes might be kept in 
 such an aquarium, and either of the sea 
 or fresh water rivers, according as salt 
 water or fresh was used. It may be 
 thought by some that the machinery 
 would be intricate and troublesome ; but 
 the power requisite is so very small, 
 that it might easily be obtained by ma- 
 chinery on the principle of the wind-up 
 
AQU ( 
 
 jack, such as is used by Deacon in his 
 ventilating Eolians. 
 
 " This kind of mechanism very sel- 
 dom goes out of order or requires re- 
 pairs, and would require no other atten- 
 tion than being wound up twice in 
 twenty-four hours, and oiled occasion- 
 ally. The same vault that contained it 
 might serve for the furnace or boiler 
 for heating the house." — Gard.Enc. 
 
 The following are aquatic stove 
 plants : — 
 
 Aponogeton angustifolium. 
 distachvon. 
 
 ARB 
 
 monostachyon. 
 
 Arum venosum. 
 Cyperus alternifolius. 
 
 papyrus. 
 
 Damasonium indicum. 
 Euryale ferox. 
 Menyanthes indica. 
 
 ovata. 
 
 Nelumbium speciosum. 
 Nymphaea caerulea. 
 
 lotus. 
 
 pubescens. 
 
 pygmsea. 
 
 rubra. 
 
 stellata. 
 
 ■ versicolor. 
 
 Philydrum lanuginosum. 
 Pontederia cordata. 
 
 dilatata. 
 
 Sagittaria lancifolia. 
 
 obtusifolia. 
 
 Thalia dealbata. 
 
 Propagation and culture. — Being all 
 herbaceous plants, they are to be pro- 
 pagated as these generally are ; some 
 are raised from seeds, which, in gene- 
 ral, should be sown as soon as ripe, and 
 the pots plunged in shallow water; 
 when the plants come up they may be 
 transplanted into other pots, and shifted 
 as they advance in growth, till in a pot 
 of sufficient size to admit their flower- 
 ing, which will generally take place the 
 same season. Instead of being kept in 
 pots, the plants may be inserted in a 
 bed of earth on the bottom of the aqua- 
 rium. Keep the water warm, say from 
 70° to 75 D in summer, and leave them 
 nearly dry in winter. Nelumbium spe- 
 ciosum requires a water heat of S4°. 
 
 Cyperus, Papyrus, Nelumbium, Nym- 
 phaea, Limnocharis, Hydrocharis, Sagit- 
 taria, and Pentederia, will furnish va- 
 riety enough. 
 
 Stove for aquatics. — For one com- 
 
 bined with the culture of Orchideous 
 Plants see the latter title. 
 
 Hardy Aquatics require an aquarium 
 proportioned to the size of the rest of 
 the pleasure grounds ; and that its bot- 
 tom be rendered retentive of water by 
 puddling with clay. Its sides should be 
 sloping, and cut into terraces, so as to 
 be suited to the various heights of the 
 plants, and its margins should be form- 
 ' ed of rough stones and fragments of 
 rock, among which marsh plants will 
 grow luxuriantly. 
 
 AQUEDUCT', a conveyance of any 
 kind for conducting water. The Ro- 
 mans made prodigious structures of this 
 : kind ; some are still in use, others, in a 
 - state of decay, are among the greatest 
 ornaments of Italy. In landscape gar- 
 dening, the aqueduct enables the ope- 
 rator to produce a fine effect, where the 
 absence of water would render the 
 scene tame and uninteresting. 
 
 AQUILARIA malaccensis. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 AQUILEGIA, Columbine. Seven- 
 teen species, and many varieties. 
 Hardy herbaceous: Seed. Common 
 soil. 
 
 ARABIS. Thirty-one species, and 
 some varieties. Hardy herbaceous and 
 evergreen. Seeds or cuttings. Light 
 soil. 
 
 ARACHIS hypogeea. Stove annual. 
 Seed. Sandy loam. 
 
 ARALIA. Eighteen species. Chiefly 
 stove evergreens, but a few hardy or 
 green-house plants. Cuttings. Common 
 soil. 
 
 ARAUCARIA. Three species. Co- 
 niferous green-house trees. Rich light 
 soil. Cuttings planted in sand in Au- 
 gust take freely. Cover with a bell- 
 glass, and place in a cold frame or pit. 
 Exclude frost and damp. In spring 
 give a little bottom heat. Plants thus 
 raised never form good leading shoots. 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 ARBORETUM is a collection of trees 
 and shrubs capable of enduring expo- 
 sure to our climate. These are usually 
 arranged in genera according to their 
 precedence in the alphabet ; or in 
 groups conformably to the Jussieuean 
 system ; and whichever is adopted it is 
 quite compatiDle with an attention to 
 facility of access by means of walks, as 
 well as to picturesque effect. 
 
 It is an evil growing out of the fre- 
 
ARB 
 
 63 
 
 A RM 
 
 quent change in the ownership of es- 
 tates, that most proprietors are indis- 
 posed to plant for posterity; conse- 
 quently we see but few grounds laid 
 out with a view to permanent improve- 
 ment. Those who plant are anxious 
 themselves to reap the fruits of their 
 exertions, not knowing, and conse- 
 quently careless, who shall succeed 
 them — where landed property is, by 
 entail, transmitted from generation to 
 generation, family pride, and the love 
 of distinction, ensure every improve- 
 ment being made in a permanent form 
 — thus have been created the magnifi- 
 cent parks of Europeans, and their 
 stately mansions. Our American sys- 
 tem deprives us of such monuments of 
 taste — but we can bear the deprivation, 
 seeing the greater good produced there- 
 by. 
 
 ARBOUR is a seat shaded by trees. 
 Sometimes these are trained over a 
 wooden or iron trellis-work, mingled 
 with the everlasting sweet pea, clema- 
 tis, and other climbing odorous plants. 
 When the trellis-work is complicated 
 and the structure more elaborate, with 
 a preponderance of the climbers al- 
 ready named, together with the honey- 
 suckle, &c, they are described as 
 French or Italian arbours. 
 
 ARBOR YITM, Thuja. 
 
 ARBUTUS, Strawberry tree. Four- 
 teen species, and a few varieties. Ever- 
 green shrubs, chiefly hardy in Great 
 Britain, but require shelter in the Mid- 
 dle States. Layers, budding, inarch- 
 ing, and seed. Loam and peat. 
 
 ARCHANGEL, Lamium. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. Rural architect- 
 ure has been greatly improved within the 
 last quarter of a century. Much greater 
 attention is now paid to the structure of 
 garden and farm buildings, and the do- 
 mestic comfort of those employed in 
 rural labour. There is of consequence 
 an elevation of taste, and conduct, and 
 beneficial results to all concerned. In 
 England, Loudon has laboured to this 
 end with great success, and his Ency- 
 clopedia of Villa and Cottage Architec- 
 ture, is a monument to his industry and 
 indomitable energy. Downing, in this 
 country, has followed the path so 
 plainly marked by Loudon, and pro- 
 duced a volume, which cannot but re- 
 fine the taste, and correct much that 
 offends the eve. 
 
 ARCTOSTAPHYLOS. Four species. 
 Hardy trees, raised like the Arbutus. 
 
 ARCTOTHECA. Two species. 
 Green-house herbaceous. Division. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 ARCTOTIS. Thirty-one species. 
 Chiefly green-house evergreens. A. vir- 
 gata is a hardy annual. 
 
 ARCUATION. The same as Layer- 
 ing. 
 
 ARDISIA. Twenty-five species. 
 Stove or green-house evergreen shrubs. 
 An ornamental genus of plants much 
 valued by collectors for the beauty of 
 their foliage and berries. They are of 
 easy culture. Cuttings of branches or 
 roots. Loam and peat. 
 
 ARDUINA hispinosa. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 ARECA. Ten species. Stove palms. 
 Seeds. Sandy loam. 
 
 AREMONIA agrimonoid.es. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 
 
 ARETHUSA. Two species. Ten- 
 der orchids. Division. Moist peat and 
 loam. 
 
 ARETIA. Five species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ARGANIA syderoxylon Stove ever- 
 green tree. Layers or cuttings. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 ARGEMONE. Five species. Hardy 
 plants. Suckers. Common soil. 
 
 ARGYREIA. Eight species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Light 
 rich soil. 
 
 ARISTEA. Five species. Green- 
 house herbaceous. Seed or division. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 ARISTOLOCHIA. Thirty-six species. 
 Hardy, green-house and stove. Seve- 
 ral species are Americans. A. labiosa, 
 from Brazil, is a very curious plant. 
 A. serpentaria (the root of) is said to 
 be the substance which the Egyptian 
 Snake-jugglers chew for the purpose of 
 stupifying the snakes, by the introduc- 
 tion of their saliva into the reptiles' 
 mouths. Cuttings. Rich sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ARISTOTELIAmtcgia. Hardy 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Common 
 soil. 
 
 ARMENIACA. Four species. Hardy 
 fruit trees. Budding on plum-stocks. 
 Rich loam. See Apricot. 
 
 ARMERIA. Nineteen species. 
 Hardy herbaceous, except A. fascicu- 
 
ARN 
 
 ART 
 
 lata, which is a green-house evergreen. 
 Division. Rich light soil. See Thrift. 
 
 ARNOPOGON. Four species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 ARTABOTRYS odoratissima. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 evening until they are established, as 
 well as during the droughts of summer. 
 The only other attention they require 
 during the summer, is the frequent use 
 of the hoe. They produce heads the 
 same year, from July to October, and 
 will continue to do so annually, from 
 
 ARTAXEMA fimbriatwn. Hardy May until June or July. As often as a 
 
 evergreen shrub. Seed. Loam and peat. 
 
 ARTEMISIA, Wormwood. Forty- 
 seven species. Seed. Division and 
 cuttings. Mostlv hardy and herbaceous. 
 
 ARTHROPODIUM. Five species. 
 Green-house herbaceous. Division or 
 seed. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 ARTHROSTEMMA. Two species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 ARTICHOKE, {Cynara scolymus.) 
 
 Soil and situation. — The finest heads 
 are produced in* a soil abounding in 
 moisture, but in such they will not sur- 
 vive the winter. To enable them to 
 
 head is cut, the stem must be broken 
 down close to the root, to encourage 
 the production of suckers before the 
 arrival of winter. In November or 
 December, they should receive their 
 winter's dressing. The old leaves being 
 cut away without injuring the centre or 
 side shoots, the ground must be dug 
 over, and part of the soil thrown into a 
 moderate ridge over each row, it being 
 put close about the plants, but the 
 hearts left clear. Each plant must be 
 closed round with long litter, or pea 
 haulm : it is, however, a very erroneous 
 practice to apply stable dung imme- 
 
 survive the winter, those for the supply diately over the plants previous to 
 
 of suckers, as well as those for the last- 
 ing production, must have a rich loam 
 allotted to them. Manure must be 
 applied every spring ; and the best 
 compost for them is a mixture of three 
 parts well putrefied dung, and one part 
 of fine coal-ashes. They should a] ways 
 have an open exposure, and above all be 
 
 earthing them up, as it in general in- 
 duces decay. As soon as February 
 commences, all covering of this descrip- 
 tion must be removed. In March, or 
 as soon as the shoots appear four or 
 five inches above the surface, the 
 ridges thrown up in the winter must 
 be levelled, and all the earth removed 
 
 free from the influence of trees; for if from about the stock to below the part 
 
 beneath their shade or drip, the plants 
 spindle, and produce worthless heads. 
 
 Time and mode of planting. — It is 
 propagated by suckers, which are an- 
 nually afforded by the parent plants in 
 
 from whence the young shoots spring. 
 Of these remove all but two or at 
 most three of the straightest and most 
 vigorous, care being taken to select 
 from those which proceed from the 
 
 the spring. These must be slipped off; under part of the stock: the strong 
 
 in March or early in April, when eight 
 or ten inches in height, with as much 
 of their fibrous roots pertaining as pos- ; 
 sible. Such of them should be selected ; 
 as are sound and not woody. The 
 brown hard part by which they are 
 attached to the parent stem must be 
 removed, and if that cuts crisp and 
 tender, it is tough and stringy, and is 
 worthless. Further, to prepare them 
 for planting, the large outside leaves 
 are taken off so low as that the heart 
 appears above them. If they have been 
 some time separated from the stock, or 
 if the weather is dry, they are greatly 
 invigorated by being set in water for 
 three or four hours, before they are 
 planted. They should be set in rows 
 four feet and a half by three feet apart, 
 
 thick ones proceeding from its crown 
 having hard woody stems, and are pro- 
 ductive of indifferent heads. 
 
 Although the artichoke in a suitable 
 soil is a perennial, yet after the fourth 
 or fifth year the heads become smaller 
 and drier. The beds, in consequence, 
 are usually broken up after the lapse of 
 this period, and fresh ones formed on 
 another site. 
 
 The artichoke's heads are made to 
 attain a much larger size than they 
 would otherwise by twisting a ligature 
 very tightly round the stem, about three 
 inches below each; and thus preventing 
 the reflux of the sap. 
 
 No vegetable is more benefitted than 
 the artichoke by the application of sea- 
 weed or any other manure containing 
 
 and about half their length beneath the common salt. 
 
 surface. Water them abundantly every j To obtain chards. — After the best 
 
ART 
 
 65 
 
 ASI 
 
 heads have been cut, early in July the 
 leaves are to be cut over within half a 
 foot of the ground ; and the stems as 
 low as possible. In September or Oc- 
 tober, when the new shoots or leaves 
 are about two feet high, they are bound j Sulphate of lime . 
 close with a wreath of hay or straw, : Sulphate and muriate of soda 
 and earth or litter is drawn round the Carbonate of lirne 
 stems of the plants. The blanching is ! Oxide of iron 
 
 square yards, twenty-eight pounds ia 
 an average application, and they cannot 
 be put on too fresh. 
 
 Peat ashes contain — 
 Silica 
 
 perfected in a month 
 
 or six weei 
 
 If i Loss 
 
 the chardsare wished late in the winter, I 
 the whole plants may be dug up before 
 frost sets in, and laid in sand in their ! 
 blanched state. In this way they may I 
 be kept for several weeks. 
 
 They are an excellent application to 
 lawns, turnips, cabbages, potatoes, and 
 peas. 
 
 Coal ashes contain carbon, silica, 
 alumina, sulphate of lime, iron and 
 
 Gobbo. — " The stem of an artichoke ; potash, carbonate of lime, and oxide of 
 is bent down to a right angle, and the j iron. They are a good manure for 
 petioles are collected and covered over 1 grass, peas and potatoes. Sprinkled 
 so as to blanch. The result is a lump, j half an inch deep on the surface over 
 
 which is eaten raw with salt, and 
 tolerably good. In Italy it is used in 
 the autumn and winter, and replaces 
 radishes." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 ARTOCARPUS. Bread Fruit Tree. 
 Two species. Stove evergreens. Cut- 
 tings. Light rich loam. 
 
 ARUM. Thirty-seven species. 
 Hardy, green-house, and stove. Off- 
 sets. Common soil. 
 
 AS ARUM. Five species. Hardy, 
 herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 
 
 ASCARICIDA. Two species. Stove 
 annuals. Seed. Rich light soil. 
 
 ASCLEPIAS. Thirty-six species. 
 Chiefly hardy, and all herbaceous but 
 A. Greeniana and Mexicana, which are 
 stove evergreens. Seed or division. 
 Peat. 
 
 ASHES are the remains of a sub- 
 stance which has undergone combus- 
 tion, and are as various in their compo- 
 nents as are the bodies capable of being 
 burnt. Whatever be the substance 
 burnt, the process should be made to 
 proceed as slowly as possible, for by 
 such regulation more carbon or char- 
 choal is preserved in the ashes, which 
 is the most valuable of their constitu- 
 ents. The simplest mode of effecting 
 a slow combustion is to bank it over 
 with earth, leaving only a small orifice 
 to admit the air sufficiently to keep up 
 a smouldering fire. 
 
 Ashes have been usually recom- 
 mended as a manure most useful to 
 heavy soils, but this is a decided mis- 
 take. As fertilizers they are beneficial 
 upon all soils, and they can never be 
 applied in sufficient quantity to alter the 
 staple of a too tenacious soil. To thirty 
 5 
 
 s beans and peas, they hasten the germi- 
 nation of the seed, and preserve it from 
 mice. They are also used for forming 
 dry walks in the kitchen department. 
 
 Soap-boilers' ashes contain — 
 Silica .... 
 
 Lime .... 
 
 Magnesia .... 
 Alumina .... 
 Oxide of Iron 
 
 Manganese 
 
 35.0 
 35.0 
 2.3 
 1.5 
 1.7 
 1.8 
 0.5 
 0.2 
 
 Potash (combined with Silica) . 
 
 Soda (Do.) 
 
 Sulphuric Acid (combined with 
 
 Lime) 0.2 
 
 Phosphoric Acid (Do.) . . 3.5 
 Common salt . . . .0.1 
 Carbonic Acid (combined with 
 
 Lime and Magnesia) . . 18.2 
 
 They are good for all crops but espe- 
 cially grass and potatoes. 
 
 Wood ashes and the ashes of garden 
 weeds generally contain silica, alumina, 
 oxides of iron and manganese, lime, 
 magnesia, potash, partly in the state of 
 a silicate, soda, sulphates of potash and 
 lime, phosphate of lime, chloride of 
 sodium, and carbonates of lime, potash, 
 and magnesia, with a considerable por- 
 tion of charcoal. They are a good appli- 
 cation to cabbages, potatoes, and peas. 
 
 Turf ashes contain silica, alumina, 
 oxides of iron and manganese, lime, 
 magnesia, sulphates of potash and lime, 
 phosphates of lime and magnesia, com- 
 mon salt, and charcoal. They have 
 been used beneficially to grass, onions, 
 carrots, beans, potatoes, and beet root. 
 
 ASH-TREE. {Fraxines excelsior.- 
 
 ASIATIC-POISON BULB. (Crinum 
 asiaticum.) 
 
ASI 
 
 ASP 
 
 ASIMINA. Four species. Hardy 
 deciduous shrubs. Layers. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 ASPALANTHUS. Thirty-one spe- 
 cies. Green-house evergreen shrubs. 
 Cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 ASPARAGUS. Twenty-eight spe- 
 cies, of which the most important is 
 the kitchen vegetable, asparagus offici- 
 nalis. Of this there are only two va- 
 rieties, the purple topped and the green 
 
 plants have arisen from the same hole, 
 the weakest must be removed as soon 
 as that point can be well determined. 
 Towards the end of October, as soon 
 as the stems are completely withered, 
 they must be cut down, and well pu- 
 trefied, dung spread over the bed to the 
 depth of about two inches; this serves 
 not only to increase the vigour of the 
 plants in the following year, but to pre- 
 serve them during the winter from in- 
 topped ; the first is principally culti- I jury by the frost. About March in the 
 vated. There are a few sub-varieties next year, every other plant must be 
 which derive their names from the taken up and transplanted into a bed, 
 places of their growth, and are only to twelve inches apart, if it is intended 
 be distinguished for superior size or that thej' should attain another, or two 
 
 years' further growth, before being 
 finally planted out, or they may be 
 
 flavour, which they usually lose on re- 
 moval from their native place. 
 
 Soil. — The soil best suited to this J planted immediately into the beds for 
 
 vegetable is a fresh sandy loam, made 
 rich by the abundant addition of manure. 
 
 Situation. — The site of the beds 
 should be such as to enjoy the influ- 
 ence of the sun during the whole of the 
 day, as free as possible from the influ- 
 ence of trees and shrubs, and if choice 
 is allowed, ranging east and west. The 
 subsoil should be dry, or the bed kept 
 so by being founded on rubbish or other 
 material to serve as a drain. The space 
 of ground required to be planted with 
 this vegetable for the supply of a small 
 family is at least eight rods. If less it 
 will be incapable of affording one hun- 
 dred heads at a time. Sixteen rods 
 will in general afford two or three hun- 
 dred every day, in the height of the 
 season. 
 
 Time of sowing. — To raise plants, 
 the seed may be sown from the middle 
 of February to the beginning of April ; 
 the most usual time is about the middle 
 of March. The best mode is to insert 
 them by the dibble five or six inches 
 apart, and an inch below the surface, 
 two seeds to be put in each hole, or 
 they may be sown in drills made the 
 same distance asunder. 
 
 Culture in seed bed. — If dry weather, 
 the bed should be refreshed with mode- 
 rate but frequent waterings, and if 
 sown as late as April, shade is required 
 by means of a little haulm during the 
 meridian of hot days, until the seeds 
 germinate. Care must be taken to keep 
 them free from weeds, though this ope- 
 ration should never commence until the 
 
 production. It may be here remarked 
 that the plants may remain one or two 
 years in the seed bed ; they will even 
 succeed after remaining three, but if 
 they continue four they generally fail. 
 It is, however, certain that they are 
 best removed when one year old. 
 
 Some gardeners judiciously sow the 
 seed in the beds where they are to re- 
 main for production. 
 
 Time of final planting. — The best 
 time for the final removal is the end of 
 March, if the soil is dry, and the season 
 warm and forward ; otherwise it is bet- 
 ter to wait until the commencement of 
 April. A very determinate signal of 
 the appropriate time for planting, is 
 when the plants are beginning to grow. 
 If moved earlier, and they have to lie 
 torpid for two or three months, many 
 of them die, or in general shoot up very 
 weak. 
 
 Construction of the beds. — In forming 
 the beds for regular production, have 
 them three feet wide. The site of the 
 bed being marked out, the usual prac- 
 tice is to trench the ground two spades 
 deep, and then to cover it with weil- 
 rotted manure, from six to ten inches 
 deep ; the large stones being sorted out, 
 and care taken that the dung lies at 
 least six inches below the surface. 
 
 Mode of planting. — The plants being 
 taken from the seed-bed carefully with 
 a narrow-pronged dung-fork, with as 
 little injury to the roots as possible, they 
 must be laid separately and evenly to- 
 gether, for the sake of convenience 
 
 plants are well above ground, which whilst planting, the roots being apt to 
 will be in the course of three or four entangle and cause much trouble and 
 weeks from the time of sowing. If two! injury in parting them. They should 
 
ASP 
 
 67 
 
 ASP 
 
 be exposed as short a time as possible 
 to the air, and to this end it is advisable 
 to keep them until planted in a basket 
 covered with a little sand. The mode 
 of planting is to form drills or narrow 
 trenches five or six inches deep and a 
 foot apart, cut out with the spade, the 
 line side of each drill being made per- 
 pendicular, and against this the plants 
 are to be placed, with their crowns one 
 and a half or two inches below the sur- 
 face, and twelve inches asunder. The 
 roots must be spread out wide in the 
 form of a fan, a little earth being drawn 
 over each to retain it in its position 
 whilst the row is proceeded with. For 
 the sake of convenience, one drill 
 should be made at a time, and the 
 plants inserted and covered completely 
 before another is commenced. When 
 the planting is completed, the bed is to 
 be lightly raked over, and its outline dis- 
 tinctly marked out. Care must be had 
 never to tread on the beds — they are 
 formed narrow to render it unnecessary 
 — for everything tending to consoli- 
 date them is injurious, as, from the 
 length of time they have to continue, 
 without a possibility of stirring them to 
 any considerable depth, they have a 
 natural tendency to have a closer tex- 
 ture than is beneficial to vegetation. 
 Water must be given in dry weather 
 daily until the plants are established. 
 The paths between the beds are to be 
 two and a half feet wide. 
 
 Mr. Beaton says, that " By far the 
 best way of growing asparagus is in 
 single rows three feet apart, and nine 
 inches plant from plant; but if the 
 ground is not deeper than two feet or 
 thirty inches, or if room is scarce, the 
 rows need not be more than thirty 
 inches asunder. 
 
 " I have grown asparagus this way 
 for the last fifteen years, and give them 
 no dung in winter, merely clearing off 
 the stalks and weeds in October, and 
 pointing over the surface about two 
 inches deep with a fork, and leaving it 
 as rough as possible. 
 
 " Early in March, when the surface 
 is^ quite dry, it is raked down, and 
 about two inches of soil drawn over the 
 crowns from each side of the rows, 
 which gives the ground something of 
 the appearance of a plot of peas earthed 
 up for the first time. When the gather- 
 ing is nearly over, the ground is stirred 
 again, to loosen the tramping made in 
 
 gathering the crop. The hollow be- 
 tween the little ridges is then filled up 
 with a powerful compost, consisting of 
 equal portions of sandy soil, leaf mould, 
 and pigeon's dung; the whole is then 
 drenched with liquid manure from the 
 stables, cowhouses, or laundry, and the 
 foreman of the kitchen garden gets 
 carte blanche to water the asparagus 
 any day through the growing season, 
 when he can best spare his men, or at 
 all events every fortnight, and always 
 with liquid manure if possible. As to 
 the quantity of water, the only instruc- 
 tion he gets is that he cannot drown 
 them. This is cultivating the asparagus ' 
 in summer." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Subsequent cultivation. — Throughout 
 the year care must be taken to keep 
 the beds clear of weeds, and in the 
 spring and summer apply liquid manure 
 twice a week plentifully. In the latter 
 end of October or commencement of 
 November, the beds are to have the 
 winter dressing. The stalks must be 
 cut down and cleared away, and the 
 weeds hoed off into the paths, care 
 being taken not to commence whilst 
 the stems are at all green, for if they 
 are cut down whilst in a vegetating 
 state the roots are very prone to shoot 
 again, and consequently are propor- 
 tionally weakened. 
 
 On the richness of the ground and 
 warmth of the season the sweetness of 
 asparagus depends. The dung needs 
 merely to be laid regularly over the 
 bed, and the weeds, as well as some 
 manure, to be slightly pointed into the 
 paths, some of the mould from which 
 must be spread to the depth of two 
 inches over the dung just laid upon the 
 beds. In the end of March, or early 
 in April, before the plants begin to 
 sprout, the rows are to be stirred be- 
 tween to a moderate depth with the 
 asparagus fork, running it slantingly 
 two or three inches beneath the sur- 
 face, as the object is merely to stir the 
 surface and slightly mix it with the 
 dung. 
 
 Great care must be taken not in the 
 least to disturb the plants. Some gar- 
 deners recommend the beds should only 
 be hoed again, so fearful are they of the 
 injury which may be done to the stools ; 
 but if it be done carefully, as above di- 
 rected, the fork is the best implement 
 to be employed. This course of culti- 
 vation is to be continued annually, but 
 
ASP 
 
 68 
 
 ASP 
 
 with this judicious modification, that I to cut. Doubtless all its energies are 
 earth be never taken from the paths i developed by the digging in of the ma- 
 after the first year, but these merely be | nure in the autumn of the second year, 
 
 covered with dung, and which is only 
 to be slightly dug in ; for every gar- 
 dener must have observed that the roots 
 of the outer row extend into the alleys, 
 and are consequently destroyed if they 
 are dug over. And, rather than that 
 should take place, the beds should have 
 no winter covering unless earth can be 
 obtained from some other source, as 
 asparagus does not generally suffer 
 from frost, as is commonly supposed. 
 
 Manuring. — No garden plant is more 
 benefitted than is asparagus by the ap- 
 plication of common salt, if it be given 
 at such times as the plants are growing. 
 Two pounds to every thirty square 
 yards of surface should be sown broad- 
 cast over the beds early in April. After 
 that, water the plants once a week with 
 liquid manure, formed of half an ounce 
 of guano and four ounces of salt to 
 every gallon of water. The supply of 
 food cannot be too rich or too abundant. 
 
 Spanish culture. — Near Sebastian, in 
 Spain, the finest asparagus in Europe 
 is produced by the following mode: — 
 
 " In March the seed is sown in two 
 drills, about two inches deep, and 
 eighteen inches from the alleys, thus 
 leaving a space of two feet between 
 the drills. The rows run invariably 
 east and west, doubtless in order that 
 the plants may shade the ground during 
 the heats of summer. 
 
 and when it does begin to sprout, it 
 finds its roots in contact with a soil of 
 inexhaustible fertility. 
 
 " Previously, however, to the cutting, 
 each bed is covered in the course of 
 March very lightly with dead leaves, 
 to the depth of about eight inches ; and 
 the cutting does not commence till the 
 plants peep through this covering, when 
 it is carefully removed from the stems, 
 in order that the finest only may be cut, 
 which are rendered white by their leafy- 
 covering, and succulent by the exces- 
 sive richness of the soil. 
 
 " In the autumn of the third year, 
 after the first cutting, the leaves are re- 
 moved, and the beds are again dressed 
 with fresh night soil, as before; and 
 these operations are repeated year after 
 year. In addition to this, the beds are 
 half under salt water annually at spring 
 tides." 
 
 Time of production. — In May the 
 beds are in full production of young 
 shoots, which, when from two to five 
 inches high, are fit for cutting, and as 
 long as the head continues compact and 
 firm. Care must be taken in cutting 
 not to injure those buds which are 
 generally rising from the same root 
 in various grades of successional growth 
 within the ground. The knife ought 
 to be narrow pointed, the blade about 
 I nine inches in length, and saw edged. 
 
 When the seedlings are about six The earth being carefully opened round 
 inches high, they are thinned to some- | the shoot, to observe whether any others 
 
 thing more than 
 is conducted onc( 
 
 foot apart. Water ; are arising, the blade is to be gently 
 day among the | slipped along the stalk until it reaches 
 
 illeys, and over the beds, so as to give i its extremity, where the cut is to be marie 
 these seedlings an abundant and con- in a slanting direction. It almost always 
 stant supply of fluid during the season I occurs that the same stool produces a 
 
 greater number of small heads than 
 large ones, but the latter only should be 
 
 of their growth. This is the cultiva- 
 tion during the first year. 
 
 The second year, in the month of cut: for, the oftener the former are re- 
 
 March, the beds are covered with three 
 or four inches of fresh night soil from 
 the reservoirs of the town. It remains 
 on them during the summer, and is 
 lightly dug in during the succeeding 
 autumn ; the operation of irrigation 
 being continued as during the first sea- 
 
 moved, the more numerously will they 
 be produced, and the stools will sooner 
 become exhausted. * 
 
 " No one should cut too many sprouts 
 from his asparagus beds. On the con- 
 trary, the gardener should take care to 
 leave atleast two orthree strongsprouts, 
 
 son. This excessive stimulus, and the to grow from every root; or what is 
 abundant room the plants have to grow better, his beds should be rested one 
 
 in, must necessarily make them ex- 
 tremely vigorous, and prepare them 
 for the production of gigantic sprouts. 
 
 year, and cut another; for he may be 
 certain from the strength of the sum- 
 mer shoots, what sort of sprouts he 
 
 In the third spring asparagus is fit | will have to cut the succeeding year- 
 
ASP 
 
 69 
 
 ASP 
 
 remembering always that it is useless 
 to manure asparagus beds for sprouts 
 independently of summer shoots. If a 
 bed of asparagus is weak, manure in 
 the autumn will do but little for making 
 it bring strong sprouts the next season. 
 All that the manure can then do is to 
 feed abundantly the summer shoots 
 of the succeeding summer, and so ena- 
 ble them to prepare plenty of materials 
 out of which a second season's strong 
 sprouts may be pushed forth. What is 
 true of asparagus is equally true of 
 sea kale and rhubarb." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 To obtain seed. — Some shoots should 
 be marked and left in early spring, for 
 those which are allowed to run up after 
 the season of cutting is over, are seldom 
 forward enough to ripen their seeds 
 perfectly. In choosing the shoots for 
 this purpose, those only must be marked 
 which are the finest, roundest, and 
 have the closest heads; those having 
 quick opening heads, or are small or 
 flat, are never to be left. More are to 
 be selected than would be necessary if 
 each stem would assuredly be fruitful ; 
 but as some of them only bear male or 
 unproductive blossoms, that contin- 
 gency must be allowed for. Each 
 chosen shoot must be fastened to a stake, 
 which by keeping it in its natural posi- 
 tion, enables the seed to ripen more 
 perfectly. 
 
 The seed is usually ripe in September, 
 when it must be collected and left in a 
 tub for four or six weeks, for the pulp 
 and husk of the berry to decay, when 
 it may be well cleansed in water. The 
 seeds sink to the bottom, and the re- 
 fuse floats, and will pass away with 
 the water as it is gently poured off. By 
 two or three washings the seeds will 
 be completely cleansed ; and when 
 perfectly dried by exposure to the sun 
 and air, may be stored for use. 
 
 Forcing. — Plants to be employed. — 
 Such plants must be inserted in hot-beds 
 as are five or six years old, and appear 
 of sufficient strength to produce vigo- 
 rous shoots: when, however, any old 
 natural ground plantations are intended 
 to be broken up, at the proper season 
 some of the best plants may be selected 
 to be plunged in a hot-bed or any spare 
 corner of the stove bark beds. When 
 more than ten years old, they are 
 scarcely worth employing. To plant 
 old stools for the main forcing crop, is, 
 however, decidedly erroneous; for, if 
 
 plants are past production, and unfit 
 to remain in the garden, little can be 
 expected from them when forced. 
 
 Time of planting. — The first planta- 
 tion should be made about the latter 
 end of September; the bed, if it works 
 favourably, will begin to produce in the 
 course of four or five weeks, and will 
 continue to do so for about three ; each 
 light producing in that time 300 or 400 
 shoots, and affording a gathering every 
 two or three days. 
 
 Produce. — To have a regular suc- 
 cession, a fresh bed must be formed 
 every three or four weeks, the last crop 
 to be planted in March or the early 
 part of April ; this will continue in 
 production until the arrival of the natu- 
 ral ground crops. The last made bede 
 will be in production a fortnight sooner 
 than those made about Christmas. 
 
 Bed. — The hot-bed must be substan- 
 tial, and proportioned to the size and 
 number of* the lights, and to the time of 
 year. The common mode of making 
 a hot-bed is usually followed. The 
 bed must be topped with six inches of 
 light rich earth. 
 
 Quantity necessary. — If a small family 
 is to be supplied, three or four lights 
 will be sufficient at a time ; for a larger 
 six or eight will not be too many. 
 Several hundred plants may be inserted 
 under each, as they may be crowded 
 as close as possible together ; from 
 500 to 900 are capable of being inserted 
 under a three light frame, according to 
 their size. 
 
 Mode of planting. — In planting, a 
 furrow being drawn the whole length of 
 the frame, against one side of it the 
 first row or course is to be placed, the 
 crown upright, and a little earth drawn 
 on to the lower ends of the roots, then 
 more plants again in the same manner, 
 and so cqntinued throughout, it being 
 carefully observed to keep them all 
 regularly about an inch below the sur- 
 face ; all round on the edge of the bed 
 some moist earth must be banked close 
 to the outside roots. 
 
 Precautions necessary. — If the bed is 
 extensive, it will probably acquire a 
 violent heat; the frames must there- 
 fore be continued off until it has be- 
 come regular, otherwise the roots are 
 liable to be destroyed by being, as it is 
 technically termed, scorched or steam- 
 scalded. 
 
 Treatment.— When the heat has be- 
 
ASP 
 
 70 
 
 ATH 
 
 come regular, the frames may be set 
 on ; and more earth be applied by de- 
 grees over the crowns of the plants 
 until it acquires a total depth of five or 
 six inches. 
 
 The glasses must be kept open an 
 inch or two, as long and as often as 
 possible, without too great a reduction 
 o f temperature occurring, so as to ad- 
 mit air freely and give vent to the va- 
 pours ; for on this depends the superi- 
 ority in flavour and appearance of the 
 shoots. The heat must be kept up by a 
 lining of hot dung, and by covering the 
 glasses every night with mats, &c. 
 
 The temperature at night should 
 never be below 50°, and in the day its 
 maximum at 62°. 
 
 Gathering. — In gathering, for which 
 the shoots are fit when from two to five 
 inches in height, the finger and thumb 
 must be thrust down into the earth and 
 the stem broken off at the bottom. 
 
 Insects. — The foliage of this vege- 
 table is liable to be destroyed by the 
 larvae of two beetles, the Lema asparagi, 
 or Asparagus Beetle, and the Lema duo- 
 decim punctata. The only remedy is 
 to pick off and destroy the affected 
 branches. 
 
 ASPASIA. Two species. Stove epi- 
 phytes. Bulbs. Peat and potsherds. 
 
 ASPEN, (Populus tremula.) 
 
 ASPERULA, Woodroof. Twenty- 
 four species. Hardy herbaceous, ex- 
 cept A. brevifolia, which is a half-hardy 
 evergreen. Division. Moist shaded soil. 
 
 ASPHODELUS. Asphodel. Twelve 
 species. Hardy bulbs, except A. clava- 
 tus and intermedia. Offsets. Common 
 soil. 
 
 ASPIDISTRA. Two species. Stove 
 herbaceous. Suckers. Common soil. 
 Flowers produced under ground. 
 
 ASPIDIUM. Forty-nine species. 
 Ferns. Hardy, green-house or stove. 
 Seed or division. Loam and peat. 
 
 ASPIDIOTUS. See Coccus. 
 
 ASPLENIUM. Forty-nine species. 
 Ferns. Hardy, green-house or stove. 
 Seed or division. Loam and peat. 
 
 ASSONIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 ASTARTEA fascicularis. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 ASTELMA. Ten species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Seed or cut- 
 tings. Sandy peat. 
 
 ASTEPHANUS. Two species. 
 Green-house evergreen twiners. Di- 
 ' vision. Peat and loam. 
 
 ASTER. One hundred and fifty-two 
 species. Chiefly hardy, but a few 
 ' green-house plants. - Suckers or divi- 
 sion. Common soil. The time for 
 thus propagating them is in autumn, or 
 early spring ; but many of the species 
 : are increased by cuttings of the flower 
 stalks, planted in a shady border during 
 1 May or June. The varieties. are numer- 
 ous. 
 
 ASTEROCEPHALUS. Fifty-three 
 species. Mostly hardy annuals and 
 j perennials. Seed or cuttings. Com- 
 ; mon soil. 
 
 ASTILBE decandra. Hardy herb- 
 j aceous. Division. Peat. 
 
 ASTRAGALUS. One hundred and 
 
 j eleven species. Nearly all hardy pe- 
 
 j rennials and annuals; the first propa- 
 
 | gated by division, the second by seed. 
 
 Common soil. 
 
 ASTRANTIA. Six species. Hardy 
 [ herbaceous. Division. Common light 
 | soil. 
 
 ASTRAP^SA. Three species. Stove 
 i evergreen trees. Cuttings. Rich light 
 soil. 
 
 ASTROCARYUM. Five species. 
 Palms. Stove. Seed. Rich loam. 
 
 ASTROLOBIUM. Four species. 
 Hardy annuais. Seed. Common soil. 
 ASTROLOMA. Two species. 
 Greenhouse evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 ASTYRIA rosea. Stove shrub. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam. 
 
 ATALANTIA monophylla. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich 
 loam. 
 
 ATAMASCO-LILY (Zephyr anthes 
 Atamasco). 
 
 ATHALIA spinarum. Turnip Saw- 
 fly, known popularly as the Black-cater- 
 pillar, Black-canker, Black-palmer, Ne- 
 gro, &c. 
 
 Mr. Curtis observes, that "As early 
 ! as May, or sooner, the Saw-flies make 
 | their appearance ; the female lays her 
 eggs on the under surface along the 
 margin of the leaf. These hatch in 
 about five days, and produce the Ne- 
 groes, which are not thicker than a fine 
 j thread, and white, but after changing 
 their skins, they become black, and 
 eventually are three-quarters of an 
 inch long, when they are more of a 
 , lead colour and yellowish-white be- 
 
ATH 
 
 AUG 
 
 neath their skins, being very much 
 wrinkled ; they erect their tails whilst 
 feeding, and are stretched out at full 
 length in repose, or lie sleeping coiled 
 up on the leaf; they are feeding about 
 three weeks, after which they descend 
 to the ground, and enter the earth, 
 where they form a cocoon, silvery in- 
 side, in which the larva eventually be- 
 comes a pupa. In summer they remain 
 only three weeks in this quiescent state, 
 but the autumnal ones lie buried through 
 the winter." — Gard. Chron. Hand- 
 picking is the only mode of removing 
 the caterpillars. 
 
 ATHANASIA. Seventeen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam. 
 
 ATHEROSPERMA moschata. Green- 
 house evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ATHRIXIA capensis. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light 
 loam. 
 
 ATRAGENE. Five species. Hardy 
 deciduous climbers. Cuttings. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 ATRIPLEX. Three species. See 
 Orach. 
 
 ATTALEA. Seven species. Palms. 
 Stove. Seed. Rich loam. 
 
 AUBRIETIA. Three species. Hardy 
 evergreen trailers. Division and cut- 
 tings. Light soil. 
 
 A U C U B A japonica. Evergreen 
 shrub, hardy in the middle states on 
 light dry soil. The leaves, if exposed 
 to the sun during winter, are liable to 
 injury. Cuttings. Common soil. 
 
 AUDISERTIA incana. Hardy ever- 
 green slirub. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 AUDOUINIA capitata. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 AUGUST. This is a glorious month 
 in the middle states ; towards its close 
 the extreme heat of summer has sub- 
 sided, the mornings and evenings are 
 cool and pleasant; the luscious peach, 
 and pears, and plums are in full sea- 
 son, and one really feels as if he could 
 compromise for August the year round. 
 
 The various departments now re- 
 quire the following work to be at- 
 tended to : — the directions for the 
 kitchen garden are specially intended 
 for the middle portion of the Union. 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 Alexanders, sow. — Angelica, sow. — 
 
 Aromatic Herbs may still be. planted ; 
 gather for drying and distilling. — Arti- 
 chokes, break down, &c. — Asparagus- 
 beds, weed. — Balm, plant; gather for 
 drying. — Borage, sow. — Borecole, plant. 
 — Brocoli, plant, b. — Cabbages, plant 
 out. — Cardoons, earth up. — Cauli- 
 flowers, late, plant. — Celeriac, earth up. 
 — Celery, plant. — Chervil, sow. — Cole- 
 worts, sow for, b. ; plant. — Corn Salad, 
 sow. — Cress, sow. — Cucumbers, plant 
 or sow, b. — Dillis fit for gathering. — 
 Earthing-up, attend to. — Endive, plant ; 
 blanch, &c, the advancing crops. — 
 Fennel, sow and plant. — Finochio, 
 earth up. — Garlic, take up. — Hoeing, 
 attend to. — Kidney Beans, sow, b. — 
 Leeks, plant, b. — Lettuces, sow, plant 
 out. — Melons, attend to. — Mint, gather 
 for drying. — Mushroom-beds, make ; at- 
 tend to. — Nasturtium Berries, gather.- — 
 Onions, gather. — Parsley, sow, b. — 
 Peas, sow, b. — Radishes, sow ; gather 
 pods for pickling. — Rape (edible rooted), 
 sow. — Rochambole, take up. — Seeds, 
 gather as ripe. — Shallots, take up. — 
 Small Salading, sow. — Spinach, sow. — 
 Stir between plants in rows, &c. — 
 Turnips, sow at intervals, through- 
 out the month, &c. — Turnip- Cabbage, 
 plant. — Weeding and Watering, at- 
 tend to. — Wormwood, plant, b. — To- 
 matos, plant for late crop. 
 
 ORCHARD. 
 
 Budding, done in July; loosen the 
 bandages, if on more than three weeks ; 
 remove shoots from stocks ; budding 
 may be done in most fruit, b. — Fig 
 Trees, train in closely to let the fruit 
 have the full benefit of the sun ; but do 
 not prune. Nectarines, look over ; re- 
 move useless shoots; train in close; 
 water plentifully or the fruit will drop. 
 Nets, spread over fruit to protect it 
 from birds. — Peaches. — Vines, look over 
 again and clear from useless shoots, &c. 
 Wasps, destroy by luring them into 
 bottles. 
 
 FLOWER GARDEN. 
 
 Anemones, sow. — Annuals, stick ; wa- 
 ter ; clear from decayed leaves, &c. 
 Auriculas, shift into fresh earth ; water; 
 keep in the shade ; seedlings prick out; 
 sow. — Biennial seedlings, transplant. 
 Bulbous-rooted flower-seeds, to obtain 
 varieties, sow. — Bulbous roots, remove 
 or transplant ; remove and plant offsets; 
 (Autumn flowering), plant. — Carnation, 
 
AUG 
 
 72 
 
 AUR 
 
 layers cut from old root and plant; 
 water frequently ; layering may still be 
 done, b. ; card the flowers and shade 
 from sun. — Dahlias, stake; thin the 
 flowers. — Daisies, propagate. — Double- 
 blossomed perennials with fibrous roots, 
 propagate by division, e. — Dress borders 
 as required. — Edgings of box, &c, clip 
 in wet weather. — Evergreens may be 
 moved, e., if wet weather; plant cut- 
 tings. — Grass, mow and roll weekly. — 
 
 &c, b. — Budding, finish, b. — Dress 
 every plant as occasion offers. — Earth, 
 give to Oranges, &c. ; stir the surface 
 frequently.— Oranges, Lemons, &c, bud, 
 b — Peat-mduld plants, especially heaths, 
 keep assiduously supplied with water. — 
 Potted Plants, continue outside the 
 house until the end of the month. — 
 Seedlings, transplant singly. — Shifting 
 into larger pots, finish. — Succulent 
 Plants, as Aloes, &c, propagate by 
 
 Grass seeds maybe sown, e. — Gravel, slips, &c, b. — Water freely and daily 
 
 in dry weather. 
 
 AULAX. Two species. Green-house 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sand and 
 a little loam. 
 
 AURICULA. {Primula Auricula.) 
 This is a popular Florist's flower, and 
 animated contests take place for the 
 premiums annually offered by the Eng- 
 lish provincial Horticultural Societies. 
 
 Varieties. — Mr. Slater, Florist, of 
 Cheetham Hill, Manchester, says, " For 
 an amateur's first collection, procure of 
 Green-edged: Rider's Waterloo; Pol- 
 litt 1 s Standard of England and Highland 
 Laddie; Ollier's Lady Anne Wilbraham; 
 Oliver's Lovely Anne; shown also in 
 grey-edged class. Grey-edged: Grimes 
 Privateer; Kenyon's Ringleader ; War- 
 ns Union; Sykes Complete; Thomp- 
 son's Revenge. White-edged : Taylor's 
 Glory ; Leigh's Bright Venus; Taylor's 
 Favourite ; Kenyon's Lord Chancellor ; 
 Leigh's Pillar of Beauty. Selfs: Grimes, 
 Hovas, Flag; Berry's Lord Primate; 
 Whittaker's True Blue. Alpines: Em- 
 merson's Favourite ; Fieldhouse's Fair 
 Rosamond. 
 
 2d. " As an addition to his collec- 
 tion, obtain of Green-edged: Booth's 
 Freedom; Leigh's Colonel Taylor; 
 Yates's Morris ; Green Hero ; Page's 
 Champion ; Ashton's Prince of Wales ; 
 Clough's Dolittle ; Barlow's King ; Lit- 
 ton's Imperator ; Howard's Nelson ; 
 Pearson's Badajos ; Pollit's Ruler of 
 England ; Buckley's Jolly Tar; Faulk- 
 ner's Ne Plus Ultra. Grey -edged : 
 Fletcher's, Mary Anne, and Ne Plus 
 Ultra ; Waterhouse's Conqueror of Eu- 
 rope ; Thompson's Bang-up ; Taylor's 
 Ploughboy; Pearson's Liberty; Howard's 
 Sweepstake; shown also in green-edged 
 class. White-edged: Ashworth's Rule 
 All and Regular ; Taylor's Incompara- 
 ble ; Wood's Delight ; Popplewell's 
 Conqueror ; Potts' Regulator ; Ashton's 
 Bonny Lass; Cheetham's Countess ot 
 Wilton. Alpines: King of the Alps; 
 
 weed and roll weekly. — Hedges, clip in 
 moist weather. — Mignonette, sow. — Pe- 
 largoniums, propagate by cuttings, b. — 
 Perennials, in pots and elsewhere, 
 will require. water almost daily; break 
 down flower stalks as they finish bloom- 
 ing ; seedlings, transplant. — Pipings of 
 Pinks may be planted out. — Polyan- 
 thuses, sow. — Potted Annuals will re- 
 quire water daily in dry weather. — Ra- 
 nunculuses, sow ; plant in pots to bloom 
 in November. — Seeds, gather as they 
 ripen. — Soioings, to obtain varieties, 
 had better be done in boxes. — Ten-week 
 Stock, sow, b. — Tulips, and other bulb- 
 ous-rooted flower-seed, sow. — Turf, 
 may be laid, e. — Watering will be re- 
 quired generally in dry weather. — 
 Weeding, generally attend to. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit freely every day. — Bark- 
 beds, stir and add fresh. — Bulbous-rooted 
 Plants, force plants in pots; they will be 
 much stronger than if done in the next 
 month. — Check plants growing too free- 
 ly, by removing them to cooler situa- 
 tions. — Cuttings of succulents, and 
 some others, may be planted, b. — 
 Dress the plants, by removing all de- 
 cayed parts, weeds, &c, and stirring the 
 soil as appears necessary. — Grafting of 
 Ipomasas, and some other sorts, may be 
 practised. — Pines, finish shifting, b. ; 
 water frequently ; and shade until well 
 established, then give liquid manure 
 weekly ; plant crowns and suckers as 
 required ; day temp. 85° ; night 60°. — 
 Shifting, wherever necessary, complete 
 b.; especially the orchideous plants. — 
 Suckers, offsets, &c, may yet be planted. 
 — Vines; remove damaged grapes from 
 bunches as they appear ; give liquid 
 manure to those beginning to ripen. — 
 Water, give freely every second day. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 Aloes, propagate by slips, suckers, 
 
AUR 
 
 73 
 
 AVE 
 
 Queen Victoria ; Conspicuous ; Pvising 
 Sun; Fair Helen; Kettleby's True Blue. 
 Selfs: Redmayn's Metropolitan; Ne- 
 therwood's Othello ; Berry's Lord Lee; 
 Clegg's Blue Bonnet; Kay's Jupiter; 
 Kenyon's Freedom; Gorton's Stadt- 
 holder, (yellow,) Hufcon's Squire'Mun- 
 day. Lastly, these are worthy of a 
 place in any collection. Green-edged: 
 Hopworth's Robin Hood ; Moore's 
 Jubilee ; Lightbody's Star of Beth- 
 lehem ; Stretch's Alexander. Grey- 
 edged: Atcherley's Alpine Shepherd- 
 ess; Metcalfe's Lancashire Hero; 
 Ashworth's Newton Hero ; Simpson's 
 Lord of Hallamshire ; Kent's Queen 
 Victoria. White-edged: Lily of the 
 Valley ; Wild's Bright Phoebus ; Leigh's 
 Earl Grosvenor. Selfs : Oddie's Rest, 
 Goldfinch, (yellow,) Faulkner's Han- 
 nibal ; Bradshaw's Tidy. I ought to 
 have stated that the amateur's first 
 collection comprises such as are not 
 high priced, and yet good ; but it must 
 not be forgotten that the second addi- 
 tion contains all the first-rate varieties 
 in cultivation, with very few excep- 
 tions." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Characteristics of excellence. — " In 
 its general appearance, the foliage 
 should be well grown and healthy, 
 covering a space about equal to double 
 the width of the head of bloom. The 
 6tem should be firm, erect, and suffi- 
 ciently strong to support the truss with- 
 out assistance, and to carry it well above 
 the foliage. The foot-stalks of the pip 
 should be strong and of such a length 
 as will allow the flowers to open with- 
 out one overlaying another, the whole 
 forming a compact globular head of 
 well expanded flowers equal in size and 
 similar in properties. 
 
 " The addition of one or two guard- 
 leaves, standing up at the back of the 
 truss, gives a finish to the whole, and 
 adds considerably to its beauty by the 
 contrast they form with the vivid and 
 lively appearance of the flowers. 
 
 " The qualities which the individual 
 pip should possess consist in its being 
 perfectly round, flat and smooth on the 
 edge ; the divisions which form the seg- 
 ments of the corolla should be but 
 slightly indented, thereby rendering the 
 circles more perfect. 
 
 " The tube or centre must be round, 
 of a yellow colour, filled with the an- 
 thers or thrum. 
 
 " The eye or paste round the tube 
 
 should form a perfect circle of a dense 
 pure white, clean on its edges, even, 
 and free from blemishes. 
 
 " The band of colour surrounding the 
 eye should be dark, rich, or bright, 
 joining the margin with a feathery edge, 
 equally distributed all round, but never 
 encroaching so much upon the edge as 
 to pass through to the rim. 
 
 " The margin or outer edge must be 
 of a permanent green or grey colour. 
 The circles which compose the face of 
 j the pip are considered of the finest pro- 
 | portion when they are of a uniform 
 width, that of each circle being half the 
 diameter of the tube." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Propagation is effected by, taking slips 
 from and dividing roots of approved va- 
 rieties, after the seed has ripened in 
 July and August. 
 
 Diseases. — The auricula is liable to 
 have its roots ulcerated or cankered if 
 the pots are not well drained. This is 
 best done by having the pots one-fourth 
 filled with rubbly charcoal, and the soil 
 not too much divested of pebbles. At 
 the blooming time the aphis or greenfly 
 sometimes attacks the plants ; these oan 
 only be removed individually by means 
 of a camel's-hair pencil. 
 
 AVENUE, is a road bordered by 
 trees on each side, and being, as ob- 
 served by Whately, confined to one ter- 
 mination, and excluding every view on 
 the sides, has a tedious sameness 
 throughout; to be great it must be dull, 
 and the object to which it is appropri- 
 ated is after all seldom shown to advan- 
 tage. Buildings in general do not ap- 
 pear so large, and are not so beautiful 
 when looked at in front, as when they 
 are seen from an angular situation, which 
 commands two sides at once, and throws 
 them both in perspective ; but a wind- 
 ing lateral approach is free from these 
 objections, it may besides be brought 
 up to the house without disturbing any 
 of the views from it, but an avenue cuts 
 the scenery directly in two, and reduces 
 all the prospect to a narrow vista. A 
 mere line of perspective, be the extent 
 what it may, will seldom compensate 
 for the loss of that space which it divides, 
 and of the parts which it conceals. 
 These kind of walks were formerly much 
 more the fashion than they are at pre- 
 sent : where they are to be made, the 
 common elm answers very well for the 
 purpose in most grounds, except such 
 as are very wet and shallow, and pre- 
 
AVE 
 
 74 
 
 AZ A 
 
 ferred to most other trees, because it 
 bears cutting, heading, or lopping in 
 any manner. The rough Dutch elm is 
 approved by some because of its quick 
 growth, and it is a tree that will not 
 only bear removing very well, but that 
 is green in the spring almost as soon as 
 any plant whatever, and continues so 
 equally long. It makes an incompara- 
 ble hedge, and is preferable to all other 
 trees for lofty espaliers. The lime is 
 very useful on account of its regular 
 growth and fine shade, and the horse- 
 chestnut is proper for such places as are 
 not too much exposed to rough winds. 
 The common chestnut does very well in 
 a good soil*, or on warm gravels, as it 
 rises to a considerable height, when 
 planted somewhat close ; but when it 
 stands singly it is rather inclined to 
 spread than grow tall. The beech na- 
 turally grows well with us in its wild 
 state, but it is less to be chosen for ave- 
 nues than others, because it does not 
 bear transplanting well. The abele may 
 also be employed for this use, as it is 
 adapted to almost any soil, and is the 
 quickest grower of any forest tree. It 
 seldom fails in transplanting, and suc- 
 ceeds very well in wet soils, in which 
 the others are apt to suffer. The oak 
 is but seldom used for avenues, because 
 of its slow growth ; it would, however, 
 compensate by its permanence and 
 beauty. The sugar maple, tulip poplar, 
 oriental and native buttonwood are all 
 "well adapted to the purpose. 
 
 AVERRHOA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 AVERUNCATOR, or pole pruning 
 shears. The Averuncator, attached to 
 a pole, operates by means of a lever 
 moved by a cord and pulley ; its use is 
 to prune from the ground trees whose 
 branches are beyond reach. Branches 
 of one inch and a half in diameter may 
 be easily cut off with this instrument. 
 Averuncators of small size, arc also very 
 useful in cutting off from shade and 
 fruit trees small branches to which in- 
 sests have attached themselves : they 
 are also used for gathering fine fruits, 
 which when cut fall into a basket, to be 
 attached to the instrument when used 
 for this purpose. 
 
 Fig. 20 is a very effective instrument 
 of a similar kind, and has the advantage 
 of a sliding cut, which lessens the labour 
 of pruning, and leaves the branch which 
 
 has been cut as smooth as though a knife 
 had been used ; this instrument is supe- 
 perior to Fig. 19 in this respect, but 
 will not cut a branch of greater diame- 
 ter than one inch. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 AVIARY. This building, devoted 
 to the rearing of birds distinguished for 
 the beauty either of their notes or plum- 
 age, is rarely admitted within a garden, 
 and still more rarely are they sufficient- 
 ly ornamental or sufficiently free from 
 disagreeables to be a source of pleasure. 
 
 AYENIA. Two species. Stove ever- 
 greens. Cuttings. Rich loam. 
 
 AZALEA. Sixty species, and many 
 varieties. The North American are 
 hardy and deciduous, and the Chinese 
 or Indian are green-house evergreens. 
 Cuttings. Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 Mr. James Falconer, of Cheam, gives 
 the following excellent directions for 
 
AZ A 
 
 75 
 
 AZ A 
 
 cultivating the varieties of Azalea ln- 
 dica. 
 
 Soil. — " The soil best adapted for their 
 growth is a peaty earth found on com- 
 mons where heath abounds, of a light 
 fibrous texture, and containing a good 
 portion of sand. It should be pared off 
 from three inchesto fourinches deep, the 
 turves should be spread bottom upwards, 
 and exposed to the sun during summer, 
 and after having a few showers of rain 
 upon it to restore it to a proper degree 
 of moisture, it maybe laid up in narrow 
 ridges in the autumn; it c in then be 
 taken to the potting-shed as required. 
 When used, it should be broken or se- 
 parated with a trowel, and not sifted, 
 rejecting the undecayed surface ; and 
 for the strong-growing varieties, to six- 
 eighths of peat and one-eighth loam, 
 and one-eighth silver sand. 
 
 " Sowing. — The Indian Azaleas ripen 
 their seed in February, which should be 
 sown about the. beginning of March in 
 pots with ample drainage, and a larger 
 portion of silver sand mixed with the 
 peat. The pot should be filled to within 
 half an inch of the top, and pressed 
 evenly and firmly down with the bottom 
 of another. 
 
 " The seed should then be sown re- 
 gularly over the surface, and after being 
 covered sufficiently deep with peat, 
 again pressed down, so that, after being 
 watered, the seed may remain buried. 
 The pots should be placed on a shelf in 
 the green-house, and shaded from the 
 direct rays of the sun. 
 
 " It is better that the seeds should ve- 
 getate by the increasing heat of the 
 spring than by artificial means, since 
 they will come up stronger, and are not 
 so liable to damp off. They may be 
 pricked out into other pots as soon as > 
 they have made two or three leaves, 
 and as they advance in growth they may j 
 be potted into thumbs, or small sixties, j 
 in which they may remain in winter. 
 
 " Culture. — About the beginning of I 
 March those which are intended for i 
 specimens should be put into a house | 
 at a temperature of from 45° to 50°, 
 where they will soon be excited to 
 grow. If in sixty or forty sized pots, j 
 they should be shifted into sizes larger; j 
 but it is better to do this when the 
 plants are in a growing state. They 
 should then be shaded for a few days, 
 and when the flower is shut up in the 
 afternoon, gently syringed. 
 
 "Many varieties will throw up three 
 or four stems ; the strongest should be 
 selected for a leader. When growing, 
 they should have plenty of air and light, 
 without being exposed to a cold cur- 
 rent, which is so frequently prejudicial 
 to young plants in the spring, when 
 clear sunshine and cold winds prevail. 
 As they will be required to grow as late 
 in the autumn as the weather will per- 
 mit without applying fire-heat, and as 
 it is not desirable that they should form 
 flower-buds this season, those which 
 want pot-room should be again shifted 
 about the latter end of July. Great care 
 should be taken that they are not over- 
 potted, and that they have sufficient 
 drainage; elevating the collar of the 
 stem considerably, by rounding the 
 upper side of the ball, but not so as to 
 injure the tender and delicate fibres. 
 The azalea is liable to canker from the 
 water remaining too long about the col- 
 lar ; therefore, in watering, the spout 
 of the pot should never be applied to it, 
 as the cold current of water frequently 
 repeated will check the flow of sap, 
 and ultimately cause death. 
 
 " They should be placed at the back 
 of the green-house during the winter, 
 as near the glass as convenient, to ripen 
 the wood. 
 
 " In the following spring they should 
 be subjected to the same treatment, 
 and again shifted into larger pots. — 
 About the latter end of July they will 
 have the afternoon sun. Free from the 
 drip of trees and protected from high 
 winds, the plants will now be of suffi- 
 cient size to bloom, and in September 
 will have formed their flower-buds. 
 
 " When out of doors they should be 
 occasionally syringed overhead in very 
 dry weather, and the ground around 
 them frequently stirred and watered. 
 
 "About the middle of December, 
 two or three varieties should be put 
 into a forcing-house, ranging from 50" 
 to 65°; these will begin to bloom about 
 the latter end of January, after which 
 they should be removed to the green- 
 house or conservatory, to which they 
 will give much brilliancy, and in mild 
 weather impart a mild perfume. About 
 a week before the first have expand- 
 ed their blossoms, another succession 
 should be put in, selecting those which 
 from the enlargement of their buds give 
 evidence of their susceptibility of ex- 
 citement ; observing that the more va- 
 
AZ A 
 
 76 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 B AL 
 
 rious the colour of the flower, the better 
 effect will be produced in the green- 
 house. It is a safe rule to keep up for 
 a succession three or four varieties, to 
 be put into heat as above stated, once 
 a month, until the season is so far ad- 
 vanced that the flowers are bursting in 
 the cool house. 
 
 44 They should then be taken into 
 heat, by which means the flower will 
 be larger, the colours more brilliant, and 
 their fragrance more delightful. Every 
 means should be adopted to prevent 
 the attacks of the humble bee, as everv 
 
 blossom in which it inserts its proboscis nard. Twelve species. Chiefly stove 
 
 fall off in a few hours afterward 
 "When the large specimen plants 
 have done flowering, all the seed ves- 
 sels should be picked off, leaving such 
 as are intended for seed. They should 
 be then shifted and encouraged to grow; 
 afterwards placing them out of doors, 
 as before stated. 
 
 " Great care should be taken at all 
 times to keep them free from insects, 
 as they are liable to be attacked by a 
 species of thrips, for which the best 
 remedy is a strong fumigation of to- 
 bacco. The varieties Variegata and La- 
 teritia, are early excited in the spring ; 
 but are nevertheless the latest bloomers; 
 they will make stronger and finer spe- 
 cimens by being inarched on the most 
 robust stocks. 
 
 " If after they have made their au- 
 tumnal growth they should not have 
 formed flower-buds, by placing them in 
 a stove in a strong moist heat, until 
 they have again burst into leaf, and then 
 removing them to a cold green-house, 
 the excitement produced will frequently 
 cause them to set their flower-buds." — 
 Gard. Chron. Our own native varieties 
 have been sadly overlooked in the 
 search for foreign beauty — those from 
 the far south are equally hardy with 
 those of the middle states, and are 
 readily cultivated ; the varieties are nu- 
 merous, and embrace almost every 
 shade of colour, including pure white, 
 from light yellow to brilliant flame; 
 they thrive better partially screened 
 from the sun's rays, and demand a pe- 
 culiar soil easily compounded by a 
 mixture of surface earth from woodland, 
 and decomposed turf or grass sods, in 
 about equal proportions. The two ear- 
 liest collections of this splendid shrub 
 were made at the Bartram Botanic 
 Gardens, and the Landreth Nurseries, 
 
 where, it is probable, the finest speci- 
 mens in a cultivated state still exist. 
 
 AZARA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. — 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 AZOREAN FENNEL. See Fino- 
 chio. 
 
 BABIANA. Eighteen species. 
 Green-house bulbs. Offsets or seeds. 
 Sand, loam and peat. 
 
 B A C A Z I A spinosa. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 BACCHARIS. Ploughman's Spike- 
 
 and green-house evergreen shrubs. B. 
 glomerijlora and halimifolia are hardy 
 deciduous. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 BACTRIS. Seven species. Palms. 
 Stove. Seed. Sandy loam. 
 
 BADGER'S BANE, Aconitum meloc- 
 tonum. 
 
 B.ECKIA. Nine species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. — 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 BAKING is a term descriptive of the 
 hard impervious state of clayey soils, 
 long exposed to drought. It can be 
 prevented only by altering the staple of 
 the soil , by the admixture of sand , chal k , 
 coal-ashes, and other less cohesive mat- 
 ters than clay. 
 
 BALANTIUM culcita. Stove fern. 
 Division. Peat and loam. 
 
 BALM (Melissa officinalis). 
 
 Soil and situation. — The soil best 
 suited to its growth, is any poor and 
 friable, but rather inclining to clayey 
 than silicious. Manure is never re- 
 quired. An eastern aspect is best for it. 
 
 Time and mode of planting. — It is 
 propagated by offsets of the roots, and 
 by slips of the young shoots. The first 
 mode maybe practised anytime during 
 the spring and autumn, but the latter 
 only during May or June. If offsets 
 are employed, they may be planted at 
 once where they are to remain, at ten 
 or twelve inches ; but if by slips, they 
 must be inserted in a shady border, to 
 be thence removed, in September or 
 October, to where they are to remain. 
 At every removal water must be given, 
 if dry weather, and until they are estab- 
 lished. During the summer they re- 
 quire only to be kept clear of weeds. 
 In October the old beds require to be 
 dressed, their decayed leaves and stalks 
 cleared away, and the soil loosened by 
 the hoe or slight digging. 
 
B AL 
 
 BAN 
 
 Old beds may be gathered from in 
 July, for drying, but their green leaves 
 from March and September, and those 
 planted in spring, will even afford a 
 gathering in the autumn of the same 
 year. For drying, the stalks are cut 
 with their full clothing of leaves to the 
 very bottom, and the process completed 
 gradually in the shade. 
 
 BALM OF GILEAD. Several plants 
 are popularly known under this name. 
 "The Balm of Gilead of commerce is the 
 dried juice of a low tree or shrub {amyris 
 gileadensis), which grows in several 
 parts of Abyssinia and Syria. This tree 
 has spreading, crooked branches; small, 
 bright-green leaves, growing in threes ; 
 and small, white flowers on separate 
 footstalks. The petals are four in num- 
 ber, and the fruit is a small, egg-shaped 
 berry, containing a smooth nut. By the 
 inhabitants of Syria and Egypt, this bal- 
 sam, as appears from the Scriptures, 
 was in great esteem from the highest 
 periods of antiquity. We are informed 
 by Josephus, the Jewish historian, that 
 the balsam of Gilead was one of the 
 trees which was given by the queen of 
 Sheba to king Solomon. The Ishmael- 
 itish merchants, who were the pur- 
 chasers of Joseph, are said to have been 
 traveling from Gilead, on the eastern 
 side of Canaan, to Egypt, and to have 
 had their camels laden with 'spicery, 
 balm and myrrh.' It was then, and is 
 still, considered one of the most valua- 
 ble medicines that the inhabitants of 
 those countries possess. The virtues, 
 however, which have been ascribed to 
 it exceed all rational bounds of credi- 
 bility. The mode in which it is obtain- 
 ed is described by Mr. Bruce. The 
 bark of the tree is cut with an axe, at 
 a time when its juices are in their 
 strongest circulation. These, as they 
 ooze through the wound, are received 
 into small earthen bottles ; and every 
 day's produce is gathered, and poured 
 into a larger bottle, which is closely 
 corked. When the juice first issues 
 from the wound, it is of a light-yellow 
 colour, and a somewhat turbid appear- 
 ance ; but, as it settles, it becomes 
 clear, has the colour of honey, and ap- 
 pears more fixed and heavy than at first. 
 Its smell, when fresh, is exquisitely fra- 
 grant, strongly pungent, not much un- 
 like that of volatile salts; but if the 
 bottle be left uncorked, it soon loses 
 this quality. Its taste is bitter, acrid, 
 
 aromatic and astringent. The quantity 
 of balsam yielded by one tree never 
 exceeds 60 drops in a day. Hence its 
 scarcity is such, that the genuine bal- 
 sam is seldom exported as an afticle of 
 commerce. Even at Constantinople, 
 the centre of trade of those countries, 
 it cannot, without great difficulty, be 
 procured. In Turkey, it is in high es- 
 teem as a medicine, an odoriferous un- 
 guent and a cosmetic. But its stimu- 
 lating properties upon the skin are such, 
 that the face of a person unaccustomed 
 to use it becomes red and swollen after 
 its application, and continues so for 
 some days. The Turks also take it in 
 small qantities, in water, to fortify the 
 stomach/' — Encyc. Am. 
 
 BALSAM or LADIES' SLIPPERS 
 (Impatiens triflora). The cultivation of 
 this common yet beautiful half hardy 
 annual is so thoroughly understood, aa 
 not to require remark farther than " we 
 believe it to be true, that old seeds 
 produce finer balsams under equal cir- 
 cumstances than new seeds ; and the 
 reason is thought to be, that the plants 
 raised from old seeds are not so vigor- 
 ous as others." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 BALSAM APPLE. Momordica bal- 
 saminea. 
 
 BALSAMINA. Balsam. Eleven 
 species. Green-house annuals. Seeds. 
 Light rich loamv soil. 
 
 BALSAMODENDRON zeylanicum. 
 Stove evergreen tree. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 BALSAM-TREE. Clusia. 
 
 BANANA-TREE. Musa, Sa- 
 fientum. 
 
 BANE-BERRY. AcAcbcl. 
 
 BANNISTERIil. Thirteen species. 
 Chiefly stove evergreen twining plants. 
 Cuttings. Loam and sandy peat. 
 
 BANKS (sloping), says Mr. Barnes, 
 " Are of great advantage in bringing 
 forth vegetation of all kinds at an early 
 season in a healthy state, and in the 
 greatest abundance. Another great ad- 
 vantage is their forming a boundary and 
 shelter to the valleys, borders, or slips 
 between them, dividing the quarters 
 into any desired portions, for the suc- 
 cession of all vegetable crops, salads, 
 &c. By cropping both sides, the season 
 ofthedifferent^rticles is prolonged, and 
 through their being placed in such a 
 healthy situation, I find I can always 
 secure abundance of salads, lettuce, 
 endive, radishes, cauliflower, and cab- 
 
BAN 
 
 78 
 
 BAR 
 
 bage-plants. The first early cabbage 
 and peas I have planted in these sloping 
 banks with great advantage. The win- 
 ter endive being cleared and the slopes 
 forked ,#a situation is provided for the 
 first out-door crops of carrots, turnips, 
 radishes, &c. The slopes that are next 
 cleared in succession make provision 
 for the early dwarf kinds of French 
 beans on the south side; and late 
 planted Windsor or other kinds of late 
 beans are planted on the north side, 
 which is found a good situation for 
 them ; besides forming a shelter to the 
 others by breaking the cold winds. 
 Others are cropped with strawberries 
 on both sides. The slopes that are I 
 cleared latest in the spring, are cropped ] 
 with late cauliflower, with the first | 
 planting of early Cape brocoli on the | 
 north side, and succession of other \ 
 vegetables are kept up throughout the 
 season. By constantly keeping the sur- 
 face stirred, the crops are all to be 
 seen in a healthy state, progressing ad- 
 mirably in favourable weather through- 
 out the winter months, and indeed, the 
 whole season through. 
 
 " The advantage of forming sloping 
 banks do not end in that derived from 
 the variation of aspect, the healthiness 
 and the prolongation of the crops, and 
 in securing shelter ; but there is a still 
 greater advantage, by gaining a con- 
 siderable extent of surface ; thus, with 
 one acre of land with a flat surface, it 
 is an easy matter to increase it one- 
 half, by the sloping bank system." — 
 Gard. Journ. 
 
 BANKSIA. Forty-two species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs, except 
 B. verticillata, which is a tree. Ripe ' 
 cuttings or seeds. Sandy peat. 
 
 BAOBAB-TREE. Adansonia. 
 
 BAPTISIA. Ten species. Hardy 
 herbaceous plants. Divisions. Common 
 loamy soil. 
 
 BARBACENIA squamatosa. Stove 
 herbaceous. Cuttinsxs. Sandy loam. 
 
 BARBADOES CEDAR. Juniperus 
 barbadensis. 
 
 BARBADOES CHERRY. Malpi- 
 ghia. 
 
 BARBADOES GOOSEBERRY. Pe- 
 reskia. 
 
 BARBADOES LILY,. Amaryllis 
 equestris. 
 
 BARBAREA, Winter cress. Seven 
 species. Hardy herbaceous plants. Di- 
 vision. Common soil. 
 
 BARBERRY (Berberis vulgaris). 
 There are five varieties of this elegant 
 shrub — the red, without and with stones; 
 the black sweet, which is tender, and 
 requires a sheltered border; the purple, 
 and the white. 
 
 Propagation. Suckers, cuttings, and 
 layers may be employed either in the 
 spring or autumn. The seed is very 
 rarely used. 
 
 Soil. — A sandy, or calcareous soil, 
 with a dry subsoil, suits it best. 
 
 Culture. — It requires no other prun- 
 ing than such as is necessary to keep it 
 within bounds. 
 
 Fruit. — This is fully ripe in October, 
 and is gathered in entire bunches for 
 preserving, pickling, and candying. 
 
 Diseases. — It is liable to be infected 
 with a parasitical fungus, once believed 
 to be the same as that which is known as 
 the mildew on wheat, but they are now 
 known to be different species. That 
 which preys upon the Barberry is Puc- 
 cinia, and that which attacks Wheat is 
 TJredo. Consequently the old popular 
 opinion among farmers, that the mildew 
 on wheat originated on and was propa- 
 gated by the Barberry, has exploded. 
 
 BARBIERIA polyphylla. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 BARK. — The refuse bark from the 
 tanner's yard is employed by the gar- 
 dener as a source of heat, and when 
 thoroughly broken down by putrefac- 
 tion, as a manure. 
 
 As a source of heat, it is much less 
 used than formerly, flues, steam, and 
 the hot water system having very gene- 
 rally and most deservedly superseded 
 it. Bark for heating requires frequent 
 stirring and renewing, and if too much 
 moisture be added, is apt to give out 
 an excessive and irregular heat. In 
 addition, it is a troublesome harbour 
 for predatory insects. 
 
 Bark fresh from the tan-yard being 
 thrown lightly together under a shed, 
 must be gently moistened if dry, and 
 turned over twice a week, to expose all 
 its particles to the air. Unless this be 
 done, the fermentation will not be 
 general or regular. This is to be con- 
 tinued for a month or five weeks, in 
 warm weather the shorter time being 
 requisite, and then, having acquired a 
 general and equal heat, it is ready for 
 use in the stove. Usually it will con- 
 tinue to afford heat for a period varying 
 between three and six months, but 
 
BAR 
 
 79 
 
 BAR 
 
 sometimes ceases to ferment without 
 any apparent cause. Whenever the 
 heat declines, the tan must be taken 
 out, sifted, the dusty parts removed, 
 and some fresh tan added. Sometimes 
 turning the old tan and moistening it 
 will be sufficient. 
 
 It is desirable, on the first formation 
 of a bed, to mix new and old tan to- 
 
 ily effects a cure. Scoring the bark 
 lengthwise with a knife is a usual reme- 
 dy, and generally effects the purpose. 
 
 BARKING IRONS, or Bark Scalers, 
 are for scraping off the indurated epi- 
 dermis, or dry scales, from the stems 
 and branches of trees. 
 
 BARK STOVE, or Moist Stove, is a 
 
 hot-house which, either by having a 
 
 gether, in which case the quantity of mass of fermenting matter, or an open 
 
 new bark to be brought into the pit wi 
 depend upon the goodness of the bark, 
 and the bottom heat required . As much 
 new tan as will fill two third parts of 
 the bark-pit, with a mixture of old 
 rotten, reduced almost to earth, will 
 produce a bottom heat of about S5° ; 
 when old tan with higher remains of 
 strength is used to modify the new, the 
 same heat may be produced if the quan- 
 tity be not more than half the capacity 
 of the pit. This refers to a new pit 
 
 reservoir of hot water within side, has 
 its atmosphere constantly saturated 
 with moisture, congenially with the 
 habits of some tropical plants. It re- 
 ceived the name of Bark Stove, because 
 tanner's bark was formerly a chief 
 source of heat employed. (See Stove.) 
 
 BARKERIA. Two species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Division. Peat and pot- 
 sherds, or wood. 
 
 BARLERIA. Fourteen species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs, except B. longi- 
 
 after a bark bed has been in action, folia, which is biennial. Cuttings. 
 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 BARNADESIA rosea. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Rich loam. 
 
 BARNADIA scilloides. Half hardy 
 bulbous plants. Offsets. Peat and loam. 
 
 BAROMETER.— Mr. P. Christensen, 
 of Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, Lecturer 
 upon Astronomy, &c, has arranged a 
 
 partial renewals of bark to keep up the 
 heat are frequently sufficient in the 
 reduced proportion of one-third, one- 
 sixth, one-twelfth, or less. At inter- 
 mediate stages between the partial 
 renewals, the bed requires only to be 
 excited to a brisker fermentation by 
 forking up. About five-sevenths of the 
 
 pit from the bottom should be occupied table, which no one having a weather- 
 by the new and old tan as a fermenting glass should be without. This "Corn- 
 body; and about two-sevenths from the panion to the Barometer" is the result 
 top, or a little more than the depth of \ of thirty-two years' observation, and 
 the pot, whatever that may be, should j the following is an epitome of the in- 
 formation it gives. During the first six 
 months of the year, when the mercury 
 is rising, if the weather has been bad, 
 and the mercury reaches to 29.62 
 inches, there will be a change ; if to 
 30.12, the weather will be fair: if to 
 
 consist of old tan incapable of heating, 
 so as to burn the roots of the plants; 
 as least such should be the ordinary 
 distribution of the tan; but where pecu- 
 liar circumstances require a speedy 
 augmentation of heat without displacing 
 the pots, and when fruit is to be swelled | 30.29, set fair. If the mercury has been 
 off in the last stage, the earthy tan at ' high, and begins falling, there will be 
 top may be taken away, and new tan ! a change if it declines to 29.90 ; rain, 
 
 if it descends to 29.50 ; and wind, with 
 rain, if it reaches 29.12. 
 
 During the last six months of the 
 year, if the weather has been foul, and 
 
 substituted. — (Abercrombie.) 
 
 As a manure. See vegetable matters. 
 
 BARK-BOUND. — When a tree is 
 affected with this disease, cracks will 
 
 appear in it partially, and in the case of I the mercury begins rising, there will be 
 the Cherry, Apricot, Peach, and Necta- j a change if it reaches to 29.48 ; fair if 
 rine, gummy exudations will follow. It to 30.13 ; and set fair if to 30.45. If the 
 is a sure indication that either the soil j weather has been fair, and the mercury 
 is too rich, or not sufficiently drained ; begins falling, there will be a change 
 the latter is usually the source of the " 
 evil, causing a repletion of the interior 
 
 vessels which the dry cuticle cannot ] of the year, if the mercury fall to 28.10, 
 expand sufficiently quickly to accommo- or even to 28.20, there will be stormy 
 date. Under-draining, and scrubbing j weather. These conclusions are from 
 the stem with brine or soft soap, speed- ■ observations made at thirty feet above 
 
 if it sinks to 29.87; rain, if to 29.55 ; and 
 nd with rain, if to 29.2S. At any time 
 
BAR 
 
 SO 
 
 BAR 
 
 the sea's level, and therefore one one- 
 hundredth part of an inch must be add- 
 ed to the height of the mercury for 
 every additional ten feet above the sea's 
 level, where the barometer may happen 
 to be. 
 
 BARREN PLANTS. The male 
 flowers of the cucumber, melon, and 
 other monoecious plants, are popularly 
 known as barren flowers ; and the 
 plants of the asparagus, mercury, and 
 other dioecious plants bearing only j 
 male plants, are usually termed barren. 
 These are naturally unfruitful ; but there 
 is also a barrenness arising from dis- 
 ease or other consequences of bad cul- 
 tivation. If a tree, or any other plant, I 
 does not yield the desired produce ofj 
 fruit of which it is capable, the gardener 
 may be assured that the soil, or the want 
 of drainage, or the manuring, or the ' 
 pruning, is injurious. Even a blind or 
 barren cabbage may be made produc- i 
 tive ; for its barrenness arises from the ] 
 central bud being abortive, and it will 
 produce lateral buds, if all but one leaf 
 and the place of the abortive bud be cut 
 away. 
 
 Temperature has a great influence 
 over the sex of the flowers produced by 
 a given plant. A very high tempera- 
 ture caused a water-melon to bear male . 
 blossoms only ; and a very low temper- 
 ature made cucumber plants yield fe- 
 male flowers alone. Mr. Knight had 
 little doubt that the same fruit stalks { 
 might be made, in the plants just no- 
 ticed, to support flowers of either sex 
 in obedience to external causes. 
 
 BARREN SOIL. No soil is abso- 
 lutely incapable of production; and 
 when it is spoken of as being barren, no 
 more is meant than that in its present j 
 state it will not repay the cultivator. 
 The unproductiveness arises from a de- 
 ficiency of some of the earths; from an 
 excess or deficiency of animal and ve- 
 getable matters; or from an excess of 
 stagnant water. No soil can be pro- 
 ductive where nineteen parts out of 
 twenty are of any one earth or other 
 substance. If either chalk, or sand, or 
 clay, be in excess, the remedy is found 
 in adding one or both of the other two. 
 An excess of organic matter only occurs 
 in peat soils, and these are reclaimed 
 by draining, paring, and burning, and 
 the addition of earthy matter; drain- 
 age is also the cure for an excess of 
 water. 
 
 BARRINGTONIA speciosa. Stove 
 evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 BARTHOLINA pectinata. Terres- 
 trial orchid. Offsets. Sandy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 BARTON, Benjamin S., M. D., Pro- 
 fessor in the University of Pennsylva- 
 nia. Born at Lancaster, Pa., 1786. 
 Died Dec, 1815. In 1789 appointed 
 Professor of Natural History and Botany 
 in the College of Philadelphia. His 
 chief publication is Elements of Zoolo- 
 gy and Botany. 
 
 BARTONIA. Four species. Hardy 
 annuals and biennials. Seed. Sandy 
 loam'. 
 
 BARTRAM, John, one of the most 
 distinguished of American botanists, 
 was born in Chester county, Pennsylva- 
 nia, in 1701. His grandfather, of the 
 same name, accompanied William Penn 
 to this country, in 1682. — B. was a sim- 
 ple farmer. He cultivated the ground 
 for subsistence, while he indulged an 
 insatiable appetite for botany. He was 
 self-taught in that science, and in the 
 rudiments of the learned languages, 
 and medicine and surgery. So great, 
 in the end, was his proficiency in his 
 favourite pursuit, that Linnaeus pro- 
 nounced him " the greatest natural 
 botanist in the world." He made ex- 
 cursions, in the intervals of agricultural 
 labour, to Florida and Canada, herboriz- 
 ing with intense zeal and delight. At 
 the age of 70, he performed a journey 
 to East Florida, to explore its natural 
 productions ; at a period, too, when the 
 toils and dangers of such an expedition 
 far exceeded those of any similar one 
 which could be undertaken, at the pre- 
 sent time, within the limits of the U. 
 States. He first formed a botanic gar- 
 den in America, for the cultivation of 
 American plants, as well as exotics. 
 This garden, which is situated on the 
 banks of the Schuylkill, a few miles from 
 Philadelphia, still bears his name. He 
 contributed much to the gardens of Eu- 
 rope, and corresponded with the most 
 distinguished naturalists of that quarter 
 of the globe. Several foreign societies 
 and academies bestowed their honours 
 upon him, and published communica- 
 tions from him in their transactions. B. 
 died in 1777, in the 76th year of his 
 age. At the time of his death he held 
 the office of American botanist to 
 George III. of England. He was amia- 
 
BAR 
 
 81 
 
 B AS 
 
 ble and charitable, and of the strictest 
 probity and temperance. 
 
 BARTRAM, William, fourth son of 
 John B., was born, 1739, at the botanic 
 garden, Kingsessing, Pennsylvania. At 
 the age of 16 years, he was placed with 
 a respectable merchant of Philadelphia, 
 with whom he continued six years ; 
 after which he went to North Carolina, 
 with a view of doing business there as 
 a merchant; but, being ardently at- 
 tached to the study of botany, he re- 
 linquished his mercantile pursuits, and 
 accompanied his father in a journey 
 into East Florida, to explore the na- 
 tural productions of that country; after 
 which he settled on the river St. John's, 
 in this region, and finally returned, 
 about the year 1771, to his father's resi- 
 dence. In 1773, at the request of Dr. 
 Fothergill, of London, he embarked for 
 Charleston, to examine the natural 
 productions of the Floridas, and the 
 western parts of Carolina and Georgia, 
 chiefly in the vegetable kingdom. In 
 this employment he was engaged nearly 
 five years, and made numerous contri- 
 butions to the natural history of the 
 country through which he travelled. 
 His collections and drawings were for- 
 warded to Doctor Fothergill; and, 
 about the year 1790, he published an 
 account of his travels and discoveries, 
 in 1 vol. 8vo., with an account of the 
 manners and customs of the Creeks, 
 Cherokees, and Choctaws. This work 
 soon acquired extensive popularity, and 
 is still frequently consulted. — After his 
 return from his travels, he devoted him- 
 self to science, and, in 1782, was elect- 
 ed Professor of Botany in the University 
 of Pennsylvania, which post he de- 
 clined, in consequence of the state of 
 his health. In 1786, he was elected a 
 member of the American Philosophical 
 Society, and was a member of several 
 other learned societies in Europe and 
 America. We are indebted to him for 
 the knowledge of many curious and 
 beautiful plants peculiar to North Ame- 
 rica, and for the most complete and 
 correct table of American ornithology, 
 before the work of Wilson, who was 
 assisted by him in the commencement 
 of his American Ornithology. He wrote 
 an article on the natural history of a 
 plant a few minutes before his death, 
 which happened suddenly, by the rup 
 ture of a blood vessel in the lungs, July 
 22, 1823, in the Soth year of his age. 
 6 
 
 BARYOSMA. Six species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Peat and sand. 
 
 BASELLA. Eight species. Stove 
 biennial climbers chiefly. Seed. Rich 
 light soil. 
 
 BASIL. (Ocymum.) There are two 
 kinds, the Sweet-scented (0. basilicum), 
 and the Dwarf-bush (0. minimum). 
 
 Soil and situation. — They thrive most 
 in a rich light soil, entirely free from 
 any overshadowing body; but they re- 
 quire, especially for the earliest plants, 
 a sheltered border. 
 
 Time and mode of sowing. — They are 
 propagated by seed, which may be sown 
 in a gentle hot-bed, with the shelter of 
 a frame at the close of March, or early 
 in April ; to be thinned, and those re- 
 moved pricked out at the close of this 
 latter month in a similar situation, to be 
 finally removed in the course of May or 
 commencement of June, when settled 
 weather, in the open ground. This 
 sowing may be repeated at the close of 
 April, or beginning of May, on a warm 
 border, to be pricked and finally planted 
 out, after a lapse of about five weeks 
 respectively between each operation. 
 
 When thinned, the seedlings must be 
 left at three inches apart, and those re- 
 moved pricked out at a similardistance. 
 The final planting must be made in rows 
 a foot apart each way. Some plants of 
 all the sowing may be left where raised, 
 to be gathered from whilst young. 
 Water must be given at every removal, 
 as well as during every stage of their 
 growth, when dry weather occurs. 
 Weeds must be kept under, as well as 
 the plants benefited by frequent hoeing. 
 
 The young leaf tops are the parts 
 made use of in soups and salads, their 
 flavour resembling that of cloves. 
 
 The supply is never failing during 
 summer, as they shoot out rapidly for 
 successive supplies. 
 
 To obtain seed. — Some of the earliest 
 raised plants must be left ungathered 
 from. These flower from July to Sep- 
 tember, and accordingly ripen their 
 seed in early or late autumn. 
 
 BASKETS employed by the London 
 gardeners, being made of osier or deal 
 shavings, vary triflingly in size more 
 than measures made of less flexible 
 materials. They are as follows: — 
 
 Sea kale punnets — eight inches diame- 
 ter at the top, and seven inches and a 
 half at the bottom, and two inches deep. 
 
B A S 
 
 82 
 
 BE A 
 
 Radish punnets — eight inches diame- 
 ter, and one inch deep, if to hold six 
 hands ; or nine inches by one inch for 
 twelve hands. 
 
 Mushroom punnets — seven inches by 
 one inch. 
 
 Salading punnets — five inches by two 
 inches. 
 
 Half sieve — contains three imperial 
 gallons and a half. It averages twelve 
 inches and a half diameter, and six 
 inches in depth. 
 
 Sieve — contains seven imperial gal- 
 lons. Diameter, fifteen inches; depth, 
 eight inches. 
 
 Bushel sieve — ten imperial gallons 
 and a half. Diameter at top, seventeen 
 inches and three quarters; at bottom, 
 seventeen inches; depth, eleven inches 
 and a quarter. 
 
 Bushel basket — ought, when heaped, 
 to contain an imperial bushel. Diame- 
 ter at bottom ten inches ; at top, four- 
 teen inches and a half; depth, seven- 
 teen inches. Walnuts, nuts, apples, 
 and potatoes are sold by this measure. 
 A bushel of the last-named, cleaned, 
 weighs fifty-six pounds, but four pounds 
 additional are allowed if they are not 
 washed. 
 
 There is one description of Basket 
 of which we think the Londoners know 
 but little. We allude to the Peach Bas- 
 ket.' It would excite no ordinary com- 
 motion were one of our noble steam- 
 boats to ascend the Thames, laden with 
 a thousand or more baskets, each con- 
 taining a bushel of ripe lusciouspeaches, 
 which are frequently sold in Philadel- 
 phia at twenty-five cents the basket. 
 Yet such is the sight which may be 
 seen (in fruitful seasons) on the Dela- 
 ware every dav in August. 
 
 BASS, or BAST MATS. These are 
 chiefly made in Russia, from the inner 
 bark of trees (hast in the Russ language). 
 Their best use is as a packing envelope, 
 for as a protection to wall trees they are 
 inferior to netting; and to standard 
 shrubs, structures made of straw (see 
 Shelters) are to be preferred. They are 
 very serviceable, however, to place over 
 beds of early spring radishes, &e., to 
 prevent the night, radiation. This is 
 quite as effectual, much cleaner, and 
 less troublesome than a covering of* 
 straw. The strands of these mats are 
 used by Nurserymen as binding, when 
 budding or engrafting, and are the best 
 adapted to the purpose of any material 
 
 known. Where it is not obtainable, 
 coarse loosely spun cotton or woollen 
 yarn, is a good substitute. 
 
 BASS I A. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 BASTARD ACACIA. Robinia pseu- 
 do-acacia. 
 
 BASTARD ACMELLA. Spilanthes 
 pseudo-acmella. 
 
 BASTARD CABBAGE TREE. Geof- 
 froya. 
 
 BASTARD CEDAR, Guazuma. 
 
 BASTARD CHERRY. Cerasus pseu- 
 do-cerasus. 
 
 BASTARD CINNAMON. Cinnamo- 
 mum-cassia. 
 
 BASTARD CORK TREE. Quercus 
 pseudo-suber. 
 
 BASTARD DICTAMNUS. Beringe- 
 ria pseudo-dictamnus. 
 
 BASTARD HARE'S EAR. Phyllis. 
 
 BASTARD JASMINE. Androsace 
 chii/udjasme. 
 
 BASTARD ALBIA. Lavatera pseu- 
 do-allria. 
 
 BASTARD QUINCE. Pyrus chama- 
 mespilus. 
 
 BASTARD WIND-FLOWER. Gen- 
 tiana psctido-pneumonanthe. 
 
 BATATAS. Twelve species. Chiefly 
 stove deciduous climbers. Young cut- 
 tings. Light rich soil. 
 
 B A T EM A N N I A Collegi. Stove 
 epiphyte. Bulbs. Peat and potsherds. 
 
 BATSCHIA. Four species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Seeds and division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 BAUER A. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sand and peat. 
 
 BAIIHINIA. Forty-six species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs or climbers. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 BAY TREE, Laurus 7iobilis, will 
 resist the winter nearly as far north as 
 Philadelphia, on light soils. Its aroma- 
 tic leaves render it an agreeable inmate 
 of the garden. 
 
 BEAD TREE. Melia. 
 
 BEAN. V/c/'a faba, of Linna'us. Feve 
 dr-marais, Fr. Bohn,Gcr. Fava,Ital. 
 Habas, Span. " Of the above kind, com- 
 monly called in this country 'Horse 
 Bean,' there is considerable variety; 
 two of them have been selected by us 
 for cultivation, believing them the best 
 adapted for the climate, and quite suffi- 
 cient of the kind. They are the Early 
 Long Pod and Broad Windsor. Both 
 
B E A 
 
 BEA 
 
 succeed with the same treatment, but 
 the first named is the more certain 
 bearer of the two. In England, where 
 they are extensively cultivated, they do 
 much better than in this country, pre- 
 ferring its damp, cool atmosphere, to 
 our frequently dry and hot one ; to 
 counteract which it is desirable to plant 
 as early in the spring, as the ground 
 will admit of being worked — in the lati- 
 tude of Philadelphia (39o 57' N.) the 
 latter part of February, or beginning of 
 March, if possible ; they then come into 
 flower before the weather becomes hot, 
 otherwise the blossoms drop, and set no 
 fruit. 
 
 " Plant them in drills, either single or 
 double, two inches apart in the drills, 
 and cover one to two inches deep. If 
 in double drills, with alleys two and a 
 half feet wide. If in single rows, two 
 feet alleys answer, unless it be intend- 
 ed to cultivate them with the horse hoe, 
 as is done by market gardeners. 
 
 "Those who are particularly fond of 
 this bean, can accelerate the crop by 
 setting a frame at the close of winter, 
 under the lee of a board fence, or other 
 protected situation, exposed to the sun, 
 which cover with glass, and in severe 
 weather with matting or straw, so as 
 effectually to exclude the frost. Herein 
 plant the beans, one seed to the square 
 inch, and let them remain, until the 
 arrival of milder weather, when they 
 should be transplanted to the position 
 in the garden which it is intended they 
 shall occupy. In transplanting them, 
 care should be taken not to injure the 
 roots, to guard against which, use a 
 trowel to ease them up, and suffer as 
 much earth as will to adhere. During 
 the time they remain in the frame, the 
 sash should be raised when the weather 
 is mild, to admit the air, and gradually 
 harden them, preparatory to full expo- 
 sure when transplanted, else the sudden 
 change of temperature might prove 
 fatal. In order to make them set fruit 
 more certainly, it is the practice to 
 nip off the top of leading shoots when 
 they are in full flower; this checks the 
 growth, and directs the strength of the 
 plant towards the blossoms. If a part 
 of the flowers are destroyed in this ope- 
 ration, there is no loss. 
 
 " Whilst the crop is growing and pro- 
 gressing towards maturity, keep the 
 ground well hoed, and freed from 
 weeds. When the plants have attained 
 
 six or eight inches in height, draw to- 
 wards their base a portion of loose 
 earth, which will encourage them to 
 put forth fresh fibres, and protect the 
 roots already formed, from the sun's 
 rays." — Rural Register. 
 
 BEANS, Kidney. Haricot, Fr. 
 Schminkhohne, Ger. Judias, Span. Fa- 
 guiolo, ltal. — " Ofthe Snap-Short Bean, 
 the Haricot ofthe French, the varieties 
 and sub-varieties are numerous. The 
 Early Mohawk or Brown Six Weeks 
 arrives soonest at perfection, and is the 
 hardiest ofthe early ones; the Early 
 Yellow, Red Speckled Valentine, and 
 China Red Eye, immediately succeed. 
 The Red French is about the latest : 
 other varieties ripen promiscuously. All 
 the kinds are brought to the Philadel- 
 phia market; some purchasers prefer- 
 ring one, and others another. The Red 
 Speckled Valentine is a variety very 
 generally admired ; it is round podded, 
 without strings, an abundant bearer, 
 and remains tender longer than most 
 others. The Brown Valentine or Re- 
 fugee is an excellent variety, as is 
 also the China Red Eye. The pods of 
 the Red French are used as well for 
 pickling as boiling, and the beans 
 throughout the winter in a dry state, as 
 haricots, and in soups, for which it is 
 usually preferred. 
 
 "The usual plan of cultivating this 
 tribe is in drills, double or single, two 
 inches apart in the drills ; two to two 
 and a half feet should be allowed be- 
 tween the drills. They are much 
 more tender than the Long Pod 
 or Windsor, and will not succeed, if 
 planted before the weather has become 
 somewhat settled, and the earth warm ; 
 in the latitude of Philadelphia, not ear- 
 lier than April, unless in very dry 
 ground, and protected situations. To 
 have a constant supply, it will be neces- 
 sary to plant successive crops at inter- 
 vals of two or three weeks, which is 
 much preferable to planting but seldom, 
 and then a larger quantity. Plantations 
 made so late as 1st August generally 
 succeed and yield abundantly. 
 
 " When they have risen three or four 
 inches, give them a careful hoeing, to 
 destroy all weeds, and loosen the earth. 
 At this time, or shortly after, draw to- 
 wards the base of the plants some of 
 the loose sod, to the depth of one or 
 two inches. This process is termed 
 « landing,' and is highly beneficial in 
 
B E A 
 
 84 
 
 BED 
 
 protecting the roots from excessive 
 drought, and the direct rays of the 
 sun. As the crop approaches matu- 
 rity, nothing more is required than 
 an occasional hoeing, observing always 
 to keep the ground free from \vef:d.s. 
 
 "In selecting a spot to plant beans, 
 choose where the soil is light and tole- 
 rably dry. If it be poor, apply a good 
 dressing of well rotted manure, either 
 spread over the entire surface, or placed 
 the drills when drawn out." — Rural Reg. 
 
 BEANS, Pole.—" The Scari.etRun- 
 ners, and White Dutch Beans, are 
 very delicately flavored, and are used 
 cither in the pod, or shelled when fur- 
 ther advanced ; but in Pennsylvania, 
 and perhaps farther south, they bear so 
 sparingly most seasons, as to be scarcely 
 worth cultivating. 
 
 " The Lima is too well known to need 
 description. Two varieties are culti- 
 vated ; the one broad and thin, the other 
 much thicker. We have sometimes 
 thought the latter the more tender and 
 delicate when boiled. The Lima Bean 
 is very tender, not bearing the slightest 
 frost, and is very subject to rot when 
 planted early, or during a spell of rainy 
 or damp, cool weather. To guard 
 against this, the best plan is to sprout 
 them in a frame, (as recommended for 
 tiie Long Pod or Windsor,) so situated 
 that the damp and frost can be exclud- 
 ed. An old hot-bed answers the pur- 
 pose effectually. They need not be 
 planted therein before the middle of 
 spring, nor transplanted till towards its 
 close ; a little earlier or later as the 
 weather may make expedient; if planted 
 early, they will at best remain station- 
 ary, and may, perhaps, perish. They 
 should be planted in hills in well culti- 
 vated ground, dressed either in the piece 
 or hills, with thoroughly rotted manure, 
 from the barn-yard. The hills should 
 be raised three or four inches above the 
 average level, and bo three feet apart 
 each way, with a pole six or eight feet 
 high, well secured in the ground, to 
 each hill. Three plants in a hill are 
 sufficient. As the vines shoot up, they 
 should be tied to the poles, till they 
 get hold, when they will support them 
 selves. In tying them, observe to do it 
 
 in the direction in which they incline to 
 clasp the pole, which is contrary to the 
 course of the sun, and opposed to the 
 habit pf most, climbers. 
 "Those who have not the convenience 
 
 of a frame, (or hand-glass, which will 
 answer the same purpose,) should have 
 the hills prepared and poles inserted, 
 choosing a mild, dry time, about the 
 close of May, for planting the beans. 
 if wet weather should immediately suc- 
 ceed, and the seed rot, replant as soon 
 as the ground dries. Good crops have 
 been produced in the vicinity of Phila- 
 delphia, when planted even so late as 
 first of June. 
 
 " After they become well established, 
 and have clasped the poles, no further 
 care is requisite, other than kepping 
 the weeds under, and the hills occa- 
 sionally stirred. 
 
 " The Carolina or Sewee bean, is of 
 a smaller size than the Lima ; much 
 hardier, rather earlier, and more pro- 
 ductive, but generally considered less 
 ricb. In other respects they closely 
 resemble each other — time of planting 
 may be a little in advance of the Lima 
 — cultivation precisely the same." — 
 Rural Register. 
 
 BEA N-C APER. Tygophyllum. 
 
 BEARS-BANE. Aconitum thereo- 
 phonum. 
 
 BEAR-BIND. Calystegia. 
 
 B EA RS- BRE EC II. A canthus. 
 
 BEARS-GRAPE. Arctostaphyios uva 
 ursi. 
 
 BEAU PORTIA. Five species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat... 
 
 BEAU MONTI A. Two species. 
 StOve evergreen twiners. Cuttings and 
 seed. Loam and peat. 
 
 BECIUM bicolor. Green-house shrub. 
 Cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 
 BED is a comprehensive word, ap- 
 plicable to the site on which any culti- 
 vated plants are grown. It is most, 
 correctly confined to narrow divisions, 
 purposely restricted in breadth for the 
 convenience of hand weeding or other 
 requisite culture. 
 
 BEDDING-IN. See Sowing. 
 
 BEDDING-OUT, is removing plants 
 from the pots in which they have been 
 raised, into the beds which they are in- 
 tended to adorn during summer and 
 autumn. Mr. Threlkeld gives this judi- 
 cious advice upon the practice. If the 
 season he dry, in the bottom of the hole 
 made for the plant, put some rotten 
 dung, or other material that will retain 
 water; water this well, plant, till the 
 hole to within two inches of the sur- 
 face, add more water, and then fill up 
 
BED 
 
 85 
 — i — 
 
 BEE 
 
 the hole. If water is necessary after- 
 wards, hoe the beds when dry enough. 
 Damp the leaves, if no appearance of 
 dew. — Gard. Chron. The following are 
 good plants for bedding out in masses : 
 — For large beds, Pelargoniums, espe- 
 cially the scarlet, Fuchsias and Pen- 
 stemon gentianoides coccineus. For 
 smaller beds, Petunia superba, beauty, 
 and splendens; Gailardia picta ; (Eno- 
 thera Drummondiij Verbena astrosan- 
 guinea, Bishopii, Taglionii, and Queen ; 
 and Lobelia splendens. 
 
 BEDEGUAR. See Cynips Rosa. 
 
 BEE, (Apis.) All the species of this 
 insect are friendly to the gardener, for 
 they all aid in impregnating his flowers, 
 many of which without their aid would 
 fall unproductive of either fruit or seed. 
 The honey bee (.4. mellifica) is the most 
 active in this operation ; but the humble 
 bee (Bombus apis), and others of the 
 robust species, are very valuable, being 
 able to visit flowers in rough weather, 
 when the honey bee will not venture 
 from its hive. 
 
 BEECH. Fagus. 
 
 BEET. Betterave, Fr. Rothe Rube, 
 Ger. Acelgas, Span. Barba Biettola, 
 ltal. " The Red Beet is a native of the 
 sea-coast of the south of Europe. It 
 was cultivated in England in 1656, and 
 then called beet rave, (or beet-radish,) 
 from the French name, betterave. 
 
 "The long red or blood, is generally 
 used for the winter supply, and the ex- 
 tra early, and early turnip-rooted, for 
 the summer. The extra early turnip- 
 rooted has been lately introduced from 
 Italy — its growth is astonishingly ra- 
 pid ; it should always be planted for 
 the first crop, and the old turnip-rooted 
 to succeed. 
 
 " There are several other kinds culti- 
 vated, but the foregoing are the best 
 known ; and being both early and late, 
 are beyond question amply sufficient. 
 
 "White Beet. This is a hardy bien- 
 nial plant, with leaves larger than the 
 red beet, and very thick and succulent. 
 It is a native of the sea coasts of Spain 
 and Portugal. "It is cultivated in gar- 
 dens entirely for the leaves, which are 
 boiled as spinnage, or put in soups. 
 Those of the great white, or sweet beet, 
 are esteemed for the mid ribs and stalks, 
 which are separated from the lamina of 
 the leaf, and stewed and eaten as aspa- 
 ragus, under the name of chard." The 
 great white, or Swiss chard, has been 
 
 introduced into this country within a 
 few years ; those who have cultivated 
 it give it a high character, and consider 
 it fully equal to asparagus. 
 
 " The Mangold Wurtzel is principally 
 grown for stock. It is, however, very 
 early, rapid in its growth, and tolerably 
 good for table use when young and 
 tender. It might, therefore, bean object 
 with such as are particularly fond of 
 beets, to sow a small quantity of this 
 species for an early crop. As food for 
 stock, especially milch cows, it is 
 scarcely surpassed, and the product is 
 enormous. 
 
 " Silesian or Sugar. — The Sugar Beet 
 has had great popularity as food for 
 stock, and though not now as generally 
 grown by our farmers as formerly, has 
 many advocates who claim for it great 
 merit, and attribute the failure of others 
 to injudicious feeding. They argue that 
 roots, during cold weather, should only 
 be given in moderate quantities, and 
 always with a little bran or meal ; — that 
 the cows should be fed in comfortable 
 quarters. Such treatment, it is con- 
 tended, will produce satisfactory re- 
 sults, which could hardly be expected 
 from roots frequently given in a frozen 
 state, the animal exposed to the cold, 
 and without anything to counteract the 
 scouring tendency of the roots. 
 
 " All Beets do best when planted in 
 rows, as they then admit of hoeing and 
 more thorough cleaning. The rows 
 twelve or fourteen inches apart, the 
 plants in the rows not nearer than four 
 inches. It is advisable to sow the seed 
 thicker than that, and when the plants 
 are two inches high, thin them to the 
 proper distance. 
 
 " The seed is usually sown in a shal- 
 low drill, drawn by the hoe, and co- 
 vered to the depth of an inch. For 
 the early crops plant early in spring, on 
 a warm sheltered border. The com- 
 mencement of summer is sufficiently 
 early to sow those intended for the 
 winter supply. Should the weather be 
 dry when about to sow at that season, 
 pour scalding water on the seed, and 
 let them soak 24 to 48 hours, and roll 
 in the seed. 
 
 ™ The Beet requires rich ground, and 
 like all tap-rooted plants, delights in 
 a deep loose soil. Throughout their 
 growth they demand occasional hoeing 
 between the rows, and freedom from 
 weeds. 
 
B E G 
 
 86 
 
 B ET 
 
 '* In farm culture, bow in drills three 
 feet apart, so as to admit the horse-hoe 
 -—deep tillage produces its beneficial 
 effects on this crop as on most others. 
 
 '* To save them during the winter, 
 they should be placed in the cellar, 
 against the wall, in tiers, tops outward, 
 With alternate layers of sand or earth. 
 Or in lulls in the garden, with a cover- 
 ing of earth two to three feet thick ; 
 the aperture at which they are taken 
 put as required, being carefully closed 
 with straw ; for, should hard frost reach 
 them, they will decay." — Rural Reg. 
 
 15 E (1 ON I A . Fifty-eight species. 
 Chiefly stove evergreens. Cuttings. 
 Rich loam. 
 
 B K.I ARIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 BELLADONNA LILY. Amaryllis 
 Belladonna. 
 
 BELLEISLE CHESS. Barbareapre- 
 cox. See American Cress. 
 
 &ELLEVALJA Operculata. Hardy 
 
 bull). Suckers. Common light soil. 
 
 BELL FLOWER. Campanula. 
 
 BELL-GLASS^a so called from its 
 usual form being that of a hell. It is 
 formed of one entire piece of glaesj. and 
 of common bottle glass when intended 
 for sheltering cauliflowers, &c, in the 
 open borders; but of white glass for 
 preserving moisture to cuttings in the 
 hot-house. 
 
 BELLIDIASTRUM Michelii. Hardy 
 herbaceous plant. Division. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 BELL1S. Daisy. Five species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials, except B. an- 
 nua, which is anannual. Division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 BELLIUM. Four species. Hardy 
 plants. Seeds or division. Sandy peat. 
 
 BELLOWS are employed for fumi- 
 gating, differing only from the common 
 bellows by having a receptacle for ig- 
 nited tobacco in the pipe of its nozzle, 
 through which the air, being gently 
 forced in the usual way, propels the 
 smoke in any desired direction, where 
 the insects to be destroyed appear. 
 
 BELOPERONE oblongata. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 BENGAL QUINCE. Agle Marmelos. 
 
 BENJAMIN TREE. Ficus Benja- 
 mina. 
 
 BENJAMIN TREE. Laurus Ben- 
 zoin. 
 
 BENTHAMIA fragifera. Hardy 
 evergreen shrub. Seeds or layers. 
 Common loamy soil. 
 
 BERARDIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Division. 
 Common soil. 
 
 BERBERIS. Thirty-three species. 
 Hardy evergreen or deciduous shrubs. 
 Cuttings or layers. Light common soil. 
 See Barberry. 
 
 BER0KHEYA. Ten species. Chiefly 
 green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 BERINGERIA. Eight species. Chief- 
 ly hardy herbaceous perennials. Divi- 
 sion. Common soil. 
 
 BERRY A amornilla. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Rich loam and 
 peat. 
 
 BERTEROA. Three species. Hardy. 
 Seeds or cuttings. Sandy soil. 
 
 BKRTIIOLLETIA excelsa. Brazil 
 Nut. Stove evergreen tree. Cuttings. 
 Sand, peat, and loam. 
 
 BERZELIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 BESLERIA. Twelve species. Chief- 
 ly stove evergreen shrubs. B. cristata, 
 B. serrtdata, B. violacea are climbers. 
 Cuttings. Very light rich soil. 
 
 BESOM, or Broom, received its se- 
 cond name from being often made of 
 the Broom plant ; but the best, both for 
 flexibility and durability, are made of 
 the |ihg or heath. Birch brooms arc 
 the most common, and whatever the 
 material, they will endure much longer 
 if soaked in water for some time before 
 using. If kept constantly in water they 
 would be still less brittle. Where 
 walks are liable to become mossy, a 
 broom made of wire is frequently em- 
 ployed for sweeping them. If the wire 
 be iron, it ought to be well dried and 
 dipped in oil after being used, or it is 
 soon destroyed by the rust. 
 
 BESSERA. Two species. Green- 
 house bulbous perennials. Offsets. Peat 
 and sand. 
 
 BETA. Beet. Seven species. Hardy 
 biennials. B. trigyna is an herbaceous 
 perennial. Seeds. Rich mould. 
 
 BETEL NUT. Piper Betle. 
 
 BETONICA. Betony. Ten species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. Suckers. 
 Common garden soil. 
 
 1$ KTONY. Betonica. 
 
 B ETONY. Teucrium betbnicum, 
 
 BETULA. Birch. Twenty-two spe- 
 
BIB 
 
 BIL 
 
 cies. Chiefly hardy deciduous trees 
 and shrubs. B. carpinifolia, B. pon- 
 tica, B. populifolia, are evergreens. 
 Grafting or budding, and layers for the 
 dwarf species. Common garden soil. 
 
 B I B I marci, St. Mark's Fly, of 
 ■which Mr. Curtis gives the following 
 particulars : — 
 
 The larva; of this insect are generally 
 gregarious, living in large groups of a 
 hundred or more in strawberry-beds, 
 vine borders, flower pots, and similar 
 undisturbed spots, feeding upon the 
 roots, and sometimes destroying the 
 entire plant. Bouche says they com- 
 pletely demolished his bed of Ranuncu- 
 luses for several successive years, by 
 eating up the tubers. The larva is of a 
 dark brown colour, somewhat cylindri- 
 cal, the belly flattened, moderately 
 broad, and nearly linear; the head is 
 comparatively small, deep brown, some- 
 times of a chestnut colour, and very 
 shining ; they change to pupa; generally 
 towards the end of March ; these are 
 of a pale ochreous colour, the head 
 being brighter. 
 
 The female lays her eggs in the earth, 
 and in the dung of horses and cows, in 
 May ; they do not hatch until August. 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 BIDENS. Fourteen species. Chiefly 
 hardy plants. Seeds, suckers, division, 
 according to their habit and duration. 
 Common soil. 
 
 BIENNIAL, is a plant which, being 
 produced from seed in one year, per- 
 fects its seed and dies during the year 
 following. Biennials may often be made 
 to endure longer if prevented ripening 
 their seeds, and many exotics, biennials 
 in their native climes, are perennials in 
 our stoves. 
 
 Hardy Biennials. — Some of these 
 ripen their seeds as early as August, in 
 which case they may be sown as soon 
 as harvested. Others ripening their 
 seeds later must have these reserved 
 from sowing until May. The double 
 varieties of wall-flowers, stocks, &c, 
 are propagated by cuttings. 
 
 Frame Biennials. — These required 
 the shelter of a frame during the early 
 stages of their growth ; to be removed 
 thence in May to the borders, where 
 they bloom in July and August. 
 
 BIFRENARIA. Three species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Division. 
 
 BIGNONIA. Sixty-one species. 
 Chiefly stove evergreen climbers. B. 
 
 capreolata is hardy, and B. Carolina, 
 B. picta, and B. jasminoldes, are green- 
 house climbers. B. grandijlora bears 
 some resemblance to our native cruci- 
 gera, but is far more desirable : its 
 showy flowers are borne in large ra- 
 cemes, which expand in succession, 
 and thus continue in bloom for many 
 weeks ; it is from China, but quite hardy 
 at Philadelphia; and from its rapid 
 growth admirably adapted for walls, 
 arbours, pillars, &c. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. B. venusta is cultivated as 
 follows by Mr. Brown, gardener to 
 Lord Southampton, at Whittlebury 
 Lodge. 
 
 The situation in which it most delights 
 is a dark bed, where the roots can run 
 at liberty among the tan ; train upright 
 until it reaches the top lights, then train 
 along the house. Towards the end of 
 December, cut the plant into six or ten 
 feet, when it remains dormant through 
 the winter. In the beginning of March, 
 young shoots in abundance break from 
 the apparently dead wood; a sufficient 
 number of these to be trained along the 
 house, and these again produce laterals; 
 and at the end of each a cluster of blos- 
 som buds is formed. On the production 
 of these lateral shoots depends the free 
 blooming of the plant, to encourage 
 which a damp atmosphere is to be kept 
 by pouring water over the pathways, 
 and by frequently syringing the plant. 
 All superfluous shoots are stopped ; and 
 it is necessary to pay a good deal of at- 
 tention to this, for an over abundance 
 of shoots would soon be produced that 
 would form a complete thicket. The 
 plant commences flowering about the 
 beginning of September. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 BILBERRY. Vaccinium myrtillus. 
 
 BILIMBI TREE. Averrhoa bilimbi. 
 
 BILL (Fig- 21), a sharp-edged tool, 
 employed in cutting hedges, sharpen- 
 ing stakes, &c. It should never be used 
 in pruning valuable trees; but where the 
 branch is too strong to be cut with the 
 knife, the saw ought always to be applied. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 BILLARDIERA. Six species. Green- 
 house evergreen climbers. Cuttings. 
 Rich loam and peat. 
 
BIL 
 
 BL A 
 
 BILLBERGIA. Ten species. Store 
 epiphytes. Suckers. Rich mould. 
 
 BILLOTIA acerosa. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 BINDWEED. Convolvulus. 
 
 BINDWEED. Smilax Aspera. 
 
 BIOPHYTUM sensitivum. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 BIRCH. Betula. 
 
 BIRCH. Carpinus Betulus. 
 
 BIRDS are benefactors as well as in- 
 jurers of the gardener. They destroy 
 millions of grubs, caterpillars, and 
 aphides, which would have ravaged his 
 crops ; but at the same time they com- 
 mit sad havoc upon his fruit and seeds. 
 The wisest course, consequently, is to 
 scare them from the garden at such 
 times, or from the portions of it in 
 which they can be prejudicial, but to 
 leave them to visit it unmolested when- 
 ever and wherever they cannot be mis- 
 chievous. Thus in early spring a boy 
 or two will drive them away during 
 such time as the buds of the gooseberry, 
 currant and plum, are open to their 
 attacks ; and again during the time that 
 the cherries are ripe. To keep them 
 from the fruit of late gooseberries and 
 currants, it is sufficient to interlace 
 thickly the bushes with red worsted. 
 To keep them from attacking peas and 
 other vegetables just emerging from the 
 soil, a similar display of white thread 
 fastened to pegs about six inches from 
 the surface, is also efficiently deterring. 
 Nets, where available, are also suffi- 
 cient guardians. By these aids, but 
 especially by the watching during cer- 
 tain seasons, the gardener may protect 
 himself from injury at a very trifling ex- 
 pense, without depriving himself of the 
 services of the most sharp-sighted, most 
 unwearying, and most successful of all 
 insect killers; and, it should also be 
 added, one of the most agreeable ap- 
 pendages to rural life. Without birds, 
 next to flowers, the country would be 
 desolate. What delightful associations 
 and recollections present themselves as 
 we call to mind the chirping of the 
 wren, the homely notes of the familiar 
 cat-bird, the gambols of the martin, and 
 the periodical visits of the confiding 
 robin and snow-bird. 
 
 BIRD CHERRY. Cerasus padus. 
 
 BIRD PEPPER. Capsicum bacca- 
 tum. 
 
 BIRD'S BILL. Trigonella ornitho- 
 podioides. 
 
 BIRD'S EYE. Primula farinosa. 
 
 BIRD'S FOOT. Orthinopus. 
 
 BIRD'S FOOT. Euphorbia orthino- 
 pus. 
 
 BIRD'S FOOT TREFOIL. Lotus. 
 
 BIRD'S NEST. Asplenium Nidus. 
 
 BIRD'S TONGUE. Ornitho glos- 
 sum. 
 
 BIRTH WORT. Aristolochia. 
 
 BISCUTELLA. Twenty-three spe- 
 cies. Hardy annuals and herbaceous 
 perennials. Seeds. Loam and peat. 
 
 BISERRULA pelecinus. Hatchet 
 vetch. Hardy annual. Seeds. Sandy 
 loam or peat. 
 
 BITTER SWEET. Solanum Dul- 
 camara. 
 
 BIVONJEA LUTEA. Annual. 
 Seeds. Dry sandy soil. 
 
 BIXA. Three species. Stove ever- 
 green trees. Seeds or cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 BIZARRE. See Carnation. 
 
 BLACK ARCH MOTH. See Bombyx. 
 
 BLACK CATERPILLAR. See^tto- 
 lia. 
 
 BLACK FLY. Haltica nemorum. 
 This is only one of the several popular 
 names by which the turnip fly is known. 
 The gardener is not so liable to suffer 
 as is the farmer, from its ravages, yet 
 he is sufficiently open to them to ren- 
 der a knowledge of its habits desirable. 
 Mr. Curtis says : — 
 
 " The eggs of the common striped 
 turnip fly are laid on the under side of 
 the rough leaf of the turnip from April 
 to September ; they hatch in two days. 
 Their maggots live between the two 
 skins or cuticles of the rough leaf, and 
 arrive at maturity in sixteen days. The 
 chrysalis is buried just beneath the sur- 
 face of the earth, where it remains 
 about a fortnight. The beetles live 
 through the winter in a torpid state, 
 and revive in the spring, when they de- 
 stroy the first two leaves, called the 
 cotyledonous or seed leaves of the 
 young turnip. There are five or six 
 broods in a season. These insects are 
 most to be feared in fine seasons. 
 
 " Heavy rains, cold springs, and long 
 droughts, destroy them. Their scent is 
 very perfect : the beetles fly against 
 the wind, and are attracted from a dis- 
 tance. The rapid growth of the plant 
 is the best security against them : to 
 secure which, sow plenty of seed all of 
 the same age. Burning the surface of 
 the land is beneficial, by destroying the 
 
BL A 
 
 BLI 
 
 chrysalids. Sheep folding must destroy \ 
 the insect in every state. Deep digging | 
 ia an excellent practice, when the chry- j 
 salids are in the soil. Drilling is a far] 
 superior practice to sowing the seed j 
 broadcast. Long raw manure harbours | 
 the beetles. The benefit derived from 
 the application of lime and soot is very 
 doubtful. Mangold wurzel is not favour- 
 able to the beetles, and Swedes are | 
 probably less attractive than white tur- 
 nips. Mixing white turnips with Swedes 
 is not desirable, as the beetles may be 
 attracted by the strong scent of the for- 
 mer. Early sowing is attended with 
 disadvantages. Destroy charlock, it 
 affords support to the beetles before 
 the turnips come up." 
 
 The most effectual banishment of the 
 turnip fly, I think, is secured by sowing 
 the surface of the soil with gas lime 
 (hydro-sulphuret of lime) the next morn- 
 ing but one after the turnip seed has 
 been sown. This is so offensive to the 
 insect as to drive it away just at the 
 time the young plants are appearing 
 above ground. The most certain pro 
 cess is, after all, to sow very thickly ; the 
 flies will have their share — if too many 
 remain, thin out. 
 
 BLACK VARNISH TREE. See 
 Melanoi rhcea. 
 
 BLACK WELLIA. Six species. 
 Stove or evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 BLADDER BLIGHT. See Peach. 
 
 BLiERIA. Eleven species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 BLAKEA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 BLANCHING, or etiolation, is 
 effected by making plants grow in the 
 dark, and the more completely the light 
 is excluded the more entire is the ab- 
 sence of colour from the leaves and 
 stems of the plants. The colouring 
 matter of these is entirely dependent 
 upon their power to decompose water 
 and carbonic acid gas, a power they do 
 not possess when light is absent. The 
 effect of blanching is to render the parts 
 more delicately flavoured, more pleas- 
 ing to the eye, and more crisp, proper- 
 ties very desirable in sea kale, celery, 
 rhubarb, endive, lettuces, &c. Wher- 
 ever it can be accomplished, blanching 
 pots should be employed, in preference 
 to covering the plants with earth or 
 
 other materials. The flavour is better, 
 and decay is less liable to be induced. 
 Lettuces and cabbages are usually 
 whitened by tying the leaves over the 
 heart or centre bud, but even in these 
 instances the blanching pot operates 
 much more effectually. In remote 
 country places blanching pots may not 
 be readily obtained ; an equally useful 
 aid is found by placing together two 
 boards of a convenient length, so as to 
 form as it were two sides of a triangle, 
 or double pitched roof. 
 
 BLANDFORDIA. Two species. 
 Green-house herbaceous perennials. 
 Suckers or seeds. Sandy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 BLAST or BLIGHT, is the popular 
 name for any withering of plants of 
 which neither the scientific title nor the 
 causes are known to the observer. The 
 mildew of corn; the honey dew on 
 fruit trees; the withering occasioned 
 by violent cold winds in early spring, 
 and the ravages of the hawthorn cater- 
 pillar, are all spoken of by the unin- 
 formed under the above titles. 
 
 BLECHNUM. Thirteen species. 
 Stove or green-house herbaceous pe- 
 rennial ferns. B. serrulatum is hardy. 
 Seeds or division. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 BLECHUM. Four species. Stove 
 herbaceous perennial ferns. Cuttings. 
 Loamy peat. 
 
 BLEEDING. See Extravasated Sap. 
 
 BLEPHARIS. Five species. Stove 
 and green-house plants. B.furcata is 
 an evergreen shrub. B. procumbens an 
 evergreen trailer. Seeds. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 BLEPHILIA. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 BLETIA. Eleven species. Stove 
 orchideous plants. Division. Sandy 
 peat and light loam. 
 
 BLIGHIA sapida. Akee Tree. Stove 
 evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 BLIND PLANTS frequently occur 
 in the cabbage and others of the bras- 
 sica tribe. They are plants which have 
 failed to produce central buds, and as 
 these are produced from the central 
 vessels, if the top of their stems be cut 
 away, they usually emit lateral or side 
 buds from the edge of the wound. See 
 Barren Plants. 
 
 BLITE, or Strawberry Spinach. {Bli- 
 tum.) 
 
B LI 
 
 90 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 BLO 
 
 BLITUM. Five species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 BLOOD. See Animal Matters. 
 
 BLOOM or BLOSSOM, is the popu- 
 lar name for the flowers of fruit-bearing 
 plants. 
 
 " The organs of fructification are ab- 
 solutely necessary, and are always pro- 
 ducible by garden plants properly culti- 
 vated. They may be deficient in leaves, 
 or stems, or roots, because other or- 
 gans may supply their places ; but 
 plants are never incapable of bearing 
 flowers and seeds, for without these 
 they can never fully attain the object 
 of their creation, the increase of their 
 species. 
 
 " Every flower is composed of one 
 or more of the following parts, viz. : 
 the calyx, which is usually green and 
 enveloping the flower whilst in the 
 bud ; the corolla, or petals, leaves so 
 beautifully coloured, and so delicate in 
 most flowers; the stamens or male 
 portion of the flower, secreting the pol- 
 len or impregnating powder; the pistils 
 or female portion, impregnatable by 
 the pollen, and rendering fertile the 
 seeds; and lastly, the pericarp or seed- 
 vessel. 
 
 " The stamens are the only portion 
 of a flower which can be removed with- 
 out preventing the formation of fertile 
 seed, and their loss must be supplied 
 by the induction to the pistils of pollen 
 from some kindred flower. 
 
 " The calyx is not useless so soon 
 as it ceases to envelope and protect the 
 flower, for the flower stalk continues 
 increasing in size until the seed is per- 
 fected, but ceases to do so in those 
 plants whose calyces remain iong green 
 if these be removed ; on the other 
 hand, in the poppy and other flowers, 
 from which the calyx falls early, the 
 flower stalk does not subsequently en- 
 large. 
 
 " The corolla or petals, with all their 
 varied tints and perfumes, have more 
 important offices to perform than thus 
 to delight the senses of mankind. Those 
 bright colours and their perfumed honey 
 serve to attract insects, which are the 
 chief and often essential assistants of 
 impregnation ; and those petals, as ob- 
 served by Linnaeus, serve as wings, 
 giving a motion assisting to effect the 
 same important process. But they have 
 a still more essential office, for although 
 they are absent from some plants, yet 
 
 if removed from those possessing them 
 before impregnation is completed, the 
 fertilization never takes place. They 
 therefore perform in such cases an 
 essential part in the vegetable econo- 
 my ; and that they do so is testified by 
 all the phenomena they exhibit. They 
 turn to the sun open only when he has 
 a certain degree of power, and close 
 at the setting of that luminary; their 
 secretions are usually more odorous, 
 more saccharine, and totally differing 
 from those of the other organs of plants ; 
 and in the absence of light those secre- 
 tions are not formed. 
 
 "The corolla is not always short- 
 lived, for although in some, as the 
 cistus, the petals which open with the 
 rising sun, strew the border as it de- 
 parts, so some, far from being epheme- 
 ral, continue until the fruit is perfected. 
 The duration of the petals, however, 
 is intimately connected with the im- 
 pregnation of the seed, for in most 
 flowers they fide soon after this is com- 
 pleted ; and double flowers, in which 
 it occurs not at all, are always longer 
 enduring than single flowers of the 
 same species. Then, again, in some 
 flowers, they become green and per- 
 form the function of leaves after im- 
 pregnation has been effected. A fami- 
 liar example occurs in the Christmas 
 rose, (Helleborus niger,) the petals of 
 which are white, but which become 
 green so soon as the seeds have some- 
 what increased in size, and the stamens 
 and other organs connected with fer- 
 tility have fallen off. 
 
 " It is quite true that some fruit will 
 not ripen if the part of the branch be- 
 yond is denuded of leaves, but this 
 only shows that those fruits cannot ad- 
 vance when deprived of leaves as well 
 as of calyx and corolla, the only organs 
 for elaborating the sap; and there are 
 some flowers, as the Daphne mezereon, 
 Autumn crocus, and sloe, that have 
 their flowers perfected and passed 
 away before the leaves have even ap- 
 peared. 
 
 " That the petals perform an im- 
 portant part in elaborating the sap sup- 
 plied to the fruit is further proved by 
 the flower being unable to bloom or to 
 be fertile in an atmosphere deprived of 
 its oxygen; and by their absorbing more 
 of that gas, and evolving more car- 
 bonic acid, than even a larger surface 
 of leaves of the same plant. 
 
BLU 
 
 01 
 
 BOM 
 
 " No seed ever attains the power of 
 germinating, unless the pollen from the 
 stamens in the same, or some nearly al- 
 lied flower, has reached and impregnated 
 its pistils." — Johnson's Princ. of Gard. 
 
 BLUMENBACHIA. Two species. 
 Hardy annuals. Seeds. Rich loam. 
 
 BOBARTIA. Three species. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennials. B. auran- 
 tiaca is hardy. Division. Sandy peat. 
 
 BOCCONIA. Two species. Stove ever- 
 green shrubs. Cuttings. Loam. 
 
 B(EBERA. Two species. B. chry- 
 santhemoides is a hardy annual. B. in- 
 cana, a green-house evergreen shrub. 
 Seeds. Loamy peat or common soil. 
 
 BOG-EARTH, or peat earth, is the 
 soil required for a class of plants that 
 are generally designated American, 
 though not all of them are natives of 
 that quarter of the globe. Bog-earth 
 of the best description is thus consti- 
 tuted : — 
 
 Fine siliceous sand . . . 156 
 
 Unaltered vegetable fibre . 2 
 
 Decomposing vegetable) ,.q 
 
 matter 5 
 
 Silica (Flint) 102 
 
 Alumina (clay) 16 
 
 Oxide of iron 4 
 
 Soluble vegetable and) . 
 
 saline matter 5 
 
 Muriate of lime .... 4 
 
 Loss 2 
 
 BOG EARTH PLANTS. See Ameri- 
 can Plants. 
 
 BOLBOPHYLLUM. Nineteen spe- 
 cies. Stove epiphytes. Division. They 
 require a strong damp heat. 
 
 BOLDOA. Two species. Stove 
 plants. B. lanceolata an evergreen 
 shrub. B. purpurescens an herbaceous 
 perennial. Cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 BOLEUM Asperum. Half hardy ever- 
 green shrub. Seed. Sandy peat. 
 
 BOLIVARIA trlfida. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 BOLTONIA. Two species. Hardy her- 
 baceous perennials. Division. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 BOMBAX. Silk cotton tree. Four 
 species. Stove evergreen trees. Half 
 ripened cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 
 BOMBYX, a genus of moths, of which 
 the following are injurious to the gar- 
 dener. 
 
 B. cesculi, the horse-chestnut, or wood 
 leopard moth, the last being the most 
 appropriate name, as descriptive of its 
 
 spotted form. Its caterpillar injures 
 the wood of the elm, apple, pear, horse- 
 chestnut and walnut. 
 
 M. Kollar, in his valuable work on 
 predatory insects, says : — " The cater- 
 pillar of this moth is smaller than that 
 of the preceding species, its length be- 
 ing only one inch and a half or two 
 inches. It is hatched in August, moults 
 for the first time in September, and is 
 full grown in June of the following year. 
 From its existence till its transforma- 
 tion it is yellow, with raised shiny black 
 dots, on each of which there is a fine 
 short hair. 
 
 " It undergoes its transformation in a 
 strong web under the bark, becoming 
 a brownish-yellow pupa, capable of 
 much extension, dark brown at both 
 extremities, with short wingsheaths, a 
 horn-like point bent forward on the 
 head, and fine hooks on the back of the 
 abdominal segments. 
 
 "The moth appears in August to- 
 wards evening, and is a native of almost 
 all Europe. It is very remarkable from 
 its colour; the ground is white on vari- 
 ous parts, on which steel blue dots are 
 scattered. It measures, with extended 
 wings, two inches and a half. 
 
 " The female introduces her round 
 orange-coloured eggs, by means of her 
 strong ovipositor, into the trees before 
 named." 
 
 B. bucephala, Buff-tip moth, produces 
 a caterpillar which feeds on the leaves 
 of the lime, beech, birch, alder, oak, 
 willow, and more rarely on those of the 
 rose, apple and pear. M. Kollar says: 
 — " This caterpillar does not appear till 
 the latter end of June or the beginning 
 of July, and feeds to the end of Septem- 
 ber ; when fully grown it measures 
 nearly two inches long, and is about as 
 thick as a goosequill. It is thinly haired, 
 dark brown, with interrupted slender 
 yellow longitudinal stripes, which are 
 intersected by a yellow cross, and be- 
 tween each segment. 
 
 " The moth appears in May and June, 
 when it sits with its wings bent down- 
 wards, covering the whole body so that 
 it resembles a scroll. When its wings 
 are expanded, it measures from two and 
 a half to three inches wide, the abdo- 
 men is pale yellow, spotted with black 
 on the sides. The upper wings are 
 notched, ash-grey, and silver-grey at 
 the base and inner edge, a pale yellow, 
 or silver grey kidney-shaped spot is 
 
BOM 
 
 92 
 
 BOM 
 
 placed in the middle between two yel- 
 low cross lines. The under wings are 
 of a yellowish-white ; and have near 
 the inner angle a greyish-brown and 
 often faint double stripe. As the cater- 
 pillars when they appear are gregarious, 
 they can easily be destroyed by picking 
 them off when young. 5 ' 
 
 B. cossus, Goat-moth. Its caterpillar 
 is most destructive to the wood of fruit 
 trees, though the elm, oak, willow, 
 poplar, and walnut also, are liable to 
 its attacks. M. Kollar says: — "It is 
 
 bark, and afterwards, when they are 
 stronger, penetrating into the wood. 
 
 " When we have actually ascertained 
 the existence of one of these creatures 
 in a trunk, by the extruded excrement, 
 relief comes too late for the tree, even 
 if we are able to kill the caterpillar, the 
 mischief being already done. Notwith- 
 standing this, the caterpillar should ne- 
 ver be left undisturbed, and an attempt 
 should be made to reach it, by enlarg- 
 ing the opening with a garden knife; or 
 endeavour. ng to kill it by thrusting a 
 
 one of the largest caterpillars known j piece of puw.ied wire up the hole of the 
 in Europe, measuring more than four; tree.-' 
 
 inches in length. It is smooth and i B. dispar, Gipsy Moth. Its little 
 shining, beset only here and there with j caterpillar is found in early spring on 
 single short hairs. It is dark red on j the leaves of fruit trees, as they burst 
 the back, and the spiracles situated at! fromthebud. M. Kollar, to whose pages 
 both sides are of the same colour. The I am so much indebted for accurate in- 
 sides and lower part of the body are | formation relative to this species, says 
 flesh-coloured; the head is black, the j that — 
 
 first segment also marked with black "In unfavourable weather they col- 
 above. | lect upon the trunk near the top, or in 
 " After remaining more than two years I the forks of the branches, and enclose 
 in the larvs state, and casting its skin I themselves in a web ; but when they 
 eight times, the caterpillar becomes of j feed, they disperse themselves all over 
 a light ochre yellow hue, shortly be- j the tree. They are immediately dis- 
 fore pupation, which usually takes place | tinguished from other caterpillars by 
 
 their large yellow-spotted head, and 
 
 the 
 
 in spring ; when it makes a strong co 
 
 coon of chips of wood and small pieces! by the six pairs of red dots on 
 
 of bark, which it has gnawed off. The ! hinder part of the back. 
 
 abdomen of the pupa is yellow, and the 
 
 segments are deeply indented and ca 
 
 The males are dark brown, and 
 their forewings have three or four undu- 
 
 pable of much extension. The back is I lating blackish stripes. The females 
 
 furnished with strong pointed spines, 
 sometimes of a reddish-brown colour. 
 The cocoon is situated immediately 
 within the opening in the tree, so that 
 the pupa when arrived at maturity can 
 press itself half out of the hole when 
 the shell bursts, and the moth comes 
 forth usually in the month of June or 
 July, after having reposed in the pupa 
 state for an indefinite time. When at 
 rest the wings are folded together over 
 the back in the form of a roof; it sits 
 quietly in the daytime on the stems of 
 trees, and is difficult to be distinguished 
 on account of its grey colour. It mea- 
 sures with extended wings, from one 
 tip to the other, nearly three inches, 
 and many specimens are more than this; 
 the female is usually larger than the 
 male. 
 
 " The female is provided with a 
 strong ovipositor, with which she in- 
 troduces her eggs in the bark of the 
 tree, the young caterpillars living at 
 first in and between the outer and inner 
 
 are whitish-grey, and their forewing3 
 are traversed by brownish stripes. 
 
 " The moth lays her eggs in various 
 places in August and September, but 
 chiefly on the trunks of the fruit trees, 
 on which the caterpillars lived. It also 
 lays its eggs in places that are not very 
 near fruit trees, viz., on garden buildings, 
 palings and walls, so that the young 
 caterpillars have to go a considerable 
 distance in search of food, which is 
 seldom the case with insects. The 
 eggs lie in a shapeless mass one inch 
 long, and a quarter of an inch high, to 
 the number of two to five hundred 
 together, and are surrounded with yel- 
 lowish hair, which preserves them from 
 the winter's cold." 
 
 B. monacha, Black arch moth. Its 
 caterpillar prefers the leaves of the fir 
 tribe, but also attacks fruit trees, the 
 oak, aspen, elm, lime, and willow. M. 
 Kollar states that — " The moth is of 
 the medium size. It sits during the day, 
 with its wings lying close to its body 
 
B OM 
 
 93 
 
 BOM 
 
 in a slanting direction ; and when its 
 wings are expanded, they measure 
 above two inches from one point to 
 the other. There are four or five black 
 notched lines on the upper wings, on a 
 white ground, and there is a black 
 spot between the middle ones. The 
 front of the body is white, with black 
 spots, and the abdomen varied with 
 black rings, and red incisions, which, 
 however, are sometimes wanting. 
 
 " The caterpillar, when fully grown, 
 measures from one and a half to one 
 and three-quarter inches, the transverse 
 diameter one line and a half. It is 
 usually of a brown grey mixed with 
 black, and occasionally entirely black; 
 sometimes, but still more rarely, it is 
 of a whitish colour. The head is large, 
 covered with short hairs, and it has a 
 brownish line along the forehead, which 
 ends in a triangular spot of the same 
 colour over the mouth. Wherever it 
 goes it spins a thread after it out of the 
 spinnerds under the mouth. If its rest- 
 ing-place be shaken, it hastily lets itself 
 down and curls itself up. It usually 
 goes into the pupa state from the begin- 
 ning of June to July, when the cater- 
 pillar is fully grown ; the pupa is sur r 
 rounded by a slight web, which is 
 sometimes formed among the foliage, 
 and sometimes over hollows of the 
 bark ; after which the caterpillar skin 
 is cast off in three or four days. The 
 pupa is three-quarters of an inch long ; 
 at first green, then a brownish red, and 
 afterwards becomes somewhat darker, 
 or rather blackish, with a metallic ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 " The moth sometimes appears in 
 the last days of July or beginning of 
 August; but the late ones do not appear 
 till September. After pairing, the fe- 
 male lays her eggs by means of her 
 ovipositor, in the cracks of the bark of 
 the old trees, in the form of a bunch of 
 grapes, to the amount of twenty or 
 thirty in each cluster. As the oviposi- 
 tor cannot be used on the beach, oak, 
 and birch, she lays her eggs on the bark, 
 and flaps her wings over them, to cover 
 them with the dust from her wings and 
 body. One female usually lays one 
 hundred and twenty eggs in the course 
 of twenty-four hours, at three or four 
 intervals. They are not spherical, but 
 flat on two sides, and very sharp and 
 rough to the touch." 
 
 B. chrysorrhoea. Yellow-tailed moth. 
 
 Its caterpillar usually confines its at- 
 tacks to the leaves of the white and 
 black thorn, but sometimes spreads to 
 our fruit trees. M. Kollar observes 
 that — " In the day time it sits quietly 
 on a leaf, or on a wall, and suffers itself 
 to be caught in the hand. It has re- 
 ceived its name from the posterior part 
 of its body being covered with a round 
 mass of golden yellow hair. Its fore- 
 wings are of a dazzling whiteness, as 
 is also the greater part of its body ; 
 only the principal vein of the forewing 
 of the male is brown on the under side, 
 and it has also sometimes a few black 
 dots on its wings. 
 
 " At the end of June this moth usu- 
 ally appears, seeks a companion, and 
 continues its species. The female 
 usually lays her eggs on the under side 
 of the leaf, in a small heap or mass, , 
 and covers them with hair from her 
 tail. Hence, nothing is seen of the 
 eggs, as they lie in rows under the 
 covering of hair. The number of eggs 
 in the heap amounts to from two to three 
 hundred ; they are round, and of a gold 
 colour; when the female has laid her 
 eggs she dies, after having applied all 
 the hair from her tail to form the co- 
 vering. The caterpillars are usually 
 hatched at the end of July. They have 
 a dirty-yellow appearance, a black 
 head, and a black ring round the neck ; 
 they are thickly covered with hair, and 
 have four rows of blackish dots along 
 the back. They change their skins in 
 August. In the middle of September 
 they cease feeding, and in October they 
 only come out of their nest in very 
 warm days, when they lie on the outr 
 side, but return to the nest in the even- 
 ing. They become benumbed in No- 
 vember, and even in extreme cold they 
 only become benumbed, and resume 
 their activity when warm weather sets 
 in. Before the buds on the trees have 
 begun to burst in spring, some of the 
 caterpillars come out of their nests and 
 eat the folded leaves. In the course of 
 a few days they are found in multitudes 
 at the forks of the branches in the side 
 of the tree exposed to the sun." — Kol- 
 lar. 
 
 B. azruleocephala. Figure-of-eight 
 moth. Its caterpillar selects the leaves 
 of the black and white thorn, almond, 
 apricot, and peach, though it will attack 
 those of other trees. Kollar tells us 
 that — " x\t the time of pupation these 
 
BOM 
 
 94 
 
 BOM 
 
 caterpillars repair to the stems of the 
 trees, or to walls and hedges, where 
 they make for themselves cases of moss, 
 lime, dust, and small chips of wood, 
 
 and oak most plentifully ; elm very 
 plentifully; most fruit trees the same ; 
 blackthorn plentifully; rose-trees the 
 same ; on the willow and poplar scarce. 
 
 oval on the upper side and flat below, i None have been noticed on the elder, 
 
 in which they do not become pupae ti 
 the third week. The pupa small, cylin- 
 drical, reddish-brown, dull, in some 
 degree powdered with blue. 
 
 " The perfect insect or moth mea- 
 sures, with extended wings, from tip to 
 
 walnut, ash, fir, or herbaceous plants. 
 With respect to fruit trees, the injuries 
 they sustain are most serious, as in 
 destroying the blossoms as yet in the 
 bud, they also destroy the fruit in em- 
 bryo ; the owners of orchards, there- 
 
 tip, one inch and from six to nine lines. | fore, have great reason to be alarmed. 
 
 The forewings bluish grey, rather shin 
 ing, divided by three incisions at the 
 sides, and situated between twp blackish 
 undulated cross lines, have been some- 
 times compared to a pair of spectacles 
 (or a figure of eight)." 
 
 B. lubria'peda. Spotted buff moth. 
 The caterpillars of this feed on the 
 leaves of elder, horse-radish, lilacs, 
 beans, and indeed seem to be omnivo- 
 rous. The larvae appear in June and 
 July, and are thus described by Mr. 
 Curtis : — 
 
 "The back is dark green, and the 
 under side pale green, with a wavy 
 white line down each side, from the 
 head to the tail. The spiracles also 
 are white; the whole animal is covered 
 with little rust-coloured cushions, which 
 produce brushes of longish reddish- 
 brown hairs, so that it resembles a 
 little bear's skin. When full grown, 
 they retire to the stems of plants and 
 the chinks in walls, to change to black 
 shining chrysalids, in an oval loose 
 cocoon, composed of silk, and the hairs 
 from their skin. 
 
 " The moth rests with its wings de- 
 flexed ; is of a pale ochre, or buff 
 colour; the antennae are black, and 
 bipectinated in the male; the eyes, 
 palpi, and legs are also black, except- 
 ing the thighs, which are of an orange 
 colour, and the tibia and tarsi are va- 
 riegated with buff; the upper wings 
 have two long black spots upon the 
 costal margin, with one or more dots 
 near the base, in a transverse line. As 
 the moths stick about plants and walls, 
 often in pairs, in May and June, they 
 are easily detected, and it becomes 
 necessary to kill them to prevent the 
 havoc they make with the foliage." — 
 Card. Chron. 
 
 B. phteorrhcea. Brown-tailed moth. 
 M. Kollar states that — " According to 
 Curtis, the caterpillar of the brown- 
 tailed moth is found on the hawthorn 
 
 This moth is so closely related to 
 the yellow-tailed moth, and its habits 
 so similar, that the means suggested 
 for the destruction of the one may be 
 advantageously adopted for the other. 
 
 " In the month of June, when al- 
 most full grown, this caterpillar mea- 
 sures nearly two inches, and is of the 
 thickness of a very thick quill ; it is 
 very juicy, of a yellowish-green colour, 
 with black tubercles, each of which 
 bears a single hair, and has three pale 
 yellow stripes, running longitudinally ; 
 the middle one extending rather broadly 
 along the back. It has a small bluish 
 head, with two black round spots on it. 
 
 " At the time of pupation, these cat- 
 erpillars repair to the stems of the 
 trees, or to walls and hedges, where 
 they make for themselves cases of 
 moss, lime-dust, and small chips of 
 wood, oval on the upper side, and flat 
 below, in which they do not become 
 pupa; till the third week. The pupa is 
 small, cylindrical, reddish-brown, dull 
 in some degree, powdered with blue." 
 — Kollar. 
 
 B. antiqua, Vapourer, or brown tus- 
 sock moth. This moth appears from 
 August to October. Mr. Curtis informs 
 us that — " The males then fly about in 
 pursuit of their consorts, who are desti- 
 tute of wings, and after depositing a large 
 number of eggs, fall down exhausted and 
 die. These eggs are somewhat ovate, 
 depressed, and hollow on the crown, 
 round which is a brown ring. They 
 are of a pinky-white colour, and are 
 fastened as they are laid, by a gluti- 
 nous substance, to the bark of the tree, 
 or whatever the parent happens to rest 
 upon, frequently to the web containing 
 the shell of the pupa ; they are hatched 
 the following April, when the larvae 
 attack a great variety of trees, feeding 
 upon the leaves of roses, brambles, the 
 apple, plum, sloe, hawthorn, oak, lime, 
 alder, and sallow. The caterpillars 
 
BON 
 
 95 
 
 BOR 
 
 often do considerable mischief to the 
 rose-trees, by eating large holes in the 
 leaves; and, keeping on the under 
 sides, they are seldom visible until they 
 are full-grown, when they are often an 
 inch in length, and ramble about to 
 select some suitable crevice in the bark 
 of a tree or other secure place to spin 
 their fine white silken web, strengthen- 
 ed and protected with the different 
 hairs from their own bodies ; in this 
 web they change to pitch colour, and 
 rather hairy chrysalides, from whence 
 the moths are produced at various pe- 
 riods."— Gard. Chron. 
 
 BONAPARTEA. Two species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Seed. Rich sandy 
 loam. 
 
 BONATEA speciosa. Stove epiphyte. 
 Division. Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 BONES are beneficial as a manure, 
 because their chief constituent (phos- 
 phate of lime) is also a constituent of 
 all plants; and the gelatine which is 
 also in bones is of itself a source of food 
 to them. The bones of the ox, sheep, 
 horse, and pig, being those usually em- 
 ployed, their analyses are here given: — 
 
 Ox |Sheep Horse Pig 
 
 Phosph. of lime 
 Carb. of lime 
 Animal matter 
 The bones must 
 
 55 
 
 4 
 33 
 be 
 
 70 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 applied 
 
 GS 
 
 1 
 31 
 
 to 
 
 crops in very small pieces or powder; 
 and ten pounds at the time of inserting 
 the seed is enough for thirty square 
 yards, if sown broadcast; and a much 
 smaller quantity is sufficient if sprinkled 
 along the drills in which the seed is 
 sown. There is no doubt that bone 
 dust may be employed with advantage 
 in all gardens and to all garden-crops, 
 but it lias been experimented on most 
 extensively with the turnip and potato, 
 and with unfailing benefit. Mixed with 
 sulphur, and drilled in with the turnip 
 seed, it has been found to preserve the 
 young plants from the fly. Mr. Knight 
 found it beneficial when applied largely 
 to stone-fruit, at the time of planting : 
 and it is quite as good for the vine. To 
 lawns, the dust has been applied with 
 great advantage when the grass was 
 becoming thin. As a manure for the 
 shrubbery, parterre, and green-house, 
 it is also most valuable ; and crushed as 
 well as ground, is employed generally 
 to mix with the soil of potted plants. 
 Mr. Maund finds it promotes the luxu- 
 
 riance and beauty of his flowers. One 
 pound of bone-dust mixed with twelve 
 ounces of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), 
 and twelve ounces of water, if left to 
 act upon each other for a day, form 
 super-phosphate of lime, a wine-glass 
 full of which has been found beneficial 
 to pelargoniums. Applied as a top- 
 dressing, mixed with half its weight of 
 charcoal dust, it is a good manure for 
 onions, and may be applied at the rate 
 of nine pounds to the square rod. 
 There is little doubt of this super-phos- 
 phate being good for all our kitchen- 
 garden crops, being more prompt in its 
 effects upon a crop than simple bone- 
 dust, because it is soluble in water, and 
 therefore &>re readily presented to the 
 roots in a state for them to imbibe. 
 
 BONNETIA palustris. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 B N T I A daphnoides. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 BORAGE (Borago officinalis).- Its 
 young leaves are sometimes used in 
 salads, or boiled as spinach. Being 
 aromatic, its spikes of flowers are put 
 into negus and cool tankards. 
 
 Soil and situation. — For the spring 
 and summer sowing, any light soil and 
 open situation may be allotted, provid- 
 ed the first is not particularly rich ; but 
 for those which have to withstand the 
 winter, a light dry soil, and the shelter 
 of a south fence, is most suitable. A 
 very fertile soil renders it super-luxu- 
 riant, and injures the intensity of its 
 flavour. 
 
 Times and mode of sowing. — It is 
 propagated by seed, which is sown in 
 March or April, and at the close of July, 
 for production in summer and autumn, 
 and again in August or September, for 
 the supply of winter, and succeeding 
 spring. These sowings to be performed 
 in shallow drills, six inches asunder. 
 When of about six weeks' growth, the 
 plants are to be thinned to six inches 
 apart, and the plants thus removed of 
 the spring and autumn sowing, may be 
 transplanted at a similar distance ; but 
 those of the summer seldom will endure 
 the removal, and at all times those left 
 unmoved prosper most. At the time of 
 transplanting, if at all dry weather, they 
 must be occasionally watered mode- 
 rately until established : water must 
 also be frequently applied to the seed 
 bed of the summer sowing, otherwise 
 the vegetation will be slow and weak. 
 
BOR 
 
 96 
 
 BOR 
 
 To obtain seed. — -To save seed, some 
 of those plants which have survived the 
 winter must be left ungathered from. 
 They will begin to flower about June ; 
 and when their seed is perfectly ripe, 
 the stalks must be gathered, and dried 
 completely before it is rubbed out. 
 
 BORAGO. Six species. Hardy. Di- 
 vision or seed. Common soil. 
 
 BORASSUS Jlabelliformis. Stove 
 palm. Seed. Loam and peat. 
 
 BORBONIA. Nine species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 BORDER, is a name applied to that 
 narrow division of the garden which 
 usually accompanies each side of a 
 walk in the pleasure-groups, and to 
 the narrow bed which is close to the 
 garden wall on one side, and abuts on a 
 walk on the other. The walls being 
 mostly occupied by fruit trees, the lat- 
 ter may be considered as the fruit-bor- 
 ders, and the first-named as the flower- 
 borders. 
 
 1. Fruit-borders. — Next to the wall 
 should be a path three feet wide, for 
 the convenience of pruning and gather- 
 ing- Next to this path should be the 
 border, eight or nine feet wide; and 
 then the broad walk, which should al- 
 ways encompass the main compart- 
 ments ofthe kitchen garden. The whole 
 of the breadth from the wall to the edge 
 of this main walk should be excavated 
 to the depth of four feet ; the bottom of 
 the excavation rammed hard ; brickbats 
 and large stones then put in to the depth 
 of one foot and a half; and the remain- 
 ing two feet and a half filled up with 
 suitable soil. From the underdrainage 
 of brickbats, &c, draining pipes should 
 be laid, with an outfall into some neigh- 
 boring ditch. No fruit tree will be 
 healthy if it roots deep, or if its roots 
 are surrounded by superfluous water — 
 that is, more water than the soil will 
 retain by its own chemical and capil- 
 lary attractions. Shallow rooting crops 
 do no harm to the trees grown on fruit 
 borders sufficient to require their total 
 banishment. 
 
 2. Flower borders. — These, like the 
 preceding, and indeed like every other 
 part ofthe garden not devoted to aqua- 
 tic and marsh plants, should be well 
 drained. In plotting them it must also 
 be remembered, that if narrow, no art 
 will impart to them an aspect of bold- 
 ness and grandeur. Indeed narrowness 
 
 of surface is inseparably connected with 
 an impression that the grounds are of 
 limited extent, and no disposal of the 
 plants will remove the littleness thus 
 suggested. If the pleasure grounds are 
 small, narrow borders are permissible, 
 but even then the broader they are the 
 less is the appearance of meanness. 
 Neatness must be the presiding deity 
 over flower borders, and no application 
 ofthe hoe and rake, no removal of. de- 
 cayed leaves, no tying up of straggling 
 members, can be too unremitting. 
 
 For the arrangement of the plants, 
 see Flowers; and for particular culti- 
 vation, each will be found under the 
 name ofthe plant. 
 
 BORECOLE, Brassica oleracea fim- 
 briata. 
 
 Varieties. — Of the following, 1, 2, 3, 
 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 10, are the 
 best. 
 
 1. Brussels Borecole, or Sprouts. 
 
 2. Green Borecole, Brassica oleracea 
 selenisia. 
 
 3. Purple Borecole, B. oleracea laci- 
 niata. 
 
 4. Variegated Borecole. 
 
 5. German or Curled Kale, or Cur- 
 lies. 
 
 6. Scotch or Siberian Kale, B. o. 
 sabdlica. 
 
 7. Chou de Milan. 
 
 8. Egyptian or Rabi Kale. 
 
 9. Ragged Jack. 
 
 10. Jerusalem Kale. 
 
 11. Buda-Russian, or Manchester 
 Kale. 
 
 12. Anjou Kale. 
 
 13. One-thousand-headed cabbage. 
 
 14. Palm Borecole. 
 
 15. Portugal or large ribbed. 
 
 16. Woburn perennial. 
 
 Woburn kale may be propagated by 
 cuttings, six inches long, planted where 
 to remain in March or April. 
 
 Buda kale is greatly improved by 
 blanching under a pot, like sea kale. 
 
 Sowing. — The first crop sow about 
 the end of March, or early in April, the 
 seedlings of which are fit for pricking 
 out towards the end of April, and for 
 final planting at the close of May, for 
 production late in autumn and com- 
 mencement of winter. The sowing 
 must be repeated about the middle of 
 May ; for final planting, during July, 
 and lastly in August, for use during 
 winter and early spring. 
 
 Pricking out. — Their fitness for 
 
BOR 
 
 97 
 
 BOT 
 
 pricking out is when their leaves are 
 about two inches in breadth ; they must 
 be set six inches apart each way, and 
 watered frequently until established. 
 In four or five weeks they will be of 
 sufficient growth for final removal. 
 
 Planting. — When planted, they must 
 be set in rows two feet and a half apart 
 each way, the last plantation may be 
 six inches closer. They must be wa- 
 tered and weeded, and as they are of 
 large spreading growth, the earth can 
 only be drawn about their stems during 
 their early growth. If during stormy 
 weather any of those which acquire a 
 tall growth are blown down, they must 
 be supported by stakes, when they will 
 soon firmly re-establish themselves. 
 
 To raise seed. — For the production of 
 seed, such plants of each variety as are 
 of the finest growth must be selected, 
 and either left where grown or removed 
 during open weather in November, or 
 before the close of February, the earlier 
 the better, into rows three feet apart 
 each way, and buried down to their 
 heads. The seed ripens about the be- 
 ginning of August. 
 
 BORONIA. Twelve species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 BORRERIA. Three species. Stove 
 or green-house. Cuttings. Common 
 soil. 
 
 BOSCIA senegalensis. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Rich clayey 
 loam. 
 
 BOSEA yervamora. Green-house 
 evergreen shAb. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 BOSTRICHUS, a class of beetles, 
 many of which are very injurious to the 
 crops of the garden. 
 
 B. dispar, Apple bark beetle. The 
 female of this insect bores into the 
 wood of the apple tree, and there depo- 
 sits her eggs, generally in the month of 
 May ; and its perforations are so nume- 
 rous and extensive, as frequently, on the 
 continent, to destroy the tree. In Eng- 
 land it rarely occurs. The perforations 
 are confined to the alburnum of the 
 wood. 
 
 B. typographies, Typographer bark 
 beetle. This attacks the pine tribe, 
 especially the silver fir. 
 
 B. pinastri, Pinaster, or red bark 
 
 beetle, confines its attacks to the pines, 
 
 leaving the firs untouched, as the B. 
 
 larius lives exclusively on the larch, 
 
 7 
 
 and the B. orthographies on the spruce 
 fir. 
 
 BOSWELLIA, Alibanum tree. Two 
 species. Stove evergreen trees. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 BOTANY BAY TREE, Smilax gly- 
 cyphylla. 
 
 BOTRYCHIUM, Moonwort. Six spe- 
 cies. Hardy ferns. Division, or seed. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 BOTTOM HEAT. Naturally the 
 temperature of the soil always bears a 
 due relative proportion to that of the 
 air. When the temperature of the air 
 decreases, that of the soil also de- 
 creases, but very slowly ; and when the 
 atmospheric heat increases, that of the 
 soil also gradually rises. Bottom heat, 
 or heat applied below the roots of 
 plants, is the artificial mode of imitating 
 this proceeding of nature in our hot- 
 houses, and other structures of that 
 kind. If the temperature of the soil be 
 too cold in proportion to the temperature 
 of the atmosphere, the roots are not 
 stimulated sufficiently to imbibe food as 
 fast as it is required by the branches 
 and foliage, and as a consequence the 
 leaves or fruit will fall or wither. On 
 the other hand, if the temperature of the 
 soil be too great in proportion to that 
 of the atmosphere, the roots absorb food 
 faster than it can be elaborated by the 
 branches and leaves, and as a conse- 
 quence, over luxuriant shoots, and an 
 extra development of leaves, are caused 
 instead of blossoms, and a healthy pro- 
 gress in all the parts. 
 
 Every plant obviously will have a 
 particular bottom heat most congenial 
 to it. Plants growing in open plains, 
 as at the Cape of Good Hope, will re- 
 quire a higher bottom heat than those 
 growing in the shade of the South Ame- 
 rican forests, though the temperature of 
 the air out of the shade may be the same 
 in each country. That gardener will 
 succeed in exotic plant-culture best, 
 who among his other knowledge has 
 ascertained the relative temperature of 
 the air and soil in which any given plant 
 grows naturally. " At present, such in- 
 formation from actual observation is 
 not obtainable, but it is not so difficult 
 to ascertain the maximum and minimum 
 temperature of the air of a country; 
 and this being obtained, the gardener 
 may adopt this as a safe rule. Let the 
 bottom heat for plants of that country 
 be always 5° higher than the average 
 
BOU 
 
 98 
 
 B RE 
 
 temperature, or if the average maximum 
 temperature of the air only be known, 
 let the bottom heat be less by 10° than 
 the maximum temperature of the air. 
 
 Dr. Lindley very justly observes upon 
 this subject, that " we have doubtless 
 much to learn as to the proper manner 
 of applying bottom heat to plants, and 
 as to the amount they will bear under 
 particular circumstances. It is in par- 
 ticular probable, that in hot-houses 
 plants will not bear the same quantity 
 of bottom heat as they receive in na- 
 ture, because we cannot give them the 
 same amount of light and atmospheric 
 warmth ; and it is necessary that we 
 should ascertain experimentally whether 
 it is not a certain proportion between 
 the heat of the air and 'earth that we 
 must secure, rather than any absolute 
 amount of bottom heat. 
 
 "It may also be, indeed it no doubt is, 
 requisite to apply a very high degree of 
 heat to some kinds of plants at particu- 
 lar seasons, although a very much lower 
 amount is suitable afterwards ; a remark 
 that is chiefly applicable to the natives 
 of what are called extreme climates, 
 that is to say, where a very high sum- 
 mer temperature is followed by a very 
 low winter temperature ; such countries 
 are Persia, and many parts of the United 
 States, where the summers are exces- 
 sively hot, and the winter's cold intense. 
 The seeming impossibility of imitating 
 such conditions artificially, will proba- 
 bly account for many of the difficulties 
 we experience in bringing certain fruits, 
 the Newtown pippin, the cherry, the 
 grape, the peach, and the almond, to 
 the perfection they acquire in other 
 countries." — Theory of Horticulture. 
 
 BOURGEON, or Burgeon. See Bud. 
 
 BOURRERIA. Two Species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 
 BOUSSINGAULTIA baselloides.— 
 Half-hardy bulbous perennial. Seeds. 
 Common soil. 
 
 BOUVARDIA. Five species. Green- 
 house or stove evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings or division. Loam and peat. 
 
 BOWER. See Ardor. 
 
 BOX (Buxus semper vir ens), is noticed 
 by the gardener chiefly as a plant suita- 
 ble for edgings. For this purpose it is 
 neat, and certainly the best article used. 
 In some gardens it is suffered to attain 
 too great bulk, and then becomes rather 
 a defect than ornament, exhausting the 
 soil, and presenting a safe lurking place 
 
 for insects; it should not be allowed to 
 rise higher than six or eight inches, and 
 as much in breadth — if necessary to re- 
 strain its growth, transplant. The best 
 seasons for planting box are at mid- 
 summer, and early in the spring. Small 
 rooted slips are employed, and are 
 planted against the perpendicular side 
 of a small trench along the edge of the 
 border or bed they are desired to bound. 
 The best month for clipping box is 
 June, and it should be done in showery 
 weather. 
 
 BRABEJUM stellatum. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 BRACHYCOME iberidifolia. "Seeds 
 of this," says Dr. Lindley," should be 
 sown in March in pots or shallow pans, 
 filled with light rich soil, and well 
 drained, and the pots should be plunged 
 in a gentle hot-bed. As soon as the 
 young plants are established, they must 
 be kept in a green-house ? shift into 
 larger pots as they require it. Those 
 that are to be grown out of doors should 
 be planted out in a prepared bed early, 
 say by the end of May, in order that 
 they may perfect their seeds in Sep- 
 tember or early in October." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 BRACHYLiENA nereifolia. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 BRACHYSEMA. Two species. 
 Green-house evergreen climbers. Lay- 
 ers, cuttings, or seeds. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 BRACHYSTELMA. Two species. 
 Stove tuberous-rooted perennials. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam. 
 
 BRASSAVOLA. Twelve species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood. 
 
 BRASSIA. Eleven species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Division. Wood. 
 
 BRASSICA. The cabbage tribe. See 
 Brocoli, Cauliflower , fyc. 
 
 BRAYA. Two species. B. alpina, 
 a hardy herbaceous perennial; B.pilosa, 
 a hardy evergreen shrub. Seeds. Loamy 
 peat. 
 
 BREAKING. A Tulip's flower is 
 broken when it has attained its perma- 
 nent colors. A bulbous root is said to 
 break when its foliage begins to be 
 thrust forth. 
 
 BREMONTIERA ammoxylon. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 
 B RE SI A. Three species. Stove 
 
BRI 
 
 99 
 
 BRI 
 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Turfy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 BRICKS. As the gardener often 
 may require to know how many bricks 
 will be required for an intended struc- 
 ture, it will be a guide for him to know 
 that all bricks sold in England are re- 
 quired by statute (17 Geo. 3, c. 42) to 
 be eight and a half inches long, four 
 inches wide, and two and a half inches 
 thick. Pantiles, by the same authority, 
 must be thirteen and a half inches long, 
 nine and a half inches wide, and half 
 an inch thick. 
 
 BRIDGES are inconsistent with the 
 nature of a lake, but characteristic of a 
 river ; they are on that account used in 
 landscape gardening to disguise a ter- 
 mination ; but the deception has been 
 so Often practised, that it no longer de- 
 ceives, and a bolder aim at the same 
 effect will now be more successful. If 
 the end can be turned just out of sight, 
 a bridge at some distance raises a belief, 
 while the water beyond it removes 
 every doubt, of the continuation of the 
 river; the supposition immediately oc- 
 curs, that if a disguise had been in- 
 tended, the bridge would have been 
 placed further back, and the disregard 
 thus shown to one deception gains credit 
 for the other. 
 
 As a bridge is not a mere appendage 
 to a river, but a kind of property which 
 denotes its character, the connexion 
 between them must be attended to ; 
 from the want of it, the single wooden 
 arch once much in fashion, seemed 
 generally misplaced ; elevated without 
 occasion so much above it, it was to- 
 tally detached from the river ; and often 
 seen straddling in the air, without a 
 glimpse of the water to account for it, 
 and the ostentation of it as an orna- 
 mental object diverted all that train of 
 ideas which its use as a communication 
 might suggest. The vastness of Walton 
 Bridge cannot without affectation be 
 mimicked in a garden where the mag- 
 nificent idea of inducting the Thames 
 under one arch is wanting ; and where 
 the structure itself, reduced to a narrow 
 scale, retains no pretension to great- 
 ness. Unless the situation make such a 
 height necessary, or the point of view 
 be greatly above it, or wood or rising 
 ground instead of sky behind it fill up 
 the vacancy of the arch, it seems an 
 effort without a cause, forced and pre- 
 posterous. 
 
 The vulgar footbridge of planks, only 
 guarded on one hand by a common rail, 
 and supported by a few ordinary piles, 
 is often more proper. It is perfect as a 
 communication, because it pretends to 
 nothing further, it is the utmost sim- 
 plicity of cultivated nature; and if the 
 banks from which it starts be of a mode- 
 rate height, its elevation preserves it 
 from meanness. 
 
 No other species so effectually cha- 
 racterizes a river ; it seems too plain for 
 an ornament, too obscure for a disguise ; 
 it must be for use, it can be a passage 
 only ; it is therefore spoiled if adorned, 
 it is disfigured if only painted of any 
 other than a dusky colour. But being 
 thus incapable of all decoration and im- 
 portance, it is often too humble for a 
 great, and too simple for an elegant 
 scene. A stone bridge is generally 
 more suitable to either, but in that also 
 an extraordinary elevation compensates 
 for the distance at which it leaves the 
 water below. 
 
 A gentle rise and easy sweep more 
 closely preserve the relation ; a certain 
 degree of union should also be formed 
 between the banks and the bridge, that 
 it may seem to rise out of the banks, 
 not barely to be imposed upon them ; it 
 ought not generally to swell much 
 above their level, the parapet wall 
 should be brought down near to the 
 ground, or end against some swell, and 
 the size and the uniformity of the abut- 
 ments should be broken by hillocks or 
 thickets about them ; every expedient 
 should be used to mark the connexion 
 of the building, both with the ground 
 from which it starts, and the water 
 which it crosses. 
 
 In wild and romantic scenes may be 
 introduced a ruined stone bridge, of 
 which some arches may be still stand- 
 ing, and the loss of those which are 
 fallen may be supplied by a few planks, 
 with a rail thrown over the vacancy. It 
 is a picturesque object, it suits the situ- 
 ation and the antiquity of the passage; 
 the care taken to keep it still open, 
 though the original building is decayed, 
 the apparent necessity which thence re- 
 sults for a communication, give it an 
 imposing air of reality. — Whateley. 
 
 BRINING. See Steeping. 
 
 BROADCAST, is a mode of sowing 
 now rapidly falling into disuse in the 
 garden as well as in the field. It has 
 no one advantage over sowing in drills, 
 
BRO 
 
 100 
 
 BRO 
 
 except that the work of sowing is done 
 more expeditiously. Subsequently, the 
 saving is all on the side of the drill sys- 
 tem. See Drilling. I know of no 
 sowing where the broadcast mode is 
 preferable, except in the case of grass 
 seeds upon lawns. Loudon thus de- 
 scribes the operation of broadcast sow- 
 ing: — "The seed is taken up in por- 
 tions in the hand, and dispersed by a 
 horizontal movement of the arm to the 
 extent of a semicircle, opening the hand 
 at the same time, and scattering the 
 seeds in the air, so as they may fall as 
 equally as possible over the breadth 
 taken in by the sower at once, and 
 which is generally six feet, that being 
 the diameter of the circle in which his 
 hand moves through half the circum- 
 ference. In sowing broadcast on the 
 surface of his beds, and in narrow strips 
 or borders, the seeds are dispersed 
 between the thumb and fingers by hori- 
 zontal movements of the hand in seg- 
 ments of smaller circles." 
 
 BROCCOLI. ThesameinEng.,Fr., 
 and Ital. Italienische Kohl, Ger. Bro- 
 culi, Span. " This exquisite vegetable 
 resembles the cauliflower in growth, ap- 
 pearance, and flavour, and is supposed 
 to have originated from it. Some of the 
 varieties produce white heads, others 
 purple, sulphur coloured, &c. It is cul- 
 tivated with less trouble than the cauli- 
 flower, and heads with more certainty. 
 The autumn is the season in which it is 
 generally perfected, but with proper 
 management may frequently be had 
 throughout the winter and spring. 
 
 " The varieties are extensive, and 
 differ in the time of ripening, as well as 
 hardiness. Those we have cultivated 
 with most success are the purple cape, 
 sulphur coloured, and early cauliflower 
 broccoli. There are also several other 
 autumnal kinds, such as the green cape, 
 early purple, early white, cream-co- 
 loured, or Portsmouth, &c. ; but the 
 purple cape is much the most certain 
 to head, indeed the only one to be re- 
 lied on in this climate. Our plan of 
 cultivation has been, to sow the seed 
 from the middle to latter end of spring; 
 transplanting them when they attain the 
 size at which cabbage plants are gene- 
 rally put out. 
 
 " Should: the weather prove very dry 
 at the periods in which it is proper to 
 sow, some difficulty may be found in 
 getting the seed to vegetate; in that 
 
 case choose a spot shaded from the 
 mid-day sun, and cover the bed with 
 straw litter, lightly spread over the sur- 
 face, which suffer to remain until the 
 seeds sprout, when it should be imme- 
 diately removed. Bass mats or cloths 
 are sometimes used for this purpose ; 
 they should be removed every evening, 
 and replaced in the morning, else the 
 seed loses the benefit of the dew. 
 
 " A few observations only are neces- 
 sary as to the progressive culture of 
 the broccoli. Having, in the first place, 
 selected a deeply dug, rich piece of 
 ground, and planted them therein as 
 you would cabbage plants, allowing 
 them rather more room, do not neglect 
 to hoe and stir the ground, keeping it 
 perfectly clean and free from weeds; 
 when they are six or eight inches high, 
 land them up, that is, with the hoe 
 draw around the base of the plants 
 some of the loose soil, forming it like a 
 basin, the stock of the plant being the 
 centre. If dry weather ensue, give an 
 occasional watering, which will greatly 
 facilitate their growth. 
 
 " The earlier sowings will commence 
 heading early in the autumn ; the latter 
 sown plants, many of them will show no 
 appearance of heading before winter. 
 On the approach of black frost they are 
 to be removed to some sheltered situa- 
 tion, and " laid in," after the manner of 
 winter cabbage ; that is, burying the 
 stalk entirely up to the lower leaves, 
 the crown projecting at an angle of 
 45 degrees. They are more tender 
 than the cabbage, and require to be 
 protected against severe frost, which 
 may readily be done by setting over 
 them frames, such as are placed on hot- 
 beds, and cover with shutters, or by 
 setting boards on edge around them, the 
 back the highest, on which lay a cover- 
 ing of boards similar to a roof. Thus 
 they are sheltered from frost, and undue 
 quantities of rain. As the winter ad- 
 vances, and the frost becomes more se- 
 vere, give an additional covering, of 
 straw scattered loosely immediately 
 over the plants inside the board cover- 
 ing. In this situation they will remain 
 secure, some of them heading from time 
 to time during the winter, and most of 
 them producing fine heads in spring. 
 Care should be observed to remove the 
 straw covering on the arrival of spring, 
 and to raise the shutters or boards in 
 fine weather, that air may be freely ad- 
 
BRO 
 
 101 
 
 BRU 
 
 mitted, removing them entirely the lat- 
 ter part of March. 
 
 " It is the practice of some who have 
 light dry cellars, to place them therein, 
 •when removing them in the autumn, 
 burying the roots and stalks as above 
 directed. In that situation they re- 
 quire no further care or protection. 
 Broccoli is sometimes sown about the 
 middle of September, the plants pre- 
 served in frames during winter, and put 
 out in the spring. They are by no 
 means certain to succeed well at that 
 season; a few nevertheless might be 
 thus managed, as they will generally 
 head in the autumn, when failing to do 
 so during the summer months. 
 
 " All the Brassica or Cabbage tribe is 
 subject to be preyed upon by various 
 insects, the most destructive of which 
 in this country is the ' Black Fly' 
 (Haltica nemorum) • and in such im- 
 mense quantities do they sometimes 
 appear, and so voracious their appetite, 
 that extreme difficulty is found in pro- 
 tecting the young plants from their 
 depredations. As soon as they appear, 
 take wood ashes, mixed with one-third 
 air-slaked lime, and sprinkle over the 
 entire plants, first wetting the leaves 
 that the dust may adhere ; this should 
 be repeated as often as it flies off, or is 
 washed off by rain. An application of 
 lime water is also beneficial ; it is disa- 
 greeable to the fly as well as the slug ; 
 the latter insect preys much upon them 
 in damp weather. But the most certain 
 preventive is a solution of whale-oil 
 soap — a solution of common soft-soap 
 or brown-soap, would probably answer 
 the purpose ; the alkali therein is par- 
 ticularly offensive to that troublesome 
 intruder." — Rural Register. 
 
 BRODLtEA. Two species. B. con- 
 gesta, green-house ; B. grandiflora, half 
 hardy bulbous perennials. Offsets. 
 Sandv peat. 
 
 BROMELIA. Fifteen species. Chiefly 
 stove herbaceous perennials. B. disco- 
 lor is an evergreen shrub ; B. exudans, 
 an epiphyte. Suckers. Rich loamy soil. 
 
 BROMHEADIA palustris. Stove epi- 
 phyte. Offsets. Peat and potsherds. 
 
 BRONGNIARTIA, podalyrioides. 
 Green-house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 BROOM. See Besom. 
 
 BROSIMUM. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loamy 
 soil. 
 
 BROTERA, corymbosa. Hardy herb- 
 aceous perennial. Division. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 BROUGHTONIA. Two species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood. 
 
 BROUSSONETIA. Two species. 
 Hardy deciduous trees. Cuttings. Light 
 open soil. 
 
 BROWALLIA. Four species. Green- 
 house annuals. Seeds. Rather sandy 
 soil. 
 
 BROWNEA. Five species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 BROWNLO WIA elata. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Sandy loamy 
 soil. 
 
 BRUCHUS, a genus of beetles. 
 
 B. granarius and B. pisi are greatly 
 destructive to our pea crops. They are 
 small brownish beetles, usually found 
 at the same time the plants are in flower, 
 and they deposit their eggs in the ten- 
 der seeds of leguminous plants, and 
 sometimes in different kinds of corn. 
 In these the larva, a small white fleshy 
 grub, finds both a suitable habitation 
 and an abundance of food. It under- 
 goes all its transformations in the seed, 
 and the perfect insect remains in it till 
 the spring, though in fine autumns the 
 perfect insects appear at that season 
 also. The larvae possess the singular 
 instinct of never attacking the vital part 
 of the seed till the last. 
 
 We have often observed the seed 
 pods of chorozema, and other delicate 
 and scarce leguminous plants in green- 
 houses, pierced by the Bruchus pisi. 
 The more effectual remedy is to pull 
 up and burn the haulm and pods alto- 
 gether, and not attempt to get a crop 
 at all. Peas infested with B. granarius, 
 are always known by a small hole being 
 on one side, and these should be care- 
 fully picked out, as they not only spoil 
 the appearance of a sample, but spread 
 the injury. 
 
 BRUGMANSIA. Four species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. B. Way- 
 manii is a stove evergreen tree. Cut- 
 tings. Rich soil. 
 
 BRUISE. See Canker. 
 
 BRUJNTA. Eighteen species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 RRUNNICHIA cirrhosa. Green-house 
 evergreen climber. Cuttings. Loamy 
 soil. 
 
 BRUNONIA australis. Hardy herb- 
 
BRU 
 
 102 
 
 BUD 
 
 aceous perennial. Division. Loamy 
 soil. A frame or cool green-house is 
 suited lor its growth. 
 
 BRUNS r KLSIA. Four species. 
 Stove' evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Good 
 rich s <'il • 
 
 muiNSViciA. Thirteen species. 
 Green-bouse bulbous perennials. Off- 
 sets. Rich mould. 
 
 The bulbs, while dormant, which is 
 during winter« are kept in a cool green- 
 house, hh as dry anil airy a place as 
 possible, until they begin to show leaves; 
 then to he potted in three parts good 
 turfy loam, one part leaf-mould and 
 a little silver sand, and placed so that 
 they have the full benefit of the light. 
 
 When the loaves have grown to about 
 twelve inches in length, plunge in a 
 
 strong bottom heat, and allow to remain 
 till the flower-stem pushes clear of the 
 loaves, which will be in about four or 
 five Weeks. They must then be gra- 
 dually hardened oil' and returned to the 
 green-house, there to expand their blos- 
 soms, which consist of a number of from 
 twenty to thirty ilowers. 
 
 \iUM- flowering, every care must be 
 taken of the foliages fry exposing it to 
 the full influence of the sun, and giving 
 plenty of water. 
 
 When the plants show an inclination 
 to rest, water must be altogether with- 
 held. 
 
 BRYA. Two species. Stove ever- 
 green shrubs. Cuttings or seed. Very 
 rich soil. 
 
 BRYOPHYLLUM calicihvm. stove 
 evergreen shrub. Leaves. Rich loamy 
 soil. 
 
 BUC1DA bur eras. Stove evergreen 
 tree. Ripe cuttings. Loam and peal. 
 
 HI MIS. The buds are organized parts 
 of a plant, of an ovate or conical form. 
 and containing the rudiments of future 
 
 branches, leaves, and flowers, which 
 
 remain latent, until circumstances favour 
 their development. The same buds ac- 
 cordingly, as circumstances vary, pro- 
 duce either Ilowers or leaves. Buds 
 spring from the alburnum, to which 
 
 they are always connected by central 
 
 > essels. 
 
 BUDDING is the art of making a bud 
 
 unite to the stem or I ranch (then called 
 
 the stock) of another tree or shred), in- 
 dependently from its parent. The ob- 
 ject thus attained is a rapid multiplica- 
 tion of that parent ; and in the case of 
 seedlings, an earlier production of fruit 
 
 than if the buds were left upon the pa- 
 rent. Delicate kinds are strengthened 
 by being worked, as it is technically 
 
 termed, upon more robust, stocks, as 
 when a tender vine is budded on the 
 Syrian, and the double yellow rose upon 
 the common China. Variegated roses 
 often lose their distinctive marks if 
 grown upon their own roots. Roses 
 budded upon the common brier afford 
 liner (lowers than upon their own stems. 
 Buds from seedling peaches and pears 
 are earlier productive — and produce 
 finer fruit. — budded upon a robust 
 stock ; but, buds of the pear inserted 
 earlier than the close of August, pro- 
 duce branches and not blossoms. Where 
 the bud comes in contact with the wood 
 of the stock, a confused line is visible, 
 between which line and the bark of the 
 bud new wood is produced, having 
 solely all the characteristics of the pa- 
 rent of the bud. Buds of almost every 
 species succeed with most certainty if 
 inserted in shoots of the same year's 
 growth : but the small walnut buds suc- 
 ceed best which are taken from the base 
 of the annual shoots, where these join 
 the year old wood of that from winch 
 the bud is taken. Buds are usually two 
 years later than grafts in producing 
 fruit, but then every bud will produce a 
 new plant, but each graft has at least 
 three upon ii. Buds succeed more rea- 
 dily than grafts, and if a graft inserted 
 in the spring has laded, a bud may suc- 
 ceed in the summer of the same year. 
 Buds are ready for removal when their 
 shield, or bark attached to them, sepa- 
 rates readily from the wood. This is 
 usually in July or August, and is inti- 
 mated by the buds being well developed 
 in tin 1 axilla- of the present year's leaves. 
 Scallop-budding may be done almost at 
 any season. Buds should be taken from 
 the middle of the shoot; those from its 
 point arc said to make wood too freely, 
 and those from the base to be more nn- 
 excitable, and consequently less prompt 
 
 to \ egetate. 
 
 Stocks for budding may be much 
 smaller than for grafting, even on the 
 same year's shoot. Several buds may 
 !>e inserted on older branches, and thus 
 a good head be obtained at once. On 
 stocks of long standing, scallop-bud- 
 ding is to be adopted, .lust after rain, 
 and when there is no violent wind, is a 
 i time to be preferred for budding. What- 
 ever mode ofbudding is adopted, quick- 
 
BUD 
 
 103 
 
 BUD 
 
 ness in the operation is indispensable, 
 for if the wound in the stock or that of 
 the bud becomes dry, the budding will 
 fail. The bark of the stock should be 
 cut and raised first, and if possible on 
 its north side. A piece of moist bass 
 may be twisted over the wound whilst 
 
 the bud is preparing, and the moment 
 this is done, it should be inserted, and 
 the ligature put on forthwith. 
 
 There are twenty-three modes of 
 budding described by M. Thouin, but 
 only one — shield-budding, (Fig. 22) — is 
 generally practised in Great Britain and 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 the United States. The annexed cut will 
 convey a tolerably clear idea of the pro- 
 cess ; a is the stock or tree to be budded. 
 Shield-budding and Scallop-budding : — 
 " With the budding-knife make a hori- 
 zontal cut across the rind, quite through 
 to the firm wood at b ; from the middle 
 of this transverse cut make a slit down- 
 ward perpendicularly, an inch or more 
 long, going also quite through to the 
 wood. This done, proceed with all 
 expedition to take off a bud, holding 
 the cutting or scion in one hand with 
 the thickest end outward, and with the 
 knife in the other hand enter it about 
 half an inch or more below a bud, cut- 
 ting near halfway into the wood of the 
 shoot, continuing it with one clean 
 slanting cut about half an inch or more 
 above the bud, so deep as to take off 
 part of the wood along with it, the 
 whole about an inch and a half long, 
 represented by c ; then directly with 
 the thumb and finger, or point of the 
 knife, slip off the woody part remain- 
 ing to the bud ; which done, observe 
 whether the eye or gem of the bud 
 remains perfect ; if not, and a little 
 hole appears, in that part it is imperfect 
 or, as gardeners express it, the bud has 
 lost its root and another must be pre- 
 pared. If, however, it is found imprac- 
 
 ticable to remove this woody part with- 
 out leaving a hole, let it remain, it is 
 not absolutely objectionable. When the 
 bud has been thus prepared, slip it down 
 between the wood and bark to the bot- 
 tom of the slit ; the next operation is to 
 cut off the top part of the shield, even 
 with the horizontal first-made cut, in 
 order to let it completely into its place, 
 and to join exactly the upper edge of 
 the shield with the transverse cut, that 
 the descending sap may immediately 
 enter the bark of the shield, and pro- 
 trude granulated matter between it and 
 the wood, so as to effect a living union. 
 The parts are now to be immediately 
 bound round with a ligament of fresh 
 bass, previously soaked in water to 
 render it pliable and tough, beginning 
 a little below the bottom of the perpen- 
 dicular slit, proceeding upwards closely 
 round every part except just over the 
 eye of the bud, and continuing it a little 
 above the horizontal cut, not too tight, 
 but just sufficient to keep the whole 
 close, and exclude the air, sun, and wet, 
 as represented at d. If the stock and 
 bud are both in fit condition, budding is 
 usually performed with uniform suc- 
 cess : it is a simple mechanical opera- 
 tion, and those accustomed to the work 
 execute it with great rapidity ; an ac- 
 
BUD 
 
 104 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 BUD 
 
 tive nursery-hand will readily insert 
 1000 buds in a day. In most of the New 
 Jersey nurseries boys are employed for 
 budding peaches, and by much practice 
 become perfect adepts at it. The mode 
 just described is called shield or T 
 budding, from the shield-like form of 
 the portion of bark containing the bud 
 to be inserted, and the resemblance 
 which the horizontal and perpendicular 
 cuts made for its admission into the 
 stock, bear to the two principal bars of 
 the letter T. 
 
 " In selecting buds, those that are 
 very young should be avoided; for in 
 that case they are closely connected 
 with the greenish substance composing 
 the pith at the tender age of the shoot 
 producing them ; and on this substance 
 they then doubtless too much depend 
 for nourishment to be safely deprived 
 of it. 
 
 " It is a sign that they are duly con- 
 stituted when they begin to emit woody 
 substance ; and this will form a crite- 
 rion of their fitness to shift for them- 
 selves. 
 
 " Buds taken from fruit-bearing trees 
 on walls are apt to fall, owing to the 
 prevalence of blossom-buds which will 
 not produce shoots. 
 
 " Scallop-budding consists in paring 
 a thin tongue-shaped section of bark 
 from the side of the stock ; and in tak- 
 ing a similar section or shield from the 
 shoot of buds, in neither case removing 
 the wood. The section or shield con- 
 taining the bud, is then laid on the cor- 
 responding scallop in the stock ; its 
 upper edge exactly fitted as in shield- 
 budding, and at least one of its edges as 
 in whip-grafting — after this it is tied in 
 the usual way. The advantages of this 
 mode are, that it can be performed 
 when the wood and bark do not sepa- 
 rate freely ; on trees having very stiff, 
 thick, suberose bark, and at any season 
 of the year. Its disadvantages are, that 
 it requires longer time to perform the 
 operation, and is less certain of suc- 
 cess." 
 
 " Mr. Knight was accustomed on 
 some occasions to employ two distinct 
 ligatures to hold the bud of his peach 
 trees in its place. One was first placed 
 above the bud inserted, and upon the 
 transverse section through the bark ; 
 the other, which had no further office 
 than that of securing the bud, was em- 
 ployed in the usual way. As soon as 
 
 the bud had attached itself, the ligature 
 last applied was taken off, but the other 
 was suffered to remain. The passage 
 of the sap upwards was in consequence 
 much obstructed, and buds inserted in 
 June began to vegetate strongly in July. 
 When these had afforded shoots about 
 four inches long, the remaining ligature 
 was taken off to permit the excess of 
 sap to pass on, and the young shoots 
 were nailed to the wall. Being there 
 properly exposed to light, their wood 
 ripened well and afforded blossoms in 
 the succeeding spring." 
 
 In the first week of July the thorns 
 should be removed from those places 
 on the stocks intended for budding 
 roses. If they be not taken away, 
 the operation is rendered needlessly 
 troublesome ; and it is best done then, 
 as time is thus allowed for the bark's 
 healing. The best time for budding the 
 rose is towards the end of that month ; 
 a dormant eye being employed just after 
 a fall of rain, and when no strong dry 
 wind is moving. An attention to these 
 circumstances ensures that the sap is 
 flowing freely, and avoids a rapid eva- 
 poration so often preventing success. 
 Moist bass is usually employed for clos- 
 ing the wound of the stock, but it is far 
 preferable to use worsted, and over this 
 a coating of the grafting wax, made ac- 
 cording to the following recipe: — 
 Burgundy pitch . . . . 1 oz. 
 Comm-on pitch .... 4 " 
 
 Yellow wax 4 " 
 
 Tallow 2 " 
 
 Nitre (carbonate of) .. (t 
 
 potash) powdered . 5 
 These must be melted slowly in an 
 earthen pipkin, and applied whilst 
 warm. Common diachylon sold in 
 rolls by chemists answers as well as 
 the above. A laurel leaf fastened at 
 each end by a ligature round the stock, 
 so as to arch over the bud, will com- 
 plete the arrangement, and thus the 
 sun's rays, the air, and wet, will be 
 most effectually excluded, the admit- 
 tance of any one of which are fatal to 
 the union of the bud with the stock. 
 
 The great point is to apply the liga- 
 ture firmly without cutting the bark, 
 and to relax and re-tie it, when, after 
 some time, the bark shall be found 
 swelling a little over it. It is not de- 
 sirable to remove the ligature finally, 
 until, from the greenness and plump- 
 ness of the bud, and the slight swelling 
 
BUD 
 
 105 
 
 BUL 
 
 which takes place in it, evidence is 
 had that the operation has succeeded. 
 
 Within a fortnight after the bud has 
 been inserted, its fresh swelling aspect 
 will intimate if it has united to the 
 stock. At the end of the third week, 
 if bass or worsted have been used as 
 ligatures, these must be loosened, and 
 in about ten days more removed. Very 
 early in the spring following, the heads 
 of the stocks must be removed by an 
 oblique cut terminating about one- 
 eighth of an inch above the shield of 
 the bud, or six inches of the stock may 
 be left for the first year, to which to 
 fasten the shoot as a support. 
 
 BUDDLEA. Twelve species. Stove 
 or green-house evergreen shrubs. B. 
 globosa is hardy. Layers or cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 BUFF-TIP MOTH. See Bombyx. 
 
 BUGINVILL^EA spectabilis. Stove 
 evergreen climber. Cuttings. Loamy 
 soil. 
 
 BUGLE. See Ajuga. 
 
 BUISSON, is a fruit tree on a very 
 low stem, and with a head closely 
 pruned. 
 
 BULBINE. Twenty-one species. 
 Chiefly green-house herbaceous peren- 
 nials. B. frutescens, B. rostrata, B. 
 suavis are evergreen shrubs ; B. b'isul- 
 cata, is a hardy bulb. Cuttings, offsets, 
 suckers. Sandy loam or rich mould. 
 
 BULBS, are really underground 
 buds ; their fibrous or real roots die 
 annually, but the bulbs remain stored 
 with elaborated sap, and retaining, 
 though latent, the vital powers of the 
 plant, ready for reproduction at the 
 appropriate season. Beside root bulbs, 
 as are the onion, crocus, &c, there are 
 stem or culinary bulbs, equally efficient 
 for propagation. 
 
 The culinary bulb consists of a num- 
 ber of small scales closely compacted 
 together in an ovate or conical form, 
 enclosing the rudiments of a future 
 plant, and originating sometimes in the 
 axil of the leaves, as in Dentaria bulbi- 
 fera and several liliaceous plants, and 
 sometimes at the base of the umbel of 
 flowers, as in Allium carinatum and 
 others, in both which cases it is nou- 
 rished by the parent plant till it has 
 reached maturity, at which period the 
 bond of connexion is dissolved, and the 
 bulb falls to the ground, endowed with 
 the power of striking root in the soil by 
 
 sending out fibres from the base, and 
 so converting itself into a new indi- 
 vidual. Every bulbous-rooted plant 
 has some peculiar point in its manage- 
 ment, but there are a few rules of 
 general applicability. They should 
 never be moved except whilst in a 
 state of rest ; this occurs to the sum- 
 mer-flowering bulbs in autumn, and to 
 the autumn-flowering in early summer. 
 They require to be taken up annually, 
 or at farthest every second or third 
 year, to remove the accumulated off- 
 sets. No bulb should be kept out of 
 the ground for more than a month, and 
 even during that time it is desirable to 
 keep it from drying by burying it in 
 sand. 
 
 " Some bulbs," says Mr. Loudon, 
 tc multiply so fast by throwing out off- 
 sets, that they soon cease to send up 
 flower stems. Of these may be men- 
 tioned the Ornithogalum umbellatum 
 luteum, and some other species ; some 
 species of Scilla Muscari, Iris, Allium, 
 Oxalis, and others. These should 
 either be annually taken up, their off- 
 sets removed, and the parent bulb re- 
 planted, or the offsets, as soon as they 
 send up leaves, should be destroyed. 
 Indeed, whenever strong blowing bulbs 
 is the principal object, the offsets 
 should never be allowed to attain any 
 size, but as soon as they indicate their 
 existence by showing leaves above 
 ground, they should be removed with 
 a blunt stick, or in any way least in- 
 jurious to the parent. By this practice 
 a great accession of strength is given to 
 the main plant, both for the display of 
 blossom during the current season, and 
 for invigorating the leaves to prepare 
 and deposit nutriment in the bulb for 
 the next year. In pursuance of the 
 same objects, every flower should be 
 pinched off as soon as it begins to de- 
 cay, but the flower-stalk may remain 
 till it begins to change colour with the 
 leaves." — Enc. Gard. 
 
 "The rule to observe with newly 
 imported bulbs, is to place them where 
 they absorb moisture very slowly. The 
 driest earth is full of water, which can 
 only be driven off by the application of 
 intense heat. A bulb, therefore, should 
 be planted in what is called dry soil, 
 and placed in a shady part of a green- 
 house until it has become plump and 
 begun to shoot. If it has begun to 
 shoot when received, still the same 
 
BUL 
 
 106 
 
 BUR 
 
 treatment should be observed, and the I 
 driest soil used to plant it in. 
 
 " It is only when decisive signs of j 
 natural growth can be detected that a | 
 very little water should be given, while 
 the temperature is at the same time 
 slightly increased ; and no considerable 
 quantity of water should be adminis- 
 tered until the leaves are an inch or 
 two above ground, and evidently dis- 
 posed to grow rapidly. If these pre- 
 cautions are taken, no failures are ever 
 likely to occur ; if neglected, no suc- 
 cess can be anticipated. 
 
 " To this class belong the numerous 
 beautiful tribes of Gladiolus, Ixia, Spar- 
 axis, Watsonia, &c, all of which are so 
 closely allied, that the same treatment 
 is applicable to the whole of them. To 
 these may be added the Hyacinth. The 
 two principal points to be attended to 
 in the successful cultivation of the j 
 Gladiolus and Ixia are, to protect the 
 beds in which the bulbs are planted 
 from frost and from heavy rains, both 
 of which are equally destructive. For j 
 both tribes, the beds should be com- | 
 posed of prepared soil, at least one foot j 
 deep, with perfect drainage at the j 
 bottom. 
 
 " That for Gladioli should consist of 
 two parts turfy loam, one of leaf mould, 
 and the remainder of well-rotted cow 
 dung and sand. For Ixias, the greater 
 portion of the soil should be formed of 
 sandy peat without any manure. 
 
 " In both cases the beds may be made 
 level with the surrounding surface, and 
 towards the latter end of this month the 
 bulbs may be planted upon them in 
 rows, six inches apart each way ; when 
 covered over with soil, the beds will 
 thus be raised a few inches above the 
 bulbs; a small pyramid of sand should 
 be formed over each, to assist in pro- 
 tecting them from damp. Gladioli 
 should be covered three inches with 
 soil ; Ixias not more than two inches. 
 
 "After planting, a layer of dry de- 
 cayed leaf mould, or tan from a spent 
 bark bed, should be spread three inches 
 thick over the beds. 
 
 "Either of these will resist the rain 
 for some time ; but if there should be a 
 continuance of wet, the beds should 
 also be protected with mats secured 
 upon hoops. The tan or leaves will 
 likewise assist materially in excluding 
 frost. When, however, this sets in 
 severely, dry leaves should be laid over 
 
 the surface to the depth of nine inches 
 or a foot. 
 
 "As spring advances, these materials 
 may be gradually removed, and all the 
 care that will be afterwards required, 
 will consist in tying up the flower-stems 
 as they increase in growth. Unless the 
 weather is very dry the beds will not 
 need water ; if such should be the case 
 it should be liberally supplied, since the 
 want of moisture in the growing season 
 is just as destructive to Ixias, as a super- 
 abundance of it during their period of 
 rest. If such beds are kept dry in 
 winter, they will last for many years 
 without replanting. 
 
 "There are many more interesting 
 bulbs upon which it is needless here to 
 dwell, as they will for the most part 
 thrive in the borders amongst other 
 plants. 
 
 " These are the Erythronium dens 
 canis and americanum ; Tigridia pa- 
 vonia ; Pardanthus chinensis ; Zephy- 
 ranthes Atamasco and Candida ; Fritil- 
 laria imperialis and meleagris ; Leuco- 
 jum sestivum and pulchellum ; Scilla 
 amcena, campanulata and praecox ; As- 
 phodelus ramosus, tauricus and lacteus ; 
 Van Thol, Sans eye and Parrot tulips; 
 Ornithogalum pyramidale," &c. 
 
 BULBOCODIUM. Two species. 
 Hardy bulbous perennials. Offsets. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 BULLACE TREE. Prunusinsititia. 
 
 BULL GRAPE. Vitis rotundifolia. 
 
 BULLIARDA vaillanti. Hardy 
 aquatic annual. Seeds. Loam and peat. 
 
 BUMELIA. Fourteen species. Stove 
 evergreen trees, or hardy deciduous 
 shrubs or trees. Cuttings. Loamy soil, 
 or loam and peat. 
 
 B U N C H S I'A . Eleven species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
 Loam, sand and peat. 
 
 BUPLEURUM. Forty species. 
 Chiefly hardy annuals, biennials, peren- 
 nials, and a few evergreen shrubs. Off- 
 sets or seeds. Common soil. 
 
 BUPTHALMUM. Nine species. 
 Hardy annuals and perennials, or green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. For the green- 
 house species, cuttings, loamy soil. For 
 the herbaceous species, suckers, com- 
 mon soil. The annuals merely require 
 sowing in the open ground. 
 
 BURCHARDIA umbellata. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennial. Offsets 
 or division. Sandy peat, or peat and 
 loam. 
 
BUR 
 
 107 
 
 CAB 
 
 BURSERA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings or seeds. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 BURTONIA. Four species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Very 
 sandy loam and peat. 
 
 BUSHEL. See Basket. 
 
 BUTEA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 BUTOMUS. Flowering Rush. Two 
 species. Hardy aquatic perennials. 
 Division. Rich loam. 
 
 BUTTER AND EGGS. See Narcis- 
 sus. 
 
 BURCHELLIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. B. capensis is easily 
 propagated either by cuttings of the 
 roots or seed, in very sandy loam and 
 leaf mould. It requires close pruning 
 to restrain over luxuriance. 
 ^ BURLINGTONIA. Two species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood, 
 with a little moss. 
 
 BURNET. Poterium. 
 
 BURN ONION. See Potato Onion. 
 
 BURSARIA spinosa. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 BUTTERFLY. The caterpillars- of 
 some of these insects are very injurious 
 to the gardener, though those of the moth 
 are still more numerous and destructive. 
 The butterflies which are the chief causes 
 of mischief in our gardens are Pontia 
 brassica, P. rapcc, P. napi, and Pieris 
 crategi. The smells of coal tar and of 
 gas lime are particularly offensive both 
 to butterflies and moths, and those may 
 be readily strewed about the plants 
 liable to become the depositories of 
 their eggs. If shreds of flannel are 
 placed in the branches of gooseberries, 
 or among cabbages, &c, the parent in- 
 sects are said to place their eggs there 
 in preference to the leaves. 
 
 BUTTERFLY-PLANT. Oncidium 
 Papilio. 
 
 BUTTON FLOWER. Gomphia. 
 
 BUTTON TREE. Conocarpus. 
 
 BUXUS. Four species and many 
 varieties. Chiefly hardy evergreen 
 shrubs. Suckers or layers. Common 
 soil. See Box. 
 
 B Y B L I S liniflora. Green-house 
 aquatic perennial. Seeds. Loamy soil, 
 and immersed in water. 
 
 BYRSONIMA. Thirteen species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs or trees. B. 
 volubilis is an evergreen twining plant. 
 
 Ripe cuttings. Rich soil, or loam and 
 peat. 
 
 BYSTROPOGON. Four species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 CABBAGE. (Brassica oleracea capi- 
 tata.) " The cabbage tribe is, of all the 
 classes of cultivated vegetables, the 
 most ancient, as well as the most ex- 
 tensive. The Brassica oleracea being 
 extremely liable to sport or run into va- 
 rieties and monstrosities has, in the 
 course of time, become the parent of a 
 numerous race of culinary productions, 
 so various in their habit and appear- 
 ance, that to many it may not appear a 
 little extravagant to refer them to the 
 same origin. 
 
 "We have made our selection from the 
 many which abound ; it embraces the 
 earliest, the latest and those which ripen 
 intermediately, and have been chosen 
 on account of their superior worth and 
 suitableness for the peculiarities of our 
 climate ; having found from experience, 
 that some varieties highly esteemed in 
 Europe, are not so desirable in this 
 country. Short descriptions of the kinds 
 we are cultivating, may prove interest- 
 ing to those who lack knowledge of the 
 subject, and seek information. 
 
 " The Early Yorkis the earliest variety, 
 (with the exception of the early dwarf, 
 which is very small, and not worth 
 growing to any extent.) It is a delicious 
 tender cabbage, and well known to all 
 possessing any knowledge of gardening. 
 Those from American seeds produce 
 heads firmer and larger than is pro- 
 duced by the imported. The entire 
 crop does not ripen so nearly together 
 as the imported, in which respect it is 
 also superior; for whilst some among 
 them will be as early as the earliest of 
 the imported, others will succeed them, 
 thus answering better for family use ; 
 and for the market it is also an advan- 
 tage, those coming in last being of an. 
 increased size and hardness. It is, 
 moreover, hardier than the imported, 
 and having become acclimated, with- 
 stands the heat better, which gives it a 
 great advantage over the foreign, es- 
 pecially at the south. 
 
 " Method of cultivation at Philadelphia. 
 —Sow the seed from about the 10th to 
 the 20th of September. If sown earlier, 
 the plants are apt to " shoot," and if 
 later, may not get sufficiently strong to 
 stand the winter. That the seed may 
 
CAB 
 
 108 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CAB 
 
 vegetate freely, observe the directions 
 for sowing Broccoli. About the latter 
 part of October, remove them to a spot 
 of ground previously prepared in which 
 they are to be preserved during the en- 
 suing winter. Such situations should 
 be protected from northerly winds, and 
 lay exposed to the south. The best way 
 is to set, a frame, provided with a shut- 
 ter, in which plant them with a dibble, 
 allowing each plant an inch square. In 
 this situation suffer them to remain 
 without cover, until the middle or close 
 of November, according as the season 
 may be mild or otherwise. Have the 
 shutter at hand to use on any sudden 
 cold; it may be slid on at night., and re- 
 moved in day time, either entirely or 
 partially, as the weather may require 
 throughout the winter; air them freely 
 in clear weather when not too cold, 
 and examine them from time to time, to 
 guard against the depredations of mice 
 which sometimes harbour in the frames. 
 As early in the latter part of March or 
 beginning Of April, as the weather will 
 permit, and the ground admit, of being 
 worked, set them out in a compartment 
 of the garden protected from northerly 
 blasts. The ground should be deeply 
 dug and manured very highly with well 
 rotted stable dung; the richer the earth 
 is, the more luxuriant will be the growth, 
 and earlier the crop. 
 
 " Should the lly attack them, give fre- 
 quent sprinklings of wood-ashes and 
 air-slaked lime, previously watering 
 the plants that it may adhere; or if 
 practicable sprinkle with a solution of 
 snap. If any run to seed remove them, 
 and supply their place with fresh plants. 
 It is scarcely necessary to add, that fre- 
 
 quent deep hoeing should be given, to 
 
 destroy weeds ami loosen the earth, 
 that it may receive the dews ; when 
 they have attained a sufficient size earth 
 them up, that, they may the more effect- 
 ually withstand drought. 
 
 "The market gardeners around Phila- 
 delphia, plant out considerable quanti- 
 ties of Early York in the autumn, to 
 stand over winter; their plan is to 
 prepare a piece of ground with a 
 southern aspect; throw up ridges of a 
 foot high, two and a half feet apart, run- 
 ning from N. W. to S. E., about, half 
 way up the side of the ridge, and on 
 the southerly side they place the plants, 
 putting them in the ground so deeply 
 that nothing but the heart and upper 
 
 leaves are exposed. This is done about 
 the middle of October. When cold 
 weather approaches, they give a slight 
 covering of straw, brush, or corn-stalks, 
 spread from ridge to ridge. Should the 
 winter prove mild the plants will suc- 
 ceed very well, and come into head be- 
 fore those planted in the spring. The 
 covering is removed the latter end of 
 March or beginning of April, and the 
 ridges gradually cut down to a level 
 by the Culture of the crop — deep tillage 
 is essential to success with this vege- 
 table 
 
 " Having neglected to sow in Septem- 
 ber, or from any accident having failed 
 to get the plants at that time, prepare a 
 hot-lied in February, and therein sow 
 the seed, by itself, or mixed with celery, 
 radishes, or lettuce. 
 
 "Land relics Large York. — This is a 
 variety that originated at Philadelphia. 
 It is not what gardeners term a pure 
 kind ; that is, the heads differ some- 
 what in form; but it is one of the finest 
 varieties we are acquainted with. When 
 planted at the same time with the Early 
 York, it immediately succeeds it. For 
 the market it is a profitable kind, the 
 heads being large, firm, and heavy. It 
 differs from what is known in England 
 as the " Large Early York," that, being 
 termed here the Early York. Mode of 
 cultivation same as that of the Early 
 York. 
 
 '■'■Early Sugarloaf — has a conical 
 formed head, hence its name. It never 
 becomes firm and hard, and is princi- 
 pally used for boiling; is esteemed a 
 delicate variety ; ripens with the Large 
 York; is but little cultivated around 
 Philadelphia. Treatment same as for 
 the York. 
 
 "Early Batter sea — is in high repute in 
 England as a second early variety. 
 
 "Philadelphia — a variety which origin- 
 ated near the city of its name. It suc- 
 ceeds the Large York ; produces a firm 
 compact head, of large size, and is a 
 profitable kind for market: the whole 
 crop not ripening at once, but heading 
 successively; it withstands the heat well, 
 and with Landreth's Large York forms 
 the main early summer crops of exten- 
 sive gardeners who supply the Philadel- 
 phia market. 
 
 "Large Drumhead — Flat Dutch — 
 Large Her gen — Drumhead Savoy — 
 Curled Savoy — These are all calculated 
 lor the winter supply. The first three 
 
 
CAB 
 
 109 
 
 C AC 
 
 produce firm, large heads, and differ I CACALIA. Chiefly slove evergreen 
 but little. The Drumhead has a large shrubs and trees, or hardy herbaceous 
 roundish head ; the Dutch is flattened i perennials ; some are annuals. C. 
 on the top; the Bergeu somewhat re-/bicolor is deciduous; C. radicans, an 
 sembles it, with short stalk, heading | evergreen creeper; C. scandens, an 
 
 Division. 
 
 near the ground. The Savoys have 
 curly leaves, and are much preferable 
 to the others for boiling ; are very 
 tender and delicately flavoured when 
 touched by the frost. The Drumhead 
 Savoy \\a.s been introduced of late years. 
 The head is nearly as large as the Drum- 
 head, linn and compact — hence its 
 name. It keeps well throughout the 
 winter, and until very late in the spring 
 
 evergreen climber. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 CACTUS. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. 
 
 Soil. — " The soil for young plants, 
 one-half peat, with equal quantities of 
 strong yellow loam, pigeons' or sheep's 
 dung, and river sand that has been at 
 least exposed twelve months to the 
 weather, and frequently turned. Never 
 
 and is decidedly worthy of general cul-j mix the soil before it is wanted for use. 
 ture, having all the delicacy of the I Well sift, and the lumps place over the 
 curled variety. Time of sowing winter | potsherds for drainage. When the 
 
 cabbage is April and May, to be trans 
 planted in June and early part of July, 
 choosing cloudy weather, when it looks 
 likely for rain. An occasional watering 
 in dry weather will assist them in taking 
 fresh root. 
 
 " To preserve them during winter. — 
 In November remove them to a sheltered 
 situation, burying the entire stalk, so 
 that nothing but the heads remain above 
 ground. In December give a slight 
 covering of straw, with brush laid on to 
 prevent its blowing oft'. In this manner 
 they will keep well throughoutthe winter 
 — the Savoys until late in the spring. 
 
 "Late Battersea — cultivated in Eng- 
 land for an autumnal crop — but little 
 grown here, having been superseded by 
 other kinds. 
 
 "Red Dutch — is used principally for 
 pickling, either with other vegetables, 
 or shredded by itself as " slaugh." For 
 early summer supply sow in September, 
 as directed for Early York, and in April 
 and May for the autumn and winter 
 stock, treating as directed for Drum- 
 head and Savoy. 
 
 " Green Glazed — grown extensively at 
 the south, where it is thought to resist 
 the worm ; does not succeed well in this 
 latitude. Culture similar to the other 
 summer varieties." — Rural Register. 
 
 The cabbage is liable to the Mildew 
 and Ambury, which see. 
 
 CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. Sec 
 
 I'-ontia. 
 
 CABBAGE FLY. See Anthomyia. 
 CABBAGE GARDEN PEBBLE 
 MOTH. See Pyralis. 
 CABBAGE MOTH. See Mamestra. 
 
 plants have attained a proper size for 
 blooming, add more of the loam in re- 
 potting them, particularly to C. spe- 
 ciosissimus, and in all cases give plenty 
 of drainage." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Sowing. — " Fill the seed-pots with 
 cinders, to within two inches of the 
 top, and make them up with very sandy 
 peat, and a little clean sand on the top ; 
 the pots are then watered and the seeds 
 sown ; after which as much dry sand is 
 sprinkled over them as will just rill up 
 the spaces between them. The whole 
 is then pressed down gently, and the 
 pots are put by in any warm place, 
 where they are kept moist. The seeds 
 will vegetate in ten or twelve days, and 
 must then be very gently watered, for 
 fear of displacing them, till they make 
 their little roots and get firm hold of 
 the soil ; after whrch they may be 
 freely and regularly watered. The 
 seeds to be sown quite thin in the first 
 instance, and not to transplant the seed- 
 lings till they begin to get crowded in 
 the pots, in a year or two. These di- 
 rections are equally applicable to the 
 seeds of other succulents." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Dr. Lindley adds, that " the best way 
 to bloom C. spcciosus and speciosissi- 
 mus, is to grow them in an enriched 
 soil, and keep them in a warm, light 
 house, while they are making their 
 shoots, exposing them entirely during 
 August and September. By the latter 
 practice they will become brownish 
 and unhealthy-looking for a time, 
 though they will soon recover this." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 " The seeds of cacti may be gather- 
 ed and sown as soon as they are ripe. 
 
C AC 
 
 110 
 
 —4 — 
 
 C AC 
 
 Being produced in a large pulpy berry, in the stove on its own roots in the 
 this never bursts of itself; but its ap- usual way." — Gard. Chron. 
 pearance will tell you when it is mature. Varieties and Species. — The follow- 
 All the treatment they require is, to \ ing are cultivated around Philadelphia, 
 remove the pulpy matter from them, and are among the more desirable. A 
 
 and this may be best done by wash 
 ing." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Grafting. — The end of August is the 
 best time for this operation, and Mr. 
 Greenj already quoted, gives these di- 
 rections : — 
 
 " I grow for stocks, Pereskia acu- 
 leata, Cereus hexagonus, and Cereus 
 speciosissimus. I prefer the latter on 
 account of its hardy, lasting, and robust 
 habit. I grow the stocks freely till 
 they attain the height that I want them. 
 Some I grow with five or six stems, 
 from one to five feet high ; others I 
 grow with one stem, from one to four 
 feet. The short stems I engraft at the 
 top with the Emphyllum speciosum, and 
 Ackermannii ; the tall single stems 
 with E. truncation, and some from the 
 surface of the soil to the top, all of 
 which is of course according to indi- 
 vidual fancy ; E. truncatum should al- 
 ways be engrafted high, without which, 
 from its drooping habit, the greater 
 part of the beauty of the bloom is lost. 
 The shoots to be about one and a half 
 or two inches long. I pare off the 
 outer skin or bark for about half an 
 inch at the base of the graft, and cut 
 what is intended to be inserted into the 
 stock in the shape of a wedge ; I then 
 make an incision in the angles or top 
 of the stock with a pointed stick, made 
 the same shape as the scion. 
 
 " When the grafts are first put in, to 
 prevent their slipping out, I pass 
 through each a small wooden peg, or 
 the spine of a thorn ; I then cover each 
 with a small piece of moss, and place 
 them in a shady, damp house, and 
 syringe them over the tops occasionally 
 in the evening; they will all adhere to 
 the stocks in ten days or a fortnight, 
 
 superb collection, perhaps the most so 
 in the Union, is in the possession of 
 Caleb Cope, President of the Pennsyl- 
 vania Horticultural Society : 
 Cereus grandiflorus. 
 
 monstrosus. 
 
 cylindricus. 
 
 Mallisonia. 
 
 Smithii. 
 
 fiagelliformis. 
 
 horrida. 
 
 gladiata. 
 
 gemmatus. 
 
 speciosissimus. 
 
 heptagonus. 
 
 Epiphyllum speciosa. 
 
 splendens. 
 
 — Jenkinsonia. 
 
 truncatus. 
 
 «~ Russellianus. 
 
 atropurpurea su- 
 
 perba. 
 
 vandesia. 
 
 Mammillaria prolifera. 
 
 Wildeana. 
 
 rhodantha. 
 
 stellata. 
 
 — radiata. 
 
 rubra. 
 
 Echinocactus Evreisii. 
 
 decora. 
 
 ottonis. 
 dis-color. 
 simplex, 
 pulchella. 
 
 Opuntia, microdysa. 
 
 , leuacantha. 
 
 Cuttings and Culture. — " The best 
 time for propagating by cuttings is when 
 the plants are growing freely; make 
 them of whatever size can be spared 
 from the plants ; and those that are of 
 young and unripe shoots, lay on a dry 
 and make good plants by winter. By j shelf in the green-house for a fortnight 
 engrafting the showing kinds of cacti to dry up the sap, which prevents them 
 on the stocks that I recommend above, I from rotting, and causes them to emit 
 noble specimens can be grown in a few j roots much sooner. Plant them singly 
 years, from one to ten feet high if re- in small pots, and place them in a 
 quired, and the size and colour of the i moderate hot-bed frame ; when they 
 blooms are much superior to what they have filled the pots with roots, re-pot 
 ever produce when grown on their own I and place in an intermediate, or pelar- 
 roots. E. truncatum, by the above j gonium-house, to remain for the sum- 
 treatment, becomes quite a hardy green- , mer, and receive a good supply of 
 house plant, and will bloom three water. 
 months later than it does when grown j " In the autumn allow them to get 
 
 
CAC 111 
 
 -■ ♦ 
 quite dry, and winter in a dry, airy 
 part of the green-house. In spring, 
 again remove to the pelargonium- 
 house, and use a very little water, 
 which increase as the season advances. 
 
 " By the end of the second summer 
 they will have grown to the size of 
 good blooming plants; and in the 
 autumn they should be placed out in a 
 warm airy part of the garden, to ripen 
 the shoots thoroughly. 
 
 " About the usual time of housing 
 other green-house plants they should 
 be again dried, and put, as before, in 
 the green-house ; place the first for 
 forcing in the intermediate stove about 
 the 1st of February, and continue a 
 succession, till they bloom in the green- 
 house, which is about June. 
 
 " Such plants will bear the greatest 
 extremes of dryness and moisture, and 
 without proper attention is paid at the 
 season of rest to keep them quite cool 
 and dry, they never will bloom proper- 
 ly. The forcing must be commenced 
 at a low temperature, and water at first 
 given sparingly. 
 
 " When they have begun to grow 
 freely, and the bloom-buds are well 
 started, they must be watered, not by a 
 continued dripping, but by copious ap- 
 plications, and at intervals of a fort- 
 night, during the growing season, with 
 liquid manure. 
 
 " When the bloom-buds are suffi- 
 ciently advanced, thin out all those 
 which are large and small, leaving 
 them as near one size as possible, and 
 at proper distance to allow the blooms 
 to expand. When they have flowered, 
 keep the plants rather dry for a short 
 time, and place them in a cool shady 
 part of the green-house, or under a 
 north wall. In a few weeks they will 
 again assume their usual firm and 
 healthy appearance, and begin to grow ; 
 and then clear off all the decayed 
 blooms and seed-pods, and place the 
 plants for the autumn in the garden in 
 a south aspect, where there is a free 
 circulation of air, giving them a good 
 supply of water ; after this they are 
 moved to the green-house and treated 
 as before. Train them to iron stakes, 
 made to fit the outside of the pots or 
 tubs, and fasten them with wire. At- 
 tention should be paid to early training, 
 and to stopping all shoots as soon as 
 they attain the required height ; all use- 
 less side and bottom shoots rub off, and 
 
 CAL 
 
 occasionally some of the old shoots cut 
 out, and replace with young ones." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 CADI A purpurea. Stove ever-green 
 shrub. Cuttings. Light loamy soil. 
 
 C^LESTINA. Three species.— 
 Green-house and half-hardy perennials. 
 C. micrantha is a half-hardy evergreen 
 shrub. Seeds. Common open soil. 
 
 CiENOPTERIS. Five species. Stove 
 and green-house ferns. Division. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 CiESALPLNA. Twenty-one species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs or trees. C. 
 scandens is a climber ; C. gilliesii is 
 deciduous. Seeds. Sand, peat and 
 open loam. 
 
 CvESIA vittata. Green-house tuber- 
 ous-rooted perennial. Seeds. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 CALABASH. Crescentia. 
 
 CALABA TREE. Calophyllum 
 calaba. 
 
 CALADENIA. Ten species. Half- 
 hardy, or stove orchids. Division. 
 Peat, loam, and sand. 
 
 CALADIUM. Twenty-eight species. 
 Chiefly stove herbaceous perennials or 
 evergreen shrubs. Tubers. Rich soil. 
 Some grow best in water ; C. simsii is 
 a climber. 
 
 CALAMINTHA. Nine species. 
 Chiefly hardy herbaceous perennials ; 
 two are evergreen shrubs. Suckers. 
 Light loam. 
 
 CALAMPELIS scabra. Half-hardy 
 evergreen climber. Cuttings. Light 
 loam. 
 
 CALAMUS. Six species. Palms. 
 Seeds. Rich sandy loam. A moist at- 
 mosphere suits them. 
 
 CALANDRINIA. Seven species. 
 Stove, green-house, or hardy herbaceous 
 plants. Seeds or cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 CALANTHE. Nine species. Stove 
 or green-house orchids. Division. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 CALASHEA. Eleven species. Stove 
 herbaceousperennials. Division. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 CALATHIAN VIOLET. Gentiana 
 pneumonanthe. 
 
 CALCAREOUS SOIL is a soil in 
 which chalk (carbonate of lime) pre- 
 dominates. When in great excess it 
 renders the colour a near approach to 
 white, in proportion to that excess. No 
 soil is productive which does not con- 
 tain some chalk, or in which it exceeds 
 
C AL 
 
 112 
 
 C AL 
 
 nineteen parts out of twenty. From one 
 to five per cent, is the usual proportion 
 in fertile soils. Calcareous soils are 
 rarely productive ; they are so feebly 
 retentive of moisture that the crops 
 upon them are burnt up in summer; 
 and they reflect the sun's rays so fully, 
 that vegetation is late upon them in 
 spring. The best addition to such soils, 
 to improve their staple, is clay. 
 
 CALCEOLARIA. Thirty-one spe- 
 cies, and many varieties. Chiefly green- 
 house herbaceous perennials, or ever- 
 green shrubs. Cuttings or seeds. Any 
 rich, open, sandy soil. 
 
 Characteristics of Excellence. — " The 
 plant should be shrubby ; the foliage 
 thick, and dark green ; the habit bushy ; 
 the wood strong. 
 
 " The flower-stems should be short 
 and strong; the foot-stalks of the 
 blooms elastic, and branching well 
 away from each other, to form a rich 
 mass of flowers without crowding. 
 
 " The individual blooms depend en- 
 tirely on the form of the purse, and it 
 should be a perfect round hollow ball. 
 
 " The orifice and calyx cannot be too 
 small, nor the flower too large. The 
 colour should be very dense, and whe- 
 ther it be a spot in the middle, or stripes 
 or blotches, should be bold and well 
 defined, and the ground should be all 
 one colour or shade, whether white, 
 straw-colour, sulphur, yellow, or any 
 other. The colour of a self should be 
 brilliant, and all over the same actual 
 shade. Dark flowers, with pale edges, 
 or clouded or indefinite colours, are I 
 bad, and unfit to show. The bloom 
 should form one handsome bunch of 
 pendant flowers, which should hang ! 
 gracefully, and be close to each other ; 
 the branches of the flower-stems hold- 
 ing them out to form a handsome spread- 
 ing surface." — Hort. Mag. 
 
 Raising from Seed. — " The pods 
 should be taken off* when turning yel- 
 low, and laid to dry on a large sheet of 
 paper, under a hand-glass, that the 
 wind may not disturb it. In the early j 
 spring this may be sown thinly in pans | 
 well drained with crocks, and covered ! 
 with a hand-glass, in the green-house 
 or under the glass of a garden-frame; j 
 when they have attained a sufficient 
 size to handle, they may be pricked out 
 into other seed-pans, an inch apart, and 
 allowed to grow until they are large j 
 enough to be in each other's way. They | 
 
 may then be potted in sixty-sized pots, 
 and placed in a pit or frame, there to 
 grow, under tolerably attentive manage- 
 ment as to being kept neither dry nor 
 wet. If the green-fly make its appear- 
 ance, they must be fumigated with to- 
 bacco smoke, not too strongly, as it has 
 been known to kill all the young shoots. 
 If the roots reach the sides of the pot, 
 and begin to mat a little, they may be 
 changed to size forty-eight ; and if they 
 should after that grow still stronger, 
 they may be once more shifted to size 
 thirty-two, in which they will bloom to 
 great advantage." — Hort. Mag. 
 
 Cuttings and Division. — " About the 
 middle of July, when the plants have 
 done flowering, preparation should be 
 made for propagating the different kinds 
 — the herbaceous, by dividing the roots; 
 the shrubby, by cuttings. The plants 
 should be encouraged in their growth, 
 a short time previously to this opera- 
 tion, by judicious watering, the remain- 
 ing flowers picked off, and the stems 
 allowed to die down, that no nourish- 
 ment may escape. The cuttings from 
 the shrubby sorts should be struck 
 singly in small sixties, in a frame with a 
 gentle bottom heat, kept shaded, and 
 rather sparingly watered ; when rooted, 
 air may be more freely admitted, and 
 the plants gradually hardened. As soon 
 as the roots appear through the soil, 
 they will require shifting into forty- 
 eights, and to be placed in a house 
 where they may receive plenty of top 
 air, side air and drafts being prejudicial 
 to the free growth of the Calceolaria ; 
 when the sun bears considerable power, 
 the plants should remain on the shady 
 side of the green-house ; the tempera-: 
 ture of the house should be from 45° to 
 5(P. "—Gard. Chron. 
 
 Layering. — A writer in the same 
 work, who thoroughly understands his 
 subject, says : — " At the time they have 
 done flowering, which is under ordinary 
 circumstances about the latter end of 
 June, divest them of their flower-stalks 
 and dead leaves, and top-dress them 
 for about an inch deep, with silver-sand 
 and yellow loam in equal portions, 
 taking care that all the ripe joints of 
 the young shoots are covered for about 
 half that depth ; place them in a cool 
 and shaded situation, until the begin- 
 ning or middle of September, giving 
 occasional waterings during that period. 
 By this time most of the shoots so co- 
 
C AL 
 
 113 
 
 C AL 
 
 vered have rooted so as to permit of 
 their being removed with safety from 
 the parent plant." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Potting. — The same authority says 
 on this point of their culture : — " Plant 
 them in forty-eight sized pots, or smaller 
 if necessary, and place them in a frame, 
 on a gentle bottom heat of tan, taking 
 care at this period to guard against the 
 direct influence of the sun, until they 
 are fairly established in their pots. 
 
 " The compost for the first potting is, 
 three parts of yellow loam, four of 
 well decomposed leaf-mould, one of 
 cow-dung which has lain at least twelve 
 months, and two of silver-sand. This 
 soil to vary as the plants strengthen and 
 approach their flowering season, until 
 the proportions are five of loam, two of 
 leaf-mould, two of cow-dung, and one 
 of silver-sand. From the time the 
 plants are well established in their 
 pots, give them ho particular attention 
 beyond that of slightly fumigating them 
 once a week, until about the beginning 
 of January, when shift them into larger 
 pots, and place them on the front stage 
 of a geranium house, the temperature 
 of which is kept at about 45o., with an 
 exceedingly humid atmosphere. In 
 shifting always sink the ball a little to 
 admit of a top-dressing of fresh mould 
 being put over the ripe joints of the 
 young wood, which very soon emits 
 roots; an operation which tends mate- 
 rially to increase the size and strength 
 of the plants. Be very particular in 
 drainage, never allowing a particle of 
 the old drainage to be removed, and by 
 the time they are placed in their flow- 
 ering pots, have a complete open drain, 
 from within a few inches of the surface, 
 down to the bottom o p the pot, with 
 the exception of the layers of fresh turf, 
 which always introduce between the 
 mould and potsherds." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 CALDASIA heterophylla. Stove an- 
 nual. Seeds. Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 C A L E A. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 CALEACTE urticafolia. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Common 
 soil. 
 
 CALEANA. Two species. Green- 
 house orchids. Division. Peat, loam, 
 and sand. 
 
 CALENDULA. Marigold. Twen- 
 ty-one species. Hardy annuals or green- 
 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings, seeds. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 CALEPINA corvini. Hardy annual. 
 Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CALLA. Four species. Chiefly green- 
 house herbaceous perennials. C.palus- 
 tris is an aquatic ; C. pertusa an ever- 
 green creeper. Seeds or division. Rich 
 soil. 
 
 CALLICARPA. Twelve species. 
 Chiefly stove evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 CALLICHROA platyglossa. Hardy 
 annual. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 CALLICOMA serratifolia. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Fibrous peat and sand. 
 
 CALLIGONUM pallasia. Hardy 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy open 
 loam. 
 
 CALLIOPEA aurea. Hardy herba- 
 ceous perennial. Division. Loamy soil. 
 
 CALLIOPSIS. Four species. Hardy 
 annuals and perennials. Seeds. Com- 
 mon loam. 
 
 CALLIPRORA lutea. Hardy bulbous 
 perennial. Offsets. Peat. 
 
 CALLISIA repens. Stove tuberous- 
 rooted perennial. Division. Sandy 
 fibrous peat. 
 
 CALLISTACHYS. Five species. 
 Greenhouse evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 CALLISTEMMA. Two species and 
 many varieties. Hardy annuals. Seeds. 
 Common soil. 
 
 CALLISTEMON. Nineteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
 cuttings. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 CALLITRIS. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen trees. Seed. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 CALLUS is the matter exuded from 
 the edges of the wound of a plant in the 
 process of healing. It is exuded from 
 the horizontally communicating cells of 
 the plant; and in cuttings it is from and 
 through this exuded matter that the roots 
 and the perpendicular vessels connected 
 with them proceed. 
 
 CALOCHILUS. Two species. Green- 
 house bulbous rooted orchids. Sandy 
 peat and light loam. 
 
 CALOCHORTUS. Six species. Half- 
 hardy bulbous perennials. Offsets. 
 Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 Sowing. — Dr. Lindley says : — " The 
 seeds should be sown as soon as ripe, 
 or as soon as possible afterwards, in 
 pans filled with very sandy peat ; the 
 
C AL 
 
 114 
 
 CAM 
 
 seeds covered rather more than a quar- 
 ter of an inch in depth ; and the pans 
 placed in any cold pit secured from 
 wet. They require only water enough 
 to keep the soil damp during the win- 
 ter. They will bear being placed in a 
 warmer situation, but not where there 
 is a moist heat. The young plants 
 should be kept growing as long as pos- 
 sible, by keeping them rather moist dur- 
 ing the summer. They must not be re- 
 moved from the seed-pan until after the 
 second too quickly, or kept dry too 
 long, particularly the first season ; at 
 that time they are very small, and are 
 apt to be dried up and exhausted, if care 
 is not taken to prevent it." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 CALODENDRON capense. Green- 
 house evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loamy 
 soil. 
 
 CALOPHACA wolgarica. Hardy de- 
 ciduous shrub. Division. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 CALOPHANES oblongifolia. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennial. Division. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 C KLOVOGON pulchellus. Greenhouse 
 orchid. Division. Peat and loam. 
 
 CALOSTEMMA. Three species. 
 Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
 sets. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 CALOTHAMNUS. Four species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 CALOTIS cuneifolia. Green-house 
 herbaceous perennial. Division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 CALOTROPIS. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings or 
 seeds. Rich soil. 
 
 CALTHA. Six species and many 
 varieties. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 Seeds or division. Common rather moist 
 soil. 
 
 CALTROPS, Tribulus. 
 
 C A L Y C A NT H U S. Five species. 
 Hardy deciduous shrubs. Layers. Open 
 loam. 
 
 CALYPSO borealis. Half hardy or- 
 chid. Offsets. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 CALYP TRANTHES. Two species. 
 Stove evergreen trees. Layers. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 CALYPTRION aubletii. Stove ever- 
 green climber. Seeds. Peat and loam. 
 
 CALYSTEGTA. Seven species. 
 Hardy deciduous twining or trailing 
 plants. Division. Common loamy soil. 
 
 CALYTHRIX. Five species. Green- 
 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 CAM AS SI A esculenta. Hardy bulb- 
 ous perennial. Seeds. Peat. 
 
 CAMELLIA. Japonica. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. 
 
 Messrs. D. Landreth & Fulton, of 
 Philadelphia, who are extensively en- 
 gaged in the culture of this charming 
 plant at the old Landreth Nurseries, 
 where was made the earliest col- 
 lection of the Camellia in America, 
 present the following as a desirable 
 selection. Those marked t are per- 
 fectly double, with the petals neatly ar- 
 ranged, and are among the choicest in 
 cultivation. Those marked with a star 
 are of American origin. 
 
 The catalogues of some European 
 Nurserymen contain upwards of five 
 hundred varieties; it may be readily 
 presumed that many of them are com- 
 paratively worthless : a goodly number 
 of such have been imported by the 
 American florists, and though some of 
 them were once esteemed, are now, by 
 the introduction of more desirable va- 
 rieties, no longer worthy a place in a 
 choice collection. We append a list of 
 a few such faded beauties. 
 
 CHOICE CAMELLIAS. 
 
 tAlba-pleno, double white. 
 
 t Fimbriata, fringed do. 
 
 *Americana, blush with rose spots. 
 Albertii, white. 
 Althaeiflora, crimson. 
 t*Amabile, rose and red. 
 t*Binneyii, light rose. 
 Bealii, large red. 
 Carswelliana, dark red. 
 Chandleri, white and crimson. 
 | t*Caroiine, pink. 
 
 Colvelleii, white with rose stripes. 
 j tConcinna, dark red. 
 ; tCandidissima, purest white. 
 Conspicua, large red. 
 tCoquette. 
 Campbellii, white and red. 
 Donklarii, white rose and crimson. 
 tDuchess de Orleans, crimson with 
 white stripes. 
 j tExemia, salmon. 
 I *Estherii, white and rose. 
 
 Elegans, rose. 
 I tElata, crimson. 
 
 Eclipse, white with rose stripes. 
 j *Floyii, rose red. 
 
 tFordii, dark rose. 
 ! Fairlea, crimson. 
 
CAM 1 
 
 Fulgida, crimson. 
 t*Feastii, white and rose. 
 
 Gilesii, crimson and white. 
 t*Gunnelli, white. 
 *Grahamii, white. 
 *Hosackii, crimson. 
 t*Hempsteadii, dark rose. 
 tHenry Favre, rose, 
 tlmbricata, crimson and white. 
 
 Alba, 4 white and rose. 
 
 *Imbricata (Dunlap's). 
 tJncarnata, Lady Humes'. 
 
 Invincible, rose, red spots. 
 
 Kingii, white, rose spots. 
 
 Kermosina, crimson. 
 t*Landrethii, rose and white. 
 t*Martha (BuisPs), white. 
 
 Mutabilis, changeable crimson. 
 tMyrtifolia, light red. 
 
 Mutabilis triversi, rose. 
 t*Mrs. Fetter's, rose and white. 
 
 Ochraleuca, white. 
 *Philadelphia, rose red. 
 t*Prattii, light rose. 
 
 Pomponia, white. 
 
 Queen (Fielder's), light rose 
 
 Reticulata, rose. 
 tRosea, rosy purple. 
 
 Rex Batavia, white, rose striped. 
 
 Rubro-pleno, old red. 
 tSasanqua rosea, light rose. 
 
 Sweetii, rose, spotted with red. 
 tSacoi vera. 
 
 Speciosa, crimson and white. 
 
 Cunningham^ s, rose and 
 
 white. 
 *tSarah Frost, dark red. 
 
 Spicata, red. 
 t*Sherwoodi, crimson and white. 
 
 Tricolor, white rose and crimson. 
 
 Triumphans, rose spotted with white. 
 
 Thea, black tea. 
 
 Vandesia superba, crimson. 
 
 Variegata, rose and white. 
 
 Viridus, green tea. 
 
 t Victoria (Priestley'' s), red, white 
 stripes. 
 
 Welbankiana, greenish white. 
 tWilliam the 4th, rose spotted with 
 
 white. 
 t*Washington, white. 
 
 Wardii, crimson. 
 
 REJECTED CAMELLIAS. 
 
 Alba simplex. 
 
 Aitonia. 
 
 Anemoniflora. 
 
 ■ Rosea. 
 
 Alba. 
 
 Atrorubens. 
 Bruceana. 
 
 CAM 
 
 Corallina. 
 
 Conchaflora. 
 
 Celestina. 
 
 Carnea. 
 
 Decora. 
 
 Dorsetia. 
 
 Eiphinstonia. 
 
 Francofurtensis. 
 
 Florida. 
 
 Goussonia. 
 
 Hendersonia. 
 
 Juliana. 
 
 Lawrenceana. 
 
 Oleafera. 
 
 Parksii. 
 
 Pendula. 
 
 Paeoniaflora. 
 
 Rosa Sinensis. 
 
 Rosa mundi. 
 
 Sabina. 
 
 Woodsii. 
 
 Soil.— The camellia delights in a rich 
 soil, but will not bear manure directly 
 applied. The following is the compost 
 used at the Landreth Nurseries — sandy 
 wood earth (the decomposed vegetable 
 matter found at the roots of trees in 
 forests) and well rotted sod, or loam, in 
 equal parts, thoroughly mixed, and pass- 
 ed through a No. 1 sieve, retaining all 
 the fibrous particles in the soil. 
 
 Propagation. — "The usual methods 
 of propagation are by inarching or graft- 
 ing and budding on the single red Ca- 
 mellia, cuttings of which are found to 
 strike root more readily than of the 
 double varieties. 
 
 " The cuttings are taken in July and 
 August, or as soon as the young shoots 
 are sufficiently ripe at the base. They 
 are carefully prepared by being cut 
 smoothly over with a sharp knife at a 
 joint, and divested of one or two leaves 
 at the bottom, and then planted firmly 
 about two inches deep in pots half filled 
 with the Camellia compost before de- 
 scribed, and the upper half with fine 
 white sand. They are then well watered, 
 and the pots plunged in a tanbed, which 
 gives out a gentle warmth^ and kept 
 closely shaded for three or four months, 
 by which time short fibres, or a callus 
 from which they afterwards diverge, are 
 produced. 
 
 " When sufficiently rooted to bear 
 removal, they are potted singly in small 
 pots, the sand being then carefully re- 
 moved ; the pots should be well drain- 
 ed and filled with the Camellia compost, 
 with the addition of a little white sand. 
 
CAM 
 
 116 
 
 CAM 
 
 " They are afterwards to be sprinkled tection in severe weather, like the Myr- 
 with water, and placed in a close frame j tie; and if the plants are kept just above 
 or pit until they begin to root afresh,] the freezing-point, they will succeed 
 and by degrees exposed to the air. The j much better than when grown in a high 
 succeeding season they may be potted I temperature. 
 
 the same soil as the other Camellias, 
 
 At the time they are making their 
 
 and similarly treated, and many of the j growth, an increase of heat will be ad- 
 plants will then have attained sufficient j 
 size and strength for inarching or bud- j 
 
 ding, and all of them by the following ! grafti 
 
 vantageous." — Gard. Chron. 
 Grafting. — Dr. Lindley says, 
 
 For 
 
 ^ell-ripened young shoots 
 
 should be taken when they are just be- 
 " The best time for inarching is early j ginning to grow, and before the buds 
 in the spring, just before the plants be-] are far advanced 
 
 gin to grow, and for budding as soon 
 as the new wood is sufficiently ripened ; 
 but it may be done at almost any season 
 of the year." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Culture. — The same authorities state 
 that, " The proper season for the gene- 
 ral shifting is when the young growth 
 has hardened, and the blossom buds for 
 next year can be detected at the ex- 
 tremity of the shoots. 
 
 "After shifting all those that require 
 it, they may be placed in the open 
 air, or retained in the green-house; as 
 much air as possible should be admit- 
 ted, and occasionally sprinkling the 
 foliage will improve the appearance, as 
 well as be beneficial to the health of the 
 plants. 
 
 " At all times attention must be paid 
 to watering them properly, the roots 
 being apt to become matted in the pots, 
 so as to render the ball of earth im- 
 pervious to moisture ; hence it is neces- 
 sary to see that the ball of earth is 
 moistened by the water poured upon it, 
 instead of the web of fibres only. This 
 renders an examination of the roots, or 
 reducing and replanting them at least 
 once a year, a measure almost indis- 
 pensable. 
 
 " At the respective periods of growth 
 and flowering, the plants will require 
 plentiful watering ; during the latter, if 
 not regularly supplied, the bloom-buds 
 will infallibly fall off, instead of ex- 
 panding into flower ; at other times a 
 
 They should be worked under hand- 
 glasses in a stove or forcing-house, 
 where a temperature of from 60° to 70° 
 is kept up. Whip grafting without the 
 tongue is perhaps the best method; and 
 it is advisable to retain a few leaves on 
 the stock above the graft, in order to 
 draw on the sap. The single red makes 
 the best stock, as it strikes freely from 
 cuttings." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Forcing. — Mr. Robert Errington, 
 gardener at Charlton Park, has pub- 
 lished a most excellent essay upon this 
 subject, from which the following are 
 extracts : — 
 
 "Draining and Potting. — In potting, 
 place three or four potsherds first, the 
 one overlapping the other, to insure a 
 certain and speedy passage for the 
 water, then a sprinkling of pounded 
 crocks, the size of horse-beans; and 
 finally another sprinkling, finer still ; on 
 this put a thin layer of sphagnum, which 
 has been dried, but not decomposed. 
 
 "Re-pot soon after they have made 
 their young growth — as soon, in fact, as 
 the young leaves are perfectly develop- 
 ed, and the end of the young wood, at 
 the point of junction with the wood of 
 the former year, begins to turn a little 
 brown. In potting, the soil should be 
 rather lumpy than otherwise, and tole- 
 rably dry, and should be rather put 
 round the ball in regular layers, and 
 dressed tolerably firm, but not hard, as 
 the layers are thrown in, pressing every 
 
 regular moderate supply is essential. layer a little, so that no crevice be left 
 The effect of constant watering may be I The ball of the plant should be rather 
 presumed to diminish or destroy the ! moist at shifting, and when it is in a pot- 
 fertility of the small quantity of earth ! bound state it should be immersed in 
 allotted to each plant, therefore when i tepid water for an hour, about three 
 the annual re-potting occurs, carefully ! days previous, allowing a day or two for 
 take away as much of the former ball ! the superfluous water to drain away be- 
 of earth as can be done without injuring J fore potting; place the ball immediately 
 
 or cutting the roots, 
 may be considered as 
 
 The Camellia 
 hardy green- 
 
 on the sphagnum. 
 "Period qf Growth. 
 
 -The thermome- 
 
 house plant, requiring only a slight pro- | ter should be kept from 60° to 65° by 
 
CAM 
 
 CAM 
 
 day, and 50° to 55° by night. The 
 treatment should now be of a close and 
 moist character, giving air in modera- 
 tion, and with caution, every morning 
 from eight o'clock until noon, and then, 
 unless very hot weather, shutting close 
 up. 
 
 "There should be a little fire-heat 
 every morning from seven o'clock until 
 eleven, when it should be taken away 
 until four o'clock, and then applied for 
 the evening. 
 
 "The pipes, flues, and floors should 
 be watered abundantly directly the air 
 is taken away; then a good syringing at 
 three o'clock ; and the flues, &c, &c, 
 wetted as before between five o'clock 
 and six. Watering at the root must be 
 carefully attended to when necessary, 
 using weak liquid manure. 
 
 "Period of Forming the Blossom-bud. 
 — Shading will now be indispensable, 
 the best material for which is coarse 
 canvas ; those who are not too busy 
 should remove it every afternoon at four 
 o'clock, and replace it at nine on the 
 following morning. 
 
 " The temperature should range from 
 65° to 70° by day, and from 55° to 60° 
 by night, and be accompanied with a 
 free circulation of air, avoiding all cut- 
 ting winds. 
 
 " The plants must be very sparingly 
 watered, in fact a good smart syringing 
 every afternoon immediately the air is 
 to be taken away, say four o'clock, will 
 be nearly sufficient. The fire put out 
 on a warm sunny day, about three 
 o'clock; but it should be put entirely 
 out about five o'clock, as it is only re- 
 quisite to warm the pipes or flues suf- 
 ficient to produce a genial vapour for 
 the night; and half an hour after the 
 fire is pulled out the whole of the flues, 
 pipes and floors, should be saturated 
 with water, to be evaporated by the 
 next day's ventilation. 
 
 "Period of Feeding the Bud. — The 
 fires may now be dispensed with entirely, 
 merely observing, in the case of sunny 
 afternoons, to make free use of sun 
 heat, by shutting up the house early in 
 the afternoon, say from three to four 
 o'clock, according to the weather. Air 
 should be given freely at all opportuni- 
 ties, and the plants should be syringed 
 heavily at seven o'clock in the morning, 
 and again at four o'clock in the after- 
 noon, saturating the floors and flues, or 
 pipes, with water in the evening. 
 
 " The plants may be well watered at 
 the root whenever they require it. 
 
 "Period of Blooming. — Free water- 
 ing, and the use of liquid manure as 
 before recommended, must be persisted 
 in, avoiding, however, excess. The 
 plants require to be kept decidedly moist 
 at the root while in the flowering state, 
 rather more so, indeed, than at any 
 other period ; and if the potting and soil 
 be right, and the drainage complete, 
 little harm will ensue from a liberal use 
 of water; still, any great extreme, either 
 of drought or wet, will be fatal to the 
 bud. Syringing must be entirely dis- 
 pensed with, and in lieu thereof a de- 
 posit of dew should take place every 
 afternoon at three or four o'clock. 
 
 "Rest Period. — The temperature at 
 this period should be from 50° to 55° by 
 day, and from 45° to 50° by night. No- 
 thing is necessary in addition to a lower 
 temperature, but syringing, steaming 
 and regular watering, with a moderate 
 circulation of air." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 An interesting work republished at 
 Boston with notes and additions, entitled 
 " Monograph of the Camellia," is 
 worthy a place on the shelf of every 
 admirer of this splendid plant. 
 
 CAMERARIA. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs or trees. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 CAMOMILE or CHAMOMILE. (An- 
 themis nobilis.) 
 
 Varieties. — There are two varieties, 
 the common single and the double 
 flowering. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — They require a 
 poor dry soil, otherwise they grow very 
 luxuriant, and become not only less 
 capable of withstanding severe winters, 
 but also less powerful in their medicinal 
 qualities. They will grow in any situa- 
 tion almost, but the more open the 
 better. 
 
 Time and Mode of Propagation. — It is 
 generally propagated by parting the 
 roots and by offsets, which may be 
 planted from the close of February until 
 the end of May; the earlier, however, 
 it is performed the better. This is the 
 most favourable season, but it may be 
 practised in the autumn. It is also 
 raised from seed, the proper time of 
 sowing which is in any of the early 
 spring months, but as parting the roots 
 gives much less trouble it is generally 
 pursued, but after a lapse of several 
 years raise fresh plants, the old ones 
 
CAM 
 
 118 
 
 CAN 
 
 often declining in production after such i 
 lapse of time. 
 
 Cultivation. — They should not be | 
 planted nearer to each other than l 
 eighteen inches, as that also gives an 
 opportunity to employ the hoe. Water 
 must be given moderately at the time of! 
 planting, if dry weather. If raised from 
 seed they require no further cultivation j 
 than to be kept free from weeds in the 
 seed-bed ; and when three or four j 
 inches high, to be thinned to about six 
 inches apart, and may remain thus until 
 the following spring, then to be thinned . 
 and remain, or to be removed to the j 
 above-mentioned distance apart. A 
 very small bed will supply the largest 
 family. 
 
 Gathering. — In July, the flowers are j 
 generally in perfection for gathering ; ; 
 the period for performing it, however, I 
 must be governed by the flowers them- 
 selves, as the best time is when they 
 are just opened. Particular care must 
 be taken to dry them thoroughly before | 
 they are stored, otherwise they will not 
 keep. If seed be required, the only at- 
 tention necessary is to leave some of the 
 first opening flowers ungathered ; the 
 seed will ripen early in September, 
 when it may he dried and rubbed out. 
 
 CAMPANULA. One hundred and 
 thirty-nine species, and many varieties. 
 Chiefly hardy herbaceous perennials; 
 some green-house or hardy annuals, bi- 
 ennials, and evergreen shrubs. 
 
 Dr. Lindley, writing of their propa- 
 gation, says : — " Either sow the seeds, 
 or pot cuttings from the old roots, in 
 leaf mould and sandy peat; as soon 
 as they are strong enough, pot them 
 off in sixty-sized pots regularly, shift- 
 ing them into larger sizes as the 
 plants require them ; when they have 
 gained a little strength, give them a 
 rich loamy soil, well incorporated with 
 a small proportion of bone dust, and at 
 intervals supply them liberally with 
 manure water." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 CAMPELIA zanonia. Stove herba- 
 ceous perennial. Seeds. Rich soil. 
 
 CAMPHOR TREE. Cinnamomum 
 camphor a. 
 
 CAMPION. Cucubatus. 
 
 CAMPYLANTHUS salsoloides. 
 Green-house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 CANADA ONION. See Onion. 
 
 CANARINA. Two species. Green- 
 
 house herbaceous perennials. Cuttings 
 or division. Light loam and peat. 
 
 CANDLEBERRY MYRTLE. Myr- 
 tica, 
 
 CANDOLLEA. Four species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam, peat and sand. 
 CANDY TUFT, lbcris. 
 CANELLA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Ripe leafy Cuttings. 
 Loam, peat and sand. 
 
 CANKER. This disease is accompa- 
 nied by different symptoms, according 
 to the species of the tree which it in- 
 fects. In some of those whose true sap 
 contains a considerable quantity of free 
 acid, as in the genus Pyrus, it is rarely 
 accompanied by any discharge. To this 
 dry form of the disease it would be well 
 to confine the term canker, and to give 
 it the scientific name of gangrama sicca. 
 In other trees, whose sap is character- 
 ized by abounding in astringent or mu- 
 cilaginous constituents, it is usually at- 
 tended by a sanious discharge. In such 
 instances it might strictly be designated 
 ulcer, or gangraena saniosa. This dis- 
 ease has a considerable resemblance to 
 the tendency to ossification, which ap- 
 pears in most aged animals, arising from 
 their marked appetency to secrete the 
 calcareous saline compoundsthatehiefly 
 constitute their skeletons. The conse- 
 quence is, an enlargement of the joints, 
 and ossification of the circulatory ves- 
 sels and other parts, phenomena very 
 analogous to those attending the canker- 
 ing of trees. As in animals, this tend- 
 ency is generally throughout their sys- 
 tem, but as is observed by Mr. Knight, 
 " like the mortification in the limbs of 
 elderly people, it may be determined 
 as to its point of attack by the irritabi- 
 lity of that part of the system." 
 
 This disease commences with an en- 
 largement of the vessels of the bark of 
 a branch or of the stem. This swelling 
 invariably attends the disease when it 
 attacks the apple tree. In the pear the 
 enlargement is less, yet it is always 
 present. In the elm and the oak some- 
 times no swelling occurs; and in the 
 peach I do not recollect to have seen 
 any. I have never observed the disease 
 in the cherry-tree, nor in any of the 
 pine tribe. The swelling is soon coin- 
 ! municated to the wood, which if laid 
 open to view on its first appearance by 
 j the removal of the bark, exhibits no 
 I marks of disease beyond the mere un- 
 
CAN 
 
 119 
 
 CAN 
 
 natural enlargement. In the course of 
 a few years, less in number in propor- 
 tion to the advanced age of the tree, 
 and the unfavourable circumstances un- 
 der which it is vegetating, the swelling 
 is greatly increased in size, and the 
 alburnum has become extensively dead ; 
 the superincumbent bark cracks, rises 
 in discoloured scales, and decays even 
 more rapidly than the wood beneath. 
 If the caries is upon a moderately-sized 
 branch, the decay soon completely en- 
 circles it, extending through the whole 
 alburnum and bark. The circulation of 
 the sap being thus entirely prevented, 
 all the parts above the disease of ne- 
 cessity perish. In the apple and the 
 pear, the disease is accompanied by 
 scarcely any discharge ; but in the elm 
 this is very abundant. The only che- 
 mists who have examined these morbid 
 products, are Sir H. Davy and Vauque- 
 lin ; the former's observations being 
 confined to the fact, that he often found 
 carbonate of lime on the edges of the 
 canker in apple trees. 
 
 Vauquelin has examined the sanies 
 discharged from the canker of an elm 
 with much more precision. He found 
 this liquor nearly as transparent as 
 water, sometimes slightly coloured, at 
 other times a blackish-brown, but al- 
 ways tasting acrid and saline. From 
 this liquor a soft matter insoluble in 
 water is deposited upon the sides of the 
 ulcer. The bark over which the trans- 
 parent sanies flows, attains the appear- 
 ance of chalk, becoming white, friable, 
 crystalline, alkaline, and effervescent 
 with acids. A magnifier exhibits the 
 crystals in the forms of rhomboids and 
 four-sided prisms. When the liquid is 
 dark-coloured, the bark appears black- 
 ish, and seems as if coated with varnish. 
 It sometimes is discharged in such 
 quantities as to hang from the bark like 
 stalactites. The matter of which these 
 are composed is alkaline soluble in 
 water, and with acids effervesces. The 
 analysis of this dark slimy matter shows 
 it to be compounded of carbonate of 
 potass and ulmin, a product peculiar to 
 the elm. The white matter deposited 
 round the canker was composed of 
 Vegetable matter .... 605 
 Carbonate of potass . . . 342 
 Carbonate of lime .... 50 
 Carbonate of magnesia . . 3 
 Vauquelin calculated from the quantity 
 of this white matter that was found 
 
 about the canker of an elm, that 500 
 pounds weight of its wood must have 
 been destroyed. There is no doubt 
 that such a discharge is deeply injuri- 
 ous to the tree ; but the above learned 
 chemist appears to have largely erred, 
 for he calculated from a knowledge of 
 the amount of the saline constituents 
 in the healthy sap, whereas in the dis- 
 eased state these are much and unna- 
 turally increased. I once was of opi- 
 nion that the disease does not arise 
 from a general diseased state of the 
 tree, but that it is brought on by some 
 bruise or injury, exasperated by an un- 
 healthy sap consequent to an unfavour- 
 able soil, situation, and culture; but 
 more extensive and more accurate ex- 
 aminations convince me, that the dis- 
 ease is in the tree's system ; that its 
 juices are vitiated, and that disease will 
 continue to break out independent of 
 any external injury so long as these 
 juices continue peccant and unaltered. 
 This conclusion will be justified, I 
 think, by the preceding facts, as well 
 as by those distributed through the fol- 
 lowing pages. 
 
 The disease is not strictly confined to 
 any particular period of the tree's age. 
 I have repeatedly noticed it in some of 
 our lately introduced varieties that have 
 not been grafted more than five or six 
 years ; and a writer in the Gardener's 
 Magazine, vol. v., p. 3, states, that the 
 trees in his orchard, though " only of 
 four years' growth, are sadly troubled 
 with the canker." Although young 
 trees are liable to this disease, yet their 
 old age is the period of existence most 
 obnoxious to its attacks. It must be 
 remembered that that is not conse- 
 quently a young tree which is lately 
 grafted. If the tree from which the 
 scion was taken be an old variety, it is 
 only the multiplication of an aged in- 
 dividual. The scion may for a few 
 years exhibit signs of increased vigour, 
 owing to the extra stimulus of the more 
 abundant supply of healthy sap supplied 
 by the stock ; but the vessels of the 
 scion will, after the lapse of that period, 
 gradually become as decrepid as the 
 parent tree. The unanimous experi- 
 ence of naturalists agrees in testifying 
 that every organized creature has its 
 limit of existence. In plants it varies 
 from the scanty period of a few months 
 to the long expanse of as many centu- 
 ries ; but of all the days are numbered ; 
 
CAN 
 
 120 
 
 CAN 
 
 and although the gardener's, like the j they sustain, however young and vigor- 
 physician's skill, may retard the onward j ous they were when first planted, 
 pace of death, he will not be perma- How inductive of this disease is a wet 
 nently delayed. In the last periods of I retentive subsoil, if the roots penetrate 
 
 life they show every symptom that ac- 
 companies organization in its old age, 
 not only a cessation of growth, but a 
 decay of former development^ languid 
 circulation and diseased organs. 
 
 The canker, as already observed, 
 attends especially the old age of some 
 
 it, appears from the statement of Mr. 
 Watts, gardener to R. G. Russell, Esq., 
 of Chequers Court, in Buckinghamshire. 
 — A border beneath a south wall had a 
 soil three feet and a half in depth, ap- 
 parently of the most fertile staple, twice 
 re-made under the direction of the late 
 
 fruit trees, and of these the apple is j Mr. Lee, of the Vineyard, Hammer- 
 most remarkably a sufferer. " I do not ' smith. In this the trees, peaches and 
 mean," says Mr. Knight, " to assert I nectarines, flourish for the next three 
 
 that there ever was a time when an 
 apple-tree did not canker on unfavoura- 
 ble soils, or that highly cultivated va- 
 rieties were not more subject to the 
 disease than others, where the soil did 
 not suit them. But I assert from my 
 own experience and observation within 
 the last twenty years, that this disease 
 becomes progressively more fatal to 
 each variety, as the age of that variety 
 beyond a certain period increases ; that 
 if an old worn-out orchard be planted 
 with fruit trees, the varieties of the 
 apple, which I have found in the cata- 
 logues of the middle of the seventeenth 
 century, are unproductive of fruit, and 
 in a state of debility and decay." 
 
 Among the individuals particularly 
 liable to be infected, are those which 
 have been marked by an excessively 
 vigorous growth in their early years. I 
 had one in my garden at Great Totham, 
 which for the first twelve years of its 
 existence was remarkable for the un- 
 naturally large size and abundance of 
 its annual shoots. It then became 
 grievously affected by canker, which at 
 length destroyed it. 
 
 Trees injudiciously pruned or grow- 
 ing upon an ungenial soil, are more 
 frequently attacked than those advanc- 
 ing under contrary circumstances. The 
 oldest trees are always the first attack- 
 ed of those similarly cultivated. The 
 golden pippin, the oldest existing varie- 
 ty of the apple, is more frequently and 
 more seriously attacked than any other. 
 The soil has a very considerable influ- 
 ence in inducing the disease. If the 
 subsoil be a ferruginous gravel, or if it 
 is not well drained, and the soil be alu- 
 minous, and effective means are not 
 adopted to free it of superabundant 
 moisture, the canker, under any one of 
 these circumstances, is almost certain 
 to make its appearance amongst the trees 
 
 or four years after they are planted, but 
 are then rapidly destroyed by the 
 canker and gum. The subsoil is a stiff 
 sour clay, nearly approaching to a brick 
 earth ; and the disease occurs as soon 
 as it is reached by the roots of the tree. 
 But this is certainly not a conclusion 
 warranted by the premises, because the 
 acridity of the sap, whatever may be its 
 source, would be likely to injure and 
 corrode, in the first instance, those parts 
 where the vessels are most weak and 
 tender; now these, past dispute, are in 
 the branches. Moreover, we generally 
 see the youngest branches the earliest 
 sufferers. 
 
 Pruning has a powerful influence in 
 preventing the occurrence of the canker. 
 I remember a standard russet apple- 
 tree of not more than twenty years' 
 growth, with a redundancy of ill-ar- 
 ranged branches, that was excessively 
 attacked by this disease. I had two of 
 its three main branches, and the laterals 
 of that remaining, carefully thinned ; 
 all the infected parts being at the same 
 time removed. The result was a total 
 cure. The branches were annually re- 
 gulated, and for six years the disease 
 never re-appeared. At the end of that 
 time the tree had to be removed, as the 
 ground it stood upon was required for 
 another purpose. John Williams, Esq., 
 of Pitmaston, from losg experience 
 concludes, that the golden pippin and 
 other apples may be preserved from 
 this disease, by pruning away every 
 year that part of each shoot which is 
 not perfectly ripened. By pursuing this 
 method for six years, he brought a 
 dwarf golden pippin tree to be as vigor- 
 ous and as free from canker as any new 
 variety. 
 
 All these facts unite in assuring us 
 that the canker arises from the tree's 
 weakness, from a deficiency in its vital 
 
CAN 
 
 121 
 
 CAN 
 
 energy, and consequent inability to 
 imbibe and elaborate the nourishment 
 necessary to sustain its frame in vigour, 
 and much less to supply the healthy i 
 development of new parts. It matters 
 not whether its energy be broken down 
 by an unnatural rapidity of growth, by 
 a disproportioned excess of branches 
 over the mass of roots, by old age, or 
 by the disorganization of the roots in an 
 ungenial soil ; they render the tree in- 
 capable of extracting sufficient nourish- 
 ment from the soil, consequently inca- 
 pable of developing a sufficient foliage ; 
 and therefore unable to digest and ela- 
 borate even the scanty sap that is sup- 
 plied to them. The reason of the sap 
 becoming unnaturally saline,- appears to 
 be, that in proportion as the vigour of 
 any vegetable declines, it loses the 
 power of selecting by its roots the 
 nourishment congenial to its nature. 
 An ungenial soil would have a debili- 
 tating influence upon the roots, in a 
 proportionate though less violent de- 
 gree than a corrosive poison ; and as 
 these consequently would absorb solu- 
 ble bodies more freely, and without 
 that discrimination so absolutely neces- 
 sary for a healthy vegetation, so the 
 other most essential organs of nutrition, 
 the leaves of the weakened plants, 
 would promote and accelerate the dis- 
 ease. These, reduced in number and 
 size, do not properly elaborate the sap ; 
 and I have always found that under 
 such circumstances these stunted or- 
 gans exhale the aqueous particles of 
 the sap very abundantly, whilst their 
 power of absorption is greatly reduced. 
 The sap thus deficient in quantity and 
 increased in acridity seems to corrode 
 and affect the vascular system of the 
 tree in the manner already described. 
 These facts afford us most important 
 guides in attaining the desired objects, 
 the prevention and cure of the disease. 
 If super-luxuriance threaten its intro- 
 duction, the best remedy is for the cul- 
 tivator to remove one of the main roots 
 of the tree, and to be particularly care- 
 ful not to add any fertile addition to the 
 soil within their range. On the con- 
 trary, it will be well, if the continued 
 exuberant growth shows' the necessity, 
 for the staple of the soil to be reduced 
 in fertility, by the admixture of one less 
 fertile, or even of drift sand. If there 
 be an excess of branches, the saw and 
 the pruning knife must be gradually 
 
 applied. It must be only a tree of very 
 weak vital powers, such as is the golden 
 pippin, that will bear the general cut- 
 ting of the annual shoots as pursued by 
 Mr. Williams ; a new vigorous variety 
 would exhaust itself the following year 
 in the production of fresh wood. No- 
 thing beyond a general rule for the 
 pruning can be laid down, and it 
 amounts to no more than the direction 
 to keep a considerable vacancy between 
 every branch, both above and beneath 
 it, and especially to provide that not 
 even two twigs shall chafe against 
 each other. The greater the intensity 
 of light, and the freer the circulation of 
 air amongst the foliage of the tree, the 
 better the chance for its healthy vege- 
 tation. If the disease being in a fruit 
 tree be a consequence of old age, it is 
 probably a premature senility induced 
 by injudicious management, for very 
 few of our varieties are of an age that 
 insure to them decrepitude. I have 
 never yet known a tree, unless it was 
 in the last stage of decay, that could 
 net be recovered by giving it more air 
 and light, by careful heading in pruning, 
 improvement of the soil, and cleansing 
 the bark. 
 
 If the soil by its ungenial character 
 induces the disease, the obvious and 
 only remedy is its amelioration ; and if 
 the subsoil is the cause of the mischief, 
 the roots must be prevented striking 
 into it. In all cases it is the best prac- 
 tice to remove the tap root. Many 
 orchardists pave beneath each tree with 
 tiles and broken bricks. If the trees 
 are planted shallow, as they ought to 
 be, and the surface kept duly fertile, 
 there is not much danger of the roots 
 striking into the worse pasturage of the 
 subsoil. On this point the experience 
 of Mr. W. Nichol, the gardener at 
 Newick-place in Sussex, agrees with 
 my own. He says, that the canker 
 may be avoided in most instances, by 
 paying proper attention to the soil in 
 which the tree is planted. Canker, he 
 thinks, will seldom occur if the surface 
 soil is good, for in that case the roots 
 will never descend into the prejudicial 
 subsoil, but spread out their radicles 
 near the surface, where they find food 
 most abundant. If this is not kept up, 
 the roots descend into the obnoxious 
 substratum, and the disease assuredly 
 follows. 
 
 It remains for me to detail the course 
 
CAN 
 
 122 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CAN 
 
 of treatment that I have always found 
 successful in effecting a cure in any 
 variety, not decrepid from age, if the 
 canker has not spread to the roots. 
 
 the disease. Mr. Forsyth, formerly 
 gardener at Kensington Palace, made a 
 considerable sensation at the close of 
 the last and at the commencement of 
 
 Having completely headed down, if the present century, by the wonderful 
 the canker is generally prevalent, or j effects produced upon trees, as he as- 
 
 duly thinned the branches, entirely re- 
 moved every small one that is in the 
 least degree diseased, and cut away 
 
 serted, by the following composition, 
 used as a plaster over the wounds from 
 which the decayed or cankered parts 
 
 the decayed parts of the larger, so as ] had been cut out : — One bushel of fresh 
 
 not to leave a single speck of the de 
 cayed wood, I cover over the surface of 
 each wound with a mixture while in a 
 
 cow-dung ; half a bushel of lime rub- 
 bish, that from ceilings of rooms is 
 preferable, or powdered chalk ; half a 
 
 melted state, of equal parts tar and I bushel of wood-ashes ; one-sixteenth of 
 rosin, applying it with a brush imme-ja bushel of sand ; the three last to be 
 diately after the amputation has been | sifted fine. The whole to be mixed 
 performed, taking care to select a dry land beaten together until they form a 
 day. I prefer this to any composition fine plaster. 
 
 with a basis of cow-dung and clay, be- I Mr. Forsyth received a parlimentary 
 cause the latter is always more or Jess grant of money for his discovery ; but 
 absorbent of moisture, and is liable to I this, as Mr. Knight observes, " affords 
 injury by rain and frost, causing alter- a much better proof that he was paid 
 nations of moisture and dryness to the for an important discovery, than that he 
 wounds, that promote decay rather than I made one. 
 
 their healing, by the formation of new 
 wood and bark. The resinous plaster 
 seldom or never requires renewal. Mr. 
 Forsyth, the arch-advocate of earthy 
 and alkaline plasters, finding that they 
 promoted decay, if applied to the 
 wounds of autumn-pruned trees, re- 
 commends this important act of culti- 
 vation to be postponed to the spring. 
 Such a procrastination is always liable 
 to defer the pruning until bleeding is 
 the consequence. If a resinous plaster 
 be employed, it excludes the wet, and 
 obviates the objection to autumnal 
 pruning. Mr. Forsyth's treatment of 
 the trunks and branches of trees, 
 namely, scraping from them all the 
 scaly dry exuvia of the bark, is to be 
 adopted in every instance. He recom- 
 mends them to be brushed over with a 
 thin liquid compound offresh cow-dung, 
 soap-suds, and urine, but I very much 
 prefer a brine of common salt; each 
 acts as a gentle stimulus, which is their 
 chief cause of benefit, and the latter is 
 more efficacious, destroying insects, and 
 does not, like the other, obstruct the 
 perspiratory vessels of the tree. The 
 brine is advantageously rubbed in with 
 a scrubbing or large painter's brush. 
 Some persons recommend a liquid 
 wash, containing, as prominent ingre- 
 dients, quick-lime and wood-ashes, 
 which, as the disease arises from an 
 over-alkalescent state of the sap, can- 
 
 It has been very ingeniously sug- 
 gested, that if a destruction of the bark 
 by external violence, and consequently 
 likely to terminate in canker, has oc- 
 curred, it would be a good plan to in- 
 sert, as in budding, a piece of living 
 bark, exactly corresponding to the ex- 
 cision, from a less valuable tree. 
 
 In conclusion, I would enforce upon 
 the orchardist's attention the import- 
 ance of obtaining his grafts or buds 
 from trees not affected by the disease, 
 because apparently it is hereditary ; 
 and, although after-culture may eradi- 
 cate the malady, it is always far better 
 to avoid the infection, than to have to 
 employ a specific. Having noticed the 
 gangrene as it appears in various forms 
 upon our trees, we may now turn to a 
 few of the many instances where it oc- 
 curs to our fruits and flowers, I'or it is 
 not too much to say that scarcely a 
 cultivated plant is within our enclo- 
 sures that is not liable to its inroads. 
 It assumes different aspects, and varies 
 as to the organs it assails ; yet still in 
 some mode, and in some of their parts, 
 all occasionally suffer, for it is the most 
 common form of vegetable disease. 
 
 The canker in the auricula is of this 
 nature, being a rapidly-spreading ulcer, 
 which, destroying the whole texture ot 
 the plant where it occurs, prevents the 
 rise of the sap. Some gardeners be- 
 lieve it to be infectious, and therefore 
 
 not but prove injurious, and aggravate destroy the specimen in which it occurs 
 
CAN 
 
 123 
 
 CAP 
 
 unless it be very valuable ; but this I 
 believe to be an erroneous opinion, the 
 reason of its appearing to be infectious 
 or epidemic being, that it occurs to 
 many when they are subjected to the 
 same injurious treatment which gives 
 birth to the disease. 
 
 It appears to be caused by the appli- j 
 cation of too much water, especially if] 
 combined with superabundant nourish- 
 ment. Therefore, although cutting out 
 the decaying part, when it first appears, 
 and applying to the wound some finely- 
 powdered charcoal, will effect a cure if 
 the disease has not penetrated too deep- 
 ly, yet it will be liable to return im- 
 mediately if a less forcing mode of cul- 
 ture be not adopted. No auricula will 
 suffer from this disease if it be shifted 
 annually, and the tap root at the time of 
 moving be shortened; a thorough system 
 of draining being adopted, either by 
 using one of the pots suggested in an- 
 other part of this work, or by having the 
 pot used one-fourth filled with pebbles, 
 and excessive damp during the winter 
 being prevented by proper shelter. 
 
 Parsley grown in a poor soil is also 
 liable to canker in the winter. Mr. 
 Barnes says, he never found any appli- 
 cation which eradicated this disease so 
 effectually as a mixture in equal parts of 
 soot and slaked lime, sown over the 
 plants. The cure is complete in a few 
 days, the vigour of the plants restored 
 indicating, that this species of ulcer- 
 ation, like that which is found in the 
 dwellings of the poor, arises from de- 
 ficient nourishment. 
 
 The tubers of the potato also are 
 liable to the speck, black spot, or dry 
 gangrene, a disease which I once 
 thought was occasioned by the calcare- 
 ous earth, lime, or chalk contained by 
 the soil, but more lengthened observa- 
 tion has convinced me of my error; and 
 having observed it in all soils, and in 
 seasons characterized by opposite ex- 
 tremes of wetness and dryness, I am 
 induced to consider that the disease 
 arises from some defect in the sets em- 
 ployed, or to potatoes being grown too 
 often on the same site. It is quite 
 certain, from my own experience, that 
 in ground tired of potatoes, the disease 
 invariably, and most extensively, ap- 
 pears. This suggests that it is occa- 
 sioned by a deficiency of some con- 
 stituent in the soil, a suggestion con- 
 firmed by the fact, that in the fields of 
 
 the market, gardeners near London, 
 which are supplied without stint with 
 the most fertilizing manure, this dis- 
 ease of the potato is comparatively 
 unknown. 
 
 The stems of succulent plants, such 
 as the cacti mesembryanthemums, and 
 the balsam, as well as the fruit of the 
 cucumber and melon, and the stalk of 
 the grape, are all liable to moist gan- 
 grene, all requiring for the development 
 of the disease excessive moisture in 
 the air, though the immediate cause 
 of its outbreak is usually a sudden re- 
 duction of temperature. — Principles of 
 Gardening. 
 
 CANNA. Thirly-eight species and 
 some varieties. Stove herbaceous per- 
 ennials. Seed or division. Rich light 
 soil. 
 
 C. iridiflora is the most splendid; a 
 writer in the Gardener's Chronicle says, 
 that " so far from requiring stove heat, 
 few plants cultivated in a green-house 
 are more hardy. It only requires pro- 
 tection from frost, and the border of the 
 conservatory is its proper place, where 
 it continues growing, with the thermo- 
 meter varying between 35° and 45°." 
 
 CANTERBURY BELL. Campanula 
 medium. 
 
 CANTHIUM dubium. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich soil. 
 
 CAPE JASMINE. Gardenia florida. 
 
 CAPE PHILLYREA. Cassine capen- 
 sis. 
 
 CAPER TREE. Capparis. 
 
 CAPPARIS. Capers. Twenty-nine 
 species. Chiefly stove evergreen shrubs. 
 Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 CAPRIFOLIUM. Goat Leaf. Seven- 
 teen species and some varieties. Chiefly 
 hardy deciduous, or evergreen twining 
 or climbing plants. Cuttings. Common 
 soil. 
 
 CAPSICUM. Twenty-four species 
 and some varieties. Stove evergreen 
 shrubs, or hardy and stove annuals. 
 Seeds. Rich open soil. 
 
 The following are the kitchen garden 
 species and varieties. 
 
 Capsicum Annuum. — Capsicum or 
 Guinea Pepper. Of this there are five 
 varieties: — 
 
 1. Long-podded. 
 
 2. Heart-shaped. 
 
 3. Short-podded. 
 
 4. Angular-podded. 
 
 5. Round Short-podded. 
 
 C. Cerasiforme. — Capsicum or Cherry 
 
CAR 
 
 124 
 
 CAR 
 
 
 Pepper. Of this there are three varie- 
 ties: 
 
 1. Cherry-shaped. 
 
 2. Bell-shaped, or Ox-heart. 
 
 3. Yellow-podded. 
 
 C. grossum. — Capsicum, or Bell Pep- 
 per. Of this there are three varieties: — 
 
 1. Old Bell-shaped or Bull-nose. 
 
 2. Sweet or Spanish. 
 
 3. Tomato-shaped. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — The soil best 
 suited for them is a rich moist loam, 
 rather inclining to lightness than te- 
 nacity. 
 
 Time and Mode of Sowing. — They are 
 propagated by seed, which maybe sown 
 towards the end of March or beginning 
 of April in a hot-bed of moderate size, 
 with the shelter of a frame; or some- 
 what later on an open border, protected 
 from cold winds: when the plants are 
 sufficiently advanced they may be trans- ] 
 planted to their permanent position in j 
 the garden. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — For the production 
 of seed a plant bearing some of the for- 
 wardest and finest fruit of each variety 
 must be preserved, that it may be ripe 
 before the frosts commence, the first of 
 which usually kills the plants. When 
 completely ripe, the pods are cut and 
 hung up in the sun, or in a warm room, 
 until completely dry, in which state 
 they are kept until the seed is wanted 
 for sowing. 
 
 CARAGANA. Fourteen species. 
 Chiefly hardy deciduous shrubs. Grafts, 
 layers or seeds. Sandy open loam. 
 
 CARALLIA lucida. Stove evergreen 
 tree. Cuttings. Sandy peat and loam, j 
 
 CARALLUMA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam 
 and brick rubbish. 
 
 CARAPA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam and 
 sandy peat. 
 
 CARAWAY. Carum Carui. 
 
 CARDAMINE. Lady's Smock. Ele- 
 ven species. Hardy herbaceous plants. 
 Division. Peat and loam. 
 
 CARDINAL FLOWER. Lobelia car- 
 dinalis. 
 
 CARDOON. (Cynara cardunculus.) 
 
 The stalks of the inner leaves, when 
 rendered tender by blanching, are used 
 in stews, soups, and salads. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — A light rich soil 
 is most suitable to this vegetable, dug 
 deep and well pulverised. The situa- 
 tion must be open, and free from trees. 
 
 Time and Mode of Sowing. — It may 
 be sown at the close of March, but for 
 the main crop not until the early part of 
 April, those plants raised from earlier 
 sowings being apt to run at the close of 
 autumn ; for a late crop, a sowing may 
 be performed in June. The best prac- 
 tice is to sow in patches of three or 
 four rows four feet apart each way, to 
 be thinned finally to one in each place, 
 the weakest being removed. If, how- 
 ever, they are raised in a seed bed, 
 they will be ready for transplanting in 
 about eight or ten weeks from the time 
 of sowing, and must be set at similar 
 distances as are specified above. 
 
 The plants of the first sowing are 
 generally three weeks before they make 
 their appearance ; those from the latter 
 ones about two. If after a lapse of 
 these times they do not appear, it 
 should be ascertained if the seed is de- 
 cayed, and in that case the sowing re- 
 newed. The seed must be sown rather 
 thin, and covered about half an inch. 
 When about a month old, the seed- 
 lings, when too thick, must be thinned 
 to four inches apart, and those removed 
 may be pricked out at a similar dis- 
 tance. When of the age sufficient for 
 their removal they must be taken up 
 carefully, and the long straggling leaves 
 removed. The bed for their reception 
 must be dug well and laid, out in 
 trenches as for celery, or a hollow sunk 
 for each plant ; but as they are liable 
 to suffer from excessive wet, the best 
 mode is to plant on the surface, and 
 form the necessary earthing in the form 
 of a tumulus. Water must be applied 
 abundantly at the time of planting, as 
 well as subsequently, until they are 
 established ; and also in August, if dry 
 weather occurs, regularly every other 
 night, as this is found to prevent their 
 running to seed. The only other ne- 
 cessary point to be attended to is, that 
 they may be kept free from weeds dur- 
 ing every stage of their growth. When 
 advanced to about eighteen inches in 
 height, which according to the time of 
 sowing will be in August, and thence 
 to October, the leaves must be closed 
 together by encircling them with a hay- 
 band, and earth placed round each 
 plant, a dry day being selected for per- 
 forming it. As they continue to grow, 
 fresh bands and earth must be constant- 
 ly applied until they are blanched to 
 the height of two feet, or about two- 
 
CAR 
 
 125 
 
 CAR 
 
 thirds of their stems. They will be fit 
 for use in eight or ten weeks after the 
 earthing first commences. Care must 
 be had in earthing them up, to prevent 
 the earth falling in between the leaves, 
 which is liable to induce decay. The 
 surface of the soil should likewise be 
 beaten smooth to throw off the rain. In 
 severe weather their tops should be 
 covered with litter, by which they may 
 be preserved in a serviceable state 
 throughout the winter. 
 
 To obtain Seed — Which in this coun- 
 try seldom comes to maturity, but in dry 
 seasons a few plants should be set in a 
 sheltered situation of the April sowing, 
 not earthed up, but allowed the shelter 
 of mats or litter in frosty weather. The 
 flowers make their appearance about 
 the beginning of July, and the seed is 
 ripe in September. 
 
 CARDUNCELUS. Two species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division. 
 Common soil. 
 
 CARDUUS. Thirty-eight species. 
 Hardy annuals, biennials, and peren- 
 nials. Seeds or division. Common 
 soil. 
 
 CAREYA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreens ; C. herbacea is a splendid 
 herbaceous stove plant. Division. Light 
 loam and sandy peat. 
 
 CARGILLIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen trees. Cuttings. Peat 
 and open loam. 
 
 CARICA. Six species. Chiefly stove 
 evergreen trees. Leafy cuttings. Loamy 
 soil. 
 
 CARISSA. Five species. Stove ever- 
 green trees. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 CARLINA. Ten species. Hardy 
 plants ; C. lyrata is a green-house 
 biennial. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CARLOWIZIA salicifolia. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Sandv loam. 
 
 CARLUDOVICA. Five species. 
 Stove evergreen climbers, or herbace- 
 ous perennials. Suckers. Sandy peat 
 and loam. 
 
 CARMICHAELIA australis. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 CARNATION. Dianthus caryophyl- 
 lus. The Carnation is a prominent 
 flower at the horticultural shows in 
 England, and exciting contests for the 
 premiums are annually exhibited. In 
 the United States it succeeds but indif- 
 ferently well, and a really good col- 
 
 lection of Carnations is a rarity : in- 
 deed so rare, that but few of us have 
 seen what a British amateur would 
 deem worth looking at. We reprint 
 the whole of the article on the subject 
 as it originally stood in the Dictionary, 
 for the benefit of those who may be 
 disposed to make importations and em- 
 bark in the culture of this charming 
 flower* 
 
 Mr. J. F. Wood, of the Coppice, 
 Nottingham, gives the following list of 
 varieties. ■ 
 
 Scarlet Bizarres. — T witch ett's Don 
 John ; Martin's Splendid ; Headley's 
 Achilles; Headley's William Cobbett; 
 Bucknall's Earl Fitzharding ; Strong's 
 Duke of York ; Wilmer's Conquering 
 Hero. 
 
 Crimson Bizarres. — Puxley's Prince 
 Albert ; Holmes' Count Paulina ; Maus- 
 ley's Robert Burns ; Ely's Lord Milton ; 
 Jacques' Georgiana; Chambers' Kate; 
 Jacques' Iris ; Parker's Sophia. 
 
 Scarlet Flakes. — Twitchett's Queen 
 of Scarlet ; Wigg's Earl of Leicester ; 
 Bucknall's Ulysses ; Wilson's William 
 the Fourth ; Wilmer's Hero of Middle- 
 sex ; Addenbrook's Lydia. 
 
 Purple Flakes. — Mausley's Beauty of 
 Woodhouse ; Headley's Empress of 
 Purples ; Headley's Incognita ; Pol- 
 lard's First-rate; Wilmer's Solander; 
 Millwood's Premier ; Strong's Esther. 
 
 Rose Flakes. — Brooks' Flora Gar- 
 land ; Greasley's Village Maid; Wil- 
 son's Harriet ; Ely's Lady Ely ; Sicla- 
 more's Lady Rowley ; Pearson's Madam 
 Mara . 
 
 Scarlet Bizarres. — Jolly Dragoon- 
 (Ely's) ; Game Boy (Rainforth's) ; Lead- 
 er (Hepworth's) ; Don John (Mer- 
 chant's) ; Lady of the Manor (Mill- 
 wood's) ; Patriarch (Hulton's) ; Union 
 Jack (Ward's); Sir Robert Peel 
 (Groves') ; Locomotive (Morris') ; Duke 
 of Leeds (Hoyle's) ; Prince Albert. 
 (Hoyle's) ; Splendid (Martin's) ; Con-' 
 quering Hero (Wilmer's) ; Brutus (Col- 
 cut's) ; Juba (Colcut's) ; Charles the 
 Twelfth (Mausley's) ; William the 
 Fourth (Walmsley's) ; Colonel (Lee's) 
 Duke of Devonshire ; Mars (Walms- 
 ley's). 
 
 Crimson Bizarres. — Duke of Bedford 
 (Ely's) ; Count Paulini (Holmes') ; Duch- 
 ess of Kent (Brown's) ; Bloomsbury 
 (Soorn's) ; Hector (Brown's) ; Lord Mil- 
 ton (Ely's) ; Lord Brougham (Greas- 
 ley's) ; Squire Plumtree (Hufton's) j 
 
CAR 
 
 126 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CAR 
 
 Mrs. Brand (Ely's) ; William Caxton j ris') ; Will Stakely (Hutton's) ; Derby 
 
 ! Willow (Maw's) ; King of the French 
 (Green's) ; Royal Briton (Hardy's) ; Ma- 
 i tilda (Parkinson's) ; Venus (Hudson's) ; 
 ! Mary Antony (Benn's); Hector (Sharp's); 
 : Cornelius (Barraud's) ; Colonel Foreman 
 (Barraud's) ; Teazer (Giddens') ; Caesar 
 j (Giddens') : Criterion (Sharp's); Cathe- 
 j rine (Hardy's) ; Nulli Secundus (Maus- 
 i ley's) ; Bloomsbury (Clegg's) ; Mrs. Jud- 
 ! son (Wheatley's) ; Lady Peel (Pullen's); 
 i Vespasian (Giddens') ; Victoria (Mus- 
 j Croft's) ; Queen of Sheba (Wakefield's); 
 ; Nottingham Hero (Robinson's); Mr. 
 I Mugglestone (Robinson's); Hope (Brink- 
 i ler's) ; Trip to Cambridge (Dickson's) ; 
 j Grace Darling (Ely's) ; Pluperfect (Wil- 
 son's) ; Queen Victoria (Kirkland's) ; 
 Nehemiah (Hufton's) ; Delight (Jack- 
 son's) ; Victoria (Crask's) ; Isabella 
 (Hufton's); Miss Hunter (Hufton's), alias 
 Toones, Miss Garey ; Mary (Lee's). 
 
 Characteristics of Excellence. — Mr. 
 Orson, at a meeting of the Floricultural 
 Society, made these excellent observa- 
 tions : — " Carnations were originally 
 divided into three classes, viz., Bizarres, 
 Flakes, and Picotees ; but the latter are 
 now considered a distinct variety. Bi- 
 zarres were distinguished by having two 
 colours, and flakes by having only one 
 colour upon a white ground ; these two 
 principal classes being subdivided into 
 scarlet, crimson, pink, and purple bi- 
 zarres — scarlet, purple, and pink or 
 rose flakes. In some counties pink, 
 purple, and crimson bizarres were all 
 classed under the head of pink bizarres, 
 whereas in other parts of the country 
 they were known as crimson bizarres. 
 
 " The calyx, or pod, should be long, 
 firm, and entire, of sufficient substance 
 to support the petals, which should be 
 thick, broad, and substantial, smooth, 
 and free from indenture on the edge. 
 
 (Ely's); Robert Burns (Mausley's) ; 
 Tally-ho (Woolley's); Bonpland (Wil- 
 mer's) ; Dord Durham (Tomlinson's) ; 
 Rainbow (Cartwright's) ; Squire Ray 
 (Hufton's); Betty (Lovegrove's) ; King 
 Alfred (Gregory's) ; Eclipse (Eason's) ; 
 Taglioni (Pickering's). 
 
 Scarlet Flakes. — Beauty of Cradley 
 (Wallis') ; Ringleader (Toane's) ; Bright 
 Venus (Ely's) ; Premier (Creswell's) ; 
 Lord Morpeth (Ely's) ; Captain Ross 
 (Ely's) ; Mary Anne (Greasley's). 
 
 Rose Picotees. — Few of this class are 
 grown near Nottingham ; the following 
 are amongst the best : Queen Victoria 
 (Green's) ; Favourite (Giddens') ; Fanny j 
 Irby (Wilson's) ; Marchioness of West- | 
 minster (Evans') ; Queen Victoria 
 (Wains'); Ann Page (Lovegrove's); Mar-_ 
 quis of Granby (Simpson's): Earl of 
 Errol(Wilmer's); Wellington (Foster's); 
 Earl of Leicester (Wigg's) ; Rob Roy 
 (Orson's) ; Madame Mara (Pearson's) ; 
 William the Fourth (Wilson's); Lady 
 Hill (Pugh's); Fox Hunter (Hufton's); 
 Donna Maria (Millwood's); Red Rover 
 (Fletcher's) ; Bishop of Gloucester 
 (Brown's). 
 
 Rose Flakes. — Lovely Anne (Ely's) ; 
 Rosea (Hulton's) ; Queen Victoria (Hy- 
 ron's) ; Lady Gardiner (Ely's) ; Lady 
 Ely (Ely's); Elizabeth (Easum's) ; 
 Village Maid (Greasley's); Lady Flora 
 (Hudson's) ; Sarah (Hastings') ; Brew- 
 ing (Hoyle's) ; Miss Walker (Ash- 
 worth's) ; Mrs. Pickering (Pickering's) ; 
 Lovely Nancy (Hoyle's); Eliza (Par- 
 kinson's) ; Emma (Lakin's) ; Miss Molly 
 (Ely's) ; Queen of England (Fletcher's); 
 Luna (Brown's) ; Lady Egerton (Low's); 
 Lady Grey (Malpas'). 
 
 Purple Flakes. — Mango (Ely's) ; Beau- 
 ty of Woodhouse (Mausley's) ; Bellero- 
 
 phon (Leighton's) ; Prince Charlotte The guard petals should rise gracefully 
 (Turner's); Premier(Millwood's); Squire above the pod, and turn in a horizontal 
 Meynell (Brabbin's) ; Sir J. Plastain direction, having a gradual disposition 
 
 (Bates') ; British Queen (Elliot's) ; In 
 vincible (Simpson's) ; Major (Spray's) ; 
 Miss Thornton (Hudson's) ; Enchanter 
 (Pearson's); Rev. J. Gisborne (Bob- 
 bins') ; Magnificent (Ely's) ; Queen Vic- 
 toria (Ely's) ; Cleopatra (Weldon's) ; 
 First Rate (Pollard's) ; Platoff (Hall's) ; 
 Major Cartwright (Hall's). 
 
 Red Picotees. — Mrs. Flower (Ely's) 
 
 j to cup, but not terminating in an abrupt 
 I curl, at the outer edge, the whole form- 
 ' ing a complete circle. The interior 
 ; petals should rather decrease in size as 
 they approach the centre, each row be- 
 j ing regularly and alternately arranged 
 : above the other, and not have a loose 
 \ and gaping appearance, in fact, the 
 paces should be only sufficient to dis- 
 
 Miss Bacon (Wollard's) ; Little Won- play the colouring distinctly. The num- 
 der (Wollard's) ; Duke of Wellington ! ber of petals in a first rate flower 
 (Sharp's) ; Mary (Morris') ; Pilot (Mor- | should not be less than seventeen, three 
 
CAR 
 
 127 
 
 CAR 
 
 of them being placed in the centre, to 
 form a crown. 
 
 "The whole would then, if well ar- 
 ranged, produce the form of the half of 
 an oval or elliptic, when held on a side 
 view; having, when seen from above, 
 a circular appearance. The colours, 
 whether biznrre or flake, should be 
 strong, brilliant, and distinct through- 
 out. The ground colour should be a 
 pure white, free from speck, spot, tint, 
 or tinge of any sort. The flakes should 
 be broad and bold, commencing at the 
 extreme edge, of a proportionate width 
 to the petal, running through to the cen- 
 tre, or as far as the eye can discern, and 
 diminishing in breadth as they approach 
 the centre, in the same ratio as the pe- 
 tal. The distribution of colours should 
 be equal in every respect : in a flake, 
 not less than three divisions in each 
 petal : in a bizarre, not less than five 
 divisions, and properly arranged ; their 
 respective and united beauties should 
 be strikingly apparent. 
 
 " Size should not be lost sight of, 
 though it should never take precedence, 
 unless the other general properties were 
 equal. The disqualifications of a car- 
 nation are — a dead, loose, mutilated, 
 or split petal, a petal having no white 
 on the upper side ; a petal having (if a 
 flake) no colour upon the white on the 
 upper side ; a petal upon which (if a 
 bizarre) there are not two colours upon 
 the white on the upper side ; if the pod 
 be split down to the sub-calyx, or cut 
 away in any part." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 " The properties of the picotee, with 
 regard to form and petal," says the same 
 authority, " are the same as in the car- 
 nation, with this exception, that, as the 
 colour of the picotee is, or ought to be, 
 confined to the margin of the petal, a 
 greater degree of fulness was admissi- 
 ble, proportionate with the lightness or 
 narrowness of the marking. The co- 
 lour should be clear and distinct, con- 
 fined to the edge of the petal, and not 
 running clown orbarring; neither should 
 the white in the slightest degree run 
 through to the edge of the petals, but 
 whether lightly or heavily marked, the 
 colour should be regular, at an equal 
 distance from the edge all round the 
 petal, each petal having the same .re- 
 gularity of colouring throughout the 
 flower. 
 
 " Although a full flower is not so ob- 
 jectionable as in the carnation, yet, as 
 
 very full picotees are not to be advo- 
 cated, a medium fulness is best. The 
 same disqualifications with regard to 
 the petal and pod are applicable as to 
 the carnation." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Soil. — Dr. Horner recommends — 
 " Two parts old pasture sods, two years 
 old, and one part old frame manure, 
 three years old, with a sufficient addi- 
 tion of coarse river sand, to prevent te- 
 nacity of the soil. Pasture sods reduced 
 to mould, are preferable to soil taken 
 from a greater depth, inasmuch as they 
 contain the fibrous roots of the grass, 
 which during their gradual decay afford 
 a constant supply of most acceptable 
 nourishment." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 " Propagation. — Pipings stuck in this 
 mould are to be covered with a hand- 
 light, exposed fully to the sun ; but in 
 hot weather, in the evening, water 
 poured over the hand-light; pick out 
 worms and slugs. If the pipings are 
 placed in a box, covered first with a 
 bell-glass, which is to be exchanged for 
 a small hand-glass, or a larger bell- 
 glass, as the pipings begin to grow, the 
 boxes placed on a stage on the north 
 side of a tree, and the stage resting on 
 feeders, filled with lime-water, there is 
 less trouble with insects, and the pipings 
 will grow very well, but not so rapidly." 
 — Gard. Chron. For the best mode of 
 obtaining pipings, see Pink. 
 
 Raising Varieties. — Dr. Lindley says, 
 — "The fertilization of carnations 
 should be performed as soon as the stig- 
 mas unfold. The action of pollen is 
 not instantaneous, but slow ; and it is 
 necessary that it should adhere. 
 
 " Although it may produce no effect 
 at the time of applying it, yet it will 
 eventually fertilize the seed-vessel, if 
 the flower be kept dry. If the seed- 
 vessel grows, and yet the seed does 
 not swell, it is because fertilization has 
 not taken place. It would increase the 
 probability of procuring seed, to place 
 the pots near a south wall. It is of no 
 use to cut out the centre petals when 
 the flower is very double." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Sowing. — " The surface of the soil 
 should be finely pulverized, and the bed 
 raised somewhat above the level of the 
 adjoining ground. The seed may be 
 scattered broadcast over the bed, and 
 afterwards lightly pressed with the back 
 of a rake." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 " Seedlings are always more vigorous 
 
CAR 
 
 128 
 
 CAR 
 
 than those that have been in cultivation 
 for a length of time. 
 
 " It is not usual for carnations and 
 pinks to bloom the first season. When 
 the seed is sown early, flower-stems 
 are occasionally thrown up late in the 
 autumn, and all destroyed by frost." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 The plants generally come up in a 
 month after sowing ; give occasional 
 watering and weeding, and in July they 
 will be fit to prick out into nursery beds, 
 which prepare in an open situation, 
 three feet wide ; and taking advantage 
 of moist weather, prick the plants there- 
 in four inches apart, and finish with a 
 general watering, which repeat occa- 
 sionally till all the plants have taken 
 good root. Here let them remain till 
 September, — when they will be so well 
 advanced in growth as to require more 
 room ; and should have their final trans- 
 plantation into other three-feet- wide 
 
 The method of performing the work 
 is as follows: — First provide a quan- 
 tity of small hooked sticks, three or 
 four inches long, with which to peg 
 the layers down, also in a barrow a 
 quantity of light rich mould to raise the 
 earth, if required, around each plant; 
 and provide also a sharp penknife. 
 Having all these ready, then proceed 
 to the work of layering : first, strip off 
 all the leaves from the body of the 
 sboots, and shorten those at the top an 
 inch or two evenly; and then, fixing 
 upon a strong joint about the middle of 
 the shoot, and on its under side, cut 
 the joint half way through, directing 
 your knife upward, so as to slit the 
 shoot up the middle almost to the next 
 joint above ; of which joint the thin 
 skinny part must be trimmed off, for 
 the layers always form their root at 
 that part. This done, loosen the earth 
 around the plant, and, if necessary, add 
 
 beds of good earth, in rows lengthways | some fresh mould to raise it for the 
 
 the bed, nine inches asunder, and th 
 same distance in the lines, placing them 
 in the quincunx order ; and here they are 
 to remain all the winter, and until they 
 flower, and have been increased by 
 layers ; until which periods all the cul- 
 ture they require is, that if the winter 
 prove very severe, an occasional she' 
 
 more ready reception of the layers ; 
 then with your finger make a hollow or 
 drill in the earth to receive the layer, 
 which bend gently down horizontally in 
 the opening, raising the top upright, so 
 as to keep the gash, or slit part of the 
 layer, open, and with one of the hooked 
 sticks peg down the body of the layer 
 
 ter of mats, during the hardest frost, j to secure it in its proper place and po- 
 
 will be of much advantage , and jn 
 spring, loosen the ground between them 
 with a hoe. Keep them always clear 
 from weeds, and when their flower- 
 stalks advance, tie them up to sticks. 
 They will flower in June, July, and 
 August, at which times, as soon as the 
 singles and doubles are distinguishable, 
 all the singles may be rejected. 
 
 When fully blown, examine their pro- 
 perties ; the finest may be marked for 
 stage flowers, and the others are furni- 
 ture for the borders ; all of which may 
 be increased by layers the same year. 
 
 Propagation by Layers. — The proper 
 parts for layers are those leafy shoots 
 arising near the crown of the root, 
 which, when about five inches long, are 
 of a proper degree of growth. 
 
 The general season for this work is 
 June, July, and beginning of August, 
 and the sooner it is done after the shoots 
 are ready the better, that they may 
 
 sition, still preserving the top erect and 
 the slit open, and draw the earth over 
 it an inch or two, bringing it close about 
 the erect part of the shoot ; and when 
 all the shoots of each plant are thus 
 layered, give some water to settle the 
 earth close, repeating the waterings 
 often in dry weather ; and in five or six 
 weeks the layers will have formed good 
 roots, when they should be separated 
 with a knife from the old plants, and 
 planted in beds or pots. 
 
 Taking off and transplanting the 
 Layers. — The layers are generally well 
 rooted in six weeks after layering, which 
 you will observe by opening the earth a 
 little, and examining the bottom, or 
 root part; and if it has emitted plenty 
 of fibres, they should be taken off, and 
 planted out. 
 
 They must be cut, or separated with 
 a knife from the old plant, gently rais- 
 ing them out of the earth with the point 
 
 have sufficient time to acquire strength | of a trowel, to preserve the fibres, or 
 before winter. Those layered in June j roots of the layers ; and when thus taken 
 
 and July will be fit to take off in Au- 
 gust and September. 
 
 I up, cut off the naked sticky part at bot- 
 | torn close to the root, and trim the tops 
 
CAR 
 
 129 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CAR 
 
 of the leaves a little : they are then 
 ready for planting, either into beds or 
 pots, but rather into nursery-beds of 
 good earth, to remain six weeks, and 
 then the fine sorts may be potted. 
 Therefore, choosing a bed or border of 
 rich light earth, let it be then neatly 
 dug, and the surface raked smooth, and 
 here plant the layers, with a dibble, at 
 six or eight inches distance ; give di- 
 rectly a good watering, and repeat it, 
 in dry weather," every day or two, for a 
 week or a fortnight, when the plants 
 will have taken fresh root, and begin to 
 advance. 
 
 In this bed let them take their growth 
 till October, then the fine varieties may 
 be potted in small pots (forty-eights) for 
 moving to occasional shelter from hard 
 frosts, till spring, then into large pots, 
 to remain to flower; therefore, at the 
 above-mentioned time in autumn, take 
 up the layers of the prime sorts from 
 the nursery beds into small pots, and 
 give a moderate watering, and place 
 them in a warm situation, in the full 
 air, till November, then move them to 
 occasional shelter, as directed in their 
 winter culture. 
 
 The more common sorts may either 
 at the above time in autumn be trans- 
 planted into the borders or other com- 
 partments of the pleasure ground, where 
 they are to remain to flower, or may be 
 continued in the beds until spring ; and 
 then a due quantity may be disposed in 
 the borders, or retained in the same 
 bed, for flowering. 
 
 Winter Culture. — In November, the 
 varieties in pots should be moved to a 
 sunny, sheltered situation for the win- 
 ter ; and if placed in a frame, &c, to 
 have occasional protection from hard 
 frost, it will be of much advantage. 
 The pots may be placed close together, 
 or if the bed is raised three, four, or 
 six inches, with a light dry earth, sand, 
 or ashes, and so plunge the pots in it to 
 their rims, it will be a greater protec- 
 tion for their roots, covering them oc- 
 casionally with the glasses in hard 
 frosts, &c. ; but for want of frames, a 
 bed prepared as above may be arched 
 over with hoops, to be covered occa- 
 sionally with mats. 
 
 Under either of those shelters the 
 plants are to be covered with glasses 
 or mats only in time of severe frost, 
 but must enjoy the full air in all open 
 weather, by having all covering en- 
 
 tirely off, for if much covered it would 
 draw them up weak and tender. 
 
 Be careful also that the drainage in 
 the pots is very good. 
 
 Thus continue your care of the potted 
 plants till spring, and then shift them 
 into large pots, to remain to blow, as 
 directed in their spring culture. 
 
 In respect to those in the open beds, 
 although they commonly stand the win- 
 ter tolerably, yet, if you have any spare 
 frames, or the beds arched over, to be 
 covered with mats or long dry litter in 
 severe frosts, it will be of much advan- 
 tage. 
 
 Spring Culture, Shifting, fyc. — In 
 the latter end of February, or some 
 time in March, the layers in the small 
 pots, or such as are in beds, and that 
 you intend shall blow in pots, should 
 be transplanted with balls into the large 
 pots, where they are to remain. 
 
 The pots proper for their reception 
 for flowering, should be nine or ten 
 inches at least in the clear at top, but 
 if a foot the better, that there may be 
 due room to lay the layers, at the pro- 
 per season, for a further increase, 
 which is an essential point to be con- 
 sidered. 
 
 The pots being ready, put some 
 pieces of tile or oyster shells over the 
 holes at the bottom; add plenty of 
 drainage, and fill them halfway with 
 earth, then turn the plants out of the 
 pots, &c, with the ball of earth about 
 their roots; and after taking away a 
 little of the earth around the sides of 
 the ball, place one plant in each of 
 the large pots, filling up the vacancy 
 around the ball with fresh compost, 
 bringing it also close up about the 
 body of the plant, which should stand 
 nearly as high as the rim of the pot ; 
 and finish each pot with a moderate 
 watering. 
 
 Being thus potted, place them in a 
 sheltered sunny situation in the full air, 
 and in dry weather supply them with 
 water twice a week, and here let them 
 remain till they are considerably ad- 
 vanced towards flowering, then the fine 
 sorts may be placed on the Carnation 
 stage. 
 
 Summer Culture. — During dry warm 
 weather continue the care of watering 
 those in pots every day or two. Like- 
 wise clear out all weeds, and at times 
 lightly stir the surface. In May and 
 June the flower-stems of the plants will 
 
CAR 
 
 130 
 
 — • — 
 
 CAR 
 
 advance, when sticks should be placed | stage, by means of small neat rails, 
 for their support, which should be two ] carried along lengthways of the stage, 
 feet and a half or a yard long, either j just over the place where each row of 
 round or square, but perfectly straight, j pots stand, and from which rails up- 
 and tapering from the bottom: sharpen- j right sticks half an inch thick are car- 
 ing the lower end thrust one down by j ried to another such rail above, placing 
 every plant, to which tie the flower- j them at such distances that there be 
 stems in a neat manner, which repeat ! two to each pot, and so train the 
 as they advance in height. flower-stems up to the outside of the 
 
 In June, or beginning of July, the ! sticks, 
 plants will be considerably advanced I With respect to the cups of water 
 towards flowering, when those intended | above mentioned, they are earthen or 
 for the stage shouid be placed there, to j leaden, about fifteen inches wide, and 
 prevent the depredation of slugs ; the ' three or four deep, having a hollow or 
 posts or supporters of the stage should | vacancy in the middle six inches wide, 
 be surrounded at the bottom by small I like a socket to receive the posts ; and 
 cups of water; and by placing the is formed by a raised rim in the middle, 
 plants on a stage, having the platform i equal in height to that of the circum- 
 eighteen inches or two feet high, the ference, and the hollow or socket so 
 flowers are viewed to more advantage ; formed as to receive the bottom of the 
 and if there is erected an awning over j posts quite through to the ground ; and 
 the top, supported four feet above the the space between the outer and inner 
 platform, the flowers being screened j rim is filled with water, so that each 
 from the heat of the mid-day sun, and j post standing in the middle of such a 
 defended from heavy rains, are con- j cistern, sufficiently guards the plants 
 tinued much longer in beauty. against creeping insects, for they will 
 
 Some Carnation stages are con- j not attempt to cross the water, 
 structed upon very elegant plans, both For want of a covered stage to screen 
 to render them useful and ornamental, j the flowers, you may contrive a kind of 
 
 But as to the general construction of | small umbrellas or round spreading 
 a common Carnation stage, it is formed caps, either of tin or canvas, nine or 
 entirely of slight timber work, thus — a i ten inches diameter, one for each plant; 
 boarded platform is erected eighteen I having a socket in the middle to receive 
 inches or two feet in height, formed by the tops of the support-sticks ; those 
 two ranges of planks, to contain two | umbrellas which are formed of tin are 
 rows of pots lengthways, supported on j the best, but if you make them of can- 
 posts, ranged either in one row along 
 under the middle of the platform, or in 
 two ranges, one on each side ; and 
 
 
 
 make little round frames, 
 rim formed with slips of 
 
 over is erected a roof of open work, 
 five or six feet high, to be covered with 
 
 vas, first 
 
 having th 
 
 lead, wire, cane, &c, the above width 
 
 with cross slips of the same materials; 
 
 contriving a socket of lead or tin in the 
 
 painted canvas, supported either by a middle for the support-stick to go quite 
 range of neat posts on each side, or by through, as just observed ; and upon 
 one row ranging along the middle, be- these frames paste or sow canvas, 
 tween the planks of the platform, which which paint with oil-colour, that they 
 is the most eligible; the roof maybe may stand the weather; either of 
 formed either archways or like the ; which covers are placed over the 
 ridge of a house, having the arches or flowers by running the support-stick up 
 spars about afoot asunder, and stiffened ! through the hole or socket in the mid- 
 by thin slips ofdeal, carried across them ! die, and resting the cap upon a piece 
 the whole length of the stage; and the [ of wire put across the stick at such a 
 roof thus formed may be covered with , height from the flower as to screen it 
 coarse canvas paintea white. I effectually from the sun and rains. 
 
 All the wood work of the stage Give attention to continue to tie up 
 should be painted white, both to pre- neatly the flower-stalks of the plants as 
 serve it from the weather, and give it they advance in stature. When they 
 a more lively appearance. In con- are arrived at their full height, support 
 structing Carnation stages, some con- them erect at top with wires, having a 
 trive sticks for the support of the j small eye or ring at one end, for the 
 flower-stalks, fixed to the work of the j reception of the flower-stalk ; so put 
 
CAR 
 
 131 
 
 CAR 
 
 the other end into holes made in the 
 support-sticks. These wires should be 
 five or six inches long, and several holes 
 are made in the upper part of the sticks; 
 the first at the height of the bottom of 
 the flower pod, the other above that, an 
 inch or two distant ; and place the wires 
 in the holes lower or higher, that the 
 eye or ring may be just even with the 
 case of the calyx, to support the flower 
 in an upright position ; and by drawing 
 the wire less or more out, the flower is 
 preserved at any distance from the sup- 
 port as shall seem necessary to give it 
 proper room to expand ; and if two or 
 three of the like wires are placed also 
 in the lower parts of the support-sticks, 
 placing the stem of the flowers also in 
 the eye of the wires, all the tyings of 
 bass, &c, may be cut away. 
 
 To have as large flowers as possible, 
 clear off all side shoots from the flower- 
 stem, suffering only the main or top 
 buds to remain to flower. 
 
 When the flowers begin to open, at- 
 tendance should be given to assist the 
 fine varieties to promote their regular 
 expansion, particularly the large burster 
 kinds, they being apt to burst open on 
 one side ; and, unless assisted by a little 
 art, the petals will break out of com- 
 pass, and the flower become very ir- 
 regular ; therefore, attending every day 
 at that period, observe, as soon as the 
 calyx begins to break, to cut it a little 
 open at two other places in the indent- 
 ings at top, with narrow-pointed scis- 
 sors, that the openings be at equal dis- 
 tances, and hereby the more regular 
 expansion of the petals will be pro- 
 moted ; observing if one side of any 
 flower comes out faster than another, 
 to turn the pot about, that the other side 
 of the flower be next the sun, which will 
 also greatly assist the more regular ex- 
 pansion of the flower. 
 
 Likewise, when intended to blow any 
 particularly fine flowers as large and 
 spreading as possible, florists place 
 spreading paper collars round the bot- 
 tom of the flower, on which to spread 
 the petals to their utmost expansion ; 
 these collars are made of stiff white 
 paper, cut circular, about three or four 
 inches diameter, having a hole in the 
 middle to receive the bottom of the 
 petals, withinside of the calyx, the 
 leaves of which are made to spread flat 
 for its support ; and then spread or draw 
 out the petals upon the collar to their 
 
 full width and extent, the longest un- 
 dermost, and the next longest upon 
 these, and so of the rest quite to the 
 middle, observing that the collar must 
 nowhere appear wider than the flower 
 when it begins to burst. 
 
 Continue the care of watering the 
 pots, which in dry hot weather will be 
 necessary every day, being essential to 
 promote the size of the flowers, and 
 increase the strength of the shoots of 
 the plants at bottom for layers. 
 
 And as in June and July these layers 
 will have arrived at proper growth for 
 layering, they should also be layered to 
 continue your increase of the approved 
 varieties, and so continue layering the 
 shoots of each year's growth at the 
 above season, managing them always 
 as before directed. 
 
 As to the border carnations, i. e., 
 such as you intend shall flower in bor- 
 ders or beds, in the open ground, any 
 of the varieties may be employed ; and 
 their propagation both by seed and 
 layers is the same as already directed. 
 The season for transplanting them into 
 the places of their final destination for 
 flowering, is October or beginning of 
 November, for the autumn planting ; 
 and for that of the spring, any time in 
 March or first fortnight in April ; re- 
 moving them with little balls about their 
 roots, planting them about two feet from 
 the edge of the border; and as to cul- 
 ture, it is principally tying up the flower- 
 stalks as they advance in stature, and 
 to make layers of all the approved 
 sorts annually, in June or July. — Aber- 
 crombie. 
 
 Carnation Pots. — The pots commonly 
 made and used for the purpose of 
 blooming carnations in, are called wide- 
 mouthed twelves. Two plants are put 
 in each pot, and they are made wide at 
 the top for the convenience of layering 
 the plants in. 
 
 Disease. — The " black spot" on the 
 leaves of carnations, is an infection 
 propagating itself in the same manner 
 as rust in corn, or mildew of plants, 
 each spot being composed of innumera- 
 ble small fungi. 
 
 CAROB TREE. Ceratonia. 
 
 CAROLINEA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Rich loamy 
 soil. 
 
 CARPINUS. Three species, and as 
 many varieties. Hardy deciduous trees. 
 Seeds or layers. Common soil. 
 
CAR 
 
 132 
 
 CAS 
 
 CARPODONTUS lucida. Green- 
 house evergreen tree. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 CARRICHTERA vella. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seeds. Common soil. A dry 
 situation suits it best. 
 
 CARROT. {Daucus carota.) « The 
 Carrot is a hardy biennial. The root of 
 the plant in its wild state is small ; dry, 
 sticky, of a white colour, and strong 
 flavoured." 
 
 Varieties. — Those with a regular fusi- 
 form root, are named long carrots; and 
 those having one that is nearly cylin- 
 drical, abruptly terminating, are de- 
 nominated horn carrots. The first are 
 employed for the main crops, the se- 
 cond, on account of their superior deli- 
 cate flavour, are advantageously grown 
 for early use, and for shallow soils. 
 
 " The principal sorts are the Long 
 Orange, best for the main crop ; the 
 Early Horn, for early summer use ; 
 and the Altringham and Large White, 
 for field culture. 
 
 " The cultivation of all the varieties 
 is the same. The plant requires a 
 deeply dug or ploughed soil, in good 
 tilth, otherwise the root is apt to branch 
 or become forked. For the early sup- 
 ply drill the seed (allowing 12 or 14 
 inches space between the drills), in a 
 warm protected border, any time during 
 spring; the main crop need not be put 
 in before its close. When the plants 
 are up two or three inches in growth, 
 they will require thinning, and cleaning 
 from weeds, either by hand or small 
 hoeing; thin from three to five inches 
 distance, such as are designed for draw- 
 ing, in young and middling growth ; but 
 the main crop, intended for large and 
 full sized roots, thin to six or eight 
 inches distance; keep the whole clean 
 from weeds in their advancing young 
 growth. 
 
 " To preserve them during the win- 
 ter, remove them to the cellar, and pile 
 them up with alternate layers of earth 
 or sand ; or they may be placed in heaps 
 in the garden, with sufficient soil over 
 them to exclude frost. The Carrot is a 
 tolerably hardy root, and but little diffi- 
 culty attends its preservation. 
 
 " It is a valuable food for stock, and 
 in an especial manner worthy of exten- 
 sive field culture. When grown for 
 that purpose sow in drills three feet 
 apart, and cultivate thoroughly — the 
 Long Orange is perhaps the best even 
 
 for this purpose — does not grow so 
 large as the White, but is of superior 
 quality." — Rural Register. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — Leave some where 
 raised, but if this is impracticable, some 
 of the finest roots should be selected, 
 and their tops not cut so close as those 
 for storing ; these likewise must be 
 placed in sand until March, then to be 
 planted out two feet asunder, in a stiff 
 loamy soil. Those left where grown, or 
 those planted at the close of autumn, 
 must, during frosts, have the protection 
 of litter, it being invariably removed, 
 however, during mild weather. As the 
 seed ripens in August, which is known 
 by its turning brown about the end of 
 August, each umbel should be cut ; for 
 if it is waited for until the whole plant 
 decays, much of the seed is often lost 
 during stormy weather. It must be 
 thoroughly dried by exposure to the sun 
 and air, before it is rubbed out for stor- 
 ing. For sowing, the seed should al- 
 ways be of the previous year's growth ; 
 if it is more than two years old it will 
 not vegetate at all. 
 
 CARROT MAGGOT. This under- 
 ground enemy of the carrot is banished 
 by mixing spirit of tar with sand until 
 saturated, and applying it to the soil 
 previously to digging, at the rate of 
 about one gallon to sixty square yards. 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 CARROT MOTH. See Tinea. 
 
 CARTHAMUS. Two species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Sandy loam or com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 CARTONEMA spicatum. Stove her- 
 baceous perennials. Seeds. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 CARUM carui. Caraway. Hardy 
 biennial. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CARYA. Ten species, and some 
 varieties. Hardy deciduous trees. Seeds 
 or layers. Common soil. 
 
 CARYOCAR. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy open 
 loam, or loam and peat. 
 
 CARYOPHYLLUS aromaticus. 
 Clove Tree. Stove evergreen tree. 
 Cuttings. Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 CARYOTA. Three species. Stove 
 palms. Seeds. Rich soil and a moist 
 warm atmosphere. 
 
 CASCADE, or Waterfall, is an im- 
 portant adjunct in landscape gardening, 
 but agreeable only when properly as- 
 sociated with the scenery around ; that 
 association is a bold broken ground, and 
 
 
CAS 
 
 133 
 
 CAT 
 
 a dense plantation of trees; nothing is 
 more misplaced or tasteless than a sheet 
 of water falling into another uniform 
 collection of water, in an open un- 
 wooded plain. Mr. Whateley justly 
 observes, that " a rill cannot pretend 
 to any sound beyond that of a little 
 waterfall ; the roar of a cascade belongs 
 only to larger streams: but it may be 
 introduced by a rivulet to a considera- 
 ble degree, and attempts to do more 
 have generally been unsuccessful ; a 
 vain ambition to imitate nature in her 
 great extravagancies betrays the weak- 
 ness of art. Though a noble river 
 throwing itself headlong down a preci- 
 pice be an object truly magnificent, it 
 must however be confessed, that in a 
 single sheet of water there is a formality 
 which its vastness alone can cure, but 
 the height, not the breadth is the 
 wonder: when it falls no more than a 
 few feet, the regularity prevails, and its 
 extent only serves to expose the vanity 
 of affecting the style of a cataract in an 
 artificial cascade; it is less exceptionable 
 if divided into several parts, for then 
 each separate part may be wide enough 
 for its depth ; and in the whole, variety, 
 not greatness, will be the predominant 
 character. But a structure of rough, 
 large, detached stones cannot easily be 
 contrived of strength sufficient to sup- 
 port a great weight of water, it is some- 
 times from necessity almost smooth and 
 uniform, and then it loses much of its 
 effect: several little falls in succession 
 are preferable to one greater cascade, 
 which in figure, or in motion, ap- 
 proaches to regularity. 
 
 " When greatness is thus reduced to 
 number, and length becomes of more 
 importance than breadth, a rivulet vies 
 with a river, and it more frequently runs 
 in a continued declivity, which is very 
 favourable to such a succession of falls. 
 Half the expense and labour which are 
 sometime bestowed on a river to give it 
 at the best, a forced precipitancy in any 
 one spot only, would animate a rivulet 
 through the whole of its course ; and 
 after all the most interesting circum- 
 stance in falling waters, is their anima- 
 tion : a great cascade fills us with sur- 
 prise, but all surprise must cease ; and 
 the motion, the agitation, the rage, the 
 froth, and the variety of the water are 
 
 finally the objects which engage 
 attention; for these a rivulet is 
 
 the 
 suf- 
 
 ficient, and they may there be produced 
 
 without that appearance of effort which 
 raises a suspicion of art. To obviate 
 such a suspicion, it may sometimes be 
 expedient to begin the descent out of 
 sight; for the beginning is the difficulty: if 
 that be concealed, the subsequent falls 
 seem but a consequence of the agita- 
 tion which characterizes the water at its 
 first appearance, and the imagination is, 
 at the same time, let loose to give ideal 
 extent to the cascades ; when a stream 
 issues from a wood, such management 
 will have a great effect, the bends of its 
 course in an open exposure may afford 
 frequent opportunities for it, and some- 
 times a low broad bridge may furnish 
 the occasion, a little fall hid under the 
 arch will create a disorder, in conse- 
 quence of which, a greater cascade be- 
 low will appear very natural." 
 
 CASCARIA. Six species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 CASINE. Seven species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 CASSIA. One hundred species. 
 Chiefly stove or green-house evergreen 
 shrubs. Some are annuals, and a few 
 herbaceous perennials. Cuttings. Light 
 loamy soil, or loam and peat. 
 
 CASSINIA. Five species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. C. aurea is 
 an herbaceous perennial. C.spectabilis, 
 an evergreen annual. Division, cut- 
 tings, or seed. Loam and peat. 
 
 CASTANEA. Chestnut. Five species 
 and some varieties. Hardy deciduous 
 trees. C. indica is a stove evergreen. 
 Seeds or grafts. Common soil. 
 
 CASTANOSPERMUMausfra/e. 
 Green-house evergreen fruit tree. Lay- 
 ers. Loamy soil. 
 
 CASTELEA erecta. Stove evergreen 
 tree. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 CASTILLEJA. Four species. The 
 stove evergreen shrubs succeed in loam 
 and peat, and increase by cuttings. The 
 hardy herbaceous and annuals by divi- 
 sion or seeds. Sandy peat. 
 
 CASUARINA. Nine species. Green- 
 house evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 CATALPA. Three species. Hardy 
 deciduous and stove evergreen trees. 
 Seed, layers, or cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 CATANANCHE. Two species. C. 
 ccerulea, hardy herbaceous perennial. C. 
 lutea. an annual. Seed. Common soil. 
 
CAT 
 
 134 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 C AU 
 
 CATAPHAGUS, a synonyme of Ela- spring ; and to behold some acres over- 
 ter. See Wireworm. j spread with such glasses, gives a 
 
 CATASETUM. Seventeen species \ stranger a forcible idea of the riches 
 and some varieties. Stove epiphytes. ' and luxury of the metropolis. In Eu- 
 Division. Wood. rope it is had in fine perfection during 
 
 CATCH FLY. See Silene. \ a great portion of the year, and with 
 
 CATERPILLAR. This is the young scarcely more trouble than attends the 
 of either the butterfly or the moth, in growing of the cabbage. But in this 
 its first state after emerging from the country it is at best very uncertain, and 
 egg. There are many kinds, and the : unless the summer prove cool, seldom 
 best mode of preventing their invasions, < succeeds. 
 
 is to destroy every butterfly, moth, chry- 
 salis, and egg that can be found. Hand- 
 picking, dusting with lime, or soot, and 
 other modes of destroying the caterpil- 
 lar, are mentioned when noticing the 
 plants they attack. Wherever a solu- 
 
 " For the main summer crop sow the 
 seed early in autumn, and that it may 
 vegetate freely, observe the directions 
 for sowing Broccoli. Having succeeded 
 in getting the seeds to sprout, an occa- 
 sional watering is given if dry weather 
 
 tion of ammonia, in the proportions of! ensue. The plants remain in the seed- 
 one to nine of water can be applied by i bed until the close of autumn, by which 
 the syringe, it will destroy many minute \ time they will be good sized plants, 
 caterpillars undiscerned by the eye. : having four or five leaves. Then place 
 Sparrows and other small birds in early a frame provided with a sash, in a 
 spring should not be scared from the | sheltered situation, on rich earth, deep- 
 garden, for they destroy myriads of. ly dug, loose, and finely raked, in 
 caterpillars. At that season they can i which the plants should be pricked out 
 do no harm if the gardener properly at J 
 guards his seed beds. Boys paid a hall- 
 penny per dozen for leaves having eggs 
 or smaller caterpillars upon them, have 
 been found to keep a garden free for a 
 whole season for about seven shillings. 
 
 CATESBJEA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen trees and shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Light turfy loam and peat. 
 
 CATHARANTHUS. Two species 
 and varieties. Stove evergreen shrubs. 
 Seeds or cuttings. Common soil. 
 
 C. pusillus is an annual, and requires 
 a light rich soil. 
 
 CATTLEYA. Twenty-two species 
 and some varieties. Stove epiphytes. 
 Division. Wood. 
 
 CAULIFLOWER. (Brassica oleracea 
 cauliflora.) 
 
 " The Cauliflower is one of the most 
 delicate and curious of the whole bras- 
 sica tribe ; the flower-buds forming a 
 close, firm, cluster or head, white and 
 delicate, and for the sake of which the 
 plant is cultivated. 
 
 " These heads or flowers being 
 boiled, wrapped generally in a clean 
 linen cloth, are served up as a most 
 delicate vegetable dish. * Of all the 
 flowers in the garden,' Dr. Johnson 
 used to say, ' Hike the Cauliflower.' 
 
 " For the early supply of the London 
 market very great quantities of Cauli- 
 flowers are fostered under hand-glasses 
 during winter and the first part of 
 
 distances of two to three inches 
 square. When the bed is filled, water 
 them gently through a fine rose. Thus 
 they remain until frosty nights render 
 it prudent to run on the sash ; observ- 
 ing to remove the sash entirely in very 
 fine days, or elevate to a greater or 
 less degree, as the temperature of the 
 atmosphere demands. Even in cool 
 weather during the winter, more or 
 less air should be admitted, especially 
 if the sun shine ; taking care to put 
 down the sash before sunset, and cover- 
 ing all snug for the night. During mild 
 showery weather the sash should be 
 occasionally drawn off, which will re- 
 fresh the plants. 
 
 " As the winter advances and cold 
 increases, a mat covering at night will 
 be requisite, and as the weather be- 
 comes still colder, an additional one, 
 or a quantity of loose straw so placed 
 over the sash, and round the edges, 
 that the severe frost may be excluded. 
 
 " As early in the spring as the weather 
 will admit, prepare a piece of ground 
 to plant them in ; let it be deeply dug, 
 and richly manured with thoroughly 
 decomposed stable dung. In selecting 
 the ground in which to plant them, 
 choose that which is convenient to 
 water, for in dry seasons, irrigation will 
 promote their growth, and increase the 
 chance of success. (Select the evening 
 for watering, having previously drawn 
 
CE A 
 
 135 
 
 C EL 
 
 the earth around each plant, in the form 
 of a basin.) 
 
 " Before removing the plants from the 
 beds, mark as many of the strongest as 
 the frame will hold, allowing eighteen 
 inches square to each plant ; there per- 
 mit them to remain undisturbed, re- 
 taining the sashes, and treating them as 
 if in a hot-bed. They will come for- 
 ward before those transplanted, and 
 frequently do well, when the latter fail. 
 We would advise that the plants to be 
 put out, be divided, one half placed on 
 a warm border with southern exposure, 
 under the lee of a building or board 
 fence, the others in an open compart- 
 ment of the garden. — For this reason, 
 if the spring prove cold, those on the 
 border will be hastened and protected 
 from late frosts, and if the early part of 
 summer prove dry and hot, those in the 
 open compartment will be more favour- 
 ably situated. Hand glasses, flower 
 pots, or boxes put over them at night, 
 during cool weather, are highly advan- 
 tageous. When they begin to show signs 
 of heading, break a leaf over them, to 
 protect from the direct rays of the sun. 
 
 " To force Cauliflowers ; make a hot- 
 bed at close of winter, planting them 
 therein, from the cold bed or frame, at 
 the distances of fifteen inches. A pret- 
 ty free admission of air is necessary, 
 otherwise they will advance too rapid- 
 ly, and become weak and spindling; 
 during mild days in April, the sash 
 should be drawn off, and as the wea- 
 ther becomes warm, plentiful irrigation 
 should be administered. 
 
 " Late Cauliflowers are sown at the 
 same time with the Broccoli ; they head 
 as it does, and require similar treat- 
 ment, though not so certain to succeed." 
 — Rural Register. 
 
 CEAXOTHUS. Twenty-two species. 
 Chiefly stove or green-house evergreen 
 shrubs; some are hardy deciduous. C. 
 perennis is herbaceous. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 CECIDOMYIA. C. nigra. Black 
 Gall Midge. This insect lays its eggs 
 in the blossom of the pear early in the 
 spring, and the larvae thence born con- 
 sume the pulp of the embryo fruit. 
 Sometimes they eat their way through 
 its skin, and at others remain within its 
 core until it falls. 
 
 CECROPIA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 CEDAR OF GO A. Cupressus lusi- 
 tanica. 
 
 CEDAR OF LEBANON. Cedrus Li- 
 bani. 
 
 CEDRELA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Light loam. 
 
 CEDRUS. Cedar. Two species. 
 Hardy evergreen trees. Seeds. C. 
 deodara, grafts readily on the common 
 larch. Sandy loam. 
 
 CELASTRUS. Twenty-seven 
 species. Chiefly green-house or stove 
 evergreen shrubs, trees, or climbing 
 plants. C. bullatus and C. scandens, 
 are hardy deciduous climbers. Ripe 
 cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 CELERIAC, or TURNIP-ROOTED 
 CELERY (Apium rapaceum). 
 
 Time and Mode of Sowing. — It may 
 be sown in March, April, and May, to 
 afford successive plantations in June, 
 July, and August. The seed must be 
 sown in drills six inches apart, and kept 
 regularly watered every evening in dry 
 weather, otherwise it will not germi- 
 nate. The bed must be kept free from 
 weeds, and when about three inches 
 high, they may be pricked out into 
 another border in rows three inches 
 apart each way ; giving water abund- 
 antly and frequently: by adopting the 
 precautions mentioned in the cultiva- 
 tion of celery, the same seed bed will 
 afford two or three distinct prickings. 
 In the neighbourhood of Dresden, where 
 this vegetable is grown in great perfec- 
 tion, they sow in February or March, in 
 a hot-bed under glass, and the plants 
 are removed in April, when two or 
 three inches high to another hot-bed, 
 and set an inch and a half apart. The 
 fineness of the plants is there attributed 
 to the abundance of water with which 
 they are supplied. 
 
 When five or six inches high, they 
 are fit for final planting; they must be 
 set in rows two feet asunder, and the 
 plants eight inches apart, on the level 
 ground, or in drills drawn with the hoe 
 at most three inches deep, as they do 
 not require earthing up. In dry weather 
 they should be watered plentifully, at 
 least every other evening. The only 
 additional attention they require, is to 
 keep them free from weeds. They 
 require a very light fertile soil. 
 
 Saving Seed. — The directions given 
 for saving the seed of Celery, are in 
 every respect applicable to this vege- 
 table. 
 
C EL 
 
 136 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 C E L 
 
 CELERY. (Apiumgraveolens). "The 
 Celery is a hardy biennial plant, a na- 
 tive of Britain, and known in its wild 
 state, by the name of smallage ; the 
 whole plant has a rank coarse taste, 
 and the effects of cultivation in pro- 
 ducing from it the mild sweet stalks of 
 Celery, are not a little remarkable. 
 
 " The blanched leaf stalks are used 
 raw as a salad; they are also stewed, 
 and put in soups. In Italy the unblanch- 
 ed leaves are used for soups, and when 
 neither the blanched nor the green 
 leaves can be had, the seeds bruised, 
 form a good substitute. 
 
 " In Europe, they enumerate several 
 varieties of Celery, two only of which 
 we cultivate, viz : Large Solid Stalked 
 White, Large, Solid, Stalked Red. 
 
 " It delights in damp rich soil, deeply 
 dug, and heavily manured with decom- 
 posed vegetables or manure, from the 
 barn yard, thoroughly rotted. 
 
 "For avery.early crop, sow the seed 
 in a hot-bed very early in the spring, 
 either by itself, or among Radishes, 
 Salad, or Cabbage. For the main au- 
 tumnal and winter supply, sow in the 
 open ground on a damp spot, conveni- 
 ently situated to apply water, which 
 give freely in dry weather, even after 
 the plants are well grown. 
 
 " That intended for the early supply, 
 may be planted out by the close of 
 spring. Make several plantings through 
 the early part of summer, of such as 
 are intended for the later supply. 
 
 " It will greatly strengthen the plants 
 if they be transplanted into nursery 
 beds, after they attain the height of two 
 or three inches. Such beds it is re- 
 commended to form ' of old hot-bed 
 dung, (decomposed manure from the 
 barn yard will answer the same pur- 
 pose,) very well broken, laid six or 
 seven inches thick on a piece of ground 
 which has lain some time undisturbed, 
 or has been made hard by compression ; 
 the situation should be sunny ; the 
 plants set six inches apart in the dung 
 without soil, water well when planted, 
 and frequently afterwards.' From this 
 bed they are in due time transplanted, 
 where they are to remain. A stalk 
 which had been thus treated, was raised 
 
 those which have been transplanted 
 into the nursery-bed just described, 
 have reached the height of six to twelve 
 inches, they may be removed into the 
 trenches for further growth and blanch- 
 ing. These trenches are formed in 
 deep well cultivated soil, in straight 
 lines, three feet apart, twelve to four- 
 teen inches wide, and six inches deep, 
 incorporating, with the soil abundance 
 of well rotted manure ; therein set the 
 plants, four or five inches apart, (having 
 removed them with all their roots, cut 
 off the straggling fibres, and a third of 
 the tops, and slit off the suckers or side 
 shoots,) water them freely, and shade 
 them from the hot sun for some days. 
 Experience has shown that this vegeta- 
 ble may be more successfully cultivated 
 by having a liberal portion of manure 
 placed on the surface around the plants, 
 rather than by the old plan of placing 
 it in excessive quantity in the bottom 
 of the trench, which in dry seasons fre- 
 quently injure the plants. Cedar brush, 
 corn stalks, or boards, laid across the 
 trenches, afford ample shade, for the 
 newly transplanted plants, observing 
 to remove them in the evening, and 
 replace them in the morning. In the 
 course of a few weeks, the plants will 
 have grown sufficiently to admit of 
 1 earthing up,' which is performed by 
 drawing the loose earth around the 
 stalks, taking care to keep the leaf 
 stems together, and the heart of the 
 plant uncovered. The operation should 
 be gradual, not drawing at once too 
 great a body of earth around them, lest 
 its application should cause the young 
 shoots to rot. It is not advisable early 
 to commence earthing up, such as are 
 intended for the late autumn and win- 
 ter supply, because the plant soon per- 
 ishes after it becomes fully blanched, 
 especially in warm weather. 
 
 " To preserve Celery during the win- 
 ter, is sometimes attended with trouble, 
 the frequent changes of temperature in 
 our climate causing it to decay. The 
 usual practice is to cut down the earth 
 of one row in a perpendicular line near 
 the plants, against which, as if it were 
 a wall, the stalks from the other rows 
 are compactly arranged, tops erect : the 
 
 near Manchester, which weighed nine | earth is then banked up as before, and 
 
 pounds when washed, with the roots 
 and leaves attached to it, and measured 
 four feet six inches in height. 
 
 " When the plants in the seed-bed, or 
 
 again cut down, to make room for an- 
 other row, thus continuing, until the 
 entire crop is placed side by side, 
 within the compass of a single bed. 
 
C EL 
 
 137 
 
 C ES 
 
 On either side of the bed, earth is piled 
 up to the thickness of three feet at least. 
 On the top, (through which the extreme 
 ends only of the plants appear,) some 
 dry straw litter is placed, to save them 
 from the frost, and keep them green. 
 Boards placed over the beds so as to 
 turn off the rain, are very useful, for 
 much moisture frequently proves ruin- 
 ous. In taking out for use, begin at 
 one end, digging down to the roots, 
 always observing to keep the aperture 
 closed with straw. 
 
 " Some take up the crop on the ap- 
 proach of winter, and place it in a cel- 
 lar, with alternate layers of dry sand ; 
 but it is apt, when thus treated, to 
 become tough and wilted." — Rural Reg. 
 
 To Save Seed. — To raise seed, some 
 plants must be left where grown, or in 
 February or March, some may be care- 
 fully taken up, and after the outside 
 leaves are cut off and all laterals re- 
 moved, planted in a moist soil a foot 
 apart. Those which aremostsolid,and 
 of a middling size, are to be selected. 
 When they branch for seed, they must 
 be early attached to a stake to preserve 
 them from being broken by the violence 
 of winds. The flower appears in June, 
 and the seed is swelling in July; if dry 
 weather occurs they should be watered 
 every other night. In August the seed 
 will be ripe, and when perfectly dry, 
 may be rubbed out and stored. 
 
 CELOSIA. Cockscomb. Fourteen 
 species and some varieties. Chiefly 
 stove or green-house annuals. C. echi- 
 nata, C. glauca are evergreen shrubs. 
 Seeds. Rich mould. See Cockscomb. 
 
 CELSIA. Nine species. Chiefly half 
 hardy biennials, some stove annuals. 
 C. orientalis is a hardy annual. Seeds. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 CELTIS. Eleven species and two 
 varieties. Stove evergreen trees or 
 hardy deciduous trees and shrubs. 
 Seeds or layers. Common soil. 
 
 CENTAUREA. One hundred and 
 fifty-two species and some varieties. 
 Chiefly hardy and half hardy herbaceous 
 perennials; a few annuals and biennials. 
 C. ragusina is a green-house evergreen 
 shrub. Seeds. Division. Common soil. 
 
 CENTRANTHUS. Three species, 
 and variety. Hardy annual and her- 
 baceous perennials. Seeds. Common 
 soil. 
 
 CENTROCARPHA. Nine species. 
 Chiefly hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 
 Two are biennial. Seeds. Division. 
 Common soil. 
 
 CENTROCLINIUM. Two species, 
 one a stove annual, the other an ever- 
 green shrub. Seeds. Light vegetable 
 soil. 
 
 CENTROSPERMUM chrysanthum. 
 Hardy annual. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CENTAURY. Centaurea. 
 
 CENTUNCULUS minimus. Bastard 
 pimpernel. Hardy annual. Seeds. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 CEPHAELIS. Eight species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs, two are trailing 
 plants. Cuttings. Peat and sandy 
 loam. 
 
 CEPHALANTHERA. Three spe- 
 cies. Hardy orchids. Division. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 CEPHALANTHUS occidentalis and 
 variety. Hardy deciduous shrubs. Ripe 
 cuttings or layers. Sandy peat and 
 loam. 
 
 CEPHALOTUS follicularis. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennial. Offsets. 
 Boggy soil. 
 
 CERANTHERA subintegrifolia . 
 Stove evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 CERASUS. Twenty-eight species 
 and many varieties ; chiefly hardy de- 
 ciduous fruit trees and shrubs, a few 
 evergreens. C. occidentalis, and C. 
 spharocarpa, are stove evergreens. 
 Seeds. Budding or grafting. 
 
 CERATIOLA ericoides. Half hardy 
 green-house evergreen under shrub. 
 Cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 CERATOPETALUM gummiferum. 
 Green-house evergreen tree. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 CERERA. Six species. Stove ever- 
 green trees or shrubs. Cuttings. Rich 
 mould. 
 
 CERCIS. Two species and varie- 
 ties. Hardy deciduous trees. Seeds. 
 Light loamy soil. 
 
 CEREUS. One hundred and thirty- 
 one species. Stove cactaceous plants. 
 Cuttings, dried before planting. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 CERINTHE. Five species. Hardy 
 annual or biennial plants. Seeds. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 CEROPEGIA. Thirteen species. 
 Stove or green-house evergreen twining 
 or deciduous climbing plants, tuberous 
 rooted perennials and evergreen shrubs. 
 Cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 
 CESTRINUS carthamoides. Hardy 
 
C ES 
 
 138 
 
 CH A 
 
 herbaceous perennial. Division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 CESTRUM. Twenty-eight species. 
 Stove and green-house evergreen shrubs. 
 Cuttings. Peat and loam. C. auran- 
 tiacum is the prettiest species for the 
 green-house. 
 
 CETONIA aurata. Green rose chafer, 
 is most severely felt by the gardener 
 when it attacks his strawberries, which 
 it does in May or June. It is described 
 by Mr. Curtis as being " one of our 
 largest and most beautiful beetles, being 
 of a bright burnished green, often re- 
 flecting a rich golden or copper tint ; 
 the horns are short with a small club. 
 The scutel forms an elongated triangle; 
 the wings are very long, brownish, and 
 folded beneath the horny wing-cases, 
 which have a few scattered white lines 
 placed transversely, resembling cracks 
 in the green epidermis; the under side 
 is of a fine copper tint often inclining to 
 rose colour. From its nestling and 
 reposing in the flower of the rose, it is 
 generally called the rose-chafer, but it 
 is also attached to the white-thorn, 
 candy-tuft, elder, mountain-ash, paeony 
 and strawberry, the flowers of which it 
 feeds upon. The female rose-chafers 
 lay their eggs in the ground, and the 
 larvae they produce are no doubt often 
 confounded with those of the cock- 
 chafer (Melolontha vulgaris), being as 
 large and very similar, and probably, 
 under the name of " Leverblanc," 
 they have contributed in no small de- 
 gree to augment the ravages in the 
 rose-tree nurseries of France. Although 
 these larvae are very much alike, it is 
 not difficult to distinguish them, those 
 of the rose-chafer being downy, and 
 covered with transverse series of short 
 hairs ; and the feet are pointed, whereas, 
 the grubs of the cock-chafer are naked, 
 and the feet are blunt and rather dilated 
 at the trips. 
 
 " These maggots are fat, the head- 
 horns and six pectoral feet are rusty 
 ochreous ; the tips of the strong jaws 
 are black, the extremity of the abdo- 
 men is of a pale ink colour from the 
 food shining through the transparent 
 skin ; but in the rose-chafer there is a 
 large horny bright rust-coloured spot on 
 each side of the first thoracic segment. 
 The simplest remedy is to collect the 
 beetles, which are large and conspicu- 
 ous, into bottles or cans of water, in 
 the morning and evening, or in dull 
 
 weather during the day, for they fly 
 very well, when the sun shines, which 
 renders it difficult to capture them 
 unless a net be used : when the search 
 is ended, the contents of the vessel 
 should be emptied into boiling water. 5 ' 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 CHJETACHLiENA odorata. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennial. Seed. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 CHiETANTHERA. Two species. 
 Green-house herbaceous perennials. 
 Division. Peat and loam. 
 
 CHZETOCALYX vincentina. Stove 
 evergreen climber. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 CH^TOGASTRA. Two species. 
 Stove annual and herbaceous peren- 
 nial. Seed. Peat and loam. 
 
 CHALK. Carbonate of lime, con- 
 tains, when pure — 
 
 Carbonic acid .... 45 
 
 Lime 55 
 
 But as it usually occurs it contains about 
 twenty-four per cent, of water, and five 
 per cent, of silica (flint), alumina (clay), 
 and oxide (rust) of iron. After these 
 deductions it will be apparent that if 
 fifty tons of lime be applied to land, it 
 will be equal to more than one hundred 
 of chalk, a subject worthy of considera- 
 tion when it has to be conveyed from 
 afar. Chalk is usually employed in 
 large quantities to improve the staple of 
 a soil. It makes heavy soils less re- 
 tentive of moisture, and light sandy 
 soils more retentive. On wet sour lands 
 it neutralizes the acids which render 
 them unproductive. Some chalks con- 
 tain phosphate of lime, and this being a 
 constituent of all plants, such chalk is 
 to be preferred. Some contains a large 
 proportion of carbonate of magnesia, 
 which is less beneficial. 
 
 CHAM^DOPcEA. Two species. 
 Palms. Rich sandy loam. Suckers. 
 
 CRAMMLEVON procumbens. Hardy 
 evergreen shrub. Layers. Sandy peat. 
 
 CHAMiELIRIUM carolinianum. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennial. Division. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 CHAMISSOA altissima. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Common soil. 
 
 CHAM^EROPS. Seven species. 
 Palms. Suckers. Rich mould. 
 
 CHAMOMILE. Anthemis. See 
 Camomile. 
 
 CHAPTALIA tomentosa. Hardy her- 
 baceous perennial. Division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
CH A 
 
 139 
 
 CH A 
 
 CHARCOAL. Soot, a chief consti- 
 tuent of which is charcoal, has long 
 been known as a very effective fertil- 
 izer ; and burning has still longer been 
 known as a mode of reducing stubborn 
 soils to prompt productiveness. But 
 both these sources of fertility might 
 owe their efficiency to other causes 
 than their affording carbon to plants ; 
 and it is only within these very few 
 months that anything like a general 
 knowledge has been diffused that mere 
 charcoal is one of the best of manures. 
 The fact has been known for many 
 years to individuals, as, for example, 
 to Mr. Barnes, of Bicton ; but it is only 
 very lately that gardeners generally 
 have learned, and I ani happy in being 
 able to join my voice to that excellent 
 cultivator's in announcing, that — char- 
 coal is a most efficient manure to all 
 cultivated plants, especially to those 
 under glass. Heaths, rhododendrons, 
 cucumbers, roses, orchidaceous plants, 
 hydrangeas, camellias, melons, and pine 
 apples, have been the subjects of ex- 
 tended and most successful experi- 
 ments. The advocates are too well 
 known to require more than naming, 
 for among them are Dr. Lindley, Mr. 
 Barnes, Mr. Maund, Mr. Snow of S win- 
 ton Gardens, Mr. Stewart of Stradsett 
 Hall Gardens, and Mr. Rivers. I think 
 no cultivated plant would be unbene- 
 fited by having charcoal applied to the. 
 soil in which it is rooted. It should be 
 broken into small pieces, about the size 
 of a nut, and for potted plants may be 
 mixed in the proportions of one part 
 charcoal to twenty parts earth. If ap- 
 plied to the open ground, one-fourth of 
 a bushel may be sown over a square 
 rod, and dug in just before inserting the 
 crop. The reason of charcoal being so 
 useful as a manure is very apparent. 
 MM. Sennebier, Ruckert, Saussure, 
 and others, have demonstrated that 
 plants are rendered much more luxuri- 
 ant and productive, by having carbonic 
 acid applied to their roots, than other 
 plants to whose roots no such applica- 
 tion was made. Now charcoal kept 
 moist, as when buried in the soil, slow- 
 ly combines with oxygen, and emits 
 carbonic acid — in fact, it slowly dis- 
 solves. I am sorry to differ from such 
 an authority as Liebig, who broadly 
 asserts that " Carbon never combines 
 at common temperatures with oxygen, 
 so as to form carbonic acid." This was 
 
 long since shown to be otherwise by 
 Count Rumford ; and may easily be de- 
 monstrated to be incorrect, by confining 
 a few ounces of fresh and moistened 
 charcoal powder, mixed with earth, in 
 a glass receiver full of oxygen, over 
 lime water; carbonate of lime will 
 form, showing the gradual evolution or 
 carbonic acid. The following com- 
 munication from Mr. Barnes shows, 
 that carbonized vegetables are a better 
 manure for onions than even bone- 
 dust. 
 
 " A piece of ground that was cropped 
 with coleworts last autumn, (1843,) was 
 cleared early, and the refuse trenched 
 in during the winter. 95 feet in length 
 and 10 feet in width, was planted with 
 small onions on the 14th of February, 
 which onions had been sown the se- 
 cond week of September in the pre- 
 vious autumn. They were planted in 
 rows one foot apart, and six inches 
 from plant to plant — with the intention 
 of drawing every alternate one for use 
 through the summer — but the whole 
 nine rows did not get entirely thinned. 
 The following is the weight when ripe 
 for storing on the 1st of August. 
 
 " Five rows grown where 4 lbs. of 
 bone-dust to each row had been sown 
 in a drill drawn 3 inches deep and 
 filled up, and the onions planted over 
 it — producing 420 lbs. weight of onions 
 — each row yielding from S2 to 88 lbs. 
 
 " The other 4 rows had applied to 
 them of fresh dry charred refuse and 
 ashes, made from the garden rubbish- 
 heap, two common buckets full, weight 
 14 lbs. They produced 366 lbs. of 
 onions, the rows weighing respectively 
 99, 89, 95, and 83 lbs. The last row 
 being injured by a row of red cabbage 
 
 growing near. 
 
 " Many of 
 
 which were a 
 
 Deptford, and 
 
 the foregoing onions, 
 mixture of the Globe, 
 Reading, measured in 
 circumference from 14 to 16j inches, 
 and weighed as many ounces. I 
 weighed 12 together, that turned the 
 scale at 12 lb. 9 oz. I can only fancy 
 what a wonderful saving and benefit it 
 would be to the country, to char the 
 refuse of old tan, chips, sawdust, ditch 
 scourings containing sods, weeds, 
 bushes, and refuse. By keeping the 
 surface of the earth well stirred, no 
 crops appear to suffer by drought that 
 are manured by charrings, but continue 
 in the most vigorous health throughout 
 
CH A 
 
 140 
 
 CHE 
 
 the season, never suffering materially 
 by either drought or moisture." 
 
 On spring sown onions and on tur- 
 nips, Mr. Barnes finds charred or car- 
 bonized vegetable refuse equally bene- 
 ficial. Three rows, each 95 feet long, 
 of the white globe onion, manured with 
 bone-dust, weighed 251 lbs.; whilst 
 three similar rows of the same variety, 
 and grown under precisely similar cir- 
 cumstances, but manured with char- 
 rings, weighed 289 lbs. 
 
 CHARD. See Artichoke. 
 
 CHARDOON. See Cardoon. 
 
 CHARJEAS graminis. Antler or 
 grass moth, has a yellowish-brown 
 head and back— upper wings brownish 
 grey, appears in July and August. Its 
 caterpillar brown or blackish, with five 
 lighter stripes down the back. This 
 lives at the roots of grasses, and eats 
 their young blades. 
 
 CHASMONIA incisa. Hardy annual. 
 Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CHEILANTHES. Fourteen species. 
 Ferns. Green-house, stove or hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 CHEIMATOBIA brumata. Winter 
 moth. This is the parent of that 
 scourge of fruit trees, the greenlooper 
 caterpillar. It appears in November. 
 One female will lay 200 eggs, deposit- 
 ing them on the bends and bark of the 
 tipper branches of the apple and other 
 fruit trees. The caterpillars appear 
 with the bursting of the buds, on the 
 tips of the leaves, petals, and calyxes 
 of which they feed. They form a small 
 web within the blossom, and glue and 
 gnaw its petals so as to destroy it. 
 When the fruit is formed, that becomes 
 their favourite food. They descend 
 and bury themselves in the earth, to 
 assume the chrvsalis form about the 
 
 end of May. Frosts in November, anta 
 and birds, are their natural enemies. 
 As the females have no wings, a thick 
 coating of gas-lime sprinkled a foot 
 broad over the surface, round the stems 
 of fruit trees at the end of October, and 
 renewed once or twice in November 
 and December, would prevent their 
 ascent ; or a broad band of bird lime 
 might be smeared round the stems 
 themselves. An advantage of espalier 
 and dwarf fruit trees is, that their buds 
 are easily examined for these cater- 
 pillars and other marauders. 
 
 CHEIRANTHUS. Eleven species, 
 and many varieties. Green-house or 
 half-hardy evergreen shrubs. C.fruti- 
 culosus, C. ochroleucus are hardy herba- 
 ceous perennials. Cuttings. Rich com- 
 mon soil. See Wallflower, 
 
 CHEIROSTEMON platanoides. 
 Stove evergreen tree. Leafy cuttings. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 CHELIDONIUM. Two species.— 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. Di- 
 vision. Common soil. 
 
 CHELONE. Seven species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 CHENOLEA diffusa. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light rich 
 soil. 
 
 CHERLERIA sedoides. Hardy herb- 
 aceous perennial. Division. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 CHERMES. See Psylla. 
 CHERRY. {Cerasus.) 
 Varieties. — There are eighty in the 
 London Horticultural Society'6 list, of 
 which some are quite inferior and others 
 scarcely differ except in name. The 
 following we extract from the Cata- 
 logue of D. Landreth & Fulton, Phila- 
 delphia : 
 
CHE 
 
 141 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 CHE 
 
 Explanation of Abbreviations. — Colour — b black; 1 light; r red 
 y yellow. Size — l large; m medium; s small. 
 
 Those marked * are of American origin. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 COLOUR. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 &5 
 
 N 
 DO 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 SEASON. 
 
 Belle de Choisey .... 
 
 r 
 
 round 
 
 June 
 
 *Bleeding Heart . 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 heart 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 June 
 
 Black Tartarian 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 heart 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 June 
 
 Carnation 
 
 
 
 1 r 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 July 
 
 *Downer's Late Red 
 
 
 
 1 r 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 Downton 
 
 
 
 1 r 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 Knight's Early Black . 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 June 
 
 Late Duke 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 heart 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 May Duke, Early 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 heart 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 June 
 
 Mazzard Black 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 round 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 July 
 
 Morello, English . 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 heart 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 Morello, French . 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 heart 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 Morello, Plumstone 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 heart 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 July 
 
 Morello, Kentish . 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 heart 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 *Morello, Rumsey's Late 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 heart 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 August 
 
 Ox Heart 
 
 
 
 y r 
 
 heart 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 White Heart . . 
 
 
 
 y r 
 
 heart 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 Yellow Spanish * . 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 heart 
 
 E 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 The annexed drawings and descrip- 
 tions of a few valuable varieties may 
 interest some of our readers. 
 
 Belle de Choisey. Thomp.: Pom. 
 Mag. (Cereise Doucette, Cereise Pa- 
 lembre.) (Fig. 23.) " The Bon Jar- 
 dinier speaks highly of this variety, 
 
 which was produced at Choisey, near 
 Paris, many years ago. It has proved 
 hardy and well adapted to this country, 
 and we can recommend it as among 
 the very best of its class. The fruit is 
 middle sized, roundish ; skin red, mot- 
 tled with amber, exhibiting the flesh 
 
 Fig. 24 
 
CHE 
 
 142 
 
 beneath, which is amber coloured, deli- 
 cate and sweet. The habit of the tree is 
 not unlike the well known May Duke, 
 with which it ripens." — Rural Reg. 
 
 Carnation. Thomp. : Lind. : Coze. 
 (Fig. 24.) " This, though an old, is 
 still a highly popular variety. Coxe 
 says, i one of our most excellent Cher- 
 ries.' More recently introduced sorts 
 have divided our attention, but it is 
 among those most frequently ordered 
 from the Nurseries. The size is large, 
 round. Skin beautifully variegated, 
 red and yellow. It ripens in July, and 
 hangs long without decaying: highly es- 
 teemed for preserving." — Rural Reg. 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 Downton. Lind. : Thomp. (Fig. 25.) 
 "The Downton is especially valuable 
 from its time of ripening, which is after 
 most good cherries have declined, or 
 disappeared. The fruit is roundish, of 
 large size, and of prepossessing appear- 
 ance. Skin creamy white, red on the 
 sunny side. Flesh yellowish, rich and 
 well flavoured." — Rural Reg. 
 
 May Duke. Miller ; Lind. : Thomp. 
 (Fig. 26.) It would occupy some 
 space to enumerate all the English and 
 French synonymes of this widely known, 
 and as widely esteemed variety. Per- 
 haps the entire catalogue of the London 
 
 
 Horticultural Society does not contain 
 one so universally esteemed. Downing 
 justly remarks, among all the new va- 
 rieties, none has been found to sup- 
 plant the May Duke. 
 
 The fruit is large, obtusely heart 
 shaped, produced in clusters; when 
 perfectly ripe of a deep purple hue. 
 Flesh tender, juicy, and when in per- 
 fection, all that can be desired in a 
 
 Fig. 27.— (P. 143.) 
 
CHE 
 
 143 
 
 cherry. Ripens at Philadelphia, latter 
 end of May and early in June. 
 
 Plum Stone Morello. Thomp. — 
 (Fig. 27.) There is some difference of 
 opinion as to the merits of this va- 
 riety — it has, however, many admirers, 
 and is on the whole, worthy of culture; 
 though we cannot pronounce it of first 
 quality. It ripens late in the season, 
 possesses good flavour, and has a pre- 
 possessing appearance, all of which 
 are desirable properties, and render it 
 popular. The fruit is large, of a deep 
 red colour. Flesh juicy and acid, as is 
 the case with all Morellos. Ripe at 
 Philadelphia, middle to close of July. 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 Knight's Early Black. Pom. Mag.: 
 Thorn. (Fig. 28.) "This is, as its 
 name imports, one of Mr. Knight's 
 seedlings, raised in England, about 
 1810. It is not, externally, unlike the 
 Black Tartarian, of which such exagge- 
 rated descriptions have been given, 
 ripens earlier than it — at Philadelphia, 
 about the 1st of June. The fruit is 
 over medium size, heart shaped. Skin 
 deep purple, when fully ripe quite 
 black. Flesh delicate, juicy, and well 
 flavoured. Taken altogether it may 
 be pronounced a cherry of the first 
 order." — Rural Reg. 
 
 Elton. Pom. Mag.: Thomp. — 
 (Fig. 29.) "The Elton is an English 
 cherry, raised in 1806. It is truly ex- 
 
 cellent, and must always remain a 
 favourite, even though newer varieties 
 contest the claim to our esteem. It is 
 
 Fig. 30.— (P. 144.) 
 
CHE 
 
 144 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CHE 
 
 above the medium size, ripens early, 
 shortly after the May Duke. The flesh 
 is tender, abounding in luscious juice ; 
 skin pale yellow, with a blush on the sun- 
 ny side. The tree is of strong growth, 
 and on that account additionally en- 
 titled to our regard." — Rural Reg. 
 
 Late Duke. Pom. Mag. : Thomp. 
 {June Duke of Coxe. Shippen Cherry.) 
 (Fig. 30.) " This is a valuable variety, 
 similar to its predecessor, the May 
 Duke. It ripens considerably later 
 than it, and has the property of hang- 
 ing long on the tree. The fruit is 
 large, rather flattened ; when fully 
 ripe, rich dark red ; flesh yellow, 
 abounding in juice, scarcely so rich as 
 the May Duke; its habit is robust; 
 bears abundantly. Coxe calls it the 
 most valuable cherry of the season." — 
 Rural Reg. 
 
 Propagation. — Although grafting is 
 sometimes adopted, budding is far pre- 
 ferable. The stock for standards should 
 be the wild cherry, but for dwarfs or 
 walls the mahaleb. If the stones be 
 sown either for stocks or to raise varie- 
 ties, they are best committed to the 
 ground in September. They will vege- 
 tate the following spring, and when one 
 year old are fit for budding if dwarfs 
 are required, but four years usually 
 elapse before they attain the height of 
 six feet, required for standards. 
 %. Walls. — No fruit is more improved 
 by a good aspect than the cherry. Allot 
 a south wall to the best sorts, and east 
 and west for succession. The Morello 
 will be productive on a north wall, but on 
 a south wall it is very superior fruit. No 
 garden should be without one so grown. 
 Wall pruning. — In May or June dis- 
 bud all unnecessary and foreright shoots. 
 Train in the best-placed, lateral and 
 terminal shoots as required. When the 
 leaves have fallen, prune away all ir- 
 regular, unproductive branches, train- 
 ing in their place first laterals. Never 
 shorten a shoot unless absolutely requi- 
 site from want of space, much less 
 prune so as to have numerous foreright 
 spurs. All cherries bear upon very 
 short studs with a terminal bud, on the 
 branches from two years old and up- 
 wards. The Morello bears chiefly on 
 the previous year's shoots, and very 
 scantily on studs of the older branches. 
 The Morello, therefore, requires the 
 older laterals to be removed as often as 
 their places can be supplied by young 
 
 shoots. All studs and foreright shoots 
 should be removed, especially from the 
 Morello. 
 
 Diseases. — The leaves are liable to be 
 honey-dewed, especially in ill-drained 
 soils; but gumming is the most weaken- 
 ing disease. (See Honey-dew and Ex- 
 travasated sap.) 
 
 The Aphis cerasi, a black species, and 
 the red spider, sometimes attack the 
 cherry on walls; and a still rarer enemy 
 is described as follows, by Mr. Nai- 
 smith: — 
 
 "Our cherry trees, both in the open air 
 and on the natural walls, particularly the 
 tops of the young shoots, are much at- 
 tacked with a small black insect, provin- 
 cially called the black beetle. The 
 remedy I have found most effectual for 
 their destruction is a mixture of pitch 
 with one-sixteenth part of powdered 
 orpiment; one-sixteenth part of sulphur, 
 dissolved over a slow fire in an earthen 
 pipkin, until they be well incorporated; 
 when cold, divide into small pieces, 
 about the size of a hen's egg, and burn 
 it under the trees with damp straw, di- 
 recting the smoke as much as possible 
 where the insects are most numerous. 
 In an hour afterwards, (if the state of 
 the fruit will admit,) give the trees a 
 good washing with the garden engine, 
 which generally clears off the half dead 
 beetles, and prevents the spreading of 
 the red spider." — Enc. Gard. 
 
 Forcing. — Mr. G. Shills, of Erskine 
 House Gardens, says: — " For accelera- 
 ting the ripening of cherries, I prefer the 
 open flued wall. The cherries setting 
 well without artificial assistance, and 
 ripening in succession from the latter 
 end of April till the latter end of June or 
 beginning of July, and with sufficient 
 rapidity to supply a family with a dish 
 daily during that period. About the 
 middle of February, or when the buds 
 naturally begin to swell, a little fire-heat 
 is supplied in the evening and in dull 
 cloudy weather, kept up during the day; 
 but in bright sunshine the fire is stopped 
 about nine or ten A. M., and set on again 
 about two P. M. This practice is fol- 
 lowed until the middle or latter end of 
 May, when the fire-heat is discontinued. 
 "A little before the expansion of the 
 blossom, which is about the beginning 
 of March, the net is put over the tree, 
 by fixing the upper side of it on nails 
 fastened in the joints of the. coping near 
 the edge, and the under side is tied to 
 
CHE 
 
 145 
 
 CHI 
 
 temporary stakes about three feet in 
 height, placed three feet from the wall. 
 About the middle of April the woollen 
 net or double herring-net, together with 
 the stakes, are taken away, and a single 
 herring-net put close over the tree, to 
 protect the ripening fruit from birds." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 The trees are trained in the fan form, 
 with lateral bearing branches of from 
 one to three feet in length, according 
 to their strength, trained in between the 
 principal branches. In all parts of the 
 tree, these are allowed to continue 
 several years. When they become bare 
 of spurs, or inclined to get too luxuri- 
 ant, they are cut out — young shoots to 
 supply their place being previously pre- 
 pared. 
 
 CHERVIL, Parsley-leaved. Chcero- 
 phyllum sativum. Fern-leaved chervil, 
 or Sweet Cicely, C. aromaticum, for 
 soups, salads, &c. They are still culti- 
 vated by the Dutch, but in this country 
 are not often found in the kitchen gar- 
 den. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — The soil for 
 these plants must be light, with a large 
 portion of calcareous matter from super- 
 abundant moisture. The situation can- 
 not be too open ; but a shelter from the 
 meridian sun is beneficial. 
 
 Time and Modes of Sowing. — The 
 only sowing that can be depended upon 
 must be performed in early autumn, im- 
 mediately after the seed is ripe; for if 
 kept until the following spring it will 
 seldom germinate, or the seedlings are 
 generally weak and die away, during 
 the hot weather. If, however, it should 
 fortunately retain its vegetative powers, 
 it may be sown early in the spring at 
 short intervals, for use in spring and 
 summer, and towards the end of July 
 for autumn supply. Sow in drills eight 
 inches apart. The plants are to be 
 thinned to eight inches asunder, and to 
 remain where they are raised. The 
 only after cultivation required by them 
 is to be kept clear of weeds. 
 
 The perennial sort, C. aromaticum, 
 must be trimmed as directed for Sage. 
 The leaves are fit to be gathered when 
 from two to four inches in growth ; in 
 doing which they should be cut close, 
 when the plants will shoot afresh. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — Some of the autumn- 
 raised plants must be left ungathered 
 from; they flower in April, and ripen 
 their -seed about June. Of the other 
 10 
 
 species, some must in a like manner be 
 left untouched; they will flower about 
 June, and ripen their seed in July or 
 August. 
 
 CHESTNUT. Fagus castanea.— In 
 the London Horticultural Society's list 
 are twenty varieties enumerated. If the 
 seedlings are left ungrafted, they are 
 about thirty years before they bear fruit, 
 but grafts inserted upon these seedling 
 stocks from bearing branches, afford 
 blossoms the next year, and are fruitful 
 much earlier. 
 
 Soil. — A dry subsoil is the great re- 
 quisite for this tree. It thrives best in 
 a sandy well-drained soil. 
 
 After- culture. — No other attention is 
 required than to thin the over-crowded 
 and to remove over-wrapping branches. 
 
 Nuts. — These are ripe about October. 
 They are best preserved in sand. 
 
 CHICORY. See Succory % 
 
 CHICKASAW PLUM. Cerasus chi- 
 casa. 
 
 CHILODIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 CHILOGLOTTIS diphylla. Half- 
 hardy orchid. Division. Light turfy 
 loam, turfy peat, and sand. 
 
 CHIMAPHILA. Two species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. Cuttings. 
 Peaty soil. 
 
 CHIMONANTHUS fragrans, and 
 varieties. Hardy deciduous shrubs. 
 Layers or cuttings. Loam and peat, or 
 any common soil. 
 
 CHINA ASTER. Callistema. 
 
 CHINA ROSE. Hibiscus rosasinensis. 
 
 CHINESE TREE. Paonia moutan. 
 
 CHIOCOCCA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 CHIONANTHUS. Three species. 
 Hardy and stove deciduous shrubs and 
 trees. Seeds, buds, or grafts. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 CHIRONIA. Eleven species. Green^ 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 C. decussata should be potted in light 
 rich soil, and liberally watered during 
 the summer months. Keep it in a good 
 situation near the glass, where it gets 
 plenty of light and air. Always keep 
 some young plants to take the places of 
 the old ones. 
 
 CHITONIA. Five species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs and trees. Cuttings. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
CHI 
 
 146 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CHR 
 
 CHIVE or GIVE (Allium ScJueno- 
 prasum). Is used as a very superior 
 substitute for young onions in spring 
 salading. A single row a few yards 
 long, will supply a family. 
 
 Soil. — A light rich soil is most suit- 
 able, but it will grow anywhere not 
 overshadowed. 
 
 Plant the offsets of the bulbs early in 
 spring. They are to be inserted by the 
 dibble eight or ten inches apart, and 
 eight or ten offsets in each hole. The 
 only cultivation required is to keep 
 them free from weeds. By autumn they 
 multiply into large-sized bunches, and 
 if required may be taken up as soon as 
 the leaves decay, and be stored as a 
 substitute for the onion. The leaves, 
 which are fit for use as long as they 
 remain green, must, when required, be 
 cut down close to the ground, when 
 they will speedily be succeeded by 
 others. 
 
 CHLIDANTHUS fragrans. Green- 
 house bulbous perennial. Division. 
 Two-thirds sandy loam, one-third sand 
 and peat. 
 
 CHLOANTHES. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 CHLORA. Two species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CHLORANTHUS. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. C. monas- 
 tachye is herbaceous. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 CHLORIDE OF LIME, or Bleaching 
 Powder, is composed of 
 
 Chlorine . 63.23 
 
 Lime ........ 36.77 
 
 Exposed to the air it is converted into 
 chalk, and muriate of lime, a salt which 
 absorbs moisture from the air very 
 powerfully. By this conversion it be- 
 comes a useful addition to soils ; and as 
 it also gives out some chlorine gas, so 
 offensive and destructive to insects, it 
 has been suggested as a useful applica- 
 tion to the land at the time of turnip 
 sowing. 
 
 CHLORODYLON swietenia. Stove 
 evergreen tree. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 CHOCOLATE-NUT. Theobroma. 
 
 CHOISYA ternata. Stove evergreen 
 shrub. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 CHOKE. Cerasus hyemalis. 
 
 CHOMELIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 CHORISPORA tenella, and variety. 
 Hardy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CHOROMOZEMA. Eight species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Seeds 
 or cuttings. Peat, loam, and sand. 
 
 CHOU DE MILAN. See Borecole. 
 
 CHRISTMAS ROSE. Helleborus 
 niger. 
 
 CHRIST'S EYE. Inula oculus 
 Christi. 
 
 CHRIST'S THORN. Paliurus. 
 
 CHRYSANTHEMUM. C. sinense. 
 Often designated the Chinese chrysan- 
 themum. 
 
 Varieties of this flower are numerous, 
 but the following is as good a selection 
 as can be made. Those to which an 
 asterisk is prefixed, are most deserving 
 of attention: — 
 
 Abelard, quilled pink. 
 
 Achmet Bey, dark purple. 
 
 Adventure, yellow. 
 
 Annie Jane, brownish red. 
 
 Annie Salter, pale yellow. 
 
 Aristides, orange and brown. 
 *Beaute de Verseilles, yellow. 
 
 Beauty, pale lilac. 
 
 Belvidere, buff and rose. 
 
 Bertram, purplish rose. 
 
 Bethulia, large purple. 
 
 Bicolor, white and yellow. 
 
 Bijou, white, tipped with pink. 
 *Campestroni, purple. 
 *Celestial, blush. 
 
 Champion, lemon. 
 
 Chancellor, white and pink. 
 
 Changeable, yellow. 
 
 Columbus, rose. 
 
 Compactum, white. 
 
 Comte d'Eu, light red. 
 
 Conductor, orange. 
 
 Criterion, white. 
 
 David, yellow. 
 
 De Crequi, small rosy purple. 
 
 Defiance, white. 
 
 Demosthenes, yellow and brown. 
 *Duc de Conigliano, crimson. 
 
 Duchess de Montebello, light rose. 
 
 Empress, lilac. 
 *Exquisite, white. 
 
 Flechier, dark rose. 
 
 Florabundum, dark lilac. 
 *Formosum, white and yellow. 
 
 General Laborde, lilac. 
 *Goliath, white. 
 
 Gouvain St. Cyr, orange. 
 *Grand Napoleon, purple. 
 
 Grandish, flesh colour. 
 
 Hardy, blush white. 
 
 Horace, purplish rose. 
 
 
CHR 
 
 147 
 
 CHR 
 
 Horatio, fine rose. 
 
 Imogene, light buff. 
 
 Imperial, pale lilac, 
 incomparable, large buff". 
 
 Invincible, creamy white. 
 
 Irene, fine yellow. 
 
 Isabella, white. 
 
 Isolier, rosy red. 
 
 Itobate, shaded rose. 
 
 Ivanhoe, brown. 
 *King, pale rose. 
 
 Letitia Buonaparte, blush. 
 
 Lamarque, orange. 
 
 Leontine, brownish red. . 
 
 Louis Philippe, purplish lilac. 
 *Lucidum, white. 
 
 Madame Mina, buff. 
 *Madame Pompadour, dark rose. 
 *Magnet, yellow. 
 
 Malvina, purple. 
 
 Marechal Soult, yellow. 
 
 Marie, red. 
 
 Marie Antoinette, rose and buff. 
 
 Marquis, light rose. 
 
 Memnon, creamy white. 
 *Minerva, pink and white. 
 
 Mirabile, white and buff*. 
 *Ne Plus Ultra, white. 
 
 Old Purple. 
 
 Orion, creamy white. 
 
 Perfection, pale lilac. 
 *Phidias, rosy red. 
 
 Phyllis, lemon. 
 
 Prince Albert, amaranth. 
 
 Princess de Lamalle, rosy lilac. 
 *Princess Mario, light pink. 
 *Queen, rose. 
 
 Queen Victoria, lilac. 
 
 Queen of Gipsies, orange. 
 
 Queen of Yellows. 
 
 Reine de Prusse, rose. 
 
 Rosetta, quilled pink. 
 
 Saladin, orange purple. 
 
 Sanguineum, red. 
 
 Sappho, reddish brown. 
 
 Small, brown. 
 
 Solon, yellow. 
 . Surprise, white. 
 
 Tasselled Yellow. 
 
 Tedjini, yellowish brown. 
 
 Timon, yellow. 
 *Theresia, red. 
 
 Triumphant, pink and buff. 
 
 Two-coloured Incurved, yellow 
 brown. 
 
 Venusta, amaranth. 
 *Vesta, white. 
 
 Victorine, light rose. 
 *Victory, white. 
 
 Zelinda, rosy blush. 
 
 and 
 
 Soil. — A warm sheltered well-drain- 
 ed border, manured with leaf mould 
 abundantly, for the out-door plants. 
 For those in pots, four parts light fresh 
 turfy loam, four parts leaf mould, and 
 one part rubbly charcoal. 
 
 In Borders, the stools require to be 
 taken up and divided in early spring, 
 not more than three suckers being left 
 united, otherwise the flowers are nu- 
 merous and small. 
 
 By Suckers in Pots.— Turn out the 
 old pots in March ; separate the suckers 
 by a gentle twist ; plant three suckers 
 in a thirty-two pot; shade them and 
 shelter in a cold frame for about a fort- 
 night ; then expose them to the sun- 
 shine ; shift into larger pots as they 
 increase in growth ; place them in a 
 gentle hot-bed in April, and keep them 
 under the frame until the middle of 
 May; when ten inches high, pinch off 
 the tops of each stem. They will throw 
 out shoots from each bud ; retain only 
 six shoots, removing all the others ; 
 plunge the pots in a sunny sheltered 
 border ; water daily in dry weather, 
 and give liquid guano always once a 
 week, so soon as the flower buds ap- 
 pear. Let the pots they flower in be 
 sixteens, that is, nine inches in diame- 
 ter at the top. Move them into a very 
 airy green-house or conservatory, to 
 bloom. 
 
 " The shifting of the plants in the 
 earlier part of the summer," says a 
 well-informed writer, " should be par- 
 ticularly attended to. If this is neglect- 
 ed, no good after-management will save 
 them from losing their leaves, and look- 
 ing badly in autumn and winter. As 
 soon as they are fairly starting into 
 growth, the top of each should be nip- 
 ped with the finger and thumb, which 
 will cause several shoots to spring from 
 the under part of the plant, and thus 
 form it into a compact bush. This may 
 be repeated two or three times with 
 advantage in the earlier part of the 
 season with the free flowering kinds ; 
 but after the plant is fairly formed it 
 should be discontinued, otherwise the 
 flowering will be injured." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Cuttings. — The same authority says, 
 that " the proper time for striking cut- 
 tings depends upon the objects which 
 the propagator has in view. Nursery- 
 men who want a good stock of a par- 
 ticular kind may propagate it at almost 
 
CHR 
 
 143 
 
 CIB 
 
 any season, and generally begin very j There is another plan for making small 
 early in spring. But, for ordinary pur- ] dwarf flowering specimens, which de- 
 poses, from the middle of March to j serves especial notice. The young 
 the middle of April is quite soon enough; shoots which have grown to a consider- 
 and the amateur can then do so without i able length, have their points c layered' 
 
 any artificial heat, which is of great 
 consequence to those who 
 limited gardens. 
 
 " It matters very little whether the 
 cuttings are taken off with roots or 
 without them, as in the latter case they 
 will form them in a few days, and soon 
 begin to grow rapidly. The frame 
 should be kept very close, moist, and 
 shaded, until the cuttings have formed, 
 roots for their support; when this takes 
 place, a little air may be admitted grad- 
 ually as the plants will bear it, and then 
 afterwards they must be fully exposed." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 After-Culture. — " After the flowering 
 season is past, and the old stems cut 
 down, the plants should be removed 
 from the green-house or conservatory, 
 and placed in a cold frame, where they 
 are merely protected from severe frost. 
 Here they should have plenty of air, 
 and on fine days the ligb's should be 
 drawn quite off, and ti.< plants fully 
 exposed. When the winter is mild, 
 they will stand very well unprotected ; 
 but owing to their having been grown 
 and excited in the green-house, they 
 are more apt to suffer from severe 
 weather than if they had been planted 
 out in the open air. For this reason it 
 is always better to have the means of 
 giving them some slight protection. If 
 they are kept too close and warm in 
 winter, they begin to grow fast : the 
 leaves are yellow, and the stems weak, 
 and consequently they form bad cut- 
 tings when the season of propagation 
 comes round. But if they are merely 
 protected and attended to, as has been 
 already described, they grow slowly, 
 and make excellent cuttings. Those 
 who wish to make very large specimens 
 of these plants with little troublesome- 
 times plant them out in a rich border 
 in April or May, as soon as the cuttings 
 are rooted. Here they grow with great 
 luxuriance, and are very large and 
 bushy, when the time comes for taking 
 them up, and removing them into the 
 green-house. In autumn, they are taken 
 up very carefully, and placed in a shaded 
 situation for a few days, until they re- 
 cover from the effects of the operation, 
 and are then taken to the creen-house. 
 
 bout the month of August, in small 
 have very j pots. As soon as they are well rooted, 
 they are cut from the parent stock, re- 
 potted, and placed for a short time in a 
 shaded place until they recover. They 
 are then subjected to the same treat- 
 ment as the others, and generally flower 
 on stems about a foot or eighteen inches 
 in height." — Gard. Chron. Give liquid 
 guano twice a week so soon as the 
 flower buds are well formed. 
 
 Seed should be saved, and crosses 
 effected, from semi-double flowers. 
 
 Mildew. — " At the end of summer 
 chrysanthemums are extremely liable to 
 be infected with mildew. Those plants 
 upon which it makes its appearance, 
 should be immediately separated from 
 the rest, and well dusted with flowers 
 of sulphur. This should be allowed to 
 remain on them at least a day or two, 
 and may afterwards be washed off with 
 a syringe or garden engine." — Gard. 
 Chron. A very weak solution of com- 
 mon salt syringed repeatedly over the 
 leaves, and, after remaining a few 
 hours, washed off by a syringing with 
 pure water, would be equally effectual. 
 
 CHRYSEIS. Three species. Hardy 
 tuberous-rooted perennials. Seeds. 
 Rich soil. 
 
 CHRYSIPHIALA. Four species. 
 Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
 sets. Light loam. 
 
 CHRYSOCOMA. Fourteen species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials, and stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 CHRYSOPHYLLUM. Six species, 
 and some varieties. Stove evergreen 
 trees. Ripe cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 CHRYSOSPLENIUM. Three spe- 
 cies. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 Division. Moist soil. 
 
 CHRYSOSTEMMA tripteris. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennial. Division. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 CHYSIS aurea. Stove epiphyte. 
 Division. Wood. 
 
 CIBOTIUM Billardieri. Green-house 
 evergreen tree fern. Division. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 CIBOUL, or WELSH ONION. Al- 
 lium fistulosum. This is a perennial, 
 never forming any bulb, but is sown 
 
CIC 
 
 CIN 
 
 annually, to be drawn young for salads, 
 &c. On account of its strong taste, it 
 is greatly inferior to the common onion 
 for this purpose ; but from its extreme 
 hardness in withstanding the severest 
 frost, it may be cultivated with advan- 
 tage as a winter-standing crop for spring 
 use. 
 
 Varieties. — Two varieties are in cul- 
 tivation, the white and the red; the 
 first of which is in general use. 
 
 Cultivation. — As it may be sown at 
 all times with the onion, and is simi- 
 larly cultivated, except that it may be 
 sown thicker, and only thinned as 
 wanted, the direction given for that 
 vegetable will suffice. The blade usu- 
 ally dies away completely in winter, but 
 fresh ones are thrown out again in Feb- 
 ruary or March. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — To obtain seed 
 some of the roots must be planted out 
 in March, six or eight inches asunder. 
 The first autumn they will produce but 
 little seed; in the second and third, 
 however, it will be produced abundant- 
 ly. If care is taken to part and trans- 
 plant the roots every two or three years, 
 they may be multiplied, and will re- 
 main productive for many years, and 
 afford much better seed than that from 
 one-year-old roots. 
 
 Scallions. — There is good reason for 
 concluding that by a confusion of names, 
 arising from similarity of appearance, 
 this vegetable is the true scallion, whilst 
 the hollow leek of Wales is the true 
 Welsh onion ; for the description of 
 scallion, as given by Miller, accords 
 exactly with that of the Welsh onion. 
 At present all onions that have refused 
 to bulb, and formed lengthened necks 
 and strong blades in spring and sum- 
 mer, are called scallions. 
 
 CICCA disticha. Stove evergreen 
 fruit tree. Leafy cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 CIMICIFUGA. Four species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Seeds. 
 Common soil. 
 
 CINCHONA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen tree^and shrub. Ripe cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 CINERARIA. Fifty-four species. 
 Chiefly hardy and green-house herba- 
 ceous ; but some green-house ever- 
 green shrubs. It is a genus of florists' 
 flowers, and the varieties which they 
 have raised are very numerous. A 
 good selection is the following : — 
 
 Eclipse; Gem; Nobilis ; Perfecta; 
 Queen Victoria; Rival King; Royal 
 Blue; Sapphire; Splendida ; Water- 
 housiana ; and Webberiana. 
 
 Characteristics of Excellence. — The 
 cineraria does not exhibit so much im- 
 provement as most florists' flowers. 
 
 " The petals should be thick, broad, 
 blunt, and smooth at the ends, closely 
 set, and form a circle without much 
 indentation. The centre, or yellow 
 disk, should be less than one-third of 
 the diameter of the whole flower; in 
 other words, the coloured circle formed 
 by the petals should be wider all round 
 than the disk measures across. The 
 colour should be brilliant, whether 
 shaded or self; or if it be a white it 
 should be very pure. 
 
 " The trusses of flower should be 
 large and close, and even on the sur- 
 face, the individual flowers standing 
 together with their edges touching each 
 other, however numerous they may be. 
 The plant should be dwarf. The stems 
 strong, and not longer than the width 
 across the foliage ; in other words, 
 from the upper surface of the truss of 
 the flower to the leaves where the 
 stem starts from should not be a greater 
 distance than from one side of the foli- 
 age to the other." — Hort. Mag. 
 
 Propagation by Seed. — " Sow in May 
 in the open border ; thin out the plants 
 where they are crowded, and transplant 
 them when they have three good leaves , 
 and pot them to remain in October." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Propagation by Cuttings. — " After 
 the bloom has perfected itself and de- 
 cayed, cut down the stems, stir the 
 earth upon the surface, then earth up 
 with fresh compost, filling the pot 
 rather full than otherwise ; refresh the 
 plants with a little water, and place 
 them in the frame again; or if you have 
 none convenient, in a dry and sheltered 
 place in the garden. 
 
 ec The growth of a few weeks will 
 enable you to detect side shoots, some 
 with roots, and some without roots, and 
 leave only the main plant in the pot, 
 which should be earthed up again, and 
 set by. The shoots which have no 
 roots to them should be stripped of two 
 or three of the bottom leaves, that they 
 may be placed in a pot of the usual sort 
 of compost that the plant may have 
 been growing in, with a little sand at 
 top, say a quarter of an inch thick, and 
 
CIN 
 
 150 
 
 CIR 
 
 covered with a bell glass ; or if there 
 be enough, they may be placed a dozen 
 or two in a large pan, and a glass that 
 will fit inside the rim, covered over 
 them. They must never be allowed to 
 dry. The glasses should be occasion- 
 ally wiped dry inside. Whether there 
 be one cutting or a dozen, they should 
 be so placed that the glass can be 
 pressed into the sand to keep out the 
 air until they have all struck. 
 
 " They can always be watered with- 
 out disturbing the glass, if it be pro- 
 perly placed inside the rim, because by 
 watering over the glass, the whole can 
 be soaked ; but the drainage must be 
 good, or they will rot. 
 
 " If you happen to have a declining 
 hot-bed in which there remains a little 
 bottom, heat, the pan or pots maybe 
 placed therein. It will rather hasten 
 the striking. Those side-shoots which 
 have roots to them may be immediately 
 potted into sixty-sized pots, and treated 
 the same as seedlings just potted off. 
 In a few weeks the cuttings will have 
 struck, which will be indicated by their 
 beginning to grow ; they may be potted 
 off also, as seedlings are potted, in 
 sixty-sized pots. Here the treatment 
 is just the same as that directed for 
 seedlings." — Hort. Mag. 
 
 After-Culture. — " About the first 
 week in June, the plants being removed 
 from the green-house, and turned out 
 of their pots, the old earth shaken from 
 their roots, plant rather deeply, and 
 about eighteen inches apart in light 
 rich soil in the open garden, and water 
 as often as they seem to require it. 
 By the end of July, they throw up 
 myriads of suckers; they are then taken 
 up and parted, preserving the smallest 
 atom that has a root to it. The largest 
 plants are potted in pots proportionate 
 to their size, in a compost consisting of 
 leaf mould, rotten dung, and strong 
 turfy loam, in about equal quantities, 
 and placed in a shady situation. These 
 will flower in September and October, 
 and will do well either for the house, 
 or for filling up beds, or vacancies in 
 the flower garden. The other plants 
 are replanted in the open garden, wa- 
 tered, and shaded until established, 
 taken up with balls, and potted about 
 the end of October, and protected from 
 frost in a cold frame or pit through the 
 winter. In this manner, and by keep- 
 ing plants of various sizes, a regular 
 
 supply of flowers maybe had from Sep- 
 tember to the end of June. Single 
 plants in thirty-two or twenty-four-sized 
 pots are large enough. No plants suf- 
 fer so much from being crowded toge- 
 ther ; indeed, when short of room it is 
 better to throw away a few plants than 
 have the whole cramped for room." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Winter-blooming. — " When the cine- 
 rarias have done flowering, cut off all 
 the flower-stems and old leaves, and 
 place them in a cold pit or frame, which 
 must be kept rather close for two or 
 three weeks to cause the plants to grow; 
 afterwards admit air freely by day, but 
 keep them close at night ; then about 
 the beginning of August divide the old 
 plants into pieces, and put them into 
 small pots filled with a mixture of good 
 loam and sandy peat, to which may be 
 added a small portion of well-rotted 
 dung. When potted, return them to 
 the pit or frame, and keep them close; 
 afterwards, as they grow, shift them 
 into larger pots, and use a little manure- 
 water ; and finally, as the danger of 
 frost approaches, remove them to the 
 green-house, where they will bloom well 
 all the winter and spring, if kept free 
 from insects." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 CINNAMOMUM. Cinnamon. Ele- 
 ven species. Stove evergreen trees. 
 Ripe cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 CINNAMON. Cinnamomum. 
 
 CION. See Scion. 
 
 CIRC^A. Three species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Offsets. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 CIRCUMPOSITION differs from lay- 
 ering, only that in this the shoot to be 
 rooted is bent down to the soil, whilst 
 in circumposition the soil is placed in 
 a vessel and raised to the shoot. There 
 are pots called layering pots made for 
 this practice, and differing from the 
 common garden pot, only by having a 
 section about an inch broad cut through 
 one side, and to the centre of the bot- 
 tom, for the admission of the shoot or 
 branch. 
 
 M. Foulup employs 1 small tin cases 
 of a conical form, like the upper part 
 of a funnel, two and three-quarter 
 inches in length, and two and a sixth 
 inches in width at top, narrowing to- 
 wards the lower part till only sufficient 
 room is left for the introduction of the 
 shoot or branch intended to be propa- 
 gated. These cones are supported on 
 
CIR 
 
 151 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CIT 
 
 rods, to which they are secured by wire. 
 Commencing with the central branches, 
 the leaves are taken from the parts 
 which the tin is intended to inclose; 
 the branch is cut two-thirds through as 
 in layering, and being enclosed by the 
 funnel, the latter is well packed with 
 moss. Moisture necessary for favour- 
 ing the emission of roots is supplied by 
 means of a bottle, from which the bot- 
 tom is struck off, and the neck furnished 
 with a cork, perforated so as to admit 
 a small pigeon's feather or bit of wool 
 to form a syphon, by means of which 
 the moss is kept in a proper state of 
 moisture. Hard-wooded plants are pro- 
 pagated in this way from the middle of 
 May till the end of June ; and the 
 branches are sufficiently rooted to be 
 taken off by the end of September. It 
 is, however, necessary in all cases, to 
 ascertain whether the branches are suffi- 
 ciently rooted previously to their being 
 separated. This is easily done by open- 
 ing up the edges of the tin ; when the 
 branches are found to be sufficiently 
 rooted they are potted off without re- 
 moving the moss by which the roots 
 are surrounded. Being moderately 
 watered, they are immediately placed 
 under glass on a slight hot-bed, and kept 
 shut up for a fortnight. They are then 
 gradually exposed, and afterwards 
 placed in the shade of large trees, so 
 that only half the rays of the sun shall 
 reach them." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 CIRRHiEA. Six species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Division. Wood. 
 
 CIRROPETALUM. Seven species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood. 
 
 CIRSIUM. Eighty-six species. 
 Hardy~ annuals, biennials, and herbace- 
 ous perennials. Seeds or division. 
 Common soil. 
 
 CISSAMPELOS. Six species. Stove 
 or green-house climbers. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 CISSUS. Seventeen species. Stove 
 or green-house evergreen climbers. 
 Cuttings. Light rich soil. 
 
 CISTERNS for the accumulation of 
 rain-water should be formed in connec- 
 tion with the gutters of the various 
 buildings in the gardens, for no water 
 is equal to it for the artificial supply of 
 moisture to plants. 
 
 CISTUS. Thirty-nine species, and 
 varieties. Hardy evergreen shrubs. 
 Layers or ripened cuttings. Common 
 soil. 
 
 CITHAREYLUM. Nine species. 
 Stove evergreen trees. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 CITRON. Citrus. 
 
 CITRUS. Fourteen species. Green- 
 house evergreen fruit trees or shrubs, 
 budding or grafting, and sometimes 
 cuttings. Rich loamy soil mixed with 
 dung. 
 
 For the structure of a house suitable 
 for their cultivation, see Orangery. 
 The following extracts from an essay 
 by Mr. Jones, gardener at Knowsley, 
 exhibits the successful practice in cul- 
 tivating this genus, pursued by Mr. 
 Durden, gardener at Hurst House, Lan- 
 cashire. 
 
 Varieties. — Those who wish to culti- 
 vate the orange tree for the sake of the 
 fruit, ought to be very careful in making 
 a selection of sorts, especially of sweet 
 oranges. 
 
 The best way, perhaps, is to procure 
 grafts or young plants from such varie- 
 ties as have proved themselves to be 
 good in other establishments, or proved 
 plants from a nursery. 
 
 Soil. — Too much attention cannot be 
 paid to the soil ; its principal features 
 ought to be lightness, richness, and 
 openness of texture, and unless it pos- 
 sess these qualities it is unfit for the 
 orange tribe. 
 
 Water. — This must at all times be 
 sparingly administered, especially if 
 the trees are kept in a high moist tem- 
 perature. Occasionally give a little 
 weak liquid manure. 
 
 Temperature. — It is doubtless an erro- 
 neous opinion, that if the atmospheric 
 temperature is 8° to 10° above the 
 freezing point during winter, and is 
 never allowed to rise above 70° or 80° 
 during summer, that the orange tribe, 
 other ; circumstances being favourable, 
 may be cultivated successfully. Mr. 
 Durden never allows the temperature 
 of his house to fall below 50° during the 
 winter season, and during summer 
 retains a moist atmosphere of 80o or 
 90°. 
 
 After-Culture. — In pruning, if the 
 plants are trained on trellises, the 
 branches should be kept thin to allow 
 the greater part of the leaves to be ex- 
 posed to the sun. The fruit is generally 
 produced at the tips of the small spur3 
 or brackets; therefore it would be a 
 positive injury to the crop to shorten 
 any of these spurs, except it is desirable 
 
CL A 
 
 152 
 
 CL A 
 
 to increase their number. The opera- 
 tion of pruning is performed at any time 
 when it appears to be necessary, always, 
 however, taking care to have a suc- 
 cession of young wood coming in. In 
 thinning the fruit, particular attention 
 ought to be paid to the state of the tree, 
 for the quantity of fruit must be entirely 
 regulated by the vigour of the tree ; no 
 better rule can be laid down than that 
 for governing the operation of thinning. 
 
 If a tree appears debilitated in the 
 extreme, it must not be allowed to carry 
 any fruit for an entire season. 
 
 One cause of debility is, allowing the 
 fruit to remain long after it is ripe. Of 
 that required for confectionary purposes 
 a larger quantity may be left on the 
 trees, but it must always be propor- 
 tioned to the capabilities of the tree. 
 
 Cleaning the Plants. — The greatest 
 attention should be paid to cleanliness ; 
 the consequences of allowing insects to 
 overrun a collection of plants are fami- 
 liar to every one acquainted with gar- 
 dening. 
 
 " The aphis attacks the tender shoots 
 and young leaves; the red spider the 
 more advanced foliage; and the coccus 
 hesperidum every part of the plant. 
 
 " Almost every gardener has his pe- 
 culiar nostrum for destroying these ani- 
 mals ; but a good preventive is cleanli- 
 ness in everything about the plants. 
 
 " The coccus may be brushed off, 
 using a brush that is no harder than is 
 just necessary to remove the insect. 
 
 " For the thrips red spider, and aphis, 
 a sponge and clean water will remove 
 them all, if used before the insects have 
 become very numerous. 
 
 " Fumigation should never be re- 
 sorted to except in extreme cases. 
 
 " The leaves should also be cleaned 
 with a damp sponge as often as they 
 appear clogged by dust adhering to the 
 resinous exudations on their surface." — 
 (Gard. Chron. — Gard. Almanack.) 
 
 CLADANTHUS. Two species. 
 Hardy annual and half hardy evergreen 
 ahrub. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CLARKIA. Three species and va- 
 riety. Hardy annuals. Seeds. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 CLARY. (Salvia scla7*ea.) Its leaves 
 are sometimes used in soups and medi- 
 cated wines. A very small number of 
 plants are sufficient for a family. Sow 
 early in April, or a month earlier in 
 any light-soiled border. Thin the 
 
 plants to two feet apart. The sowing 
 must be annual. Seed may be saved 
 by allowing some plants to run up the 
 next spring; they ripen their seed in 
 September. 
 
 CLAUSEN Apentaphylla. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Rich loam. 
 
 CLAVIJA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 CLAY is a constituent of all fertile 
 soils, though in these it rarely exceeds 
 one-sixteenth part, and generally bears 
 a much smaller relative proportion to 
 the other constituents. In its pure 
 state it is known as alumina. It is the 
 best of all additions to light, unretentive 
 soils, for it retains moisture much more 
 powerfully than any other earth. M. 
 Schubler found, that when silicioussand 
 lost eighty-eight parts of moisture, and 
 chalky sand seventy-six, stiff clay in the 
 same time lost only thirty-five parts. 
 When clay has to be conveyed in large 
 quantities, and to a distance, it should 
 be dug and laid exposed in rough spits 
 to the air for several days before it is 
 carted, and, indeed, so should all earths; 
 for, as Mr. Cuthbert Johnson states in 
 his valuable Farmer's Encyclopedia, if 
 one hundred cubic yards of chalk, clay, 
 or marl have to be moved, by drying 
 previously they will lose in weight as 
 follows : — 
 
 Chalk . . 20 to 24 tons. 
 
 Clay . . 32 " 42 " 
 
 Marl . . 18 " 26 " 
 
 For the improvement of clay lands, 
 by rendering their staple less retentive, 
 burning some of their own soil is an 
 efficient application. One hundred tons 
 per acre for this purpose are not too 
 many ; for a dressing as a manure, thirty 
 tons are a good quantity. The follow- 
 ing is the mode of burning clay. 
 
 " Let sods be cut of a convenient 
 size to handle, say a foot wide and 
 eighteen inches in length ; with these 
 form a parallelogram or long square; 
 let the walls be a couple of feet thick, 
 and trampled or beaten firmly together, 
 and raised at least three feet high ; the 
 first heap should be so situated, that the 
 wind may blow against one of its sides; 
 it may be from four to six yards long, 
 by .three yards wide, and an aperture 
 within one yard of each end, and others 
 at a distance of about five feet from 
 these should be left in the side walls, 
 when building, for the purpose of form- 
 
C L A 
 
 153 
 
 CLI 
 
 ing drain-like openings across the heap; 
 make one of these drain-like openings 
 from end to end in length ; these funnels 
 are to be built also with sods; some dry 
 turf, such as is used for fuel, is to be 
 put into these funnels and oyer it, and 
 between the funnels well-dried sods or 
 any other combustible materials are to 
 be laid on to the depth of a couple of 
 feet over these sods, partially dried to 
 the level of the walls; these materials 
 being set on fire, a powerful heat will 
 be produced, quite capable of burning 
 clay, without previously drying it. Care, 
 however, will be necessary to avoid 
 throwing it on in too great a quantity 
 at once, until the fire is well up, when 
 a large quantity may be thrown on. The 
 sod walls are to be raised as the heap 
 rises ; and as soon as it is perceived by 
 the strength of the smoke and glow of 
 heat, that the mass is ignited in all its 
 parts, the apertures may be closed up, 
 and the heap left to become charred ; 
 should appearances indicate a likeli- 
 hood of the fire being smothered, it 
 will only become necessary to open one 
 or more of the funnels to secure its 
 acting. If the land on which the burned 
 or charred clay is to be applied be defi- 
 cient in calcareous matter, earth con- 
 taining it, if burned, would improve it 
 much. If well done, there is no im- 
 provement so cheap, and at the same 
 time so valuable; if, on the other hand, 
 the burning is hurried, or the fires neg- 
 lected, the consequence will be, either 
 the clay will be burned into lumps like 
 brick ends that will not fall to pieces 
 when exposed to the air, or the clay 
 will not be charred or burned at all ; 
 therefore, the heat should always be 
 slow and steady, never, if possible, 
 burning the clay red, but black. This 
 is difficult to manage, depending much 
 upon the wind, stopping up the aper- 
 ture upon the windward side, and open- 
 ing that on the other side. The whole 
 time the heaps are burning will take 
 from two to three months, the time de- 
 pending much on the weather; from 
 sixty to one hundred yards may be 
 burned in a heap ; and if there be not 
 sufficient sod, coarse turf, bushes, &c, 
 on the spot to keep up a sufficient body 
 of fire at the commencement, wood of 
 any kind, or small coal, must be used." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Clay soils are the worst that can be 
 for gardens, for there is scarcely one of 
 
 the crops there cultivated that \sj\ot in- 
 jured by stagnant water, which can 
 scarcely be prevented in clay soils at 
 some seasons ; and in wet weather 
 clayey soils cannot be worked, whereas 
 the gardener must be inserting or at- 
 tending to his crops every day. 
 
 CLAYTONIA. Fifteen species. Har- 
 dy annuals or tuberous-rooted peren- 
 nials. Seeds. Peat soil. 
 
 CLEMATIS. Fifty species, and 
 many varieties, chiefly climbers. The 
 stove and green-house species grow 
 well in a light loam and peat soil, and 
 increase from cuttings. The hardy her- 
 baceous kinds, divisions. The hardy 
 deciduous, layers. Common soil. 
 
 CLEOME. Twenty species. Stove 
 or hardy annuals, biennials, or ever- 
 green shrubs. Cuttings or seeds. Rich 
 light soil. 
 
 CLEONIA lusitanica. Hardy annual. 
 Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CLERODENDRUM. Forty species. 
 Chiefly stove evergreen shrubs. C. 
 volubile, a climber. Cuttings. A rich 
 soil of loam, rotten dung, and sandy 
 peat. 
 
 CLETHRA. Nine species. Hardy 
 deciduous or stove green-house ever^ 
 green shrubs. Cuttings. Peat earth, or 
 light sandy loam. The hardy kinds in- 
 creasealso by layers. 
 
 CLEYERA japonica. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 CLIANTHUS puniceus. Half hardy 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 CLICK-BEETLE. See Wireworm. 
 
 CLIDEMIA. Twelve species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 CLIFFORTIA. Sixteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings of the young wood. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 CLIMATE controls the growth of 
 plants most imperatively, and in the 
 cultivation of his fruits, flowers, and 
 culinary vegetables, it forms the first 
 object of the gardener's inquiry. He 
 must first know the climate in which 
 any given plant is native ; and second- 
 ly, the soil which it affects, before he 
 can cultivate it successfully. How all- 
 influential is climate appears from the 
 fact, that different countries have often 
 a totally different Flora on soils similar 
 in constitution. Thus, as is observed 
 
CLI 
 
 154 
 — ♦— 
 
 CLI 
 
 by Decandolle and Sprengel, in The 
 Philosophy of Plants, " there are a 
 great many perfect plants which ex- 
 clusively belong to the tropics, which 
 never pass beyond them, and which are 
 found equally in Asia and Africa, in 
 America and the South Sea Islands, and 
 even in New Holland. Although, as 
 we have said, these are rather families, 
 as Palmse Scitaminese, Musese, Sapin- 
 dese, and Anoneae ; or genera, as Epi- 
 dendrum, Santalum, Olax, Cymbidium, 
 and so forth ; yet there are particular 
 species, which grow in all parts of the 
 world only between the tropics, as for 
 instance, Heliotropium Indicum, Age- 
 ratum conyzoides, Pistite stratiotes, 
 Scoparia dulcis, Guilandina Bonduc, 
 Sphenoclese zeylanica, Abrus precato- 
 rius, Boerhavia mutabilis, and so forth. 
 But most commonly there are other 
 species, which, under the same degree 
 of latitude, supply in the new world the 
 place of related species in the old. 
 Dryas octopetala, indeed, grows equal- 
 ly upon the mountains of Canada, and 
 in Europe ; but Dryas tenella of Pursh, 
 which is very like the former, grows 
 only in Greenland and Labrador. In- 
 stead of the Platanus Orientalis, there 
 jfrows in North America the Platanus 
 Occidentalis ; instead of Pinus Cembra, 
 in Europe and Asia, there grows in 
 North America Pinus Strobus ; instead 
 of Prunus Laurocerasus, in Asia Minor, 
 there grows under the same latitude in 
 North America the Prunus Caroliniana. 
 There are many exceptions to this rule, 
 however, depending on circumstances 
 that have been already noticed. In the 
 first place, countries are wont to share 
 their Floras with neighbouring regions, 
 especially islands lying under the same 
 latitude, as the Azores possess the 
 Floras of Europe and of Northern Af- 
 rica, rather than those of America, be- 
 cause they are scarcely ten degrees of 
 longitude from the coast of Portugal. 
 Sicily, and, still more, Malta, possesses a 
 Flora made up of those of the South of 
 Europe and the North of Africa. The 
 Aleutian Islands share their Flora with 
 the north-west coast of America, and 
 the north-east of Asia. But the most 
 distant countries, lying under the same 
 latitude, may have the same or a simi- 
 lar vegetation, while countries or isl- 
 ands which lie between them, have not 
 the least share in this particular Flora. 
 The island of St. Helena, which is 
 
 scarcely eighteen degrees of longitude 
 from the west of Africa, and which lies 
 a little further south than Congo, has 
 yet no plants, which are found in those 
 last-named regions. (Roxburgh's List 
 of Plants seen in the Island of St. He- 
 lena, appended to Beatson's Island of 
 St. Helena.) Japan has a great many 
 plants common to Southern Europe, 
 which, however, are not found in those 
 regions of Asia that lie under the same 
 latitude. 
 
 We must further remark, that the 
 eastern countries of the old world, and 
 the eastern shores of America, as far as 
 the Alleghany Mountains, have a much 
 lower temperature than the western 
 regions ; and that it is always colder in 
 Siberia and the north-east of Asia, than 
 under the same latitude in Europe ; 
 and, that even Petersburgh is colder 
 than Upsal, and Upsal than Christiania ; 
 although they all three lie in the six- 
 tieth degree of north latitude. In 
 North America the difference is still 
 greater, and there are commonly fifteen 
 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer 
 between the temperature of the east 
 and west coast. It hence happens that 
 many plants which in Norway grow 
 under the polar circle, scarcely reach 
 the sixtieth degree, on the limits be- 
 tween Asia and Europe. To this class 
 belong the Silver Fir, Mountain Ash, 
 Trembling Poplar, Black Alder, and 
 Juniper. Even in the temperate zone, 
 the vegetation of many trees ceases 
 sooner in the east than in the west. In 
 Lithuania and Prussia, under the fifty- 
 third degree, neither vines nor peaches 
 nor apricots thrive : at least their fruit 
 does not ripen, as also happens in the 
 middle of England. The most remark- 
 able example of this great difference of 
 temperature is furnished by the Mespi- 
 lus Japonica, which grows at Nanga 
 Sacki, and Jeddo, under the thirty-third 
 and thirty-sixth degrees of north lati- 
 tud e ; and which also grows in the open 
 air in England, under the fifty-second 
 degree of north latitude, when it is 
 planted against a wall. — Botanical Re- 
 gister, Vol. V. 
 
 The same degree of latitude in the 
 southern and northern hemisphere, are 
 connected with very different tempera- 
 tures, and produce a completely differ- 
 ent vegetation. This, however, must 
 I be understood rather of the temperate 
 I and frigid zones, than of the tropical 
 
CLI 
 
 155 
 
 CLI 
 
 climates, which, as we have already no- 
 ticed, are pretty much the same over 
 the whole earth. But the summer is 
 shorter in the southern hemisphere, be- 
 cause the motion of the earth in her 
 perigee is more rapid. The summer 
 is there also colder, because the 
 greater quantity of ice over the vast 
 extent of sea requires more heat for dis- 
 solving it than can be obtained ; as also 
 because the sunbeams are not reflected 
 in such quantity from the clear surface 
 of the sea water, as to afford the proper 
 degree of heat. It thence happens that 
 in the southern hemisphere the Flora of 
 the pole extends nearer the equator, 
 than in the northern. Under the 53d 
 and 54th degrees of latitude, we meet 
 with plants which correspond with the 
 Arctic Flora. In Magellan's Land, and 
 in Terra del Fuego, Betula antarctica 
 corresponds with Betula nana in Lap- 
 land ; Empetrum rubrum with Empe- 
 trum nigrum — Arnica oporina with Ar- 
 nica montana — Geum Magellanica with 
 Geum rivale in England — Saxifraga 
 Magellanica with Saxifraga rivularis in 
 Finmark. Instead of Andromeda tetra- 
 gona and hypnoides of Lapland, Terra 
 del Fuego produces Andromeda myrsi- 
 nites ; in place of Arbutus alpina and 
 Uva ursi of the Arctic polar circle, 
 Terra del Fuego produces Arbutus mu- 
 cronata, microphylla, and pumila. Aria 
 antarctica reminds us of the Holcus al- 
 pina of Wahlenburgh ; and Pinguicula 
 antarctica recalls to our recollection 
 Pinguicula alpina. We must recollect, 
 however, that in South America the 
 great mountain chains of the Andes 
 stretch from the tropical regions, al- 
 most without interruption, to the Straits 
 of Magellan (from the 52d to the 53d 
 degree of S. lat.), and that, on this ac- 
 count, tropical forms are seen in that 
 frigid southern zone, because the tract 
 of mountains everywhere determines 
 vegetation. It is hence that the straits 
 of Magellan are prolific of Coronariae, 
 Onagrae, Dorsteniae, and Heliotropias, 
 which in other parts of the world grow 
 only within the tropics, or in their 
 neighbourhood. In general the vege- 
 tation of the southern hemisphere is 
 very different from that of the northern; 
 and there is a certain correspondence 
 between the Floras of Southern Africa, 
 America, and New Holland. Most of 
 the trees are woody with stiff leaves, 
 blossoms sometimes magnificent, but 
 
 fruit of little flavour. In Southern Af- 
 rica, as well as in New Hollaud, it is 
 the form of the Proteae which prevails, 
 as if appropriated to these regions. In- 
 stead of the South American Ericae, we 
 find the Epacridae of New Holland ; Lo- 
 beliae, Diosmae, and a great number of 
 rare forms of compound blossoms and 
 of umbellatae, are common to all these 
 southern regions." 
 
 Now, the reason for these differences 
 is, that the countries thus contrasted 
 differ in climate — that is, they differ in 
 the intensity and duration of light and 
 heat they enjoy — they differ in the con- 
 trast of their day and night tempera- 
 tures — they differ in the relative length 
 of the day and night — they differ in the 
 length of their summer and winter, or, 
 which is synonymous, in the relative 
 length of their periods of vegetable ac- 
 tivity and rest — they differ also in the 
 amount of rain which falls, not only an- 
 nually, but at particular seasons — they 
 differ in having much atmospheric moist- 
 ure deposited in the form of rain or 
 dew, or snow, at different periods of 
 vegetable activity or rest. Now, what- 
 ever these differences are, whatever 
 the peculiarities of a climate are from 
 which a plant comes, the gardener can- 
 not cultivate it successfully unless he 
 secures to that plant those climatal dif- 
 ferences and peculiarities. 
 
 CLIMBERS are plants which attach 
 themselves to supporters by their natu- 
 ral appendages, as either by their ten- 
 drils or by their hooks. 
 
 CLINOPODIUM. Three species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division 
 or seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CLINTONIA. Two species. An- 
 nuals. C. elegans may be sown where 
 it is to remain in the open borders, but 
 C. pulchella requires its seedlings to be 
 raised in a green-house or under a 
 frame. — " If it is sown as soon as the 
 seed is ripe, in two-thirds leaf mould, 
 and one-third common soil, with a little 
 sand, care being taken to make the soil 
 firm enough to prevent the seed from 
 being dislodged in watering ; where it 
 is intended to have beds of it in the 
 flower garden, it may be planted out in 
 the beginning of March : none of the 
 frosts that happen after that time will 
 injure it. 
 
 " If the seedlings were planted out 
 in the autumn, early enough to take 
 root in the soil before the winter, there 
 
C LI 
 
 156 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 C LU 
 
 is iii) doubt they would prove as hardy 
 as any <>i" the California!) annuals, and, 
 like them, succeed better in that way, 
 
 than if sown or planted out in the 
 Bp'ring." — (lard. Chron. 
 
 CLIPP1 NTG hedges should be confined 
 to those of the commonest and hardiest 
 varieties of shrubs, as those of hawthorn 
 and privet. The shears may, however, 
 be used with great advantage by expert 
 operators, even on the most delicate 
 plants used for ornamental hedges. 
 Clipping of deciduous hedges is most 
 
 advantageously performed in the spring 
 
 and early summer. A multitude of 
 shoots are then induced, which secures 
 
 that chief desideratum in hedges — thick- 
 ness and closeness of te\t.ure. 
 
 CLISIOCAMPA run/stria, the Lacky 
 Moth, Hies only at. night. It appears 
 about .Inly, and its eggs are laid round 
 
 the twigs of trees in the form of.a broad 
 
 band of ahout three hundred eggs, 
 closely glued together, and resembl ing 
 a ring of seed lac The caterpillars 
 striped longitudinally blue, red. and 
 yellow, appear from these in the April 
 or May following. They congregate 
 in large nests at the forks of the small 
 branches, and are then easily crushed 
 en masse. They enter the chrysalis 
 stale at the end of June, and then they 
 are to be found in cocoons between two 
 leaves, &.C. 
 
 "In June they are full grown and 
 about an inch in length, gray striped 
 With blue, red, and yellow, and having 
 but lew hairs. The caterpillar spins 
 between two leaves a thin web of an 
 oval form, and it becomes a longish 
 brown pupa, in which state it remains 
 for three weeks or a month. In July 
 the moth appears, which in size and 
 colour, is not unlike the silkworm moth. 
 Its colour is light yellow, and some- 
 times dark olive colour. The upper 
 wings are banded, and the lower wings 
 are generally of B uniform brownish 
 
 colour. The male is readily known 
 
 from the female, by its strongly pecti- 
 nated antenna' and thinner body. The 
 insect Hies only at night, and conse- 
 quently is rarely seen. It often appears 
 
 m considerable numbers, and does not 
 
 confine its ravages to fruit trees, but 
 attacks many other trees; such as 
 
 beeches, elms, poplars, 6aks, and even 
 
 pines. The best humus of lessening 
 
 the devastation! committed by the insect 
 
 is, in the winter season, carefully to 
 
 search the fruit trees for the bands of 
 eggs laid on the branches, and to crush 
 them. In May, when the caterpillar! 
 are living in society, the nests contain- 
 ing them should be collected and de- 
 stroyed. Care must be taken when col- 
 lecting the nosts, for if the caterpillars 
 are much disturbed, they let themsel ves 
 down to the ground by means of B thin 
 silken thread, and escape. In July 
 their cocoons should be looked for on 
 the trees between the leaves, in the 
 roofs of sheds, and even on the tops of 
 Walls." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 C LI TOR I A. Thirteen species. 
 Chiefly stove or green-house evergreen 
 climbers. C. mariana is a half hardy 
 deciduous. Cuttings, seeds. Loam, 
 peal, and sand. 
 
 CLIVIA nobiliB. Green-house ever- 
 green bulbous plant. Division, seeds. 
 R ich sandy loam. 
 
 CLOUDBERRY. Kubvs chamtemorus. 
 
 CLOV 10. l)i<i nth us ccarycfhyllw, 
 
 CLOVER TU.l<:i<:. Caryophyllus. 
 
 CLOW E S I A rosea. Stove shrub. 
 Cuttings. Rich loam. 
 
 CLUB ROOT. See Ambury. 
 
 CLUMPS when close are sometimes 
 called Thickets* and when open Croups 
 of Trees. They differ only in extent 
 from a wood, if they arc close, or from 
 a grove, if they arc open ; they are small 
 woods, and small groves, governed by 
 the same principles as the larger, after 
 allowances made for their dimensions. 
 But besides the properties they may 
 have in common with woods, or with 
 groves, they have others peculiar to 
 themsel ves. They are. either indepen- 
 dent or relative; when independent, 
 their beauty as single objects is solely 
 to be attended to; when relative, the 
 beauty of the individuals must be sacri- 
 ficed to the effect of the whole, which 
 is the greater consideration. The least 
 clump that can be, is of two trees ; and 
 the best effect they can have, is, that 
 their heads united should appear one 
 large tree ; two, therefore, of different 
 species, or seven or eight of such shapes 
 as do not easily join, can hardly be a 
 
 beautiful group, especially if it have ■ 
 tendency to a circular form. Such 
 clumps of firs, though very common, 
 are seldom pleasing; they do not. com- 
 pose one mass, but are only a confused 
 number of pinnacles. The confusion 
 is, however, avoided by placing them 
 in succession, not in clusters; and a 
 
CLU 
 
 157 
 
 C N E 
 
 clump of such trees is therefore more 
 agreeable when it is extended rather in 
 length than in breadth. 
 
 Three trees together must form either 
 a right line or a triangle ; to disguise 
 the regularity, the distances should be 
 very different. Distinctions in their 
 shapes contribute also to the same end ; 
 and variety in their growths still more. 
 When a straight line consists of two 
 trees nearly similar, and of a third much 
 lower than they are, the even direction 
 in which they stand is hardly dis- 
 cernible. 
 
 If humbler growths at the extremity 
 can discompose the strictest regularity, 
 the use of it is thereby recommended 
 upon other occasions. It is, indeed, the 
 variety peculiarly proper for clumps : 
 every apparent artifice affecting the ob- 
 jects of nature, disgusts ; and clumps 
 are such distinguished objects, so liable 
 to the suspicion of having been left or 
 placed on purpose to be so distinguish- 
 ed, that, to divert the attention from 
 these symptoms of art, irregularity in 
 the composition is more important to 
 them, than to a wood or to a grove. 
 Being also less extensive, they do not 
 admit so much variety of outline; but 
 variety of growths is most observable 
 in a small compass, and the several 
 gradations may often be cast into beau- 
 tiful figures. 
 
 The extent and the outline of a wood 
 or a grove, engage the attention more 
 than the extremities; but in clumps 
 these last are of the most consequence; 
 they determine the form of the whole, 
 and both of them are generally in sight: 
 great care should therefore be taken to 
 make them agreeable and different. 
 The ease with which they may be com- 
 pared, forbids all similarity between 
 them ; for every appearance of equality 
 suggests an idea of art, and therefore a. 
 clump as broad as it is long, seems less 
 the work of nature than one which 
 stretches into length. 
 
 Another peculiarity of clumps is the 
 facility with which they admit a mixture 
 of trees and of shrubs, of wood and of 
 grove; in short, of every species of plan- 
 tation. None are more beautiful than 
 those which are so composed. Such 
 compositions are, however, more proper 
 in compact than in straggling clumps ; 
 they are most agreeable when they form 
 one mass. If the transitions from very 
 lofty to very humble growths, from 
 
 thicket to open plantations, he frequent 
 and sudden, the disorder is more suited 
 to rude than to elegant scenes. 
 
 The occasions on which independent 
 clumps may be applied are many. They 
 are often desirable as beautiful objects 
 in themselves ; they are sometimes ne- 
 cessary to break an extent of lawn, or 
 a continued line, whether of ground or 
 of plantation ; but on all occasions, a 
 jealousy of art constantly attends them, 
 which irregularity in their figure will 
 not always alone remove. Though ele- 
 vations show them to advantage, yet a 
 hillock evidently thrown upon purpose 
 to be crowned with a clump, is artificial 
 to a degree of disgust; some of the 
 trees should therefore be planted on 
 the sides to take off that appearance. 
 The same expedient may be applied to 
 clumps placed on the brow of a hill, 
 to interrupt its sameness ; they will 
 have less ostentation of design if they 
 are in part carried down either de- 
 clivity. 
 
 A line of clumps, if the intervals be 
 closed by others beyond them, has the 
 appearance of a wood, or of a grove ; 
 and in one respect the semblance has 
 an advantage over the reality in dif- 
 ferent points of view ; the relations be- 
 tween the clumps are changed, and a 
 variety of forms is produced, which no 
 continued wood or grove, however 
 broken, can furnish. These forms can- 
 not all be equally agreeable, and too 
 anxious a solicitude to make them every- 
 where pleasing, may, perhaps, prevent 
 their being ever beautiful. 
 
 The effect must often be left to 
 chance, but it should be studiously con- 
 sulted from a few principal points of 
 vieV ; and it is easy to make any recess, 
 any prominence, any figure in the out- 
 line, by clumps thus advancing before, 
 or retiring behind one another." — 
 Whateley. 
 
 CLUSIA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Light sandy 
 loam. 
 
 CLUYTIA. Twelve species. Green- 
 house or stove evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 CLYPEOLA. Two species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CNEORUM. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 CNESTIS. Three species. Stove 
 
CO A 
 
 158 
 
 COC 
 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 COAL. See Fuel. 
 
 COAL ASHES. See Ashes. 
 
 COBCE A scandens. Half hardy ever- 
 green climber. Seeds or cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 COBURGHIA. Three species. Green- 
 house and half hardy bulbous peren- 
 nials. Division. Peat and loam. 
 
 COCCINELL^E. Lady Birds. There 
 are about thirty species of this useful 
 and beautiful insect. Let no one de- 
 stroy a coccinella, for it is the greatest 
 destroyer of the plant louse or aphis. 
 This is much better appreciated on the 
 continent than in England, for there 
 the gardeners collect lady birds and 
 place them upon rose trees, &c, in- 
 fected with aphides. 
 
 COCCOLOBA. Nineteen species. 
 Stove evergreen trees. Leafy ripened 
 cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 COCCUS. Scale Insect. The species 
 of this family are most usually, but not 
 exclusively, found upon the tenants of 
 our green-houses and hot-houses. The 
 males are active, but the females usu- 
 ally fixed to a part of the plant ; the 
 former having wings, and are so small 
 as to require a magnifier to distinguish 
 them distinctly: they then appear some- 
 what like a gnat in form. The females 
 are much larger, and in shape not un- 
 like a bed-bug, but with a scaly skin. 
 When hatching they envelop them- 
 selves in a woolly case. The eggs are 
 oval, but no larger than dots. Brushing 
 the stems and branches of trees and 
 shrubs with a hand scrubbing-brush, 
 will destroy many of these vermin, and 
 if spirit of turpentine, with a painter's 
 brush, is applied, so as to visit every 
 cranny of the bark, the application is 
 perfectly effectual. Smaller and more 
 delicate plants in pots, may be placed 
 under a sea-kale or other pot, with a 
 little of the spirit in a saucer, and then 
 submitted to a gentle heat ; the vapour 
 of the turpentine will destroy the insect 
 in an hour or two. If the first applica- 
 tion fails, the second will not fail. The 
 efficacy of a solution of soft soap in 
 thinning the ranks of this pest, arises 
 probably from the turpentine it con- 
 tains. 
 
 " C. hesperidum is found in green- 
 houses, especially on orange trees. It 
 infests leaves as well as stems. 
 
 " C. bromelia. Pine Apple Scale in- 
 
 fests 
 8rc 
 
 that fruit, the hibiscus, justitia, 
 
 " C. adonidum. Mealy Bug. This 
 feeds on tropical plants, with which it 
 has been introduced into our hot-houses, 
 especially Coffee, Cestrum, Justicia, 
 Canna, Musa, Renealmia, fyc. ; but it 
 also is very injurious to the vine and 
 pine-apple. 
 
 " C. testubo. Turtle Scale. This is 
 found chiefly on stove plants requiring 
 a high temperature. The scale is oval, 
 very convex, and dark brown." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 C. Vitis. Vine Scale preys upon the 
 Grape Vine, both in the open air, and 
 under glass. It seems to be the same 
 species which also attacks occasionally 
 the Peach, Nectarine, and Plum. It is, 
 says Mr. Curtis, " a longish brown in- 
 sect, which in old age assumes a black- 
 ish-brown colour, and becomes hemi- 
 spherical and wrinkled. The females 
 are shield-like ; being convex above, 
 and flat or concave below ; they are 
 furnished with six small legs, which, 
 when the insect is old, become part of 
 the substance of the body. On the un- 
 der side of the insect is a sucker, with 
 which it pierces the cuticle of the 
 plants, and extracts their juices. Soon 
 after impregnation the female dies, and 
 her body becomes a protection for the 
 eggs, which are covered with long white 
 wool, and sometimes completely enve- 
 lop the shoots of the vines, or of plants, 
 growing underneath them. The males 
 are furnished with four wings, and are 
 apterous. Their powers of propagation 
 are immense ; and, where they once 
 become very numerous, they are ex- 
 ceedingly difficult to eradicate." 
 
 As a genus of insects closely allied 
 to the Coccus, and usually confounded 
 with it, is Aspidiotus ; and as all reme- 
 dial observations applicable to the one 
 are equally applicable to the other, the 
 prevailing kinds are here enumerated. 
 
 ii A. nerii. Oleander Scale is found 
 in our stoves and green-houses, chiefly 
 on the Oleanders, Palmce, Aloes and 
 Acacias. 
 
 11 A. rosa. Rose Scale ; A. echino- 
 cdeti. Cactus Scale ; A. lauri. Sweet 
 Bay Scale ; infest chiefly the plants by 
 the names of which they are distin- 
 guished. 
 
 "A. ostreceformis. Pear Tree Oyster 
 Scale, is found upon the pear tree. 
 
 Scale is much more difficult to destroy 
 
coc 
 
 159 
 
 COM 
 
 than aphis ; as tobacco, soft soap, vine- 
 gar, and other materials scarcely affect 
 them, even when applied in quantity 
 and strength sufficiently to kill plants. 
 
 The most effectual method of ridding 
 plants of these pests, besides those first 
 named, is to brush or sponge the stems 
 and leaves. If plants in pots are in- 
 fested with this or any other kind of 
 scale, they should never be cleansed in 
 or near the house in which they are 
 grown ; as, though the old ones have 
 not always the power of locomotion, 
 yet the young ones have. Shreds and 
 matting which support plants in houses, 
 should always be carefully examined, 
 as they form a kind of nest for the 
 young insects. Old shreds should never 
 be used, without being previously 
 boiled." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 COCHLEARIA. Eight species and 
 some varieties. Chiefly hardy annuals 
 or biennials. C. armor acia, the com- 
 mon horse-radish. Slips from the root. 
 Deep rich soil. The annuals and bien- 
 nials from seeds. Common soil. 
 
 COCKCHAFER. See Melolontha. 
 
 COCKSCOMB. Rhinanthus Christa- 
 galli. 
 
 COCKSCOMB. Erythrina Christa- 
 galli. 
 
 COCKSCOMB. Celosia cristata. — 
 Sow the seed in a hot-bed, early in the 
 spring, and transplant when danger 
 from frost has passed : seed may also 
 be sown later in the season, on an open 
 border. To have Cockscombs in per- 
 fection requires highly manured soil, (it 
 cannot be too rich,) and a careful prun- 
 ing of lateral or side shoots — but one 
 head or flower should be borne by each 
 plant. 
 
 During dry weather water with a so- 
 lution of manure or plain water, having 
 first covered the earth around the plants 
 with decomposed stable-dung. 
 
 COCOA-NUT TREE. Cocos. 
 
 COCOA PLUM. Chrysobalanus. 
 
 COCOS. Three species. Palms. 
 Loam and peat, or light sandy loam in 
 a warm moist atmosphere. 
 
 CODARIUM. Wild Tamarind. Two 
 species. Stove evergreen tree and 
 shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 CODONOPHORA. Stove evergreen 
 shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 CCELOGYNE. Seventeen species. 
 Stove orchids. Division. Wood. They 
 require a hot damp heat. 
 
 COFFEA. The Coffee Tree. Two 
 
 species. Stove evergreen shrubs. Ri- 
 pened cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 COFFEE TREE. Coffea: 
 
 COGWOOD TREE. See Laurus. 
 Cloroxylon. 
 
 COKE. See Fuel. 
 
 COLBERTIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 COLBROOKIA. Two species. 
 Greemhouse evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Peat and loam. 
 
 COLCHICUM. Ten species and some 
 varieties. Hardy bulbous perennials. 
 Seeds or offsets. Light loamy soil. 
 
 COLDENIA procumbens. Stove an- 
 nual trailer. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 COLEONEMA alba. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 COLEWORT. See Cabbage. 
 
 COLLIFLOWER. See Cauliflower. 
 
 COLLIGUAJA odorifera. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. 
 
 COLLLNSIA. Five species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 COLLINSONIA. Five species and 
 some varieties. Chiefly hardy herbace- 
 ous perennials. Division. Common 
 moist garden soil. 
 
 COLLOGANIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 COLOPHONIA mauritiana. Stove 
 evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 COLUMBINE. Aquilegia. 
 
 COLUNARREA. Six species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. C. scandens is a 
 climber. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 COLURIA potentilloides. Hardy her- 
 baceous perennial. Division. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 COLUTEA. Five species. Hardy 
 deciduous shrubs. Seeds or cuttings. 
 Common soil. 
 
 COLVILLEA racemosa. Stove ever- 
 green tree. 
 
 COMARASTAPHYLIS arbutoides. 
 Half hardy shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 COMAROPSIS. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Seeds or di- 
 vision. Rich light loamy soil. 
 
 COMARUM palustre. Hardy her- 
 baceous perennial. Division. Moist 
 soil. 
 
 COMBRETUM. Seven species. 
 Stove evergreen climbers or shrubs. 
 Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
COM 
 
 160 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 COM 
 
 COMESPERMA. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. C. gra- 
 cilis is a twining plant. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 COMFREY. Simphytum. 
 
 COMMELINA. Twenty-five species. 
 Chiefly stove evergreen trailers, which 
 are increased by divisions and seeds : 
 
 in a dry cellar for the winter, out of the 
 reach of damp or frost; they will then 
 require no more trouble until the follow- 
 ing March, when they should be taken 
 out, potted, and placed either in a warm 
 pit or dung frame, to forward them 
 again for planting out. 
 
 " The roots will survive the winter in 
 
 sandy loam and peat. The hardy kinds, the open border, if slightly protected 
 
 seeds or offsets ; and the annuals, seeds 
 and common garden soil. 
 
 C. ccslestris is one of the most beauti- 
 ful of this genus, and the following di- 
 rections for its cultivation are given by 
 Mr. G. Gordon, of the Chiswick Gar- 
 dens. 
 
 " About the end of February sow the 
 seeds, in pans or pots, filled with a mix- 
 ture of sandy loam and leaf mould, and 
 place them in a warm pit, or dung- 
 frame. When the young plants are 
 large enough to handle, pot them oft* 
 singly into sixty-sized pots, and return 
 them to the warm frame, or pit, for a 
 week or ten days ; afterwards admit air, 
 and finally remove them to a cold 
 frame, or pit, to harden, ready for 
 planting out in the open border, which 
 should be done about the end of May, 
 or beginning of June, when the danger 
 from late frosts and cold nights is over. 
 
 "In planting, they must not be put 
 in a dry or shaded situation, but in a 
 warm, and rather damp one; and in a 
 rich loamy soil. They will then flower 
 freely all the summer and autumn ; but 
 like the Dahlia, their beauty is destroy- 
 ed by the first frost in the autumn. 
 
 " The plants flower freely the first 
 
 and kept dry ; but then they are late in 
 starting, and never so fine *s when the 
 roots are taken up, and preserved 
 through the winter, like those of the 
 Dahlia. The old roots may be divided 
 like those of the Garden Ranunculus." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 COMMERSONIA. Two species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Ripened cut- 
 tings. Peat and loam. 
 
 COMOCLADIA. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen trees. Ripened cut- 
 tings. Peat and loam, or any light rich 
 soil. 
 
 COMPARETTIA. Three species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood or 
 fibrous peat. 
 
 COMPOST is a mixture of manures, 
 or of earths and manures, in such pro- 
 portions, and of such qualities as are 
 considered particularly applicable to 
 the plant or crops to which the compo- 
 sition is to be applied. The subject of 
 Composts has been studied but slightly 
 at present, by men who combine science 
 with practice, and what is here offered, 
 must consequently be less satisfactory 
 than the author is conscious it might be. 
 
 A correct preparation of Composts 
 must be founded upon a due knowledge 
 
 n from seed, but they display their of the food of plants. This is 
 
 delicate azure blossoms in the greatest 
 perfection the second season, if the 
 roots are taken up, and preserved like 
 those of the Dahlia, over the winter, 
 which is best done in the following way: 
 — When the plants have done flowering, 
 and there is danger of the roots getting 
 injured by severe frost, they must be 
 taken up, and placed to dry for a few 
 days ; then procure a box, or some 
 large flower-pots, and place a little dry 
 soil at the bottom ; (the best substance 
 for packing all kinds of roots in during 
 winter, is dry sandy peat) — then place a 
 layer of roots, filling in between with 
 soil ; and so on until you have disposed 
 of all the roots, when the whole should 
 be covered over with a thick layer of any 
 dry substance. Place the plants either 
 under the stage in the green-house, or 
 
 tainable from their analyses, and these 
 reveal what is sustained by practice, 
 that there are some substances required 
 by all plants as food, and that there are 
 other substances which are beneficial 
 to some plants, and useless, or even 
 injurious to others. 
 
 Now the substances universally re- 
 quired by cultivated plants, are, carbon, 
 hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phos- 
 phate of lime, and, perhaps, common 
 salt. These are supplied to plants by 
 the atmosphere, and by decaying ani- 
 mal and vegetable matters. 
 
 The substances required only by par- 
 ticular plants, are certain salts, such as 
 sulphate of lime, by the turnip; — sul- 
 phate of magnesia, (Epsom salt) by the 
 potato ; — nitrate of potass (saltpetre;, 
 by borage, and the lilac. 
 
COM 
 
 161 
 
 CON 
 
 The food of plants, whether imbibed 
 by their roots or their leaves, must be 
 either in a liquid, or a gaseous form. 
 In these states, most plants obtain a 
 large portion of their food from the 
 atmosphere, decomposing its carbonic 
 acid, and water, and retaining only so 
 much of their carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen, as they require. From the 
 same source also they obtain nitrogen. 
 But they do not obtain these from the 
 atmosphere alone. The roots also 
 obtain them from the soil. Animal and 
 vegetable matters, as they decay, give 
 out carbonic acid ; and partly decom- 
 pose into mucilage, soluble in water, 
 both of- which are rapidly imbibed by 
 the roots. Composts, therefore, should 
 contain these decomposing matters in 
 such proportion, as to give the plants, 
 to which they are applied, the vigour 
 required. If leaves are required to be 
 largely developed, the compost can be 
 scarcely too rich ; for the greater the 
 quantity of food imbibed by the roots, 
 the greater will be the surface of leaves 
 requisite for its elaboration. But if 
 flowers and fruit, as well as leaves, are 
 desired, the composts, if excessively 
 rich, will cause these to diminish in 
 number and size, the flower-buds pass- 
 ing into leaf-buds for the reason already 
 
 Composts must also duly regulate 
 the amount of moisture supplied to the 
 roots, totally independent of drainage, 
 as compost retains to them moisture by 
 its chemical and capillary powers. The 
 richer in decomposing animal and vege- 
 table matter, — the richer in alumina, 
 (clay), — and the looser its texture, the 
 better does a compost retain water. 
 And this power is diminished in pro- 
 portion as siliceous sand, or calcareous 
 (chalky) matters preponderate. 
 
 Mr. Errington, (Gardeners Chroni- 
 cle, 1845,) prepares his composts from 
 strong tenacious loam ; half-rotten leaf- 
 mould; heath-soil ; horse-manure; cow- 
 manure ; charcoal and wood ashes; 
 bone-dust; sharp sand ; burnt turf; and 
 moss- well scalded; and, from these 
 materials there is no doubt that a com- 
 post could be prepared, embracing any 
 desired degree of fertility. — See Ma- 
 nures and Potting. 
 
 COMPOST-GROUND. , This should 
 be an enclosure, concealed from sight, 
 but in the vicinity of the hot-beds, hot- 
 houses, and other similar structures, for 
 11 
 
 the convenience of moving the pots to 
 it, in the potting season ; conveyance of 
 manures, Sec. All the earths and ma- 
 nures should be under a shed, and the 
 dungs, being liable to lose much of 
 their fertile components in drainage, 
 should be in water-tight tanks ; and if 
 these are covered all the better. 
 
 COMPTONIA asplenifolia. Hardy 
 deciduous shrub. Layers. Sandy loam 
 or peat. 
 
 CONANTHERA. Two species. 
 Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
 sets. Light sandy loam. 
 
 CONIFERiE or cone-bearing trees 
 and shrubs are , numerous, embracing 
 the Pines, Larches, Firs, Cedars, Juni- 
 pers, and Thuyas. 
 
 COMMON HARDY SPECIES. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana. 
 Cupressus thuyoides. 
 
 sernpervirens. 
 
 Pinus balsamea. 
 
 larix. 
 
 canadensis. 
 
 sylvestiris. 
 
 picea. 
 
 abies. 
 
 pinea. 
 strobus. 
 pinaster, 
 cedrus. 
 
 Thuya occidentalis. 
 
 orientalis. 
 
 Rarer kinds are thus classed by Mr. 
 G. Gordon, of the Chiswick Gardens : — 
 Section 1. — Mexican Species. 
 
 1st Division. — Fine-leaved, with long 
 slender leaves ; these may be expected 
 not to be so hardy as the other species 
 belonging to this section. 
 
 Pinus Terocote. 
 
 patula. 
 
 -^ apulcencis. 
 
 Devoniana. 
 
 macrophylla. 
 
 Pseudo-Strobus. 
 
 '. Leiophylla. 
 
 Oocarpa. 
 
 Oocarpoides. 
 
 filifolia. 
 
 Montezumse. 
 
 2d Division. — Swamp Pines, with 
 long leaves and few branches, like P. 
 pallustris ; they may be expected to 
 prove hardy. 
 
 Pinus Hartwegii. 
 
 Russelliana. 
 
CON 
 
 162 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CON 
 
 3d Division. — Short leaved; which 
 may be considered as hardy. 
 
 Pinus Llaveana. 
 
 Ayacahuite. 
 
 Abies religiosa. 
 Section II. — Calif ornian or North West 
 American species. 
 
 1st Division. — Fine leaved. These 
 are the tenderest kinds, while those 
 with short leaves are generally hardier, 
 particularly in this American group. 
 
 Pinus insignis. 
 
 californica. 
 
 Monticola. 
 
 2d Division. — Coarse leaved. With 
 robust stems, leaves, and cones. 
 
 Pinus Macrocarpa. 
 
 Sabiniana. 
 
 3d Division. — Short leaved. All 
 either Spruces or Silvers. 
 
 Abies amabalis. 
 
 grandis. 
 
 nobilis. 
 
 Menziesii. 
 
 Section III. — European Species. 
 
 1st Division. — The slender two- 
 leaved pines; or those resembling the 
 Aleppo Pine. (P e halepensis.) 
 
 Pinus Brutia. 
 
 Pithyusa. 
 
 2d Division. — The robust two-leaved 
 species ; or those strong growing kinds, 
 resembling the Cluster Pinaster, and 
 Corsican Laricie, Pines. 
 
 Pinus nigricans, or austriaca. 
 
 hispanica, or pyrenaica. 
 
 romana. 
 
 Ascarena. 
 
 Lemoniana. 
 
 3d Division. — The Silver or Spruce 
 Firs. 
 
 Picea cephalonica, or Mount Enos 
 Fir. 
 
 Pinus Pinsapo, or the Mount Atlas 
 Cedar. 
 
 Section IV. — Asiatic Species. 
 
 1st Division. — The robust two-leaved 
 Pines, or those resembling the Cluster 
 Pine (P. Pinaster). 
 
 Pinus taurica. 
 
 2d Division. — Pinus Sinensis, or the 
 Chinese Pine. 
 
 Pinus excelsa, or the lofty Bhotan 
 Pine. 
 
 Pinus Longifolia. 
 
 Gerardiana. 
 
 3d Division. — The Silver, or Spruce 
 Firs. 
 
 Abies Webbiana, or the purple-coned 
 Silver Fir. 
 
 Pindrow, or Royles Silver. 
 
 Abies Pichta or Sibirica, the Pitch or 
 Siberian Silver. 
 
 Abies Brunoniana, the Indian Hem- 
 lock Spruce. 
 
 Abies Khutrow, the large coned In- 
 dian Spruce. 
 
 Abies Morinda. 
 
 Abies orientalis. 
 
 The following notice of Junipers will 
 be confined, like the preceding of 
 Coniferous Plants, to the more rare 
 and less known kinds. 
 
 True Junipers. Juniperus oblonga 
 (the oblong-fruited Juniper); Juniperus 
 Oxycedrus (large brown-fruited Juni- 
 per) ; Juniperus macrocarpa (the large 
 purple-fruited Juniper) ; Juniperus squa- 
 mosa (the Creeping Indian Juniper) ; 
 Juniperus recurva (the recurved Indian 
 Juniper) ; Juniperus nana (Dwarf Juni- 
 per)." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Propagation by Cuttings. Mr. Gor- 
 don gives these directions : — - 
 
 " In August or September, select a 
 young shoot of moderate strength, and 
 cut it off with a piece of the last year's 
 wood attached, forming what is techni- 
 cally termed a heel. 
 
 " The leaves at the bottom of the 
 cutting should not be pulled off, but 
 must either be left on entire, or short- 
 ened with a sharp knife. When the 
 cutting is made, it should be planted 
 from a half to three-quarters of an inch 
 deep in a pot, filled about one-third 
 with potsherds, on which a layer of 
 turfy peat should be placed, then an 
 inch of good loam, and, on the top of 
 all, a layer of white sand. The pot of 
 cuttings may now be placed in a cold 
 frame, kept close, and shaded when 
 necessary ; they may remain in this 
 situation till the end of October, when 
 they should be put in a cold pit for the 
 Winter. Care must be taken at that 
 season, that they do not suffer from 
 frost or damp ; but they must on no 
 account have fire heat. About the end 
 of February the pot of cuttings may be 
 removed to a hot bed, a bellglass being 
 placed closely over it ; the cuttings will 
 root readily, and many of them will be 
 fit to ppt off by the end of June. When 
 first potted off, the young plants should 
 be treated exactly in the same manner 
 as the cuttings are. 
 
 " In the case of Junipers and Cy- 
 presses, older wood than that used for 
 Pines is necessary, as they have not 
 
CON 
 
 163 
 
 CON 
 
 sufficient strength to omit roots before 
 the winter, and consequently perish 
 during that season, when only callous. 
 If wood of two or three years' growth 
 be taken, it will be found hardy enough 
 to stand the winter, and with the aid of 
 artificial heat, in the spring will root 
 freely." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 By Seed. — The same excellent au- 
 thority gives these directions relative 
 to propagating the conifera from seed. 
 
 " The cones should be gathered at 
 the beginning of winter : they should 
 be placed in some cool but dry place, 
 until the end of March, at which time 
 the seeds should be taken out of the 
 cones; which in some cases is difficult, 
 without injuring them, particularly if 
 they are kiln-dried, as the seeds are 
 easily damaged by fire heat. The 
 cones of some kinds are so hard — of 
 Cocarpa, for example — that it would 
 take weeks on the kiln before they 
 would open. The safest way is to bore 
 a hole through the centre, beginning at 
 the base, or stalk, and afterwards to 
 drive a round piece of hard wood, 
 through the hole, which will split the 
 cones. The seeds may then be re- 
 moved without injury. If the kinds are 
 new or rare, they should be sown in 
 pans filled with dry sandy loam, and 
 without any mixture, of either peat, 
 leaf mould, or rotten dung; all of 
 which are injurious, and cause the 
 young plants to damp off when they 
 first come up, more especially if it 
 should be damp weather at the time 
 they appear above ground. If the 
 loam is a little stiff, a small portion of 
 sand may be used ; but this must be 
 avoided as much as possible, because 
 the more sand there is in the soil the 
 weaker the plants come up. If they 
 are in a doubtful condition, sow the 
 seeds in pans filled with very dry loam, 
 and place them in some dry situation, 
 out of the reach of damp, they will then 
 not be injured ; whereas if they were 
 not placed in dry soil, they would be 
 sure to perish, or if sown in damp 
 soil, the like destruction would attend 
 them. 
 
 " When spring advances, place the 
 pans in a gentle, but by no means damp 
 heat ; taking care, however, to remove 
 them to a much cooler place, before 
 the young plants are fairly above 
 ground, and afterwards harden them 
 off by degrees, giving them but little 
 
 water at first ; for much depends upon 
 the use made of water, at this period, 
 and the treatment given to them, when 
 in this state, (that is, when the young 
 plant has exhausted the nourishment 
 supplied by the seed, and has to seek 
 subsistence from its own roots ;) after 
 which there is little danger of their 
 damping off, except they are over 
 watered. When the plants are fairly 
 up, and a little hardened, they may be 
 potted off singly, into small pots, filled 
 with a mixture of loam and sandy peat. 
 If the loam is rather poor or stiff, a 
 little leaf-mould may be added; for the 
 bad effects of the two latter substances 
 seem only to occur during the time the 
 young plant received its support from 
 the seed. 
 
 " When potted, they should be 
 placed in a close pit or frame for a few 
 days, until they recover the effects of 
 the shift, and afterwards air must be 
 freely admitted ; but water given rather 
 sparingly at first. They will require 
 little trouble afterwards, but probably 
 may want shifting into larger pots in 
 the autumn, (particularly the strong 
 growing kinds,) as it is injurious to 
 their future growth for their roots to 
 get pot-bound when young. The more 
 rare or tender kinds should not be 
 planted out before the third season ; 
 but the commoner ones may be planted 
 out after the first year. 
 
 " The common kinds, such as the 
 Scotch fir, larch, spruce, and silver firs, 
 Pinaster, Stone, and Weymouth seeds, 
 and even the Deodar, and Cedar of 
 Lebanon may be sown in the open 
 border with great advantage in the fol- 
 lowing manner : — select a good fresh 
 loamy soil which is not stiff, but rather 
 sandy, and about the end of March dig 
 and break the surface rather finely ; 
 then mark the ground out into beds 
 about four feet wide, leaving an alley 
 of a foot wide between each bed ; and 
 on some fine dry day sow the seeds 
 broadcast rather thickly, covering them 
 over from a quarter to half an inch 
 deep, according to the size of the 
 seeds ; then smooth the surface by 
 gently beating it with the back of the 
 spade ; — (this must only be done if the 
 soil is dry, and rather light.) They 
 will then require no other care except 
 keeping them from weeds, and the at- 
 tacks of birds, mice, and slugs, which 
 are very destructive to them, when 
 
CON 
 
 164 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CON 
 
 they first make their appearance above ■ 
 ground. 
 
 " By placing some small branches | 
 thickly over the beds until the young 
 plants have thrown off the old seed- 
 coat, they may be protected from the 
 ravages of birds ; if attacked by mice, 
 traps must be set for catching them, as 
 the only safe mode of preventing such 
 pests; and if subject to be eaten by | 
 slugs, some wood-ashes should be 
 sown over the beds just as the young] 
 plants are making their appearance. 
 
 "Inarching is another way for in- 
 creasing the pine tribe, but, like graft- 
 ing, only suitable for the propagation 
 of curious varieties, and is certainly a 
 more unsightly way than that of cleft- 
 grafting, as the stock and scion hardly 
 ever unite to cover the old heel, when 
 separated from the mother plant. 
 
 " This operation may be performed 
 either with the last year's or the pre- 
 ceding year's wood, but the former is 
 by far the quickest in taking ; it is best 
 performed about the same time as graft- 
 
 " The seeds of the greater part of! ing, but the inarches must not be re- 
 
 the pine tribe come up in about six 
 weeks after sowing in the open border, 
 and the most of them will be fit for 
 transplanting into nursery-rows the 
 first year after sowing; afterwards they 
 may be treated in the same way as 
 other forest trees." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Grafting, fyc. — *' The pine or fir 
 tribe are sometimes increased by graft- 
 ing or inarching. It is at present little 
 practised, and when it is so, only as a 
 means of propagating some of the curi- 
 ous varieties ofthe propersection Pinus, 
 which are the most difficult and uncer- 
 tain to strike from cuttings. Procure 
 some good healthy young plants of the 
 common kinds, of the same section to 
 which the sort to be increased belongs 
 in pots ; if it is to the robust two-leaved 
 section, such as the Pinaster or Stone 
 Pine, procure them for the stocks : if to 
 the Weymouth or Scotch, procure them, 
 but they will take on the common Scotch 
 Fir. If the species or variety belongs 
 to the Spruce or silver tribe, procure 
 such for stocks ; if it belongs to the ce- 
 dar or larch section, the common larch 
 will do, bearing in mind that the species 
 intended to be united should be as 
 nearly related as possible; for although 
 the true Pinus may be worked on a 
 larch stock, they will soon perish. The 
 operation is performed on the current 
 year's growth by cleft grafting, (and 
 always in the leading shoot, shortening 
 several of the side shoots at the time,) 
 or by splitting the stock down the cen- 
 tre after the head is removed sufficiently 
 deep for receiving the scion, which 
 must be cut wedge-shaped, to fit. 
 " The time of performing the opera 
 
 moved for two yeai 
 
 " Layering is certainly one of the 
 best modes, where it can be done. 
 Layering should be performed early in 
 the spring, before the plant begins to 
 grow, and in the usual common way, 
 by slightly tonguing and laying the 
 shoots in light sandy soil, pegging them 
 securely down. 
 
 " They will require two years to 
 root, but it should be observed, that 
 in layering, the whole plant must be 
 layered, as it is very uncertain if only 
 the bottom branches are so done, as 
 these frequently die after the operation 
 if the upper ones are left on : therefore 
 the whole plant should be bent down, 
 or the head cut off. 
 
 " Pines and firs should be planted in 
 the open ground, about the end of April, 
 if they are rare or tender kinds : but if 
 hardy and common ones, the end of 
 February is best. 
 
 " The Soil most suitable for them is 
 a light sandy loam, on a dry subsoil; 
 but they will all grow in almost any 
 soil that is not overcharged with water, 
 or too poor, if encouraged at first by 
 mixing a little sandyloamandleafmbuld 
 with the common earth, when planting 
 them where they are permanently to 
 remain. 
 
 " In planting, the roots should be 
 spread out as much as possible, and 
 kept near the surface, leaving the plant 
 a little elevated on a small mound, if 
 the adjoining ground is level, but if on 
 a declivity, it is of no consequence. 
 
 " When planted, they should be well 
 watered, not immediately at the roots, 
 but for a yard or two all round, and 
 
 tion is when the young shoots are about then a few spruce fir or other branches 
 
 L.if ] u..:^ii„ :*L »u. _i u u _ -i-.-i- j *_ i i. _rr^u_ 
 
 half-grown, and are brittle with 
 stock ; the operation is done in 
 
 the 
 th 
 
 should be stuck round, to break off the 
 sun's rays, and the winds ; if they are 
 
 usual way afterwards, by tying, and ex- , tender they should have a large hand- 
 
 cludins: the aii 
 
 glass over them for the first winter, 
 
CON 
 
 165 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CON 
 
 which may remain permanently on dur- 
 ing the months of December and Jan- 
 uary. 
 
 " In preparing the compost for them, 
 a little sand should be used, if the soil 
 of the place is tolerably good, but ra- 
 ther stiff; but if poor and light, a little 
 loam and leaf mould must be added ; it 
 is by far the best way to accustom the 
 plants to the common soil at once, while 
 they are young, for if the ground is 
 made good for their reception only, 
 they will grow vigorously and rapid, 
 and as soon as they exhaust the pre- 
 pared soil, they become stunted, and 
 frequently die prematurely. 
 
 " In protecting the tender kinds, a 
 single mat covering at a sufficient dis- 
 tance will keep most of them from in- 
 jury ; but much damage is done to the 
 plants by not being able to remove the 
 covering early in the spring. 
 
 " The covering should be constructed 
 so that the top can be removed during 
 the day time, and replaced at night, 
 which hardens the plants, and at the 
 same time protects them from the effects 
 of the late spring frosts, which destroy 
 the young shoots, especially of Web- 
 biana, and other silver firs. 
 
 " In pruning there is little to be done 
 except to cut away all dead branches, 
 and to protect the leader." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 CONNARUS. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Ripened cuttings. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 CONOCARPUS. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Ripened cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 CONOSPERMUM. Nine species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 CONOSTYLIS. Three species. 
 Green-house herbaceous perennials. 
 Division. Sandy peat. 
 
 CONSERVATIVE WALLS. See 
 Walls. 
 
 CONSERVATORY. This structure 
 is a green-house communicating with the 
 residence, having borders and beds in 
 which to grow its tenant plants ; or it 
 may be an appendage to the dwelling, 
 of moderate size, into which the plants 
 from the green-house are removed whilst 
 in bloom, thus concentrating the more 
 attractive specimens, and presenting a 
 continuous show of flowers. 
 
 Good plants for turning out into the 
 beds of a conservatory are : — Templeto- 
 
 nia Glauca ; Luculia gratissima ; Eu- 
 taxia myrtifolia; Pimelea spectabilis ; 
 Chorozema varium ; Brugmansia san- 
 guined ; Crowea saligna ; Cytisus race- 
 mosus ; Horea Celsi ; together with Ca- 
 mellias, and the different kinds of 
 Acacia. 
 
 Mr. Beaton observes, that — " In some 
 instances the more hardy stove climbers 
 are now planted out into the conserva- 
 tory after they have been grown in 
 vineries, or other forcing-houses, or in 
 stoves, till they are long enough to 
 reach the top of the house at once, 
 which is kept sufficiently close to afford 
 them the necessary temperature. Many 
 of this class must necessarily be left 
 naked at bottom, where the air of the 
 house is too cold for their young shoots, 
 and thus a space is left for choice woody 
 plants that are not climbers, among 
 which the subject of these remarks may 
 take a leading place. 
 
 " At present, when climbers get 
 naked at the bottom, the practice is 
 either to cover the parts with long 
 shoots from the top of the house, or to 
 plant slender-growing climbers round 
 them ; but a better way would be to se- 
 lect fine plants, not exceeding ten or 
 twelve feet in a rich border, or that 
 might be easily kept to be the required 
 height, by pruning, such plants being 
 remarkable for some peculiar feature, 
 such as a graceful mode of growth, fine 
 foliage, conspicuous or sweet-scented 
 flowers, &c. A situation of this kind 
 would suit Luculia gratissima, particu- 
 larly if it happened to be near the doors 
 or source of ventilation. 
 
 " This beautiful shrub, so lovely in 
 the autumn, although a strong growing 
 plant, is a delicate feeder; and a strong 
 climber planted behind it may be said 
 to assist its growth rather than impede 
 it, by appropriating to itself the more 
 gross parts of the soil in the border. If 
 the climber, however, is of the very 
 fibrous-rooted kind, like the ash, feu- 
 plants can compete with it for nourish- 
 ment ; whereas such climbers as Ipo- 
 mcea, Horsfallise, Combretum purpu- 
 reum, Beaumontia grandiflora, and most 
 of the Passion flowers, Hardenbergias, 
 Zichyas, &c, form their roots different- 
 ly, and are suitable for this kind of 
 furnishing when they become naked be- 
 low. Plants for such a purpose ought 
 to be well established and of consider- 
 able size, before they are finally planted 
 
CON 
 
 166 
 
 COR 
 
 out; and all plants, whether climbers 
 or otherwise, that have been first reared 
 in the stove, or in heat, ought to be 
 thus treated, otherwise it is found in 
 practice that many of them make little 
 progress for the first season or two. 
 
 "Another cause which operates 
 against the free progress of some 
 climbers is, that for the sake of conve- 
 nience they are increased from cuttings 
 of the flowering shoots, which are more 
 
 CORCHORUS. See Sherria. 
 
 CORDIA. Thirty species. Stov«r 
 evergreen trees or shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 CORDYLINE. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Suckers. Peat and 
 loam, or any light vegetable soil. 
 
 COREMA alba. Hardy evergreen 
 shrub. Layers. Sandy peat. 
 
 COREOPSIS. Twenty-three species. 
 Chiefly hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 
 or less stunted, and the young plants Cuttings and division. Rich light soil. 
 
 for a time retain that character, until 
 forced by a good feeding or strong heat 
 to assume their native freedom ; and 
 even after that is effected, if they are 
 afterwards much confined in small pots, 
 they become again stunted ; then the 
 best remedy is to cut them down to the 
 surface of the ground, and force them 
 in a hot-bed to make a fresh growth. 
 
 The annuals and biennials by seeds. 
 Common soil. 
 
 COREOPSIS. See Chrysostemona. 
 
 CORETHROSTYLIS ftractea. Green- 
 house shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. • 
 
 CORIANDRUM sativum. Coriander. 
 Hardy annual. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CORIARIA. Two species. Hardy 
 
 Beaumontia grandiflora, and some of i and green-house evergreen shrubs. The 
 the stove Bignonias, are the first to suf- hardy species is increased by cuttings 
 fer from either cause; yet when they! of the roots or suckers. Common soil, 
 are young and vigorous, they grow from j The green-house species by cuttings. 
 
 ten to twenty feet in length in one sea- 
 son, and some Bignonias even much 
 more. The former should be about two 
 or three years old, and from fifteen to 
 twenty feet in length before it is planted 
 
 Sand, loam, and peat. 
 
 CORIS monspeliensis. Green-house 
 biennial. Seeds. Peat and loam. 
 
 CORK TREE. Quercus suber. 
 
 CORNELIAN CHERRY. Cornus 
 
 in the conservatory, where it flowers mascula. 
 
 freely for two or three months, in ter- 
 minal heads, of large white trumpet- 
 shaped flowers." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 CONTORTION. See Deformity. 
 
 CONVALLARIA. The Lily of the 
 Valley. One species, and two varieties. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division. 
 Common soil. 
 
 CONVOLVULUS. Fifty-one species. 
 Chiefly twiners. The stove and green- 
 house plants thrive best in loam and 
 peat, and increase by cuttings ; the 
 hardy kinds, and green-house annuals 
 and biennials, by seeds. Common soil. 
 
 COOKIA punctata. Stove evergreen 
 tree. Ripened cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 COOPERIA. Two species. Green- 
 house bulbous perennials. Seeds. Sandy 
 compost. 
 
 COPTIS trifoliata. Hardy herba- 
 ceous perennial. Division or 
 Peat soil. 
 
 CORAL TREE. Erythrina corallo- 
 dendron. 
 
 CORAXIC POISON BULB. Bruns- 
 vigia coronica. 
 
 CORBULARIA serotina. Hardy bul- 
 bous perennial. Offsets. Sandy loam. 
 
 CORN FLAG. Gladiolus bullatus. 
 
 CORN SALAD. See Lamb's Lettuce. 
 
 CORNUS. Thirteen species, and 
 some varieties. Chiefly hardy decidu- 
 ous shrubs and trees. Seeds or layers. 
 Common soil. The herbaceous species 
 thrive best in peat, and increase by di- 
 vision of the root. 
 
 C. florida is a common tree in the 
 United States. It is a pleasing object 
 when in bloom ; its creamy white brac- 
 tea enlivening the woodland when but 
 few plants have yet expanded their 
 flowers. 
 
 CORNUTI A pyramidata. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 CORONILLA. Sixteen species, and 
 one variety. Chiefly half-hardy ever- 
 green shrubs. The green-house species 
 are increased by cuttings or seeds, 
 seeds, j Peat and loam. The herbaceous re- 
 i quire protection in severe weather. 
 Seeds or division. The hardy annuals. 
 Seeds. Common soil. Some are hardy 
 deciduous creepers. 
 
 CORRtEA. Nine species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sand 
 and loam. 
 
COR 
 
 167 
 
 CR A 
 
 CORRIGIOLA. Three species. Har- 
 dy trailers. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CORTUSA Mathiole. Hardy herba- 
 ceous perennial. Requires protection 
 in severe weather. Division or seeds. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 CORYANTHES. Three species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood. 
 
 CORYCIUM. Two species. Half- 
 hardy orchids. Division. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 CORYDALIS. Twenty- four species. 
 Hardy annuals, biennials, or tuberous- 
 rooted perennials. The latter increase 
 by division. Peat and loam. The an- 
 nuals by seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CORYLUS. Nut Tree. Seven spe- 
 cies, and many varieties. Hardy de- 
 ciduous shrubs. Suckers or layers. 
 Common soil. See Filbert. 
 
 CORYNOCARPUS Icevigatus. Green- 
 house evergreen tree. Layers. Rich 
 mould. 
 
 CORYPHA. Eight species. Palms. 
 A strong moist heat, and sandy loam. 
 
 COSCENIUM fenestration. Stove 
 evergreen climber. Division. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 COSMEA. Seven species. Green- 
 house or hardy annuals. Seeds. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 COSMELIA rubra. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 COSMUS. Three species. Hardy 
 and green-house tuberous-rooted pe- 
 rennials. Division. Common soil. C. 
 tenuifolius is a hardy annual, increased 
 from seeds. 
 
 COSSIGNIA borbonica. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 COSTMARY. See Balsamita. 
 
 COSTUS. Twelve species. Stove 
 herbaceous perennials. Division or 
 seed. Peat and loam. 
 
 COTONEASTER. Ten species, and 
 some varieties. Hardy deciduous 
 shrubs. Layers. Common soil. 
 
 COTYLEDON. Thirty-six species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs : a few 
 herbaceous perennials. Cuttings dried 
 in the sun. Sandy loam. 
 
 COULTERIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Seeds. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 COURGOURDE. Lagenaria vul- 
 garis. 
 
 COUTAREA speciosa. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 CO WANI A plicata. Hardy evergreen 
 shrub. Division. Sandy peat. 
 
 COWBERRY. Vaccinium Vitis Idea. 
 
 COWDIE PINE. Dammara australis. 
 
 COWSLIP. {Primula veris.) There 
 are several varieties, varying in colour 
 from almost white to a very deep yel- 
 low ; some are single, but others are 
 double, in the form that florists distin- 
 guish as hose-in-hose , the calyx in these 
 being converted into corolla. Some 
 specimens will produce one hundred 
 pips upon a single truss, and they have 
 been known to yield even more than 
 one hundred and fifty. 
 
 The cultivation is the same as that of 
 the Polyanthus. 
 
 CRAMBE. Three species. Hardy 
 tuberous-rooted perennial. Division or 
 seed. Rich soil. See Sea-kale. 
 
 CRANBERRY. Oxy coccus palustris. 
 
 CRANE'S BILL. Geranium. 
 
 CRASSULA. Fifty-nine species and 
 a few varieties. Hardy evergreen an- 
 nual or biennial shrubs. Cuttings laid 
 for a few days in the sun. Sandy loam 
 and brick rubbish. 
 
 CRATAEGUS. Hawthorn. Fifty 
 species and many varieties. Chiefly 
 hardy deciduous low trees. Seeds, 
 buds, or grafts. 
 
 Dr. Lindley gives the following list 
 of the most showy kinds. 
 
 C. Aronia. — Most showy species of 
 all in the autumn ; very large bright 
 yellow fruit in great abundance. 
 
 C. Tenacetifolia. — Upright growing, 
 finely cut leaves, the largest fruit of all, 
 yellow. 
 
 C. Odoratissima. — A spreading tree ; 
 downy leaves, numerous large bright 
 red fruit in the autumn. 
 
 C. Orientalis. — Large dark red fruit. 
 
 C. Coccinia. — Very showy; large and 
 numerous bunches of bright red fruit in 
 the autumn. 
 
 C. Glandulosa. — Dense bush, and is 
 ornamental in the autumn, covered 
 with abundance of rather large red fruit. 
 
 C. Punctata. — Three varieties, one 
 with red fruit, another with yellow, and 
 a third with an upright or fastigiate 
 habit of growth. 
 
 C. Oliveriana. — Small, deeply cut, 
 woolly leaves, and small black fruit, 
 numerous and ornamental in the au- 
 tumn. 
 
 C. Bouglasii. — Various shaped leaves 
 and black fruit, which ripen early in 
 the autumn. 
 
CR A 
 
 168 
 
 C RO 
 
 C. Nigra. — Strong growing, with 
 black fruit and deeply divided leaves, 
 flowering rather early. 
 
 C. Heterophylla. — Beautiful species, 
 profusion of flowers in the spring, and 
 
 curled leaved, and broad leaved. The 
 method of cultivation is the same as is 
 used for the parsley. To have a con- 
 stant supply in perfection, very frequent 
 sowings should be made; during hot, 
 
 numerous small red fruit in the autumn. I dry weather, it should be sown in the 
 C. Macracantha. — With immense j shade of trees, or protected by brush, 
 spines and small shining yellowish-red &c.,from the direct rays of the sun." — 
 fruit, produced in large bunches early j Rural Register. 
 
 in the autumn 
 
 C. Pyrifolia. — Free flowering kind, 
 with small, but very numerous yellow- 
 ish-red fruit, which ripen very late in 
 the autumn. 
 
 C. Crus-Galli. — Bright shining green 
 leaves, and numerous bunches of dark- 
 red fruit, which ripen very late in the 
 autumn. The most desirable is the 
 variety called sallicifolia, which has 
 horizontal branches, forming a flat ta- 
 ble-shaped head. 
 
 C. Prunifolia. — A close bush, rather 
 large shining leaves, and numerous 
 bunches of dark-red fruit, which ripen 
 late in the autumn. 
 
 C. Flava. — Small greenish-yellow 
 fruit late in the autumn. 
 
 C. Virginiana. — A dwarf kind, with 
 numerous green fruit, it retains its fruit 
 nearly all the winter. 
 
 C. Cordata. — The latest in flower, 
 and bears the smallest fruit; it has bright 
 shining angular leaves, and bright red 
 berries. 
 
 V. Oxycantha Rosea Superba. — The 
 most brilliant of all when in flower, it 
 bears bright crimson blossoms in May. 
 The double variety of it has also flowers, 
 nearly as intense in colour, and quite 
 double. 
 
 CRATtEVA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Rich strong 
 soil. 
 
 CREEPERS or TRAILERS are plants 
 which by having numerous stems and 
 branches resting upon and spreading 
 over the soil's surface, are useful for 
 concealing what would be unpleasing 
 to the eye. 
 
 CRESCENTIA. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen trees. Ripened cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 CRESS. (Lepidium sativum.) 
 
 " The Garden Cress, or Pepper 
 Grass is a hardy annual plant ; its na- 
 tive country is unknown. It is culti- 
 vated in gardens for the young Reaves 
 which are used in salads, and have a 
 peculiarly warm and grateful relish. 
 
 " The varieties are the plain leaved, 
 
 CRESS ROCKET. See Vella. 
 
 CRINUM. Sixty-six species and some 
 varieties. Stove or green-house bulbous 
 perennials. Offsets. Rich loam, peat, 
 and sand. 
 
 C. capense, is thus recommended by 
 the best cultivator of the amaryllidee, to 
 which the Crinum belongs. The Rev. 
 W. Herbert says, — "Crinum capense is 
 good for covering small islands, as af- 
 fording by its abundant arched foliage, 
 the best possible covert for wild fowl, 
 and producing an abundant succession 
 of beautiful flowers throughout the sum- 
 mer, and even the autumn. The plant 
 is equally capable of flowering and 
 ripening its seed when planted in a 
 border, or two feet under the surface 
 of the water, or in a rainy season. It 
 could be best planted a little above the 
 level of the water. The seed sprouts 
 as soon as it is ripe, and the young 
 plants should be sheltered in pots the 
 first and second winter, and then plant- 
 ed out; taking care that the weeds do 
 not smother them while young. The 
 bulbs when full grown are hardy." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 CHRISTARIA coccinea. Hardy her- 
 baceous perennial. Division or seeds. 
 Peat soil. 
 
 CROCUS. Many species and varie- 
 ties. Hardy bulbous perennials. Off- 
 sets or seeds. Light sandy soil. 
 
 Spring Crocuses. — C. vernus: of this 
 there are about five varieties, varying 
 in colour, chiefly yellow, white, purple, 
 and blue ; C. annulatus, four varieties, 
 blue and white ; C. speciosus, three va- 
 rieties ; C. pulchellus; C. Sibthorpianus; 
 C. Icevigatus, two varieties ; C. lagena- 
 florus, many varieties ; C. campestris; 
 C. cancellatus; C. retaulatus, four va- 
 rieties ; C. gargaricus ; C. Siberianus ; 
 C. Fleischerianus; C. parvulus; C. pyre- 
 caus; C. asturinus; C. serotinus; C. 
 salmnaunianus; C. versicolor, five va- 
 rieties ; C. imperatorianus ; C. suaveo- 
 lens; C. insularis; C. odorus; C. longi- 
 florus ; C. medius ; C. Pallasianus ; C. 
 Thomasianus, two varieties ; C. sativus. 
 
 
CRO 
 
 169 
 
 CRO 
 
 Of the Autumn Crocus, the Rev. Dr. 
 Herbert particularizes the following : 
 
 C. Damascenus, pale purple; C. By- 
 zantinus, white ; C. Touraefortianus, 
 French white ; C. Cambessedesianus, 
 white, streaked with purple ; C. medius, 
 purple ; C. Cartwrightianus, purple ; 
 C. var. Creticus, purple and pink ; C. 
 Chusianus, light purple. — Bot. Reg. 
 
 Characteristics of Excellence. — 
 
 " First. — It should be composed of 
 six.petals, three inner and three outer; 
 but fitting so close as to form a cup the 
 shape of half a hollow ball. 
 
 " Second. — The petals should be 
 broad enough and blunt enough at the 
 ends to form an even edge all round 
 the cup, and lap over each other so 
 much as to have no indentations where 
 they join. 
 
 " Third. — The petals should be thick 
 and smooth on the edge, without notch 
 or serratine. 
 
 "Fourth. — The colour should be 
 dense and all over the same, if the 
 variety be a self; and the marking 
 should be very distinct, if variegated. 
 
 " Fifth. — It should be hardy enough 
 to stand the frost, for those which are 
 spoiled by the frosts, which come after 
 they flower, are almost worthless, be- 
 cause they all bloom early, before the 
 frosts are gone, and therefore their only 
 beauty would be destroyed unless they 
 stood the cold well. 
 
 "Lastly. — They ought to bloom 
 abundantly, the flowers succeeding each 
 other to lengthen the season of their 
 bloom." — Hort. Mag. 
 
 Cultivation. — "The seeds of crocuses 
 are best sown thinly, immediately after 
 being gathered in light dry earth in large 
 pots or pans, with a sufficiency of holes 
 and potsherds at the bottom for the pur- 
 pose of draining all, and cover not more 
 than half an inch with the mould. The 
 most eligible aspect or situation until 
 the autumnal rains set in, is a moderate- | 
 ly shady, yet unsheltered one, permit- j 
 ting them to receive all the influence of | 
 the weather, except such heavy showers 
 as would wash bare the seeds. As soon, 
 however, as the autumnal rains com- 
 mence, remove to a warm aspect ; and 
 protect them from all excessive rains, 
 frosts, and snows, by the occasional 
 shelter of a garden-frame, allowing 
 them, nevertheless, the benefit of the 
 full air at other times ; but more espe- 
 cially after the seminal leaf, for they 
 
 have but one, (being monocotyledonous 
 plants,) appears above the surface of 
 the earth. 
 
 "This occurs sometimes about the 
 end of the year; but oftener in earliest 
 spring. After this it is essential that 
 they should have complete exposure to 
 the air, even in frosty weather, screen- 
 ing them, however, occasionally with 
 loose straw from other injurious effects 
 of frost. In this manner may the young 
 crocuses be treated until the sun ac- 
 quires sufficient power to dry the earth, 
 or as to require daily waterings. It will 
 be then found advantageous to remove 
 them to a cooler, but not sheltered 
 situation, and here they may remain 
 until their leaves lie down ; giving them 
 at all times, and in every situation, 
 while their leaves are growing, such 
 discretional rose waterings, when the 
 sun is not shining, as they may reason- 
 ably appear to require ; but never until 
 the earth they grow in becomes dry; 
 not any whatever after their leaves 
 begin to look yellow. After this period 
 it is necessary to defend them from all 
 humidity, except dews and gentle rains, 
 until the end of August or beginning of 
 September. 
 
 " If the surface of the earth is oc- 
 casionally stirred with the point of a 
 knife it will never fail to be attended 
 with beneficial effects, and invigorate 
 the bulbs ; if notwithstanding the pre- 
 caution of thinly sowing the seeds, the 
 plants should have grown so thickly to- 
 gether as to have incommoded each 
 other, it will be desirable to have such 
 taken up and replanted immediately 
 further asunder in fresh earth, and about 
 three quarters of an inch deep. But if 
 they are not too crowded, they will re- 
 quire no shifting ; sift a little earth over 
 them, previously stirring and cleaning 
 the surface of the old from moss and 
 weeds, and observing not to bury the 
 young bulbs, not yet so large as lentils, 
 deeper than three quarters of an inch, 
 or an inch at the most. The second 
 season requires exactly the same man- 
 agement as the first. But as soon as 
 their second year's foilage has passed 
 away, the roots should all be taken up 
 and replanted again, the same or fol- 
 lowing day, into fresh earth of the same 
 kind a»before; sifting over them in au- 
 tumn half an inch of fresh earth. The 
 spring following, if they have been duly 
 attended to, most of them will show 
 
CRO 
 
 170 
 
 cue 
 
 flowers ; a few, perhaps, having done 
 so in the midst of their fourth crop of 
 leaves." — Hort. Soc. Trans. 
 
 They are very hardy, and require no 
 care till the leaves begin to fade, when 
 they should be taken up and kept in a 
 state of rest for two or three months : 
 some do not take them up oftener than 
 once in three years, which answers 
 very well for the border sorts. Even 
 these, however, should not be left 
 longer; because, as the young bulbs 
 are formed on the top of the others, 
 they come nearer to the surface every 
 year, till at last, if neglected, they are 
 thrown out and lost. — Enc. Gard. 
 
 Soil, 8fC. — They like a warm, dry, 
 light soil, in which they will thrive for 
 many years without requiring removal. 
 Both are, however, better for being 
 taken up occasionally, because in that 
 way their roots are exposed to fresh soil, 
 and are not obliged to search through 
 exhausted earth for their necessary food. 
 They are fond of cow-dung as a manure; 
 it may be applied just after Christmas. 
 -~-Gard. Chron. 
 
 CROWEA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 CROWN IMPERIAL. See Fritil- 
 lary. 
 
 CRUCIANELLA. Fourteen species. 
 Hardy annuals and herbaceous peren- 
 nials. C. americana and C. maritima 
 are green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 CRYPTANDRA. Two species. 
 Green-house shrubs. Cuttings. Rich 
 light loam. 
 
 CRYPTOCHILUS sanguined. Stove 
 orchid. Offsets. Peat and potsherds. 
 
 CRYPTOLEPIS elegans. Stove ever- 
 green climber. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 CRYPTOMERIA japonica. Japan 
 Cedar. " Hardy evergreen tree, which 
 will probably prove one of the most 
 ornamental of the Conifers. Sow the 
 seed in sandy loam in a cool place; pot 
 singly ; the first year it will attain a 
 height of from twelve to eighteen 
 inches. It grows rapidly, and is as easily 
 managed as the Chinese Arbor Vitas 
 {Thuja Orientalis), succeeding in almost 
 any soil or situation, not very p\>or or 
 wet." — (Hort. Soc. Journ.) — It will be 
 propagated, probably, by cuttings. 
 
 CRYPTOSTEGIA. Two species. 
 
 twiners. Cuttings. 
 
 Three species. 
 Common soil. 
 Lychnis flos- 
 
 Stove evergreen 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 CRYPTOSTEMMA. 
 Hardy annuals. Seeds. 
 
 CUCKOO-FLOWER. 
 cuculi. 
 
 CUCKOO-FLOWER. Cardaminepra- 
 
 t&7ZS2S 
 
 CUCKOO-SPIT. See Tettigonia. 
 
 CUCULLIA verbasci. Mullien Shark. 
 The caterpillars of this moth are very 
 destructive to Verbascums in June and 
 July. Mr. Curtis describes them as 
 being " about two and a half inches 
 long, bluish white and thickly sprinkled 
 with black and bright yellow spots ; 
 when touched, they emit a considerable 
 quantity of dark green fluid from their 
 mouths. When they have attained their 
 growth, they burrow into the ground at 
 the roots of the plant on which they 
 have been feeding, and in a few days 
 form a cocoon made principally of half 
 rotted leaves and fine mould, and bound 
 firmly together with silk, so as to re- 
 semble a stone, or a small lump of earth. 
 They remain in this state till the follow- 
 ing May, and sometimes for two years, 
 when they emerge as pretty blackish 
 brown moths. The wings, when ex- 
 tended, measure between one and two 
 inches across; the upper pair are brown- 
 ish, clouded with black, and have on 
 the inner edge a pale white patch, re- 
 sembling the figure 3, or the Greek 
 letter ?; the lower wings are pale 
 brownish, and sometimes nearly white, 
 and have a broad dark border. We 
 have seen those caterpillars in such 
 abundance in some gardens, as to com- 
 pletely destroy all the different kinds of 
 Mullein, and the nearly allied plants. 
 The only way to lessen their ravages, 
 is to collect and kill the caterpillars." 
 —Gard. Chron. 
 
 CUCUMBER. Cucumis sativus. 
 This, like many other esculent vege- 
 tables, has been divided into a number 
 of varieties and subvarieties, the greater 
 portion of which could be easily dis- 
 pensed with ; for all useful purposes, 
 three or four varieties are amply suffi- 
 cient. " Those principally grown are 
 the Early Frame and Long Green 
 Prickly. The Early Frame is of mode- 
 rate length, prickly, and is the variety 
 generally used as the early crop for 
 
 " The Long Green is mostly grown 
 for pickling ; all the varieties are very 
 
cue 
 
 171 
 
 cue 
 
 tender, not bearing the least frost. For 
 an early supply start some plant in pots 
 or boxes, early in the spring, and when 
 the season is more advanced set them 
 out on a well sheltered border, in hills, 
 with some thoroughly rotted manure 
 incorporated with the soil. Seed for 
 succeeding crops may then be planted. 
 For pickles, plant the latter end of 
 June and beginning of July. The Cu- 
 cumber, like the Squash, &c, is liable 
 to be preyed upon by yellow bugs, 
 which are very destructive. To coun- 
 teract them prepare a mixture of slaked 
 lime and wood ashes, and sprinkle it 
 freely on the leaves and stems whilst 
 the dew is on, that it may adhere. As 
 often as it may be washed or blown off, 
 repeat the application, till the enemy be 
 conquered. 
 
 " For the method of making sieves or 
 boxes to protect cucumber ,jines, melon 
 vines, &c, against the yellow bug, see 
 the New England Farmer, vol. 2, page 
 305." — Rural Register. 
 
 To force Cucumbers. — Most persons 
 who have the requisite conveniences 
 force this vegetable. The following hints 
 may be useful, even to those who have 
 some experience. 
 
 The hot-bed for seedlings must be 
 moderate, and a single one or two light 
 frames will be quite sufficient if dedi- 
 cated to their cultivation. The mould 
 need not be more than five or six inches 
 deep. The seed is best sown four 
 together in small pots, and plunged in 
 the earth of the bed ; but whether here 
 or in the mould, it must not be buried 
 more than half an inch deep. Two or 
 three days after sowing, or when the 
 seminal leaves are half an inch in 
 breadth, those in the mould of the bed 
 must be pricked three together in small 
 pots, quite down to their leaves in the 
 earth, which should be brought to the 
 temperature of the bed before this re- 
 moval, by being set in it for a day or 
 two previously ; those seedlings that 
 have been raised in pots, must likewise 
 be thinned to three in each. They 
 must remain plunged in the hot-bed 
 until their rough leaves have acquired 
 a breadth of two or three inches, when 
 they are fit for ridging out finally. 
 
 During this first stage of growth, 
 great care must be taken that air is ad- 
 mitted everyday as freely as contingent 
 circumstances will admit, as also at 
 night, if the degree of heat and steam 
 
 threatens to be too powerful. It must 
 never be neglected to cover the glasses 
 at night, apportioning the covering to 
 the temperature of the air and bed. 
 The heat should not exceed 80° in the 
 hottest day, or sink below 65° during 
 the coldest night. 
 
 If the heat declines, coatings of hot 
 dung are to be applied in succession 
 to the back, front, and sides, if that 
 source of heat be employed. As the 
 mould appears dry, moderate waterings 
 must be given, care being taken not to 
 wet the leaves. The best time for ap- 
 plying it is between ten and two of a 
 mild day, the glasses being closed for 
 an hour or two after performing it. 
 The temperature of the water must be 
 between 65° and 80°. The interior of 
 the glass should be frequently wiped, to 
 prevent the condensed steam dropping 
 upon the plants, which is very injurious 
 to them. If the bed attains a sudden 
 violent heat, the necessary precautions 
 to prevent the roots of the plants being 
 injured or scalded, must be adopted ; 
 but if hot water is the source of heat, 
 this danger is avoided altogether. 
 
 It is a material advantage if, previous 
 to planting finally, the plants be turned 
 into pots a few sizes larger, without at 
 all disturbing the roots, and plunged 
 into a hot-bed for a month longer, the 
 same attention being paid them as 
 before. 
 
 The second stage of cultivation is 
 planting them out into hot-beds for final 
 production. The hot-bed for their re- 
 ception must be of the largest size, as 
 being required to afford a higher and 
 longer continued warmth through the 
 coldest periods of the year. 
 
 When the earth is put on, it is at first 
 to be spread only two or three inches 
 deep, but under the centre of each light 
 a hillock must be constructed, eight or 
 ten inches deep and a foot in diameter. 
 The earthing should be performed at 
 least four or five days before planting, 
 at which time the earth must be ex- 
 amined ; if it be of a white colour and 
 caked, or, as it is technically termed, 
 burnt, it must be renewed, for the 
 plants will not thrive in it, and holes 
 bored in the bed to give vent to the 
 steam. 
 
 Thetnould of the hillocks being well 
 stirred, the plants must be turned out 
 of the pots without disturbing the ball 
 of earth, and one containing three plants 
 
cue 
 
 172 
 
 cue 
 
 inserted in each; a little water, previ- 
 ously heated to the requisite tempera- 
 ture, must be given, and the glasses kept 
 perfectly close until the next morning. 
 Any plants not in pots must be moved 
 by the trowel with as much earth per- 
 taining to their roots as possible. The 
 shade of a mat is always requisite dur- 
 ing the meridian of bright days until 
 the plants are well established. They 
 must be pressed gradually away from 
 each other, until at least eight inches 
 apart ; nothing can be more erroneous 
 than to allow them to proceed with the 
 stems nearly touching. 
 
 When well taken root, earth must be 
 added regularly over the bed, until it is 
 level with the tops of the mounds ; for 
 if there be not a sufficient depth of soil 
 
 keep the frames close, and to lessen 
 the opening of the glasses, in propor- 
 tion as the air is cold or the beds de- 
 clining, it never exceeding two inches 
 under the most favourable circum- 
 stances. Water is usually required two 
 or three times a week ; it must be 
 warmed as before mentioned previously 
 to its application. Instead of watering 
 the inside of the frame, it is a good 
 plan to do so plentifully round the 
 sides, which causes a steam to rise, and 
 affords a moisture much more genial to 
 the plants than watering the mould. 
 
 The last stage of growth includes the 
 blossoming and production of fruit. The 
 training must be regularly attended to, 
 and all superabundance of shoots and 
 leaves especially kept away. If the 
 
 the leaves will always droop during hot | plants which have been once stopped 
 
 days, unless they are shaded, or more 
 water given them than is proper. 
 
 An important operation for the ob- 
 taining early fruit, but by no means so 
 necessary for later crops, is the first 
 pruning, or as it is termed, stopping the 
 plant, that is, nipping off the top of the 
 first advancing runner, which is to be 
 done as soon as the plant has attained 
 four rough leaves ; this prevents its at- 
 taining a straggling growth, and compels 
 it at once to emit laterals, which are 
 the fruitful branches. When they be- 
 gin to run, the shoots must be trained 
 and pegged down at regular distances, 
 which not only prevents their rubbing 
 against the glass, but also becoming 
 entangied with each other. Never 
 more than two or three main branches 
 should be left to each plant, all others 
 to be removed as they appear. If more 
 are left it causes the whole to be weak, 
 and entirely prevents the due exposure 
 of the foliage to the sun. The greatest 
 care is necessary in regulating the tem- 
 perature ; it must never be allowed to 
 decline below 70° or rise above 95°. 
 As it decreases, coatings of hot dung 
 must be applied to the sides, and the 
 covering increased. The temperature 
 of the bed, as well as of the exterior 
 air, governs also the degree of freedom 
 with which the air may be admitted ; 
 whenever allowable, the glasses should 
 be raised. The best time for doing so, 
 is from ten to three o'clock. 
 
 It may not be misplaced to remark, 
 that chilly foggy days are even less pro- 
 pitious for admitting air than severe 
 frosty ones; during such it is best to 
 
 have extended their runners to three 
 joints without showing fruit, they must 
 be again stopped. 
 
 The impregnation of the fruit now 
 requires continued attention ; as soon 
 as a female blossom, which is known 
 by having fruit beneath the flower-cup, 
 opens, or on the second morning at 
 farthest, a fresh full expanded male 
 flower is to be plucked, with its foot- 
 stalk pertaining to it, and the corolla or 
 flower-cup being removed, the remain- 
 ing central part or anther applied to the 
 stigma of the female, which is similarly 
 situated, and the fecundating dust dis- 
 charged by gently twirling it between 
 the finger and thumb. If possible a 
 fresh male blossom should be employed 
 for every impregnation, and the opera- 
 tion performed in the early part of the 
 day. An attention to this is only re- 
 quisite to such plants as are in frames ; 
 those grown in the open air are always 
 sufficiently impregnated by bees and 
 other insects. If impregnation does not 
 take place the fruit never swells to more 
 than half its natural size, nor perfects 
 any seed, but generally drops imma- 
 turely. When the male flowers appear 
 in clusters they may be thinned mode- 
 rately with benefit; but it is almost 
 needless to deprecate the erroneous 
 practice sometimes recommended of 
 plucking them off entirely. As the fruit 
 advances, tiles, sand, or other material, 
 must be placed beneath it to preserve 
 it from specking, or a glass cylinder is 
 still better; if a bulb containing water is 
 attached, the fruit grows faster and finer. 
 The same precautions are necessary as 
 
cue 
 
 173 
 
 cue 
 
 regards the preservation of tempera- 
 ture, admission of air, &c, as in the se- 
 cond stage of the growth of the plants. 
 Towards the conclusion of the first pro- 
 duction, it is a good practice to renew 
 the heat by adding eighteen inches of 
 fermenting dung all round the bed, pre- 
 vious coatings being entirely removed, 
 and to earth over it to the same depth 
 as in the interior of the bed. This pre- 
 vents the roots, when they have ex- 
 tended themselves to the sides of the 
 bed, being dried by exposure to the 
 air and sun. As the spring advances 
 the glasses may be often taken off dur- 
 ing mild days, or even to admit a light 
 temperate rain. In June, or July, accord- 
 ing to the geniality of the season, they 
 may be removed finally, and even before, 
 the frames may be raised on bricks, so 
 as to allow the runners to spread at will. 
 
 For a middling-sized family, from four 
 to eight lights are sufficient to afford a 
 constant supply, and for a larger one, 
 double those numbers. During mid- 
 winter, twelve weeks elapse between 
 the time of sowing the seed and the fit- 
 ness of the fruit for gathering ; but as 
 the more temperate seasons of the year 
 advance 5 this period decreases gradually 
 to eight. Between the time of impreg- 
 nation and their full growth, from fifteen 
 to twenty days usually elapse. Under 
 favourable circumstances and manage- 
 ment, the same vines will continue in 
 production three or four months. 
 
 Mr. Mills, one of the most successful 
 growers with dung heat, gives me these 
 leading points of his culture : — 
 
 Mr. Mills sows on the 29th of Sep- 
 tember, and transplants into the fruit- 
 ing-pit on the 29th of October. Range 
 of temperature in pit, 65° to 85° and 
 95° ; and of the bottom-heat from 85° to 
 95^. He uses neither saline nor liquid 
 manure. The water employed is about 
 80°, but in this Mr. Mills is not particu- 
 lar; Mr. Beaton, to avoid the degene- 
 rating almost unavoidably incident to 
 the fancy varieties, if propagated by 
 seed, employs cuttings or layers. His 
 practice was also adopted by Mr. Mears, 
 gardener to W. Hanbury, Esq., near 
 Leominster, and is recommended by 
 Mr. McPhail. We also saw a very fine 
 cucumber, ripened in January of this 
 year (1844), by Mr. Mills, from a cut- 
 ting planted in October. As the end of 
 September is the best time for pursuing 
 this mode of propagation, we will just 
 
 state the mode. Put five inches of earth 
 into a twelve pot, in which plant three 
 cuttings, taken from as many vigorous 
 bearing branches ; water plentifully ; 
 place a sheet *>f glass over the top of 
 the pot, the sides of which will shade 
 the cuttings until they are rooted ; 
 plunge in a hot-bed ; and in less than a 
 fortnight the plants will be established. 
 The vines thus raised are not so succu- 
 lent as those raised from seed, and con- 
 sequently they are less liable to damp, 
 or to suffer in other ways during win- 
 ter. — Trans. Lond. Hort. Soc. 
 
 Hot Water Beds. — If hot water be the 
 source of heat, the following sketch of 
 the bed and frame employed by Mr. 
 Mitchell, at Worsley, is about the best 
 that can be employed. The objects 
 kept in view when it was constructed, 
 were: — " 1st. A circulation of air with- 
 out loss of heat. 2d. A supply of mois- 
 ture at command proportionable to the 
 temperature. 3d. A desirable amount 
 of bottom heat. 4th. A supply of ex- 
 ternal air (when necessary) without 
 producing a cold draught. 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 fSi^ 
 
 i*i 
 
 " The method by which the first of 
 these is accomplished, will be under- 
 stood by referring to the section, in 
 which a is the flow-pipes, bb b the re- 
 turn pipes in the chamber a. It is 
 evident that, as the air in the chamber 
 becomes heated, it will escape upwards 
 by the opening c, and the cold air from 
 the passage b will rush in to supply its 
 place ; but the ascending current of 
 heated air coming in contact with the 
 glass, is cooled, descends, and enter- 
 ing the passage b, passes into the cham- 
 ber a, where it is again heated ; and 
 thus a constantcirculation is produced. 
 In order to obtain the second object, I 
 have to some extent combined the tank 
 and pipe systems. 
 
cue 
 
 174 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 cue 
 
 "The flow-pipe a is put half its di- 
 ameter into the channel c, which when 
 filled with water, (or so far as is neces- 
 sary,) gives off a vapour, exactly pro- 
 portionable to the heat of the pipe and 
 pit. 
 
 " The third requisition is produced 
 by the surrounding atmosphere and heat- 
 ing materials. 
 
 " The fourth is accomplished simply 
 by lowering the upper sash ; the cold 
 air thus entering at the top only, falls 
 directly into the passage b, and passes 
 through the hot chamber before coming 
 in contact with the plants. In order to 
 test the circulation, I fixed a piece of 
 paper near the front of the pit, and 
 found the current to be so strong as to 
 bend it backwards and give it a tremu- 
 lous motion. When the heat in the 
 chamber is 95°, in the open space over 
 the bed it is 71° ; in the bottom of the 
 passage only 60° ; and in the mould in 
 the bed it is 80°. 
 
 ' ; The amount of vapour is regulated 
 with the greatest facility, even from the 
 smallest quantity to the greatest den- 
 sity." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Mr. Latter, one of the most success- 
 ful of cucumber growers, employs hot 
 water, and he gives me these leading 
 points in his culture. He sows in the 
 first week of September, and the vines 
 from this sowing will be in bearing and 
 very strong before February. The 
 seedlings are first shifted into sixty 
 sized pots, secondly into twenty-fours, 
 and lastly into the largest size. If to be 
 trained on a trellis, the runner must 
 not be stopped until it has, trained to a 
 stick, grown through the trellis. The 
 temperature in the pit or frame is kept 
 as nearly 65° as possible during the 
 night, and from 75° to 85° during the 
 day ; air being admitted night and day, 
 little or much, according to the state of 
 the weather. The bottom heat (Mr. 
 Latter is the champion of the hot-water 
 system) is kept as near as can be to 70°, 
 although he finds that 85° does not 
 hurt the plants. He waters them with 
 soft water until February, and then 
 employs liquid manure, taking care that 
 the temperature of the liquid is always 
 from 75° to 80°. The earth over the 
 hot water tank or pipes ought not to be 
 less than fifteen inches deep. During 
 severe frosts it is an excellent plan to 
 keep a small floating light burning with- 
 in the frame every night. 
 
 Training. — There is no doubt that 
 training near the glass of the frames 
 upon a trellis, makes the cucumber vine 
 more prolific, and more enduring. In- 
 deed, if trained with proper care, the 
 same vine may be made to bear through- 
 out the year. 
 
 Hand Glass Crops. — The first sow- 
 ings for these crops must be in the last 
 two weeks ofMarch ; to be repeated in 
 the middle of April and May. The seed 
 may be inserted in a moderate hot-bed 
 under hand-glasses, or in the upper side 
 of one of the frames already in produc- 
 tion, either in pots as directed for the 
 frame crops, or in the mould of the bed, 
 to be pricked into similar situation 
 when of four or five days' growth, in- 
 serting only two plants, however, in 
 each pot. They must remain in the 
 hot-bed until of about a month's growth, 
 or until they have attained four rough 
 leaves ; being then stopped as before 
 directed they are fit for ridging out 
 finally. 
 
 The ridges may be founded on the 
 surface, or in trenches a foot and a half 
 deep, in either case forming them of 
 well prepared hot dung, three or four 
 feet wide and two and a half high ; the 
 length being governed by the number of 
 hand-glasses, between each of which 
 three feet and a half must be allowed. 
 The earth is to be laid on eight inches 
 thick ; when this becomes warm the 
 plants may be inserted two, or at most 
 three, under each glass. 
 
 Watering, airing, covering, &c.,must 
 be conducted with the precautions di- 
 rected to be practised for the frame 
 crops. The glasses should be kept on 
 as long as possible without detriment to 
 the plants ; to prolong the time the run- 
 ners must be made to grow perpendicu- 
 larly ; and still further to protract their 
 continuance, if the season is inclement, 
 the glasses may be raised on bricks. 
 When no longer capable of confine- 
 ment, the runners must be pegged down 
 regularly, advantage being taken of a 
 cool cloudy day to perform it in ; but 
 the glasses, even now, may be con- 
 tinued over the centre of the plants 
 until the close of May or early June, 
 with considerable advantage. Weeds 
 must be carefully removed. Waterings 
 should be performed as often as appears 
 necessary. 
 
 If there be a scarcity of dung in the 
 last week in April, or during May, cir- 
 
cue 
 
 175 
 
 — • — 
 
 CUR 
 
 cular holes may be dug, two feet in 
 diameter, one deep, and four apart. 
 These being filled with hot dung, trod 
 in moderately firm, and earthed over 
 about eight inches, are ready for either 
 seeds or plants. With the shelter of 
 the hand-glasses they will be scarcely 
 later in production than the regular 
 ridges. 
 CUCUMIS. Twenty species, and 
 
 many varieties. Hardy or half-hardy 
 trailing annuals. Seeds. Good rich 
 soil. See Cucumber. 
 
 CUCURBITA. Gourds and Pom- 
 pions. Ten species and varieties. — 
 Hardy trailing annuals. Seeds. Good 
 rich soil. 
 
 CULCITIUM salicinum. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. — 
 Common soil. 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 " CULTIVATOR FOR THE HAND 
 (Fig. 32) Is made of iron, and is capable 
 of being expanded at will ; it is of great 
 utility in clearing out between rows of 
 vegetables, loosening the soil, and at 
 once performing the work of four ordi- 
 nary hoes." — Rural Reg. 
 
 CULTIVATORS, OR HOE-HAR- 
 ROWS. " These are now considered in- 
 dispensable in cultivatingcorn, potatoes, 
 and all other crops planted in hills or 
 drills — doing the work as effectually 
 as if hoed, and much more expe- 
 ditiously. The form is varied by the 
 different makers, especially in the 
 teeth or hoes. They are made to ex- 
 pand or contract, so as to accommo- 
 date in the distance between the 
 rows." — Rural Reg. 
 
 CULLUMBINE or COLUMBINE. 
 Aquilegia. 
 
 CUMIN. See Cuminum. 
 
 CUMIN. See Lagoecia. 
 
 CUMINUM. Cyminum. Hardy 
 annual. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CUMMINGIA. Four species. Half- 
 hardy bulbous perennials. OfFsetts. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 CUNNINGHAMIA sinensis. Green- 
 house evergreen tree. Cuttings or 
 seeds. Peat and loam. 
 
 CUNONIA capensis. Green-house 
 evergreen tree. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 CUPANIA. Seven species. Stove 
 evergreen trees or shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 CUPHEA. Fourteen species. — 
 Green-house or stove annuals ; and 
 stove biennial, herbaceous perennial 
 or evergreen shrubs. The stove spe- 
 cies grow best in sandy loam, and in- 
 crease from cuttings. The annuals- 
 seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CUP I A. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 CUPRESSUS. Seven species, and 
 some varieties. Hardy or green-house 
 evergreen trees. Seeds or cuttings. 
 Good rich loamy soil. 
 
 CURATELLA. Two species. — 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. — 
 Sandy loam. . 
 
 CURCULIGO. Six species, and 
 variety. Stove or green-house herba- 
 
CUR 
 
 Offsets. 
 
 176 
 
 ♦ ■ 
 
 CUR 
 
 Loam and 
 
 ceous perennials, 
 peat. 
 
 CURCULIO. This genus of Beetle, 
 popularly known as Weevils, are de- 
 structive to fruit, as nuts, nectarines, 
 and peaches, as well as to peas, &c. 
 There are many species. 
 
 C. betuleti. Vine Weevil. Colour, 
 steel-blue. Attacks the leaf, rolling it 
 up as a nest for its eggs. The pear 
 
 whole neighbourhood. Our own ob- 
 servation inclines us to the belief that 
 this insect emigrates just in proportion 
 as it finds in more or less abundance 
 the tender fruit for depositing its eggs. 
 Verv rarely do we see more than one 
 puncture in a plum, and, if the insects 
 are abundant, the trees of a single spot 
 will not afford a sufficient number for 
 the purpose ; then there is little doubt 
 
 liable to its attacks also. Appears in ! (as we have seen them flying through 
 
 June and July 
 
 The species of Curculio, which is 
 more fatal in its attack than any other, 
 is popularly known as the Plum- 
 Weevil. We copy the following article 
 on the subject, from the Fruits and 
 Fruit Trees of America : — 
 
 "The Curculio, or Plum-Weevil, 
 {Rhynchainus Nenuphar,) is the uncom 
 
 the air,) that the insect flies farther in 
 search of a larger supply. But usually, 
 we think it remains nearly in the same 
 neighbourhood, or migrates but slowly. 
 " About a week or two after the 
 blossoms have fallen from the trees, if 
 we examine the fruit of the plum in a 
 district where this insect abounds, we 
 hall find the small, newly formed fruit, 
 
 promising foe of all smooth-stone fruits, beginning to be punctured by the pro- 
 The cultivator of the Plum, the Nec- 
 tarine, and the Apricot, in many parts 
 of the country, after a flattering pro- 
 fusion of snowy blossoms and an abun- 
 dant promise in the thickly set young 
 crops of fruit, has the frequent mortifi- 
 cation of seeing nearly all, or indeed, 
 often the whole crop, fall from the 
 trees when half or two-thirds grown. 
 
 "If he examines these falling fruits, 
 he will perceive on the surface of each, 
 not far from the stalk, a small semi- 
 circular scar. This star is the crescent- 
 shaped insignia of that little Turk, the 
 Curculio; an insect so small, as per- 
 haps, to have escaped his observation 
 for years, unless particularly drawn to 
 it, but which nevertheless appropriates 
 to himself the whole product of a tree, 
 or an orchard of a thousand trees. 
 
 " The habits of this Curculio, or 
 Plum- Weevil, are not yet fully and en- 
 tirely ascertained. But careful ob- 
 servation has resulted in establishing 
 the following points in its history. 
 
 " The Plum-Weevil is a small, dark 
 brown beetle, with spots of white, 
 yellow, and black. Its length is 
 scarcely one-fifth of an inch. On its 
 back are two black humps, and it is 
 furnished with a pretty long, curved 
 throat and snout, which, when it is at 
 rest, is bent between the forelegs. It 
 is also provided with two wings with 
 which it flies through the air. How far 
 this insect flies is yet a disputed point, 
 some cultivators affirming that it scarce 
 
 boscis of the Plum-Weevil. The insect 
 is so small and shy, that unless we 
 watch closely it is very likely to escape 
 our notice. But if we strike or shake 
 the tree suddenly, it will fall in con- 
 siderable numbers on the ground, 
 drawn up as if dead, and resembling a 
 small raisin, or, perhaps more nearly, 
 a ripe hemp seed. From the first of 
 April until August, this insect may be 
 found, though we think its depreda- 
 tions on fruit, and indeed its appear- 
 ance in any quantity, is confined to the 
 month of May in this climate. In 
 places where it is very abundant, it 
 also attacks to some extent the cherry, 
 the peach, and even the apple. 
 
 " Early in July the punctured plums 
 begin to fall rapidly from the tree. 
 The egg deposited in each, at first in- 
 visible, has become a white grub or 
 larva, which slowly eats its way to- 
 wards the stone or pit. As soon as it 
 reaches this point, the fruit falls to the 
 ground. Here, if left undisturbed, the 
 grub soon finds its way into the soil. 
 
 " There, according to most culti- 
 vators of fruit, and to our own observa- 
 tions, the grubs or larvae remain till the 
 ensuing spring, when in their perfect 
 form they again emerge as beetles and 
 renew their ravages on the fruit. It is 
 true that Harris, and some other natu- 
 ralists, have proved that the insect does 
 sometimes undergo its final transforma- 
 tion and emerge from the ground in 
 twenty days, but we are inclined to tl: 
 
 ly goes farther than a single tree, and | opinion that this only takes place with 
 others believing that it flies over a | a small portion of the brood, which, 
 
CUR 
 
 177 
 
 CUR 
 
 perhaps, have penetrated but a very 
 short distance below the surface of the 
 soil. These making their appearance 
 in midsummer, and finding no young 
 fruit, deposit their eggs in the young 
 branches of trees, etc. But it is unde- 
 niable that the season of the Plum- 
 Weevil is early spring, and that most 
 of the larvae which produce this annual 
 swarm, remain in the soil during the 
 whole period intervening since the fall 
 of the previous year's fruit. 
 
 " There are several modes of de- 
 stroying this troublesome insect. Be- 
 fore detailing them, we will again 
 allude to the fact, that we have never 
 known an instance of its being trouble- 
 some in a heavy soil. Almost always 
 the complaint comes from portions of 
 country where the soil is light and 
 sandy. The explanation of this would, 
 seem to be that the compact nature of 
 a clayey soil is not favourable to the 
 passage or life of this insect, while the 
 warm and easily permeable surface of 
 sandy land nurses every insect through 
 its tender larva? state. Plum trees 
 growing in hard trodden court-yards, 
 usually bear plentiful crops. Follow- 
 ing these hints some persons have de- 
 terred the Plum-Weevil by paving be- 
 neath the trees ; and we have lately 
 seen a most successful experiment 
 which consisted in spreading beneath 
 the tree as far as the branches ex- 
 tended a mortar made of stiff clay 
 about the thickness of two or three 
 inches — which completely prevented 
 the descent of the insect into the earth. 
 This is quickly and easily applied, and 
 may therefore be renewed every season 
 until it is no longer found necessary. 
 
 " The other modes of destroying 
 the Plum-Weevil are the following : — 
 
 1 . " Shaking the tree and killing the 
 beetles. Watch the young fruit, and you 
 will perceive when the insect makes its 
 appearance, by its punctures upon them . 
 Spread some sheets under the tree, and 
 strike the trunk pretty sharply several 
 times with a wooden mallet. The in- 
 sects will quickly fall, and should be 
 killed immediately. This should be 
 repeated daily for a week, or so long 
 as the insects continue to make their 
 appearance. Repeated trials have 
 proved, beyond question, that this 
 rather tedious mode is a very effectual 
 one, if persisted in. Coops of chickens 
 placed about under the trees at this 
 12 
 
 season will assist in destroying the in- 
 sects. 
 
 2. Gathering the fruit and destroying 
 the larvcB. As the insect, in its larva? 
 or grub form, is yet within the plums 
 when they fall prematurely from the 
 tree, it is a very obvious mode of ex- 
 terminating the next year's brood to 
 gather these fallen fruits, daily, and 
 feed them to swine, boil, or otherwise 
 destroy them. In our own garden, 
 where several years ago we suffered by 
 the Plum-Weevil, we have found that 
 this practice, pursued for a couple of 
 seasons, has been pretty effectual. 
 Others have reported less favourably of 
 it; but this, we think, arose from their 
 trying it too short a time, in a soil and 
 neighbourhood where the insect is very 
 abundant, and where it consequently 
 had sought extensively other kinds of 
 fruit besides the plum. 
 
 " A more simple and easy way of 
 covering the difficulty, where there is 
 a plum orchard or enclosure, is that of 
 turning in swine and fowls during the 
 whole season, when the stung plums 
 are dropping to the ground. The fruit, 
 and the insects contained in it, will 
 thus be devoured together. This is an 
 excellent expedient for the farmer, who 
 bestows his time grudgingly on the cares 
 of the garden. 
 
 3. " The use of salt. A good deal of 
 attention has lately been drawn to the 
 use of common salt, as a remedy for 
 the Curculio. Trials have been made 
 with this substance in various parts of 
 the country, where scarcely a ripe 
 plum was formerly obtained, with the 
 most complete success. On the other 
 hand, some persons, after testing it, 
 have pronounced it of no value. Our 
 own experience is greatly in favour of 
 its use. We believe that, properly 
 applied, it is an effectual remedy 
 against the Curculio, while it also pro- 
 motes the growth of the tree, and keeps 
 the soil in that state most congenial to 
 its productiveness. The failures that 
 have arisen in its use, have, doubtless, 
 grown out of an imperfect application, 
 either in regard to the quantity or the 
 time of applying it. 
 
 " In the directions usually given, it 
 seems only considered necessary to 
 apply salt, pretty plentifully, at any 
 season. If the soil be thoroughly satu- 
 rated with salt, it is probable that it 
 would destroy insects therein, in any 
 
CUR 
 
 178 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CUR 
 
 stage of their growth. But, though the 
 plum tree seems fond of saline matter, 
 (and one of the most successful experi- 
 menters applied strong fish brine, at 
 the rate of three or four pails full to a 
 tree of moderate size,) it must be con- 
 fessed this is a somewhat dangerous 
 mode, as the roots are forced to re- 
 ceive a large supply of so powerful an 
 agent at once. 
 
 " The best method of applying salt 
 against the Plum-Weevil is that of 
 strewing it pretty thickly over the sur- 
 face, when the punctured plums com- 
 mence dropping. The surface of the 
 ground should be made smooth and 
 hard, and fine packing salt may then be 
 evenly spread over it, as far as the 
 branches extend, and about a fourth of 
 an inch in depth. Should the weather 
 be fine, this coat will last until the fruit 
 infected has all fallen ; should it be dis- 
 solved or carried off by showers, it 
 must be replaced directly. The larvae 
 or grubs of the Weevil, in this most 
 tender state, emerging from the plum 
 to enter the ground, will fall a prey to 
 the effect of the salt before they are 
 able to reach the soil. If this is care- 
 fully and generally practised, we have 
 little doubt of its finally ridding the 
 cultivator of this troublesome enemy, 
 even in the worst districts and soils." 
 
 C. cupreus. Copper-coloured Weevil. 
 Attacks the leaves and young shoots of 
 the plum and apricot, as well as their 
 fruit. June and July. 
 
 C.bacchus. Purple or Apple Weevil. 
 Pierces the fruit of the apple, deposit- 
 ing within it its eggs. June and July. 
 
 " C. sulcatus. Colour, dull black. 
 Attacks the shoots and leaves of vines 
 in hot-houses in January, and those on 
 walls at the end of May or June. It 
 will also eat the leaves and fruit of the 
 peach. It deposits its eggs just below 
 the surface of the soil, and these not 
 only injure the roots of the vine, but 
 those of the sedum, saxifrage, trollius, 
 auricula, and primrose, detaching the 
 roots from the crowns." — Gard. Chron. 
 See a fuller description of this insect 
 under its modern name of Otyorhincus . 
 
 C. alliarice. Stem-boring Weevil. 
 Steel-green colour. Bores the shoots 
 and grafts of young fruit trees. Ap- 
 pears in June and July. 
 
 C. pomorum. Apple Weevil. Colour, 
 dark brown. Attacks the blossom of 
 the apple, and often destroys the whole 
 
 crop. More rarely it attacks the pear 
 blossom. Appears in March and April. 
 
 C.pyri. Pear Weevil. Dark brown, 
 very like the apple weevil. April. 
 
 C.oblongus. Oblong Weevil. Red- 
 dish-brown colour. Feeds on the young 
 leaves of the peach, apricot, plum, pear, 
 and apple. Appears in May. 
 
 C. pleurostigma. See Ambury. 
 
 C. lineatus. Striped Pea Weevil. 
 Ochreous colour, and striped. Appears 
 in March and April. 
 
 C.macularius. Spotted Weevil. Gray 
 colour. April. Also destroys the pea. 
 Soot or lime sprinkled over peas early 
 in the morning before the dew is oil' 
 from them, and so thickly as to cover 
 the soil about them, would probably 
 save them. To mitigate the attack of 
 the weevils upon trees, the only mode 
 is to spread a sheet beneath them, to 
 shake each branch, and to destroy those 
 beetles which fall. They usually feed 
 at night. 
 
 C. nucum. Nut Weevil, of which the 
 maggot is so frequent in our filberts. 
 Mr. Curtis thus describes it : — " The 
 insect is brown, with darker bands ; is 
 about a quarter of an inch long, and has 
 a long horny beak, about the middle of 
 which are placed antennas. When the 
 nut is in a young state the female weevil 
 deposits a single egg. The maggot is 
 hatched in about a fortnight, and con- 
 tinues feeding in the interior of the nut 
 till it is full grown. The nut falls when 
 the maggot has no legs, nor, indeed, 
 has it any use for them, being hatched 
 in the midst of its food ; and when the 
 nut remains on the. tree, it forces itself 
 out of the hole it eats in the nut, and 
 falls almost immediately to the ground. 
 The only remedy we are aware of is, 
 in the course of the summer to fre- 
 quently shake the trees, which will 
 cause all the eaten nuts to fall to the 
 ground, when they must be collected 
 and burned."— Gard. Chron. 
 
 C. picipes is a dull black, and is very 
 injurious in the vinery. 
 
 C. tenebricosus infests the apricot. 
 Mr. Curtis says, that " every crevice in 
 old garden-walls often swarms with 
 these weevils ; and nothing would prove 
 a greater check to their increase than 
 stopping all crevices or holes in walls 
 with mortar, plaster of Paris, or Roman 
 cement, and the interior of hot-houses 
 should be annually washed with lime ; 
 the old bark of the vines under which 
 
CUR 
 
 J 79 
 
 CUR 
 
 they lurk, should be stripped off early 
 in the spring, and the roots examined 
 in October, when they exhibit any un- 
 healthy symptoms from the attacks of 
 the maggots of C. sulcatus. 
 
 " When the larvae are ascertained to 
 reside at the base of the wall, salt might 
 be freely sprinkled, which will kill 
 them as readily as it will the maggots 
 in nuts ; strong infusions of tobacco- 
 water, aloes, and quassia, are also re- 
 commended." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 CURCUMA. Twenty-one species. 
 Stove herbaceous perennials. From C. 
 longa turmeric is obtained. Offsets. 
 Rich light soil. 
 
 CURL. A disease of the potato. 
 " Any one can ensure the occurrence 
 of this disease by keeping the sets in a 
 situation favourable to their vegetation, 
 as in a warm damp outhouse, and then 
 rubbing off repeatedly the long shoots 
 they have thrown out. Sets that have 
 been so treated I have invariably found 
 produce curled plants. Is not the rea- 
 son very apparent ? The vital energy 
 had been weakened by the repeated 
 efforts to vegetate ; so that when planted 
 in the soil, their energy was unequal to 
 the perfect development of the parts ; 
 for the curl is nothing more or less than 
 a distorted or incomplete formation of 
 the foliage, preceded by an imperfect 
 production of the fibrous roots. 
 
 u The variety employed was the Early 
 Shaw. An equal number of whole mo- 
 derately-sized potatoes, that had been 
 treated in three different modes, were 
 planted the last week of March. 
 
 " No. 1. Twenty sets that had been 
 carefully kept cold and dry throughout 
 the winter, firm, unshrivelied, and with 
 scarcely any symptoms of vegetation. 
 
 " No. 2. Twenty sets that had been 
 kept warm and moist, and from which 
 the shoots, after attaining a length of 
 six inches, had been thrice removed. 
 
 « No. 3. Twenty sets that had been 
 kept warm and moist for about half the 
 time that No. 2 had, and from which 
 the shoots, three inches in length, had 
 been removed only twice. 
 
 " All the sets were planted the same 
 morning, each exactly six inches below 
 the surface, and each with an unsprout- 
 ed eye upwards. The spring was ge- 
 nial. 
 
 " Of No. 1, nineteen plants came up. 
 The twentieth seemed to have been re- 
 moved by an accident. Of the nineteen 
 
 not one was curled. The produce, a 
 full average crop. 
 
 " Of No. 2 all came up, but from ten 
 to fourteen days later than those of 
 No. 1, and three of the plants sixteen 
 days later. Fourteen of the plants were 
 curled. 
 
 " Of No. 3 all came up, but from ten 
 to fourteen days later than those of No. 
 1. Four plants were as severely curled 
 as those in No. 2, eight were less so, 
 and the remainder not at all ; but of 
 these the produce was below an ave- 
 rage, and a full fortnight later in ripening. 
 
 " Dickson, Crichton, Knight, and 
 others, have found that tubers taken up 
 before they are fully ripened, produce 
 plants not so liable to the curl as those 
 that have remained in the ground until 
 completely perfected ; and I believe 
 under ordinary treatment this to be the 
 fact, for it is rational. The process of 
 ripening proceeds in the potato, as in 
 the apple, after it has been gathered ; 
 and until that is perfected it is accumu- 
 lating vigour, shows no appetency to 
 vegetate, consequently is not exhaust- 
 ing its vitality, which is a great point, 
 considering the careless mode usually 
 adopted to store them through the win- 
 ter; for this energy commences its de- 
 cline from the moment it begins to de- 
 velope the parts of the future plant. 
 Tubers taken from the soil before per- 
 fectly ripe, never are so early in showing 
 symptoms of vegetation. Crichton, Hun- 
 ter, and Young, in some of the works 
 before referred to, have also agreed, 
 that exposing the sets to light and air, 
 allowing them to become dry and shri- 
 velled/also induces the curl in the plants 
 arising from them. This result of ex- 
 perience also confirms my conclusion, 
 that the disease arises from deficient 
 vital energy ; for no process, more than 
 this drying one of exposure to the light 
 and air, tends to take away from a tuber 
 the power of vegetating altogether. 
 
 " Every one acquainted with the cul- 
 tivation of the potato, is aware of the 
 great difference existing in the varieties; 
 as to their early and rapid vegetation, 
 those that excel in this quality are of 
 course the most easily excitable. A 
 consequence of this is, that they are 
 always planted earliest in the spring, 
 before their vital power has become 
 very active ; and of all crops, practice 
 demonstrates that these early ones are 
 least liable to the curl. But what is 
 
CUR 
 
 180 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CUR 
 
 the consequence, on the contrary, if an 
 early variety is planted for a main crop 
 later in the spring, when extraordinary 
 pains in keeping them cold and dry 
 have not been employed to check their 
 vegetation, and consequent decrease of 
 vital energy ? Such crop, then, is more 
 than any other liable to the disease, 
 and a good preventive has been sug- 
 gested by Dr. Lindley, namely, that of 
 planting the tubers in autumn, imme- 
 diately after they have ripened. The 
 results of my view of the disease, sus- 
 tained by numerous experiments, are, 
 that it will never occur if the following 
 points are attended to: — First, that the 
 sets are from tubers that exhibit scarcely 
 any symptoms of incipient vegetation ; 
 to effect which they ought, throughout 
 the winter, to be preserved as cool and 
 as much excluded from the air as pos- 
 sible. Secondly, that the tubers should 
 be perfectly ripened. Thirdly, that they 
 should be planted immediately after 
 they are cut. Fourthly, that the ma- 
 nure applied should be spread regular- 
 ly, and mixed with the soil, and not 
 along a trench in immediate contact 
 with the sets. Fifthly, that the crop is 
 not raised for several successive years 
 on the same area." — Principles of Gar- 
 dening. 
 
 CURRANT. (Ribes.) 
 
 Black Currant. (R. nigrum.) 
 
 1. Black Grape. 
 
 2. Black Naples, largest and best. 
 
 3. Common Black. 
 
 4. Russian Green. 
 
 Red Currant. (R. rubrum.) 
 
 1. Common Red. 
 
 2. Red Dutch, large and good. 
 
 3. Knight's Large Red, largest. 
 
 4. Knight's Sweet Red, large, and not 
 
 so acid as other red varieties. 
 
 5. Knight's Early Red. 
 
 6. Champagne. 
 
 7. Striped-fruited — berries marked with 
 
 red and white stripes. 
 
 8. Striped-leaved. 
 
 9. Rock Currant. 
 
 White Currant. (R. album.) 
 
 1. Common White. 
 
 2. White Dutch, largest and best. 
 
 3. Pearl White. 
 
 4. Speary's White. 
 
 Soil. — Any fertile garden soil suits 
 them. 
 
 Propagation. — By Cuttings. — The 
 best shoots for propagating from are 
 those that are fully ripened, and not too 
 
 strong. They are first to be deprived 
 of about two <or three inches of the 
 point, and cut into lengths often inches 
 or a foot, according to the size and 
 strength of the shoots. 
 
 Then, with a sharp knife, divest each 
 shoot of the whole of its buds, except- 
 ing three or four nearest the top of the 
 cutting, which must be left to form the 
 branches of the future plant. 
 
 Rubbing off the buds is not sufficient; 
 they require to be picked out, or pared 
 very close, to prevent them from throw- 
 ing up suckers, which materially affect 
 the growth of the plants, and rob the 
 fruiting branches of most of their nou- 
 rishment, when not displaced in proper 
 time. The small buds towards the base 
 of the cutting are always the most trou- 
 blesome in this respect, and great care 
 should be taken to remove them effect- 
 ually before the cutting is inserted in 
 the ground. 
 
 Immediately underneath the part 
 which the lowest bud occupied make a 
 clean horizontal cut, without displacing 
 any portion of the bark, and the cutting 
 is then complete. 
 
 A small spot is next to be dug and 
 got ready for them, and if it can be 
 obtained in a situation that is rather 
 shaded than otherwise, so much the 
 better. 
 
 The cuttings are then to be inserted 
 in rows a foot apart, six or eight inches 
 asunder, and two or three inches deep, 
 and the earth firmly pressed around 
 them, either with the hand, or by plac- 
 ing one foot on each side of the row, and 
 treading it from one end to the other. — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Observe, those designed for common 
 standards should be trained up to a 
 twelve or fifteen inch stem, then en- 
 courage them to branch out all round 
 at that height to form a full head, for if 
 suffered to branch away immediately 
 from the bottom, they overspread the 
 ground, that no crops can grow near 
 them, as well as appear unsightly, and 
 render it inconvenient to do the neces- 
 sary work — thin the branches to mode- 
 rate distances. 
 
 By Suckers. — All the sorts are too 
 apt to send up suckers from the roots ; 
 each sucker forming a proper plant is 
 the most expeditious mode of propa- 
 gating. They may be taken up in 
 autumn, winter, or spring, with roots, 
 or even such as are without fibres will 
 
 
CUR 
 
 181 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 CUR 
 
 succeed ; planting them either in nur- 
 sery-rows for a year or two, or such as 
 are tall and strong may be planted at 
 once, where they are-to remain, observ- 
 ing to train the whole for the purposes 
 intended, as directed for the cuttings, 
 and they will form bearing plants after 
 one or two years' growth. 
 
 The propagating by suckers is by 
 some objected to, alleging they incline 
 to run greatly to suckers again : there 
 is, however, but little foundation in 
 this, for it is peculiar to these shrubs, 
 let them be raised either by seeds, 
 cuttings, or any other method. 
 
 By Layers. — The young branches 
 being laid in autumn, winter, or spring, 
 will readily strike root, and next autumn 
 be fit to transplant. 
 
 In the general propagation of these 
 shrubs we would observe, that as they 
 naturally throw out many suckers from 
 the root, so as often to become trouble- 
 some, it is proper, previous to planting 
 the cuttings and suckers, &c, to rub off 
 close all the buds or prominent eyes 
 from the lower part, as far as they are 
 to be put into the ground, which will in 
 some measure diminish their tendency 
 in the production of suckers ; likewise, 
 when transplanting the young plants, if 
 they discover any tendency to the pro- 
 duction of suckers, let all such parts 
 be also carefully rubbed oft* close. — 
 Abercrombie. 
 
 Grafting. — An anonymous writer in 
 the Gardener's Chronicle observes, that 
 " standard currants have a pretty ap- 
 pearance, and this is increased if they 
 are grafted with opposite colours, such 
 as black and white, and red, or red and 
 white. Allow the stock to reach four 
 feet in height, then let it be stopped so 
 as to make a bushy compact head. 
 
 " For standards or espaliers, train 
 either horizontally or by the fan method, 
 about six shoots or more, according to 
 the space you wish to cover on either 
 side, leaving one for the centre to be 
 grafted. Train the same number of 
 shoots of the worked variety. Each 
 leading shoot, if kept and spurred in, 
 will bear abundantly, and the fruit will 
 also be of finer quality, and of a sweeter 
 flavour, by being fully exposed to the 
 sun and air, which is better attained by 
 this method than if the plants were 
 grown in the usual way. 
 
 Training as Espaliers. — Mr. Snow, 
 gardener at Swinton Gardens, for this 
 
 purpose gives the following directions : 
 " Procure stakes four feet in length, 
 and three or three and a half inches in 
 circumference. To these, disposed after 
 this manner, XXXXX, train the trees 
 in the fan method, and tie the shoots to 
 the stakes with matting. Independent 
 of being secure from the wind, there 
 are other advantages to be gained by 
 this mode of training ; the space taken 
 up is less, the pruning is more easily 
 performed, and the whole surface is 
 regularly exposed to the action of the 
 sun and air. The wood is also equally 
 and properly ripened, and better crops 
 of well-flavoured fruit ensue. 
 
 "By this means the late kinds are 
 likewise much more easily and more 
 securely protected from the depredation 
 of birds and wasps, and from injury by 
 frost or wet. 
 
 "A single mat thrown over the bushes 
 is sufficient to preserve the fruit until 
 Christmas, or later. And moreover, by 
 this system the trees in matting up are 
 not disfigured or crushed, the wet is 
 more effectually kept off, as it does not 
 fall on the mat and soak through to the 
 fruit; but from no flat surface being 
 presented the rain runs off the mat as it 
 falls ; the fruit is kept perfectly dry, and 
 there is little or no injury done to the 
 mat. The stakes never want renewing, 
 as the bushes, when once in a regular 
 shape, support themselves." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 After ^Culture. — "Never allow the 
 branches to be too crowded, or to in- 
 terfere with one another. The shoots 
 which spring up in the centre are to be 
 cut away very close, as well as the small 
 shoots on the main branches, leaving 
 only the external one, which must be 
 shortened for about a third of its length. 
 If this is done, the bush will have the 
 form of a cup, with the branches ranged 
 regularly round the stem. Red and 
 white currants require the same treat- 
 ment, as they produce their fruit on 
 spurs. The black currant must be 
 managed differently, as it bears chiefly 
 on the shoots of the preceding year. 
 Instead, therefore, of spurring and 
 otherwise shortening the branches, all 
 that is necessary is to thin them, and 
 keep the bushes compact." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Forcing. — Red and white currants ■ 
 may be in our desserts during nine 
 months of the twelve. Pot some three- 
 
CUR 
 
 182 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CUT 
 
 year-old plants during the first week of | favourable to the developement ot 
 January, and place half of them in the | roots. 
 
 peach-house, and the other moiety on | Those plants which vegetate rapidly, 
 the upper shelf of the green-house, and delight in either a moist or rich 
 The first will come into bearing early ' soil, are those which are propagated 
 
 in April, and the remainder at the end 
 of May. The open ground crop is fit 
 
 most readily by this mode, and such 
 plants are the willow, gooseberry and 
 
 for gathering before June closes, and I pelargonium ; a budded section of these 
 some of these, if matted over at the end j can hardly be thrust into the ground 
 
 of July, may be kept good until Decem- 
 ber terminates. 
 
 CURRANT SPHINX. See Sphinx. 
 
 CURTOGYNE. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings, put for a few days in the sun. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 CUSSONIA. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 CUSTARD APPLE. Anona. 
 
 CUTTING is a part of a plant capa- 
 ble of emitting roots, and of becoming 
 an individual similar to its parent. The 
 circumstances requisite to effect this 
 are a suitable temperature and degree 
 of moisture. 
 
 Cuttings in general may be taken 
 either from the stem, branch, or root ; 
 and are, in fact, grafts, which by being 
 placed in the earth, a medium favour- 
 able to the production of roots these 
 emit, instead of aiding the stock to 
 effect that development of vessels neces- 
 sary for their union to it, had they been 
 grafted. A due degree of moisture in 
 the soil is absolutely required from it by 
 cuttings, for these will often produce 
 roots if placed in water only. The 
 time for taking off cuttings from the 
 parent plant for propagation, is when 
 the sap is in full activity; the vital 
 energy in all its parts is then most po- 
 tent for the development of the new 
 organs their altered circumstances re- 
 quire. Well-matured buds are found to 
 emit roots most successfully, and appa- 
 rently for the same reason that they are 
 least liable to failure, when employed 
 
 without its rooting. 
 
 Cuttings of those plants which grow 
 tardily, or in other words form new parts 
 slowly, are those which are most liable 
 to fail. These are strikingly instanced 
 in the heaths, the orange, and cera- 
 tonia. 
 
 A rooted cutting is not a new plant, 
 it is only an extension of the parent, 
 gifted with precisely the same habits, 
 and delighting most in exactly the same 
 degree of heat, light and moisture, and 
 in the same food. 
 
 A cutting produces roots, either from 
 a bud or eye, or from a callus resem- 
 bling a protuberant lip, which forms 
 from the alburnum between the wood 
 and the bark round the face of the cut 
 which divided the slip from the parent 
 stem. If the atmospheric temperature 
 is so high that moisture is emitted from 
 the leaves faster than it is supplied, they 
 droop or flag, and the growth of the 
 plant is suspended. If a cutting be 
 placed in water, it imbibes at first more 
 rapidly than a rooted plant of the same 
 size, though this power rapidly de- 
 creases; but if planted in the earth, it 
 at no time imbibes so fast as the rooted 
 plant, provided the soil is similarly moist; 
 and this evidently because it has not such 
 an extensive imbibing surface as is pos- 
 sessed by the rooted plant; consequent- 
 ly, the soil in which a cutting is placed 
 should be much more moist than is 
 beneficial to a rooted plant of the same 
 species, and evaporation from the leaves 
 should be checked by covering the cut- 
 tings with a bell-glass, or a Wardian 
 
 for budding, viz., that being less easily j case would be still better. The tem- 
 excitable, they do not begin to develop j perature to which the leaves are ex- 
 
 until the cutting has the power to afford 
 a due supply of sap. Therefore, in 
 taking a cutting, it is advisable to re- 
 move a portion of the wood having on 
 it a bud, or joint, as it is popularly call- 
 ed, of the previous year's production. 
 Many plants can be multiplied by cut- 
 tings with the greatest difficulty, and 
 after Qvery care has been taken to se- 
 cure to the cutting every circumstance 
 
 posed should be approaching the lowest 
 the plant will endure. The warmer the 
 soil within the range of temperature 
 most suitable to the plant, the more 
 active are the roots, and the more ener- 
 getically are carried on all the processes 
 of the vessels buried beneath the sur- 
 face of the soil ; 50° for the atmosphere,, 
 and between 65° and 75° for the bottom 
 heat, are the most effectual temperatures 
 
CUT 
 
 183 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CUT 
 
 for the generality of plants. The cutting 
 should be as short as possible consist- 
 ently with the object in view. Three 
 or four leaves, or even two, if the cut- 
 ting be very short, are abundant. They 
 elaborate the sap quite as fast as re- 
 quired, and are not liable to exhaust the 
 cutting by super-exhalation of moisture. 
 
 Cuttings taken from the upper branch- 
 es of a plant, flower and bear fruit the 
 earliest, but those taken from near the 
 soil are said to root most freely. Cut- 
 tings which reluctantly emit roots may 
 be aided by ringing. The ring should 
 be cut round the branch a few weeks 
 before the cutting has to be removed ; 
 the bark should be completely removed 
 down to the wood, and the section di- 
 viding the cutting from the parent be 
 made between the ring and the parent 
 stem, as soon as a callus appears round 
 the upper edge of the ring. 
 
 The soil is an important considera- 
 tion. The cuttings of orange trees and 
 others which strike with difficulty if in- 
 serted in the middle of the earth of a 
 pot, do so readily if placed in contact 
 with its side. The same effect is pro- 
 duced by the end of the cutting touch- 
 ing an under drainage of gravel or 
 broken pots. Why is this? My obser- 
 vations justify me in concluding that it 
 is because in these situations, the side 
 and the open drainage of the pot, the 
 atmospheric air gains a salutary access. 
 A light porous soil, or even sand, which 
 admits air the most readily, is the best 
 for cuttings; and so is a shallow pan 
 rather than a flower pot, and apparently 
 for the same reason. I have no doubt 
 that numerous perforations in the bot- 
 tom of the cutting pan would be found 
 advantageous for cuttings which root 
 slowly. 
 
 Some plants may be successfully 
 propagated by means of the leaves, and 
 among those whose numbers are thus 
 most commonly increased, are the Cac 
 
 been considered totally incapable of 
 such extension. Thus M. Neumann 
 has succeeded with the Theophrasta 
 latifolici; and going a step further, he 
 has even bisected a leaf, and raised a 
 leaf from each half. 
 
 Mr. Knight has also recorded in the 
 Horticultural Transactions of 1822, 
 that leaves of the peppermint (Mentha 
 piperita), without any portion of the 
 stem upon which they had grown, lived 
 for more than twelve months, increased 
 in size, nearly assumed the character 
 of evergreen trees, and emitted a mass 
 of roots. That leaves may be made 
 almost universally to emit roots there 
 appears little reason to doubt ; for the 
 same great physiologist had long before 
 proved that the roots of trees are gene- 
 rated from vessels passing from the 
 leaves through the bark ; and that they 
 never in any instance spring from the 
 alburnum. But the question arises, 
 will they produce buds ? and at pre- 
 sent the answer derived from practice 
 is in the negative ; orange leaves, rose 
 leaves, leaves of Statice arborea, have 
 been made to root abundantly ; but 
 like blind cabbage plants, they obsti- 
 nately refused to produce buds. 
 
 Dr. Lindley thinks that a more abund- 
 ant supply of richer food, and exposure 
 to a greater intensity of light, would 
 have removed this deficiency; and I 
 see every reason for concurring with so 
 excellent an authority ; for buds seem 
 to spring from the central vessels of 
 plants, and these vessels are never ab- 
 sent from a leaf. If an abundant sup- 
 ply of food were given to a well-rooted 
 leaf, and it were cut down close to the 
 callus, from whence the roots are emit- 
 ted, I think buds would be produced, 
 for the very roots themselves have the 
 same power. 
 
 In general, the young wood strikes 
 most readily. Those of the Semecarpus 
 mahogani, Swietenia mahogani, Eu- 
 
 ti, Gesnerae, Gloxinia?, and other fleshy Iphorbia litchi, and others, must have 
 
 leaved plants. Lately the suggestion 
 has been revived, — a suggestion first 
 made by Agricola at the commence- 
 ment of the last century. He states 
 that M. Manderola had raised a lemon- 
 tree in this mode ; and thence con- 
 cludes, rather too rashly, that all exotic 
 leaves may at any time be converted 
 into trees. Since that was written, in 
 1721, it is certain that plants have been 
 
 the wood quite soft, and must be in- 
 serted in the soil under bell-glasses the 
 moment they are cut. On the contrary, 
 cuttings of milky, gummy or resinous 
 plants, such as Araucaria, Euphorbia, 
 and Vahea gummifera, require to be 
 buried in damp sand for twenty-four 
 hours, with the wound exposed, and 
 then to be planted, after having the 
 exuded matterwashed off with a sponge. 
 
 raised from leaves that previously had j Herbaceous plants having a partial de- 
 
C YA 
 
 184 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 CYC 
 
 velopmentof wood, as the Pelargonium, 
 Calceolaria, and Cineraria, will strike 
 in any place shaded from the meridian 
 sun. Cuttings of fleshy-leaved plants, 
 as the Cacti, and many others, root 
 better after being allowed to remain for 
 forty-eight hours, after division from 
 the parent plant, before they are plant- 
 ed. Diosmas, fuchsias, heaths, camel- 
 lias, &c, require for their cuttings the 
 gentle heat of a nearly exhausted hot- 
 bed, and a close atmosphere, with but 
 little light admitted night and morning. 
 The bell-glasses employed should be 
 proportioned to the size of the cutting. 
 A small cutting should not be placed 
 under a large glass. Blue and violet- 
 coloured glass is found most favourable 
 for the purpose, and this is accounted 
 for by the fact, that glass of this colour 
 admits very few luminous or leaf- 
 stimulating rays of light; but nearly all 
 the chemical rays of the spectrum, 
 which assist in the decomposition of 
 bodies. M. Neumann has succeeded 
 in striking cuttings of monocotyle- 
 donous plants, such as Draycena,Frey- 
 cenettia, and Vanilla. The cuttings 
 may be from branches of any age be- 
 tween less than one and six years old. 
 They require to have the leaves cut 
 away at the bottom of the cutting, the 
 whole length of the portion to be buried. 
 Jt is not necessary to use the extremi- 
 ties of branches, pieces from their mid- 
 dles answer as well. M. Neumann also 
 thinks that all dicotyledonous plants 
 may be multiplied by cuttings of their 
 roots, or even by detached leaves. 
 Dais cotinifolia is increased from cut- 
 tings of the roots, and so is Paulownia 
 imperialis. Pieces two inches long, 
 and half an inch in diameter, and cut in 
 March, root well. Maclaura aurantiaca 
 succeeds similarly even in the open air, 
 the upper wound of the cutting being 
 placed nearly level with the surface. 
 He has also multiplied Araucaria Cun- 
 ninghami, and all the Coniferee, by root 
 cuttings. 
 
 Soil. — The soil most generally appli- 
 cable, is that which is rich and light. 
 Some cuttings, as those of the Tamarix 
 elegans and T. germanica, require a 
 little saltpetre in the soil. 
 
 CYAMOPSIS psoraloides. Hardy 
 annual. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 CYANELLA. Five species. Green- 
 house bulbous perennials. Offsets. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 CYANOTIS. Three species. Green- 
 house biennials. Seeds. Rich mould. 
 C. barbata is a hardy herbaceous peren- 
 nial. Increased by division. 
 
 CYATHEA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen ferns. Division or seeds. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 CYATHODES. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Peat and loam. 
 
 CYCAS. Five species. Stove her- 
 baceous perennials. Suckers. Rich 
 loam. 
 
 CYCLAMEN. Ten species, and 
 many varieties. Hardy or green-house 
 tuberous-rooted perennials. Seeds. 
 Sandy loam and vegetable mould. Spe- 
 cies most worthy of culture are — 
 
 C. Coum. Round-leaved, spring- 
 flowering sowbread. Reddish purple. 
 January to March. 
 
 C. Europaum. Round-leaved, sum- 
 mer-flowering sowbread. Reddish 
 purple. Fragrant. July to September. 
 
 C. vernum. Round-leaved winter- 
 flowering sowbread. Like preceding. 
 November to January. 
 
 C. Persicum. Persian sowbread. 
 Various colours. February to May. 
 
 C. Neapolitanum. Neapolitan sow- 
 bread. Rosy. August to September. 
 
 C. hederczfolium. Ivy-leaved sow- 
 bread. White and pink. Fragrant. 
 March to May. 
 
 Mr. G. Gordon, of the Chiswick Gar- 
 dens, gives the following excellent 
 directions for their culture : — 
 
 " The Cyclamen is increased by cut- 
 ting the largest roots in pieces, which 
 is a bad practice, as they are very liable 
 to rot during the first season after cut- 
 ting, or while in a dormant state, un- 
 less the parts are kept very dry, a 
 thing very injurious to the early flower- 
 ing kinds. 
 
 "By Seeds, which should be sown 
 when ripe, whether it be autumn or 
 spring, in pans or pots well drained, 
 and filled with a mixture of equal parts 
 of sandy loam and leaf-mould, to which 
 should be added a small portion of well- 
 rotted dung. Then place the pans or 
 pots in a cold frame or pit, kept close, 
 if sown in the spring ; but if sown in 
 the autumn, they should be placed on 
 the back shelf of the green-house, and 
 kept rather dry during the winter, and 
 gradually watered more as the spring 
 advances. 
 
 " The autumn-sown plants will be fit 
 
CYC 
 
 185 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 C YP 
 
 for transplanting about the end of May, 
 or beginning of June following, if pro- 
 perly treated ; whilst those sown in the 
 spring should not be removed from the 
 seed-pans before the following spring ; 
 they will by that time have formed roots 
 about the size of a hazel-nut. Prepare 
 then some large pots or pans, well 
 drain, and fill them with the same kind 
 of soil as that in which these seeds were 
 sown, and transplant the young roots 
 from the seed pans into these, placing 
 them about three or four inches apart 
 according to the size of the roots. 
 Return them to the cold pit or frame, 
 and keep them close until they begin 
 to grow ; afterwards admit air freely 
 by day, but keep the pit close at night, 
 till the beginning of July, when the pots 
 or pans should be plunged, and the 
 plants fully exposed, both day and 
 night; taking care, however, that the 
 soil in the pots does not get sodden with 
 too much rain, or become too dry. 
 They will require no more trouble, 
 except keeping free from weeds and 
 slugs, till the middle of September, 
 when they should be potted singly into 
 small forty-eight sized or sixty pots, 
 (according to the size of the roots,) 
 filled with the same kind of soil as that 
 previously used. 
 
 " In potting, the bulbs should never 
 be entirely covered with the soil, but 
 about one-third left exposed. When 
 potted, they should be placed on the 
 back shelf of the green-house, or in a 
 cold pit, where they can be kept dry 
 and free from frost, until they begin to 
 grow. If they are the early flowering 
 kinds, a few may be placed in the win- 
 dow of the sitting-room, and but spar- 
 ingly watered until they commence 
 growing, when they should have a more 
 liberal supply. 
 
 " The roots will begin to bloom the 
 second season, and may be placed on 
 the shelves of the green-house ; or if 
 they are of those hardy kinds which 
 flower in summer or autumn, the pots 
 may be plunged in the open border. 
 When done flowering they should be 
 returned to the cold pit or frame, where 
 the lights must be kept on during the 
 night, in cold or wet weather; but 
 where they can have plenty of air at all 
 times, observing as they cease growing, 
 that water should be withheld, and 
 finally, the roots gradually dried. The 
 roots, when dry, should be allowed to 
 
 remain in the pots, and not be shaken 
 out, as is frequently done; for when 
 taken out of the soil they are almost 
 sure to get too much dried before they 
 are again potted. This is particularly 
 the case with the early flowering sorts. 
 
 " The proper time of the year for 
 resting the flowering roots, entirely de- 
 pends on the sorts. C. Persicum will 
 be at rest when the C. Europceum and 
 C. Neapolitanum will be in full bloom, 
 and vice versa. The roots should be 
 shaken from the soil, and repotted 
 directly the least sign of vegetation is 
 observable. But the early spring- 
 flowering kinds may be forced earlier 
 into bloom by potting a few of the 
 strongest roots sooner, and placing 
 them in a warm dry place. They must 
 not be excited too rapidly, or watered 
 freely; for if they are, the leaves are 
 almost sure to damp off during the dull 
 winter months, and particularly those 
 of the beautiful C. Persicum and its 
 varieties." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 CYCLANTHUS plumieri. Curious 
 stove herbaceous perennial. Suckers. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 CYCLOBOTHRA. Five species. 
 Hardy, half-hardy, or green-house bul- 
 bous perennials. Bulbs. Peat, loam 
 and sand. 
 
 CYDONIA. Three species, and four 
 varieties. Hardy deciduous fruit trees 
 or shrubs. Suckers. Any soil suits 
 them. C. vulgaris, the quince. 
 
 CYLINDROSPORIUM concentricum. 
 A parasitical fungus often attacking the 
 cabbage, forming a blight or mildew. 
 Repeated syringing with water in which 
 three ounces per gallon of salt have 
 been dissolved, will remove it. 
 
 CYLISTA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 CYMBIDIUM. Seventeen species. 
 Stove orchids. Division. The terres- 
 trial kinds, loam and peat. The epi- 
 phytal, wood. 
 
 CYMBOPOGON Schananthus. A 
 stove species of grass. Seeds. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 CYNOCHE pentadactylum. Stove 
 epiphyte. Offsets. Fibrous peat. 
 
 CYNOGLOSSUM. Twenty-two spe- 
 cies. Hardy annuals, biennials, or 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 CYPELLA. Two species. Green- 
 
C YP 
 
 186 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 D AH 
 
 ouse bulbous perennials. Offsets. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 CYPHIA. Five species. Green- 
 house annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 C. phyteuma is a tuberous-rooted, and 
 C. cardamines a stove herbaceous pe- 
 rennial. Young shoots. Peat, loam 
 and sand. 
 
 CYPRESS. Cupressus. 
 
 CYNARA. (See Cardoon and Arti- 
 choke.) Eight species. Chiefly hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Seeds." Good 
 rich soil. 
 
 CYNIPS. Gall-fly. The species of 
 this genus chiefly confine their attacks 
 to the oak and other timber trees. The 
 species chiefly noticeable by the garden- 
 er is the C. rosce, which causes the hairy 
 galls occasionally observed upon rose 
 trees. 
 
 CYPRIPEDIUM. Lady's slipper. 
 Twelve species, and variety. Chiefly 
 hardy terrestrial orchids. Division. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 An anonymous writer gives the fol- 
 lowing correct directions for their culti- 
 vation : — 
 
 " The sorts in general cultivation 
 are, Cypripedium venustum (purple and 
 green) ; purpuratum (purple) ; insigne 
 (green and purple) ; humile (purple and 
 white) ; guttatum (yellow) ; ventricosum 
 (dark purple); and our own pretty na- 
 tive species, Calceolus (yellow). 
 
 " Of these the three first are from 
 warm latitudes, and consequently re- 
 quire the temperature of a stove ; the 
 remaining sorts come principally from 
 North America, and are either hardy, 
 or require but a moderate protection 
 during the winter and spring. 
 
 K The stove kinds are found to suc- 
 ceed tolerably well by being potted in 
 soil composed of rotten wood, moss, 
 and a little silver sand; while the 
 hardier kinds thrive best when planted 
 in a shady situation in sandy peat. 
 
 " The American varieties require a 
 protection of straw, or some other ma- 
 terial, to preserve them from the effects 
 of severe frosts, and to throw off the 
 rain in wet seasons. 
 
 " At Messrs. Rollison's, of Tooting, 
 they succeed remarkably well in a peat 
 border adjoining the back wall of a 
 heath house, being covered during the 
 winter and spring months with sphag- 
 num to the depth of two or three inches. 
 Another successful method of treating 
 them, is to pot them in good sized pots, 
 
 in a mixture of sandy peat and rotten 
 saw-dust, keeping them in a cool 
 green-house or frame. 
 
 " They are difficult of increase. They 
 may sometimes be propagated by divi- 
 sion of the roots ; this, however, occurs 
 but rarely. Occasionally, in favourable 
 situations, they will perfect seeds ; espe- 
 cially, if care is taken, when the flowers 
 are in a proper state, to apply the pollen 
 to the stigma with a camel hair pencil. 
 
 "As they are plants which thrive 
 only in shady situations, where the 
 rays of the sun do not penetrate with 
 sufficient power to cause a spedy eva- 
 poration, but little moisture will be ne- 
 cessary even during the summer, parti- 
 cularly if the soil be protected with a 
 covering of moss; and during their pe- 
 riod of rest in the autumnal and winter 
 months, water maybe entirely dispensed 
 with." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 CYRILLA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 CYRTANTHUS. Nine species. 
 Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
 sets. Turfy loam, sand and peat. 
 
 CYRTOCHILUM. Four species. 
 Stove orchids. Division. Wood, with 
 moss on the roots. 
 
 CYRTOPERA Woodfordii. Stove 
 orchid. Division. Wood. 
 
 CYRTOPODIUM. Three species. 
 Stove orchids. Division. Wood. 
 
 CYTISUS. Forty-one species, and 
 some varieties. Chiefly hardy decidu- 
 ous shrubs and trees, with a few green- 
 house evergreens. Seeds, layers, grafts, 
 or buds. Any soil suits them. 
 
 CZACHIA liliastrum. Hardy herb- 
 aceous perennial. Seeds or division. 
 Good rich loam. 
 
 DACRYDIUM. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 DACTYLICAPUOS thalicitrifolia. 
 Half-hardy evergreen climber. Seeds. 
 Sandy soil. 
 
 DJEMIA. Four species. Stove ever- 
 green twiners. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 DAFFODIL. Narcissus pseudo-nar- 
 cissus. 
 
 DAHLIA. Seven species. Tuberous 
 perennials. Cuttings, division, and seed. 
 Rich sandy loam. The two species 
 giving birth to the numerous lovely va- 
 rieties of our gardens are D. superfiua 
 and D.frustanea. 
 
D AH 
 
 187 
 
 DAH 
 
 Varieties. — These are numerous; so 
 much so as in many instances to baffle 
 the eye, in the attempt to discriminate 
 between those which bear distinct 
 names.. The following, selected from 
 the catalogue of D. Landreth & Fulton, 
 Philadelphia, are admitted to be among 
 the most desirable varieties. 
 
 Admiral Stopford, Trentfield, dark 
 maroon, fine form. 
 
 Albion, Cook, bronzy salmon. 
 
 Alexander the Great, Schmitz, dark 
 crimson. 
 
 Antagonist, Bragg, pure white, 
 finely cupped. 
 
 Apollo, Schmitz, golden yellow, 
 cupped petals. 
 
 Arethusa, Brown, violet purple. 
 
 Argo, Widnall, bright yellow, good 
 form. 
 
 Argus, Schmitz, primrose yellow, 
 tipped with rose. 
 
 Asmodeus, dark puce. 
 
 Beauty of Chelmsford, white and la- 
 vender. 
 
 Beauty of Philadelphia, Schmitz, yel- 
 low tipped with rose, fine form. 
 
 Bedford Surprise, rosy crimson, very 
 fine. 
 
 Beeswing, JDrummond, crimson. 
 
 Bermondsey Bee, purple, fine form. 
 
 Bloomsbury, Lee, bright crimson, su- 
 perb form. 
 
 Bridal Ring, white and lavender. 
 
 Burnham Hero, Church, crimson, fine 
 form. 
 
 Caleb Cope, Schmitz, mottled rose. 
 
 Cheltenham Queen, blush white. 
 
 Cleopatra, Atwell, light yellow. 
 
 Colonel Baker, claret, finely cupped. 
 
 Competitor, Hodge, dark rose. 
 
 Constantia, white, edge pink. 
 
 Conqueror, Schmitz, dark maroon, 
 finely cupped. 
 
 Dazzle, dark scarlet. 
 
 Defiance, Horwood, rosy crimson. 
 
 Desdemona, Schmitz, primrose, beau- 
 tifully cupped. 
 
 Dowager Lady Cooper, peach blos- 
 som, cupped. 
 
 Duchess of Richmond, orange and 
 pink, fine. 
 
 Duke of York, Keynes, fine scarlet. 
 
 Emily, Schmitz, white edged with 
 rose. 
 
 Enterprise, Dodd, clear buff. 
 
 Essex Triumph, Turville, dark ma- 
 roon, fine form. 
 
 Eugenia, yellow, edge violet. 
 
 Evecque de Bayeaux, Oudin, maroon. 
 
 Exemia, Girling, bright rose, very 
 showy flower. 
 
 Exquisite, white rosy edge. 
 
 Fire Ball, Squibb, vivid crimson, 
 finely quiiled. 
 
 Fire King, Schmitz, bright scarlet, 
 very large. 
 
 Glory of Plymouth, Rendle, white 
 tipped with purple. 
 
 Golden Souvenir, Schmitz, bright 
 yellow, finely cupped. 
 
 Grandis, Marshal, fine rose. 
 
 Grand Bazaar, Schmitz, crimson and 
 lilac. 
 
 Granta, Widnall, claret colour, fine. 
 
 Great Mogul, Atwell, shaded crim- 
 son, fine. 
 
 Henry Clay, Schmitz, dark claret, 
 cupped, fine. 
 
 Hero of Stonehenge, Whales, dark 
 claret, very fine. 
 
 Hero of Tippecanoe, Hancock, superb 
 rose, finely cupped. 
 
 Hero of the West, Schmitz, rosy car- 
 mine, very large. 
 
 Hon. Miss Abbott, delicate lilac. 
 
 Hope, Neville, light rose, fine flower. 
 
 Horace Binney, Schmitz, shaded ma- 
 roon, extra fine. 
 
 Indispensable, white, the best out. 
 
 Indian Chief, Schmitz, salmon. 
 
 Juliette, Widnall, rosy purple. 
 
 Juno, Buist, bronzy lilac. 
 
 King of Lilacs, very fine lilac. 
 
 King of Yellows, Hislop, light yel- 
 low, very fine. 
 
 Lady Antrobus, white, purple edge. 
 
 Lady Ashburton, Russell, blush white, 
 edged with lilac. 
 
 Lady Bathurst, white laced with rose. 
 
 Lady St. Maur, white tipped with pur- 
 ple, superb flower. 
 
 Lady Sale, Smith, yellow edge rose. 
 
 La Tour de Auvergne, orange scar- 
 let, finely cupped. 
 
 Le Grand Baudin, shaded crimson, 
 fine form. 
 
 Lord Morpeth, puce, cupped. 
 
 Maid of Bath, Davis, white, purple 
 edge. 
 
 Majestic, Widnall, shaded rose, pro- 
 fuse. 
 
 Marchioness of Exeter, blush, superb 
 form, extra fine. 
 
 Marchioness of Ormonde, white tip- 
 ped with purple, superb. 
 
 Mary Ann, Schmitz, pure white, 
 finely cupped. 
 
 Marshal Soult, lilac and red. 
 
 Middlesex rival, dark rose. 
 
D AH 
 
 188 
 
 D AH 
 
 Miranda, Brown, blush white, tipped 
 with rose. 
 
 Miss Carpentier, Schmitz, mottled 
 
 Miss Percival, Schmitz, pure white. 
 
 Mrs. Hibbert, Schmitz, blush 
 cupped petals. 
 
 Mrs. Jones, Buist, dove colour. 
 
 Mrs. Rushton, Buist, white tipped 
 with rose, fine. 
 
 Mrs. Shelly, Mitchell, rose and lilac, 
 beautiful flower. 
 
 Negro, Schmitz, dark maroon. 
 
 Ne Plus Ultra, Widnall, rich dark 
 purple, cupped. 
 
 Nigra et Alba, Girling, white edged 
 with purple. 
 
 Northern Beauty, Robinson, white 
 tipped with rose, superb. 
 
 Nymph, Schmitz, yellow tipped with 
 rose. 
 
 Ophir, Edwards, rich yellow, fine 
 flower. 
 
 Orange Superb, orange,finely cupped. 
 
 Orb, Widnall, scarlet crimson, superb. 
 
 Pandora, Bowman, crimson, cupped 
 petals. 
 
 Pickwick, purple, finely cupped. 
 
 Pocahontas, Schmitz, vermilion, large 
 and fine. 
 
 Pontiac, Schmitz, orange edged with 
 red, superb. 
 
 Prince Albert, Adams, light brown, 
 cupped petals. 
 
 Princess Royale, Hudson, amber 
 tipped with rose, fine. 
 
 Punch, Dodd, purple. 
 
 Queen, Widnall, peach blossom. 
 
 Queen of Beauty, Garth, rich lilac, 
 neat flower. 
 
 Queen of Roses, superb rosy lilac. 
 
 Queen of Trumps, white, lilac edge. 
 
 Quilled Perfection, very fine rose. 
 
 Reine des Fees, Girling, crimson and 
 white. 
 
 Reliance, Widnall. 
 
 Rienzi, Widnall, crimson and puce. 
 
 Rising Sun, Widnall, dark crimson. 
 
 Roderick, Schmitz, rosy crimson. 
 
 Royal Standard, Whales, rosy purple, 
 finely cupped. 
 
 Simon Snyder, Schmitz, large crimson. 
 
 Sir E. Antrobus, Keynes, fiery crim- 
 son. 
 
 Sir F. Johnston, Hillier, rosy crim- 
 son, superb flower. 
 
 Springfield Major, Gaines, dark crim- 
 son, cupped. 
 
 Standard of Perfection, Keynes, pur- 
 ple. 
 
 Striata Formosissima, white striped 
 with rose. 
 
 Sunbury Hero, Wilmer, yellow tipped 
 with red. 
 
 Sylph, Widnall, white edged with 
 rose, | rose. 
 
 Thomas Clarkson, Smith, rosy pur- 
 ple. 
 
 Triumphant, Schmitz, white edged 
 with lilac, fine. 
 
 Ultimatum, bright red. 
 
 Unique, Ansell, yellow tipped with 
 red. 
 
 Victor, Widnall, yellow, tipped crim- 
 son. 
 
 Violet Perfection, Keynes, dark pur- 
 ple, fine flower. 
 
 Washington Irving, Schmitz, light 
 purple. 
 
 Westbury Rival, Hall, deep crimson. 
 
 White Defiance, Schmitz, white, 
 cupped petals. 
 
 Yellow Victory, Schmitz, fine yellow. 
 
 FANCY, OR VARIEGATED DAHLIAS. 
 
 Alba-purpurea Superba, Bates, pur- 
 ple tipped with white. 
 
 Beauty of England, Girling, purple 
 tipped with white. 
 
 Charles XII., Miller, purple tipped 
 with white. 
 
 Cinderella, Dubras, cherry tipped 
 with white. 
 
 Donna Antoni, Deelius, rose tipped 
 with white. 
 
 Eleame de Beaucour, Girling, white, 
 purple edge. 
 
 Evecque de Tournay, purple tipped 
 with white. 
 
 Fairy Queen, Keynes, fawn tipped 
 with red. 
 
 Harlequin, Dodd, white tipped with 
 bright scarlet, splendid flower. 
 
 Illuminator, Keynes, scarlet edged 
 with white, fine fancy variety. 
 
 Le Lione, creamy white, edged with 
 scarlet, fine. 
 
 Madam Chauvere, light rose tipped 
 with white. 
 
 Madame Rignou, crimson, edged with 
 white. 
 
 Madame de Schaunenfeld, Girling, 
 dark rose tipped with white. 
 
 Madame Walner, Girling, maroon 
 tipped with white. 
 
 Miss Funnel, purple tipped with 
 white. 
 
 Nihil, red tipped with white. 
 
 Painted Lady, crimson tipped with 
 white. 
 
D AH 
 
 189 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 D AH 
 
 Silvio, Dubras, cherry red tipped 
 with white. 
 
 Surprise, Oakley, purple, distinctly 
 tipped with white. 
 
 Village Maid, purple, tipped with 
 white. 
 
 Viscount Ressigueur, Dubras, purple 
 tipped with white, large, full, superb 
 flower. 
 
 "The dahlia is very variable, sporting 
 from its true colours, but as often re- 
 turning to them. Knowing this, let the 
 following facts, with regard to new 
 kinds of dahlias, be borne in mind be- 
 fore condemning them the second 
 year : — 
 
 " I. That the seedling plant is much 
 debilitated by propagation ; and there- 
 fore the flowers are rarely as good the 
 second season as they are the first and 
 subsequent to the second. 
 
 " 2. That the best flowers are ob- 
 tained from those plants struck from 
 the first cuttings produced by the mo- 
 ther-plant, notwithstanding that they 
 are seldom as strong as the cuttings 
 that are afterwards produced. 
 
 ". 3. The exciting the roots by means 
 of a strong heat early in the spring, and 
 striking the young plants in a strong 
 dung-bed, tend to weaken the plants 
 so treated to such a degree that they 
 frequently require two or three seasons 
 to recover and regain their original cha- 
 racter. Thus it is found that good 
 flowers are obtained with the least trou- 
 ble from those plants kept in pots the 
 first season after striking, (termed by 
 the trade pot-roots,) planted out the 
 following season, and allowed to start 
 of their own accord. 
 
 " 4. That in wet seasons manure is 
 frequently very injurious from its caus- 
 ing the plant to grow too luxuriantly, 
 and thus to produce but few flowers ; 
 while in very dry seasons it is equally 
 injurious. Much more depends on a 
 change of soil than on its composition 
 and quality. 
 
 " 5. That water is a point which can- 
 not be too much attended to. A great 
 difference exists between hard and soft 
 water, but still more depends on the 
 manner in which it is applied ; for one 
 or two good waterings are much better 
 than a small quantity given three or 
 four times a week. 
 
 "6. That taking up the roots imme- 
 diately after a frost has destroyed the 
 top, is the principal cause of so many 
 
 roots dying during the winter season." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Propagation by Division. — " A good 
 criterion for planting this root," says 
 a writer in the Gard. Mag., " is about 
 the time of planting early potatoes for 
 a first crop, but no sooner. They grow 
 well in a rich light soil of almost any 
 kind. In dividing the root, it is ad- 
 visable to leave at least two eyes to 
 each plant, cutting through the neck or 
 crown. The spring is the most pre- 
 ferable time for dividing them, al- 
 though some do it on taking them up 
 in the autumn. 
 
 " Those who possess a hot-house 
 should put each plant into a pot of six 
 or eight inches in diameter, with some 
 good rich mould, so as the crown may 
 just appear at the top of the pot ; then 
 place them in the green-house, where 
 they will soon make good plants : and 
 when all danger from frost is over, they 
 may be turned out into holes prepared 
 for them. In this manner, after being 
 so long confined, they will grow most 
 luxuriantly. 
 
 " A common cucumber-frame may 
 be successfully used in this way." — 
 Gard. Mag. 
 
 By Grafting.— This is performed in 
 the months of August, September, and 
 October ; and it is an excellent practice 
 to avoid the chance of losing a seed- 
 ling, or new or scarce varieties. 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
D AH 
 
 190 
 
 D AH 
 
 " It is, moreover, particularly appli- 
 cable to those kinds which are horny- 
 rooted and difficult to break ; or such as 
 ( Taylor's Sultana,' with long stringy 
 tubers, which seldom live through the 
 winter ; and to others which break late. 
 To all such this mode is recommended 
 with the greatest confidence of success. 
 The operation is exceedingly simple, 
 (see figure 33), and may be performed 
 at any time from January to December, 
 (provided you have a good growing 
 heat,) not only with young green shoots, 
 but with others more advanced, if not 
 hollow or pithy. The usual manner is 
 to take a scion with six or eight leaves, 
 cut it smooth below the joint, take off 
 one of the lower leaves without injuring 
 the eye, and then cut away a portion 
 (half or three-quarters of an inch) of the 
 skin or fleshy part of the wood between 
 each of the lower eyes. 
 
 " Have ready a good sound piece of 
 tuber of the last or present season (if 
 ripe), in which make a slanting longi- 
 tudinal incision of one or two inches, 
 according to circumstances, and about 
 half an inch wide at top, gradually 
 tapering off to the bottom, and fix the 
 scion firmly into it. The root should 
 then be planted in a pot, with the 
 grafted part just below the mould, and 
 placed under a bell-glass, or in a warm 
 close frame ; but the former is best. 
 
 " In eight or ten days the union will 
 be complete, and air may be gradually 
 given. After a short time you will be 
 able to head it down, either for cuttings, 
 if in spring, or grafts for summer and 
 autumn. It is advisable to leave at all 
 times four eyes, to ensure a vigorous 
 growth; and also to shift the plant into a 
 larger pot occasionally." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 By Seed. — Mr. Sabine gives the fol- 
 lowing directions : — 
 
 " Collect the seed in September from 
 dwarf plants and from semi-double 
 flowers, when double varieties are 
 chiefly desired. Perhaps seeds obtain- 
 ed from those particular florets of the 
 disc which have altered their form, may 
 have a greater tendency than others to 
 produce plants with double flowers. 
 Sow in March, heat of 55° or 65° ; 
 prick out, if necessary, in pots, and 
 keep in a moderate temperature, say 
 50 or 55°, till the end of April. Plant 
 ou to remain, covering each plant at 
 night with an empty pot for some weeks, 
 to avoid injury from spring frosts to 
 
 themselves. Plant in rows three feet ; 
 two feet if in the flower-border. Plant 
 in the back rows. They require to be 
 staked. Seedlings thus treated will 
 blow in July, and continue in perfection 
 till the autumn." — Hort. Transac. 
 
 By cuttings. — " The shoots are al- 
 lowed to grow until they have three 
 pair of leaves, and they are cut off" just 
 under the second pair and above the 
 lowest pair. Where one cutting is 
 taken off plenty of others follow, and 
 these are to be served the same way. 
 There must be care used that the cut- 
 tings taken off are from three to four 
 inches long, and that you leave a pair 
 of leaves below ; for at every leaf there 
 is an embryo bud which will form a 
 shoot, which shoot will in turn yield a 
 cutting, and in two other embryo buds." 
 — Glenny: Gard. and Pr act. Flor. 
 
 " The cuttings, when taken off, may 
 be struck the same as shoots ? but they 
 do not take root so rapidly. It must 
 depend on the room you have whether 
 you will plant a dozen cuttings round a 
 forty-eight-sized pot, or put one cutting 
 each into twelve small ones. In one 
 case but little room is taken up while 
 they are striking, and this is often of 
 importance. When they have struck 
 root they must be potted singly into 
 sixty-sized pots, or thumb-pots, kept in 
 heat a few days to establish them, and 
 then be replaced under some kind of 
 protection till planting them." — Ibid. 
 
 Propagation by eyes. — " In N cases," 
 adds Mr. Glenny, " where it is of great 
 importance to increase a plant, they 
 may be propagated by eyes, which will 
 double the increase. In this case there 
 may be half a dozen or more plants 
 made out of one shoot, or seedling, 
 taken off properly. Suppose there be 
 three parts of leaves besides the end 
 joint, the end joint, which will have two 
 leaves, and the heart may be cut off 
 close to the under leaves, which may 
 be carefully removed ; and thus forms 
 a cutting. The stem left is to be split 
 up, each half having the two or three 
 leaves. These are to be cut close under 
 each leaf. Half the portion of split 
 stem, and the whole of the leaf, still 
 remain, and these must be put an inch 
 into the soil, each forty-eight-sized pot 
 holding six, planted against the sides. 
 The bud at the base of each leaf will 
 make a plantif placed in a hot-bed : and 
 I when they have become well rooted 
 
D AH 
 
 191 
 
 D AH 
 
 they may be placed in separate pots, j 
 and kept growing in heat until they are 
 six or eight inches high, when they may 
 be taken into a cooler frame." — Gard. 
 and Pract. Flor. 
 
 Propagation from summer shoots. — 
 " The most important operation in 
 dahlia-growing," concludes Mr. Glen- 
 ny, " is that of securing an increase 
 from the shoots, which can be taken 
 off after the plants have begun to grow 
 in the open ground. These should be 
 struck in the same way as other cut- 
 tings ; but they must be selected care- 
 fully, cut as others are cut, close up to 
 the under side of a pair of leaves, and 
 be struck in a hot-bed in full perfection 
 of heat." — Ibid. 
 
 " The soil," says Mr. Glenny and 
 other first-rate authorities, " cannot be 
 too fresh ; and of all soils that which 
 produces good grass, as the top spade- 
 full of a meadow, is the best. It should 
 have a retentive yet well-drained sub- 
 soil, and be kept well supplied with 
 moisture, not only by watering, but 
 frequent hoeing. 
 
 " When the ground is poor, and has 
 to be made more fertile, there is no 
 addition equal to the soil formed by 
 rotten turfs cut tolerably thick, which 
 may be estimated at one-half loam and 
 half vegetable mould; but this should 
 be laid on in abundance, and will be 
 farbetterthan dung of any kind. Among 
 the results of planting the dahlia in soil 
 that is too rich, the principal one is that 
 of remarkably vigorous growth, with 
 little bloom, and that little bad." — Ibid. 
 
 " Holes in the situations where dah- 
 lias are to be planted," says Mr. Fin- 
 tellmann, " are made fifteen inches in 
 diameter and fifteen inches in depth, 
 and filled with this soil ; and in these 
 holes, so filled, the young plants are 
 turned out, or the old roots inserted. 
 To retain the moisture, and protect the 
 root from excessive heat, the surface is 
 covered with moss. 
 
 " Liquid manure is applied two or 
 three times in the course of the sum- 
 mer." — Gard. Mag. 
 
 After-culture.— -This comprises chief- 
 ly staking, hoeing, protection, and 
 slight pruning. 
 
 " Dahlias should never be pruned 
 until the bloom buds show, and then 
 but few branches should be cut out, 
 and only such as are growing across 
 others. The buds should be thinned, 
 
 for it is by these that the strength of 
 the plant gets exhausted. By removing 
 all that are too near one to be bloomed, 
 and all those that show imperfections 
 enough to prevent them being useful, 
 much strength will be gained by the 
 future flowers. So, also, by pulling off 
 the blooms themselves, the moment 
 they are past perfection, instead of let- 
 ting them seed." — Glenny: Gard. and 
 Pract. Flor. 
 
 « Winds and sun," adds an anony- 
 mous but correct writer, " are both 
 detrimental ; and the practice of fixing 
 the blooms in the centre of a flat board, 
 and covering them with glass or flower- 
 pots as they may want light or shade, 
 is becoming general. The more easy 
 way is to use a paper-shade for any 
 particular fine bloom; for however the 
 flowers may be coaxed and nursed un- 
 der cover, a stand of blooms grown 
 finely and merely shaded from the hot- 
 test sun, will beat all others in bril- 
 liancy, and in standing carriage, and 
 keeping. It is right to go round the 
 plants, and, wherever there is a pro- 
 mising bud or bloom, to take away all 
 the leaves and shoots that threaten to 
 touch it as they grow ; take off also the 
 adjoining buds ; and if the weather be 
 windy make it fast to a stick or one of 
 the stakes, that it may not be bruised 
 or frayed ; shade it from the broiling 
 sun ; and it will so profit by the air and 
 night-dews, as compared with the bloom 
 under pots and glasses, that if the 
 growth be equal, the blooming will be 
 superior. Nevertheless people will 
 cover ; and where there is a disposition 
 to a hard eye, it will hardly come out 
 perfect unless it is covered. As the 
 end of September approaches, or as 
 soon as you have done with the bloom, 
 earth up the plants, that when the frost 
 comes it may not reach the crown." — 
 Gard. and Pract. Florist. 
 
 Preserving the Roots. — " The plants 
 maybe raised without injury," says Dr. 
 Lindley, "immediately after the blooms 
 are cut off by the frost, provided that 
 they are hung up in a dry and ordina- 
 rily protected situation, with the roots 
 uppermost, if care is taken to leave six 
 or seven inches of the stem attached to 
 each tuber ; this may be done without 
 the slightest fear of their withering 
 from having been lifted in a green state. 
 As the winter advances, and the tubers 
 become matured and firm, the ordinary 
 
D AH 
 
 192 
 
 DAM 
 
 modes of protection against frost may 
 be resorted to." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Protector. — The best devised shelter 
 from the sun for the Dahlia is drawn 
 and thus described in the Gard. Chron. 
 
 " This protector is made of wicker- 
 work, and consists of an inverted shal- 
 low basket ; to which is attached a tube 
 made of the same material, through 
 which the dahlia stick is passed ; and a 
 peg being inserted between the stick 
 and the tube, it is firmly secured at any 
 height required. It measures twelve 
 inches in diameter, in the widest part, 
 and is three and a half in depth. From 
 its being made of so light a material, 
 and from its simplicity of construction, 
 it is not easily displaced or put out of 
 order, and the flower not being confined 
 within anything, is less liable to be 
 damaged by coming in contact with any 
 substance that would injure the petals. 
 It requires to be painted to preserve it 
 from decay, and if the outside be made 
 green, and the inside white, the appear- 
 ance of them would not be disagree- 
 able, and the insects lurking inside 
 would be easily perceived." 
 
 Forcing. — " The Dahlia may be ad- 
 vantageously forced by potting the roots 
 in February, and letting them remain 
 in frames till June ; when they will be- 
 gin to flower, and may be turned out 
 into the open border." — Gard. Mag. 
 
 "To grow Dahlias in pots," says Dr. 
 Lindley, " you must select the dwarfer 
 and more freely flowering kinds, the 
 taller ones being totally unsuited for 
 that purpose. After they are started, 
 and when the shoots are about three or 
 four inches long, pot them singly into 
 small sixties in any light rich soil ; wa- 
 ter them freely, and place them in a 
 hot-bed, keeping them close for a day 
 or two, and shading them during sun- 
 shine. They will, if properly attended to, 
 be rooted in about ten days, and should 
 then be removed to a much cooler place, 
 and have plenty of air. When establish- 
 ed, shift them into larger pots, and final- 
 ly, before placing them out of doors, 
 repot them, either into twelves or eights, 
 according to the size of your plants. 
 
 " Top the leading shoots to make 
 them bushy; and when the danger of 
 frost is over, they may be plunged in 
 the open border, which saves much la- 
 bour in watering ; but even then they 
 must be watered copiously in dry wea- 
 ther. They will flower freely all the 
 
 summer and autumn, although the 
 blooms will not be so fine upon plants 
 grown in pots as upon those in the open 
 border. After flowering, cut the tops 
 off, and place the pots containing the 
 roots in a dry cellar, or other place, 
 where they will be secure from frost 
 during the winter. Young plants struck 
 from cuttings flower much better in 
 pots than the old roots." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Exhibiting Stand. — Dr. Lindley says, 
 " The dimensions of a Dahlia stand for 
 twelve blooms should be twenty-two 
 inches long by sixteen and a half wide, 
 four in depth, and five and a quarter 
 from tube to tube : sixteen and a half 
 by eleven and a quarter will be the 
 proportion for a stand of six. The sur- 
 face of stands is generally painted a 
 light green ; a colour which shows the 
 flowers off to the greatest advantage." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 DAISY, {Bellis perennis.) There are 
 many double varieties of this hardy pe- 
 rennial ; some white, others crimson, 
 and many variegated. A more curious 
 variety is the proliferous or Hen and 
 Chicken Daisy. They all will flourish 
 in any moist soil, and almost in any 
 situation. They bloom from April to 
 June. Propagated by slips, the smallest 
 fragment of root, almost, enables them 
 to grow. To keep them double and 
 fine, they require moving occasionally. 
 Planted as an edging round the Ranun- 
 culus bed, their roots tempt the Wire- 
 worm from those of the choicer flower. 
 
 DALBERGIA. Nineteen species. 
 Stove evergreen trees and climbers. 
 Cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 DALEA. Fifteen species, including 
 hardy, stove, and green-house annuals 
 and perennials. The latter by cuttings, 
 and the annuals by seed, in a frame, to 
 transplant to borders. Loam and peat. 
 
 DALECHAMPIA. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen climbers. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 D ALIB ARDA violceoides. Half-hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Common light 
 soil. 
 
 DAMASCENE or DAMSON. See 
 Plum. 
 
 DAMASONIUM. Two species. Ten- 
 der aquatics. Division. 
 
 DAMMARA. Dammar pine tree. 
 Two species. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 
 DAMPIERA. Two species. Green- 
 house herbaceous. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
DAN 
 
 193 
 
 DEC 
 
 DAMPING OFF is a name applied 
 by gardeners to an ulceration of the 
 stems of seedlings, and other ten- 
 der plants. This ulceration arises 
 from the soil and air in which they are 
 vegetating being kept too moist or 
 damp. Flower seedlings are especially 
 liable to be thus affected; and, to pre- 
 vent this, one-third of the depth of the 
 pot should be filled with small pebbles, 
 and the soil employed, instead of being 
 sifted, allowed to retain all moderately 
 sized stones. The seeds should be 
 sown very thinly, pressed down, and a 
 little earth scattered over them. Mr. 
 Ayres has well suggested that a little 
 white sand be sprinkled over the sur- 
 face, because this is not easily disturbed 
 by watering, and is not a medium that 
 retains moisture to the neck of the 
 seedlings, where dampness most affects 
 them. He adds, that a pot of sand 
 should be kept hot upon a flue, and 
 whenever symptoms of the disease ap- 
 pear, a little, whilst hot, sprinkled on 
 the soil. 
 
 DANvEA alata. Stove fern. Divi- 
 sion. Peat and loam. 
 
 DANCING-GIRLS. Mantisia sana- 
 toria. 
 
 DAPHNE. Twenty-four species. 
 Chiefly hardy or green-house evergreen 
 shrubs, except D. tinifolia, which is a 
 stove evergreen. Grafts on the Spurge 
 Laurel. (D. laureola.) Peat. 
 
 DARLINGTONIA. Two species. 
 Half-hardy herbaceous. Division or 
 cuttings. Peat and sand. 
 
 DATE-PALM. Phaznix. 
 
 DATE-PLUM. Biospyros. 
 
 DATISCA. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 
 
 DATURA. Nine species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 DAUBENTONIA. Two species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 DAUBENYA. Two species. Green- 
 house bulbs. Offsets. Sandy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 DAUCUS. See Carrot. 
 
 DAVALLIA. Seven species. Green- 
 house ferns. Division or seed. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 DAVIESIA. Eighteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 DAY LILY. Hemerocallis. 
 
 DECEMBER is a month in which the 
 gardener is preparing chiefly for future 
 13 
 
 events — storing his edible roots — pro- 
 tecting his tender plants, and wheeling 
 on stable manure to vacant ground. 
 
 The following work requires attend- 
 ing to : 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 Artichokes, dress. — Asparagus beds, 
 dress, b. ; plant to force ; attend that 
 in forcing. — Carrots, dig up and store, 
 b. — Cauliflowers, in frame, &c, attend 
 to. — Composts, prepare and turn over. 
 — Dung, prepare for hot-beds. — Earth- 
 ing-up, attend to. — Hot-beds, attend to. 
 — Kidney Beans, force, e. — Leaves, 
 fallen, remove. — Lettuces, plant in hot- 
 beds ; attend to those advancing. — 
 Mint, force. — Mushroom-beds, make ; 
 attend those in production. — Parsnips, 
 dig up and store, b. — Radishes, sow, b. 
 — Small Salading, sow in frames, &c. 
 — Spinach, clear of weeds. — Tansy, 
 force. — Tarragon, force. — Trench, 
 drain, &c, vacant ground. 
 
 ORCHARD. 
 
 Apples, prune ; plant. — Apricots, 
 prune; plant. — Cherries, prune; plant. 
 — Composts and fresh earth apply to 
 poor or old borders. — Currants, prune ; 
 plant. — Figs, plant ; protect from frost. 
 — Fork over and dress the compart- 
 ments generally. — Gooseberries, prune ; 
 plant. — Mulch round the roots and 
 stems of trees newly planted, to ex- 
 clude frost. — Nectarines, prune; plant. 
 — Pears, prune ; plant. — Peaches, 
 prune; plant. — Plant all kinds of trees 
 in mild weather. — Plums, prune ; plant. 
 — Pruning may be continued generally. 
 (See November.) — Raspberries, prune ; 
 plant. — Trench and manure ground for 
 planting. — Stake firmly trees newly 
 planted. — Standards, prune generally. 
 — Suckers, clear away ; plant for stocks. 
 — Vines, prune ; but last month is to be 
 preferred for this operation, if the foli- 
 age had completely decayed. 
 
 FLOWER GARDEN. 
 
 Anemones, defend in bad weather; 
 plant if mild. — Auriculas, defend in in- 
 clement weather. — Bulbs omitted may 
 be planted if the weather be mild. 
 (See November.) — Carnations, defend 
 in inclement weather. — Composts, pre- 
 pare. — Dig over borders and dress all 
 quarters generally. — Edgings, plant. — 
 Fibrous-rooted Perennials and Biennials 
 divide and plant. — Flowers (choice), 
 defend generally from inclement wea- 
 ther. — Grass, roll occasionally, if 
 
DEC 
 
 194 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 DEF 
 
 winter be mild. — Gravel, roll and 
 keep orderly. — Hedges, plant and plash. 
 — Hyacinths, defend in inclement wea- 
 ther. — Leaves, collect for composts. 
 — Mulch round the roots and stems of 
 shrubs newly planted. — Plant shrubs of 
 all kinds. — Potted Plants, protect in 
 deep frames, &c. ; place in hot-house 
 for forcing. — Prune all shrubs requiring 
 regulation. — Ranunculuses, defend in 
 bad weather; plant if mild. — Seedlings 
 of all kinds require protection. — Stake 
 shrubs newly planted, and any others 
 requiring support. — Suckers may be 
 planted as removed during the winter 
 dressing. — Tulips, defend in bad wea- 
 ther. — Turfs may be laid in open wea- 
 ther. — Water in glasses, change week- 
 ly; add a few grains of salt or five 
 drops of spirits of hartshorn. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit freely as the season will 
 admit. — Bark-beds, keep in operation. 
 — Bulbs, in pots, introduce. — Cucum- 
 bers, sow in pots, and plunge in bark- 
 bed. — Flowering Plants, as Pinks, &c, 
 introduce in pots. — Glasses must now 
 all be put in, for forcing commences in 
 earnest ; cover during severe frost. — 
 Kidney Beans (Dwarf), sown in boxes, 
 &c, introduce. — Peaches, day temp. 
 55o ; keep air moist. — Pines, water oc- 
 casionally; attend strictly to the bot- 
 tom heat. — Roses in pots, introduce. — 
 Strawberries in pots, introduce. — Tem- 
 perature, may decline 15° or 20° at 
 night ; day temp, for flowering plants 
 60°. — Vines in pots may be introduced ; 
 or planted in Hot-house; stems out- 
 side bind round thickly with hay-bands, 
 &c. — Water is required in small quan- 
 tities; keep it in the house. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit as freely as possible; 
 cause the best draught you can. — Com- 
 post, prepare. — Earth of pots, stir when 
 crusted. — Foggy air exclude, for damp 
 renders cold injurious. — Glass, cover 
 
 DECIDUOUS PLANTS are those 
 which shed all their leaves at one time 
 annually. In this country the fall of 
 the leaf is during the autumn. In the 
 East Indies it is during the hottest and 
 driest months. 
 
 DECODONS verticillatus. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 
 
 DECU MARIA. Three species. 
 Hardy deciduous twiners. Layers and 
 cuttings. Common soil. 
 
 DEFORMITY. The leaves of plants 
 frequently assume an unnatural form on 
 account of their being wounded by in- 
 sects. Keith, in his Physiology of 
 Plants, thus enumerates some of the 
 most customary : — 
 
 " The leaves of the apricot, peach 
 and nectarine are extremely liable to 
 be thus affected in the months of June 
 and July. The leaf that has been punc- 
 tured soon begins to assume a rough 
 and wrinkled figure, and a reddish and 
 scrofulous appearance, particularly on 
 the upper surface ; the margins roll 
 inwards on the under side, and inclose 
 the eggs, which are scattered irregu- 
 larly on the surface, giving it a blackish 
 and granular appearance, but without 
 materially injuring its health. 
 
 " In the vine the substance deposited 
 on the leaf is whitish, giving the under 
 surface a sort of frosted appearance, but 
 not occasioning the red and scrofulous 
 aspect of the upper surface of the leaf 
 of the nectarine. 
 
 " In the poplar the eggs, when first 
 deposited, resemble a number of small 
 and hoary vesicles, containing a sort of 
 clear and colourless fluid. The leaf 
 then becomes reflected and condupli- 
 cate, inclosing the eggs, with a few 
 reddish protuberances on the upper sur- 
 face. The embryo is nourished by this 
 fluid, and the hoariness is converted 
 into a fine cottony down, which for 
 some time envelops the young fly. 
 
 " The leaf of the lime-tree, in par- 
 ticular, is liable to attacks from insects 
 when fully expanded ; and hence the 
 with mats, &c, during severe frost. — \ gnawed appearance it so often exhibits. 
 
 Leaves, clean ; remove decayed. — Peat 
 Soil, collect. — Temperature, sustain as 
 required by lighting fires ; day maxi- 
 mum, 45o ; night minimum, 35o. — Wa- 
 ter sparingly. 
 
 DECEMBER MOTH. See Pcecil- 
 ocampa. 
 
 DECIDUOUS CYPRESS. 
 distichum. 
 
 The injury seems to be occasioned by 
 some species of puceron depositing its 
 eggs in the parenchyma, generally 
 about the angles that branch off from 
 the midrib. A sort of down is pro- 
 duced, at first green and afterwards 
 hoary, sometimes in patches, and some- 
 Taxodium ■, times pervading the whole leaf, as in 
 I the case of the vine. Under this cover- 
 
DEG 
 
 195 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 DES 
 
 ing the egg is hatched ; and then the 
 young insect gnaws and injures the 
 leaf, leaving a hole or scar of a burnt or 
 singed appearance. 
 
 " Sometimes the upper surface of the 
 leaf is covered with clusters of wart- 
 like substances. They seem to be oc- 
 casioned by means of a puncture made 
 on the under surface, in which a num- 
 ber of openings are discoverable, pene- 
 trating into the warts, which are hollow 
 and villous within." 
 
 For these the only remedy is to re- 
 move the insects with the least possible 
 delay; and, if the injury is extensive, 
 adding water and liquid manure to the 
 roots rather more freely, to promote a 
 fresh and larger development of the 
 leaves. 
 
 Deformities of the stems of trees and 
 shrubs arise from another cause — from 
 the extension of the woody fibre being 
 greater and longer continued on one 
 side, it frequently becomes contorted. 
 Gardeners usually endeavour to remedy 
 this by making an incision on the inner 
 side of the curvature, and then employ- 
 ing force to restore it to a rectilinear 
 form, causing a gaping wound, and 
 mostly failing to attain the object. If 
 the incision be made on the outer side 
 of the curve, thus dividing the woody 
 fibres that continue to elongate most 
 rapidly, the branch or stem, with but 
 slight assistance, will recover its due 
 form, and there will be no open wound. 
 
 " From the fact that there is invari- 
 ably more woody matter deposited on 
 the side of a stem or branch which is 
 most exposed to the air and light, gar- 
 deners have explained to them why 
 those sides of their trained trees which 
 are nearest the wall ripen, as they term 
 it, most slowly, and are benefitted by 
 being loosened from the wall so soon as 
 they are relieved from their fruit. 
 
 " If they require any demonstration 
 that this explanation is correct, they 
 need only examine the trees in clumps 
 and avenues : their external sides will 
 be found to enlarge much more rapidly 
 than their internal or most shaded 
 sides." — Principles of Gard. 
 
 DEGENERATE. A plant is said to 
 have degenerated, or to be not of true 
 6tock, when it arises from seed without 
 the good characteristics of the parent. 
 Ill cultivation may render a plant of 
 altered stature, and its produce of defi- 
 cient flavour; but this is not degene- 
 
 racy. A species never degenerates ; its 
 seed may be hybridized ; but the seed- 
 lings are not degenerate — they are 
 varieties. But varieties do degenerate: 
 Brussels sprouts grown at Malines give 
 birth to seeds that yield seedlings quite 
 degenerated ; but those seedlings, re- 
 turned to the neighbourhood of Brussels, 
 yield, after two or three generations, 
 plants that are true Brussels sprouts. 
 
 Many varieties of wheat, excellent 
 when cultivated in one locality, yield 
 seed that produces a different and in- 
 ferior sample in another locality, differ- 
 ing in soil and annual meteorological 
 phenomena. 
 
 DELIMA. Two species. Stove ever- 
 green climbers. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
 and sand. 
 
 DELPHINIUM. Larkspur. Fifty- 
 three species, and many varieties. — 
 Hardy perennials and annuals. Divi- 
 sion or seed. Common soil. 
 
 DENDROBIUM. Fifty-seven species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Division. Turfy peat. 
 
 DENDROMECON rigidum. Half- 
 hardy evergreen shrub. Seed. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 DENTARIA. Thirteen species. 
 Hardy tubers. Division or seed. Sandy 
 moist shaded soil. 
 
 DESIGN. " Consult the genius of 
 the place" before you determine upon 
 your design, is sound advice; for in 
 gardening, as in all the fine arts, nothing 
 is pleasing that is inappropriate. Mr. 
 Whateley, our best authority on such 
 subjects, truly says, — 
 
 " A plain simple field, unadorned 
 but with the common rural appendages, 
 is an agreeable opening; but if it is 
 extremely small, neither a haystack, nor 
 a cottage, nor a stile, nor a path, nor 
 much less all of them together, will 
 give it an air of reality. A harbour, on 
 an artificial lake, is but a conceit; it 
 raises no idea of refuge or security, for 
 the lake does not suggest an idea of 
 danger: it is detached from the large 
 body.of water, and yet is in itself but a 
 poor inconsiderable basin, vainly affect- 
 ing to mimic the majesty of the sea. 
 
 " When imitative characters in gar- 
 dening are egregiously defective in any 
 material circumstance, the truth of the 
 others exposes and aggravates the fail- 
 ure. But the art of gardening aspires 
 to more than imitation ; it can create 
 original characters, and give expres- 
 sions to the several scenes superior to 
 
DES 
 
 196 
 
 DIB 
 
 any they can receive from illusions. 
 Certain properties, and certain disposi- 
 tions of the objects of nature, are adapt- 
 ed to excite particular ideas and sen- 
 sations. Many of them have been occa- 
 sionally mentioned, and all are very 
 well known : they require no discern- 
 ment, examination, or discussion, but 
 are obvious at a glance, and instanta- 
 neously distinguished by our feelings. 
 Beauty alone is not so engaging as this 
 species of character ; the impressions 
 it makes are more transient and less in- 
 teresting ; for it aims only at delighting 
 the eye, but the other affects our sensi- 
 bility. An assemblage of the most ele- 
 gant forms, in the happiest situations, 
 is to a degree indiscriminate, if they 
 have not been selected and arranged 
 with a design to produce certain ex- 
 pressions; an air of magnificence or of 
 simplicity, of cheerfulness, tranquillity, 
 or some other general character, ought 
 to pervade the whole ; and objects 
 pleasing in themselves, if they contra- 
 dict that character, should therefore be 
 excluded. Those which are only in- 
 different must sometimes make room 
 for such as are more significant — may 
 occasionally be recommended by it. 
 Barrenness itself may be an acceptable 
 circumstance in a spot dedicated to soli- 
 tude and melancholy. 
 
 " The power of such characters is 
 not confined to the ideas which the ob- 
 jects immediately suggest; for these 
 are connected with others which in- 
 sensibly lead to subjects far distant 
 perhaps from the original thought, and 
 related to it only by a similitude in the 
 sensations they excite. In a prospect 
 enriched and enlivened with inhabit- 
 ants and cultivation, the attention is 
 caught at first by the circumstances 
 which are gayest in their season — the 
 bloom of an orchard, the festivity of a 
 hay-field, and the carols of harvest- 
 home; but the cheerfulness which these 
 infuse into the mind expands afterwards 
 to other objects than those immediately 
 presented to the eye ; and we are there- 
 by disposed to receive, and delighted 
 to pursue, a variety of pleasing ideas, 
 and every benevolent feeling. At the 
 sight of a ruin, reflections on the 
 change, the decay, and the desolation 
 before us naturally occur; and they 
 introduce a long succession of others, 
 ail tinctured with that melancholy 
 which these have inspired. Or. if the 
 
 monument revives the memory of for- 
 mer times, we do not stop at the sim- 
 ple fact which it records, but recol- 
 lect many more coeval circumstances, 
 which we see, not perhaps as they 
 were, but as they have come down to 
 us — venerable with age, and magnified 
 by fame. Even without the assistance 
 of buildings, or other adventitious cir- 
 cumstances, nature alone furnishes 
 materials for scenes which may be 
 adapted to almost every kind of ex- 
 pression ; their operation is general, 
 and their consequences infinite. The 
 mind is elevated, depressed, or com- 
 posed, as gaiety, gloom, or tranquillity 
 prevail in the scene; and we soon lose 
 sight of the means by which the cha- 
 racter is formed. We forget the par- 
 ticular objects it presents ; and giving 
 way to their effects without recurring 
 to the cause, we follow the track they 
 have begun to any extent which the 
 disposition they accord with will al- 
 low." — Whateley. 
 
 DESMANTHUS. Five species. — 
 Stove aquatics and evergreens. The 
 former by seeds in water ; the latter by 
 cuttings in peat and loam. 
 
 DESMOCHCETA. Eight species. — 
 Stove and green-house evergreens, and 
 herbaceous. Seeds, division or cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 DESMODIUM. Thirty-two species. 
 Chiefly stove evergreens, but a few- 
 hardy and herbaceous. Cuttings. — 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 DESMONCHUS. Four species* 
 Stove palms. Seed. Sandy peat. 
 
 DEUTZIA scabra. Hardy decidu- 
 ous shrub. Layers and cuttings. Com- 
 mon soil. D. corymbosa is a hardy 
 evergreen shrub, similarly propagated. 
 
 DEVONSHIRING. See Paring and 
 Burning. 
 
 DEWBERRY. Rubus casius. 
 
 DIANELLA. Nine species. Green- 
 house tubers. Division and seed. — 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 DIANTHUS. One hundred species, 
 and very many varieties. Chiefly 
 hardy herbaceous. Seed and pipings. 
 Rich light loam. See Carnation and 
 Pink. 
 
 DIAPENSIA lapponica. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division and seed. Peat, 
 
 DIBBER, or DIBBLE. This instru- 
 ment for making holes in which to in- 
 sert seeds or plants, is usually very 
 simple in its construction, being at the 
 
DIC 
 
 197 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 DIG 
 
 best the head of an old spade-handle* 
 To secure uniformity of depth in plant- 
 ing beans, &c, by this instrument, it is 
 useful to have it perforated with holes 
 to receive an iron peg, at two and three 
 inches from the point, as in the follow- 
 ing outline. Fig. 34. It should be 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 shod with iron ; for if this be kept 
 bright it will make holes into which 
 the soil will not crumble from the sides. 
 The crumbling is induced by the soil's 
 adhesion to the dibble. For planting 
 potatoes, a dibble with a head three 
 inches diameter at the point, six inches 
 long up to the foot-rest, and with a 
 handle four feet long, is to be prefer- 
 red. For the insertion of seed a dib- 
 ble that delivers the seed has been in- 
 vented by a Mr. Smith. 
 
 DICERMA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 DICHILUS lebeckioides. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. — 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 DICHORIZANDRA. Five species. 
 Stove herbaceous. Division or seed. 
 Common soil. 
 
 DICHOSMA bifida. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
 sand. 
 
 DICKSONIA. Seven species. Stove 
 ferns. Division and seed. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 DICLIPTERA. 
 Chiefly stove 
 
 two are annuals. The latter are raised 
 from seed ; the others from cuttings. 
 Light soil, with a little peat. 
 
 DICRYPTA. Four species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Offsets. Peat and pot- 
 sherds. 
 
 DICTAMNUS. Three species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Seed. Common 
 soil. 
 
 DIDYMOCHL^ENA pulcherrima.— 
 
 Eleven species. — 
 evergreen shrubs, but 
 
 Stove fern. Seed and division. Sandy 
 loam and leaf-mould. 
 
 DIELYTRA. Nine species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division or seed. Rich 
 light loam. 
 
 DIERVILLA lutea. Hardy decidu- 
 ous shrub. Suckers. Common soil. 
 
 DIETES. Three species. Half- 
 hardy herbaceous. Suckers or seed. 
 Light loam. 
 
 DIGGING is an operation performed 
 with the spade or fork, having for its 
 object a loosening of the soil so as to 
 render it more fit for the reception of 
 seeds or plants. For its correct per- 
 formance Mawe and Abercrombie give 
 these directions: — 
 
 " Begin at one end of the piece of 
 ground, and with your spade open a 
 trench quite across, one good spade 
 wide and one deep, carrying the earth 
 to the end or place where you finish ; 
 then, keeping your face to the opening, 
 proceed to dig, one spade deep, regular- 
 ly from one side of the piece to the 
 other, turning the spits neatly into the 
 trench, and the next course against 
 these; and so keep digging straight 
 back, spit and spit, still preserving an 
 open trench, a good spade width and 
 depth, between the dug and undug 
 ground, that you may have full room to 
 give every spit a clean turn, takingall 
 the spits perpendicularly, and not taking 
 too much before the spade, especially 
 in stiff land, or where the surface is full 
 of weeds, or is much dunged; so giving 
 every spit a clean turn, the top to the 
 bottom and the bottom to the top, that 
 the weeds or dung on the surface may be 
 buried a due depth, and that the clean 
 fresh earth may be turned up. 
 
 " As you proceed break all large 
 clods, and preserve an even surface, 
 carrying both sides and middle on 
 equally, unless one side shall be hollow; 
 then carry on the hollow side first in a 
 kind of gradual sweep, inclining the 
 spits of earth rather that way, which 
 will gradually raise that side and reduce 
 the high one, observing the same if both 
 sides are high and the middle hollow, 
 or both sides hollow and the middle 
 high, always keeping the lower ground 
 advancing gradually before the higher ; 
 by which you will always maintain a 
 uniform level, whether horizontal or 
 declining. 
 
 " The same should also be observed 
 in beginning to dig any piece of ground^ 
 
DIG 
 
 19S 
 
 DIG 
 
 that if one corner is much lower than | 
 another, carry on the lower part some- j 
 what first, in a kind of easy sweep or! 
 slanting direction, as far as necessary. \ 
 Likewise, in finishing any pieces of dig- ; 
 ging, gradually round upon the lower; 
 side so as to finish at the highest corner; 
 and having digged to the end, or that; 
 part of any piece of ground where you ] 
 intend to finish, then use the earth dig- 
 ged out of the first trench to make good . 
 the last opening equal with the other! 
 ground. In plain digging dunged 
 ground, if the dung is quite rotten, you i 
 may dig clean through, giving each spit! 
 a clean turn to bury the dung in the i 
 bottom of the trench ; but if you cannot' 
 readily do this, trim the dung a spade's j 
 width at a time into the furrow or open j 
 trench, and so dig the ground upon it, j 
 which is rather the most effectual 
 method, whether rotten or long fresh 
 dung. 
 
 " In the course of digging all weeds 
 that are perennial should be carefully 
 picked out, particularly couch-grass and 
 bear-bind ; for the least bit of either 
 will grow. But annual weeds, ground- 
 sel, and the like, should be turned down 
 to the bottom of the trench, where they 
 will rot. 
 
 " A man will dig by plain digging of 
 light free-working clean ground, eight, 
 ten, or twelve rods a day, from six to six, 
 though in some of the light clean ground 
 about London, I have known a man turn 
 up fifteen or twenty rods a day, from 
 five to seven ; on the other hand, in stiff 
 stubborn soils, a man may work hard 
 for six or eight rods in a day of twelve 
 hours; and that digging by trenches, or 
 trenching, if only one spade deep with- 
 out the crumbs or shovelling at bottom, 
 a man will dig almost as much as by 
 plain digging ; or two spades' depth, 
 from four to six rods a day may be good 
 work, though in harsh working ground 
 digging three or four rods per day may 
 be hard work." Most garden soils dig 
 best the day after a fall of rain ; and if 
 the soil has in its composition a larger 
 proportion than usual of clay, the opera- 
 tion will be faciliated by dipping occa- 
 sionally the spade into water. Most 
 gardeners object to digging while snow 
 is upon the ground, and, as Dr. Lindley 
 justly observes, the objection is not 
 mere prejudice, for experience proves 
 the bad result of the practice. The evil 
 is owing to the great quantity of heat 
 
 required to reduce ice or snow from the 
 solid to the fluid state. A pound of 
 snow newly fallen requires an equal 
 weight of water, heated to 172°, to melt 
 it, and then the dissolved mixture is only 
 of the temperature of 32°. Ice requires 
 the water to be a few degrees warmer, 
 to produce the same result. When ice 
 or snow is allowed to remain on the 
 surface, the quantity of heat necessary 
 to reduce it to a fluid state is obtained 
 chiefly from the atmosphere ; but when 
 buried so that the atmospheric heat can- 
 not act directly upon it, the thawing 
 must be very slowly effected, by the 
 abstraction of heat from the soil by 
 which the frozen mass is surrounded. 
 Instances have occurred of frozen soil 
 not being completely thawed at mid- 
 summer ; when so, the air, which fills 
 the interstices of the soil, will be con- 
 tinually undergoing condensation as it 
 comes in contact with the cold portions; 
 and, accordingly, the latter will be in a 
 very saturated condition even after they 
 have become thawed. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Very few people ever consider in de- 
 tail the expenditure of labour required 
 from the gardener when. digging. It is 
 a labour above all others calling into 
 exercise the muscles of the human 
 frame, and how great is the amount of 
 this exercise may be estimated from the 
 following facts: — 
 
 In digging a square perch of ground 
 in spits of the usual dimensions (seven 
 inches by eight inches) the spade has to 
 be thrust in 700 times ; and as each 
 spadeful of earth, if the spade pene- 
 trates nine inches, as it ought to do, 
 will weigh on the average full seventeen 
 pounds, 11,900 pounds of earth have to 
 be lifted, and the customary pay for 
 doing this is two-pence half-penny. As 
 there are 100 perches or rods in an acre, 
 in digging the latter measure of ground 
 the garden labourer has to cut out 1 12,- 
 000 spadesful of earth, weighing in the 
 aggregate 17,000 cwt., or 850 tons, 
 and during the work he moves over a 
 distance of fourteen miles. As the 
 spade weighs between eight and nine 
 pounds, he has to lift, in fact, during the 
 work, half as much more weight than 
 that above specified, or 1,278 tons. An 
 able-bodied labourer can dig ten square 
 { perches a day. A four-pronged fork, 
 j with the prongs twelve inches long, and 
 I the whole together forming a head eight 
 I inches wide, is a more efficient tool for 
 
DIG 
 
 199 
 
 DIS 
 
 digging than the common spade. It 
 requires the exertion of less power ; 
 breaks up the soil more effectually; and 
 does not clog even when the soil is moist 
 wet. It is less costly than the spade, 
 and when worn can be relaid at a less 
 expense. 
 
 DIGITALIS. Twenty-six species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Seed. Common 
 soil. 
 
 DILATRIS. Three species. Green- 
 house herbaceous. Division or seed. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 DILL. {Anethum graveolens.) 
 
 Use. — Its leaves and umbels are used 
 in pickling, and the former in soups and 
 sauces. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — It may be culti- 
 vated in any open compartment ; but if 
 for seed, a sheltered situation, and a 
 soil rather dry than damp, is to be allot- 
 ted for it. 
 
 Time of Sowing. — It is best sown im- 
 mediately that it is ripe, for if kept out 
 of the ground until the spring it often is 
 incapable of germinating. If neglected 
 until the spring, it may be sown from 
 the close of February until the com- 
 mencementof May, in drills a foot apart. 
 The plants are to remain where sown, 
 as they will not bear removing. When 
 of three or four weeks' growth they 
 must be thinned to about ten inches 
 apart; for if not allowed room they 
 spindle, their leaves decay, no lateral 
 branches are thrown out, and their seed 
 is not so good ; in every stage of growth 
 they require to be kept clear of weeds. 
 The leaves are fit for gathering as 
 wanted, and the umbels about July and 
 August. In September their seed ripens, 
 when it must be immediately cut, and 
 spread on a cloth to dry, as it is very 
 apt to scatter. 
 
 DILLENIA speciosa. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 
 DILLWYNIA. Fifteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 DINEMA polybulbon. Stove epi- 
 phyte. Offsets. Peat and postsherds. 
 
 DINETUS paniculata and racemosa. 
 The first a stove perennial ; the second 
 a hardy annual twiner. The first by 
 cuttings; the second by seed. Rich 
 sandy soil. 
 
 DIODIA. Four species. Stove ever- 
 green trailers, except D. virginica, 
 which is hardy and deciduous. Cut- 
 tings. Light soil. 
 
 DIOMEDEA. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Rich light loam. 
 
 DIOSCOREA. Yam. Five species. 
 Stove tubers. Division. Light rich 
 soil. 
 
 DIOSMA. Twenty-three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Peat and sand. 
 
 DIOSPYROS. Twenty-three species. 
 Chiefly stove evergreen trees, but a few 
 are hardy. Cuttings. Light loam. 
 
 DIPHYLLEIA cymosa. Hardy herb- 
 aceous. Division. Light rich soil. 
 
 DIPHACA cochinchinensis. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 DIPHYSA carthaginensis. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 DIPLACUS. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Rich 
 sandy loam. 
 
 DIPLAZIUM. Nine species. Stove 
 ferns. Division or seed. Loam and peat. 
 
 DIPLOCOMA villosa. Hardy herba- 
 ceous. Seed and division. Common 
 soil. 
 
 DIPLOLjENA dampieri. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 DIPLOPAPPUS incanus. Half-hardy 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 DIPLOPELTIS hugelii. Green-house 
 herbaceous. Young cuttings. Common 
 soil. 
 
 DIPLOPHYLLUM veronica forme. 
 Hardy annual trailer. Seed. Common 
 soil. 
 
 DIPLOTHEMIUM. Two species. 
 Stove palms. Seed. Rich light loam. 
 
 mVOVWJM. punctatum. Stove orchid. 
 Division. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 DIPSACUS. Six species. Hardy 
 biennials. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 DIPTERIX odorata. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Rich loam. 
 
 DIRCA palustris. Hardy deciduous 
 shrub. Layers or seeds. Sandy loam. 
 
 DISA. Twelve species. Green-house 
 orchids. Division. Peat, loam, and 
 sand. 
 
 DISANDRA prostrata. Green-house 
 evergreen trailer. Division or cuttings. 
 Rich light soil. 
 
 DISBUDDING is the removal, soon 
 after they have burst into leaves, 01 
 such buds as, if allowed to grow into 
 shoots, would be misplaced. Thus, 
 
DIS 
 
 200 
 
 DOU 
 
 buds protruded directly in the front of 
 branches trained against walls, or fore- 
 right shoots, as they are correctly term- 
 ed, and buds that would produce shoots 
 
 DISEMMA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 DISPERIS. Three species. Green- 
 
 in places already sufficiently filled with j house orchids. Division. Peat, loam 
 
 branches, may be removed, or disbud- 
 ded. The object is to strengthen the 
 desirably-placed buds by thus confining 
 the expenditure of sap upon them. 
 There is no better mode of aiding a 
 weakly plant to a more vigorous and 
 robust growth than judicious disbud- 
 ding ; but an over-robust and super- 
 luxuriant tree had better be allowed to 
 exhaust itself by a profuse development 
 of leaf buds. 
 
 DISCHIDIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trailers. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 DISEASES. Dr. Good, the distin- 
 guished medical writer, has remarked, 
 that the morbid affections to which the 
 vegetable part of the creation is liable, 
 are almost as numerous as those which 
 render decrepid and destroy the animal 
 tribes. It would be difficult, perhaps, 
 whatever system of nosology is follow- 
 ed, to place a finger upon a class of 
 animal physical diseases of which a pa- 
 rallel example could not be pointed out 
 among plants. The smut which ravages 
 our corn crops; the mildew which de- 
 stroys our peas ; the curl that is annually 
 infecting more destructively our pota- 
 toes ; the ambury, or club-root, to which j 
 our turnips and other species of brassica 
 are liable; the shanking, or ulceration, 
 which attacks the stalks of our grapes, 
 are only a few of the most commonly 
 observed diseases to which the plants 
 we cultivate are liable. 
 
 Disease is the negation of health ; 
 and as the health of a plant is the cor- 
 rect performance of its functions, dis- 
 ease may be defined to be an incorrect 
 performance of the functions. Such 
 incorrectness arises from four causes — 
 vital energy declining from old ag 
 
 and sand. 
 
 DISPORUM. Two species. Half- 
 hardy herbaceous. Division and seed. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 DISSOLENA verticillata. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich 
 light soil. 
 
 DITTANY. Origanum dictamnus. 
 
 DIURIS. Eight species. Green- 
 house orchids. Division. Peat, loam, 
 and sand. 
 
 DODECATHEON. Two species, and 
 several varieties. Hardy herbaceous. 
 Division. Light loam. See American 
 Cowslip. 
 
 DOG-WOOD. Cornus. 
 
 DOLICHOS. Sixteen species. The 
 two green-house twiners, D. jacquinii 
 and lignosus, are the only two worth 
 cultivating. Cuttings. Rich sandy loam. 
 
 DOLIOCARPUS calinea. Stove ever- 
 green climber. Cuttings. Turfy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 DOMBEYA. Six species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 DONDIA epipactris. Hardy herba- 
 ceous. Seed or division. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 DOODIA. Four species. Green- 
 house ferns. Division and seed. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 DORONICUM. Nine species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 
 
 DORTMANNA. Two species. Har- 
 dy herbaceous. Division. Peat. 
 
 DORYCNIUM. Eight species. Har- 
 dy annual, herbaceous and evergreen. 
 Seed. Sandy loam. 
 
 DOUBLE FLOWERS. Hybridizing, 
 aided by cultivation, gives birth to these 
 objects of the gardener's care generally 
 designated double flowers, which are 
 parasites — improper food, either in qua- such beauteous ornaments of our bor- 
 lity or quantity — and inauspicious tern- ders and parterres. To the uninitiated 
 perature. If these could be all avoided, I it seems incredible that the double moss 
 
 a plant might enjoy a vigorous imi 
 
 rose should be a legitimate descendant 
 
 tality. Such, however, is not the lot of: from the briar; neither do the flowers 
 any organized being, and in proportion ; of the Fair Maid of France appear less 
 to the debilitating circumstances are j impossible derivatives from those of the 
 the nature, the intensity, and final con- j Ranunculus platanifolius ; nor bache- 
 sequences of the disease induced. The lors' buttons from the common butter- 
 little known relative to the diseases cup; yet so they are. Double flowers, 
 
 which infest the gardeners' crops, will 
 be found under their respective titles. 
 
 as they are popularly called, are more 
 correctly discriminated as the full flow- 
 
DOU 
 
 201 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 DOU 
 
 er, the multiplicate flower, and the pro- 
 liferous flower. 
 
 The full flower is a flower with its 
 petals augmented in number by the to- 
 tal transformation into them of its sta- 
 mens and its pistils. One-petalled 
 flowers rarely undergo this metamor- 
 phosis, but it is very common in those 
 having many petals, as in the carnation, 
 ranunculus, rose, and poppy. But this 
 is not the only mode in which a flower 
 becomes full, for in the columbine (Aqui- 
 legia) it is effected in three different 
 ways, viz., by the multiplication of pe- 
 tals to the exclusion of the nectaries; 
 by the multiplication of the nectaries 
 to the exclusion of the petals ; and by 
 the multiplication of the nectaries, 
 whilst the usual petals remain. 
 
 Radiated flowers, such as the sun- 
 flower, dahlia, anthemis, and others, 
 become full by the multiplication of the 
 florets of their rays to the exclusion of 
 the florets of their disk. On the con- 
 trary, various species of the daisy, ma- 
 tricaria, &c, become full by the mul- 
 plication of the florets of the disk. 
 
 The multiplicate flower has its petals 
 increased by the conversion of a portion 
 of its stamens, or of its calyx, in those 
 forms. It occurs most frequently in 
 polypetalous flowers. Linnaeus gives 
 the only instances I know of the con- 
 version of the calyx into petals, and 
 these are to be observed in the pink 
 (Dianthus caryophyllus), and a few of 
 the Alpine grasses. 
 
 A proliferous flower has another 
 flower or a shoot produced from it, as 
 in the variety of the daisy popularly 
 known as the hen-and-chickens. It 
 occurs also more rarely in the ranuncu- 
 lus, pink, marigold, and hawkweed. A 
 leafy shoot often appears in the bosom 
 of the double-blossomed cherry, ane- 
 mone, and rose. 
 
 A due supply of moisture, but rather 
 less than the plant most delights in, 
 when the production of seed is the de- 
 sired object, a superabundant supply of 
 decomposing organic matter to its roots, 
 and an exposure to the greatest possible 
 degree of sun-light, are the means suc- 
 cessfully employed to promote that ex- 
 cessive development of the petals which 
 characterize double flowers. 
 
 By these means a greater quantity of 
 sap is supplied to the flower than the 
 natural extent of the petal can elabo- 
 rate ; and following the laws of nature 
 
 specified elsewhere, those parts re- 
 quired for the extra elaboration, are 
 developed at the expense of those not 
 demanded for the purpose. 
 
 The chief office of the petals is this 
 preparation of nourishment for the sta- 
 mens, and for the most part they fade 
 together, usually enduring until im- 
 pregnation has been effected, or has 
 altogether failed. In double flowers, 
 too, as was observed by the late Sir J. 
 E. Smith, the corolla is much more 
 durable than in single ones of the same 
 species, as anemones and poppies, be- 
 cause as he conceived, in such double 
 flowers the natural function not being 
 performed, the vital principle of their 
 corolla is not so soon exhausted. Ad- 
 vantage may be taken of this to prolong 
 the duration of flowers by cutting away 
 the pistils or stamens, whichever are 
 least conspicuous, with a sharp pair of 
 pointed scissors. 
 
 Although an abundant supply of nou- 
 rishment is absolutely necessary for the 
 production of double flowers, it is quite 
 as certain that such supply will not of 
 a certainty cause their appearance ; 
 there must be some tendency in the pa- 
 rent thus to sport, otherwise the super- 
 fluity of food will not have the desired 
 influence. That abundance of nourish- 
 ment is necessary, appears from the fact 
 that if the double daisy or the double 
 narcissus be grown in a poor soil, they 
 speedily produce none but single flow- 
 ers ; yet if they again be restored to a 
 rich soil, they may with care be made to 
 produce an unnatural profusion of petals. 
 Mr. D. Beaton's estimate of a double 
 flower is original. He says that cultiva- 
 tion having enlarged all the parts of a 
 plant, the constitutional vigour thus ob- 
 tained is transferred to the next genera- 
 tion, and to some of the seedlings, in a 
 measure even greater than that possessed 
 by the parent. Extraordinary supplies 
 of nourishment under favourable cir- 
 cumstances, invigorate still further the 
 improved race, and so on through many 
 generations. During this time cultiva- 
 tion produces the very opposite of dou- 
 ble flowers, and Mr. Beaton thinks it 
 would continue to do so, if it were pos- 
 sible to keep up every member of each 
 generation to the same degree of health 
 and vigour 5 but accidents and diseases 
 overtake some of the plants, and double 
 flowers are the produce from the decre- 
 pits. Cultivation, according to this idea, 
 
DOU 
 
 202 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 DRI 
 
 is only indirectly the cause of double 
 flowers, and these a retrograde step 
 from a high state of development. 
 
 Whether my own opinion or Mr. 
 Beaton's be correct, it is quite certain 
 that in practice the plants from which 
 double-flowered varieties are sought, 
 must be kept in the highest state of de- 
 velopment by supplying them abundant- 
 ly with all the assistance to vigorous 
 growth ; and when the seed vessels are 
 formed, they should be reduced in num- 
 ber in order to make the seed in those 
 remaining as large and perfect as pos- 
 sible. In the course of a few generations, 
 seedlings appear, having flowers with an 
 excess of petals, and seeds being ob- 
 tained from these, or from other flowers 
 impregnated by their stamens, and the 
 same high cultivation continued, the 
 excess of petals increases and becomes 
 a permanent habit. 
 
 DOUCIN STOCK. See Stock. 
 
 DOUGLASIA nivalis. Hardy herba- 
 ceous. Seed. Peat and sand. 
 
 DRABA. Forty-one species. Hardy 
 herbaceous chiefly, and a few annuals. 
 Seed. Loam and peat. 
 
 DRACCENA. Twenty-two species. 
 Stove evergreen trees and shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam. 
 
 DRACOCEPHALUM. Twenty spe- 
 cies. Chiefly hardy herbaceous. Divi- 
 sion or seed. Common soil. 
 
 DRACOPHYLLUM. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy peat. 
 
 DRAGON'S-HEAD. Dracocephalum. 
 
 DRAGON TREE. Dracama draco. 
 
 DRAINING. There is scarcely a gar- 
 den existing that would not be benefited 
 by under-draining. Every gardener 
 knows the absolute necessity for a good 
 drainage under his wall-trees and vines, 
 but few gardeners ever think for a mo- 
 ment, whether there is any escape and 
 out-fall for the water he has drained from 
 immediate contact with the roots of the 
 above-named favoured trees. Every 
 garden should have drains cut, varying 
 in depth from two to three feet, accord- 
 ing to the depth of the soil, with an in- 
 terval of twenty-four feet between the 
 drains ; twelve feet will not be too near 
 in clayey soils. At the bottom of the 
 drains should be placed one-inch pipes; 
 these should be well puddled over, six 
 inches deep with clay, and then the 
 earth returned. They should have an 
 outfall into a ditch, at the least elevated 
 
 side of the garden. By having the 
 pipes with a bore no larger than an 
 inch, moles cannot creep in, and that 
 bore is large enough to carry off all the 
 water, after even the heaviest rains. 
 Draining farm-lands has been performed 
 to a great extent in England, and with 
 most advantageous results : at Lord 
 Hatherton's residence, Teddesley Hay, 
 in Staffordshire, four hundred and sixty- 
 seven acres, formerly letting for an 
 average rental of 12s. per acre, were 
 all drained for an outlay of 31. 4s. Id. 
 per acre, and their rental now averages 
 more than 31s. per acre. 
 
 To plants in pots, good drainage is not 
 less essential than to those in our borders. 
 
 DREPANOCARPUS Imiatus. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich loam. 
 
 DRILLING. No crop in the garden 
 should be sown broadcast, for drilling 
 saves seed and labour; and although in 
 some cases it takes more time to insert 
 the seed in drills, yet this is more than 
 compensated by the time saved during 
 the after-culture, for the thinning and 
 hoeing are greatly facilitated. 
 
 The distance apart appropriate for 
 the drills for particular crops, will be 
 found under their respective titles ; they 
 are usually made with a hoe and line ; 
 but for mustard, cress, and other small 
 seeds, the drill-rake is often used. The 
 teeth are set six inches apart, and are 
 broad and coulter formed. When the 
 drills are required to be less than six 
 inches apart, the implement can be 
 worked diagonally. 
 
 DRILL BARROWS, or SEED SOW- 
 ERS. " Various have been the con- 
 trivances for sowing seeds, many having 
 the mere merit of ingenuity, without 
 practical utility ; because when used 
 with adhesive seeds, or those of rough 
 form, they clog, and, in consequence, 
 sow irregularly. Those now offered, 
 obviate all such objections, being suited 
 alike for Turnips, Beets, Onions, Car- 
 rots, Parsnips, &c. By the use of a 
 good Drill, the farmer or gardener can 
 save one-half of his seed, (that is, none 
 are needlessly sown,) and do the work 
 at much less expense, as well as with 
 greater rapidity than by the ordinary 
 mode of sowing ; as the Drill opens the 
 furrow, drops the seed, covers and rolls 
 it down." — Rural Register. 
 
 A very simple and low-priced Drill 
 is formed by a tin tube, or hollow cane, 
 surmounted by a funnel-like mouth- 
 
DRI 
 
 203 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 DUN 
 
 piece, to receive the seeds. The ope- 
 rator holds it in his left hand, diracting 
 the lower extremity to the line where 
 he desires the seed to fall, and with the 
 fingers of his right hand dropping the 
 
 seeds into the funnel at the required 
 rapidity — a little practice enables the 
 sower to pass over the ground with 
 speed, and perform the work with re- 
 gularity. 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 DRIMIA. Thirteen species. Green- 
 house bulbs. Offsets. Sandy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 DROSERA. Nine species. Hardy 
 and green-house aquatics. Seeds. Peat 
 and water. 
 
 DRUMMONDIA mitelloides. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Peat. 
 
 DRYANDRA. Nineteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Turfy sandy loam and peat. 
 
 DRYAS. Four species. Hardy ever- 
 green trees. Seed and cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 DRYMONIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Rich 
 sandy loam. 
 
 DRYPETES crocea. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 DRYPIS spinosa. Hardy evergreen 
 shrub. Cuttings and seed. Sandy peat 
 and loam. 
 
 DRY-STOVE is a hot-house devoted 
 to the culture of such plants as require 
 a high degree of heat, but a drier at- 
 mosphere than the tenants of the bark- 
 stove. Consequently, fermenting mate- 
 rials and open tanks of hot-water are 
 inadmissible; but the sources of heat 
 are either steam or hot-water pipes, or 
 flues. See Stove. 
 
 DUMASIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen twiners. Cuttings. 
 Peat and sandy loam. 
 
 DUMB-CANE Caladium sequinum. 
 
 DUMERILIA paniculata. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Common 
 soil. 
 
 -••l•.lll^•liM^••"»■•-""" > "■*^ 
 
 DUNG. Under this title our atten- 
 tion must be confined to the faeces and 
 urines of animals, and that one most 
 common compound, stable dung. 
 
 Night-soil is the richest of the ma- 
 nures to be arranged under this head. 
 It is composed of human faeces and 
 urine, of which the constituents are as 
 follows : — 
 
 F-2ECES. 
 
 Water 73.3 
 
 Vegetable and animal remains 7 
 
 Bile 0.9 
 
 Albumen 0.9 
 
 Peculiar and extractive matter 1.2 
 Salts (carbonate of soda, 
 
 common salt, sulphate of I 
 
 soda, ammonia-phosphate > 2 
 
 of magnesia, and ph( 
 
 phate of lime) 
 Insoluble residue . . . \ 14.0 
 
 URINE. 
 
 Urate of ammonia . . . 0.298 
 Sal-ammoniac . • . . 0.459 
 Sulphate of potash . . . 2.112 
 Chloride of potassium . . 3.674 
 
 sodium (com-) 1KriCfk 
 
 monsalt) } 15 ' 060 
 
 Phosphate of soda . . . 4.267 
 
 lime . . . 0.209 
 
 Acetate of soda .... 2.770 
 Urea and colouring matter 23.640 
 Water and lactic acid . . 47.511 
 
 After stating the above analyses in 
 his excellent work, "On Fertilizers," 
 Mr. Cuthbert Johnson proceeds to ob- 
 serve that, " The very chemical compo- 
 
DUN 
 
 204 
 
 — • — 
 
 DUN 
 
 sition, therefore, of this compost would 
 indicate the powerful fertilizing effects 
 which it is proved to produce. The 
 mass of easily soluble and decomposa- 
 ble animal matters and salts of ammo- 
 nia with which it abounds, its phosphate 
 of lime, its carbonate of «oda, are all, 
 by themselves, excellent fertilizers, and 
 must afford a copious supply of food to 
 plants. 
 
 " The disagreeable smell may be de- 
 stroyed by mixing it with quicklime; and 
 if exposed to the atmosphere in thin lay- 
 ers in fine weather, and mixed with 
 quicklime, it speedily dries, is easily 
 pulverized, and in this state may be used 
 in the same manner as rape cake, and 
 delivered into the furrow with the 
 seed." 
 
 mon salt, phosphate of lime, and sul 
 phatQ of soda. 
 
 cow URINE. 
 
 Water 66 
 
 Phosphate of lime . . . 
 Chloride of potassium, and ) 
 sal-ammoniac ... 5 
 Sulphate of potash . 
 Carbonate of potash . 
 ammonia 
 
 Urea 
 
 :} 
 
 " One thousand parts of dry wheat 
 straw being burnt, yielded M. Saussure 
 forty-eight parts of ashes ; the same 
 quantity of the dry straw of barley 
 yielded forty-two parts of ashes. The 
 portion dissipated by the fire would be 
 
 From the experiments of M. Schubler | P 1 " 1 "^ 11 ^ carbon > (charcoal,) carbu- 
 
 1 retted hydrogen, gas, and water; one 
 hundred parts of these ashes are com- 
 posed of — 
 
 lue of night- 
 
 and others, the relative 
 soil is as follows: — 
 
 " If a given quantity of the land sown 
 without manure yields three times the 
 seed employed, then the same quantity 
 of land will produce five times the 
 quantity sown when manured with old 
 herbage, putrid grass or leaves, garden 
 stuff, &c. ; seven times with cow-dung ; 
 nine times with pigeon's dung ; ten 
 times with horse-dung ; twelve times 
 with human urine ; twelve times with 
 goat's dung ; twelve times with sheep's 
 dung ; and fourteen times with human 
 manure, or bullock's blood. But if the 
 land be of such quality as to produce 
 without manure five times the sown 
 quantity, then the horse-dung manure 
 will yield fourteen, and human manure 
 nineteen and two-thirds the sown quan- 
 tity." — Johnson's Fertilizers. 
 
 Fowl Dung, if composed partly of that 
 of the duck, which is a gross feeder, is 
 nearly equal to guano. This, and that 
 of the pigeon contain much ammonia, 
 and all abound in phosphate of lime, 
 mixed with decomposing organic mat- 
 ters and uric acid, all highly valuable 
 as fertilizers. 
 
 Stable or Farm-yard Bung is usually 
 composed of the following matters: — 
 
 HORSE URINE. 
 
 ici-) 
 sul-V 
 
 22i 
 
 6| 
 1 
 
 Various soluble salts, princi- 
 pally carbonate and sul 
 phate of potash 
 Phosphate of lime (earthy) 
 salt of bones) . . . . $ 
 Chalk (carbonate of lime) . , 
 
 Silica (flint) 6l| 
 
 Metallic oxide (principally) - 
 
 iron) J , 
 
 Loss 7f 
 
 " The straw of barley contains the 
 same ingredients, only in rather differ- 
 ent proportions. 
 
 " The solid excrements of a horse 
 fed on hay, oats, and straw, contain, 
 according to the analysis of M. Zierl, 
 in 1000 parts : — 
 
 Water 
 
 Picromel and salts . . . . 
 Bilious and extractive mat-) 
 
 ter $ 
 
 Green matter, albumen,) 
 
 mucus, &c J 
 
 Vegetable fibre, and re-) 
 
 mains of food ... ( 
 
 698 
 20 
 
 17 
 63 
 
 202 
 
 " These, when burnt, yielded to the 
 same chemist sixty parts by weight of 
 
 Water and mucus .... 9.4 | ashes, which were composed of— 
 
 Carbonate of lime .... 1.1 
 
 soda .... 0.9 
 
 Hippurate of soda .... 2.4 
 Chloride of potassium . . . 0.9 
 
 Urea 0.7 
 
 But besides the above, it contains corn- 
 
 Carbonate, sulphate, and) 5 
 muriate of soda ... J 
 
 Carbonate and phosphate) Q 
 oflime J 
 
 Silica 46" 
 
 -Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc, Vol. I. p. 489. 
 
DUN 
 
 205 
 
 DUN 
 
 Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, after giving 
 these analyses in his work already 
 quoted, observes further, that, " the 
 faeces of cattle fed principally on tur- 
 nips have been analysed by M. Einhof ; 
 100 parts evaporated to dryness yielded 
 28^ parts of solid matter; the 7H parts 
 lost in drying would consist principally 
 of water and some ammoniacal salts. 
 In half a pound, or 3,840 grains, he 
 found 45 grains of sand ; and by diffu- 
 sing it through water, he obtained 
 about 600 grains of a yellow fibrous 
 matter, resembling that of plants, 
 mixed with a very considerable quan- 
 tity of slimy matter. By evaporating 
 faeces to dryness, and then burning 
 them, he obtained an ash, which con- 
 tained, besides the sand, the following 
 substances: — 
 
 Lime 
 
 Phosphate of lime . . . 
 
 Magnesia 2. 
 
 Iron 5. 
 
 Alumina, with some manga-) ... 
 
 nese \ 
 
 Silica 52. 
 
 Muriate and sulphate of) . „ 
 
 12. 
 12.5 
 
 potash 
 
 " The ingredients of which the urine 
 and feeces of cattle are composed, will 
 of course differ slightly in different 
 animals of the same kind, and accord- 
 ing to the different food upon which 
 they are fed ; but this difference will 
 not in any case be found very material. 
 
 " The excrements of the sheep have 
 been examined by Block ; according 
 to him, every 100 lbs. of rye-straw 
 given as fodder to sheep yield 40 lbs. 
 of excrements (fluid and solid) ; from 
 100 lbs. of hay, 42 lbs.; from 100 lbs. 
 of potatoes, 13 lbs. ; from 100 lbs. of 
 green clover, 8£ lbs. ; and from 100 lbs. 
 of oafs, 49 lbs. of dry excrement. The 
 solid excrements of sheep fed on hay, 
 were examined by Zierl ; 1,000 parts 
 by weight being burned, yielded 96 
 parts of ashes, which were found to 
 consist of — 
 
 Carbonate, sulphate, and', 
 
 16 
 
 muriate of soda 
 Carbonate and phosphate of^ 9n 
 
 lime 
 Silica 
 
 60 
 
 " One hundred parts of the urine of 
 sheep kept at grass, contained — 
 
 Water 96. 
 
 Urea, albumen, &c. . . . 2.8 
 Salt of potash, soda, lime,) . 2 „ 
 and magnesia, &c. . . 3 
 — Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc. 
 
 There have been many arguments 
 and much difference of opinion among 
 cultivators with regard to the advan- 
 tage of employing dung in a fresh or 
 in a putrid state, and as is too often the 
 case, both parties have run into ex- 
 tremes, the one side contending for 
 the propriety of employing it quite 
 fresh from the farm-yard, the other 
 contending that it cannot well be too 
 rotten. 
 
 The mode employed by Lord Leices- 
 ter, is the medium between these equal- 
 ly erroneous extremes. He found that 
 the employment of the fresh dung cer- 
 tainly made the dung go much farther ; 
 but then a multitude of the seeds of 
 various weeds were carried on to the 
 land along with the manure. He has 
 therefore since used his compost when 
 only in a half putrefied state, (called 
 short dung by farmers,) and hence the 
 seeds are destroyed by the effects of 
 the putrefaction, and the dung still ex- 
 tends much farther than if suffered to 
 remain until quite putrefied. Putrefac- 
 tion cannot go on without the presence 
 of moisture. Where water is entirely 
 absent, there can be no putrefaction ; 
 and hence many farmers have adopted 
 the practice of pumping the drainage of 
 their farm-yards over their dung heaps ; 
 others invariably place them in a low 
 damp situation. This liquid portion 
 cannot be too highly valued by the 
 cultivator. The soil where a dunghill 
 has lain in a field is always distin- 
 guished by a rank luxuriance in the 
 succeeding crop, even if the earth be- 
 neath, to the depth of six inches, is 
 removed and spread with the dunghill. 
 
 The controversy, too, which once so 
 keenly existed, as to the state of fer- 
 mentation in which dung should be 
 used on the land, has now pretty well 
 subsided. There is no doubt but that 
 it cannot be applied more advan- 
 tageously than in as fresh a state as 
 possible, consistent with the attain- 
 ment of a tolerably clean husbandry, 
 and the destruction of the seeds of 
 weeds, grubs, &c, which are always 
 more or less present in farm-yard dung. 
 These are the only evils to be appre- 
 
DUN 
 
 206 
 
 DUN 
 
 bended from the desirable employment 
 of this manure in the freshest state ; 
 for otherwise the loss of its most valu- 
 able constituents commences as soon as 
 fermentation begins. This was long 
 since demonstrated by Davy, whose 
 experiments I have often seen repeated 
 and varied. He says, " I filled a large 
 retort capable of containing three pints 
 of water with some hot fermenting 
 manure, consisting principally of the 
 litter and dung of cattle. I adapted a 
 small receiver to the retort, and con- 
 nected the whole with a mercurial 
 pneumatic apparatus, so as to collect 
 the condensible and elastic fluids which 
 might arise from the dung. The re- 
 ceiver soon became lined with dew, 
 and drops began in a few hours to 
 trickle down the sides of it. Elastic 
 fluid likewise was generated ; in three 
 days thirty-five cubical inches had been 
 formed, which when analyzed were 
 found to contain twenty-one cubical 
 inches of carbonic acid ; the remainder 
 was hydro-carburet, mixed with some 
 azote, probably no more than existed 
 in the common air in the receiver. 
 The fluid matter collected in the re- 
 ceiver at the same time amounted to 
 nearly half an ounce. It had a saline 
 taste and a disagreeable smell, and con- 
 tained some acetate and carbonate of 
 ammonia. Finding such products given 
 off from fermenting litter, I introduced 
 the beak of another retort filled with 
 similar dung very hot at the time, in the 
 soil amongst the roots of some grass in 
 the border of a garden. In less than a 
 week a very discernible effect was pro- 
 duced on the grass, upon the spot ex- 
 posed to the influence of the matter 
 disengaged in fermentation ; it grew 
 with much more luxuriance than the 
 grass in any other part of the gar- 
 den." — Lectures. 
 
 Nothing, indeed, appears at first sight 
 so simple as the manufacture and col- 
 lection of farm yard dung, and yet there 
 are endless sources of error into which 
 the cultivator is sure to fall, if he is not 
 ever vigilant in their management. The 
 late Mr. Francis Blake, in his valuable 
 tract upon the management of farm- 
 yard manure, dwells upon several of 
 these; he particularly condemns the 
 practice of keeping the dung arising 
 from different descriptions of animals 
 in separate heaps or departments, and 
 applying them to the land without inter- 
 
 mixture. " It is customary," he adds, 
 " to keep the fattening neat cattle in 
 yards by themselves, and the manure 
 thus produced is of good quality, be- 
 cause the excrement of such cattle is 
 richer than that of lean ones. Fattening 
 cattle are fed with oil cake, corn, 
 Swedish turnips, or some other food, 
 and the refuse and waste of such food 
 thrown about the yard increases the 
 value; it also attracts the pigs to the 
 yard. These rout the straw and dung 
 about in search of grains of corn, bits of 
 Swedish turnips, and other food ; by 
 which means the manure in the yard 
 becomes more intimately mixed, and is 
 proportionally increased in value. The 
 feeding troughs and cribs in the yard 
 should for obvious reasons be shifted 
 frequently. 
 
 " The horse-dung," continues Blake, 
 " is usually thrown out at the stable 
 doors, and there accumulates in large 
 heaps. It is sometimes spread a little 
 about, but more generally not at all, 
 unless where necessary for the conve- 
 nience of ingress and egress, or perhaps 
 to allow the water to drain away from 
 the stable door. Horse-dung lying in 
 heaps very soon ferments and heats to 
 an excess, the centre of the heap is 
 charred or burned to a dry white sub- 
 stance, provincially termed fire-fanged. 
 Dung in this state loses from fifty to 
 seventy-five per cent, of its value. The 
 diligent and attentive farmer will guard 
 against such profligate waste of property 
 by never allowing the dung to accumu- 
 late in any considerable quantity at the 
 stable doors. The dung from the feed- 
 ing hog-sties should also be carted and 
 spread about the store cattle yard in 
 the same manner as the horse-dung. 
 
 " The heat produced by the ferment- 
 ation of the dung of different animals 
 has been made the subject of repeated 
 experiment. When the temperature of 
 the air was 40°, that of common farm- 
 yard dung was 70°; a mixture of lime, 
 dung, and earth, 55° ; swine and fowl's 
 dung, 85°. " — Farmer's Magazine, 
 Johnson's Fertilizers. 
 
 " The quality of farm-yard compost 
 naturally varies with the food of the 
 animals by which it is made ; that from 
 the cattle of the straw-yard is decidedly 
 the poorest, that from those fed on oil- 
 cake, corn, or Swedes, the richest. Of 
 stable dung, that from corn-fed horses 
 is most powerful, from those subsisting 
 
DUR 
 
 207 
 
 — • — 
 
 ECH 
 
 on straw and hay the poorest ; the 
 difference between the fertilizing effects 
 of the richest and the inferior farm-yard 
 dung is much greater than is commonly 
 believed ; in many instances the dis- 
 parity exceeds one-half; thus that pro- 
 duced by cattle fed upon oil-cake is 
 fully equal in value to double the 
 quantity fed upon turnips. Hence the 
 superior richness of the manure of 
 fattening swine to that of pigs in a lean 
 state, and the far superior strength of 
 night-soil to any manure produced from 
 merely vegetable food. Chemical ex- 
 aminations are hardly necessary to 
 prove these facts. Every farmer who 
 has had stall-fed cattle will testify to 
 their truth ; every cultivator will readily 
 acknowledge the superiority of ' town- 
 made,' that is, corn-produced stable 
 dung, to that from horses fed only on 
 hay and straw, and that night-soil is far 
 superior in strength to either. The 
 relative quantities employed by the 
 cultivator betray the same fact, for on 
 the soils where he applies twenty loads 
 of good farm-yard compost per acre, he 
 spreads not half that quantity of night- 
 soil. The drainage from all manures 
 should be scrupulously preserved, for 
 the liquid or soluble portion constitutes 
 their richest portion. The escape of 
 their gaseous products during decom- 
 position should also be checked as 
 much as possible, for they contain 
 ammonia, carbonic acid, &c, all 
 abounding in constituents valuable as 
 
 fertilizers." — Johnson's Farmer's En- 
 cyclop. 
 
 DURANTA. Seven species. Stove 
 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
 
 peat. 
 
 DUVALIA. Twelve species. Stove 
 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
 
 loam and lime rubbish. 
 
 DUVAUA. Four species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 
 Common soil. 
 
 DWARF FAN-PALM. Chamcerops 
 
 humilis. 
 
 DWARF MOLY. Allium chamce- 
 
 moly. 
 
 DWARF STANDARD is a fruit tree 
 
 on a very short stem, with its branches 
 
 unshortened and untrained. 
 
 DYCKIA rariflora. Green-house 
 
 herbaceous. Suckers. Sandy peat and 
 
 loam. 
 
 EARTHS. Every cultivated soil is 
 
 mainly composed of four earths in vari- 
 
 ous proportions : — Silica, or pure flint ; 
 Alumina, or pure clay ; Lime, combined 
 with carbonic acid in the state of chalk 5 
 and Magnesia. See Soil. 
 
 EARTHING-UP, or drawing the soil 
 in a ridge to the stems of plants, is 
 beneficial to fibrous-rooted plants, by 
 reducing the distance from the surface 
 of the extremities of the plant's roots ; 
 by inducing the production of rootlets 
 from the stem ; and sheltering the 
 winter standing crops, for the closer 
 the foliage of these are to the earth the 
 less is the reduction of heat from the 
 latter, either by radiation or contact 
 with the colder air. 
 
 But to tuberous-rooted plants, as the 
 potato, it is detrimental. In my experi- 
 ments it reduced the produce one- 
 fourth. Many farmers who cultivate 
 the potato extensively, do so with the 
 horse-hoe alone, no longer using the 
 plough to earth-up, as was formerly the 
 universal practice, and is now with 
 those who never profit by experience. 
 
 EARWIG. Forficula auricularis. 
 This destroyer of the peach, apricot, 
 plum, dahlia, pink and carnation, com- 
 mits its ravages only at night, retiring 
 during the day to any convenient 
 shelter in the vicinity of its prey. Ad- 
 vantage must be taken of this habit, 
 and if small garden pots with a little 
 moss within be inverted upon a stick, 
 and pieces of the dry hollow stem of 
 the sunflower, or Jerusalem artichoke, 
 be placed in the neighbourhood of the 
 fruits and flowers enumerated, many of 
 the insects will resort thither, and may 
 be shaken out and destroyed. As ear- 
 wigs are winged insects, it is useless to 
 guard the stems of plants in any mode. 
 
 EBENUS. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreens. Seed. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 ECASTAPHYLLUM. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Rich 
 loam. 
 
 ECCREMOCARPUS longiflora. 
 Green-house evergreen climber. Cut- 
 tings. Sand, loam, and peat. 
 
 ECHEVERIA. Seven species. 
 Green-house and stove succulents. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 ECHINACEA. Six species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Light rich loam. 
 
 ECHINOCACTUS. Sixty-one 
 species. Stove evergreen. Offsets. 
 Sandy peat, and a little calcareous rub- 
 bish. 
 
ECH 
 
 208 
 
 END 
 
 ECHINOPS. Sixteen species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 
 
 ECHITES. Twenty-one species. 
 Chiefly stove evergreen twiners. Cut- 
 ings. Loam and peat. 
 
 ECHIUM. Fifty-eight species. 
 Hardy and green-house shrubs and an- 
 nuals. Layers and cuttings, or seeds. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 EDGING. This for the kitchen-garden 
 and all other places where neatness, not 
 ornament, is the object, may consist of 
 useful herbs, the strawberry &c. As an 
 ornamental edging nothing can compare 
 with the dwarf Box, especially in light 
 soils. On heavy low lands it suffers 
 during winter and may, perhaps, be 
 totally destroyed; in such situations 
 grass may be used, though it is trouble- 
 some to keep in order. 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 EDGING KNIFE. This too], fitted 
 to a straight handle, is used for paring ; 
 the edges of grass bordering walkB, I 
 &c, and cutting the outlines of sods, 
 which may be then readily raised by 
 the spade. — Rural Reg. 
 
 EDWARDSIA. Six species. Half- 
 hardy shurbs. Cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 EGG-BEARER. Solanum origenum. 
 
 EGG-SHELLS. See Animal Matters. 
 
 EGLANTINE. See Sweet Briar. 
 
 EGYPTIAN LOTUS. Nymphcea 
 lotus. 
 
 EGYPTIAN THORN. Acacia vera. 
 
 EHRETIA. Eleven species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs and trees. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 EKEBERGIA capensis. Green- 
 house evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ELiEAGNUS. Seven species. Hardy 
 or green-house trees and shrubs, except 
 E. latifolia, which is a stove shrub. 
 Layers or cuttings. Light soil. 
 
 ELAIS. Four species. Stove palms. 
 Suckers. Rich sandy loam. 
 
 EL^OCARPUS. Five species. 
 Stove or green-house trees or shrubs. 
 Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 ELiEODENDRON. Five species. 
 Green-house and stove evergreen 
 shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 ELAPHRIUM glabrum. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 ELATE sylvestris. A stove palm. 
 Suckers. Rich loam. 
 
 ELATER. See Wire-worm. 
 
 ELDER (Sambucus). Common black 
 elder (S. nigra), of which there are 
 several varieties, viz., black-berried, 
 white-berried, green-berried, parsley- 
 leaved, gold-striped, silver-striped, and 
 silver-dusted. 
 
 ELEVATION. See Altitude. 
 
 ELICHRYSUM. Forty-five species. 
 Chiefly green-house evergreen shrubs 
 and deciduous perennials. Cuttings. 
 Peat and sandy loam. 
 
 ELLIOTTIA racemosa. Half-hardy 
 evergreen shrub. Layers. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ELLEBOCARPUS oleraceus. Stove 
 fern. Division. Loam. 
 
 ELISENA longipetala. Stove bulb. 
 Offsets. Sandy loam and leaf-mould. 
 
 ELM (Ulmus). 
 
 ELM BEETLE. See Scolytus. 
 
 EMBLICA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
 sand. 
 
 EMBOTHRIUM strobilinum. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 ENCELIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam. 
 
 ENDIVE (Cichorium endivia). 
 
 Varieties. — The green-curled, the 
 only one cultivated for the main crops, 
 as it best endures wet and cold ; the 
 white-curled, chiefly grown for summer 
 and autumn ; the broad-leaved, or Bata- 
 vian, is preferred for soups and stews, 
 but is seldom used for salads. 
 
 Soil and situation. — Endive delights 
 in a light, dry, but rich soil, dug deep, 
 as well for the free admission of its tap- 
 root as to serve as a drain for any super- 
 abundant moisture. This should be 
 especially attended to for the winter 
 standing crops, for which, likewise, if 
 the soil or substratum is retentive, it is 
 best to form an artificial bed by laying 
 a foot in depth of mould on a bed of 
 brickbats, stones, &c, as excessive 
 moisture, in conjunction with excessive 
 cold, is in general fatal to this plant. 
 The situation should be open, and free 
 from the influence of trees. 
 
END 
 
 END 
 
 Time and mode of sowing. — For a 
 first crop about the middle of April, to 
 be repeated in May, but only in small 
 portions, as those which are raised be- 
 fore June, soon advance to seed. To- 
 wards the middle of this month the first 
 main crop may be inserted ; to be con- 
 tinued in the course of July, and lastly 
 early in August ; and in this month the 
 main plantation is made. The seed 
 is 'sown then in drills twelve inches 
 apart, and about half an inch below the 
 surface. The plants speedily make 
 their appearance. When an inch in 
 height they should be thinned to three 
 or four inches apart : those taken away 
 are too small to be of any service if 
 pricked out. The bed must be kept 
 clear of weeds from the first appearance 
 of the plants until they are removed. 
 To promote their arrival at a fit size for 
 performing this operation, water should 
 be given occasionally in dry weather. 
 
 When the larger seedlings have been 
 transplanted, the smaller ones which 
 remain may be cleared of weeds and 
 have a gentle watering ; by which treat- 
 ment, in twelve or fourteen days, they 
 will have attained a sufficient size to 
 afford a second successional crop; and, 
 by a repetition of this management, in 
 general a third. The plants are gene- 
 rally fit for transplanting when of a 
 month's growth in the seed-bed ; but 
 a more certain criterion is, that when 
 of five or six inches' height they are of 
 the most favourable size. 
 
 Planting. — They must be set in rows 
 twelve or fifteen inches apart each way : 
 the Batavian requires the greatest space. 
 Some gardeners recommend them to be 
 set in trenches or drills three or four 
 inches deep. This mode is not detri- 
 mental in summer and dry weather ; 
 but in winter, when every precaution 
 is to be adopted for the prevention of 
 decay, it is always injurious. 
 
 Water must be given moderately 
 every evening uutil the plants are esta- 
 blished, after which it is not at all re- 
 quisite, except in excessive and pro- 
 tracted drought. Those which are left 
 in the seed-bed, if the soil is at all fa- 
 vourable, in general attain a finer 
 growth than those that have been 
 moved. In November some plants that 
 have attained nearly their full size may 
 be removed to the south side of a slop- 
 ing bank of dry light earth, raised one 
 or two feet behind : to be protected by 
 14 
 
 frames, mats, or thick coverings of lit- 
 ter, during severe and very wet wea- 
 ther ; but to be carefully uncovered 
 during mild dry days. The plants, in 
 this instance, are not required to be 
 further apart than six or eight inches. 
 This plan may be followed in open days 
 during December and January, by which 
 means a constant supply may be ob- 
 tained. Instead of being planted in the 
 above manner on a terrace, it is some- 
 times practised to take the plants on a 
 dry day, and, the leaves being tied to- 
 gether, to lay them horizontally in the 
 earth down to the tip of the leaves ; 
 this accelerates the blanching, but 
 otherwise is far more subject to failure. 
 
 As the number necessary for a family 
 is but small, but few should be planted 
 at a time. 
 
 Blanching. — About three months 
 elapse between the time of sowing and 
 the fitness of the plants for blanching. 
 This operation, if conducted properly, 
 will be completed in from ten to four- 
 teen days in summer, or in three or 
 four weeks in winter. To blanch the 
 plants it is the most common practice 
 to tie their leaves together, to place 
 tiles or pieces of board upon them, or 
 to cover them with garden-pots; whilst 
 some recommend their leaves to be tied 
 together, and then to be covered up to 
 their tips with mould, making it rise to 
 an apex, so as to throw off excessive 
 rains. All these methods succeed in 
 dry seasons ; but in wet ones the plants, 
 treated according to any of them, are 
 liable to decay. 
 
 The one which succeeds best in all 
 seasons is to fold the leaves round the 
 heart as much as possible in their natu- 
 ral position; and being tied together 
 with a shred of bass-mat, covered up 
 entirely with coal-ashes in the form of 
 a cone, the surface being rendered firm 
 and smooth with the trowel. Sand will 
 do, but ashes are equally unretentive 
 of moisture, whilst they are much supe- 
 rior in absorbing heat, which is so be- 
 neficial in the hastening of the process. 
 If the simple mode of drawing the 
 leaves together is adopted to effect this 
 etiolation, they must be tied very close, 
 and, in a week after the first tying, a 
 second ligature must be passed round 
 the middle of the plant to prevent the 
 heart-leaves bursting out. A dry after- 
 noon, when the plants are entirely free 
 from moisture, should be selected, 
 
ENG 
 
 this 
 
 whichever mode is adopted for 
 concluding operation. 
 
 A very excellent mode is to spread 
 over the surface of the bed about an 
 inch in depth of pit-sand, and covering 
 each plant with a small pot made of 
 earthenware, painted both within and 
 on the outside to exclude the wet— that 
 worst hindrance of blanching. To avoid 
 this, the pots should be taken off daily 
 for a quarter of an hour, and their in- 
 sides wiped dry. A common garden-pot 
 will do if the hole be closely stopped; 
 but a sea-kale pot in miniature, is to 
 be preferred ; and if made of zinc or 
 other metal, it would be better, because 
 not porous and admissive of moisture. — 
 Johnson's Gard. Almanack. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — The finest and 
 soundest plants should be selected of 
 the last plantation, and which most agree 
 with the characteristics of the respect- 
 ive varieties. For a small family three 
 or four plants of each variety will pro- 
 duce sufficient. These should be taken 
 in March, and planted beneath a south I 
 fence, about a foot from it and eighteen 
 inches apart. As the flower-stem ad- 
 vances it should be fastened to a stake; 
 or, if they are placed beneath palings, 
 by a string, to be gathered 
 as the seed upon it ripens : 
 for if none are gathered 
 until the whole plant is 
 changing colour, the first 
 ripened and best seed will 
 have scattered and be lost, 
 so wide is the difference 
 of time between the seve- 
 ral branches of the same 
 plant ripening their seed. 
 Each branch must be laid, 
 as it is cut, upon a cloth in 
 the sun ; and when per- 
 fectly dry, the seed beaten 
 out, cleansed, and stored. 
 
 ENGINE. This name is 
 applied to many contriv- 
 ances for supplying water 
 to plants. 
 
 1. The pump-syringe, or 
 syringe-engine, (Fig. 37), 
 can be supplied with water 
 from a common bucket, 
 from which it sucks the 
 water through a perforat- 
 ed base. The handle is 
 sometimes made to work 
 like that of the common 
 pump. 
 
 210 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 ENG 
 
 2. The barrow watering-engine (Fig. 
 38) is represented in the figure below. 
 It will throw the jet of water to a dis- 
 tance of forty or fifty feet, or somewhat 
 less if a rose is upon the end of the de- 
 livery-pipe. It holds from twenty to 
 thirty gallons of water; but may be 
 made, with a leather-hose attached, to 
 communicate with a pond or other 
 reservoir of water. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 3. The curved barrel-engine (Fig. 39) 
 is excellent; for the barrel, piston-rods, 
 &c, being so constructed as to be turned 
 on a lathe, they are so accurate that 
 there is the least possible loss of power, 
 either from unnecessary friction or from 
 an imperfect vacuum. 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 Another garden engine of still greater 
 power, is illustrated by the annexed 
 drawing (Fig. 40) ; it is somewhat more 
 costly than those in general use, but 
 may be used for a variety of purposes, 
 and in some cases might be used to 
 
ENK 
 
 211 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 ENT 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 protect property from fire. They are 
 of various patterns and power. Some of 
 them, worked by a single arm, cast the 
 water fifty to sixty feet high. 
 
 ENKIANTHUS. Two species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings, Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 ENTADA. Five species. Stove ever- 
 green climbers. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 ENTELEA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam and sandy peat. 
 
 ENTRANCES. Upon these parts of 
 a residence, which should give a first 
 and appropriate impression, Mr. Whate- 
 ley has these just remarks : 
 
 "The road which leads up to the 
 door of the mansion may go off from it 
 in an equal angle, so that the two sides 
 shall exactly correspond ; and certain 
 ornaments, though detached, are yet 
 rather within the province of architec- 
 ture than of gardening; works of sculp- 
 ture are not, like buildings, objects 
 familiar in scenes of cultivated nature ; 
 but vases, statues, and termini, are 
 usual appendages to a considerable edi- 
 fice : as such, they may attend the man- 
 sion, and trespass a little upon the gar- 
 den, provided they are not carried so 
 far into it as to lose their connexion 
 with the structure. The platform and 
 the road are also appurtenances to the 
 house ; all these may, therefore, be 
 adapted to its form ; and the environs 
 will thereby acquire a degree of regu- 
 
 j larity ; but to give it to the objects of 
 | nature, only on account of their prox- 
 imity to others which are calculated to 
 receive it, is, at the best, a refinement. 
 
 " Upon the same principles regu- 
 larity has been required in the approach; 
 and an additional reason has been as- 
 signed for it, that the idea of a seat is 
 thereby extended to a distance ; but 
 that may be by other means than by an 
 avenue ; a private road is easily known; 
 if carried through grounds, or a park, 
 it is commonly very apparent; even in 
 a lane, here and there a bench, a paint- 
 ed gate, a small plantation, or any other 
 little ornament, will sufficiently denote 
 it. If the entrance only be marked, 
 simple preservation will retain the im- 
 pression along the whole progress ; or 
 it may wind through several scenes dis- 
 tinguished by objects, or by an extraor- 
 dinary degree of cultivation : and then 
 the length of the way, and the variety 
 of improvements through which it is 
 conducted, may extend the appearance 
 of domain and the idea of a seat, beyond 
 the reach of any direct avenue. A 
 narrow vista, a mere line of perspective, 
 be the extent what it may, will seldom 
 compensate for the loss of that space 
 which it divides, and of the parts which 
 it conceals. 
 
 "Regularity was, however, once 
 thought essential to every garden and 
 every approach ; and it yet remains in 
 many. It is still a character denoting 
 the neighbourhood of a gentleman's 
 
EPA 
 
 212 
 
 ERP 
 
 habitation ; and an avenue, as an object 
 in a view, gives to a house, otherwise 
 inconsiderable, the air of a mansion. 
 Buildings which answer one another at 
 the entrance of an approach, or on the 
 sides of an opening, have a similar 
 effect ; they distinguish at once the 
 precincts of a seat from the rest of the 
 country. Some pieces of sculpture, I 
 also, such as vases and termini, may I 
 perhaps now and then be used to extend 
 the appearance of a garden beyond its 
 limits, and to raise the mead in which 
 they are placed above the ordinary im- 
 provements of cultivated nature. At 
 other times they may be applied 'as 
 ornaments to the most polished lawns ; 
 the traditional ideas we have conceived 
 of Arcadian scenes correspond with such 
 decorations; and sometimes a solitary 
 urn, inscribed to the memory of a per- 
 son now no more, but who once fre- 
 quented the shades where it stands, is 
 an object equally elegant and interest- 
 ing. 
 
 " The occasions, however, on which 
 we may with any propriety trespass 
 beyond the limits of cultivated nature, 
 are very rare ; the force of the charac- 
 ter can alone excuse the artifice avowed 
 in expressing it." — Whateley. 
 
 EPACRIS. Eighteen species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. — 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 EPIDENDRUM. Sixty-eight species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Offsets. Peat and 
 potsherds. 
 
 E P I G (E A. Two species. Hardy 
 evergreen trailers. Layers. Sandy peat 
 and loam. 
 
 EPILOBIUM. Seventeen species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Seed or division. 
 Common soil. 
 
 EPIMEDIUM. Five species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Sandy peat. 
 
 EPIPACTIS. Three species. Hardy 
 orchids. Division. Sandy peat and 
 loam. 
 
 EPIPHYLLUM. Eleven species. 
 Stove evergreen cactaceae. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 EPIPHYTES grow upon other plants, 
 but, unlike parasites, do not extract 
 from them nourishment. 
 
 ERANTHEMUM. Eleven species. 
 Stove and green-house evergreen 
 shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 ERANTHIS. Two species. Hardy 
 tubers. Offsets. Sandy loam. 
 
 EREMURUS spectabilis. Hardy her- 
 baceous. Division. Common soil. 
 
 ERIA. Twelve species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Division. Peat and pot- 
 sherds. 
 
 ERICA, Heath. Four hundred and 
 ninety-five species, besides very many 
 varieties. Most of them green-house, 
 but a large number are hardy, and are all 
 evergreen. Cuttings or layers. Sandy 
 peat. See Heath. 
 
 ERIGERON. Forty species. Hardy 
 herbaceous and annuals. Division or 
 seed. Common soil. 
 
 ERINUS. Five species. Green- 
 house evergreens, and hardy herbace- 
 ous. Division or seed. Sandy loam. 
 
 ERIOBOTRYA. Two species. Half- 
 hardy evergreen trees. Cuttings, seed, 
 and grafting on the white-thorn. Leaf 
 and peat mould. 
 
 ERIOCEPHALUS. Five species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 ERIOCOMA. Two species. Half- 
 hardy evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Common soil. 
 
 ERIODENDRON. Four species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Seed. Rich 
 loam and sandy peat. 
 
 ERIOGONUM. Five species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Seed. Loam and peat. 
 
 ERIOL^NA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 ERIOPHYLLUM. Two species. 
 Hardy. Division. Common soil. 
 
 ERIOSOMA. A genus of insects 
 nearly synonymous with Aphis. 
 
 E. bursaria. Poplar Louse. 
 
 E. lanigera. See American Blight. 
 
 ERIOSPERNUM. Eight species. 
 Green-house bulbs. Suckers. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 ERIOSTEMON. Ten species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 ERISMA floribunda. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 ERITHALIS. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Rich loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ERNODEA montana. Half-hardy 
 evergreen trailer. Division. Gravelly 
 soil. 
 
 ERODIUM. Twenty-seven species. 
 Chiefly hardy herbaceous. Division. 
 Common soil. 
 
 ERPETION. Two species. Half- 
 
ERY 
 
 213 
 
 ERY 
 
 hardy evergreen creepers. Division. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 ERYNGIUM. Thirty-four species. 
 Chiefly hardy herbaceous. Division or 
 seed. Common soil. 
 
 ERYTHR^A. Eleven species. 
 Chiefly hardy annuals. Seed or divi- 
 sion accordingly, as they are annuals or 
 perennials. Loam. 
 
 ERYTHRINA. Thirty-five species. 
 Chiefly stove evergreen shrubs and 
 trees. Cuttings. Loam, peat, and 
 leaf-mould, in equal proportions. 
 
 £. crista-galli. Coral Tree. Is one 
 of the most beautiful of this genus, and 
 its cultivation in the open air is thus 
 detailed by that excellent gardener, 
 Mr. W. P. Ayres: — 
 
 " Cuttings of the young wood, taken 
 off with a heel when about three inches 
 long, and planted round the edge of a 
 large pot, or singly in small ones, in 
 sandy peat, and plunged in a brisk 
 bottom heat, will root in the course of 
 a few weeks. This is suitable for those 
 cuttings which are taken from plants in 
 heat, but cuttings from the open air 
 will not bear such treatment. The 
 transition to a close warm frame ap- 
 pears too much for them, and they 
 become paralyzed ; but if after being 
 planted they are placed in a moderately 
 warm frame until the cuttings are cica- 
 trized, and then removed to a brisk 
 bottom heat, they will root with great 
 freedom. 
 
 "After the cuttings are rooted, they 
 must be repotted into rich light com- 
 post, and encouraged to make robust 
 growth. As it is indispensable that the 
 plants should become strong before 
 they are planted out, they must have at 
 least one season's cultivation in pots; 
 the flower-buds must also be removed 
 as soon as they are perceptible, so that 
 the whole organizable matter may be 
 concentrated in the young plant. 
 
 " In the spring of the second season, 
 the ground may be prepared for the 
 reception of the plants, and as the pre- 
 servation in winter of the roots of all 
 tender plants depends as much upon 
 the dryness as upon the warmth of the 
 soil, it will be advisable to give them 
 an elevated but not an exposed situa- 
 tion ; and where the subsoil is not 
 porous, make it so artificially. There- 
 fore, where it is necessary, excavate 
 the natural soil to the depth of two 
 feet, and in the bottom place a layer of 
 
 brick rubbish at least six inches thick ; 
 over that lay some small sticks, leaves, 
 or moss, to prevent the soil from get- 
 ting into the drainage, and infilling up, 
 raise the bed six inches above the level 
 of the surrounding soil — with a compost 
 consisting of rich turfy loam, leaf- 
 mould, and turfy peat, in the proportion 
 of two parts of the former to one of 
 each of the latter; to which sandstone 
 or porous bricks, broken to the size of 
 large eggs, may be added to the extent 
 of one-eighth of the whole mass. This 
 mixture will never become solid, on 
 the contrary, it will always be perme- 
 able to both air and moisture, without 
 any risk of becoming saturated with the 
 latter. The plants in the first season 
 may be planted eighteen inches apart; 
 but in the third year half of them may 
 be taken out to form a new plantation, 
 and in the fifth or sixth year each plant 
 when in flower will acquire an area of 
 sixteen or twenty square feet. When 
 large specimens for immediate effect 
 are desired, four or five may be placed 
 in juxtaposition. 
 
 " The best time to plant them out 
 will be from the last week in May to 
 the middle of June, as the ground will 
 then be a little warm, and the plants 
 will sustain no check. 
 
 " Towards the end of October the 
 plants should be cut down, and the 
 crown of each covered with a box, or 
 flower-pot, filled with dry leaves, the 
 whole being spread over with dry peat, 
 leaf-mould, or saw-dust, to the depth of 
 a foot, and then turfed over neatly. 
 The latter will be found advantageous, 
 especially if the sides of the bed have a 
 sharpish inclination, as it will throw off 
 much of the rain that would otherwise 
 soak into the mould, and impair its 
 protecting properties. 
 
 " In spring, when the covering is 
 removed, the surface of the bed should 
 be renewed to the depth of the roots 
 with the above compost, the whole 
 being afterwards covered two inches 
 thick with sandy peat or leaf mould. 
 This covering should be continued until 
 the middle of June, or later if the 
 weather requires it. Water during the 
 growing season may be freely adminis- 
 tered in dry weather, and if liquid 
 manure is occasionally given it will add 
 to the strength of the plants; but after 
 they are in bloom the less water that 
 falls on the bed the better it will be for 
 
ERY 
 
 214 
 
 ESP 
 
 the preservation of the roots through 
 the winter." — Gard. Chron. North of 
 the Potomac it will be safer to remove 
 the Erythrina c.-galli in autumn to 
 some sheltered situation, where it may 
 be kept in nearly a dry or dormant state 
 until the spring, when it may again 
 occupy its position in the open air. 
 
 ERYTHROL^NA conspicua. Hardy 
 biennial. Seed. Rich loam. 
 
 ERYTHRONIUM. Four species. 
 Hardy bulbs. Offsets. Common soil, 
 with a little peat. 
 
 ESCALLONIA. Seven species. 
 Green-house and half-hardy evergreen 
 ghrubs. Cuttings. Peat, sand, and 
 loam. 
 
 ESCHALLOT or SHALLOT. Al- 
 lium ascalonicum. Of this there are 
 the common, and the long-keeping, the 
 last continuing good for two years. 
 Both have a stronger taste than the 
 onion, yet not leaving that odour on the 
 palate which the latter is accustomed 
 to do, it is often preferred and em- 
 ployed in its stead, both in culinary 
 preparations, and for eating in its natural 
 state. 
 
 Time and Mode of Propagation. — 
 Each offset of the root will increase in 
 a similar manner as its parent. The 
 planting may be performed in October 
 and November, or early in the spring, 
 as February, March, or beginning of 
 April. The first is the best season, 
 especially if the soil lies dry, as the 
 bulbs become finer. If the smallest 
 offsets are employed for planting, they 
 never become mouldy in the ground, 
 and they are never injured by the most 
 intense frosts. 
 
 They are to be planted on the surface, 
 six inches asunder each way, in beds 
 not more than four feet wide, some very 
 rich mould being placed beneath them, 
 and a little raised on each side to sup- 
 port them until they become firmly 
 rooted, when it must be entirely re- 
 moved by the hoe, and a strong current 
 of water from the watering pot. The 
 compost laid beneath the offsets may 
 consist of a mixture of well-decayed 
 hot-bed dung and soot, which is very 
 favourable to their growth, and is a 
 preservative from the maggot. 
 
 Cultivation. — The only attention they 
 subsequently require is to be kept clear 
 of weeds. Some may be taken up as 
 wanted in June, July, and August, but 
 not entirely for storing until the leaves 
 
 are withered, which takes place during 
 the last-named month, when, being 
 carefully dried and housed, they will 
 keep until the following spring. Care 
 must be taken that they are gradually 
 dried in an airy situation, shaded from 
 the meridian sun, which would cause 
 them to wrinkle; as also to store them 
 in dry weather. 
 
 ESCHSCHOLTZIA. See Chryseis. 
 
 ESPALIER, is a tree trained to a 
 trellis instead of a wall, and though 
 the fruit it bears is not quite equal to 
 that borne by a tree of the same variety 
 trained against the wall, yet it is far 
 superior to that borne on either dwarf 
 or full standards. Of this the causes 
 obviously are, that the fruit and leaves 
 are more fully supplied with sap, and 
 more perfectly exposed to the light and 
 warmth of the sun. Some gardeners 
 object to their introduction into the 
 kitchen garden on the plea that they 
 deprive the under crops of air and light, 
 but if confined to the borders of the 
 main walks, the shelter they afford to 
 those crops is more than commensurate 
 to the slight interruption suggested. In 
 addition, they are highly ornamental, 
 and greatly improve the aspect of the 
 kitchen garden. Espalier rails should 
 run parallel with the walks, and at four 
 feet distance from them ; not higher 
 than five feet; neat, and if made of 
 wood, tarred, and the ends which are 
 fixed in the ground charred ; though 
 blocks of stone sunk into the ground, 
 with iron sockets or bases to receive 
 those ends, are still better. 
 
 Gooseberries and Currants are highly 
 improved by being trained as espaliers, 
 and may be so grown along borders 
 near the side walks of the kitchen 
 garden. For these the trellis must be 
 not higher than three feet from the 
 ground, and for the purpose* stakes 
 about four inches in circumference, 
 and thus arranged, are very suitable. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 Various suggestions have been made for 
 altering the form of espalier trellises, 
 but let the gardener never adopt any 
 that declines from the perpendicular. 
 
ETI 
 
 215 
 
 — • — 
 
 EVE 
 
 The smallest approach to the horizontal 
 increases the radiation of heat from the 
 trees, and increases, consequently, the 
 cold they have to endure at night. It 
 is not one of the least advantages of 
 training gooseberries and currants as 
 espaliers, that it facilitates the protect- 
 ing them with mats. 
 
 ETIOLATION. See Blanching. 
 
 EUCALYPTUS. Fifty-three species. 
 Green-house evergreen trees. Cuttings. 
 Peat, loam, and sand. 
 
 EUCHARIDIUM concinnum. Hardy 
 annual. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 EUCHILUS obcordatus. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 EUCHROMA. Two species. Har- 
 dy; one perennial, the other annual. 
 Seed. Common soil, with a little peat. 
 
 EUCLEA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 EUCOMIS. Seven species. Green- 
 house bulbs. Offsets. Rich loam. 
 
 EUCROSIA bicolor. Green-house 
 bulb. Offsets. Common light soil. 
 
 EUGENIA. Twenty-eight species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 EULOPHIA. Eight species. Green- 
 house and stove orchids. Division. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 EUMERUS. A genus of predatory 
 flies. 
 
 E. ceneus, Brassy Onion Fly, is thus 
 described by Mr. Curtis: — 
 
 " The maggots are very rough, from 
 a multitude of short spines or rigid 
 bristles, which cover their skins, espe- 
 cially towards the tail, ferruginous or 
 brownish. The fly itself is of a reddish 
 ochre colour, freckled with dark brown, 
 and there are two spiny processes like 
 short horns upon the thorax, in the fe- 
 male at least. It is densely clothed 
 with short hairs, thickly and distinctly 
 punctured, and of an olive-green colour, 
 with a brassy tinge ; the antennae are 
 entirely black, the seta naked: the face 
 is very hairy, simply convex and silvery 
 white; eyes dark brown and slightly 
 pubescent ; rostrum very short ; thorax 
 with two whitish lines down the back. 
 The maggots of this fly do not seem to 
 be confined to the onion, for I bred one 
 in the middle of May from cabbage 
 roots, and specimens have been taken 
 flying about hedges in June and July, 
 in the neighbourhood of London and 
 
 Bristol. As it often happens, the fe- 
 male has not been observed depositing 
 her eggs; the spot that she selects is 
 therefore yet unknown. Drought does 
 not suit them." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 EUNOMIA oppositifolia. Half-hardy 
 herbaceous. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 EUONYMUS. Eighteen species. 
 Chiefly hardy evergreen shrubs. Seed 
 or cuttings. Common soil. 
 
 EUPATORIUM. Fifty species, em- 
 bracing hardy, green-house, and stove 
 herbaceous, and perennial plants. Seed. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 EUPHORBIA. One hundred and 
 fifty-two species. Chiefly hardy, green- 
 house and stove evergreens. Division 
 or seed. Common, soil. 
 
 " E. splendens is the most striking 
 species. It is a stove evergreen shrub. 
 It should be repotted early in spring, 
 or even in the winter, if the pot is full 
 of roots. Although it does not require 
 so much water in winter, yet you must 
 not keep it then quite dry, for it is al- 
 ways growing." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 E. jaquinceflora is also a very beau- 
 tiful species, producing a profusion of 
 deep orange coloured flowers in a 
 wreath like form. 
 
 EURYA. Two species. Green-house 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 EURYALE ferox. Stove aquatic. 
 Seed. 
 
 EURYCLES. Four species. Stove 
 bulbs. Seed and offsets. Sandy loam 
 and leaf-mould. 
 
 EUSTEGIA hastata. Green-house 
 evergreen trailer. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 EUSTOMA silenifolia. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 EUSTREPHUS. Two species. 
 Green-house evergreen twiners. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy peat. 
 
 EUTAXIA. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 EUTHALES trinervis. Green-house 
 herbaceous. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 EUTHAMIA. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 EUTOCA. Five species. Hardy 
 annuals and biennials. Seeds. Sandy 
 soil. 
 
 EUXENIA grata. Green-house ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 EVENING FLOWER. Hesperus. 
 
EVE 
 
 216 
 
 EXT 
 
 EVENING PRIMROSE. (Enothera. 
 
 EVERGREENS are such plants as do 
 not shed all their leaves at any one 
 season of the year. 
 
 EVERGREEN THORN. Cratagus 
 pyracantha. 
 
 EVERLASTING. Gnaphalium. 
 
 EVERLASTING PEA. Lathyrus 
 Jatifolius. 
 
 EVODIA triphylla. Stove evergreen 
 shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 
 EVOLVULUS. Eleven species. 
 Chiefly stove annual trailers; two are 
 hardy, and two evergreens. The last 
 propagated by division ; others by seed. 
 Common soil. 
 
 EXCRESCENCE. « Independent of 
 Galls, which are caused by the punc- 
 tures of insects, and the swellings which 
 always accompany Canker, the excres- 
 cences which injure the gardener's 
 crops are very few. That which ap- 
 pears above the point of union between 
 the scion and stock, is caused by the 
 former being the freer grower of the 
 two, and is a warning which should be 
 remembered, for it curtails the longevity 
 of the tree, the supply of sap gradually 
 becoming inefficient. 
 
 "The excrescences which occur upon 
 the branches of some apples, as those 
 of the codling and June-eating, cannot 
 be looked upon as disease, for they 
 arise from congeries of abortive buds, 
 which readily protrude roots if buried 
 in the soil, making those among the 
 very few apples which can be propa- 
 gated by cuttings. Of a similar nature 
 are the huge excrescences so prevalent 
 on aged oaks and elms. Bulbous ex- 
 crescences are formed upon the roots of 
 many plants if compelled to grow upon 
 a soil drier than that which best suits 
 them. This is the case especially with 
 two grasses, Phleum pratense and Al- 
 opecurus geniculates, and is evidently a 
 wise provision of nature to secure the 
 propagation of the species, for those 
 bulbs will vegetate long after the re- 
 mainder of the plant has been destroyed 
 by the excessive dryness of the soil. 
 
 "On the free performance of this 
 function of plants their health is depend- 
 ent in a very high degree : and I believe 
 that half the epidemics to which they 
 are subject arises from its derangement. 
 That consequence of the clubbing of 
 the roots of the brassica tribe, called 
 fingers and toes, arises, I consider, 
 entirely from it. In the drought of 
 
 summer, when the moisture supplied to 
 a club-rooted cabbage by its root does 
 not nearly equal the exhalation of its 
 foliage, to supply this deficiency the 
 plant endeavours, by forming a kind of 
 spurious bulbous root, to adapt itself to 
 the contingency." — Princ. of Garden- 
 ing. 
 
 EXTRA VASATED SAP. "Under 
 this general name, I purpose to include 
 the consideration of gumming, bleeding, 
 and other injurious affections under 
 which plants occasionally labour, on 
 account of their sap escaping from the 
 properly containing vessels. The ex- 
 travasation proceeds either from the al- 
 burnum or from the inner bark and may 
 arise from five causes. 
 
 " 1. The acrid or alkaline state of 
 the sap, which has been considered 
 already, when treating of the canker. 
 
 " 2. From plethora or excessive 
 abundance of the sap. 
 
 " 3. From the unnatural contraction 
 of the circulatory vessels. 
 
 " 4. From wounds. 
 
 "5. Heat and dryness. 
 
 " 1. With regard to the alkaline state 
 of the sap, it may be observed, addition- 
 ally, that the excessive alkaline quality 
 of the sap, imparting to it the power of 
 destroying the fibre of its containing 
 vessels, is placed on the basis of chemi- 
 cal experiment. A weak alkaline solu- 
 tion dissolves woody fibre without 
 alteration; and it may be thrown down 
 again by means of an acid. By this 
 property we are enabled to separate 
 wood from most of the other vegetable 
 principles, as few of them are soluble 
 in weak alkaline leys. 
 
 "It is true, that the vital principle 
 may counteract powerfully this chemi- 
 cal action; but it will not control the 
 corrosive effect of an active agent in 
 excess, if repeated for any length of 
 time. The blood of the human system 
 contains, when in a healthy state, a por- 
 tion of common salt; yet, if this saline 
 constituent is in excess, it induces in- 
 flammation and organic derangement. 
 
 " 2. Plethora is that state of a plant's 
 excessive vigour in which the sap is 
 formed more rapidly than the circulatory 
 vessels can convey it away. When this 
 occurs, rupture must take place, fiw the 
 force with which it is propelled during 
 circulation, and consequently, the force 
 acting to burst the vessels during any 
 check, is very much greater than could 
 
EXT 
 
 217 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 EXT 
 
 have been expected, before Mr. Hales 
 demonstrated it by experiment. 
 
 'f Now, we know that a much less 
 pressure than any of those above men- 
 tioned would be capable of bursting the 
 delicate membranes of any of their ex- 
 terior descending sap vessels, and it is 
 in such outer ducts that the injury first 
 occurs. When one exterior vessel is 
 ruptured, that next beneath it, having 
 the supporting pressure removed, is 
 enabled to follow the same course at 
 the same locality; and in proportion to 
 the length of the time that the sap con- 
 tinues in excess, is the depth to which 
 the mischief extends, and the quantity 
 of sap extravasated. 
 
 " If the extravasation proceeds from 
 this cause, there is but one course of 
 treatment to be pursued ; sever one of 
 the main roots to afford the tree im- 
 mediate relief, and reduce the staple of 
 the soil, by removing some of it, and 
 admixing less fertile earthy components, 
 as sand or chalk. This must be done 
 gradually, for the fibrous roots that are 
 suited for the collection of food from a 
 fertile soil are not at once adapted for 
 the introsusception of that from a less 
 abundant pasturage. Care must be 
 taken not to apply the above remedies 
 before it is clearly ascertained that the 
 cause is not an unnatural contraction of 
 the sap vessels, because, in such case, 
 the treatment might be injurious rather 
 than beneficial. I have always found it 
 arising from an excessive production of 
 sap, if the tree, when afflicted by extra- 
 vasation, produces at the same time 
 super-luxuriant shoots. 
 
 " 3. Local contractions of the sap 
 vessels. — If the extravasation arises 
 from this cause, there is usually a swell- 
 ing of the bark immediately above the 
 place of discharge. 
 
 "I had a cherry tree in my garden, 
 in Essex, of which the stock grew very 
 much less freely than the graft, conse- 
 quently, just above the place of union, 
 a swelling resembling a wen extended 
 round the whole girth of the tree, from 
 which swelling gum was continually 
 exuding. In the stem below it, I never 
 observed a single extravasation. In a 
 case such as this, the cultivator's only 
 resource is to reduce cautiously the 
 amount of branches, if the bleeding 
 threatens to be injuriously extensive, 
 otherwise it is of but little consequence, 
 acting like temporary discharges of 
 
 blood from the human frame, as a re- 
 lief to the system. 
 
 " 4. The extravasation of the sap from 
 a wound is usually the most exhausting, 
 and as the wound, whether contused or 
 not, is liable to be a lodgment for wa- 
 ter and other foreign bodies opposed to 
 the healing of the injured part, the dis- 
 charge is often protracted. This is 
 especially the case if the wound be 
 made in the spring, before the leaves 
 are developed, as in performing the 
 winter pruning of the vine later than is 
 proper. In such case, the vine always 
 is weakened, and in some instances it 
 has been destroyed. The quantity of 
 sap which may be made to flow from 
 some trees is astonishing, especially in 
 tropical climates. Thus, from a cocoa- 
 nut palm, from three to five pints of sap 
 will flow during every day for four or 
 five successive weeks. The best mode 
 of checking such exudations, is by plac- 
 ing a piece of sponge dipped in a solu- 
 tion of sulphate of iron upon the dis- 
 charging place, covering the sponge 
 with a piece of sheet-lead, and binding 
 it on firmly. The sulphate acts as a 
 styptic, promoting the contraction of 
 the mouths of the vessels; the sponge 
 encourages cicatrization, and the lead 
 excludes moisture. 
 
 " 5. Heat attended by dryness of the 
 soil, as during the drought of summer, 
 is very liable to produce an unnatural 
 exudation. This is especially notice- 
 able upon the leaves of some plants, 
 and is popularly known as honey-dew. 
 It is somewhat analogous to that out- 
 burst of blood, which in such seasons is 
 apt to occur to man, and arises from 
 the increased action of the secretory 
 and circulatory system, to which it af- 
 fords relief. There is this great and 
 essential difference, that, in the case of 
 the plants, the extravasation is upon the 
 surface of the leaves, and consequently 
 in proportion to the abundance of the 
 extruded sap are their respiration and 
 digestion impaired. 
 
 " Azaleas sometimes, but rarely,have 
 the impubescence on their leaves, espe- 
 cially on their lower surface, beaded as 
 it were with a resinous exudation. This 
 can scarcely be called a disease. It is 
 never found but upon plants that have 
 been kept in a temperature too high, 
 and in a soil too fertile. It is an effort 
 to relieve the surcharged vessels, and 
 occurs in various forms in other plants. 
 
EXT 
 
 218 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 EXT 
 
 " The honey-dew was noticed by the 
 ancients, and is mentioned by Pliny by 
 the fanciful designation of the * sweat of 
 the heavens,' and the e saliva of the 
 stars,' though he questioned whether it 
 is a deposition from the air, purging it 
 from some contracted impurity. More 
 modern philosophers have been quite 
 as erroneous and discordant in their 
 opinion relative to the disease's nature. 
 Some, with the most unmitigable aspe- 
 rity, declare that it is the excrement of 
 aphides. Others as exclusively main- 
 tain that it is an atmospheric deposit, 
 and a third party consider that it arises 
 from bleeding, consequent to the wounds 
 of insects. That there may be a gluti- 
 nous saccharine liquid found upon the 
 leaves of plants arising from the first and 
 third named causes is probable, or 
 rather certain ; but this is by no means 
 conclusive that there is not a similar 
 liquid extravasated upon the surface of 
 the leaves, owing to some unhealthy 
 action of their vessels. It is with this 
 description of honey-dew that we are 
 here concerned. The error into which 
 Writers on this subject appear to have 
 fallen, consists in their having endea- 
 voured to assign the origin of every kind 
 of honey-dew to the same cause. Thus 
 the Rev. Gilbert White seems (Natu- 
 ralist's Calendar, 144) to have had a 
 fanciful and comprehensive mode of ac- 
 counting for the origin of honey-dew : 
 he tells us, June 4th, 1783, vast honey- 
 dews this week. The reason of this 
 seems to be, that in hot days the efflu- 
 via of flowers are drawn up by a brisk 
 evaporation, and then in the night fall 
 down with the dews with which they 
 are entangled. The objection urged to 
 this theory by Curtis (Trans. Linn. Soc. 
 vi. 82) is conclusive. If it fell from the 
 atmosphere, it would cover every thing 
 on which it fell indiscriminately ; where- 
 as we never find it, but on certain 
 living plants and trees; we find it also 
 on plants in stoves and green-houses 
 with covered glass. 
 
 " Curtis had convinced himself that 
 the honey-dew was merely the excre- 
 ment of the aphides, and he supported 
 his theory with his usual ability, al- 
 though he justly deemed it a little 
 ' wonderful extraordinary' that any in- 
 sect should secrete as excrementitious 
 matter, sugar; he even thought it pos- 
 sible, if the ants, wasps, and flies, could 
 be prevented from devouring the honey- 
 
 dew, e almost as fast as it was deposit- 
 ed,' to collect it in considerable quan- 
 tities, and convert it into the choicest 
 sugar and sugar-candy.' 
 
 " The bees, however, he found to- 
 tally disregarded the honey-dew which 
 came under his observation. With the 
 opinion of Mr. Curtis I do not agree, 
 any more than does the Abbe Boissier 
 de Sauvages, who, in a memoir read 
 before the Society of Sciences at Mont- 
 pellier, gives an account of ' a shower 
 of honey-dew,' which he witnessed 
 under a lime tree in the king's garden 
 at Paris. 
 
 " The various successful applications 
 of liquids to plants, in order to prevent 
 the occurrence of the honey-dew and 
 similar diseases, would seem to indi- 
 cate that a morbid state of the sap is 
 the chief cause of the honey-dew, for 
 otherwise it would be difficult to explain 
 the reason why the use of a solution of 
 common salt in water applied to the 
 soil in which a plant is growing, can 
 prevent a disease caused by insects. 
 But if we admit that the irregular action 
 of the sap is the cause of the disorder, 
 then we can understand that a portion 
 of salt introduced in the juices of the 
 plant would naturally have a tendency 
 to correct or vary any morbid tendency, 
 either correcting the too rapid secretion 
 of sap, stimulating it in promoting its 
 regular formation, or preserving its flu- 
 idity. And that by such a treatment 
 the honey-dew may be entirely pre- 
 vented, I have myself often witnessed 
 in my own garden, when experiment- 
 alizing with totally different objects. 
 Thus I have seen plants of various 
 kinds, which have been treated with 
 a weak solution of common salt and 
 water, totally escape the honey-dew, 
 where trees of the same kind growing 
 in the same plot of ground not so treat- 
 ed, have been materially injured by its 
 ravages. I think, however, that the 
 solution which has been sometimes em- 
 ployed for this purpose is much too 
 strong for watering plants. I have al- 
 ways preferred a weak liquid, and I am 
 of opinion, that one ounce of salt (chlo- 
 ride of sodium) to a gallon of water is 
 quite powerful enough for the intended 
 purpose. I am in doubt as to the cor- 
 rectness of Knight's opinion, as to the 
 mere water having any material influ- 
 ence in the composition of such a re- 
 medy, since I have noticed that standard 
 
EYE 
 
 219 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 F AL 
 
 fruit trees, around which, at a distance 
 of six or eight feet from the stem, I had 
 deposited at a depth of twelve inches a 
 quantity of salt to promote the general 
 health and fruitfulness of the tree, ac- 
 cording to the manner formerly adopted 
 to some extent in the cider countries 
 for the apple orchards, that these es- 
 caped the honey-dew which infected 
 adjacent trees, just as well as those 
 which had been watered with salt and 
 water." — Johnson's Vrinciples of Gar- 
 dening. 
 
 EYEBRIGHT. Euphrasia. 
 
 FAB A vulgaris. See Bean. 
 
 FABRICIA. Four species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 FAGELIA bituminosa. Green-house 
 evergreen twiner. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 FAGRJEA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam, 
 sand, and peat. 
 
 FAGUS, Beech tree. Four species. 
 Seed, budding, and grafting. Chalky 
 loam. 
 
 FALKIA re-pens. Green-house ever- 
 green creeper. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 FALL of the LEAF. Dr. Lindley 
 thus explains this phenomenon. 
 
 " In the course of time a leaf be- 
 comes incapable of performing its 
 functions ; its passages are choked up 
 by the deposit of sedimentary matter ; 
 there is no longer a free communica- 
 tion between its veins and the wood 
 and liber. It changes colour, ceases to 
 decompose carbonic acid, absorbs oxy- 
 gen instead, gets into a morbid condi- 
 tion, and dies ; it is then thrown off. 
 This phenomenon, which we call the 
 fall of the leaf, is going on the whole 
 year. Those trees which lose the 
 whole of their leaves at the approach 
 of winter, and are called deciduous, 
 begin, in fact, to cast their leaves with- 
 in a few weeks after the commence- 
 ment of their vernal growth ; but the 
 mass of their foliage is not rejected till 
 late in the season. Those, on the 
 other hand, which are named ever- 
 greens, part with their leaves much 
 more slowly; retain them in health at 
 the time when the leaves of other 
 plants are perishing; and do not cast 
 them till a new spring has commenced, 
 when other trees are leafing, or even 
 
 later. In the latter class, the functions 
 of the leaves are going on during all 
 the winter, although languidly ; they 
 are constantly attracting sap from the 
 earth through the spongelets, and are 
 therefore in a state of slow but con- 
 tinual winter growth. 
 
 " It usually happens that the per- 
 spiratory organs of these plants are less 
 active than in deciduous species." — 
 Theory of Horticulture. 
 
 With all due deference to Dr. Lind- 
 ley, whose scientific acquirements are 
 of a high order, we cannot admit that 
 his theory in this particular is entirely 
 satisfactory. Nature has ordained that 
 vegetables shall perform certain func- 
 tions, and that which may appear to be 
 the cause of change, is in fact only 
 a result of the action of established 
 laws. 
 
 FALLOWING, beyond all doubt, is 
 needless where there is a due supply 
 of manure, and a sufficient application 
 of the spade, fork, and hoe to the soil. 
 Fallowing can have no other beneficial 
 influence than by destroying weeds, 
 aiding the decomposition of offensive 
 exuviae, exposing the soil to the disin- 
 tegrating influence of the air, and ac- 
 cumulating in it decomposing matter. 
 Now all these effects can be produced 
 by judicious stirrings and manurings. 
 Mr. Barnes, gardener to Lady Rolle, 
 at Bicton, bears confirmatory testimony 
 to this opinion, founded on many years* 
 experience. 
 
 " To rest or fallow ground for any 
 length of time is only loss of time and 
 produce ; more benefit will be obtained 
 by trenching and forking in frosty or 
 hot sunny weather, in a few days, than 
 a whole season of what is erroneously 
 called rest or fallow. Trench, fork, 
 and hoe ; change every succeeding 
 crop; return to the earth all refuse 
 that is not otherwise useful in a green 
 state, adding a change of other manures 
 occasionally, especially charred refuse 
 of any kind, at the time of putting a 
 crop into the ground. Every succeed- 
 ing crop will be found healthy and 
 luxuriant, suffering but little either 
 from drought, too much moisture, or 
 vermin." — Principles of Gardening. 
 
 The practice of fallowing appears to 
 have been one of great antiquity. 
 Virgil (who flourished his grey-goose 
 quill two thousand years ago), thus 
 alludes to it in his Georgics : 
 
FAR 
 
 220 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 FEB 
 
 fi Both these unhappy soils the swain 
 
 forbears, 
 And keeps a Sabbath of alternate years, 
 That the spent earth may gather heart 
 
 again, 
 And bettered by cessation, bear the 
 
 grain, 
 At least where vetches, pulse, and 
 
 tares, have stood, 
 And stalks of lupines grew (a stubborn 
 
 wood), 
 Th' ensuing season, in return may bear 
 The bearded product of the golden 
 
 year." 
 
 FARAMEA odoratissima. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Turfy 
 loam and sandy peat. 
 
 FARM - YARD MANURE. See 
 Bung. 
 
 FARSETIA. Six species. F. 
 cheiranthifolia is a hardy annual ; the 
 others are half-hardy evergreen shrubs. 
 The first by seed, the shrubs by cut- 
 tings. Light loam. 
 
 FEABERRY, a local name for the 
 Gooseberry. 
 
 FEATHERS. See Animal Matters. 
 
 FEBRUARY. 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 Except in the remote south, the out- 
 door operations of the gardener are 
 almost suspended. Nearly all that he 
 can do is to provide manure, prepare 
 rods and poles for peas and beans, 
 labels for his plants, and if the weather 
 admit, trench those compartments of his 
 grounds which require such treatment. 
 Such labour and the preparation of hot- 
 beds for forcing, may profitably employ 
 his time. Cabbage, Eggplants, Toma- 
 toes, Peppers, &c, are now sown in 
 hot-beds for early planting. If the 
 weather be very cold delay awhile, 
 nothing can be gained by setting them 
 during strong frost. Farther south 
 labour has now commenced in earnest. 
 In theCarolinasand southward, it is per- 
 haps one of the most active months in 
 horticultural operations. Beans and 
 Peas are planted; Cabbage and Cauli- 
 flower sown, and plants from previous 
 sowings transplanted. Lettuce plants 
 from the autumn seed beds are set out. 
 Spinach is sown, also Radishes, Car- 
 rots, Parsnips, Beets; Asparagus beds 
 are dressed. In short, all the early ope- 
 rations of the garden are now per- 
 formed. 
 
 ORCHARD. 
 
 Apples, finish pruning, b. Apri- 
 cots, finish pruning, b. — Blossoms of 
 early wall fruit, shelter in frosty and 
 windy weather. — Dress and fork 
 over the earth of the borders, &c. — 
 Figs, prune. — Forcing, continue. (See 
 Jan.) — Gooseberries, finish pruning, b. 
 — Grafting, commence, if mild, e. — 
 Grafts, collect ready for use. — Hot- 
 house, forcing continue. (See Jan.) — 
 Layers, make of Figs, Vines, Filberts, 
 Mulberries, and Muscle Plums, the last 
 for stocks. — Manures, apply where re- 
 quired. — Moss, on trees, destroy with 
 brine. (See Jan.) — Pears, finish pruning ; 
 graft, e. — Plums, finish pruning ; graft, 
 e. — Pruning, finish generally. — Rasp- 
 berries. — Standards, finish pruning. — 
 Strawberries, clear and spring dress ; 
 force in hot-beds, giving air abun- 
 dantly, and covering the glasses with 
 mats at night. — Trench ground for 
 planting. — Vines may still be pruned, 
 b.; cuttings, plant. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit freely during midday, 
 when weather permits. — Bulbs, and 
 other dry roots for succession, plant, 
 b. — Bark Beds attend to. (See Jan.) — 
 Cherries, in blossom, shade when sun 
 is bright ; disbud as required : day 
 temp, keep about 60° ; night 45°. — 
 Earth of borders, &c, stir once a 
 week. — Figs require a day temp, about 
 60°. — Flowering shrubs in pots, intro- 
 duce for succession. — Heat, keep up ; 
 plants becoming more sensitive. — Kid- 
 ney Beans, continue to sow in boxes. 
 (See Jan.) — Labels, renew where re- 
 quired. — Leaves, keep cleaned ; decay- 
 ed and weeds clear away constantly. — 
 Liquid Manure apply to the roots of 
 fruit trees in forcing, especially Vines 
 and Figs. — Peaches, and other fruits in 
 blossom, should not now be syringed ; 
 disbud; thin when too thick, and as large 
 as peas ; day temp. 60°. — Pines, water 
 moderately ; (crowns of) remove from 
 bark bed to pots; regulate succession 
 by changing their pots, &c. — Steam (if 
 employed) may be admitted almost 
 daily. — Strawberries, in pots, introduce 
 for succession. — Thermometer , for most 
 stove plants, may be at 70° during mid- 
 day. — Tobacco fumigations give weekly, 
 or oftener if insects appear. — Vines, 
 treat as in Jan. ; do not syringe whilst 
 in blossom ; prune bunches; day temp. 
 
FED 
 
 221 
 
 FEN 
 
 70°. — Water, give more freely than last 
 month ; keep in open pans constantly. 
 — Watch sedulously for the green fly 
 and red spider. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit freely whenever practica- 
 ble ; it is now still more important than 
 in winter. — Dead Wood, cut away as it 
 appears. — Earth, give fresh generally. 
 — Head down shrubs irregularly grown. 
 — Heat, give as necessary, to keep the 
 temp, above 32°. — Labels, renew where 
 wanted. — Leaves, keep clean, and re- 
 move those decayed. — Pruning of 
 Oranges, fyc, complete. — Shelter, by 
 putting mats over the glass in severe 
 weather. — Shift into large pots where 
 required. — Water more often than last 
 month, wherever needed, but only a 
 little at a time. 
 
 FEDIA cornucopia. Hardy annual. 
 Seed. Common soil. 
 
 FENCES are employed to mark the 
 boundary of property, to exclude tres- 
 passers, either human or quadrupedal, 
 and to afford shelter. They are either 
 live fences, and are then known as 
 hedges, or dead, and are then either 
 banks, ditches, palings, or walls; or 
 they are a union of those two, to which 
 titles the reader is referred. 
 
 The following is the English law on 
 the subject : — 
 
 In the eye of the law a hedge, fence, 
 ditch, or other inclosure of land, is for 
 its better manuring and improvement ; 
 and various remedies are therefore pro- 
 vided for their preservation. 
 
 The common using of a wall separat- 
 ing adjoining lands belonging to differ- 
 ent owners is primd facie evidence that 
 the wall, and the land on which it 
 stands, belongs in equal moieties to the 
 owners of those lands as tenants in 
 common. (Cubitt v. Porter, 8 B. & C. 
 257.) 
 
 One of such tenants in common of a 
 wall or hedge may maintain an action 
 of trespass against the co-tenant for in- 
 juring the wall or for grubbing up the 
 hedge, but not for clipping the latter. 
 (Voyce v. Voyce, Gow. 201.) 
 
 If a field be fenced with a bank and 
 ditch, it is not a necessary consequence 
 that his ditch extends eight feet from 
 the interior line of the bank's foot, viz., 
 four feet for the base of the bank, and 
 four feet for the ditch ; and the owner 
 has no right to cut into his neighbour's 
 
 field to widen the ditch beyond the 
 proof of its ancient width. (Vowles v. 
 Miller, 3 Taunton, 137.) 
 
 Where two fields are separated by a 
 hedge and ditch, the hedge , primd facie, 
 belongs to the owner of the field in 
 which the ditch is not. If there are 
 two ditches, one on each side the ditch, 
 evidence must prove acts of ownership 
 over the hedge to show to whom it be- 
 longs. (Guy v. West, 2 Selwyn, N. P. 
 1287.) 
 
 The owner of the wall or hedge is 
 bound to repair it ; and if any injury 
 arises from its being out of repair, an 
 action on the case lies. 
 
 Any one stealing or cutting, breaking 
 or throwing down, with the intent to 
 steal, any fence, post, pales, rail, stile, 
 or gate, or any part thereof, may be 
 fined by a justice of the peace the 
 amount of the injury done, and a fine 
 not exceeding 51. Committing the same 
 offence a second time renders the of- 
 fender liable to twelve months' impri- 
 sonment and a whipping. 
 
 Stealing metal garden-fencing is a 
 felony. In America each State has its 
 own peculiar laws on this as on other 
 subjects. In Pennsylvania, by an Act 
 of 1700, entitled "An act for the regu- 
 lating and maintaining of Fences,'''' it 
 was provided that " all cornfields and 
 grounds kept for inclosures within the 
 said province and counties annexed, 
 shall be well fenced with fence at least 
 five feet high, and close at the bottom, 
 &c." By an Act of 1729, it was pro- 
 vided that " to prevent disputes about 
 the sufficiency of fences, all fences 
 shall be esteemed lawful and sufficient, 
 though they be not close at the bottom, 
 so that the distance from the ground to 
 the bottom thereof, exceed not nine 
 inches ; and that they be four feet and 
 a half high, and not under." Both acts 
 are operative in certain counties only. — 
 See Purdon's Digest. 
 
 Ornamental fences for enclosing gar- 
 dens, yards, &c, are almost as diversi- 
 fied as the ideas of beauty in the human 
 mind. " The impression, on viewing 
 grounds laid out with some preten- 
 sion to taste, is governed in a degree, 
 by the style and character of the sur- 
 rounding fence. It is a great mistake 
 to suppose the most elaborate (and of 
 course costly) are the most pleasing ; 
 yet acting on this supposition, we see 
 exhibited fences which appear to have 
 
FEN 
 
 222 
 
 FER 
 
 been planned as if to show the amount 
 of money which could be thus expend- 
 ed, and after all, they rather disgust 
 than please. 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 „»**~s-*r-«^*Lr^«v CMW 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 *%W|j 
 
 .»**«XWv»asa 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 »- i -^Nj^rv\wr«^crccc<^^wrx^si^<s^ 
 
 " The figures 42, 43, 44, illustrate 
 three simple designs, formed by straight 
 slats or pales, and therefore of the least 
 expense; they are readily executed, 
 and agreeable from their simplicity. 
 The colour which should be used, is of 
 course a matter of taste ; white is gene- 
 rally preferred, though dark shades, 
 even jet black, are the most pleasing to 
 
 many ; for ourselves, we should choose 
 the latter, though it be not the best, 
 so far as the preservation of the wood 
 is concerned." — Rural Reg. 
 
 FENNEL (Anethum Fcenicitlum) will 
 flourish in almost any soil or situation : 
 in a dry soil it is longest-lived. It is 
 propagated both by offsets, partings of 
 the root, and by seed ; all of which 
 modes may be practised any time be- 
 tween the beginning of February and 
 the end of April. The best season, 
 however, for sowing, is autumn, soon 
 after the seed is ripe, at which time it 
 may also be planted with success. 
 
 Insert the plants a foot apart, and the 
 seed in drills, six or twelve inches 
 asunder, according as it is intended that 
 the plants are to be transplanted or to 
 remain. 
 
 When advanced to the height of four 
 or five inches, if they are intended for 
 removal, the plants are pricked out 
 eight inches apart, to attain strength for 
 final planting in autumn or spring. 
 Water must be given freely at every 
 removal, and until established, if the 
 weather is at all dry. 
 
 They require no other cultivation 
 than to be kept free from weeds ; and 
 the stalks of those that are not required 
 to produce seed to be cut down as 
 often as they run up in summer. If this 
 is strictly attended to, the roots will 
 last for many years ; but those which 
 are allowed to ripen their seed seldom 
 endure for more than five or six. 
 
 FENNEL-FLOWER. Nigella. 
 
 FENUGREK. Trigonella. 
 
 FERNELIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Turfy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 FERNS from the tropics present to 
 us some of the most beautiful forms to 
 be found in the vegetable world, and 
 now very generally are a portion of 
 collections of exotic plants. Mr. J 
 Henderson, the florist, gives the follow- 
 ing directions for their cultivation : — 
 " Procure a number of small octagon- 
 shaped hand-glasses about six inches in 
 diameter, (more or less,) according to 
 the size of the pots intended to sow the 
 seeds in, the side walls of each being 
 high enough to admit the pot to stand 
 underneath without touching the glass. 
 
 "Pots. — These are to be about half 
 filled with well broken potsherds, the 
 finest at top ; then fill to within half an 
 inch of the rim with heath-mould, sifted 
 
FER 
 
 223 
 
 — • — 
 
 FER 
 
 through a fine sieve. Level the surface 
 of the mould, and water it freely with a 
 very fine rose ; let the pot stand a few 
 minutes till the water is absorbed, and 
 then carry it to a dry part of the house. 
 
 " Sowing. — Place the papers con- 
 taining the fern seed for a minute or 
 two on the flue, or some other place 
 where they will become thoroughly 
 dry : then open the paper and carefully 
 dust the spores (seed) over the surface 
 of the moist earth, taking care not to 
 sow too thick. The pots may then be 
 placed in a shady place on a level sur- 
 face of wood or stone, to prevent the 
 intrusion of worms, and covered with 
 the hand-glass. The germination of 
 ferns differs in different species ; some 
 require six weeks and more ; and if 
 during that time the surface of the earth 
 in the pots should appear dry, a very 
 slight watering must be given with the 
 fine rose. 
 
 "After-culture. — It will be necessary 
 to examine the surface of the earth fre- 
 quently with a pocket microscope, in 
 order to discover any mouldiness or 
 minute algae that may appear ; such ap- 
 pearances indicate that too much water 
 has been used ; and in that case the 
 glasses should be taken off for a short 
 time, and the pots removed to the full 
 light. 
 
 " If after this the mouldiness continue 
 to spread, a knife may be introduced 
 between the pot and the earth, and the 
 latter slightly raised up so as to allow 
 the moisture to drain off. 
 
 " As the seedlings acquire strength, 
 they may be removed from the shade 
 to places where they will have more 
 light ; but they must not be exposed to 
 the full sun in summer as long as they 
 are under the hand-glass. In winter, 
 however, when the sun is less power- 
 ful, all those seedlings that have per- 
 fected, or nearly perfected their first 
 fronds, may be exposed to the full 
 light; this will prevent the spreading of 
 mouldiness, which the moist atmo- 
 sphere under the glasses is so apt to 
 produce at this season of the year. 
 
 " When it happens that from too 
 thick sowing the seedlings are much 
 crowded, they should be thinned out 
 carefully with the point of a pen-knife, 
 taking patches of from six to a dozen 
 plants and transferring them to another 
 pot, prepared in all respects as if for 
 sowing spores. In planting these, a 
 
 slight depression should be made with 
 the point of the pen-knife on the sur- 
 face of the mould in the new pot, and 
 the patch inserted, taking care not to 
 cover any part of the plants with the 
 earth. They may stand about a quarter 
 of an inch from patch to patch ; and 
 when the operation is completed, water 
 the seedlings and place the pot under 
 the glass. 
 
 " These transplanted seedlings will 
 frequently succeed better than those in 
 the seed-pots ; indeed with very slow 
 growing seedlings it is frequently ad- 
 visable to transfer the whole to another 
 pot, as they will generally root better 
 in the fresh than in the old earth. 
 
 " When the seedlings have fully de- 
 veloped their perfect fronds, (and not 
 till then,) the glasses may be withdrawn. 
 The pot with the seedlings should then 
 be placed in a perfectly shaded place, 
 and more frequently supplied with 
 water. 
 
 " They may remain in the seed-pots 
 until three or four fronds are produced, 
 when it will be advisable to shift them 
 into other pots and place them at wider 
 distances. 
 
 " Many ferns grow very slowly while 
 in the state of primary frond, and re- 
 quire many months before their perfect 
 fronds are developed. 
 
 " It is chiefly for these slow growers 
 that glasses are required ; others, such 
 as most of the Gymnogrammas, some 
 species of Nephrodium, Pteris, &c, 
 come up readily in open pots, but with 
 those which require from nine to eight- 
 een months to produce their second 
 fronds, glasses are indispensable. 
 
 " Great care must be taken not to 
 allow worms to get into the pots, as they 
 will in a very short time destroy the 
 whole crop. The only way to get rid 
 of these pests, is to place the pot with 
 the glass over it, on a tolerably hot 
 flue, or some other well-heated surface, 
 when the heat ascending through the 
 earth in the pot will drive the worm 
 out. 
 
 " It may not be amiss to observe 
 here, that in collecting spores for repro- 
 duction, it is better to select a frond on 
 which the thecae (seed vessels) have not 
 opened ; if they have changed to a 
 brown colour, and one or two have 
 opened, they will* be in the best possi- 
 ble state for transmission to a distance; 
 portions of the frond should then be in- 
 
FER 
 
 224 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 FIG 
 
 closed in the papers, which should be 
 well secured and kept perfectly dry." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 FERRARIA. Eight species. Green- 
 house and hardy bulbs. Offsets and 
 seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 FICARIA. Three species. Hardy 
 tubers, tubers, shaded. Common soil. 
 
 FICUS. Fig Tree. Seventy-seven 
 species. Chiefly green-house and stove 
 evergreen trees and shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Light rich loam. 
 
 F I E L D I A australis. Green-house 
 evergreen creeper. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 FIG MARIGOLD. Mesembryanthe- 
 mum. 
 
 FIG. Ficus carica. 
 
 Varieties for open walls, and time of 
 ripening. — Brown Ischia, Large White 
 Genoa, and Green Ischia, (August.) 
 Brown Naples, Brunswick, White Mar- 
 seilles, (September.) Black Provence, 
 Yellow Ischia, and Genoa, (October.) 
 
 Propagation may be effected by 
 seeds, and cross impregnation to get 
 varieties ; the seedlings will be pro- 
 ductive when six years old ; by layers, 
 suckers, slips, and grafting, but by 
 cuttings is the mode usually practised. 
 These must be of young wood, about 
 eight inches long, with two inches of 
 old wood attached. Plant in October, 
 in a sandy loam and warm situation, 
 the surface covered with ashes, to ex- 
 clude the frost and drought. " The 
 tops of the cuttings will require the 
 additional protection of haulm or litter 
 during winter; give water and keep 
 clear of weeds during summer, and by 
 the following autumn the plants will be 
 fit to be transplanted into nursery rows, 
 where they must again be mulched at 
 root, and protected at top. They re- 
 quire no pruning farther than to rear 
 them with a single stem, and keep their 
 heads of a regular shape ; the second or 
 third year they may be removed to 
 where they are finally to remain. Cut- 
 tings of roots readily make plants, but 
 the process is too slow for general use, 
 and the plants so produced are not 
 likely to come so soon into bearing as 
 by the layers or cuttings." — Loudon's 
 Enc. Gard. 
 
 Cuttings of the shoots may be of 
 well-ripened wood, which Mr. Mark- 
 ham, of Hewell Gardens, says may be 
 also " taken off in spring and potted 
 singly in small pots ; plunging them in 
 
 a warm cucumber-frame, and re-potting 
 them two or three times, they will 
 attain a large size in one summer. 
 With these cuttings, as with the trees 
 at all ages, bottom heat and water is 
 every thing." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Soil. — Mr. Markham says, " The 
 best soil for this fruit is sandy maiden 
 loam and turf mixed together, without 
 manure of any kind, over-luxuriance 
 being a great evil in their culture. I 
 would advise all who are about to plant 
 a fig wall, to form the borders about 
 three feet deep, having a good drainage 
 of any rough material. At the front of 
 this, a wall four inches and a half thick, 
 running parallel with the other should 
 be brought up to within two inches of 
 the surface, the intervening space being 
 walled across so that each tree may 
 have its own division. This prevents 
 over-luxuriance, and causes them to 
 fruit more freely. Any old trees that 
 are growing strong and that do not bear 
 well, might have their roots pruned 
 back in autumn and walled in as above 
 described. By doing this early it would 
 afford the tree time to provide itself 
 with new feeders, and by opening a 
 trench in the front of the wall, about 
 the end of March or beginning of April, 
 and applying a pretty brisk lining of 
 leaves and long litter for a few weeks, 
 it would greatly assist the crop for 
 that season, and establish the trees 
 for the following. Water occasionally 
 with soft water ; and, after the fruit has 
 attained three-fourths of its size, two or 
 three good waterings of liquid manure 
 will assist materially in bringing the 
 fruit to a large size." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Good drainage is also very important; 
 an excess of root-moisture making the 
 plants over-luxuriant. 
 
 Standards must have a single stem, 
 and require no other pruning than to 
 remove irregular growths, suckers, and 
 decayed branches. The soil should be 
 forked over annually, and kept con- 
 stantly freed from weeds by the hoe. 
 
 Wall-trees and Espaliers. — Mr. Mark- 
 ham says that of these, « The requisite 
 pruning is merely to thin the branches 
 where they are too thick, and to admit 
 plenty of light and air. The points of 
 any branches that indicate too luxuriant 
 a growth are pinched out. The tree 
 will show how young bearing wood is 
 procured, when the branches get too 
 long, or begin to have a naked appear- 
 
FIG 
 
 225 
 
 FIG 
 
 ance. For covering the fig in winter, 
 a double thickness of old mats is advis- 
 able, with a little mulching ; a wide 
 coping on the wall is very essential, 
 and a canvas covering drawn over them 
 at night in the early part of their growth 
 is of great benefit to them." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 The Mode of Bearing is very pecu- 
 liar, and influences the pruning, or 
 rather non-pruning, which is to be pre- 
 ferred. The fig, observes Mr. Loudon, 
 " bears, and in warmer climates brings 
 to maturity in every year, two succes- 
 sive and distinct crops of fruit, each 
 crop being produced on a distinct set 
 of shoots. The shoots formed by the 
 first or spring sap put forth figs at every 
 eye as soon as the sap begins to flow 
 again in July and August. These figs 
 (which form the second crop of the 
 year) ripen, in their native climate, 
 during the course of the autumn ; but 
 rarely if ever come to perfection in 
 England ; where, though they cover 
 the branches in great abundance at the 
 end of that season, they perish and fall 
 off with the first severe frosts of winter. 
 The shoots formed by the second flow 
 of sap, commonly called midsifmmer 
 shoots, put forth figs in like manner at 
 every eye, but not until the first flow of 
 sap in the following spring. These last 
 mentioned figs, which form the first 
 crop of each year, ripen in warmer 
 climates during the months of June and 
 July, but not in this country before 
 September or October." — Enc. Gard. 
 
 Fig-House. — If a hot-house be de- 
 voted to this fruit, as it well deserves, 
 good proportions, according to Mr. 
 Markham, are " thirty-three feet long, 
 fourteen feet wide, and eleven feet 
 high at the back, trellised with wire 
 two inches from the wall. The trees 
 on this wall to be fan-trained ; the roots 
 walled in as recommended for the open 
 wall, excepting that the spaces are to 
 be narrower, being two feet wide and 
 two and a half deep ; the path leading 
 through the house to rest on this parti- 
 tion wall. Between this path and the 
 front, may be a border for small stand- 
 ards and circular-trained trees, ranging 
 from three to five feet high, all walled 
 in with rough stones, for the same pur- 
 pose as already stated. The sorts may 
 be the Nerii ; Brown Ischia ; large 
 White Genoa ; and Kennedy's Fig, but 
 the greater part the Nerii. Prune in 
 15 
 
 the latter part of February ; but this is 
 a very trifling operation where they 
 have been properly attended to in sum- 
 mer, being only to cut out here and 
 there a superfluous shoot, or to shorten 
 one back to any naked or unfurnished 
 part, in order to procure a supply of 
 young shoots. Then have the whole 
 forked over between the trees, giving 
 them a good watering. Small fires are 
 then to be lighted, keeping the tem- 
 perature at 50°, and syringing morning 
 and evening with tepid water. Air is 
 to be given plentifully in fine weather, 
 and when the fruit begins to grow, the 
 temperature raised to 55°, then to 60°, 
 and so on progressively about the same 
 as for vines. For the first six or seven 
 weeks water only in such quantities to 
 keep the soil moderately moist, but 
 afterwards more freely. 
 
 " When the fruit is about half grown, 
 commence watering freely every morn- 
 ing, and generally about twice a week, 
 with liquid manure. As soon as the 
 young shoots have attained the length 
 of four or five inches, their points are 
 to be pinched out ; this shoot is the 
 ' second crop wood' for the latter part 
 of summer or autumn, according as the 
 forcing was commenced early or late. 
 During the growth of the second crop 
 of fruit, the tree produces a second 
 shoot from three to six inches long, 
 which, when properly ripened, contains 
 the crop in the embryo state through 
 the winter for the following spring. A 
 short time before the first crop of fruit 
 is ripe, the watering overhead is dis- 
 continued and abundance of air given. 
 As soon as practicable, the watering 
 overhead is to be resumed in every part 
 of the house where the fruit is not ap- 
 proaching maturity. The succession of 
 fruit generally lasts about four months. 
 
 " The winter management is merely 
 to keep the borders moderately dry, 
 and to prevent frost from entering." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Forcing in Pots. — " For this pur- 
 pose," says Mr. Markham," the plants 
 should be examined as early in the au- 
 tumn or winter as possible, and those 
 plants that have got their roots much 
 matted together should have them re- 
 duced, and potted in sweet maiden 
 loam, ready for the spring-forcing in 
 January or February, as they may be 
 wanted. The pots should be plunged 
 in a half-spent tan or leaf bed, either in 
 
FIL 
 
 226 
 
 FIL 
 
 a pit or forcing-house. If neither of 
 these can be had, prepare a small bed 
 of leaves and manure, and place a deep 
 frame over it, plunging the plants to 
 such a depth as to enable the roots to 
 have 8° or 10° more heat than the tops. 
 By doing this the roots are put in action 
 first, which causes the embryo fruit to 
 come forth in such a strong healthy 
 manner as will ensure a good crop. 
 After the fruit is fairly shown, the plants 
 may then be removed to any forcing- 
 house where they can have plenty of 
 light and air. If they can be plunged 
 in gentle heat, so much the better. It 
 should always be borne in mind that 
 the fig, in its growing state, is almost 
 an aquatic, therefore little danger is to 
 be apprehended from over-watering, 
 but serious mischief may arise from not 
 attending to this ; for if ever the soil 
 gets thoroughly dry when the fruit is 
 far advanced, some evil will be sure to 
 result." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 The Temperature borne by the fig ad- 
 vantageously is very high. Even when 
 ranging from 90° to 110° during the 
 day, and never lower at night than 70°, 
 though some varieties grow too lux- 
 uriantly, yet the Large White ripened 
 both its spring and autumn produce, 
 and Mr. Knight thus obtained from the 
 same plants eight crops in twelve 
 months. 
 
 FILBERT. Corylus avellana. 
 
 Varieties. — Frizzled, great bearer. 
 Red (C. tubulosa), pellicle of kernel 
 pink, flavour excellent. White, pellicle 
 white, flavour good. Cosford, great 
 bearer, good ; shell very thin. Down- 
 ton, large, square. Cob Nut. 
 
 Propagation. — This is done by plant- 
 ing the nuts, by layers, suckers from 
 the root; and by grafting and budding. 
 
 By the Nuts. — This should be done in 
 October ; but if postponed until spring, 
 preserve the nuts in sand, and in Feb- 
 ruary plant them in drills near two 
 inches deep. The plants will appear 
 in six or eight weeks, which, when a 
 year old, plant out in nursery-rows, and 
 there train them two or three years. In 
 raising these trees from the nut, the 
 sorts are not to be always depended 
 on, for, like other seedling trees, they 
 often vary, so that the most certain 
 method to continue the respective sorts 
 is by layers. 
 
 By Layers is one of the most certain 
 methods of continuing .the respective 
 
 varieties distinct; and this is a very 
 easy and expeditious method of propa- 
 gation ; for every twig layed will readily 
 grow : therefore, in autumn or winter, 
 let some of the lower branches that are 
 well furnished with young shoots be 
 pegged down in the ground ; then lay 
 all the young shoots in the earth, with 
 their tops out, every one of which will 
 root, advance in length, and be fit to 
 transplant by autumn following, when 
 they should be separated, and planted 
 in nursery rows, two feet asunder, and 
 trained as observed of the seedlings ; 
 but when any considerable quantity are 
 to be raised this way, it is eligible to 
 form stools for that purpose, by pre- 
 viously, a year before, heading-down 
 some trees near the ground, to throw 
 out a quantity of shoots near the earth, 
 convenient for laying for that use an- 
 nually. 
 
 Suckers arising from the roots of 
 trees raise by either of the above me- 
 thods, if taken up in autumn, winter, or 
 spring, with good fibres, will also grow, 
 form proper plants, and produce the 
 same sort of fruit as their parent plant ; 
 and suckers of these may also be used 
 for the same purpose. 
 
 By grafting and budding. — These 
 methods have also the same effect as 
 layers of continuing any particular va- 
 riety with certainty, and the operation 
 is to be performed in the usual way on 
 stocks of any of the varieties of this ge- 
 nus. — (Abercrombie.) 
 
 "The season for planting is autumn 
 or spring ; or any interval in mild wea- 
 ther from October till the beginning of 
 March. Allot detached standards not 
 less than ten and thence to twenty feet 
 distance, to have room to branch out in 
 full heads." — Loudon, Enc. Gard. 
 
 Soil. — "A hard loam of some depth, 
 on a dry subsoil, which dress every 
 year; as the filbert requires a consider- 
 able quantity of manure." — Loudon, 
 Enc. Gard. 
 . Pruning and Culture. — Mr. R. Scott 
 says, " The plants should be trained 
 with single stems to the height of a foot 
 or so ; then permitted to branch into a 
 symmetrical head, rather open in the 
 middle, and not of greater height than 
 a man can conveniently reach from the 
 ground, to perform the necessary opera- 
 tions of pruning and gathering. 
 
 " The proper time for pruning is in 
 the spring, when the male blossoms are 
 
F IN 
 
 227 
 
 FLO 
 
 open, as then the shaking of the trees, 
 by the act of pruning, assists in the dif- 
 
 frame. The seedlings must be small- 
 hoed, to kill the weeds, from which they 
 
 fusion of the pollen. The young shoots ! should be kept completely clear ihrough- 
 should be shortened to about half their I out their growth; but at first only thin 
 length ; and it is best to cut to a bud to three or four inches asunder, as it 
 that shows a female blossom. All j cannot thus early be determined which 
 suckers should be carefully removed. | will be the most vigorous plants. After 
 Formerly it was the practice to train ' the lapse of another month they may be 
 the branches to nearly a horizontal po- finally thinned to seven or eight inches 
 sition, which may still be seen in many j distance from each other. Moderate 
 old plantations; but experience has waterings are required throughout their 
 shown that the trees produce equally growth during dry weather; and in the 
 well, and as good nuts, by allowing meridian of hot days the beds are ad- 
 them to take a more natural form. By ! vantageously shaded, until after the 
 way of manuring, some cultivators ] plants are well up. When of advanced 
 
 growth, about ten weeks after coming 
 up, the stems must be earthed up to the 
 height of five or six inches, to blanch 
 for use, which will be effected in ten or 
 fourteen days. In the whole about 
 twelve or fourteen weeks elapse be- 
 tween the time of sowing and their be- 
 ing fit for use. In autumn, if frosty 
 mornings occur, they should have the 
 protection of some litter or other light 
 covering. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — The seed coming 
 from Italy is generally worthless, and 
 in this country it is saved with difficulty, 
 the plants of the last sowings, if left, 
 being killed by the winter; and if some 
 of the earliest are allowed to remain, 
 they never ripen until late in the year, 
 and are often killed by early severe 
 frosts. 
 
 FIR. See Pinus and Coniferce. 
 'FISH. See Animal Matters. 
 FLACOURTIA. Eight species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 FLAKE, is the term by which a car- 
 nation is distinguished that has two 
 colours only, and these extending 
 through the petals. 
 
 FLAX-STAR. Phormium Linum- 
 stellatum. 
 
 FLORISTS' FLOWERS are those 
 which, by their beauty or fragrance, 
 power to produce permanent varieties, 
 and facility of cultivation, are so largely 
 in demand as to render them especially 
 worthy of cultivation as an article of 
 commerce. 
 
 Mr. Glenny has justly enumerated the 
 necessary characteristics of a florist's 
 flower to be — 1st. The power to be 
 perpetuated and increased by slips and 
 other modes independent of its seed. 
 2dly, the power to produce new varie- 
 ties from seed, capable, like their parent, 
 
 throw off the surface soil two or three 
 feet wide round the stem of the tree, 
 and into this basin the small prunings, 
 leaves, &c, are put and dug in." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Preserving. — " The easiest and best 
 method is to gather them when quite dry, 
 and stow them away in large garden pots, 
 or other earthen vessels, sprinkling a 
 little salt amongst them throughout 
 the whole mass, which preserves the 
 husks from getting mouldy and rotten ; 
 the pots should then be turned bottom 
 upwards on boards, and buried in the 
 ground, or kept air-tight by some other 
 means. Stoneware jars, with lids, might 
 be advantageously used for this pur- 
 pose, and nuts of any kind will keep a 
 long time in this way." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Insects. See Curculio and Aphis. 
 
 FINOCHIO or AZOREAN FENNEL 
 (Anethum azoricum), does not usually 
 succeed in this country. Neither is it 
 in much esteem here, being agreeable 
 to few palates. It is served with a 
 dressing like salads. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — For the first crop 
 a rich light soil on a moderate hot-bed 
 must be selected ; for the succeeding 
 sowings a more retentive one, but for 
 the last two a return must be had to a 
 drier and a warmer situation. A small 
 bed will be required only at each 
 sowing; one twenty feet by four is suf- 
 ficient for the largest family. 
 
 Time and Mode of Sowing. — From the 
 beginning of March until the close of 
 July, at intervals of a month, for 
 after attaining its full growth, it im- 
 mediately advances for seed. The seed 
 is sown in drills two feet asunder, to 
 remain; scattered thinly, that is, about 
 two inches apart, and about half an inch 
 below the surface. The first sowings 
 must be in a slight hot-bed, and under 
 
FLO 
 
 228 
 
 FLO 
 
 of being perpetuated; and 3dly, it must 
 possess sufficient interest and variety 
 to be grown in collections. 
 
 At present the chief florists' flowers 
 are the Amaryllis, Anagallis, Anemone, 
 Auricula, Calceolaria, Carnation, Chrys- 
 anthemum, Cineraria, Crocus, Dahlia, 
 Fritillary, Fuchsia, Gladiolus, Hyacinth, 
 Hydrangea, Ixia, Iris, Lily, Lobelia, 
 Narcissus, Pansy, Poeony, Pelargonium, 
 Petunia, Phlox, Pink, Polyanthus, Ra- 
 nunculus, Tulip, Tuberose, Verbena. 
 In the United States Florists' flowers 
 are, as such, unknown. We have many 
 amateurs, but not in sufficient number 
 to create the emulation which exists in 
 Great Britain, where thousands rival 
 each other in the culture of flowers of 
 their peculiar fancy — not for profit, but 
 enjoyment and relaxation from the toil 
 of the work-shop, or the mine. 
 
 FLOWER. See Bloom. 
 
 FLOWER FENCE. Poinciana. 
 
 FLOWERING ASH. Ornus. 
 
 FLOWER OF JOVE. Lychnis flos 
 Jovis. 
 
 FLOWER GARDEN, is that portion 
 of the ground in the vicinity of the 
 residence, disposed in parterres and 
 borders, tenanted by flowers and flower- 
 ing shrubs, and among walks and lawns, 
 so that the occupiers of the house may 
 have ready access to what is so beau- 
 tiful in form, colour, and fragrance. 
 Under the title Pleasure Ground, the 
 portions of ornamented garden more 
 distant from the house are considered. 
 
 Aspect. — The flower garden should 
 encompass every side of the house upon 
 which a window opens that is frequent- 
 ed by the master or his friends, whether 
 in parlour or bed-room. The aspect of 
 the flower garden, therefore, must vary; 
 but that which is best, because most 
 favourable to flowers, is the south, 
 south-eastern, and south-western sides 
 of the residence; and it is usual to ar- 
 range it so that the kitchen garden is im- 
 mediately beyond it. Variety of aspect 
 secures a succession of flowering in the 
 same kinds. No directions can be given 
 as to the appropriate size, for, if the 
 proprietor delights in flowers, there is 
 no reason why his parterres should not 
 be large, though his villa be small. A 
 very common proportion for a small 
 cottage is, the flower garden being one- 
 fourth the size of the kitchen garden. 
 
 Soil. — Any fertile light soil is pro- 
 pitious, for this can be altered easily to 
 
 suit any flowers. The most intractable 
 are clay and gravel. The first is forever 
 sodden with wet, or baked hard; and 
 the latter is hungry, and burnt up in 
 summer. 
 
 Arrangement. — Mr. Loudon says, — 
 " Shelter is equally requisite for the 
 flower as for the kitchen garden, and 
 where naturally wanting, is to be pro- 
 duced by the same means, viz., plant- 
 ing. The plantations, except on the 
 north, or very exposed points, should 
 not be of the tallest kinds of trees. 
 A few elegant shrubs, and one or two 
 trees, may be scattered through the 
 scene, either in the dug compartments, 
 or in the turf glade, for the purpose of 
 shelter and shade as well as ornament; 
 but in general, much of either of the 
 two former qualities are highly injuri- 
 ous, both to the culture of flowers and 
 the thick closeness of turf; sometimes 
 an evergreen hedge will produce all the 
 shelter requisite, as in small gardens 
 composed of earth and gravel only ; but 
 where the scene is large and composed 
 of dug compartments, placed on lawn, 
 the whole may be surrounded by an 
 irregular border of flowers, shrubbery, 
 and trees." — Enc. Gard. 
 
 All this is excellent, and I will only 
 add these general additional rules : — 
 always plant in masses, and with due 
 attention to the harmony and contrast 
 of colours and forms. 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 FLOWER GATHERER (Fig. 45), 
 is a pair of scissors and pincers com- 
 bined ; they are of great advantage in 
 gathering roses and other flowers which 
 have thorny stems, as the flower cut by 
 the scissors, is held fast by the part that 
 acts as pincers. — Rural Reg. 
 
 FLOWER POTS are of various sizes 
 and names: — 
 
 In. diam. 
 at top. 
 
 Thumb pots 
 
 ■ X 
 
 are, inside . $ 
 Sixties (60s) > 
 
 to the cast $ 
 Forty-eights ) 
 
 (48s) X 
 
 In. Lindley 
 deep. 
 
 . 2| Thumbs. 
 
 3h ... 
 
 4| 
 
FLO 
 
 229 
 ♦ -- 
 
 FLO 
 
 Thirty-twos ] 
 (32s) 
 
 Twenty-fours 
 (24s) 
 
 Sixteens (16s) 
 
 Twelves (12s) 
 
 Eights (8s) . . 
 
 Sixes (6s) . . 
 
 Fours (4s) . . 
 
 Twos (2s) . . 
 
 9h ... 9 9 
 
 1U • • .10 .... 11 
 
 12 ... 11 12 
 
 13 ... 12 13 
 
 15 ... 13 15 
 
 18 ... 14 18 
 
 Dr. Lindley has proposed a very 
 judicious change in the nomenclature 
 of flower pots, by suggesting that they 
 should be called according to their great- 
 est diameter. At present the words 
 "Fours," " Sixes," &c, intend no more 
 than that there are so many to the cast, 
 a piece of information conveying nothing 
 worth knowing: — butby the new nomen- 
 clature, "Eighteens," will be pots of 
 eighteen inches in diameter; "Fif- 
 teens," fifteen inches, and so on; it 
 occupies the third column in the pre- 
 ceding table. 
 
 The above are about the sizes in 
 inches, for at each pottery they rather 
 differ in size, and none of the pots 
 shrink exactly alike during the burning. 
 
 At some of the country potteries, 
 also, the gradation and size are some- 
 what different. Thus, at Mr. Paul's 
 Pottery, near Fareham, Hants, the sizes 
 are the following: 
 
 In. diam. 
 at top. 
 Thimbles are, inside . 2 . . . 
 
 Thumbs 2| . . . 
 
 Seventy-twos 3 ... 
 
 Sixties 3| . . . 
 
 Forty-eights 4a... 
 
 Thirty-twos 5 ... 
 
 Twenty-fours .... 6 ... 
 
 Sixteens 7£ . . . 
 
 Twelves 8 ... 
 
 Eights 10 ... 
 
 Sixes Hi . . . 
 
 Fours 14 ... 
 
 Twos 16 ... 
 
 Thimbles are sometimes called 
 
 In. 
 
 deep. 
 2 
 3 
 
 n 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 12i 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 'small 
 
 nineties," and thumbs, "large nine- 
 ties." 
 
 The Philadelphia potters have long 
 pursued the plan proposed by Dr. Lind- 
 ley, and those at distant points who may 
 desire to order, have only to express the 
 size in inches, i. e., the diameter at top. 
 The form and material also vary. 
 Mr. Beck makes them very successful- 
 ly of slate; and the prejudice against 
 glazed pots is now exploded. 
 
 It was formerly considered important 
 to have the pots made of a material as 
 porous as possible; but a more misera- 
 ble delusion never was handed down 
 untested from one generation to an- 
 other. Stoneware and chinaware are 
 infinitely preferable, for they keep the 
 roots more uniformly moist and warm. 
 Common garden pots if not plunged, 
 should be thickly painted. Mr. W. P. 
 Ayres recommends large pots to be 
 employed, and there is no doubt that 
 this is a system much abridging the 
 gardener's labour ; but as with due care 
 small pots will produce magnificent 
 specimen plants, I cannot recommend 
 an adoption of large pots, ensuring as 
 they do such an immense sacrifice of 
 room in the hot and green-houses. Cap- 
 tain Thurtell, the most successful of 
 growers of the Pelargonium, never 
 employs pots larger than twenty-fours. 
 
 It is usual to have saucers in which 
 to place flower pots when in the house, 
 and so far as preventing stains and the 
 occurrence of dirt, they are deserving 
 adoption; but as to their being used for 
 applying water to plants, they are worse 
 than' useless. The great difficulty in 
 pot-cultivation is to keep the drainage 
 regular, and no more effective pre- 
 ventive of this could be devised than 
 keeping a pot in a saucer containing 
 water. No plan could be invented 
 more contrary to nature ; for we all 
 know that she supplies moisture to the 
 surface of the soil, and allows it to 
 descend, thus supplying the upper roots 
 first. To facilitate draining, and yet 
 to retain the tidi- 
 ness secured by the 
 saucer, Mr. Hunt has 
 had flowerpots made 
 with elevations, on 
 which the pots are 
 placed. (Fig. 46.) 
 But this is not the 
 only advantage de- 
 rivable from them. 
 They prevent the 
 entry of worms, may 
 be employed with 
 common stands, allow a current of air 
 to pass beneath them, and their form is 
 elegant. 
 
 Mr. Brown (Fig. 47) has proposed a 
 pot with hollow sides, the vacuity to 
 be filled with water through a hole in 
 the rim, or left empty,. as occasion re- 
 quires. The water, he considers, will 
 
FLO 
 
 230 
 
 FLO 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 to gather there, 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 prevent the plants suffering from want 
 of moisture ; and 
 when empty, the 
 roots will be pre- 
 served from being 
 killed by evapora- 
 tion. But surely 
 applying the water 
 to the sides will be 
 an extra induce- 
 ment for the roots 
 an effect most de- 
 sirable to avoid, and wetting the out.sides 
 of the pot is a very doubtful mode of 
 preventing the reduction of tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 Saul's Fountain 
 Flower Pot (Fig. 
 48), seems open 
 to the same objec- 
 tions, with the ad- 
 ditional disadvan- 
 tages of not being 
 easily drained, and 
 being more ex- 
 pensive and cum- 
 bersome. The water also is forced in at 
 the bottom of the pot, contrary to the 
 course of nature in applying moisture to 
 plants. " An outer basin is made on the 
 bottom of the pot, to which the water 
 enters at a, and is carried round the pot in 
 the basin, there being two or three holes 
 through the pot's bottom bbb. By these 
 means the water is drawn up from the 
 basin by the roots of the plants (!) or, 
 if it should be desirable to prevent it 
 from being drawn up, the exterior ori- 1 
 fices of the holes, which open into the | 
 basin or saucer, may be closed (!) The I 
 fountain is supplied with water by taking 
 out the stopper c, the entrance into the ; 
 basin at a, being at that moment closed ; 
 and as soon as the water runs over at c, 
 the cork or stopper is put in, and the 
 stopper at a removed." — Gard. Mas;. 
 March, 1843, 136. 
 
 Mr. Stephens' Flower Pot (Fig. 49) j 
 is intended to supply , 
 water to the plant! 
 where it is most j 
 wanted, and to pro- j 
 tect it at the same ; 
 time from slugs and 
 other creeping in- 
 sects, which will not 
 pass over the water 
 between the two 
 rims. — Ibid. 
 
 Mr. Rendle, the intelligent proprie- 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 tor of the Plymouth Fig. 50. 
 
 Nursery, proposed 
 to improve the drain- 
 age of pots, by ele- 
 vating and piercing 
 their bottoms. T his, 
 and Mr. Brown's, 
 suggested to me that 
 of which Fig. 50 is 
 a section. 
 
 It is merely two pots, one fitting 
 within another, having its bottom in- 
 dented and pierced as proposed by 
 Mr. Rendle, but not touching the outer 
 pot by half an inch all round. This 
 is a most effectual form to secure drain- 
 age, and to prevent the evaporation from 
 the sides of the inner pot, the interven- 
 ing stratum of confined air being a bad 
 conductor of heat. It has the merit 
 too of cheapness. — Johnson's Gardener's 
 Almanack. 
 
 FLOWER STAGES are made for the 
 exhibition of flowers at shows, in the 
 green-house, and elsewhere. The fol- 
 lowing are some very judicious obser- 
 vations on the subject: — "The first 
 object in the construction of stages 
 should be to have them so constructed 
 and situated as to afford facilities for 
 grouping plants ; the second should be 
 to give plants more the appearance of 
 growing in borders, than upon artificial 
 structures ; and the third to keep the 
 pot out of sight. This is requisite for 
 two reasons; first, because they are no 
 ornament, and secondly, that it is always 
 desirable to protect the plant from being 
 scorched by exposure to the sun. It ts 
 also desirable to adopt another mode of 
 construction, for the purpose of giving 
 plants that aspect which is most suited 
 to their habits; and therefore, instead of 
 placing the stages from the front to the 
 back of the house, as is generally the 
 j case, I would place them in groups of 
 stages, thus producing an effect similar 
 j to the borders in a well-arranged flower 
 garden. 
 
 " The spectators in their progress 
 
 i from group to group would be attracted 
 
 | by the separate display in each, instead 
 
 j of having their attention drawn away by 
 
 a whole blaze of beauty at once. 
 
 " The accompanying drawings (Fig. 
 i 51) represent the manner in which I 
 ! propose that such stages as have been 
 i described should be constructed and 
 { placed in anyfloricultural building. The 
 ground plan represents part of the floor 
 
FLO 
 
 231 
 
 FLO 
 
 hb 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 V/is 
 
 §* ^g^. ^ 
 
 llf 
 
 to 
 
 /o/ 
 
 djr* 
 
 of a house, nineteen feet by thirteen, on 
 which are placed twelve stages, and 
 three vases, (D D D) basins, or'any other 
 suitable ornamental article, with a gang- 
 way betwixt them three feet wide. 
 
 " The plan also shows sections of 
 three different modes of constructing 
 the stages, and the position of the pots 
 in each; all the stages stand upon stone 
 tables, resting upon brick piers, the top 
 of each table being two feet two inches 
 above the level of the floor. 
 
 " In the stage (A) there are no 
 shelves, the pots being plunged into 
 cylinders (made of the same material as 
 flower pots) standing upon the tables, 
 as shown by the dotted lines; the space 
 all round them being filled with compost 
 1 e vel with the rim of each series of pots. 
 The object of this plan is to afford op- 
 portunities of planting various creepers 
 round each of the potted plants, for 
 which there will be plenty of room 
 when they stand twelve inches apart 
 from stem to stem. The pots are sup- 
 
 posed to rest by their rims upon the 
 edge of the cylinder, and may of course 
 be removed with the greatest facility. 
 
 "In the centre stage (B), the sup- 
 porters stand directly upon the table, 
 and are connected to it, the space be- 
 tween each being made water-tight, and 
 filled up solid to within half an inch of 
 the bottom of the pot. If an inch deep 
 of water is poured in this space, the 
 pot will be immersed half an inch; a 
 small hole in the side will regulate the 
 height of the water line, and another in 
 the bottom will draw off the water 
 when it requires changing. This mode 
 of construction may be adopted for 
 such plants as need large supplies of 
 water. 
 
 " The stage (C) is supposed to have 
 shelves pierced with holes to receive 
 the pots, which rest upon their rims. 
 The stages in my little green-house are 
 so fitted up, and have been by many 
 practical men, who prefer this plan of 
 plunging the pots into the stages to the 
 
FLU 
 
 232 
 
 FOR 
 
 old one of setting them upon the shelves. 
 The fronts of the stone tables may be 
 variously ornamented, those in one 
 house having trellised panels, another 
 having rusticated courses of brick or 
 stone, while a third may be in imitation 
 of rustic basket-work, and a fourth in 
 rough courses like small rockeries, with 
 spaces between for creepers, orchida- 
 ceous, or any other plants best suited to 
 the purpose. 
 
 " The dotted lines under the stage 
 (B) will give some idea how this may be 
 done ; various other modes of ornament- 
 ing may be adopted according to the 
 particular taste of the individual. The 
 vases, &c. (D D D) may be filled with 
 climbers for the open space against the 
 sides of the house, and with creepers 
 to hang over the edges. The flower 
 pots intended to be used in such stages 
 as have been described, should be 
 gauged before the plants are put into 
 them, and all those rejected which do 
 not fit the holes; the waste ones will 
 answer for propagating, &c." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Mr. Ainger, also, makes these good 
 suggestions: — "Stages are frequently 
 formed of an equal or nearly equal 
 series of ascents, in consequence of 
 which the upper plants are by no means 
 so well seen as the lower ones. The 
 proper plan is to commence by small 
 elevations, gradually increasing as the 
 shelves recede from the eye. The 
 lowest shelf to be eighteen inches from 
 the floor, the first rise is six inches, the 
 next nine, twelve, fifteen, eighteen, 
 twenty-one, and so on. The upper 
 shelves should also be broader than the 
 lower for larger pots. The advantage 
 of this arrangement as commanding a 
 better view of the flowers is too obvious 
 to need pointing out." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 FLUES are pipes formed of brick or 
 slate, for conducting heated air through 
 stoves or other buildings where a high 
 artificial temperature is desired. It is a 
 mode of heating nearly banished by the 
 much more manageable and effectual 
 modes of heating by hot water; and 
 flues have the additional disadvantages, 
 that they require frequent sweeping, 
 and that they emit a sulphurous fume 
 that is injurious to plants and disagree- 
 able to the frequenters of the structures 
 so heated. This has been obviated by 
 using Valencia slates in the place of 
 bricks, yet flues under no circumstances 
 
 can compare with either the pipe or 
 tank system of hot water heating. When 
 flues are employed they are constructed 
 inside and near the walls of the build- 
 ing; each flue eight or nine inches- wide 
 in the clear, by two or three bricks on 
 edge deep, ranged horizontally one over 
 the other the whole length of the back 
 wall, in three or four returns communi- 
 cating with each other, continued also 
 along the end and front walls in one or 
 two ranges, to be used occasionally ; 
 furnished with a regulator to slide open 
 and shut as required, the whole pro- 
 ceeding from the first lowermost flue, 
 which communicates immediately from 
 the furnace or fire-place behind either 
 the back wall at one end, or in the back 
 part of the end walls; or if very long 
 stoves, of more than forty feet length, 
 two fire-places are requisite, one at each 
 end ; each having its set of flues ranging 
 halfway; each set of flues terminating 
 in an upright chimney at the end of the 
 back outside. — Hood on Warming, fyc. 
 
 Morris, Tasker and Morris of the 
 Pascal Works near Philadelphia, have 
 paid considerable attention to the con- 
 struction of heating apparatus, whether 
 for air or water. Those who desire 
 such structures for green-houses, con- 
 servatories, &c.,may safely rely on their 
 experience and probity. 
 
 FLY. See Black Fly. 
 
 FLY-WORT. Myanthus. 
 
 FCETIDA mauritiana. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Turfy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 FONTANESI A phillyrceoides. Half- 
 hardy deciduous shrub. Layers and 
 cuttings. Common soil. 
 
 FORCING is compelling culinary ve- 
 getables to be edible, flowers to bloom, 
 and fruits to ripen, at unnatural seasons, 
 being the very contrary of the object for 
 which our green-houses and hot-houses 
 are constructed ; viz., to secure a tem- 
 perature in which their tenants will be 
 in perfection at their natural seasons. 
 Under the heads of Hot-beds and of each 
 particular plant will be found directions 
 for forcing, and it will be sufficient here 
 to coincide with Dr. Lindley in saying, 
 that as forced flowers are always less 
 beautiful and less fragrant; and forced 
 vegetables and fruits less palatable and 
 less nutritious than those perfected at 
 their natural periods — it is desirable, at 
 the very least, to devote as much effort 
 and expense to obtain superior produce 
 
FOR 
 
 233 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 FOU 
 
 at accustomed times, as to the procuring 
 it unseasonably. Rarity is good, but 
 excellence is best. 
 
 FORE-RIGHT SHOOTS are the 
 shoots which are emitted directly in 
 front of branches trained against a wall, 
 and consequently cannot be trained in 
 without an acute binding, which is al- 
 ways in some degree injurious. 
 
 FORK. This instrument is prefera- 
 ble to the spade, even for digging over 
 open compartments, for the soil can be 
 reversed with it as easily as with the 
 spade; the labour is diminished, and 
 the pulverization of the soil is more ef- 
 fectual. (See Digging.) For stirring 
 the soil in plantations, shrubberies, and 
 fruit borders, a two-pronged fork is 
 often employed, but that with three 
 prongs is quite as unobjectionable, and 
 a multiplicity of tools is an expensive 
 folly. Dr. Yelloly's fork is certainly a 
 good working implement. Its entire 
 length, three feet three and a half inch- 
 es; handle's length, two feet two inch- 
 es; its diameter one and a half inch; 
 width of the entire prongs seven inches 
 at the top ; width at the points six inch- 
 es; prongs thirteen and a half inches 
 long, and at the top seven-eighths of an 
 inch square, tapering to a point. The 
 straps fixing the head to the handle are 
 eleven inches long, two inches wide, 
 and half an inch thick, feathering off; 
 weight of fork, eight pounds. 
 
 Leaf -fork. Mr. Toward, of Bagshot 
 Park, describes a very serviceable im- 
 plement of this kind; he says — "One 
 person with this implement will take up 
 with greater facility more leaves than 
 two persons could do with any other 
 tool. It is simply a large four-tined 
 fork, made of wood, shod with iron; 
 the tines are eighteen inches long, and 
 are morticed into a head about seven- 
 teen inches long, and one and a half 
 inch by two and a quarter inches thick. 
 The tines are one inch in width, and one 
 and a half inch in depth at the head, gra- 
 dually taperingto a point with a curve or 
 bend upwards. The wood of which they 
 are formed ought to be hard and tough*; 
 either oak or ash will do, but the Robi- 
 nia Psuedo- Acacia is preferable to ei- 
 ther. The head should be made of ash, 
 with a handle of the same, and should 
 be two feet four inches long. Its re- 
 commendations are its size and light- 
 ness, the leaves also do not hang upon 
 it as on a common fork, the large size 
 
 of the tines tearing them asunder." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 FORMICA. See Ant. 
 
 FOTHERGILLA. Four species. 
 Hardy deciduous shrubs. Layers and 
 seed. Peat. 
 
 This genus derives its name from John 
 Fothergill, an eminent physician, born 
 in Yorkshire in 1712. In 1762 he pur- 
 chased an estate at Upton, and there 
 founded an excellent botanic garden. 
 
 FOUNTAINS surprise by their novel- 
 ty, and the surprise is proportioned to 
 the height to which they throw the wa- 
 ter; but these perpendicular columns 
 of water have no pretence to beauty. 
 The Emperor fountain at Chatsworth is 
 the most surprising in the world, for it 
 tosses its waters to a height of two hun- 
 dred and sixty-seven feet, impelled by a 
 fall from a reservoir three hundred and 
 eighty-one feet above the ajutage, or 
 mouth of the pipe from which it rushes 
 into the air. 
 
 For an interesting description of this 
 fountain and the grounds at Chatsworth, 
 the seat of the Duke of Devonshire, see 
 Downing's " Horticulturist." 
 
 The following are a few of the most 
 powerful fountains in Europe : — 
 
 Feet. 
 
 The Emperor at Chatsworth, ) 
 height of jet . . . . ) 
 
 Wilhemhoshe Fountain in ) 
 Hesse Cassel . . . . ) 
 
 Fountain, St. Cloud . . . 
 
 Peterhoff, Russia .... 
 
 The old Chatsworth . . . 
 
 Versailles 
 
 Mr. Paxton has stated that, " 
 ever be the direction of the jet, the dis- 
 charge of water is always the same, 
 provided that the altitude of the reser- 
 voir be the same. This is a necessary 
 consequence of the equal pressure of 
 fluids, in all directions. Water spout- 
 ing from small ajutage has sufficient 
 velocity to carry it to the same height 
 as the" water in the reservoir; but it 
 never attains entirely this height, being 
 prevented by various concurring causes. 
 1st. Friction in the tubes. 2d. Friction 
 against the circumference of the aper- 
 ture. 3d. The resistance of the air, its 
 weight obstructing the rising column." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Mr. Loudon justly observes, that it 
 is not easy to lay down data on this 
 head ; if the bore of the ajutage be too 
 small, the rising stream will want suffi- 
 
 267 
 
 190 
 
 160 
 120 
 
 94 
 
 90 
 
 What- 
 
FOX 
 
 234 
 
 FR A 
 
 cient weight and power to divide the 
 air, and so being dashed against it, will 
 fall down in vapour or mist. If too 
 large it will not rise at all. The length 
 of pipe between the reservoir and the 
 jet will also impede its rising in a slight 
 degree, by the friction of the water on 
 the pipe. This is estimated at one foot 
 for every hundred yards from the reser- 
 voir. The proportion which this author 
 gives to the ajutages, relatively to the 
 conducting-pipes, is one-fourth ; and 
 thus for a jet of four lines, a conduct- 
 ing-pipe of an inch and a half diameter ; 
 for a jet of six or seven lines, a con- 
 ducting-pipe of two inches, and so on. 
 From these data, the height of the foun- 
 tain and the diameter of the conducting- 
 pipe being given, the height to which a 
 jet can be forced can be estimated with 
 tolerable accuracy, and the contrary. 
 But where the pipes are already laid, 
 and the power of the head, owing to 
 intervening obstructions, is not very 
 accurately known, the method by trial 
 and correction by means of a leaden 
 nozzle, the orifice of which may be 
 readily increased or diminished, will 
 lead to the exact power under all the 
 circumstances. 
 
 Ajutages. — " Some are contrived so 
 as to throw up the water in the form of 
 sheaves, fans, showers, to support balls, 
 &c. Others to throw it out horizontally, 
 or in curved lines, according to the 
 taste of the designer ; but the most 
 usual form is a simple opening to throw 
 the spout or jet upright. The grandest 
 jet of any is a perpendicular column is- 
 suing from a rocky base, on which the 
 water falling produces a double effect 
 both of sound and visual display. A 
 jet rising from a naked tube in the mid- 
 dle of a basin or canal, and the waters 
 falling on its smooth surface, is unna- 
 tural without being artificially grand." 
 — Gard. Enc. 
 
 Drooping fountains, or such as bub- 
 bling from their source trickle over the 
 edge of rocks, shells, or vases, combin- 
 ing the cascade with the fountain, are 
 capable of much greater beauty. 
 
 FOXGLOVE. Digitalis. 
 
 FRACTURES. If an immaterial 
 branch is broken, it is best to remove 
 it entirely, but it sometimes happens 
 that a stem or branch which cannot be 
 replaced, is thus injured, in which case 
 it is advisable to attempt a reduction of 
 the fracture; and if it be only partial, 
 
 and the stem or branch but small, the 
 parts will again unite by being put back 
 into their natural position, and well 
 propped up. Especially the cure may 
 be expected not to succeed if the frac- 
 ture is accompanied with contusion, or 
 if the stem or branch is large. And 
 even where it succeeds, the woody 
 fibres do not contribute to the union; 
 but the granular and herbaceous sub- 
 stance only which exudes from be- 
 tween the wood and liber, insinuating 
 itself into all interstices, and finally 
 becoming indurated in the wood. — 
 Keith, 
 
 Splints extending at least a foot above 
 and below the fracture, should be bound 
 very firmly all round, and a plaster of 
 grafting-clay to exclude wet be placed 
 over all ; and every precaution adopted 
 to prevent the surfaces of the wound 
 being moved by the force of the wind. 
 
 F R A G A R I A. Fourteen species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Seeds and runners. 
 Common soil. See Strawberry. 
 
 FRAMES are structures jemployed 
 either in forcing, or in protecting plants, 
 and are of various sizes. 
 
 According to the good practical rules 
 of Abercrombie : — " The one-light 
 frame maybe about four feet and a half 
 in width from back to front, and three 
 feet six inches the other way; fifteen 
 or eighteen inches high in the back, 
 and nine in front, with a glass sash or 
 light made to fit the top completely, to 
 slide up and down, and move away oc- 
 casionally. 
 
 " The two-light frame may be seven 
 feet long, four and a half wide, and 
 fifteen or eighteen inches high in the 
 back, with bars reaching from it at top 
 to the front, serving both to strengthen 
 the frame and help to support the lights ; 
 the two lights to be each three feet six 
 inches wide, made to fit the top of the 
 frame exactly. 
 
 "The three-light frames should be 
 ten feet six inches long, four and a half 
 wide, and from eighteen inches to two 
 feet high in the back, and from nine to 
 twelve or fifteen inches in front — ob- 
 serving that those designed principally 
 for the culture of melons, may be rather 
 deeper than for cucumbers, because 
 they generally require a greater depth 
 of mould or earth on the beds; though 
 frames, eighteen or twenty inches in 
 the back, and from nine to twelve in 
 front, are often made to serve occasion- 
 
FR A 
 
 235 
 — ♦— 
 
 F R A 
 
 ally, both for cucumbers and melons; 
 each frame to have two cross bars, 
 ranging from the top of the back to 
 that of the front, at three feet six inches 
 distance, to strengthen the frame, and 
 support the lights ; and the three lights 
 to be each three feet six inches wide; 
 the whole together being made to lit 
 the top of the frame exactly, every way 
 in length and width. 
 
 " Sometimes the above sort of frames 
 are made of larger dimensions than be- 
 fore specified ; but in respect to this it 
 should be observed that if larger they 
 are very inconvenient to move to differ- 
 ent parts where they may be occasion- 
 ally wanted, and require more heat to 
 warm the internal air; and in respect 
 to depth particularly, that if they are 
 but just deep enough to contain a due 
 depth of mould, and for the plants to 
 have moderate room to grow, they will 
 be better than if deeper, as the plants 
 will be then always near the glasses — 
 which is an essential consideration in 
 early work — and the internal air will 
 be more effectually supported in a due 
 temperature of warmth. For the deeper 
 tin; frame, the heat of the internal air 
 will be less in proportion, and the plants 
 being far from the glasses will be some 
 disadvantage in their early growth. Be- 
 sides, a too deep frame, both in early 
 and late work, is apt to draw the plants 
 up weak ; for they always naturally 
 aspire towards the glasses, and the 
 more space there is, the more they 
 will run up ; for which reason the Lon- 
 don kitchen-gardeners have many of 
 their frames not more than fourteen or 
 niches high behind and seven in 
 front, especially those which are in- 
 tended to winter the more tender young 
 plants, such as cauliflower and lettuce, 
 and for raising early small salad, herbs, 
 radishes, &c. 
 
 " The wood work of the back, ends, 
 and front should be of inch or inch 
 and a quarter deal, as before observed, 
 which should be all neatly planed even 
 and smooth Qn both sides ; and the 
 joints, in framing them together, should 
 be so close that no wet nor air can en- 
 ter. The cross-bars or bearers at top, 
 for the support of the glasses, should 
 be about three inches broad and one 
 thick, and neatly dove-tailed in at back 
 and front even with both edges, that 
 the lights may shut down close, each 
 having a groove or channel along the 
 
 I middle to conduct off all wet falling 
 
 I between the lights. At the end of each 
 
 frame, at top, should be a thin slip of 
 
 1 board, four inches broad, up to the out- 
 
 ! side of the lights, being necessary to 
 
 guard against cutting winds rushing in 
 
 at that part immediately upon the plants, 
 
 when the lights are occasionally tilted 
 
 behind for the necessary admission of 
 
 fresh air, &c. 
 
 "With respect to the lights, the 
 wood-work of the frame should be inch 
 and a half thick and two and a half 
 broad ; and the bars, for the immediate 
 support of the glass-work, should be 
 about an inch broad, and not more than 
 inch and a half thick : for if too broad 
 and thick, they would intercept the 
 rays of the sun, so should be only just 
 sufficient to support the lights and be 
 ranged from the back part to the front, 
 eight, or nine inches asunder. 
 
 " All the wood-work, both of the 
 frames and lights, should be painted to 
 preserve them from decay. A lead 
 colour will be the most eligible; and 
 if done three times over, outside and 
 in, will preserve the wood exceedingly 
 from the injuries of weather, and from 
 the moisture of the earth and dung." 
 
 Mr. Knight has suggested an import- 
 ant improvement in the form of frames. 
 He observes, that the general practice 
 is to make the surface of the bed per- 
 fectly horizontal, and to give an incli- 
 nation to the glass. That side of the 
 frame which is to stand towards the 
 north is made nearly as deep again as 
 its opposite ; so that if the mould is 
 placed of an equal depth (as it ought 
 to be) over the whole bed, the plants 
 are too far from the glass at one end of 
 the frame and too near at the other. 
 To remove this inconvenience, he 
 points out the mode of forming the bed 
 on an inclined plane ; and the frame 
 formed with sides of equal depth, and 
 so put together as to continue per- 
 pendicular when on the bed, as repre- 
 sented in the accompanying sketch, 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 There are several minor points in the 
 construction of frames that deserve at- 
 tention. The strips of lead or wood 
 that sustain the panes of glass should 
 run across the frame, and not length- 
 wise ; they then neither obstruct so 
 much the entrance of light nor the pass- 
 ing off of rain. The inside of the frame 
 should be painted white, since plants 
 
236 
 
 — • — 
 
 FRA 
 
 generally suffer in them for want of 
 light : if the accumulation of heat was 
 required, the colour should be black. 
 
 Raising the Frames. — It is a well- 
 known difficulty that the gardener has, 
 in raising the frames so as to keep the 
 foliage of the plants within them at a 
 determined and constant distance from 
 the glass. To remedy this, Mr. Nairn, 
 gardener to J. Creswell, Esq., of Bat- 
 tersea Priory, has introduced the inge- 
 nious contrivance represented in the ac- 
 companying sketch and references : — 
 A, a movable frame ; b b, inside lining 
 of the pit ; c c, outer wall. Between 
 these the sides of the frame pass, and 
 are lowered or elevated by racks and 
 spindles, d d. Fig. 53. 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 A more simple plan might perhaps 
 be adopted, by having frames of the 
 same length and breadth as the origi- 
 nal, but only from an inch to three 
 inches, or upwards, deep. These, as 
 necessary, might be put on the top, and 
 would be kept close by the pressure of 
 the lights; bolts and nuts might also 
 be easily applied, and the interstices 
 rendered still more impervious to air 
 by being faced with list. 
 
 The frame may often be made a 
 
 substitute for the green-house ; and on 
 this subject we have the following 
 statement of Mr. Crambe, of Redbraes, 
 near Edinburgh : — 
 
 " Being deficient in accommodation 
 for heaths and pelargoniums, Mr. 
 Crambe procured two melon-frames, 
 the dimensions of which were twenty 
 feet long by eight wide ; he then built 
 walls of a few courses of bricks, in- 
 closing an area of the exact size of the 
 frames upon which they were placed. 
 The floor was elevated six inches above 
 the ground, level and paved with 
 bricks laid in finely-sifted coal-ashes, 
 having the crevices between them filled 
 with sand, which makes a better joint- 
 ing than lime, the close joints of which 
 leave no escape for the surplus water, — 
 placing the building in a longitudinal 
 direction from east to west. As a fire- 
 flue would have occupied more space 
 than could be spared, Mr. Rogers' 
 conical boiler was adopted. The 
 boiler is placed on the outside and is 
 inclosed in a case of double sheet-iron, 
 with a movable cover, and funnel of the 
 same material, for the conveyance of 
 smoke into a brick-chimney, the space 
 between the case and boiler being filled 
 with sand as an excellent non-conduc- 
 tor. At right angles to the end of the 
 pit is a brick-wall about three feet 
 high, inclosing the boiler on two sides, 
 leaving an open space in front for the 
 admission of air and the clearing away 
 of ashes. A movable wooden cover, of 
 a triangular form, is placed above, to 
 protect the whole from the effects of 
 the weather. 
 
 " The size of the boiler is eighteen 
 inches high by twelve in diameter at 
 the base, and is placed upon a cast- 
 iron grating, having a furnace-door be- 
 neath for the regulation of air. The 
 pipes, two inches and a half wide, are 
 conducted along the front and secured 
 to the wall with iron hooks, it being 
 unnecessary to convey them round the 
 back, as the apparatus is found suffi- 
 cient to heat a space of double the size. 
 
 " For fuel he has uniformly found 
 coke to maintain a constant and regu- 
 lar heat: indeed this sort of boiler is 
 not suited for the consumption of coal, 
 although, by a little alteration of the 
 present form, it might be made to con- 
 sume it as freely as coke. When the 
 external temperature was as low as 
 20°, the internal heat of the pit did not 
 
FR A 
 
 237 
 
 FRI 
 
 vary above 3° in fourteen hours, dur- 
 ing which time it required no atten- 
 tion, and the cost of the fuel did not 
 exceed twopence in twenty-four hours. 
 When slight storms occurred, a cover- 
 ing of Russia-mats was substituted in 
 lieu of fire-heat, which is always, to 
 a certain degree, injurious to green- 
 house plants, but more particularly so 
 to heaths, a class of plants which, when 
 cultivated in properly constructed pits, 
 have a decidedly more healthy appear- 
 ance than those grown in green- 
 houses." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Shelter for the Glass. — In proportion 
 to the number of lights, matting for 
 shading and sheltering must be at hand. 
 The usual mode of covering at night is 
 by laying on mats, and over these litter, 
 in thickness according to the severity 
 of the season. Some gardeners lay 
 hay immediately in contact with the 
 glass, and over this the mats. Every 
 person conversant with these modes of 
 shelter is aware of their inconvenience. 
 In rainy weather they soon become 
 wet, and rapidly chill the beds ; added 
 to which, the trouble caused in placing 
 and removing them, and the danger to 
 the glass from the stones laid on as a 
 resistance to the wind, are by no means 
 inconsiderable. 
 
 Mr. Seton, to obviate these incon- 
 veniences, employs a particular cover- 
 ing, which he constructs of four laths, 
 two of such a length as to exceed a 
 little that of the frame, and the others 
 in a similar manner that of its breadth. 
 These are bound together at right 
 angles, so as to form a parallelogram 
 of the form and size of the frame ; and 
 pieces are bound across this at a foot 
 apart from each other. Over this a 
 mat is spread, and over the mat a layer 
 of straw is fastened, laid on level like 
 thatch, from three to six inches thick, 
 as may appear necessary. If the 
 breadth of the frame is, or exceeds, 
 four feet, it is best to have the covering 
 in two parts, otherwise it becomes 
 weak and unwieldy. These panels, 
 as they may be called, Mr. Seton also 
 employs in preserving tender plants 
 through the winter. A pit of frames, 
 earthed up all round, and covered with 
 one of them, or two or three if needful, 
 is completely impervious to frost. 
 
 Substitutes for glass. — Oiled paper 
 was formerly employed ; but this has 
 been superseded by linen dressed with 
 
 Whitney's or Tanner's compositions; 
 or the gardener may employ the follow- 
 ing preparation :— • 
 
 "Old pale linseed oil, three pints; 
 sugar of lead (acetate of lead), one 
 ounce ; white resin, four ounces. Grind 
 the acetate with a little of the oil, then 
 add the rest and the resin. Incorpo- 
 rate thoroughly in a large iron pot over 
 a gentle fire ; and, with a large brush, 
 apply hot to a fine calico stretched 
 loosely previously, by means of tacks, 
 upon the frame. On the following day 
 it is fit for use, and may be either done 
 over a second time, or tacked on tightly 
 to remain." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 The quantity made according to this 
 recipe will be sufficient for about 100 
 square feet of calico. — Johnson's Gard. 
 Almanack. 
 
 FRANCISCEA uniflora. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 FRANCOA. Three species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Seed. Common light soil. 
 
 FRANKENIA. Nine species. Chief- 
 ly hardy evergreen trailers. Cuttings. 
 Loam and sandy peat. 
 
 FRANKINCENSE. Pinus tada. 
 
 FRAXINUS. The ash-tree. Forty- 
 one species. Hardy deciduous trees. 
 Seed, or budding or grafting on the 
 common ash (F. excelsior) . 
 
 FREE-STONE peaches and necta- 
 rines, the flesh of which parts readily 
 from the stone. 
 
 FRENCH BEAN. See Kidney Bean. 
 
 FRENCH MARIGOLD. Tagetes 
 patula. 
 
 FRIESIA peduncular is. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Turfy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 FRINGE TREE. Chionanthus. 
 
 FRITILLARIA. Fritillary. Twenty- 
 three species, besides varieties. Hardy 
 bulbs. Offsets. Sandy soil. 
 
 " The season for planting or trans- 
 planting all these bulbs is when their 
 flower-stalks are decayed, in July or 
 beginning of August, though the bulbs 
 taken up at that time may be kept, if 
 necessary, by being laid in dry sand ; 
 but the fritillary (F. pyrenaica) and 
 Persian lily (F.Persica) are rather more 
 impatient, out of the earth, than the 
 crown imperial (F. imperialis) , and 
 therefore should always be put in again 
 as soon as possible. 
 
 Propagation of all the species. — The 
 general mode of propagation of all 
 these plants is by offsets, which may he 
 
FRI 
 
 238 
 
 FRU 
 
 separated every second or third year. 
 The proper time is when their flower- 
 stalks decay, taking the whole cluster j 
 of roots out of the earth and separating | 
 them into distinct roots, planting the I 
 smaller offsets by themselves, in nurse- j 
 ry-beds, to remain a year or two ; and 
 the larger roots plant where they are 
 designed to remain. 
 
 They are also propagated by seed to 
 gain new varieties. The process is| 
 tedious. The fritillary and Persian lily j 
 will be three years, and the crown im- | 
 perial sometimes six or seven, before j 
 they flower in perfection. 
 
 The seeds are to be sown in boxes 
 of light earth in August or September, j 
 covering them with earth a quarter of' 
 an inch deep. — Abercrombie. 
 
 FROST. If a plant be frozen, and j 
 though some defy the attacks of frost, 
 others are very liable to its fatal influ- | 
 ence, death is brought upon them as it j 
 is in the animal frame, by a complete j 
 breaking down of their tissue ; their i 
 vessels are ruptured, and putrefaction ! 
 supervenes with unusual rapidity. 
 
 The following contingencies render 
 a plant especially liable to be frozen. 
 
 " First. Moisture renders a plant 
 susceptible of cold. Every gardener 
 knows this. If the air of his green- 
 house be dry, the plants within may be 
 submitted to a temperature of 32° with- 
 out injury, provided the return to a 
 higher temperature be gradual. 
 
 " Secondly. Gradual decrements of 
 temperature are scarcely felt. A myr- 
 tle may be forced and subsequently 
 passed to the conservatory, to the cold- 
 pit, and even thence to an open border, 
 if in the south of England, without 
 enduring any injury from the cold of 
 winter ; but it would be killed if passed 
 at once from the hot-house to the 
 border. 
 
 " Thirdly. The more saline are the 
 juices of a plant, the less liable are 
 they to congelation by frost. Salt pre- 
 serves vegetables from injury by sudden 
 transitions in the temperature of the 
 atmosphere. That salted soil freezes 
 with more reluctance than before the 
 salt is applied, is well Ijnown, and that 
 crops of turnips, cabbages, cauliflowers, 
 &c, are similarly preserved is equally 
 well established. 
 
 " Fourthly. Absence of motion en- 
 ables plants to endure a lower degree 
 of temperature. Water may be cooled 
 
 down to below 32° without freezing, 
 but it solidifies the moment it is agi- 
 tated." — Principles of Gardening. 
 
 The seeds of some plants are bene- 
 fited by being frozen, for those of the 
 rose and the hawthorn never germinate 
 so freely as after being subjected to the 
 winter frosts. 
 
 Freezing is beneficial to soils, not 
 only by destroying vermin within its 
 bosom, but by aiding the atmosphere to 
 pervade its texture, which texture is 
 also rendered much more friable by 
 the frost. M. Schluber says that freez- 
 ing reduces the consistency of soils 
 most remarkably, and that in the case 
 of clays and other adhesive soils, the 
 diminution of their consistency amounts 
 to at least 50 per cent. In hoeing clay 
 he found it reduced from sixty-nine to 
 forty-five of the scale already stated, 
 and in the ordinary arable soil from 
 thirty-three to twenty. He satisfactorily 
 explains this phenomenon by observing 
 that the crystals of ice pervading the 
 entire substance of the frozen soil, ne- 
 cessarily separate the particles of earth, 
 rendering their points of contact fewer. 
 
 As soil in our climate is rarely frozen 
 to a depth of more than four inches, 
 and in extremely hard winters it does 
 not penetrate more than six inches in 
 light soils, and ten inches in those that 
 contain more clay, or an excess of 
 moisture, these facts, and the frequent 
 failure of our potato crops, have led Dr. 
 Lindley to the very judicious suggestion 
 of planting these crops in autumn, 
 which must be the best time if practica- 
 ble, for it is pursuing the dictate of na- 
 ture. That it is practicable, I have no 
 doubt, for no frost would injure the 
 sets, if a little coal ashes were put over 
 them in each hole, for coal ashes are 
 an excellent non-conductor of heat, and 
 consequently opposed to a low reduc- 
 tion of temperature. Even if potatoes 
 buried some inches beneath the soil ? s 
 surface are frozen, they thaw so very 
 gradually, that no injury to them oc- 
 curs, uniess the freezing has been suffi- 
 cient to burst their vessels, which 
 occurs very rarely. 
 
 FROTH-FLY. See Tettigonia. 
 
 FRUIT ROOM. "Fruit for storing 
 should be gathered before it is quite 
 mature, for the ripening process, the 
 formation of sugar, with its attendant 
 exhalation of carbonic acid and water, 
 goes on as well in the fruit room as in 
 
FRU 
 
 239 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 FRU 
 
 the open air at the season when the 
 functions of the leaves have ceased, 
 and the fruit no longer enlarges. In 
 gathering fruit, every care should be 
 adopted to avoid bruising; and, to this 
 end, in the case of apples, pears, 
 quinces, and medlars, let the gathering 
 basket be lined throughout with sack- 
 ing, and let the contents of each basket 
 be carried at once to a floor covered 
 with sand, and taken out one by one, 
 not poured out, as is too usual, into a 
 basket, and then again from this into a 
 heap, for this systematic mode of in- 
 flicting small bruises is sure to usher in 
 decay, inasmuch as that it bursts the 
 divisional membranes of the cells con- 
 taining the juice, and this being extra- 
 vasated, speedily passes from the stage 
 of spirituous fermentation to that of 
 putrefaction. To avoid this is the prin- 
 cipal object of fruit storing, whilst at 
 the same time it is necessary that the 
 fruit shall be kept firm and juicy. Now 
 it so happens, that the means required 
 to secure the one also effects the other. 
 
 " To preserve the juiciness of the 
 fruit, nothing more is required than a 
 low temperature, and the exclusion of 
 the atmospheric air. The best practical 
 mode of doing this is to pack the fruit 
 in boxes of .perfectly dried pit-sand, 
 employing boxes or bins, and taking 
 care that no two apples or pears touch. 
 The sand should be thoroughly dried 
 by fire-heat, and over the uppermost 
 layer of fruit the sand should form a 
 covering nine inches deep. 
 
 " Putrefaction requires indispensably 
 three contingencies — moisture, warmth, 
 and the presence of atmospheric air, or 
 at least of its oxygen. Now burying in 
 sand excludes all these as much as can 
 be practically effected ; and it excludes, 
 moreover, the light, which is one of the 
 prime agents in the ripening of fruit. 
 The more minutely divided into small 
 portions animal or vegetable juices may 
 be, so much longer are they preserved 
 from putridity : hence one of the rea- 
 sons why bruised fruit decays more 
 quickly than sound ; the membranes of 
 the pulp dividing it into little cells, are 
 ruptured and a larger quantity of the 
 juices are together ; but this is only 
 one reason, for bruising allows the air 
 to penetrate, and it deranges that inex- 
 plicable vital power, which whilst un- 
 injured acts so antiseptically in all 
 fruits, seed, and eggs. Bruises the most 
 
 slight, therefore, are to be avoided ; 
 and instead of putting fruit in heaps to 
 sweat, as it is ignorantly termed, but 
 in fact to heat and promote decay, fruit 
 should be placed one by one upon a 
 floor covered with dry sand, and the 
 day following, if the air be dry, be 
 wiped and stored away as before di- 
 rected. Fruit for storing should not 
 only be gathered during the middle 
 hours of a dry day, but after the oc- 
 curence of several such. 
 
 '•'Although the fruit is stored in sand, 
 it is not best for it to be kept there up 
 to the very time of using, for the pre- 
 sence of light and air is necessary for 
 the elaboration of saccharine matter. 
 A fortnight's consumption of each sort 
 should be kept upon beach, birch, or 
 elm shelves, with a ledge all round, to 
 keep on them about half an inch in 
 depth of dry sand ; on this the fruit 
 rests softly, and the vacancy caused by 
 every day's consumption should be re- 
 placed from the boxes as it occurs. If 
 deal is employed for the shelving, it .is 
 apt to impart a flavour of turpentine to 
 the fruit. The store-room should have 
 a northern aspect, be on a second floor, 
 and have at least two windows, to pro- 
 mote ventilation in dry days. A stove 
 in the room, or hot-water pipe with a 
 regulating cock, is almost essential, for 
 heat will be required occasionally in 
 very cold and in damp weather; the 
 windows should have stout inside shut- 
 ters. Sand operates as a preservative, 
 not only by excluding air and moisture, 
 but by keeping the fruit cool ; for it is 
 one of the worst conductors of heat, 
 and moreover it keeps carbonic acid in 
 contact with the fruit. All fruit in 
 ripening emits carbonic acid, and this 
 gas is one of the most powerful prevent- 
 ives of decay known. 
 
 " The temperature of the fruit room 
 should never rise above 40°, nor sink 
 below 34° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, 
 the more regular the better. Powdered 
 charcoal is even a better preservative 
 for packing fruit than sand ; and one 
 box not to be opened until April, ought 
 to be packed with this most powerful 
 antiseptic. If it were not from its soil- 
 ing nature, and the trouble consequent 
 upon its employment, I should advocate 
 its exclusive use ; I have kept apples 
 perfectly sound in it until June. 
 
 " It is not unworthy of observation, 
 that the eye or extremity farthest from 
 
FUC 
 
 240 
 
 FUC 
 
 the stalk, is the first to ripen. This is 
 most perceptible in pears, especially in 
 the chaumontelle. That end therefore 
 should be slightly imbedded in the 
 sand; and thus excluding it from the 
 light, checks its progress in ripening." 
 — Principles of Gardening. 
 
 FUCHSIA. Twenty species, besides 
 many varieties. Green-house evergreen 
 shrubs. Seed and cuttings. Light rich 
 loam and peat. 
 
 Varieties for open borders. — F. Ric- 
 cartonia; globosa; gracilis; Thomsonii; 
 Clintonia; conica ; reflexa; erecta ; and 
 virgata. 
 
 For Pot-culture. — Brockmannii ; Exo- 
 niensis ; Colossus ; Attractor ; Enchan- 
 tress; Eppsii; Stanwelliana; Splendida; 
 Defiance ; Laneii ; Toddiana ; Cham- 
 pion ; Victory; Majestica; Paragon; 
 Splendens; Fulgens; Robusta ; Youel- 
 lii ; Chandlerii ; Venus Victrix ; Money- 
 pennii ; Standishii ; Dalstonii ; Curtisii ; 
 Eclipse; Rosa Alba; and Spectabilis. 
 There are about eighty other named 
 varieties of differing degrees of merit. 
 
 Soil. — The best is formed of equal 
 parts rotted turf, sandy loam, and peat. 
 
 Propagation by seed. — Sow directly 
 it is ripe. Bruise the berries, wash 
 away their pulp, mix the seed with 
 sand, sow thinly in pans of the soil just 
 described, and place in the green-house. 
 Prick into thimbles when the seedlings 
 are large enough for handling; place 
 under a hand-glass, in a stove or hot- 
 bed, for a few days, and then remove 
 into a green-house. Shift into larger 
 pots as the roots fill those in which they 
 are growing. 
 
 By cuttings. — No plant is more easily 
 propagated by cuttings at any season of 
 the year than the Fuchsia, but the best 
 season is from the end of May to the 
 end of July. Have the cuttings about 
 three inches long; strip the leaves off 
 the lower half of their lengths, and plant 
 in pots, having the surface of the com- 
 post in them to the depth of an inch 
 covered with sand. Plant in this the 
 cuttings, so that their ends just touch the 
 compost. Moisten the sand, place the 
 pots in a green-house under the cover 
 of hand-glasses. When rooted, pot 
 singly in sixties. 
 
 By grafting. — "The early part of 
 May is suitable for grafting fuchsias, or 
 rather for inarching them, as this is de- 
 cidedly the most successful mode of 
 combining more than one variety upon 
 
 the same stock. This is very desirable 
 where room has to be husbanded. Cut 
 away to the length of one and a half 
 inch, half the thickness of the two shoots 
 to be united, bind them together ; sever 
 through the scion three-fourths of its 
 thickness, just below the junction, keep 
 in a warm moist atmosphere, and in 
 three or four days the junction will be 
 complete. jP. fulgens, F. Cormackii 
 and other strong growing varieties are 
 the best stocks." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 To make specimen Fuchsias. — "In 
 order to have specimen plants of Fuch- 
 sias," says Mr. G. Watson, " put in 
 cuttings in the beginning of August ; 
 planting them round the rims of five 
 inch pots filled with light sandy soil 
 and well drained ; then place in a cu- 
 cumber-frame till sufficiently rooted, 
 and afterwards remove to a cool and 
 airy part of the green-house, and let 
 them remain till February. In that 
 month, pot off into small sixties, and 
 when well rooted in these pots, two or 
 more healthy and well-shaped plants of 
 each variety put into larger pots accord- 
 ing to their size. While young, care 
 must be taken that the earth, in which 
 they are growing, does not become 
 soured by over watering, or the plants 
 will soon become sickly. When they 
 have filled these pots with roots, the 
 plants must be removed into larger 
 pots and carefully tied up to sticks in 
 order to keep the leading shoots up- 
 right, as several of the varieties have a 
 tendency to grow downward, and it is 
 only with constant care that these va- 
 rieties are kept vigorous. 
 
 " About the second week in June, 
 shift for the last time into pots suffi- 
 ciently large to bloom them in ; in pot- 
 ting particular attention must be paid 
 to the drainage, so that the superabund- 
 ant water may be easily passed off. 
 
 " Plants treated in this manner will 
 begin to bloom profusely at the latter 
 end of July, and continue flowering till 
 the end of September; during this pe- 
 riod the pots should be placed in pans, 
 so that the plant may be well supplied 
 with water, and yet not constantly 
 soaked in it. 
 
 " Plants thus treated, with their 
 shoots pruned to three or four buds, 
 form beautiful objects for turning out 
 into the flower garden the following 
 summer; but if very large specimens 
 are required, their pot room must be 
 
FUE 
 
 241 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 FUM 
 
 increased, and they should be grown 
 in the open air. 
 
 " Those who cultivate the Fuchsia, 
 with the desire of obtaining it in the 
 greatest perfection, should remember 
 that in its native haunts it flourishes 
 under the shade of loftier shrubs. Rea- 
 son, therefore, suggests, and experience 
 has proved, that nothing more conduces 
 to its vigour than shading it for three or 
 four hours during the hottest period of 
 the day, and syringing gently every 
 night and morning during hot weather." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Jointer Protection. — At the approach 
 of frost, that excellent horticulturist, 
 Mr. Mearns, recommends that the 
 plants should be taken out of the soil, 
 and all the laterals cut from them ; 
 upon those intended to be trained to a 
 wall, paling, or trellis, leave three, 
 four, five or six canes. They are then 
 ready to be deposited until the end of 
 April, or beginning of May, in a pit in 
 heath or any other tolerably dry soil, 
 or sand, and plaee them in a sloping 
 direction in the pit with stakes driven 
 here and there diagonally over them, 
 that they may be kept hollow, and to 
 prevent the soil from pressing too much 
 upon their brittle stems. 
 
 In covering them use no straw, or 
 matting, but allow the soil to fall 
 amongst them, and form it into a sharp 
 ridge at the top. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 The laterals removed at the time of 
 this winter-pruning, if divested of their 
 laterals, and packed in powdered char- 
 coal, or perfectly dry earth, in boxes, 
 and placed out of the reach of frost, in 
 a cool place, will retain their vitality 
 until next April, when they may be cut 
 into lengths of about a foot long, and 
 planted with a dibble ; insert them into 
 the ground, so as to leave about three 
 inches of the cuttings above the surface 
 in any place where they are wanted to 
 flower next summer. If kept tolerably 
 moist, they will be found to make good 
 flowering plants with little trouble. — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 FUEL is no small item in the annual 
 expenditure of the stove, green-house, 
 and conservatory departments, and 
 therefore deserves consideration. 
 
 The specific heat of water being 1, 
 and that of atmospheric air 0.00035, or 
 ^g'j^th, if the quantity of fuel which 
 will heat a cubic foot of water one de- 
 gree be multiplied by 0.00035, the pro- 
 16 
 
 duct will be the quantity of fuel required 
 to heat a cubic foot of air, one degree ; 
 and twenty times that quantity will heat 
 it twenty degrees ; thirty times will heat 
 it thirty degrees, and so on. Now 
 0.0075 lbs. of best coals will heat a 
 cubic foot of water one degree ; there- 
 fore 0.000002625 lbs. of best coals will 
 heat a cubic foot of air one degree. 
 
 It is essential to good and profitable 
 fuel that it should be free from moist- 
 ure ; for unless it be dry, much of the 
 heat which it generates is consumed in 
 converting that moisture into vapour: 
 hence the superior value of old dense, 
 dry wood, to that which is porous and 
 damp. A pound of dry will heat thirty- 
 five pounds of water from 32° to 212°; 
 but a pound of the same wood in a 
 moist or fresh state, will not similarly 
 heat more than twenty-five pounds. 
 The value, therefore, of different woods 
 for fuel is nearly inversely as their 
 moisture : and this may be readily as- 
 certained by finding how much a pound 
 weight of the shavings of each loses by 
 drying during two hours, at a tempera- 
 ture of 212°. 
 
 The preceding are the average of 
 results obtainable in a common well- 
 constructed furnace. By a complicated 
 form of boiler, perhaps a small saving 
 of fuel, in obtaining the same results, 
 may be effected ; but it will be found 
 generally, that the original cost of 
 apparatus, and the current additional 
 expense for repairs, will more than 
 exceed the economy of fuel. — Prin. of 
 Gard. 
 
 FULL-FLOWER. See Double-flower. 
 
 FUMx\RIA. Six species. Hardy an- 
 nual climbers. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 FUMIGATING is employed for the 
 destruction of certain insects ; the in- 
 haled vapour or smoke arising from 
 some substances being fatal to them. 
 Tobacco (see Tobacco) is the usual sub- 
 stance employed ; and it may be ignited, 
 and the smoke impelled upon the insects 
 by bellows ; or the ignited tobacco may 
 be placed under a box, or within a 
 frame together with the affected plant. 
 The vapour of turpentine is destructive 
 to the scale and other insects, employed 
 in this mode. Mr. Mills has also stated 
 the following as the best mode of fumi- 
 gating with tobacco. 
 
 " According to the size of the place 
 to be fumigated, one or more pieces of 
 cast iron, one inch thick, and three 
 
FUM 
 
 242 
 
 — • — 
 
 GAR 
 
 inches over, are made red hot; (pieces 
 of old tiles, such as are used for cover- 
 ing smoke flues, would probably answer 
 equally well ;) one of these is placed in 
 
 GALEANDRA gracilis. Stove 
 orchid. Division. Sandy peat, and 
 light loam. 
 
 GALEGA. Goat's Rue. Five spe- 
 
 a twenty-four sized pot, on which is put j cies, and some varieties. Hardy her- 
 the quantity of tobacco considered ne- I baceous perennials. Division or seeds, 
 cessary to charge the structure with j Common soil. 
 
 smoke sufficient to destroy insect life. GALEOBDOLON Lwtewm and variety. 
 To fumigate an ordinary sized eight- 1 Hardy herbaceous perennial. Division, 
 light house, I use three heaters, and Marshy soil. 
 
 three twenty-four sized pots, which I GALIPEA. Two species. Stove 
 have placed on the front flue or walk ; evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peaty 
 one pound of strong tobacco is put on soil, 
 the three heaters in equal parts, and 
 this I find sufficient to fill the house, so 
 as to destroy all the kinds of insects 
 that perish by fumigation. The system 
 has these advantages : the tobacco is so 
 quickly consumed, that the house is 
 completely filled in a very short time, 
 and but little smoke can escape before 
 the insects are destroyed; the pure heat 
 from the iron heaters prevents injury 
 from gas, and as no blowing is required 
 there is no dust: it being only neces- 
 sary to put the tobacco on the heaters, 
 and leave the house." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 FUMITORY. Fumaria. 
 
 FUNKIA. Five species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Sheltered light 
 soil. 
 
 FURCRCEA. Seven species. Stove 
 succulents. Suckers. Rich light loam. 
 
 G^ERTNERA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 GAGEA. Nineteen species. Hardy 
 bulbous perennials. Offsets. Light soil. 
 
 GAGNEBINA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings and seeds. 
 Loam and peat, with a little sand. 
 
 GAILLARDIA. Four species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 GALACTIA. Four species. Hardy 
 deciduous or stove evergreen twining 
 plants. Cuttings. Division. 
 Loam, peat and sand. 
 
 GALACT1TES. Two species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 GALANGALE. Kampfera. 
 
 GALANTHUS. Snowdrop. Two 
 species. Hardy bulbous perennials. 
 Offsets. Common soil. 
 
 GALL is a tumour, formed in conse- 
 quence of the part being punctured by 
 an insect, the tumour becoming the ni- 
 dus of the insect brood. The Oak apple 
 caused by the Cynips querci is a fami- 
 liar example ; as also are the bunches 
 of leaves not unlike a rose on the Rose 
 Willow, and the mossy tufts on the 
 twigs of the wild rose, and erroneously 
 called Bedeguar. 
 
 GALPHINIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreens ; one a shrub ; one a climber. 
 Ripened cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 GAMBOGE. Garcinia Gambogia. j 
 
 GAMMA MOTH. See Noctua. 
 
 GANGRENE. See Canker. 
 
 GARCINIA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen fruit trees. Ripened cuttings. 
 Light loamy soil with peat. They 
 require a strong moist heat. 
 
 GARDEN BALSAM. Justicia pec- 
 toralis. 
 
 GARDEN BEETLE. See Phyllo- 
 pertha. 
 
 GARDEN PEBBLE MOTH. See 
 Scopula. 
 
 GARDENING. « Herder, in his Kal- 
 ligone, calls gardening the second libe- 
 ral art, architecture the first. * A dis- 
 trict,' says he, ' of which every part 
 bears what is best for it, in which no 
 waste spot accuses the indolence of the 
 inhabitants, and which is adorned by 
 Seeds, beautiful gardens, needs no statues on 
 the road ; Pomona, Ceres, Pales, Ver- 
 tumnus, Sylvan and Flora meet us with 
 all their gifts. Art and nature are there 
 harmoniously mingled. To distinguish, 
 in nature, harmony from discord ; to 
 discern the character of every region 
 with a taste which developes and dis- 
 GALAX aphylla. Hardy herbaceous j poses to the best advantage the beauties 
 perennial. Division. Peaty soil in a j of nature — if this is not a fine art, then 
 moist situation. i none exists.' However true it may be, 
 
 GALAXIA. Five species. Green- that gardening deserves to be called a 
 house bulbous perennials. Offsets. I fine art, we can hardly agree with Her- 
 Sandy peat soil. I der, that it is the second in the order of 
 
GAR 
 
 243 
 
 GAR 
 
 time ; for though gardens must have 
 originated soon after man had advanced 
 heyond the mere nomadic life, yet the 
 practice of gardening as a fine art, that 
 is, not merely as a useful occupation, 
 must necessarily have been of a much 
 later date. The hanging gardens of 
 Semiramis are reckoned among the 
 wonders of the world ; but that which 
 astonishes is not therefore beautiful. 
 Scaffoldings, supported by pillars, co- 
 vered with earth, bearing trees, and 
 artificially watered, are, no doubt, won- 
 derful ; but we have no reason to sup- 
 pose them beautiful. The gardens of 
 the Persians (paradises) are called by 
 Xenophon delightful places, fertile and 
 beautiful ; but they seem rather to have 
 been places naturally agreeable, with 
 fruit-trees, flowers, &c, growing spon- 
 taneously, than gardens artificially laid 
 outand cultivated. Whetherthe Greeks, 
 so distinguished in the fine arts, neglect- 
 ed the art of gardening, is a question 
 not yet decided. The gardens of Al- 
 cinoiis (Odyssey, vii., 112 — 132) were 
 nothing but well laid out fruit orchards 
 and vineyards, with some flowers'. The 
 grotto of Calypso (Odyssey, v., 63 — 73) 
 is more romantic, but probably is not 
 intended to be described as a work of 
 art. The common gardens which the 
 Greeks had near their farms, were more 
 or less like the gardens of Alcinous. 
 Attention was paid to the useful and the 
 agreeable, to culinary plants, fruits, 
 flowers, shadowing trees and irrigation. 
 Shady groves, cool fountains, with some 
 statues, were the only ornaments of the 
 gardens of the philosophers at Athens. 
 The descriptions of gardens in the later 
 Greek novelists do not show any great 
 progress in the art of gardening in their 
 time ; and it would be worth while to 
 inquire, whether the same cause, which 
 prevented the cultivation of landscape 
 painting with the ancients, did not also 
 prevent the progress of the art of gar- 
 dening. The ancients stood in a differ- 
 ent relation to nature from the moderns. 
 The true art of gardening is probably 
 connected with that element of the ro- 
 mantic, which has exercised so great an 
 influence on all arts ever since the re- 
 vival of arts and letters, and, in some 
 degree, ever since the Christian era. 
 Even the grottoes of the ancients owed 
 their origin merely to the desire for the 
 coolness they afforded. Natural grot- 
 toes led to artificial ones, which were 
 
 constructed in the palaces in Rome, 
 and in which, as Pliny says, nature was 
 counterfeited. But a grotto does not 
 constitute a garden ; and that the Ro- 
 mans had no fine gardens, in our sense 
 of the word, is proved by several pas- 
 sages of their authors, and by the ac- 
 counts we have of their gardens. In 
 Pliny's description of his Tuscan villa, 
 we find, indeed, all conveniences — pro- 
 tection against the weather, an agreea- 
 ble mixture of coolness and warmth; 
 but everything beautiful relates merely 
 to buildings, not to the garden, which, 
 with its innumerable figures of box, and 
 in its whole disposition, was as tasteless 
 as possible. Ofthe gardens ofLucullus, 
 Varro says, that they were not remark- 
 able for flowers and fruits, but for the 
 paintings of the villa. A fertile soil, 
 and a fine prospect from the villas, 
 which were generally beautifully situ- 
 ated, seem to have satisfied the Romans. 
 Whatever the art of gardening had pro- 
 duced among them, was, with every 
 other trace of refinement, swept away 
 by the barbarians who devastated Italy. 
 Charlemagne directed his attention to 
 this art, but his views did not extend 
 beyond mere utility. The Troubadours 
 of the middle ages speak of symmetri- 
 cal gardens. In Italy, at the time of 
 the revival of learning, attention was 
 again turned towards pleasure gardens, 
 some of which were so famous, that 
 drawings were made of them. They 
 may have been very agreeable places, 
 but we have no reason to suppose them 
 to have exhibited much of the skill of 
 the scientific gardener. At a later 
 period, a new taste in gardening pre- 
 vailed in France. Regularity was car- 
 ried to excess; clipped hedges, alleys 
 laid out in straight lines, flower-beds 
 tortured into fantastic shapes, trees cut 
 into the form of pyramids, haystacks, 
 animals, &c, were now the order of 
 the day. The gardens corresponded 
 with the taste ofthe time, which dis- 
 played itself with the same artificial 
 stiffness in dress, architecture and poet- 
 ry. Lenotre was the inventor of this 
 style of French gardening, which, how- 
 ever, his successors carried to greater 
 excess. Nothing natural was left, and 
 yet nature was often imitated in arti- 
 ficial rocks, fountains, &c. Only one 
 thing strikes us as truly grand in gar- 
 dens of this sort — the fountains, which 
 were constructed at great expense. 
 
GAR 
 
 244 
 
 — • — 
 
 GAR 
 
 The Dutch imitated the French. The 
 English were the first who felt the ab- 
 surdity of this style. Addison attacked 
 it in his famous Essays on Gardening, 
 in the Spectator ; and Pope, in his 
 fourth Moral Epistle, lashed its petty, 
 cramped and unnatural character, and 
 displayed a better taste in the garden of 
 his little villa, at Twickenham ; crowds 
 followed him, and practice went before 
 theory. (See Horace Walpole's History 
 of Modern Taste in Gardening.) This 
 style, however, was also carried to 
 excess. All appearance of regularity 
 was rejected as hurtful to the beauty of 
 nature, and it was forgotten, that if in a 
 garden we want nothing but nature, we 
 had better leave gardening altogether. 
 This extreme prevailed, particularly 
 after the Oriental and Chinese style (see 
 Chambers' Dissertations on Oriental 
 Gardening) had become known. What 
 in nature is dispersed over thousands of 
 miles, was huddled together on a small 
 spot of a few acres square — urns, tombs; 
 Chinese, Turkish and New Zealand 
 temples; bridges, which could not be 
 passed without risk ; damp grottoes ; 
 moist walks ; noisome pools, which 
 were meant to represent lakes; houses, 
 huts, castles, convents, hermitages, 
 ruins, decaying trees, heaps of stones ; 
 — a pattern card of every thing strange, 
 from all nations under heaven, was ex- 
 hibited in such a garden. Stables took 
 the shape of palaces, kennels of Gothic 
 temples, &c. ; and this was called 
 nature ! The folly of this was soon felt, 
 and a chaster style took its place. At 
 this point we have now arrived. The 
 art of gardening, like every other art, 
 is manifold ; and one of its first princi- 
 ples, as in architecture, is to calculate 
 well the means and the objects. Im- 
 mense cathedrals and small apartments, 
 long epics and little songs, all may be 
 equally beautiful and perfect, but can 
 only be made so by a proper regard to 
 the character of each. Thustheclimate, 
 the extent of the grounds, the soil,&c, 
 must determine the character of a gar- 
 den. Aiken justly observes, that no- 
 thing deviates more from nature, than 
 the imitation of her grand works in 
 
 tastic, predominate in a garden, ac- 
 cording to the means which can be 
 commanded. This is not so easy as 
 might appear at first, and it requires as 
 much skill to discover the disposition 
 which should be made of certain 
 grounds, as to carry it into effect ; but 
 if such skill were not required, garden- 
 ing would not be an art. Another prin- 
 ciple, which gardening has in common 
 with all the fine arts, is, that it is by no 
 means its highest aim to imitate reality, 
 because reality will always be better 
 than imitation. A gardener ought to 
 study nature, to learn from her the 
 principles and elements of beauty, as 
 the painter is obliged to do ; but he 
 must not stop there. As another gene- 
 ral remark, we would observe, that the 
 true style of gardening lies between the 
 two extremes. It is by no means a re- 
 proach to a garden that it shows the 
 traces of art, any more than it is to a 
 drama. Both, indeed, should follow 
 nature ; but in respect to the fine arts, 
 there is a great difference between a 
 free following of nature and a servile 
 copy of particular realities. Tieck, in 
 his Phantasien, does not entirely reject 
 the French system ; at least, he defends 
 the architectural principle as one of 
 the principles of the art of gardening. 
 There are many works of great merit 
 on gardening, of which we only men- 
 tion Descriptions des nouveaux jardins 
 de la France, &c, by La Borde (Paris, 
 1S08 to J814), the most complete for 
 descriptions; Loudon's Encyclopaedia 
 of Gardening, 5th edit., (London, 1827;) 
 Handbuch der schonen Gartenkunst, by 
 Dietrich (Giessen, 1815); Hirschfeld's 
 Theorieder Gartenkunst (Leipsic, 1779), 
 5 vols., 4to., with many engravings, a 
 work of very great merit, and still of 
 considerable use ; Le bon Jardinier, 
 Almanachpour P Annie 1830, edited by 
 A. Poiteau (Paris), 1022 pages. (See 
 the article Horticulture.)" — Encyclo- 
 pedia Americana. 
 
 GARDENER. The day is gone when 
 the spade and the blue apron were the 
 only appropriate devices for the gar- 
 dener; he must now not only have a 
 thorough practical knowledge of his 
 
 miniature. All deception ceases at the ; art, but he must also have an intimate 
 
 first view, and the would-be magnificent 
 garden appears like a mere baby house. 
 Let the character of the agreeable, the 
 sublime, the awful, the sportive, the 
 rural, the neat, the romantic, the fan- 
 
 acquaintance with its sciences. No 
 man can have stored in his mind too 
 much knowledge, but there are always 
 some branches of information of more 
 value than others j of these to the gar- 
 
GAR 
 
 245 
 
 GEI 
 
 dener there are none so important as 
 botany and chemistry. Botany, physi- 
 ological as well as classical. Chemistry, 
 especially as applied to the examination 
 of organic nature. 
 
 GARDENIA. Twenty-seven species 
 and two varieties. Stove or green-house 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 GARDEN ROCAMBOLE. Allium 
 ophioscordon. 
 
 GARDEN SWIFT. See Hepialus. 
 
 GARDOQUIA. Five species. Stove 
 or green-house evergreen shrubs. G. 
 betonicoides is an herbaceous perennial. 
 Cuttings. Sand, loam, and peat. 
 
 GARLAND FLOWER. Pleurandra 
 Cneorum. 
 
 GARLICK. Allium sativum. Is ca- 
 pable of growing in almost any soil. 
 
 Mode and Time of Planting. — It is 
 generally propagated by parting the 
 root, but may be raised from the bulbs 
 produced on the stems. The planting 
 may be performed any time in February, 
 March, and early in April ; but the 
 middle of the second is the usual time 
 of insertion. A single clove to be 
 placed in each one of holes made six 
 inches apart, and one and a half deep, 
 in straight lines, six inches distant from 
 each other; care being taken to set the 
 root downwards : to do this it is the 
 best practice to thrust the finger and 
 thumb, holding a clove between them, 
 to the requisite depth without any pre- 
 vious hole being made. The only cul- 
 tivation is to keep them clear of weeds, 
 and in June the leaves to be tied in 
 knots to prevent their running to seed, 
 which would greatly diminish the size 
 of the bulbs. A few roots may be taken 
 up as required in June and July, but 
 the whole must not be lifted until the 
 leaves wither, which occurs at the close 
 of this last mentioned month, or in the 
 course of August. It is usual to leave 
 a part of the stalk attached, by which 
 they are tied into bundles, being pre- 
 viously well dried for keeping during 
 the winter. 
 
 GARLIC PEAR. Cratava. 
 G A R R Y A elliptica and laurifolia. 
 Hardy evergreen shrubs. Layers. 
 Loamy soil. 
 
 GARUGA primata. Stove evergreen 
 tree. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 GASTERIA. Forty-two species and 
 many varieties. Green-house evergreen 
 shrubs. Suckers or leaves. Sandy loam, 
 
 leaf mould and peat, with a little bush 
 rubbish. 
 
 GASTONIA palmata. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Sand, loam, 
 and peat. 
 
 GASTROCARPHA runcinata. Half- 
 hardy herbaceous perennial. Seeds. 
 Common soil. 
 
 GASTROCHILUS pulcherrimus. 
 Stove herbaceous perennial. Division. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 GASTROLOBIUM. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Half 
 ripened cuttings. Loam, peat, and 
 sand. 
 
 GASTRONEMA clavatum. Green- 
 house bulbous perennial. Offsets. Rich 
 mould. 
 
 GATHERER. The hand is the best 
 instrument for collecting fruit into the 
 basket, but to avoid the danger and 
 breakage of branches unavoidably inci- 
 dental to using long ladders, the fol- 
 lowing instruments have been designed. 
 Fig. 54, for apples and other single fruit, 
 Fig. 55, for grapes, the branches of which 
 it severs and retains in its grasp. 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
 GATHERING. See Fruit Room. 
 
 GAUDICHAUDIA cynanchoides. 
 Stove evergreen twiner. Ripe cuttings. 
 Light tur r y loam and peat. 
 
 GAULSHERIA. Four species. 
 Hardy or green-house evergreen shrubs. 
 G. procumbens, a creeper. Layers. 
 Peat soil. 
 
 GAURA. Eight species. Chiefly 
 hardy plants. G. fruticosa, increases 
 by cuttings. The perennials by seed: 
 they thrive in a rich soil. The annuals 
 and biennials. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 GAZANIA. Five species. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennials or ever- 
 green shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 GEISSOMERIA longiflora. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich soil 
 of loam and rotten dung. 
 
GEI 
 
 246 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 GER 
 
 GEISSORHIZA. Eleven species and 
 a few varieties. Green-house bulbous 
 perennials. Offsets. Sandy peat. 
 
 GEITONOPLESIUM. Three spe- 
 cies. Green-house herbaceous peren- 
 nials. G. cymodum, is an evergreen 
 twiner. Cuttings. Peat and loam, or 
 sandy peat. 
 
 GELA. Two species. Green-house 
 evergreens. Cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 GELASINE azurea. Green-house 
 bulbous perennial. 
 
 GEM. See Bud. 
 
 GENISTA. Forty-nine species and 
 a few varieties. Chiefly hardy ever- 
 green shrubs. A few deciduous or ever- 
 green trailers and shrubs. For the 
 green-house or half hardy kinds, cut- 
 tings, loam, peat, and sand. The 
 hardy kinds are increased by layers or 
 seeds. 
 
 GENTIAN A. Fifty-eight species 
 and some varieties. Hardy plants. 
 The herbaceous kinds for the most part 
 grow well in a rich peaty soil, and 
 may be increased by division. The 
 annuals and biennials by seeds. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 GENTIANELLA. Gentiana acaulis. 
 Is a hardy and herbaceous creeper. 
 Sow the seeds of this as soon as they 
 are ripe, (otherwise they soon lose the 
 power of vegetation,) in pans filled with 
 rather heavy peat. Sow on the surface, 
 without any covering except a slight 
 sprinkling of silver sand ; then place 
 the pans either in a cold frame facing 
 the north, and kept close, or on the 
 north side of a wall, where they are 
 completely screened from the sun, and 
 cover them with a hand-glass. 
 
 Soil. — A light loam suits it best ; ma- 
 nured annually with leaf mould. If the 
 subsoil is dry, the soil may be advan- 
 tageously more clayey. 
 
 GEOMETRA. The Amphidasis of 
 some entomologists, is a genus of moths; 
 including G.polosaria. Pale Brindled 
 Beauty Moth which appears in March ; 
 eggs deposited in bands round a twig, 
 as done by the Lacky Moth. Caterpil- 
 lars appear with the opening leaves of 
 the elm, lime, lilac, and apple tree. 
 They are at first a light green. 
 
 G. defoliaria, Lime Looper, or Mot- 
 tled Umbre Moth, feeds on the leaves 
 of the lime and apple. Moth appears 
 in November. Caterpillar reddish, with 
 a bright yellow stripe on each side. 
 Female moth has no wings, so that a 
 
 piece of cloth dipped in tar and bound 
 round a tree's stem prevents its ascent. 
 
 G. piniaria attacks the pine and fir 
 tribe. 
 
 GEONOMA. Six species. Palms. 
 Seed. Rich sandy loam, and a strong 
 heat. 
 
 GERANIUM. Fifty-one species and 
 some varieties. Chiefly hardy herba- 
 ceous perennials. The green-house 
 and frame kinds increase from cuttings 
 or seeds, and grow well in a mixture of 
 loam and peat, and vegetable soil. The 
 hardy species and the annuals increase 
 from seeds, and require only common 
 soil. See Pelargonium. 
 
 GERARDIA. Seven species. Hardy 
 annuals, biennials, and herbaceous pe- 
 rennials. Seed or cuttings. Peatv soil. 
 
 GERBERA crenata. Green-house 
 biennial. Seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 GERMINATION is the sprouting, or 
 first step in vegetation of a seed. To 
 enable it to germinate, it must have a per- 
 fectly-developed embryo, and be ripe, or 
 nearly ripe. It must not be too old. 
 
 The following list, furnished by the 
 late Mr. Loudon, shows the greatest 
 age at which some of our common gar- 
 den seeds germinate freely j and this 
 result of experience is quite concurrent 
 with our knowledge of their chemical 
 constitution : — 
 
 "One year. — Peas, beans, kidney 
 beans, carrot, parsnip, oraches, herb- 
 patience, rhubarb, elm, poplar, and 
 willow. Two years. — Radish, salsafy, 
 scorzonera, purslane, the alliums, car- 
 doon, rampion, alisander, love-apple, 
 capsicum, egg-plant. Three years. — 
 Sea-kale, artichoke, lettuce, marigold, 
 rue, rosemary. Four years. — Brassicas, 
 skirret, spinach, asparagus, endive, 
 mustard, tarragon, borage. Five and 
 six years. — Burnet, sorel, parsley, dill, 
 fennel, chervil, hyssop. Ten years. — 
 Beet, celery, pompion, cucumber, me- 
 lon." 
 
 Mr. Loudon may be safely received 
 as good authority on subjects which he 
 investigated. If the age at which the 
 vitality of certain seeds cease in Eng- 
 land as expressed herein, be correct, it 
 proves a result in that climate different 
 from our own. For instance, peas, 
 beans, carrots, &c, vegetate freely in 
 the United States when two or three 
 years old, sea-kale seldom after the 
 first year, and so of other seeds enume- 
 rated in the list. 
 
GER 
 
 247 
 
 GER 
 
 A certain degree of warmth is essen- 
 tial ; for no known plant has seed that 
 will germinate below or at the freezing 
 point of water. A temperature above 
 32o of Fahrenheit's thermometer there- 
 fore is requisite. But on the other hand, 
 the temperature must not be excessively 
 high. Even no tropical seed, probably, 
 will germinate at a temperature much 
 above 120° F., and we know from the 
 experiments of M. M. Edwards and 
 Colin, that neither wheat, oats, nor bar- 
 ley will vegetate in a temperature of 
 113°. 
 
 Every seed differing in its degree of 
 excitability, consequently, has a tem- 
 perature without which it will not ve- 
 getate, and from which cause arise the 
 consequences that different plants re- 
 quire to be sown at different seasons, 
 and that they germinate with various 
 degrees of rapidity. The gardener 
 should always bear in mind that it would 
 be a very erroneous conclusion, because 
 a seed does not germinate at the accus- 
 tomed time, that therefore its vegetating 
 powers are departed. No two seeds 
 taken from the same seed-vessel ger- 
 minate precisely at the same time ; but 
 on the contrary, one will often do so 
 promptly, while its companion seed will 
 remain dormant until another year. 
 
 M. de Candolle relates an instance 
 where fresh tobacco seedlings continued 
 to appear annually for ten years on the 
 same plot, though no seed was sown 
 after the first sowing ; and the same 
 phenomenon usually occurs for two or 
 three years, when the seed of either the 
 peony or hawthorn are sown. Why one 
 seed is more easily excited than another 
 is as yet unexplained ; but the wisdom 
 of this one of many provisions for avoid- 
 ing the accidental extinction of a spe- 
 cies in any given locality is readily dis- 
 cerned. An ungenial spring may destroy 
 the plants from those seeds which first 
 germinated ; but this could scarcely oc- 
 cur also to those of the second and third 
 year, or even to those which were only 
 a few weeks later in their vegetation. 
 
 It is not possible to enunciate a ge- 
 neral rule relative to germinating tem- 
 peratures, requiring no exceptions ; but 
 in general, for the seeds of plants, 
 natives of temperate latitudes, the best 
 germinating temperature is about 60°, 
 and for those of tropical plants about 
 80°; and the necessity for such tempe- 
 ratures depends upon the same causes 
 
 that prevent the incubation of eggs, un- 
 less they be kept for a certain period at 
 a temperature of about 100°. 
 
 As no seed will germinate unless a 
 certain degree of heat is present, so also 
 does it require that a certain quantity 
 of water is in contact with its outer 
 skin or integument ; and this is required 
 not only to soften this covering, and 
 thus permit the enlargement of the co- 
 tyledons (seed lobes) always preceding 
 germination, but also to afford that wa- 
 ter to internal components of the seed, 
 without which the chemical changes 
 necessary for the nutriment of the em- 
 bryo plant will not take place. As 
 water is essential to germination, and 
 only a certain quantity is required for 
 its healthy progress, so is it by no means 
 a matter of indifference what matters it 
 holds in solution. Until germination 
 has commenced, no liquid but water at 
 common temperatures will pass through 
 the integuments of a seed. 
 
 So soon as germination has com- 
 menced, this power to exclude foreign 
 fluids ceases ; but the organs starting 
 into activity, the radicle and the plumule 
 are so delicate, that the weakest saline 
 solutions are too acrid and offensive for 
 them. It may be noted as a warning to 
 those who employ steeps for seed, with 
 the hope of promoting the vigour of the 
 future plant, that they must keep the 
 seed in those steeps a very few hours. 
 In forty-eight hours, if the temperature 
 be 60° or more, putrefaction com- 
 mences, and germination is weakened, 
 or entirely destroyed. M. Vogel, of 
 Munich, has published an extended 
 course of experiments upon this subject, 
 and they fully confirm my opinion that 
 salts, innoxious when the plant is of 
 robust and advanced growth, are fatal 
 to it at the time of germination. 
 
 The presence of one of the constitu- 
 ent gases of the atmosphere, oxygen, is 
 also essential to germination. It is ne- 
 cessary that the oxygen should penetrate 
 to the cotyledonous parts of the seed, 
 as is evident by the changes which take 
 place during germination, and it is fur- 
 ther proved by experiment. When 
 healthy seed is moistened and exposed 
 in a suitable temperature to atmos- 
 pheric air, it absorbs the oxygen only. 
 This power of separating one gas from 
 the others appears to reside in the 
 integuments of the seed, for old seeds 
 lose the power of absorbing the oxygen,, 
 
GER 
 
 248 
 
 — • — 
 
 GER 
 
 and, consequently, of germinating ; yet 
 they will frequently germinate if soaked 
 in an aqueous solution of chlorine — a 
 gas which has the power of attracting 
 hydrogen from water, and others of its 
 compounds, and releasing the oxygen, 
 doing so in the case of seeds within 
 their integuments, as well as without- 
 side. Humboldt and Saussure have 
 also shown that the application of chlo- 
 rine to seeds accelerates its germina- 
 tion ; and Cress seed, which under or- 
 dinary circumstances requires some 
 days to complete the process, they 
 found effected it in no more than three 
 hours. The late Mr. George Sinclair, 
 author of the excellent Hortus Grami- 
 neus Woburnensis, also informed me 
 that he employed chlorine with sin- 
 gular success. He obtained it by mix- 
 ing a tablespoonful of muriatic acid with 
 a similar quantity of black oxide of man- 
 ganese, and half a pint of water. After 
 allowing the mixture to remain two or 
 three hours, the seed is to be immersed 
 in the liquid for a similar period, and 
 then sown. Another, and I consider 
 the most eligible mode of applying the 
 chlorine was also suggested to me by 
 the same distinguished horticulturist. 
 In this way he said he made tropical 
 seeds vegetate which refused to germi- 
 nate by other modes of treatment. He 
 placed the mixed ingredients mentioned 
 above in a glass retort, inserting its 
 bulb in the hot-bed, and bringing its 
 beak under the pot in which the seeds 
 were sown, connecting it with the 
 draining aperture of the pot. The chlo- 
 rine gas is gradually evolved, passing 
 through the earth of the pot to the seeds, 
 with more or less rapidity, according 
 to the heat employed. This absolute 
 necessity for the presence of oxygen is 
 a reason why seeds will not germinate 
 if buried beyond a certain distance from 
 the earth's surface; and why clayey 
 soils often fail of having a good plant, 
 an impervious coat of the clay envelop- 
 ing the seed, and preventing the air's 
 access. How oxygen operates in aid- 
 ing the seed to develope the parts of the 
 embryo plant, we cannot even guess — 
 we enly know that most seeds have 
 more carbon (pure charcoal) in their 
 composition than other parts of their 
 parent plant; that the oxygen absorbed 
 by the seeds combines with a portion of 
 that carbon, and is emitted in the form 
 of carbonic acid. These are the attend- 
 
 ant phenomena, — but we can penetrate 
 the mystery no farther. 
 
 I have never been able to discover 
 that light has injurious influence over 
 germination, and in those experiments 
 apparently proving the contrary, due 
 care was not taken to prevent the seed 
 being exposed to a greater degree of 
 dryness as well as to light. 
 
 If seed be placed on the surface of a 
 soil, and other seed just below that sur- 
 face, and care be taken to keep the for- 
 mer constantly moist, it will germinate 
 just as speedily as the buried seed, and 
 if exposed to the blue rays only of the 
 spectrum by being kept under a glass 
 of that colour, even more rapidly. 
 Therefore the object of sowing the seed 
 below the surface, is for the purposes 
 of keeping it in a state of equable and 
 salutary moisture, as well as to place 
 the radicle iu the medium necessary 
 for its growth into a root, immediately 
 it emerges from the integument of the 
 seed. These facts hold out some bea- 
 cons worthy of being attended to, as 
 guides for the operation of sowing. 
 
 They point out that every kind of 
 seed has a particular depth below the 
 surface at which it germinates most 
 vigorously, as securing to it the most 
 appropriate degree of moisture, of oxy- 
 gen gas, and of warmth. From a quar- 
 ter of an inch to two inches beneath 
 the surface, appear to be the limits for 
 the seeds of plants ; but they usually 
 vary for the same seeds in different 
 grounds and countries. It must be the 
 least in aluminous soils and dry cli- 
 mates. In general, sowing should be 
 performed in dry weather, especially 
 on heavy soils, not only because of the 
 greater saving of labour, but because 
 it prevents the seed being enveloped 
 with a coat of earth impermeable by 
 the air, " which," says Sir H. Davy, 
 "is one cause of the unproductiveness 
 of cold clayey soils." Perhaps the 
 time at which any ground may be 
 raked with the greatest facility is as 
 good and practical a criterion as any 
 to judge when it is fit for sowing. In 
 general, if clay does not predominate 
 in its constitution, a soil rakes best just 
 after it has been turned up with the 
 spade. If clay does predominate it 
 usually rakes with most facility after it 
 has been dug two or three days, and 
 then immediately after a gentle rain. 
 But it is certain that the sooner seed is 
 
GER 
 
 249 
 
 GL A 
 
 sown after the soil is dug for its recep- 
 tion, the earlier it germinates. In the 
 droughts of summer, water is often re- 
 quired to newly-sown beds. Such ap- 
 plication must not be very limited or 
 transitory ; for if the soil is only moist- 
 ened at the immediate time of sowing, 
 it induces the projection of the radicle, 
 which in very parching weather, and 
 in clayey, caking soil, I have known 
 wither away, and the crop be conse- 
 quently lost from the want of a con- 
 tinued supply of moisture. — Princ. of 
 Gardening. 
 
 GEROPOGON. Old Man's Beard. 
 Three species. Hardy annuals. G. 
 calyculatus an herbaceous perennial. 
 Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 GESNERA. Thirty species, and 
 two varieties. Stove herbaceous pe- 
 rennials, or evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Rich light soil. 
 
 GKTHYLLIS. Fivespecies. Green- 
 house bulbous perennials. Offsets or 
 seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 GETONIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 GEUM. Twenty-three species, and 
 a few varieties. Hardy herbaceous 
 perennials. Division or seeds. Rich 
 light loamy soil. 
 
 GIL I A. Eight species, and one 
 variety. Hardy annuals. Seeds. — 
 Common soil. G. aggregata; a green- 
 house biennial. 
 
 GILLENIA. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 GILLYFLOWER. See Mathiola. 
 
 GINGER. Zinziber. 
 
 GINGERBREAD TREE. Parin- 
 arium macrophyllum. 
 
 GIPSY MOTH. See bombyx. 
 
 GIRDLING is a mode of killing 
 trees adopted in clearing the forests of 
 America, by cutting, early in the 
 spring, a girdle or ring round the stem 
 of each tree, taking away not only the 
 bark but the entire alburnum down to 
 the hard wood — the ascent of the sap 
 is thus prevented. See Ringing. 
 
 GLADIOLUS. Forty species; many 
 varieties. Chiefly green-house, and a 
 few hardy bulbous perennials. 
 
 G. cardinalis. On the culture of this 
 we have the following information 
 from Mr. A. Mackenzie and Mr. Gor- 
 don : — 
 
 " Gladiolus cardinalis, and its hy- 
 
 brids, are the next in beauty to G. 
 psittacinus, but they are not so hardy 
 nor so vigorous. They require taking 
 up every season ; for if left in the 
 ground, though protected with a cover- 
 ing, they always suffer from damp, and 
 never start early enough to flower well 
 the next season. 
 
 " About the beginning of October, 
 to propagate them, take from well- 
 established plants a cluster of corms 
 about one and a half or two feet in cir- 
 cumference, and plant them one foot 
 apart, and two or three inches deep, in 
 beds two feet wide, with a little sand 
 at the bottom of the bulbs. When 
 forced, this plant forms a brilliant orna- 
 ment for the green-house in the begin- 
 ning of summer. 
 
 " In the month of October take eight 
 or twelve-sized pots, and fill them with 
 as large a mass of the strongest corms 
 as the pots will admit, and protect them 
 till they are required for forcing." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 " Gladiolus psittacinus or natalensis, 
 is one of the most ornamental of the 
 Cape gladioli, and, from its easy culti- 
 vation, deserves to have a place in all 
 flower-gardens where a brilliant dis- 
 play is required during the autumn. 
 Beds should be prepared some time 
 during the winter, or early in the 
 spring, by digging up the soil deep 
 and leaving it rough, adding, at the 
 same time, a good portion of well- 
 rotted dung and a little sand, if the soil 
 is of a stiff nature ; but if light, sand is 
 not required. 
 
 " About the middle of April mark 
 out the bed into rows, one foot apart 
 and four inches deep, putting a little 
 sand along the bottom of the rows ; 
 then place the bulbs in the rows, about 
 nine inches or one foot apart, taking 
 care to separate all the bulbs, and only 
 plant one in each place; then, having 
 a little sand (any refuse from cutting 
 pots, or bank-sand, will do), put a 
 small portion round each bulb, and fill 
 in the rows. After this the plants will 
 require no further trouble except keep- 
 ing clean and tying up, which latter is 
 easily done by driving a few sticks 
 round the outside of the bed, and run- 
 ning a couple of tiers of tar-twine round 
 it. With this treatment the gladioli 
 will begin flowering about the end ot 
 July, and will continue blooming for 
 nearly two months, particularly if they 
 
GL A 
 
 250 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 GL A 
 
 are freely supplied with water once or 
 Twice (as the season may require) just 
 before they begin to expand their first 
 flowers. Care must be taken, however, 
 not to water them overhead. 
 
 " The bulbs to be taken up about 
 the end of October, or as soon as the 
 stems and leaves become brown or 
 damaged by the frost. They must be 
 well dried, and placed in some situa- 
 tion secure from frost or damp until 
 the next spring, when they must be di- 
 vided, and again treated as before. 
 The large bulbs will also produce 
 numerous offsets round their root-end ; 
 but these are of little value, for they 
 will be two or three years before they 
 flower; and as every flowering bulb 
 planted in the spring produces three 
 or four bulbs of sufficient size to bloom 
 next season, from the crown of the old 
 one, there is always enough for all 
 purposes. The plant also flowers free- 
 ly ; but the small bulbs and the seed- 
 lings will be so long before they flower, 
 that they are not worth the trouble of 
 raising, except for the sake of obtain- 
 ing new varieties." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 " Gladiolus ramosissimus is the next 
 most beautiful kind for growing either 
 in pots or in a bed. The bulbs of 
 these hardier kinds should be taken 
 up every two years, divided, and re- 
 planted, as they will not flower so 
 finely if left too long in one place. 
 
 " They require a rich soil, made 
 rather free by adding a little sand to it 
 when the bulbs are being planted. By 
 this treatment nearly all the cape gladi- 
 oli may be made to flower beautifully, 
 and far finer and better than if retained 
 in pots. They are easily increased by 
 offsets or by seeds ; but the latter way 
 is rather tedious, and only worth re- 
 sorting to for the sake of raising new 
 varieties. When this is intended, the 
 seed should be sown about the end of 
 February, in pans filled with a mixture 
 of sandy peat, and loam, and leaf- 
 mould. The seeds should be planted 
 about half an inch deep in the soil, and 
 the pans placed in a green-house. — 
 They will soon vegetate, and require 
 little trouble, for the first season, ex- 
 cept watering and keeping free from 
 slugs and weeds, taking care, how- 
 ever, that they are kept growing as 
 vigorously and as long as possible by 
 freely supplying them with water du- 
 ring the growing season. When they 
 
 have done growing for the season, care 
 must be taken not to dry the soil in the 
 pans too quickly or too much ; for the 
 young bulbs, being very small, are apt 
 to become much exausted, and fre- 
 quently perish if kept very dry the first 
 winter. They should be, if possible, 
 placed in some cool, dry situation, 
 where they are secure from frost. In 
 the spring they should be again placed 
 in a green-house or warm pit, and, 
 when fairly started, they should be 
 carefully removed into fresh pans or 
 pots, being rather a richer soil than 
 that used for the seeds, planting them 
 still rather thickly in the pots or pans, 
 and keeping them shut up close and 
 rather moist for a few days, untd they 
 begin to grow again, after which treat 
 them as before, and encourage them to 
 grow as long as possible in the autumn, 
 then rest them as before. The next 
 spring they may be potted in smaller 
 pots, and treated like the Gladiolus 
 cardinalis, when many of them will 
 flower." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 GLASS is the best agent employed 
 by the gardener to exclude the cold, 
 whilst the light is admitted to his plants 
 which are natives of hotter climates 
 than that in which he cultivates them. 
 Now that the excise-duty is removed 
 from glass, the gardener is enabled to 
 employ the best, and a thicker kind 
 than formerly, when the duty was high 
 in proportion to the good quality and 
 weight. Anxiety to obtain the best 
 glass for hot-houses, &c, is every way 
 laudable ; but the benefit sought for is 
 frustrated if it be not constantly well 
 cleansed. The best glass, if dirty, 
 allows fewer rays of light to pass 
 through than inferior glass kept bright. 
 A thorough cleansing should be given 
 both to the outside and inside twice 
 annually, during the first weeks of 
 February and of October, and a third 
 cleansing, on the outside only, at the 
 end of June. In proportion to the de- 
 ficiency of light does the plant under 
 glass become, in the gardener's phrase- 
 ology, drawn; that is, its surface of 
 leaves becomes unnaturally extended, 
 in the vain effort to have a sufficient 
 elaboration of the sap effected by means 
 of a large surface exposed to a dimi- 
 nished light, for which a less surface 
 would have been sufficient if the light 
 were more intense. The plant with 
 this enlarged surface of leaves becomes 
 
GL A 
 
 251 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 GL A 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 unfruitful, the sap being expended in 
 their production which should have 
 been appropriated to the formation of 
 fruit. 
 
 GLASS-CASES are of various kinds. 
 One is formed of glazed wooden frames, 
 fitting together, to protect espaliers, 
 wall-trees, or shrubs too large to be 
 covered with a hand-glass. 
 
 Another glass-case is made for pro- 
 tecting a single branch. It is thus de- 
 scribed by Mr. Maund, the author of 
 that most useful periodical 
 the Botanic Garden : — 
 
 " Although my experi- 
 ment is not yet com- 
 pleted, I cannot omit 
 mentioning to you its 
 success. Grapes grown 
 on open walls in the 
 midland counties are 
 rarely well - ripened ; 
 therefore this year I pro- 
 vided a small glazed 
 frame, a sort of narrow 
 hand-glass, of the shape 
 shown in the annexed 
 outline, to fix against the 
 wall, and inclose one 
 branch of the vine with 
 its fruit and foliage. 
 "The open part, which rests against 
 the wall, is thirteen inches wide, and 
 may be of any length required to take 
 in the fruit. The sides are formed of 
 single panes of glass, seven inches 
 wide, and meet on a bar which may 
 represent the ridge of a roof, the ends 
 inclosed by triangular boards, and hav- 
 ing a notch to admit the branch. This 
 was fixed on the branch a month be- 
 fore the vine came into flower. The 
 consequence was, the protected 
 branches flowered a week earlier than 
 the exposed. The frame was not 
 fitted closely to the wall, but in some 
 places may have been a quarter of an 
 inch from it. The lateral branches 
 being shortened before it was fixed, it 
 did not require removal even for prun- 
 ing, because I adopt the long-rod mode 
 of training, which is peculiarly adapted 
 to my partial protection system. The 
 temperature within the frame is always 
 higher than without, sometimes at mid- 
 day even from 20° to 30°. 
 
 " By this simple protection I find 
 grapes may be ripened from three 
 weeks to a month earlier than when 
 wholly exposed, and this saving of 
 
 time will, I believe, not only secure 
 their ripening well every year in the 
 midland counties, but also that such 
 advantage will be available in the 
 north of England, where grapes never 
 ripen on the open walls." 
 
 Lastly, there is the Wardian-case 
 to cover plants growing in rooms, 
 preserving to them uniform moisture 
 and excluding dust. To prevent the 
 dew which is occasionally deposited 
 inside the glass, it is only necessary to 
 open the case frequently, for a few 
 minutes, to render the temperature 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
GL A 
 
 252 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 GLO 
 
 within similar to that outside. They 
 are not intended to exclude the air, 
 and are now made very ornamental. 
 
 GLASTONBURY THORN. Cratae- 
 gus oxyacantha. 
 
 GLAUCIUM. Six species, one va- 
 riety. Hardy annuals and biennials. 
 Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 GLAUX rnaritima. Hardy herba- 
 ceous trailer. Seeds. Open sandy loam. 
 
 GLAZING. See Stove. 
 
 GLEDITSCHIA. Ten species, be- 
 sides varieties. Hardy deciduous trees. 
 Seeds. Any soil suits them. 
 
 GLEICHENIA. Five species. Stove 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 GLOBE-AMARANTH. Gomphrena. 
 
 GLOBE-FLOWER. Trollius. 
 
 GLOBE-THISTLE. Echinops. 
 
 GLOBULARIA. Nine species. Hardy 
 or green-house herbaceous perennials. 
 Cuttings or seed. The green-house spe- 
 cies thrive in loam and peat; the hardy 
 kinds in sandy light soil. 
 
 GLOBULEA. Sixteen species, be- 
 sides varieties. Green-house herbaceous 
 perennials. Cuttings. Sandy loam and 
 peat, with brick rubbish. 
 
 GLORIOSA. Four species. Chiefly 
 stove bulbous perennials. Division ; also 
 seeds sown as soon as gathered. Turfy 
 loam, white sand, and peat. 
 
 G. superba. — Mr. W. Scott, of Bury 
 Hill, gives these particulars as to its 
 culture : — 
 
 " It naturally requires about six 
 
 months' rest, and will seldom start for 
 growth before March, when it will re- 
 quire a good bottom heat of at least 80°, 
 either in a bark-pit or cucumber-bed. 
 The greatest error committed with re- 
 gard to its treatment is leaving the root 
 to start in the same pot, &c, it grew in 
 in the previous year. As it makes its 
 shoot from the lower end of the new 
 tuber, which is consequently at the bot- 
 tom of the pot, if it is not taken out, 
 and that end placed upwards, it has to 
 struggle through the whole mass of 
 mould to reach the surface, which it 
 often fails in doing. It should be potted 
 at the beginning of March in a forty- 
 eight pot ; or, if the tuber (which some- 
 times happens) is too long, a bulb-pot 
 may be used. It should be well drained, 
 and planted in pure light peat or heath 
 mould, with the end of the root just 
 above the surface. When it makes a 
 shoot, it also forms fresh roots from the 
 base of the new shoot, and will grow 
 rapidly if kept in a stove or vinery at a 
 temperature of 70° or 80°, and soon 
 requires a larger pot. It generally 
 takes a six, using nothing but light peat 
 soil. 
 
 iC It may then be trained in any form 
 most convenient. After it has flowered 
 and the leaves are decayed withhold 
 water entirely to ripen the tubers, which 
 may be kept in the dry mould till the 
 spring, or taken out and kept in dry 
 sand till the season for potting them." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 GLOSSODIA. Two species. Green- 
 house orchids.^ Offsets. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 GLOXINIA. Five species. Stove 
 herbaceous perennials. All are propa- 
 gated by seed, but G. maculata is also 
 increased by division; and the others 
 by leaves taken off close to the stem. 
 Loam, peat, and sand, with leaf mould. 
 
 Varieties.— Many varieties have been 
 raised by cross-impregnation, but for a 
 private garden the following may be 
 recommended: — G. coccineus ; G. 
 Youngii; G. Manglesii; G. rubra; G. 
 Maxima ; G. speciosa ; and G. Candida. 
 
 Mr. J. McL, of Hillsborough, gives 
 the following directions for the culture 
 of these flowers : — 
 
 il Propagation. — The gloxinia is rea- 
 dily increased by seeds and cuttings; 
 the seeds should be sown very thinly, 
 as soon as they are gathered, in pans 
 that are well drained, and filled with a 
 
GL Y 
 
 253 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 GO A 
 
 mixture of fine peat and sand ; the seeds 
 should not be covered ; they may after- 
 wards be placed in a frame where the 
 temperature is about 680. When they 
 have acquired one or two leaves, they 
 should be potted off into small pots, 
 and not dried off until the second year, 
 as the small fibres are not sufficiently 
 strong to cause them to grow vigor- 
 ously in spring. This remark is also 
 applicable to young plants raised from 
 cuttings; 
 
 " Gloxinias are readily propagated 
 even by a single leaf pressed firmly in- 
 to the soil, which may be the same as 
 is used for seeds. 
 
 "Culture. — The roots should be al- 
 lowed to become quite dry during au- 
 tumn, and continue so all the winter; 
 they should not be allowed to become 
 dry, however, all at once, but by de- 
 grees. While they are in this state the 
 pots may be laid on their sides, on a 
 dry shelf in the green-house until Feb- 
 ruary or March, but February is the 
 best time for starting them. In potting 
 them, the earth should be carefully 
 shaken from the bulbs, which should be 
 repotted in a mixture of one-half de- 
 cayed vegetable mould, and one-half 
 good rich loam, with the addition of a 
 little sand or charcoal. 
 
 " The pots should be well drained. 
 In planting, press the roots gently on 
 the surface of the soil, and give them 
 no water for some time, as the moisture 
 of the pot will be sufficient for them at 
 first. 
 
 "After they are all potted, remove 
 them to a frame where the temperature 
 is about 60°, and when they have com- 
 menced growing, give them a little 
 water, increasing the quantity as they 
 advance in growth. A little air should 
 be given them in fine weather. 
 
 " By the middle of May they will 
 have attained a good size, and some of 
 them will be showing flowers, when 
 they may be removed to the green- 
 house, when nothing except proper at- 
 tention to watering them is required. 
 When the plants have done flowering, 
 water should be gradually withheld. 
 
 "It often happens, however, that 
 some of the species continue in a grow- 
 ing state all the winter, for instance, 
 G. caulescens, which is unlike any of 
 the others in habit and manner of 
 growth." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 GLYCINE. Eight species. Stove or 
 
 green»house evergreens ; chiefly twin- 
 ers. Seeds. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 GLYCIRRHIZA. Liquorice. Eight 
 species. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 Slips from the roots with eyes. Planted 
 in the spring. Light sandy soil. See 
 Liquorice. 
 
 GLYPHYTERYX. A genus of moths. 
 
 " G. Roesella, Spinach Moth, appears 
 in the spring and throughout the sum- 
 mer. It is blackish-brown coloured. 
 Caterpillar yellowish green. Feeds 
 on spinach, strawberry blite, &c:, and 
 lives three or four together, under a 
 web on the leaves." 
 
 Mr. Curtis says, that "when fully fed 
 the caterpillars leave the plants on 
 which they have been subsisting, and 
 seek some crack in a tree or wall, 
 where they spin a slight cocoon, and 
 change to pupa ; in this state they re- 
 main ten or twelve days, when the per- 
 fect insect emerges. The moth, when 
 its wings are expanded, is about five 
 lines long ; the head, body, and feet 
 are black, with a shining metallic ap- 
 pearance. The antennae are black with 
 white rings, and the upper wings are 
 yellow, with black edges, and about five 
 silvery spots disposed in the shape of a 
 cross ; the under wings are blackish, 
 and, as well as the upper, have long 
 fringes. It is difficult to find means to 
 destroy so minute an enemy as the pre- 
 sent ; but where it attacks spinach it is 
 much better to pull up the plants with 
 the caterpillars on them, and burn 
 them ; where they appear only in small 
 quantities, hand-picking may answer 
 very well." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 GMELINA. Five species. Stove or 
 green-house evergreen trees. Cuttings. 
 Rich loam and peat, and a very strong 
 heat. 
 
 GNAPHALIUM. Six species. Chiefly 
 hardy plants. G. albescens, an evergreen 
 shrub. G. purpurium. The shrubby 
 and herbaceous increase by cuttings and 
 division; the annuals and biennials by 
 seeds. Rich light soil. 
 
 GNIDIA. Seventeen species. Green- 
 house and evergreen shrubs. Young 
 shoots planted in sand. Peat soil. 
 
 GOAT MOTH. See Bombyx. 
 
 GOAT'S BEARD. Spiraa aruncus. 
 
 GOAT'S FOOT. Oxalis caprina. 
 
 GOAT'S ORIGANUM. Thymus Tra- 
 goriganum. 
 
 GOAT'S RUE. Galega. 
 
GO A 
 
 GOO 
 
 GOAT'S THORN. Astragalus fra- 
 gacantha. 
 
 GOBBO. See Artichoke. 
 
 GODETIA. Three species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 GODOYA geminiflora. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Ripe cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 GOLDBACHIA laevigata. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 GOLDEN HAIR. Chrysocoma co- 
 maurea. 
 
 GOLDEN ROD. Bosea. 
 
 GOLDEN THISTLE. Scolymus. 
 
 GOLDEN THISTLE. Protea Scoly- 
 
 7UUS. 
 
 GOLDFUSSIA anisophylla. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. G. glomerata, stove 
 herbaceous perennial. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 GOLD OF PLEASURE. Camelina. 
 
 GOLDY LOCKS. Chrysocoma. 
 
 GOMPHIA. Six species. Stove ever- 
 green shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 
 GOMPHOCARPUS. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 GOMPHOLOBIUM. Twenty-five spe- 
 cies. Chiefly green-house evergreen 
 shrubs. Cuttings. Sandyloam and peat. 
 
 GOMPHRENA. Seven species. 
 Stove or green-house annuals and bien- 
 nials, herbaceous perennials, or ever- 
 green shrubs. Seeds ; and the shrubby 
 kinds, cuttings. Rich mould. 
 
 GONGORA. Four species. Stove 
 orchids. Division. Wood. 
 
 GONOLOBYS. Twenty-one species. 
 Stove evergreen and hardy and green- 
 house deciduous twiners. The hardy 
 require a dry situation, and increase by 
 division or seeds. Peat or any light 
 soil. For the stove and green-house 
 kinds, cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 GONOSTEMON. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. San- 
 dy loam. 
 
 GOODENIA. Seven species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs, and herbaceous 
 perennials. Seeds or cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 GOODIA. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings or 
 seed. Loam and Peat. 
 
 GOOD NIGHT. Argyreia bona nox. 
 
 GOODYERA. Six species. Stove or 
 hardy orchids. The former do best in 
 sandy peat and leaf mould : the latter 
 require sandy peat, and are increased 
 by division. 
 
 GOOSEBERRY. Ribes grossularia 
 The European succeed but indifferently 
 in this country, unless it be in the dry 
 atmosphere of a city. Mildew, the 
 especial enemy of this fruit, seizes on 
 it, and speedily arrests the circulation 
 of the juices — the consequence is inevi- 
 table disease. It has been said that a 
 solution of whale-oil soap will destroy 
 the parasite, and preserve the fruit 
 healthful and perfect. 
 
 Varieties. — If quality be the chief 
 consideration, as most assuredly it ought 
 to be, the following are the best : — 
 
 Red Champagne. 
 
 Red Turkey. 
 
 Keen's seedling, Warrington. 
 
 Early White. 
 
 Woodward's Whitesmith. 
 
 Hebburn. 
 
 Green Prolific. 
 
 White Fig. 
 
 Pigmaston. 
 
 Green Gage. 
 
 Yellow Champagne. 
 
 Taylor's Bright Venus. 
 
 Red Warrington. 
 
 Rumbullion. 
 
 If size be the primary object, the 
 following may be cultivated : — 
 
 Beds. 
 Briton. Lion's Provider. 
 
 Companion. London. 
 
 Conquering Hero. Roaring Lion. 
 Guido. Young Wonderful. 
 
 Whites. 
 Cossack. Miss Walton. 
 
 Fleur-de-Lis. Philip the First. 
 
 Freedom. Tally-ho. 
 
 Lady Stanley. White Eagle. 
 
 Yellows. 
 
 Leader. 
 
 Pilot. 
 
 Teazer. 
 
 Two- to-one. 
 
 Broom Girl. 
 Bird Lime. 
 Catherina. 
 Goldfinder. 
 Gunner. 
 
 Green Prince. 
 Keepsake. 
 Overall. 
 Providence. 
 
 Greens. 
 
 Peacock. 
 Turn-out. 
 Thumper. 
 Weathercock. 
 
 The size to which some of these have 
 been grown are as follows: — 
 
 Roaring Lion .... 29 dwts. 
 
 Teazer 32£ " 
 
 Young Wonderful ... 27^ « 
 Companion ..... 28 <c 
 London 35 " 
 
GOO 
 
 255 
 
 GOO 
 
 To raise Varieties. — The seed must 
 be taken from perfectly ripe berries, 
 and sown immediately in pots of light 
 loam, to remain in the green-house 
 during winter, or be preserved in sand 
 until February, and then sown. The 
 soil must be kept moderately moist un- 
 til they are large enough to prick out 
 in beds. 
 
 Cuttings are the best mode of propa- 
 gating approved kinds. Take a bearing 
 shoot not less than nine inches long; 
 remove all the buds but the top three, 
 and bury them to within an inch of the 
 lowest bud left. Plant them in rows 
 eighteen inches apart each way. 
 
 Culture. — At the end of the first year, 
 the shoots must be cut down to a few 
 eyes, and the plants kept clear from 
 
 bush, B B is the soil taken out about 
 eighteen inches all round the plant, 
 and about six inches deep at C, that if 
 there are any buds or suckers, they are 
 sure to be seen and destroyed. This do 
 every year in December, and as soon 
 as the soil is taken out, spread cowdung 
 over the roots as shown at B, after 
 which replace the earth that has been 
 taken out: when you have any new 
 seedlings to propagate, do not take out 
 the soil, but lay the manure round them, 
 and cover it with a layer of earth, 
 which encourages the plant to produce 
 suckers. 
 
 li By these means good bushes are 
 
 sooner obtained than by cuttings, and 
 
 generally speaking, well-rooted suckers 
 
 may be taken off in October, which 
 
 any summer shoots that may be on the j produce fruit the following year. The 
 
 stem or that spring from the root ; they 
 must have plenty of water the first sum- 
 mer. 
 
 They will be fit to plant out in two 
 or three years into borders or quarters, 
 at eight feet between the rows, and six 
 feet apart. At the time of planting out, 
 some rich compost may be added with 
 great effect towards the flavour, size, 
 and abundance of the crop. — Doyle. 
 
 " There is a continual tendency on 
 the part of the under ground buds to 
 become branches, and these are the 
 suckers that we find so troublesome in 
 many kinds of soils. By continually 
 stopping and wounding them, however, 
 they will in general perish ; and to do 
 this is what we recommend. 
 
 " The Lancashire gooseberry grow- 
 ers adopt the following as the best 
 means of preventing gooseberries from 
 throwing up suckers, and also an excel- 
 lent plan of insuring an abundance of 
 large fruit. 
 
 " In the sketch, (Fig. 60,) A is the 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 cuttings should be deprived of all their 
 under-ground eyes or buds ; before they 
 are put into the ground to take cuttings 
 from twelve to fifteen inches long, cut 
 the upper end to a bud, leaving three or 
 four other buds below it, then pare 
 away all the other buds, and pick out 
 the lowest of all, finishing just below it 
 by a horizontal clean cut." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Pruning in the summer is confined 
 to pinching off superfluous and mis- 
 placed shoots, it always being kept in 
 mind that the centre of the tree in 
 standards must be kept open so as to 
 admit the light. " At the time of prun- 
 ing," says Mr. Doyle, " some fine young 
 shoots should be left in the most con- 
 venient place as bearing wood for the 
 ensuing year, and room must be made 
 for them by cutting out some of the old 
 wood. Each of the old branches should 
 have a leader left of new wood, which 
 may be shortened according to its 
 strength so as to leave five or six inches 
 above the old wood. Very strong shoots 
 need not be so much shortened unless 
 in a part of the bush which is naked, 
 and requires to be furnished. 
 
 " Avoid shortening the shoots unless 
 when the tree is naked, or the wood 
 will be crowded, tufted, and productive 
 of very small and indifferent fruit. The 
 leading shoot at the end of each branch 
 should, where it is possible, terminate 
 naturally, if it be not inconsistent with 
 the equable extent of the tree ; and in 
 most cases it may still be so contrived 
 by having recourse to the next lateral 
 branch of the desired extent, and by 
 
GOO 
 
 256 
 
 GOU 
 
 taking away that which straggled be- 
 yond it. Let it be recollected that at 
 the time when the young trees are 
 growing in the nursery, and at all times 
 after, the attention of the gardener 
 must be directed to what is called 
 " stemming the trees," which is pro- 
 ducing and continuing a clear stem to a 
 given height, (according to the growth 
 of the different kinds,) by taking off all 
 lateral shoots at their first appearance. 
 Espaliers. — No fruit is more benefited 
 than that of the gooseberry, by having 
 the tree trained as an espalier. It is 
 best done to stakes arranged lozenge- 
 wise, (see Espalier,) or the bush may 
 be trained round hoops in this form. 
 
 Fruit. — This should be thinned, the 
 smaller berries be cut away with a pair 
 of scissors for tarts, &c, as required, 
 and the fine berries left for dessert. If 
 some of reds, as the Warrington, and 
 of the thick-skinned yellows, as the 
 Mogul, are matted over when the fruit 
 is ripe, it will remain good until Christ- 
 mas. This is easiest done when the 
 tree is grown as an espalier. To in- 
 crease the size of the berries, abund- 
 ance of water and liquid manure are 
 given to the roots, and the berries are 
 suckled by keeping their tips in saucers 
 of water; this is sacrificing the flavour 
 to increase the circumference of the 
 fruit. 
 
 Vermin. — The caterpillar and the 
 black-fly are both destroyed by syring- 
 ing the bushes with water, and then 
 dusting the leaves above and beneath 
 with white hellebore powder, or with 
 lime and soot mixed in equal propor- 
 tions. 
 
 Forcing. — Neither the gooseberry 
 nor currant can be forced without great 
 care. No heat must be applied when 
 they are first put under glass. A very 
 
 low temperature, about 60° afterwards, 
 and not higher than 40° at night. 
 
 GORDONIA.— Four species. Hardy 
 deciduous shrubs. G. hczrnatoxylon is 
 a stove evergreen tree. G. pubescens, 
 (the Franklinea) is a highly attractive 
 shrub or minor tree, indigenous to 
 Georgia, &c. Layers or cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 GOSSYPIUM. The Cotton Tree. 
 Eleven species. Stove annuals, bien- 
 nials, perennials, or evergreen shrubs. 
 For the shrubby kinds, cuttings and 
 seeds. The annuals and biennials, 
 seeds. A light rich soil and a moist 
 heat. 
 
 GOUANIA. Six species. Stove ever- 
 green climbers. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 GOURD, Sagenaria vulgaris, and 
 PUMPKIN, Cucurbita pepo, are chiefly 
 employed in the making of pies, &c. 
 There are numerous varieties, varying 
 in the shape and colour of their fruit: 
 as the globular, oval, pear-shaped, 
 green, striped, marbled, yellow, &c, 
 &c. One variety, of a pale buff or 
 salmon colour and globular form grows 
 to the weight of one hundred and ten 
 pounds and upwards : it is known in 
 France as the Potiron Jaune, and used 
 in soups, but in particular from being 
 mashed and eaten as potatoes or turn- 
 ips, being of a very pleasant and pecu- 
 liar flavour. The bottle-shaped is of 
 little use for culinary purposes, but is 
 remarkable as being of the form of a 
 Florence or oil-flask. 
 
 Cucurbita melopepo, the Squash. Cu- 
 curbita succada, the Vegetable Marrow. 
 Both these are cultivated for the fruit, 
 which being gathered when of the size 
 of a goose's egg, is boiled whole in 
 salt and water, laid upon toast, and 
 eaten as asparagus. Of the squash, 
 there are almost as many varieties as of 
 the pompion, and similarly character- 
 ized. The young fruit is much used in 
 pickles. They may be sown in a hot- 
 bed of moderate strength, under a frame 
 or hand-glasses at the end of March or 
 early in April. In May they may be 
 sown in the open ground, beneath a 
 south fence, to remain, or in a hot-bed, 
 if at its commencement, to forward the 
 plants for transplanting at its close, or 
 early in June. The plants are fit for 
 transplanting when they have got four 
 rough leaves, or when of about a 
 month's growth. They must be plant- 
 
GOV 
 
 257 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 GR A 
 
 ed without any shelter on dunghills, or 
 in holes prepared as directed for the 
 open ground crop of cucumbers. Some 
 may be inserted beneath pales, walls 
 or hedges, to be trained regularly over 
 them on account of their ornamental 
 appearance. They may be treated in 
 every respect like the cucumber, only 
 they do not want so much care. They 
 require abundance of water in dry 
 weather. When the runners have ex- 
 tended three feet, they may be pegged 
 down and covered with earth at a joint ; 
 this will cause the production of roots, 
 and the longer continuance of the plant 
 in vigour. 
 
 The fruit for seed should be selected 
 and treated as directed for the cucum- 
 ber. It is ripe in the course of Sep- 
 tember or October. 
 
 We have retained this article in its 
 original form as a matter of curiosity, 
 not only as regards the artificial means 
 necessary in Great Britain, for the pro- 
 duction of the pumpkin and the squash, 
 but also with reference to the manner 
 in which the latter vegetable is serv- 
 ed at table. In the United States no 
 person who cultivates a garden, how- 
 ever small, can be presumed ignorant 
 as to the culture of these vines, and it 
 is therefore unnecessary to add a word 
 of instruction. The pumpkin described 
 as the Potiron Jaune is the one known 
 with us as the mammoth, of which spe- 
 cimens have been exhibited before the 
 Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, over 
 eight feet in circumference. 
 
 GOVENIA. Four species. Stove 
 orchids. G. gardneri an herbaceous 
 perennial. Division. Sandy peat and 
 light loam. G. lagenophora, as a swamp 
 plant in very sandy peat. " Having 
 filled a twenty-four with about two 
 inches of crocks, place over them a 
 layer of spungy peat for two or three 
 inches more, and then fill it up with 
 nearly equal quantities of sharp sand 
 and heath mould, so that the surface is 
 nearly all sand. Place it near the light 
 in a eool part of the stove about 60°, 
 and keep it very wet as long as it con- 
 tinues growing. It generally flowers in 
 April or May. Remove to the green- 
 bouse after flowering, and keep quite 
 dry in the stove from October to Feb- 
 ruary." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 GRAFF or GRAFT. See Scion. 
 
 GRAFTING is uniting a scion or 
 17 
 
 part of a branch of one plant upon the 
 root, branch, or stem of another. 
 
 Grafting is a difficult mode of multi- 
 plying an individual, because it is re- 
 quisite so to fit the scion to the stock, 
 that some portion of their alburnums 
 and inner barks must coincide, other- 
 wise the requisite circulation of the 
 sap is prevented. No graft will suc- 
 ceed if not immediately grafted upon a 
 nearly kindred stock. I say immedi- 
 ately, because it is possible that by 
 grafting on the most dissimilar species 
 on which it will take, and then moving 
 it with some of the stock attached, to 
 another stock still more remotely allied, 
 that a graft may be made to succeed 
 though supplied with sap from roots of 
 a very dissimilar species. Thus some 
 pear scions can hardly be made to unite 
 with a quince stock ; but if they be 
 grafted upon a young shoot and after- 
 wards inserted in a quince stock, they 
 grow as freely as if inserted in a seed- 
 ling pear stock. 
 
 The reason for this unusual difficulty 
 in the way of uniting kindred species, 
 arises from one or more of these causes. 
 First, the sap flowing at discordant 
 periods. Secondly, the proper juices 
 being dissimilar. Or thirdly, the sap 
 vessels being of inappropriate calibre. 
 
 Grafting is employed, first, to multiply 
 any desired variety or species; second- 
 ly, to accelerate its fruitfulness, as 
 when the shoot of a two year old apple 
 seedling is grafted upon a stock of six 
 years' growth, it will arrive at fruitful- 
 ness much sooner than one left on the 
 parent stem ; thirdly, to improve the 
 quality of the fruit by having a more 
 abundant supply of sap : and fourthly, 
 to renew the productiveness of stocks 
 from which previous kinds had failed. 
 
 The best modes of grafting are thus 
 described by Dr. Lindley in his admir- 
 able Theory of Horticulture : — "Whip 
 grafting is the commonest kind ; it is 
 performed by heading down a stock, 
 then paring one side of it bare for the 
 space of an inch or so, and cutting 
 down obliquely at the upper end of the 
 pared part, towards the pith ; the scion 
 is levelled obliquely to a length corre- 
 sponding with the pared surface of the 
 stock, and an incision is made into it 
 near the upper end of the wound ob- 
 liquely upwards so as to form a ' tongue,' 
 which is forced into the corresponding 
 wound in the stock : care is then taken 
 
GR A 
 
 258 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 GR A 
 
 that the bark of the scion is exactly ad- j Cactaceae; the parts of which, ow- 
 
 justed to that of the stock, 
 and the two are bound 
 firmly together. 
 
 " Here the mere con- 
 tact of the two enables 
 the sap flowing upwards 
 through the stock to sus- 
 tain the life of the scion 
 until the latter can de- 
 velop its buds, which then 
 send downwards their 
 wood ; at the same time 
 the cellular system of the 
 parts in contact unites by 
 granulations, and when 
 the wood descends it 
 passes through the cel- 
 lular deposit, and holds 
 the whole together. 
 
 " The use of < tongue- 
 ing' is merely to steady 
 the scion and to prevent 
 its slipping. The advantage of this mode 
 of grafting is the quickness with which 
 it may be performed ; the disadvantage 
 is, that the surfaces applied to each 
 other, are much smaller than can be 
 secured by other means 
 
 ing to their succulence, rea- 
 dily form a union with each Fig. 64. 
 other. 
 
 " A far better method than 
 whip grafting, but more te- 
 dious, is saddle grafting, in 
 which the stock is pared ob- 
 liquely on both sides till it 
 becomes an inverted wedge, 
 and the scion is slit up the 
 centre, when its sides are 
 pared down till they fit the 
 sides of the stock. In this 
 method the greatest possible 
 quantity of surface is brought 
 into contact, and the parts are 
 mutually so adjusted, that the 
 ascending sap is freely received 
 from the stock by the scion, 
 while at the same time, the 
 descending sap can flow freely ^ 
 from the scion into the stock. Mr, 
 Knight, in describing this mode of 
 operating, has the following observa- 
 tions : 
 
 " The graft first begins its efforts to 
 unite itself to the stock just at the period 
 when the formation of a new internal 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 It is, however, a great improvement i a y er of bark commences in the spring, 
 upon the old crown grafting, still em- an "d the fluid which generates this layer 
 ployed in the rude unskilful practice of f bark, and which also feeds the in- 
 some continental gardeners, but expel- ser ted graft, radiates in every direction 
 led from Great Britain ; which consists f rom the vicinity of the medulla to the 
 of nothing more than heading down a external surface of the alburnum, 
 stock with an exactly horizontal cut, 
 and splitting it through the middle, into 
 which is forced the end of a scion cut 
 into the form of a wedge, when the 
 whole are bound together. In this 
 method the split in the stock can hardly 
 be made to heal without great care ; 
 the union between the 
 edges of the scion and 
 those of the stock is very 
 imperfect, because the 
 bark of the former neces- 
 sarily lies upon the wood 
 of the latter, except just 
 at the sides: and from 
 the impossibility of bring- 
 ing the two barks in con- 
 tact, neither the ascend- 
 ing nor descending cur- 
 rents of sap are able freely 
 to intermingle. This plan 
 is much improved by cutting out the 
 stock into the form of a wedge, instead 
 of splitting; it may, however, be advan- 
 tageously employed for such plants as 
 
 " The graft is of course most advan- 
 tageously placed when it presents the 
 largest surface to receive such fluid, and 
 when the fluid itself is made to deviate 
 least from its natural course. This 
 takes place most efficiently when, (as 
 in this saddle grafting) a graft of nearly 
 equal size with the stock is divided at 
 its base and made to stand astride the 
 stock, and when the two divisions of 
 the graft are pared extremely thin, at 
 and near their lower extremities, so 
 that they may be brought into close 
 contact with the stock (from which but 
 little bark or wood should be pared off N 
 by the ligature." — Hort. Trans. 147. 
 
 To execute saddle grafting properly, 
 the scion and stock should be of equal 
 si2e ; and where that cannot be, a se- 
 cond method, in which the scion may 
 be much smaller than the stock, has 
 been described by the same great gar- 
 dener. 
 
 This is practised upon small stocks 
 
GR A 
 
 259 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 GRA 
 
 Fig. 65. almost exclusively in Here- 
 fordshire; but it is never 
 T| attempted till the usual sea- 
 son of grafting is past, and 
 till the bark is readily de- 
 tached from the alburnum. 
 The head of the stock is 
 then taken off, by a single 
 stroke ofthe knife, oblique- 
 ly, so that the incision com- 
 mences about the width of 
 the diameter of the stock, 
 below the point where the 
 medulla appears in the sec- 
 tion, and ends as much 
 above it upon the opposite 
 side. The scion, or graft, 
 which should not exceed in 
 diameter half that of the 
 stock, is then to be divided 
 longitudinally, abouttwo inches upwards 
 from its lower end, into two unequal 
 divisions, by passing the knife upwards 
 just in contact with one side ofthe me- 
 dulla. The stronger division of the 
 graft is then to be pared thin at its lower 
 extremity, and introduced, as in crown 
 grafting, between the bark and wood of 
 the stock ; and the more slender divi- 
 sion is fitted to the stock upon the op- 
 posite side. 
 
 " The graft, consequently, stands 
 astride the stock, to which it attaches 
 itself firmly upon each side, and which 
 it covers completely in a single season. 
 Grafts of the apple and pear rarely ever 
 fail in this method of grafting, which 
 may be practised with equal success 
 with young wood in July, as soon as it 
 has become moderately firm and ma- 
 ture." — Theory of Horticulture. 
 
 The other modes of grafting require 
 no description, but will be best under- 
 stood by a reference to the following 
 sketches. 
 
 Cleft Grafting. 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 Side Grafting. 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 Chink or Shoulder 
 
 Grafting. Root Grafting. 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 Peg Graft- 
 ing, or Te- 
 rebration. 
 
 By whatever mode the operation be 
 performed, the essentials for success 
 are, 1. That the same 
 parts of the stock and 
 scion should he brought 
 into contact as much as 
 possible — bark to bark, 
 and alburnum to albur- 
 num. 2. That as the 
 nourishment has to be 
 afforded to the graft from 
 the alburnum ofthe stock 
 with which it is brought 
 in contact, this should not 
 be exposed to the air for 
 one minute longer than 
 is necessary to insert the 
 previously prepared graft, 
 for if the surface becomes 
 dry in the slightest de- 
 gree, vegetation on that part is perma- 
 nently destroyed ; and thirdly, that the 
 air and wet should be excluded after 
 the scion has been inserted, otherwise 
 the dryness of the parts, or the dilution 
 of the sap, will prevent the union. To 
 effect the desired exclusion, the entire 
 wound must be inclosed with grafting 
 clay or grafting wax, the best recipes 
 for which are these : — 
 
 Grafting Clay is best made of two 
 parts cow-dung ; three parts common 
 clay ; and one part awns or beards of 
 barley, kneaded together thoroughly. 
 
 Grafting Wax. — Moist bast is usually 
 employed for closing the wound of the 
 stock, but it is far preferable to use 
 worsted, and over this a coating of the 
 grafting wax, made according to the 
 following recipe : — 
 
 Burgundy pitch 1 oz. 
 
 Common pitch 4 
 
 Yellow wax 4 
 
 Tallow or lard 2 
 
GRA 
 
 GRA 
 
 Nitre (carbonate of potash, 
 powdered) 1 
 
 The same composition spread upon 
 slips of linen makes Grafting Plaster, 
 frequently used by amateur budders. 
 
 G R A M M A N T H E S chlorceflora. 
 Stove annual. Seeds. Loam and lime 
 rubbish. 
 
 GRAMMATOPHYLLUM. Two spe- 
 cies. Stove orchids. Division. Wood. 
 
 GRANGERIA borbonica. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 GRAPE-VINE (Vitis vinifera). Of 
 this fruit ninety-nine varieties-are culti- 
 vated in the Chiswick Garden. 
 
 Open-wall culture. — Varieties best 
 Ruited for this, according to the experi- 
 ence of Mr. Hoare, are : — 
 
 Black Hamburgh. 
 Black Prince. 
 Esperione. 
 Black Muscadine. 
 Miller's Burgundy. 
 Claret Grape. 
 Black Frontignan. 
 Grizzly Frontignan. 
 White Frontignan. 
 White Muscadine. 
 Malmsey Muscadine. 
 White Sweetwater. 
 
 Eighty-six of the varieties have been 
 cultivated at Wilbeck within the last 
 seven years, but only about fourteen 
 found of superior excellence, and many 
 of the others were mere synonymes. 
 Mr. Tillery, from this long course of ex- 
 perience and observation, recommends 
 the following selections : — 
 
 " For the Earliest House. — The Pur- 
 ple Constantia, or Frontignan ; White 
 Frontignan; Black Prince ; Dutch, or 
 Stillward's Sweetwater; Black Ham- 
 burgh ; and Tripoli. 
 
 " For Stove. — White Muscat of 
 Alexandria; Purple Constantia ; White 
 Frontignan ; Grizzly Frontignan ; Black 
 Muscat; and Black Damascus. 
 
 " For Green-house. — Black Ham- 
 burgh ; Tripoli; Grove-end Sweetwa- 
 ter ; and Muscadine. 
 
 " For Latest House. — West's St. Pe- 
 ter's, and Cliarlesworth's Tokay. 
 
 " For a Single House with fourteen 
 rafters. — One Purple Constantia; one 
 White Frontignan ; one Royal Musca- 
 dine, or Chasselas D'Arboyce ; three 
 Muscats; three Black Hamburghs, or 
 Tripoli*; three West's St. Peter's; and 
 two Black Princes. 
 
 " For Pot-Culture, to cover in during 
 April and May. — Purple Constantia and 
 White Frontignan." — United Gar. Jour. 
 
 Until recently but few houses for the 
 exclusive growth of grapes under glass, 
 had been erected in the United States. 
 The success which attended the effort 
 in the vicinity of Philadelphia, Boston, 
 and other cities, has excited emulation, 
 and at this day (1847) one of the most 
 attractive features of our Horticultural 
 exhibitions, are grapes grown under 
 glass, not exclusively through the agen- 
 cy of fire-heat, but in many instances 
 by the aid of the glass alone. 
 
 Propagation. — Layering is the most 
 certain and most expeditious mode of 
 propagating the grape-vine. In the first 
 part of March cut away the fourth bud 
 of the shoot to be layered, pass the 
 shoot through the hole in the bottom of 
 garden-pot, fill this with light rich earth, 
 so that the wound of that fourth bud is 
 in the centre of the earth, and two buds 
 above its surface ; fix the pot firmly to 
 the wall, so as not to be disturbed ; keep 
 the earth constantly moist with liquid 
 manure, giving a little every day, and 
 a little moss tied over the surface and 
 round the sides of the pot to check 
 evaporation. Cut away the layer from 
 the parent in the last week of August; 
 and, turning it out from the pot, with- 
 out at all disturbing the earth, plant it 
 where it is to remain, and water it 
 plentifully with liquid manure until the 
 leaves begin to fall. 
 
 Cuttings. — At the time of autumn- 
 pruning select some middle-sized, well- 
 ripened shoots, cut off lengths of six 
 buds, keep them in moist sand through 
 the winter, and, at the end of March, 
 cut them in half, remove the two lower 
 buds, and plant them under a wall hav- 
 ing an eastern aspect, leaving the upper 
 bud just above the surface, and cover- 
 ing them with a hand-glass. The soil 
 must be light, rich, and well pulverized, 
 pressed close round the cuttings, and 
 kept constantly moist with liquid manure 
 until the leaves fall in autumn. The 
 surface round them should be stirred 
 at least twice a week to allow the air 
 unimpeded entrance. 
 
 Coiling is only a peculiar mode of 
 propagating by cuttings suggested by 
 Mr. Mearns, whose practice has been 
 epitomised thus by Dr. Lindley: — 
 
 " In the propagation of vines by coil- 
 ing, Mr. Mearns' practice, if single rods 
 
G R A 
 
 261 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 are contemplated, is not to leave them 
 longer than four or five feet, and to re- 
 move all the buds but the uppermost. 
 These rootless cuttings are coiled into 
 long narrow pots, being so placed that 
 the bud of the apex of the shoot, al- 
 though the highest part, is still two 
 inches beneath the surface of the soil; 
 at the same time sufficient room is left 
 beneath the coil for the roots to extend 
 themselves. These cuttings being put 
 in between the middle of January and 
 the end of March, are plunged at once 
 into a hot-bed between 90° and 100o, 
 where they remain until they require 
 more pot-room. They are then shifted, 
 and placed in a suitable situation until 
 again excited in November or December. 
 When the cutting begins to grow, the 
 shoot is trained upright, until it is seven 
 or eight or ten joints long, when the top 
 is pinched ofF. After this stopping the 
 laterals are displaced as they appear; 
 and if the vines have done well, two or 
 three of the buds will also be excited 
 at the same time, in which case the 
 shoots are cut down to the lowest ex- 
 cited eye. The single shoot is then 
 trained upright and divested of all late- 
 rals and tendrils. None of the plants 
 are allowed to grow longer than from 
 four to six feet, at which length the tops 
 are pinched off, the uppermost lateral, 
 which is also stopped at the first joint, 
 being left to carry off the remaining 
 sap. 
 
 " At this season the plants are re- 
 moved to a warm and sheltered situa- 
 tion in the open air; and when the 
 leaves fall they are headed down to 
 one, two, or three joints, according to 
 their strength, and are placed against a 
 northern aspect. When cold weather 
 sets in they are taken back to a shel- 
 tered spot, and plunged in the ground 
 to protect the roots, the pots being 
 mulched over, and the rods covered to 
 protect them from frost. 
 
 " When these yearling potted vines 
 are brought early into action, it is re- 
 commended to bow a piece of wire 
 above the pot with both its ends run- 
 ning down the inside, of sufficient height 
 to allow the whole length of the stem to 
 be attached to it, as represented in the 
 accompanying figure. 
 
 " The buds from the stem being thus 
 bent, break more regularly ; and when 
 this is effected the vine is united, and 
 secured to an upright stake or sloping 
 
 GR A 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 
 trellis. To prevent evaporation the stem 
 is wrapped loosely in moss, which is 
 kept constantly moist until the grapes 
 are set, when it is removed. The plants, 
 up to this period, are encouraged by 
 bottom-heat and shifting; and the quan- 
 tity of fruit is regulated by the size of 
 the pot and the quality of the vine." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Seed. — To raise new varieties seed 
 from the largest, earliest, and best rip- 
 ened berries must be separated from 
 their pulp, and kept until the February 
 following; then to be sown in "pots 
 filled with light fresh mould, and plunged 
 in a moderately warm hot-bed. They 
 will come up in four or six weeks ; and 
 when the plants are about six inches 
 high, they should be transplanted singly 
 into forty-eights, and afterwards into 
 pots of larger size. 
 
 "Water gently as circumstances re- 
 quire; allow abundance of light and 
 air, and carefully avoid injuring any of 
 the leaves. Cut down the plants every 
 autumn to good buds, and suffer only 
 one of these to extend itself in the fol- 
 lowing spring. Shift into larger pots, 
 as occasion requires, till they have 
 produced fruit. This, under good ma- 
 nagement, will take place in the fourth 
 or fifth year, when the approved sorts 
 should be selected, and the rest de- 
 stroyed, or used as stocks on which to 
 graft or inarch good sorts." — Enc. of 
 Gard. 
 
 If a hybrid grape be required, the 
 stamens of the female parent must be 
 cut away with very sharp-pointed scis- 
 sors before their anthers have burst, 
 
GRA 
 
 GRA 
 
 and the pollen be applied to the stigma 
 from the male desired to be the other 
 parent. No very superior varieties have 
 yet rewarded those who have attempted 
 thus to improve the grape. 
 
 Budding. — A good authority thus 
 states his mode : — 
 
 " About the first week in March I 
 perform the operation : or, as soon as 
 I perceive the sap begin to rise, I cut 
 from a branch, about three inches in 
 length, an eye having attached as much 
 wood as I could possibly get with it; 
 at each end of the eye, I cut off" about 
 a quarter of an inch of the upper bark, 
 making the ends quite thin ; I next mea- 
 sure off the exact length of the bud, on 
 the base of the vine intended to be 
 budded, and make a nick slanting upT 
 ward at the upper part, and another 
 slanting downward at the bottom. I 
 then take the piece neatly out, so that 
 the bud may fit nicely in ; and by mak- 
 ing the nick as stated above, each end 
 of the bud is covered by the bark of the 
 shoot. I bind the buds firmly round 
 with matting, and clay it, taking care, 
 however, that the clay does not cover 
 the eye of the bud : I then tie it round 
 with moss, and keep it constantly 
 damp ; and as the sap rises in the vine, 
 the bud begins to swell. 
 
 " When the vine commences to push 
 out young shoots, take the top ones off, 
 in order to throw a little more sap into 
 the bud, and as you perceive it getting 
 stronger, take off more young shoots, 
 and so continue until you have taken 
 off all the young shoots. Budding can 
 only be performed where the long-rod 
 system is practised, as in that case you 
 have the power of confining the sap to 
 the bud, which will grow vigorously. 
 As soon as you perceive this, cut the 
 vine down to the bud. Budding has the 
 advantage over grafting, by not leaving 
 an unsightly appearance where the bud 
 was inserted. I always allow the mat- 
 ting to remain on until about the month 
 of September." 
 
 Grafting. — "The best method," says 
 Dr. Lindley, " of grafting vines is to 
 shorten the branch, or shoot, at the 
 winter pruning to the most eligible place 
 for inserting the graft. The graft should 
 be kept in sufficiently moist soil till the 
 time of performing the operation, and 
 for a week previous in the same tem- 
 perature as that which the vines to be 
 operated upon are growing. 
 
 " When such portions of the latter 
 as are shortened for receiving the grafts 
 have made a bit of shoot, graft as you 
 would other fruit trees, taking care to 
 preserve the shoot at the top in claying, 
 and until the buds on the scion have 
 pushed, then shorten it back. Inarching 
 may be performed any time after the 
 vines have started, so far as to bleed." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Mr. Knight, the late eminent pre- 
 sident of the Horticultural Society, has 
 left this record of his experiments on 
 the same mode of propagation : — "I 
 conceived it probable that the success 
 of the Roman cultivators in grafting 
 their vines might arise from the selec- 
 tion of grafts similar to their cuttings, 
 and the result of the following experi- 
 ment leads me to believe my conjecture 
 to be well founded. I selected three 
 cuttings of the Black Hamburgh Grape, 
 each having at its base one joint of two 
 i years old of wood : these were inserted 
 in, or rather fitted to branches of nearly 
 the same size, but of greater age; and 
 all succeeded most perfectly. The clay 
 which surrounded the base of the grafts 
 was kept constantly moist, and the 
 moisture thus supplied to the graft ope- 
 rated very beneficially, at least, if it 
 was not essential to the success of the 
 operation. A very skilful gardener in my 
 vicinity, to whom I mentioned my inten- 
 tion of trying the foregoing experiment, 
 was completely successful by a some- 
 what different method. He used grafts 
 similar to mine, but his vine grew under 
 the roof of the hot-house, in which sit- 
 uation he found it difficult to attach 
 such a quantity of clay as would supply 
 the requisite degree of moisture to the 
 graft ; and he therefore supported a pot 
 under each graft, upon which he raised 
 the mould in heaps sufficiently high to 
 cover the grafts and supply them with 
 moisture. The grafts which I used 
 consisted of about two inches old wood, 
 and five of annual wood, by which 
 means the junction of the new and old 
 wood', at which point cuttings most rea- 
 dily emit shoots and receive nutriment, 
 was placed close to the head of the 
 stock, and a single bud only was ex- 
 posed to vegetate." — Knight's Papers. 
 
 As the practice is rather precarious, 
 I will add further, the observations of 
 Mr. Braddick : — " I feel confident in 
 stating that healthy vines may be suc- 
 cessfully grafted with young wood of 
 
GRA 
 
 263 
 — ♦ — 
 
 GRA 
 
 the preceding year's growth, from the 
 time that the shoots of the stocks which 
 the grafts are to be put upon have made 
 four or five eyes, until mid-summer, 
 with every prospect of the grafts grow- 
 ing, and without the least danger of the 
 stocks suffering by bleeding. They may 
 likewise be grafted with shoots of the 
 same summer's growth, worked in the 
 rind of the young wood, from the time 
 that the young bunches of grapes be- 
 come visible on the stocks till July, 
 out of doors, or till a month later under 
 glass. The operation must not be per- 
 formed later than the periods here spe- 
 cified, because time is necessary for the 
 young shoots of the graft to become 
 hard and ripen before winter." — Hort. 
 Soc. Trans. 
 
 Single Eyes, or Buds. — Mr. Appleby 
 gives the following directions for this 
 mode of propagation: — " Take a single 
 bud with about half an inch of wood on 
 each side of it, and insert it in a pot 
 four inches in diameter, filled with light 
 rich soil, covering the bud half an inch, 
 and pressing the earth firmly about it, 
 place the pots in a bark bed, or dung 
 bed covered with saw dust ; either of 
 these will do, provided the heat is 
 moderate. It will soon shoot up above 
 the soil and begin to send out roots ; 
 water very sparingly, for a time in- 
 creasing the quantity as it requires it. 
 Air is given on all mild days to make 
 it become stout and of a good colour. 
 As soon as the roots reach the sides of 
 the pots, shift into large pots, which 
 operation may be done thrice during 
 the growing season; it will require a 
 stick to support it, and all the super- 
 fluous leaves and tendrils removed ; 
 ripen the wood by keeping as dry an 
 atmosphere in the pit or frame as pos- 
 sible during the latter part of the sea- 
 son, endeavouring to effect this without 
 any reduction of temperature, which 
 should average about 70° Fahrenheit. 
 When the wood is sufficiently ripened, 
 keep the plant in a cool house or frame, 
 just protected from frost until the plant- 
 ing season." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 WALL CULTURE. 
 
 Aspect. — The object to be obtained 
 is not only warmth, but shelter from 
 the wind, which is injurious to the vine 
 at all times of its growth. To secure 
 this desideratum, the best aspect is S.E. 
 Even E. by N. is a good aspect. Any 
 
 westerly point or even due S., exposes 
 the vine to the strong winds which pre- 
 vail from the W. and S.W. 
 
 Soil. — The best soil is a light, rich, 
 sandy loam, eighteen inches deep, rest- 
 ing on a drainage of twelve inches of 
 bricklayers' rubbish. 
 
 Manures. — The richest manures, such 
 as night-soil, blood, bone-dust, and 
 butchers' offal, are most beneficial to 
 vines, and should be added annually to 
 the border in which they grow. During 
 the time of their being in bloom, a slight 
 trench in a circuit three feet from the 
 stem should be opened, and the con- 
 tents of the house slop pail, soapy 
 water, and urine, be poured into it 
 daily. 
 
 Walls, for the grape-vine, need never 
 be higher than eight feet, and the more 
 substantial the better, as they cool 
 slowly in proportion to their thickness. 
 They should be painted annually with 
 a creamy mixture of one part lime and 
 two parts soot, to fill up the nail holes, 
 the harbours of insects, to destroy moss, 
 and to increase the warmth of the wall. 
 Although a dark-coloured body radi- 
 ates heat, and consequently cools more 
 quickly than a similar body of a light 
 colour, yet this is prevented if a proper 
 screen is placed before it. (See Shelters.) 
 A coping should project from the top 
 of the wall four inches wide, if this be 
 four feet high, and an additional inch 
 for every foot of height. 
 
 Pruning and Training. — The vine 
 bears on wood one year old only, and 
 this knowledge must control these ope- 
 rations, for after a branch has borne it 
 is of no further use ; and in pruning, a 
 chief object consequently, is to get rid 
 of all the old wood that can be spared. 
 As Mr. Clement Hoarse's practice is 
 founded upon this, I adopt his rules 
 without any modification. He obtains, 
 he says: — "All the fruit of a vine from 
 a few shoots trained at full length, in- 
 stead of from a great number of spurs 
 or short shoots. To provide these shoots 
 the former bearers are cut down to very 
 short spurs at the autumnal pruning, 
 and at the same time a sufficient number 
 of shoots are left at whole length to 
 produce fruit in the following year; at 
 the succeeding autumn these latter are 
 cut down to very short spurs, and the 
 long shoots that have pushed from the 
 spurs are trained at whole length as 
 before, and so on annually in alternate 
 
GRA 
 
 GRA 
 
 succession. This method recommends 
 itself by its simplicity, by the old wood 
 of the vine being annually got rid of, 
 by the small number of wounds inflicted 
 in the pruning, by the clean and hand- 
 some appearance of the vine, and by 
 the great ease with which it is managed, 
 in consequence of its occupying but a 
 small portion of the wall. 
 
 " 1st. In pruning, always cut up- 
 wards, and in a sloping direction. 
 
 "2d. Always leave an inch of blank 
 wood beyond the terminal bud, and let 
 the cut be on the opposite side of the 
 bud. 
 
 " 3d. Prune so as to leave as few 
 wounds as possible, and let the surface 
 of every cut be perfectly smooth. 
 
 "4th. In cutting out an old branch, 
 prune it even with the parent limb, that 
 the wound may quickly heal. 
 
 " 5th. Prune so as to obtain the quan- 
 tity of fruit desired on the smallest 
 number of shoots possible. 
 
 " 6th. Never prune in frosty weather, 
 nor when a frost is expected. 
 
 " 7th. Never prune in the months of 
 March, April, or May. Pruning in either 
 of these months causes bleeding, and 
 occasions thereby a wasteful and an in- 
 jurious expenditure of sap. 
 
 " 8th. Let the general autumnal prun- 
 ing take place as soon after the 1st of 
 Oetober as the gathering of the fruit 
 will permit. 
 
 ''Lastly, use a pruning-knife of the 
 best description, and let it be, if pos- 
 sible, as sharp as a razor." — Hoare on 
 the Vine. 
 
 In the spring next after the planting, 
 two buds only having been left, remove 
 the one which shoots the most weakly, 
 and rub ofFall others but 
 that one selected to re- 
 main as often as they ap- 
 pear. Nail the shoot to 
 the wall as often as it ex- 
 tends six inches beyond 
 the previous shred. In 
 November cut the vine so 
 as to leave only two buds. 
 In the second spring ma- 
 nage as before, and in the 
 November cut down to 
 three buds; the vine will 
 then appear thus : Fig. 72. 
 
 The third spring retain two shoots, 
 treating as before. In September pinch 
 off their tops, and in November prune 
 them so as to retain some buds. 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 The fourth spring in February remove 
 the 1, 2,4, 5, and 6 buds, bending the 
 shoots down horizontally thus : 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 and training the shoots from buds 3 and 
 7 as there represented. Prune and train 
 as before directed during the summer, 
 removing also superfluous shoots, and 
 in November cut back a and c to about 
 eight or twelve buds according to the 
 stiength of the vine; and b and d so as 
 to leave only one bud on each. In the 
 fifth spring train the shoots from these 
 single buds in the same waving form as 
 before. 
 
 " The vine," says Mr. Hoare, to 
 whose valuable work I am indebted 
 for most of the preceding directions, 
 " has now assumed the form which it 
 is permanently to retain, and the man- 
 ner in which it is trained may be con- 
 sidered as the commencement of a sys- 
 tem of alternately fruiting two shoots, 
 and training two at full length for bear- 
 ing wood in the following year; which 
 method may be continued every year 
 without any alteration until the capacity 
 of the vine is equal to the maturation 
 of more fruit than can possibly be borne 
 by two single shoots, which, on an aver- 
 age, may be estimated at sixty pounds 
 weight annually. Several years must 
 elapse before this will be the case; but 
 when it is, the arms may be easily 
 lengthened by the training in of a shoot 
 at their extremities, and managing it in 
 the same manner as when the arms of 
 the vine first formed. It is very advis- 
 able, however, that the vine should not 
 be suffered to extend itself further on 
 the wall, for in such case, the bearing 
 shoots emitted from the centre are sure 
 to decline in strength ; whereas, by 
 confining the dimensions of the vine to 
 a single arm on each side of the stem, 
 and each arm to the support and nou- 
 rishment of two branches only, the very 
 best description of bearing shoots will 
 never fail to be generated close at home, 
 
GRA 
 
 265 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 GRA 
 
 and these, as the vine advances in age, 
 will become prolific almost beyond con- 
 ception. I have often ripened as many 
 as seven full sized bunches of grapes on 
 two shoots which have pushed from a 
 single bud, on vines managed in this 
 manner. Indeed, those who have been 
 accustomed to permit their vines to 
 cover a large space of walling, and to 
 possess a great number of branches, 
 can scarcely imagine how much easier a 
 vine is managed, and with what cer- 
 tainty the fruit is increased in quantity, 
 and improved in quality." — Hoare on 
 the Vine. 
 
 Thinning. — When the vine has be- 
 come fruitful, in August, it must have 
 the berries of each branch thinned until 
 not more than half their original num- 
 ber remain. It is best done with a 
 sharp-pointed pair of scissors, and care 
 being taken to remove the smallest 
 berries. This increases the weight and 
 excellence of the bunches, for two ber- 
 ries will always outweigh four grown 
 on the same branchlet of a bunch, be- 
 sides being far handsomer, and having 
 more juice as compared with husks. 
 The average weight of the bunches on 
 a vine may be taken, when ripe, at 
 half a pound each, and with this data 
 it is easy to carry into practice Mr. 
 Clement Hoare's excellent rule for pro- 
 portioning the crop to the size of the 
 vine. If its stem, measured just above 
 the ground, be three inches in circum- 
 ference, it may bear 5 lbs. weight of 
 grapes. 
 
 3i inches 10 lbs. 
 
 4 « 15 
 
 4^ » 20 
 
 5 » 25 
 
 And so five pounds additional for every 
 half inch of increased circumference. 
 
 VINES IN GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 Training here must be the same as 
 in the hot-house, and the points besides 
 to be attended to are : — 
 
 " 1. To train the vines to the rafters, 
 or otherwise, so that they shall not 
 overshadow the interior before the end 
 of May. 2. To empty the green-house 
 of all green-house plants after that pe- 
 riod, and to take every possible pains 
 to get the wood ripe ; you cannot have 
 grapes without well-ripened wood. If 
 vines are very late in growing, they 
 will require fire-heat in autumn, in 
 order to ripen their wood, in many 
 
 seasons. Vines and green-house plants 
 do not agree very well ; but under such a 
 system they may be kept from quarrel- 
 ling much." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 VINES IN HOT-HOUSE. 
 
 Varieties. — The proportions the dif- 
 ferent vines should bear to each other, 
 in order to secure the best succession 
 and a constant supply, are three Black 
 Hamburgh's ; two White Muscats of 
 Alexandria; one White and one Black 
 Frontignan ; one Black Prince, and one 
 Black St. Peter's. 
 
 Construction of Vinery. — For the 
 general principles applicable to the 
 construction of this and all other hot- 
 houses, see the titles Stove, Trellis, fyc. 
 
 Borders. — These may be formed 
 eight feet broad, of a soil similar to 
 that recommended for the open wall 
 vines, with the same attention to ma- 
 nuring and drainage. 
 
 Planting and Pruning. — The prac- 
 tice of Mr. Mearns in this particular is 
 very good : — 
 
 " The vines are planted inside the 
 house at two feet and a half apart, 
 nearly close to the front wall, and are 
 headed down to within a foot of the 
 soil. One shoot only is allowed to pro- 
 ceed from each plant, which at the end 
 of the first season is cut down to the 
 second or third eye. Next year two 
 leading shoots are encouraged, the 
 strongest of which is stopped when it 
 has grown three or four joints beyond 
 the middle of the roof, and the weaker, 
 after having grown three or four feet, 
 for the purpose of strengthening the 
 eyes. At the fall of the leaf, the lead- 
 ing shoots are reduced, the main one 
 to the length of the middle of the roof, 
 and the lower one to the third eye. In 
 the third season, one leading shoot is 
 trained in from each shoot, and from 
 the leading shoot fruit-bearing side 
 shoots are produced. One bunch is left 
 on each, and the shoot stopped at one 
 or two joints above it. No side shoots 
 are allowed to proceed from the spur, 
 the leading shoot from which is to be- 
 come the bearing wood for the next 
 year. Thus, in the autumn of the third 
 season the lower part of the house is 
 furnished with a crop of grapes from 
 shoots proceeding from wood of the 
 preceding year, and parallel to this 
 bearing shoot on each vine is the young 
 shoot for the next year's crop. 
 
GR A 
 
 GR A 
 
 " In winter, the shoot from the ex- 
 tremity of the bearing branch is cut off 
 at the top of the roof, or within twelve 
 or fifteen inches of it, and the shoot 
 from the spur is cut down to the mid- 
 dle of the roof, and all the spurs which 
 had borne the grapes are now cut out. 
 Each vine is now furnished with two 
 shoots of bearing wood, a part of old 
 barren wood, and a spur for producing 
 a young shoot the following year. In 
 the fourth summer a full crop is pro- 
 duced, both in the upper and lower 
 half of the house. The longer shoot 
 bearing on the upper half of its length, 
 and the shorter on its whole length; a 
 leading shoot is produced from the short 
 shoot, and another from the spur. 
 
 " In the pruning season of the fourth 
 year, the centre shoot is entirely re- 
 moved, and replaced by the side shoot, 
 now the whole length of the roof, and 
 this side shoot is in its turn supplanted 
 by the shoot from the spur, while a spur 
 is prepared to succeed it. 
 
 " Summer Pruning. — Mr. Mearns 
 gives the following directions : — ' Stop 
 the bearing branches at the bunch, in- 
 stead of the next joint above it, which 
 is the usual practice ; for I found that 
 the fruit did equally well, and it divest- 
 ed the branch of an incumbrance, while 
 it allowed a much larger portion of light 
 to come into the house, together with a 
 more free circulation of air among the 
 fruit and young wood. I blind all the 
 eyes on each fruit spur as soon as they 
 push above a joint or two, before I 
 pinch them back, always cautiously re- 
 taining one eye; and am particularly 
 cautious that nothing should happen to 
 injure the leaf that accompanies the 
 bunch, for if that is lost, the fruit of 
 course will come to nothing.'" — Hort. 
 Soc. Trans. 
 
 Forcing. — This is sometimes com- 
 menced in September, but the close of 
 the next month is sufficiently early. 
 Mr. Appleby, of Macclesfield, gives 
 the following very full and excellent 
 directions : — " In places where there 
 are a number of houses devoted to the 
 vine, it is possible to have ripe grapes 
 all the year round. To accomplish this 
 completely, six houses are necessary, 
 though it may in some degree be done 
 with three. In the former case, the 
 first house ought to be started at the 
 end of October, the second on the first 
 of December, and so on, the first day 
 
 of every month till April. Where there 
 are but three houses, it will be early 
 enough to commence the first house in 
 November, the second in February, 
 and the third in April. To cause the 
 vines to break equally all the length of 
 the shoot, tie them down to the front 
 windows, until the buds are all expand- 
 ed, that one part of it may not be more 
 excited than another. 
 
 " When every bud has pushed, care- 
 fully separate the vines one by one; 
 and as it is convenient, regulate the 
 shoots, stop them, and thin the number 
 of branches, and do all that is required. 
 Then tie them up loosely to the rafter; 
 and should they hang down a foot from 
 the glass, it is an advantage, especially 
 during the early part of the season." 
 
 Syringing and Steaming. — " During 
 the time of forcing the vine (unless they 
 are in blossom) and the ripening of the 
 fruit, syringe them freely with rain- 
 water, morning and evening, all over; 
 also steam the houses by pouring water 
 on the pipes or flues, to keep up a 
 moisture in theair. It is beneficial to 
 the growth of the plant, swells the ber- 
 ries, and keeps down the red spider. 
 While the vines are in blossom, refrain 
 from syringing, but use the steam freely. 
 
 " When the berries begin to colour, 
 also cease syringing; but use the steam 
 a fortnight longer, though only at night. 
 As soon as the grapes are nearly ripe, 
 keep as dry an atmosphere as possible, 
 both to give the fruit a good flavour, 
 and to ripen the wood." 
 
 Covering the Border. — "This in the 
 early part of the forcing season is ab- 
 solutely necessary, using either light 
 horse-litter, or fresh-gathered leaves. 
 No frost must be allowed to reach the 
 stems or roots; if it does, the vines 
 will droop when the sun shines, and 
 the bunches will be crippled, and per- 
 haps never come out properly. A tar- 
 paulin is useful to cover the litter and 
 dung, to keep' off the heavy rains and 
 snow." 
 
 Temperature. — " Commence forcing 
 the vine with a low temperature. The 
 first week keep up the heat to 50o, the 
 second to 60°, the third to 65°, and the 
 fourth to 70 Night temperature about 
 1(P lower. A good rule is 60o for vines 
 in leaf, and 70° when blooming and 
 ripening fruit; the night temperature 
 may then be 20o lower." 
 
 Setting the Fruit. — " To effect the 
 
GR A 
 
 267 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 GRA 
 
 setting of the fruit, and more especially 
 in the earlier part of the forcing season, 
 use a camel-hair pencil to disperse the 
 pollen on the stigmas. Some kinds of 
 grapes have very little pollen, while 
 others have plenty to spare. In this 
 case take a sheet of white paper, and 
 hold it under the bunch that has abund- 
 ance of pollen, gently shake the bunch, 
 and then with the camel-hair pencil ap- 
 ply the pollen to such kinds as are defi- 
 cient." 
 
 Thinning the Berries. — As soon as 
 the berries are set and begin to swell, 
 it is time to thin them. For this opera- 
 tion there are proper scissors, with long 
 handles and short blades. Provided 
 with these, some good soft matting, and 
 with something to catch the berries in, 
 (which make excellent vinegar or tarts, 
 &c.,) commence the operation by tying 
 up the shoulders of such bunches as 
 require it, to the wires on each side of 
 the rafter ; or, if the bunches are very 
 large, fasten some thin narrow lath to 
 the rafter, to tie the shoulders to. 
 
 Some persons use a thin piece of 
 lath notched at each end, to prop the 
 shoulders off" from the main body of the 
 bunch; but I do not like this plan so 
 well as the matting, the props being apt 
 to drop out. 
 
 In order to have large berries, thin 
 very freely, so much so, that the bunches 
 look like skeletons. Of course thin ac- 
 cording to the kind ; some sorts under 
 the best management do not swell to 
 such a size as others ; hence it is ne- 
 cessary to know the medium size to 
 which every variety will swell, and thin 
 accordingly. 
 
 Watering the Roots. — Use manure 
 water alternately with clear water. If 
 the border be well watered once a week, 
 it is sufficient. Remember to place 
 boards to walk on, and as soon as the 
 water has sunk in, and the surface be- 
 comes rather dry, go over it with a 
 Dutch hoe and rough rake ; the more 
 frequently it is stirred the less water it 
 will take ; if, however, it is so smooth 
 as to let the water run off, instead of 
 sinking in, point the surface over with 
 a fork and leave it rough. 
 
 Covering the Vines in Winter. — 
 " When the vines are not covered with 
 glass in consequence of other fruits 
 being grown in the house, protect them 
 from severe frost; hay-bands may be 
 used, and long straight wheat straw ; 
 
 the tarpaulin is the best, as it keeps 
 them dry, and of course renders them 
 more able to endure frost." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Vines in Pots. — The first week in 
 February is the best time for planting 
 the cuttings of vines in pots, to remain 
 in cultivation in them. If intended to 
 be fruited next season, plant the cut- 
 tings in thirty-twos, selecting well- 
 ripened shoots, with only one plump 
 bud, and cutting the shoot at each end 
 down to about one inch and a half of 
 the bud. Bury this bud in the earth, 
 composed of equal parts of fresh light 
 turfy soil and decayed leaves. Plunge 
 in a bottom heat of 90° ; temperature 
 of frame 60° to 90°. In April, shift to 
 the fruiting pots, twos or fours, accord- 
 ing to the strength of plant desired. 
 Soil, two parts light turfy loam, and one 
 part old night-soil. Temperature, 60° 
 to 80°. Place the pots so near the 
 roof, that the shoots may be at once 
 trained near the glass as they advance. 
 Best length for the shoots, from four to 
 six feet, though they will bear even ten 
 feet ; therefore stop each when a foot 
 longer than required for next season. 
 Manure water must be employed to 
 sustain the growth of the vines, and 
 every means adopted to ripen the wood. 
 Early in September, the pots may be 
 placed out of doors, on the north side 
 of a wall, and laid on their sides, to 
 hasten the vines into a state of rest. 
 In November, they may be returned 
 under glass, and forcing commenced 
 to ripen a crop by the end of March. 
 If strong, and grown in No. 2 pots, 
 seven bunches may be left upon a Ham- 
 burgh, eight upon a Muscadine, but 
 upon weaker plants only about halt 
 those numbers. 
 
 Mr. W. Stothard, gardener at Chant- 
 rey House, in 1841, gives these direc- 
 tions : — " When the vines that are let 
 into the house have reached the top of 
 the rafters, instead of stopping the lead- 
 ing shoot, as is commonly done, and 
 often too soon, which causes the eyes 
 to burst, and renders them useless for 
 the succeeding year, turn the shoot 
 back, and having ready a pot of suitable 
 size, well drained and filled with fresh 
 turfy loam and rotted dung, of equal 
 parts, place it upon the back shelf or 
 wall of the pit, and as soon as the young 
 shoot has attained a sufficient length to 
 be laid into the pot, cut out two or three 
 
GRA 
 
 GRA 
 
 eyes, and as many of its leaves, and 
 scrape off a little of the bark the whole 
 length of the part intended for roots, 
 which is bent into the pot, and covered 
 with mould to the depth of six or seven 
 inches. No attention is required, ex- 
 cepting to train the shoot as it advances 
 in growth, and keep the mould in the 
 pot a little moist, to encourage the 
 emission of roots, which will appear in 
 a fortnight or three weeks, and soon 
 fill the pot. When the shoot is laid in 
 the pot. allow it to grow from four to 
 eight feet long, according to the strength 
 of the parent vine, to which leave it 
 attached until it has done growing, and 
 perfectly ripened its wood. 
 
 " Should there not be a sufficient 
 quantity of leaders, place pots under 
 the rafters at mostconvenient situations, 
 and likewise on the front flue; but the 
 shoots that are laid in these pots never 
 suffer to exceed five feet in length. 
 When the plants are severed from the 
 parent vines, put them out under a wall, 
 where they are protected from frosts, 
 and take into the house as required for 
 forcing; at that time shift into pots 
 about a foot over and fourteen inches 
 deep, to remain until the fruit is cut, 
 after which they may be thrown away, 
 sure of a fresh supply of plants every 
 year by the same process." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Mr. H. Burn, gardener of Tottenham 
 Park, gives the following particulars of 
 his mode of cultivating the vine in pots: 
 — " I invariably set the eyes in thumb 
 pots on the first ofFebruary, and putting 
 moss about two and a half inches deep 
 on the flue at the back of the pine pits, 
 I place the pot upon it, keeping the 
 moss always moist. 
 
 " As soon as the bud or eye has grown 
 and become well furnished with roots, 
 I repot into sixty-sized pots, and con- 
 tinue afterwards to shift as fast as the 
 pots become filled with roots ; from 
 sixties to forty-eights, thirty-twos, twen- 
 ty-fours, sixteens, and twelve-sized pots 
 successively; and lastly, into bushel- 
 pots, which I have made for the purpose. 
 I encourage rapidity of growth as much 
 as possible, by feeding them with liquid 
 manure made from cows' and deers' 
 dung ; and during the whole time keep 
 a good drainage at the bottom of the 
 pots. The soil I used is nothing more 
 than three-fourths strong turfy loam, 
 and one-fourth horse-dung; from the 
 
 linings of the pine pits select the most 
 decayed parts of the manure. 
 
 "I usually allow the shoots to run to 
 the extent of thirteen eyes, and then 
 stop them. 
 
 " By the middle of September the 
 wood becomes ripened, and I then 
 prune them back to the ninth eye, and 
 remove them from the pinery to the 
 open air, setting them under a south 
 wall, on bricks placed edgewise, so as 
 to admit free drainage. On the first of 
 November, I generally take in fifty-pots 
 for forcing; (this I have occasionally 
 done on the first of October ;) when they 
 are washed with soft soap and sulphur. 
 
 "After all the eyes have shown fruit, 
 I select from six to eight of the best 
 bunches to remain, and pluck off the 
 others, never allowing one eye to bear 
 more than one bunch. I syringe the 
 vines gently with warm water three 
 times a week, and water them twice a 
 week with the liquid manure. Should 
 they, however, occasionally require 
 more moisture, I give them nothing 
 more than soft water about milk warm. 
 I invariably fruit annually from 100 to 
 120 vines, taking in after the first fifty 
 the rest in succession. 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 " The above engraving represents a 
 transverse section of the vinery, with 
 bed for tree leaves to decay and heat; 
 frame-work for the support of front 
 trough sixteen inches wide at the top, 
 and ten inches deep, and the wire un- 
 der the rafters on which the vines are 
 trained." — United Gard. and Land 
 Steward's Journ. 
 
GRA 
 
 GR A 
 
 Vines in Frames. — We have the fol- 
 lowing information on this mode of cul- 
 ture : — " It is well adapted for gardens 
 where the quantity of glass is limited, 
 and is practised by Mr. Dawson, gar- 
 dener to Lord Ducie, at the Hoo, Hert- 
 fordshire. About the first week in April, 
 a bed of partly decayed dung, to which 
 a small quantity of raw material is add- 
 ed , so as to produce a slight heat, is 
 made at about eighteen inches from the 
 wall in front of the selected vines. 
 
 " This bed is built sufficiently deep 
 to admit of its being about three feet 
 high, after settling. The frame used by 
 Mr. Dawson separates into two portions, 
 so that the lower part can be first placed 
 upon the bed. It contains a trellis upon 
 which the vines are trained, fixed about 
 a foot above the surface of the dung. 
 The upper portion of the frame can be 
 afterwards put on and secured to the 
 lower by small brackets. The advan- 
 tage of having the frames constructed 
 in this way is the ease and safety with 
 which the vine can be taken in ; since, 
 in introducing the shoots of a vine 
 through a hole cut in the back of a 
 frame of ordinary construction, the 
 buds would be liable to be rubbed off. 
 No more care is required, except in 
 stopping, thinning, &c. Air is given 
 freely, but no linings to the bed are re- 
 quired. In severe weather a covering 
 is put on, but this is not generally re- 
 sorted to. By pursuing the above me- 
 thod, fruit of good quality has been cut 
 by the latter end of August, for which 
 Mr. Dawson has obtained several prizes 
 at local horticultural exhibitions." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 DISEASES. 
 
 Shanking is a moist gangrene, at- 
 tacking and destroying the stalk of the 
 grapes, arising apparently from the tem- 
 perature of the soil being unsuitably 
 below that in which the branches are 
 vegetating. 
 
 Warts on Leaves. — Dr. Lindley says, 
 " The appearance of warts on their 
 under side, is most probably caused by 
 damp atmosphere and rich soil, and 
 may be conceived to arise thus: the 
 water which the leaves derive from the 
 stem, and absorb from the atmosphere, 
 is unable to escape again, in conse- 
 quence of the air that surrounds them 
 being continually loaded with moisture; 
 the result of this is, that the water ac- 
 
 cumulates in the interior of the leaves, 
 and swells them up in the form of warts. 
 The presence of the latter on the under 
 side only, is owing to perspiration from 
 the vines, taking place principally by 
 that surface, which is, moreover, much 
 softer and looser in texture than the 
 upper surface." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Rust. — The rust of the vine is a dis- 
 ease which attacks the grapes, covering 
 them with a tough brown skin, which 
 is incapable of natural extension, and 
 which stops their growth. Wherever 
 the disease appears, the crop is injured 
 or even ruined. Various causes have 
 been suggested as the origin of this 
 disease; but the true origin I believe 
 to be a sudden unhealthy reduction of 
 temperature whilst the grapes are young. 
 From one frosty night I have seen the 
 fruit of apple trees infected with a very 
 similar induration of the skin. 
 
 Bleeding. — If pruned late in the spring 
 the vine is very liable to bleed at this 
 season. A red hot iron applied to the 
 wound until it is partially charred will 
 stop the effusion of sap for a time, and 
 to render the cure permanent, the place 
 should be well rubbed and coated with 
 a paste made of newly burnt lime and 
 grease. This hardens and forms an ef- 
 fectual plaster. 
 
 Shrivelling arises in the berries from 
 a want of sap. It is caused by several 
 modes of bad cultivation, as excess of 
 wet and cold to the roots ; over-heating 
 and subsequent reduction of tempera- 
 ture in the house ; and by thinning the 
 leaves erroneously. 
 
 Insects infesting the Vine. — See Scale, 
 Thrips, Wasp, SfC. 
 
 GRAPE HYACINTH. Muscari. 
 
 GRAPE PEAR. Amelanchier Bo- 
 tryapium. 
 
 GRASS MOTH. See Chamas. 
 
 GRASS-PLOT, correctly speaking, is 
 a parterre, or beds of flowers, arranged 
 with grass-turf between them, instead 
 of gravel. It is usually confounded with 
 Lawn, which see. 
 
 GRASS RAKE. See Lawn Rake. 
 
 GRATIOLA. Six species. Hardy 
 or green-house herbaceous perennials. 
 Division. Rich moist soil. 
 
 GRAVEL WALKS, like all other 
 Walks, (vide,) require a good substratum 
 of drainage, and the facing of about five 
 inches deep of gravel. It must have no 
 stones mixed with it larger than good- 
 
GR A 
 
 270 
 
 — 4 
 
 GRE 
 
 sized marbles, and about one-fourth of 
 it must be much smaller. If a portion 
 of clay is by nature or art incorporated 
 with the gravel, it will bind more firmly, 
 and present when rolled a more com- 
 pact and even surface. 
 
 The following is an excellent plan to 
 make or turn gravel walks in dry weather. 
 If of a sandy or gravelly nature strew a 
 little clay or marl upon the walks. When 
 turned over take away all large stones, 
 and place them at the bottom of the 
 mass. Immediately after you have le- 
 velled the walk apply the roller, and let 
 an assistant follow, pouring upon it wa- 
 ter from a watering pot with coarse rose ; 
 in twenty-four hours after, if the wea- 
 ther is dry, it will be as solid as a stone 
 floor. The writer has had ocular de- 
 monstration of the fact in twenty in- 
 stances in the driest weather. — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 The best method of extirpating grass 
 which springs up from beneath a gravel 
 walk and spreads over its surface, is to 
 break up the walk, and pick out care- 
 fully all the under-ground runners which 
 may be met with. Where it is not de- 
 sirable to disturb the walk, the best 
 way is to spread salt in considerable 
 quantities over its whole surface ; and 
 if after the first application it is found 
 that portions of the grass still exist, let 
 another coating of salt be applied, 
 which will effectually destroy it. Care 
 must be taken, however, if the walk 
 is edged with box, that the salt does 
 not come in contact with it, otherwise 
 it will destroy the edging also. 
 
 " In the early part of April, gravel 
 walks are usually turned ; and practice 
 has taught that there is a right as well 
 as a wrong way, even for the perform- 
 ance of this simple operation. After 
 the walk has been broken up and level- 
 led, and a facing of new gravel spread 
 over, this ought to be left for three or 
 four days, and until a shower of rain 
 has fallen, before the roller is used. 
 This bleaches the gravel, and washes 
 down the fine particles, so that, imme- 
 diately after rolling, the walk is solid, 
 and has a clean bright surface." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Dr. Lindley has proposed a substi- 
 tute for gravel in the construction of 
 walks, which will get rid of most of 
 the annoyances attendant upon gravel; 
 for, formed of this material, they will 
 never be troubled by worms or weeds, 
 
 and will never require rolling. They 
 may be made of the same arched form; 
 and if, at the time of making, the surface 
 be sprinkled with fine bright coloured 
 gravel, they will be as handsome as if 
 formed entirely of that material. 
 
 The composition recommended must 
 be made and laid down in perfectly dry 
 weather. 
 
 " Procure a quantity of road-sand, or 
 similar powdery material— finely sifted 
 lime-rubbish will do — and let it be tho- 
 roughly dried, so that it feels like dust 
 when handled : also sift out ofthe cinders 
 from the dwelling-house, &c, the finer 
 parts, and let these be also made per- 
 fectly dry ; mix these carefully, two 
 parts road-sand to one of ashes. In a 
 dry place, on a dry day, spread a quan- 
 tity of the mixture, as a bricklayer 
 spreads his lime, with a hollow in the 
 middle. Into this hollow pour some 
 coal-tar, boiling hot. Incorporate the 
 whole with a shovel, as if making mor- 
 tar, and when a thick paste, spread it 
 three or four inches thick over the 
 ground, laid out for the walk or floor. 
 The ground should previously be beaten 
 down as firm and as level as possible. 
 Powder it all over with dry and rather 
 coarse sand, after which a few passages 
 of the roller will press it level. Leave 
 it for a few days to harden, after which 
 the walk is fit for use, and will last for 
 very many vears." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 GREAT "BURNET. Sanguisorba. 
 
 GREAT CENTAUREA. Centaur ea 
 centaurium. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. This is a winter- 
 residence for plants that cannot endure 
 the cold of our winter, yet do not re- 
 quire either the high temperature or 
 moist atmosphere of a stove [i. e. hot- 
 house] . 
 
 " The first thing to be attended to in 
 its construction," says Mr. H. Fortune, 
 ofthe Chiswick Gardens, " is the choice 
 of a proper situation. South is the best 
 aspect, or as nearly that as possible : 
 south-west or south-east will do, or even 
 east or west ; but on no account should 
 it ever face the north. Green-houses 
 should be fixed in situations where they 
 will not be shaded from the sun by any 
 part of the dwelling-house, or other 
 buildings, and should also be quite free 
 from large trees. They should not 
 be placed near trees for another reason 
 than being shaded by them, namely, 
 the glass in the roof being apt to be 
 
GRE 
 
 271 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 GRE 
 
 broken by the rotten branches which 
 are sent down during high winds. 
 
 "Another most desirable considera- 
 tion is, to make arrangements for a 
 constant supply of rain-water. This is 
 very easily done when the house is 
 building. Gutters are wanted to carry 
 the wet off the roof; and, in so doing, 
 letit be brought into a tank in the house, 
 and used for watering the plants. Slate- 
 tanks may be used for this purpose, or 
 they may be built of brick and cement- 
 ed over on the inside. This will be 
 economy in the end ; and the water 
 collected in this way is much to be 
 preferred to many kinds obtained from 
 springs. 
 
 " A drain should be made to enable 
 the tank to be emptied at pleasure, and 
 into which the water used in washing 
 out the house can be swept, without 
 running into the tank." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 The following is the plan of a green- 
 house erected at Yester, the seat of the 
 Marquis of Tweedale, and which an- 
 swers perfectly. 
 
 " In ordinary severe weather, while 
 the thermometer, in the open air during 
 night, ranges between 20° and 30°, no 
 difficulty is found in keeping the tem- 
 perature to any point required between 
 50° and 80°, which is quite sufficient. 
 The stove is heated with coke ; and 
 during a period while the thermometer 
 ranged between 60° and 76°, the cost 
 did not exceed 2s. 6d. per month. The 
 fuel consumed during the time was ten 
 bushels. We do not know what is the 
 principle of the stoye, but it resembles 
 an Arnott, and stands within the house, 
 which is twenty-five feet long, twelve 
 feet broad, and thirteen feet high. 
 
 " a a, back wall ; b b, mouths of cold 
 air stove, d ; e e, a few descending steps 
 by which it is supplied from the outside 
 with fuel, through an opening in the 
 wall, as shown in the plan. On the 
 same level there is a place, /, for con- 
 taining coke, as represented by the 
 dotted lines; g g is a brick casing, 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 formed in lengths of two feet each, and 
 neatly joined together; they are open 
 at top, and have movable covers. In- 
 to this casing the heated air from the 
 stove is first received, and afterwards 
 distributed at pleasure. In addition to 
 the heat given off in this way, the brick 
 casing, from retaining the hot air, toge- 
 ther with the flue-pipe passing through 
 it, becomes so hot as to give off a large 
 quantity in a radiating form. 
 
 " In the figure, two of the flue covers 
 are removed to show the surface of the 
 iron water-troughs, fitted on the flue- 
 pipe, and resting on the bottom of the 
 brick-casing, better seen in the sectional 
 view. The troughs are only filled with 
 the heated air when it is wanted in a 
 humid condition ; in other cases the 
 humidity from the cistern h, which sup- 
 plies water for the ordinary purposes of 
 the house, will be sufficient ; i and j 
 are wood wedges inserted on one side 
 of the covers to raise them, more or 
 less, in proportion to the quantity of 
 heat required : k is the termination of 
 the flue-pipe, where it ascends, crossing 
 the house above the door, and entering 
 the back wall into the chimney. When 
 the house is to be heated, it is only ne- 
 cessary to light the fire in the stove d, 
 and open one of the cold air-drains 6 c, 
 as in the present instance the internal 
 one, b, is open. The arrows represent 
 the cold air flowing towards the stove, 
 where it enters below, and after travers- 
 ing a numerous formation of winding 
 channels in a heated state, discharges 
 itself into the brick-casing, g g, above 
 the flue-pipe, from which it escapes as 
 heretofore mentioned. 
 
 " When the cold air is taken from 
 the external drain, c, the internal one, 
 b, is closed ; a regulation, however, 
 which is entirely at the discretion of 
 the superintendent of the house : r, 
 the regulator in the ash-pit of the stove, 
 the handle of which is turned so as to 
 admit a greater or less quantity of air, 
 by which the combustion of fuel in the 
 stove is regulated : s s and m m, venti- 
 lating grates ; n n, rods of iron sus- 
 pended to the frames of the top win- 
 dows to open and shut them ; g, a sys- 
 tem of small rods for conveying the 
 drip from, the inside of the roof to the 
 cistern, h; p, cover of stove-pit : it is 
 hinged, and readily thrown back when 
 admission to the stove is wanted. 
 " For ordinary-sized plant or fruit- 
 
GRE 
 
 272 
 
 GRE 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 houses, the above method of heating 
 will be found quite sufficient. Where 
 very large structures are required to 
 be heated, any additional quantity may 
 be procured by means of hot water- 
 pipes supplied from a boiler placed 
 within the patent stove. The pipes 
 may be conveyed in a different direction 
 from the hot-air flue. The boiler, al- 
 though heated with the stove-furnace, 
 requires no additional fuel." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 On a larger scale is the green-house 
 at Kew; but as the same principles 
 and arrangements may be adopted on a 
 smaller scale, I give the following ex- 
 tracts from the details published by 
 Dr. Lindley : — 
 
 " The general arrangement is excel- 
 ent. None of the door-ways are placed 
 in direct continuation of the walls ; but 
 they are either formed immediately op- 
 posite the principal masses of plants, 
 or obliquely with respect to the walks ; 
 so that the eye necessarily rests upon the 
 foliage as 6oqn as the house is entered. 
 
 " Then, again, at the point where the 
 houses join each other, a semicircular 
 stage is thrown forward, by which the 
 disagreeable effect of a long narrow 
 walk, in a small house, is completely 
 removed. 
 
 " The house is span-roofed, and illus- 
 trates the great advantage of this kind 
 of construction over the wretched lean- 
 tos, which were formerly in fashion. 
 We need not say that one of the ad- 
 vantages of a span-roofed house is, that 
 plants are exposed to light in all direc- 
 tions : but, all-important as is that pro- 
 
 perty, it by no means forms the only 
 valuable feature in them. Plants can 
 be easily reached and easily removed ; 
 the appearance of the interior is very 
 much improved, and no space is wasted. 
 In a common glass shed, at least one 
 half is useless — that is to say, the whole 
 of that part which is next the back wall. 
 Here, on the contrary, every portion of 
 the interior, except the walks, is ren- 
 dered available. 
 
 " The construction of the roof is 
 excellent. It rises at an angle of 30o, 
 which is exactly that best suited for 
 houses of such a description ; the raft- 
 ers are very light, and of a better form 
 than any we have previously seen. We 
 will not pretend to say why they pro- 
 duce so good an effect; for words will 
 never convey an adequate idea of the 
 cause of the beauty of such objects. 
 Perhaps it is their lightness ; probably 
 it is the two combined. Lightness of 
 appearance has been combined with 
 strength by the addition of an iron rod 
 to the lower edge of the rafter, in the 
 place of a head. 
 
 " In order to strengthen the roof and 
 to provide for the cultivation of climb- 
 ers, all the rafters are connected by 
 means of curved iron rods, which them- 
 selves add much to the beautiful ap- 
 pearance of the interior. This mode 
 of combining strength and decoration 
 may of course be varied, but it will not 
 be improved. 
 
 " Another important thing in the ar- 
 rangements is the ample provision for 
 receiving in tanks the rain-water that 
 falls on the roof of the building : this 
 is raised for use by means of small 
 hand-pumps. 
 
 " It must be apparent that such a 
 house as this is precisely what is most 
 generally wanted by those who build 
 green-houses. If a large space is re- 
 quired, it is easy to lengthen any of 
 the arms; if more variety is desired, 
 another cross house could be readily 
 added to the smaller one. Should it be 
 too large, as will more frequently be 
 the case, the smaller arm may be co- 
 pied or the larger, as the case may be. 
 If a stove is wanted instead of a green- 
 house, it would only be necessary to 
 inclose the stages, to put hot water 
 troughs into the chamber so obtained, 
 and to add evaporating- pans to the 
 pipes which are carried round the walls. 
 
 " In short, it appears to us that in 
 
GRE 
 
 273 
 
 GRE 
 
 this one house are contained illustra- 
 tions of all the more important objects 
 which are in the majority of cases to be 
 attained in green-house building. 
 
 " It should be added, that the upright 
 sides of the house are glazed with panes 
 of sheet-glass, in one length ; and that 
 each of the roof sashes has but two panes 
 in its length; this no doubt adds very 
 much to its beautiful appearance." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 The plan given of the green-house at 
 Yester is a lean-to, but the same system 
 of heating is adaptable to a span-roofed 
 house. This form is to be preferred on 
 many accounts. Thus, as the practice 
 is most injurious to have the tempera- 
 ture of the hot-house too elevated dur- 
 ing the night, so no less injurious, in 
 winter, is it to permit tender plants in 
 the green-house or elsewhere, which 
 may have been subjected to a freezing 
 temperature, to be suddenly exposed to 
 a higher degree of heat. Experience 
 has placed it beyond dispute that such 
 plants should be shaded from the sun, 
 and thus returned very slowly to a more 
 genial temperature. So convinced by 
 experiment of the importance of secur- 
 ing plants in green-houses from sudden 
 transitions is Mr. Macnab, the curator 
 of the Caledonian Horticultural Socie- 
 ty's garden, that he has those structures 
 ranging north and south, and consequent- 
 ly with a western and eastern aspect. 
 They have two aspects, because he has 
 them with span roofs, instead of the old 
 lean-to form. For green-houses, but 
 not for forcing, there is no doubt that 
 this form is to be preferred ; and Mr. 
 M'Nab thus enumerates its advantages : 
 " In a span-roofed house the circulation 
 of air may be constantly kept up so as 
 effectually to prevent damp. For such a 
 green-house fire heat is scarcely at all 
 required; for, if there be a free circu- 
 lation of air during the autumn and 
 winter months, and if the tables and 
 shelves be carefully kept dry and clean, 
 water being sparingly given to such 
 plants only as require it, cold, even 
 descending to freezing occasionally the 
 surface of the soil, will do less injury 
 than the application of fire heat to most 
 plants. In the case of plants frozen in 
 a lean-to house, and others in a span- 
 roofed house extending north and south, 
 the consequences were much the least 
 injurious in the latter, for in it the in- 
 fluence of the sun was much less felt; 
 18 
 
 as he proceeded towards the meridian, 
 the astragals and rafters formed a shade, 
 and air being given, the plants survived 
 and soon recovered ; in the leaTi-to 
 house they blackened and perished." 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 
 
 DWARFS SUITABLE FOR BEDDING IN THE 
 HOUSE. 
 
 Acacia armata. 
 Chorozema varium. 
 Sollya heterophylla. 
 Templetonia glauca. 
 Pultenea daphnoides. 
 Statice arborea. 
 Pimelea decussata. 
 Oxylobium retusum. 
 Loddigesia oxalidifolia. 
 Epacris grandiflora. 
 
 impressa. 
 
 Corraaa speciosa. 
 Euchilus obcordatum. 
 Hovea Celsi. 
 Chironia frutescens. 
 Diosma rubra. 
 Eutaxia myrtifolia. 
 Eriostemon buxifolium. 
 Dillwynia floribunda. 
 Boronia denticulata. 
 Genista canariensis. 
 Polygala oppositifolia. 
 Coleonema tenuifolia. 
 Lambertia formosa. 
 
 CLIMBERS FOR THE BACK WALL. 
 
 Clematis azurea grandiflora. 
 Sieboldi. 
 
 Cobosa scandens. 
 Maurandya Barclayana. 
 Kennedya Maetryaltae. 
 
 SELECT PLANTS FOR THE SHELVES. 
 
 Boronia pinnata, serrulata, and anemo- 
 
 nefolia. 
 Polygala oppositifolia and cordifolia. 
 Gardoquia Hookeri. 
 Roelia ciliata. 
 Hovea celsi and pungens. 
 Chorozema varium, Dicksoni, 
 
 Henchmanni. 
 Mirbelia floribunda. 
 Aphelexis humilus. 
 Pimelea spectabilis, decussata, and 
 
 hispida. 
 Bossioea linophylia. 
 Eutaxia myrtifolia. 
 Dillwynia floribunda. 
 Luculia gratissima. 
 Leschenaultia formosa and biloba. 
 Coleonema tenuifolia. 
 
 and 
 
GRE 
 
 274 
 
 GRE 
 
 Genista canadensis. 
 
 Sprengelia incarnata and Croweasaligna 
 
 together with the different kinds of 
 Acacia. 
 Corraea. 
 Camellia. 
 Azalea, &c. 
 
 Climbers may consist of- — 
 Kennedya Maryettse. 
 Hardenbergia monophylla and macro 
 
 phylla. 
 Sollya linearis. 
 
 Gompholobium polymorphum. 
 Zichya glabrata. 
 Tropoeopium brachyceras, tricolor, and j 
 
 azureum. 
 Mandevillia suaveolens. 
 Dolichos lignosus. 
 Clematis azurea grandiflora. 
 Veronica speciosa. 
 Chorozema varium nanum. 
 Pimelia spectabilis. 
 Hovea pungens. 
 Leschenaultia grandiflora. 
 Mirbelia dilatata. 
 Statice Dickensoni. 
 Tropceolum azureum. 
 Tetranema mexicanum. 
 Habrothamnus fasciculatus. 
 
 cyaneus. 
 
 Boronia crenulata. 
 Eriostemon buxifolium. 
 Gompholobium versicolor. 
 Tecoma jasminoides rosea. 
 Echeveria secunda. 
 Hardenbergia macrophylla. 
 
 SWEET-SCENTED GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 
 
 Aloysia citriodora. 
 Daphne odora. 
 Gardenia radicans. 
 Jasminum grandiflorum. 
 Luculia gratissima. 
 Heliotrope. 
 
 Common Orange, of which the Brigadier 
 multiflora is one of the best. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS FLOWERING IN 
 AUTUMN. 
 
 Hedychium Gardinerianum (which does 
 best when planted in the border of 
 the house). 
 
 Mimulus glutinosus. 
 
 Leonotis Leonurus. 
 
 Bouvardia splendens. 
 
 Achimenes longiflora. 
 
 Chironia frutescens. 
 
 Swainsonia galegifolia. 
 
 alba. 
 
 Mandevilla suaveolens. 
 
 Lilium lancifolium and its varieties. 
 Sollya linearis. 
 Leschenaultia formosa. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE BULBS. 
 
 Oxalis Bowei and versicolor. 
 Lachenalia tricolor. 
 Sparaxis tricolor and grandiflora. 
 Tritonia palida, crispa, and squalid a. 
 Ixia patens, viridiflora, aristata, and 
 
 crocata. 
 Watsonia fulgida. 
 Hypoxis elegans. 
 
 Green-house plants are chiefly kept 
 in pots or tubs for moving them into 
 shelter in winter, and into the open air 
 in summer ; for being all exotics from 
 warmer parts of the world, they are not 
 able to live in the open air in the 
 winter. 
 
 Most of them will prosper in any 
 good rich garden earth. Some sorts, 
 however, require a particular compost. 
 As to the pots and tubs to contain the 
 plants, they must be of different sizes, 
 according to that of the plants ; and 
 when these become too large for pots, 
 they must be shifted into tubs, hooped 
 with iron, and with handles at top to 
 each, of the same metal. See Flower 
 Pots and Potting. 
 
 Removing into the open air. — All the 
 sorts succeed in the open air from May 
 or beginning of June until October ; but 
 from October until May or June again 
 they require the shelter of the green- 
 house. The varieties of Myrtle, Gerani- 
 um, Oleander, Cistus, Phlomis, Shrubby 
 Aster, Tree Wormwood, Tree Candy 
 Tuft, Yellow Indian and Spanish Jas- 
 mines, Indian Bay, are the first that will 
 bear removal into the air; and in June, 
 accordingly as the season proves more 
 or less favourable, bring forth all the 
 others. But this should not be done 
 until there is a fair prospect of summer 
 being settled. 
 
 It is a good observation that when the 
 Mulberry tree begins to expand its 
 leaves this is a certain sign of the ap- 
 proach of summer, and settled weather 
 fit to begin moving out most sorts of 
 green-house exotics. A mild warm day 
 should be chosen for this work, and if 
 during a warm rain it will be of much 
 advantage, as it will wash the leaves 
 and branches, and greatly refresh the 
 plants. 
 
 When they are first brought out it is 
 proper to place the plants in some shel- 
 
GRE 
 
 275 
 
 — ♦- 
 
 GRE 
 
 tered sunny place for a fortnight, till 
 they are inured to the open air, and 
 then in any open exposure, where they 
 are designed to remain for the summer. 
 As soon as they are brought out let 
 them be cleared from dead leaves and 
 dead wood, and let the earth on the 
 surface of the pots be stirred, taking a 
 little of the old out and adding some 
 fresh in its stead ; then give a moderate 
 watering, not only to the soil but also 
 over the heads of the plants. Supply 
 them with water during that season, in 
 hot dry weather. All except the suc- 
 culent will require it three times a week 
 at least, and in a very hot dry season 
 once a day will be requisite. The suc- 
 culent kinds must also have a moderate 
 supply of water twice a week in dry 
 weather, observing that the proper time 
 of the day for watering all the sorts at 
 this season is either in a morning before 
 nine o'clock, or in the afternoon after 
 four or five. Moderate rains should not 
 deter from watering, especially such 
 plants as have spreading heads, as these 
 prevent the rains, unless very heavy or 
 constant, from falling in sufficient quan- 
 tities on the earth of the pots to moisten 
 it properly. In hot weather, if some 
 mowings of short grass, or moss, which 
 is neater, are spread on the surface of 
 the Orange Tree tubs and others, it will 
 greatly preserve the moisture. During 
 the season loosen the surface of the 
 earth occasionally. 
 
 Removing into the Green-house. — To- 
 wards the latter end of September, or 
 as soon as the nights become cold, be- 
 gin to return into the green-house the 
 more tender kinds, and especially the 
 succulents should be removed to shelter 
 at the first approach of excessive wet 
 and cold nights. 
 
 The Oranges, Lemons, and all the 
 other species of Citrus, should also be 
 moved into shelter in due time, either 
 at the end of September or early in 
 October. 
 
 Continue moving in the others as the 
 cold increases, and by the end of the 
 month or first week of November bring 
 in the whole collection ; observing, ac- 
 cording as the time approaches for mov- 
 ing in the different sorts, to clear them 
 perfectly well from decayed leaves, &c, 
 and let all the pots be well cleaned, 
 and loosen the surface of the earth in 
 each pot, adding a little fresh soil. 
 Their principal culture now will be, 
 
 supplying them with fresh air at all op- 
 portunities in mild weather, and giving 
 moderate waterings occasionally, pick- 
 ing off decayed leaves as often as they 
 appear, and making moderate fire3 in 
 severe or foggy weather. 
 
 When the plants are first housed, 
 they should have as much free air as 
 the nature of the season will admit, by 
 opening the windows every mild day to 
 their full extent ; and if the air is quite 
 temperate, they may remain open at 
 nights for the first week : but in cold 
 nights let them be constantly shut. This 
 work of admitting air must be attended 
 to all winter. 
 
 The proper time of day, during the 
 winter, for admission of air is from 
 about eight, nine, or ten in the morn- 
 ing till three in the evening, according 
 to the mildness of the weather ; but 
 as the days lengthen and the warmer 
 season advances, give more air in pro- 
 portion earlier and later in the day, as 
 you shall judge proper, being careful 
 always to shut all close every evening 
 as soon as the sharp air approaches. 
 In foggy weather it is advisable to keep 
 the windows quite close, for the great 
 damp occasioned by fogs is very perni- 
 cious to plants whilst they are confined 
 in the house ; likewise in frosty weather 
 keep the house close, unless the frost 
 is moderate, and the middle of the day 
 sunny and warm, when some of the 
 windows may be opened a little, but 
 shut close again if the sun is clouded. 
 In severe weather let the shutters also 
 be closed every night, and occasionally 
 in severe days, and be particularly 
 careful to water with great moderation 
 whilst the plants remain in the green- 
 house. 
 
 A sunny day from about eleven to two 
 o'clock, is then the proper time for 
 watering. (Abercombie.) 
 
 See January and other months for the 
 routine work. 
 
 GREEN MANURE is a mass of re- 
 cently growing plants dug whilst green 
 and fresh into the soil, for the purpose 
 of enriching it; and it is a rule without 
 any exception, that all fresh vegetable 
 matters so turned into the earth do 
 render it more fertile, and if plants are 
 grown upon the soil for this purpose, 
 the greater the amount of the surface 
 of leaves in proportion to that of roots 
 the better, because such plants obtain a 
 large proportion of their chief constitu- 
 
GRE 
 
 276 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 GRO 
 
 ent, — the chief constituent of all plants, 
 carbon, — from the atmosphere : they, 
 therefore, return to the soil more de- 
 composing matter than they have taken 
 from it. 
 
 The putrefaction of the vegetables, 
 and the gases in that case emitted, says 
 my brother, Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, 
 " appear to be on all occasions highly 
 invigorating and nourishing to the suc- 
 ceeding crop. During this operation, 
 the presence of water is essentially ne- 
 cessary, and is most probably decom- 
 posed. The gases produced vary in 
 different plants ; those which contain 
 gluten emit ammonia ; onions and a few 
 others evolve phosphorus ; hydrogen, 
 carbonic acid gas, and carburetted hy- 
 drogen gas, with various vegetable 
 matters, are almost always abundantly 
 formed. All these gases when mixed 
 with the soil are very nourishing to the 
 plants growing upon it. The observa- 
 tions of the farmer assure us that they 
 are so. He tells us that all green ma- 
 nures cannot be employed in too fresh 
 a state, that the best corn is grown 
 where the richest turf has preceded it, 
 and that where there is a good produce 
 of red clover there will assuredly follow 
 an excellent crop of wheat ; he finds 
 also that when he ploughs in his crop of 
 buckwheat to enrich his land, that this 
 is most advantageously done when the 
 plant is coming into flower." — Farm. 
 Encyc. 
 
 Sea Weed is a species of green ma- 
 nure, for it ought to be employed 
 whilst quite fresh. There are many 
 species, and they differ very essentially 
 in their components. The Laurinarice , 
 those long, tawny-green, ribbon-like 
 algae so common on our coasts, contain 
 besides vegetable matter a large pro- 
 portion of the salts of potash in addition 
 to those of soda ; whereas the Fuci con- 
 tain none of the salts of potash. All, 
 however, are excellent manures, and I 
 know a garden, near Southampton, very 
 productive, that for some years has had 
 no other manure. It is particularly 
 good as a manure for potatoes. The 
 Fucus vesiculosus, so distinguishable by 
 the bladders full of air embedded in its 
 leaves, is a very excellent manure. It 
 contains, when dry, about 84 parts ve- 
 getable matter, 13 parts sulphate of 
 lime and magnesia, with a little phos- 
 phate of lime, and 3 parts sulphate and 
 muriate of soda. 
 
 The advantage of green manure is 
 practically understood by thousands of 
 our farmers, who, though they may be 
 unable to philosophize upon the subject 
 or refer to its true chemical cause, fully 
 appreciate its value. 
 
 The great desideratum of those who 
 aim at enriching the soil, is to produce 
 clover, — that attained, the rest is easy. 
 Clover, when turned in, prepares the 
 land for every description of crop, and 
 places the whole under the control of 
 the husbandman. 
 
 GREVILLEA. Forty-two species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
 cuttings, and some species, seeds. 
 Sand, loam and peat. 
 
 GRIFFINIA. Three species. Stove 
 bulbous perennials. Offsets. Seeds. 
 Turfy loam, white sand and peat. 
 
 GRINDELIA. Nine species. Chiefly 
 green-house evergreen shrubs. G. an- 
 gustifolia and G. squamosa are herba- 
 ceous perennials, and G. ciliata a hardy 
 annual. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 GRISLEA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
 peat and loam. 
 
 GROBYA Amherstia. Stove orchid. 
 Division. Wood. 
 
 GROTTO, is a resting place, formed 
 rudely of rock-work, roots of trees, 
 and shells, and is most appropriately 
 placed beneath the deep shade of woods, 
 and on the margin of water. Its inten- 
 tion is to be a cool retreat during sum- 
 mer. 
 
 GROUND CHERRY. Cerasus Cha- 
 mcecerasus. 
 
 GROUND CHRISTA. Cassia Cha- 
 mcechrista. 
 
 GROUND CISTUS. Rhododendron 
 Chamcecistus. 
 
 GROVE, is a moderately extensive as- 
 sociation of trees without underwood. 
 
 " The character of a grove is beauty; 
 for fine trees are lovely objects, and a 
 grove is an assemblage of them, in 
 which every individual retains much of 
 its own peculiar elegance, and whatever 
 it loses is transferred to the superior 
 beauty of the whole. To a grove, 
 therefore, which admits of endless vari- 
 ety in the disposition of the trees, differ- 
 ences in their shapes and their greens are 
 seldom very important, and sometimes 
 they are detrimental. Strong contrasts 
 scatter trees which are thinly planted, 
 and which have not the connexion of 
 underwood ; they no longer form one 
 
GRO 
 
 277 
 
 ♦ 
 
 GUA 
 
 plantation ; they are a number of single 
 trees. A thick grove is not, indeed, ex- 
 posed to this mischief, and certain situ- 
 ations may recommend different shapes 
 and different greens for their effects up- 
 on the surface. The eye, attracted into 
 the depth of the grove, passes by little 
 circumstances at the entrance; even 
 varieties in the form of the line do not 
 always engage the attention, they are 
 not so apparent as in a continued thick- 
 et, and are scarcely seen if they are not 
 considerable. 
 
 "But the surface and the outline are not 
 the only circumstances to be attended 
 to. Though a grove be beautiful as an 
 object, it is, besides, delightful as a 
 spot to walk or to sit in ; and the choice 
 and the disposition of the trees for 
 effect within are therefore a principal 
 consideration. Mere irregularity alone 
 will not please, strict order is there 
 more agreeable than absolute confusion, 
 and some meaning better than none. 
 A regular plantation has a degree of 
 beauty; but it gives no satisfaction, be- 
 cause we know that the same number 
 of trees might be more beautifully ar- 
 ranged. A disposition, however, in 
 which the lines only are broken, with- 
 out varying the distances, is less natural 
 than any ; for though we cannot find 
 straight lines in a forest, we are habitu- 
 ated to them in the hedge-rows of fields ; 
 but neither in wild nor in cultivated 
 nature do we ever see trees equidistant 
 from each other; that regularity be- 
 longs to art alone. The distances, there- 
 fore, should be strikingly different; the 
 trees should gather into groups, or stand 
 in various irregular lines, and describe 
 several figures ; the intervals between 
 them should be contrasted both in shape 
 and in dimensions ; a large space should 
 in some places be quite open, in others 
 the trees should be so close together as 
 hardly to leave a passage between them ; 
 and in others as far apart as the con- 
 nexion will allow. In the forms and 
 the varieties of these groups, these 
 lines, and these openings, principally 
 consists the interior beauty of a grove." 
 — Whateley. 
 
 GROWTH. It may be taken as a 
 universal maxim in gardening, that slow 
 growth and smallness of size increases 
 the intensity of flavour, and that rapidity 
 of growth and increase of size render 
 flavour more mild. Fruit, therefore, 
 should be ripened slowly, and be pre- 
 
 m- 
 
 ferred of a moderate size ; but culinary 
 vegetables should be grown rapidly, 
 and of as gigantic a size as may be. 
 
 GRYLLOTALPA. See Mole- 
 Cricket. 
 
 GUAIACUM. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings. Rich 
 loam. 
 
 GUANO. This now celebrated ma- 
 nure has been known as the chief fer- 
 tilizer employed by the Peruvians, 
 almost as long as that part of the New 
 World has been recognized by geo- 
 graphers. Its name, in the language of 
 that country, signifies the manure — and 
 it merits such distinction, as being one 
 of the most powerful assistants to vege- 
 tation which can be applied to the soil. 
 Guano is not peculiar to Peru, but is 
 found in immense beds upon many rocks 
 and islands of the Atlantic, being the 
 excrements of the marine birds fre- 
 quenting those ocean solitudes. It has 
 been lately analyzed by Dr. Ure, who 
 reports it as composed of the following 
 proportional constituents :- 
 Azotized organic matter, 
 including urate of am- 
 monia, and capable 
 affording from 8 to 17 >50.0 
 per cent, of ammonia I 
 by slow decomposition I 
 in the soil ... .J 
 
 Water 11.0 
 
 Phosphate of lime . . 25.0 
 Ammonia, phosphate of") 
 magnesia, phosphate of | 
 ammonia, and oxalate l , « n 
 of ammonia, contain- ( 
 ing from 4 to 9 per cent. [ 
 of ammonia J 
 
 Siliceous matter ... 1.0 
 This analysis explains the source from 
 whence failure has been derived to 
 many who have tried it. It is the most 
 violently stimulating of all the known 
 natural manures, and they have applied 
 it too abundantly. This is shown by 
 the experiments of Mr. Maund. When 
 applied to Strawberries once a week in 
 a liquid state, (four ounces to a gallon,) 
 it made them very vigorous and pro- 
 ductive; but sprinkled upon some young 
 seedlings of the same fruit it killed them. 
 Two ounces per yard, (five cwt. per 
 acre,) were sprinkled over Onions, and 
 they doubled the untreated in size. 
 Potatoes manured with one ounce and a 
 half per yard, were rendered much 
 more luxuriant than others having no 
 
GU A 
 
 278 
 
 GYP 
 
 guano. Brussels Sprouts were half 
 destroyed by being planted in immedi- 
 ate contact with nine parts earth and 
 one part guano. Geraniums were 
 greatly injured by liquid manure of 
 guano, (four ounces per gallon,) but 
 " Plants of various sorts in pots, water- 
 ed only with guano water, half an ounce 
 to a gallon, have flourished astonish- 
 ingly; none have failed. These are 
 lessons which cannot be mistaken." — 
 Auctorium, 223. Mr. Rendle and other 
 persons record, as the result of dearly- 
 purchased experience, that where guano 
 has failed to be beneficial, or has been in- 
 jurious, it has been applied in quantities 
 too powerful for the plants to bear. In 
 a liquid state, half an ounce per gallon, 
 and given to growing plants once a week, 
 it never fails to be productive of vigour. 
 
 There is reason to fear that all 
 the advantages attributed to Guano, 
 may not be realized. That it has pro- 
 duced striking effects on certain crops 
 cannot be questioned — especially on 
 grass, wheat and Indian corn ; but we 
 are far from subscribing to the opinion 
 of those who in their zealous praise of 
 this new fertilizer, assert that it is 
 cheaper to buy it, than haul manure 
 from the barn-yard to the fields! 
 
 There are many crops on which it 
 appears to produce but little effect: 
 The writer has used over two tons of 
 what was reputed to be the best Peruvian 
 guano, in experiments, chiefly on 
 Kitchen garden vegetables carefully no- 
 ting the quantity applied, mode, &c, but 
 in nearly every instance without per- 
 ceiving any important result. — Doubt- 
 less much depends on the soil, and the 
 presence or absence of those constitu- 
 ents which abound in guano— where 
 they already exist in the soil, in suf- 
 ficient quantity, no benefit can result 
 from its application. 
 
 GUATTERIA. Five species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs or trees. Cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 GUAVA. Psidium. 
 
 GUAZUMA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 GUELDER ROSE. Viburnum opulus. 
 
 GUERNSEY LILY. Nerine sar- 
 niensis. 
 
 GUETTARDA. Seven species. 
 Stove evergreen trees. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 GUILANDJNA. Two species. Stove 
 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings or seeds. 
 Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 GUINEA-PEACH. Sarcocephalus. 
 
 GUINEA-PLUM. Parinarium excel- 
 sum. 
 
 GUM ARABIC TREE. Acacia ara- 
 bica. 
 
 GUM CISTUS. Cistus Ladaniferus. 
 
 GUM TREE. Eucalyptus robusta. 
 
 GUMMING. See Extravasated Sap. 
 
 GUSTAVIA augusta. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Rich soil. 
 
 GUZMANNIA tricolor. Stove her- 
 baceous perennial. Suckers. Rich 
 mould. 
 
 GYMNADENIA. Four species. 
 Hardy orchids. Division. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 GYMNEMA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 GYMNOCLADUS canadensis. Hardy 
 deciduous tree. Cuttings. Open loamy 
 soil. 
 
 GYMNOGRAMMA. Fourteen 
 species. Stove herbaceous perennials. 
 Division. Loam and peat. 
 
 GYMNOLOMIA. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 GYMNOSTACHYS anceps. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennials. Suckers. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 GYNANDROPSIS. Six species. 
 Hardy or stove annuals and biennials. 
 Seeds. Sandy loam. 
 
 GYPSUM, or Plaster of Paris, is a 
 sulphate of lime, composed of- — 
 
 Sulphuric acid 43 
 
 Lime 33 
 
 Water 24 
 
 It has been employed advantageously 
 as a manure to the turnip and potato, at 
 the rate of 3 cwt. per acre. Potato sets 
 are frequently rolled in it when pulver- ' 
 ized. It has been recommended to be 
 sprinkled in stables, and to be mixed 
 with dunghills, " to fix the ammonia," 
 as it is popularly termed. That am- 
 moniacal fumes are given out from the 
 urine of horses, and from decomposing 
 dungheaps, is true ; but it is quite as 
 true, that sulphate of lime thus em- 
 ployed will not detain a thousandth part 
 of them, owing to the sulphuric acid 
 having a greater affinity for the ammonia 
 than for lime, and carbonic acid having 
 a greater affinity for lime than for am- 
 monia. And it is also true, that all the 
 ammonia lost in fumes from a dunghill 
 
GYP 
 
 279 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 HAL 
 
 might be more readily and as cheaply 
 restored to it by mixing with it, when 
 dug into the soil, a little of the am- 
 moniacal liquor from the gas works. 
 Gypsum is extensively used in Pennsyl- 
 vania and in many cases with the best 
 results. For its introduction originally 
 we are indebted to the late Judge Peters; 
 from a " short notice" of whom, by 
 Samuel Breck, Esq., we extract the fol- 
 lowing: 
 
 " As a practical farmer, Mr. Peters 
 had from time to time communicated 
 the results of the experiments made at 
 Belmont, to such of his neighbours as 
 chose to profit by them ; but he had not 
 written much, if anything, upon agri- 
 culture, before the year 1797. His first 
 publication was then made, and con- 
 tained a statement of facts and opinions 
 in relation to the use of Gypsum. This 
 pamphlet circulated widely, and pro- 
 duced such a change in husbandry, by 
 introducing the culture of clover, and 
 other artificial grasses, as gave, we all 
 know, a magical increase to the value 
 of farms. Estates which until then were 
 unable to maintain stock, for want of 
 winter fodder, and summer pasture, 
 were suddenly brought into culture, and 
 made productive. Formerly, on a farm 
 destitute of natural meadow, no stock 
 could be supported ; and even where 
 natural meadow existed, the barn yard 
 was exhausted to keep up sufficient 
 fertility, (in the absence of irrigation,) 
 to feed a very few horses and black 
 cattle. 
 
 " Such was the situation of our hus- 
 bandry, for some years after the revolu- 
 tion. It is proper to advert to it, that 
 we may understand the full extent of 
 our obligation to the Judge. In the 
 year 1770, he was shown the effects of 
 gypsum on clover, in a city lot, occupied 
 by Mr. Jacob Barge, on the commons 
 of Philadelphia. 
 
 " The secret of its powerful agency 
 came from Germany, where it was ac- 
 cidentally discovered. Mr. Peters ob- 
 tained a small quantity, which he used 
 successfully, and gradually promoted 
 its consumption, until, by his example, 
 and his publications, the importation 
 from Nova Scotia alone, into the single 
 port of Philadelphia, increased to the 
 enormous amount of fourteen thousand 
 tons annually. This was before the 
 discovery of that fossil in the United 
 States. 
 
 " Inquire in the counties of Chester, 
 Lancaster, and others around us, where 
 clover is so beneficially cultivated, how 
 much is due to that excellent man, for 
 the great pains he took to extend the 
 use of gypsum ? On this subject, I very 
 recently transmitted to the Judge, a 
 testimonial of gratitude from one of the 
 most intelligent persons of Lancaster ; 
 who unhesitatingly ascribes to Mr. 
 Peters' book on plaster, and his other 
 agricultural essays, the merit of having 
 produced a good part of the rich culti- 
 vation, for which that country is so 
 celebrated." 
 
 GYRENIA biflora. Half-hardy bulb- 
 ous perennials. Division. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 GYROCARPUS. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 HABENARIA. Ten species. Stove 
 orchids. Division. Leaf-mould and 
 peat. 
 
 HABRANTHUS. Fourteen species. 
 Green-house and hardy bulbs. Offsets 
 and seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 H^MADICTYON venosum. Stove 
 evergreen twiner. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 H^MANTHUS. Twenty-one 
 species. Green-house bulbs. Offsets. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 H^MILIS. See Tinea. 
 
 H^MODORUM. Two species. 
 Green-house herbaceous. Division. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 HA-HA, is a sunk fence, being placed 
 at the bottom of a deep and spreading 
 ditch, either to avoid any interruption 
 to an expanse of surface, or to let in a 
 desired prospect. As all deceptions are 
 unsatisfactory to good taste, and as 
 when viewed lengthwise these fences 
 are formal and displeasing, they ought 
 never to be adopted except in extreme 
 cases. 
 
 HAIR. See Animal Matters. 
 
 HAKEA. Forty-eight species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 HALESIA. Snowdrop Tree. Three 
 species. Hardy deciduous shrubs. Cut- 
 tings and layers. Common soil. 
 
 HALF-HARDY PLANTS are those 
 which require partial shelter, as in a 
 cold pit or frame, during the winter. 
 Here some attention is required to ex- 
 clude from them dampness and frost, 
 but especially the first. On these points 
 
HAL 
 
 280 
 
 HAN 
 
 Mr. W. Wakefield gives these good 
 directions : — 
 
 " To prevent dampness there must 
 be a free circulation of air; the plants 
 must be placed on a dry bottom ; and if 
 they are in a situation which will admit 
 of a fire occasionally, it will render the 
 pits or house dry, but it should be used 
 very sparingly, and only when abso- 
 lutely necessary. But even with all 
 care and attention, damp will attack 
 some plants, and generally those that 
 are most succulent in their nature, or 
 the young and tender tops of others. 
 We should therefore watch narrowly 
 and remove every leaf or shoot affected, 
 as damp not only destroys the indi- 
 vidual immediately affected, but ex- 
 tends its influence to those in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the one so affected. It is 
 contagious; it engenders mould, which 
 being a species of fungus, is rapidly dis- 
 seminated, attacking and destroying 
 wherever the damp has prepared the 
 leaves for its reception. Neither should 
 plants be too much crowded, as that 
 obstructs the free circulation of air. 
 
 " Watering should of course be done 
 sparingly, but still it will be required 
 occasionally. Care, however, should 
 be taken to preserve the foliage as dry 
 as possible, as, there being but little sun 
 in winter, and that not of sufficient 
 strength to evaporate the superabundant 
 moisture rapidly, it quickly rots the 
 leaves, especially of Pelargoniums, and 
 similar plants having leaves which form 
 a kind of dish in which the water ac- 
 cumulates in considerable quantities. 
 
 " When fire is had recourse to for dry- 
 ing the house or pits, choose a fine day, 
 and give all the air possible, so that 
 the moisture dislodged by the heat may 
 be dispersed. 
 
 "If the season is likely to be dry, 
 first make a hole for the plant, and in 
 the bottom of this put some rotten dung, 
 or any sort of material that will retain 
 water. Water this well, and then put 
 in the plant, filling the hole to within 
 two inches of the surface ; again water 
 well, and then fill up the hole. 
 
 " If obliged to water the plants after- 
 wards, cause the beds to be hoed over 
 next day as soon as they are dry enough ; 
 plants do better under this treatment 
 than by watering them so much as is 
 usually done when there is no appear- 
 ance of damp on the leaves over late in 
 the evening." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 HALIMODENDRON. Three species. 
 Hardy deciduous shrubs. Layers and 
 seeds, or grafts on Robinia. Sandy loam. 
 
 HALLERIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Rich 
 sandy loam. 
 
 HALTICA. See Black Fly. 
 
 HAMAMELIS. Witch Hazel. Two 
 species. Hardy deciduous trees. Lay- 
 ers. Common soil. 
 
 HAMBURGH PARSLEY. SeePars- 
 ley (Hamburgh). 
 
 HAMELIA. Five species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 HAMILTONIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 HANBURY. SeeAmbury. 
 
 HANDBARROW is best made of 
 this form : — 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 The cage below is useful for carrying 
 leaves and other litter ; and when the 
 close moveable cover is on, it serves as 
 a conveyance for plants in large pots or 
 tubs, which, when in flower or bearing 
 fruit, might be too violently shaken in a 
 wheelbarrow. 
 
 HAND-GLASS is a portable glass- 
 case used for sheltering cauliflowers 
 and other plants in winter, and during 
 early spring, or to retain a regular 
 supply of moisture to cuttings until 
 they are rooted. The most durable 
 and convenient are made with cast iron 
 framing of this form : — 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 They are sometimes made with movea- 
 ble tops as here represented, but the 
 only advantage it affords is, that several 
 of the lower portions may be placed 
 
HAN 
 
 HE A 
 
 upon each other to protect any tall 
 growing shrub in severe weather, other- 
 wise they are more troublesome to move, 
 and more liable to breakage than if 
 made entire. 
 
 HAND- WEEDING: much of it might 
 be banished from the garden, if in the 
 kitchen department all crops were in- 
 serted in drills. This is most desirable ; 
 for the stirring of the surface conse- 
 quent to hoeing, is much more beneficial 
 to the crops, and cannot be repeated 
 too frequently. 
 
 HAPALOSTEPHIUM. Eight species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Division and seed. 
 Sandy rich soil. 
 
 HARDENBERGIA monophylla is a 
 green-house climber, the cultivation of 
 which is thus narrated by Mr. G. Wat- 
 son : — 
 
 " Train with five leading shoots, one 
 from the centre of the pot, to which a 
 long, small, neat stick is placed ; the 
 other four being fastened to four similar 
 sticks at regular distances round the 
 edge of the pot. From each of these 
 leading shoots proceed numerous side- 
 branches which are densely covered 
 with flowers. When the plant has done 
 blooming, which is by the end of May 
 or beginning of June, still allow it to 
 remain in the green-house until the 
 shoots are well ripened. During this 
 time the plant is watered sparingly ; 
 for it is only by moderating the supply 
 of water that we can imitate those pe- 
 riodical seasons of rest to which this, 
 as well as all other exotic plants, is ex- 
 in its native climate. 
 By the first week in August it is 
 taken from the green-house and well 
 soaked with water, then placed in the 
 open air in a sheltered situation, but 
 fully exposed to the sun, being double 
 potted to prevent the sun's rays from 
 destroying the small fibres, which are 
 the principal feeding Organs. 
 
 " The whole of the side shoots are 
 pruned to one or not more than two 
 eyes, and the leading shoots cut back 
 according to their strength, so as to call 
 into action the whole of the remaining 
 buds. As soon as the new shoots are 
 from one to two inches in length, the 
 plant is taken from the pot and nearly 
 the whole of the soil is shaken from its 
 roots ; the stronger roots are at the 
 same time cut back to smaller fibres. 
 It is then repotted in a new or clean 
 washed pot, thoroughly drained. 
 
 "The soil in which it thrives well is 
 chopped turfy heath-mould, mixed with 
 a little sand. After forcing it is placed 
 in a shady place for a short time, and 
 by degrees exposed fully to the sun, 
 being taken into the green-house by the 
 end of September." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 HARDY PLANTS are those which 
 endure uninjured our seasons without 
 protection. Half-hardy Plants are those 
 which require a temporary protection 
 during the colder portions of the year. 
 
 HAREBELL. Campanula rotundi- 
 folia. 
 
 HARES and RABBITS are deterred 
 from injuring trees and shrubs by mixing 
 night-soil and clay in water, and daub- 
 ing it over the stems with a brush, in 
 November ; and if the winter proves 
 very wet, in February. The November 
 dressing is, however, generally suffi- 
 cient. This mixture has stopped their 
 depredations entirely, even when they 
 had commenced operations. — Gard. 
 Chron . 
 
 HARE'S-EAR. Bupleurum. 
 
 HARE'S-FERN. Davallia canari- 
 ensis. 
 
 HARE'S-FOOT. Ochromalagopus. 
 
 HARONGA madagascariensis. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 HARPALYCE. Four species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 HARRISONIA loniceroides. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 HARTOGIA capensis. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 HAUTBOY. See Strawberry. 
 
 HAWK FLY. See Scjeva. 
 
 HAWKWEED. Rieracium. 
 
 HAWORTHIA. Sixty-two species. 
 Green-house succulents. Suckers or 
 cuttings of leaves. Sandy loam and 
 leaf-mould. 
 
 HAWTHORN. Cratagus. 
 
 HAWTHORN BUTTERFLY. See 
 Pieris. 
 
 HAYLOCKIA pussilia. Half-hardy 
 bulb. Offsets. Sandy loam. 
 
 HAZEL. Corylus avellana. 
 
 HEADING, or as it is also termed 
 Cabbaging or Loaving, is an inaptitude 
 to unfold the central leaves, character- 
 izing the various members of the Cab- 
 bage tribe. They have their centre or 
 bud composed of a larger number of 
 leaves than usual, and these, in some 
 
HE A 
 
 HEA 
 
 instances, are so complexly combined 
 that the plant has not sufficient power 
 to force them open to permit the pro- 
 trusion of the seed-stem. The close- 
 ness of the heading is regulated by the 
 exposure to the light. In a shady situ- 
 ation all the leaves are required to ela- 
 borate the sap, on account of the defi- 
 cient light rendering each less active ; 
 therefore they open as they are formed. 
 In a free exposure a few leaves are able 
 to effect the requisite decomposition ; 
 and hence the reason why cabbages al- 
 ways have " harder hearts" in summer 
 than in spring or autumn, when the 
 light is less intense. 
 
 HEADING-DOWN is cutting off en- 
 tirely or to a considerable extent, the 
 branches of a tree or shrub — a process 
 not rashly to be resorted to, and adapted 
 only to reduce them when the plant 
 seems declining in vigour, or has attain- 
 ed an undesirable size. 
 
 HEART'S-EASE. See Pansy. 
 
 HEAT is the prime agent employed 
 by the Almighty Creator to call vege- 
 table life into existence, to develop 
 vegetable form, to effect all vegetable 
 changes, and to ripen all vegetable 
 produce. All these effects are per- 
 formed most efficiently, in the case of 
 every plant, at some different tempera- 
 ture or degree of heat; and he who 
 ascertains most correctly those heats, 
 has taken a gigantic step towards ex- 
 cellence as a gardener. An uncongenial 
 heat is as pernicious to vegetables as to 
 animals. Every plant has a particular 
 temperature without which its functions 
 cease ; but the majority of them luxuri- 
 ate most in a climate of which the 
 extreme temperature does not much 
 exceed 32° and 90°. No seed will 
 vegetate — no sap will circulate — at a 
 temperature at or below the freezing 
 point of water. No cultivation will 
 render pi ants, natives of the torrid zone, 
 capable of bearing the rigours of our 
 winters, although their offspring, raised 
 from seed, may be rendered much more 
 hardy than their parents. Others are 
 capable of resisting the greatest known 
 cold to which they can be exposed ; yet 
 all have degrees of temperature most 
 congenial to them, and if subjected to 
 lower temperatures, are less or more 
 injured proportionately to the intensity 
 of that reduction. If the reduction of 
 temperature be only slightly below that 
 which is congenial, it only causes the 
 
 growth of the plant to diminish and its 
 colour to become more pale ; this effect 
 being now produced by the plant's tor- 
 pidity, or want of excitement to perform 
 the requisite elaboration of the sap, as 
 it is by over-excitement when made to 
 vegetate in a temperature which is too 
 elevated. 
 
 If blossoms are produced at all, they 
 are unfertile, and the entire aspect o 
 the plant betrays that its secretions are 
 not healthy and its functions are dead- 
 ened. Mr. Knight says, "that melon 
 and cucumber plants, if grown in a 
 temperature too low, produce an excess 
 of female blossoms; but if the tempera- 
 ture be too high, blossoms of the oppo- 
 site sex are by far too profuse." The 
 drier the air the greater is the amount 
 of moisture transpired ; and this be- 
 comes so excessive, if it be also pro- 
 moted by a high temperature, that 
 plants in hot-houses, where it has oc- 
 curred often, dry up as if burned. The 
 justly lamented Mr. Daniell has well 
 illustrated this by showing, that if the 
 temperature of a hot-house be raised 
 only five degrees, viz. from 75° to 80°, 
 whilst the air within it retains the same 
 degree of moisture, a plant that in the 
 lower temperature exhaled fifty-seven 
 grains of moisture, would in the higher 
 temperature, exhale one hundred and 
 twenty grains in the same space of 
 time. 
 
 Plants, however, like animals, can 
 bear a higher temperature in dry air 
 than they can in air charged with va- 
 pour. Animals are scalded in the lat- 
 ter if the temperature is very elevated, 
 and plants die, under similar circum- 
 stances, as if boiled. MM. Edwards 
 and Colin found kidney-beans sustained 
 no injury, when the air was dry, at a 
 temperature of 167° ; but they died in 
 a few minutes if the air was moist. 
 Other plants under similar circum- 
 stances, would perish probably at a 
 much lower temperature ; and the fact 
 affords a warning to the gardener to 
 have the atmosphere in his stoves very 
 dry whenever he wishes to elevate their 
 temperature for the destruction of in- 
 sects or other purposes. 
 
 Some plants, like some animals, are 
 able to endure a very high degree of tem- 
 perature. Sir Joseph Banks and others 
 have breathed for many minutes in an at- 
 mosphere hot enough to cook eggs ; and 
 I have myself travelled in Bengal breath- 
 
HE A 
 
 283 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 ing air, without inconvenience, which 
 rendered the silver-mountings of my 
 green spectacles too hot to be borne 
 without their occasional removal. 
 
 So do certain plants flourish in hot- 
 water springs of which the temperature 
 varies between the scalding heats of 
 from ISO to 180° of Fahrenheit's ther- 
 mometer ; and others have been found 
 growing freely on the edges of volca- 
 noes, in an atmosphere heated above 
 the boiling point of water. Indeed, it 
 is quite certain that most plants will 
 better bear, for a short time, an elevat- 
 ed temperature which, if long continu- 
 ed, would destroy them, than they can 
 a low temperature. Thus a temperature 
 much above the freezing point of wa- 
 ter, to orchidaceous and other tropical 
 plants, is generally fatal if endured by 
 them for only a few minutes ; whereas 
 a considerable elevation above a salu- 
 tary temperature is rarely injurious to 
 plants. But this is not universally the 
 case; for the elegant Primula mar ginata 
 is so impatient of heat that, although 
 just about to bloom, it never opens a 
 bud, if brought into a room in which 
 there is a fire. 
 
 The temperature should always be 
 regulated, in our hot-houses, with a 
 due regard to the light. At night it 
 . should be so low as to put the circula- 
 tion of the sap into a comparative state 
 of rest ; and in dull days the tempera- 
 ture should be full 10° lower than in 
 those of bright sunshine. 
 
 HEATHS (Ericce). This truly beau- 
 tiful tribe is in' the climate of the United 
 States of but little interest. Scarcely 
 half a dozen of the almost countless 
 species and varieties of Erica have 
 proved capable of resisting the effects 
 of our restless climate. It is a curious 
 fact, that, though this genus is diffused 
 over Europe, Asia, and Africa, not a 
 single species has been found in the 
 Western hemisphere. 
 
 Varieties. — Of these the following are 
 good selections : — 
 
 HARDY CAPE HEATHS, FOR FLOWERING 
 DURING THE SUMMER MONTHS. 
 
 Erica Bowieana, white. 
 Grandiflora, yellow. 
 
 ■ Ventricosa, pink. 
 
 • Echiflora, purple. 
 
 Beaumontiana, blush. 
 
 Mundula, pink. 
 
 ■ Cerinthoides, scarlet. 
 
 HEA 
 
 Erica Ampullacea. 
 
 Aristata, dark crimson and pink. 
 
 — — Aggregata, purple. 
 
 Vindiflora, green and pink. 
 
 Phrysodes, white. 
 
 USEFUL KINDS ARE : 
 
 Hartnelli, pink. 
 
 Aristata Major, red. 
 
 Acuminata longiflora, purple. 
 
 Tenuiflora, white, with pink 
 
 shade. 
 
 Inflata, white. 
 
 Archeriana, scarlet. 
 
 Depressa, yellow. 
 
 Elegans, light purple. 
 
 Cavendishii, yellow. 
 
 Mutabilis, light purple. 
 
 Retorta Major, pink. 
 
 Lamberti Rosea, flesh-coloured. 
 
 Hyemalis, purple, tipped with 
 
 white. 
 
 Tricolor, red. 
 
 Lirinaeoides Superba, purple, 
 
 with white tip. 
 
 Jasmini, flora alba, white, and 
 
 all the varieties of Ventri- 
 cosa. 
 
 VARIETIES BLOOMING BETWEEN NOVEM- 
 BER AND MAY. 
 
 Erica Verticillata. 
 
 Mammosa, M. pallida. 
 
 Hyemalis. 
 
 Willmoreana. 
 
 Westcottii. 
 
 Grandinosa. 
 
 — — Arbuscula. 
 
 Umbellata. 
 
 Rubra P., alba. 
 
 Pyramidalis. 
 
 Transparens. 
 
 Regermirans. 
 
 Mr. Reid very justly remarks, "that, 
 in small establishments, the green-house 
 being generally furnished with vines, to 
 keep plants in them in summer is out of 
 the question ; he therefore selects three 
 or four plants of only the winter flower- 
 ing sorts, such as would keep up a show 
 of bloom from November till April. 
 Early in May the plants might be all 
 taken out, and the house should be shut 
 up for the purpose of forwarding the 
 vines." 
 
 With something like the following 
 selection, a very nice show of bloom 
 might be kept up during all the time 
 that it is necessary to have the plants 
 in the house ; and they are, with very 
 
HEA 
 
 284 
 
 HEA 
 
 few exceptions, strong growers and free 
 bloomers, and all can be bought at a 
 ]ow rate: — 
 
 Erica Westcottii. 
 
 Colorans. 
 
 Arbuscula. 
 
 Hyemalis. 
 
 Picta. 
 
 Transparens. 
 
 Nova. 
 
 Vernix. 
 
 Vernix Coccinea. 
 
 Cerinthoides. 
 Superba. 
 
 Mutabilis. 
 
 Bicolor. 
 
 Willmoreana. 
 
 Rubra Calyx. 
 
 Lambertiana. 
 
 Lambertiana Rosea. 
 
 Exsurgens. 
 Coccinea. 
 
 Archeriana. 
 Prsestans. 
 
 Pyramidalis Verna. 
 Autumnalis, 
 
 Tenella. 
 
 Gracilis Autumnalis. 
 Verna. 
 
 — — Pellucida. 
 
 Mammosa. 
 
 Pallida. 
 
 Curviflora. 
 
 — — Scabriuscula. 
 
 Propagation. — Mr. Fleming gives the 
 following very full and excellent direc- 
 tions : — 
 
 " Heaths are propagated in two ways 
 — by seeds and by cuttings. Seeds are 
 either obtained from the Cape of Good 
 Hope, or are gathered from plants 
 which have flowered in this country. 
 When they are received from the Cape 
 they should be sown immediately, un- 
 less this should happen late in the au- 
 tumn, or in winter ; and in that case 
 the sowing should be deferred until 
 spring. When seeds of this kind are 
 sown late in the year, they either do 
 not vegetate at all, or, if they are ex- 
 cited into growth, the stimulus is so 
 weak, and the days are so short and 
 dull, that they get sickly, and frequent- 
 ly damp off. For the same reason, 
 seeds which are saved in this country 
 should either be sown in spring, or very 
 early in summer. 
 
 " Some flat pots, or seed-pans, should 
 be half filled with potsherds ; and over 
 
 these a layer of turfy peat should be 
 placed to prevent the soil from being 
 washed down and destroying the drain- 
 age. The pots should then be filled to 
 within half an inch of the top with fine 
 peat, and this should be slightly pressed 
 down with the back of the hand, or 
 with the bottom of a small flower-pot, 
 to make it level and more solid. If this 
 is not attended to, the seeds are liable 
 to sink too deep in the soil, and are 
 prevented from germinating. They 
 should then be sown, and slightly co- 
 vered with fine peat soil, after which 
 they should be watered and removed to 
 the seed-house. In all large nurseries 
 or gardens, a house, pit, or frame, is 
 set apart for raising seeds. It is to a 
 place of this kind that the pots contain- 
 ing the heath-seed should be removed, 
 and as we suppose this to be done in 
 spring, no artificial heat will be requir- 
 ed, that received from the sun being 
 quite sufficient. If the seed has been 
 good, the young plants will soon make 
 their appearance above ground. As 
 they get strong, the shading should be 
 gradually discontinued, and more air 
 admitted, until they are a little harden- 
 ed and ready to pot off. They should 
 then be put singly into thumb-pots in 
 sandy peat soil well watered, and after- 
 wards removed to a close-shaded frame. 
 Here they will remain for ten days or a 
 fortnight, until their roots establish 
 themselves in their new quarters, when 
 more air may gradually be admitted, 
 and the plants subjected to the same 
 treatment as those in the green-house 
 or heathery." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Cuttings. — The same good authority 
 says that, " No particular time can be 
 specified for striking cuttings of heaths, 
 because the plants are in a fit state for 
 taking off the cuttings at different times; 
 but the earlier in the season the better, 
 although many cultivators succeed per- 
 fectly so late as the months of August 
 and September. The plants from which 
 the cuttings are taken must be perfectly 
 healthy. The wood should be firm and 
 nearly ripe, because if taken when very 
 young it is almost certain to damp off. 
 The short lateral shoots, about an inch 
 or an inch and a half long, should al- 
 ways be chosen, and the leaves stripped 
 off them to about half their length, and 
 the ends cut across with a sharp knife ; 
 in this state they are ready for the cut- 
 ting-pot. The cutting-pots should be 
 
HE A 
 
 285 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 HE A 
 
 prepared in the following manner. Fill 
 them about two-thirds with broken pots, 
 and cover these with a thin stratum of 
 turfy peat, or some other substance to 
 prevent the sand with which the pots 
 are filled up from choking the drain- 
 age. The silver sand, common about 
 London, is very well adapted for strik- 
 ing heaths ; but almost any sand will 
 answer the purpose; it is generally pre- 
 ferred as free from the rusty colour of 
 iron as possible. The cuttings may 
 then be inserted in the sand, not deep- 
 ly, but merely deep enough to support 
 themselves ; from a quarter to half an 
 inch is quite sufficient. They must 
 then be well watered ; bell glasses are 
 of great service in striking them, but 
 certainly not indispensable to success. 
 When they are used, they must be fre- 
 quently taken off and wiped dry, other- 
 wise the moisture will probably rot the 
 cuttings. When they are dispensed 
 with the cuttings should be placed in 
 a situation which is moist and shaded, 
 and then they will be surrounded in a 
 great measure with the same circum- 
 stances as under a bell glass. 
 
 "Very little artificial heat is neces- 
 sary in striking heaths, much is certain- 
 ly injurious. A cucumber or melon 
 frame nearly exhausted, or the shaded 
 part of a cool stove, will answer the 
 purpose early in spring, and later in 
 the season, when the sun-heat is greater, 
 a close fence slightly shaded is all that 
 is required. The care required after- 
 wards is to shade during bright sun- 
 shine, to remove into the shade early 
 in the afternoon, and also to see that 
 the watering is not neglected. 
 
 " More, perhaps, depends upon the 
 kind of water which is used, and the 
 regularity with which it is given, than 
 upon anything else in operation ; if we 
 except the selection of proper cuttings. 
 Rain or river water is by far the best 
 kind to use. After the cuttings have 
 struck root they should be gradually 
 hardened by exposure to the air before 
 they are potted off. Small thumb-pots 
 are the best for the first potting, and 
 the soil used, should be very sandy peat. 
 The greatest care should be taken to 
 preserve the young rootless from injury, 
 because if this is not attended to, the 
 plants will receive a sudden check at 
 first, which is very prejudicial. After 
 potting, they should be removed to a 
 close-shaded frame, and treated in the 
 
 same manner as the young seedlings 
 above described." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Soil. — " The best for the growth of 
 heaths is that rich brown turfy peat, 
 commonly found on the surface of land 
 where the native heath grows. Some- 
 times grass will be found growing very 
 strong on this soil, as at Shirley Com- 
 mon ; but wherever the land is barren, 
 it is an indication of poor soil, and 
 should not be selected. It is always 
 best to have it dug and brought home 
 to the compost yard at least a year be- 
 fore it is to be used. The fibrous mat- 
 ter will then have time to decay, and 
 will make excellent manure for the 
 roots of the plants. During the winter 
 and spring it should be several times 
 turned over, and by this means the 
 whole will get well mixed and exposed 
 to the influence of the frost. Peat soil 
 is generally found naturally well mixed 
 with fine white sand ; but where this is 
 not the case, a small quantity should be 
 added to the soil before it is used."— 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 After- Culture, Potting, fyc. — "As 
 the young plants grow and fill the pots 
 of a larger size, follow the different 
 sizes of the pots commonly made in the 
 potteries from ' thumbs' downwards to 
 those of a larger size. Thus the young 
 cuttings or seedlings are first potted in 
 e thumbs,' then in sixties, then forty- 
 eights, and so on. At every shifting 
 the neck of the plant ought to be kept 
 a little higher than the soil, and when 
 large pots or tubs are used, Mr. M'Nab's 
 plan of mixing small pieces of freestone 
 with the soil is a most excellent one ; 
 of course it is necessary for the health 
 of the plants to have the pots properly 
 drained and the worms kept out of them. 
 
 " Heaths will not bear their roots 
 being cut or destroyed, particularly 
 after the plants attain a certain age. 
 The shifting may be done at any season 
 except winter ; but this must be regu- 
 lated in a great degree by the state of 
 the plants, as they flower and grow at 
 so many different times. Spring, how- 
 ever, is the time when the most of 
 them ought to be shifted, and if they 
 are placed out of doors during summer, 
 they will all require to be looked over 
 again before they are brought into the 
 house in autumn. The kind of water 
 which is used for these plants is of the 
 greatest consequence in keeping them 
 in a high state of health. When the 
 
HEB 
 
 286 
 
 HED 
 
 pots are properly drained, there is not [ 
 much danger to be apprehended from 
 over watering; but the plants are sure 
 to suffer if the ball is allowed to get ! 
 too dry, and hence the great use of; 
 small pieces of freestone, recommended | 
 by Mr. M'Nab. In the winter season, j 
 when there is any danger from frost, 
 heaths and all other hardy green-house 
 plants should always be watered in the 
 early part of the day, as they are much 
 more likely to be injured if watered in 
 the afternoon. It is the best plan under 
 these circumstances to keep them as 
 dry as they will bear without injury, for 
 wet soil freezes much sooner than dry. 
 Frequent syringing is also of great use 
 in fine weather; but this must never be 
 done when the plants are likely to suf- 
 fer from damp, or when the weather 
 is cold and frosty. The principal art of 
 making fine specimens of heaths, con- 
 sists in dwarfing them, and forming 
 them into round green bushes. This is 
 done by pinching out the points of the 
 shoots when the plants are young, and 
 continuing the practice whenever the 
 stems are inclined to grow long-jointed. 
 It must, however, be done in a judi- 
 cious manner, otherwise if done at the 
 wrong season the flowering will be 
 spoiled. The proper time is after the 
 flowering season is past, or when the 
 plant is growing freely, and before it 
 has begun to form its flower buds." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 HEBENSTREITIA. Ten species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 HEDEOMA. Two species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 HEDERA. Ivy. Two species and 
 several varieties. Hardy evergreen 
 climbers. Slips. Common soil. 
 
 HEDGE, properly includes every 
 kind of fence, but the present details 
 apply for the most part to growing 
 fences. Abercrombie says, that " all 
 outward hedges designed as fences 
 should have a ditch on the outside, three 
 or four feet wide at the top, three 
 deep, sloping to one wide at bottom, 
 raising a low bank on the inside on 
 which to plant the hedge, which may 
 be planted either on the side of the 
 said inner bank in two rows, one above 
 the other a foot asunder, planting them 
 as you advance in forming the ditch and 
 bank, or may be planted entirely on the 
 top of the bank, first forming the ditch 
 
 and bank, and leveling the top of the 
 bank so as to form a sort of border, 
 then plant the sets in one or two rows 
 the whole length ; but two rows a foot 
 asunder is the most eligible for all out- 
 ward fences, as it always forms the 
 thickest, strongest, and most effectual 
 hedge-fence. Mark out a space for a 
 ditch three or four feet wide at top, 
 which is to be digged three feet deep 
 each side, sloping gradually to a foot 
 wide at bottom, forming a bank along 
 upon the inner edge on which to bed or 
 plant, which should be planted as you 
 advance in forming the ditch and bank. 
 Having lined out the width of the ditch, 
 then along the inner edge lay a row of 
 square spit turfs, grass side downwards, 
 to form the beginning of the bank, back- 
 ing it up with spits of earth from the 
 formation of the ditch, and top it with 
 a little of the fine mould or crumbs; 
 and then upon this proceed to lay the 
 first row of plants: first let the sets 
 be headed to about five or six inches, 
 and the roots trimmed, then lay them 
 upon the bed of turf with their tops out- 
 ward, in an upward direction, about ten 
 or twelve inches asunder, covering their 
 roots with mould also out of the ditch ; 
 and then lay another row of turf along 
 upon the necks of the plants, and more 
 mould from the ditch upon, and behind, 
 the turf; and when the bank is thus 
 raised a foot above the row of sets, 
 plant another row in the same manner, 
 placing each set against the spaces of 
 those of the first row, so covering them 
 with more earth from the ditch to the 
 depth of three feet, sloping each side to 
 one foot width at bottom, and trim up 
 all remaining earth, throwing a suf- 
 ficiency behind the top of the banking to 
 bank up the whole even, in a sort of 
 broad border, all the way along the top, 
 sloping a little back, so as to correspond 
 nearly with the adjoining ground. But 
 in planting for an outward fence, some 
 form the ditch and bank first as above, 
 and plant the sets in two rows along the 
 top ; that is, after having formed the 
 ditch and bank, then leveling the top 
 forming a foot of border all along a 
 yard wide; plant the sets along the 
 middle thereof upright, in two rows a 
 foot asunder, and six inches distant in 
 each row, observing the same when in- 
 tended to raise a hedge at once from 
 seed sowed where you design the hedge 
 to be, sowing them along the top in 
 
HED 
 
 287 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 HED 
 
 drills a foot asunder. Sometimes when 
 hedges are designed for middle fences 
 lo divide" fields, a two-sided bank is 
 raised a yard high, and as broad at top, 
 having a slight ditch on each side ; and j 
 each side of the bank is formed with | 
 
 Hedge-shrubs are Evergreen Holly; 
 Yew; Laurel; Laurustinus ; Phillyrea; 
 Alaternus; Bay; and Evergreen Oak: 
 but the holly and yew form the best 
 hedges for general use. 
 
 Deciduous kinds. — Hawthorn ; Black- 
 
 square spit turfs from the adjoining thorn; Crab; Elder; Hornbeam; Beech; 
 ground, and the middle filled up with j Elm ; Lime-tree, and Alder are all 
 
 mould from the ditches on each side 
 so that when finished, it forms a yard- 
 wide border all the way along the top, 
 and along the middle of which plant 
 two rows of hedge-sets or seed, in drills, 
 
 proper, either for middling or tall 
 hedges, as they may be trained up from 
 about six or eight to fifteen or twenty 
 feet high, and the elm to double that 
 height if required. Privet is also some- 
 
 as before observed. But in places where , times used for moderately high hedges 
 
 no ditch nor raised bank is required, as 
 may be the case for middle hedges in 
 the interior parts of grounds, especially 
 in gardens ; then the place for the hedge 
 being marked out on the level ground 
 two or three feet broad, dig it along one 
 good spade deep at lesst, and then plant 
 your sets of any sort in two rows, rang- 
 ing along the middle ; or if you design 
 to sow seeds, &c, of any sort at once, 
 where you intend to have the hedge, 
 
 and for low hedges, the Rose; Sweet- 
 briar ; Syringa ; and Berberry. 
 
 All full trained hedges, in order to 
 preserve them in proper form, close 
 and neat, must be clipped, both on the 
 sides and top, once or twice a year, but 
 never less than once ; and the best time 
 of the year for this work is summer, 
 from about the middle or latter end of 
 June to the end of August, for then the 
 hedges will have made their summer 
 
 sow them in two drills afoot asunder shoots, which should always, if possible, 
 
 be clipped the same season while in 
 leaf, and before the shoots become 
 
 general culture of these sorts of hedges hard, whereby you will be able to per- 
 
 the whole length 
 
 [n respect to the training and 
 
 it must be remarked, that all 
 are exposed to cattle, must 
 
 such as | form the work more expeditiously and 
 soon as j with greater exactness, for regular 
 
 planted be fenced, either with a stake hedges should be cut as even as a wall 
 and bush hedge, with hurdles, or with on the sides, and the top as straight as 
 rails and open paling, for four or five a line ; observing, after the hedge is 
 years, till the hedge grows up, observing formed to its proper height and width, 
 not to place the fence too close to the ! always to cut each year's clipping 
 hedge to interrupt its growth. The nearly to the old of the former year, 
 hedge must also be duly weeded while particularly on the side ; for by no 
 young, and this should be particularly I means suffer them to grow above a 
 attended to the first two years. And if j foot or two wide, nor suffer them to 
 designed to train the hedge regularly by j advance upon you too much at top, 
 
 clipping it with garden shears, it should 
 be annually performed in summer; ob- 
 serving, however, to top it but sparingly 
 while it is young, until arrived at its in- 
 
 where it is designed or necessary to 
 keep them to a moderate height. But 
 to keep hedges in perfectly good order, 
 they should be clipped twice every sum- 
 
 tended height: only just trim off th^ mer ; the first clipping to be about mid- 
 
 tops of the straggling shoots to preserve 
 a little regularity, and promote lateral 
 wood to thicken it as it advances, and 
 cut it in also moderately on the sides; 
 but when arrived at nearly its proper 
 height of four, five or six feet, or more, 
 then trim it close on the sides and top, 
 annually, to preserve it thick, and 
 within its proper bounds ; in cutting the 
 sides always cutting in nearly to the old 
 wood of the former year's cut, other- 
 wise your hedge will get too broad ; and 
 keep always the top narrower than the 
 bottom." 
 
 summer, or soon after, when they will 
 have made their summer shoots ; and 
 as they will shoot again, what may be 
 called the autumn shoot, the second 
 clipping is necessary towards the mid- 
 dle or latter end of August, and they 
 will not shoot again that year. How- 
 ever, when it does not suit to clip them 
 but once in the summer, the clipping 
 should not be performed until the be- 
 ginning of August, for if cut sooner 
 they will shoot again, and appear al- 
 most as rough the remainder of the 
 summer and all winter as if they had 
 
HED 
 
 288 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 HED 
 
 not been clipped. Very high hedges are 
 both troublesome and expensive to cut. 
 The clipping is sometimes performed 
 by the assistance of a high machine, 
 scaffolding or stage, twenty or thirty 
 feet high or more, having platforms at 
 different heights for the men to stand 
 upon, the whole made to move along 
 upon wheels ; it is composed of four 
 long poles for uprights, well framed 
 together, eight or ten feet wide at bot- 
 tom, narrowing gradually to four or 
 five at top, having a platform or stage 
 at every seven or eight feet high, and 
 one at the top of all; and upon these 
 the rnan stands to work, each platform 
 having a rail waist high to keep the 
 man from falling ; and a sort of a ladder 
 formed on one side for the man to 
 ascend, and at bottom four low wheels 
 to move it along; upon this machine a 
 man may be employed on each stage 
 or platform, trimming the hedge with 
 shears, and sometimes with a garden 
 hedge bill fixed on a handle five or six 
 feet long, which is more expeditious, 
 though it will not make so neat work 
 as cutting with shears. 
 
 A hedge is not only an imperfect 
 screen, but in other respects is worse 
 than useless, since nothing can be 
 trained to it, and its roots exhaust the 
 soil in their neighborhood very con- 
 siderably ; as the south fence of a gar- 
 den it may be employed, and hawthorn 
 is perhaps the worst shrub that could 
 be made use of. It is the nursery of 
 the same aphides, beetles, and cater- 
 pillars, that feed upon the foliage of 
 the apple and pear, from whence they 
 spread to the trees nearest the hedge, 
 and finally overrun the whole garden ; 
 evergreen are better than deciduous 
 hedges, and more especially the holly, 
 which is not so slow a grower as is 
 generally imagined. 
 
 In a cloudy day in April or May, the 
 wind seems to be actually refrigerated 
 in passing through a thick hawthorn 
 hedge, and this may be accounted for 
 on the same principle that cool air is 
 obtained in the houses of India, by 
 sprinkling branches of trees with water 
 in their verandas. Holly, laurel, and 
 most evergreens, exhale but little mois- 
 ture from their leaves, except for about 
 a month in June, consequently in April 
 and May, when we most require warmth, 
 and in September and October, the 
 leaves of these, when fully exposed to 
 
 the sun become heated to the touch to 
 85° or 90°. Added to this, hoar frost 
 or a deposition of moisture of any kind 
 never attaches so readily or remains 
 for so long a time upon the foliage of 
 evergreens as upon the sprays of decid- 
 uous shrubs, consequently the refrige- 
 ratory power is greatly diminished. 
 When the garden is of considerable 
 extent, three or four acres and up- 
 wards, it admits of cross-walls or 
 fences for an increase of training sur- 
 face and additional shelter. 
 • Hedges should always be clipped into 
 a conical form, as the diminution of the 
 branches towards the top increases their 
 developement at the bottom. 
 
 Furze makes one of the best and 
 handsomest of hedges, if kept regularly 
 clipped. Upon the formation of such a 
 hedge, we have the following remarks 
 by Mr. Mel. of Hillsborough : — 
 
 " The most ancient and perhaps the 
 most simple of all fences are walls 
 made of turf. These walls, however, 
 are much injured by the atmosphere, 
 and the rubbing and butting of the cat- 
 tle. To guard against this they should 
 be planted or sown with the Ulex Euro- 
 pceus or Furze. The roots of this plant 
 will soon penetrate the turf, and tend 
 to bind the wall. The plants not only 
 afford shelter as well as food for the 
 cattle, but add to the height of the wall 
 and give it a formidable appearance. 
 When walls are made for this, the 
 foundation should be three feet wide, 
 and tapering to fifteen inches at top. 
 As the plants advance in growth, they 
 should be regularly trimmed with the 
 shears ; by proper attention to this they 
 will be prevented from growing too tall 
 and thin at the bottom. If this is an- 
 nually repeated, the plants will be 
 longer preserved in a healthy and vig- 
 orous state; clipping has also a good 
 effect in checking the furze from spread- 
 ing over the field. A good and substan- 
 tial fence may thus be quickly formed 
 over on a soil that will not produce a 
 biding fence of any other kind. 
 
 " Sweet Briar (Rosa Rubiginosa) 
 makes a good hedge. Its heps may be 
 sown in the autumn, as soon as ripe, 
 or, which is better, in the month of 
 March, having kept them in the mean 
 time mixed with sand. But it is far 
 more convenient to buy for sweet briar 
 layer young plants from the nurserymen, 
 and to plant them a foot apart early in 
 
HED 
 
 HEL 
 
 the month of November. Let them 
 grow as they like the first year, and cut 
 them down to the ground the second, 
 they will then spring up and require 
 no more future care, than occasional 
 trimming with the pruning knife or 
 shears so as to keep the hedge in 
 shape. When it gets naked at the 
 bottom, it must be again cut down." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 The Laurustinus, Phillyrea, Laurel, 
 Furze, &c, referred to in the foregoing 
 article, are not sufficiently hardy to re- 
 sist the winter of the middle states, and 
 some of them would, it is presumed, 
 scarcely withstand the sun of the South- 
 ern. For ornamental hedges it is safer to 
 rely on the red and white Cedar, Chinese 
 and American Arborvita?, Juniper, Ame- 
 rican Holly, Variegated Euonymus, 
 Hemlock Spruce, &c. For purposes 
 of protection the Madura or Osage 
 Orange is unquestionably the best, 
 wherever it can sustain the winter — 
 which it is able to do so far North as 
 New York. The Buck Thorn (Rham- 
 nus catharticus) has been highly recom- 
 mended, more especially for colder 
 climates. The English method of plant- 
 ing on an elevated bank with ditch on 
 one or both sides, is inapplicable to 
 this country, where excess of moisture is 
 seldom felt : in other respects the mode 
 of treatment detailed in the preceding 
 article may be pursued in this climate. 
 
 For an interesting paper on this sub- 
 ject see Downing's " Horticulturist." 
 
 HEDWIGIA balsamifera. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Sandy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 HEDYCHIUM. Twenty-two species. 
 Stove herbaceous. Division. Light rich 
 soil. 
 
 HEDYSARUM. Twenty species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Division or seed. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 H E I M I A. Three species. Half- 
 hardy evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. San- 
 dy loam and peat. 
 
 HELENIUM. Eight species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division or seed. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 HELIANTHEMUM. One hundred 
 and twenty-one species. Chiefly hardy 
 and half-hardy shrubs or trailers. Cut- 
 tings and seed. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 HELIANTHUS. Thirty-four species. 
 Hardy herbaceous and annual. Seed. 
 Common soil. See Sunflower and Je- 
 rusalem Artichoke. 
 19 
 
 HELIOCARPUS americanus. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 HELIOPHILA. Twenty-three spe- 
 cies. Hardy annuals and green-house 
 evergreen shrubs. Seeds or cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 HELIOPSIS. Three species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 
 
 HELIOTROPIUM. Seventeen spe- 
 cies. Hardy annuals, and green-house 
 evergreen shrubs. Seed or cuttings. 
 Common soil. 
 
 The following are good directions for 
 the culture of the Heliotrope : — 
 
 " Prepare in August as many shallow 
 thirty-two sized pots as will be required, 
 by filling them to the depth of an inch 
 and a half with broken crocks, upon 
 which a layer of the rough siftings of 
 leaf mould should be laid ; the remain- 
 ing space should be filled with a mix- 
 ture of finely sifted leaf mould and 
 silver sand, previously well incorporat- 
 ed, which when pressed down firmly, 
 should be exactly level with the border 
 of the pots. 
 
 "For cuttings, the tips of the young 
 shoots about three inches in length, 
 should be chosen, and these should be 
 taken off immediately below a joint or 
 the base of a leaf bud. 
 
 " After removing two or three of the 
 lower leaves, plant the cuttings in the 
 pots prepared, about an inch and a half 
 deep, and two inches apart ; water them 
 well with a fine rose two or three times, 
 so that every part of the soil may be 
 thoroughly moistened, which may easi- 
 ly be known by the water percolating 
 through the bottom of the pots. If this 
 is not attended to, and the surface soil 
 alone is penetrated by the water, cer- 
 tain failure will be the result. 
 
 "The cuttings, when planted, should 
 be removed to a cucumber or other 
 frame, where a tolerably damp heat 
 can be supplied ; they should be kept 
 shaded from the sun, and air admitted 
 in small quantities, only during the hot- 
 test part of the day. In about a fort- 
 night, the plants will begin to form 
 roots, and the shading may be gradually 
 diminished during the morning and af- 
 ternoon ; the quantity of air given them 
 may be increased by degrees, and at 
 the end of a month from the time ot 
 planting, the cuttings will be ready for 
 potting off singly. 
 
 " For this purpose large sized sixties 
 
HEL 
 
 290 
 
 — • — 
 
 HER 
 
 are best adapted, and the soil should 
 be composed of equal parts of loam 
 and sandy peat, with small quantities 
 of leaf mould and well decayed ma- 
 nure. The two latter only should be 
 sifted, the loam and peat being left 
 rather rough, and a fair portion of 
 drainage being used, will allow the 
 water to pass off more freely, which is 
 of the greatest consequence during the 
 winter months ; the tips of the shoots 
 should also be pinched off to render the 
 plants bushy. 
 
 " When potted, they may be taken 
 back to the frame and kept rather close 
 for a few days, until they begin to root 
 into the fresh soil, after which air may 
 be freely admitted to them. About the 
 beginning of October they may be re- 
 moved to an airy part of the green- 
 house, where, if protected from frost, 
 and due attention will be paid to wa- 
 tering, they will survive the winter un- 
 injured." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 The Heliotrope forms an admirable 
 border plant ; when plunged or planted 
 out entire, the bloom is produced in 
 inexhaustible profusion throughout the 
 summer, even till the approach of frost; 
 when it may be repotted, and removed 
 to a place of shelter, again to occupy 
 its out door post, on the return of sum- 
 mer weather. 
 
 HELLEBORUS. Nine species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Seed and division. 
 Common soil. 
 
 HELLENIA. Three species. Stove 
 herbaceous. Division. Light rich soil. 
 
 HELONIAS. Three species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Moist peat. 
 
 HEMEROCALLIS. Five species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Division. Light 
 loam. 
 
 HEMICLIDIA Baxteri. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Turfy 
 loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 HEMIDESMUS indicus. Stove ever- 
 green twiner. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 HEMIMERIS montana. Stove herb- 
 aceous. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 HEMIONITIS palmata. Stove fern. 
 Division. Loam and peat. 
 
 HEMLOCK. Conium. 
 
 HEMLOCK SPRUCE. Finns cana- 
 densis. 
 
 HEN-AND-CHICKENS. See Daisy. 
 
 HENNA TREE. Lawsonia inermis. 
 
 HEPATICA. Four species. 
 
 Varieties. — 1. Great single Blue. 2. 
 Small Blue. 3. Purple. 4. Lesser 
 
 White. 5. Great White. 6. Ash-co- 
 loured, or Argentrial. 7. White with 
 red stamens. 8. Red. 9. Double 
 Purple. 10. Double Blue. 11. Double 
 White. 12. Single Yellow. 13. Peach- 
 coloured. 14. Single Pink. — Floricul- 
 tural Cabinet. 
 
 They are propagated by division of 
 the roots ; and grow best in sandy loam, 
 on a well-drained or open subsoil. 
 
 HEPIALUS lupulinus. Garden Swift. 
 A moth, of which the caterpillar is 
 more indiscriminate in its attacks upon 
 our plants than is any other ravager of 
 the garden. The roots of auriculas, 
 snowdrops, bear's-ear, parsnips, let- 
 tuces, celery, potatoes, and strawber- 
 ries, have all been observed destroyed 
 by this larva. The moth, usually, is 
 chalky brown, head and thorax woolly, 
 and its upper wings dark bright brown, 
 with a broad line of white ; but some- 
 times this is absent, and at other times 
 the upper wings are chalky white. 
 These moths appear about the end of 
 May, and are very abundant in the 
 evening in meadows and other grassy 
 places. They deposit their eggs appa- 
 rently without discrimination, which 
 soon hatch, and the caterpillars pro- 
 duced are cylindrical, and yellowish- 
 white, with black dots and hairs on the 
 upper part and sides of their segments. 
 The caterpillar changes to an ochreous, 
 shining cylindrical pupa. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 HERACANTHA. Four species. 
 Hardy annuals. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 HERBACEOUS PLANTS are those 
 perennials which lose their stems an- 
 nually, whilst the roots continue alive 
 in the earth. 
 
 HERBARIUM, or Hortus Siccus; 
 a dry garden ; " an appellation given to 
 a collection of specimens of plants, care- 
 fully dried and preserved. The value 
 of such a collection is very evident, 
 since a thousand minutiae may be pre- 
 served in the well-dried specimens of 
 plants, which the most accurate en- 
 graver would have omitted. Specimens 
 ought to be collected when dry, and 
 carried home in a tin box. Plants may 
 be dried by pressing in a box of sand, 
 or with a hot smoothing iron. Each of 
 these has its advantages. If pressure 
 be employed, a botanical press may be 
 procured. The press is made of two 
 smooth boards of hard wood, 18 inches 
 long, 12 broad, and 2 thick. Screws 
 must be fixed in each corner with nuts. 
 
HER 
 
 291 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 HER 
 
 If a press cannot easily be had, books 
 may be employed. Next, some quires 
 of unsized blotting paper must be pro- 
 vided. The specimens, when taken 
 out of the tin box, must be carefully 
 spread on a piece of pasteboard, co- 
 vered with a single sheet of the paper, 
 quite dry ; then three or four sheets of 
 the same paper must be placed above 
 the plant, to imbibe the moisture as it 
 is pressed out. It is then to be put into 
 the press. As many plants as the press 
 will hold may be piled up in this man- 
 ner. At first, they ought to be pressed 
 gently. After being pressed for about 
 twenty-four hours, the plants ought to 
 be examined, that any leaves or petals 
 which have been folded may be spread 
 out, and dry sheets of paper laid over 
 them. They may now be replaced in 
 the press, and a greater degree of pres- 
 sure applied. The press ought to stand 
 near a fire, or in the sunshine. After 
 remaining two days in this situation, 
 they should be again examined, and 
 dry sheets of paper be laid over them. 
 The pressure ought then to be con- 
 siderably increased. After remaining 
 three days longer in the press, the 
 plants may be taken out, and such as 
 are sufficiently dry may be put in a dry 
 sheet of writing paper. Those plants 
 which are succulent may require more 
 pressure, and the blotting paper to be 
 again renewed. Plants which dry very 
 quickly ought to be pressed with con- 
 siderable force when first put into the 
 press; and, if delicate, the blotting 
 paper should be changed every day. 
 When the stem is woody, it may be 
 thinned with a knife, and, if the flower 
 be thick or globular, as the thistle, one 
 side of it may be cut away, as all that 
 is necessary, in a specimen, is to pre- 
 serve the character of the class, order, 
 genus, and species. Plants may be 
 dried in a box of sand in a more expe- 
 ditious manner ; and this method pre- 
 serves the colour of some plants better. 
 The specimens, after being pressed for 
 ten or twelve hours, must be laid with- 
 in a sheet of blotting paper. The box 
 must contain an inch deep of fine dry 
 sand on which the sheet is to be placed, 
 and then covered with sand an inch 
 thick ; another sheet may then be de- 
 posited irt the same manner, and so on, 
 till the box be full. The box must be 
 placed near a fire for two or three days. 
 Then the sand must be carefully re- 
 
 moved, and the plants examined. I 
 not sufficiently dried, they may again 
 be replaced in the same manner for a 
 day or two. In drying plants with a 
 hot smoothing iron, they must be placed 
 within several sheets of blotting paper, 
 and ironed till they become sufficiently 
 dry. This method answers best for dry- 
 ing succulent and mucilaginous plants. 
 When properly dried, the specimens 
 should be placed in sheets of writing 
 paper, and may be slightly fastened by 
 making the top and bottom of the stalk 
 pass through a slip of the paper, cut for 
 the purpose. The name of the genus 
 and species should be written down, 
 the place where it was found, nature of 
 the soil, and the season of the year. 
 These specimens may be collected into 
 genera, orders, and classes, and titled 
 and preserved in a portfolio or cabinet. 
 The method of preserving many of the 
 cryptogamous plants is more difficult, 
 on account of the greater quantity of 
 moisture which they contain, and the 
 greater delicacy of their texture." — En- 
 cyc. Am. 
 
 HERBARY was a department of the 
 garden formerly much more cultivated 
 than at present, when the more potent 
 medicinal plants of hotter climates are 
 so easily procurable. The following is 
 a list of the tenants of the herbary, the 
 appropriate cultivation of which will be 
 found under their particular titles : — 
 
 Angelica. 
 
 Balm. 
 
 Basil. 
 
 Blessed Thistle. 
 
 Borage. 
 
 Burnet. 
 
 Caraway. 
 
 Chamomile. 
 
 Chervil. 
 
 Coriander. 
 
 Dill. 
 
 Hyssop. 
 
 Lavender. 
 
 Liquorice. 
 
 Marigold. 
 
 Marjoram. 
 
 Mint. 
 
 Pennyroyal. 
 
 Peppermint. 
 
 Purslane. 
 
 Rue. 
 
 Sage. 
 
 Savory. 
 
 Scurvy Grass. 
 
 Tansy. 
 
 Tarragon. 
 
 Thyme. 
 
 Wormwood. 
 
 RERBERTIA pulchella. Half-hardy 
 bulb. Seed. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 HERB-GRACE. See Rue. 
 
 HERCULES-CLUB. Xanthoxylum 
 clava Herculis. 
 
 HERMANNIA. Forty species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Light rich soil. 
 
 HERMINIUM. Three species. 
 Hardy and half-hardy orchids. Divi- 
 sion. Chalk and peat. 
 
HER 
 
 292 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 HOE 
 
 HERON'S-BILL. Erodium. 
 
 HERPESTIS. Three species. Aqua- 
 tic perennials, stove or hardy. Seed 
 or division. Rich light soil. 
 
 HERRERIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Division. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 HESPERANTHA. Six species. 
 Green-house bulbs. Offsets. Sand, 
 Loam, and peat. 
 
 HESPERIS. Rocket. Fifteen spe- 
 cies, besides varieties. Hardy herba- 
 ceous and annual. Division or seed. 
 Rich light soil. 
 
 HESPEROSCORDUM. Two species. 
 Hardy bulbs. Offsets. Sandy soil. 
 
 HETERANTHERA. Three species. 
 Aquatics, stove, green-house, and har- 
 dy. Division. Sandy soil, in water. 
 
 HETEROPTERIS. Eight species. 
 Chiefly stove evergreen climbers. Cut- 
 tings. Sand, peat, and loam. 
 
 HEUCHERA. Nine species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Light soil. 
 
 HIBBERTIA. Ten species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs and twiners. 
 Cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 HIBISCUS. Sixty-nine species, be- 
 sides varieties. Some annual and bien- 
 nial, but chiefly perennials, both hardy 
 and tender. Mr. Paxton says, " the 
 shrubby stove and green-house kinds 
 all grow from cuttings, and thrive in 
 loam and peat. H. syriacus, from lay- 
 ers or seed, in common soil. The 
 hardy herbaceous kinds require a moist 
 soil." — Bot. Diet. 
 
 HIDE-BOUND. See Bark-bound. 
 
 HIERACIUM. One hundred and 
 nineteen species. Chiefly hardy herba- 
 ceous. H. glutinosum is an annual. 
 Seed in the open soil. The others by 
 division in light soil. 
 
 HILLIA. Two species. Stove ever- 
 green shrubs. Cuttings. Turfy loam 
 and sand. 
 
 HIPPEASTRUM. Two species. 
 Stove bulbs. Offsets. Turfy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 HIPPION. Three species. Green- 
 house biennials. Seed. Light rich soil. 
 
 HIPPOCREPIS. Nine species. Har- 
 dy perennial trailers and annuals. Cut- 
 tings or seed. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 HIPPOPHAE. Four species. Har- 
 dy trees. Layers or cuttings. Common 
 soil. 
 
 HIRJEA. Four species. Stove ever- 
 green climbers. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 HOE. This is the implement which 
 should be most frequently in the gar- 
 dener's hand, for the surface of the soil 
 can never be too frequently stirred. I 
 entirely agree with Mr. Barnes in think- 
 ing the hoe one of the gardener's best 
 friends ; and, as it always must be a 
 more frequently used implement than 
 any other, what is the best form of its 
 construction deserves some considera- 
 tion. The handles should never be 
 made of heavy wood, for this wearies 
 the hand, and is altogether a uselessly 
 heavy weight thrown upon the work- 
 man. It is merely the fever, and every 
 ounce needlessly given to this, dimin- 
 ishes, without any necessity, the availa- 
 ble moving power. The best woods 
 for handles are birch or deal. 
 
 For earthing up plants, broad blades 
 to hoes are very admissible, and they 
 may, without objection, have a breadth 
 of nine inches ; but this permission of 
 breadth does not extend to hoes re- 
 quired for loosening the soil and de- 
 stroying weeds. These should never 
 extend to beyond a breadth of six inch- 
 es, and the work will be done best by 
 one two inches narrower. The iron 
 plate of which they are formed should 
 be well steeled, and not more than one- 
 sixteenth of an inch thick. The weight 
 necessary should be thrown by the 
 workman's arm and body upon the 
 handle, and the thicker the blade, the 
 greater is the pressure required to make 
 it penetrate the soil. It should be set 
 on the handle at an angle of 68°, as 
 this brings its edge when used at a good 
 cutting angle with the surface of the 
 soil, and the workman soon learns at 
 what point most effectively to throw 
 his weight, and holds the handle fur- 
 ther from, or nearer to the blade, ac- 
 cordingly as he is a tall or short man. 
 Mr. Barnes, of Bicton Gardens, whose 
 opinions relative to hoeing I have al- 
 ready quoted, has paid considerable 
 attention to the formation of this im- 
 plement, and has favoured me with a 
 letter upon the subject, from which I 
 will now give some extracts. 
 
 He employs nine sized hoes, the 
 smallest having a blade not more than 
 one-fourth of an inch broad, and the 
 largest ten inches. The smallest are 
 used for potted plants and seed-beds, 
 and those from two inches and a half 
 to four inches wide are used for thin- 
 ning and hoeing among crops generally. 
 
HOE 
 
 293 
 
 HOE 
 
 These have all handles varying in length 
 from eight inches and a half to eighteen 
 inches, all the neck or upper part form- 
 ed of iron, for the smaller sizes not 
 thicker than a large pencil, and that 
 part which has to be grasped by the 
 workman is only six inches long, and 
 " formed either of willow or some other 
 soft light wood, which is best to the feel 
 of the hand ; for hard heavy wood is 
 cumbersome, harsh, and tiring." Each 
 labourer works " with one in each hand, 
 to cut right and left." " The blade is 
 made thin, and with a little foresight 
 and activity it is astonishing how much 
 ground can be got over in a short 
 time." 
 
 Mr. Barnes has all his hoes made 
 with a crane neck. The blades broader 
 than four inches Mr. Barnes has made 
 like a Dutch hoe. 
 
 "The crane neck allows the blade 
 to pass freely and kindly under the fo- 
 liage of any crop where the earth re- 
 quires loosening ; and the blade works 
 itself clean, allowing the earth to pass 
 through, as there is no place for it to 
 lodge and clog up as in the old-fash- 
 ioned hoe, to clean which, when used 
 of a dewy morning, causes the loss of 
 much time in scraping." 
 
 " The draw-hoe" is correctly de- 
 scribed by Mr. Loudon as a "plate of 
 iron attached to a handle about four 
 feet long, at an angle less than a right 
 angle. The blade is either broad for 
 cutting weeds, deep and strong for 
 drawing earth to the stems of plants, 
 curved, so as to apt like a double 
 mould-boarded plough in drawing drills, 
 formed into two strong broad prongs 
 for stirring hard adhesive soils, — or it 
 is formed to accomplish the first and 
 last purposes, as in the double hoe or 
 Dutch hoe. 
 
 " The thrust-hoe consists of a plate 
 of iron attached somewhat obliquly to 
 the end of a handle by a bow, used only 
 for killing weeds or loosening ground 
 which is to be afterwards raked. As 
 a man can draw more than he can push, 
 most heavy work will be easiest done 
 by the draw-hoe." — Enc. Gard. 
 
 In the island of Guernsey a very ef- 
 fective weeding-prong is used, and is 
 thus described in the Gardener's Chron- 
 icle : — 
 
 " It is something in the shape of a 
 hammer, the head flattened into a chisel 
 an inch wide, and the fork the same. 
 
 The whole length of this prong is nine 
 inches, and it is attached to a staff five 
 feet long. Such an implement is light 
 and easy to use; it requires no stoop- 
 ing, and will tear up the deepest-rooted 
 weeds." 
 
 Hoes are made in a great variety of 
 forms; the following, figured in The 
 Rural Register, are those most gene- 
 rally used, and perhaps are all which 
 are truly desirable ; they are, when well 
 made, of cast steel. 
 
 Square garden Hoe. 
 
 Pronged-back 
 Hoe. Fig. 81. 
 
 Forked-back 
 Hoe. Fig. 82. 
 
 Dutch or Scuffle 
 Hoe. Fig. 85. 
 
HOI 
 
 294 
 
 HON 
 
 HOITZIA. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 HOLLY (Ilex aquifolium.) Of this 
 hardy evergreen shrub there are eight 
 varieties : — 1, silver-edged ; 2, golden- 
 edged ; 3, thick-leaved ; 4, prickly ; 
 5, yellow-leaved; 6, variegated; 7, 
 spotted ; 8, recurvum. It is so desira- 
 ble, as an ornamental and as a hedge- 
 shrub, that it deserves some more par- 
 ticular notice. 
 
 If grown as single ornamental shrubs, 
 they "should not be overshadowed by 
 other trees ; and if the land is manured 
 for it so much the better. As to prun- 
 ing it, with a view to make it grow fast, 
 the less you do of that the better. All 
 that is necessary is to encourage the 
 leader, if necessary, by stopping any 
 laterals that try to interfere with it. In 
 the nurseries, when hollies are stunted 
 and bushy-headed, they are headed 
 down with a view to obtaining a clean 
 straight shoot; but they should not be 
 allowed to become stunted, and then 
 there would be no need to cut them 
 back. In hollies and all other things, 
 stop where necessary ; but prune not at 
 all if you can help it." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Large plants will bear moving: "if 
 they are shifted in wet weather, as, for 
 example, at the beginning of the July 
 rains, or at any other period when a 
 week or ten days of dull damp weather 
 can be calculated upon, they are certain 
 to succeed. The season least exposed 
 to risk is perhaps the end of autumn, 
 in the dull damp part of October or 
 November; the worst season is the 
 spring." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Dr. Lindley says that " the most ex- 
 peditious way of making holly-hedges is 
 to procure large plants from some nur- 
 sery ; but, with the smallest expense 
 and more time, the following may be 
 recommended : — 
 
 " Gather a sufficient quantity of ber- 
 ries when ripe; then dig a hole three 
 or four feet deep, and throw the berries 
 in, crushing and mixing them with some 
 fine soil at the same time; close the 
 hole with the soil taken out, and throw 
 some litter, or other covering, over the 
 whole, to prevent the wet or frost pen- 
 etrating about them in beds. They 
 will make nice little plants the first sea- 
 son ; and by transplanting the stronger 
 ones, you will have fine plants in about 
 three years. The holly will not thrive 
 
 in any poor light sandy soil, or in a 
 swampy situation, but likes a strong, 
 deep, dry, loamy soil." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 The best season for clipping hollies- 
 is early in spring, before they make 
 their annual growth. 
 
 The European Holly does not fully 
 resist the winter of Pennsylvania, un- 
 less on well drained land, and further 
 north it is probable it would suffer much 
 more, except in the vicinity of the sea, 
 where many plants do well that are not 
 able to withstand the winter of the same 
 latitude in the interior. 
 
 Our ow>n native Holly, (Ilex opaca,) 
 is a fine plant too long overlooked. — 
 Why do not persons of taste decorate 
 their grounds with this noble American 
 evergreen, which will grow in any soil, 
 and resist the winter's frost and sum- 
 mer's sun throughout the length and 
 breadth of our continent. 
 
 HOLLYHOCK (Althcea rosea). There 
 is also a sub-species. A. R. Biloba. 
 This flower has lately gained the atten- 
 tion from florists it deserves; and there 
 are now many varieties. Dr. Lindley 
 justly observes that, " the hollyhock is 
 little more than a biennial, and fre- 
 quently dies suddenly if sown too early 
 in the first season, or if allowed to re- 
 main long in the seed-bed before trans- 
 planting; therefore the best way to 
 keep them in health is not to sow them 
 before June, and when large enough to 
 transplant them singly where they are 
 to remain and flower in the following 
 season : afterwards cut them down as 
 soon as they have done flowering, and 
 remove them to afresh situation, where 
 the ground has been well manured, be- 
 fore winter. By continuing this treat- 
 ment you may keep the same variety 
 for years." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 HOMERIA. Ten species. Green- 
 house bulbs. Offsets. Loam, peat, and 
 sand. 
 
 HONESTY. Lunaria, 
 
 HONEY-BERRY. Melicocca. 
 
 HONEY-DEW. See Extravasated 
 Sap. 
 
 HONEY-FLOWER. Melianthus. 
 
 HONEY-GARLIC. Nectaroscordum. 
 
 HONEYSUCKLE. (Lonicera peri- 
 clymenum.) This hardy, beautiful, and 
 fragrant flowering shrub will grow in 
 almost any soil, and will thrive where 
 few others will, under the shade of 
 trees. There are the following sub- 
 species : — 
 
HON 
 
 295 
 
 — • — 
 
 HOR 
 
 1. Periclymenum Semper virens; 
 Perfoliate evergreen ; Virginia Honey- 
 suckle, which always flowers, common- 
 ly called Trumpet Honeysuckle. 
 
 2. Periclymenum Racemosum, Ho- 
 neysuckle with yellowish flowers, grow- 
 ing in bunches, and a snowy fruit. 
 
 3. Periclymenum Verticillatum, ano- 
 ther .tree-like honeysuckle, with in- 
 flected branches, and a coral-coloured 
 flower. 
 
 4. Periclymenum Germanicum, the 
 German honeysuckle. 
 
 5. Periclymenum Italianum, Italian 
 honeysuckle. 
 
 6. Periclymenum Vulgare, honey- 
 suckle with a corymbus of flower ter- 
 minating the stalks, hairy leaves, grow- 
 ing distinct, and very slender branches, 
 commonly called English Honeysuckle, 
 or Woodbine. 
 
 7. Periclymenum Americanum, the 
 evergreen honeysuckle. 
 
 As to the general culture, they require 
 very little; the upright sorts in particu- 
 lar, require to have only their straggling 
 shoots shortened, and dead wood cut 
 out ; and the trailing kinds, which are 
 trained as climbers, must have their 
 branches conducted in a proper man- 
 ner upon their respective supports ; 
 and every year all rambling shoots 
 must be reduced and trained as you 
 shall see proper, so as to preserve them 
 within due limits; unless you design 
 they shall run wild in their own rural 
 way, especially those intended to climb 
 among the branches of trees, shrubs, 
 and bushes; those also intended and 
 trained annually, laying the shoots 
 along at their length, especially till they 
 have covered the allotted space; short- 
 ening or clearing out, however, all such 
 stragglers as cannot be properly train- 
 ed; likewise such of those sorts as are 
 trained against walls, &c, must have 
 an annual pruning and training, by go- 
 ing over them two or three times in 
 summer, laying in some of the most 
 convenient shoots, some at their length, 
 shortening or trenching others, as it 
 shall seem necessary to preserve regu- 
 Jarity, and the proper succession of 
 flowers ; observing, however, to train 
 enough, at this time particularly, of 
 such as shall appear necessary to con- 
 tinue the bloom as long as possible; 
 and in winter pruning, thin out all those 
 left in summer which may now appear 
 superfluous, and shorten all such as are 
 
 too long for the space allotted for them, 
 especially all those with weak strag- 
 gling tops; and nail in the remaining 
 branches and shoots close to the wall. 
 
 Propagation is effected by layers and 
 cuttings, more particularly the latter, 
 both of which readily emit roots, and 
 form plants in one year, fit to trans- 
 plant. Some sorts are also propagated 
 by suckers and by seed. 
 
 By Layers. — In autumn, winter, or 
 spring, lay a quantity of the lower 
 young shoots of the former summer, 
 shortening their straggling tops; they 
 will be Well rooted by the autumn fol- 
 lowing, each commencing a good plant, 
 and should be taken off, and planted in 
 nursery rows, for a year or two, to ac- 
 quire proper size and strength for use. 
 
 By Cuttings. — Any time from Octo- 
 ber till March, is the proper time for 
 this work, but the sooner the better, 
 and by which method prodigious quan- 
 tities of the plants may be raised, as al- 
 most every cutting will readily grow. 
 
 Choose of the young shoots of the 
 previous summer, the strongest and 
 most robust, which divide into cuttings 
 from about six or eight to ten or fifteen 
 inches long, plant them in rows in any 
 shady border of common earth, a foot 
 asunder, and half that distance apart in 
 each row, or closer if greater quantities 
 are required, putting of each cutting 
 two parts out of three of its length into 
 the ground ; they will take root freely, 
 and shoot at top so as to form proper 
 plants by autumn or winter following, 
 at which time they may be transplanted 
 into the nursery quarters to have more 
 room to grow, placing them in rows 
 two feet distance, and a foot apart in 
 the rows, where let them remain a year 
 or two, or till wanted for the shrub- 
 bery. 
 
 By Seed. — If sowed in autumn in a 
 bed of common mould an inch deep, 
 many of the plants will probably rise 
 in spring ; but a great part of them are 
 apt to remain till the second spring be- 
 fore they appear. (Abercrombie.) 
 
 HONEYWORT. Cerinthe. 
 
 HOOP-PETTICOAT. Narcissus bul- 
 bocodium. 
 
 HOP-HORNBEAM. Phologophora. 
 
 HOREHOUND. Marrubium. 
 
 HORKELLIA. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Seed and division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 HORMINUM pyrenaicum. Hardy 
 
HOR 
 
 296 
 
 — • — 
 
 HOR 
 
 herbaceous. Seed and division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 HORN. See Animal Matters. 
 
 HORNBEAM. Carpinus. 
 
 HORN-OF-PLENTY. Fedia. 
 
 HORN-POPPY. Glaucium. 
 
 HORSE-CHESTNUT. JEsculus. 
 There are the following species and 
 varieties : — 
 
 JE. Hippocastanum. Common horse- 
 chestnut. Asia. Seeds sown in March. 
 Flowers in May. Height forty feet. 
 
 2E. H. folia aurea. Gold-striped 
 horse-chestnut. 
 
 2E. H. folia argentea. Silver-striped 
 horse-chestnut. 
 
 These two varieties have the same 
 characteristics as the preceding, but 
 are propagated by grafting in March. 
 
 JE. jlava. Yellow horse-chestnut. 
 
 JE. pavia. Scarlet horse-chestnut. 
 
 JE. pavia rosea. Pale scarlet horse- 
 chestnut. 
 
 All natives of Carolina. June. Grafts. 
 Twenty feet. 
 
 Horse-chestnuts all require a light, 
 rich, well-drained soil, and a sheltered 
 situation, being much injured by violent 
 winds. When in blossom they are 
 strikingly beautiful, and their round 
 heads group well with trees having 
 more pointed forms. They may all be 
 grafted on the common horse-chestnut, 
 which is increased by seed or layers. 
 
 HORSE-CHESTNUT MOTH. See 
 Bombyx. 
 
 HORSE-RADISH. Cochlearia Armo- 
 racia. Delights in a deep, mouldy, rich 
 soil, kept as much as possible in a mo- 
 derate but regular degree of moistness. 
 Hence the banks of a ditch, or other 
 place which has a constant supply of 
 water, is a most eligible situation for 
 the beds, so that they do not lie so low 
 as to have it in excess. If the soil is 
 poor, or beneath the drip of trees, the 
 roots mever attain any considerable size. 
 
 Manures. — Should the ground require 
 to be enriched, leaf-mould, or other tho- 
 roughly decayed vegetable substance, 
 should be dug into the depth at which 
 the sets are intended to be planted. If 
 cow or horse-dung be employed, it 
 should be in a highly putrescent state. 
 
 Propagation. — Horse-radish flowers 
 in June, but in this climate seldom per- 
 fects its seed, consequently it is propa- 
 gated by sets, which are provided by 
 cutting the main root and offsets into 
 lengths of two inches. The tops, or 
 
 crowns of the roots, form the best ; 
 those taken from the centre never be- 
 coming so soon fit for use, or of so fine 
 a growth. If the latter are, however, 
 unavoidably employed, each set should 
 have at least two eyes ; for without one 
 they refuse to vegetate at all. For the 
 obtaining a supply of the crowns, any 
 inferior piece of ground, planted with 
 sets six inches apart and six deep, will 
 furnish from one to five tops each, and 
 may be collected for several successive 
 years with little more trouble than 
 keeping them clear of weeds ; but the 
 times for planting are in October and 
 February — the first for dry soils, the 
 latter season for moist ones. 
 
 The sets are inserted in rows eighteen 
 inches apart each way. The ground 
 should be trenched between two and 
 three feet deep, the cuttings being 
 placed along the bottom of the trench, 
 and the mould turned from the next 
 one over them, or inserted to a similar 
 depth by a long blunt-pointed dibble. 
 They should be placed in their natural 
 position, which has considerable influ- 
 ence over the forwardness of their 
 growth ; the surface raked level, and 
 kept clear of weeds until the plants 
 are of such size as to render it unneces- 
 sary. The mould ought to lie as light 
 as possible over the sets ; therefore, 
 treading on the beds should be carefully 
 avoided. The shoots make their ap- 
 pearance in May or June, or even ear- 
 lier if they were planted in autumn. 
 
 As the leaves decay in autumn, have 
 them carefully removed ; the ground 
 being also hoed and raked over at the 
 same season, which may be repeated 
 in the following spring before they be- 
 gin to vegetate, at which time eighteen 
 inches depth of mould to be laid regu- 
 larly and lightly over the bed. 
 
 In the succeeding autumn they mere- 
 ly require to be hoed as before, and 
 may be taken up as wanted. By having 
 three beds devoted to this root, one 
 will always be lying fallow and im- 
 proving; of which period likewise ad- 
 vantage should be taken to apply any 
 requisite manure. 
 
 If, when of advanced growth, the 
 plants throw out suckers, these should 
 be carefully removed, during the sum- 
 mer, as they appear. 
 
 In September or October of the se- 
 cond year, as before stated, the roots 
 may be taken up ; and in November a 
 
HOR 
 
 297 
 
 HOR 
 
 sufficient quantity should be raised to 
 preserve in sand for winter supply. 
 
 Taking up. — To take them up a 
 trench is dug along the outside row 
 down to the bottom of the upright 
 roots, which, by some persons, when 
 the bed is continued in one place, are 
 cut off level to the original stool, and 
 the earth from the next row is then 
 turned over them to the requisite depth ; 
 and so in rotation to the end of the 
 plantation. By this mode a bed will 
 continue in perfection for five or six 
 years ; after which a fresh plantation is 
 usually necessary. But the best prac- 
 tice is to take the crop up entirely, and 
 to form a plantation annually ; for it 
 not only causes the roots to be finer, 
 but also affords the opportunity of 
 changing the site. If this mode is fol- 
 lowed care must be taken to raise every 
 lateral root; for almost the smallest of 
 them will vegetate, if left in the ground. 
 
 HORSE-RADISH TREE. Moringa. 
 
 HORSE-THISTLE. Cirsium. 
 
 HORTICULTURE (from hortus, 
 garden, and colo, I till) includes in its 
 most extensive signification, the culti- 
 vation of esculent vegetables, fruits and 
 ornamental plants, and the formation 
 and management of rural scenery for 
 the purposes of utility and embellish- 
 ment. The earliest effort of man to 
 emerge from a state of barbarism was 
 directed to the tillage of the earth: 
 the first seed which he planted was the 
 first act of civilization, and gardening 
 was the first step in the career of re- 
 finement ; but still it is an art in which 
 he last reaches perfection. When the 
 savage exchanges the wild and wander- 
 ing life of a warrior and hunter, for the 
 confined and peaceful pursuits of a 
 planter, the harvests, herds, and flocks 
 take the place of the simple garden. 
 The mechanic arts are next developed ; 
 then commerce commences, and manu- 
 factures soon succeed. As wealth in- 
 creases, ambition manifests itself in 
 the splendor of apparel, of mansions, 
 equipages and entertainments. Science, 
 literature, and the fine arts are unfold- 
 ed, and a high degree of civilization is 
 attained. It is not until all this has 
 taken place, that horticulture is culti- 
 vated as one of the ornamental arts. 
 Egypt, the cradle of civilization, so far 
 perfected her tillage, that the banks of 
 the Nile were adorned by a succession 
 of luxuriant plantations, from the cata- 
 
 ract of Syene to the shores of the Delta 5 
 but it was when Thebes with its hun- 
 dred brazen gates, and the cities of 
 Memphis and Beliopolis, were rising 
 in magnificence, and her stupendous 
 pyramids, obelisks, and temples, be- 
 came the wonders of the world. The 
 hills and plains of Palestine were ce- 
 lebrated for beautiful gardens; but it 
 was not until the walls and temple of 
 Jerusalem announced the power and 
 intelligence of the Israelites, and the 
 prophets had rebuked their luxury and 
 extravagance. The queen of the East 
 " had heard of the fame of Solomon ;" 
 his fleets had brought him the gold of 
 Ophir, and the treasures of Asia and 
 Africa ; the kings of Tyre and Arabia 
 were his tributaries, and princes his 
 merchants, when he " made orchards," 
 " delighted to dwell in gardens," and 
 planted the " vineyard of Baalhaman." 
 The Assyrians had peopled the borders 
 of the Tigris and Euphrates, from the 
 Persian gulf to the mountainous re- 
 gions of Ararat, and their monarchs had 
 founded Nineveh and Babylon, before 
 we hear of the gardens of Semiramis. 
 The Persian empire had extended from 
 the Indus to the Archipelago, when the 
 paradise of Sardis excited the astonish- 
 ment of a Spartan general, and Cyrus 
 mustered the Grecian auxiliaries in 
 the spacious garden of Celaenae. The 
 Greeks had repulsed the invasions of 
 Darius and Xerxes, and Athens had 
 reached the height of her glory, when 
 Cimon established the Academus, and 
 presented it to his fellow citizens as a 
 public garden. Numerous others were 
 soon planted, and decorated with tem- 
 ples, porticoes, altars, statues and tri- 
 umphal monuments ; but this was dur- 
 ing the polished age of Pericles, when 
 Socrates and Plato taught philosophy 
 in the sacred groves; when the theatre 
 was thronged to listen to the poetry of 
 Euripedes and Aristophanes; when the 
 genius of Phidias was displayed in rear- 
 ing the Parthenon and sculpturing the 
 statues of the gods ; when eloquence 
 and painting had reached perfection, 
 and history was illustrated by Herodotus, 
 Thucydides, and Xenophon. Rome had 
 subjugated the world, and emulated 
 Athens in literature, science, and the 
 arts, when the superb villas of Sallust, 
 Crassus, Pompey, Caesar, Maecenas and 
 Agrippina were erected, and the pa- 
 laces of the emperors were environed 
 
HOR 
 
 298 
 
 -• — 
 
 HOR 
 
 by magnificent gardens. The history 
 of modern nations presents similar re- 
 sults. Horticulture long lingered in 
 the rear of other pursuits. Most of the 
 common fruits, flowers and oleraceous 
 vegetables which had been collected by 
 the Greeks and Romans, from Egypt, 
 
 petus to cultivation, which is felt in the 
 remotest countries. Its example has 
 been followed in the most flourishing 
 kingdoms of the eastern continent, and 
 many similar institutions have been 
 founded in the United States. The ef- 
 fect of these is to diffuse through every 
 
 Asia and other distant climes, were country the knowledge and products of 
 
 successively extended over Western 
 Europe ; but so gradual was their pro- 
 gress, after the dark ages, that, till 
 
 all. The history, literature and science 
 of gardening, open a wide field for stu- 
 dy and inquiry. The pleasure which 
 
 the reign of Henry VIII., scarcely any j gardens afforded men, even in the ear- 
 
 kitchen vegetables were cultivated in 
 England, and the small quantity con- 
 sumed was imported from Holland. 
 Fuller observes, that " gardening was 
 first brought into England, for profit, 
 about the commencement of the 17th 
 century. Peaches, nectarines, apricots, 
 plums, pears, cherries, strawberries, 
 melons, and grapes, were luxuries but 
 little enjoyed before the time of Charles 
 II., who introduced French gardening 
 at Hampton court, Carlton and Marl- 
 borough, and built the first hot and ice 
 houses. At this period Evelyn, trans- 
 lated the "Complete Gardener," and a 
 treatise on orange trees, by Quintinyne ; 
 and, having devoted the remainder of 
 his life to the cultivation of his rural 
 seat at Sayes court, near Deptford, and 
 the publication of his Sylva, Terra, 
 Pomona, and Acetaria, he " first taught 
 gardening to speak proper English." 
 In the Netherlands, France, Germany, 
 and Italy, a formal and very imperfect 
 system of gardening was practised with 
 considerable success; but it was ge- 
 nerally in a languishing condition, 
 throughout the world, until the com- 
 mencement of the 18th century, when 
 it attracted the attention of some of the 
 first characters of Great Britain ; but 
 the establishment of the present im- 
 proved style of horticulture is of very 
 recent date. "Bacon was the prophet, 
 Milton the herald, and Addison, Pope 
 and Kent the champions of true taste." 
 The principles which were developed in 
 their writings, and those of Shenstone, 
 the Masons, and VVheatley, were suc- 
 cessfully applied by Bridgeman, Wright, 
 Brown, and Eames ; the system soon be- 
 came popular, and gradually extended 
 over Europe, and ultimately reached J 
 the United States. But the labours of 
 the London Horticultural Society have 
 mainly contributed to the perfection and 
 present high estimation of gardening. 
 That noble institution has given an im- 
 
 liest times, appears from the scriptural 
 account of the garden of Eden. The 
 garden of Gethsemane, and that of the 
 good and just Arimathean, are memor- 
 able in the sacred history ofthe Messiah. 
 The Elysian fields were the heaven of 
 classic mythology, and the devout Mus- 
 sulman hopes to renew his existence 
 in a celestial paradise. The bards, 
 scholars and philosophers ofthe classic 
 ages, have transmitted descriptions of 
 the gardens of the ancients, from those 
 in which Homer places the palace of 
 Alcinous and the cottage of Lsertes, 
 to the splendid villas of Pliny and 
 Lucullus. Among the ancient Greek 
 writers, Hesiod, Theophrastus, Xen- 
 ophon and JElian treated of gardens to 
 a certain extent ; and the works of 
 those who wrote after the seat of go- 
 vernment was removed to Constantin- 
 ople were collected under the title of 
 Geoponica, and have been translated by 
 Owen. Among the Latins, Varro was 
 the first author, to whom succeeded 
 Cato, Pliny the Elder, Columella and 
 Palladius. Passages are to be found, 
 relative to the subject, in Martial, Virgil 
 and Horace; but Pliny's Natural Histo- 
 ry, and Columella's book on gardens, 
 contain the most correct information 
 on Roman horticulture. Literature and 
 the arts having revived in Italy, that 
 country was the first to produce books 
 on agriculture and gardening, and that 
 of Crescenzia became celebrated. The 
 field and garden cultures of Italy are 
 so nearly allied, and horticulture and 
 agriculture have been so blended by the 
 writers, that it is difficult to ascertain 
 under which department to include their 
 works. The best for general informa- 
 tion on the tillage of that delightful 
 region is the Annali delP Agricultura. 
 The Germans, as in all the branches of 
 letters, science, and arts, have an im- 
 mense number of books in the depart- 
 ment of gardening, especially on the 
 
HOR 
 
 299 
 
 — ♦- 
 
 HOR 
 
 subject of planting and forest trees. 
 Those which furnish the best idea of 
 the state of culture in that country, are 
 Dietrich's W'orterbuch, with the supple- 
 ment of 1820, and Sickler's Deutsche 
 Handwirtshaft. The Dutch excel more 
 in the practice than the literature of 
 gardening. They have no work of very 
 recent date ; that of Comelin, which 
 was published about the middle of the 
 17th century, is among the earliest; 
 and those of La Court and Van Osten 
 are said to be among the best that have 
 appeared. The Journal of a Horticul- 
 tural Tour in Holland and Flanders, by 
 a deputation of the Caledonian Horti- 
 cultural Society, gives the most satis- 
 factory account of gardening in that 
 part of the continent, in 1817. The 
 Transactions of the Stockholm and Upsal 
 academies furnish the chief information 
 which is to be obtained, in relation to 
 the rural economy of Sweden. The 
 first author was Rudbeck, who was a 
 cotemporary of Commelin. Russia and 
 Poland have produced but very few 
 original books on horticulture. The 
 Agricultural Transactions occasionally 
 published by a society in Warsaw, with 
 those of the Economical Society of St. 
 Petersburg, may be considered as af- 
 fording the most accurate intelligence 
 as to the culture of those countries. 
 In the latter city is an extensive imperial 
 botanical garden, which being under the 
 direction of able professors, emulates 
 those of the more favoured portions of 
 southern Europe. The only recorded 
 source for obtaining any knowledge of 
 Spanish tillage, are the Transactions 
 of the Royal Agricultural Society of 
 Madrid. The horticultural literature 
 of France is of an early date, and the 
 authors are not only numerous, but 
 many of them in the highest repute. 
 Etienne and Belon were the pioneers, 
 while Du Hamel, Girardin, D'Argen- 
 ville, Rossier, Tessier,Calvel, Noisette, 
 Du Petit Thours, Jean and Gabriel 
 Thouin, Bosc and Vicomte Haricart de 
 Thury, may be considered as among 
 the most able of their followers, in the 
 various branches of rural economy. 
 For a general knowledge of French 
 culture, the Nouveau Cours ^Agricul- 
 ture, in thirteen volumes, published in 
 1810, should be consulted ; but the 
 most valuable publications on the exist- 
 ing mode of gardening, are the monthly 
 Annates de la Societe d> Horticulture, 
 
 the Annates de PInstitut Royal Horti- 
 cole de Framont, and the Bon Jardinier, 
 an annual publication compiled by pro- 
 fessor Poiteau and Vilmorin. The first 
 English treatise on rural economy was 
 Fitzherbert's Book of Husbandry, which 
 was published in 1634. The works of 
 Tusser, George and Piatt soon after ap- 
 peared, and, early in the 18th century, 
 the celebrated treatise of Jethro Tull 
 excited much attention ; and several 
 new works of considerable merit were 
 announced before 1764, when the valu- 
 able publications of Arthur Young, 
 Marshal, and numerous other authors, 
 spread a knowledge of cultivation, and 
 cherished a taste for rural improve- 
 ments, throughout Great Britain. The 
 literature of horticulture rapidly ad- 
 vanced ; but as many of the most emi- 
 nent writers have been named, in treat- 
 ing of the science and art of gardening, 
 it is unnecessary to mention them in 
 this place. The citizens of the United 
 States have been chiefly dependent on 
 England for books relating to agricul- 
 ture and gardening. Still several have 
 appeared by native writers, which are 
 highly creditable to the authors and the 
 country; especially those which relate 
 to the botanical department. Muhl en- 
 burg, Bigelow, Eliot, Torry, Colden, 
 Bartram, Barton, Hosack, Mitchel, Dar- 
 lington, Ives, Dewey and Hitchcock, 
 are entitled to great praise for their 
 successful attempts to illustrate the 
 American flora. One of the earliest 
 writers on husbandry was Belgrove, 
 who published a treatise on husband- 
 ry, in Boston, in 1755; and in 1790 
 Deane's New England Farmer appeared; 
 but McMahon, Cox, Thacher, Adlam, 
 Prince, Buntly, Butler, Nicholson and 
 Fessenden, since the commencement 
 of the present century, have produced 
 works on the various cultures of the 
 United States, which are generally cir- 
 culated, and held in great estimation. 
 The scientific relations of horticulture 
 are numerous, and require an extensive 
 acquaintance with the various branches 
 of natural history and physics. Bota- 
 ny, mineralogy, chemistry, hydraulics, 
 architecture and mechanics must furnish 
 their several contributions, which it is 
 the province of the artist to apply. 
 After the illustrious Linnseus published 
 his system of Nature, botany became a 
 popular science, and a variety of in- 
 teresting elementary works awakened 
 
HOR 
 
 300 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 HOR 
 
 attention to the beauties of nature, and 
 a passion for experimental and orna- 
 mental planting was induced, which 
 has been productive of great results. 
 Mineralogy enables us to obtain ac- 
 curate knowledge of terrestrial sub- 
 stances, and the mode of distinguishing 
 the divers kinds of earths, which con- 
 stitute a cultivable soil ; and chemistry 
 instructs us as to the nature and pro- 
 perties of these various earths, having 
 for its objects, when applied to horti- 
 culture, all those changes in the ar- 
 rangements of matter, which are con- 
 nected with the growth and nourishment 
 of plants, the comparative value of 
 their produce as food, the constitution 
 of soils, the manner in which lands are 
 enriched by manure, or rendered fertile 
 by the different processes of cultivation. 
 Inquiries of such a nature cannot but 
 be interesting and important, both to 
 the theoretical horticulturist and the 
 practical gardener. To the first they 
 are necessary in applying most of the 
 fundamental principles on which the 
 theory of the art depends. To the se- 
 cond they are useful in affording simple 
 and easy experiments for directing his 
 labours, and for enabling him to pursue 
 a certain and systematic plan of im- 
 provement. To hydraulics belong, not 
 only the conducting and raising of water 
 with the construction of pumps and other 
 engines for those purposes, but the laws 
 which explain the nature of springs 
 and fountains. By the principles of 
 that science, artificial lakes, canals and 
 aqueducts are formed, irrigations pro- 
 jected, and water rendered subservient 
 to the useful purposes of life, as well 
 as to the embellishments of pleasure- 
 grounds by jets d'eau, cascades and 
 streams. Architecture, as a branch of 
 horticulture, is of the first importance. 
 Without its aid, it would be impossible 
 to give that propriety and elegance to 
 the scenery, and to produce that pleas- 
 ing effect, which is the chief object of 
 landscape gardening. Mechanics, in all 
 its branches, is required for the purposes 
 of horticulture. Great improvements 
 have been effected in gardening within 
 the last half century. During the age 
 of Cicero, a formal kind of gardening 
 prevailed, characterized by clipped 
 hedges and long avenues of trees. 
 Pliny the Younger has given an account 
 of his villa at Laurentum, and from the 
 description, it was rather distinguished 
 
 for its numerous superb edifices, exten- 
 sive prospects, and the systematical 
 arrangement of the pleasure grounds, 
 than for the improvements and decora- 
 tions of the surrounding scenery, in 
 accordance with those principles which 
 are derived from a close observance 
 of the pleasing effects of nature. The 
 rural residences of the Romans appear 
 to have been mere places of temporary 
 retreat, and were planted with odorife- 
 rous flowers and shrubs and ornamented 
 rather by the civil architect than the 
 horticultural artist. From the estab- 
 lishment of the papal government to 
 the commencement of the 1 3th centu- 
 ry, the monks were the only class of 
 persons who attended to ornamental 
 gardening. After that period, the style 
 prevalent throughout Europe consisted 
 in tall hedges, square parterres fantas- 
 tically planted, straight walks, and rows 
 of trees uniformly placed and pruned. 
 In fact, but little improvement was 
 made from the time of the emperors 
 Vespasian and Titus until the reign of 
 George III. of England. It is true, 
 Hampton Court had been laid out by 
 Cardinal Wolseyj Le Notre had plant- 
 ed Greenwich and St. James's Park 
 during the reign of Charles II. ; and, in 
 that of George II., Queen Caroline had 
 enlarged Kensington Gardens, and form- 
 ed the Serpentine river ; but Lord Ba- 
 thurst was the first who deviated from 
 straight lines, as applied to ornamental 
 pieces of water, by following the natu- 
 ral courses of a valley. Still, what has 
 been emphatically called the Dutch sys- 
 tem universally prevailed, and the shear- 
 ing of yew, box and holly into formal 
 figures of various kinds, and the shaving 
 of river banks into regular slopes, went 
 on until their absurdity became con- 
 temptible, and a better and more natural 
 taste was induced. Verdant sculpture, 
 regular precision in the distribution of 
 compartments and rectangular boundary 
 walls, yielded to more chaste designs. 
 Bridgeman succeeded to Loudon (not the 
 distinguished author) and Wise, and be- 
 came a distinguished artist; he rejected 
 many of the absurd notions of his pre- 
 decessors, and enlarged the bounds of 
 horticulture. Other innovators depart- 
 ed from the rigid rules of symmetry ; 
 but it was reserved for Kent to realize 
 the beautiful descriptions of the poets, 
 and carry the ideas of Milton, Pope, 
 Addison and Mason more extensively 
 
HOR 
 
 301 
 
 HOR 
 
 into execution. According to Lord 
 Walpole, he was painter enough to 
 taste the charms of landscape, suffi- 
 ciently bold and opinionative to dare 
 and to dictate, and born with a genius 
 to strike out a great system from the 
 twilight of imperfect essays. He leap- 
 ed the fence, and saw that all nature 
 was a garden. The great principles on 
 which he worked were perspective, 
 light and shade. Groups of trees broke 
 a too extensive lawn ; evergreens and 
 wood were opposed to the glare of the 
 champaign, and, by selecting favourite 
 objects, and veiling deformities, he re- 
 alized the compositions of the great 
 masters in painting. Where objects 
 were wanting to animate his horizon, 
 his taste as an architect could immedi- 
 ately produce them. His buildings, 
 his temples, his seats, were more the 
 work of his pencil than of his science 
 as a constructor. He bade adieu to 
 all the stiff modes of canals, circular 
 basins, and cascades tumbling over 
 marble steps. Dealing in none but the 
 true colours of nature, and seizing upon 
 its most interesting features, a new 
 creation was gradually presented. The 
 living landscape was chastened or po- 
 lished, not transformed. The elegant 
 works of Repton, the unrivalled essays 
 of Price on the picturesque, and the 
 valuable publications of Gilpin, Madock, 
 Panty, Sang and Loudon, with those of 
 many other writers on landscape and 
 ornamental gardening, have had an ex- 
 tensive influence in promoting correct 
 ideas of natural scenery. The improv- 
 ed style of horticulture, every where 
 apparent in Great Britain, attracted the 
 attention of the other nations of Europe, 
 and English gardening became the de- 
 signation for all that was beautiful in 
 that pleasing art — the synonyme of per- 
 fection in rural culture. At the period 
 when this new system of laying out 
 ground was gaining converts, and be- 
 gan to be practically adopted, Viscount 
 Girardin, a French military officer of 
 high rank, travelled through England, 
 and, on his return, he not only improved 
 his seat at Ermenonville in conformity 
 to that style, but published a work of 
 great celebrity on the Composition des 
 Paysages sur le Terrain, ou des Moyens 
 d'embellir la Nature pres des Habita- 
 tions. The French style of laying out 
 gardens had been settled by Le Notre, 
 during the reign of Louis XIV., and 
 
 continued in repute for upwards of a 
 century ; tor it appears to have been in 
 vogue as late as 1770. The court and 
 nation wished to be dazzled by novelty 
 and singularity, and his long, clipped 
 alleys, triumphal arches, richly deco- 
 rated parterres, his fountains and cas- 
 cades, with their grotesque and strange 
 ornaments, his groves full of architec- 
 ture and gilt trellises, and his profusion 
 of statues, enchanted every class of ob- 
 servers. His principal works were the 
 gardens of Versailles, Meudon, St. 
 Cloud, Sceaux, Chantilly, and the ter- 
 race of St. Germain. Gray, the poet, 
 was struck with their splendor when 
 filled with company, and when the 
 water-works were in full action ; but 
 Lord Kaimes says, they would tempt 
 one to believe, that nature was below 
 the notice of a great monarch. Le 
 Notre was succeeded by Dufresny, who, 
 differing considerably in taste from that 
 great artist, determined on inventing a 
 more picturesque style ; but his efforts 
 were rarely carried into full execution. 
 He, however, constructed in a manner 
 superior to his predecessor, the gardens 
 of Abbe Pajot and those of Moulin and 
 Chemin creux. After the peace of 1762, 
 the English system began to pass into 
 France, and portions of ancient gardens 
 were destroyed, to make way for young 
 plantations a PAnglaise. Laugier was 
 the first author who espoused the Eng- 
 lish style, and the next in order was 
 Prevot. It was at this time that Viscount 
 Girardin commenced his improvements 
 at Ermenonville, and the change of the 
 horticultural taste in France, may be 
 referred to the last quarter of the 18th 
 century. The English style has gra- 
 dually found its way into most civilized 
 countries. Only 25 years have elapsed 
 since the London Horticultural Society 
 was established , and there are now more 
 than 50 similar institutions in Great 
 Britain, which still maintains the first 
 rank in the art ; but France is making 
 great efforts to rival her. A horticul- 
 tural society was established in Paris 
 in 1826, and has already more than two 
 thousand members, and the number is 
 rapidly increasing. It has been patron- 
 ised by the court, and most of the nobles 
 and men of distinction in France have 
 eagerly united with the proprietors of es- 
 tates and practical cultivators to collect 
 and disseminate intelligence throughout 
 that flourishing empire. In the various 
 
HOR 
 
 302 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 HOR 
 
 provinces where horticultural societies 
 have not been founded, those of agri- 
 culture, or of the sciences and arts, 
 have established departments expressly 
 devoted to that interesting pursuit; and 
 during the year 1827, a practical and 
 theoretical institution was founded at 
 Fromont, by the enlightened and mu- 
 nificient Chevalier Soulange Bodin, for 
 educating gardeners, and introducing 
 improvements in every department of 
 horticulture. The garden contains about 
 130 acres, and is divided into compart- 
 ments for every variety of culture. 
 Extensive green - houses, stoves and 
 orangeries have been erected, and all 
 the other appendages furnished, which 
 are requisite for rendering the establish- 
 ment effectual for instruction and ex- 
 periment. The nursery of the Luxem- 
 bourg long supplied a great part of 
 Europe with fruit trees. The Jardin 
 des Plantes, in Paris, includes compart- 
 ments, which may be considered as 
 schools for horticulture, planting, agri- 
 culture, medical botany and general 
 economy, and is unquestionably the 
 most scientific and best managed estab- 
 lishment in Europe. The flower garden 
 of Malmaison, the botanical garden of 
 Trianon, and numerous nursery, herb 
 medicinal, experimental and botanical 
 gardens, in various parts of the king- 
 dom, are pre-eminent for the variety, 
 number and excellence of their pro- 
 ducts. Holland has been distinguished, 
 since the period of the crusades, for her 
 flower gardens, culinary vegetables, 
 and plantations of fruit trees. The 
 north of Europe and the United States 
 are still dependent upon her florists for 
 the most splendid varieties of bulbous- 
 rooted plants ; and her celebrated nur- 
 series, which have long replenished 
 those of Europe, have been recently 
 fortunate in the acquisition of Van 
 Mons and Duquesne. Some of the 
 finest fruits of our gardens were pro- 
 duced by these indefatigable experi- 
 mentalists, and, with the excellent va- 
 rieties created by Knight, promise to 
 replace those which have either become 
 extinct, or are so deteriorated in qua- 
 lity, as to discourage their cultivation. 
 From St. Petersburg to the shores of 
 the Mediterranean, horticulture has 
 made a rapid progress, and each nation 
 is emulous to perfect its culture, in ac- 
 cordance with the most improved prin- 
 ciples of science, art and taste. In 
 
 the United States, a like spirit has 
 been more recently developed. Horti- 
 cultural societies have been instituted 
 in New York, Philadelphia, Boston, 
 Albany, Geneva, and South Carolina, 
 and a zealous disposition evinced to 
 compete with the nations of the eastern 
 continent. The environs of many of 
 the cities are in a high state of cultiva- 
 tion, and the markets are beginning to 
 be well stocked with numerous varie- 
 ties of fruits and vegetables. It is now 
 the duty of American cultivators to re- 
 ciprocate the benefits which they have 
 so long received from their transatlantic 
 brethren, and to develope the resources 
 of a country, which offers such an ex- 
 tensive range of research to the natu- 
 ralist. Many of the most useful and 
 magnificent acquisitions of the groves, 
 fields, gardens and conservatories of 
 Europe are natives of the western he- 
 misphere. The indigenous forest trees, 
 ornamental shrubs, flowers, fruits, and 
 edible vegetables of North America, 
 are remarkable for their variety, size, 
 splendour or value. Extending from the 
 pole to the tropics, and from the At- 
 lantic to the Pacific, North America 
 embraces every clime, and every vari- 
 ety of soil, teeming with innumerable 
 specimens of the vegetable kingdom. 
 With such advantages, most of which 
 are included within the United States, 
 it is to be expected that the citizens 
 will be as distinguished for their ad- 
 vancement in rural economy as in civil 
 and religious freedom. The natural 
 divisions of horticulture are the esculent 
 or kitchen garden, seminary, nursery, 
 fruit trees, and vines, flower garden, 
 green-houses, arboretum of ornamental 
 trees and shrubs, the botanical and 
 medical garden, and landscape or pic- 
 turesque gardening. Each of these 
 departments requires to be separately 
 studied before it can be managed so as 
 to combine utility and comfort with 
 ornament and recreation. To accom- 
 plish this on a large scale, artists, 
 scientific professors, and intelligent and 
 experienced practical superintendents, 
 are employed in Europe, but they have 
 not as yet been much required in the 
 United States. The owners of the soil 
 have generally designed and executed 
 such improvements as have been made 
 in the conveniences and embellishments 
 of country residences. The kitchen 
 garden is an indispensable appendage 
 
 
HOR 
 
 303 
 
 HOR 
 
 to every rural establishment. In its 
 simplest form, it is the nucleus of all 
 
 mentable negligence of this delightful 
 culture. In England, the eye is con- 
 
 others. Containing small compartments tinually struck with cottages embowered 
 for the culture of esculent vegetables, j amidst fruit trees, shrubs and flowers, 
 fruits and ornamental plants, these may while a neat compartment of esculent 
 be gradually extended, until the whole j vegetables supplies much of the food 
 estate assumes the imposing aspect of 
 picturesque or landscape scenery. The 
 details of the several grand divisions 
 of horticulture are to be learned from 
 the numerous authors who have devoted 
 their especial attention to each, and 
 those which have been named, with 
 many others, should be consulted by 
 every gentleman who wishes to parti- 
 cipate in the comforts and luxuries of a 
 garden. The most valuable and in- 
 teresting branches of gardening to the 
 citizens of the United States, generally, 
 are of course those which include the 
 culture of esculent vegetables, fruits 
 and ornamental plants. These may be 
 enjoyed, in various degrees, by all the 
 proprietors of the soil. It is only ne- 
 cessary that information should be dis- 
 seminated, and examples presented by 
 the more intelligent and opulent, to 
 remove the too common prejudice, that 
 gardens are costly and useless append- 
 ages, requiring great expenditure and 
 labour, without any adequate profit or 
 satisfaction. So far from this, there is 
 not a farmer, not an owner of an acre 
 of land, who will not be enriched or 
 gratified by devoting a portion of his 
 industry to the tillage of a garden : 
 they may find many hours which can 
 be thus profitably and pleasantly em- 
 ployed. Personal attention, with judi- 
 cious arrangements, and a proper divi- 
 sion of labour, will accomplish much. 
 Many of the most valuable products of 
 agriculture were first introduced, and 
 their qualities tested, in the garden. 
 " If, therefore," says the learned and 
 eloquent Poiteau, " we would ascend 
 to the origin of Agriculture, it is in the 
 garden that her cradle will be found. 
 There, like the young Hercules, she 
 first tried her powers, and prepared, 
 like him, to overrun the world, which 
 she speedily cleared of monsters, and 
 bestowed upon man the laws of civil- 
 ization." Although commendable ef- 
 forts have been made, in several parts 
 of the country, to introduce and mul- 
 tiply all kinds of esculent vegetables, 
 most of the choice varieties of fruits, 
 and many of the ornamental trees and 
 plants, still there is a general and la- 
 
 for the support of the inmates. In 
 Germany, Holland, and a portion of 
 Italy, it is the general attention which 
 all ranks bestow upon the grounds sur- 
 rounding their habitations, that gives 
 such a pleasing aspect to those coun- 
 tries. But little attention has been paid 
 in the United States to the planting of 
 forest trees, ornamental shrubs and 
 flowers, although the native varieties 
 are numerous, highly valued in other 
 countries, and constitute the most in- 
 teresting exhibitions in those celebrated 
 establishments, which are enriched by 
 collections from all quarters of the 
 globe. Arboriculture claims attention, 
 not merely for the purposes of rural 
 embellishment, but to replace the valu- 
 able timber trees, which are fast disap- 
 pearing throughout the Atlantic states. 
 The forest trees of North America ex- 
 ceed 140, while in Europe there are 
 only 37. There are 53 species of the 
 oak, 17 of the pine, 15 of the walnut, 
 and 8 of the maple. Of those magnifi- 
 cent trees which compose the genus of 
 the magnolia, but 15 are known, 9 of 
 which belong to the United States. In 
 all ages and countries, flowers have 
 been universally cherished. " Who," 
 asks Boursault, "does not love flow- 
 ers? They embellish our gardens; 
 they give a more brilliant lustre to our 
 festivals ; they are the interpreters of 
 our affections ; they are the testimonials 
 of our gratitude ; we present them to 
 those to whom we are under obliga- 
 tions ; they are often necessary to the 
 pomp of our religious ceremonies, and 
 they seem to associate and mingle their 
 perfumes, with the purity of our pray- 
 ers, and the homage which we address 
 to the Almighty. Happy are those who 
 love and cultivate them." The ancients 
 paid particular attention to flowers. 
 They were in great request at the en- 
 tertainments of the wealthy ; they were 
 scattered before the triumphal chariots 
 of conquerors ; they formed the dis- 
 tinguishing insignia of many divinities ; 
 they glitter as gems in the diadem of 
 the seasons, and constitute the mys- 
 tical language of poetry. We are told 
 that Descartes prosecuted, with equal 
 
HOS 
 
 304 
 
 HOT 
 
 ardour, astronomy and the culture of 
 flowers. The great Conde devoted his 
 leisure hours to that delightful pursuit, 
 and the vase of flowers was daily re- 
 newed upon the table of Lord Bacon, 
 while composing the volumes of his 
 sublime philosophy. In the cities of 
 Europe, flower-markets, for the sale of 
 bouquets and ornamental plants, are as 
 common as those for fruits. In this 
 new world, these delicate daughters of 
 the sun have not received that atten- 
 tion which indicates the highest state of 
 civilization : but a taste for floriculture 
 is increasing throughout the Union, 
 and ornamental plants embellish the 
 country seats of the opulent and the 
 dwellings of honest industry. Botani- 
 cal gardens have been established in 
 several of the states, and the large 
 cities can now boast of their marts and 
 exhibitions of flowers. One of the 
 greatest impediments to the progress 
 of horticulture in the United States has 
 been the deficiency of nurseries, both 
 as to number and extent. They are 
 not only requisite for furnishing the va- 
 rious kinds of trees and plants which 
 are demanded for utility and embel- 
 lishment, but to give publicity to the 
 most valuable and interesting species, 
 as well as to excite a taste for their 
 cultivation. These establishments, how- 
 ever, have been much increased and 
 improved within a few years, and there 
 are several in the vicinity of Boston, 
 New York, Albany, Philadelphia, and 
 in the district of Columbia, which are 
 highly creditable to the proprietors and 
 to the country." — Encyc. Am. 
 
 HOSACKIA. Four species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division and seed. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 HOSE-IN-HOSE is a form of double 
 flowers, when one corolla is inserted 
 within the other, as is frequently the 
 case with the primrose. 
 
 HOSTA. Three species. Stove ever- 
 green shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 HOT-BED. When a temperature of 
 45°, moisture, and atmospheric air oc- 
 cur to deaden vegetable matters, these 
 absorb large quantities of oxygen, evol- 
 ving also an equal volume of carbonic 
 acid. As in all other instances where 
 vegetable substances absorb oxygen gas 
 in large quantities, much heat is evolved 
 by them when putrefying; and advan- 
 tage is taken of this by employing 
 leaves, stable-litter, and tan, as sources 
 
 of heat, or hot-beds, in the gardener's 
 forcing department. 
 
 A hot-bed is usually made of stable- 
 dung, of which that made by the best 
 fed horses is to be preferred. It should 
 be about ten days from the stalls, and 
 without too large a proportion of litter. 
 After being thrown into a heap, of conic 
 form, for five or six days, it must be so 
 turned over, that the inner parts are 
 brought, to the outside, the clots well 
 separated with the fork, the heap being 
 re-formed conically as before, and left 
 for an equal number of days. By this 
 time and treatment the dung in general 
 acquires a sufficient and steady heat; 
 if, however, it is very dry and fresh, it 
 must be moderately moistened, and left 
 for five or six days more. At the time 
 of forming the heap, as well as at every 
 turning, water should be applied if its 
 substance appears at all dry>as a regu- 
 lar state of moisture is of -first import- 
 ance to the obtaining a favourable fer- 
 mentation. It should remain until the 
 straw in general assumes a dark brown 
 colour, when it should be immediately 
 formed into the bed. Leaves or tan 
 may be mixed with advantage, as heat 
 is thereby generated during a greater 
 length of time. In cold, wet, or bois- 
 terous weather, the heaps should be 
 covered to a moderate depth with lit- 
 ter. 
 
 In making the beds, they must be so 
 situated as to be entirely free from the 
 overshadowing of trees, buildings, &c, 
 and having an aspect rather a point 
 eastward of the south. A reed fence 
 surrounding them on all sides isj a shel- 
 ter that prevents any reverberation of 
 the wind, an evil which is caused by 
 paling or other solid inclosure. This 
 must be ten feet high to the northward 
 or back part, of a similar height at the 
 side, but in front only six. The wicket 
 or gate must be of sufficient width to 
 admit a loaded wheelbarrow. An in- 
 closure of this description, one hundred 
 feet in length and sixty broad, will be 
 of a size sufficiently large for the pursuit 
 of every description of hot-bed forcing. 
 But for cucumbers, melons, and a few 
 inferior articles, a space for six or eight 
 lights is sufficient. Fruit may be forced 
 slightly by being trained within it on 
 the southern aspect ; the fence on that 
 side in that case must be of brick or 
 wood. 
 
 To prevent unnecessary labour, this 
 
HOT 
 
 305 
 
 HOT 
 
 inclosure should be formed as near to 
 the stable as possible. For the recep- 
 tion of the bed, a trench is often dug 
 of its determined length and breadth, 
 and six inches deep, if the soil is wet, 
 or eighteen or more if it is dry. In a 
 dry soil and climate this cannot be pro- 
 ductive of much injury, but otherwise 
 it almost always chills the bed: at the 
 same time it is to be observed, that it 
 is never productive of benefit, further 
 than not being so high ; it is easier of 
 access, but gives much additional trou- 
 ble, both at the time of founding and 
 afterwards, when linings are to be ap- 
 plied. 
 
 The site of the bed being determined, 
 a stake should be driven perpendicu- 
 larly at the four corners as a guide for 
 its rectangular construction. The dung 
 must be thoroughly mixed just before it 
 is used, and as carefully separated and 
 spread regularly with the fork, as the 
 bed is formed with it. It is beneficially 
 settled down in every part alike by 
 beating with the fork as the work pro- 
 ceeds, rather than by treading ; for if 
 too much compressed, a high degree of 
 heat is generated but is soon spent: a 
 contrary phenomenon is often caused 
 if trod to a still greater excess, namely, 
 that no heat at all is engendered. 
 
 The longest or littery part of the 
 dung should be laid at the bottom of 
 the bed, and the finer fragments of the 
 dung upon the top. If it is not regu- 
 larly and moderately moist throughout, 
 it should be sprinkled over with water. 
 As the surface on which the bed is 
 founded is usually horizontal, so is the 
 dung laid perfectly parallel with it. Mr. 
 Knight recommends it, on the contrary, 
 to be equally inclined with its founda- 
 tion, that it may associate well with the 
 new form, which he recommends for 
 frames. See Frame. 
 
 The breadth of a bed must always be 
 five feet, and in the depth of winter 
 four and a half feet high when firmly 
 settled ; to form it of this size, about 
 twelve barrow loads of dung are re- 
 quired to a light. 
 
 In early spring, a height of three and 
 a half feet is sufficient, and as the sea- 
 son advances, it may decline to three 
 or two and a half feet. In May or 
 early summer, when the only object is 
 to hasten the germination of seeds, two 
 feet or eighteen inches is not less than 
 the necessary height. The length of 
 20 
 
 the bed in all cases must be guided by 
 the size of the frame. 
 
 To prevent the sudden changes of 
 temperature in the external air affect- 
 ing the heat of the bed, coat the sides 
 of the bed with sand ; coal-ashes or 
 earth might be substituted, to a thick- 
 ness of two feet. 
 
 As the heat declines, linings, or as 
 they might be more properly called, 
 coatings, are made use of, which con- 
 sist of hot fermenting dung laid from 
 eighteen to twenty-four inches, in pro- 
 portion to the coldness of the season, 
 &c, all round the bed to the whole of 
 its height, and if founded in a trench, 
 one equally deep must be dug for the 
 coating, it being of importance to re- 
 new the heat as much as possible 
 throughout its whole mass ; if, after a 
 while, the temperature again declines, 
 the old coating must be taken away, 
 and a similar one of hot dung applied 
 in its place. As the spring advances, 
 the warmth of the sun will compensate 
 for the decline of that of the bed ; but 
 as the nights are generally yet cold, 
 either a moderate coating, about nine 
 or ten inches thick, is required, or the 
 mowings of grass, or even litter, may 
 be laid round the sides with advantage. 
 
 The depth of earth, as well as the 
 time and manner of applying, vary con- 
 siderably ; it should never be put on 
 until four or five days after the bed is 
 formed: before it is applied, the edges 
 of the bed should be raised full eight 
 inches higher than the middle, as from 
 the additional weight of the frame they 
 are sure to sink more and quicker, 
 thereby often causing the earth to crack 
 and injure the roots of the plants. 
 
 The roots of plants being liable to 
 injury from an excessive heat in the 
 bed, several plans have been devised 
 to prevent this effect. If the plants in 
 pots are plunged in the earth of the 
 bed, they may be raised an inch or two 
 from the bottom of the holes they are 
 inserted in by means of a stone. But a 
 still more effectual mode is to place 
 them within other pots, rather larger 
 than themselves ; a space filled with 
 air being thus interposed between the 
 roots and the source of heat, an effect- 
 ual security is obtained. To prevent 
 the same injury occurring when the 
 plants are in the earth of the bed, a 
 moderate layer of neats'-dung laid be- 
 tween the earth and the fermenting 
 
HOT 
 
 306 
 
 — • — 
 
 HOT 
 
 mass, is an efficient precaution, and is 
 much preferable to a similarly placed 
 layer of turf, which interrupts too much 
 the full benefit of the heat. A plan re- 
 commended by Bradley is well worthy 
 of notice. A woven hurdle somewhat 
 larger than the frame being placed 
 upon the dung, on this its woodwork 
 can rest, and the earth is laid within 
 it, thus the whole can be moved to- 
 gether without disturbance. This would 
 especially be of advantage when bark 
 is employed, which requires occasional 
 stirring to renew its heat in case of 
 emergency, when time cannot be al- 
 lowed for the bed becoming regular in 
 its heat before the plants are inserted. 
 Besides these precautions, vacancies 
 should be left in the mould, and holes 
 bored with a thick pole into the bed, 
 which must be filled up with hay or 
 dung when the danger is passed. 
 
 For ascertaining the internal temper- 
 ature of the bed, the thermometer is 
 the only certain guide, as it also is for 
 judging of the temperature of the air 
 within the frame ; the mode of intro- 
 ducing it into the body of the bed, is to 
 have the thermometer inclosed in a 
 wooden case of the size and form of an 
 ordinary dibble, which is to be lined 
 with baize and fitted with a cap of 
 thinned iron to exclude the exterior 
 temperature. The end which enters 
 the earth is shod with perforated cop- 
 per. In conjunction with the ther- 
 mometer, trying sticks may be employ- 
 ed for occasional observation ; these 
 are smooth laths of wood, about two 
 feet in length, thrust into different parts 
 of the bed, which, being drawn out and 
 grasped quickly, afford a rough esti- 
 mate of the heat of the bed. 
 
 The small extent of the frame, and 
 the rapid deterioration of the air within 
 it by the plants, render its frequent re- 
 newal necessary. To effect this, the 
 common practice is to raise the glasses 
 in proportionate heights according to 
 the state of the air; and to prevent any 
 injury arising when necessarily admitted 
 during inclement weather, mats are 
 hung over the opening ; but notwith- 
 standing these precautions, the supply 
 of air can seldom be regular; hence, 
 and from sudden chills, the plants are 
 often checked, and sometimes essen- 
 tially injured. It may be remarked 
 here, that raw foggy days, if anything, 
 are more unfavourable than those that 
 
 are frosty for the admission of air. A 
 complete remedy for all these difficul- 
 ties is afforded by a plan, which suc- 
 ceeds on the principle that warm air 
 ascends, and simply consists of a pipe 
 passed through the body of the bed, 
 and one end communicating with the 
 exterior air, the other opening into the 
 frame, at one of the top corners of 
 which an aperture must be made ; the 
 heated air of the frame will constantly 
 be issuing from this aperture, and its 
 place supplied by that which rises 
 through the pipe. A pipe of lead may 
 be used, about two or three inches in 
 diameter, bent nearly at a right angle, 
 and each limb being three feet long, 
 one of these to be placed horizontally, 
 as the bed is forming, with its mouth 
 extending in the open air, that of the 
 other opening into the frame ; a cap 
 should be fitted to the first, and by a 
 slit on its under side, the quantity of 
 air admitted can be regulated. 
 
 Although stable manure is generally 
 employed for the constructing of hot- 
 beds, yet there are several other vege- 
 table matters that are also in use for 
 the same purpose. Tanner's bark, 
 from its long continuance and regu- 
 larity of heat, is much to be preferred, 
 especially for very tender exotics. In 
 many situations it can be obtained at a 
 cheaper rate than stable dung ; it should 
 be employed when fresh drawn from 
 the vats, or at most when a fortnight or 
 three weeks old ; it must lay in a heap 
 for six or eight days to allow the escape 
 of the superfluous moisture : in summer 
 this is not of such material consequence, 
 as an excess of wet is, at that season, 
 not so liable to prevent fermentation. 
 
 If the ground is dry, a pit three feet 
 deep may be dug, and is better lined 
 with slates, boards, or brickwork, but 
 whatever may be the nature of the soil, 
 it is best to form this case or bin of a 
 similar height upon the surface. With- 
 out some support the tan will not form 
 a solid bed, and if mould becomes 
 mixed with it, the fermentation is re- 
 tarded or entirely prevented. The 
 breadth must not be less than five or 
 six feet, or of a length shorter than ten 
 or twelve, otherwise the heat will not 
 be lasting. When the bark is laid, it 
 must be gently settled with the fork, 
 but never trodden upon; for if violently 
 compressed, it loses the power of fer- 
 menting ; if the bark is fresh and not 
 
HOT 
 
 307 
 
 HOT 
 
 ground very small, it attains a sufficient 
 warmth in a fortnight for the insertion 
 of the plants, and will continue in heat 
 for two or three months ; the larger the 
 fragments of the bark are, the longer 
 time it requires to ferment, but in an 
 equal proportion it attains a higher 
 temperature and preserves it much 
 longer; a middle sized bark is, there- 
 fore, in general to be preferred ; and 
 added to the above consideration, it is 
 to be remarked that, when made of 
 large fragments, violent and sudden 
 excesses often arise, even after the bed 
 has been constructed two or three 
 months : on the contrary, if very small, 
 the fermentation soon passes off. 
 
 When the crops are removed, and 
 the heat declines, if well stirred, and a 
 load or two of fresh bark mixed with it, 
 the bed will acquire and continue in 
 heat for an equal further lapse of time : 
 this may be repeated throughout the 
 year as often as the heat is found to 
 decline. But it is necessary every 
 autumn, entirely or nearly so, to re- 
 construct the bed with fresh bark ; for 
 when the old is far advanced towards 
 putrefaction, it will no longer generate 
 heat. 
 
 The leaves of the oak and sweet 
 chestnut, and doubtless of many other 
 trees, answer for hot-beds as well or 
 even better than tanner's bark, since 
 they will continue to afford a moderate 
 heat for nearly twelve months without 
 any addition or stirring. They are to 
 be collected as they fall in autumn, and 
 carried to some situation, or be so hur- 
 dled in, that they may be preserved 
 from scattering by the winds; the heap 
 should be six or seven feet thick, trod 
 firmly down, and moderately watered 
 if dry. In a few days, a very powerful 
 heat is produced, and in five or six 
 weeks will have become so regular, 
 that it may be broken up and the beds 
 constructed with its materials, water 
 being again employed if dryness ap- 
 pears, and they must be well trod down 
 as before. There are many other sub- 
 stances that generate heat during fer- 
 mentation ; there is perhaps no vegeta- 
 ble substance that does not; even a 
 heap of dry sticks acquires a strong 
 accession of temperature if moistened. 
 Mr. Burnet recommends the trial of the 
 refuse matter thrown off in dressing 
 flax, for constructing hot-beds : this re- 
 fuse he says he has observed, when 
 
 left undisturbed, continue at a temper- 
 ature of 64° for many months, he seems 
 to intimate as long as fourteen. This 
 material is, however, to be had in very 
 few districts. Grass and other green 
 herbage, and even wetted straw mixed 
 with coal-ashes, have been used on an 
 emergency with success. Instead of 
 forming hot-beds with open sides, as has 
 been hitherto described, pits of brick- 
 work and other materials, are very 
 generally constructed for containing 
 the fermenting mass. It may be laid 
 down as a fundamental principle, that 
 in applying heat, it should always be 
 brought to the bottom of the body to 
 be heated. 
 
 Mr. Flanagan only allows the heat of 
 fermenting dung to be employed, the 
 steam being prevented entering the 
 frame. One advantage arising from this 
 he states to be, that fresh made dung 
 may be employed, and consequently the 
 loss sustained by any preparation is 
 prevented. If, however, it be a fact 
 that the steam of dung is rather bene- 
 ficial than otherwise, fresh fermenting 
 dung can be used without any detriment 
 that I am aware of in other pits of 
 which we have plans. Mr. F. describes 
 his pit as follows : — " It is four feet deep 
 within, the lowest ten inches of solid 
 brickwork sunk in the earth ; the re- 
 mainder is a flue three inches wide in 
 the clear, carried entirely round the pit, 
 the inner wall of which, forming the 
 sides of the pit, is four inch work, well 
 bedded in mortar, and pointed to pre- 
 vent the steam penetrating ; the outer 
 wall of the flue is also four inch, but 
 open work to admit the steam, and that 
 of dung coatings into the flue, the top 
 of which is rendered tight by a covering 
 of tiles, &c. The frame rests on the 
 external wall of the flue. The cavity 
 of the pit, which is kept dry by means 
 of drains, is nine feet two inches long, 
 two feet eight inches wide, and four 
 feet deep. It is filled with broken 
 bricks to within eighteen inches of the 
 top, then a foot of short cold dung, six 
 inches of very rotten dung trod down 
 so as to admit half an inch depth of 
 coal-ashes, for preventing the intrusion 
 of any worms that may be in the dung, 
 completes the structure." 
 
 The accompanying sketch and refer- 
 ences will fully explain the plan of Mr. 
 West. D D, chamber in which the dung 
 is placed, three and a half feet deep, 
 
HOT 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 308 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 HOT 
 
 surrounded by nine inch brick work. 
 One half of this is filled longitudinally 
 with dung at the commencement, which, 
 if kept close shut up, will last twelve or 
 eighteen days, according to the quality 
 of the dung. As the heat declines, the 
 other side is filled, and the temperature 
 is further sustained by additions to the 
 top of both as the mass settles. When 
 this united heat becomes insufficient, 
 the side first filled being cleared, the old 
 manure must be mixed with some fresh, 
 and replaced, this being repeated alter- 
 nately to either heap as often as neces- 
 sary. A A, are the doors, two of which 
 are on each side for the admission of 
 the dung. They are two and a half feet 
 square, fitted into grooves at the bottom, 
 aud fastened by means of a pin and 
 staple at the top. B B, are small areas 
 sunk in front, surrounded by a curb of 
 wood ; G G G, are bars passing longi- 
 tudinally as a guide and support in pack- 
 ing the dung; C, represents a bar of 
 cast-iron, two inches wide and three 
 quarters of an inch thick, placed on the 
 edge of which there is a row, a foot 
 asunder across the chamber to support 
 a layer of small wood branches and 
 leaves, H, for the pupose of sustaining 
 the soil, K, in the upper chamber ; E E, 
 represents the orifices of which there 
 are a series all round the pit, communi- 
 cating with the flue F F F, which sur- 
 rounds the beds : the exterior wall of 
 this flue is built with bricks laid flat, the 
 inner one of bricks set on edge. The 
 flue is two inches wide, and for the sake 
 of strength, bricks are passed occa- 
 sionally from side to side as ties. The 
 top of the flue, and the internal part of 
 the wall, which rises at the back and 
 front to the level the earth is meant to 
 stand, are covered with tiles, over the 
 joints of which slips of slate bedded in 
 mortar are laid to prevent the escape of 
 
 the steam of the dung ; T, represents 
 one of two plugs, which stop holes left 
 to regulate the heat and steam as may 
 be necessary. The outer wall supports 
 the lights. For the convenience of 
 fixing the dung, it is best to fill the half 
 of the chamber at the commencement, 
 before the branches, mould, &c, are 
 put in. 
 
 Hot-water is a much more manage- 
 able source of heat for a hot-bed than 
 fermenting vegetable matter, and for 
 plans see the title Hot-Water. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. See Stove. 
 
 HOTTENTOT CHERRY. Cassine 
 maurocenia. 
 
 HOTTENTOT-FIG. Mesembry- 
 anthemum edule. 
 
 HOTTONIA palustris. Hardy 
 aquatic. Division. Still water. 
 
 HOT- WALL is a hollow wall, the 
 interior air being so heated by flues or 
 hot water, as to keep the bricks of which 
 its faces are composed so warm as to 
 promote the ripening of the wood and 
 fruit trained against them. 
 
 Mr. Loudon observes, that " the flued 
 wall or hot wall is generally built of 
 brick, though where stone is abundant 
 and more economical, the back or north 
 side may be of that material. A flued 
 wall may be termed a hollow wall, in 
 which the vacuity is thrown into com- 
 partments to faciliate the circulation of 
 smoke and heat from the base or surface 
 of the ground to within one or two feet 
 of the coping. They are generally 
 arranged with hooks inserted under the 
 coping to admit of fastening some de- 
 scription of protecting covers, and 
 sometimes for temporary glass frames. 
 A length of forty feet, and from ten to 
 fifteen feet high, may be heated by one 
 fire, the furnace of which, being placed 
 one or two feet below the surface of the 
 ground, the first course or flue will com- 
 mence one foot above it, and be two 
 feet six or three feet high, and the 
 second, third, and fourth courses nar- 
 rower as they ascend. The thickness 
 of that side of the flue next the south 
 or preferable side, should, for the first 
 course, be four inches, or brick and 
 bed ; and for the other courses it were 
 desirable to have bricks cast in a smaller 
 mould ; say for the second course, three 
 inches ; for the third, two and three 
 quarter inches; and for the fourth, 
 two and a half inches in breadth. This 
 will give an opportunity of leveling the 
 
HOT 
 
 HOT 
 
 wall, and the bricks being all of the 
 same thickness though of different 
 widths, the external appearance will be 
 everywhere the same." — Enc. Gard. 
 
 Hot walls are generally overheated 
 opposite the first turn of the flue, and 
 not heated enough at a distance from 
 the fire. Mr. Hay has obviated this, by 
 having a hollow in the interior of the 
 wall, serving as a general heat-chamber 
 for diffusing and retaining warm air, 
 and also smoke-flues for conveying heat 
 throughout. — Hort. Trans.; Gard. Mag. 
 
 The Rev. J. A. H. Grubbe, of Stan- 
 ton St. Bernard, Wiltshire, has taken 
 out a patent for a Transmitting-heat 
 wall. The intention is to erect this 
 partition in gardens, as a substitute for 
 walls, against which fruit trees may be 
 trained, and through which the warmth 
 of the sun may, by reason of their thin- 
 ness, be transmitted, which will greatly 
 promote the ripening of the fruit, and 
 improve its flavour. The material pro- 
 posed to be employed for constructing 
 these walls or partitions, is slate of the 
 ordinary quality, in slabs, of the kind 
 usually applied to the roofing of houses. 
 Iron frames are proposed to be pre- 
 pared for the reception of the slates, 
 like the frames of windows, (with holes 
 in both sides for inserting wires to serve 
 as a trellis,) and the slates being cut to 
 proper shapes and dimensions, may be 
 secured in the rebates of the frame by 
 putty, in the same way as glass. These 
 frames are to be from six to eight feet 
 wide, and of a suitable height, and may 
 be joined together side by side, by re- 
 bates or flanges, and held fast by screws, 
 bolts, pins or staples: or in any way 
 that may be found desirable to secure 
 them firmly. Temporary blocks of 
 stone may be placed along the ground 
 to support the partitions, with cross 
 pieces to receive standards or slight 
 buttresses to keep the wall or partition 
 perpendicular, and against the face of 
 the wall, trellis work of wood or other 
 fit material may be placed for the sup- 
 port of the branches of the trees. Walls 
 or partitions for gardens formed in this 
 way will transmit the heat of the sun 
 through them, and hence fruit which 
 may be growing against these walls 
 having a northern aspect, will receive 
 the benefit of the sun's warmth trans- 
 mitted through the slates. In the con- 
 struction of these transmitting wall 
 
 to slate, but considers that plates of 
 iron, applied in the same way, might 
 answer the purpose nearly as well, 
 provided that their surfaces were black- 
 ened, which would cause them to ab- 
 sorb more of the solar rays. Even 
 frames of glass might answer the pur- 
 pose applied in the same manner, and 
 perhaps some other materials might do ; 
 but it is desirable that the frames should 
 be light enough to admit of their being 
 removed without difficulty, in order 
 that these partitions may be shifted 
 from place to place, (put under cover 
 during winter,) and set up in different 
 parts of the garden, as convenience 
 may dictate. — Nicholson's Journ.; Gard. 
 Mag. See Wall. 
 
 HOT-WATER as a source of heat 
 for gardening purposes is preferable to 
 any other. It is less expensive, more 
 manageable, and less troublesome than 
 any other. See Tank System and 
 Stove. The following are some of the 
 best modes of its application to various 
 structures. 
 
 Pine-Pit. — The best that has been 
 constructed is thus described by Mr. G. 
 Fleming: — 
 
 In " a pine-pit recently erected at 
 Trentham, the tank system of bottom- 
 heating and that of hot water pipes for 
 top-heat are combined ; and for keep- 
 ing a sufficient and steady heat with a 
 small consumption of fuel, nothing can 
 be more satisfactory. The pit is seven- 
 ty-seven feet long, and twelve feet 
 wide inside, and is heated by what is 
 called a saddle boiler. Under the bed 
 are four tanks, into which the water is 
 delivered from the boiler by a four 
 inch pipe, and after pursuing its course, 
 is again received by another pipe. The 
 advantage of two deliveries is, that the 
 water not having so far to go does not 
 get so cold before it is returned to the 
 boiler, and the heat is more regular in 
 all parts of the house. The depth of 
 water in the tanks is about three inches. 
 The tanks are made of brickwork coat- 
 ed with Roman cement. They are 
 arched over with brickwork also, which 
 we find cheaper than covering them 
 with slates, and by leaving interstices 
 between the bricks of which the arch 
 is composed the steam is allowed to 
 escape, and penetrating the stratum of 
 rubble above, to keep the tan in a pro- 
 per state of moisture. The same boiler 
 
 the patentee does not confine himself | also supplies a range of four inch pipe 
 
HOT 
 
 310 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 HOT 
 
 which goes round the pit. There are 
 cavities in the wall to permit the steam 
 from below to pass to the top of the 
 pit. The aperture to these can be 
 closed at pleasure, thus insuring a per- 
 fect command over the moisture of the 
 atmosphere. There is a chamber which 
 formerly contained a flue belonging to 
 the house that occupied the place of 
 the one I am now describing. This 
 chamber has been left with the view of 
 its being useful for filling with hot dung 
 either for the purpose of assisting to 
 maintain the heat of the house, or for 
 destroying insects. The tanks and 
 
 pipes cannot both be worked at the 
 same time, but they are fitted with 
 stop-cocks, so that either can be work- 
 ed at pleasure, and a few hours in the 
 middle of the day, when the pipes are 
 not wanted, is found amply sufficient to 
 keep up the bottom-heat, as the mass 
 of material when once heated retains 
 its heat for a considerable time." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Melon and Cucumber Pit. — For this, 
 Mr. Glendinning, the scientific nursery- 
 man, of Turnham Green, has given the 
 following plans and description. 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 JZleuatlon, of the 
 Tine A A 
 
 2 3 4- S 
 
 \/0J?F 
 
 
 --^~^-_Z==.-^>=_ »» Sx fcrZ^O 
 
 Explanation of the Plan. — a, Bur- 
 bidge and Healy's boiler ; b 6, iron 
 troughs; c c, pipes; d d, iron troughs 
 as at 6 & in plan ; e e, pipes as at c c in 
 plan ; //, copper tubes fastened to the 
 troughs to admit steam when required ; 
 g } wire trellis ; hhh, convenient places 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 for the growth of sea kale, rhubarb or 
 asparagus, or keeping tubers of any kind 
 during the winter. 
 
 " This pit is intended for melons in 
 summer, and to preserve pelargoniums 
 or other plants in winter. As the ob- 
 ject in constructing it is more for the 
 purpose of experiment than the perma- 
 nent culture of melons, I have designed 
 it so that pines may be substituted with- 
 out any alteration whatever; indeed 
 any kind of plant which such a structure 
 is capable of receiving, and at the same 
 time requiring protection, and in a 
 warm temperature, may be very advan- 
 tageously introduced, the hot-water ap- 
 paratus being so contrived as to com- 
 mand both bottom and surface-heat, 
 
HOT 
 
 311 
 
 HOT 
 
 either separately or conjointly. For 
 the purpose of supplying soft water for 
 the plants, I have placed a slate cistern 
 at one end of the pit, in order to collect 
 the rain water from the roof. The soil, 
 if permitted to come in contact with the 
 iron troughs, would, of necessity, be- 
 come dried and totally unfit for the 
 roots of any plant: with a view to ob- 
 viate this, I have placed rough flint or 
 other stones over the bottom of the bed 
 and round the troughs to prevent im- 
 
 mediate contact, and at the same time 
 to admit of a more uniform diffusion of 
 heat over the bottom of the pit, so that 
 the soil which rests upon it may be 
 more regularly heated. The other ad- 
 vantage and conveniences of this pit 
 will be apparent from the above plan 
 and section without further remark." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Hot-house. — A hot-water system of 
 heating this structure has been thus de- 
 tailed by an anonymous writer. 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 "It will be seen that there is a parti- 
 tion across the house, dividing off about 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
 Section of Hot-house. 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 Section of Pit. Sluice 
 
 for Pit. 
 one-third nearest to the boiler as a hot- 
 house, which can easily be kept at much 
 higher temperatures when required than 
 the remainder of the range, which is 
 intended for a vinery. The circulation 
 may be confined to that exclusively, or 
 suffered to extend throughout the range, 
 
HOT 
 
 312 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 HOT 
 
 for a longer or shorter period as may be 
 desired. Under the paved walk in the 
 hot-house, a reservoir is formed in brick 
 and cemented, into which all the rain 
 which falls on the roof of the house is 
 collected. A moveable pump is in- 
 serted in one end through a hole cut 
 into the stone, for raising the water for 
 use in the house. The gutters are fif- 
 teen inches wide and five inches deep, 
 and formed in fifteen inch lengths ; 
 simple open troughs, as shown in sec- 
 tion, excepting at angles, where there 
 are three pieces, one for each angle, 
 formed in a different mould, there being 
 no joint at the angles, and the two end 
 pieces which are formed with projecting 
 collars to receive the pipes from the 
 boiler. The gutters are covered with 
 tiles, one and a quarter inch in thick- 
 ness. It will be seen that the flow and 
 return gutters are connected at two 
 points, in order that the circulation may 
 be confined between either and the 
 boiler. At these points the gutters are 
 covered by a wooden frame instead of 
 a tile, in which is fixed a movable 
 cover, which exposes the plugs by 
 means of which the circulation is di- 
 rected across the house, or extended at 
 pleasure along the entire range. If it 
 is desired to confine the circulation to 
 the stove, the plugs at 1 are inserted, 
 and those at 2 withdrawn. On refer- 
 ence to the section of the house, it will 
 be seen that the back wall is carried 
 down considerably under the level of 
 the ground to admit of a bed -of earth 
 on the inside about four feet deep ; then 
 comes the reservoir about three feet 
 deep, three wide, and sixteen in length, 
 covered by pavement. The earth on 
 which the gutters are placed has not 
 been moved ; but in order to make it 
 level and firm, it was covered with a 
 thin coat of concrete at every fifteen 
 inches, where the joints occur, they are 
 laid on two bricks, in order that the 
 under as well as the upper surface 
 should radiate heat : every foot run 
 of gutter presents a surface of forty 
 inches radiating heat. The potter can 
 deliver these gutters and covers at 
 some distance from the pottery, at Is. 
 6d. per foot run ; whereas an iron pipe 
 with a four inch bore, which affords but 
 twelve inches of radiating surface, I 
 believe is usually sold at Is. per foot at 
 the factory. There are two slate tables 
 the whole length of the house, with 
 
 room for the gardener to walk between 
 them, to hold the plants, which it is ex- 
 pected will do very well even in the 
 vinery, as there are front sashes, and 
 the vines will be confined to the rafters 
 in the roof. One table rests on one 
 side on the front wall, and on iron legs 
 on the other ; the other table is sup- 
 ported entirely by iron legs lying close 
 against the gutters. By this arrange- 
 ment the gutters are secured against 
 being broken or disturbed by any 
 chance accident. The boiler is of cop- 
 per, having a pipe at the top through 
 which the hot-water rises, with a cross 
 pipe having two cocks in it with a brass 
 union on each side at the bottom to re- 
 ceive the return pipes ; so that the cir- 
 culation may be carried on throughout 
 the house and the pits at the same time, 
 or confined to either at pleasure by 
 means of the two cocks in the upper 
 pipe. 
 
 " The construction of the pits is as 
 follows: — The floor is formed of bricks 
 laid flat on a bed of concrete and set in 
 cement. The tanks are then formed 
 by carrying tiles made of pottery, one 
 inch and a quarter thick and five inches 
 deep, round the outer edge, and on the 
 top of the brick floor, a double row be- 
 ing carried along the centre to support 
 the covering tiles which form a floor, 
 and return tanks about two feet six 
 inches wide; these are covered with 
 tiles the same as the gutters in the 
 house upon which the earth rests. It 
 will be seen on reference to the section 
 of the pits, that the front tank is fin- 
 ished so as to leave a space of about 
 three inches between it and the front 
 wall; slate slabs, two feet six inches 
 deep, rest on the tank to keep up the 
 earth, and at every five or six feet, 
 where the joints in the slabs occur, 
 there is a single brick carried up be- 
 tween the joints and the front wall to 
 support the slabs against the pressure of 
 the earth. The object of this and also 
 of round pipes of pottery which rest on 
 the surface of the tanks at a, and pass 
 up through the earth, is to furnish dry 
 heat and to promote a free circulation 
 on the surface, which is found advan- 
 tageous for propagating. At the points 
 marked 8 are similar pipes, which pass 
 through the tiles covering the tank, 
 which are formed with an opening for the 
 purpose into the tanks ; these are fitted 
 at the top with wooden plugs for the 
 
HOT 
 
 313 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 HUM 
 
 purpose of steaming the pits when re- 
 quisite. If it is required that the circu- 
 lation should be confined to the first or 
 second pit nearest the boiler, the sluices 
 3, are closed, and those at 4 are 
 opened. These sluices are formed by 
 a metallic frame being substituted for 
 the tile at those points in which a small 
 metallic door works on a spindle. This 
 is attached to a rod passing up through 
 the earth, having a handle at the top, 
 just above the earth. In the winter, 
 when the thermometer stood at 23°, 
 there was a bottom-heat of 90°, and of 
 80° on the surface of the pits then in 
 action, and of 73° in the stove." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Open Gutters. — Mr. Griffin, gardener 
 to Mrs. Wells, of Cowley, near Exeter, 
 has published the following remarks 
 upon this mode of circulating hot- 
 water. 
 
 " The open trough, or gutter, may 
 be applied to a boiler of any construc- 
 tion. The water flows from the top of 
 the boiler, through a four-inch pipe, 
 into troughs made of cast iron, of the 
 following dimensions; inside measure 
 six inches wide at the top, three inches 
 and a half at the bottom, and seven 
 inches deep; the trough is constructed 
 in lengths three feet long, neatly fitted 
 together by a rivet in the bottom, and 
 one on each side near the top. The 
 water returns in a cast-iron pipe, three 
 inches in diameter. There are thin iron 
 lids or covers, of the same length at 
 each portion of the trough, to fit upon 
 the whole length of the apparatus, so 
 that the degree of humidity may be 
 regulated by making up some portions 
 of the covers, without disturbing the 
 others. The troughs or gutters might 
 be made of various materials, but I 
 prefer iron. The heat is diffused from 
 the surface of the trough or pipes, 
 nearly as quickly as it would be from 
 copper or zinc, and retains the heat 
 much longer. The width and depth of 
 the troughs should be varied according 
 to the plants intended to be grown in 
 the house. An orchidaceous house re- 
 quires a wider surface on the top than 
 those intended for the growth of erica? 
 and green-house plants generally. Dur- 
 ing the resting season of orchidaceous 
 plants, the atmosphere of the house is 
 easily kept less humid, by not removing 
 the whole or any part of the lids. 
 
 " For vineries and peach-houses, it 
 
 would answer exceedingly well, and 
 entirely eradicate the red spider; for 
 the trough can be covered when the 
 trees are in flower, and when the fruit 
 is approaching towards maturity. On 
 the other hand, during the growing 
 season you may maintain a regularly 
 humid atmosphere with less trouble 
 than by any other means. In a pine- 
 stove, forty feet long, with a walk be- 
 tween the back wall and bark bed, the 
 trough being two feet from the level of 
 the walk, Mr. Griffin says, ' I can com- 
 mand any degree of heat with much less 
 attention than is required for some 
 houses with a boiler of the same de- 
 scription, and equal power as regards 
 pipe.' " — Gard. Chron. 
 
 HOUND' S-TONGUE. Cynoglossum. 
 
 HOUSELEEK. Sempervivum. 
 
 HOUSTONIA. Five species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Peat. 
 
 HOVEA. Sixteen species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 HOVENIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 HOYA. Eight species. Stove ever- 
 green twiners. Cuttings. Light loam 
 and peat. 
 
 HUDSONIA. Three species. Half- 
 hardy evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings 
 and layers. Shaded peat soil. 
 
 HUERNIA. Eleven species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings, dried for 
 a few days. Sandy loam and lime rubbish . 
 
 HUGONIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Ripe Cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 HUMBLE-PLANT. Mimosa pudica. 
 
 HUMffiA elegans. Green-house bien- 
 nial. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 HUMUS. When the putrefactive 
 process of plants is completed, there 
 remainsta soft black mass, known as 
 vegetable mould, or humus. One hun- 
 dred parts of the humus of wheat 
 straw have of extractive or apotheme, 
 rather more than twenty-six parts, and 
 the residue is lime, peroxide of iron, 
 phosphate of lime, and carbonaceous 
 matter. This apotheme is identical 
 with the humic acid of Liebig, the ulmic 
 acid of Braconnot, and the geic acid of 
 Berzelius. It contains — 
 
 Carbon 46.6 
 
 Hydrogen 20.0 
 
 Oxygen 33.4 
 
 It was once believed, indeed is still 
 
HUN 
 
 314 
 
 H YA 
 
 believed by a few men of science, that 
 this apotheme is the immediate fertil- 
 izing component of organic manures, 
 being soluble under some circum- 
 stances, and entering at once into the 
 roots of plants, dissolved in the mois- 
 ture of the soil. But every relative 
 research of more modern chemistry is 
 against this conclusion, and it is now 
 tolerably certain, that a chief nutritive 
 portion of vegetable manures are their 
 carbon converted into carbonic acid, 
 absorbed either in solution with the 
 earth's moisture, or in gaseous form by 
 the roots. Apotheme is only one of 
 the products formed during the progress 
 of putrefaction, and is in its turn a 
 source of carbonic acid. Carbonic acid 
 has been long since shown to be bene- 
 ficial if applied to a plant's roots. It 
 abounds in the sap of all vegetables, 
 though this be drawn from their very 
 lowest parts, whereas apotheme is in- 
 jurious to them if they are grown in a 
 solution of it, and minutest analyzers 
 have failed to detect it even within the 
 extreme vessels of roots. — Prin. of 
 Gard. 
 
 HUNGARIAN LOTUS. Nymphcea 
 ther malts. 
 
 HUNNEMANNIA fumariafolia. 
 Half hardy herbaceous. Division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 HURDLES of iron are the most eli- 
 gible modes of fencing, whether for 
 permanency or temporary purposes. 
 They are invisible at a short distance, 
 elegant and durable. 
 
 HUTCHINSIA. Seven species. 
 Hardy herbaceous alpines. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 HYACINTHUS. Hyacinth. Five 
 species and as many varieties. Hardy 
 bulbs. Offsets. Sandy loam. The spe- 
 cies most commonly known is H. orien- 
 talis, the varieties of which are so 
 conspicuous in our borders and water 
 vases. 
 
 Characteristics of Excellence. — "A 
 well grown hyacinth should be of a 
 compact pyramidal form, with a strong, 
 tall, and upright stem, supporting nu- 
 merous large bells, each attached by a 
 strong foot-stalk in a horizontal position 
 to the stem. 
 
 "The bells should be perfectly dou- 
 ble, composed of broad, thick, waxy 
 petals, with the centre of the flower 
 raised, rendering the form convex. 
 
 " The bells should occupy about one 
 half the length of the stem, with the 
 uppermost bell erect. 
 
 " The flowers, whether whole-colour- 
 ed or striped, should be clearand bright; 
 those having a contrast of colour in the 
 centre are most esteemed." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Offsets. — " The hyacinth is increased 
 by offsets ; but to multiply the number 
 of offsets, cuts are made in the under 
 part of the bulb, which, by proper 
 management and a little care, will be 
 found filled with offsets next year." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Soil. — Mr. Mooy, of Haarlem, from 
 whose communication to the Garden- 
 er's Chronicle this treatise on the cul- 
 ture of the hyacinth is principally taken, 
 says — "They require a fresh, well 
 drained sandy soil, free from lumps or 
 stones, and not mixed with any vege- 
 table matter." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Mr. Home, an equally good authori- 
 ty, adds, that " the hyacinth must never 
 be planted again in the same soil ; but 
 the ground should be allowed to rest 
 for at least two or three years, or 
 should be cultivated with greens during 
 that time ; it should also be well mixed 
 again, before planting, with some old 
 cow-dung, especially if the soil is light 
 or sandy, as hyacinths are very fond of 
 that manure." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Moisture. — This being the most de- 
 structive agent against which the ama- 
 teur has to guard, great care should be 
 taken to protect hyacinths from it, by 
 selecting the most elevated spot in his 
 garden. If this is surrounded by a 
 shallow trench, a little distance off, it 
 will be useful, and the bed should also 
 be raised seven or eight inches above 
 the ground level. 
 
 Planting and Culture. — " The roots 
 are planted in October, the soil being 
 prepared by having pure cow-dung 
 mixed with it one year previously to 
 the time of planting. We use a bar- 
 rowful of dung per ten yards square. 
 The ground being measured into beds, 
 the soil is taken out of the first to the 
 depth of five inches, and the bulbs are 
 planted firmly on it, so that the under 
 part is well surrounded with the mould, 
 after which they are covered over with 
 the earth taken out of the next bed to 
 the same depth, which is then ready to 
 be planted, and this is pursued until the 
 whole of the beds are completed. 
 
H Y A 
 
 315 
 
 ♦ - 
 
 H YA 
 
 " As soon as severe weather com- 
 mences, all the beds are covered over 
 about eight inches deep with reeds, so 
 as to prevent the frost penetrating them. 
 As soon as the frost is gone, the reeds 
 are taken off, and the beds are coated 
 with a mixture of cow-dung and water, 
 to prevent the light sandy soil being 
 blown away by the wind. 
 
 " The flowers having opened, and 
 being in perfection, are all cut off, to 
 give greater strength to the bulbs. 
 
 Taking up and Storing. — " In July, 
 the bulbs are taken up, and the leaves 
 being pulled off, they are laid down 
 regularly, each bulb on the side, so as 
 to prevent the roots growing again ; 
 after this they are covered over with 
 dry soil, one inch above the bulbs, and 
 remain in this state for about a fort- 
 night, to separate the roots and loose 
 skins easily from the bulbs. Great 
 care must be taken during this time 
 that no injury be done to the bulbs by 
 the sun ; attention should therefore be 
 paid to keep them well covered over. 
 When taken from this situation, the 
 bulbs are exposed for a few hours to 
 the sun, and kept continually moving 
 with a large brush, to prevent their 
 being scorched ; by which means they 
 get that glossy appearance always ob- 
 served in imported bulbs." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 " After this management the bulbs 
 require a few weeks' drying in the 
 warehouse ; for which purpose they 
 are laid out on platforms, raised a foot 
 and a half above each other, which 
 enables us to look them over occasion- 
 ally, though this is done principally 
 that they may have a good circulation 
 of air between them. The windows 
 are opened every day on both sides of 
 the warehouse — for the more air and 
 wind we are able to give, the better — 
 that they may be dried and be ready to 
 be packed." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Frost. — "Frost," says Mr. Home, 
 " is detrimental only when it comes in 
 contact with the bulbs ; therefore they 
 should be protected in proportion to its 
 intensity. Those who have bulbs of 
 great value may lay thin planks of 
 wood over the surface when the frost is 
 very intense ; but care must be taken not 
 to cover them too deep, especially with 
 the leaves of trees, because these co- 
 verings retain the vapour which arises 
 from the soil, and hinder the air from 
 
 entering and purifying it." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Growing in Pots. — The latest and 
 best directions we have on this point 
 are the following : — '"Give them enough 
 space to grow in, without starving their 
 roots. The easiest way to do this is to 
 have pots made of a deeper shape than 
 those in common use. 
 
 " By this simple arrangement the 
 roots have sufficient nourishment, while 
 the pots take up no more space on the 
 stand than at present. An inch or two 
 of very rotten cow-dung may be put at 
 the bottom of the pots to promote the 
 richness of colours and perfume of the 
 flowers. Three or four bulbs may be 
 planted in the same pot ; but the latter 
 should be sufficiently large, and of the 
 requisite depth ; twice the diameter of 
 the top is a good proportion. 
 
 Fig 92. 
 
 " Lastly, after the bloom is over, put 
 those which are fine varieties, and worth 
 preserving, in some warm and light 
 place; the top shelf of a hot-house, 
 green-house, or vinery, close to the 
 glass, is the most preferable. There 
 they will require no more care nor 
 watering ; and after the leaves wither, 
 they may be sorted, and lie by until 
 the planting season returns. 
 
 "If these points are attended to hya- 
 cinths will suffer but little from forcing, 
 and will flower again the next year." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Another equally good authority says 
 — « Grow three bulbs in each pot — up- 
 right pots, at least six inches clear in- 
 side. After planting, put them in a 
 frame properly drained at the bottom, 
 and slightly protected at the sides, and 
 plunge them in rotten tan, covering the 
 tan over them at least four inches. In 
 very hard weather, a mat to be thrown 
 over them, otherwise no covering at 
 
H Y A 
 
 316 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 H YB 
 
 all ; in this state they remain until the 
 flower-stem heaves up the tan. Every 
 pot, as this occurs, to be taken to the 
 green-house, and put at the back of the 
 stage, and shaded by a mat until the 
 stem and leaves become greenish, when 
 gradually brought to more light and air. 
 In this state examine each spike of 
 flowers, and cut out any decaying blos- 
 som. 
 
 " Water freely, and give as much air 
 as possible during the day; never omit 
 to turn the pot daily, so as to insure 
 that regular pyramidal shape which is 
 so essential to the beauty and symmetry 
 of the spikes of flowers when in blos- 
 som." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 In Water-Glasses. — In the last week 
 of August, or the first week of Septem- 
 ber, hyacinths, after being kept for a 
 few days in slightly damped sand, 
 should be placed in their water-glasses. 
 At first the water should only just touch 
 the base of the bulbs, and the glasses 
 should be kept in a dark closet until 
 the roots have attained the length of an 
 inch. Two drops of spirit of hartshorn 
 may be added to the water in each glass, 
 when the bulbs are first put in, and 
 whenever the water is changed. Dark- 
 coloured glass is always to be preferred, 
 as the absence of light is natural to all 
 roots. By keeping the glasses in a dark 
 closet until the roots are full an inch 
 long, the hyacinths will not get top- 
 heavy, but the roots being in advance 
 of the leaves, will preserve the plant 
 balanced erect. The bloom will also 
 be finer, as the roots will be in a state 
 to nourish the leaves before these are 
 prematurely advanced. Dr. Lindley 
 recommends a piece of charcoal to be 
 put into each glass, to feed the plant, 
 and prevent putridity in the water. — 
 Gard. Almanac. 
 
 Forcing. — Mr. Shearer directs that 
 li In the beginning of October a few 
 bulbs be placed in pots and glasses ; the 
 single sorts are best for early forcing, 
 which, if required, could be flowered 
 at Christmas; others are planted at the 
 end of October, and another lot about 
 the middle of November. The pots 
 used are upright thirty-twos, about 
 seven inches deep and four inches wide; 
 the soil half road sand and half leaf 
 mould, with good drainage, and the 
 bulb is placed on coal ashes, in any 
 open part of the garden, and covered to 
 the depth of eight inches with old tan 
 
 ' or leaf mould, as a rustiness or canker 
 is produced on the young leaves and 
 flowers if they come in contact with 
 coal-ashes. In eight or ten weeks they 
 will generally be found in a fit state to 
 be removed to the green-house or cold 
 pit ; from thence the most forward are 
 taken to a house in which the tempera- 
 ture is kept from 60° to 65°, and placed 
 about eighteen inches from the glass. 
 If any show indication of expanding 
 their flowers before the stem is of suffi- 
 cient length above the bulb, a piece of 
 brown paper of the desired length of 
 the stem, is wrapped around the pot, 
 and then placed in a cucumber frame, 
 with the temperature from 70° to 75°. 
 In the latter end of December, or early 
 in January, they rise six or eight inches 
 in about ten days ; if later in the season, 
 they advance quicker. When fully 
 expanded, the plants are taken to a 
 house where the temperature is 60°, 
 and finally to the green-house. The 
 same practice is adopted when hya- 
 cinths are grown in glasses, first placing 
 them in a dark room to encourage the 
 protrusion of roots, with a change of 
 water once a week, until they are re- 
 moved into the frame, or forcing-house, 
 when a fresh supply must be given every 
 day." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 "Hyacinths," says Dr. Lindley, "after 
 having been forced, are three years be- 
 fore they recover themselves. After 
 they have done flowering both in pots 
 and glasses, they should be planted out 
 in the open ground in a bed properly 
 prepared, taking care not to injure the 
 leaves but removing the flower stalk. 
 When the leaves have died away, the 
 roots may be taken up and laid by in 
 some dry place till November, when 
 they should be again planted in a bed 
 in the open ground ; this should be re- 
 peated the following year ; and the year 
 after that, they may be again forced, 
 and will produce as good flowers as 
 they did the first year they were im- 
 ported." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Diseases. — The hyacinth bulbs are 
 very liable to ulceration, occasioned 
 usually by being treated with too much 
 water. 
 
 HYBRIDIZING, or CROSS-BREED- 
 ING, though not quite identical, have 
 with the gardener similar objects, viz., 
 either improving the beauty of his 
 flowers, or the flavour and prolificacy 
 of his fruits and culinary products. 
 
H YB 
 
 317 
 
 H YB 
 
 Hybridizing, strictly speaking, is ob- 
 taining a progeny between two different 
 species ; and cross-breeding is obtain- 
 ing a progeny between varieties of the 
 same species. The progeny of hybrids 
 cannot produce seed ; but cross-breeds 
 are fertile. My own observations, and 
 those of others, justify the following 
 statements, as affording some guide to 
 the raiser of varieties: — 
 
 1. The seed-vessel is not altered in 
 appearance by impregnation from an- 
 other plant; therefore, no hasty con- 
 clusion of failure is justified by that 
 want of change. 
 
 2. The colour of the future seed, not 
 of that first hybridized, seems to be 
 most influenced by the male plant, if 
 its seeds and flowers are darker than 
 those of the female. Mr. Knight found, 
 that when the pollen of a coloured- 
 blossomed pea was introduced into a 
 white one, the whole of the future seeds 
 were coloured. But when the pollen of 
 a white blossom was introduced to the 
 stigma of a coloured blossom, the whole 
 of the future seeds were not white. Capt. 
 Thurtell, from his experiments on the 
 pelargonium, also informs me, that he 
 has always found the colour and spot of 
 the petals to be more influenced by the 
 male than by the female parent. In- 
 deed, all experience proves that the 
 progeny usually, though not invariably, 
 most resembles in colour the male 
 parent.! 
 
 3. Large stature and robustness are 
 transmitted to the offspring by either 
 parent. It does not absolutely matter 
 for obtaining this characteristic, whether 
 it be the male or female which is large ; 
 but Mr. Knight generally found the 
 most robust female parent produced the 
 finest offspring. 
 
 4. Capt. Thurtell, from lengthened 
 observation and experiment, has ascer- 
 tained that the form of the petals 
 follows most closely that of the female 
 parent. 
 
 5. Mr. Knight says that the largest 
 seed from the finest fruit that has ripened 
 earliest and most perfectly, should 
 always be selected. In stone-fruit if 
 two kernels are in one stone, these give 
 birth to inferior plants. 
 
 6. The most successful mode of ob- 
 taining good and very distinct varieties, 
 is to employ the pollen from a male in a 
 flower grown on another plant than that 
 
 bearing the female parent. To avoid, 
 previous and undesired impregnation, 
 the anthers in the female parent, if they 
 are produced in the same flower with 
 the pistils, must be removed by a sharp- 
 pointed pair of scissors, and the flower 
 inclosed in a gauze bag, to exclude in- 
 sects, until the desired pollen is ripe. 
 Another effectual mode of avoiding un- 
 desired impregnation, is bringing the 
 female parent into flower a little earlier 
 than its Congeners, and removing the 
 anthers as above described : the stigma 
 will remain a long time vigorous if un- 
 impregnated. 
 
 7. Although the fertility of all the 
 seed in one seed vessel may be secured 
 by applying pollen only to one style, 
 even where there are several, yet the 
 quantity of pollen is by no means a 
 matter of indifference. Koelreuter 
 found, that from fifty to sixty globules 
 of pollen were required to complete the 
 impregnation of one flower of Hybiscus 
 Syriacus ; but in Mirabilis jalapa, and 
 M. longiflora, two or three globules 
 were enough ; and in the case of pelar- 
 goniums, Capt. Thurtell says two or 
 three globules are certainly sufficient. 
 
 8. M. Haquin, a distinguished horti- 
 culturist at Liege, has impregnated 
 flowers of the Azalea with pollen kept 
 six weeks ; and Camellias with pollen 
 kept sixty-five days. He gathers the 
 stamens just previously to the anthers 
 opening, wraps them in writing-paper, 
 places them in a warm room for a day, 
 collects the pollen they emit, and pre- 
 serves it in sheet lead in a cool dry 
 place. M. Godefroy suggests, that two 
 concave glasses, like those employed 
 for vaccine virus, would be better. The 
 globules of the pollen must not be 
 crushed. M. Haquin thinks the pollen 
 of one year will be effective if preserved 
 until the year following. Mr. Jackson, 
 of Cross Lanes Nursery, near Bedale, 
 says, he has found the pollen of the 
 Rhododendron Smithii tigrinum retain 
 its fertilizing power even for twelve 
 months. 
 
 9. It is easy to discern whether im- 
 pregnation has been effected, as in such 
 case the stigmas soon wither. The stig- 
 mas which have not received the pollen 
 remain for a long time green and vigor- 
 ous. "By the aid of the Stanhope 
 lens," observes Capt. Thurtell, in a let- 
 ter now before me, "I fancy I can dis- 
 cover the seed of the pelargonium being 
 
H YD 
 
 318 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 H YD 
 
 closed over in the space of four hours 
 after impregnation." 
 
 10. When double flowers are desired, 
 if a double flower should chance to have 
 a fertile anther or two, these should be 
 employed for fertilization, as their off- 
 spring are almost sure to be very double. 
 
 11. Many analyses of the pollen of 
 various plants have been made by che- 
 mists, without throwing any light upon 
 hybridizing. M. Grotthus found the 
 components of twenty-six grains of the 
 pollen of the tulip were — 
 Vegetable albumen .... 20.25 
 
 Malates of lime and magnesia 3.50 
 
 Malic acid ....... 1.00 
 
 Malate of ammonia, colouring) . ap. 
 
 matter, nitrate of potash J " 
 
 12. Superfcetation has been doubted ; 
 but as it occurs in the dog, we see no 
 reason for disbelieving its possibility in 
 plants. Capt. Thurtell thinks it may be 
 done by the bee introducing mingled 
 pollens at the same instant. Then why 
 not if a similar mixture is inserted by 
 the camel's-hair pencil of the culti- 
 vator ? 
 
 13. Plants nearly related, that is, 
 closely similar in the structure of their 
 various parts, are those only which will 
 immediately impregnate each other ; 
 but it is impossible, at present, to say 
 what families of plants may or may not 
 be brought into fertile union through 
 intermediate crosses. A very short 
 time ago, the azalea and rhododendron 
 were thought incapable of such union ; 
 but this opinion is now exploded, for 
 rhododendron ponticum has been fertil- 
 ized with the pollen of azalea sinensis, 
 and the progeny between that evergreen 
 and this deciduous shrub, is the pre- 
 viously unknown phenomenon, a yellow 
 rhododendron. Though such unions 
 may be effected, I entirely agree with 
 Mr. Knight in anticipating that the pro- 
 geny will be mules, incapable of pro- 
 ducing offspring. 
 
 HYDRANGEA. Six species. Hardy 
 deciduous shrubs. Ripe Cuttings. Com- 
 mon soil. The species most common 
 in our gardens is H. hortensis. To ob- 
 tain of this very large flowers on a very 
 small stem, strike cuttings; do not let 
 them branch: grow them in rich soil, 
 and bloom them the following season. 
 
 " To get large bushes of hydrangeas 
 in the open air, plant them in good rich 
 soil; form a basin of clay all round them, 
 six inches deep, and in dry weather fill 
 
 it with water every evening, after they 
 have got fairly into leaf. Towards au- 
 tumn withhold watering altogether. Get 
 their wood ripe. For winter, stuff straw 
 between their branches, wrap them well 
 in it, and mat them up." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Hydrangeas are best preserved 
 through the winter out of doors, by 
 taking off their leaves in autumn, and 
 putting over each one of the Shelters 
 made of straw, as described under that 
 title. 
 
 HYDRASTIS canadensis. Hardy 
 tuber. Tubers. Loam and peat, in a 
 moist place. 
 
 HYDRAULIC RAM. This is a use- 
 ful machine, the principle of which is 
 but partially understood and valued. 
 To bring the hydraulic ram into opera- 
 tion, it is necessary that there should be 
 a head or body of water, as a pond, sup- 
 plied by a running stream, from which 
 a fall can be obtained. The ram is an 
 hydraulic machine composed of a body 
 at the end of which is a valve called a 
 pulse-valve, which is closed by the mo- 
 mentum of a running stream of water. 
 On the top of the body is an air-vessel, 
 in the neck of which is another valve 
 which admits the water into the air- 
 vessel upon the closing of the pulse- 
 valve. The water meeting with an ob- 
 struction in the closing of the pulse- 
 valve, immediately makes its way 
 through the valve into the air-vessel. 
 The air in the air-vessel becoming 
 compressed, the valve leading into it 
 closes, and thus liberates the pulse- 
 valve. The same action takes place 
 again with the pulse-valve, and also 
 with the valve that leads to the air-ves- 
 sel this continuous action takes place; 
 and at each time a portion of water is 
 forced into the air-vessel. When the 
 air in the vessel is compressed so as to 
 overcome the resistance in the pipe 
 leading to the cistern, which it is in- 
 tended to supply, the water flows over, 
 and continues to do so, as long as the 
 ram remains in action. 
 
 There is also a small valve in the 
 neck of the air-vessel, introduced by 
 Mongolfier's son, to supply the vessel 
 with fresh air. Persons acquainted with 
 hydraulics are aware that a column of 
 water is equal to its base ; that is to say, 
 a pipe resting on a base four inches 
 square is equal to sixteen times, though 
 it rested on an inch square. This is 
 the principle of the ram, as the falling 
 
H YD 
 
 319 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 H YG 
 
 column, forcing up the pulse-valve, 
 shuts it. Practice shows that a ten-feet 
 fall will raise a column of water one 
 hundred and fifty feet high, at the rate 
 of five quarts per minute, or one part 
 raised to eleven wasted, where the ram 
 is only supplied by a two-inch pipe. I 
 may further add, that theory teaches 
 that a ten-feet fall will raise water three 
 hundred feet high — of course, in a very 
 small quantity. Mr. H. P. M'Birkin- 
 brine, of Philadelphia, has been very 
 successful in the construction of this 
 valuable power. 
 
 HYDROCHARIS morsusrance. Hardy 
 aquatic. Seed and runners. Stillwater. 
 
 HYDROLEA. Two species. One 
 stove evergreen shrub, and the other 
 stove herbaceous. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 HYDROPELTIS purpurea. Half- 
 hardy aquatic. Offsets. Still water. 
 
 HYGROMETER is an instrument 
 deserving of employment in the stove, 
 green house, and conservatory nearly 
 as much as the thermometer ; for the 
 correct degree of dampness of the air is 
 of very great importance in the cultiva- 
 tion of plants, and scarcely less than 
 that of the temperature in which they 
 vegetate. 
 
 The perspiration from the leaves of 
 plants increases with the air's dryness, 
 and decreases with its moistness. If it 
 be excessive, not only are their juices 
 too much reduced, but the very texture 
 of the leaves is destroyed. If, on the 
 other hand, the perspiration is prevent- 
 ed, the juices are too watery, and the 
 secretions and assimilations are devoid 
 of consistency, rendering the plants too 
 succulent and weak. 
 
 " It is impossible for any one to know 
 what degree of moisture he really main 
 tains in a forcing-house without an in- 
 strument by which to measure it : that 
 instrument is the hygrometer, which 
 might as well be called the 'water- 
 gauge,' which is what the first word 
 really means. Of the many contriv- 
 ances to effect this end, the best for all 
 practical purposes, is Daniell's Hygro- 
 meter, of which the annexed cut (Fig. 
 93) exhibits the general appearance. 
 It measures the moisture in the air 
 quickly and precisely, and is not sub- 
 ject to get out of order. 
 
 " If moisture is brought into contact 
 with a substance sufficiently cold, a part 
 of the moisture is condensed, and is so 
 
 converted from a state of invisible va- 
 pour into water. 
 
 " Thus, in a cold day, the glass roof 
 of a green-house may be seen streaming 
 with water, which runs down and forms 
 'drip;' and in this often unsuspected 
 manner air is rendered dry, notwith- 
 standing the operations of syringing, 
 steaming, &c. Daniell's Hygrometer is 
 constructed with reference to this cir- 
 cumstance. The figure represents two 
 hollow glass balls containing ether, and 
 communicating by the glass tube which 
 rests on the support. The ball which 
 forms the termination of the longer 
 leg is of black glass, in order that the 
 formation of dew on its surface may be 
 the more perceptible. It includes the 
 bulb of a delicate thermometer dipping 
 in the ether, its scale being inclosed in 
 the tube above the ball ; and whatever 
 change takes place in the temperature 
 of the ether is indicated by this thermo- 
 meter. The other ball is covered with 
 muslin. In making an observation it is 
 first necessary to note down the temper- 
 ature of the air ; next turn the instru- 
 ment, so that when the muslin-covered 
 ball is held in the hand, the ether may 
 escape into the blackened ball ;,and it 
 should also be held till the included 
 thermometer rises a few degrees above 
 the temperature of the air, when it 
 should be replaced on the support. 
 Then drop, or gently pour, a little ether 
 on the muslin. The evaporation of this 
 extremely volatile substance produces 
 cold ; and attention must be instantly 
 directed to the black glass ball and in- 
 cluded thermometer. The latter will 
 be seen falling rapidly ; and at length 
 a ring of dew will appear at the line 
 which runs across the black ball — 
 quickly, if the air is very moist, slowly, 
 if the air is dry. If the air is very dry, 
 no moisture will be thus deposited till 
 the thermometer falls to, perhaps, 10°, 
 20°, or 30o below the temperature of 
 the air. But at whatever temperature 
 the dew forms, that temperature should 
 be noted as the dew-point; and the dif- 
 ference between it and the temperature 
 of the air, at the time, is the degree of 
 dryness according to the indications of 
 this hygrometer. Thus, in a moderately 
 dry day, let it be supposed that the 
 temperature of the air is 65° in the 
 shade, and that the muslin requires to 
 be kept moist, before dew is formed, 
 till the blackened ball containing the 
 
H YG 
 
 320 
 
 HYG 
 
 ether has its temperature reduced to 
 50°, as indicated by the included ther- 
 mometer, there are then said to be 15° 
 of dryness. 
 
 " Again, supposing the temperature 
 is 85°, and the dew-point found, as be- 
 fore, to be 70°, the degree of dryness 
 is still expressed by 15° ; but the quan- 
 tity of moisture diffused in the air is, 
 notwithstanding, somewhat greater in 
 the latter case than in the former. 
 
 " If 1000? represent complete satu- 
 ration, the quantity of moisture, when 
 the temperature is 65° and the dew- 
 point 50°, will be 609 Q ; but. when the 
 temperature is 85^ and the dew-point 
 70°, the moisture will be represented 
 by 623 ; these numbers being ascer- 
 tained by tables prepared for the pur- 
 pose. The difference, however, in such 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 
 cfe 
 
 a case is so small it is not worth taking 
 into account in a horticultural point of 
 view. But as these numbers can only 
 be ascertained by calculation it is more 
 convenient to reckon by the degree of 
 dryness, bearing in mind that the dry- 
 ness of the air is indicated by the differ- 
 ence between the temperature of the 
 air and of the dew-point. Thus, if the 
 ring of dew is formed as soon as ether 
 is applied, and only 1° difference is 
 observable, the air is nearly saturated ; 
 if the difference is 5° to 10°, the dry- 
 ness is very moderate ; while 15° to 20° 
 of difference indicate excessive dryness, 
 and beyond this the air is parching." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 " The instrument," says Mr. Ross, 
 <c should be held so as to obtain a por- 
 tion of bright reflection where the dew 
 
 is expected to appear; because the dew 
 is most easily seen where the line di- 
 vides the bright and black reflections on 
 the bulb ; and inasmuch as the change 
 may not be noticed the very instant that 
 it occurs, it is well to make a second 
 observation of the temperature at which 
 the dew clears off, and then take the 
 mean of two. If they are both taken 
 equally late, the errors will balance 
 each other ; because in one case the 
 mercury is falling, and in the other 
 rising." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Mr. J. W. Harris, writing on the same 
 subject, says : — 
 
 " As I have for the last three months, 
 used an instrument for the purpose of 
 regulating the moisture of the air in my 
 orchidaceous house which has perfectly 
 answered my purpose, I am induced to 
 offer it to your notice. It consists of an 
 old-fashioned instrument commonly sold 
 in the opticians' shops as Leslie's Dif- 
 ferential Thermometer. It is arranged 
 so that, when not in use, the fluid stands 
 at zero in the stem ; over the bulb of 
 the opposite stem I place a piece of 
 muslin, which has been well soaked in 
 a strong solution of common salt in wa- 
 ter. The muslin having been cut into 
 a circular shape, is laid on the bulb 
 whilst wet ; and the moisture will make 
 it adhere sufficiently. A shelf, or brack- 
 et, with sides, top, and back, is made 
 for it to stand in, to seclude it from the 
 sunshine — which is of course essential 
 — and also to prevent the damp wall 
 from having effect upon the muslin, so 
 that it may draw all its moisture from 
 the atmosphere alone. It will be found 
 convenient to have a thermometer hung 
 on the same stand, as in all hygrometric 
 observations the state of the thermome- 
 ter must be attended to. The rationale 
 of its action is simple. If the absorp- 
 tion of moisture exceeds the evaporation 
 from the muslin, heat will be generated, 
 which will expand the air in that bulb, 
 and drive the fluid up the opposite stem, 
 indicating the degree by its rise. On 
 the contrary, if the evaporation exceeds 
 the absorption, cold will be produced, 
 causing the fluid to fall. The general 
 range of the scales made is from zero 
 to 40°. I believe, in my stove, under 
 the general treatment of orchidaceous 
 plants, temperature ranging from 78° 
 to 95°, the hygrometer has ranged from 
 15° to 30°. Of course, if the instru- 
 ment were found to require it, it would 
 
H YG 
 
 321 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 ICE 
 
 be lengthened in the stem, so as to 
 range to any degree required ; but I 
 do not anticipate that a greater range 
 would be required for the coldest pit 
 or green-house. As I have found it very 
 useful in my own stove, I hope it may 
 be of service to your readers; and as it 
 is self-acting, so I trust it will be found 
 on trial, < simple, economical, and ef- 
 fectual.'" — Gard. Chron. 
 
 HYGROPHILA ringens. Stove 
 evergreen trailer. Cuttings. Rich light 
 soil. 
 
 HYLESINUS PINIPERDA. A spe- 
 cies of beetle which preys upon the pith 
 of young shoots of sickly or recently 
 felled Scotch and spruce firs. It is not 
 very injurious in this country. 
 
 HYLOTONIA rosce. A saw-fly which 
 injures rose-trees seriously by punctur- 
 ing in rows their young shoots, and de- 
 positing in the holes its eggs. The 
 best remedy is spreading a cloth be- 
 neath the trees in the evening, and 
 killing the insects shaken down upon 
 it. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 HYMEN^A. Locust-tree. Three 
 species. Stove evergreen trees. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 HYMENANTHERA dentata. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 HYMENOPHYLLUM. Two spe- 
 cies. Hardy ferns. Seed and division. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 HYOSCYAMUS. Henbane. Four 
 species. Two half-hardy evergreen 
 shrubs ; one hardy annual ; and the 
 fourth biennial. Cuttings or seed. 
 Common soil. 
 
 HYPECOUM. Three species. Har- 
 dy annuals. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 HYPERICUM. Seventy-three spe- 
 cies. Hardy, half-hardy, and green- 
 house. Mr. Paxton says the two latter 
 thrive in loam and peat, propagated by 
 young cuttings; the hardy shrubs and 
 herbaceous grow from seed or division 
 in any soil; and the annuals may be 
 sown in spring in the open ground. 
 
 HYPH(ENE coriacea. Stove-palm. 
 Seed. Sandy loam. 
 
 HYPOCALYPTUS abcordatus. 
 Green-house evergreen shrub. Young 
 cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 HYPOESTES. Five species. Stove 
 plants of various character ; chiefly 
 evergreen shrubs. These, and the 
 herbaceous species, propagate by cut- 
 tings in a light soil. 
 21 
 
 HYSSOP. Hyssopus officinalis. 
 
 Varieties. — There are three varieties, 
 the white, red, and blue ; the last of 
 which is most commonly cultivated. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — A dry soil is the 
 one most appropriate for it. If on a 
 rich or wet one, it is generally destroy- 
 ed by the frost, as well as rendered less 
 aromatic. 
 
 Time and Mode of Propagation. — It 
 is propagated by seed, and slips of the 
 branches, and young shoots, as well as 
 by offsets. The seed may be sown 
 from the close of February until the 
 end of May. Rooted offsets may be 
 planted in March, April, August and 
 September; cuttings of the branches in 
 April and May ; and slips of young 
 shoots in June or July. The seed may 
 be inserted in drills, six inches apart, 
 not deeper than half an inch. It is the 
 usual practice, when the seedlings have 
 attained the growth of six weeks, to 
 prick them out twelve inches apart ; 
 but it is by much the best practice to 
 raise them where they are to remain. 
 
 The slips and offsets are best planted 
 at first in a shady or north border: 
 they are generally firmly rooted in two 
 months. In September or October they 
 are all fit for removal to their final sta- 
 tions. After every removal they must 
 be watered plentifully and regularly 
 until established. The only subsequent 
 cultivation requisite is the keeping them 
 free of weeds by frequent hoeings. 
 
 In spring and autumn likewise all 
 decayed branches and flower-stalks 
 must be removed ; those used as 
 edgings trimmed close, and the earth 
 gently stirred around them. 
 
 I B E R I S . Candy-Tuft. Twenty- 
 three species. A few hardy evergreen 
 shrubs ; but chiefly hardy annuals, bien- 
 nials, and perennials. Seed. Common 
 light loam. 
 
 ICE-HOUSE. Any vacant out-house 
 which can be thoroughly drained will 
 be an efficient ice-house. Moisture is 
 a much more rapid solvent of ice than 
 mere heat. If in an out-house, with 
 drains leading from its floor, a layer of 
 faggots three feet deep be placed, and 
 round the sides of the house a lining of 
 stubble or straw nearly as thick, and 
 then the ice be rammed in hard, and 
 covered over with a similar coat of 
 stubble, the ice may be preserved there 
 for twelve months. 
 
 " The accompanying drawing and de- 
 
ICE 
 
 322 
 
 ICE 
 
 scription of an approved ice-house and 
 dairy united, has been contributed by 
 John C. Boyd, Esq., of Danville, Pa. 
 Mr. B. says, "For various purposes it 
 is far superior to the best constructed 
 spring-house; permitting to the largest 
 extent all the luxuries of sweet cream 
 
 and milk, the preservation of fresh 
 meat, pies, fruit, &c, for a length of 
 time. Mine has been in use two years, 
 and during that period, we have not 
 had any milk to sour, which cannot be 
 said by those dependent on spring- 
 houses." 
 
 "A represents the ice-house, proper. 
 B dairy-room. C the steps thereto. 
 D window in dairy-room. E entrance 
 into the ice-house. 
 
 " The whole length, 24 feet: width 
 15 feet; pit sunk, 5 feet in ground; 
 stone wall carried 2£ feet above ground ; 
 making depth of stone work 7£ feet. 
 On stone work, a frame of 8 feet to the 
 square is placed. Weather-boarded 
 on the outside in usual manner. Over 
 milk house, on top of wall is placed, 
 joist 18 inches from centre to centre, 
 on which a tight floor is laid, which 
 forms a convenient room for keeping 
 various things connected with the dairy. 
 
 " The partition between the ice- 
 house and milk-house is formed by 
 setting up studding from the sill in the 
 bottom of the ice-house to the square 
 under the roof, and weather-boarded 
 with inch boards halved together, well 
 nailed, so as to prevent any charcoal 
 dust, or dust of the bark from dropping 
 down into the milk trough. 
 
 "The inside frame is made 12 inches 
 less all round than the inside of main 
 building. That is to say, a space of 
 12 inches, (and it would be better if it 
 
 were 15,) must be left between the two 
 frames — to be filled in with charcoal 
 or tanner's bark, well dried, and well 
 rammed when filled. 
 
 The inside frame may be very simply 
 and cheaply made, by taking four pieces 
 of scantling, say 4 by 6, and halving 
 them together — and planking, or dou- 
 ble boarding up or down on the inside 
 — three of those frames — one on the 
 floor — one midway, and the other at 
 top, are sufficient. 
 
 " The floor, which is the most par- 
 ticular part, should be made by placing 
 in the bottom good oak sills, with a 
 descent from the back part of an apart- 
 ment to milk-house of 15 inches. The 
 sills well bedded in clay, tan bark or 
 charcoal. Mine is bedded in common 
 yellow clay, well pounded in. 
 
 " The floor should be well laid, either 
 of plank, jointed, or boards double, and 
 small grooves run along to carry ice 
 water down to the milk trough. This 
 floor should be the size of the ice room 
 before inside frame is erected. On that 
 part of the floor which passes under the 
 partition between the ice and milk- 
 houses, small strips of a quarter of an 
 
ICE 
 
 323 
 
 IMP 
 
 inch thick should be laid, and a board 
 fitted down tight to keep the filling-in 
 from stopping up the water as it leaves 
 the ice. On top of square, joists with 
 floor on, is laid and covered about 2 
 feet thick with tan-bark. A ventilator 
 should be made through the upper floor 
 and roof about 2 feet square. 
 
 '* The closet or recess formed on 
 each side of the small doors, leading 
 into the ice, may have hooks to hang 
 meats, or shelves, on which anything 
 may be set. This closet, or cold room, 
 is 3 feet 3 inches, by 3 feet 6 inches — 
 5 feet high, two doors in centre, each 
 18 inches wide, made of a single board, 
 and made to fit closely. 
 
 The ice may be put in on either side 
 just under the upper joists; an opening 
 18 inches by 2 feet is sufficiently large, 
 with two doors or shutters — and the 
 space between, when the ice is in, 
 should be well stuffed with straw. No 
 straw to be used in filling ice-house — 
 except on top, when a good supply will 
 be of service. 
 
 " The milk-house should be well 
 white-washed. The room above milk- 
 house should be lined on inside of 
 shedding, and the space between filled 
 with tan-bark or charcoal. The cover- 
 ing may be a shed-roof, or any other 
 form best suited to the convenience of 
 the location. The door of my ice-house 
 is within a few steps of my back kitch- 
 en door. An arbour of grape vines adds 
 much to the comfort and coolness of 
 the establishment. 
 
 " In filling the ice-house, much pains 
 should be taken to pack the ice closely. 
 The ice is taken out by entering from 
 the milk-house through the small doors, 
 and any child who can use a hatchet can 
 procure ice for the use of the house. 
 
 " The ice-water, if the troughs are 
 made tight, (and they ought to be per- 
 fectly so,) will keep them full, or nearly 
 so, and during south winds may over- 
 flow a little. The milk-room is too 
 cold to do the work in, therefore there 
 is no water but the ice water to get 
 clear of, which will disappear without 
 giving any trouble." — Rural Register. 
 
 For an interesting article on this sub- 
 ject, See Downing's " Horticulturist." 
 
 ICE-PLANT. Mesembryanthemum 
 crystallinum. 
 
 ICHNOCARPUS frutescens. Stove 
 evergreen twiner. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 ILEX. Holly. Fifteen species. 
 Chiefly hardy evergreen trees ; but 1. 
 paraguensis and I. salicifolia require 
 the shelter of a stove; and I. angusti/6- 
 lia, 1. chinensis, and J. perado, that of a 
 green-house. Cuttings, budding, grafting, 
 and seed. Deep light loam. See Holly. 
 
 ILLICIUM. Three species. Half- 
 hardy evergreen shrubs. Cuttings and 
 layers. Light loam. 
 
 IMPATIENS. Balsam. Nine spe- 
 cies. Hardy, half-hardy, and stove an- 
 nuals. I. natans is a stove aquatic ; 
 seed, rich loam, in water. I. scapijlora 
 is a stove bulb ; offsets ; light rich loam. 
 Half-hardy annuals sow in a hotbed, and 
 hardy in borders. (Paxton's Bot. Die.) 
 See Balsam. 
 
 IMPREGNATION. " No seed ever 
 attains the power of germinating, un- 
 less the pollen from the stamens in the 
 same, or some nearly allied flower, has 
 reached and impregnated its pistils. 
 
 " In favourable seasons, when genial 
 warmth and gentle winds prevail, im- 
 pregnation is readily effected by the 
 plant's own provision. The pollen is 
 never shed from the anther of the sta- 
 men, untii the stigma of the pistil is fully 
 developed, and this soon withers after 
 the contact. 
 
 " Their all-provident Creator has in- 
 variably arranged efficient assistance. 
 The agents usually called in are insects ; 
 these, in their search after honey and 
 wax, visit the inmost recesses of flowers, 
 and bear from the anthers to the stigma, 
 and from flower to flower, the fecun- 
 dating dust. Here, too, I may remark 
 upon another instance of that Provi- 
 dence which makes all things fitting 
 and appropriate ; for those who have 
 made the bee their study, relate that 
 though this insect does not confine it- 
 self to one species of flower, yet it re- 
 stricts its visits during each ramble to 
 that kind which it first visits. How 
 this facilitates impregnation is obvious, 
 when it is remembered that no flower 
 can be fecundated but with pollen from 
 a kindred species. 
 
 " This efficient agency of insects sug- 
 gested, that in hothouses, from whence 
 they are almost totally excluded, other 
 artificial means might be adopted with 
 success to render flowers fertile that 
 had hitherto failed in producing seed. 
 Thus the gardener always finds the ad- 
 vantage of using the camel hair pencil 
 to apply pollen to the stigmas of his 
 
IN A 
 
 324 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 ING 
 
 forced melons, cucumbers, cherries, 
 and peaches." — Principles of Garden- 
 ing. See Hybridizing. 
 
 INARCHING, or Grafting by ap- 
 proach, differs from grafting only in 
 having the scion still attached to its 
 parent stem whilst the process of union 
 with the stock is proceeding. It is the 
 most certain mode of multiplying an 
 individual that roots or grafts with dif- 
 ficulty, but is attended with the incon- 
 venience that both the stock and the 
 parent of the scion must be neighbours. 
 The most ingenious application of in- 
 arching is one suggested by Mr. Knight. 
 If a fruit-bearing branch becomes de- 
 nuded of its leaves above the fruit it has 
 produced, this either falls or remains 
 stunted and deficient in flavour, owing 
 to being thus deprived of a supply of 
 the elaborated sap or proper juice. In 
 such case a branch having leaves of the 
 same or of a neighbouring tree, was in- 
 arched to the denuded portion of the 
 branch the fruit of which he was anxious 
 to taste. It produced that season only 
 two peaches, and from the branch bear- 
 ing which all the leaves had fallen ; but 
 after the inarching the fruit proceeded 
 to maturity. — Principles of Gardening. 
 
 To propagate any tree or shrub by 
 this method of grafting, if of the hardy 
 kind, and growing in the open ground, 
 a proper quantity of young plants for 
 stocks must be set round it, and when 
 grown of a proper height, the work of 
 inarching performed ; or if the branches 
 of the tree you design to graft from is 
 too high for the stock, stocks must be 
 planted in pots, and a slight stage 
 erected around the tree of due height 
 to reach the branches, and the pots 
 containing the stock placed upon the 
 stage. 
 
 As to the method of performing the 
 work, it is sometimes performed with 
 the head of the stock cut off, and some- 
 times with the head left on till the graft 
 is united with the stock, though by pre- 
 viously beheading it the work is much 
 easier performed, and having no top, its 
 whole effort will be directed to the 
 nourishment of the graft. Having the 
 stocks properly placed, make the most 
 convenient branches approach the stock, 
 and mark in the body of the branches 
 the parts where they will most easily 
 join to the stock, and in those parts of 
 each branch, pare away the bark and 
 part of the wood two or three inches 
 
 in length, and in the same manner pare 
 the stock in the proper place for the 
 junction of the graft, then make a slit 
 upward in the branch so as to form a 
 sort of tongue, and make a slit down- 
 ward in the stock to admit it; let the 
 parts be then joined, slipping the tongue 
 of the graft into the slit of the stock, 
 making the whole join in an exact man- 
 ner, and tie them closely together with 
 bass, and afterwards cover the whole 
 with a due quantity of clay, or wax. 
 After this let a stout stake be fixed for 
 the support of each graft, and so fast- 
 ened as to prevent its being disjoined 
 from the stock by the wind. 
 
 The operation being performed in 
 spring, let the grafts remain in that 
 position about four months, when they 
 will be united, and they may then be 
 separated from the mother-tree ; in 
 doing this be careful to perform it with 
 a steady hand, so as not to loosen or 
 break out the graft, sloping it off down- 
 wards close to the stock; and if the head 
 of the stock was not cut down at the 
 time of grafting, it must now be done 
 close to the graft, and all the old clay 
 and bandage cleared away and re- 
 placed with new, to remain a few weeks 
 longer. 
 
 Observe, however, that if the grafts 
 are not firmly united with the stock, let 
 them remain another year till autumn, 
 before you separate the grafts from the 
 parent tree. — Abercrombie. 
 
 " Instead of approach-grafting in the 
 usual manner, it is sometimes conve- 
 nient to detach shoots of the kinds to 
 be propagated from the plants on which 
 they grew, and inarch them upon the 
 single plant, leaving a piece at the bot- 
 tom of each shoot sufficiently long to 
 thrust into a phial, which must be kept 
 
 constantly supplied with water." 
 
 Gard. Mag. 
 
 INDIAN BAY. Laurus indica. 
 
 INDIAN BLUE. Nymphcea cyanea. 
 
 INDIAN CRESS. Tropceolum. See 
 Nasturtium. 
 
 INDIAN FIG. Opuntia. 
 
 INDIAN LOTUS. Nymphcea lotus. 
 
 INDIAN SHOT. Canna indica. 
 
 INDIGOFERA. Indigo. Forty-four 
 species. Chieflygreen-house and stove 
 shrubs. Young cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 INGA. Twenty-eight species. Stove 
 evergreen trees and shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
INO 
 
 325 
 
 IRR 
 
 INOCULATION. See Budding. 
 
 INOCULATING GRASS. See Turf. 
 
 I P O M M A . Sixty-four species. 
 Chiefly green-house and stove twiners. 
 1. caudicans ; I. lacunosa ; I. pandu- 
 rata ; I. sagittifolia ; I. sibrica ; I. sin- 
 uata ; and L trichocarpa, are hardy. 
 Cuttings. Rich loam and peat. An- 
 nuals and biennials by seed in a gentle 
 hotbed, as directed for the following : — 
 
 " The best time for sowing Ipomcea 
 quamoclit, and rubra ccerulea for plant- 
 ing in the open air, is the end of Feb- 
 ruary. They will both succeed under 
 similar treatment, viz., to sow them in 
 a gentle hot-bed, to pot them oft" sepa- 
 rately, and encourage their growth 
 until the end of May, when they may 
 be planted out in light rich soil in a 
 sheltered situation." — Gard. Chron. Or 
 sow the seed in May or June in a warm 
 situation, having previously soaked it 
 for forty-eight hours in soft water. 
 
 IPOMOPSIS elegans. " Hardy bien- 
 nial. Seed. Peat and loam, in a cold 
 frame during July ; leave three in a pot, 
 and place in green-house for winter ; 
 water moderately; shift in spring into 
 forty-eights well drained ; leave only 
 two plants in a pot ; water very mode- 
 rately." — Paxton's Bot. Diet. 
 
 IRESINE. Four species. Half-hardy 
 herbaceous. Seeds, in a gentle hotbed. 
 Rich loam and peat. 
 
 IRIS. Eighty-nine species. Chiefly 
 hardy bulbs. I. clandestina ; I. crassi- 
 folia; and I. deflexa, require the shelter 
 of a greenhouse. The soil cannot well 
 be too sandy for them. Seed or divi- 
 sion of the roots. 
 
 Dr. Lindley gives the following di- 
 rections for cultivating the English and 
 Spanish species: — 
 
 " About August prepare a bed two 
 feet deep, the soil of which must be 
 composed of equal parts of rich loam, 
 sandy peat, and either well rotted dung 
 or leaf mould, all well incorporated to- 
 gether. The beginning of September, 
 plant the bulbs about three inches deep, 
 placing a little fine sand around each, 
 and afterwards cover and level the sur- 
 ace; nothing else will be required ex- 
 cept stirring the surface of the soil in 
 the spring. The Irises will bloom about 
 the middle of June, and the seeds will 
 ripen in the beginning of August; when, 
 if it is required, the bulbs should be 
 taken up ; but it must be observed that 
 when they are removed they seldom 
 
 flower well the following season, and 
 therefore should not be repianted more 
 than once in five or six years. When 
 the bulbs are taken up they should be 
 placed in dry sand for about a month, 
 and afterwards planted in the manner 
 before mentioned. Seeds of Irises 
 should be sown in drills in September, 
 in light sandy soil ; they will come up 
 the following spring, but the young 
 bulbs should remain for two or three 
 years before they are removed. 
 
 " The best way to treat the Persian 
 Iris, is to place the roots, in October, 
 in pots filled with a mixture of either 
 sandy loam well drained and leaf mould, 
 or sandy peat and well rotted dung, and 
 set them in some dry pit for the winter, 
 and give but little water until the spring, 
 and when they begin to show their 
 blooms, plant them in the open bed. If 
 this is carefully done they will be gay 
 during April and the beginning of May, 
 but they must be protected from the 
 spring frost when in bloom, or they 
 will not last long in flower. Persian 
 Irises are tender, and will not survive 
 the winter in the open border, unless 
 the situation is dry, for they suffer more 
 from the effects of damp than cold. 
 They may also be grown like hyacinths 
 in glasses filled with water, in the 
 windows of sitting rooms, and are de- 
 sirable for such a situation, as two or 
 three plants will scent a room. They 
 also succeed in pure sand if the roots 
 are strong. 
 
 " The roots must be taken up in the 
 open beds every season, and either pot- 
 ted or preserved in sand during the 
 winter, but if not potted before the 
 spring they become exhausted, and do 
 not flower well, whereas if planted in 
 the open bed in autumn, they are almost 
 sure to perish." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 IRISH HEATH. Menziesiapolifolia. 
 
 IRON-WORT. Sideritis. 
 
 IRRIGATION, as employed by the 
 farmer, is chiefly beneficial in proportion 
 to the amount of saline and decompos- 
 ing matter contained in solution by the 
 water employed. But this is not the 
 exclusive cause of benefit, for much of 
 this arises from the increased and per- 
 manent supply of moisture to the roots 
 of the plants. These can only derive 
 food from the soil in a gaseous or liquid 
 form; and the decomposing matters in 
 a soil decompose, and constantly are 
 converted into gaseous and soluble mat- 
 
ISE 
 
 326 
 
 JAN 
 
 ters, with a rapidity proportioned to the 
 abundance of water supplied to them. 
 Experience shows that there is in the 
 kitchen garden scarcely a crop that is 
 not benefited by a much more abundant 
 supply of water than can be obtained 
 usually ; and I can bear testimony to the 
 correctness of Mr. Knight's conclusion, 
 not limiting, however, my approval of 
 such abundant watering to late crops 
 of peas, but to all, as well as beans, 
 spinach, and the entire cabbage tribe. 
 Kidney beans and potatoes are not bene- 
 fited by such an abundance of water. 
 
 " The quantity of water," says Mr. 
 Knight, " which may be given with 
 advantage to plants of almost every 
 kind, during warm and bright weather, 
 is, I believe, very much greater than 
 any gardener who has not seen the 
 result will be inclined to suppose pos- 
 sible; and it is greater than I myself 
 could have believed upon any other 
 evidence than that of actual experience. 
 
 "My garden, in common with many 
 others, is supplied with water by springs, 
 which rise in., a more elevated situation ; 
 and this circumstance afforded me the 
 means of making a small pond, from 
 which I can cause the water to flow out 
 over every part of every other kind 
 through every part of the summer; and 
 I cause a stream to flow down the rows 
 of celery, and along the rows of brocoli 
 and other plants, which are planted out 
 in summer, with very great advantage. 
 But the most extensive and beneficial 
 use which I make of the power to irri- 
 gate my garden by the means above 
 mentioned, is in supplying my late crops 
 of peas abundantly with water, by which 
 the ill effects of mildew are almost 
 wholly prevented, and my table is most 
 abundantly supplied with very excellent 
 peas through the month of October." 
 
 ISERTIA coccinea. Stove evergreen 
 shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 ISMENE. Five species. Stove bulbs. 
 Offsets. Turfy loam and peat. 
 
 ISOPLEXIS. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Seed and cut- 
 tings. Light rich loam. 
 
 ISOPOGON. Fifteen species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
 Turfy sandy loam. 
 
 ISOPYRUM. Two species. Hardy. 
 One annual, the other herbaceous. Seed. 
 Light loam. 
 
 IVY. Hedera. 
 
 IXIA. Twenty-four species. Green- 
 
 house bulbs; but most of them, in light 
 soil and south border, protected slightly 
 in winter, will grow in the open air. 
 Those grown in pots should be kept in 
 a dry place until the beginning of No- 
 vember. The soil best adapted for 
 them is a sandy peat mixed with a little 
 loam. After repotting in that month, 
 they may be kept in a cool airy situa- 
 tion, and as soon as they begin to grow, 
 they may be watered freely, and placed 
 in the green-house. — Gard. Chron., fyc. 
 
 IXODIA achilleoides. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
 sand. 
 
 IXORA. Fourteen species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 JABOROSA. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Cuttings. Light rich 
 loam. 
 
 JACARANDA. Seven species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy peat 
 and loam. 
 
 JACKSONIA. Four species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 JACOBJEA LILY. Amaryllis for- 
 mosissima. 
 
 JACQUINIA. Six species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sand and 
 peat. 
 
 JALAP. Mirabilis jalapa. 
 
 JAMAICA EBONY. Brya ebenus. 
 
 JAMAICA REDWOOD. Gordonia 
 hamatoxylon. 
 
 JAMAICA ROSE. Meriania. 
 
 JAMBOSA. Seven species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 JANUARY is a month requiring little 
 more from the gardener in the out-door 
 department than attention to neatness, 
 but it usually requires more than ordi- 
 nary care to his hot-house and forcing 
 department. The following directions 
 contain the principal routine work of the 
 month : — 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 Artichokes, attend to, shelter, &c. — 
 Asparagus, plant in hot-bed ; attend to 
 the forcing; temp, about 65°, and at 
 night 50°. — Beans, plant in hot-beds. — 
 Brocoli, protect from frost. — Cardoons, 
 attend to, shelter, &c. — Cauliflowers, in 
 I frames, and those pricked out, attend 
 j to. — Composts, prepare and turn over. — 
 J Cucumbers, sow and prick out; temp, by 
 | day 80°, and at night 65°. — Dung, for 
 
JAN 
 
 327 
 
 JAN 
 
 hot-beds, prepare ; wheel on to vacant 
 ground. — Earth, for hot-beds, prepare. 
 — Frost, protect plants from. — Ground, 
 trench vacant. — Hot-beds, make and at- 
 tend to. — Kale (Sea), begin forcing, b. 
 Kidney Beans, sow in hot-bed, e. — Let- 
 tuces in frames, attend; transplant to 
 force. — Melons, sow, for fruiting in May; 
 day temp. 75°, night 65°, — Mint, force, 
 in hot-bed. — Mushroom Beds, make, and 
 attend to those producing ; procure 
 horse droppings for. — Mustard and 
 Cress, sow in hot-bed. — Onions, ex- 
 amine stored. — Parsley, protect from 
 frost. — Peas, plant in hot-bed ; and pre- 
 pare sticks. — Potatoes, plant in slight 
 hot-bed. — Radishes, sow in hot-bed. — 
 Rape (for salading), sow in hot-bed. — 
 Rhubarb, begin forcing, b. — Tansy, plant 
 in hot-bed.— Tarragon, plant in hot-bed, 
 and do any work which will lessen that 
 of the following busier months. — Wood- 
 lice, destroy in the mushroom-house. 
 
 ORCHARD. 
 
 Apples (Espalier), prune, &c. — Apri- 
 cots, prune and train in frosty weather. 
 Brine, apply with a scrubbing brush to 
 stems and brances of fruit trees, to de- 
 stroy insects, eggs, and moss. — Cher- 
 ries (Wall and Espalier), prune and 
 train. — Currants, prune. — Espaliers, 
 prune and regulate. — Figs, protect from 
 frost. — Fork the surface around fruit 
 trees. — Gooseberries, prune. — Mulch, 
 put around newly planted trees. — Nec- 
 tarines, prune and train in frosty wea- 
 ther. — Peaches (see Nectarine). — Pears 
 (Espalier), prune, &c. — Plums (Wall 
 and Espalier), prune.— -Pruning-, at- 
 tend to generally. — Raspberries, prune. 
 — Snails, destroy in their torpid state. 
 — Stake and support trees newly plant- 
 ed. — Standards, remove dead and ir- 
 regular branches from. — Trench and 
 prepare borders, &c, for planting. — 
 Vines, prune and train. — Wall Trees 
 generally, prune and regulate. — Walls. 
 It is a very beneficial plan to paint these 
 by means of a white-washer's brush, 
 with a liquid mixture of 8 lbs. lime, 
 4 lbs. soot, and 8 lbs. sulphur. It de- 
 stroys and banishes insects, as well as 
 by its dark colour promoting the warmth 
 of the wall. The liquid employed, in 
 which to mix the above, should be urine 
 and soapsuds in equal proportions. 
 
 FLOWER GARDEN. 
 
 Anemones, protect from cold. 
 
 &c- 
 
 Annuals, sow in pots and put in hot- 
 house, &c, b. — Auriculas, protect from 
 cold, &c; give earth and compost to. 
 — Carnations, protect from cold, &c. — 
 Cuttings of hardy deciduous shrubs 
 may be prepared, e. — Edgings, make. 
 Slate painted green, and Gentinella 
 planted within, is handsome and dura- 
 ble. — Gravel, roll in dry weather. — 
 Hedges, of Privet, &c, plash. — Hya- 
 cinths, protect from cold, &c. — Layers 
 of hardy shrubs may still be pegged 
 down. — Manure, apply generally. — 
 Mulch, put round roots of lately plant- 
 ed trees. — Potted Plants, secure well 
 from frost. — Prune, and regulate flow- 
 ering shrubs. — Ranunculuses, plant, if 
 before omitted; protect from cold, &c. 
 — Rose Trees, scrub with brine, to de- 
 stroy scab, insects, &c. — Salt, sow over 
 grass, to drive away worms, &c. — Seed- 
 lings, in borders, protect with mats. — 
 Trench vacant ground. — Tulips, protect 
 from cold, &c. ; plant, if omitted, b. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit as much as possible. — 
 Apricots (see Peach.) — Bark Beds, stir, 
 and renew, if heat declines. — Cherries 
 (see Peach). — Cucumbers, in pots, in- 
 troduce ; water frequently, and train. 
 — Currants, water frequently. — -Figs 
 (see Vines). They should be in pots 
 in the Vinery. — Flowers in pots (Roses, 
 Carnations, &c.,) introduce. Gooseber- 
 ries, water frequently. — Head down spe- 
 cimen plants, as Justicias, &c. — Kidney 
 Beans, sow in small spots, not larger 
 than twenty- fours ; water frequently. — 
 Light, admit as freely as possible. — 
 Mats, put over glass in very severe 
 weather, even in the day time. — Necta- 
 rines and Peaches in blossom keep at 
 about 55° during the day, and at night 
 about 40o ; water very sparingly ; shake 
 branches gently to distribute the pollen ; 
 stir earth around often. — Pine Apples 
 (fruiting), require increased bottom 
 heat to about 85^; water about once a 
 week ; temperature in house from 60° 
 to 70°. — Salading, in boxes sow. — 
 Stove, temp, not above 60° in the day, 
 and at night 40°. — Strawberries, in pots, 
 introduce; when blossoming, water fre- 
 quently ; day temp, not more than 55°. 
 — Thermometer, watch its dictates. — 
 Vines, in leaf, keep about 60° ; in blos- 
 som about 70° during day, at night 50°; 
 protect stems outside by haybands; 
 give liquid manure. — Wash the leaves 
 
J AS 
 
 328 
 
 JUL 
 
 of all plants, as requisite, either with a 
 sponge or by watering. — Water, soft 
 and warm as the house, apply as requi- 
 site; in pots, &c, keep constantly in 
 the house. 
 
 GHEEN-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit at every favourable time, 
 when the temperature outside is above 
 32°. — Earth in the pots and borders, 
 stir frequently. — Fires to exclude frost 
 and damp should be lighted as required ; 
 day temp. 50°, night temp. 40°. — Fogs, 
 especially exclude. Leaves, wash, 
 when foul; (decayed), remove as they 
 appear. — Succulent Plants now scarce- 
 ly require any water. — Water sparingly, 
 and in mild weather, and about noon. — 
 Windows, keep closed both in foggy 
 and frosty weather ; cover with mats 
 or shutters in rigorous seasons, even 
 in the day time. 
 
 JAS10NE. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Seed. Division and cut- 
 tings. Peat. 
 
 JASM1NUM. Jasmine. Thirty-two 
 species. Stove, green-house, and har- 
 dy climbers, twiners, and shrubs. Ripe 
 cuttings. The stove and green-house 
 species require sandy loam and peat, 
 but the hardy species any common soil. 
 
 JEFFERSONIA diphylla. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Seed and division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 JERSEY THISTLE. Centaurea is- 
 nardi. 
 
 JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. He- 
 lianthus tuberosus. 
 
 Soil and situation. — It flourishes most 
 in a rich light soil with an open expo- 
 sure. Trees are particularly inimical 
 to its growth. 
 
 Time and Mode of Planting. As it 
 never ripens its seed here, though it 
 blossoms sometimes in October, the 
 only mode of propagation is by plant- 
 ing the middle-sized bulbs, or cuttings 
 of the large ones, one or two eyes being 
 preserved in each. These are planted 
 towards the end of March, though it 
 may be performed in February, or even 
 preferably in October. 
 
 They are inserted by the dibble in 
 rows three feet by two feet apart, and 
 four inches deep. They make their 
 appearance above ground about the 
 middle of May. The only attention 
 necessary is to keep them free from 
 weeds, and an occasional hoeing to 
 loosen the surface, a little of the earth 
 
 being drawn up about the stems. At 
 the close of July or early in August, cut 
 the stems off about their middle, to ad- 
 mit more freely the air and light, and 
 in other respects to be beneficial to the 
 tubers. 
 
 They may be taken up as wanted 
 during September; and in October, or 
 as soon as the stems have withered, 
 entirely, for preservation in sand for 
 winter's use. They should be raised 
 as completely as possible ; for the small- 
 est piece of tuber will vegetate and ap- 
 pear in the spring. It is for this reason 
 that they are often allotted some remote 
 corner of the garden ; but their culinary 
 merits certainly demand a more favour- 
 able treatment. 
 
 JERUSALEM SAGE. Phlomisfruc- 
 ticosa. 
 
 JET D'EAU. See Fountain. 
 
 JOHNIA. Two species. Stove ever- 
 greens ; one a climber, the other shrub- 
 by. Ripe cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 JOLLIFFIA africana. Stove ever- 
 green twiner. Cuttings of flowering 
 shoots. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 J N E S I A. Two species. Stove 
 evergreens; one climbing, the other a 
 tree. Cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 JONQUILLE. See Narcissus. 
 
 JOSSINIA orbiculata. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 JOVE'S FRUIT. Laurus diospyros. 
 
 JUDAS TREE. Cercis. 
 
 JUGLANS. Walnut tree. Five spe- 
 cies, besides varieties. Hardy decidu- 
 ous trees. Seed and grafts. Rich loam. 
 See Walnut. 
 
 JULUS. Snake millipede. 
 
 J. terrestris. — Has about two hundred 
 legs. Lead colour. Scaly, like wood- 
 louse. Eats the roots of the pansy. 
 
 J. pulchellus. — Ochreous colour, with 
 crimson spots down its sides. Legs, 
 about 170. Attacks roots of beans, 
 cabbages, peas, and scarlet beans. 
 
 J. complanatus. Lilac colour. Sixty 
 legs. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 JULY is a busy month, as will appear 
 from the following directions : — 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 Alexanders, earth up. — Artichokes, 
 attend to. — Asparagus-beds, clean ; 
 leave off cutting from. — Beans, plant, 
 b.; leave some in production for seed. — 
 .Beef (Red), thin, b.; (Green and White), 
 sow, b. — Borage, sow, e. — Borecole, 
 
JUL 
 
 329 
 
 — • — 
 
 JUL 
 
 plant ; prick out. — Brocoli, prick out ; 
 plant. — Cabbages, plant; prick out seed- 
 lings ; earth up advancing. — Carrots, 
 thin,b.; — Cauliflowers, plant, e. — Ce- 
 leriac, plant. — Celery, prick out ; plant; 
 earth up. — Chamomile Flowers, gather. 
 — Chervil, sow, e. — Coleworts, plant. — 
 Coriander, sow. — Cress, sow. — Cucum- 
 bers, plant for pickles. — Earth vp where 
 necessary. — Endive, plant; sow. — Fi- 
 nochio, earth up. — Garlic, take up as 
 wanted. — Hoeing, particularly attend 
 ro. — Horse-radish, attend to. — Kidney 
 Beans (dwarfs), sow ; attend to advanc- 
 ing crops. — Lavender, gather. — Leeks, 
 weeds, &c. ; plant, b. — Lettuces, plant; 
 sow ; Marigold Flowers, gather. — Mar- 
 joram, gather for drying. — Melons, at- 
 tend to; — Mint, plant, b. — Mushroom- 
 beds, attend to; make,e.; spawn, collect. 
 — Parsley, sow. — Parsnips, weed, &c. 
 — Peas, sow; hoe advancing. — Pepper- 
 mint, gather. — Pot-herbs, are fit in ge- 
 neral for drying and distilling. — Ra- 
 dishes, sow. — Rampion, is fit for use, e. 
 — Rape (edible rooted), sow. — Salsafy, 
 thin, &c. — Savoys, plant. — Scorzonera, 
 thin, &c. — Scurvy Grass, sow. — Seeds, 
 gather as they ripen. — Small Salading, 
 sow. — Spinach, sow; hoe and thin. — 
 Stir ground between plants. — Succory, 
 sow. — Rut a Baga, sow, ; hoe advancing 
 crops. — Turnip Cabbages, prick out. — 
 Vacant ground , dig; cleanse from weeds, 
 &c. — Water where necessary. — Worm- 
 wood, plant. 
 
 ORCHARD. 
 
 Budding, perform in all stone-fruit, 
 apples, and pears ; select cloudy wea- 
 ther. — Espaliers, continue to regulate 
 (see Wall Trees) ; young ones head 
 down. — Fig Trees, regulate; remove 
 over luxuriant shoots. — Pruning (sum- 
 mer), complete. — Raspberries, clear 
 from needless suckers. — Snails and 
 slugs, search for morning and evening. 
 — Stocks, clear from lateral shoots. — 
 Strawberries, for forcing, lay in pots ; 
 Vines require constantly regulating ; all 
 late shoots remove ; stop bearing shoots. 
 — Wall Trees, continue to regulate as 
 their shoots require; train in, do not 
 shorten their shoots. — Walnuts, gather 
 for pickling. — Wasps, entrap; bottles 
 of sugared beer are best. — Water newly 
 planted trees in dry weather; keep 
 mulch round. 
 
 FLOWER GARDEN. 
 
 Auriculas, in pots, dress and water 
 
 frequently ; seedlings transplant ; old 
 plants repot, e. — Box edgings, clip, b. 
 
 — Budding of roses, jasmines, &c, 
 complete. — Bulbous Roots, take up (see 
 June); seeds sow. — Bulbs, autumn 
 flowering, plant, e. — Carnations, at- 
 tend to (see June) ; shade and shelter 
 during hot weather; water freely, and 
 give liquid manure. — Chrysanthemum 
 suckers, separate and plant; lay. — Cut- 
 tings of some plants, as scarlet lychnis, 
 will yet strike, b. — Dahlias require sup- 
 port and pruning. — Edgings, clip. — 
 Evergreens, prune; seedlings, prick 
 out. — Grass, mow and roll often. — 
 Gravel, weed and roll. — Heartsease, 
 plant slips, e. ; water freely. — Hedges, 
 clip. — Hoe and rake at every opportu- 
 nity. — Laying carnations, &c, may be 
 performed, b.; water freely; transplant 
 rooted layers. — Leaves, decayed, re- 
 move as soon as seen. — Liquid Manure, 
 give occasionally to flowering shrubs. — 
 Mignionette, and a few other quick 
 flowering annuals, may be sown, b., for 
 autumn. — Piping, of pinks, &c, maybe 
 still practised, b.; pelargonium cut- 
 tings, plant, b. — Polyanthuses, seed- 
 lings, transplant; roots of old, part — 
 Roses, bud and lay, b. — Seeds, gather as 
 they ripen. — Stake and tie up plants 
 wherever necessary. — Transplanting 
 perennials and biennials, complete, b. 
 
 — Water freely, not only the roots but 
 over the foliage. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit freely every fine day.— • 
 Dress pots, &c, frequently, and give 
 fresh earth if plants languish. — Fumiga- 
 tions of tobacco give frequently, espe- 
 cially if insects prevail. — Liquid Manure 
 give to weakly plants. — Orchidaceous 
 Plants, keep in coolest parts of the 
 house, and give very little water, or 
 they will not bloom well next spring.— 
 Pine Apples, plant by crowns or suckers; 
 gather ripe, early in the morning; shift 
 succession for next season; give liquid 
 manure ; do not shift all at once, but at 
 weekly intervals. — Potting, finish, b.— 
 Propagate stove plants by cuttings, 
 layers, and suckers, as suitable. — Steam, 
 admit to plants. — Vines, when all the 
 leaves are off, expose day and night; 
 grapes, ripening late, require a mo- 
 derate moist heat, and air only of a 
 morning. — Water frequently and abun- 
 dantly, but rather less to flowering 
 plants than last month. 
 
JUL 
 
 330 
 
 JUN 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit freely to all plants de- 
 tained in the house. — Bud, oranges, 
 lemons, &c. — Camellias, syringe and 
 water frequently ; shade in hot days. — 
 Cuttings, slips, &c, water. — Dress and 
 give fresh earth as required. — Heaths, 
 plant, slips. — Layers may be made. — 
 Moving out of house (see June). — 
 Oranges and Lemons require water dai- 
 ly; thin fruit if thick; remove blossoms 
 where fruit is thick enough ; give earth ; 
 air, admit freely. — Peat plants, examine 
 almost daily to see that they do not dry. 
 — Propagate by cuttings, slips, &c. — 
 Seedlings, prick into small pots. — Shade 
 during hot bright days ; calico frames 
 are best. — Shifting, complete, b. — 
 Stove plants (hardier) may be moved 
 into green-house. — Stake, trim, and 
 train as required. — Succulent plants, 
 cultivate by cuttings, slips, and suckers. 
 — Watering and cleaning are now the 
 chief occupations; apply water early in 
 the morning by the engine. 
 
 JULY-FLOWER. Prosopis juliflora. 
 
 JUNE is also a busy month. 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 Alexanders, earth up. — Artichokes, 
 weed, &c. — Asparagus-beds clean, &c. 
 — Basil, plant. — Beans, plant, hoe, &c, 
 advancing crops. — Beets, thin, &c. — 
 Borecole, plant. — Brocoli, plant. — Cab- 
 bage, plant ; earth up, &c. — Capsicum, 
 plant, b. — Cardoons, thin and plant out. 
 — Carrots, thin, &c. — Celeriac, plant. — 
 Celery, plant ; earth up advancing. — 
 Coleworts, sow for; plant. — Coriander, 
 sow. — Cress, sow. — Cucumbers, sow, b. 
 — Earthing-up, attend to. — Endive, sow, 
 b. ; plant. — Fennel, plant. — Finochio, 
 sow ; earth up advancing crops. — Gar- 
 lic is fit for present use. — Herbs, for 
 drying and distilling, gather. — Jerusalem 
 Artichokes, hoe, &c. — Kidney Beans 
 (dwarfs), sow ; (runners), attend to. — 
 Leeks, thin, &c; transplant, e. — Lettuce, 
 sow ; plant, &c. — Mint, plant. — Pars- 
 nips, thin. — Peas, sow; attend to ad- 
 vancing crops. — Potatoes, hoe, &c. — 
 Radishes, sow. — Rampion, thin. — Sage, 
 plant. — Salsafy, thin. — Savoys, plant; 
 prick out. — Scorzonera, thin. — Scurvy 
 Grass, sow. — Seeds, attend to and gather. 
 — Small Salading, sow. — Spinach, sow; 
 thin advancing. — Stir Ground between 
 crops, in rows, &c. — Succory, sow. — 
 Tarragon, plant. — Thinning, attend to. 
 — Tomat os, plant out. — Turnip Cabbage, 
 
 sow ; plant. — Watering and Weeding, 
 attend to.— Wormwood, plant. 
 
 ORCHARD. 
 
 Ants, destroy ; the ammonia water 
 from gas-works, or boiling water poured 
 into their haunts is effectual. — Apricots, 
 finish summer regulating, b. — Blighted 
 Trees, clean by the water engine; lime 
 dust, &c. — Budding, commence in 
 cloudy weather, or during evening, e. — 
 Fig Trees, prune. — Gooseberries, Cur- 
 rants (Wall and Espalier), regulate, b.; 
 remove blighted shoots; summer prune, 
 e. — Nectarines, finish summer regulat- 
 ing. — Newly planted Trees, stake and 
 fasten ; give water in dry weather ; li- 
 quid manure to the weakly ; keep mulch 
 round. — Pears (Wall and Espalier), 
 properly regulate, b. — Plums (Wall 
 and Espalier), properly regulate, b. — 
 Scarify, trunks of hide-bound trees, 
 rather than in winter, but this affection 
 will never occur, if they are scrubbed 
 in January with brine. — Snails, Slugs, 
 search for, morning and evening. — 
 Strawberries, water in dry weather. — 
 Thinning fruit on walls, complete, b. 
 — Vines before omitted, finish, regulat- 
 ing, b.; and those done in May re-exa- 
 mine. 
 
 FLOWER GARDEN. 
 
 Anemones, take up as leaves wither; 
 dry and store. — Annuals (hardy and 
 some tender), plant out to remain, in 
 showery weather best; some (hardy) 
 may be sowed, b. — Auriculas, continue 
 shading; plant offsets; prick out seed- 
 lings. — Baskets or clumps, form of 
 green - house plants. — Biennials and 
 Perennials, sow, if omitted, b. — Box 
 edgings clip; plant. — Bulbous Roots 
 (Tulips, Jonquils, &c), take up as 
 leaves decay ; remove offsets from ; 
 dry and store; may transplant some, 
 or keep until autumn ; (autumn flower- 
 ing), as Colchicums, &c, take up as 
 leaves decay, separate offsets, and re- 
 plant, or not, until end of July. — Car- 
 nations, in bloom, attend ; aid the bud- 
 pod to split with a pair of narrow sharp- 
 pointed scissors ; water every second 
 day ; tie to supporters, &c. ; prick out 
 seedlings; make layers ; pipe. — Cycla- 
 mens, transplant. — Dahlias, finish plant- 
 ing out, b. — Dress the borders assidu- 
 ously; neatness now stamps a gardener's 
 character. — Fibrous rooted Perennials, 
 propagate by cuttings of flower-stalks ; 
 
JUN 
 
 331 
 
 KEL 
 
 shade and water. — Flowering Plants 
 generally require training and support. 
 — Grass, mow, roll and trim edges. — 
 Gravel, weed, sweep, and roll. — Guern- 
 sey Lilies, take up ; separate offsets, 
 and replant. Do this every second year. 
 —Hedges, clip, e. — Leaves and stems 
 decaying, remove as they appear. — 
 Liquid Manure, apply occasionally to 
 all choice flowers. — Mignionette, plant 
 out; sow, b. — Pink seedlings, prick out; 
 make layers. — Pipings (or Cuttings) of 
 Carnations and Pinks may be planted. — 
 Potted Flowers, dress, stir earth and 
 water regularly. — Ranunculuses, take 
 up as leaves wither, dry and store. — 
 Roses, bud, lay, and inarch ; fumigate 
 with tobacco to destroy the Aphis, or 
 Green Fly. — Salvia Patens , pinch down 
 centre stem to make it flower bushy. — 
 Seedlings of Perennials and Biennials, 
 transplant. — Seeds (ripe), gather in dry 
 weather. — Seed Vessels, remove, to pro- 
 long flowering. — Water, give freely and 
 frequently to all newly moved plants, 
 and to others in dry weather ; early 
 morning best time. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit freely during every mild 
 day; but exclude as evening approaches. 
 — Bark Beds, occasionally will require 
 stirring; water and ventilate freely. — 
 Grapes, thin; ripening keep dry. — 
 Heat, keep up as required. — Pines are 
 now ripening; plant crowns as they 
 occur ; give liquid manure ; syringe ; 
 shade in very hot days. — Propagation, 
 continue as requisite, by seed, suckers, 
 slips, layers, cuttings, offsets, &c. (See 
 May.) — Steam, admit almost daily. — 
 Strawberries done forcing, allow to dry ; 
 remove into larger pots with new earth, 
 and keep for second forcing. — Syringe 
 Pines, and other plants, frequently. — 
 Tobacco fumigations, give occasionally. 
 — Vines, push forward by warmth, li- 
 quid manure, &c. ; mulch round roots 
 outside the house; stop laterals. — 
 Watering attend to duly; it is required 
 generally oftener and more liberally 
 than in preceding months; apply it in 
 the morning early. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, give with all possible freedom ; 
 bring all but the tenderest out of the 
 house. — Camellias, done flowering, re- 
 move into higher temperature. — Cut- 
 tings of various plants may now be in- 
 
 serted. — Dress the plants as they are 
 brought out of the house. — Earth, give 
 fresh, and liquid manure, as necessary. 
 — Flowering shrubs, shade. — Gera- 
 niums, plant cuttings. — Head down and 
 prune irregular growing shrubs. — 
 Heaths, plant slips; water frequently. — 
 Inarching of jasmines, oranges, &c, 
 may be performed. — Leaves (decayed), 
 remove, and wash the foliage generally. 
 — Layers of shrubs generally make. — 
 Mowings of grass spread over surface of 
 earth in large pots or tubs — an excel- 
 lent mode of arresting evaporation. — 
 Myrtles, propagate by cuttings, e. ; — 
 Oranges and Lemons in bloom, give 
 liquid manure: thin blossom when in 
 clusters. — Rain, if excessive, move ten- 
 derest plants back into the house; and 
 tilt the pots of others. — Seedlings, trans- 
 plant. — Shift into larger pots, as neces- 
 sary, b. — Succulent plants propagate by 
 cuttings ; remove to outside, e. — Water 
 frequently, butmoderately ; some plants 
 require it every morning or evening. 
 
 JUNIPERUS. Juniper. Nineteen 
 species besides varieties. Hardy ever- 
 green trees and shrubs. Seed and cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam. See Coniferce. 
 
 JUPITER'S BEARD. Anthyllis bar- 
 ba-jovis. 
 
 JUSTICIA. Sixty-four species. 
 Stove and green-house plants ; some 
 shrubs, others biennials and annuals, 
 and a third group trailers. The bien- 
 nials and annuals require to be sown in 
 a hot-house or hotbed; the others are 
 increased by cuttings, and all delight 
 in light loam and peat. 
 
 KAGENECKIA cratcegoides. Half- 
 hardy evergreen tree. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 KALANCHOE. Seven species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 KALE. See Borecole. 
 
 KALMIA. Five species and more 
 varieties. Hardy evergreen shrubs. 
 Seed and layers. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 KALOSANTHES. Eight species. 
 Green-house evergreen succulents. Cut- 
 tings dried for forty-eight hours ; sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 KANGURU VINE. Cissus antarc- 
 ticus. 
 
 KAULFUSSIA amelloides. "Hardy 
 annual. Seed. Sandy loam. 
 
 KELP is the ash remaining after sea- 
 weed is burnt, and has been used with 
 great advantage as a manure to pota- 
 
KEN 
 
 332 
 
 KI-D 
 
 toes, brocoli, and other species of bras- 
 sica. It is composed of carbonate of 
 soda, and iodide and bromide of potas- 
 sium, carbon, sulphates of lime and 
 magnesia, and other matters of trivial 
 importance. See Green ]\Fanure. 
 
 KENNEDYA. Fifteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen twiners. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 KERRIA japonica. Hardy deci- 
 duous shrub. Young cuttings. Com- 
 mon soil. More commonly called Cor- 
 chorus japonicus. 
 
 KIDNEY-BRAN. Phaseolus vulga- 
 ris. Haricot, Fr. Schminkbohne, Ger. 
 Judias, Span. Faguiolo, Ital. 
 
 " Of the Snap-Short Bean, the Hari- 
 cot of the French, the varieties and 
 sub-varieties are numerous. Those 
 enumerated in the Catalogue annexed, 
 are such as we esteem most worthy ; 
 they consist of the earliest, the latest, 
 and those which ripen intermediately. 
 The Early Mohawk or Brown Six 
 Weeks arrives soonest at perfection, 
 and is the hardiest of the early ones ; 
 the Early Yellow, Red Speckled Val- 
 entine, and China Red Eye, immediate- 
 ly succeed. The Red French is about 
 the latest : the other varieties ripen 
 promiscuously. All the kinds are 
 brought to the Philadelphia market; 
 some purchasers preferring one, and 
 others another. The Red Speckled 
 Valentine is a variety very generally 
 admired ; it is round podded, without 
 strings, an abundant bearer, and re- 
 mains tender longer than most others. 
 The Brown Valentine or Refugee, is 
 also an excellent variety, as also the 
 China Red Eye. The pods of the Red 
 French are used as well for pickling as 
 boiling, and the beans throughout the 
 winter in a dry state, as haricots, and 
 in soups, for which it is usually pre- 
 ferred . 
 
 " The usual plan of cultivating this 
 tribe, is in drills double or single, 
 placing two seeds together at inter- 
 vals of two or three inches: two to 
 two and a half feet should be allowed 
 between the drills. They are much 
 more tender than the Long Pod or 
 Windsor, and will not succeed, if 
 planted before the weather has become 
 somewhat settled, and the earth warm ; 
 in the latitude of Philadelphia, not 
 earlier than April, unless in very dry 
 ground, and protected situations. To 
 have a constant supply, it will be ne- 
 
 cessary to plant successive crops at 
 intervals of two or three weeks, which 
 is much preferable to planting but sel- 
 dom, and then a larger quantity. Plan- 
 tations made so late as 1st August, ge- 
 nerally succeed and yield abundantly. 
 
 " When they have risen three or four 
 inches, give them a careful hoeing, to 
 destroy all weeds, and loosen the earth. 
 At this time, or shortly after, draw to- 
 wards the base of the plants, some of 
 the loose soil, to the depth of one or 
 two inches. This process is termed 
 " landing,'" and is highly beneficial in 
 protecting the roots from excessive 
 drought, and the direct rays of the 
 sun. As the crop approaches matu- 
 rity, nothing more is required than an 
 occasional hoeing, observing always 
 to keep the ground free from weeds. 
 
 "In selecting a spot to plant beans, 
 choose where the soil is light and tole- 
 rably dry. If it be poor, apply a good 
 dressing of well rotted manure, either 
 spread over the entire surface, or 
 placed in the drills when drawn out." 
 — Rural Register. 
 
 Forcing. — The hot-bed must be of 
 moderate size, and covered with earth 
 nine inches thick. When the heat has 
 become regular, the seed may be in- 
 serted in drills a foot apart, and the 
 plants allowed to stand six inches asun- 
 der in the rows. Air must be admitted 
 as freely as to the melon. The same 
 precautions are likewise necessary as to 
 keeping up the temperature, taking the 
 chill off the water &c.,as for that plant. 
 When the seed begins to sprout, the 
 mould should be kept regularly moist- 
 ened ; and when grown up, water may 
 be given moderately, three times a week. 
 The temperature should never be less 
 than 60°, nor higher than 75°. Some 
 plants of the hot-bed sowing at the end 
 of March, are often, after being gradu- 
 ally hardened, planted in a warm bor- 
 der: this will at most hasten the plants 
 in production a fortnight before those 
 sown in the open ground in May. 
 
 Those sown under frames in March 
 for transplanting into a border, when 
 two or three inches in height, must in a 
 like manner be hardened gradually for 
 the exposure, by the plentiful admission 
 of air, and the total removal of the 
 glasses during fine days. If any are 
 raised in pots in the hot-house, they 
 must in a like manner be prepared for 
 the removal, by setting them outside in 
 
KID 
 
 333 
 
 — • — 
 
 KID 
 
 fine clays, and there watering them with 
 cold water. 
 
 If trie season is too ungenial after all 
 to remove them even to a warm border, 
 the plants are often inserted in patches, 
 to have the protection of frames or 
 hand lights at night, or as the weather 
 demands. 
 
 Said to be perennial. — It has been 
 stated, that kidney beans appear of a 
 perennial nature, and that they have 
 been observed to vegetate for several 
 years — the plants being in the vicinity 
 of a steam-engine, and so situated that 
 the frost could not penetrate to the 
 roots. 
 
 Beans, Pole. — The Scarlet Runners, 
 and White Dutch Beans, are very deli- 
 cately flavoured, and are used either 
 in the pod, or shelled when further 
 advanced ; but in this section of the 
 country, and perhaps further South, they 
 bear so sparingly most seasons, as to be 
 scarcely worth cultivating. 
 
 The Lima is too well known to need 
 description. Two varieties are culti- 
 vated ; the one broad and thin, the 
 other much thicker. We have some- 
 times thought the latter the more tender 
 and delicate when boiled. The Lima 
 Bean is very tender, not bearing the 
 slightest frost, and is very subject to rot 
 when planted early, or during a spell of 
 rainy or damp cool weather. To guard 
 against which, the best plan is to sprout 
 them in a frame, (as recommended for 
 the Long Pod or Windsor,) so situated, 
 that the damp and frost can be excluded. 
 An old hot-bed answers the purpose 
 effectually. They need not be planted 
 therein, before the middle of spring, nor 
 transplanted till towards its close; a 
 little earlier or later, as the weather 
 may make expedient ; if planted early, 
 they will at best remain stationary, and 
 may, perhaps, do worse. They should 
 be planted in hills in well cultivated 
 ground, dressed either in the piece or 
 hills, with thoroughly rotted manure 
 from the barn-yard. The hills should 
 be raised three or four inches above the 
 average level, and be three feet apart 
 each way, with a pole six or eight feet 
 high, well secured in the ground, to 
 each hill. Three plants in a hill are 
 sufficient. As the vines shoot up, they 
 should be tied to the poles, till they get 
 hold, when they will support them- 
 selves. In trying them, observe to do 
 it in the direction in which they incline 
 
 to clasp the pole, which is contrary to 
 the course of the sun, and opposite to 
 the habit of most climbers. 
 
 Those who have not the convenience 
 of a frame, (or hand-glass which will 
 answer the same purpose,) should have 
 the hills prepared and poles inserted, 
 choosing a mild, dry time, about the 
 close of May, for planting the beans. 
 If wet weather should immediately 
 succeed, and the seed rot, replant as 
 soon as the ground dries. Good crops 
 have been produced in the vicinity of 
 Philadelphia, when planted even so late 
 as first of June. 
 
 After they become well established, 
 and have clasped the poles, no further 
 care is requisite,, other than keeping the 
 weeds under, and the hills occasionally 
 stirred. 
 
 The Carolina or Sewee bean, is of a 
 smaller size than the Lima; much 
 hardier, rather earlier, and more pro- 
 ductive, but generally considered less 
 rich. In other respects they closely 
 resemble each other — time and mode 
 of planting may be a little in advance 
 of the Lima — cultivation precisely the 
 same. — Rural Reg. 
 
 Beans, English. Vicia Faba, of 
 Linnaus. Feve de marais, Fr. Bohn, 
 Ger. Fava, Ital. Ilabas, Span. 
 
 Of the above kind, commonly called 
 in this country " Horse Bean," there is 
 considerable variety; two of them have 
 been selected by us for cultivation, be- 
 lieving them the best adapted for the 
 climate, and quite sufficient of the kind. 
 They are the Early Long Pod and Broad 
 Windsor. Both succeed with the same 
 treatment, but the first named, is the 
 more certain bearer of the two. In 
 England, where they are extensively 
 cultivated, they do much better than in 
 this country, preferring its damp cool 
 atmosphere, to our frequently dry and 
 hot one; to counteract which, it is de- 
 sirable to plant so early in the spring, 
 as the ground will admit of being 
 worked ; in the latitude of Philadelphia, 
 (39° 570 the latter part of February, 
 or beginning of March, if possible; 
 they then come into flower before the 
 weather becomes hot, otherwise the 
 blossoms drop, and set no fruit. 
 
 Plant them in drills, either single or 
 double, two inches apart in the drills, 
 and cover one to two inches deep. If 
 in double drills, with alleys two and a 
 half feet wide. If in single rows, two 
 
KIR 
 
 334 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 KIT 
 
 feet alleys answer, unless it be intended 
 to cultivate them with the horse hoe, as 
 is done by market gardeners. 
 
 Those who are particularly fond of 
 this bean, can accelerate the crop, by 
 setting a frame at the close of winter, 
 under the lee of a board fence, or other 
 protected situation, exposed to the sun, 
 which cover with glass, and in severe 
 weather with matting or straw, so as 
 effectually to exclude the frost. Herein 
 plant the beans, one seed to the square 
 inch, and let them remain, until the 
 arrival of milder weather, when they 
 should be transplanted to the position 
 in the garden which it is intended they 
 shall occupy. In transplanting them, 
 care should be taken not to injure the 
 roots, to guard against which, use a 
 trowel to ease them up, and suffer as 
 much earth as will, to adhere. During 
 the time they remain in the frame, the 
 sash should be raised when the weather 
 is mild, to admit the air, and gradually 
 harden them, preparatory to full ex- 
 posure when transplanted, else the sud- 
 den change of temperature might prove 
 fatal. In order to make them set fruit 
 more certainly, it is the practice to nip 
 off the top or leading shoots when they 
 are in full flower; this checks the growth, 
 and directs the strength of the plant 
 towards the blossoms. If a part of the 
 flowers are destroyed in this operation, 
 there is no loss. 
 
 Whilst the crop is growing and pro- 
 gressing towards maturity, keep the 
 ground well hoed, and free from weeds. 
 When the plants have attained six or 
 eight inches in height, draw towards 
 their base a portion of loose earth, 
 which will encourage them to put forth 
 fresh fibres, and protectthe roots already 
 formed, from the sun's rays. — Rural 
 Register. 
 
 KIRGANELIA elegans. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Ripe cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 KITAIBELIA vitifolia. Hardy herb- 
 aceous. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 Situation of the Kitchen Garden. — In 
 selecting the site, and in erecting the 
 inclosures, as well as in the after pre- 
 paration of the soil, the ingenuity and 
 science of the horticulturist are essen- 
 tially requisite. He will be called upon 
 to rectify the defects and to improve the 
 advantages which nature affords ; for it 
 is very seldom that the natural situation 
 
 of a mansion, or the plan of the grounds, 
 allows him to construct it in the most 
 appropriate spot. 
 
 A gentle declination towards the 
 south, with a point to the east, is the 
 most favourable aspect ; to the north- 
 east the least so : in short, any point to 
 the south is to be preferred to one verg- 
 ing towards the north. A high wall 
 should inclose it to the north and east, 
 gradually lowering to the south and 
 west. If, however, a plantation or 
 building on the east side, at some dis- 
 tance, shelter it from the piercing 
 winds, which blow from that quarter, 
 and yet are at such a distance as not to 
 intercept the rays of the rising sun, it 
 is much to be preferred to heightening 
 the wall. It is a still greater desidera- 
 tum to have a similar shelter, or that 
 of a hill on the south-west and north- 
 west points. The garden is best situated 
 at a moderate elevation ; the summit of 
 a hill, or the bottom of a valley, is equal- 
 ly to be avoided. It is a fact not very 
 difficult of explanation, that low lying 
 ones are the most liable to suffer from 
 blights and severe frosts; those much 
 above the level of the sea are obviously 
 most exposed to inclement winds. 
 
 Size of the Kitchen Garden. — To de- 
 termine the appropriate size of a kitchen 
 garden is impossible. It ought to be 
 proportionate to the size of the family, 
 their partiality for vegetables, and the 
 fertility of the soil. 
 
 It may serve as some criterion to 
 state, that the management of a kitchen 
 garden occupying the space of an acre, 
 affords ample employment for a garden- 
 er, who will also require an assistant 
 at the busiest period of the year. In 
 general, a family of four persons, ex- 
 clusive of servants, requires a full rood 
 of open kitchen garden. 
 
 Plan of the Kitchen Garden. — In 
 forming the ground plan of a kitchen 
 garden, utility is the main object. The 
 form and aspect represented in the 
 accompanying sketch are, perhaps, as 
 unobjectionable as any, since none of 
 the walls face the north, and conse- 
 quently the best aspects are obtained 
 for the trees. A narrow path two feet 
 wide should extend round, adjoining 
 the wall, and then a border about ten 
 feet, the widest on those broad sides 
 that face the south, which not only is 
 beneficial to the trees, but convenient 
 for raising early crops, &c. Next to 
 
KNI 
 
 335 
 
 ♦ 
 
 LAB 
 
 this should be a walk five feet in 
 width, likewise extending round the 
 area. 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 2t 
 
 ■i: ~- ; 
 
 *,"'«)tVi/ii 
 
 Respecting the inclosure of the kitch- 
 en garden, see Hedges and Walls. 
 
 KLEINHOVIA hospita. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 KNIFE. Of this the gardener re- 
 quires several kinds. 1. Garden Knife, 
 with a curved blade, for common rough 
 purposes. 2. Pruning Knife, with a 
 straight blade, and fine edge. 3. Graft- 
 ing Knife, also straight-bladed, but with 
 a thinner and narrower blade. 4. Bud- 
 ding Knife, is like the grafting knife, 
 but should have a double-edged sharp 
 point, like an oyster- knife, and the 
 handle of ivory, is wedge-shaped, for 
 raising the bark from the wood. There 
 is a variety of superior excellence, call- 
 ed Curtis's Budding Knife. 5. Aspara- 
 gus Knife, has either a strong straight 
 blade, with a sharp chisel-shaped point, 
 or a slightly curved blade, with a saw- 
 edge on the inner side of the curve. 
 
 KNIGHTIA excelsa. Green -house 
 evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
 and sand. 
 
 KNOXIA. Four species. Stove ever- 
 green shrubs, except K. leevis, which is 
 annual. The former are increased by 
 cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 KOLREUTERIA paniculata. Hardy 
 deciduous tree. Layers and root-cut- 
 tings. Sheltered common soil. 
 
 KONIGA maritima, var. variegata. 
 Green-house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Common soil. 
 
 KRAMERIA pauciflora. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 KRIGIA. Two species. Hardy an- 
 nuals. Seed. Sandy loam. 
 
 KUHNIA. Four species. Two hardy, 
 and two green-house herbaceous. Divi- 
 sion. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 KYDIA. Two species. Stove ever- 
 green shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 LABEL. That which combines du- 
 rability with facility of reference and 
 cheapness, is a small piece of deal, 
 planed smooth, painted white, and 
 written upon with a lead pencil. 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 When required for a seed-bed, a small 
 stake is to be driven into the ground, 
 and from it the label to be suspended. 
 
 LABICHEA. Two species. Green- 
 house shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 LABLAVIA. Six species, besides 
 varieties. Stove and green-house twin- 
 ers. Four annuals, the rest deciduous. 
 Annuals sow in pots in stove, seedlings 
 plant out at end of May. Deciduous by 
 cuttings. Common soil. 
 
 LABURNUM. Cytisus Laburnum. 
 
 Varieties. — Common Broad-leafed 
 Laburnum ; Narrow-leafed long-spiked 
 Laburnum ; Short-spiked Laburnum ; 
 Variegated-leafed Laburnum, and Mid- 
 dle-sized Laburnum (C. L. interme- 
 dium). The first two of which varieties 
 are tolerably permanent from seed, but 
 the other two must be continued by 
 cuttings. 
 
 Propagation.— By Seed.— The seed 
 grows freely in the open ground, and 
 should be sown in March, in four-feet 
 beds, drilling it in half an inch deep; 
 they will come up in six or seven weeks. 
 Keep them weeded during summer; 
 and in spring following the seedlings in 
 general, if they stand very close, may 
 be transplanted into the nursery in rows, 
 two feet distance, allowing them more 
 room as they advance in growth; and 
 here they may remain two, three, or 
 four years, till large enough for the 
 shrubbery. 
 
 By Cuttings. — October or Novem- 
 ber is the best time for planting them. 
 Choose young shoots eight, ten, or 
 twelve inches long ; plant them in rows, 
 a foot apart, and five or six inches in 
 
LAB 
 
 336 
 
 — • — 
 
 LAM 
 
 the lines; and they will be rooted in 
 one year. 
 
 All the culture these plants require 
 in the nursery, is to keep them clear 
 from weeds, and to hoe frequently the 
 ground between the rows. — Abercrom- 
 bie. 
 
 LABYRINTH is an arrangement of 
 walks, inclosed by hedges or shrubbe- 
 ries, so intricate as to be very difficult 
 to escape from. From the twelfth cen- 
 tury to the end of the seventeenth, they 
 were a very favourite portion of English 
 pleasure grounds, but they are now 
 more judiciously banished. 
 
 LACHENALIA. Thirty-five species. 
 Green-house bulbs, except L. glauca, 
 which is hardy. Seed and offsets. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 LACHNANTHES tinctoria. Green- 
 house herbaceous. Seed and division. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 LACKEY MOTH. See Clisiocampa. 
 
 LACTUCA. Lettuce. Seven species, 
 and many varieties. Hardy annuals. 
 Seed. Common rich soil. See Let- 
 tuce. 
 
 LADY'S FERN. Aspidium thelyp- 
 terum. 
 
 LADY'S MANTLE. Alchemilla. 
 
 LADY'S SLIPPER. Cypripedium. 
 
 LADY'S SMOCK. Cardamine. 
 
 LADY'S TRESSES. Neottia spira- 
 lis and spiranthes. 
 
 LiELIA. Sixteen species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Offsets. Peat and pots- 
 herds. Mr. Beaton gives the following 
 directions for the treatment of L. super- 
 biens, and they are applicable to the 
 rest of the genus : — 
 
 " In April, place it in the warmest 
 end of the green-house, and there let it 
 remain till all its shoots are three parts 
 grown, about the end of June ; then 
 place it in the stove, and let it have as 
 much air as possible, watch its buds 
 narrowly, and leave it in the stove till 
 they are in a forward plump state, then 
 remove it to a cooler place, and allow 
 it to go gently to rest as the season de- 
 clines. If all has gone on well with it, 
 the flower spikes will make their ap- 
 pearance as soon as it is at complete 
 rest in November: at this time the same 
 heat given to the camellia suits it best, 
 so that it may safely be taken to the 
 drawing room for the winter, and hav- 
 ing previously finished its growth, little 
 or no water need be given it while in 
 the drawing room." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 LiETIA thamnia. Stove evergreen 
 shrub. Cuttings. Rich loam and peat. 
 
 LAGASCA mollis. Stove annual. 
 Seed. Common soil. 
 
 LAGENARIA vulgaris. See Gourd. 
 
 LAGERSTRffiMIA. Four species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs, and one varie- 
 ty, L. indica rosea, for the green-house. 
 Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 For the culture of L. indica, Mr. R. 
 Reid gives the following directions: — 
 " It should be kept all winter in the 
 green-house, or even the back sheds 
 will do perfectly well, and no water 
 should be given to it. About the middle 
 or latter end of April, it will begin to 
 grow, when the young shoots may be 
 thinned out, and the remainder short- 
 ened a little; the plant should then be 
 placed in the stove or vinery, where 
 there is a brisk heat. It will grow vi- 
 gorously till June, and will then appear 
 as if it had done growing for the season, 
 but in a few weeks, when the young 
 shoots are well ripened, it will make a 
 second push at the extremity of every 
 young shoot. These are the flowering 
 shoots ; and by the month of August it 
 will be loaded with its beautiful tresses 
 of purple flowers " — Gard. Chron. On 
 light well drained soils and sheltered 
 locations in Pennsylvania, the Lager- 
 strcemia supports the winter — further 
 south it is seen in great luxuriance, fif- 
 teen or twenty feet in height. 
 
 LAGETTA lintearia. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Ripe cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 LAGONYCHIUM stephanianum. 
 Half-hardy evergreen-shrub. Seed, cut- 
 tings, and layers. Common soil. 
 
 LAHAYA. Ten species. L. alsini- 
 folia and L.minuartoides are hardy; L. 
 diffusa, a green-house, annual trailer ; 
 the others green-house and stove ever- 
 green shrubs, except L. polycanpoides, 
 which is herbaceous. These are in- 
 creased by cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 LA L AGE ornata. Green-house ever- 
 green shrub. Young cuttings. Sand, 
 loam, and peat. 
 
 LAMBERTIA. Eight species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 LAMB'S LETTUCE, or CORN SA- 
 LAD, {Valerianella olitoria,) is grown 
 for winter and spring salads. The first 
 dish formerly brought to table, was a 
 red herring set in a corn salad. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — It will flourish in 
 
LAM 
 
 337 
 
 • — 
 
 LAN 
 
 any soil that is not particularly heavy ; 
 the best is a sandy moderately fertile 
 loam, in an open situation. 
 
 Time and Mode of Sowing. — Seed 
 may be sown in February and the two 
 following months, and once a month 
 during the summer, if in request; but 
 it is not so palatable during this season. 
 Lastly, during August and early in Sep- 
 tember, the plants from which will be 
 fit for use in early spring, or during the 
 winter, if mild. Three sowings are in 
 general quite sufficient for a family, 
 viz., one at the end of February, a 
 second early in August, and a third 
 early in September. 
 
 The seed sown in drills, six inches 
 apart. The only cultivation required 
 is the keeping the plants free from 
 weeds by frequent hoeings, they being 
 previously thinned to four inches asun- 
 der. They should always be eaten quite 
 young. In summer, the whole plant 
 may be cut, as they soon advance to 
 seed at this season ; but in spring and 
 winter the outer leaves only should be 
 gathered, as directed for spinach. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — Some of the spring- 
 raised plants must be left ungathered 
 from. They flower in June, and per- 
 fect their seed during the two following 
 months. 
 
 LAMIUM orvala. Hardy herbaceous. 
 Seed and division. Common soil. Some 
 varieties of L. longifolium and L. rugo- 
 sum are also cultivated in gardens. 
 
 LAMPWICK. Phlomis lychnitis. 
 
 LAND-DITCHING. See Draining. 
 
 LANDRA. Raphanus landra. 
 
 LANDRETH, David, was a native 
 of England, the son of a farmer of Ber- 
 wick upon Tweed. Early in life his 
 attention was attracted by plants and 
 flowers, and yielding to his fondness for 
 them, and impulses which they only 
 who love nature can fully appreciate, he 
 determined to adopt gardening as a 
 profession. At that day the art was 
 less widely and ardently pursued than 
 at the present, and the sources of in- 
 formation, and consequent means of im- 
 provement, were limited. Then publi- 
 cations on the subject were not, as now, 
 of almost daily issue. Periodicals on 
 gardening and rural affairs were un- 
 known ; and, save the works of Miller, 
 there was scarcely one for reference. 
 Since then Horticulture has assumed its 
 rightful place as a delightful if not a 
 22 
 
 fine art, cherished and pursued by the 
 intellectual and refined. 
 
 The subject of this sketch, after hav- 
 ing availed himself of the usual routine 
 of practice in the neighbourhood of his 
 birth-place, as a mean most likely to 
 promote his views, and extend his 
 knowledge of the more approved rules 
 of the profession which he had espoused, 
 removed to the vicinity of London. 
 Here he profited by an observance 
 of the operations in the extensive 
 nursery establishments and pleasure- 
 grounds around the metropolis ; and, 
 having prepared himself for the efficient 
 practice of his art, embarked for Ame- 
 rica. The hostilities between the mo- 
 ther country and her colonies, then ex- 
 isting, prevented his sailing for a middle 
 port, and he accordingly took passage 
 for Quebec, where he resided for three 
 years. On the conclusion of the war, 
 his longing desire to remove to a south- 
 ern point, and climate more genial to 
 his pursuit, could now be gratified; and 
 in the autumn of 1784 he arrived in Phi- 
 ladelphia, the spot towards which his 
 eye had been unwaveringly directed — 
 but why, he has been heard to say, he 
 could not tell. There all were stran- 
 gers. Within its wide extent there did 
 not live a solitary being with whom he 
 could claim acquaintance, much less 
 friendship. How many have since fol- 
 lowed from their father-land, and found 
 peaceful and happy homes ! 
 
 With a pocket but scantily supplied, 
 and winter approaching, when but little 
 employment in his line could be ex^- 
 pected, he availed himself of a tempo- 
 rary engagement. It was not long, 
 however, ere his qualifications and cor- 
 rect deportment secured the favourable 
 notice of Robert Morris, the distinguish- 
 ed revolutionary patriot, in whose em- 
 ployment he entered, and continued for 
 several years, and with whose regard 
 he was honoured until the close of Mr. 
 Morris' eventful life. 
 
 Mr. L., on relinquishing the employ- 
 ment of Mr. Morris, was enabled to 
 carry out his long-cherished and origi- 
 nal design of establishing himself as a 
 Nurseryman ; and shortly thereafter 
 laid the foundation of what has been 
 known throughout the Union, for more 
 than half a century, as the " Landreth 
 Nurseries." He ultimately associated 
 with himself a younger brother, Cuth- 
 bert, who had followed him to America, 
 
LAN 
 
 338 
 
 — • — 
 
 LAN 
 
 and their united efforts enabled them 
 successfully to conduct what was then 
 considered an extensive business. A 
 scrupulous regard to what was due to 
 others secured respect and moderate 
 competency. 
 
 To the brothers Landreth, Philadel- 
 phia is, in a degree, indebted for the 
 early development of horticultural taste, 
 and in the facilities which they afforded 
 for its gratification the whole Union has 
 participated. Their productions, orna- 
 mental and useful , have been distributed 
 far and wide. Specimens of fruits and 
 flowers from their grounds exist in al- 
 most every town and hamlet in the 
 country. The earliest collection of Ca- 
 
 dreth in the contemplation of his floral 
 family. A beautiful plant, a noble 
 tree, or a landscape decorated by the 
 hands of nature or of man, were to him 
 objects of the purest pleasure. After 
 an active and well-spent life, and with 
 an enviable reputation, he died on the 
 22d August. 1836, aged 84. 
 
 LANDSCAPE GARDENING, as its 
 name intimates, is the composition of 
 beautiful scenery, so that all artifice is 
 concealed by the blending of trees, 
 shrubs, ground, and water; thus form- 
 ing vistas gratifying as those which 
 occur naturally. Admiration for such 
 j scenery is an innate quality of the hu- 
 man mind ; and successfully to imitate 
 
 mellias in America was made by them, ! such scenery requires judgment as well 
 
 and their importations of valuable plants 
 and fruits were extensive. Their col- j 
 lection of indigenous plants, obtained | 
 through the agency and friendship of; 
 
 as taste. It is not possible, without an 
 enormous outlay, to introduce any spe- 
 cies of landscape beauty upon a given 
 plot of ground. There is the beauty 
 
 traveling collectors, and local corre- I of the level surface, quite unattainable 
 spondents, was, perhaps, the largest of | upon a surface which is abrupt and bro- 
 
 its day, if we except the magnificent 
 one of the Bartram Botanic Garden. 
 
 How vast have been the enlargement 
 of horticultural taste, and the means of 
 gratifying it since Mr. Landreth first 
 embarked in his floral enterprise! Then 
 a green-house, or, as it was popularly 
 termed, a " glass-house," was an ob- 
 ject of amazement, and a simple rose, 
 exhibited in a window budding and 
 blooming " out of season," attracted a 
 wondering crowd. Now a residence in 
 town or country is scarcely considered 
 perfect which does not embrace at least 
 a room prepared for the preservation of 
 plants ; and the thousands who throng 
 the exhibitions of our Horticultural So- 
 ciety evince the extent of interest on 
 the subject. 
 
 The temperate and regular habits of 
 Mr. Landreth promoted health, and 
 protracted life beyond the ordinary 
 term. In manners he was plain and 
 unobtrusive; his temperament ardent, 
 actively sympathizing with the afflicted, 
 or warming with indignation at oppres- 
 sion. His fondness for plants increased 
 with age, and, though their culture 
 was the source of his support, he loved 
 them for themselves alone. " Trade" 
 was, with him, an adjunct to the grati- 
 fication of a refined enjoyment. Never 
 did painter look upon his canvas, in glo- 
 rious enthusiasm for his art, with an eye 
 more abstracted from the lucre which 
 his pencil brought, than did David Lan- 
 
 ken. The beauty of the clay districts 
 is not to be secured upon those of the 
 [chalk; neither on light uplands can be 
 arranged the dense beauties of well- 
 watered alluvions. " Consult the genius 
 of the place" is an axiom which has 
 been derided, but which is dictated by 
 the soundest sense. 
 
 A writer upon the general principles 
 of landscape gardening has some very 
 judicious remarks, from which the fol- 
 lowing are extracts: — 
 
 " Although due light and shade are 
 necessary to bring out striking effects, 
 colour must be attended to. Light and 
 shade, we all know, when the sun 
 shines, vary every moment; and there- 
 fore it becomes a study so to assort 
 objects, within range of the principal 
 point of view, as to bring out various 
 good effects. Not only must we regard 
 the diurnal motion of the sun, but his 
 position in the ecliptic; so that when 
 he is at various elevations and posi- 
 tions, light may make the lights and 
 shadows spread out where they may 
 make the strongest impression on the 
 eye. 
 
 " This is a point not much attended 
 to, but one of the greatest value, and 
 well deserving the closest study by the 
 landscape-gardener. Frequently the ad- 
 mission, at a particular spot, of a mere 
 streak of light enlivens a whole scene, 
 and excites the highest admiration. Sun- 
 shine through trees, when the orb itself 
 
LAN 
 
 339 
 
 LAN 
 
 is concealed, and the rays are pene- 
 trating, a thin shower falling among 
 them, produces at times delightful ef- 
 fects. 
 
 " The variety of green tints is very 
 great, and their disposition of import- 
 ance. Green is a mixture of blue and 
 yellow, and the predominance of either 
 must be studied. A different suit of 
 colours appears in the autumn, the yel- 
 low prevailing, but mixed with red in- 
 stead of blue, which seems to disappear 
 from the tints of autumn. Some trees 
 change colour early, as the horse-chest- 
 nut; others late, as the beech and oak. 
 Advantage should be taken of this, and 
 trees arranged accordingly. Evergreens 
 should generally be so disposed as to 
 form a mass when other trees are naked ; 
 but, in some situations, single pines and 
 firs, if room be given to them, produce 
 a fine effect. 
 
 " When a house is to be built where 
 trees already abound, difficulties will 
 occur in choosing a site. It is danger- 
 ous to cut down trees before the build- 
 ing has been erected ; and yet effects 
 may not be brought out, so as to assist 
 in the choice, without thinning. It is 
 also difficult to conduct roads where 
 trees stand thickly ; in such a case the 
 landscape-gardener should proceed with 
 great caution, removing first such trees 
 as are not in themselves worthy of a 
 place. 
 
 " The disposition of water, where 
 sheets of it are to be interspersed with 
 trees and shrubs, has a fine effect in 
 certain situations when managed with 
 judgment. But we cannot teach judg- 
 ment any more than taste, both being 
 gifts of nature. 
 
 " Of all things connected with land- 
 scape-gardening, buildings are often 
 most offensive ; and we find the gross- 
 est defects of taste frequently displayed 
 both in their style and position. Many 
 persons are apt to associate external 
 nature with the state of society in time 
 long past. This is an error that has 
 led to many trespasses against nature's 
 rule. A man will build a castle be- 
 cause the situation he fixed for it is a 
 commanding one, and would have an- 
 swered all the purposes of defence in 
 a rude state of society. His taste leads 
 him into expense, and to the sacrifice 
 of convenience and comfort. The adop- 
 tion of former styles shows taste in 
 some instances; but we rather think it 
 
 an indication of want of invention. The 
 country is covered with new residences 
 in the Elizabethan style ; and there is 
 a sameness that is rather tiresome, and 
 far from being so picturesque as the 
 castellated, with all its modern incon- 
 gruities. 
 
 "Dwelling-houses should be arranged 
 for comfort, and, where means are at 
 command, also for elegance and gran- 
 deur, both internally and externally. 
 
 " The ruins of ancient buildings pro- 
 duce a most pleasing effect, and they 
 ought to be preserved ; but it would be 
 preposterous in our day to build that 
 which is felt to be impressive only 
 when in a state of ruin. This is a sub- 
 ject not altogether separated from land- 
 scape gardening. 
 
 " When a professor finds buildings in 
 his way, it is his business either to hide 
 them or to exhibit them to the best ad- 
 vantage."— Gard. Chron. 
 
 Under this general head it would be 
 misplaced to enter more fully into de- 
 tails ; for these will be found, under 
 their appropriate titles, in other pages, 
 and chiefly borrowed from Mr. Whate- 
 ley, who has published more correct 
 views upon the art of tastefully arrang- 
 ing grounds than any man who has ever 
 written upon the subject. 
 
 A taste for landscape-gardening, like 
 that for the higher order of painting, 
 sculpture and other fine arts, is the 
 slow product of wealth and easy leisure, 
 and is distinct from a love of flowers 
 evinced alike by the young and the 
 aged, the intellectual and the illiterate. 
 In the United States, as might be ex- 
 pected in a new country, the mass are 
 too busily engaged in the every day 
 cares of life to devote attention to such 
 objects — but few comparatively, " the 
 architects of their own fortunes," have 
 acquired the means to indulge in luxu- 
 rious expenditures. We are, however, 
 acquiring taste on this and kindred sub- 
 jects, and with the increasing wealth, 
 the general education and superior in- 
 telligence which characterize the Ame- 
 rican people, there can be no doubt 
 that long before we can be called an 
 old nation, our tastes will have been 
 refined, and our capacity to appreciate 
 the beautiful largely developed. Al- 
 ready we have evidence of" the march 
 of improvement," as exhibited in the 
 pretty cottages, with their decorated 
 grounds, around our towns and cities ; 
 
LAN 
 
 340 
 
 — • — 
 
 L AU 
 
 an onward step towards that which in 
 portions of Europe, especially in Eng- 
 land, gives such charm to the country, 
 and to country life. 
 
 Those who wish to consult works on 
 Landscape Gardening and Rural Archi- 
 tecture, almost indivisible, are referred 
 to Loudon's "Encyclopaedia of Cottage, 
 Farm and Villa Architecture," Lou- 
 don's "Suburban Gardener," Do wning's 
 " Landscape Gardening," Downing's 
 " Cottage Residences," &c. 
 
 LANTANA. Twenty-nine species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 LARIX. Larch. Two species, and 
 many varieties. Hardy conifera. Seed. 
 Light soil on a dry sub-soil. See Coni- 
 fer a. 
 
 LARKSPUR. Delphinium. 
 
 Propagation and Culture. — The an- 
 nual sorts and varieties are sown an- 
 nually in September or October, or 
 early in spring, in patches where the 
 plants are to flower — for they do not 
 succeed by transplantation — observing, 
 that those of the autumn sowing grow 
 stronger, flower earlier, and the flowers 
 are generally larger and more durable 
 than the spring-sown plants. It is, 
 however, proper to sow some in spring, 
 in February or March, to continue a 
 longer succession of bloom. 
 
 " Dig with a trowel small patches, 
 about nine inches diameter, in different 
 parts of the borders towards the middle, 
 as also in the fronts of the shrubbery 
 clumps; and in each such patch sow 
 eight, ten, or twelve seeds a quarter of 
 an inch deep ; and when the plants are 
 an inch or two high, thin those of the 
 unbranched sorts to about six or eight 
 in each patch, and of the branched 
 kinds to three or four in each place, 
 which is all the culture they require. 
 But when intended to show in beds by 
 themselves, they are commonly sown 
 in drills, forming them lengthwise, the 
 beds a foot asunder, and half an inch 
 deep. The unbranched kinds are the 
 best adapted for this mode of culture. 
 
 " The perennial sorts are also raised 
 plentifully from seeds sown in autumn 
 or spring, in a bed or border of com- 
 mon earth, for transplantation when 
 the plants come up. Hand-weed them 
 occasionally, and thin them to three or 
 four inches distance, to remain till Oc- 
 tober or November; then plant them 
 out where they are to remain to flower. 
 
 Their roots will endure many years." 
 — Abercrombie. 
 
 LARREA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 LASER- WORT. Thapsia laserpetii. 
 
 LASIANDRA. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam, peat and sand. 
 
 LASIOPETALUM. Two species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
 cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 LASIOSPERMUM. Five species. 
 Hardy evergreen trailers. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 LASTHENIA. Two species. Har- 
 dy annuals. Seeds sown in autumn. 
 Common soil. 
 
 LATANIA. Three species. Stove 
 palms. Seed. Rich loam, abundantly 
 watered. 
 
 LATERALS, or side shoots, are 
 those which spring from the sides of 
 the main branches, and are thus de- 
 scribed in contradistinction to the ter- 
 minal or leading shoots of the branches. 
 The laterals on the lower branches, like 
 those branches themselves, are usually 
 longer as they approach the base of the 
 tree, because they extend to obtain the 
 benefit of the light kept from them by 
 the branches above. If unable thus to 
 extend, as in the case of inner trees of 
 those planted in clumps, the laterals 
 die, and occasion the denudation of 
 their trunks. If the terminal shoot be 
 cut away, the laterals increase more in 
 length, not only because more sap is 
 thus afforded them, but because an ex- 
 tra effort is made to advance into the 
 desired degree of light. 
 
 LATHYRUS. Fifty-four species. 
 Chiefly hardy perennial climbers, among 
 which is the Everlasting Sweet Pea : 
 but many are annuals. Seed. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 LAUREL. Laurus. 
 
 LAUREL CHERRY. Cerasus lau~ 
 ro-r.erasus. 
 
 LAURESTINUS. Viburnum tinus. 
 
 LAURUS. Twenty-five species. 
 Hardy, green-house and stove, some 
 evergreen, others deciduous. This ge- 
 nus includes the laurel, bay, benzoin, 
 and sassafras trees. Layers and cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam. 
 
 Pruning. — The best month for prun- 
 ing the common laurel, and probably 
 the whole of the evergreens of this 
 genusj is April. 
 
LAV 
 
 341 
 
 ♦ 
 
 LAW 
 
 LAVANDULA. Lavender. Ten spe- 
 cies. Hardy and half-hardy evergreen 
 shrubs. Cuttings. Light gravelly loam. 
 L. Spica. Common Lavender. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — A poor and light 
 soil is best suited to this plant, being 
 in such, more fragrant, longer lived, 
 and more capable of enduring severe 
 weather. In rich or moist soils it 
 grows luxuriantly, but is in general 
 destroyed during the winter. The 
 situation cannot be too open. 
 
 Time and Mode of Planting. — It is 
 propagated by slips and cuttings of the 
 current year's shoots, planted in May 
 and June, as well as by cuttings of those 
 which are a year old ; to be planted in 
 March, April, and early May. Both 
 slips and cuttings must be from five to 
 seven inches in length, which, after 
 being stripped to half their length of 
 the lower leaves, are to be planted to 
 that depth either in a shady border, or 
 in any compartment, to have the shade 
 of a mat during mid-day until they have 
 taken root, in rows six inches apart 
 each way. Water must be given in 
 moderate quantity every evening until 
 thus established. 
 
 Having attained sufficient strength, 
 they may be moved to their final sta- 
 tions in September or October, which 
 is the season to be preferred, or they 
 maybe left until the succeeding spring. 
 If it is grown in considerable quantity 
 for medicinal purposes, which is the 
 only claim it has for a place in the 
 herbary,it must be planted in rows two 
 feet apart each way, otherwise only 
 detached plants are inserted along the 
 borders. The only after-culture re- 
 quired is the occasional employment of 
 the hoe, the decayed spikes and branch- 
 es being removed in autumn, and the 
 surface gently stirred with the spade in 
 the spring. 
 
 The flowers are ready for gathering, 
 either to dry or for distillation, in July 
 or the end of June. 
 
 LAVATERA. Twenty-five species. 
 Some hardy herbaceous, increased by 
 seed and division, in common soil ; 
 and the annuals and biennials may be 
 spring-sown in the same. The green- 
 house and half-hardy are propagated by 
 ripe cuttings in sandy loam. 
 
 LAVENDER. Lavandula. 
 
 LAVENDER COTTON. Santolina. 
 
 LAVRADIA montana. Stove ever- 
 
 Cuttings. Loam, peat 
 
 green shrub, 
 and sand. 
 
 LAW RELATING TO GARDENS. 
 The following exposition of existing 
 laws in Great Britain may as a matter 
 of curiosity interest the American read- 
 er. Here where each state has its own 
 peculiar enactments, even a synopsis 
 of them would be too voluminous for 
 our pages. 
 
 Landlord and Tenant . — Lord Kenyon 
 was of opinion that market gardeners 
 and nurserymen may remove the green- 
 houses and hot-houses which they have 
 erected on the land of which they are 
 tenants, even without an agreement; 
 but this is doubtful; they may, how- 
 ever, remove trees, or such as are 
 likely to become so, in the necessary 
 course of their trade. If it were other- 
 wise, the very object of their holding 
 would be defeated. {Pent on v.Robart, 
 2 East, 90.) But the outgoing tenant 
 of a garden must not at the end of his 
 term plough up strawberry-beds in full- 
 bearing, which when he entered he 
 bought of a former tenant; although it 
 is the general practice to appraise and 
 pay for these plants as between out- 
 going and incoming tenants. — For such 
 conduct is malicious, and not in the 
 due course of business. {Wetherell v. 
 Howell, 1 Campbell, 227.) So a tenant 
 (not a gardener by trade) must not re- 
 move a box edging planted on ground 
 rented by him of another. Neither is 
 he entitled, says Mr. Justice Littledale, 
 (unless by special agreement,) to re- 
 move flowers which he had planted. 
 {Empson v. Soden, 4 Barn, and Adolph. 
 655.) And a similar decision has de- 
 termined that a farmer who raises young 
 fruit trees on the land he hires, for fill- 
 ing up an orchard upon the premises, 
 is not entitled to sell those young trees ; 
 but it is otherwise of a nurseryman by 
 trade. {Wyndham v. Way, 4 Taunton, 
 316.) 
 
 Even if nurserymen are entitled, 
 without a special agreement, to remove 
 the hot-houses they have erected upon 
 their landlord's land, which is very 
 doubtful, that right does not extend in 
 every instance to other tenants. Thus, 
 a tenant was adjudged not entitled to 
 remove a conservatory erected by him- 
 self on a brick foundation, attached to 
 a dwelling-house, and communicating 
 with it by windows and a door, and by 
 a flue passing into the parlour chimney. 
 
LAW 
 
 342 
 
 — * — 
 
 LAW 
 
 (Buckland v. Butterfield, 2 Brod. and 
 Bing. 54.) A tenant is liable to pay for 
 the waste if he cuts down any fruit 
 trees in the garden or orchard he holds, 
 but not if they are not growing within 
 the garden or orchard. (Coke's Litt. 
 53, a.) But he may take away a wood- 
 en shed which he had built on brick- 
 work, and posts and rails he had put 
 up. (Fitzherbert v. Shaw, 1 H. Black- 
 stone, 259.) 
 
 Law Protecting Gardens. — Gardens 
 were not sufficiently protected by law 
 until the year 1828, when the statute 
 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29 was passed. 
 
 Section 38 of this statute enacts that 
 to steal or cut, brake, root up, or other- 
 wise destroy, or damage, with intent to 
 steal, the whole or any part of any tree, 
 sapling, or shrub, or any underwood, 
 above the value of \l. respectively 
 growing in any park, pleasure-ground, 
 garden, orchard or avenue, or in any 
 ground adjoining or belonging to any 
 dwelling-house, or above the value of 
 51. in any other situation, is felony, and 
 punishable as simple larceny. 
 
 By section 39, if the injury to the 
 trees, shrubs, &c, amounts to lessthan 
 11., but to Is. at the least, then sum- 
 mary punishmeut may be inflicted by a 
 justice of the peace. A fine may be 
 imposed not exceeding 51. above the 
 injury done, upon the first conviction; 
 by imprisonment with hard labour, not 
 exceeding twelve months, upon a se- 
 cond conviction, and, if the conviction 
 take place before two justices of the 
 peace, by public or private whipping ; 
 and the third offence, after two previous 
 convictions, is felony, punishable as 
 simple larceny. 
 
 By sections 40, 41, and 43, to steal, 
 or to cut, break, or throw down, with 
 intent to steal, any part of any live or 
 dead fence, or any wooden post, pale, 
 or rail, set up or used as a fence, or any 
 stile or gate, or any part thereof; or to 
 have possession of the whole or any 
 part of any sapling or shrub, or any 
 underwood, or any part of any live or 
 dead fence, or any post, pale, rail, stile 
 or gate, or any part thereof respective- 
 ly, of the value of 2s., without satisfac- 
 torily accounting for that possession ; 
 and to steal , or destroy, or damage with 
 intent to steal, any cultivated root or 
 plant used for the food of man or beast, 
 or for medicine or distilling, or dyeing, 
 or for or in the course of manufacture, 
 
 growing in any land, open or inclosed, 
 not being a garden, orchard, or nursery- 
 ground, is punishable upon summary 
 conviction by fine, imprisonment with 
 or without hard labour, and by public 
 or private whipping, according to the 
 nature of the offence. 
 
 So, by section 42, to steal or destroy, 
 or damage with intent to steal, any 
 plant, root, fruit, or vegetable produc- 
 tion, growing in any garden, orchard, 
 nursery-ground, hot-house, or conser- 
 vatory, is, for the first offence, punish- 
 tfole, upon summary conviction, by im- 
 prisonment with or without hard labour, 
 not exceeding six months, or by fine, 
 not exceeding 20Z. ; but the second of- 
 fence is felony, punishable as simple 
 larceny. 
 
 Lastly, by section 44, to steal, or rip, 
 cut, or break with intent to steal, any 
 glass or wood-work belonging to any 
 building whatsoever, or any lead, iron, 
 copper, brass, or other metal, or any 
 utensil or fixture, whether made of me- 
 tal or other material, respectively fixed 
 to any building, or anything made of 
 metal fixed in any land, being private 
 property, or for a fence to any dwelling- 
 house, garden, or area, or in any square, 
 street, or other place dedicated to pub- 
 lic use or ornament, is felony, punish- 
 able as simple larceny. 
 
 Spring Guns and Man Traps. — These 
 were formerly permitted by law to be 
 set in woods, gardens, &c, without any 
 restriction. Injuries the most severe, 
 and even death, were inflicted by them, 
 and the legislature, wisely considering 
 that these punishments were visitations 
 far too excessive for stealing, or intend- 
 ing to steal fruit or game, passed the 
 statute 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 18. This en- 
 acts that any person who sets or places, 
 or causes to be set or placed, any spring- 
 gun, man-trap, or other engine calcu- 
 lated to destroy human life, or inflict 
 grievous bodily harm, with the intent 
 or whereby the same may destroy or 
 inflict grievous bodily harm upon a 
 trespasser or other person coming in 
 contact therewith, shall be guilty of a 
 misdemeanor and punishable by fine or 
 imprisonment, or both, at the discretion 
 of the court. 
 
 The act further provides that persons 
 allowing such guns, traps, or engines 
 already set to continue set, shall be 
 deemed to have set them. 
 
 But the Act does not extend to any gin 
 
LAW 
 
 343 
 
 LAW 
 
 or trap set to destroy vermin; nor does 
 it forbid the setting of spring-guns, man- 
 traps, &c, in a dwelling-house, from 
 sunset to sunrise. This would justify 
 their being set in any green -house, 
 conservatory, or hot-house, provided it 
 communicated by a door, window or 
 passage with the house in which the 
 proprietor or his servants resided. 
 
 Tithes Payable on Gardens. — Gardens 
 and orchards are tithable by common 
 law, and tithes in kind are due not only 
 for all herbs, plants, fruits, and seeds 
 usually grown in them, but for grass or 
 grain grown therein. The insignificance 
 of the herb makes no difference as to 
 its liability, for even parsley is tithable. 
 (Bunbury, 10.) Neither does it matter 
 whether the produce be grown for sale 
 or home consumption, {Williamson v. 
 Lonsdale, 1 Daniel, 49.) Neither does 
 the plants being raised for pleasure, or 
 as exotic, at a great expense, and not 
 by the natural powers of the soil and 
 climate, make any difference. So all 
 fruits and flowers are tithable, (Hetley, 
 100,) and so are pine apples, melons, 
 and other hot-house plants, because as 
 was observed by Chief Baron Skinner, 
 the tithe of gardens is prsedial. The 
 notion of artificial heat and soil would 
 exclude almost all the produce of gar- 
 dens ; things raised under glasses are 
 raised in an artificial soil, but must all 
 be subject to the same rule. Inocula- 
 tion, to be sure, is a work of art, but 
 art and expense used will not make any 
 difference. Baron Eyre added: "Hot- 
 house plants are certainly not exempt. 
 The general rule is clear, and the in- 
 conveniences attending it are not great; 
 mutual inconveniences will suggest mu- 
 tual moderation. (Adams v. Waller, 
 Gwillim, 1204.) Bees are tithable for 
 their honey and wax by the tenth mea- 
 sure and the tenth pound. It has been 
 doubted whether the tenth swarm can 
 be demanded, because bees are feres 
 naturae, but bees in hives may pay tithe 
 by the hive. (3 Croke, 404.) Nurseries 
 of trees are tithable if the owner dig 
 them up and sell them. (1 Coke, 5.26, 
 &c.) 
 
 Manures Exempt from Toll. — The 
 statute 52 Geo. III. c. 145, works a 
 general exemption, in favour of agri- 
 culture, (and horticulture too, for the 
 words of the statute are not restrictive 
 to manures used on farms,) to wagons, 
 carts, &c, loaded with manure, as well 
 
 as those going empty. — Rex. v. Adams, 
 6M. &S. 52. 
 
 Also, the statute 3 Geo. IV. c. 126, 
 s. 32, enacts that no toll shall be taken 
 for any horse or other cattle or carriage, 
 employed in carrying or having been 
 employed in carrying on the same day 
 any dung, soil, compost, or manure for 
 improving lands. The word " manure" 
 includes bone-dust, and, it seems, 
 bones before they are crushed. Pratt 
 v. Brown, 8 Car. & P. 244. But the 
 statute 4 Geo. IV. c. 95, s. 23, declares 
 that nothing in the 3 Geo. IV. c. 126, 
 shall work any such exemption to ma- 
 nure, &c, if a toll is expressedly im- 
 posed upon such matters by any local 
 Act or Acts. 
 
 Where wagons, &c, laden with 
 manure are exempt from toll, such 
 wagons, &c, in going for it shall be 
 exempted also. — 3 Geo. IV. c. 126. s. 
 26. But in the latter case the driver, 
 upon receiving a ticket, shall pay the 
 toll, to be repaid when he returns with ' 
 his wagon, &c, laden. Section 28, 
 also, provides that any basket, empty 
 sack, or spade, &c, necessary for load- 
 ing, if the loading is substantially ma- 
 nure for land, shall not render the wagon 
 &c., liable to toll. So, a wagon re- 
 turning from London loaded with dung 
 is not liable to be weighed and charged 
 for over-weight, under 13 Geo. III. c. 
 84, or 14 Geo. III. c. 82, by carrying 
 home two empty bottles and an empty 
 sack, in which the produce of husbandry 
 had been brought from /the country the 
 same day. — Chambers v. Eaves, 2 Camp. 
 393. 
 
 Lime has been adjudged not exempt 
 from toll, although the words of the 
 Act were "anything whatsoever used 
 in the manuring of land," (Rex v. 
 Gough, 2 Chit. 655,) nor yet within the 
 exception of the Turnpike Act, 31 Geo. 
 II.— (Anon. Lofft. 324.) Lime, how- 
 ever, is sometimes exempted, as by the 
 local Act 3 &4 Vict. c. 51. 
 
 LAWN is a surface of turf in the 
 vicinity of the house, requiring to be 
 kept smooth by the regular application 
 of the roller and scythe. When first 
 constructed, after the ground has been 
 dug over as level as may be, it must be 
 rolled, the hollows filled up, and this 
 repeated until a level surface of earth 
 is obtained. It must then be slightly 
 pointed over with a fork, and the turf 
 laid, or the grass seed sown. See 
 
LAW 
 
 344 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 LEA 
 
 Turfing. If seed be employed, the fol- | to compel the returning sap to organize 
 lowing is a good selection, and in the itself externally as roots, instead of 
 requisite proportions for an acre. The : passing downwards below the bark as 
 best season for sowing is during moist j wood. The bending back is to assist 
 weather in March. ! in this object by preventing the expend- 
 
 On 1 acre of new lawn, sow the fol- j iture of sap in the formation or rather 
 lowing grass seeds: Festuca durius- completion of leaves, and the silver 
 cula, 4i lbs. ; Avena flavescens, 1* lb. ; j sand is to secure the drainage so neces- 
 Lollium perenne, 30 lbs.; Poa nemoralis , i sary to cuttings. 
 
 3 lbs. ; P. sempervivens, 2 lbs. ; P. tri- « In most cases, this is sufficient ; but 
 vialis, 2i lbs.; Trifolium repens, 11 I it must be obvious, that the exact man- 
 lbs., and T. minus, 3 lbs. This is a [ ner in which the layering is effected is 
 sufficient quantity to cover the ground : unimportant, and that it may be varied 
 closely in a short time. according to circumstances. Thus, Mr, 
 
 In very dry weather all lawns should j James Munro describes a successful 
 be watered, and if a little guano and : method of layering brittle-branched 
 muriate oflime be dissolved in the water plants by simply slitting the shoot at 
 
 it will keep the surface gently moist 
 even in dry weather. 
 
 A good kind of grass for improving a 
 lawn, is Crested Dogstail ; it may be 
 
 the bend, and inserting a stone at that 
 place ; {Gardener's Magazine, ix. 302 ;) 
 and Mr. Knight found that, in cases of 
 difficult rooting, the process is facili- 
 
 sown in March. Bush-harrow the lawn ! tated by ringing the shoot just below 
 in order to stir up the soil a little for j the tongue about midsummer when the 
 the seed, which should be sown broad- : leaves upon th^ layers had acquired their 
 
 full growth; (Hort. Trans, i. 256;) by 
 which means he prevented the passage 
 of the returning sap further downwards 
 than the point intended for the emission 
 of roots. It will sometimes happen that 
 a branch of a plant cannot be conve- 
 niently bent downwards into the earth ; 
 in such cases, the Fig. 97. 
 
 earth may be ele- 
 vated to the branch by 
 various contrivances, 
 as is commonly done 
 
 cast when the ground is damp, passing 
 a garden roller over it when the ground 
 becomes sufficiently drv. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 LAWN RAKE, See article Turf. 
 
 LAWSONIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
 and sand. 
 
 LAXMANNIA gracile. Green- 
 house herbaceous. Division. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 LAYER. The following excellent 
 combination of practice and science is 
 
 from Dr. Lindley's Theory of Horticul- \ by the Chinese. When 
 ture : — this is done, no other 
 
 " A layer is a branch bent into the i care is necessary than 
 earth, and half cut through at the bend, ! that required for lay- 
 the free portion of the wound being I ers, except to keep 
 called ' a tongue.' It is, in fact, a cut- the earth surrounding 
 ting only partially separated from its | the branch steadily 
 parent. The object of the gardener is [ moist." See Fig. 97. 
 to induce the layer to emit roots into j LEADWORT. 
 the earth at the tongue. With this 
 view he twists the shoot half round, so 
 as to injure the wood-vessels ; he heads 
 it back, so that only a bud or two ap- 
 pears above ground, and when much 
 nicety is requisite, he places a handful 
 
 Plumbago. 
 
 LEATHERWOOD. 
 Dirca. 
 
 LEAVES are highly vascular organs, 
 in which are performed some of the 
 most important functions of a plant. 
 
 of silver sand round the tongued part ; | They are very general, but not ab- 
 then pressing the earth down with his ! solutely necessary organs, since the 
 foot, so as to secure the layer, he leaves branches sometimes perform their of- 
 it without further care. The intention fices. Such plants, however, as na- 
 ofboth tongueingand twisting is to pre- ; turally possess them, are destroyed or 
 vent the return of sap from the layer ! greatly injured by being deprived of 
 into the main stem, while a small quan- j them. 
 
 tity is allowed to rise out of the latter j The duration of a leaf is in general 
 into the former j the effect of this being ■ but for a year, though in some plants 
 
LEA 
 
 345 
 
 — • — 
 
 LEA 
 
 they survive for twice or thrice that 
 period. These organs are generally of 
 a green colour. Light seems to have 
 a powerful influence in causing this, 
 since if kept in the dark they become 
 of a pale yellow or even white hue, un- 
 less uncombined hydrogen is present, 
 in which case they retain their verdure 
 though light be absent. Hence their 
 etiolation would seem to arise from 
 their being unable to obtain this gas 
 under ordinary circumstances, except 
 when light is present. Now the only 
 source from which they can obtain hy- 
 drogen, is by deoomposing water; and 
 how light assists in the decomposition, 
 may perhaps be explained by the dis- 
 oxygenizing power with which it is 
 gifted. The violet rays of the spectrum 
 have this power in the greatest degree ; 
 and Sennebier has ascertained by ex- 
 periment, that those rays have the 
 greatest influence in producing the 
 green colour of plants. 
 
 When leaves are of any other hue 
 than green, they are said to be coloured. 
 This variegation is often considered to 
 be a symptom either of tenderness or 
 debility, and it is certain, when the 
 leaves of a plant become generally 
 white that that individual is seldom 
 long-lived. Mr. Knight, however, has 
 demonstrated that variegation is not a 
 certain indication of a deficiency of 
 hardihood. 
 
 The function of the leaves appear to 
 be a combination of those of the lungs 
 and stomach of animals ; they not only 
 modify the food brought to them from 
 the roots, so as to fit it for increasing 
 the size of the parent plant, but they 
 also absorb nourishment from the atmo- 
 sphere. The sap, after elaboration in 
 these organs, differs in every plant, 
 though as far as experiments have been 
 tried, it appears to be nearly the same 
 in all vegetables when it first arrives to 
 them. The power of a leaf to generate 
 sap is in proportion to its area of sur- 
 face, exposure to the light, and conge- 
 nial situation. 
 
 Evergreens transpire less moisture 
 than deciduous plants, which would 
 lead to the expectation that they are 
 more capable of living in dry situations, 
 which in general is really the case. 
 The matter transpired by a healthy 
 plant is nearly pure water, 5.000 grains 
 of it never containing more than one 
 grain of solid matter, and this is consti- 
 
 tuted of resinous and gummy matter, 
 with carbonate and sulphate of lime. 
 It appears to be nearly the same in all 
 plants. The quantity varies, however, 
 in every species, probably in every in- 
 dividual, and is greatly influenced by 
 the quantity of water applied to the 
 roots. 
 
 The transpiration of plants decreases 
 with that of the temperature to which 
 they are exposed, as well as with the 
 period of their growth. This explains 
 why the gardener finds that his plants 
 do not require so much water in cold 
 weather, nor during the time that 
 elapses between the fall of their blos- 
 soms and the ripening of their seed. 
 During this period they do not transpire 
 more than one-half so much as during 
 the period preceding and attending upon 
 their blooming. 
 
 The transpiration takes place from 
 the upper surface of the leaves ; and 
 if these gradually decay and fall, the 
 growth of the plant ceases until fresh 
 leaves are produced. Hence arises the 
 benefit which plants derive in rooms, 
 greenhouses, and other confined in- 
 cisures, from keeping those surfaces 
 cleansed with the sponge and syringe. 
 Some plants are particularly sensitive 
 to injury from any check to their tran- 
 spiration, among which are the tea- 
 scented roses ; and it thence arises that 
 they cannot now be cultivated in nur- 
 sery-gardens near London, where they 
 once flourished when that metropolis 
 was less extensive. 
 
 It must be remembered, however, in 
 using the sponge and syringe, that the 
 under side of leaves is an absorbing 
 surface, benefited by being kept clean, 
 and by the application of moisture. 
 The kidney bean, sunflower, cabbage 
 and spinach, absorb moisture equally 
 by their under and upper surfaces ; the 
 cockscomb, purple-leaved amaranth, 
 heliotrope, lilac, and balm, absorb most 
 freely by their upper surfaces ; and the 
 vine, pear, cherry, apricot, walnut, 
 mulberry, and rose, absorb most by 
 their under surfaces. 
 
 The transpiration from the leaves of 
 plants is effected through pores or stro- 
 mates, varying in number and size in 
 every species, but being usually either 
 largest or most numerous in plants in- 
 habiting moist or shady localities. This 
 is a wise provision, for such plants, con- 
 sequently, have an abundant supply of 
 
LEA 
 
 346 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 LEE 
 
 moist food to their roots, requiring a 
 competent provision for its elaboration 
 and reduction from superfluous water. 
 Those plants which are natives of sandy 
 exposed soils, have, on the other hand, 
 either fewer or smaller stromates. 
 
 The drier the air the greater is the 
 amount of moisture transpired ; and 
 this becomes so excessive, if it be also 
 promoted by a high temperature, that 
 plants in hot-houses, where it has oc- 
 curred, often dry up as if burned. The 
 justly lamented Mr. Daniell has well 
 illustrated this, by showing that if the 
 temperature of a hot-house be raised 
 only five degrees, viz., from 75o to 80°, 
 whilst the air within it retains the same 
 degree of moisture, a plant that in the 
 lower temperature exhaled 57 grains of 
 moisture, would in the higher tempera- 
 ture exhale 120 grains in the same 
 space of time. Plants, however, like 
 animals, can bear a higher tempera- 
 ture in dry air than they can in air 
 .charged with vapour ; animals are scald- 
 ed in the latter, if the temperature is 
 very elevated, and plants die under 
 similar circumstances as if boiled. MM. 
 Edwards and Collin found kidney beans 
 
 in which they are vegetating, though 
 one twenty-fifth is a still more favour- 
 able proportion ; and as hot-beds, heated 
 by fermenting matters, rapidly have the 
 air within their frames contaminated to 
 a much greater extent than the propor- 
 tions above named, thence arises the 
 injury to the plants they contain from a 
 too long neglected ventilation. The 
 leaves turn yellow from the excess of 
 acid, which they are unable to digest, 
 and which consequently effects that 
 change of colour which also occurs in 
 autumn, and which will be more fully 
 considered when the decay of plants ia 
 detailed. 
 
 Whatever promotes an over-luxuriant 
 production ofleaf-buds, proportionately 
 diminishes the production of flower- 
 buds, and the reason is obvious. A 
 luxuriant foliage is ever attendant upon 
 an over-abundant supply of moist nou- 
 rishment to the roots, the consequent 
 amount of sap generated is large, re- 
 quiring a proportionately increased sur- 
 face of leaf for its elaboration, and 
 for the transpiration of the superfluous 
 moisture; and as the bud becomes a 
 branch or a root accordingly as circum- 
 
 sustained no injury when the air was stances require, so does it produce, as 
 
 dry at a temperature of 167o, but they 
 died in a few minutes if the air was 
 moist. 
 
 Other plants under similar circum- 
 stances would perish, probably, at a 
 much lower temperature ; and the fact 
 affords a warning to the gardener to 
 have the atmosphere in his stoves very 
 dry, whenever he wishes to elevate 
 their temperature for the destruction of 
 insects, or other purposes. Leaves have 
 the power of absorbing moisture as 
 well as of emitting it, which power of 
 absorption they principally enjoy during 
 the night. 
 
 During the day leaves also absorb 
 carbonic acid gas, which they decom- 
 pose, retaining its carbon and emitting 
 the greatest part of the oxygen that 
 enters into its composition. In the 
 night this operation is in a certain mea- 
 sure reversed, a small quantity of oxygen 
 being absorbed from the atmosphere, 
 
 ay be necessary for the plant's health, 
 either leaves or flowers. — Principles of 
 Gardening. 
 
 LEBECKIA. Six species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Seeds and 
 cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 LEBRETONIA. Pavonia. 
 
 LECHENAULTIA. Two species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 LECYTHIS. Six species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. San- 
 dy loam. 
 
 LEDON GUM. Cistus ledon. 
 
 LEDUM. Three species. Hardy 
 evergreen shrubs. Layers. Bog earth. 
 
 LEE-CHEE. Euphoria lichi. 
 
 LEEK. Allium porrum. The Leek 
 is a hardy biennial, for although it at- 
 tains perfection in size and for culinary 
 purposes the first year, it does not run 
 to seed until the second, the perfecting 
 
 and a yet smaller proportion of car- \ of which it also often survives. 
 
 bonic acid emitted. 
 
 Carbonic acid gas in small propor- 
 tions is essential to the existence of 
 leaves, yet it only benefits them when 
 
 The whole plant is eaten, being em- 
 ployed in soups, &c, and is by some 
 persons boiled and eaten with meat. 
 
 Varieties. — There are four varieties : 
 
 present in quantities not exceeding one the Musselburgh, and the large London 
 twelfth of the bulk of the atmosphere j Leek, which are by far the best; the 
 
LEI 
 
 347 
 
 LEO 
 
 Scotch or Flag, which is larger and 
 hardier; and the Flanders. 
 
 Time and Mode of Sowing. — It is 
 raised solely from seed, which may be 
 sown at any time during the spring. 
 
 These sowings are performed in ge- 
 neral broadcast and raked in, though 
 some gardeners employ drills, the plants 
 to remain after thinning; the Leek, 
 however, is so much benefitted by 
 transplanting as obviously to point out 
 the error of this practice. 
 
 Cultivation. — When the plants are 
 three or four inches in height, in eight 
 or ten weeks after sowing, they must 
 be weeded, hoed, and thinned, where 
 growing too close, to two or three inch- 
 es apart ; water also being given, in 
 dry weather, will, with the above treat- 
 ment, strengthen and forward them for 
 transplanting in another month, or 
 when six or eight inches high. They 
 must be taken away regularly from the 
 seed bed ; the ground being well wa- 
 tered previously, if not soft and easily 
 yielding. When thinned out they may 
 be left to remain in the seed bed six 
 inches asunder, as they do not grow so 
 large as the transplanted ones, which 
 must be set by the dibble in rows ten 
 inches apart, and eight in the lines, 
 being inserted nearly down to the 
 leaves, that the neck, by being covered 
 with the earth, may be blanched ; wa- 
 ter in abundance must be given at the 
 time of planting, and the long weak 
 leaves shortened, but the roots left as 
 uninjured as possible. The bed is hoed 
 over occasionally with advantage, as 
 well to kill the weeds as to loosen the 
 soil. By this treatment, and by cutting 
 off the tops of the leaves about once a 
 month, as new ones are produced, the 
 neck swells to a much larger size. The 
 several sowings above directed will 
 yield a supply from August until the 
 following May, when they advance to 
 seed. A portion should be always 
 taken up and laid in sand previous to 
 the ground being locked up by contin- 
 ued frost, but they will not keep many 
 days in this situation. 
 
 LEIANTHUS Nigrescens. Green- 
 house biennial. Seed. Light rich loam. 
 
 LEIMANTHIUM. Three species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Seed. Wet peat 
 soil. 
 
 LEMA asparagi. The Asparagus 
 Beetle, by some naturalists called Cri- 
 
 oceris asparagi is thus described by Mr. 
 Curtis : — 
 
 "The larva? which abound from June 
 to September, not only eat off all the 
 leaves, but even gnaw the rind from the 
 stem of the plants. 
 
 " The eggs are oval, and fixed on 
 the plants by one of their ends, one 
 being sometimes attached to the end 
 of another. The larvae are hatched in 
 a little time; they are short, thick, and 
 fleshy, covered with hairs, wrinkled, 
 ash-coloured, with black head and legs ; 
 they move very slowly, and when 
 alarmed emit a blackish fluid from 
 their mouth. 
 
 « When full grown, the larva? go in- 
 to the ground, where they contract a 
 thick cocoon, in which they assume the 
 pupa state. In a short time the per- 
 fect insect appears. It is about a quar- 
 ter of an inch long, of a blue black 
 colour, with cream coloured or yellow 
 spots on the wing cases, and a red 
 thorax. To lessen the ravages of the 
 insect, little more can be done than to 
 collect them by hand-picking or by 
 shaking them into a net. As many 
 beetles, however, may be found at the 
 time the Asparagus is cut, we recom- 
 mend that all these should be destroyed 
 before they have an opportunity of de- 
 positing their eggs." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 LEONOTIS. Four species. L. in- 
 termedia is a stove evergreen shrub; 
 and two are stove annuals, requiring 
 the usual treatment of tender annuals. 
 Cuttings or seed. Loam and peat. L. 
 leonurus is a green-house evergreen 
 shrub, requiring the following treat- 
 ment : — 
 
 " Strike from cuttings in May ; keep 
 in a forty-eight pot during the winter ; 
 in the beginning of April put into a pot 
 thirteen inches in diameter, and place 
 in a forcing frame kept at a tempera- 
 ture varying from 75° to 50° ; here re- 
 main for about seven weeks, when 
 remove to the green-house. 
 
 " After the end of June, force as 
 much as possible by keeping the house 
 shut up during the day, so as to con- 
 centrate all the heat which can be 
 obtained from the sun, but no fire light- 
 ed except during cold nights in Sep- 
 tember and October; 120° is not too 
 great for it, provided it has plenty of 
 water ; never suffer the surface of the 
 earth to become dry, and generally 
 keep about an inch of water in the 
 
LEO 
 
 348 
 — ♦ — 
 
 LET 
 
 pan. The quantity required in hot 
 weather, nearly three gallons daily." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 LEONITOPODIUM helveticum. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Seed or division. 
 Peat. 
 
 LEONURUS. Eight species, besides 
 varieties. Hardy perennials, biennials, 
 and annuals. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 LEOPARD'S BANE. Doronicum. 
 
 LEPANTHES. Two species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Offsets. Damp moss under 
 a bell glass. 
 
 LEPECHINIA. Two species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 LEPIDAGATHIS cristata. Stove 
 herbaceous. Cuttings. Sandy rich 
 loam. 
 
 LEPIDIUM sativum. See Cress. 
 
 LEPTANDRA. Two species. Har- 
 dy herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 
 
 LEPTANTHUS gramineus. Hardy 
 aquatic. Offsets. Wet peat. 
 
 LEPTODERMIS lanceolata. Green- 
 house shrub. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 LEPTOMERIA. Two species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 LEPTOSIPHON. Fivespecies. 
 Hardy annuals. Seed. Peat. Sow in 
 autumn and in early spring. 
 
 LEPTOSPERMUM. Twenty-three 
 species. Green-house evergreen shrubs. 
 Cuttings and seed. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 LEPTOSTELMA maximum. Half- 
 hardy herbaceous. Seed and division. 
 Light rich loam. 
 
 LEPTOTES bicolor. Stove epiphyte. 
 Division. Moss and potsherds. 
 
 LESPEDEZA. Twelve species. 
 Chiefly hardy herbaceous, shrubby, and 
 annual plants. L. cryocarpa is a green- 
 house evergreen shrub, and L. glome- 
 rata a stove twiner. Annuals sow in 
 sheltered peat. Shrubs by cuttings, 
 and herbaceous by division. In sandy 
 peat. 
 
 LESSERTIA. Nine species. Green- 
 house anuuals, herbaceous and shrubby 
 plants. Seed or cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 LETHRUS cephalotes. A beetle 
 preying upon the vine by gnawing off 
 its young shoots. It is common in Hun- 
 gary, but I do not know that it has been 
 observed in England. 
 
 LETTSOMIA tomentosa. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 LETTUCE. Lactuca sativa. 
 
 " The Lettuce is a hardy annual, 
 introduced or cultivated in England 
 since 1562, but from what country is 
 unknown. The use of Lettuce, as a 
 cooling and agreeable salad, is well 
 known ; it is also a useful ingredient in 
 soups. It contains, like the other spe- 
 cies of this genus, a quantity of opium 
 juice, of a milky nature, from which, of 
 late years, medicine has been prepared, 
 under the title of Lactucarium, and 
 which can be administered with effect 
 in cases where opium is inadmissible. 
 
 " The varieties are very numerous. 
 Those herein enumerated have been 
 selected from the many which have 
 come under our observation, and will 
 be found to suit the various seasons of 
 the year. Some varieties celebrated in 
 Europe, are of little value here, soon 
 shooting to seed under our hot sun. 
 
 "The Early Cabbage Lettuce is the 
 earliest; it produces a moderately sized 
 and very firm head and is known among 
 the Philadelphia market gardeners as 
 the c butter salad.' 
 
 " The Royal Cabbage Lettuce is a 
 very large variety, dark green, with 
 firm head, and withstands the sun bet- 
 ter than the preceding variety, not 
 rapidly shooting to seed. 
 
 " The Palestine is a curiously spot- 
 ted variety, produces a firm head, and of 
 fair size. 
 
 " The India is a very fine kind, pro- 
 duces large hard heads, leaves wrinkled, 
 stands the sun remarkably well. 
 
 " The Philadelphia Cabbage re- 
 sembles the " Royal," and is in all re- 
 spects a desirable variety. 
 
 " The Early Curled does not head ; 
 is used principally as " cut salad." 
 
 " The Cos, of which there are several 
 varieties, produce conical formed heads, 
 very succulent and crisp; soon run to 
 seed ; should therefore be planted early 
 in the spring. 
 
 " The Brown Dutch somewhat re- 
 sembles the early cabbage, the leaves 
 tinged with brown. 
 
 " Lettuce delights in a deep, rich soil, 
 not too heavy or humid. For early 
 spring use sow about the middle of au- 
 tumn, in some sheltered situation, as 
 the plants, or a portion of them, are to 
 remain there during the winter, lightly 
 covered with straw or cedar brush to 
 protect them from extreme cold. Near 
 the close of autumn a planting may be 
 
 
LET 
 
 349 
 
 LIB 
 
 made, as directed for " Early York 
 Cabbage," when intended to stand the 
 winter, (which see,) or they may be 
 planted with the cabbage alternately. 
 Early Cabbage, Brown Dutch and Pa- 
 lestine are better suited for planting at 
 this season. 
 
 " Part of those which remain in the 
 seed-bed during the winter, should be 
 transplanted as early in the spring as 
 the ground admits of being worked. 
 The remainder may be set out subse- 
 quently, which will ensure a more re- 
 gular supply. To secure an uninter- 
 rupted succession, frequent sowings 
 should be made during the early part of 
 summer, thus : — have the ground deep- 
 ly dug and raked fine ; stretch a line to 
 the extent intended to be planted, 
 along which drop the seed thinly, and 
 rake it in. When the plants are an 
 inch or two in height, thin them to a 
 foot apart, and give frequent hoeings, 
 which will facilitate their growth. 
 
 In the earlier sowings those thinned 
 out may be transplanted, and will pro- 
 duce good heads; but when the wea- 
 ther has become warm and dry they 
 will not succeed well ;• it is therefore 
 better to sow over as much ground as 
 will produce the quantity required. For 
 the earlier sowings all varieties will an- 
 swer; for the latter ones when the sea- 
 son is advanced and the heat greater, 
 the India and Royal Cabbage are better 
 sorts. 
 
 "During the heat ofsummer the heads 
 will be but poor, unless the season be 
 very cool and humid. Sown about the 
 close of summer and early in autumn, 
 they will do well, as the weather will 
 have become cool before they reach 
 maturity. When sown in autumn for 
 spring heading, it is advisable to take 
 some of the earliest and latest. 
 
 " Very good Lettuce may be had in 
 the early part of winter, if planted about 
 the middle of autumn, in frames in a 
 sheitered situation, covering the frames 
 with glass or boards, when the weather 
 becomes cool ; in mild weather, giving 
 plenty of air; where boards are used 
 removing them to admit light." — Rural 
 Reg. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — To produce seed 
 some of the finest and most perfect 
 plants of each variety that have sur- 
 vived the winter, or from the forwardest 
 sowing of the year, should be selected. 
 The seed from any that have run up 
 
 prematurely, cannot be depended upon. 
 All other plants must be removed from 
 their neighbourhood, themselves being 
 left at least a foot apart ; neither is it 
 allowable for two varieties to flower 
 near each other, or only mongrel varie- 
 ties will be obtained. Each stem is ad- 
 vantageously attached to a stake as a 
 support in tempestuous weather. It is 
 to be observed, that the branches must 
 be gathered as the seed ripens upon 
 them, and not left until the whole is 
 ready, as some will ripen two or three 
 weeks before others, and consequently, 
 the first and best seed will be shed and 
 lost. It must be particularly well dried 
 before it is beaten out and stored. 
 
 Lettuce seed is considered to be best 
 the second year ; but when three years 
 old, it refuses to vegetate. 
 
 LETTUCE FLY. See Anthomyia. 
 
 LEUCADENDRON. Thirty-nine 
 species. Green-house evergreen shrubs. 
 Ripe cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 LEUCOCORYNE. Three species. 
 Half-hardy bulbs. Seed and offsets. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 LEUCOJUM. Snow-flake. Three spe- 
 cies. Hardy bulbs. Offsets. Sandvloam. 
 
 LEUCOPOGON. Fifteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 LEUCOSPERNUM. Fifteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
 cuttings. Sandy turfy loam. They re- 
 quire much watering. 
 
 LEUCOSTEMMA vestitum. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat, 
 and sandy loam. 
 
 LEUZEA. Five species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Seed and division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 LEWISL\ rediviva. Hardy herba- 
 ceous. Division and seed. Sandy 
 loam and chalk. 
 
 LEYCESTRIA/omoset. Hardy ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings and seed. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 LEYSSERA. Four species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat 
 and sandy loam. 
 
 LIATRIS. Twenty species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Sandy loam and 
 peat. Take up and give the shelter of 
 a frame during winter. 
 
 LIBANOTIS athamantoides. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Seed. Calcareous sandy 
 loam. 
 
 LIBERTIA formosa. Half-hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Loam and peat. 
 
LIC 
 
 350 
 
 LIL 
 
 LICHTENSTEINIA. Two species. 
 Green-house herbaceous. Seed. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 LICUALA. Two species. Stove 
 palms. Seed. Sandy loam. 
 
 LIDBECKIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat, 
 and a little loam. 
 
 LIGATURES, twisted very tightly 
 round the small branches of trees, and 
 the stems of plants, to check the return 
 of their sap, and thus promote their 
 fruitfulness, and the size of the fruit, 
 are much to be preferred to ringing, or 
 other removals of the bark, which cause 
 wounds and canker. Ligatures should 
 be removed as soon as the fruit is rip- 
 ened. 
 
 LIGHT has a powerful influence over 
 the health and life of a plant, from the 
 moment its leaves pierce through the 
 surface of the soil. If absent, they be- 
 come yellow, or even white, unless 
 uncombined hydrogen be present, in 
 which case they retain their verdure. 
 
 Sir H. Davy excluded a cos lettuce 
 from the light. In six days it was ren- 
 dered very pale, and at the end of an- 
 other week it was quite white ; the 
 growth of the plant was checked, and 
 the analysis of its leaves showed that 
 they contained more carbonic acid and 
 water, but less hydrogen and residual 
 carbon than an equal weight of green 
 leaves. 
 
 It deserves notice that it has been 
 proved by the experiments of Dr. Hope 
 and others, that light from artificial 
 sources may be concentrated so as to 
 enable plants to absorb oxygen, and 
 perfect those elaborations on which 
 their green colour depends ; and the 
 light of the moon has a similar influence. 
 
 A similar concentrated light will 
 make the Pimpernel and other flowers, 
 which close until sunrise, open their 
 petals, and rouse from their rest; a 
 fact, which gives another reason why 
 plants in rooms frequented at night be- 
 come weak and exhausted sooner than 
 those which then remain, as nature dic- 
 tates, unexcited by light. 
 
 A deficiency of light decreases the 
 decomposing power of the leaves. For 
 this reason the best glass should al- 
 ways be employed in the sashes of 
 the hot-house, conservatory, and other 
 structures of the forcing department. 
 But the benefit sought for is frustrated, 
 if that glass be not constantly well 
 
 cleansed. The best glass, if dirty, al- 
 lows fewer rays of light to pass through 
 than inferior glass if kept bright. 
 
 Solar light is essential to the ripening 
 of all fruit ; it will not ripen in the dark ; 
 and the greater the light's intensity 
 and the longer its daily endurance, the 
 sweeter and the higher is the fruit's 
 flavour. No fruits are so luscious as 
 those grown within the tropics, and 
 the fruits of the temperate zone are ex- 
 cellent in proportion to the brightness 
 of its seasons. That light is essential 
 in causing the colour of the leaves and 
 other parts of plants, has been noticed 
 already ; and it aids the ripening pro- 
 cess of fruit in a similar manner, to 
 convert their acid and mucilaginous 
 constituents into sugar : much carbon 
 and hydrogen have to be got rid of; 
 and this is effected, if light be admitted, 
 by the evolution of carbonic acid and 
 watery vapour. How light operates in 
 promoting this and other decomposi- 
 tions, which are effected by the vege- 
 table organs, is at present a mystery ; 
 but so it is; and the gardener promotes 
 its access as much as lies Avithin his 
 power, by removing overshadowing 
 leaves, by employing the best glass in 
 his hot-houses, and by having their in- 
 terior whitened ; for white surfaces re- 
 flect all the rays of light back upon the 
 objects those surfaces inclose. 
 
 Almost every flower has a particular 
 degree of light requisite for its full ex- 
 pansion. The blossoms of the pea, 
 and other papilionaceous plants, spread 
 out their wings in fine weather to admit 
 the solar rays, and again close them at 
 the approach of night. Plants requiring 
 powerful stimulants, do not expand their 
 flowers until noon ; whilst some would 
 be destroyed if compelled to open in 
 the meridian sun. Of such is the night- 
 blooming cereus, the flowers of which 
 speedily droop, even if exposed to the 
 blaze of light attendant on Indian fes- 
 tivities. — Trine, of Gardening. 
 
 LIGHTFOOTIA. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 LIGUSTRUM. Privet. Three spe- 
 cies, and more varieties of L. vulgare. 
 Hardy evergreen and deciduous shrubs. 
 Cuttings. Common soil. The evergreen 
 varieties of L. vulgare make a good 
 fence. See Hedges. 
 
 LILACS. Syringa vulgaris and 
 Persica. Of these very hardy shrubs 
 
LIL 
 
 351 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 LIL 
 
 there are many varieties; the white, 
 red, and blue-flowered; and of the 
 Persica, also the parsley-leafed and the 
 sage-leafed. They may be raised from 
 suckers, layers, cuttings, and seed; the 
 sowing and planting may be made dur- 
 ing the autumn in any common soil. 
 
 LILIUM. Lily. Thirty-five species, 
 including the common white lily (L. can- 
 didum), martagon (L. martagon), tiger 
 (L. tigrinum), orange (L. aurantium), 
 bulb-bearing (L. bulbiferum), and their 
 varieties. Besides those already men- 
 tioned, the following are especially 
 worthy of cultivation : — 
 
 Bronsiartii. 
 
 longiflorum. 
 
 Eximium. 
 
 Japonicum longiflorum. 
 
 Lancifolium album. 
 
 punctatum. 
 
 roseum. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Speciosum rubrum. 
 
 Superbum pyramidalis. 
 
 Venustum. 
 
 With the exception of L. eximium, 
 which is a green-house bulb, all the 
 others are hardy. 
 
 Out-door Culture. — The proper time 
 for planting and transplanting them is 
 in autumn, when their flowers and stalks 
 decay, which is generally in August and 
 September, the roots being then at rest 
 for a short space of time, though the bulbs 
 taken up at the above season of rest, may 
 be kept out of ground if necessary, till 
 October or November; the white lilies, 
 however, do not succeed, if kept long 
 out of the earth; and all the others 
 succeed best when planted again as 
 soon as possible. Plant them four or 
 five inches deep, and at good distances 
 from one another. 
 
 None of the sorts require any par- 
 ticular culture, for they will endure all 
 weathers, so no more is necessary than 
 destroying weeds among their stems by 
 the hoe, and supporting with sticks. 
 
 They may all remain undisturbed two 
 or three years, or longer; nor, indeed, 
 is it proper to remove these sorts of 
 bulbs oftener, for by remaining, they 
 flower stronger after the first year. It 
 is, however, proper to take up the bulbs 
 entirely every three or four years. 
 
 Propagation. — By Offsets. — All the 
 sorts of these roots yield offsets abund- 
 antly every year, which, when greatly 
 wanted, may be taken off annually, in 
 
 autumn ; otherwise once in two or three 
 years. 
 
 The small offsets should then be 
 planted in beds a foot asunder, and 
 three deep, to remain a year or two ; 
 and the large bulbs should be planted 
 again in the borders, &c, singly. 
 
 By Seed. — This is sometimes prac- 
 tised, but more particularly for the 
 martagons, to obtain more varieties. In 
 antumn, soon after the seed is ripe, sow 
 it in pots or boxes of rich light earth, 
 half an inch deep; place the pots in a 
 sheltered situation all winter, and the 
 plant will appear in the spring ; in April, 
 remove the pots to have only the morn- 
 ing sun all the summer, giving moderate 
 waterings ; in August, transplant the 
 bulbs into nursery-beds in flat drills an 
 inch deep, and three or four asunder; 
 but, as the bulbs will be very small, 
 scatter the earth and bulbs together in 
 the drills, and cover them with earth 
 the above depth ; and having grown here 
 till August or September following, 
 transplant into another bed, placing 
 them eight or nine inches each way 
 asunder, here to remain to show their 
 first flowers, then transplant them finally. 
 — Abercrombie. 
 
 Pot-Culture. — The following excel- 
 lent directions, though applicable es- 
 pecially to L. speciosum or lancifolium, 
 are also applicable to others of this 
 genus. They are the practical directions 
 of Mr. Groom, the well-known florist, 
 of Walworth, near London. He says: — 
 
 " To cultivate Lilia in the greatest 
 perfection, they should be removed as 
 rarely as possible, and only when the 
 bulbs become too close ; for disturbing 
 them is most injurious to their growth 
 and flowering." 
 
 Bulbs from Stems. — To obtain these 
 from L. speciosum, and the practice 
 would, perhaps, succeed with several 
 others, Mr. Groom placed pieces of 
 turfy peat round the stem, with room 
 for finer peat to be placed next the 
 plant; in this bulbs were very success- 
 fully obtained. 
 
 Potting. — " Grow them in pots of 
 large size, having plenty of drainage, 
 and use peat only, with a little fine sand 
 for the soil. One great point is to keep 
 the bulbs, particularly the largest, at a 
 sufficient depth, to allow room for the 
 stem-fibres to grow freely. When they 
 require repotting, which should only be 
 performed whilst the bulbs are dormant, 
 
LIL 
 
 352 
 
 — • — 
 
 LIM 
 
 they should be turned out of the old 
 pots, and the crocks should be carefully 
 removed, so as to avoid injuring the 
 fibres, or even shaking off the earth ; 
 the bulbs are then to be repotted in a 
 larger-sized pot, in peat and sand, with 
 good drainage. 
 
 Raising Varieties. — Mr. Groom ob- 
 serves, that "in hybridizing, care should 
 be always taken to save seed from those 
 flowers which have the best shape; for 
 I believe the form of the future flower 
 is much more dependent on the kind 
 from which the seed is saved than upon 
 that which furnishes the pollen; the 
 pollen generally gives the colour. It is 
 also highly desirable that the flower 
 from which the pollen is taken should 
 be darker than that producing the seed ; 
 for I have found in such cases the seed- 
 lings have been much more beautiful 
 (being frequently spotted or striped), 
 than where I have reversed the process. 
 I have seen this occur in so marked a 
 manner in the ranunculus, that I have 
 adopted it as a principle, never to take 
 pollen from a lighter coloured flower." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 LILY. Lilium. 
 
 LILY-HYACINTH. Scilla Lilia- 
 hyacinthus. 
 
 LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY. Conval- 
 laria majalis. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — Clayey loam, 
 near water, and where the noonday sun 
 is intercepted by shade, suits it best. 
 
 Propagation. — Mr. D. Watts com- 
 municated a paper to the Regent's Park 
 Gardeners' Society, in 1845, from which 
 the following are extracts: — "Before 
 planting, dig over and well break the 
 ground about nine inches deep, then 
 plant the roots about four inches apart, 
 all over the surface of the ground, giv- 
 ing them a gentle press down with the 
 thumb and finger, and then cover them 
 about four inches thick with the same 
 sort of soil. On forming new plantations 
 of this plant, I select all the flowering 
 buds from my stock of roots, which I 
 plant by themselves, but in the same 
 way as I do the others. If equal quan- 
 tities of each can be had, there will be 
 equal quantities of flowers for two or 
 three successive seasons, after which 
 they should be all taken up, the roots 
 divided, and replanted in the same way. 
 At the time of replanting, it will be 
 requisite to leave a sufficient quantity 
 
 undisturbed, for the purpose of lifting, 
 for forcing during the winter months. 
 
 Forcing. — Pot them in thirty-two- 
 sized pots, filled to within three and a 
 half inches of the rim with rich loam, 
 upon which the roots are closely placed, 
 and then covered about two inches in 
 thickness with equal parts of leaf mould 
 and sand ; they are then well watered, 
 so as to settle the mould about the roots ; 
 place them on a shelf near the glass, in 
 a moist stove, or forcing-house, the 
 temperature of which may range from 
 65° to 75°, and take care that the soil 
 does not become dry. When they are 
 so far advanced that the plants show 
 their heads of flowers, remove them into 
 a warm green-house, still placing them 
 near the glass, until as they advance in 
 growth they are withdrawn by degrees 
 into a shaded part of the house, from 
 whence they are removed to the draw- 
 ing room as required, their places to be 
 immediately filled with others, which 
 are similarly treated, and thus an ample 
 succession will be kept up. Care and 
 attention are requisite in lifting and 
 selecting the plants for forcing; they 
 require a minute examination to dis- 
 tinguish those that will flower from 
 those that will not, the only difference 
 being that the buds of the former are 
 more round and short than those of the 
 latter." — Florist's Journ. 
 
 LILY-PINK. Aphyllanthes. 
 
 LILY-THORN. Catesbea. 
 
 LIME. Citras limonurn. 
 
 LIME is valuable as a manure, for 
 some one or more of its salts enter into 
 the composition of every vegetable. 
 But it is not the lime of every district 
 that is suitable for the purpose. Some 
 specimens contain a very large pro- 
 portion of magnesia, which, absorbing 
 carbonic acid very slowly, remains in a 
 caustic state, to the injury of the roots 
 of the plants, and the diminution of 
 benefit from the carbonic acid evolved 
 by the decomposing constituents of the 
 soil. Neither can the gardener apply 
 it to all his soils with advantage. Thus, 
 peat and bog earth are beneficial to the 
 plants grown upon them by their con- 
 taining gallic and other acids which lime 
 removes. 
 
 To garden soil of the usual staple 
 about fifty bushels of lime per acre is a 
 sufficient quantity. If the soil be clayey 
 the quantity may be doubled. A very 
 excellent manure is formed by mixing 
 
LIM 
 
 353 
 
 LIP 
 
 one bushel of salt with every two bush- 
 els of lime. 
 
 Lime cannot be applied to the soil 
 too fresh from the kiln ; for if allowed 
 to absorb carbonic acid from the air, it 
 is rapidly converted into chalk. 
 
 " It is astonishing how ignorantly 
 neglectful are the cultivators of the 
 soil, when their crops are devastated 
 by the slug, not to dress them so as to 
 render the surface of the soil quite 
 white, during the promise of a few 
 days' dry weather, with caustic lime. 
 It is instant destruction to every slug 
 it falls upon; and those that it misses 
 are destroyed by their coming in con- 
 tact with it when moving in search of 
 food. 
 
 " It is a common practice to burn 
 couch-grass, docks, gorse, and other 
 vegetables, which are very retentive 
 of life, or slow in decay; a more une- 
 conomical, unscientific method of re- 
 ducing to a state beneficial to the land 
 of which they were the refuse, cannot 
 be devised. In breaking up heaths, 
 such exuvaB are very abundant; but, in 
 all cases, if the weeds, leaves, &c, 
 were conveyed to a hole or pit, and, 
 with every single horse-load, and with 
 barrow-loads in proportion, a bushel of 
 salt and a half bushel of lime were in- 
 corporated, it would in a few months 
 form a mass of decayed compost of the 
 most fertilizing quality ; the lime re- 
 taining many of the gases evolved dur- 
 ing the putrefaction of the vegetable 
 matter, and the salt combining with 
 the lime to destroy noxious animals, 
 which might form a nidus in the mass. 
 By this plan nearly all the carbona- 
 ceous matters of the refuse vegetables 
 are retained ; by burning, nearly all of 
 them are dissipated." — Principles of 
 Gardening. 
 
 Lime rubbish is the old mortar and 
 plaster obtained when brick buildings 
 are pulled down. It is an excellent 
 manure, abounding with the salts of 
 potash and lime. It should be reduced 
 to powder before spreading and digging 
 in. 
 
 LIME, or LINDEN-TREE. Tilia. 
 LIME-WATER. "As water can 
 hold only a certain quantity of lime in 
 solution, it is immaterial how much of 
 that substance you mix with it. The 
 mixture should be well stirred, and 
 should be left until it has become clear, 
 when it will be fit for use. The best 
 23 
 
 mode of proceeding is to take forty 
 gallons of clean water, and, half an 
 hour before using, put one peck of 
 fresh-slacked lime into it. As soon as 
 it is clear it is fit for use. 
 
 " A watering-pot containing four gal- 
 lons will water a bed of four feet by 
 thirty feet, or rows of cauliflowers, 
 cabbages, &c, of double the length." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 LIMNANTHES Douglasii. Hardy 
 annual trailer. Seed. Sandy loam and 
 shady situation. 
 
 LIMNOCHARIS. Two species. 
 Stove perennial aquatics. Seed and 
 runners. Water. 
 
 LIMONIA. Five species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs, except L. scan- 
 dens, which is a climber. Cuttings. 
 Rich light loam and peat. 
 
 LINANTHUS dichotonus. Hardy 
 annual. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 LINARIA. Seventy-five species. 
 Hardy annual trailers, and herbaceous 
 and evergreen shrubs, except L. fruc- 
 ticans, and L. scoparia, which are 
 green-house evergreen shrubs. Seed 
 or cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 
 LINCONIA. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Sandy peat. 
 
 LINDERNIA pyxidaria. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 LINDLEYA mespiloides. Half-har- 
 dy evergreen shrub. Cuttings, and 
 grafts on the common thorn and larger 
 cotoneasters. Sandy loam, mixed with 
 calcareous rubbish. 
 
 LINDSiEA. Five species. Stove 
 and green-house ferns. Division and 
 seed. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 LINNiEA borealis. Hardy evergreen 
 trailer. Division. Shaded peat soil. 
 
 LINUM. Fifty-one species. Chiefly 
 hardy herbaceous and annuals; a few 
 green-house evergreen shrubs. Seed, 
 division, and cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and a little peat. 
 
 LION'S-EAR. Leonatis. 
 
 LION'S-FOOT. Leontopodium. 
 
 LION'S-TAIL. Leonatis leonurus. 
 
 LIPARIA sphcerica. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Young cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. Not too much 
 water. 
 
 LIPARIS. Fifteen species. Stove 
 epiphytes and orchids. All propagated 
 by offsets. Epiphytes in peat and pot- 
 sherds ; terrestrial orchids in sandy peat 
 and sandy loam. 
 
LIP 
 
 354 
 
 LIS 
 
 LIPOSTOMA campanuliflora. Stove 
 evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 LIPPIA. Two species. Stove. L. 
 dulcis, herbaceous; L. purpurea, ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Rich light soil. 
 L1QUIDAMBAR. Two species. 
 Hardy deciduous trees. Seed arid cut- 
 tings. Common soil. 
 
 LIQUID-MANURE is the most ad- 
 vantageous form in which fertilizers 
 can be applied by the gardener to his 
 crops. It is the most economical, most 
 prompt, and most efficient mode. The 
 manure is presented to the roots in one 
 of the only forms in which the roots 
 can imbibe food, and the manure 
 spread regularly through the texture of 
 the soil. If, instead of digging in sta- 
 ble-manure, each crop was watered 
 occasionally with liquid-manure, the 
 produce would be finer and more 
 abundant. 
 
 My brother, Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, 
 says, in his excellent work on "Fer- 
 tilizers:" — 
 
 " I have often employed with decided 
 effect, in my own garden, for vines, 
 peach, and standard apple-trees, liquid- 
 manure, prepared either by mixing one 
 part by weight of cow-dung with four 
 parts of water, or the collected drain- 
 age of the stable and cow-house. It 
 has been found advantageous to plants 
 cultivated in stoves to apply even a 
 liquid-manure, composed of six quarts 
 of soot to a hogshead of water; and al- 
 though this is a very unchemical mix- 
 ture, yet it has been found by Mr. 
 Robertson to be peculiarly grateful and 
 nourishing to pines, causing them to 
 assume an unusually deep healthy 
 green ; and, for stoved mulberry, vine, 
 peach, and other plants, the late Mr. 
 Knight, of Downton, employed a liquid- 
 manure, composed of one part of the 
 dung of domestic poultry and four to 
 ten parts of water, with the most excel- 
 lent result." — Johnson on Fertilizers. 
 
 Guano Liquid Manure. — Ten gallons 
 of water will readily dissolve, or keep 
 suspended in a state of minute division, 
 about 50 lbs. weight of guano. When 
 applied to plants, not more than five 
 ounces should be added to that quantity 
 of water. If it be made stronger, it 
 injures or kills the plants to which it is 
 applied. 
 
 Sheep" 1 s-dung, if employed for making 
 
 liquid manure, should be a peck to thir- 
 ty gallons. 
 
 When cow-dung is used, boiling wa- 
 ter should be first poured upon it, as it 
 is apt to be full of destructive larva?. 
 
 Sulphate of Ammonia, and any other 
 salt of ammonia, must not be used more 
 than a quarter of an ounce to each gal- 
 lon. 
 
 LIQUORICE. Glycyrrhiza glabra, 
 is only admitted into the garden for its 
 pharmaceutical properties. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — It thrives best 
 in a rich light soil, two or three feet 
 
 deep, which should be trenched com- 
 pletely to the bottom before planting. 
 When manure is added, it should be 
 regularly mixed throughout the texture 
 of the soil. In shallow or poor ground 
 it will not succeed : the situation can- 
 not be too open. 
 
 Time and Mode of Planting. — It is 
 propagated by cuttings of the side-roots, 
 which spring from the crown of the 
 plants, and run horizontally just beneath 
 the surface, which may be planted in 
 January, February, or early in March. 
 Each set should be about two inches 
 beneath the surface. The only cultiva- 
 tion they require is to be frequently 
 hoed, to keep them clear of weeds 
 throughout their growth ; and in autumn 
 the decayed stalks to be cut down, and 
 the earth stirred between the rows. 
 
 The roots are not fit for use until of 
 three or four years' growth. The sea- 
 son for taking them up is December, 
 January, or February. A trench must 
 be dug regularly along each row, quite 
 down to the extremity of the principal 
 roots, which descend two feet and 
 more. 
 
 LIRIODENDRON tulipij 'era, and one 
 variety L. T. obtus/folia. Hardy decidu- 
 ous tree. Seed. Rich light loam. 
 
 LISIANTHUS. Eight species. Stove 
 plants, evergreen, herbaceous, and an- 
 nual. Seed or cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 L. Russcllianus is a half-hardy bien- 
 nial. Mr. Cuthill, of Denmark Hill, 
 near London, is its most successful cul- 
 tivator; and the directions given by 
 him, with some other suggestions, arc 
 as follow : — 
 
 Sow the first week of March in a 
 forty-eight pot. Fill the pot very firmly 
 with a compost of loam, and leaf-mould 
 or peat, in equal proportions, mixed 
 with a little sand ; over the compost 
 
LIS 
 
 355 
 
 LO A 
 
 put half an inch in depth of damp sand, 
 and on this, being first pressed flat, the 
 seed is to be sown, and covered with a 
 little dry river-sand. Cover the top of 
 the pot with a piece of glass, and keep 
 in a temperature of 70°. Never water 
 on the top, but keep in a pan con- 
 stantly supplied with water. When the 
 seedlings are three weeks old, prick 
 out singly into sixties: the compost as 
 before, with plenty of drainage. When 
 established give water abundantly, both 
 in the pans and over the foliage, and 
 keep in a temperature of about 80°. 
 In August top them at every joint, and 
 six weeks after shift into forty-eights. 
 Give water now only in pans — for the 
 surface of the earth must be kept dry — 
 once a fortnight in dry weather, else 
 once a month ; and retain the plants 
 through the winter in a temperature be- 
 tween 50° and 60°. As February closes 
 remove them to a temperature of about 
 75°, moving them, as soon as vegeta- 
 tion is renewed, into eights. They now 
 require a high temperature, about 80° 
 or 85°, abundance of water, and some 
 liquid-manure. If kept in a pit during 
 the winter, they must not at first, when 
 moved into a house, be exposed to the 
 sun's rays. They will bloom in July, 
 and continue in flower two or three 
 months, if supplied abundantly with 
 water or liquid manure. Dryness of 
 soil occasions a speedy fall of the blos- 
 soms. — Johnson's Gardener's Almanack. 
 
 LISSANTHE. Seven species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings in spring. Sandy peat. Repot 
 into larger pots before moving from 
 green-house in summer. 
 
 LISSOCHILUS roseus. Stove epi- 
 phyte. Offsets. Peat and potsherds. 
 
 LISTS, for fastening trees against 
 walls, are usually merely shreds of 
 woollen cloth cut into lengths varying 
 from two to four inches. Strips of very 
 thin sheet-lead are preferable as not 
 harbouring insects; and, if there be 
 any truth in electricity being beneficial 
 to growing plants, lead thus employed 
 should improve their growth ; for, with 
 the nails, it forms a gentle galvanic 
 battery. Wires and twine have been 
 recommended to tie the branches to the 
 walls; but the process is tedious, and 
 cuts are inflicted, inducing gum and 
 canker. Shreds of a black, blue, or red 
 colour look best, harmonizing with that 
 of the leaves. If old lists are re-em- 
 
 ployed they should be previously boiled 
 to destroy the larvse of insects. 
 
 LITHOSPERMUM. Fifteen species. 
 Chiefly hardy, herbaceous, and ever- 
 green perennials. L. dispernum and L. 
 tenuiflorum are annuals. L. distichum 
 and L. scabrum are green-house herba- 
 ceous. Seed or cuttings. Light calca- 
 reous soil. 
 
 LITTiEA geminiflora. Green-house 
 evergreen perennial. Suckers. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 LIVISTONIA. Two species. Stove 
 palms. Seed. Sandy loam. 
 
 LOAM is a very indefinite term: al- 
 most every cultivator of the soil asso- 
 ciates with it a different explanation. 
 In some parts of England clay is so 
 called, and in others* it is employed to 
 designate brick-earth ! As usually em- 
 ployed, it really is only synonymous 
 with the word soil ; for it has to be 
 qualified by the terms turfy, sandy, 
 clayey, and chalky, just as turf, sand, 
 clay, or chalk predominate. Then, 
 what is hazel loam ? Why, no other 
 than a rich friable soil, having a dark 
 brown or hazel colour, owing to the 
 predominance of decaying vegetable 
 matters. Before long, we hope to see 
 determined how much silica is to be 
 understood as existing in a loam termed 
 sandy, and how mnch alumina' in that 
 which is correctly termed clayey. 
 
 The following is the analysis of a 
 hazel loam : — 
 
 Silica and quartz sand . . 95.0 
 » Alumina 3.0 
 
 Vegetable matters . . . 5.0 
 
 Oxide of iron 1.5 
 
 Lime, soda, oxide of manganese 0.25 
 
 Gypsum, phosphate of lime,) q 2 « 
 and common salt . . ) 
 
 Such a Joam is useful to render light 
 soils more retentive, and heavy soils 
 more porous; but, for this purpose, 
 must be applied at the rate of 100 tons 
 per acre. 
 
 Maiden loam is soil taken from the 
 surface of a pasture. 
 
 LOASA. Nine species. Chiefly hardy 
 and green-house annuals. L. incana is 
 a green-house evergreen trailer. Seed. 
 Light soil. L. placet is a dangerous 
 stinging plant. Mr. Halliday, gardener 
 at Elmham Hall, gives these directions 
 for cultivating : — 
 
 «L. lateritia. — Plants of this, saved 
 from seeds sown in the spring, kept in 
 pots during the summer, shifted twice 
 
LOA 
 
 356 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 LOQ 
 
 or oftener in the course of the autumn, 
 so as to require a twenty-four sized pot 
 about March, make good green-house 
 plants for the same season. Planted 
 out at the same time as other half- 
 hardies, in a shaded situation, it also 
 makes a good bed for the flower-garden 
 
 putting a stiff, branchy pea-stake to j light soil. 
 
 green tree. Cuttings. Sandy loam and 
 peat. Little water. 
 
 LOPHOSPERMUM. Three species. 
 Half-hardy evergreen climbers. Cut- 
 tings. Rich light loam. 
 
 LOPIMIA malacophylla. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Young cuttings. Rich 
 
 each plant for it to run upon. But it 
 best unfolds its beauty upon a north 
 wall, planted out in a rich, light soil, 
 with four or more pieces of line to 
 each plant for the shoots to climb." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 LOAVING. See Heading. 
 
 LOBELIA. Eighty-four species. 
 Chiefly hardy and green-house herba- 
 ceous plants. Some, however, are an- 
 nual, and others require the heat of a 
 stove. Herbaceous are propagated by 
 division; shrubby by cuttings ; annuals 
 by seed. Sandy loam and peat suit 
 them all. 
 
 LOBSTER-SHELLS. See Animal 
 Matters. 
 
 LOCUST-TREE. Hymencea. 
 
 LODDIGESIA oxalidifolia. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 LOMATIA. Five species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sand 
 and peat. 
 
 LONCHITES. Two species. Stove 
 ferns. Division. Turfy loam and peat. 
 
 LONCHOCARPUS. Nine species. 
 Stove evergreen trees. Young cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 LONGCHAMPSIA capillifolia. 
 Hardy annual. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 LONDON-PRIDE. Saxifraga um- 
 brosa. 
 
 LONICERA. Honeysuckle. Eigh- 
 teen species. Hardy deciduous shrubs 
 and twiners. Cuttings in autumn. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 LOOKING-GLASS TREE. Heri- 
 tiera. 
 
 LOOSESTRIFE. Lysimachia. 
 
 LOPEZIA. Six species. Hardy an- 
 nuals and green-house biennials. All 
 require to be raised in a hot-bed ; the 
 annuals to be removed to a south 
 
 LOQUAT. Eriobotrya japonica. 
 The following are the best directions 
 we have for its cultivation : — 
 
 " Light sandy loam, which is na- 
 turally rich, suits the loquat well. 
 Young plants may be purchased of the 
 London nurserymen; but they should 
 be rejected if they have not been graft- 
 ed on the common mespilus germanica, 
 or some other nearly allied genius." 
 
 " They may be propagated by seeds 
 or layers ; but if so raised, they must be 
 afterwards grafted. They may be plant- 
 ed six or eight feet apart in the house ; 
 but when they become too crowded 
 every alternate plant should be re- 
 moved on small hillocks of earth cor- 
 responding with the size of the plants, 
 which, as they advance in growth, may, 
 from time to time, have fresh earth 
 added to their roots until the border is 
 filled level. Care must be taken, whilst 
 the plants are young, to make them 
 produce the requisite quantity of 
 branches close to the graft, by shorten- 
 ing the shoots, or by pinching off the 
 tips. 
 
 " The loquat is half-hardy ; and it 
 will therefore be necessary to keep a 
 little fire in the house in winter, to pre- 
 vent the frost from injuring the plants. 
 The trees bloom naturally at that sea- 
 son ; but in this respect are almost at 
 the command of the gardener. They 
 may be forced into bloom in autumn ; 
 or, by keeping the house vl3ry cool in 
 winter, their blooming may be retarded 
 until spring. 
 
 " The temperature, during the grow- 
 ing seasons, may correspond with that 
 which is given to the peach when 
 forced. 
 
 " When the fruit is gathered, more air 
 should be admitted into the house. In 
 
 border, and the others to the green- : autumn the sashes might be entirely re- 
 moved, for a short time, so long as there 
 is no danger of frost. 
 
 " Though a separate house is highly 
 desirable to cultivate the loquat in, it 
 by no means follows that it will not 
 grow and fruit elsewhere. If it can be 
 accommodated with the back-wall of a 
 
 house 
 
 LOPHANTHUS. Five species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division 
 and cuttings. Common soil. 
 
 LOPHIOLA aurea. Hardy herbace- 
 ous. Division. Damp peat soil. 
 
 LOPHIRA africana. Stove eyer- 
 
LOR 
 
 357 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 LUI 
 
 pine or plant-stove, with a border of 
 two or three feet in breadth to grow in, 
 it will succeed remarkably well. It is 
 far from being a tender tree, or one 
 difficult to manage, being of a robust, 
 healthy habit, and requiring but little 
 attention. 
 
 " Some people eat the fruit before it is 
 quite ripe, at which period it has an 
 agreeable acid flavour ; but to obtain a 
 luscious, melting, highly-flavoured fruit, 
 it should hang on the trees until some- 
 what shrivelled. It is probable that the 
 fruit would ripen on the back-wall of 
 some green-house, if it had plenty of 
 light and air ; at all events it is worth a 
 trial." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 LORD ANSON'S PEA. Lathyrus 
 magellanicus. 
 
 LOTE. Zizyphus lotus. 
 
 LOTUS. Forty species. Mostly 
 hardy and half-hardy annual and peren- 
 nial trailers. Perennials are increased 
 by cuttings ; and the annuals by seed, 
 in any light soil. 
 
 LOUREA.. Two species. Stove bi- 
 ennials. Seed. Light rich loam. 
 
 LOUSEWORT. Pedicularis. 
 
 LOUSE. See Aphis. 
 
 LOVE-APPLE. Lycopersicon escu- 
 lentum. See Tomato. 
 
 LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING. Amaran- 
 thus caudatus. 
 
 LOWEA berberrifolia. Half-hardy 
 deciduous shrub. Seed and layers ; 
 sandy loam and peat. Common salt 
 applied occasionally is beneficial. 
 
 LOZOTJENIA rosaria, is a small 
 moth, of which the caterpillar feeds 
 upon the leaves of the rose tree. Mr. 
 Curtis says, that — " The eggs are laid 
 in the summer or autumn, and hatch 
 with the opening leaves; and the little 
 caterpillar begins at once to form a re- 
 sidence by drawing two or more leaflets 
 together, on which it feeds. This ope- 
 ration soon points out where the cater- 
 pillar is, and the best method which 
 we know of getting rid of it, is hand- 
 picking, which should be practised as 
 soon as the operation of the caterpillar 
 becomes visible." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 LUCULIA gratissima. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. 
 
 Propagation by Cuttings. — « In pro- 
 pagating this take a piece of light peat 
 and break it quite fine, add about one- 
 third of fine silver sand, mix this well 
 together, and taking some small thumb 
 pots, place one crock at the bottom of 
 
 each pot, and fill them with the above 
 compost, about three parts full, press 
 this down in the centre of the pot, and 
 fill the remainder of the pot with silver 
 sand ; give them a good watering to 
 settle the cuttings, then take a large 
 pot and fill it half full of draining, and 
 the remainder with sand or gravel, and 
 then plunge four of the little pots in 
 this large one, and place a bell-glass 
 over them. Plunge in bottom-heat, and 
 in about a month the cuttings are rooted 
 and fit for potting off into small sixty- 
 pots ; keep them close for about a week 
 or so." 
 
 Grafting. — Mr. Beaton grafts the 
 Luculia upon stocks of Burchellia ca- 
 pe nsis. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 After- Culture. — "Drainage is abso- 
 lutely indispensable for Luculia. Dur- 
 ing the summer and early autumnal 
 months water should be freely supplied, 
 and the under surface of the leaves, as 
 well as the whole plant, repeatedly 
 washed with the fine rose of the syringe. 
 The general waterings must also be 
 gradually diminished in September, and 
 afterwards administered very sparingly, 
 for the fine fibrous roots are easily in- 
 jured by too much moisture. It requires 
 a much cooler treatment than it gene- 
 rally receives, and should never be 
 grown in a pot when it can be planted 
 out in a conservatory." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 " It is not inclined to grow naturally, 
 and therefore should not be stimulated 
 in the spring and early summer. During 
 that period it should be kept in a green- 
 house : towards the end of May and 
 the beginning of June, it should be 
 planted out in a warm place rather 
 sheltered from the sun. In August or 
 September it should be taken up and 
 repotted, and placed in a vinery or cool 
 hot-house. It will then grow vigorous- 
 ly, and form its head of blossoms, 
 which are both beautiful and fragrant, 
 and expand during the greater part of 
 the winter. It may be kept in the 
 drawing room without injury till it has 
 done flowering, and should then be re- 
 turned to the green-house." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 LUC U MA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings. Rich 
 sandy loam. 
 
 L U H E A paniculata. Stove ever- 
 green climber. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 L U I ST A alpina. Stove epiphyte. 
 
LUM 
 
 358 
 
 —♦ — 
 
 L YO 
 
 Lateral shoots, six inches long; attached 
 to blocks of charred wood. 
 
 LUMNITZERA moschata, a green- 
 house annual ; and L. tenuiflora, a stove 
 herbaceous perennial. The first by 
 seed, the second by division. Common 
 soil. 
 
 LUNARIA. Honesty. Two species. 
 Hardy biennial and perennial. Seed. 
 Common shaded soil. 
 
 LUNGWORT. Pulmonaria. 
 
 LUPINUS. Lupine. Fifty-seven 
 species. Chiefly hardy annual and herb- 
 aceous plants. Of these the propagation 
 is effected by seed in the open ground 
 in March, April, and May, observing 
 that as too copious moisture is apt to 
 rot the seed, they should not be sowed 
 earlier than the middle or latter end of 
 March, except on very dry, warm soils. 
 
 The annual sorts should be sowed at 
 once in the places where the plants are 
 to flower, for they do not succeed by 
 transplantation, and to have a succes- 
 sion of bloom, about three or four dif- 
 ferent sowings may be necessary from 
 about the middle or latter end of March 
 until June, especially the yellow sort, 
 whose bloom is rather of short dura- 
 tion; observing to sow all the sorts in 
 patches, four, five, or six seeds in each, 
 near an inch deep, and when the plants 
 come up, leave only three of the best 
 of them, though of the large kind one 
 or two may be sufficient in each place. 
 When large quantities are required for 
 nosegays to supply the markets, &c.,a.s 
 practised about London with the yellow 
 sweet scented sort, they may be sowed 
 in rows iri'beds, drilling them in an inch 
 deep, allowing a foot between the rows. 
 Keep them clean from weeds, which is 
 all the culture they require : the first 
 sown plants will furnish plenty of ripe 
 seed. If some seeds are sowed in au- 
 tumn, in September, in a warm dry situ- 
 ation, the plants will come up, and 
 often stand the winter tolerably well, 
 and flower early the following year ; 
 or, if some are sowed in pots, especial- 
 ly the giant sort, comprising the Large 
 Blue, and the Rose Lupine, which in 
 wet autumns ripen seed but indifferent- 
 ly, so that by placing the pots in a gar- 
 den frame, to have occasional protection 
 from hard frost, they will flower early 
 in the following summer, so as to per- 
 fect seeds before they are attacked by 
 the autumnal rains. 
 
 The perennial sort may be sowed 
 
 either in patches in the different com- 
 partments as already observed, for the 
 plants to remain where sowed ; or may 
 be sowed in beds in drills for trans- 
 plantation ; but as the plants generally 
 send their roots deep into the ground, 
 they generally succeed best when per- 
 mitted to remain where raised. — Aber- 
 crombie. 
 
 L UX EM BURG I A ciliosa. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light rich 
 loam. 
 
 LYCASTE. Four species. Stove 
 epiphyte. Offsets. Peat and pot- 
 sherds. 
 
 LYCHNIS. Twenty species. Hardy 
 herbaceous, except L. c&lirosa and L. 
 githago, which are annuals. Seed or 
 divisions, the latter to be annually re- 
 peated. Light rich loam. 
 
 LYCIUM. Sixteen species. Hardy 
 and half-hardy deciduous and ever- 
 green shrubs and climbers. Cuttings. 
 Light loam. 
 
 LYCOPERSICON. Nine spe- 
 cies. Hardy annuals, except L. peru- 
 vianwn, which is a stove herbaceous 
 perennial. See Love-Apple. 
 
 LYON, John. Mr. Lyon was born 
 in Scotland, and emigrated to this coun- 
 try about the commencement of the pre- 
 sent century. He shortly thereafter 
 entered into the employ of the late 
 Wm. Hamilton, and, for several years, 
 superintended his choice collection of 
 exotic plants at the "Woodlands." Mr. 
 Lyon subsequently became a regular 
 collector of American plants and seeds 
 for exportation, and in the prosecution 
 of his object made frequent excursions 
 to the south and west. His collections 
 were usually congregated at the Nur- 
 sery grounds of his friends at Phila- 
 delphia, and, when properly prepared, 
 were by him taken to Europe. He 
 made a number of trips to England, 
 each time carrying with him large lots 
 of our native plants, which met with 
 ready sale at liberal prices. Thirty or 
 forty years ago the communication with 
 Europe was not so trifling a matter as 
 at present, and a journey of some thou- 
 sand miles in search of floral treasures, 
 and their transportation across the At- 
 lantic, was quite an event in the horti- 
 cultural world. Mr. Lyon was a man 
 of cultivated mind, and, to a good plain 
 education, such as most of his country- 
 men receive, he had added the results 
 of extensive reading and observation. 
 
L YO 
 
 359 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 MAG 
 
 He died about the year 1S16, whilst on 
 a collecting journey in Tennessee, from 
 fever contracted by exposure whilst 
 travelling on horseback. 
 
 LYONIA. Six species. Hardy 
 evergreen shrubs. Layers and seed. 
 Peat. 
 
 LYONSIA straminea. Stove ever- 
 green twiner. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 LYSIMACHIA. Twenty spe- 
 cies. Hardy herbaceous perennials and 
 annuals, except L. atropurpurea and L. 
 maculata, which require a green-house. 
 L. thyrsi flora is an aquatic. Annuals 
 by seed ; others by division. Common 
 soil. 
 
 LYSINEMA. Five species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 LYTHRUM. Eleven species. Hardy 
 herbaceous and annuals. Division or 
 seed. Common soil. 
 
 MABA buxifolia, a stove evergreen 
 shrub, and M. laurina, a green-house 
 evergreen trailer. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 MACLEANIA longiflora. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light 
 loam. 
 
 MACLEAYA cordata. Hardy herb- 
 aceous perennial. Division, and seeds. 
 Rich mould. 
 
 MACLURA. Three species. M. 
 aurantiaca is a hardy deciduous tree ; 
 the two others, stove evergreen trees. 
 Ripe cuttings. Turfy loam and peat. 
 M. aurantiaca, the Osage Orange, is 
 admirably adapted for hedges : it is of 
 rapid growth, perfectly hardy as far 
 north as Pennsylvania, is not subject to 
 disease, is armed with sharp spines 
 which pain on puncture, and, abound- 
 ing in acrid juice, is not browsed by cat- 
 tle. With these qualities it is, we think, 
 destined to be extensively used as a 
 hedge plant. 
 
 M'MAHON, Bernard, was a native 
 of Ireland. Implicated in the disastrous 
 rebellion of '98, he fled to this country, 
 and was for some years connected with 
 a political newspaper of Philadelphia. 
 Our purpose is, however, to refer to Mr. 
 M'Mahon as associated with the subject 
 of this work. Mr. M. ultimately esta- 
 blished himself as a Nursery and Seeds- 
 man in that city, and published an ex- 
 cellent book on gardening, the " Ame- 
 rican Gardener's Calendar," which was 
 favourably received, and opportunely 
 issued, for at that time information on 
 
 the art, of which it treated, was in the 
 United States much needed. He was 
 said to have been a man of liberal edu- 
 cation, and an ardent admirer of horti- 
 culture. It is probable his love for it 
 led to his embarking in the sale of 
 plants and seeds as a profession. In 
 connection with his seed-store, Mr. M. 
 established a Nursery near the city, and 
 concentrated many interesting speci- 
 mens on his grounds. They were, at a 
 later day, under the management of his 
 son, but are now, we believe, no longer 
 cultivated as a Nursery. 
 
 MACRADENIA. Three species. 
 Stove orchids. Division. Wood. 
 
 MACROCNEMUM. Two species. 
 Stove evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 MACRO PODIUM laciniatum. 
 A hardy annual, increased by seeds; and 
 M. nivale, a hardy herbaceous peren- 
 nial, increased by cuttings. A light 
 rich soil suits them both. 
 
 MACROTYS racemosa. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennial. Division. Rich 
 soil. 
 
 MADAGASCAR NUTMEG. Aga- 
 thophyllum. 
 
 MADAGASCAR POTATO. Solatium 
 anguivi. 
 
 MAD-APPLE. Solarium insanum. 
 
 MADDER. Rubia. 
 
 MADIA. Two species. Hardy an- 
 nuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 MADWORT. Alyssum. 
 
 MiESA. Five species. Stove ever- 
 green shrubs or trees. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 MAGNOLIA. Fourteen species. 
 They are chiefly hardy deciduous trees, 
 but M. grandiflora, and its varieties, 
 require protection in Pennsylvania, in 
 severe winters, especially if the soil be 
 not thoroughly drained. The next most 
 worthy of cultivation are M. acuminata, 
 M. macrophylla, M. glauca, and M. pur- 
 purea. 
 
 Planting. — The best season for plant- 
 ing all the species is early in spring, 
 though as those sorts which are in pots 
 may be turned out with the ball of 
 earth about their roots, they may be 
 occasionally transplanted in October or 
 beginning of November. Observe, as 
 they are rather of a tender nature in 
 their younger growth, it is proper to 
 allot them a sheltered sunny situation, 
 and dry soil ; and all of them should be 
 stationed in the most conspicuous point 
 
MAG 
 
 360 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 MAN 
 
 of view, and not too closely crowded 
 with shrubs of inferior merit. 
 
 MAGPIE MOTH. See Abraxas. 
 
 MAHERNIA. Thirteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings taken off at a joint. Loam and 
 sandy peat. 
 
 MAHONIA. Four species. Hardy 
 or half-hardy evergreen shrubs. M. 
 nervosa is deciduous. Layers or ripe 
 cuttings. Sand, peat, and Joam. 
 
 MAIDEN HAIR. Passiflora adian- 
 tum, and Adiantum capillus veneris, 
 SfC. 
 
 MAIDEN-HAIR TREE. Salisburia 
 adiantifolia. 
 
 MAIDEN TREE is a seedling tree 
 which has not been grafted. 
 
 The time which elapses before seed- 
 lings attain a bearing age is very vari- 
 ous. The pear requires from twelve to 
 eighteen years ; the apple five to thir- 
 teen ; plum and cherry four to five; 
 vine three to four ; raspberry two ; and 
 the strawberry one. 
 
 MAJORANA. Four species. Half- 
 hardy evergreen shrubs. M. hortensis 
 a hardy annual. Slips or cuttings. 
 They succeed well in a sandy soil and 
 a dry situation. 
 
 MALABAR LEAF. Cinnamomum 
 Malabatrum. 
 
 MALABAR NIGHTSHADE. Ba- 
 sella. 
 
 MALABAR NUT. Justicia adha- 
 toda. 
 
 MALABAR ROSE. Hibiscus Rosa 
 Malabarica. 
 
 MALACHODENDRON ovatum. 
 Hardy deciduous tree. Layers or ripe 
 cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 MALAY APPLE. Jambosa malac- 
 censis. 
 
 MALASIS paludosa. Hardy orchid. 
 Division. Sandy peat. 
 
 MALESHERBIA. Two species. 
 Green-house annuals. Seeds. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 MALFORMATION. See Deformity. 
 
 MALLOW. Malva. 
 
 MALOPE. Two species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 MALPIGHIA. Fourteen species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs or trees. Ripe 
 cuttings. Light soil. 
 
 MALT DUST. See Vegetable Ma- 
 nures. 
 
 MALVA. Mallow. Forty-eight spe- 
 cies. The stove and green-house ever- 
 green shrubs increase by cuttings, and 
 
 grow well in any rich soil. The hardy 
 and half-hardy herbaceous kinds in- 
 crease by division or by seeds. The 
 hardy annuals by seeds, and common 
 soil. 
 
 MALVAVISCUS. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 MAMMEA americana. Stove ever- 
 green fruit tree. Ripe cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 MAMESTRA. M. brassicce, M. ole- 
 racea. The whole cabbage tribe are 
 subject to the attacks of the caterpillars 
 of these moths, known as the Cabbage 
 and White -line Brown -eyed Moths. 
 These appear in June or May. The 
 Cabbage Moth is light brown, with wavy 
 marked wings; its caterpillar is green 
 stained with grey, with a dark line 
 down the back. The White-line Moth is 
 rusty brown, and its upper wings white 
 margined, with an orange coloured spot 
 near it; caterpillar brownish. Hand- 
 picking or lime dust are the only reme- 
 dies. — Curtis. 
 
 MAMMILLARIA. Seventy- eight 
 species. Stove evergreen shrubs. Off- 
 sets. Sandy peat. 
 
 MANDARIN ORANGE. Citrus no- 
 bilis. 
 
 MANETTIA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Young cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 MANGIFERA. Mango Tree. Two 
 species. Stove evergreen tropical fruit 
 trees. Ripe cuttings, or fresh seeds 
 imported from the places of their natural 
 growth. Turfy sandy loam, or loam 
 and peat. The mango thrives best in a 
 temperature of 60°. It does not require 
 bottom heat. Leaf-mould is a good 
 manure. It must not be pruned, for 
 excessive bleeding always follows. 
 
 MANGO GINGER. Curcuma amada. 
 
 MANGO TREE. See Mangifera. 
 
 MANIC ARIA saccifera. A fine palm 
 tree. Seeds. Rich loam. 
 
 MANNA. Alhagi. 
 
 MANNA ASH. Ornus rotundijolia. 
 
 MANULEA. Eleven species 
 Chiefly green-house annuals and ever- 
 green shrubs, or stove herbaceous per- 
 ennials. Cuttings or seeds. Peat and 
 sand, or vegetable mould. 
 
 MANURES. Manures are animal, 
 vegetable and mineral ; they directly 
 assist the growth of plants, first, by 
 entering into their composition ; second- 
 ly, by absorbing and retaining moisture 
 
MAN 
 
 361 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 MAN 
 
 from the atmosphere ; thirdly, by ab- 
 sorbing the gases of the atmosphere ; 
 fourthly, by stimulating the vascular 
 system of the plants. Manures approxi- 
 mately assist vegetation, first, by kill- 
 ing predatory vermin and weeds ; se- 
 condly, by promoting the decomposition 
 of stubborn organic remains in the soil ; 
 thirdly, by protecting incumbent plants 
 from violent changes of temperature. 
 
 All these properties seldom if ever 
 occur in one species of manure, but 
 each is usually particularized by pos- 
 sessing one or more in a superior de- 
 gree. That is the most generally appli- 
 cable manure, which is composed of 
 matters essential to the growth of plants: 
 the chief of these are carbon, hydrogen, 
 and oxygen ; therefore all animal and 
 vegetable substances are excellent ma- 
 nures. It would evidently be of great 
 benefit, if every plant could be manured 
 with the decaying parts of its own spe- 
 cies ; the ancients made this a particular 
 object. We read that those vines were 
 the most fruitful, which were manured 
 with their own leaves and prunings, and 
 the skins of expressed grapes. This 
 rule might be so far followed, as that 
 the stems of potatoes, peas, &c, could 
 be dug respectively into the compart- 
 ments where those crops are intended 
 to be grown in the following year. 
 
 Of the less general manures which 
 benefit plants by entering into their 
 composition, a few words will suffice. 
 Sulphate of lime (gypsum) is a compo- 
 nent of clover, lucerne, turnips, &c. ; 
 hence it has been applied with benefit 
 to these crops on such soils as did not 
 already contain it. Bones broken small 
 have lately become a very general ma- 
 nure; their utility is easily accounted 
 for. The bones of oxen contain about 
 fifty per cent, of gelatine, which is 
 soluble in water, and rapidly becomes 
 putrescent. The remainder is chiefly 
 phosphate and carbonate of lime, salts 
 which are components of wheat, rye, 
 barley, oats, peas, beans, vines, cucum- 
 bers, potatoes, garlic, onions, truffles, 
 &c. 
 
 Common salt also is employed as a 
 manure, and is beneficial, partly in con- 
 sequence of entering into the constitu- 
 tion of plants. 
 
 Some manures ameliorate a soil by 
 absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. 
 This property is at least as beneficial to 
 ground that is aluminous as to that 
 
 sd pre-" 1 ) 
 s, at a j 
 0°, ab- ! 
 
 which is siliceous; for it is equally use- 
 less to either during such periods of the 
 year as are characterized by a plentiful 
 deposition of rain ; but in the drought 
 of summer, when moisture is much 
 wanting to plants, it is beneficial to 
 both; in very dry seasons it is even 
 of greater importance to clayey than 
 to light soils ; for vegetation on the 
 former suffers more from long-continued 
 drought than on the latter, inasmuch as 
 that moisture being equally exhaled 
 from each, the surface of the clayey 
 soil becomes caked and impervious to 
 air, the only grand source of compensa- 
 tory moisture that is available to the 
 languishing plants, and which is more 
 open to those which grow on light, and, 
 consequently, more pervious soils. 
 
 The following table of the compara- 
 tive absorbent powers of many manures, 
 is extracted chiefly from An Essay on 
 the Use of Salt in Agriculture, by Mr. 
 Cuthbert Johnson. 
 
 Parts. 
 Horse-dung evaporated 
 viously to drynt 
 temperature of 100°, 
 sorbed during an exposure 
 of three hours to air satu- 
 rated with moisture at 62°J 
 Putrefied tanners' bark, 
 under similar circum- 
 stances (66°) .... 
 Unputrefied tanners' bark 
 
 Cowdung 130 
 
 Pig dung ........ 120 
 
 Sheep dung SI 
 
 Pigeon dung 50 
 
 Refuse marine salt (60°) . . 49a 
 
 Soot (68°) 36 
 
 Burnt clay 29 
 
 The richest soil (in one hour) 23 
 
 Coal ashes 14 
 
 Lime (part carbonate) . . 11 
 Crushed rock salt .... 10 
 
 Gypsum 9 
 
 Chalk 4 
 
 The absorbing power of a manure is 
 much influenced by the state in which 
 it is presented to the atmosphere. In 
 a finely divided state mere capillary at- 
 traction assists it; hence, the import- 
 ance of keeping the soil frequently 
 stirred by hoeing, &c. But a mere 
 mass of cotton, by means of capillary 
 attraction, will absorb moisture from the 
 air, yet it parts with it at a very slight 
 elevation of temperature : it is of im- 
 portance therefore to ascertain which 
 
 145 
 
 145 
 
 115 
 
MAN 
 
 362 
 
 MAN 
 
 ), 135' 
 
 90 
 
 are the manures that not only absorb I which by a few hours' exposure to the 
 but retain moisture powerfully. The air subsides into a gray or black hue. 
 following results of my experiments i The first colour appears to arise from 
 
 the oxyde of iron which all soils con- 
 tain, being in the state of the red or 
 protoxide ; by absorbing more oxygen 
 during the exposure, it is converted 
 into the black or peroxide. Hence one 
 of the benefits of frequently stirring 
 soils ; the roots of incumbent plants 
 abstract the extra dose of oxygen, and 
 reconvert it to the protoxide. Coal 
 ashes, in common with all carbona- 
 ceous matters, have the power of 
 strongly attracting oxygen. Every gar- 
 dener may have observed how rapidly 
 a bright spade of iron left foul with 
 coal ashes, becomes covered with rust, 
 or red oxide. 
 
 All animal and vegetable manures 
 absorb oxygen from the air during pu- 
 trefaction ? If it be required of what 
 benefit this property is to plants, since 
 the gases are freely presented to them 
 in the atmosphere, it admits the ready 
 answer, that they enjoy the additional 
 quantity which is thus collected to the 
 vicinity of their roots, without the lat- 
 ter source being diminished : and that 
 plants are benefited by such additional 
 application to their radicular has been 
 proved by the experiments of Mr. Hill. 
 
 The question may also be asked, 
 whether the roots have the power to 
 extract the oxygen from its combina- 
 tion ? That they have this power ad- 
 mits of little doubt, since Saussure 
 found that they were able to extract 
 various saline bodies from their combi- 
 nations ; not only extracting but select- 
 ing in those cases where several salts 
 were in the same solution. 
 
 Dr. Daubeny, the Oxford professor of 
 agriculture, has also shown that stron- 
 tian is rejected by barley, pelargoniums, 
 and the winged pea. 
 
 Carbonic acid is also of benefit to 
 
 throw some light on this point: — 
 
 Pig dung evaporated to dry-~ 
 ness at a temperature of 
 106°, and then moistened 
 with six parts of water, 
 required for being reduced 
 to dryness again, at the 
 above temperature 
 
 Horse-dung under similar" 
 circumstances 
 
 Common salt '. 75 
 
 Soot 75 
 
 Rich soil . . 32 
 
 Chalk 29 
 
 Poor soil (siliceous) .... 23 
 
 Gypsum 18 
 
 These experiments point out a cri- 
 terion by which we easily ascertain the 
 comparative richness of any two given 
 soils or manures; the most fertile will 
 be most absorbent and retentive. 
 
 Some manures increase the growth 
 and vigour of plants by stimulating their 
 absorbent and assimilating organs. 
 
 The stimulating powers of excremen- 
 titious manures arise from the salts of 
 ammonia they contain. 
 
 Sir H.Davy found vegetation assisted 
 by solutions of muriate of ammonia (sal- 
 ammoniac), carbonate of ammonia (vol- 
 atile salt), and acetate of ammonia. 
 Night soil, one of the most beneficial 
 of manures, surpasses all others in the 
 abundance of its ammoniacal consti- 
 tuents in the proportion of three to one. 
 It may be observed, that the nearer 
 any animal approaches to man in the 
 nature of its food, the more fertilizing 
 is the manure it affords. 
 
 I have no doubt that a languishing 
 plant, one, for example, that has been 
 kept very long with its roots out of the 
 earth, as an orange tree recently im- 
 ported from Italy, might be most rapid- 
 ly recovered, if its stem and branches] plants, when applied to their roots in 
 were steeped in a tepid weak solution an advanced stage of their growth, 
 of carbonate of ammonia, and when I Animal and vegetable matters evolve 
 planted, an uncorked phial of the so- J this gas whilst putrefying; and I am 
 
 lution were suspended to one of the 
 branches, to impregnate the atmosphere 
 slightly with its stimulating fumes. 
 
 Manures are also of benefit to plants 
 by affording some of the gases of the 
 atmosphere to their roots in a concen- 
 trated form. A soil, when first turned 
 tup by the spade or plough, has gene- 
 rally a red tint, of various intensity, 
 
 not aware of any manure that absorbs 
 it from the atmosphere, so as to be for 
 that reason beneficial to vegetation. 
 Lime attracts it rapidly, but combines 
 with it so strongly that it is useless to 
 the plant, until the carbonate of lime 
 so formed is imbibed and elaborated. 
 
 Manures assist plants by destroying 
 predatory vermin and weeds. This is 
 
MAP 
 
 363 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 MAR 
 
 not a property of animal and vegetable 
 manures — they foster both those ene- 
 mies of our crops. Salt and lime are 
 very efficient destroyers of slugs, snails, 
 grubs, &c. 
 
 Stable manure, and all decomposing 
 animal and vegetable substances, have 
 a tendency to promote the decay of 
 stubborn organic remains in the soil, 
 on the principle that putrescent sub- 
 stances hasten the process of putrefac- 
 tion in other organic bodies with which 
 they come in contact. Salt, in a small 
 proportion, has been demonstrated by 
 Sir J. Pringle to be gifted with a similar 
 septic property, and that lime rapidly 
 breaks down the texture of organized 
 matters is well known. 
 
 There is no doubt that rich soils, or 
 those abounding in animal and vegeta- 
 ble remains, are less liable to change 
 in temperature with that of the incum- 
 bent atmosphere, than those of a poorer 
 constitution. This partly arises from 
 causes explained when treating of the 
 influence of the colour of soils upon 
 vegetation. Some manures, as salt, 
 protect plants from suffering by sudden 
 reductions of temperature, by entering 
 in their system ; stimulating, and ren- 
 dering them more vigorous, impreg- 
 nating their sap, and, consequently, 
 rendering it less liable to be congealed. 
 — Princ. of Gardening. 
 
 MAPLE. Acer. 
 
 MARANTA. Fifteen species. Stove 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Light 
 rich soil. 
 
 MARATTIA. Two species. Stove 
 perennial ferns. Division or seeds. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 MARCETIA excoriata. Stove shrub. 
 Cuttings. Rich light loam. 
 
 MARCGRAAVIA. Two species. 
 Curious stove evergreen shrubby creep- 
 ing plants. Cuttings. Turfy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 MARCH is a busy month, as will 
 appear from the following calendarial 
 directions: — 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 Alexanders, sow; earth up. — Angeli- 
 ca, sow or plant. — Artichokes, dress ; 
 plant. — Asparagus, sow ; plant; force; 
 and dress beds. — Balm, plant. — Basil, 
 sow. — Beans, plant; earth up. — Beet, 
 (red, white, and green), sow. — Borage, 
 sow. — Borecole, sow, e. — Brocoli, sow. 
 — Burnet, plant and sow. — Cabbages, 
 
 plant; sow. — Cardoons, sow, e. — Car- 
 roway, sow. — Carrots, sow, e. — Cauli- 
 flowers, plant from frames; give air to 
 those under glass; prick out spring- 
 raised ; sow, b. — Celeriac, sow. — Cele- 
 ry, sow ; dress and earth up Chamo- 
 mile, plant. — Chervil, sow. — Chives, 
 plant. — Clary, sow. — Cress, sow. — 
 Composts, prepare. — Coriander, sow, e. 
 — Corn Salad, sow. — Dill, sow. — Dung, 
 prepare for hot-beds. — Fennel, sow or 
 plant. — Garliclc, plant. — Horse-radish, 
 plant. — Hot-beds, make, line, &c. — Hys- 
 sop, sow, e. — Jerusalem Artichokes, 
 plant. — Kale (Sea), plant or sow ; force. 
 — Kidney Beans, sow; attend to those 
 forcing. — Lavender, plant. — Leeks, sow. 
 — Lettuces, sow ; prick out, and plant 
 out from frames. — Liquid Manure, give 
 to cabbages, &c. — Liquorice, plant, b. — 
 Marigolds, sow, — Marjoram, sow and 
 plant. — Mint, plant; clean beds. — 
 Mushroom Beds, attend to ; make. — 
 Mustard and Cress, sow. — Nasturtiums, 
 sow. — Onions, sow, put out buttons or 
 setts, plant for seed, b. ; (Potato and 
 Tree), plant. — Orach, sow. — Parsley, 
 (Com. and Hamb.) sow. — Parsnips, sow. 
 — Peas, sow. — Pompions and Purslane, 
 sow, e. — Potatoes, plant. — Pennyroyal, 
 plant. — Radishes, sow ; — Rampion, 
 sow. — Rape (com. and edible-rooted), 
 sow, e. — Rhubarb, sow, b.; plant, b. — 
 Rochambole, Rosemary and Rue, plant. 
 — Sage and Shallots, plant. — Salsafy 
 and Scorzonera, sow. — Savoys, sow. 
 Skirrets and Succory, sow. — Sorrels, 
 plant and sow. — Spinach, sow. — Tansy 
 and Tarragon, plant. — Tetragonia and 
 Thyme, sow, e. — Tomato, sow in hot- 
 bed. — Turnips, sow. — Wormwoods, 
 sow. 
 
 ORCHARD. 
 
 Apricots, prune, if before neglected, 
 b.; young ones, head down. — Blossoms 
 of wall fruit protect.— Currants, finish 
 planting and pruning, b. — Espaliers, 
 generally finish regulating, b. — Figs, 
 prune and train, and plant, being best 
 time ; make layers ; plant cuttings.— 
 Fork over the borders and quarters, if 
 before omitted. — Gooseberries, prune, if 
 before neglected, b.; finish planting, b. 
 — Grafting, in mild weather, is best 
 done this month. — Grafts, prepare — 
 Mulch round the trees newly planted, 
 to keep the roots moist. — Nectarines, 
 neglected before, prune, b ; young, 
 head down. — Peaches, before neglected, 
 
MAR 
 
 364 
 
 MAR 
 
 prune, b.; young, head down. — Plant- 
 ing omitted complete, b. — Pruning, 
 complete, without fail, b. — Raspberries, 
 finish planting, b. — Strawberries, finish 
 dressing, b.; plant; and in pots for suc- 
 cessive forcing. — Suckers, for stocks, 
 may be planted. — Support with stakes 
 trees newly planted. — Stocks, raise from 
 seeds of Apples, Pears, Quinces, and 
 Medlars. — Trench, ^-c. ground for plant- 
 ing — Vines, finish pruning without fail, 
 b.; plant cuttings, and make layers. 
 
 FLOWER GARDEN. 
 
 Annuals (Tender), prick out in hot- 
 bed ; give air freely ; and sow to blow 
 from July to Oct.; (Hardy), sow in bor- 
 ders, and pot to remain. — Anemones, 
 finish planting. — Auriculas, plant off- 
 sets; sow; and dress where omitted 
 last month. — Biennials, sow, e. — Bulbs, 
 finish planting — Carnations, sow; raised 
 by layers last year plant out. — Chrysan- 
 themums, raised from cuttings, plant 
 from frames into pots. — Cleanliness is 
 now even more than ordinarily requi- 
 site. — Dahlias, sow ; prick out ; plant 
 cuttings of roots ; all in a gentle hot- 
 bed. — Dress borders generally, if omit- 
 ted before.— Earth, give fresh to plants 
 in pots. — Edgings of Box, &c, may be 
 made. — Evergreens, sow ; plant and 
 prune in mild weather. — Forest Trees, 
 sow; cut down in shrubberies, &c. — 
 Grass Seeds, sow. — Gravel, weed, turn, 
 lay, and roll twice a week in dry wea- 
 ther. — Hand Glasses and a warm "border 
 •will now do for Tender Annuals. — 
 Hedges, finish making. — Hot-beds, for 
 tender Annuals, make ; give air freely ; 
 protect at night; day temp, to be kept 
 about 70°. — Hyacinths, put fresh tan or 
 saw-dust on beds. — Layers, make of the 
 Arborescent Chinese Peonies, &c. — Pe- 
 rennials, plant and water, they will 
 blow same year ; sow. — Polyanthuses, 
 divide roots and sow. — Pots of Roses 
 and other flowers put in hot-house, for 
 succession produce. — Protection, give 
 to Auriculas and other choice flowers 
 in bud. — Roses, prune, b.; plant cuttings 
 of roots ; plant established trees, and 
 if repeated in April and May, b., a suc- 
 cession of flowers may be had until 
 September ends ; give liquid manure. — 
 Shrubs, generally finish pruning and 
 planting. — Stake newly planted, and all 
 pliant shrubs, &c. — Sweet Briar for 
 hedges, &c, sow where to remain. — 
 Tulips (Early), protect bloom.— Turf 
 
 may be laid. — Water frequently, but 
 moderately, and only in mild weather. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit freely. — Cherries ripening 
 require but little water. — Flowers in 
 pots continue to introduce. — Kidney 
 Beans, continue forcing. — Leaves, clean 
 by the sponge and syringe. — Pines re- 
 quire more water, and greater heat; 
 syringe their crowns ; give liquid ma- 
 nure ; shift into larger pots. — Peaches, 
 thin ; the day temp, for them should 
 not exceed 70° ; disbud ; trim ; water 
 abundantly.-Propagetfe hot-house plants 
 by slips, cuttings, suckers, and layers, 
 according to the plant's nature ; it is 
 the best season. — Seedlings of culinary 
 plants, remove to a cooler place. — 
 Strawberries, in pots, continue forcing. 
 —Temperature for Pines should be about 
 85° at midday, and during night 60° ; 
 in the flower stove 65° and 55°. — To- 
 bacco fumigations continue. — Vines are 
 now all in motion ; thin ; train ; keep 
 well supplied with liquid manure ; air 
 keep moist, except to those in blossom ; 
 temp, as last month. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 Air cannot be admitted too freely 
 during fine weather and the tempera- 
 ture above 32°. — Earth (fresh), give to 
 oranges and other shrubs ; stir the sur- 
 face of that in the pots frequently. — 
 Heading-down may be practised upon 
 oranges and other shrubs growing ir- 
 regularly. — Leaves, clean and remove 
 those decayed. — Orange Kernels, sow 
 to raise stocks. — Pot singly last year's 
 cuttings. — Propagate by slips, cuttings, 
 and layers as appropriate. — Pruning, 
 finish. — Shifting, complete, where ne- 
 cessary. — Sow seeds of green-house 
 plants in pots, and plunge in a hot-bed. 
 Water frequently, but moderately. — 
 Windows always close at night. — Wood, 
 dead and weakly, remove. 
 
 MARGINS of streams and other wa- 
 ters must always accord with the plea- 
 sure grounds in which they are placed. 
 Art, therefore, must imitate each in its 
 proper place, not always by a studious 
 picturesque arrangement of the margi- 
 nal accompaniments in each case, but 
 by excavating the groundwork, planting 
 the trees and shrubs, and leaving the 
 rest to the motion of the waves of the 
 water. After the effects of one winter, 
 stones or gravel may be deposited in 
 
MAR 
 
 365 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 MAR 
 
 spots suitable for stony or gravelly 
 shores. 
 
 MA RICA. Ten species, chiefly 
 greenhouse herbaceous perennials. M. 
 paludosa is a stove aquatic. Division or 
 seeds. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 MARIGOLD. Calendula officinalis. 
 
 Varieties. — Single; Common double; 
 Largest very double; Double lemon- 
 coloured; Great Childing; Small Child- 
 ing. The single-flowered and those 
 which have the darkest orange colour, 
 are most esteemed, as possessing the 
 most flavour. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — The soil most 
 suited to them is one that is light, dry, 
 and poor. In rich ground they grow 
 larger and more luxuriant, but lose 
 much of their flavour and quality. The 
 situation cannot be too open and ex- 
 posed. 
 
 Sowing may be from the close of 
 February until June; or it may be per- 
 formed in autumn, during September. 
 If left to themselves, they will never 
 fail to multiply from the self-sown seed. 
 Sow in drills, ten inches apart ; the 
 plants are best left where raised, being 
 thinned to ten or twelve inches asunder; 
 but when the seedlings are two or three 
 inches in height, they may be removed 
 into rows at similar distances as above. 
 Water must be given moderately every 
 other day, until established. 
 
 Gathering. — The flowers, which the 
 spring-raised plants will produce in the 
 June of the same year, but those of 
 autumn not until that of the following 
 one, will be fit to gather for keeping in 
 July, when they are fully expanded, as 
 well as for use when required. Before 
 storing, they must be dried perfectly, 
 otherwise they become mouldy and 
 decay. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — Plants of each va- 
 riety must be grown as far distant from 
 each other as may be. The two child- 
 ing, and the largest double marigolds, 
 are especiable liable to degenerate, if 
 the seed is not carefully taken from the 
 largest and most double flowers. 
 
 MARJORAM. (Origanum.) O.mar- 
 jorana. Sweet or Summer Marjoram. 
 0. heracleoticum. Winter Marjoram. 
 0. onites. Common or Pot Marjoram. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — A light, dry and 
 moderately fertile soil is required for 
 their healthy growth; and if it is one 
 that has not been cropped for a con- 
 siderable time, it is the more favourable 
 
 for them. If the soil is wet or rich, 
 they are deficient in their essential 
 qualities, and the perennials are unable 
 to withstand severe weather. The sit- 
 uation cannot be too open. 
 
 Time and Mode of Propagation. — The 
 sweet marjoram is propagated solely by 
 seeds ; the two perennials by seed, as 
 well as by parting their roots, and slips 
 of their branches. Sowing may be per- 
 formed of all the species, from the con- 
 clusion of February, if open weather, 
 to the commencement of June ; but the 
 early part of April is the usual time for 
 performing it. Portions of the rooted 
 plants, slips, &c, may be planted from 
 February until May, and during Sep- 
 tember and October. 
 
 The sowing is performed either in 
 drills, six inches apart, or broadcast ; 
 in either case the seed being buried not 
 more than half an inch deep. When 
 the seedlings have attained a height of 
 two or three inches, they must be thin- 
 ned to six inches, and those removed 
 may be pricked in rows at a similar 
 distance apart each way. Those of the 
 annual species are to remain ; but those 
 of the perennials, to be finally removed 
 during September, at the distances di- 
 rected below, when raised from slips, 
 &c, water beinggiven at every removal, 
 and until the plants are established. 
 
 The slips and partings of the root, 
 are inserted in rows ten or twelve 
 inches apart, where they are to remain; 
 they must be watered moderately every 
 evening, and shaded during the day, 
 until they have taken root, which they 
 soon do, and acquire a stocky growth. 
 
 The only cultivation that any of the 
 species require, is the frequent applica- 
 tion of the hoe. In October the decay- 
 ed parts of the perennials are cut away, 
 and some soil from the alleys scattered 
 over the bed about half an inch in depth, 
 the surface of the earth between the 
 stools being previously stirred gently. 
 
 The tops and leaves of all the species 
 are gathered when green in summer 
 and autumn, for use, in soups, &c. ; and 
 a store of the branches are cut and dried 
 in July or August, just before the flow- 
 ers open for winter's supply. 
 
 To obtain Seed.— There is little diffi- 
 culty in obtaining the seed of the pot 
 marjoram ; if a plant or two are left 
 ungathered from, it unfailingly ripens 
 in the course of the autumn. But the 
 exotic species seldom ripen theirs in 
 
MAR 
 
 MAY 
 
 this country ; consequently it is usually 
 obtained from the south of France or 
 Italy. In favourable years, however, 
 they sometimes perfect it late in au- 
 tumn. 
 
 Forcing. — When the green tops are 
 much in request a small quantity of 
 seed of the summer marjoram is sown 
 in January or February, in a moderate 
 hot-bed. 
 
 MARL is a compound of chalk (car- 
 bonate of lime) with either siliceous 
 sand or alumina. In the first instance, 
 it is a siliceous marl, best applied to 
 heavy soils; and in the latter a clayey 
 marl, adapted for light lands. Slaty 
 and shellmarls are varieties of the sili- 
 ceous. The relative proportions of the 
 constituents vary indefinitely, the chalk 
 amounting from 15 to 75 per cent. The 
 quantity applied per acre must also vary 
 greatly, according to the object to be 
 attained. To render a light soil more 
 tenaceous 100 tons per acre of clayey 
 marl are not too much ; neither is the 
 same quantity of siliceous marl an ex- 
 cess, if applied to a heavy soil to ren- 
 der it more friable. For much useful 
 information on this subject, see "Ruffin 
 on Calcareous Manures," a Virginia 
 publication. 
 
 M A R L E A begonicefolia. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Half-ripened 
 cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 MARRUBIUM. Nine species. Har- 
 dy herbaceous perennials. Division or 
 seed. Common soil. 
 
 MARSHALLIA. Four species. Half- 
 hardy herbaceous perennials. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 MARSH MALLOW. Althaa. 
 
 MARTYNIA. Four species. Stove 
 or green-house annuals. Seeds. Light 
 rich soil. 
 
 MASDEVALLIA infracta. Stove 
 orchid. Division. Wood. 
 
 MASSONIA. Thirteen species. 
 Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
 sets or seeds. Loam, peat and sand. 
 
 MASTERWORT. Astrantia. 
 
 MASTIC. Majorana crassifolia. 
 
 MASTICH. Thymus mastichina. 
 
 MASTICH TREE. Pistacia lentiscus. 
 
 MATHIOLA. The Stock. Twenty- 
 two species and several varieties. The 
 hardy annuals and biennials, and the 
 half-hardy shrubby kinds, increase by 
 seeds, and grow well in loam and peat. 
 The green -house evergreen shrubby 
 
 species, cuttings, light soil and sand. 
 See Stock. 
 
 M A T T I A. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 MAURANDYA. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen twiners. Young 
 cuttings or seeds. Light rich soil. 
 
 MAURITIA. Three species. Palms. 
 Rich sandy loam, and a strong moist 
 heat. 
 
 MAXILLARIA. Fifty-four species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood. 
 
 MAXIMILIANA regia. Palm. Rich 
 sandy loam, and a good moist heat. 
 
 MAY requires the gardener's especial 
 care in every department of his grounds. 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 Angelica, sow. — Artichokes, plant, 
 b.; clean beds. — Asparagus, keep clean; 
 apply liquid manure. — Balm, plant. — 
 Basil, plant out. — Beans, sow, hoe, top. 
 — Beet, (Red,) thin ; (White and Green), 
 sow. — Borage, sow. — Borecole, sow, b.; 
 plant ; prick out ; plant out ; hoe ; leave 
 for seed. — Brocoli, sow, b.; plant; prick 
 out. — Burnets, sow and plant. — Cab- 
 bages, sow; plant; earth up. — Capsicum, 
 plant out.— Carrots, sow ; thin. — Car- 
 doons, sow, b. — Cauliflowers, take 
 glasses from ; sow the late variety for 
 autumn use. — Celery, sow, b. ; prick 
 out; plant out; water; leave for seed. 
 Chamomile, plant. — Chervil, sow ; leave 
 for seed. — Chives, plant. — Coriander, 
 sow; leave for seed. — Cress, sow ; (Wa- 
 ter), plant. — Crops, failed, replace forth- 
 with. — Cucumbers, prick out; plant out; 
 attend to forcing. — Dill, sow, and plant. 
 — Earthing-up, attend to. — Endive, 
 sow, e.; leave for seed. — Fennel, sow 
 and plant. — Finochio, sow; clean. — 
 Hot-beds attend to; linings, &c. — Hyssop, 
 sow and plant. — Kale, (Sea,) attend to 
 blanching, &c. — Kidney-Beans (dwarfs), 
 sow, b.; (runners) sow. — Lavender plant. 
 Leeks, sow; thin; leave for seed. — 
 Lettuces, sow; plant out; tie up. — Mari- 
 golds, sow. — Marjorams, sow and plant. 
 — Melons, sow, b.; prick out; ridge out; 
 attend to forcing; thin laterals. — Mint, 
 plant. — Mushroom-beds, make, b, ; at- 
 tend to those producing. — Mustard and 
 Cress, sow; leave for seed. — Nasturti- 
 ums, sow, b. — Onions, weed, &c. ; sow 
 for planting again in spring'; (Welch), 
 leave for seed. — Parsley, sow ; leave 
 for seed; (Hamburgh), thin. — Parsnips, 
 
MAY 
 
 367 
 
 MAY 
 
 thin, &c. — Peas, sow ; top those bloom- 
 ing. — Pennyroyal, plant. — Pompions, 
 sow 9 b. ; ridge out, b. — Potatoes, plant, 
 b. ; hoe. — Purslane, sow ; leave for 
 seed. — Radishes, sow ; leave for seed. 
 — Rape, tor salading, sow ; (Edible- 
 rooted), sow, e, — Rosemary, plant. — 
 Rue, plant. — Sage, plant. — Salsafy, 
 thin, &c. — Savory, sow and plant. — Sa- 
 voys, sow, b.; plant; prick out. — Scor- 
 zonera, thin, &c. — Sorrels, sow and 
 plant. — Spinach, sow; thin; leave for 
 seed. — Tansy, and Tarragon, plant. — 
 Thyme, sow and plant. — Tomatoes, plant 
 out. — Turnips, sow ; thin. — Turnip- 
 Cabbage, sow. — Watering, attend to in 
 dry weather. — Weeds, destroy as they 
 
 ORCHARD. 
 
 Apples (Wall and Espalier), trim and 
 train, e. — Apricots, trim and thin their 
 fruit. — Budded Trees, remove shoots 
 from stocks below the buds. — Grafts, 
 remove clay and loosen bandages from, 
 e. ; remove shoots from stock. — Insects, 
 watch for and destroy with lime-dust, 
 tobacco, or other application. — Mulch, 
 continue round late-planted trees. — 
 Nectarines, trim and train ; thin fruit. — 
 Peaches, trim and train ; thin fruit. — 
 Pears (Wall and Espalier), trim and 
 train, e. — Plums (Wall and Espalier), 
 trim and train, e. — Salt, strewn along 
 the top of a wall, prevents slugs and 
 snails coming over from the shaded 
 side.— Snails, destroy ; they are very 
 destructive now to wall-fruit, especially 
 nectarines. — Vines, trim and train ; hoe 
 frequently those in vineyard. — Wall 
 Trees generally require training this 
 month. — Water, apply by the engine 
 to wall-trees and espaliers; give to 
 newly-planted trees, in dry weather, 
 frequently. 
 
 FLOWER GARDEN. 
 
 Anemones, take up, and separate off- 
 sets as leaves decay. — Annuals, remove 
 from hot-bed to borders. — Auriculas, 
 done blooming, remove to north-east 
 aspect, where they will not have the 
 sunshine after nine; offsets, detach and 
 plant ; seedlings, keep in the shade ; 
 water moderately in dry weather. — 
 Awnings or other shelter, continue 
 over beds of hyacinths, tulips, e., now 
 in bloom. — Biennials, sow, b. — Bulbous 
 Roots, generally, directly leaves decay, 
 take up and store; seedlings, shade 
 
 during midday; (Autumn blooming), 
 plant again after separating offsets, or 
 else store until end of July. — Carna- 
 tions, remove side-buds from flower- 
 stems; shade from meridian sun; water 
 in dry weather; sow. — Dahlias, plant 
 out from green-house ; e. — Dress the 
 borders, &c, almost daily. — Evergreens 
 may be planted, b. — Fibrous-rooted pe- 
 rennials, propagate by cuttings of young 
 flower-stalks. — Flowering- Plants re- 
 quire staking, &c. — Grass, mow and 
 roll weekly. — Gravel, roll weekly. — 
 Hoeing cannot be too frequent. — Hya- 
 cinths, take up and store as leaves de- 
 cay. — Mignionette, sow for succession, 
 b. — Perennials, sow, b.; propagate by 
 slips and cuttings. — Polyanthuses, part, 
 if not done in April; shade, and through- 
 out the summer, sunshine destroys 
 them. — Roses, this is the best season for 
 budding. — Stake and tie up plants ; seed- 
 lings, thin. — Tulips, remove seed-pods ; 
 take up and store as leaves decay. — 
 Turf may be laid, and grass-seed sown, 
 b. ; water frequently in dry weather. — 
 Wall-flowers, sow, to bloom next year. 
 — Water-glass bulbs, plant in borders 
 as flowers decay. — Watering, attend to 
 in dry weather, especially to plants 
 newly removed. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit as freely as possible. — 
 Bark-Beds may be renewed, if not done 
 in April. — Figs, keep well watered; 
 pick off laterals. — Fruit Trees, in forc- 
 ing, for treatment see April. — Grapes, 
 gather before dead ripe, and hang in 
 grape-room. — Pines, water every fourth 
 morning ; shift last year's crowns, if not 
 done in April, b. ; temperature at night 
 75°, and at midday 100°.— Potted Plants 
 may yet be shifted, b. ; shade for a few 
 days after. — Propagate by seeds, cut- 
 tings, &c, if before omitted. — Pruning 
 should have been finished last month; 
 pinch down the fruit-shoots.— Strawber- 
 ries, fruiting, give liquid-manure. — Sy- 
 ringing, generally, as fruit ripens, dis- 
 continue. — Vines, keep at a night tem- 
 perature of 70°, and tit midday 85° ; 
 when grapes are beginning to ripen 
 cease from syringing; remove super- 
 fluous shoots. — Water, supply very fre- 
 quently, but moderately. — Work, gene- 
 ral, required. (See April.) 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 Air is now so essential that potted 
 
MAY 
 
 368 
 
 — • — 
 
 plants of hardier kinds move to outside. 
 — Cuttings of some plants will still 
 grow. — Earth, is pots, stir. — Layering 
 will yet be successful. — Leaves, clean, 
 before removing from house. — Orange- 
 stocks, seedlings pot singly ; in arching 
 of the orange and lemon may yet be 
 practised. — Pruning must now be only 
 casual. — Shifting into larger pots com- 
 plete, b. — Succulent Plants, as aloes, 
 &c, may be moved out, e. — Water fre- 
 quently but moderately; it may be 
 poured freely over their foliage as a 
 cleanser. — Windows and doors open 
 daily, and during mild nights, to harden 
 before moving out. 
 
 ME A 
 
 Podophyllum pelta- 
 
 MAY APPLE. 
 turn. 
 
 MAYTENUS. Four species. Half- 
 hardy or green-house evergreen shrubs 
 or trees. Ripe cuttings. Peat, loam, 
 and sand. 
 
 MAZE. See Labyrinth. 
 
 MAZUS pumilio, a hardy annual ; and 
 M. rugosus, a half-hardy trailing an- 
 nual. Seeds. Common soil, and a warm 
 situation. 
 
 MEADOW-SAFFRON. Colchicum. 
 
 MEADOW-SWEET. Spircea ulma- 
 ria. 
 
 MEASURES, ENGLISH. 
 
 GRAIN MEASURE. 
 
 4 Gills . make .... 1 Pint . containing 
 
 2 Pints 1 Quart .... 
 
 4 Quarts 1 Gallon .... 
 
 2 Gallons 1 Peck .... 
 
 4 Pecks 1 Bushel .... 
 
 4 Bushels 1 Sack .... 
 
 8 Bushels 1 Quarter .... 
 
 5 Quarters 1 Load .... 
 
 34f Cubic Inches. 
 69i 
 
 277i 
 
 554i 
 
 22181 
 
 5* 
 
 10i 
 
 51* 
 
 Feet. 
 
 TIMBER MEASURE. 
 
 A load of timber, unhewn, is 40 cub. ft. 
 squared, 50 " 
 
 1 inch plank 600 sq. ft. 
 H " 400 " 
 
 2 " 300 " 
 
 A load of 2^ inch plank 240 sq. ft. 
 
 3 " 200 " 
 3| " 170 " 
 
 4 " 150 " 
 
 LAND MEASURE. 
 
 The English statute acre contains 
 4840 square yards ; the Scotch, 5760 ; 
 the Irish, 7840 ; the Devonshire, cus- 
 tomary, 4000; the Cornish, 5760; the 
 Lancashire, 7840 ; the Cheshire and Staf- 
 fordshire, 10,240 ; the Wiltshire tenant- 
 
 ry, 3630. The French arpent is an 
 English acre and three-fourths of a 
 rood. The Strasburg acre is nearly 
 half an English acre ; the Prussian mor- 
 gen is not quite three-fourths of an 
 acre. 
 
 LONG MEASURE. 
 
 12 Inches 
 
 . . . 1 Foot. 
 
 40 Poles . . 
 
 . . 1 Furlong. 
 
 3 Feet . 
 
 . . . 1 Yard. 
 
 8 Furlongs . 
 
 . . 1 Mile. 
 
 6 Feet . 
 
 . . . 1 Fathom. 
 
 3 Miles . . 
 
 . . 1 League. 
 
 5| Yards 
 
 . . . 1 Pole. 
 
 | 69i Miles 
 
 . . 1 Degree. 
 
 
 SQUARE 
 
 MEASURE. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 
 144 
 
 1 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Poles, Rods, 
 
 
 1,296 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 or Perches. 
 
 
 39,204 
 
 272£ 
 
 30£ 
 
 1 1 Roods. 
 
 
 1,568,160 
 
 10,890 
 
 1210 
 
 40 1 
 
 1 Acre. 
 
 6,272,640 
 
 43,560 
 
 4840 
 
 160 4 
 
 1 1 
 
 30 Acres are 1 Yard of Land. 
 100 ... 1 Hide of Land. 
 640 ... 1 Square Mile. 
 
ME A 
 
 ME A 
 
 CUBIC MEASUBE. 
 
 1728 Cubic Inches make . . . 
 
 27 " Feet 
 
 40 « « of Rough Timber ; 
 
 50 " " of Hewn, do. • 
 
 108 " " ' 
 
 128 « « 
 
 1 Cubic Foot. 
 1 " Yard. 
 
 1 Load. 
 
 1 Stack of Wood. 
 1 Cord. 
 
 LONDON MARKET FBUIT AND VEGETABLE MEASURES. 
 
 These being made either of osier or 
 deal shavings, vary triflingly in size 
 more than measures made of Jess flexi- 
 ble materials. They are as follow : — 
 
 Sea-Kale Punnets. — Eight inches di- 
 ameter at the top, and seven inches and 
 a half at the bottom and two inches 
 deep. 
 
 Radish Punnets. — Eight inches di- 
 ameter, and one inch deep, if to hold 
 six hands ; or nine inches by one inch 
 for twelve hands. 
 
 Mushroom Punnets. — Seven inches 
 by one inch. 
 
 Salading Punnets. — Five inches by 
 two inches. 
 
 Half-Sieve. — Contains three imperial 
 gallons and a half. It averages twelve 
 inches and a half diameter, and six in- 
 ches in depth. 
 
 Sieve. — Contains seven imperial gal- 
 lons. Diameter, fifteen inches ; depth, 
 eight inches. 
 
 Bushel-Sieve. — Ten imperial gallons 
 
 and a half. Diameter at top, seven- 
 teen inches and three quarters ; depth, 
 eleven inches and a quarter. 
 
 Bushel-Basket — Ought, when heaped, 
 to contain an imperial bushel. Di- 
 ameter at bottom, ten inches ; at top, 
 fourteen inches and a half; depth, se- 
 venteen inches. Walnuts, nuts, apples, 
 and potatoes are sold by this measure. 
 A bushel of the last-named, cleaned, 
 weighs 56 lbs., but 4 lbs. additional are 
 allowed if they are not washed. 
 
 A Pottle is a long tapering basket 
 that holds about a pint and a half. 
 
 Hand — Applies to a bunch of ra- 
 dishes, which contains from twelve to 
 thirty, according to the season. 
 
 A Bundle contains six to twenty heads 
 of brocoli, celery, &c; and in the case 
 of asparagus from 100 to 150. 
 
 A Bunch is applied to herbs, and va- 
 ries much in size according to the 
 season. 
 
 HEAPED MEASURES. 
 
 English market-gardeners, and re- 
 tailers of fruit, potatoes, &c, generally 
 vend their commodities as if the Act of 
 Parliament, 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 63, did 
 not exist. By this statute selling by 
 heaped measure is forbidden under a 
 penalty of not more than 40s. for every 
 such sale. Section 8 provides that, as 
 some articles heretofore sold by heaped 
 measure are incapable of being stricken, 
 and may not inconveniently be sold by 
 weight, it is enacted, that all such arti- 
 ticles may henceforth be sold by a 
 bushel-measure, corresponding in shape 
 with the bushel prescribed by the 5 
 Geo. IV. c. 74, for the sale of heaped 
 measure, or by any multiple or aliquot 
 part thereof, filled in all parts as nearly 
 to the level of the brim as the size and 
 shape of the articles will admit; but 
 nothing herein shall prevent the sale by 
 weight of any article heretofore sold by 
 heaped measure. The 5 Geo. IV. c. 
 74, thus referred to, enacts, by section 
 24 
 
 7, that for potatoes, fruit, &c, the 
 bushel shall be made round, with a 
 plain and even bottom, and being nine- 
 teen inches and a half from outside 
 to outside, and capable of containing 
 801bs. weight of water. 
 
 Of Wood Fuel. — English Measure. — 
 Wood-fuel is assized into shids, billets, 
 faggots, fall-wood, and cord-wood. A 
 shid is of fall-wood and cord-wood. 
 
 A shid is to be four feet long, and, 
 according as they are marked and 
 notched, their proportion must be in 
 the girth : viz., if they have but one 
 notch they must be sixteen inches in 
 the girth ; if two notches, twenty-three 
 inches; if three notches, twenty-eight 
 inches ; if four notches, thirty-three 
 inches ; and if five notches, thirty-eight 
 inches about. 
 
 Billets are to be three feet long, of 
 which there should be three sorts ; 
 namely, a single cask, and a cask of 
 two. The first is seven inches; the se- 
 
MEC 
 
 370 
 
 MEL 
 
 cond ten inches ; and the third fourteen 
 inches about. They are sold by the 
 hundred of five score. 
 
 Faggots are to be three feet long, and, 
 at the band, of twenty-four inches about, 
 besides the knot ; of such faggots fifty 
 go to the load. 
 
 Bavins and Spray-wood are sold by 
 the hundred, which are accounted a 
 
 load. Cord-wood is the bigger sort of 
 fire-wood ; and it is measured by a cord 
 or line, whereof there are two measures 
 — that of fourteen feet in length, three 
 feet in breadth, and three feet in height ; 
 the other is eight feet in length, four 
 feet in height, and four feet in 
 breadth. 
 
 MEASURE OF WOOD. 
 
 1000 Billets of Wood = 1 Cord. 
 
 10 Cwt. of Wood = 1 Cord. 
 
 1 Cord of Wood = a Chaldron of Coals. 
 
 100 Lbs. of Wood = 1 Quintal of Wood. 
 
 MECONOPSIS. Three species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. Seeds. 
 Light soil. 
 
 MEDIC AGO. Seventy -two species. 
 Chiefly hardy annuals, and, for the most 
 part, trailers. The herbaceous peren- 
 nial kinds are increased by division ; 
 the shrubby species by cuttings; and 
 the annuals by seed. Common soil 
 suits them all. 
 
 MEDICK. Medicago. 
 
 MEDINILLA erythrophylla. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. 
 
 MEDLAR. Mespilus germanica. 
 
 Varieties. — Blake's Large ; Dutch, 
 largest fruit; Nottingham, small, but 
 best flavoured ; Stoneless, inferior, but 
 keeps longer than others. 
 
 Propagation by Seed. — This is a tedi- 
 ous mode, the seed usually lying two 
 years before it germinates. Sow imme- 
 diately the fruit containing the seed de- 
 cays, in common light soil. Water the 
 seedlings frequently in dry weather ; 
 thin them to two feet apart ; and when 
 four or five years old they will be fit for 
 final planting. 
 
 By Layers. — This may be done in 
 February and March, making use of 
 shoots of the previous year. They will 
 have rooted by the autumn. 
 
 Grafting and Budding may be done 
 on the White Thorn, but the Pear is a 
 better stock for the medlar. 
 
 Soil. — A well-drained, but retentive 
 loam suits it best. 
 
 Planting, Pruning, fyc. — See the di- 
 rections given for the Pear. 
 
 Storing. — The fruit ought not to be 
 gathered until November, for if the 
 gathering is made before the fruit is 
 fully matured, it shrivels without ripen- 
 ing in its decay. Spread them singly 
 upon sand, the calyx, or open side 
 
 downwards, and dipping the stalk end 
 in a strong brine of common salt and 
 water, which is said to check the oc- 
 currence of mouldiness. 
 
 MEGACLINIUM. Three species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood. 
 
 MEGASTACHYA. Nine spe- 
 cies. Grasses. Chiefly annuals. Seeds. 
 Common soil. 
 
 MELALEUCA. Forty-six species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Half- 
 ripened cuttings. Loam, peat, and 
 sand. 
 
 MELANTHIUM. Eight species. 
 Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
 sets or seeds. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 MELASPH^RULA. Four species. 
 Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
 sets. Sandv peat. 
 
 MELASTOMA. Twelve species. 
 Chiefly stove evergreen shrubs. M. 
 elongata, is a tuberous- rooted perennial, 
 and very beautiful. Cuttings. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 MELHANIA. Three species. Stove 
 or green-house evergreen trees. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam. 
 
 MELTA. Nine species. Stove or 
 green-house evergreen trees. M. aze- 
 darach, is deciduous : large ripened 
 cuttings, with the leaves not shortened. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 MELIANTHUS. Three species. 
 Green-house or hardy evergreen shrubs. 
 Cuttings. Light rich soil. 
 
 MELICHRUS. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. San- 
 dy peat. 
 
 MELICOCCA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen fruit trees. Ripe cuttings. 
 Light loamy soil. 
 
 MELICOPE ternata. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
MEL 
 
 371 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 MEL 
 
 MELISSA. Balm. Four species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division. 
 Common soil. 
 
 MELITTA melissophyllum and two 
 varieties. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 Division. Common soil. 
 
 MELOCACTUS. Melon thistle. 
 Fourteen species. Stove evergreen 
 shrubs. Offsets. Sandy peat. 
 
 MELODINUS. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 MELOLONTHA, the Cockchafer. 
 
 M. vulgaris. Common Cockchafer. 
 
 M. horticolo. May-Bug, or Bracken- 
 clock. Feeds upon the leaves of the 
 Raspberry and Rose. Mr. Curtis justly 
 observes, that — " When the roses are 
 in full bloom in May, these beetles 
 sometimes do very extensive mischief 
 to the flowers, by eating out the anthers 
 and consuming the petals. Having de- 
 posited about a hundred eggs in the 
 earth, the female dies, and the larva? 
 hatch and commence their attacks upon 
 the roots of the grass. It is stated, that 
 they are feeding three years, and they 
 reside about an inch beneath the turf; 
 but as winter approaches, they retire 
 deeper into the earth ; and even in 
 November, when frost has set in, they 
 have buried themselves a spade deep. 
 The larvae are rather active and can 
 walk tolerably well, dragging their bo- 
 dies after them ; they lie, however, 
 generally curved up in the shape of a 
 horse-shoe; the head is deep, ochreous 
 and destitute of eyes. The body is 
 ochreous white with a few brown hairs. 
 To kill these larvae, water the grass in 
 the autumn with one-tenth gas liquor 
 to two-tenths water, it will do no mis- 
 chief to the grass, but will extirpate 
 these miners. Where the gas liquor 
 cannot be obtained, employ strong salt 
 water." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 MELON. Cucumis melo. 
 
 Varieties. — There are many varieties 
 of the Melon of which the Nutmeg may 
 be considered as the type ; it and the 
 Citron are, however, the most desirable, 
 which have come under our observa- 
 tion. The mode of out-door culture 
 is very similar to that of the cucumber; 
 they delight in light land well manured ; 
 are quite tender, and should not be 
 planted until all fear of frost has ceased. 
 
 To force Melons. — Although a com- 
 mon hot-bed is generally used for this 
 plant, yet a pit, as it is technically 
 
 termed, is more economical, and by 
 enabling a more regular temperature to 
 be sustained, renders the fruit in great- 
 er perfection. The pit is a rectangular 
 frame or bin, built of nine inch brick- 
 work, in preference to boards, which 
 have to be renewed every five or six 
 years, if employed and enclosed by a 
 glass case of the necessary dimensions. 
 Mr. Smith, gardener to A. Keith, Esq., 
 of Ravelstone, N. B., has suggested a 
 mode of building a pit which renders 
 the renewal of the heat in it easy; and 
 as the committee appointed to examine 
 it report, is the means of considerable 
 saving compared with the common 
 mode of forming an open bed. But the 
 facility with which linings may be ap- 
 plied is its best feature ; for if by any 
 chance the heat failed, there was seldom 
 any alternative in the old pits but to 
 break them up. 
 
 The accompanying sketch will kt 
 once show the form of the pit, and Mr. 
 Smith's mode of applying the linings. 
 A is the pit the side of which a a in- 
 stead of being a continuous piece of 
 
 brick-work are merely rows of pillars 
 six feet apart ; and the brick-work of 
 the frame b b is supported by bars of 
 iron reaching from pillar to pillar. An 
 outer wall, c c, is constructed at two 
 and a half feet distance from the pillars 
 on each side ; thus two bins are formed 
 in which the linings are inserted, as is 
 found necessary, and are kept close 
 covered with thick boards ; d represents 
 the lights, which thus are formed with- 
 out any wooden frames. For other 
 modes of construction, see Pits, 8fC. If 
 a common hot-bed is employed, fifteen 
 barrow loads of dung is the usual al- 
 lowance to each light, which make it 
 about six inches higher than is allowed 
 for the cucumber bed of largest dimen- 
 sions. If a melon house be employed, 
 the following is the form and mode 
 adopted by Mr. Fleming. 
 
 " The house is twenty-eight feet long, 
 and fifteen wide, and is heated by 
 
MEL 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
 372 
 — •— 
 
 MEL 
 
 sowing before February is well ad- 
 vanced, and more risk of failure incur- 
 red. On the average, fifteen weeks 
 elapse; on the shortest and coldest 
 days of winter eighteen ; and as the 
 spring advances it decreases to eleven 
 or twelve; these periods necessarily 
 varying in different years. The mode 
 of sowing, managing the seedlings, 
 out, &c, being the same as 
 
 means of a saddle boiler, with four-inch 
 pipes passing round the outside of the j prickin 
 
 pit, which pipes are fitted with cast-iron i with the cucumber, only that a few de- 
 troughs for holding water to regulate grees higher temperature is required, I 
 the moisture of the atmosphere. Be- refer the reader to that head. The pots 
 
 neath the pit is an arched chamber, a, \ in which 
 
 the seed 
 
 • wn should be 
 
 along the front of which runs the nue, 
 &, imparting a slight degree of heat to 
 the soil above, and also serving to heat 
 a series of arches, c, which run along 
 beneath the path, and are entered from 
 a house in front, d, and which are used 
 for forcing rhubarb, &c, in the winter." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 .Mr. Green has published the follow- 
 ing excellent mode of heating a melon 
 pit with hot water : — 
 
 " The annexed figure represents a 
 section of the pit: 1, 1, are the flow 
 pipes and the water troughs ; 3, the 
 pipes to fill the troughs; 4, the pipe by 
 which the water is let out of the trough 
 5, the bed for the plants; and 6 
 trellis on which the shoots are trained 
 
 Fig. 100 
 
 Time and Mode of Sowing. — Seed 
 may be sown about the middle of Jan- 
 uary ; but the usual time is about the 
 same period of the succeeding month, 
 or not even until its close, if severe 
 weather; to be repeated towards the 
 end of March, and lastly in the first 
 weeks of April and May. The length 
 
 three or four inches deep. Each sow- 
 ing is best performed twice, four or five 
 days elapsing before the second inser- 
 tion ; this guards as much as possible 
 against failure. The pots should be 
 plunged by degrees, and not at once 
 down to the rim. Those for pricking 
 into must be about five inches in di- 
 ameter. The first stopping is usually 
 performed in the seed-beds. 
 
 Ridging out. — The soil must be two 
 feet deep, and the plants inserted in the 
 centre of each light, care being taken to 
 remove them with as little injury as pos- 
 sible to the roots. The removal should 
 take place soon after the attainment of 
 the the rough leaves, or immediately on the 
 appearance of the lateral runners. If 
 the bed is not ready, those from the 
 earth of the seed-beds must be moved 
 into pots, and those already in them 
 turned into larger ones, from whence 
 they may be finally removed without 
 detriment; one plant only should be 
 allowed to remain, for no more are re- 
 quired for each light. Water must be 
 given with the precautions enumerated 
 for cucumbers, and especial care taken 
 not to wet the foliage, or to apply it too 
 abundantly, and repeated two or three 
 times until the plants are establish- 
 ed. When completely rooted, the 
 bed may be earthed by degrees to its 
 full depth, sixteen inches; it being first 
 added immediately round the cones, 
 and pressed moderately firm as it is laid 
 on. The pruning and training must be 
 performed as in cucumbers, and the 
 same precautions taken to admit air and 
 light, and to shade and cover, &c. It 
 is in the training and management of 
 the foliage in particular that the ge- 
 nerality of gardeners are careless, al- 
 though the labours of the physiologist 
 
 of time between the sowing and cutting 
 
 depends chiefly upon the variety em- [ and chemist have demonstrated how 
 
 ployed. But little time is gained by j important it is that every leaf should be 
 
MEL 
 
 373 
 
 — • — 
 
 MEL 
 
 kept in its natural posture and vigour. 
 So convinced was Mr. Knight of the 
 little attention paid to this point, that 
 he took some melon plants under his 
 especial care. He placed one under 
 each light, the glass of which was six 
 feet by four ; the branches were trained 
 regularly and secured by pegs in every 
 direction; and still further, to present 
 the largest possible surface of foliage to 
 the light, the leaves were held erect 
 at equal distances from the glass. As 
 great injury is sustained by these from 
 the common mode of watering, it was 
 so performed as not to touch them. By 
 this simple additional care, the other 
 routine of their management being the 
 same as usual, the fruit attained an ex- 
 traordinary degree of perfection, and 
 ripened in an unusually short space of 
 time. Mr. Knight further directs, how- 
 ever, that wherever a sufficient quantity 
 of fruit is set, the production of more 
 leaves is to be prevented, if they can- 
 not be exposed to the light without 
 overshadowing the fruit, by pinching 
 off the laterals as soon as formed. No 
 part of full-grown leaves, however, 
 should be destroyed though far distant 
 from the fruit. 
 
 Temperature. — The temperature re- 
 quires particular attention at the time 
 of setting and ripening; though neglect 
 at all the stages of growth is fatal. It 
 must never fall below 70°, or rise above 
 80*. The seed or nursery bed may 
 continue about the minimum, but never 
 below it : and the fruiting one as con- 
 stantly approximating the maximum as 
 possible until the fruit is full grown, 
 when the temperature during the day 
 may vary between 85° and 95o. Im- 
 pregnation must be performed as di- 
 rected for cucumbers. When the run- 
 ners completely touch the side of the 
 frame, if the season is genial it must be 
 raised three or four inches by means of 
 bricks, otherwise they must be pruned 
 or stopped. From this, the propriety 
 of having only one plant to a light, is 
 evident; .for the runners being often 
 six or seven feet long, and very numer- 
 ous, require, if there is not room for 
 training, the frame to be lifted long 
 before the season will allow it. As 
 soon as the fruit is set they must be 
 looked over three or four times in a 
 week to observe which is the most 
 vigorous and finest; of these, one that 
 has the largest footstalk, and the near- 
 
 er the main stem the better, must be 
 left on. each runner, and all others 
 nipped off, the runner at the same time 
 being broken away at the third joint 
 above it. Eight melons on one plant 
 of the large varieties, and about twelve 
 of the smaller are quite sufficient to be 
 left; if more are suffered to remain, 
 they will either be of inferior size and 
 quality, or not ripen at all. By this 
 pruning fresh runners are often in- 
 duced ; but these must in like manner 
 be stopped, and any fruit that they may 
 produce be removed. If a superabun- 
 dance are produced, which especially, 
 if new seed is employed, will some- 
 times happen, it is necessary to thin 
 them, and in doing this the weakest and 
 most luxuriant must alike be rejected, 
 those of an average size being the most 
 fruitful. It must always be kept in 
 mind, that air should be admitted as 
 much and as often as circumstances 
 will allow. During mild and serene 
 afternoons and evenings, the glasses 
 may be entirely removed, but on no 
 consideration left off all night. In very 
 warm weather they may be kept off, 
 from ten in the morning until five, a 
 shade being afforded to the plants dur- 
 ing the meridian if they flag at all. It 
 is necessary, both for melons and cu- 
 cumbers, that something should be laid 
 between the fruit and the earth of the 
 bed, otherwise it will be speckled and 
 injured in appearance; clean straw and 
 reeds spread in thin but regular layers 
 are often employed for this purpose. 
 If tiles or pieces of board are made use 
 of, it is of considerable service in for- 
 warding the ripening, to have them 
 painted or charred black; but what 
 would be still better is coal ashes 
 spread over the surface of the bed two 
 or three inches deep and beat smooth. 
 This, I am of opinion, is preferable 
 from its power of absorbing and re- 
 taining heat, and inferior in no other 
 quality to drifted sea or river sand, 
 recommended by Mr. Henderson, of 
 Brechin Castle, N. B., which, he ob- 
 serves, extirpates the slater or wood- 
 louse, by preventing it concealing it- 
 self from the rays of the sun ; it keeps 
 down the steam, affords a bed for the 
 fruit as warm and as dry as tiles or 
 slates, retains the moisture longer, 
 whilst it becomes dry itself sooner than 
 those coverings, and is a powerful pre- 
 ventive of the evil — the mildew. If 
 
MEL 
 
 374 
 
 — • — 
 
 MEL 
 
 tiles or slates are employed, they must 
 be put under the fruit as soon as it has 
 attained the size of a walnut, the ocher 
 materials immediately after the plants 
 are well established. A regular moist- 
 ure should be kept up by moderate wa- 
 terings applied with the precaution inti- 
 mated for cucumbers; but when the j fo re> 
 fruit is becoming ripe, water must be 
 either altogether withheld or applied 
 very sparingly. About thirty or forty 
 days usually elapse between the setting 
 and full ripeness ; it must be gently 
 turned twice or three times during a 
 week, otherwise that side which lies 
 constantly on the ground will be blanch- 
 ed and disfigured. Its maturity is inti- 
 mated by a circular crack near the 
 footstalk, sometimes by becoming yel- 
 lowish; but more decidedly by the 
 emission of a fragrant smell. The 
 cutting should be performed early in 
 the morning, and the fruit kept in a 
 cool place until wanted. The whole 
 of the stalk is left pertaining to it when 
 cut. To prevent the fruit's bursting, 
 it is a very successful plan to elevate 
 the further end of the fruit as much as 
 30° above the stalk end. 
 
 To Obtain Seed. — For the production 
 of seed, some fruit of the earliest raised 
 crops must be left : of these the finest 
 and firmest should be selected, the 
 choice being guided by the circum- 
 stances, as are mentioned for cucum- 
 bers. No two varieties should be grown 
 in the same frame, either when the seed 
 is an object, for then it would be con- 
 taminated ; or if the fruit is alone re- 
 quired; for their growth and vigour 
 almost always differing, different treat- 
 ment is required by each. Neither 
 should cucumbers or gourds be allowed 
 to vegetate in such a situation, as to 
 risk mutual impregnation by insects. 
 Both of the melon and cucumber, such 
 seed only should be kept as sinks freely 
 to the bottom of water. Seed is best 
 for sowing when three or four years 
 old ; if less than two, the plants raised 
 from it are apt to produce a super 
 
 twenty years old it has been known to 
 produce fruitful plants. 
 
 Hand Glass Crops. — For these, plants 
 are required from sowings of the middle 
 of March, April, or early in May, and 
 whose fitness for planting out, is marked 
 by the rough leaf, &c, as intimated be- 
 
 The bed must be four and a half feet 
 wide, in length proportionate to the 
 number of glasses, which must be at 
 least four feet apart ; and, eight barrow 
 loads of dung being allowed to each 
 glass, it will be about two and a half 
 feet high. It may be founded in a 
 trench, if the soil is dry, but it is best 
 constructed on the surface. The earth- 
 ing, planting, and other points of man- 
 agement are precisely the same as for 
 the frame crops. The temperature 
 need not, however, be so high, the 
 maximum required being 70°, but it 
 must never sink below 65°, which may 
 easily be accomplished by linings, &c. 
 The runners must not be allowed to 
 extend from beneath the glasses until 
 June, or the weather has become genial 
 and settled, but be kept within as no- 
 ticed for cucumbers. When allowed 
 to escape, all dwindled or supervigor- 
 ous shoots must be removed, and the 
 training be as regular as for those in 
 the frames. The glasses raised upon 
 props must, however, be kept con- 
 stantly over the centre as a shelter to 
 the capital parts. 
 
 The bed requires to be hooped over 
 for the support of mats in cold or wet 
 weather. If paper- frames are employ- 
 ed, the most unremitting attention is 
 required, the plants being very apt to 
 spindle under them. They may, how- 
 ever, be employed with advantage in 
 the place of mats for sheltering and 
 shading. If the weather is at all un- 
 favourable at the time the fruit is ap- 
 proaching maturity, it is highly ad- 
 vantageous to place hand-glasses over 
 those that are growing exterior to the 
 original one. The latest fruit seldom 
 luxuriance of vine'and a multitude of I ri P en even with the greatest care and at- 
 male blossoms. If new seed is una- J tention, unless there are spare frames to 
 voidably employed, it should be hung j ^close them entirely; those which do 
 in a paper or phial near the fire until not > are employed in pickling, 
 wanted, or be carried in the pocket for j For a tolerable supply throughout the 
 three or four weeks. If, on the con- season, a small family requires one 
 trary, the seed is very old, it should be ( three-light frame, and three hand-glass- 
 soaked in milk-warm water for twoorjes; these together will yield on the 
 three hours before sowing. When j average thirty or forty melons. The 
 
MEL 
 
 375 
 
 — • — 
 
 MEN 
 
 largest establishment will not require 
 more than four times as many. 
 
 MELON, WATER. The Water 
 Melon is cultivated in the United States 
 precisely like the Nutmeg. There are 
 many kinds, of which the Mountain 
 Sprout, Mountain Sweet, and Black 
 Spanish are most esteemed at Philadel- 
 phia. The culture is so simple, and 
 so generally understood, that direction 
 must be needless. To produce fine 
 Melons on heavy or wet soil, it is ne- 
 cessary to prepare a light rich compost 
 in sufficient quantity to supply the wants 
 of the vines — hills four or five feet in 
 diameter, and two feet in depth. 
 
 MELON PUMPKIN. Cucurbita me- 
 lopepo. 
 
 MELON THISTLE. Melocactus. 
 
 MELON TURK'S CAP. Melocactus 
 communis. 
 
 MEMECYLON. Two species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 MENIOCUS linifolius. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 MENISCIUM. Five species. Stove 
 Ferns. Division or seeds. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 MENISPERMUM. Five spe- 
 cies. Hardy deciduous or stove ever- 
 green twiners. Division, cuttings, or 
 seeds. Common soil. 
 
 MENONVILLEA filifolia. Hardy 
 annual. Seeds. Light loamy soil. 
 
 MENTHA. Mint. Twenty-five 
 species. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 Division. Common soil. 
 
 Spear or Green Mint. M. viridis. 
 Is employed in sauces and salads, as 
 well as dried for soups in winter. There 
 are two varieties, the broad and narrow 
 leaved, equally good. 
 
 Penny Royal. M. Pulegium. Is cul- 
 tivated for its use in culinary and phar- 
 maceutical preparations. There are 
 two varieties, the trailing, which is 
 usually cultivated, and the upright. 
 
 Peppermint. M. piperita. For dis- 
 tilling, and the production of its pecu- 
 liar oil and water. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — These plants are 
 best grown on a tenacious soil; even a 
 clay is more suitable to them, than a 
 light silicious one. It should be mode- 
 rately fertile, entirely free from stag- 
 nant moisture, and consequently on a 
 dry subsoil or well drained. A wet 
 soil makes them luxuriant in summer 
 
 or situation that is sheltered from the 
 meridian sun, is always to be allotted 
 them, as in such they are most vigorous 
 and constant in production. A com- 
 partment entirely secluded from the in- 
 fluence of the sun is, however, equally 
 unfavourable with one that is too much 
 exposed. 
 
 Time and Mode of Propagation. — 
 They are propagated by parting the 
 roots in February or March, September 
 or October, and by slips or offsets at 
 the same seasons. The mints likewise 
 may be increased by cuttings of the an- 
 nual shoots in May or June, as well as 
 by cuttings of the roots in spring or au- 
 tumn. For production of green tops 
 throughout the winter and early spring, 
 the spearmint is often planted in a. hot- 
 bed, and more rarely pennyroyal, every 
 three weeks during October and three 
 following months. 
 
 Planting in the open ground at what- 
 ever seasons, or by whatever mode, 
 should if possible be performed in 
 showery weather, or water must be 
 given plentifully, especially to cuttings. 
 If propagated by divisions of the root, 
 they must be inserted in drills two 
 inches deep ; if by slips or cuttings, 
 they must be five or six inches in 
 length, and their lower half being di- 
 vested of leaves, planted to that depth 
 in every instance, being set in rows ten 
 inches apart each way. 
 
 The only after cultivation required 
 is the constant destruction of weeds, 
 which are peculiarly injurious. 
 
 After July, the produce of green tops 
 is of little value; they should therefore 
 be allowed then to advance to flower, 
 which they will produce towards the 
 beginning of September, when they are 
 in the fit state for gathering, either for 
 drying or distilling. In either case the 
 stalks should be cut just previously to 
 the flower opening. At the close of 
 September or beginning of October, the 
 stems must be cut down as close as 
 possible, the weeds cleared entirely 
 away, and a little fine fresh mould 
 spread over them. The beds should 
 never be allowed to continue longer 
 than four years ; by constant gathering, 
 the plants not only become weakened, 
 but the roots becoming matted and 
 greatly increased, produce only numer- 
 ous diminutive shoots or entirely decay. 
 
 Forcing. — For forcing, a moderate 
 
 but ensured decay in winter. A border | hot-bed is necessary, earthed over about 
 
MEN 
 
 376 
 
 MIC 
 
 three inches thick ; in this the roots may 
 be inserted about four inches apart, and 
 one fdeep. They are sometimes only 
 protected with mats, but frames are 
 preferable. If it is inconvenient to con- 
 struct a bed purposely, they may be 
 planted in pots and plunged in any bed 
 already in operation, or be set on the 
 side of the stove. The temperature 
 should never vary beyond the extremes 
 of70°and80°. 
 
 MENTZELIA. Four species. Stove, 
 green-house, and hardy perennials. M. 
 aspera, a half-hardy annual. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 MENZIESIA. Three species and 
 many varieties. Hardy deciduous or 
 evergreen shrubs. Layers. Sandy peat. 
 
 MERENDERA caucasica. Har- 
 dy bulbous perennial. Seeds or offsets. 
 Light loam. 
 
 MERIANIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Half-ripe cuttings. 
 Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 MERODON narcissi. Narcissus Fly. 
 Of this insect we have the following par- 
 ticulars by Mr. Curtis ; — 
 
 ii In the month of November, one or 
 two large roundish holes are sometimes 
 found on the outsides of the bulbs of 
 the Daffodil, which are more or less 
 decayed within, where a maggot will 
 generally be found, which by feeding in 
 the heart during the summer and autumn 
 months, has been the sole author of the 
 mischief. 
 
 " This larva is somewhat like the 
 flesh-maggot, and not unlike a bot, only 
 that it is not serrated with spines, and 
 instead of being whitish, its natural 
 colour, is changed to brown by its living 
 amongst the slimy matter which has 
 been discharged from its own body, 
 causing the gradual rotting of the bulb. 
 
 " Towards the end of November, the 
 maggot is transformed into a pupa, to 
 accomplish which it eats its way out of 
 the bulb near the roots, and buries it- 
 self in the surrounding earth. The 
 pupae are dull brown, elliptical, rough, 
 and strongly wrinkled. In this state 
 they remain until the following spring, 
 when the flies issue from their tombs. 
 Their eggs are then deposited, but upon 
 what part of the plant they are laid, 
 has not been observed, but probably 
 upon the bulb near the base of the 
 leaves. April seems to be the month 
 when most of the flies hatch ; and they 
 have been compared to small humble- 
 
 bees, from the disposition of the colours, 
 which are, for the most part, yellow, 
 orange, and black, but they certainly 
 bear a greater resemblance to some of 
 the bots ; from bees they are readily 
 distinguished by having only two wings, 
 the horns and proboscis are totally dif- 
 ferent, and they have no stings. 
 
 " Bulbs are affected by these maggots, 
 and they are readily detected by their 
 not throwing out leaves ; when, there-' 
 fore, a bulb fails to vegetate, it ought to 
 be immediately dug up and destroyed."- 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 MERTENSIA. Eight species. Har- 
 dy herbaceous perennials. Division. 
 They thrive best in sandy peat. 
 
 MESEMBRYANTHEMUM. Three 
 hundred and seventeen species, and 
 many varieties. Chiefly green-house 
 evergreen shrubs ; many are trailing 
 plants, some annuals and herbaceous 
 perennials. M. christallinum and M. 
 cultratum are hardy. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 MESPILUS. Medlar. Two species 
 and eight varieties. Hardy deciduous 
 trees. M. germanica stricta is ever- 
 green. Budding or grafting on the 
 common hawthorn or pear, or seeds. 
 Common soil. See Medlar. 
 
 MESSERSCHMIDIA. Four species. 
 Stove evergreens. M. hirsutissima, a 
 tree, the rest climbers. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 MESSUA ferrea. Stove evergreen 
 tree. Seeds or cuttings. Strong loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 METALASIA. Four species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. San- 
 dy peat and loam. 
 
 METEOROLOGY. See Weather. 
 
 METROS I DEROS. Six species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. M. ve- 
 rus, a stove evergreen tree. Cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 MEXICAN TIGER FLOWER. Ti- 
 gridia pavonia. 
 
 MICE. Various plans have been 
 suggested to preserve peas and beans, 
 when sown, from the ravages of mice. 
 VVe believe, we have tried them all. 
 Dipping the seeds in oil, and then roll- 
 ing them in powdered resin ; putting 
 small pieces of furze in the drills and 
 over the rows after the seed has been 
 sown, but before covering with the 
 earth — were both partially successful, 
 but the mode attended with the most 
 complete safety, has always been that 
 
MIC 
 
 377 
 
 MIL 
 
 of covering the surface of the soil over 
 the rows, to the depth of full an inch, 
 and six inches wide, with finely sifted 
 coal ashes. The mice will not scratch 
 through this, and it has the additional 
 advantage, by its black colour absorbing 
 the solar heat, of promoting the early 
 vegetation of the crop. 
 
 MICHAELMAS DAISY. Aster. 
 MICHAUIA. Two species. Hardy 
 biennials. Seeds. Rich loam. 
 
 MICHELIA champaca. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Light loam. 
 
 MICONIA. Fourteen species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 MICRANTHEMUM orbiculatum. 
 Half-hardy evergreen trailer. Division. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 MICROCALA. Two species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 MICROLOMA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen climbers. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 MICROMERIA. Eight species, and 
 a few varieties. Chiefly half-hardy ever- 
 green shrubs. Cuttings. Common soil. 
 MICROPERA. Two species. M. 
 banksii, a green-house tuberous-rooted 
 perennial. M. pallida, a stove orchid. 
 Offsets. Rich mould. 
 
 MICROTIS. Three species. Half- 
 hardy tuberous-rooted orchids. Divi- 
 sion. Loam and peat. 
 
 MIDGE. See Cecidomyia and Sciara. 
 MIGNONETTE. Reseda odorata. 
 Soil. — Light loam, well drained, and 
 manured with leaf-mould. 
 
 Sowing in the open ground from the 
 end of April to the beginning of July 
 will produce a sure succession of blooms 
 through the year. If allowed to seed 
 and the soil suits it, mignonette will 
 continue to propagate itself. If not al- 
 lowed to ripen its seed, the same plants 
 will bloom for two or more seasons, 
 being a perennial in its native country. 
 For Pot Culture and the production 
 of flowers to succeed those of the open 
 ground plants, sow once in August, and 
 again in September. The soil as above, 
 well drained and pressed into forty-eight 
 pots : cover the seed a fourth of an inch. 
 Thin the seedlings to three in a pot. 
 Water sparingly. When mignonette is 
 deficient of perfume, it is because the 
 temperature is too low. 
 
 Tree mignonette. — Dr. Lindley says, 
 " That this is obtained by selecting and 
 potting a vigorous young plant, the 
 
 flowers of which are to be pinched off 
 as often as they appear during the 
 first season. It must be repotted as 
 occasion may require; the lower shoots 
 must be removed in autumn, and the 
 plant must be kept during winter in a 
 room or green-house above the freezing 
 point. The second season it may be 
 treated in a similar manner, and the 
 next year it may be allowed to bloom, 
 which, with care, it will continue to do 
 for several years." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 MIKANIA. Five species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Light 
 rich soil. 
 
 . MILDEW, whether on the stems of 
 the wheat, or on the leaves of the 
 chrysanthemum, pea, rose, or peach, 
 appears in the form of minute fungi, 
 the roots of which penetrate the pores 
 of the epidermis, rob the plant of its 
 juices, and interrupt its respiration. 
 There seems to me every reason to be- 
 lieve that the fungus is communicated 
 to the plants from the soil. Every 
 specimen of these fungi emits annually 
 myriads of minute seeds, and these are 
 wafted over the soil by every wind, 
 vegetating and reproducing seed, if 
 they have happened to be deposited in a 
 favourable place, or remaining until the 
 following spring without germinating. 
 These fungi have the power of spread- 
 ing also by stooling or throwing out off- 
 sets. They are never absent from a 
 soil, and at some period of its growth 
 are annually to be found upon the 
 plants liable to their inroads. They are 
 more observed in cold, damp, muggy 
 seasons, because such seasons are pe- 
 culiarly favourable to the growth of all 
 fungi. The best of all cures is a 
 weak solution of common salt and wa- 
 ter sprinkled over the foliage of the 
 plant affected by the aid of a painter's 
 brush, or impelled by a syringe. Dis- 
 solve three ounces of the salt in each 
 gallon of water, and repeat the applica- 
 tion on two or three successive days, 
 applying it during the evening. Nitre 
 has been employed with similar success, 
 using one ounce to each gallon. Uredo 
 rosce, Puccinia roses, and Cladosproium 
 herbarum, are the mildew fungi of the 
 rose tree : Oidium crysiphoides of the 
 peach tree ; and Erysiphe communis of 
 the pea. Of course there are many 
 others. 
 
 MILFOIL. Achillea. 
 
 MILLA. Two species. Half-hardy 
 
MIL 
 
 378 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 MIX 
 
 bulbous perennials. Offsets. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 MILLINGTONIA simplicifolia. 
 Stove evergreen tree. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 MILLIPEDE. See Julus. 
 
 MILTONIA. Three species. Stove 
 orchids. Mr. Paxton says, " that to 
 propagate them, the stems should be 
 cut half through, young plants are then 
 emitted ; cut through the stem quite, 
 a month before separating the young 
 plants ; plant in rough peat and pot- 
 sherds." 
 
 MIMETES. Eight species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
 Light turfy loam. 
 
 MIMOSA. Twenty-two species. 
 Chiefly stove evergreen shrubs. M. 
 pudica, an annual. M. viva, an her- 
 baceous perennial. Young cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 M I M U L U S . Seventeen species. 
 Chiefly hardy herbaceous perennials 
 increased by division or seed. Com- 
 mon soil. The green-house and half- 
 hardy species require a light rich soil, 
 and increase by cuttings. The annuals, 
 seeds. Common soil. 
 
 MIMUSOPS. Six species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings. Light 
 loamy soil, or loam and peat. 
 
 MINT. See Mentha. 
 
 MIRABILIS. Five species and 
 several varieties. Green-house fusiform 
 rooted perennials. Seeds. Light rich 
 soil. 
 
 MERBELIA. Six species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 MISLETOE (Viscum album) is some- 
 times required to be introduced upon the 
 trees of the shrubbery, and other parts 
 of the pleasure ground. The easiest 
 and best way to propagate it is by 
 placing ripe seeds on the smooth 
 branches of the common apple, pear, 
 or white thorn, in February or March, 
 without in any way damaging the bark 
 on which they are placed. The seeds 
 should be fixed on the under side of 
 the branch, as there they are shaded, 
 and more likely to escape being eaten 
 by birds when they begin to vegetate. 
 Misletoe may be grafted on the apple 
 tree : but success is so precarious, that 
 few succeed at present. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 MITCHELLA repens. Hardy herba- 
 ceous creeper; increased by cuttings 
 of the stem. Peat, or peat and sand. 
 
 MITE. Acarus. 
 
 MITELLA. Five species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Peaty 
 soil. 
 
 MITRASACME. Three species. 
 M. canescens, a green-house herbaceous 
 perennial ; the other two annuals. 
 Seeds. Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 MIXTURE OF SOILS is one of the 
 most ready and cheapest modes of im- 
 proving their staple, and thus render- 
 ing them more fertile; and upon the 
 subject I have nothing to add to the 
 following excellent remarks of my bro- 
 ther, Mr. Cuthbert Johnson : — 
 
 " I have witnessed even in soils to 
 all appearance similar in composition, 
 some very extraordinary results from 
 their mere mixture. Thus in the gra- 
 velly soils of Spring Park, near Croy- 
 don, the ground is often excavated to a 
 depth of many feet, through strata of 
 barren gravel and red sand, for the 
 purpose of obtaining the white or silver 
 sand, which exists beneath them. When 
 this fine sand is removed, the gravel 
 and red sand is thrown back into the 
 pit, the ground merely levelled, and 
 then either let to cottagers for gardens, 
 or planted with forest trees; in either 
 case the effect is remarkable; all kinds 
 of either fir or deciduous trees will now 
 vegetate with remarkable luxuriance ; 
 and in the cottage garden thus formed, 
 several species of vegetables, such as 
 beans and potatoes, will produce very 
 excellent crops, in the very soils in 
 which they would have perished pre- 
 vious to their mixture. The permanent 
 advantage of mixing soils, too, is not 
 confined to merely those entirely of 
 an earthy composition ; — earths which 
 contain inert organic matter, such as 
 peat or moss earth, are highly valuable 
 additions to some soils. Thus, peat 
 earth was successfully added to the 
 sandy soils of Merionethshire, by Sir 
 Robert Vaughan. The Cheshire farm- 
 ers add a mixture of moss and cal- 
 careous earth to their tight-bound 
 earths, the effect of which they de- 
 scribe as having ' a loosening opera- 
 tion ;' that is, it renders the soil of 
 their strong clays less tenacious, and, 
 consequently, promotes the ready ac- 
 cess of the moisture and gases of the 
 atmosphere to the roots. The culti- 
 vator sometimes deludes himself with 
 the conclusion that applying sand, or 
 marl, or clay, to a poor soil, merely 
 
MOE 
 
 379 
 
 MON 
 
 serves to freshen it for a time, and that 
 the effects of such applications are ap- 
 parent for only a limited period. Some 
 comparative experiments, however, 
 which were made sixteen years since, 
 on some poor, hungry, inert heath land 
 in Norfolk, have up to this time served 
 to demonstrate the error of such a con- 
 clusion. In these experiments, the 
 ground was marled with twenty cubic 
 yards only per acre, and the same com- 
 post ; it was then planted with a proper 
 mixture of forest trees, and by the side 
 of it, a portion of the heath, in a state 
 of nature, was also planted with the 
 same mixture of deciduous and fir 
 trees. 
 
 " Sixteen years have annually served 
 to demonstrate, by the luxuriance of 
 the marled wood, the permanent effects 
 produced by this mixture of soils. The 
 growth of the trees has been there 
 rapid and permanent; but on the ad- 
 joining soil, the trees have been stunted 
 in their growth, miserable in appear- 
 ance, and profitless to their owner. 
 
 " Another, but the least commonly 
 practiced mode of improving the staple 
 of a soil by earthy addition, is claying ; 
 a system of fertilizing, the good effects 
 of which are much less immediately 
 apparent than chalking, and hence one 
 of the chief causes of its disuse. It 
 requires some little time to elapse, and 
 some stirring of the soil, before the 
 clay is so well mixed with a sandy soil, 
 as to produce that general increased 
 attraction and retentive power for the 
 atmospheric moisture, which ever con- 
 stitutes the chief good result of claying 
 poor soils. Clay must be moreover ap- 
 plied in rather larger proportions to the 
 soil than chalk ; for not only is its ap- 
 plication rarely required as a direct 
 food for plants for the mere alumina 
 which it contains ; since this earth en- 
 ters into the composition of plants in 
 very small proportion, but there is also 
 another reason for a more liberal addi- 
 tion of clay being required, which is 
 the impure state in which the alumina 
 exists in what are commonly called clay 
 soils." — Farm. Encyc. 
 
 MOERHINGIA. Two species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division. 
 Sand, loam, and peat. 
 
 MOIST STOVE. See Stove. 
 
 MOLDAVIAN BALM. Dracocepha- 
 lum moldavicum. 
 
 MOLE CRICKET. Gryllus gryllo- 
 
 talpa is known also in England as the 
 churr-worm, jarr-worm, eve churr, and 
 earth crab. It is, occasionally, very 
 destructive to culinary vegetables ; 
 creeping under ground through holes 
 it digs. It attains a length of two 
 inches, is dark brown, and resembles 
 in most respects the common cricket. 
 Mr. Kollar thus describes its habits : — 
 " The female hollows out a place for 
 herself in the earth, about half a foot 
 from the surface, in the month of June, 
 and lays her eggs in a heap, which 
 often contains from two to three hun- 
 dred. They are shining yellowish 
 brown, and of the size and shape of a 
 grain of millet. This hollow place is 
 of the shape of a bottle gourd, two 
 inches long, and an inch deep, smooth 
 within, and having on one side a wind- 
 ing communication with the surface of 
 the earth. The young, which are hatch- 
 ed in July or August, greatly resemble 
 black ants, and feed, like the old ones, 
 on the tender roots of grass, corn, and 
 various culinary vegetables. They be- 
 tray their presence under the earth by 
 the withered decay of culinary vegeta- 
 bles in the garden. In October and 
 November they bury themselves deep- 
 er in the earth, as a protection from 
 cold, and come again to the surface in 
 the warmer days in March. Their pre- 
 sence is discovered by their throwing 
 up the earth like moles. 
 
 " The surest and most efficacious of 
 remedies is, without doubt, destroying 
 the brood in June or July. Practised 
 gardeners know from experience where 
 the nest of the mole cricket is situated ; 
 they dig it out with their spades, and 
 destroy hundreds in the egg state with 
 little trouble." — Kollar. 
 
 MOLINERIA plicata. Stove herba- 
 ceous perennial. Division. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 MOLUCCA BALM. Moluccella. 
 
 MOLUCCELLA. Three species. 
 Hardy annuals. M. tuberosa,a. tuberous- 
 rooted perennial. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 MONACHANTHUS. Monk's-flower. 
 Four species. Stove epiphytes. Divi- 
 sion. Wood. 
 
 MONARDA. Seven species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 MONETIA barlerioides. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 MONEYWORT. Dioscorea nummu- 
 lar ia. 
 
MON 
 
 380 
 
 MOT 
 
 MONEYWORT. Lysimachia num- 
 mularia. 
 
 MONEYWORT. Taverniera num- 
 mularia. 
 
 MONK'S FLOWER. Monachanthus. 
 
 MONK'S HOOD. Aconitum. 
 
 MONNINA obtusifolia. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings or seed. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 MONOPSIS conspicua. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seeds. Peat and Sand. 
 
 MONOSCHILUS gloxinifolia. Stove 
 tuberous-rooted perennial. Division. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 MONOTAXIS simplex. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 MONOTOCA. Four species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 MONSONIA. Four species. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennials. M. ovata, 
 a biennial, is increased by seed ; the 
 others, cuttings or division. Turfy loam 
 and leaf mould. 
 
 MONTEZUMA spsciosissima. Stove 
 evergreen tree. Half-ripened cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 MOON-SEED. Menispermum. 
 
 MOON-WORT. Botrychium. 
 
 MORiEA. Twenty species. Green- 
 house bulbous perennials. Division. 
 Sandy Peat. 
 
 MORENOA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 MORICANDIA arvensis. Hardy bi- 
 ennial. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 MORINA. Two species. Green- 
 house or half-hardy herbaceous peren- 
 nials. Seed. Light rich soil. 
 
 MORINDA. Five species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. M.jasminoides is a green-house 
 evergeen climber. 
 
 MORISIA hypogcea. Hardy herba- 
 ceous perennial. Seed. Light loam. 
 
 MORISONI A americana. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Ripe cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 MORMODES. Five species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Division. Wood. 
 
 MORN A. Two species. Green- 
 house annuals. Seeds. Sandy peat 
 and leaf mould. 
 
 MORRENIA odorata. Green-house 
 evergreen twiner. Cuttings. Rich 
 mould. 
 
 MORUS. Mulberry. Nine species, 
 and many varieties. Chiefly hardy de- 
 
 ciduous trees ; a few are stove ever- 
 greens. Layers. A loamy soil and a 
 moist situation. See Mulberry. 
 
 MOSCHARIA pinnatifida. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 MOSCHATEL. Adoxa. 
 
 MOSCHOSMA. Two species. Stove 
 annuals. Seeds. Light rich soil. 
 
 MOSS is useful to the gardener for 
 packing round the roots of plants ; and 
 even some bulbous roots have been cul- 
 tivated in it ; but when it infests the 
 trunks of trees, or our lawns, it is one 
 of the gardener's pests. 
 
 " Moss only attacks lawns, the soil of 
 which is unable to support a greensward 
 of grass. When soil is exhausted, 
 grasses begin to die off, and their place 
 is taken by moss. The obvious mode, 
 then, of proceeding, is to give the lawn 
 a good top-dressing in winter, either of 
 malt-dust, or nitrate of soda, or soot, 
 or any other manure containing an 
 abundance of alkali. The gardener 
 finds the growth of moss arrested by 
 frequent raking in wet weather, or by 
 the application of pounded oyster-shells; 
 but these are mere palliatives, and not 
 remedies. Make your grass healthy, 
 and it will soon smother the moss." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 The most effectual, most salutary, 
 and least disagreeable remedy for moss 
 on trees is of trivial expense, and which 
 a gardener need but try upon one indi- 
 vidual to insure its adoption. It is with 
 a hand scrubbing brush, dipped in a 
 strong brine of common salt, as often 
 as necessary to insure each portion of 
 the bark being moistened with it, to 
 scrub the trunks and branches of his 
 trees at least every second year. It 
 most effectually destroys insects of all 
 kinds, and moss ; and the stimulating 
 influence of the application, and the 
 friction, are productive of the most 
 beneficial effects. The expense is not 
 so much as that of dressing the trunks 
 with a solution of lime, which, how- 
 ever efficient in the destruction of moss, 
 is not so in the removal of insects — is 
 highly injurious to the trees, by filling 
 up the respiratory pores of the epider- 
 mis, and is decidedly a promoter of 
 canker. On gravel walks, a strong so- 
 lution of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) 
 has been found the most effectual de- 
 stroyer of moss. 
 
 MOTH. Verbascum Blattaria. 
 MOTHERWORT. Leonurus. 
 
MOT 
 
 381 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 MUL 
 
 MOTHS, of most kinds, are the pa- 
 rents of caterpillars preying upon some 
 plant under the gardener's care, and 
 should be destroyed whenever disco- 
 vered. 
 
 MOULDINESS is the common term 
 applied to that crop of fungi which 
 appears on moist putrescent vegetable 
 matters. These fungi are Mucores, 
 and are effectually destroyed whenever 
 common salt or lime can be applied. 
 
 MOUNTAIN ASH. Pyrus Aucupa- 
 ria. 
 
 MOUSE TAIL. Bendrobium Myo- 
 surus. 
 
 MOUSE THORN. Centaurea Mya- 
 cantha. 
 
 MOVING PLANT. Desmodium gy- 
 rans. 
 
 MOWING is, next to digging, the 
 most laborious of the gardener's em- 
 ployments ; and requires much practice, 
 as well as an extremely sharp scythe, 
 before he can attain to the art of shav- 
 ing the lawn or grass plot smoothly 
 and equally. A mowing machine has 
 been invented by Mr. Budding and 
 others, and is represented in this out- 
 Fig. 101. 
 
 line. It cuts, collects 
 grass at the same time. 
 
 Mowing is most easily performed 
 whilst the blades of grass are wet, as 
 they then cling to the scythe, and are 
 consequently erect against its cutting 
 edge. The operation, therefore, should 
 be performed early in the morning, be- 
 fore the dew has evaporated, or whilst 
 the grass is wet from rain or artificial 
 watering. See Scythe. 
 
 MUDDING or Puddling, is dipping 
 the roots of trees, shrubs, and seedlings 
 in a thin mud or puddle, and retaining 
 them there until again planted, when- 
 ever they are removed. . It is one of 
 the best aids to success, and should be 
 universally adopted, for it is a rule 
 without exception, that the less the 
 
 roots of a plant are injured, and the 
 moister they are kept during its re- 
 moval, the less does it suffer by the 
 transplanting. The best of all muds 
 for the purpose is formed of three 
 pounds of garden soil, one ounce of 
 salt, eight ounces of soot, and one 
 gallon of water. 
 
 MULBERRY. Morus nigra. The 
 Black, or Garden Mulberry. 
 
 Soil and Site. — The soil most suitable 
 for the mulberry is a rich, deep, and 
 rather light loam, not cold nor wet, 
 but well drained. It succeeds best as 
 a standard, in a well-sheltered situa- 
 tion, open to the south. It may be 
 trained also against a south wall with 
 advantage in a cold climate, but re- 
 quires much space. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Propagation — by Seed — is rarely 
 practised, the seedlings varying in 
 quality, and being long before they 
 bear fruit. Sow in a warm border, 
 during March, in drills half an inch 
 deep. Give moderate waterings in dry 
 weather to the seedlings, and shelter 
 by mats during cold nights. They re- 
 quire remaining two years in the seed 
 bed, and then four in the nursery, be- 
 fore they are fit for final planting. 
 
 By Layers. — To obtain these in large 
 quantities, some mulberry trees should 
 be headed down near to the ground, to 
 induce lateral shoots for layering. — 
 Where only a few are wanted, pots of 
 earth may be raised to the branches. 
 See Layering and Circumposition. 
 
 Grafting and Budding — may be 
 practised, taking any species of the 
 genus Morus for the stock. Grafting 
 is more difficult of success than bud- 
 ding, and Mr. Knight recommends 
 grafting by approach as the only cer- 
 tain mode. 
 
 By Cuttings. — Mr. Knight recom- 
 mends cuttings five inches in length, 
 having two-thirds of their length two- 
 year old wood, and one-third yearling 
 wood, to be planted in November, be- 
 neath a south wall. In March, move 
 them into pots, leaving only one bud 
 uncovered, and plunge in a moderate 
 hot-bed. Shade during bright weather, 
 and success is almost unfailing. A 
 more simple and expeditious mode is 
 the following, but whether it is gene- 
 rally successful I am unable to state: — 
 " Lop off a straight branch, at least 
 eight feet long, from a large tree, in 
 March, the nearer the trunk the better j 
 
MUL 
 
 382 
 
 MUS 
 
 clear away every little branch, and 
 leave it quite bare; dig a hole four feet 
 deep, plant the naked branch and make 
 it firm in the ground; leave around it a 
 little basin of earth to hold water, and 
 if the season be dry, give it every 
 morning a bucketfull of water through- 
 out the summer. In two years it will 
 have made a good head, and will bear 
 fruit." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Pruning. — Standards do not require 
 pruning, further than to remove the 
 dead wood and irregular growths. On 
 walls and as espaliers train in all the 
 lateral annual shoots, for near the ends 
 of these next year is the fruit mostly pro- 
 duced, and pinch off all foreright un- 
 fruitful buds as they are produced. In 
 training, always make the branches 
 descend below the horizontal. 
 
 Forcing. — The mulberry bears forc- 
 ing excellently, and will ripen its fruit 
 early in June. It will bear a very high 
 temperature. It may also be grown of 
 a dwarf size in pots, and be thus 
 forced. 
 
 MULCHING, is placing mulch, or 
 long moist stable litter, upon the sur- 
 face of the soil, over the roots of newly 
 planted trees and shrubs. The best 
 mode is to form a trench about six 
 inches deep, to put in the mulch, and 
 cover it with the earth. This prevents 
 the mulch being dried or scattered by 
 the winds, and is more neat than ex- 
 posing it on the surface. Mulching 
 keeps the moisture from evaporating, 
 and prevents frost penetrating to the 
 roots, straw being one of the worst 
 conductors of heat. 
 
 MULE or Hybrid, is a plant raised 
 from seed generated by parents of dis- 
 tinct species, and consequently un- 
 fertile. See Hybridizing. 
 
 MULLERA moniliformis. Stove 
 evergreen tree. Young cuttings. — 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 MULTIPLICATE FLOWER. See 
 Double Flower. 
 
 MUNDIA spinosa, and its variety. 
 Green-house and evergreen fruit shrubs. 
 Young cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 MUNTINGIA calabura. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light 
 loamy soil. 
 
 MURALTIA. Fourteen species. — 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 MURRAYA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreens; one a shrub, the other a 
 
 tree. Ripe cuttings, with their leaves. 
 Turfy loam and peat. 
 
 MURUCUYA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 MUSA. The Banana and Plantain 
 belong to this genus, of which there 
 are ten species. Stove herbaceous 
 perennials. Suckers. Rich soil. The 
 most valuable of the species is M. 
 cavendishii; and upon its culture, and 
 upon that of the whole genus, we have 
 the following observations by Mr. W. 
 Buchan, gardener at Blithfield : — 
 
 " To bring musas to a high state of 
 perfection, they should be grown in a 
 house entirely devoted to them. It 
 may have a ' ridge and furrow' roof, 
 nearly flat, and should be divided into 
 pits about two feet six inches square, 
 in order to grow the plants separately, 
 so that when they have done fruiting, 
 each may be removed and replaced 
 without disturbing its neighbour. The 
 stem of this musa seldom attains a 
 greater height under the most favoura- 
 ble culture than six feet; and allowing 
 two feet for the expansion of its foliage, 
 a house ten feet high in front and twelve 
 feet in the back, with sliding lights in 
 the front and ends, would suit it admi- 
 rably. But it may be easily fruited, 
 and with good success, in a pit where 
 there is sufficient height without crowd- 
 ing the leaves. 
 
 " The soil which suits all kinds of 
 musa best is a mixture of half rotten 
 dung and half sandy loam, with about 
 one-fourth sandy peat, well mixed to- 
 gether. The pits or tubs, in which 
 latter M. cavendishii may also be 
 fruited, should be well drained, as the 
 plant requires to be supplied liberally 
 with water at the root when growing. 
 
 " They should never cease growing, 
 and never be allowed to want heat and 
 moisture from the time they are planted 
 in the pit or tub, until the fruits have 
 attained their full size. A strong moist 
 heat, never below 75° or 80° Fahren- 
 heit, should be constantly kept up ; the 
 plants frequently syringed over head, 
 and exposed to full light, without any 
 shade. This should be continued until 
 the fruits are set and have attained 
 their full size, taking care, however, 
 not to wet the flowering plants. Young 
 healthy plants will throw up their fruit 
 in nine or ten months after being 
 planted out, if treated as above; and 
 
MUS 
 
 383 
 
 — • — 
 
 MUS 
 
 as soon as all the fertile flowers are set, 
 the end of the spadix, an inch or two 
 above the last tier of perfectly set fruit, 
 should be cut off. When the upper 
 tier of fruit on the spike begins to 
 change colour, totally discontinue wa- 
 ter, both at the root and over head." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 M. coccinea. The cultivation of this 
 species is thus detailed by Mr. G. Wat- 
 son, gardener at Norton Vicarage : — 
 
 " In the latter part of February, plant 
 in pots five or six inches in diameter, 
 well drained, and the drainage covered 
 with a little moss. Plunge the pots into 
 a bottom heat between 60 Q and 70°. 
 Water freely, but give no more water 
 than the plants can take up from the soil. 
 As soon as the pot is filled with roots, 
 shift the plant into a pot a size larger. 
 After it has filled this pot with roots, a 
 final shifting into a pot at least sixteen 
 inches in diameter may be given, and 
 two or three suckers may then be left 
 on the plant, which will succeed the 
 centre or principal plant in blooming. 
 At this last shifting, pot as many suckers 
 in the same way as may be required for 
 succession plants. The plant is grow- 
 ing vigorously in this pot; cover the 
 surface of the soil with moss, and place 
 the pot in a shallow pan of water, and 
 water it at least once or twice a day. I 
 continue to keep the plant growing till 
 November, after which I gradually get 
 it into a dormant state, by withholding 
 water during winter. It is allowed to 
 remain dry till the soil separates from 
 the edge of the pot, and may thus be 
 kept in a cool green-house till spring. 
 The suckers taken off at the last pot- 
 tings, after being shifted into pots ten 
 inches in diameter, and thrown into a 
 dormant state at the same time as the 
 old plant, will not only be much better 
 wintered in the green-house, but will 
 flower much earlier. In those parts 
 where suckers are left on the mother 
 plant, the centre will bloom by the be- 
 ginning of May, and the suckers will 
 flower in succession during the latter 
 end of July and August, the latest 
 flowers keeping fine till Christmas. In- 
 stead of taking off suckers in the spring, 
 leave two or three on the mother plant 
 till July, then take them off, and treat 
 them in the same manner as the succes- 
 sion plants of the previous year." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 MUSCARI. Eleven species. Hardy 
 
 bulbous perennials. Offsets. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 MUSHROOM. Agaricus campestris. 
 To produce mushrooms artificially, beds 
 variously constructed are employed. 
 
 Times of forming the Beds. — Beds 
 may be constructed from January until 
 the beginning of May, for spring and sum- 
 mer production; and from July to the 
 close of the year, for autumn and winter. 
 
 Construction. — A bed is usually con- 
 structed of stable dung, &c, prepared 
 as already directed for cucumbers. It 
 is made in the form of the roof of a 
 house, four or five feet wide at the base, 
 narrowing to an apex, which should be 
 rather rounded, three or four feet high, 
 and the length from ten to fifty feet. 
 The dung being laid in alternate rows, 
 with clayey loam, from which the largest 
 stones have been sorted ; each layer of 
 dung to be a foot thick, and of loam 
 four inches, so that three layers of each 
 will be sufficient to complete the requi- 
 site height. The dung must be well 
 separated and mixed, and beat, but not 
 trod down. When completed, the bed 
 must be covered with litter or other 
 light covering, to keep out the wet, as 
 well as to prevent its drying; clean dry 
 straw will do, but sweet hay, or matting, 
 is to be preferred. 
 
 Situation. — The bed should be made 
 in a dry sheltered situation, and on the 
 level ground in preference to founding 
 it in a trench, which prevents the spawn- 
 ing being performed completely at the 
 bottom, and guards against the settling 
 of water, which may chill it. If the site 
 is not dry, it must be covered with 
 stones, clinkers, &c, to act as a drain ; 
 for nothing destroys mushrooms sooner 
 than excessive moisture, except an ex- 
 treme of heat or cold. To obviate the 
 occurrence of these unfavourable cir- 
 cumstances, it is by far more preferable 
 to construct it under a shed. If it is 
 constructed in a shed, it may be built 
 against one side, sloping downwards 
 from it. To proceed with greater cer- 
 tainty during the winter, a fire flue may 
 pass beneath the bed; but it is by no 
 means absolutely necessary, for by the 
 due regulation of covering, it may 
 always be kept of sufficient temperature. 
 
 Management. — The spawn must not 
 be inserted before the temperature has 
 become moderate. 
 
 Temperature. — The minimum is 50°, 
 and the maximum 65 Q . Insert the 
 
MUS 
 
 384 
 
 MUS 
 
 spawn as soon as the violence of the 
 heat has abated, which it will in two or 
 three weeks, though sometimes it will 
 subside in eight or ten days. 
 
 Spawning. — The large lumps of 
 spawn, being broken into moderately 
 small pieces, are to be planted on both 
 sides of the bed and ends, if it is hip- 
 ped; each fragment just beneath the 
 surface of the dung, in rows six or eight 
 inches apart each way. Some gardeners 
 erroneously scatter the spawn irregular- 
 ly over the surface. Fine rich loam, 
 rather light than otherwise, is then to be 
 put on, two inches deep, the stones 
 being carefully separated. Some gard- 
 eners, endeavouring to imitate the natu- 
 ral mode of growth, spread an inch in 
 depth of mould over the beds, in which 
 they set the spawn, and gently cover it 
 with half an inch more. Others lay a 
 ledge of mould, four inches high, and 
 two thick, all round the bed ; upon this 
 close to the dung, they lay the spawn ; 
 then a second ledge, six inches, of 
 similar thickness, on this they set an- 
 other row of spawn, and so proceed 
 until the bed is finished ; but this has no 
 advantage over the first mode described, 
 and is much more tedious. Lastly, a 
 covering of straw, six or twelve inches 
 thick, according to the temperature, is 
 to be laid on, and continued constantly. 
 When the earthing is finished, the sur- 
 face must be gently smoothed with the 
 back of the spade, which fixes it pro- 
 perly, and if in the open air throws oft' 
 any excessive rain. If, after the bed has 
 been spawned and covered up, the heat 
 appears to be renewed in any consider- 
 able degree, the greatest part of the 
 covering must be removed, but restored 
 again during rain, if the bed is not under 
 cover; and to guard against this con- 
 tingency it is a good practice to mould 
 over only two-thirds of the bed at first, 
 leaving the top uncovered to serve as a 
 vent for the heat and steam, but when 
 all danger is passed it may then be com- 
 pleted. 
 
 Mr. Haukin, gardener to Capt. Nut- 
 ford, thus completes his preparations : 
 — " In about a week or ten days after- 
 wards, I finish off the beds with green 
 turf, one inch and a half in thickness, 
 making the beds in my boxes, in all 
 about nine inches in depth. I beat down 
 the turf very firmly with the back of a 
 spade ; in finishing afterwards, I have 
 no farther trouble except in paying at- 
 
 tention to the fire, and in admitting fresh 
 air as it may be required. The house 
 is heated by open tanks, which run 
 through the centre of it, and which re- 
 turn again into the boiler, giving out a 
 sufficient quantity of moisture for the 
 necessary development and growth of 
 the mushroom. During night, the 
 grassy turf becomes copiously loaded 
 with moisture ; and should the follow- 
 ing day prove fine, I never omit giving 
 abundance of fresh air by the doorway. 
 The temperature of the house ranges 
 from 60° to 65° during the day, and at 
 night it is frequently allowed to fall as 
 low as temperate. 
 
 " The great advantage of growing 
 the mushroom upon fresh grassy turf is 
 obvious to any one accustomed to its 
 cultivation. I have been in the habit 
 of growing it, and with great success, 
 upon coal refuse for the last two years; 
 and at present I have two boxes at 
 work, one covered with coal dust, the 
 other with turf; the produce of these 
 shows the relative advantage of the two 
 methods, for although those from the 
 coal dust are large and of good flavour, 
 they are decidedly inferior in both re- 
 spects to those produced by the grass 
 covered beds; indeed, such is the supe- 
 riority of the latter, that if the mush- 
 rooms from both beds were gathered, 
 and mixed indiscriminately, any one 
 could, without difficulty, select those 
 grown upon the turf from those raised 
 on the beds covered with the small 
 coal." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 In four or five weeks after spawning, 
 in spring and autumn, the bed should 
 begin to produce, but not until much 
 later in summer and winter; and if kept 
 dry and warm, will continue to do so 
 for several months. 
 
 A gathering may take place two or 
 three times a week, according to the 
 productiveness of the bed. It some- 
 times happens that beds will not come 
 into production for five or six months ; 
 they should not therefore be impatiently 
 destroyed. 
 
 Watering. — In autumn, the bed will 
 not require water until the first crop is 
 gathered, but it is then to be repeated 
 after every gathering ; a sprinkling only 
 is necessary. In spring and summer, 
 during dry weather, the same course is 
 to be pursued. As excessive or un- 
 equal moisture is studiously to be 
 avoided, the best mode of applying the 
 
MUS 
 
 385 
 
 -Ml — 
 
 MUS 
 
 water is to pour it through a rose pan 
 on to a thin layer of hay, which has 
 previously been spread over the bed, 
 and thus allowed to percolate by de- 
 grees. In winter, waterings are not al- 
 lowable; to keep the mould moist, hot 
 fermenting mulch may be put on outside 
 the covering. If the bed is in the open 
 ground, in a warm day succeeding to wet 
 weather, it may be left uncovered for not 
 more than two or three hours. During 
 excessive rains, the additional covering 
 of mats, &c, must be afforded ; and on 
 the other hand, if a moderate warm 
 shower occurs during summer after ex- 
 cessive droughts, it may be fully admit- 
 ted, by taking off the covering. 
 
 Mode of Gathering. — In gathering, 
 the covering being carefully turned off, 
 only such are to be taken as are half an 
 inch or more in diameter before they 
 become flat, but are compact and firm. 
 Old mushrooms, especially, should be 
 rejected for the table, as it is found that 
 some which are innoxious when young, 
 become dangerous when tending to de- 
 cay ; they also then lose much of their 
 flavour. 
 
 Each individual is detached by a gen- 
 tle twist completely to the root; a knife 
 must never be employed, for the stumps 
 left in the ground decay, and become 
 the nursery of maggots, which are lia- 
 ble to infect the succeeding crop. 
 
 Other Modes of Cultivation. — Some 
 gardeners merely vary from the preced- 
 ing by building entirely of dung, with- 
 out any layers of earth. Many garden- 
 cars grow mushrooms in the same bed 
 with their melons and cucumbers. The 
 spawn is inserted in the mould and on 
 the hills of the beds, as soon as the 
 burning heat is passed. 
 
 In September or October, when the 
 bines of the plant decay, the bed is then 
 carefully cleaned, the glasses put on 
 and kept close, and when the mould 
 becomes dry, water is frequently but 
 moderately given, as well as every gen- 
 tle shower admitted when necessary. 
 A gentle heat is thus caused, and the 
 produce is extraordinarily abundant, fre- 
 quently two bushels, from a frame ten 
 feet by six, and individuals have been 
 produced two pounds in weight. 
 
 Mushrooms are thus produced with- 
 out any trouble but the giving moderate 
 waterings until frost prevents their ve- 
 getation ; the glasses, if wanted, are 
 then removed, and the beds covered 
 25 
 
 lightly with straw, but not otherwise. 
 The warm showers of the ensuing spring 
 will again cause an abundant produc- 
 tion, as also in the autumn, if left; but 
 the beds are generally broken up for 
 the sake of the dung, and the spawn 
 collected and dried. 
 
 Hampers or boxes containing about 
 four inches depth of fresh, dry stable 
 dung, or, in preference, of a mixture of 
 three barrow loads of horse dung, and 
 one perfectly dry cow dung, well pressed 
 in, may be set in some situation, where 
 neither damp nor frost can enter. After 
 two or three days, or as soon as heat is 
 generated, the spawn may be inserted, 
 a mushroom brick to be broken into 
 three equal parts, and each fragment to 
 be laid four inches asunder, on the sur- 
 face of the dung ; after six days an inch 
 and a half depth of fresh dung to be beat- 
 en down as before. In the course of a 
 fortnight, or as soon as it is found that 
 the spawn has run nearly through the 
 whole of the dung, mould must be ap- 
 plied two inches and a half thick, and 
 the surface made level. This mould 
 must be prepared six months before 
 wanted, by laying alternate layers, of 
 six inches depth, of fresh stable dung, 
 and three inches of light mould, to such 
 an extent as may be deemed necessary 
 for the supply of a year ; in six months 
 the dung will be sufficiently decayed, 
 and the whole may then be broken toge- 
 ther, and passed through a garden sieve 
 for use. In five or six weeks the mush- 
 rooms will begin to come up, and if the 
 mould appear dry, may then be gently 
 watered ; the water being slightly heat- 
 ed. Each box will continue in produc- 
 tion six or eight weeks. 
 
 Mr. J. Oldaker, late gardener to the 
 Emperor of Russia, introduced a house 
 purposely constructed for the growth 
 of the mushroom. The house is found 
 of great use in storing brocoli during 
 the winter. It is usually built against 
 the back wall of a forcing house, as in 
 the annexed plan, but if built uncon- 
 nected with another building,. the only 
 necessary alteration is to have a hipped 
 instead of a lean-to roof. The outside 
 wall, g h, should be eight feet and a 
 half high for four heights, the width ten 
 feet within the walls, which is most con- 
 venient, as it admits shelves three feet 
 and a half wide on each side, and a 
 space up the middle three feet wide, 
 for a double flue, and wall upon it. 
 
MUS 
 
 386 
 
 MUS 
 
 When the outside of the house is 
 finished, a floor or ceiling is made over 
 it, as high as the top of the outside 
 walls, of boards one inch thick, and 
 plastered on the upper side, e e, with 
 road sand, well wrought together, an 
 inch thick ; square trunks,/, being left 
 in the ceiling nine inches in diameter, 
 up the middle of the house, at six feet 
 apart, with slides, s, to ventilate with 
 when necessary. 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
 Two single brick walls, v v, each five 
 bricks high, are then to be erected at 
 three feet and a half from the outside 
 walls, to hold up the sides of the floor 
 beds, a a, and form at the same time 
 one side of the air flues. Upon these 
 walls, v v, are to be laid planks four 
 inches and a half wide and three inches 
 thick, in which are to be mortised the 
 standards, I k, which support the 
 shelves. These standards to be three 
 inches and a half square, and four feet 
 and a half asunder, fastened at the top, 
 k k, into the ceiling. The cross bearers, 
 •/ ?, i i, which support the shelves, o o, 
 must be mortised into the bearers and 
 into the walls ; the first set of bearers 
 being two feet from the floor, and each 
 succeeding one to be at the same dis- 
 tance from the one below it. The 
 shelves, o o, are to be of boards one 
 inch and a half thick ; each shelf hav- 
 ing a ledge in front, of boards one inch 
 thick, and eight inches deep, to support 
 the front of the beds, fastened outside 
 
 the standards. The flue to commence 
 at the end of the house next the door, 
 and running the whole length to return 
 back paralleled, and communicate with 
 the chimney; the walls of the insides 
 to be the height of four bricks laid flat, 
 and six inches wide ; this will allow a 
 cavity, t, on each side betwixt the flues, 
 two inches wide, to admit the heat from 
 their sides into the house. The middle 
 cavity, x y, should be covered with tiles, 
 leaving a space of one inch betwixt each. 
 The top of the flue, including the co- 
 vering, should not be higher than the 
 walls that form the fronts of the floor 
 beds. The wall itself is covered with 
 three rows of tiles, the centre one co- 
 vering the cavity x y, as before men- 
 tioned, the outside cavities, tt, are left 
 uncovered. 
 
 As the compost, the formation of the 
 beds, &c, are very different from the 
 common practice, I shall give a con- 
 nected view ofMr. Oldaker's directions. 
 The compost employed is fresh horse- 
 dung, which has been subject neither 
 to wet nor fermentation, cleared of the 
 long straw, but one-fourth of the short 
 litter allowed to remain, with one-fourth 
 of dry turf mould, or other fresh earth : 
 this enables the bed to be made solid 
 and compact, which is so congenial to 
 the growth of mushrooms. 
 
 The beds are to be made by placing 
 a layer of the above compost, three 
 inches thick, on the shelves and floor, 
 which must be beat as close as possible 
 with a flat mallet, fresh layers being 
 added and consolidated until the bed is 
 seven inches thick, and its surface as 
 level as possible. If the beds are 
 thicker, the fermentation caused will 
 be too powerful ; or, if much less, the 
 heat will be insufficient for the nourish- 
 ment of the spawn. As soon as the 
 beds intimate a warmth of 80° or 90°, 
 they are to be beat a second time to 
 render them still more solid, and holes 
 made with a dibble, three inches in 
 diameter and nine apart, through the 
 compost, in every part of the beds ; 
 these prevent too great a degree of 
 heat arising and causing rottenness. 
 
 If the beds do not attain a proper 
 heat in four or five days after being put 
 together, another layer, two inches 
 thick, must be added. If this does not 
 increase the heat, part of the beds must 
 be removed and fresh horse-droppings 
 mixed with the remainder. The spawn 
 
MUS 
 
 387 
 
 - » ■ 
 
 MUS 
 
 is to be inserted in three or four days 
 after making the holes; when the ther- 
 mometer indicates the desired degree 
 of heat, the insides of the holes are 
 dry; and while the heat is on a decline, 
 every hole is to be filled, either with 
 lumps or small fragments well beaten 
 in, and the surface made level. 
 
 In a fortnight, if the spawn is vege- 
 tating freely, which it will if not dam- 
 aged by excess of heat or moisture, 
 and the beds are required for immediate 
 production, they may be earthed over ; 
 but those for succession left unearthed, 
 three or four weeks in summer, and 
 four or five in winter. If the spawn is 
 introduced in hot weather, air must be 
 admitted as freely as possible until it 
 has spread itself through the beds, 
 otherwise these will become spongy, 
 and the crop be neither good nor abund- 
 ant. 
 
 The mould employed should be 
 maiden earth, with turf well reduced ; 
 neither too dry nor too wet, otherwise it 
 will not be capable of being beat solid. 
 It must be laid regularly over the beds 
 two inches thick. From the time of 
 moulding, the room is to be kept at a 
 temperature of 50° or 55°. If higher, 
 it will weaken or destroy the spawn ; 
 if lower, it will vegetate slowly, and 
 if watered in that state, numbers of 
 mushrooms will be prevented attaining 
 perfection. Water must be applied with 
 extreme caution, being nearly as warm 
 as new milk, and sprinkled over the beds 
 with a syringe or small watering-pot. 
 Cold water destroys both the crop and 
 the beds. If suffered to become dry, 
 it is better to give several light than 
 one heavy watering. 
 
 Beds thus managed will bear for 
 several months; and a constant supply 
 kept up by earthing one bed or more 
 every two or three months. 
 
 If, when in full production, the mush- 
 rooms become long-stemmed and weak, 
 the temperature is certainly too high, and 
 air must be proportionately admitted. 
 As the beds decline, to renovate them, 
 the earth must be taken off clean, and 
 if the dung is decayed they must be re- 
 formed, any good spawn being preserv- 
 ed that may appear; but if the beds 
 are dry, solid, and full of good spawn, 
 a fresh layer of compost, three or four 
 inches thick, must be added, mixed a 
 little with the old, and beat solid as 
 before. 
 
 Mushrooms may be grown in a cellar, 
 or other vaulted place, with equal suc- 
 cess, andnotunfrequently with a greater 
 advantage, the same rules being adopt- 
 ed ; but no fire is necessary, and less 
 water. 
 
 Heating by Hot-Water. — Instead of 
 flues, as used by Mr. Oldacker, the fol- 
 lowing plan, by Mr. Sellers, gardener 
 to L. V. Watkins, Esq., of Pennoyre, 
 may be substituted :— 
 
 Fig. 103. 
 
 & 
 
 j\ 
 
 m i m 
 
 k 
 
 3/ 
 
 " This cut represents a section of the 
 interior of the house, with three beds 
 for mushrooms, a a a, eighteen feet 
 long, and three feet wide, and three 
 shelves for forcing rhubarb, bbb. If 
 circumstances permit, these shelves 
 may be made wider, and used for mush- 
 rooms. Stones are placed on each side 
 of the passage, at c c, for the standards 
 to be placed on which support the 
 bearers of the shelves, and mortised at 
 d d. The stones should be about six 
 inches square on the surface, and three 
 inches thick ; and the standards about 
 three inches and a half square. 
 
 « When the standards and cross- 
 bearers are fixed, the shelves may be 
 formed by laying along the latter boards 
 one inch and a half thick; and it will 
 be convenient, when removing or put- 
 ting fresh dung, if a board eight inches 
 broad and one inch thick is placed be- 
 hind the standard at i, or cut so as to 
 come flush with it. 
 
 " When the shelves are fixed, a 
 trench, nine inches deep, is made in 
 the passage, ml m, for the reception of 
 the pipes ; on each side this trench a 
 brick-wall, i i, is built, to prevent rub- 
 bish from falling in. The bottom of 
 the trench must be puddled with clay, 
 so that the water thrown on the pipes 
 will not escape. 
 
MUS 
 
 388 
 
 MUS 
 
 " The pipes used are about one inch 
 and a half bore, and they are laid in the 
 trench three inches apart; a wooden 
 trellis is placed over them, resting on 
 the brick walls i i, and forms a path. 
 
 " When the mushrooms want steam- 
 ing, it is only necessary to take a fine 
 rose watering-pot, and sprinkle the 
 pipes with it till the steam arises so 
 thick that objects cannot be seen at the 
 further end of the house. Steaming is 
 better than watering over head for 
 mushrooms, as much water is injurious 
 to the spawn. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Spawn, where to be found. — Spawn is 
 constituted of masses of white fibres 
 arising from the seeds of mushrooms 
 that have fallen into situations suitable 
 for their germination, from which it is 
 to be obtained : such places are stable 
 dung-hills, dungy horse-rides in stable- 
 yards, horse mill-tracks, dry spongy 
 composts: the droppings of hard-fed 
 horses also produce it in greater abund- 
 ance than the dung of any other ani- 
 mal ; and more sparingly under sheds, 
 where horses, oxen, or sheep have been 
 kept. The dung of the two latter af- 
 fords it in greater perfection than that 
 of grass-fed horses. It has also been 
 found in pigeons' dung ; but the most 
 certain mode of obtaining it is to open 
 the ground about mushrooms growing 
 in pastures, though it is said not to be 
 so productive. 
 
 Time of Collecting. — It must be col- 
 lected in July, August, and September, 
 being reckoned in the greatest perfec- 
 tion in this last month. It may be 
 found, however, and should be collect- 
 ed, when it appears in the spring. It 
 generally occurs spread through the 
 texture of cakes, or lumps of dry rotted 
 dung. Put it in a heap under a dry 
 shed; and a current of air, passing 
 through the shed, is of great utility. If 
 kept dry, spawn may be preserved 
 three or four years: if damp, it will 
 either vegetate before being planted, 
 or putrefy. 
 
 Spawn must not be so far advanced 
 in vegetation as to appear in threads or 
 fibres ; for, when in this state, it is no 
 longer applicable to a mushroom-bed ; 
 it may produce a mushroom if left to it- 
 self, but otherwise is useless. Spawn 
 proper for inserting in a«bed should 
 have the appearance of indistinct white 
 mould. 
 
 being raised artificially. The following 
 is the manner: — 
 
 Two barrow-loads of cow-dung, not 
 grass-fed, one load of sheep's-dung, and 
 one of horses', well-dried and broken 
 so small as to pass through a coarse 
 sieve, are well mixed, and laid in a 
 conical heap during March, in a dry 
 shed, being well trod, as it is formed, 
 to check its heating excessively. This 
 heap is covered with hot dung, four 
 inches thick, or only with mats if the 
 shed is warm ; for here, as in all the 
 stages of growth, the heat should only 
 range between 55o and 60°. In about 
 a month the heap is examined ; and if 
 the spawn has not begun to run, which 
 is shown by indistinct white fibres per- 
 vading its texture, another covering of 
 equal thickness to the first is applied 
 over the old one ; in another month it 
 will indubitably make its appearance. 
 The time varies from three to ten weeks. 
 
 May be increased. — If a small quantity 
 of spawn only can be collected, it may 
 be increased by the following methods, 
 the first of which is chiefly recommend- 
 able on account of its simplicity and fa- 
 cility of adoption: — 
 
 Small pieces of the spawn may be 
 planted a foot asunder, just beneath the 
 surface of the mould of a cucumber-bed 
 constructed in the spring. In about 
 two months the surface of the spawn 
 will assume a mouldy appearance ; it 
 may then be taken up, with the earth 
 adhering to it, and when dried stored 
 as before directed. 
 
 The second mode is variously prac- 
 tised. In the course of May a heap of 
 the droppings of cow, sheep, and horses, 
 or any one or two of them, without the 
 admixture of any undecomposed straw, 
 is to be collected, and one-fifth of road- 
 scrapings with one-twentieth of coal- 
 ashes added, the whole being mixed 
 together with as much of the drainings 
 from a dung-hill as will make it of 
 the consistency of mortar. Being well 
 incorporated, it is then to be spread in 
 a dry, sheltered, airy place, on a smooth 
 surface, and beat flat with a spade. 
 When become of the consistency of 
 clay, it is to be cut into slabs about 
 eight inches square, a hole punched 
 half through the middle of each, and 
 piled to dry, an opening being left be- 
 tween every two bricks. When per- 
 fectly dry, a fragment of the spawn is 
 
 May be raised. — Spawn is capable of to be buried in the hole previously 
 
MUS 
 
 389 
 
 — « — 
 
 MUS 
 
 made : it will shortly spread through 
 the whole texture of the slabs, if kept 
 in a warm dry place, when each may be 
 broken into four pieces, and when quite 
 dry laid on shelves — separate, and not 
 in heaps, otherwise a bed will be form- 
 ed for the spawn to run in. Mr. Wales 
 recommends the composition to consist 
 of three parts horse-dung without lit- 
 ter, two of rotten tree-leaves, two of 
 cow-dung, one of rotten tanners' bark, 
 and one of sheep's dung, mixed to the 
 consistency of mortar, and moulded in 
 small frames like those used by brick- 
 makers, six inches long, four broad, 
 and three deep. Three holes to be 
 made half through the bricks, an inch 
 apart, with a blunt dibble, for the re- 
 ception of the spawn. They should be 
 put on board for the convenience of 
 moving abroad during fine days, as they 
 must be made perfectly dry, which they 
 often appear to be on the outside when 
 they are far otherwise internally. Be- 
 fore they are perfectly dry they require 
 great care in handling and turning, from 
 their aptitude to break ; but in about 
 three weeks, if dry weather, when per- 
 fectly exsiccated, they become quite 
 firm. To pervade them with the spawn, 
 a layer of fresh horse-litter, which has 
 laid in a heap to sweeten as for a hot- 
 bed, must be formed, six inches thick, 
 in a dry shed. On this a course of the 
 bricks is to be laid, and their holes 
 completely filled with spawn ; and, as 
 the bricks are laid in rows upon each 
 other, the upper side of each is to be 
 scattered over with some of the same. 
 The bricks are not placed so as to touch, 
 so that the heat and steam of the dung 
 may circulate equally and freely. The 
 heap is to terminate with a single brick, 
 and when completed, covered with a 
 layer, six inches thick, of hot dung, to 
 be reinforced with an additional three 
 inches after a lapse of two weeks. The 
 spawn will generally have thoroughly 
 run through the bricks after another 
 fortnight. If, however, upon examina- 
 tion this is not found to be the case, 
 they must remain for ten days longer. 
 The bricks being allowed to dry for a 
 few days before they are stored, will 
 then keep for many years. 
 
 Mr. Oldaker recommends the bricks 
 to be made of fresh horse-droppings, 
 mixed with short litter, to which must 
 be added one-third of cow-dung and a 
 small portion of earth, to cement them 
 
 together. The spawn to be inserted 
 when they are half dry. 
 
 Quantity required. — One bushel of 
 spawn is required for a bed five feet by 
 ten; two bushels for one double that 
 length ; and so on in proportion. 
 
 MUSK-FLOWER. Mimulus mos- 
 chata. 
 
 MUSSiENDA. Eight species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 MUSTARD. Sinapis alba. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — It succeeds best 
 in a fine rich mouldy loam, in which the 
 supply of moisture is regular; it may 
 rather incline to lightness than tenacity. 
 If grown for salading it need not be 
 dug deep; but if for seed, to full the 
 depth of the blade of the spade. 
 
 In early spring, and late in autumn, 
 the situation should be sheltered ; and 
 during the height of summer, shaded 
 from the meridian sun. 
 
 Time and Mode of Sowing. — For sal- 
 ading, it may be sown throughout the 
 year. From the beginning of November 
 to the same period of March, in a gentle 
 hot-bed appropriated to the purpose, 
 in one already employed for some other 
 plant, or in the corner of a stove. From 
 the close of February to the close of 
 April it may be sown in the open ground, 
 on a warm sheltered border, and from 
 thence to the middle of September in 
 a shady one. Both the white and black, 
 for seed, may be sown at the close of 
 March, in an open compartment. For 
 salading, it is sown in flat-bottomed 
 drills, about half an inch deep and six 
 inches apart. The seed cannot well 
 be sown too thick. The earth which 
 covers the drills should be entirely di- 
 vested of stones. Water must be given 
 occasionally in dry weather, as a due 
 supply of moisture is the chief induce- 
 ment to a quick vegetation. The sow- 
 ings are to be performed once or twice 
 in a fortnight, according to the demand. 
 Cress (lepidium sativum) is the almost 
 constant accompaniment of this salad- 
 herb ; and as the mode of cultivation 
 for each is identical, it is only neces- 
 sary to remark that, as cress is rather 
 tardier in vegetating than mustard, it is 
 necessary, for the obtaining them both 
 in perfection at the same time, to sow 
 it five or six days earlier. 
 
 It must be cut for use whilst young, 
 and before the rough leaves appear, 
 otherwise the pungency of the flavour 
 
MUT 
 
 390 
 
 MYR 
 
 is disagreeably increased. If the top 
 only is cut off, the plants will in ge- 
 neral shoot again, though this second 
 produce is always scanty, and not so 
 mild or tender. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — For the production 
 of seed sow thin. When the seedlings 
 have attained four leaves they should 
 be hoed, and again after the lapse of 
 a month, during dry weather, being set 
 eight or nine inches apart. Throughout 
 their growth they must be kept free from 
 weeds; and if dry weather occurs at the 
 time of flowering, water may be applied 
 with great advantage to their roots. 
 
 The plants flower in June, and are 
 fit for cutting when their pods have be- 
 come devoid of verdure. They must 
 be thoroughly dried before threshing 
 and storing. 
 
 Forcing — For forcing, the seed is 
 most conveniently sown in boxes or 
 pans, even if a hot-bed is appropriated 
 to the purpose. Pans of rotten tan are 
 to be preferred to pots or boxes of 
 mould ; but whichever is employed the 
 seed must be sown thick, and other 
 restrictions attended to, as for the open- 
 ground crops. The hot-bed need only 
 be moderate. Air may be admitted as 
 abundantly as circumstances will allow. 
 
 MUTISIA. Three species. Stove 
 or green-house evergreen climbers. 
 Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 MYAGRUM perfoliatum. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 MYANTHUS. Fly-wort. Four spe- 
 cies. Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood. 
 
 MYGINDA. Five species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs, except M. myrti- 
 folia, which is hardy. Ripe cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 MYLOCARYUM ligustrinum. 
 Half-hardy evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 MYOPORUM. Twelve species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 MYOSOTIS. Eleven species. Har- 
 dy annuals and aquatic and herbaceous 
 perennials. M. intermedials a decidu- 
 ous trailer ; M. palustris is the well- 
 known Forget-me-not. The perennials 
 require a moist soil, and may be in- 
 creased by division or seed ; the an- 
 nuals by seed, in a dry sandy soil. 
 
 MYRCIA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Young cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 MYRIADENUS tetraphyllus. Stove 
 biennial. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 MYRICA. Eleven species. Green- 
 house evergreen and hardy deciduous 
 shrubs. The green-house kinds are 
 increased by cuttings; the hardy by 
 seeds or layers. Peaty soil. 
 
 MYRICARIA. Two species. Hardy 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 MYRISTICA. Nutmeg. Three 
 species. Stove evergreen trees. Ripe 
 cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 
 MYROBALAN PLUM. Prunus do- 
 mestica myrobalana. 
 
 MYRSIPHYLLUM. Two species. 
 Green-house deciduous twiners. Di- 
 vision. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 MYRTLE. Myrtus. 
 
 MYRTLE-BILBERRY. Vaccinium 
 myrtillus. 
 
 MYRTUS. The Myrtle. Eleven 
 species, and many varieties. Green- 
 house or stove evergreen shrubs. Half- 
 ripened cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 Water freely whilst they are growing 
 in spring and summer. The common 
 myrtle is M. communis, of which there 
 are several varieties, chiefly character- 
 ized by the breadth and size of the 
 leaves or doubleness of the flowers. 
 
 Propagation. — By Slips and Cut- 
 tings. — The young shoots, either of 
 the same or former year's growth, of 
 from about two or three to five or six 
 inches long, either slipped or cut off, 
 are the proper parts for planting, and 
 may be struck either with or without 
 artificial heat. By either method June 
 or July is the best season, especially 
 when intended to use the shoots of the 
 year. The previous year's shoots will 
 also strike tolerably, especially if plant- 
 ed in spring, or, by aid of hot-beds, may 
 be made to strike root readily at 
 any time in the spring or summer. 
 By aid of a hot-bed both one and two 
 year shoots may be greatly facilitated 
 in rooting. A dung hot-bed, under 
 common frames and lights, will do, 
 though a bark hot-bed of a stove, 
 &c, is the most eligible and effectual. 
 Plants thus struck in spring, or early 
 in summer, from plants of the same 
 year, will be fit to pot off separately 
 early in autumn. Choose straight clean 
 shoots, and as robust as possible, which 
 divest of the lower leaves two-thirds of 
 their length; they are then ready for 
 planting. Fill the pots or pans with 
 
NAI 
 
 391 
 
 — •— 
 
 N AR 
 
 light rich mould, in which plant the 
 slips or cuttings — many in each pot or 
 pan if required, putting them in within 
 an inch of their tops, and about an inch 
 or two asunder. Give directly some 
 water, to settle the earth closely about 
 each plant; then, either plunge the 
 pots, &c, in a shallow garden-frame, 
 and put on the glasses, or cover each 
 pot or pan close with a low hand-glass, 
 which is the most eligible for facilitating 
 their rooting. In either method, how- 
 ever, observe to plunge the pots in the 
 earth or hot-bed. 
 
 Afford them occasional shade from 
 the mid-day sun, and give plenty of 
 water three or four times a week at 
 least, or oftener in very hot weather ; 
 thus they will be rooted in a month or 
 six weeks. Let them remain in the 
 open air until October, then remove 
 them into the green-house for the 
 winter; and in spring the forwardest in 
 growth may be potted off separately in 
 small pots ; but if rather small and 
 weak, or but indifferently rooted, let 
 them have another summer's growth, 
 and pot them out separately in Sep- 
 tember or spring following, managing 
 them as other green-house shrubs of 
 similar temperature, and shifting them 
 into larger pots annually, or according 
 as they shall require. 
 
 By Layers. — Such plants as are fur- 
 nished with young bottom branches or 
 shoots, situated low enough for laying, 
 may be layered in spring in the usual 
 way ; every shoot will readily emit 
 roots, and be fit to transplant into 
 separate pots in autumn. 
 
 By Seed. — These may be sowed in 
 spring, in pots of light mould, and 
 plunged in a moderate hot-bed. The 
 plants will soon come up, which, when 
 two or three inches high, pot off sepa- 
 rately in small pots : manage them as 
 the others. — Abercrombie. 
 
 With respect to the general culture, 
 see Green-house Plants. 
 
 NAILS for training wall trees are 
 best made of cast iron, being the 
 cheapest, stoutest, and most enduring. 
 Before using they should be heated 
 almost to redness, and then be thrown 
 into cold linseed oil. When dry, they 
 have a varnish upon them which pre- 
 serves them from rusting, and prevents 
 the mortar of the wall sticking to them 
 so corrosively as it does if they are 
 unoiled. In drawing old nails from 
 
 walls, the mortar is not so much dis- 
 turbed if the nails are driven in a little 
 further before they are extracted. Old 
 nails may be renovated by being heated 
 to redness, and then thrown into water: 
 this removes from them the mortar; 
 and then they may be again heated and 
 put into oil as before directed. The 
 cast iron nails used by gardeners are 
 known to the ironmonger as wall nails, 
 and are described as 2£, 3, 4, and 5 lb. 
 wall nails, accordingly as 1,000 of 
 them are of those weights. 
 
 " Nails in most cases require to be 
 driven only a very little way into the 
 mortar, and wails then do not become 
 defaced by them for many years. In 
 all summer nailing of peach trees, 
 roses, &c, the point only requires to 
 be driven in, so that the nail may be 
 easily withdrawn by the fingers. If 
 these precautions are attended to, and 
 the nails are not driven into the face of 
 the bricks, but between the mortar 
 joints, a good wall will last for half a 
 century without requiring fresh pointing, 
 and by nails the branches of a tree can 
 always be better placed than by loops 
 or similar contrivance."--Gard. Chron. 
 
 NANDINA domestica. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings. Loarn 
 and peat. 
 
 NAPOLEON'S WEEPING WIL- 
 LOW. Salix Napoleana. 
 
 NARAVELIA zeylanica. Stove 
 evergreen climber. Young cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 NARCISSUS. Eighty-five species; 
 all hardy bulbs, including the Daffodil 
 (JV. Pseudo-Narcissus); Two-coloured 
 (N.bicolor) ; White, or Poet's Narcissus 
 (JV. poeticus) ; Hoop-petticoat Narcis- 
 sus (JV. bulbocodium) ; Small autumn 
 Narcissus (JV. serotinus) ; Polyanthus 
 Narcissus (JV. tazetta); Jonquil (N.jon- 
 quilla) ; and Paper Narcissus (JV. papy- 
 raceus); with varieties of each. 
 
 Characteristics of Excellence. — Mr. 
 Glenny says — " that in the Narcissi the 
 flowers should be circular and large, 
 they should expand flat, and the cup 
 which is in the centre should stand out 
 well. The petals should be thick, 
 smooth, firm, free from notch or rough- 
 ness on the edges, and have no points. 
 The bunch of flowers should not con- 
 sist of less than seven ; the footstalks 
 should be of such length as to allow 
 the flowers to touch each other at the 
 edge, and present an even, though 
 
N AR 
 
 392 
 
 ■ ♦ 
 
 N AR 
 
 rounding or dome-like surface, with 
 one bloom in the middle, the other six 
 forming a circle round it. The stem 
 should be strong, firm, elastic, and not 
 more than ten inches in length. The 
 leaves should be short, broad, and 
 bright, and there must not be more 
 than one flower stem to a show flower. 
 If the variety be white, it should be 
 pure ; and the yellow cup should be 
 bright. If the variety be yellow, it 
 cannot be too bright. Double flowers, 
 and Narcissi of numerous kinds, with 
 only one or two flowers in a sheath, 
 will not be considered subjects of ex- 
 hibition, except in collections of forced 
 flowers." — Gard. and Prac. Flor. 
 
 Propagation. — The propagation of 
 all the Narcissi is effected principally 
 by offsets ; also by seed, to obtain new 
 varieties. 
 
 By Offsets. — All the sorts increase 
 plentifully by offset bulbs from the main 
 roots annually ; and the proper time for 
 separating them is in summer, when 
 they have done flowering, and the 
 leaves and stalks begin to decay. 
 
 By Seed. — It will be often six or 
 seven years before the seedlings will 
 flower in perfection. The seed ripens 
 in June or July, which sow soon after 
 in pots or boxes of light rich earth, half 
 an ineh deep, then place them in a full 
 sunny situation for the winter, allowing 
 them shelter in severe frosts. In March 
 or April they will come up. Give fre- 
 quently sprinklings of water, and, occa- 
 sional shade from the midday sun at 
 their first appearance ; and as the 
 warm season advances, move the pots 
 to an eastern aspect, to have only the 
 morning sun till ten or eleven o'clock. 
 In June or July the leaves will decay, 
 when stir the surface lightly, and clear 
 off the decayed leaves, all weeds, and 
 mossiness; then sift a little fine mould 
 over the surface, half an inch thick, 
 repeating it in October. Let them re- 
 main till the third year, treating simi- 
 larly; and in the third summer, at the 
 decay of the leaves, take up the bulbs, 
 and separate the largest, which plant 
 in beds, in rows, five or six inches 
 asunder and three deep ; and the small 
 bulbs you may scatter, mould and all, 
 on the surface of another bed, and 
 cover them two or three inches deep 
 with fine earth, which after a year's 
 growth may be transplanted in rows as 
 above. In these beds let the seedlings 
 
 remain till they show flowers, and after 
 the second year's bloom you will be 
 able to judge of their properties, when 
 mark the good sorts, and manage them 
 as directed for the blowing roots. 
 
 Soil and Culture. — They succeed 
 very well in any good, light, rich earth, 
 in a sheltered situation and eastern 
 aspect, with the beds a little elevated 
 above the common level ; and in win- 
 ter and early in spring give occasional 
 shelter of mats from frosts and incle- 
 ment weather, especially after the 
 flower buds appear above ground. All 
 the sorts of these bulbs, planted in 
 either of the above methods, may be 
 suffered to remain in the ground two 
 or three years, or more, unremoved; 
 however, it is proper to take up the 
 bulbs in general every third or fourth 
 year, in order to separate the offsets, 
 which in that time will be increased so 
 greatly in number, that the tubes press- 
 ing close against one another, the inner 
 ones will be so much compressed and 
 weakened, as greatly to impede their 
 flowering. But where these bulbs are 
 intended for sale, they should generally 
 be lifted once a year, or once every 
 two years, otherwise, by their growing 
 close in clusters, pressing against one 
 another, they will be flattened thereby, 
 and rendered unsightly, and less sale- 
 able. The proper time of year for 
 taking up all the sorts is soon after 
 they have done flowering, and their 
 leaves and flower stalks attained a 
 state of decay ; at which time of lifting 
 the bulbs, separate them all singly, and 
 the smaller offsets from the larger, re- 
 serving the large roots for planting 
 again in the principal compartments; 
 and the smaller may be deposited in 
 nursery beds for a year or two, to gain 
 strength, when they will become good 
 flowering roots, and may then be taken 
 up at the proper season, in order for 
 planting where wanted. When the 
 roots are lifted at the above season, 
 they may either be planted again di- 
 rectly, or in a month or six weeks 
 after; or may be cleaned and dried, 
 and retained out of the ground in a dry 
 room, two or three months, or longer, 
 if occasion shall require. 
 
 Method of Planting. — The best gene- 
 ral season for planting all these bulbs 
 is in autumn, from about the begin- 
 ning or middle of September until No- 
 vember: they will flower considerably 
 
NAR 
 
 393 
 
 NE A 
 
 stronger, as well as furnish a greater 
 increase of offsets than those planted 
 later, or not till spring; if, however, 
 some roots are retained out of ground 
 until February, they will succeed those 
 of the autumnal planting in flowering. 
 Those in the open borders should be 
 deposited in little patches of about 
 three or four roots in each, planting 
 them either with a blunt dibble, or with 
 a garden trowel, four inches deep. 
 When planted in beds by themselves, 
 have the beds four feet wide, with al- 
 leys, a foot and a half or two feet wide, 
 between, plant the roots in rows length- 
 wise, nine inches asunder, about four 
 inches deep, and six distant in each 
 row, covering them regularly with the 
 earth, and rake the surface smoothly. 
 Having planted the roots in either of 
 these methods, all the culture they re- 
 quire is to be kept clean from weeds ; 
 and they will all flower in the following 
 spring and summer. 
 
 Water Culture. — The Polyanthus, 
 Narcissus, and the large Jonquils, are 
 bloomed in glasses of water in rooms, 
 in winter and early in spring ; any of 
 the other species may also be flowered 
 in the same manner; observing to pro- 
 cure such roots as were lifted at the 
 season above mentioned. The season 
 for placing in water is any time in win- 
 ter or early spring, from October till 
 March, observing to fill the glasses 
 with fresh soft water, so full that the 
 bottom of the bulb may just touch it. 
 See Hyacinth. 
 
 Pot Culture. — The same plants may 
 be brought to early bloom in pots ; 
 plant the bulbs in pots of light rich 
 earth during August, and place in a 
 warm room ; they will bloom about 
 November. — Abercrombie. 
 
 NARCISSUS-FLY. See Meurodon. 
 
 NASTURTIUM. By this name are 
 commonly known two species of Tro- 
 pceolum. T. majus is a hardy annual 
 twiner, and there are several varieties, 
 distinguished by their double or crim- 
 son flowers. T. minus is a hardy an- 
 nual trailer, and a variety with double 
 flowers, is a green-house evergreen. 
 
 Although strictly annual when grown 
 in the open ground in this country, yet 
 they are naturally perennial, as may be 
 proved if they are grown in a green- 
 house. The Major Nasturtium being 
 the most productive, as well of flowers 
 and leaves as of berries, is the one that 
 
 is usually cultivated in the kitchen gar- 
 den ; the first two being employed in 
 salads and for garnishing, and the last 
 in pickling. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — They flourish in 
 almost any soil, but are most productive 
 in a light fresh loam. In a strong rich 
 soil, the plants are luxuriant, but afford 
 fewer berries, and those of inferior fla- 
 vour. They like an open situation. 
 
 Time and Mode of Sowing. — They 
 may be sown from the beginning of 
 March to the middle of May; the ear- 
 lier, however, the better: one sowing 
 in the kitchen garden, and that a small 
 one, is quite sufficient for a moderate 
 sized family. The seed may be inserted 
 in a drill, two inches deep along its bot- 
 tom, in a single row, with a space of 
 two or three inches between every two, 
 or they may be dibbled in at a similar 
 distance and depth. The minor is like- 
 wise often sown in patches. The ma- 
 jor should be inserted beneath a vacant 
 paling, wall, or hedge, to which its 
 stems may be trained, or in an open 
 compartment, with sticks inserted on 
 each side. The runners at first require 
 a little attention to enable them to 
 climb, but they soon are capable of 
 doing so unassisted. The minor may 
 either trail along the ground, or be sup- 
 ported with short sticks. If water is 
 not afforded during dry weather, they 
 will not shoot so vigorously, or be so 
 productive. They flower from June 
 until the close of October. The berries 
 for pickling must be gathered when of 
 full size, and whilst green and fleshy, 
 during August. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — For the production 
 of seed, some plants should be left 
 ungathered from, as the first produced 
 are not only the finest in general, but 
 are often the only ones that ripen. 
 They should be gathered as they ripen, 
 which they do from the close of Au- 
 gust even to the beginning of October. 
 They must on no account be stored 
 until perfectly dry and hard. The finest 
 and soundest seed of the previous year's 
 production should alone be sown ; if it 
 is older the plants are seldom vigorous. 
 
 NAUCLEA. Five species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Layers and cuttings. 
 Rich loam. 
 
 NAVELWORT. Cotyledon. 
 
 NEAPOLITAN VIOLET. Viola od(h 
 rata pallida plena. See Violet. 
 
NEC 
 
 394 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 NET 
 
 NECTARINE. Persica lavis. } vated in the Philadelphia Nurseries, 
 
 Varieties. — The following are culti- | and are among the better kinds : 
 
 Explanation of Abbreviations. — Color — y yellow ; r red ; o orange ; g 
 green; w white. Size — l large ; m medium. 
 
 Those marked * are clingstones. 
 
 Downton 
 
 Elruge 
 
 *Golden 
 
 Peterborough 
 
 *Red Roman .... 
 
 *White Roman 
 
 White Early .... 
 
 For Culture, see Peach, which applies. 
 
 NECTAROSOCORDUM sicu- 
 lum. Honey Garlic. Hardy bulb. Off- 
 sets. Common soil. 
 
 NEGRO- FLY. See Athalia. 
 
 NEGUNDO fraxinifolium. Two va- 
 rieties. Hardy deciduous trees. Seed 
 and layers. Light loam. 
 
 NELITRIS jambosella. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings and layers. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 NELUMBIUM. Five species. Stove 
 aquatics. Seed and division. Rich loam 
 in water. Mr. A. Scott, gardener to 
 Sir G. Staunton, Bart., gives the follow- 
 ing directions for cultivating N. specio- 
 sum : — 
 
 " Let it be kept dry during the win- 
 ter, in a cool part of the plant stove, 
 at about 50° Fahrenheit. In February, 
 the roots to be divided and potted sepa- 
 rately in turfy loam; the pots set in 
 pans of water ; the temperature of air 
 from 65° to 90o; temperature of the 
 water in the cisterns being about 75°. 
 In May plant out in a water-tight box, 
 three and a half feet long, one and a 
 half foot wide, and sixteen inches deep, 
 filled with loamy soil, having a little 
 gravel on the top to give it solidity, and 
 allowing room for about two inches 
 of water over the surface of the soil. 
 Plunge the box into the bark bed ; the 
 temperature of the soil and water in 
 the box 80°. This bottom heat main- 
 tain during the summer, the tempera- 
 ture of the house varying from 65 Q to 
 90°."— Hort. Soc. Trans. N. luteum is 
 indigenous to the United States, though 
 only found growing spontaneously in 
 certain quarters. It has been intro- 
 duced into the meadow ditches below 
 
 
 
 i-l 
 
 COL'R 
 
 SIZE 
 
 < 
 
 y r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 y r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 2 
 
 o g 
 
 M 
 
 2 
 
 g r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 September 
 
 September 
 
 August 
 
 August 
 
 Philadelphia, where it thrives luxu- 
 riantly. We have seen it finely de- 
 veloped in artificial ponds, evincing 
 that it is of easy culture. 
 
 NEMATANTHUS chloronema. Stove 
 shrub. Cuttings. Light rich soil. 
 
 NEMESIA. Four species. Two 
 hardy annuals, and the other green-house 
 herbaceous perennials. The first in- 
 crease by seed, the second by cuttings. 
 Rich light loam. 
 
 NEMOPANTHES canadensis. Hardy 
 deciduous shrub. Seed and layers. Peat. 
 
 NEMOPHILA. Six species. Hardy 
 annuals and perennials. Seed. Peat 
 and light soil. 
 
 NEOTTIA. Nineteen species. Hardy, 
 green-house, and stove orchids. Divi- 
 sion. Loam, peat, and chalk. 
 
 NEPENTHES. Two species. " Stove 
 evergreen climbers. N. distillatoria is 
 the Pitcher Plant. Offsets. Coarse peat 
 and moss. Pots plunged in moss, kept 
 moist and at 80o ; air 70°." — PaxtoiVs 
 Bot. Diet. 
 
 NEPETA. Thirty-five species. Hardy 
 herbaceous, except N. angustifolia, 
 which is annual. Seed and division. 
 Light loam. 
 
 Twelve species. Green- 
 Seed and offsets. Rich 
 
 NERINE. 
 house bulbs, 
 light loam. 
 
 NERIUM. 
 
 Oleander. Four species 
 
 and more varieties. Green-house and 
 stove evergreens. Cuttings. Rich light 
 loam. 
 
 NESiEA triflora. Stove herbaceous. 
 Cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 NETTING is employed to prevent 
 the radiation of heat from walls, and 
 the rude access of wind to trees grown 
 upon them, as well as to prevent the 
 
NET 
 
 395 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 NIC 
 
 ravages of birds upon currants, cher- 
 ries, &c. 
 
 Netting is a very effectual preventive 
 of cooling, for reasons which will be 
 stated when considering Shelters gene- 
 rally ; and in connection with that, it may 
 be observed that it is not altogether im- 
 material of what substance netting is 
 formed. Worsted is to be preferred 
 not only because it is the most durable, 
 but because it is the best preventive of 
 a wall's cooling. I have found the ther- 
 mometer under a hemp net sink during 
 the night, from two to four degrees 
 lower than that under a net of worsted, 
 the meshes being small and of equal 
 size in both nets. This can only be 
 because worsted is known to be a worse 
 conductor of heat than hemp; and, not 
 absorbing moisture so easily, is not so 
 liable to the cold always produced by 
 its drying. — Principles of Gardening. 
 
 Netting will also exclude flies and 
 other winged insects from the fruit 
 against walls, although the meshes are 
 more than large enough to permit 
 their passage. Why this is the case is 
 not very apparent, but the netting is 
 equally efficient in keeping similar in- 
 sects from intruding into rooms if there 
 are no cross lights. If there are win- 
 dows on different sides of the room, and 
 it is to be presumed, therefore, also in a 
 green or hot-house, nets would not be so 
 efficient. 
 
 It is not a useless scrap of knowledge 
 to the gardener, that one hundred square 
 yards of netting, according to some mer- 
 chants' mode of measuring, will not cover 
 more than fifty square yards of wall, for 
 they stretch the net first longitudinally 
 and then laterally, when making their 
 measurement, and not in both directions 
 at once, as the gardener must when co- 
 vering his trees. Disappointment, there- 
 fore, should be avoided, when ordering 
 new nets, by stating the size of the sur- 
 face which has to be covered. This 
 may be done without any fear of impo- 
 sition. 
 
 Mr. Richardson, net maker, New 
 Road, London, informs me, that one 
 cwt. of old mackerel net, weighed when 
 quite dry, will cover eight hundred 
 square yards ; and one cwt. of old her- 
 ring net (smaller meshes) will cover six 
 hundred square yards. Mr. Hulme, of 
 Knutsford, has sent me various speci- 
 mens of his nets and open canvass for 
 inspection — some made of woollen and 
 
 others of hemp : the last does not shrink 
 after being wetted like the woollen. I 
 prefer that with about twenty-five meshes 
 in a square inch, at bd. per square yard. 
 
 NETTLE TREE. Celtis. 
 
 NEUROLOMA arabidiflorum. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Common soil. 
 
 NEW JERSEY TEA. Ceanotkus 
 Americanus. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND SPINACH, Tetra- 
 gonia expansa, is much admired as a 
 substitute for summer spinach, being of 
 more delicate flavor, and not so liable 
 to run to seed. Mr. J. Anderson, gar- 
 dener to the Earl of Essex, at Cassio- 
 bury, Herts, gives the following direc- 
 tions for its cultivation : — 
 
 " Sow in the seed-vessel as gathered 
 the preceding autumn, at the latter end 
 of March in a pot, and placed in a me- 
 lon frame. The seedlings to be pricked 
 while small singly into pots, to be kept 
 under a frame without bottom heat, until 
 the third week in May, or until the dan- 
 ger of frost is past. The bed for their 
 reception is formed by digging a trench 
 two feet wide and one deep, this being 
 filled with thoroughly decayed dung, 
 and covered six inches deep with mould. 
 A space of at least three feet must be 
 left vacant for the extension of the 
 branches. Twenty plants will afford an 
 abundant supply daily for a large fa- 
 mily ; they must be planted three feet 
 apart. 
 
 " In dry seasons they probably require 
 a large supply of water. In five or six 
 weeks after planting, the young leave3 
 may be gathered from them, these be- 
 ing pinched off. The leading shoot 
 must be carefully preserved, for the 
 branches are productive until a late pe- 
 riod of the year, as they survive the 
 frosts that kill nasturtiums and pota- 
 toes." 
 
 To obtain Seed. — For the production 
 of seed, a plantation must be made on 
 a poorer soil, or kept stunted and dry in 
 pots, as ice plants are when seed is re- 
 quired of them. On the rich compost 
 of the bed, the plants become so suc- 
 culent as to prevent the production of 
 seed. This vegetable has not proved, 
 in the United States, worthy of its Eu- 
 ropean reputation — probably owing to 
 the intense heat of our summers. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND TEA. Leptosper- 
 mum scoparia. 
 
 NICKER TREE. Guilandina. 
 
 NICOTIANA. Thirty-one species, in- 
 
NIE 
 
 396 
 
 NON 
 
 eluding JV. tabacum, the well-known To- 
 bacco. This and nearly all the others 
 are hardy annuals. Seed. Rich light 
 loam. 
 
 NIEREMBERGIA. Four species. 
 Green-house herbaceous, except the 
 hardy annual JV. aristata. Seed or cut- 
 tings. Light loam. 
 
 NIGELLA. Fennel flower. Eleven 
 species. Hardy annuals and biennials, 
 except the herbaceous JV. coarctata. 
 Seed. Common soil. 
 
 NIGHTSHADE. Solatium. 
 
 NIGHT-SOIL. See Bung. 
 
 NIGHT TEMPERATURE in hot- 
 houses and frames should always ave- 
 rage from 10 to 20 degrees lower than 
 the temperature in which the plants are 
 grown during the day. It is in the night 
 that the individual functions are reno- 
 vated by a temporary repose, and if 
 left to the dictates of healthy nature, 
 the sap, like the blood, flows at night, 
 with a much diminished velocity. 
 
 That plants do become exhausted by 
 too unremitting excitement, is proved 
 to every gardener who has peach- 
 houses under his rule ; for if the great- 
 est care be not taken to ripen the wood 
 by exposure to the air and light during 
 the summer, no peach tree will be fruit- 
 ful if forced during a second successive 
 winter, but will require a much more 
 increased temperature than at first to 
 excite it even to any advance in vegeta- 
 tion. 
 
 The experiments of Harting and 
 Munter upon vines growing in the open 
 air, and those of Dr. Lindley upon vines 
 in a hot-house, coincide in testifying 
 that this tree grows most during the less 
 light and cooler hours of the twenty- 
 four. But the hours of total darkness 
 were the period when the vine grew 
 slowest. This, observes Dr. Lindley, 
 seems to show the danger of employing 
 a high night temperature, which forces 
 such plants into growing fast at a time 
 when nature bids them repose. 
 
 That the elevation of temperature at 
 night does hurtfully excite plants is 
 proved by the fact, that the branch of a 
 vine kept at that period of the day in 
 temperature not higher than 50°, in- 
 hales from one-sixteenth to one-tenth 
 less oxygen than a similar branch of the 
 same vine during the same night in a 
 temperature of 75°. The exhalation of 
 moisture and carbonic acid is propor- 
 
 tionably increased by the higher tem- 
 perature. — Principles of Gardening. 
 
 NIPHOBOLUS. Eight species. 
 Stove ferns. Seed and division. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 NISSOLIA. Seven species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers and shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 NITRATES. See Saline Manures. 
 
 NITTA TREE. Parkia. 
 
 N I V E A . Seven species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 NOCCA. Four species. Stove ever- 
 green shrubs. JV. latifolia is half-hardy. 
 Cuttings. Common soil. 
 
 NOCTUA, a genus of moths. The 
 following are injurious to our gar- 
 dens : — 
 
 JV. gamma. The Y, or Gamma Moth. 
 The caterpillars of this are very de- 
 structive to peas and other kitchen ve- 
 getables during the summer. Mr. Cur- 
 tis describes it as " being beset with 
 greenish hairs, and on the back with 
 yellow or white ones. It has a brown 
 head. When fully grown, which takes 
 place in the course of a few weeks, it 
 forms a white cocoon, and changes into 
 a blackish brown pupa. 
 
 " There are three or four generations 
 of moths during the summer, which ap- 
 pear at intervals between April and 
 October. In the latter month, we have 
 seen them fluttering round flowers at 
 dusk literally by thousands : this remark 
 applies more particularly to the southern 
 counties of England. The wings are 
 about an inch across, the upper ones 
 are varied with grey and brown, having 
 quite a silvery hue, and towards the 
 centre there is a perfect silvery Greek 
 gamma, y, with a rusty spot close be- 
 fore it, the lower wings are pale ashy 
 brown, with the nerves and hinder mar- 
 gin deep brown. There are few reme- 
 dies that can be applied to this pest; 
 perhaps the best of all is hand-picking 
 the caterpillars. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 JV. exclamationis. The caterpillar 
 of this moth feeds on the stalks of the 
 potato. 
 
 NOISETTIA longifolia. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Young cuttings. Light 
 rich soil. 
 
 N L A N A. Five species. Hardy 
 annual trailers. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 NOLINA georgiana. Hardy herba- 
 ceous. Offsets. Sandy peat. 
 
 NONATELIA. Four species. Stove 
 
NOR 
 
 397 
 
 NOV 
 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 NORANTEA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 NORMANDY CRESS. See Ameri- 
 can Cress. 
 
 NORWAY SPRUCE. Pinus cana- 
 densis. 
 
 NOTELiEA. Five species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 NOTHOCHLiENA. Nine species. 
 Green-house and stove ferns. Seed and 
 division. Sandy peat. 
 
 NOTYLIA. Five species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Offsets. Wood and moss. 
 
 NOVEMBER is a month chiefly of 
 routine neatness and preparation for 
 winter. 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 Artichokes, winter, dress. — Aspara- 
 gus-beds, dress ; plant ; to force ; attend 
 to that in forcing.— Beet, dig up for 
 storing. — Cabbages, remove to winter 
 quarters. — Cardoons, earth up,b. — Car- 
 rots, dig up and store, b. — Cauliflowers, 
 attend to, under glasses, &c. — Celery, 
 earth up. — Coleworts, plant. — Com- 
 posts, prepare. — Cucumbers, attend to, 
 in forcing. — Brain vacant ground. — 
 Dung, prepare for hot-beds. — Earth- 
 ing-up, attend to. — Endive, blanch, &c. 
 — Garlic, plant, b. — Herbary, clean, 
 &c. — Horse-radish, dig up and store. — 
 Hot-beds, make for salading, &c. — Jeru- 
 salem Artichokes, dig up and store. — 
 Leaves, fyc, continually clear away. — 
 Lettuces, plant in frames; attend to 
 those advancing. — Mint, plant; force in 
 hot-bed. — Mushroom Beds, make ; at- 
 tend to those in production. — Onions, 
 in store, look over; plant for seed, b.; 
 — Parsley, cut down, b. — Parsnips, dig 
 up and store, b.; leave or plant out 
 for seed. — Potatoes, dig up, b. — 
 Radishes, sow, in hot-bed. — Salsafy, 
 dig up and store. — Savoys, plant for 
 seed, b. — Scorzonera, dig up and store. 
 — Seeds, dress and store. — Shallots, 
 plant, b. ; sow in hot-bed. — Spinach, 
 thin, &c. — Thinning, attend to. — 
 Trench, ridge, &c, vacant ground. — 
 Weeds, destroy continually.^ 
 
 prune; plant; cuttings plant. — Figs, 
 rub off green fruit; train, but do not 
 prune. — Fork over ground about fruit 
 trees. — Gooseberries, plant ; prune ; 
 cuttings plant. — Medlars, plant. — 
 Mulberries, plant. — Mulch round 
 trees newly planted. — Nectarines, 
 prune; plant. — Nuts (Filberts), &c, 
 plant.— Peaches, prune; plant. — Pears, 
 prune; plant. — Plums, prune; plant. — 
 Pruning and planting generally should 
 be done; it is the best season. — Quinces, 
 plant. — Raspberries, prune; plant. — 
 Services, plant. — Stake trees newly 
 planted. — Standards, plant; prune. — 
 Stones of fruit sow. — Strawberries, 
 dress, if not done last month. — Suckers, 
 remove. — Trees for forcing, remove. — 
 Trench and manure ground to be plant- 
 ed, if not done months ago. — Vines, 
 prune ; plant. — Wall Trees and Espa- 
 liers generally, prune and plant; it is 
 the best for their winter regulation. — 
 Walnuts, plant. — Water all newly 
 planted trees. — Weeds, destroy ge- 
 nerally, and clean up. 
 
 FLOWER GARDEN. 
 
 Anemones, plant, if not done 
 
 Apples, 
 prune ; plant. 
 Cherries, prune 
 
 ORCHARD. 
 
 prune ; plant. — Apricots, 
 
 Berberries, plant 
 ; plant. — Currants, 
 
 in Oc- 
 tober. — Auriculas, shelter. — Bulbous 
 roots, finish planting in dry weather, b. ; 
 cover beds with mats, &c, in bad wea- 
 ther ; pot for forcing. — Carnation lay- 
 ers, potted, shelter; finish planting. — 
 Climbers, as Ivy, Clematis, &c, plant 
 and train against walls. — Composts, 
 prepare. — Dahlias, take up after the 
 first frost; dry and store under sand, 
 where the temperature keeps about 
 40°. — Dressing the borders' is now the 
 chief occupation. — Edgings, plant. — 
 Evergreens, finish planting, b. ; finish 
 layering. — Fibrous-rooted plants, finish 
 dividing and planting, b. — Fork over 
 borders, shrubberies, &c. — Grass, roll ; 
 keep free from leaves. — Gravel, weed, 
 sweep, and roll. — Hedges, plant, clip, 
 plash. — Hoeing and raking are the chief 
 operations. — Hyacinths, &c, place in 
 water glasses ; pot for forcing. — Marvel 
 of Peru, take up and store. (See Dahlia.) 
 — Mulch round shrubs lately planted. — 
 Leaves, collect for composts. — Plant 
 Perennials and Biennials. — Planting 
 perform generally. — Potted Shrubs, 
 plunge in the earth of a well sheltered 
 border. — Pot Plants for forcing, as 
 Roses, Carnations, &c. — Prune Shrubs 
 generally. — Ranunculuses, plant, if not 
 done in October. — Seedlings, in boxes, 
 
NUP 
 
 398 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 NUR 
 
 remove to a warm situation. — Shrubs of 
 all kinds, plant ; stake them as a sup- 
 port against boisterous winds. — Suckers 
 from Roses and other shrubs, separate 
 and plant. — Tulips, finish main plant- 
 ing, b. — Turf may be laid. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit as freely as the season al- 
 lows. — Bark Beds, renew, if not done 
 last month. — Dress the borders, by fork- 
 ing, &c. — FireHeat, by whatever means 
 it maybe distributed, must now be dai- 
 ly employed. — Manure borders, &c, 
 in which forcing trees are planted. — 
 Leaves, clean with sponge, &c; remove 
 those decayed. — Pines will require the 
 day temperature to be kept between 
 60° and 65°. — Peaches, prune ; wash 
 with diluted ammonia water from the 
 gas works, before training; day tempe- 
 rature 50.° — Potted flowering plants, 
 introduce. — Steam, admit into the house, 
 where that mode of heating is used. — 
 Strawberries, begin to force. — Tobacco 
 fumigations employ to destroy insects. 
 — Trees, in forcing, treat like the Peach. 
 — Water (tepid), apply with the syringe 
 to the leaves; give to their roots, occa- 
 sionally; keep in pans about the house. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit freely, when mild. — Chry- 
 santhemums require abundant watering. 
 — Damp stagnant air is more to be dread- 
 ed than cold. — Decayed parts, remove, 
 as they appear. — Earth, in pots stir fre- 
 quently. — Fires must be lighted, if frost 
 severe, or heavy cold fogs occur. — 
 Leaves, clean with sponge, &c. — Tem- 
 perature, keep at about 45°, but not 
 higher. — Water moderately. 
 
 NUPHAR. Five species. Hardy 
 aquatics. Division and seed ; ponds, 
 cisterns, &c. 
 
 NURSERY is a garden or portion of 
 a garden devoted to the rearing of trees 
 and shrubs during their early stages of 
 growth, before they are of a size desired 
 for the fruit or pleasure grounds. As 
 every tenant of the nursery is separate- 
 ly discussed in these pages, no more is 
 required here than to make a few ge- 
 neral observations. 
 
 Extent, Soil, Situation, fyc. — With 
 respect to the proper extent of a nurse- 
 ry, whether for private use, or for pub- 
 lic supply, it must be according to the 
 quantity of plants required, or the de- 
 
 a quarter or half an acre to five or six 
 acres may be proper, which must be 
 regulated according to the extent of 
 garden ground and plantations it is re- 
 quired to supply with the various sorts 
 of plants, and if for a public nursery, 
 not less than three or four acres of land 
 will be worth occupying as such, and 
 from that to fifteen or twenty acres, or 
 more, may be requisite according to 
 the demand, though some occupy forty 
 or fifty acres in nursery ground. A 
 nursery may be of any moderately light 
 land, that is fifteen or eighteen inches 
 depth of good working staple ; but if 
 two or three spades deep, it will be 
 the greater advantage. A good fresh 
 fat soil, such as any good pasture, which 
 having the sward trenched to the bot- 
 tom is excellent for the growth of trees, 
 a rich soil fit for corn is also extremely 
 proper, or any other good soil of the 
 nature of common garden earth is also 
 very well adapted for a nursery. As to 
 situation ; if this is rather low it will be 
 better, because it is naturally warmer, 
 and more out of the power of cutting 
 and boisterous winds than a higher 
 situation, though if it happens where 
 some parts of the ground are high and 
 some low, it is an advantage, the bet- 
 ter suiting the nature of the different 
 plants. It is also of advantage to have 
 a nursery ground fully exposed to the 
 sun and air, and where there is the 
 convenience of having water, for the 
 occasional watering. 
 
 Mode of Arranging the Plants. — In 
 the distribution of the various sorts of 
 plants in the nursery, let each sort be 
 separate, in lines or nursery rows, to 
 stand till arrived at a proper growth for 
 drawing off for the garden and planta- 
 tions, placing the fruit trees, stocks, 
 &c, for grafting and budding upon, in 
 rows two feet asunder, and half that 
 distance in the rows, varying the dis- 
 tance both ways, according to the 
 time they are to stand ; the shrub kind 
 should likewise be arranged in rows 
 about two feet asunder, and fifteen or 
 eighteen inches distant in each line; 
 and as to herbaceous plants, they should 
 generally be disposed in four feet wide 
 beds, in rows from six to twelve or 
 eighteen inches asunder, according to 
 their nature of growth, and time they 
 are to stand. 
 
 General Culture. — Those designed aa 
 mand for sale ; if for private use, from ' stocks for fruit-trees should have their 
 
NUR 
 
 399 
 
 OCT 
 
 stems generally cleared from lateral 
 shoots, but never to shorten the lead- 
 ing shoot unless it is decayed or be- 
 comes very crooked, in which case it 
 may be proper to cut it down low in 
 spring, and it will shoot out again — 
 training the main shoot for a stem, with 
 its top entire, for the present, till graft- 
 ed or budded. 
 
 Forest trees should also be encou- 
 raged to form straight clean stems by 
 occasional trimming of the largest late- 
 ral branches, which will also promote 
 the leading top shoot in aspiring farther 
 in height, always suffering that part of 
 each tree to shoot at full length, unless 
 where the stem divides into forks — in 
 which case trim off the weakest, and 
 leave the straightest and strongest shoot 
 or branch to shoot out at its proper 
 length, to form the top. 
 
 The different sorts of shrubs may 
 either be suffered to branch out in their 
 own natural way, except just regulating 
 very irregular growths, or some may 
 be trained with single clean stems, from 
 about a foot to two or three feet high. 
 
 Every winter or spring the ground 
 between the rows of all transplanted 
 plants, in the open nursery-quarters, 
 must be dug : this is particularly neces- 
 sary to all the tree and shrub kind that 
 stand wide enough in rows to admit the 
 spade between; which work is, by the 
 nurserymen, called turning-in, the most 
 general season for which work is any 
 time from October until March. But 
 the sooner it is done the more advan- 
 tageous it will prove to the plants. 
 
 The ground is to be dug but half spade 
 deep, proceeding row by row, turning 
 the top of each spit clean to the bot- 
 tom, that all weeds on the surface may 
 be buried a proper depth to rot. 
 
 In summer be remarkably attentive to 
 keep all clean from weeds. The seed- 
 lings growing close in the seminary-beds 
 must be hand-weeded; but to all plants 
 that grow in rows introduce the hoe. 
 As any quarter or compartment of the 
 nursery-ground is cleared from plants, 
 others must be substituted in their room 
 from the seminary ; but the ground 
 should previously be trenched and lie 
 some time fallow, giving it also the ad- 
 dition of manure if it shall seem proper. 
 
 It will be of advantage to plant the 
 ground with plants of a different kind 
 from those which occupied it before. 
 The tender or exotic plants of all kinds 
 
 require shelter only from frost whilst 
 young, and by degrees become hardy 
 enough to live in the open air. Such of 
 them as are seedlings, in the open 
 grounds, should be arched over with 
 hoops or rods at the approach of winter, 
 in order to be sheltered with mats in 
 severe weather; and those which are in 
 pots, either seedlings or transplanted 
 plants, should be removed in October, 
 in their pots, to a warm sunny place, 
 sometimes sheltered with hedges, &c, 
 placing some close under the fences, 
 facing the sun, where they may have 
 occasional covering, either of glass 
 lights or mats, &c, from frost, observing 
 of all those sorts here alluded to that 
 they are gradually to be hardened to the 
 open ground, and need only be covered 
 in frosty weather. At all other times 
 let them remain fully exposed, and by 
 degrees, as they acquire age and 
 strength, inure them to bear the open 
 air fully, so that, when they arrive at 
 from two or three to four or five years 
 old, they may be turned out in the open 
 ground . — Abercrombie. 
 
 NUTMEG. Myristica. 
 
 NUTTALIA. Five species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Seed and division. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 NUT-TREE. Corylus. See Filbert. 
 
 NYCTANTHES arbortristis. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 NYMPH^EA. Water-lily. Eighteen 
 species. Hardy and stove aquatics. 
 Seed or division. Rich loam in water. 
 
 NYSSA. Four species. Hardy de- 
 ciduous trees. Seed and layers. Com- 
 mon soil in a moist situation. 
 
 OAK. Quercus. 
 
 OBESIA. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam. 
 
 C H N A . Seven species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs, except the green- 
 house O.atropurpurea. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 OCHROSIA borbonica. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Rich light 
 loam. 
 
 OCHRUS pallida. Hardy annual 
 climber. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 OCTOBER is one of the gardener's 
 harvest months in the southern section 
 of the Union ; in the middle and northern 
 states, his out-door labours are drawing 
 to a close. 
 
OCT 
 
 400 
 
 — • — 
 
 OCT 
 
 KITCHEN-GARDEN. 
 
 Angelica, sow. — Asparagus - beds, 
 dress, e.; for forcing, plant. — Balm, 
 plant. — Beet take up for storing, e. ; 
 Borecole, plant, b. ; earth up, &c. — Bur- 
 net, plant. — Cabbages, prick out, &c. ; 
 plant for seed. — Cardoons, earth up. — 
 Carrots, take up to store. — Cauliflowers, 
 prick out in frames. — Celery, earth up. 
 — Chives, plant. — Coleworts, plant. — 
 Cress (Water), plant. — Cucumbers, plant 
 to force. — Dill, sow. — Dung, prepare 
 for hot-beds. — Earthing-up, attend to. 
 — Endive, attend to ; blanch, &c. — Fen- 
 nel, plant. — Garlic, plant, e. — Herbary, 
 dress. — Horse-Radish, plant. — Hyssop, 
 plant. — Jerusalem Artichokes, stir, e. — 
 Leaves, fallen, remove continually. — 
 Leeks, plant, b. ; hoe, &c, advancing 
 crops. — Lettuces, prick out, e. — Mint, 
 plant. — Mushroom-beds, make ; attend 
 to those in production. — Nasturtium 
 Berries, gather as they ripen. — Onions, 
 attend to those in store, plant for seed. 
 —Parsley, cut down, b.; (Hamburgh), 
 is fit for use. — Parsnips, take up for 
 storing, e.; leave or plant out for seed. 
 — Pennyroyal, plant. — Potatoes, dig up, 
 e. — Rhubarb, sow. — Rosemary, plant. — 
 Rue, plant. — Sage, plant. — Salsafy is in 
 perfection; take up for storing. — Savory, 
 plant. — Savoys, plant for seed. — Scor- 
 zonera is in perfection ; take up for 
 storing. — Seeds, gather as they ripen. — 
 Shallots, plant, e. — Small Salading, 
 sow. — Spinach, thin, &c. — Stir between 
 rows of plants. — Tansy, plant. — Tar- 
 ragon, plant. — Thinning, attend to. — 
 Thyme, plant. — Turnips, plant for seed ; 
 hoe young crops. — Vacant ground, 
 trench, drain, &c. 
 
 ORCHARD. 
 
 Berberries, gather. — Chestjxuts, gather. 
 — Currants and Gooseberries, plant; 
 prune ; cuttings plant. — Fig Trees, pro- 
 tect when leaves are off. — Fruit Trees, 
 for forcing, plant in pots or in hot-house. 
 — Gathering apples and pears, finish. 
 — Grapes, ripe, gather and hang up, e. ; 
 bag on the vines. — Layers of figs, fil- 
 berts, mulberries, vines, &c, make ; 
 those of last year take up and plant. — 
 Medlars, gather, e. — Planting may be- 
 gin generally, e. — Pruning, commence, 
 e. — Quinces, gather, e. — Raspberries, 
 prune and plant, if leaves have fallen. 
 — Ridge up ground after pruning is 
 finished. — Services, gather, e. — Stones 
 of cherries and plums, sow. — Strawber- 
 
 ries, dress ; plant. — Trench and prepare 
 ground for planting. — Wall-fruit and 
 espaliers generally, begin to prune, 
 e. — Walnuts, gather. — Water, give 
 abundantly at the time of planting. 
 
 FLOWER GARDEN. 
 
 Anemones, plant. — Annuals, done 
 flowering, pull up ; sow hardy, b. — 
 Auriculas, move to sunny shelter ; pro- 
 tect from rain and snow ; remove dead 
 leaves; slip. — Bulbous roots, plant; 
 those in flower protect; place in water 
 glasses. — Carnation layers, plant in 
 pots, e. — Chrysanthemum cuttings, finish 
 planting. — Climbers, plant. — Compost, 
 prepare. — Cuttings, plant. — Dahlias, 
 protect in flower ; begin to take up roots 
 to dry and store as the leaves decay, e. 
 — Edgings, trim. — Evergreens, plant; 
 trim. — Fibrous-rooted plants, transplant 
 where required ; divide roots. — Grass, 
 mow and roll. — Gravel, weed and roll. 
 Green-house plants, remove from bor- 
 ders to the house. — Hedges, trim; plant; 
 plash. — Hoe and Rake, as required. — 
 Layers, make ; they will have to remain 
 twelve months. — Leaves, gather as they 
 fall, and store for composts. — Mignio- 
 nette, shelter. — Pipings of Pinks, &c, 
 finish planting to remain. — Planting, 
 generally, may be done. — Potting, per- 
 form as required ; dress old potted 
 plants. — Primulas, all this genus (Poly- 
 anthus, &c.) may be propagated by slips. 
 — Prune, generally. — Ranunculuses, 
 plant. — Seedlings, shelter. — Seeds, fin- 
 ish gathering. — Suckers, remove and 
 plant out. — Trench vacant ground. — 
 Tuberous-rooted plants insert, especially 
 Pseonies. — Turf may be laid. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit freely every fine day. — 
 Bark-beds, renovate in fruiting stoves 
 and succession house. — Fires must be- 
 gin to be lighted where the old flue 
 system is followed, e. — Flowering 
 Shrubs in pots, introduce for winter 
 blooming. — Glass, Flues, SfC, repair, if 
 not done last month. — Pines, remove 
 into fruiting stoves, b.; Crowns plant, 
 if required. — Roses, introduce for 
 Christmas blooming. — Shifting into 
 larger pots may be done. — Water about 
 twice weekly. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, give freely daily, and at night, 
 if temp, not so low as 35°. — Camellias, 
 bud. — Earth, give fresh before return- 
 
OC Y 
 
 401 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 OLY 
 
 ing into house. — Leaves clean, and dress 
 plants before returning to house. — 
 Potted Plants, return all into house, e.; 
 place hardiest back, and tenderest in 
 front. — Succulent Plants should all be 
 in, b. — Water, give over the foliage 
 after the plants are in house ; give wa- 
 ter once or twice weekly. 
 
 OCYMUM. Basil. Thirteen species. 
 Chiefly hardy annuals, but some are 
 stove evergreen shrubs. See Basil. 
 
 ODONTARRHENA microphylla. 
 Hardy evergreen trailer. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ODONTOGLOSSUM. Eight species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood and 
 
 (ECEOCLADES. Two species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Lateral shoots. Wood and 
 moss. 
 
 (E D E R A prolifera. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 (ENOTHERA. Evening Primrose. 
 Seventeen species. Hardy annuals, 
 biennials and perennials, except the 
 green-house evergreen shrub CE. cheir- 
 anthifolia. Seed; and the perennials 
 also by division. Common light soil. 
 
 SELECT SHOWY SPECIES. 
 
 Perennials. 
 (E. Speciosa, white. 
 CE. Macrocarpa, yellow. 
 CE. Taraxacifolia, white. 
 CE. Glauca, yellow. 
 (E. Serotina, yellow. 
 
 Annuals. 
 CE. Rubicunda, pink. 
 (E. Lindleyana, purplish-rose. 
 CE. Tenuifolia, purple. 
 (E. Tetraptera, white. 
 CE. Odorata, yellow. 
 CE. Romanzovii, blue. 
 
 (Enothera Drummondii, is a fine large 
 yellow sort, and very ornamental, but 
 it is tender, and requires the same 
 treatment as petunias and verbenas. — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 CE. serotina, is a beautiful autumn 
 flower, and its culture is thus recom- 
 mended : — " The bed should be looked 
 over every morning, and the flowers of 
 the previous day carried off. This will 
 very considerably add to its beauty. 
 Where a quantity of it is wanted for 
 bedding, May is the fit time to attend 
 to its propagation, by preparing cut- 
 tings (as soon as the young wood has 
 26 
 
 advanced to the length of one and a 
 half or two inches), pricking them out 
 in sand, in the open ground, and cover- 
 ing them with a hand-glass. If treated 
 in this manner, the whole of the cut- 
 tings may be expected to root, and be 
 ready for planting out in a month ; 
 whereas, if deferred until the autumn, 
 when the increase of flower-garden 
 stock is considered en masse, the pro- 
 bability is that not one will succeed." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 This mode of culture is applicable to 
 all the perennial species. 
 
 OFFSETS are side bulbs produced by 
 some bulbous roots, and by which the 
 species can be propagated. Whatever 
 checks the upward growth of the parent 
 plant, as an early breaking down of the 
 stem, compels the sap to find other or- 
 gans for its reception, and, consequent- 
 ly, promotes the production of offsets. 
 " The practice," says Dr. Lindley, " of 
 scarring the centre of bulbs, the heads 
 of echino cacti, and such plants, and 
 the crown of the stem of species like 
 Littoea geminiflora, in all which cases 
 suckers are the result, is explicable 
 upon the foregoing principle." 
 
 OGECHiE LIME. Nyssa candicans. 
 
 OIL NUT. Hamiltonia. 
 
 O K R A. " The Okra is a native of 
 the West Indies, where it is much used 
 in soups and stews ; its use is rapidly 
 increasing here. There are two vari- 
 eties, the large and the small podded 
 or capsuled. 
 
 "The seeds are planted late in spring, 
 either in rows or hills, three feet apart ; 
 the plant thrives readily, and requires 
 no further care than is requisite to keep 
 it free from weeds." — Rural Reg. 
 
 OLAX. Two species. Stove, ever- 
 green climbers. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 OLD-MAN'S-BEARD. Geropogon. 
 
 OLE A. The Olive. Green-house 
 and stove evergreen trees, except O. 
 sativa, which is hardy. Ripe cuttings, 
 and grafting on the Common Privet 
 (Ligustrum vulgare). Loam and peat. 
 
 OLEANDER. Nerium. 
 
 OLEASTER. Elaagnus. 
 
 OLIBANUM. Boswellia. 
 
 OLIVE. Olea. 
 
 OLIVE-WOOD. Elaodendron. 
 
 OLYNTHIA disticha. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Young cuttings. Sandy . 
 loam and peat. 
 
OMA 
 
 402 
 
 — • — 
 
 ONI 
 
 OMALANTHUS populifolia. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings. Peat 
 and loam., 
 
 OMIME PLANT. Plectranthus ter- 
 natus. 
 
 OMPHALOBIUM. Two species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
 Light Joam and peat. 
 
 OMPHALADES. Eight species. 
 Hardy annuals and herbaceous peren- 
 nials ; the first being increased by seed 
 in open borders ; the second by divi- 
 sion, in shaded situations. 
 
 ONCIDIUM. Fifty-nine species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Shoots, moss, and 
 rotten wood. 
 
 ONE-SHIFT SYSTEM in potting, is 
 thus described by Mr. Ayres : — " The 
 distinguishing difference of this system 
 is, that instead of taking a plant through 
 all the different-sized pots, from a 
 thumb to a twenty-four or sixteen, or 
 any other size that it may remain in 
 permanently, it is removed to the per- 
 manent pot at once, or at any rate to 
 one very considerably larger than is 
 the general custom; thus in purchasing 
 small specimens of new plants, they 
 may be placed at once in a twenty- 
 four, sixteen, or twelve-sized pot, in 
 which they will remain for four or five 
 years. 
 
 "The principal thing to attend to in 
 this system will be to have the pots 
 thoroughly drained ; for if water stag- 
 nates in such a mass of soil, all hope 
 of success will be at end. In growing 
 specimen plants, it is a good plan to 
 drain the soil with an inverted pot, tak- 
 ing great care to prevent the soil from 
 falling among the drainage by covering 
 it securely with moss. Porous stones 
 of various sizes, in considerable quanti- 
 ties, sticks in a half-decomposed state, 
 and even charcoal for some plants, 
 have been used with satisfactory re- 
 sults. 
 
 " Another very important point to be 
 attended to in this system of potting is, 
 to use the soil as rough as possible. 
 Plants potted in this way will not re- 
 quire so much attention as those potted 
 in the usual manner; because one wa- 
 tering will serve them for several days, 
 whereas in small pots they would re- 
 quire constant attention." — Gardener's 
 Chron. 
 
 There is no doubt that this system 
 much abridges the gardener's labour, 
 and there is an equal certainty that by 
 
 it large specimens may be rapidly ob- 
 tained; but as, with due care, magni- 
 ficent specimens may be grown in small 
 pots, annually increased in size when 
 the plants are shifted, the general adop- 
 tion of the one-shift system will never 
 be general, accompanied as it is by such 
 a great sacrifice of space in the stove 
 and green-house. 
 
 ONION. " The Onion is a biennial 
 plant, supposed to be a native of Spain. 
 The varieties are numerous. Those es- 
 teemed the best, are the Silver Skin, 
 and Large Yellow Strasburgh ; the 
 latter is the best keeper, though perhaps 
 not so delicately flavoured as the Silver 
 Skin. 
 
 " The Wethers field red is grown 
 extensively in the eastern states, where 
 it perfects itself the first season. 
 
 " It is the practice with the market 
 gardeners of Philadelphia, who grow 
 the Strasburgh and Silver Skin, to the 
 exclusion of all others, to sow the seed 
 thickly in beds in the middle of spring. 
 At midsummer they are taken up, and 
 placed in a dry airy situation, until the 
 succeeding spring, when they are re- 
 planted ; in this way they get large, 
 firm, well keeping Onions early in the 
 season. It should be observed that if 
 not sown quite thickly they attain too 
 large a size, and when replanted shoot to 
 seed. When sown early, and very thin- 
 ly, on strongground, bulbs large enough 
 for family use, may be had the first sea- 
 son ; they do not, however, usually at- 
 tain a size large enough for the market. 
 When sown in this way, they should 
 be frequently hoed, and kept perfectly 
 clean ; and the Wethersfield is perhaps 
 the best." — Rural Reg. 
 
 To save Seed. — To obtain seed, some 
 old onions must be planted in autumn 
 or early in Spring. The finest and firm- 
 est bulbs being selected and planted in 
 rows ten inches apart each way, either 
 in drills or by a blunt-ended dibble, the 
 soil to be rather poorer, if it differs at 
 all from that in which they are culti- 
 vated for bulbing. They must be bu- 
 ried so deep, that the mould just covers 
 the crown. Early in Spring their leaves 
 will appear. If grown in large quanti- 
 ties, a path must be left two feet wide 
 between every three or four rows to 
 allow the necessary cultivation. They 
 must be kept thoroughly clear from 
 weeds, and when in flower have stakes 
 driven at intervals of five or six feet on 
 
ONI 
 
 403 
 
 OR A 
 
 each side of every two rows, to which a 
 string is to be fastened throughout the 
 whole length, a few inches below the 
 heads, to serve as a support and prevent 
 their being broken down. The seeds 
 are ripe in August, which is intimated 
 by the husks becoming brownish ; the 
 heads must then be immediately cut, 
 otherwise the receptacles will open and 
 shed their contents. Being spread on 
 cloths in the sun, and during inclement 
 weather they soon become perfectly 
 dry, when the seed may be rubbed out, 
 cleaned of the chaff, and, after remain- 
 ing another day or two, finally stored. 
 It is of the utmost consequence to em- 
 ploy seed of not more than two years 
 old, otherwise not more than one in 
 fifty will vegetate. The goodness of 
 seed may be easily discovered by forc- 
 ing a little of it in a hot-bed or warm 
 water a day before it is employed ; a 
 small white point will soon protrude if 
 it is fertile. 
 
 ONION-FLY. See Anthomyia and 
 Eumerus. 
 
 ONISCUS. 0. asellus, 0. armadillo. 
 Woodlice. 
 
 The first is most easily distinguished 
 from the second by its not rolling up in 
 a globular form when at rest. They 
 are found in old dry dunghills, cucum- 
 ber frames, &c, and they are injurious 
 to many plants, fruits, &c, by gnawing 
 off the outer skin. Gas lime will expel 
 them from their haunts, and two boards 
 or tiles kept one-eighth of an inch 
 apart form an excellent trap. — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 ONOBROMA. Five species. O. 
 glaucum is a hardy annual, and O. ar- 
 borescens, a green-house shrub, the 
 others hardy herbaceous. Seed, cut- 
 tings, or divisions. Common soil. 
 
 ONOBRYCHIS. Saintfoin. Twenty- 
 three species. Hardy herbaceous. Seed. 
 Chalky loam. 
 
 ONOCLEA. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Seed and division. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 ONONIS. Thirty-seven species. 
 Mostly hardy annuals and shrubby 
 plants. Seed or cuttings. Loam. 
 
 ONOSMA. Sixteen species. Hardy 
 herbaceous, except the stove O. triner- 
 vum. Seed. Rich chalky loam. 
 
 ONOSMODIUM. Two species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Seed. Rich light 
 loam. 
 
 OPHIOPOGON. Three species. 
 
 Half-hardy herbaceous. Division. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 OPHIOXYLON serpentinum. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 OPHRYS. Ten species. Hardy and 
 half-hardy orchids. Seed. Chalky loam 
 and peat. 
 
 OPLOTHECA. Two species. 
 
 O.florodana is hardy herbaceous, in- 
 creased by division. 0. interrvpta is a 
 stove biennial, by seed. Both require 
 loam and peat. 
 
 OPUNTIA. Eighty-seven species. 
 Stove cacti, except 0. fragilis and O. 
 missouriensis, which are hardy ; and the 
 half-hardies, 0. media, 0. po'lyacantha, 
 and O. vulgaris. Slips, slightly dried; 
 sandy peat. 
 
 ORACH, Atriplex hortensis, is 
 cooked and eaten in the same manner 
 as spinach, to which it is much prefer- 
 red by many persons, although it be- 
 longs to a tribe whose wholesomeness 
 is very suspicious. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — It flourishes 
 best in a rich moist soil, and in an open 
 compartment. Those, however, of the 
 autumn sowing require a rather drier 
 soil. 
 
 Sowing. — It may be sown about the 
 end of September, and again in the 
 spring for succession. The sowing to 
 be performed in drills six inches apart. 
 The plants soon make their appearance, 
 being of quick growth. When they are 
 about an inch high, they must be thin- 
 ned to six inches asunder, and those 
 removed may be planted out at the 
 same distance in a similar situation, and 
 watered occasionally until established. 
 At the time of thinning, the bed must 
 be thoroughly cleared of weeds, and if 
 they are again hoed during a dry day, 
 when the plants are about four inches 
 high, they will require no further at- 
 tendance than an occasional weeding. 
 For early production, a sowing may be 
 in a moderate hot-bed at the same time 
 as those in the natural ground. The 
 leaves must be gathered for use whilst 
 young, otherwise they become stringy 
 and worthless. 
 
 To save Seed. — Some plants of the 
 spring sowing must be left ungathered 
 from, and thinned to about eight inches 
 apart. The seeds ripen about the end 
 of August, when the plants must be 
 pulled up, and when perfectly dry rub- 
 bed out for use. 
 
ORA 
 
 Citrus aurantium. 
 
 404 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 ORC 
 
 See 
 
 ORANGE 
 
 Citrus. 
 
 ORANGERY is a green-house or 
 conservatory devoted to the cultivation 
 of the genus Citrus. The best plan for 
 the construction of such a building is 
 that erected at Knowsley Park, and 
 thus described by the gardener, Mr. J. 
 W. Jones. 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 "Measured inside, this house is four- 
 teen and a half yards long, eight broad, 
 and six high. In the centre of the 
 house are eight borders, in which the 
 oranges, &c, are planted ; these borders 
 are all marked a. The two borders 
 against the back wall are sixteen inches 
 broad, and three feet deep. The six 
 borders immediately in the centre of 
 the house are fourteen inches broad, 
 and three feet deep ; the paths are 
 marked c, the front wall <?, and the 
 back one e; p, p, p, represent orna- 
 mental cast iron pillars, which, besides 
 supporting the roof, serve also to sup- 
 port light wire trellises ; there is one of 
 these pillars in each row for each rafter. 
 The house is entirely heated by smoke 
 flues, two furnaces being placed at /. 
 The dotted lines along the central path 
 show the direction of the flues beneath, 
 from the back to the front entrance, 
 when they diverge, the one entering a 
 raised flue, g, on the right, the other 
 also entering a raised flue on the left. 
 These flues again cross the house at 
 each end, and the smoke escapes by 
 the back wall ; it being found incon- 
 venient to place the furnaces in any 
 other situation. 
 
 " Two stoves immediately connected 
 with each end of the orangery contain 
 the collection of tropical plants bearing 
 fruit. The communication between 
 these stoves and the orangery is unin- 
 terrupted by any glass or other division, 
 so that the orange tribe are subjected 
 to nearly as high a temperature as the 
 tropical plants. The central borders 
 of the orangery, as may be seen in the 
 section, are raised a little above each 
 other, as they recede from the front 
 of the house. The oranges, citrons, 
 &c, are all trained as espaliers; a light 
 wire trellis being stretched from pillar 
 to pillar parallel with the borders, and 
 about eight feet high. The spaces, 6, 
 between the borders being about three 
 feet wide, permit a person to walk 
 along between the plants, for the pur- 
 pose of pruning, watering, &c. These 
 spaces are of the same depth as the 
 borders, and were originally filled with 
 tan ; but part of this is now removed, 
 and its place is filled with good soil. 
 In this some fine climbing plants have 
 been turned out, amongst which are 
 several plants of Passiflora quadrangu- 
 laris, which bear an abundant crop of 
 fine fruit. Besides these, there are 
 also two fine plants of the beautiful 
 new Gardenia Sherbournia. These, 
 and other climbers, are trained up the 
 rafters, &c, in such a manner as not to 
 materially intercept the light from the 
 orange. The great advantage of having 
 the trees trained on the trellis system 
 is, that every part of the tree is fully 
 exposed to the light, and by planting 
 them in rows one behind the other, a 
 larger surface is obtained for the trees 
 to cover than could be got by adopting 
 any other plan ; and consequently, for 
 the space, a larger quantity of fruit is 
 procured. The trees being hung loose- 
 ly and irregularly to the wires, assume 
 as natural an appearance as circum- 
 stances will permit, and the introduc- 
 tion here and there of large plants in 
 pots has a tendency to prevent formal- 
 ity. Two plants are placed in each 
 border." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 O R B E A . Twenty-three species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings slight- 
 ly dried ; sandy loam and lime rubbish. 
 
 ORCHARD is an inclosure devoted 
 to the cultivation of hardy fruit trees. 
 In it may be, as standards, apple-trees, 
 most sorts of pears and plums, and all 
 sorts of cherries, which four are the 
 
ORC 
 
 405 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 ORC 
 
 chief orchard fruits ; but to have a com- 
 plete orchard, also quinces, medlars, 
 mulberries, service trees, filberts, nuts, 
 berberries, walnuts, and chestnuts must 
 be included. The two latter are par- 
 ticularly applicable for the boundaries 
 of orchards, to screen the other trees 
 from impetuous winds. A general or- 
 chard composed of all the before men- 
 tioned fruit trees, should consist of a 
 double portion of apple trees. With 
 respect to the situation and aspect for 
 an orchard, avoid very low damp situa- 
 tions as much as the nature of the place 
 will admit: for in very wet soils no 
 fruit trees will prosper, nor the fruit be 
 fine; but a moderately low situation, 
 free from copious wet, may be more 
 eligible than an elevated ground, as 
 being less exposed to tempestuous 
 winds; though a situation having a 
 small declivity is very desirable, espe- 
 cially if its aspect incline towards the 
 east, south-east, or south, which are 
 rather more eligible than a westerly 
 aspect; but a north aspect is the worst 
 of all for an orchard, unless particu- 
 larly compensated by the peculiar tem- 
 perament or good quality of the soil. 
 Any common field or pasture that pro- 
 duces good crops of corn, grass, or 
 kitchen garden vegetables, is suitable 
 for an orchard ; if it should prove of a 
 loamy nature, it will be a particular 
 advantage ; any soil, however, of a good 
 quality, not too light and dry, or too 
 heavy, stubborn, or wet, but of a me- 
 dium nature, friable and open, with not 
 less than one spade deep of good staple, 
 will be proper. 
 
 Preparation of the Ground. — The 
 preparation of the ground for the re- 
 ception of the trees is by trenching one 
 or two spades, as the soil will admit. 
 And if in grass, turn the sward clean 
 to the bottom of each trench, which 
 will prove an excellent manure. The 
 ground must be fenced securely against 
 cattle, &c, either with a good ditch 
 and hedge, or with a paling fence, as 
 may be most convenient. 
 
 Method of Planting the Trees.— The 
 season for planting all the sorts of fruit 
 trees is autumn, soon after the fall of 
 the lea'f, from about the latter end of 
 October until December, though it may 
 be performed any time in open weather, 
 from October until March or April ; on 
 light land the autumn is usually pre- 
 ferred, on heavy land the spring is best. 
 
 Let several varieties of each particu- 
 lar species be chosen that ripen their 
 fruit at different times from the earliest 
 to the latest, according to the nature of 
 the different sorts, that there may be a 
 sufficient supply of every sort during 
 their proper season ; and of apples and 
 pears, in particular, choose a much 1 
 greater quantity of the autumnal and 
 late ripening kinds, than the early sorts ; 
 but most of all of apples ; for the sum- 
 mer ripening fruit is but of short dura- 
 tion, only proper for temporary service ; 
 but the latter ripening kinds keep sound 
 some considerable time for autumn and 
 winter use. The arrangement of the 
 trees in the orchard must be in rows, 
 each kind separate, at distances ac- 
 cording to the nature of growth of 
 the different sorts; but for the larger 
 growing kinds, such as apples, pears, 
 plums, cherries, &c, they should stand 
 from twenty-five to thirty or forty feet 
 every way asunder, though twenty-five 
 or thirty feet at most is a reasonable 
 distance for all these kinds. Each spe- 
 cies and its varieties should generally 
 be in rows by themselves, the better 
 to suit their respective modes of growth. 
 Stake the new planted trees, to support 
 them in their proper position, and se- 
 cure them from being rocked to and 
 fro by the wind, which would greatly 
 retard their rooting afresh, placing two 
 or three strong tall stakes to each tree ; 
 but the most effectual method is to have 
 three stakes to each, placed in a trian- 
 gle, meeting at top near the head of 
 the tree, wrapping a hayband round 
 that part of the stem, to prevent its 
 being barked by the stakes or tying; 
 then tie the stakes at top close to the 
 tree with some proper bandage, bring- 
 ing it close about the stem and stakes 
 together, over the hay wrapping, so as 
 to secure the tree firmly in an erect 
 posture. If laid down in grass no cat- 
 tle should be turned in to graze at 
 large, unless the stem of each tree is 
 previously well secured with posts and 
 railing, or wattled with thorn bushes, 
 especially in young orchards, otherwise 
 they will bark the trees ; nor should 
 large cattle be turned into orchards, 
 where the branches of the trees are yet 
 low and within their reach. — Abercrom- 
 bie. See Tree-Guard. 
 
 ORCHIDEOUS PLANTS are chiefly 
 herbaceous, a very few are even semi- 
 frutescent; but all are characterized 
 
ORC 
 
 406 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 ORC 
 
 either by singular beauty or fragrance ; 
 and, as many of them are extremely 
 impatient of cultivation, they have of 
 late years obtained great attention 
 from horticulturists; and pre-eminent 
 among these, are Dr. Lindley, Mr. 
 Lodiges, Mr. Bateman, Mr. Paxton, 
 Mr. Catley, Mr. Clowes, &c. 
 
 Goodyera. 
 
 Thelymitra. 
 
 Diuris. 
 
 Orthoceras. 
 
 Cryptostylis. 
 
 Ponthieva. 
 
 Prasophyllum. 
 
 Calochilus. 
 
 Neottia. 
 
 Pelexia. 
 
 Listera. 
 
 Stenorhynchus. 
 
 Arethusa. 
 
 Calopogon. 
 
 Pogonia. 
 
 Microtis. 
 
 Acianthus. 
 
 Cyrtostylis. 
 
 Chiloglottis. 
 
 Eriochilus. 
 
 Caladenia. 
 
 Lyperanthus. 
 
 Glossodia. 
 
 Pterostylis. 
 
 Epipactis. 
 
 Cephalanthera. 
 
 Corallorhiza. 
 
 Galeya. 
 
 Corysanthes. 
 
 Prescotia. 
 
 Gastrodia. 
 
 Vanilla. 
 
 Orchis. 
 
 Glossula. 
 
 Anacamptis. 
 
 Nigritella. 
 
 Aceras. 
 
 Ophrys. 
 
 Serapias. 
 
 Disa. 
 
 Habenaria. 
 
 Gymnadenia. 
 
 Platanthera. 
 
 Chamorchis. 
 
 Herminium. 
 
 Bartholina. 
 
 Bonatea. 
 
 Satyrium. 
 
 Pterogodium. 
 
 Disperis. 
 
 GENEBA. 
 
 Corycium. 
 
 Calanthe. 
 
 Octomeria. 
 
 Maxillaria. 
 
 Camaridium. 
 
 Ornithidium. 
 
 Pholidota. 
 
 Megaclinium. 
 
 Ornithocephalus. 
 
 Cryptarrhena. 
 
 Aerides. 
 
 Vanda. 
 
 Sarcanthus. . 
 
 Aeranthes. 
 
 Angraecum. 
 
 Ionopsis. 
 
 Renanthera. 
 
 Cymbidium. 
 
 Cirrhaea. 
 
 Lissochilus. 
 
 Sarcochilus. 
 
 Geodorum. 
 
 Dipodium. 
 
 Oncidium. 
 
 Macradenia. 
 
 Brassia. 
 
 Cyrtopodium. 
 
 Zygopetalum. 
 
 Catasetum. 
 
 Anguloa. 
 
 Ceratochilus. 
 
 Encyclia. 
 
 Heterotaxis. 
 
 Eulophia. 
 
 Xylobium. 
 
 Polystachya. 
 
 Gongora. 
 
 Trizeuxis. 
 
 Rodriguezia. 
 
 Sophronitis. 
 
 Fernandesia. 
 
 Tribrachia. 
 
 Gomeza. 
 
 Notylia. 
 
 Bletia. 
 
 Brassavola. 
 
 Epidendrum. 
 
 Cattleya. 
 
 Broughtonia. 
 
 Isochilus. 
 
 Eria. 
 
 Dendrobium. 
 
 Anisopetalum. 
 
 Caslogyne. 
 
 Malaxis. 
 
 Microstylis. 
 
 Liparis. 
 
 Calypso. 
 
 Pleurothallis. 
 
 Stanhopea. 
 
 Stelis. 
 
 Cypripedium. 
 
 Saccolabium. 
 
 Tender Orchideous Plants. — Dr. Lind- 
 ley has given the following selections 
 from the foregoing, with statements as 
 to their appropriate modes of growth : — 
 
 " To grow orchidaceous plants in 
 the highest state of perfection, several 
 houses would be requisite ; for exam- 
 ple, there should be a cool house for 
 those which inhabit the high lands of 
 Mexico and Guatemala ; a warm and 
 moist one for others which grow in the 
 hot damp valleys of India, and other 
 parts of the tropics ; a third, kept warm 
 and dry, for containing those which are 
 in a state of rest ; and a fourth for 
 plants in flower. But, however beauti- 
 ful and interesting this tribe may be, 
 few persons would go to this expense ; 
 and many have succeeded admirably in 
 growing a selection mixed with other 
 stove plants. It is difficult to give di- 
 rections for the management of a house 
 of this kind without seeing it, but the 
 following should be attended to. Keep 
 the orchidaceous plants as much toge- 
 ther as possible, either at one side, or 
 along the front itself. This is neces- 
 sary in order that they may be kept more 
 moist or shaded than the other plants. 
 If the house fronts the south, shade 
 will be indispensable during bright sun- 
 shine in summer and autumn. The 
 temperature of it during the dull months 
 of winter, that is from November to 
 February, should not exceed 60° by 
 night. As the spring advances, raise 
 it to 65° and 70°, and it may be kept 
 at that as long as artificial heat is ne- 
 cessary. If the summer and autumn 
 are warm, no fire will be required for 
 two or three months. Always allow 
 the temperature to sink several degrees 
 lower at night than during the day. If 
 this is done, and the stove kept damp 
 enough, the plants will be covered with 
 dew in the morning. The following is 
 a list of those most suitable. ♦ 
 
 "1. To be grown in pots and placed 
 near the warmest end of the stove. 
 Dendrobium nobile, one of the most 
 lovely yet known. Oncidium papilio, 
 an interesting kind, having flowers like 
 
ORC 
 
 407 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 ORC 
 
 a butterfly. Peristeria elata,ihe beau- 
 tiful dove flower. Miltonia Candida, 
 Cattleya labiata, C. Mossicc, C. crispa, 
 C. intermedia, C. Harrisoniata : these 
 flower in great profusion during sum- 
 mer, and are remarkable for their great 
 beauty. Cymbidium sinense, with dingy 
 coloured flowers, but very fragrant. 
 Zygopetalum Mackaii, Z. intermedium, 
 Z. crinitum, very showy and sweet- 
 scented. Brassia caudata, B. Lanceana, 
 and B. maculata. Acanthaphippium bi- 
 color is easily cultivated, and produces 
 a nest of flowers in spring. Gongora 
 atropurpurea likes heat and moisture, 
 the flowers are striking and curious. 
 
 " 2. To be grown in pols and placed in 
 the coolest end of the stove. Oncidium 
 Cavendishianum produces large spikes 
 of yellow flower. Cattleya Skinneri, 
 Epidendrum Stamfordianum, whose 
 flowers hang very gracefully, and the 
 violet markings of them are delicate 
 and beautiful. Trichopilia tortilis with 
 finely spotted flowers. Catassetum 
 maculatum, and Phasius grandifolius, 
 which should be kept near the light, 
 and is very thirsty while growing. 
 Maxillaria aromatica and M. cruenta 
 have fine yellow flowers, highly fra- 
 grant. M. tenuifolia has pretty spotted 
 flowers. Cyrtochilium maculatum, and 
 several varieties of it, are well worth 
 cultivation. 
 
 " 3. To be suspended in baskets, or 
 on blocks of wood near the warmest 
 end. Dendrobium cucullatum, macula- 
 tum, and fimbriatum, the former with 
 rose coloured, the latter with pretty 
 yellow fringed flowers. Oncidium am- 
 pliatum, large varieties ; 0. Lanceanum, 
 one of the best of the genus, will also 
 do well in a pot. Aerides odoratum, 
 very sweet; Saccolabium guttatum ; 
 both of these want a very warm and 
 moist situation, but their beautiful rose 
 and lilac blossoms will repay any 
 trouble. 
 
 " 4. To be suspended in baskets, or 
 blocks of wood near the coolest end of 
 the stove. Lalia autumnalis, L. albida, 
 and L. anceps, are very ornamental, re- 
 sembling Cattleyas. Oncidium leuco- 
 chilum is easily grown, and the delicate 
 white of the lip contrasts well with the 
 brown markings of the other parts of 
 the flower. Odontoglossum grande, 
 whose flowers are very large and par- 
 ticularly striking. Stanhopea tigrina 
 and several other species send their 
 
 flowers downwards in the same direc- 
 tion as the roots, and have a very curi- 
 ous appearance." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Hardy Orchideous Plants. — M. F. Otto 
 has written as follows upon these: — 
 
 " The best time for transplanting 
 Orchises is early in autumn, when the 
 plants are in a state of rest, and the 
 cultivator must devise the means of 
 finding them, although they are almost 
 withered upon the ground. 
 
 " They grow much better if placed 
 between other plants, as they find them- 
 selves in their natural situation. 
 
 " They should be brought into the 
 garden not only with the whole of their 
 ball of earth, but also with all the sorts 
 of plants belonging to it. They never 
 thrive so well as if they stood among 
 the other plants which naturally sur- 
 round them. 
 
 " Experience has taught that the 
 greater part of the Swiss and Tyrol ese 
 Alpine Orchises, as well as those from 
 the south of Europe, are cultivated in 
 pots, but in this situation the plants 
 weaken from year to year, until the 
 tubercles at last disappear. If we would 
 retain them longer in our gardens, par- 
 ticular attention must be paid to the 
 soil in which they grow, and it would 
 probably be best to cultivate them in 
 boxes, which may be covered during 
 the winter months. 
 
 " It may be useful to those who would 
 collect the northern species into gar- 
 dens, to know the situation and soil in 
 which they naturally grow. 
 
 " Malaxis paludosa upon very wet 
 peat earth, among sphagnum. Coral- 
 lorrhiza innata upon stumps of roots in 
 wooded peaty marshes. Liparis Loc- 
 selii, in peat meadows, among sphag- 
 num. Orchis morio, in meadows and 
 pastures. O. palustris, in damp mea- 
 dows, often half under water. 0. ?nas- 
 cula, in meadows and pastures. 0. 
 pollens, upon chalk, in mountain pas- 
 tures. 0. militans, in meadows. 0. 
 fusca, upon chalk, in mountain mea- 
 dows. 0. coriophora, in meadows. 0. 
 ustulata, in meadows. 0. globosa, in 
 meadows. 0. sambucina, in meadows. 
 O. maculata, in very dry meadows. 0. 
 latifolia, in meadows. 0. anacamptis 
 pyramidalis, in meadows. 0. gymna- 
 denia conopsea, in meadows. 0. con- 
 densiflora, in meadows. 0. platan- 
 thera bifolia, in dry meadows, on 
 mountains, and in forests. 0. hermin- 
 
ORC 
 
 408 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 ORC 
 
 ium monarchis, in meadows. Ophrys 
 myodes, in shady forests, particularly 
 upon chalk. 0. arachnites, in mea- 
 dows, also upon limestone. O. apifera, 
 upon limestone hills. Epipogium 
 gmelini, upon mouldering roots of 
 trees, in mountainous woods. Spiran- 
 thes autumnalis, in meadows. Neottia 
 Nidusavis, growing upon roots of trees, 
 in woods. Listera ovata, in damp 
 places, in common woods. L. cordata, 
 in mountain meadows and woods. 
 Epipactis latifolia, in forests. E. atro- 
 rubens, in mountain woods, particu- 
 larly upon limestone. E. viridiflora, in 
 shady places. E. palustris, in mea- 
 dows. Goodyera repens, in fir woods 
 among moss. Cephalanthera rubra, in 
 shady woods. C. ensifolia, in shady 
 forests. Cypripedium calceolus, in 
 shady woods." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Stove for Tender Species. — The fol- 
 lowing is the plan of a stove for these 
 plants erected at Ealing Park, and for 
 which I am indebted to the Gardener's 
 Chronicle. 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 " The roof consists of three spans, 
 which cover a breadth of something 
 more than fifty feet, and is supported 
 by columns, c c, to which creepers are 
 trained. In the centre is an irregular 
 piece of water, a a, called the ' lake,' 
 surrounded by rock-work edging, 
 heated by pipes passing through it 
 from the boiler b, and containing aqua- 
 tic plants. The flooring of the house 
 
 and the shelves, b b, are of slate. 
 Parallel with the shelves, and separa- 
 ting them from the narrow part of the 
 lake, are beds, d d, raised two feet 
 and a half above the level of the floor, 
 and each furnished in the middle with 
 a tank, c c, the water of which is heated 
 by a turn of pipe passing through it. 
 At the north end, the house is closed 
 by a solid wall, covered with bark and 
 rough projections for ferns and such 
 plants, at the other end it opens into 
 what is called the plant house by two 
 doors. The heating apparatus consists 
 of a boiler, b, at the close end of pipes 
 running through the water and under 
 the slate shelves. 
 
 " The heating apparatus," Mr. 
 Butcher says, " is found to suit admi- 
 rably as regards the temperature, both 
 of the house and of the lake and tanks 
 of water. The circulation of heat be- 
 ing continued under water, commu- 
 nicates sufficient warmth for the double 
 purpose of creating an evaporation 
 beneficial to the plants, and making 
 the water of suitable temperature when 
 applied by syringe or watering pot. 
 
 " We can always command ten de- 
 grees of heat in this house above the 
 temperature of the plant stove, con- 
 nected with and heated by the same 
 apparatus, an arrangement of some 
 importance, as it allows for placing in 
 the plant stove those Orchidacea3 which 
 require a lower temperature when in a 
 state of rest. 
 
 "The boiler is formed of cylindrical 
 pipes placed in rows alternately above 
 each other, all heated by one or two 
 fires at pleasure. 
 
 " From the roof as well as from trees 
 placed in the centre of the lake, we 
 suspend the Orchidacese in baskets ; 
 and on logs of wood on the two large 
 raised pits and wide shelves around 
 the house, which complete the internal 
 arrangements, we place plants in pots. 
 Those of your readers conversant with 
 floricultural affairs during that period, 
 may remember the many prizes which 
 have been awarded to specimens from 
 our collection, and as this fact forbids 
 the charge of presumption, I will ex- 
 plain our mode of treatment by tak- 
 ing the genus Zygopetalum for an in- 
 stance. 
 
 " When the plants are commencing 
 their growth, (generally about the 
 month of October,) a pot of suitable size 
 
ORC 
 
 409 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 ORC 
 
 is filled three parts full of potsherds 
 and the remainder with close peat, 
 fastened down with pegs of wood. I 
 prefer close peat for this genus, as I 
 have found it do better than in lighter 
 or more fibrous peat. 
 
 " The plant so potted is then placed 
 in the Orchidaceous house, tempera- 
 ture ranging from sixty to seventy de- 
 grees, the atmosphere moist, the plant 
 kept moist and more liberally supplied 
 with water as it advances in growth. 
 
 " When it has completed its growth, 
 it is removed to the plant-stove where 
 the temperature is from fifty to sixty 
 degrees, and water is given sparingly, 
 but the plant is never allowed to be- 
 come quite dry. It there remains un- 
 til it again commences growth, when 
 it undergoes the same routine as be- 
 fore." 
 
 Compost. — The best we have noticed 
 is this recommended by Mr. T. Apple- 
 by:- 
 
 M Procure a quantity of sphagnum or 
 common bog moss, have it dried and 
 then chopped small. To this add half- 
 rotten willow or poplar wood, on ac- 
 count of their lightness and the absence 
 of resin, chopped into small pieces of 
 various sizes, the largest not bigger 
 than pigeons' eggs. To these add the 
 under stratum of sphagnum, which has 
 become almost peat, likewise chopped 
 fine, the whole in about equal parts. 
 
 " These make altogether a light open 
 compost, which appears admirably to 
 suit the plants, as they root in it freely 
 and thrive ; I use it chiefly for the spe- 
 cies that grow upon trees. For such 
 as grow upon the ground, I use stronger 
 compost." — Card. Chron. 
 
 Culture. — The following general sug- 
 gestions are from Mr. Bateman's most 
 valuable work on the Orchidaceaj of 
 Mexico and Guatemala : — 
 
 " Supposing the plants established in 
 a Suitable house, then the following 
 rules will be found to contain all that 
 is most essential for their successful 
 management. 
 
 " 1st. The plants can scarcely have 
 too much light or too little sun. Light 
 prevents mildew, strengthens the fibre, 
 and checks the disposition to throw uo 
 a succession of weakly shoots, which 
 are quite incompatible with the produc- 
 tion of flowers. The sun, on the con- 
 trary, scorches and turns the leaves 
 yellow, especially when it first begins 
 
 to shine powerfully upon plants that 
 have just left their winter quarters. In 
 order to secure as much light as possi- 
 ble, many species should be suspended 
 in the air from rafters or chains, some 
 being placed on blocks of wood, (cork- 
 wood is the best,) or fragments of co- 
 coa-nut husks, and others in baskets of 
 wire or wicker work filled with moss 
 and broken peat, or in pots with pierced 
 sides. The latter answer perfectly for 
 plants {e. g. the Saccolabiums) which 
 are of slow growth, and thrust their 
 roots into the air. Baskets answer best 
 for Stanhopeas and the like. To pre- 
 vent injury from the rays of the sun, 
 shading is of course necessary ; but this 
 should be so arranged as to be easily 
 removed, as it ought not to be con- 
 tinued for more than ten or twelve 
 hours on the very longest summer's 
 day. Exotic climbing plants introduced 
 sparingly are advantageous, and have a 
 good effect. 
 
 "2d. Take care of the roots. On 
 the health o* the roots everything de- 
 pends. The winter is with them the 
 most critical season, for if suffered to 
 grow too dry, they shrivel up and per- 
 ish, if too wet they rot. Much of course 
 depends upon the mode in which the 
 plants are potted, and which should be 
 such as to admit of their readily parting 
 with all superfluous moisture, and to se- 
 cure this, nothing is better than a plen- 
 tiful admixture of broken pots-herds. 
 High potting is now so generally prac- 
 tised in good collections, that it is need- 
 less to insist upon its importance. 
 
 " Rapidly growing plants, such as the 
 different species of Phaius, Gongorce, 
 Peristerice, Starihopea, &c, require to 
 be broken up and entirely repotted 
 every second or third year; on the 
 other hand, there are some air plants, 
 &c, that may remain undisturbed for 
 five or ten years together. 
 
 3d. Beware of noxious insects. Or- 
 chidaceffi are more particularly exposed 
 to the attacks of the following insects : 
 woodlice, crickets, and cockroaches, 
 the thrip, a minute woolly white scale, 
 and a diminutive species of snail, the 
 two last being infinitely the most per- 
 nicious. Woodlice are easily kept in 
 check by placing the plants on saucers, 
 or within troughs filled with water, es- 
 pecially if the valuable aid of a few 
 toads be called in. The Oniscampitre 
 Epiphyte Stand, invented by Mr. Lyons, 
 
ORC 
 
 410 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 ORC 
 
 is an ingenious and no doubt effectual 
 way of accomplishing the same end. It 
 is made by merely fixing a forked 
 branch or back of wood, to the raised 
 centre of a massive saucer or feeder, 
 which being kept constantly full of 
 water, forms a sort of foss, impassable 
 to vermin, round the plant it is intended 
 to guard; crickets and cockroaches are 
 very fond of flour scapes, and to be 
 dreaded accordingly; red wafers scat- 
 tered over sand among the pots are to 
 them very tempting baits, and if swal- 
 lowed, the red lead they contain acts as 
 a poison; but these pests are best de- 
 stroyed by the mixture recommended 
 for the white scale. The thrip does 
 not do much mischief, except where 
 plants are either neglected or grown in 
 too hot and dry a temperature. It 
 usually first appears among the lataseta, 
 and is to be removed by careful wash- 
 ing. Small snails abound in some col- 
 lections, while in others they are un- 
 known : it is difficult to conjecture 
 whence they come, and alfbut impos- 
 sible to eradicate them entirely. They 
 batten upon the tenderest roots, such 
 as plants put forth when they are just 
 beginning to grow, and if not kept in 
 check would speedily produce irre- 
 trievable mischief. Lettuce leaves, 
 slices of potato, turnips, &c, are very 
 enticing, and while they divert the at- 
 tention of the enemy from the roots, 
 they also afford an opportunity of cap- 
 turing him. The collections which are 
 watered exclusively with rain water are 
 the least infested. But the worst plague 
 of all is the small white scale, which in 
 its first insidious approaches, appears 
 only as a white speck upon the leaves, 
 then covers them with a soft whitish 
 down, and finally kills them. For this 
 
 since this mixture came into frequent 
 use. Besides the above annoyances, 
 the red spider and the brown scale are 
 frequently injurious, but never except 
 in cases of gross neglect. 
 
 4th. Give the plants a season of rest. 
 Without a season of rest most plants 
 will not live at all, and others do so 
 very imperfectly. It is easily accom- 
 plished in a variety of ways, either by 
 moving the plants from the warmer to 
 the cooler end of the house, or by di- 
 minishing the quantity of water, or by 
 placing them in a cooler house. Even 
 exposure in a hot dry atmosphere, al- 
 though it scorches their leaves, not 
 unfreqently throws them into vigorous 
 flower. Plants from the East Indies 
 and from other climates, where the ex- 
 tremes of drought and wet are not felt 
 so severely as in Brazil or Hindostan, 
 require a season of rest proportionally 
 short, and of a less decided character. 
 
 " 5th. Attend to the condition of the 
 air. In winter, 60s to 65o is a whole- 
 some temperature for most of the spe- 
 cies; in the summer it may rise to 70° 
 or 75o, or even higher if derived from 
 the heat of the sun. Where there are 
 two houses, the warmer one should not 
 be lower than 70° even in winter, but 
 fortunately there are comparatively few 
 kinds that insist upon so hot a berth. 
 
 " The air should always be soft and 
 nearly saturated with moisture. The 
 latter should, however, be prevented 
 from dripping upon the plants as it 
 condenses, and this is easily effected by 
 fixing a small copper pipe or piece of 
 channeled wood under each rafter and 
 sash-bar, to catch and carry off the 
 water. 
 
 " 6th. Bo not over-water. This a 
 beginner is very apt to do, and a griev- 
 
 the following remedy will be found ef- J ous fault it is. When plants do not 
 ficacious, viz.: dissolve half a pound of i shrivel or flag, it is a sign that they are 
 
 camphor in a pint of spirits of wine, the 
 result will be an impalpable powder, to 
 which add one pound of scotch snuff, 
 one ditto pepper, one ditto sulphur, and 
 keep in a bottle carefully stopped. This 
 mixture should be dusted over the in- 
 fected parts, and repeated whenever 
 or wherever the enemy shows itself. 
 If persisted in for some time the mix- 
 ture rarely fails to effect a perfect cure ; 
 and it has the further good property of 
 acting as a more deadly poison to cock- 
 roaches, &c, which have quite disap- 
 peared in the collection at Knypersley 
 
 content with the humidity that the at- 
 mosphere of the house supplies. When 
 watering is necessary, it should not be 
 done indiscriminately, but according to 
 the wants of particular plants. It is 
 also of great importance to use rain 
 water only, which may be collected for 
 the purpose in a tank, as shown in the 
 plan of Mr. Rucher's house, and which 
 should not. be applied of a temperature 
 below 60°. 
 
 " Syringing in moderation maybe had 
 recourse to in hot weather. Some of 
 the sobralias, together with bromheadia 
 
ORC 
 
 41: 
 
 OTI 
 
 palustris, grow more vigorously if their 
 pots are set in saucers of water during 
 the summer months. 
 
 " To the foregoing rules the following 
 advice may be added. Do not aim at 
 having too large a collection, but rather 
 strive to grow a few good kinds in the 
 best style." 
 
 ORCHIS. Thirty species. Chiefly 
 hardy orchids. Seed. Chalky loam and 
 peat. 
 
 ORIGANUM. Marjoram. Eight spe- 
 cies and some varieties. Hardy herba- 
 ceous and half-hardy evergreen shrubs. 
 The former are increased by division ; 
 the latter by slips and cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. See Marjoram. 
 
 ORMOSIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy 
 peat. ^ 
 
 ORNITHIDIUM. TVo species. 
 Stove epiphytes. 
 
 ORNITHOCEPHALUS. Two species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Both these genera 
 are increased by dividing the bulbs, and 
 planting them in moss and wood. 
 
 ORNITHOGALUM. Fifty-nine spe- 
 cies. Hardy, half-hardy, and green- 
 house bulbs. Offsets. Sandy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 ORNITHOGLOSSUM. Two species. 
 Green-house bulbs. Offsets. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ORNIX rhodophagella. Rose Moth. 
 Mr. Kollar says that — " In early spring, 
 as soon as the rose tree begins to bud, 
 if the new leaf-shoots are closely ex- 
 amined, a little brownish seed is found 
 here and there attached to them, in 
 which a worm — the larva of a small 
 moth, is concealed, which gnaws the 
 tender shoots. When it has devoured 
 one shoot it removes, with its house, 
 and attacks another ; and thus, in a 
 short time, one of these larvae can strip 
 a whole branch of its shoots. The larva, 
 which lives in the little case, is only a 
 few lines long, yellow, with a black 
 head, and black spotted collar. It un- 
 dergoes pupation in its case. 
 
 " The moth appears at the end of 
 May. It is only three lines long, car- 
 ries it wings very close to its body — al- 
 most wrapped round it. The whole 
 body is silvery shining gray, the upper 
 wings strewed with minute black dots, 
 deeply fringed at the posterior edge. 
 The moth lays her eggs in May on the 
 buds of the rose tree, and the caterpil- 
 lars are hatched at the end of June. 
 
 They immediately form for themselves 
 small cases of parts of the leaves, and 
 pass, the winter in them at the root of 
 the rose-tree." 
 
 ORNUS. Flowering ash. Five spe- 
 cies. Hardy deciduous trees. Seed 
 and grafting, or budding, on common 
 ash. Light loam. 
 
 OR OB US. Thirty-eight species. 
 Hardy herbaceous, except O. saxatilis, 
 which is annual, and 0. Americanus, a 
 green-house evergreen shrub. Seed 
 and division. Light loam. 
 
 ORTEGIA. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Seed and cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat, well drained. 
 
 ORTHOT^ENIA, 0. resinella, tur- 
 pentine moth; 0. turionana, bud tor- 
 trix. See Tortrix. 
 
 ORTHRO SAN THUS multifiorus. 
 Green-house herbaceous. Seed and di- 
 vision. Loam and peat. 
 
 OSAGE-APPLE. Maculura. 
 
 OSBECKIA. Six species. Stove 
 shrubs, deciduous, and evergreen. 
 Young cuttings. Sandy loam and peat, 
 
 OSIER. Salix viminalis. 
 
 OSMITES. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Light 
 rich soil. 
 
 OSMUNDA. Seven species. Hardy 
 ferns. Seed and division. Light rich 
 loam. 
 
 OSTEOSPERMUM. Thirteen spe- 
 cies. Green-house evergreen shrubs. 
 Cuttings. Light rich loam. 
 
 OSTRYA. Hop-hornbeam. Two spe- 
 cies. Hardy deciduous tree. Seed and 
 layers. Common soil. 
 
 OTANTHUS Maritimus. Hardy her- 
 baceous. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 
 OTHOUNA. Twenty-six species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs, herba- 
 ceous, and bulbs, except O. tagetes, an 
 annual. This is increased by seed, 
 and the others by cuttings, division, or 
 offsets. Light rich loam. 
 
 OTIORHYNCUS sulcatus. The suc- 
 culent Weevil. Mr. Curtis remarks 
 that : — 
 
 " Sedums, and other succulents, in 
 green-houses, will frequently be ob- 
 served to get sickly, and perhaps die,* 
 without any apparent reason. When 
 this is the case they should be carefully 
 examined, and the grubs of the weevil 
 will be found to have eaten off the plant 
 close to the surface of the soil. 
 
 " These grubs are about half an inch 
 long, of a dirty white colour, thick and 
 
OTI 
 
 412 
 
 OXA 
 
 fleshy, slightly curved, and having nu- J 
 merous short rigid hairs on the body. 
 About the middle of May these grubs 
 change into white pupae, which have no 
 cocoons, but are placed in oval cells, in | 
 the earth, perfectly smooth on the in- I 
 side. They remain in the pupa state 
 about fourteen days, and become bee- ' 
 ties. In this latter state they are quite 
 black, and the elytra, or wing-cases, 
 are rather deeply furrowed. In the 
 Berlin Botanic Garden they have been 
 found to infest the roots of saxifrages 
 and trollius, growing in the open bor- 
 der, and cause their death. 
 
 " The only methods of destroying 
 them are, at this time of the year, to 
 examine the roots of sedums and other 
 succulent plants, and crush all that may 
 be found ; and in June, when the per- 
 fect insects appear, to look among the 
 pots, where they are usually lurking, 
 and kill them as soon as they come out, 
 before they have time to deposit their 
 eggs." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 O. tenebricosus. Red-legged garden- 
 weevil. Mr. Curtis says, — 
 
 " The maggots of the red-legged 
 garden-weevil are found round the base 
 of the stems of wall-fruit, sometimes 
 in very great quantities, a few inches 
 below the surface, where they undergo 
 their transformations. The beetles, 
 which are old offenders, come out only 
 at night to feed upon the buds of wall- 
 fruit, doing great mischief to apricots, 
 peaches, nectarines, plums, &c. They 
 first destroy the fruit, and subsequently 
 attack the bark and leaves, so as not 
 unfrequently to endanger the life of the 
 trees. They commence their depreda- 
 tions in April by eating the unexpanded 
 blossom-buds, clearing out the centre, 
 and leaving only the external bractea, 
 and occasionally fragments of the im- 
 mature leaves. They will thus proceed 
 along a branch until all the buds are 
 destroyed, and afterwards demolish the 
 young eyes which ought to produce 
 wood-shoots, until nothing is left but 
 the bare branches. 
 
 " The beetles bury themselves by 
 day in the earth, close to the founda- 
 tion of the wall to which the trees are 
 trained, likewise round the stems of 
 the trees, and most probably in chinks 
 of the bricks, and other dark hiding- 
 places. When recently hatched it is 
 clothed with a delicate yellow pube- 
 scence, forming little irregular spots 
 
 upon the elytra; but they soon wear 
 off and disappear, when it becomes of 
 a shining black, inclining to a pitch- 
 colour. 
 
 " The larvee of these otiorhynci being 
 as destructive as the perfect beetles, 
 the main object ought to be to destroy 
 the former, if possible, in the autumn, 
 which probably would be most readily 
 effected by stirring the earth all along 
 the base of the wall and round the 
 stems of the fruit-trees, and then sprin- 
 kling salt pretty thickly over the broken 
 surface ; or salt and water, or, perhaps, 
 liquid-manure, might be equally bene- 
 ficial — if hot the better ; for it seems 
 evident, from the peculiar spots in 
 which they generate, or rather undergo 
 their transformations, that situations 
 sheltered irjpa great measure from the 
 wet are most congenial to their habits. 
 
 The beetles can only be arrested by 
 hand-picking, with a candle and lan- 
 tern, and afterwards pouring boiling 
 water upon them, as their shells resist 
 moderate heat." -Gard. Chron. 
 
 0. notatus attacks the young shoots 
 of the raspberry and rose, piercing 
 them to the pith. 
 
 OXALIS. Wood-sorrel. One hun- 
 dred and twenty-four species. Chiefly 
 green-house half-hardy and hardy bulbs, 
 though some are shrubs, others herba- 
 ceous, and a few annuals. The bulbs 
 are increased by offsets, the shrubs by 
 cuttings, the herbaceous by division, 
 and the annuals by seed. They all 
 thrive in sandy loam, manured with 
 leaf mould. See Sorrel. 
 
 0. Deppii. — Plant bulbs of this in 
 pots, at the beginning of March, and 
 shelter in a cold pit or green-house. 
 When all fear of frost is passed plant 
 them in a light soil, and in a southern 
 aspect, about twelve inches apart each 
 ! way; or the bulbs may be kept out of 
 the ground altogether until the middle 
 ; of April, and then be planted at once 
 ' in the open soil. It should be trenched, 
 ! and a little manure turned in with the 
 bottom spit, as for other tap-rooted 
 crops. The scaly bulbs, from which it 
 is propagated, grow in a cluster round 
 the crown of the root. The only culti- 
 ! vation required, is to keep the crop 
 I free from weeds, and to water plenti- 
 fully in dry weather ; otherwise, if the 
 roots are allowed to become dry, they 
 | split upon the occurrence of moist 
 | weather. Protect from early frosts, in 
 
OX-E 
 
 413 
 
 P^N 
 
 October or November, by a mat cover- 
 ing. 
 
 About ten roots are enough for a 
 dish. They are very useful as a vege- 
 table from early in October to the end 
 of December; and Mr. Cockburn, gar- 
 dener to the Earl of Mansfield, at 
 Canewood, thinks they would be more 
 cul tivated if better known. An inferior 
 kind has often been substituted for it, 
 viz., the Oxalis Jacquiniana ; but this 
 is distinguished by having pink flowers. 
 In Belgium, the leaves, being gratefully 
 acid, are used for the same purposes 
 as sorrel, and the flowers are mixed 
 with other salad herbs. — Gard. Chron. 
 182, and Hort. Trans, of Lond. iii. N. 
 S. 30. 
 
 As it is not a very common vegetable, 
 it may be useful to state, as an improved 
 mode of cooking, that after peeling the 
 tubers, and cleaning out their hollow 
 centres, they must be well boiled in 
 rich stock (gravy), skimming off the fat, 
 and then be served up hot, with a sauce 
 made of a little butter heated until 
 brown, with a spoonfull of flour, and a 
 little of the stock. 
 
 OX-EYE. Bupthalmum. 
 
 OX-EYE DAISY. Chrysanthemum 
 leucanthemum. 
 
 OX- LIP. Primula elatior. 
 
 OXYANTHUS speciosus. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Young cuttings. Loam 
 and peat : abundant watering. 
 
 OXYBAPHUS. Twelve species. 
 Chiefly hardy and half-hardy trailers 
 and creepers. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 OXYCOCCUS. Cranberry. Three 
 species. Hardy evergreens. See Ame- 
 rican Cranberry. 
 
 OXYLOBIUM. Ten species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 OXYPETALUM appendiculatum . 
 Stove evergreen twiner. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 OXYRIA reniformis. Mountain sor- 
 rel. Hardy herbaceous. Division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 OXYSTELMA esculentum. Stove 
 evergreen twiner. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 OXYTROPIS. Twenty-eight species. 
 Hardy herbaceous alpines. Seed. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 OXYURA chrysanthemoides. Hardy 
 annual. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 OYSTER-SHELLS. See Animal Mat- 
 ters. 
 
 OZOTHAMNUS. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs, proba- 
 bly hardy. Young Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 PACHIDENDRON. Seven species. 
 Green-house tree aloes. Suckers and 
 leaves, slightly dried. Sandy loam and 
 calcareous rubbish. 
 
 PACHYPODIUM. Two species. 
 Green-house deciduous succulents. Cut- 
 tings, slightly dried. Sandy turfy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 PACHYRHIZAS angulatus. Stove 
 evergreen twiner. Tubers, seed, and 
 cuttings. Rich light loam. 
 
 PACHYSANDRA procumbens. Hardy 
 herbaceous ; and P. coriacea, stove ever- 
 green shrub. Division or suckers. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 PiEDERIA f&tida. Stove evergreen 
 shrub. Cuttings. Rich light loam. 
 
 P^DEROTA. Two species. Hardy 
 Ali^ne annuals. Seed. Sandy loam. 
 
 pfeoNIA. Paeony. Twenty-two spe- 
 cies, and many varieties. The follow- 
 ing are most worthy of cultivation : — 
 P. albiflora, white. 
 
 — Candida, pinky. 
 
 — fragrans, red. 
 
 — Humeii, red. 
 
 — Potsii, crimson. 
 
 — Richardsonii, white. 
 
 — rubescens, pink. 
 
 — albiflora tartarica, pinky. 
 Whitlejii, rosy. 
 
 — anomala, crimson. 
 
 — arborea, pink. 
 
 — aretina Andersoni, rosy. 
 
 — lobata, purple. 
 
 — officinalis sabini, crimson. 
 
 albicans, white. 
 
 — Baxteri, crimson. 
 
 carnescens, pinky. 
 
 — rosea, red. 
 
 — paradoxa fimbriata, purple. 
 
 peregrina Byzantina, dark 
 
 purple. 
 
 compacta, pur- 
 
 ple. 
 
 — Russii, crimson. 
 
 — sinensis, pink. 
 
 — tenuifolia flore pleno, red. 
 
 — moutan, tree pa?ony, purple. 
 albida-plena, white. 
 
 anemoneflora striata, rose 
 
 and white. 
 
 anneslei, purplish pink. 
 Banksii, or Humeii, purple, 
 carnea plena, rosy white. 
 
P j£0 
 
 414 
 
 V MO 
 
 P. moutan chrysanthemiflora, rose and 
 
 cream. 
 Compte de Paris, dark rose 
 
 and yellow. 
 
 — elegans, white and sulphur. 
 
 herieartiana, bright rose and 
 
 )sy white. 
 
 lacera, bright rosy red. 
 
 Jutea variegata, rosy white 
 
 and yellow. 
 
 lutea alba, rose and cream. 
 
 white. 
 
 papaveracea. 
 
 lac. 
 
 plenissima,li 
 
 — pumicea, carmine. 
 
 — Rawesii, pink. 
 
 — rosa-gallica, rosy red. 
 
 — rosea, pink. 
 
 — plena, red. 
 
 — semiplena, red. 
 
 — speciosa, pink. 
 ■ striata, rose and 
 
 rosy white. 
 
 sulphuria, sulphur becom- 
 
 ing white. 
 — variegata, white and purple. 
 
 All the shrubby kinds are increased 
 by cuttings, the same as is detailed 
 hereafter in the cultivation of the tree 
 preony. The herbaceous kinds are 
 propagated by dividing the roots ; and 
 new varieties of all are raised from 
 seed. A rich light loam suits them. 
 
 Tree-P-eony. P. moutan. Dr. 
 Lindley's directions for cultivating this 
 are as follow : — 
 
 ''Propagation. — It is easily increas- 
 ed, and in several ways, when the 
 plants are rather large and old ; but 
 when they are small and young it is 
 rather difficult, and should not be at- 
 tempted. They should be rather en- 
 couraged by watering freely during dry 
 weather in summer ; by mulching with 
 a little rotten dung, and covering with 
 a hand-glass, during the winter. 
 
 " When the plants are of a sufficient 
 size and strength, they may be increas- 
 ed in the following ways: 
 
 " By Division. — Take up one of the 
 largest plants about the end of October, 
 and after shaking all the soil from the 
 roots, separate each of the stems which 
 have got any roots attached to them 
 with a sharp knife ; then shorten the 
 top of each, and pot them in some good 
 rich mould, placing them afterwards in 
 a cold pit, where they are tolerably se- 
 cure from frost, and where they can be 
 kept dry during the winter. In the 
 
 spring place them where a little artifi- 
 cial heat is used ; they will then begin 
 to grow and make good plants, fit for 
 planting out in the autumn. 
 
 " By Layering, which is performed 
 in the following manner : — 
 
 " Select, either in October or Februa- 
 ry, some of the bottom shoots which 
 are of the preceding year's growth ; 
 tongue and peg them down in the usual 
 way, covering the layers, about three 
 inches, with a mixture of light sandy 
 peat, leaf-mould, and a little water in 
 dry weather ; but they must remain for 
 two years attached to the mother-plant. 
 There is another way of layering the 
 tree-paeony, which is by selecting early 
 in spring some of the bottom branches 
 or stems, ringing them, with a sharp 
 knife, about one inch above and below 
 each bud, upon the stems; every bud 
 will then occupy two inches of the 
 stem, which is obstructed above and 
 below. In ringing remove, in the usual 
 way, a small ring of the bark all round 
 the stem. The branches, so prepared, 
 are then laid in the same way as the 
 preceding, and the plants will be fit to 
 separate in one year; but they will not 
 be so strong as those raised in the pre- 
 ceding manner. The Chinese are said 
 to practise budding the rarer ones, on 
 the more common kinds, with great 
 success ; but that statement seems ra- 
 ther doubtful. 
 
 " From Seed. — This can only be done 
 to increase the single ones, as the 
 semi-double ones do not produce perfect 
 seeds, or at least very seldom. When 
 perfect seeds are obtained, shortly after 
 they are ripe, they should be sown in 
 pans filled with a mixture of fresh loam 
 and a small portion of leaf-mould and 
 sand, which should be placed in a cold 
 pit or frame, and protected from wet 
 until the following spring, when the 
 seeds will begin to vegetate. If the 
 seeds are not sown until the spring, 
 they seldom grow before the following 
 year; and frequently many of the seeds 
 perish before that time arrives. 
 
 "The seedlings must be allowed to 
 remain in the seed-pans the first sea- 
 son, and be transplanted the following 
 spring, either into the open border, or 
 singly in pots; and the time they are 
 afterwards before they flower depends 
 upon the treatment they receive, but 
 generally they require two or three 
 years. 
 
VMO 
 
 415 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 P MO 
 
 "From Single Eyes. — Any time when 
 the plant is in a dormant state, cut off 
 a branch of the two or three year old 
 wood, which has aquantity of buds upon 
 it, and cut it into pieces of about two 
 inches in length, leaving a single bud 
 on each piece ; then pot and treat them 
 in the same manner as grape-vines are 
 when raised from single eyes ; that is, 
 plant them about two inches deep in 
 pots filled with good rich soil, and place 
 them in a gentle moist heat. Plants 
 raised in this way are good but small. 
 . "By grafting on the roots of the 
 herbaceous kinds, as of P. officinalis ; 
 but it is uncertain, and when it does 
 succeed the plants are generally short- 
 lived, except when the grafted part is 
 placed sufficiently under the soil, in 
 which case it frequently emits roots 
 from the base of the graft, and becomes 
 a healthy plant supported by its own 
 roots. 
 
 " The operation of grafting is per- 
 formed in the following ways : — 
 
 " Select some good tubers of the 
 herbaceous paeonies — the Chinese P. 
 albiflora and its varieties are the best 
 — any time, early in spring, before the 
 plant commences growing. Then cut 
 ofF a small portion of the crown, and 
 slit the tuber, from the top and down- 
 wards, sufficiently deep to admit the 
 scion of the moutan-paeony, which 
 must be of the last season's wood, fit- 
 ting the bark of both well together, as 
 in the ordinary way of grafting; and 
 bind them tightly with strong matting. 
 Then pot them singly in pots deep 
 enough to cover the graft about an inch 
 with soil, and place them in a cold pit 
 or frame kept close, and give them but 
 little water at first. They may also be 
 grafted about the end of July or begin- 
 ning of August, using the young wood 
 of the current year in the same way as 
 the preceding ; but when they are 
 grafted and potted they must be placed 
 in a strong moist heat, and kept close 
 with a bell-glass, as the wood, being 
 rather soft, would soon perish if placed 
 in a cold pit or frame. 
 
 " Soil. — It requires a strong rich 
 loamy soil, with plenty of moisture, 
 during the growing season: in swampy 
 situations they will soon perish if they 
 are in one when in a dormant state. 
 A deep loamy or strong soil, with a dry 
 subsoil, should be selected, and a light 
 dry sandy or poor soil avoided; for in this 
 
 they never flower well, as they always 
 suffer from drought. But even in such 
 a situation they may be made to flower 
 by adding a quantity of well-rotted 
 dung, and a little fresh loam, to the 
 soil. 
 
 "Planting. — In planting them in the 
 open border the best time is the end of 
 October; but they may be removed at 
 any time except when they are either 
 in flower or showing flower; but they 
 will be liable to lose their flower-buds 
 if they are transplanted after they com- 
 mence growing. 
 
 " They seldom suffer much from 
 moving if it is carefully performed in 
 the autumn ; for they may then be taken 
 up from the open border, and potted 
 for forcing them. Forcing requires 
 great caution as regards the heat ap- 
 plied : if not done gently, and the 
 plants allowed to make fresh roots be- 
 fore they are subjected to much heat, 
 they will invariably lose their flower- 
 buds "during the time of forcing ; and 
 they must only be subjected to a mo- 
 derate heat at any time — sixty degrees 
 — as they are very apt to get drawn up 
 weakly. 
 
 " When the forced plants have done 
 flowering they should be again planted 
 in the open border, cutting the principal 
 shoots back at the same time : they 
 will then be ready by autumn for repot- 
 ting, and fit for forcing again the follow- 
 ing spring. When potted they must be 
 well protected, in a cool pit, from the 
 frost. 
 
 "Culture. — When planted perma- 
 nently in the border they should have 
 an open situation which is not in the 
 least shaded by other plants, and they 
 will require a little more trouble except 
 shortening some of the longest of the 
 shoots before- the spring, when they 
 must be slightly protected to preserve 
 the young shoots from injury by the frost, 
 which is easily done by placing a single 
 mat, or canvass covering, over them, at 
 a sufficient distance from the plant, so 
 as not to hurt the young shoots by pres- 
 sure. 
 
 " The covering should be removed on 
 all fine days, but replaced during the 
 night. If the plants are small they may 
 be covered with a hand-glass during the 
 night ; they will then flower freely 
 during the early part of May, and the 
 colours will be more brilliant." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
PAL 
 
 416 
 
 — • — 
 
 PALAFOXIA linearis. Green-house 
 herbaceous. Seed and division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 PALICOUREA. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PALIURUS. Two species. Hardy 
 deciduous shrubs. Seed, root cuttings, 
 and layers. Common soil. 
 
 PAN^ETIA fulva. Green-house an- 
 nual. Seed. Sandy loam. 
 
 PANCRATIUM. Twenty-nine spe- 
 cies and many varieties. Chiefly stove 
 and green-house bulbs,butP.i%Hcum, 
 and P. maritimum are hardy. They 
 are propagated by offsets, and new 
 varieties raised from seed. They thrive 
 best in a compost of three-fourths sandy 
 loam and one-fourth leaf mould. Take 
 up the hardy species in autumn, sepa- 
 rate the offsets, and replant immediately 
 about four inches deep in a light, well 
 drained sheltered border, putting some 
 mulch or six inches of coal ashes over 
 them during the winter. 
 
 PANDAMUS. Twenty species. 
 Stove palms. Seed or suckers. Rich 
 light loam. 
 
 PANNING is forming a pan or basin 
 in the soil round the stem of a tree or 
 shrub in which to pour water. 
 
 PANSY or HEART'S EASE. Viola 
 tricolor. 
 
 " This is one of the English florist's 
 flowers, and spirited contests for prizes 
 are yearly witnessed — in this country 
 but little attention has been paid it; 
 though its increasing beauty by the 
 production of new varieties is claiming 
 our regard. Those of us whose idea of 
 a Heart's Ease is confined to the pretty 
 little flower of former days, have but an 
 imperfect conception of the size, figure 
 and brilliancy to which the Viola tri- 
 color has attained. For an interesting 
 article on its culture see the " London 
 Horticultural Magazine." 
 
 Varieties. — These are increased in 
 number annually, but the following are 
 established in public favour. 
 Brown's Attila. 
 Countess of Orkney. 
 
 ■ Curion. 
 Cook's Attila. 
 
 Alicia. 
 
 Black Bess. 
 
 Mulberry Sup*rb. 
 
 ■ Prince Albert. 
 Ringleader. 
 
 • Triumph. 
 
 PAN 
 
 Davies' Miss Nugent. 
 Foster's Man of Kent. 
 King's Exquisite. 
 
 Princess Royal. 
 
 Sulphura Elegans. 
 
 Kitley's Bathonia. 
 Lane's Sir John Sebright. 
 Lidgard's Jewess. 
 Major's Bridegroom. 
 
 Beauty of Knosthorpe. 
 
 Princess Royal. 
 
 Maule's Princess Royal. 
 Pearson's Agnes. 
 
 Black Prince. 
 
 De Buch. 
 
 Magraith. 
 
 Milton. 
 
 Sobieski. 
 
 Scholfield's Surprise. 
 Silverlock's Prince Albert. 
 
 Prince of Wales. 
 
 Thompson's Attila. 
 
 Beauty of Bucks. 
 
 Coronna. 
 
 Cream. 
 
 Cyclops. 
 
 — — ■ Desirable. 
 
 Duchess of Richmond. 
 
 Hamlet. 
 
 Jewess Superb. 
 
 Launcelot. 
 
 — Miss Stainforth. 
 
 Nymph. 
 
 Prince Albert. 
 
 Princess Royal. 
 
 Regulator. 
 
 Raphael. 
 
 Rufus. 
 
 Ultraflora. 
 
 Venus. 
 
 Warrior. 
 
 Characteristics of Excellence. — " The 
 first and most essential quality is its 
 form, which will be found in the greatest 
 perfection in that flower round which if 
 a circle be drawn each petal will exactly 
 touch the circle, not projecting beyond 
 it, nor stopping short of it. The petals 
 should be large and broad, because in 
 that case the indentations must be shal- 
 low where the outline ofone petal meets 
 another. Of a firm texture, flat, even 
 at the edge, and free from notches. 
 The eye must be clean and well defined, 
 the colours should be rich and vivid, 
 and the markings must have a clear 
 edge. A uniform tint as a ground 
 colour is much esteemed ; but the varia- 
 tions and combination of colour are so 
 numerous and beautiful, that no precise 
 
PAN 
 
 417 
 
 PAP 
 
 rules can be formed to govern this 
 point." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Soil used by the best Pansey growers 
 round Manchester, is the surface soil of 
 an old pasture and partially decomposed 
 cow-dung, about one part of the latter 
 to two of the former. 
 
 Bed. — This should have a southeast 
 aspect, unshaded by trees, but very 
 sheltered from wind, be three feet wide, 
 with a path all round, and then, having 
 dug out the soil, be made eight inches 
 deep of the above compost. The edges 
 supported with slate. 
 
 Propagation. — By Seed. — Sow, as 
 soon as it is ripe, or any time in spring 
 or summer will do, in pans of the same 
 compost plunged in an open border. 
 In six weeks the seedlings appear. 
 Save seed from the best shaped flowers, 
 impregnating these mother plants with 
 pollen from bright-eyed flowers. Gather 
 the seed pods as they ripen. 
 
 By Cuttings. — The best season is mid 
 August. Take short jointed cuttings 
 from the approved plants, and insert 
 their stems about two inches deep in 
 some of the compost in a north border, 
 covering with a hand-glass. They will 
 have rooted in a month, then pot them, 
 and keep in a dry situation until frost 
 arrives, then put them in a cold frame 
 plunged in coal ashes, covering the 
 frame with a mat when frost is severe, 
 and never letting the sunshine come 
 upon them during frosty weather, but 
 admit air freely. 
 
 Planting in Bed. — Do this early in 
 April, in dry weather, placing the plants 
 in rows twelve inches apart each way. 
 Shade for a few days; and if night frosts 
 occur shade them from the sun during 
 the day after. They require no after- 
 culture but frequent hoeing ; never give 
 water even in the driest summers, but 
 at such seasons cover the surface of the 
 bed with fresh cow-dung, sprinkled 
 over with earth, to keep it from being 
 unsightly. 
 
 Winter Protection. — Mr. Mearns, of 
 the Manchester Zoological Gardens, 
 recommends the Pansey grower, (< in- 
 stead of using frames and glasses, which 
 are not always at hand, to trim and 
 clean the ground, and loosen the sur- 
 face carefully, and then to cover the 
 whole of the plants about half an inch 
 deep with a good rich compost. In the 
 spring the plants will be found perfectly 
 protected, and every extremity spring- 
 27 
 
 ing up in all directions, and they will 
 blossom beautifully, if the subsoil be 
 congenial to them. If laid in the soil, 
 cuttings of the choicest pansies may be 
 taken off at any season, even in the 
 depth of winter. If it is convenient for 
 the amateur to procure them at that sea- 
 son, he may lay the whole cutting be- 
 neath the surface, either in coil or 
 longitudinally, so that it is not buried 
 above half an inch or a little more. It 
 will spring up at most of the joints in 
 due season vigorous and healthy." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Box for exhibiting Blooms. — Dr. 
 Lindley says, that — " the best construct- 
 ed box for exhibiting twenty-four Hearts- 
 ease is made of deal, of the following 
 dimensions, viz., twenty inches long, 
 one wide, and five inches deep ; the 
 lid was made to unhinge ; a sheet of 
 zinc was fitted inside, resting upon a 
 rim ; four rows of six holes each were 
 cut in the zinc at three inches apart, 
 under each hole was a zinc tube sol- 
 dered to the plate, and intended to 
 contain the water. The apertures to 
 admit the flower should be made in the 
 form of a keyhole, as it will admit part 
 of the calyx and keep the flower in a 
 flat position, the outside may be paint- 
 ed green, but the zinc plate should be 
 painted of a dead white." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Insects. — The worst animal foes of 
 the Pansey are the slug and the snail. 
 To destroy and keep away these ver- 
 min, water the bed late of an evening 
 in moist weather with lime water, and 
 sprinkle the surface pretty thickly with 
 fresh wood ashes. See Agromyza. 
 
 Disease. — The Pansey is liable to 
 root-rot, if the soil is not well drained. 
 If grown in light, fresh earth, in an 
 open border, it is never subject to the 
 disease. If a plant, which shows by 
 its yellow hue that infection has oc- 
 curred, be taken up, the decayed roots 
 removed, and it be transplanted into a 
 soil and situation such as I have de- 
 scribed, it will speedily send forth fresh 
 radicles, and recover its vigour. 
 
 PANSEY FLY. Agromyza. 
 
 PANTILES. See Bricks. 
 
 PAPAVER. Poppy. Twenty-six 
 species and many varieties. Hardy 
 herbaceous and annuals. The former 
 are increased by division, the latter by 
 seed ; light rich loam. 
 
 PAPER LIGHTS were never much 
 
PAP 
 
 418 
 
 PAR 
 
 employed, and, since the introduction j good crop immediately afterwards, never 
 
 of Whitney's and other compositions 
 for rendering cloth semi-transparent, 
 are still less likely to be employed. 
 Cartridge paper is the best for the pur- 
 pose. It should be damped before it 
 is nailed upon the frame, because when 
 dried it becomes taut. It may then be 
 painted over with boiled linseed oil, in 
 which a little white lead has been in- 
 corporated. In nailing on the paper, 
 a strip of tape should be placed between 
 the heads of the tacks and the paper, 
 to check the tearing to which the paper 
 is so subject. 
 
 PAPER-MULBERRY. Broussone- 
 tia papyracea. 
 
 PAPYRUS. Four species. Stove 
 perennial aquatics. Seed and division. 
 Rich loam in water. 
 
 PARAGUAY TEA. Ilex paraguen- 
 sis. 
 
 PARASITIC PLANTS are such as 
 derive their nourishment from other 
 living plants by rooting into their sap 
 vessels. Examples are the Mistletoe 
 and Dodder, which attach themselves 
 to the stems and branches of some 
 plants; the Hypocistus, and the Oro- 
 banche or Broom rape, affix themselves 
 to the roots of others. The minute 
 fungi which constitute the mildew are 
 also parasites. There is some doubt 
 whether the ivy is at all parasitical ; 
 but whether it derives nourishment or 
 not from trees, it certainly checks the 
 respiration, and prevents the free ac- 
 cess of light and air to those upon 
 which it attaches. The orchidaceous 
 plants, which grow upon dead wood 
 as readily as upon living timber, are 
 not parasites. 
 
 PARASTRANTHUS. Three spe- 
 cies. Hardy herbaceous. Division. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PARDANTHUS. Two species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Seed and division. 
 Light rich sheltered border. 
 
 PARINARIUM. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Ripe cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PARING and BURNING is never to 
 be practised by the gardener, except 
 for the purpose of charring the turf and 
 rendering porous the soil cut from the 
 banks of clayey ditches. When this is 
 carefully done, a serviceable dressing 
 is obtained. But paring and burning, 
 as a general practice, is extremely 
 wasteful; and though it may give a 
 
 fails, by speedy exhaustion, to demon- 
 strate how great has been the disper- 
 sion of carbonaceous matter. 
 
 PARIVOA grandiflora. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Rich loam. 
 
 PARK, in the modern acceptation of 
 the word, is an extensive adorned in- 
 closure surrounding the house and gar- 
 dens, and affording pasturage either 
 to deer or cattle.. In Great Britain, a 
 park, strictly and legally, is a large ex- 
 tent of a man's own ground inclosed 
 and privileged for wild beasts of chase 
 by prescription or by royal grant. 
 (Coke's Litt. 233. a. Blackstone, 2. 38.) 
 The beasts of park, or chase, according 
 to the definition of ancient sportsmen, 
 were the buck, doe, fox, marten, and 
 roe ; but in a common and legal sense, 
 Coke says, beasts of park were all the 
 beasts of the forest. It has been de- 
 cided by the superior courts of law, 
 that to constitute a park these circum- 
 stances are essential : — 1. A grant from 
 the king, or prescription. 2. That it 
 be inclosed by a wall, pale, or hedge. 
 3. That it contain beasts of park, and 
 if it fail in any one of these, it is a total 
 disparking. (Croke Car. 59.) Of such 
 parks there are said to be 781 in Eng- 
 land. (Brooks Abr. Action sur Stat. 
 48.) 
 
 P A R K I A . Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 PARKINSONIA aculeata. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Imported seed and 
 cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 PARNASSIA. Five species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division and seed. Shaded 
 moist peat. 
 
 PAROCHETUS communis. Half- 
 hardy evergreen creeper. Division. 
 Light rich loam. 
 
 PARONYCHIA. Fourteen species. 
 Chiefly hardy perennials and annuals. 
 P. canariensis is a green-house her- 
 baceous, and a few others are half- 
 hardy. Seed and division. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 PARRYA arctica, a hardy annual. 
 P. integerrima, a hardy perennial 
 trailer. The first increased by seed, 
 the latter by cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 PARSLEY. Petroselinum sativum. 
 
 Varieties. — There are two varieties, 
 the common plain leaved and the curly 
 leaved. 
 
 Time and Mode of Sowing. — It is 
 
PAR 
 
 419 
 
 PAR 
 
 sown annually, but if it is never per- 
 mitted to run to seed, the stalks being 
 cut down as often as they rise, it will 
 last for several years. It may be sown 
 from the close of February until the 
 middle of June, and this is repeated 
 about the middle of September, for 
 the supply of winter and spring ; but 
 this is unnecessary if the plants are 
 not allowed to seed. The seed is to 
 be inserted moderately thick, in narrow 
 drills barely an inch deep, twelve inches 
 apart if in a bed by itself, or in a single 
 one round the edge of a bed ; the mould 
 being raked level, and the stones im- 
 mediately over the seed gathered off. 
 The plants make their appearance in 
 from two to six weeks. When two or 
 three inches high, they may be gathered 
 from as required. In early June, when 
 they make a show for seed, the stems 
 should be cut down close to the bottom, 
 and again in September, if they have 
 acquired a straggling rank growth ; this 
 will cause them to shoot afresh, and 
 acquire a strong growth before the 
 arrival of severe weather. On the ap- 
 proach of frost, if protection is afforded 
 to the plants by means of haulm or reed 
 panels, so supported as not to touch 
 them ; it will preserve them in a much 
 better state for use in winter and spring. 
 But a still more effectual plan is to take 
 up some of the strongest and best curled 
 plants in September, and to plant them 
 in pots, two or three plants in each, 
 using a rich soil. If these be placed in 
 a forcing house and abundance of liquid 
 manure given, they will be very supe- 
 riorly productive throughout the winter. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — Nothing more is 
 necessary than to allow some of the 
 plants to run up in June ; they should 
 not, however, be allowed to stand 
 nearer than eighteen inches to each 
 other. The seed ripens in early autumn, 
 and when perfectly dry, may be beaten 
 out and stored. Soot is an excellent 
 manure for parsley, and preserves it 
 from root-canker, the only disease af- 
 fecting it. 
 
 PARSLEY (Hamburgh). Petroseli- 
 num sativum, var. latifolium. 
 
 Use. — This esculent is known by the 
 name broad-leaved and large-rooted 
 Parsley. It is cultivated for its root, 
 which attains the size of a middling 
 parsnip, boiling exceedingly tender and 
 palatable. It is eaten both as a sauce 
 to flesh meat, and in soups, &c. 
 
 Time and Mode of Sowing. — Sow at 
 monthly intervals from February until 
 the middle of June. Sow thinly in drills 
 nine inches apart. The plants appear 
 in about a month after sowing, and 
 when of tolerable growth, require to be 
 thinned to nine inches asunder, and 
 cleared from weeds, either by hand or 
 the hoe ; which latter operation, being 
 performed as often as weeds appear, is 
 the only cultivation required. By the 
 end of July, or during August, the 
 earliest sowings will have acquired a 
 sufficient size for occasional use ; but 
 the roots seldom attain their full growth 
 until Michaelmas; and the latest crops 
 not until the following year. On the 
 arrival of frost, some of them must be 
 taken up ; and after the removal of the 
 superfluous fibres, decayed leaves, &c, 
 buried in sand, in a dry situation under 
 cover. 
 
 To save Seed. — Some plants must be 
 left where grown, and allowed to run 
 in May. Their produce will ripen in 
 July or August, when it must be cut, 
 dried, beat out, and stored. 
 
 PARSLEY-PIERT. Erica aphanes. 
 
 PARSNIP. Pastinaca sativa. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — The soil in 
 which the parsnip succeeds best, is a 
 rich dry sandy loam, and the deeper 
 the better. The most inimical to it is 
 gravel or clay. It is always beneficial 
 to trench the ground two spades deep, 
 a little manure being turned in with the 
 bottom spit. 
 
 In the isle of Guernsey, which has 
 long been celebrated for the fineness of 
 its parsnips, sea-weed is the manure 
 chiefly employed. 
 
 Of excrementitious manure that of 
 pigeons is the best. Decayed leaves 
 are also very favourable to its growth. 
 The situation cannot be too open. 
 
 Time and Mode of Sowing. — The 
 usual time for sowing is from the end 
 of February to the beginning of April, 
 but the earlier the better. It has been 
 recommended in field cultivation to 
 sow them in September ; in the garden, 
 when sown at this season, they also 
 attain a finer size, but many of them 
 run to seed. In the isle of Guernsey 
 they regulate their time of sowing, ac- 
 cording to the soil ; in the most favour- 
 able soils they sow in January, or if the 
 soil is wet or stiff, they do not insert 
 the seed until the latter end of March. 
 
 Sow in drills ten inches apart, and 
 
PAR 
 
 PAS 
 
 one inch deep ; the compartment being 
 laid out in beds not more than four feet 
 wide, for the convenience of weeding, 
 &c. When the seedlings are two or 
 three inches high, remove to ten inches 
 apart, and the weeds both by hand and 
 small hoeing. The beds require to be 
 frequently looked over, to remove all 
 seedlings that may spring up afresh, as 
 well as to be frequently hoed until the 
 plants so cover the ground as to render 
 it impracticable. 
 
 The roots may be taken up as wanted 
 in September, but they do not attain 
 maturity till October, which is intimated 
 by the decay of the leaves. 
 
 In November, part of the crop may 
 be taken up, and the tops being cut 
 close off, laved in alternate layer* with 
 sand, for use in frosty weather. The 
 remainder may be left in the ground, 
 and taken up as required, as they are 
 never injured by the most intense frost, 
 but, on the contrary, are rendered 
 sweeter. In February or March, how- 
 ever, any remaining must be extracted, 
 otherwise they will vegetate. Being 
 preserved in sand, they continue good 
 until the end of April or May. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — Some of the finest 
 roots are best allowed to remain where 
 grown ; or else, being taken up early 
 in spring, planted in a situation open, 
 but sheltered from violent winds. If of 
 necessity some of those are employed 
 which have been preserved in sand, 
 such should be selected as have not had 
 their tops cut off very close. 
 
 They must be kept clear of weeds, 
 and in dry weather watered plentifully 
 twice a week. At midsummer the seed 
 is usually ripe ; the umbels may then be 
 cut, and when thoroughly dried on 
 cloths, the seed beaten out and stored. 
 
 Seed should never be employed that 
 is more than a twelvemonth old, as it 
 has generally lost its vegetative power 
 when of a greater age. 
 
 PARSONIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 PARTERRE, a French word pro- 
 nounced with the final e silent, is syno- 
 nymous with our English name Flower 
 Garden. 
 
 PARTING the roots is a mode of 
 propagation available with some plants, 
 and where a large increase of an indi- 
 vidual specimen by this mode is desired, 
 its flower stems should be removed as 
 
 fast as they are produced. This makes 
 the plant stool, for whatever prevents 
 the formation of seed, promotes the 
 development of root. 
 
 PASC ALI A glauca. Half-hardy herb- 
 aceous. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 PASQUE-FLOWER. Anemone Pul- 
 satilla. 
 
 PASSIFLORA. Passion Flower. 
 Eighty-five species, all evergreen climb- 
 ers. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 Select Species and Varieties : — 
 
 HARDY OR HALF-HARDY, ACCORDING TO 
 LATITUDE AND SOIL. 
 
 P. carulea. Common Blue Passiflora. 
 Five slightly differing varieties, the best 
 of which are P. Colvillii and P. glauco- 
 phylla. All require the protection of a 
 wall. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 P. incarnata. Flesh-coloured Passi- 
 flora. This, in well drained borders, 
 will endure our winters against a south 
 wall. P. Fieldii is a variety of this. 
 
 P. chinensis. Chinese Passiflora. 
 
 STOVE. 
 
 P. alata. Winged Passiflora. Pur- 
 ple, white, and crimson. 
 
 P. alata-ccerulea, Hybrid-winged Pas- 
 siflora. Black, blue, and white. 
 
 P. actinia. Sea Anemone Passiflora. 
 White, fragrant. 
 
 P. kermesina. Crimson Passiflora. 
 
 P. Loudoni. Loudon's Passiflora, 
 purple. 
 
 P. Middletonia. Middleton's Passi- 
 flora. Green and pink, fragrant. Some- 
 times called P. fragrans. 
 
 P. Phamicea. Phoenician Passiflora. 
 Crimson, purple, and white. P. elegans 
 is a variety of this. 
 
 EDIBLE FRUITED PASSIFLORAS. 
 
 P. edulis. Purple-fruited Granadilla. 
 White. Green-house. 
 
 P. laurifolia. Laurel-leafed Grana- 
 dilla, or Water Lemon. Red and violet 
 flowers. Fruit, yellow. Stove. 
 
 P.maliformis. Apple-fruited Grana- 
 dilla, or Sweet Calabash. Flowers 
 white, blue, and red. Fruit, dull yel- 
 low. 
 
 P. quadrangular is. Common Grana- 
 dilla. Flowers, red, white, and violet. 
 Fruit, greenish yellow. P. Buonapartea 
 I is a variety of this. 
 
 EDIBLE FRUITED. 
 
 All the stove passion flowers thrive 
 i in a day temperature of 70°, with a 
 
PAS 
 
 421 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 P AU 
 
 night temperature of 50°. Mr. Jones, 
 of the Kew Gardens, has given the fol- 
 lowing directions, especially, for the 
 cultivation of P. quadrangularis ; but 
 they apply equally well to the other 
 species. 
 
 " It may be grown in the stove, or 
 better perhaps in an intermediate 
 house, between the stove and green- 
 house. It is necessary to the perfect 
 cultivation of the plant that it should 
 grow in a border in the inside of the 
 house, rather than in pots, however 
 large. If no other situation presents 
 itself, a border may be made beneath 
 the path, taking care to leave a space 
 of three or four inches between the 
 surface of the soil and the stones, so 
 that there may be a free access of air, 
 and that water may spread equally 
 over the surface of the soil, and moist- 
 en it thoroughly. Whatever may be 
 the situation of the plant, let the drain- 
 age be as efficient as possible. 
 
 " As the plant may have to remain 
 some years in one situation, five or six 
 barrowfuls, or even more, of good soil, 
 composed of three-fourths rich loam, 
 and the rest leaf mould, should be pre- 
 pared in a very rough state, and in this 
 plant it. A spare rafter, or any such 
 place near the glass, will do exceed- 
 ingly well for the plants to be attached 
 to. If young when turned out, they 
 should not be allowed to bear flowers or 
 fruit the first year. 
 
 " One or at most two branches should 
 be allowed to grow, and after they have 
 extended ten or fifteen feet, they should 
 be stopped, and should not be allowed 
 to put forth any laterals. 
 
 " During winter no water to be given 
 unless the plants droop. Some time in 
 February the branches must be well cut 
 back : and if necessary to leave any 
 length of stem between the ground and 
 the glass, all the buds, excepting three 
 or four at the top of each branch, must 
 be rubbed off. 
 
 u The number of branches allowed 
 to grow in the second year, must be 
 determined by the strength of the 
 plant, from two to six being the usual 
 number. 
 
 " Advantage should be taken of the 
 first flowers that open to fertilize the 
 stigma, for fructification will not always 
 take place naturally. From one to 
 three fruit are sufficient on each 
 branch ; if a greater number are al- 
 
 lowed to remain they will be small and 
 of little value. 
 
 " The fruit-bearing branches may be 
 stopped at the distance of five or six 
 feet above the fruit. 
 
 " Treated in this way P. quadrangu- 
 laris will frequently produce fruit 4 lbs. 
 in weight; and though not ranking as 
 j a first-class fruit, it makes a rather 
 novel as well as a useful addition to 
 the desert, at which the pulp is eaten 
 with sugar and wine. None of the 
 other species of Passiflora bear such 
 large fruit as quadrangularis. Of 
 others, edulis and laurifolia are 
 amongst the best. Unlike quadrangu- 
 laris, the branches of these smaller- 
 fruited species must not be stopped, 
 and they will continue to flower and 
 fruit for several months in a stove. 
 The fruit is eaten with the same ingre- 
 dients as the largest kind, and has a 
 flavour agreeable to most palates." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 PASSION-FLOWER. Passiflora. 
 
 PASTINACA. The only cultivated 
 species is the Parsnip, which see. 
 
 PATAGONULA Americana. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 PATERSONIA. Nine species.— 
 Green-house herbaceous. Division and 
 seed. Sand and peat. 
 
 PATRINIA. Four species. Hardy 
 biennials. Seed. Light rich loam. 
 
 PAULLINIA. Sixteen species. — 
 Stove evergreen twiners. Ripe cut- 
 tings. Light rich loam. 
 
 PAULOUNIA imperialis, is a hardy 
 tree, though, until its habits are better 
 tested, it is advisable to plant it in a 
 sheltered situation. Mr. G. Bishop, 
 gardener at the Chiswick Gardens, 
 states that — " It may be propagated by 
 cuttings, particularly if the young 
 shoots are selected when they have 
 advanced to about three or four inches 
 in length; also by eyes, in the same 
 manner as the vine; as well as by di- 
 visions of the roots, the smallest par- 
 ticle of them generating adventitious 
 buds. The best time to propagate it is 
 when the plants commence their spring 
 growth. Both eyes and roots should 
 be potted in soil consisting of leaf 
 mould, peat, and sand, in equal pro- 
 portions, and the pots containing them 
 plunged in a dung-bed. Any other 
 fermenting material would answer the 
 same purpose, where the atmospheric 
 
P AV 
 
 422 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 PEA 
 
 temperature averages from 75° to 80°. 
 Divisions of the root in particular will 
 emit shoots at the expiration of three 
 weeks at the farthest.'-* — Gard. Chron. 
 
 For a drawing and interesting article 
 on this recently introduced tree, see 
 the " Horticulturist." 
 
 PAVETTA. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PAVIA. Seven species. Hardy 
 deciduous trees and shrubs. Layers 
 and grafting on horse-chestnut. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 PAXTONIA rosea. Stove orchid. 
 Division. Very turfy loam, leaf-mould, 
 and sand. 
 
 PEA. Pisum sativum. 
 
 " The Pea is a hardy annual, a 
 native of the south of Europe, and cul- 
 tivated from time immemorial. 
 
 " There is an immense variety, from 
 which the following have been selected 
 as among the best, and more than suf- 
 ficient for any garden ; some inferior 
 kinds are still cultivated, apparently 
 from want of knowledge. 
 
 " Landreth's Extra Early ; this has 
 been introduced more than twenty 
 years, and to the present maintains its 
 superiority over all others, as an early 
 variety ; it is unquestionably the ear- 
 liest, and a general favourite. 
 
 " The Early Frame succeeds Lan- 
 dreth's Extra Early, and is followed by 
 the Early Charlton, or Golden Hotspur, 
 as it is likewise called. 
 
 " The Large White Marrow, Peru- 
 vian Black Eye do., Royal Dwarf do., 
 and Blue Imperial, ripen nearly to- 
 gether; each has its admirers. The 
 
 thoroughly decomposed, excluding all 
 that possesses the least fermentation. 
 
 " It has been found that frequent 
 sowings of peas in the same ground is 
 injurious; the plants not unusually 
 turn yellow, and partially die before 
 perfecting fruit. This remark is par- 
 ticularly applicable to'the early kinds. 
 
 " The first crops should be sown in 
 the spring, so soon as the ground will 
 admit of being worked, choosing the 
 driest soil, and such as lays well ex- 
 posed to the sun. 
 
 " To have a constant succession, a 
 few should be planted every fortnight 
 or oftener. At the time the last sowing 
 of early ones is made, sow also some 
 of the later varieties, which will come 
 in as the early ones go out of bearing. 
 
 " The usual method of cultivation, is 
 to sow the seed in drills, as directed 
 for the Kidney Beans, only thicker in 
 the drills. As the plants rise from half 
 an inch high to two or three inches, 
 begin to draw earth to the stems, doing 
 this when the ground is in a dry state, 
 and earthing gradually higher, as the 
 stems ascend; at the same time loosen 
 the ground between the young plants, 
 and cut down rising weeds. Stick the 
 plants when six to twelve inches high, 
 as soon as they begin to vine. The 
 early varieties require sticks or rods 
 two to three feet high ; the Imperial 
 and Royal Dwarf Marrowfat two feet, 
 Large Marrowfat five feet.'" — Rur. Reg. 
 
 To force Peas : — Forcing commences 
 in December, in the early part of which 
 month they may be sown in a hot-bed 
 to remain, or thick to transplant, during 
 the succeeding month, into others for 
 
 imperial is quite dwarf and may do with- j production. These may be repeated in 
 out rods ; many prefer it to all others, i January, and the transplanting takes 
 
 "The Blue Prussian is an old sort, ; place in February. It is also a common 
 generally liked, and a good bearer. i practice to sow in a warm border dur- 
 
 " Bishop's Early Dwarf continues \ ing October, and the plants being cul- 
 longer than most others in bearing, J tivated as a natural ground crop, are 
 and its habit being so dwarf, as not to j removed into a hot-bed in a succeeding 
 require rods, is well suited to many j month, 
 gardens. The hot-bed must be moderate, and 
 
 " Sugar or Eat Pods, generally boiled earthed equally over to a depth of sjx 
 both pod and peas, and eaten in the or eight inches, with light fresh mould 
 manner of Kidney Beans. not particularly rich. The seed must 
 
 « The Pea thrives best in a rich be buried one inch and a half deep, 
 loamy soil, but will, with proper care, The frame, which is required to be two 
 
 produce tolerable crops in almost any. 
 The early varieties require stronger 
 ground than the Marrowfats and Im- 
 perial, but in manuring for them, ob- 
 serve to use none but such as is 
 
 feet and a half high behind, and one 
 and a half in front, ought to be put on 
 three or four days before the crop is 
 inserted, that the steam and heat may 
 abate. Seed may likewise be sown at 
 
PEA 
 
 423 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 PEA 
 
 the above times in pots or pans, and 
 placed round the bins of the stove. At 
 the close of September also, some peas 
 may be sown in pots and sunk in the 
 earth of any open compartment ; when 
 the frost commences, to be removed 
 into the green-house. A border of fresh 
 earth being made in the front of it early 
 in December, the plants are removed 
 into it, in rows two feet asunder, or still 
 better in pairs, with ten inches interval, 
 and two feet and a half between each 
 pair. These will come into production 
 about the middle of March. 
 
 In every instance, as stated above, 
 the rows should be two feet, the seed 
 or plants being set an inch asunder. 
 The plants are ready for moving when 
 an inch or two high. They must be 
 shaded and gently watered until they 
 have taken root. As much earth should 
 be preserved about their roots at the 
 time of removal as possible. 
 
 Transplanted peas are most produc- 
 tive, and run the least to straw in the 
 forcing frames. Air must be admitted 
 as freely as possible under contingent 
 circumstances, the same precautions 
 being necessary as for cucumbers. 
 Water must be given at first sparingly, 
 otherwise decay or super-luxuriance 
 will be occasioned; but when they are 
 in blossom, and during the succeeding 
 stages of growth, it may be applied of- 
 tener and more abundantly, as it is ne- 
 cessary for the setting and swelling of 
 the fruit. 
 
 The shading during hot days, and 
 covering at night, must also be particu- 
 larly attended to. From three to five 
 months elapse between the times of 
 sowing and production, according to the 
 fineness of the season, length of the 
 days, &c. 
 
 The temperature may be uniformly 
 kept up throughout their growth, hav- 
 ing 50° for the minimum, and 70° for 
 the maximum. 
 
 In Pots. — Mr. N. Wilson, gardener, 
 of Gopsall, cultivates them in this man- 
 ner : — 
 
 " The peas are to be ready for trans- 
 planting by the 1st of February, so that 
 the same sowing does for the first out 
 of doors, as well as for those. The 
 seedlings are removed from the boxes 
 or pots, where they have been thickly 
 sown, when about four inches in height, 
 and are planted thinly into large pots 
 (twelves) which have been filled with 
 good soil, not too rich. They are 
 staked with moderately strong willows, 
 and run round at distances of six inches 
 with small twine, which has a neater 
 appearance and does not shade so much 
 as common pea sticks. The situation 
 quite suitable is the back walls of the 
 late vineries. 
 
 " The pots so filled and staked, are 
 placed on the top of the back flues, ele- 
 vated to the glass as near as the stakes 
 will permit, where they are to remain 
 till the crop is gathered, which will be 
 from the 1st to the 15th of May. The 
 peas are kept from the frost and severe 
 weather, and have always plenty of air, 
 when the weather is fine. 
 
 " They are watered rather sparingly 
 at first, but plentifully as they advance 
 into bloom. Peas in pits and frames 
 will not bear forcing till they are out of 
 bloom, and the pod set, then they will 
 bear it, and be forwarded admirably. 
 They cannot be had in the autumn on 
 the same principle after the 20th of 
 November." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 PEACH. Persica vulgaris. 
 
 Varieties. — D. Landreth and Fulton 
 offer the following among others as de- 
 sirable varieties. The vicinity of Phi- 
 ladelphia is famous for the extent of its 
 Peach orchards, and the abundance and 
 excellence of the fruit. What is there 
 considered worthy of culture may be 
 safely, relied upon. 
 
PEA 
 
 424 
 
 — • — 
 
 PEA 
 
 Explanation of Abbreviations. — Colour — y yellow ; r red ; w white. Size 
 -l large; m medium. s 
 
 Those marked * 
 
 are clingstones. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 COLOUR. 
 
 N 
 
 CO 
 
 >< 
 
 SEASON. 
 
 ♦Algiers Winter .... 
 
 y 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 October 
 
 Alberge — Yellow Rare Ripe 
 
 
 
 y r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 August 
 
 *Blood Peach 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 September 
 
 Columbia 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 Darby Belle . 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 Early York . 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 August 
 
 Early Red, Cole's . 
 
 
 
 r y 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 August 
 
 Eastburn's Choice . 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 Freestone Heath . 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 Early Malacoton, Crawford's 
 
 
 
 y r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 Grosse Mignonne . 
 
 
 
 y r 
 
 L 
 
 I 
 
 August 
 
 ♦Lemon Clingstone 
 
 
 
 y * 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 *Late Heath . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 Late Yellow, Pool's 
 
 
 
 y r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 Large Early Rare Ripe 
 
 
 
 y r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 August 
 
 Morris' Red . 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 Morris' White 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 Nutmeg, White . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 August 
 
 Oldmixon Freestone 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 *01dmixon Clingstone . 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 President . . 
 
 
 
 y r 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 September 
 
 Red Rare Ripe 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 Red Cheek Malacoton . 
 
 
 
 y r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 ♦Rodman's Cling . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 Smock's Freestone 
 
 
 
 y r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 *Smock's Cling 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 ♦Tippecanoe . 
 
 
 
 y r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 Washington . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 Ward's Late . 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 September 
 
 The culture of the Peach is in this 
 country so simple, and generally un- 
 derstood, that it would seem scarcely 
 necessary to occupy space with direc- 
 tions on that subject. 
 
 The following remarks are from a 
 paper by Dr. Thompson of Wilmington, 
 Delaware, published in the Farmer's 
 Cabinet of Philadelphia, and may excite 
 surprise in some quarters by its details 
 of the extent to which the Peach trade 
 has arrived. 
 
 "To Mr. Isaac Reeves, a native of 
 New Jersey, is the whole credit due of 
 first introducing on a large scale the 
 culture of the inoculated peach tree 
 into Delaware. The late Mr. Jacob 
 Ridgway, of Philadelphia, owning a 
 farm near Delaware City, on the Chesa- 
 peake and Delaware canal, was induced 
 by Mr. Reeves to become his partner, 
 and upon this property, in the spring of 
 
 1832, they set out the first twenty acres 
 of inoculated peach trees ever planted 
 in this State, with the view of supplying 
 the Philadelphia market. They rapidly 
 extended their plantation to about one 
 hundred and twenty acres, were emi- 
 nently successful, and one year — the 
 very best season they ever had — their 
 gross income from the sales of fruit was 
 some sixteen thousand dollars. Peaches 
 then commanded from one dollar twen- 
 ty-five cents to three dollars per basket, 
 containing about three pecks. In the 
 spring of 1836, the late Mr. Manuel 
 Eyre and myself followed suit upon our 
 ' Union Farm,' midway between Wil- 
 mington and Newcastle on the Delaware 
 river, to about the extent of one hun- 
 dred and forty acres. In a year or two 
 afterwards, Mr. Philip Reybold & Sons 
 went into the business — then a host of 
 others, until now, from twenty-five 
 
PEA 
 
 425 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 PEA 
 
 hundred to three thousand acres of 
 land, in Newcastle county, are planted 
 with, and successfully cultivated in 
 peaches, making Delaware, though the 
 smallest of the States, the largest pro- 
 ducer of this fruit. The result has been 
 a proportionate diminution of price, the 
 average, per basket, one season with 
 another, not exceeding from thirty to 
 sixty cents. In this way Delaware has 
 become the principal supplier of the 
 Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, and 
 North River markets, and many of our 
 fine peaches now reach even Boston. 
 The whole annual income from this 
 branch of business to the farmers of this 
 county may be estimated from one to 
 two hundred thousand dollars. For so 
 handsome an additional product, the 
 agriculturists of Delaware, as well as 
 the consumers of peaches in our vicini- 
 ty, owe a debt of gratitude to the ori- 
 ginator of the culture, whom as one, I 
 should gladly unite in presenting with 
 some valued and lasting memento in 
 recognition of his merit for giving a new 
 staple to a State ; for who is a greater 
 benefactor to mankind and the age he 
 lives in, than he who brings into opera- 
 tion a new branch of business, giving 
 by his enterprise and perseverance an 
 impetus to agriculture ; causing the 
 earth to give forth its increase, and so 
 multiplies its fruits as to bring them 
 within the reach and enjoyment of all ? 
 The great improvement made in peach- 
 es within the last few years in New 
 Jersey and Delaware, consists in propa- 
 gating none but the finest kinds, by 
 budding and grafting, so as to have the 
 fruit as early and as late as our latitude 
 will admit ; the earliest ripening with us 
 from the first week in August, such as 
 Troth's Early, Early York and Early 
 Ann, and ending in the latter part of 
 October with Ward's Late Free, the 
 Heath, Algiers' Winter, &c. I need 
 not enumerate all the different varieties 
 used and planted out to keep up this 
 succession — some of the principal are 
 in the order of enumeration, Troth's 
 Early, Early York, Early Ann, Yellow 
 Rareripe, Red Rareripe, Malacatoon, 
 Morris' White, Old Mixon, Rodman, 
 Ward's Late Free, Maiden, Free 
 Smock, Late Rareripe, Heath, Algiers' 
 Winter, &c. These trees are generally 
 obtained for about six dollars per hun- 
 dred, from approved nurserymen in 
 Delaware and New Jersey, and the 
 
 rearing of them constitutes a distinct 
 business of itself. They are produced 
 by planting out the peach stones, or 
 pits, in the spring, which have been 
 slightly covered with earth in the fall, 
 so as to be exposed to the action of the 
 winter's frost. The sooner the pits are 
 put in the sand or earth after the fruit 
 is matured, the better — they should 
 never become dry. The shoots from 
 these stones are budded in August of 
 the same year, from four to six inches 
 from the ground. The ensuing spring 
 all the first year's growth is cut off 
 above where the scion has taken — not, 
 however, until it is well developed — 
 when, in the fall and following spring, 
 they are ready for transplanting or sale. 
 The mode of preparing the ground for 
 them is precisely that with us of the 
 Indian corn crop — the earth is well 
 ploughed, and from thirty to forty 
 bushels of lime are spread upon it to 
 the acre. The trees of like kinds, for 
 the convenience of picking, are then 
 set out in rows at distances varying from 
 twenty to thirty feet apart, according to 
 the strength of the soil ; a crop of corn 
 is then put in and cultivated in the usual 
 way, and this is done successively for 
 three years ; by this time the trees be- 
 gin to bear. The cultivation of the corn 
 being the proper tillage for the trees, 
 and this crop amply paying for all in- 
 vestment in trees, &c. After the trees 
 commence bearing, no other crop ot 
 any kind should ever be grown among 
 them, as I have known two rows of 
 potatoes between a row of peach trees 
 not only to affect the fruit, but seriously 
 to injure the trees ; but they should be 
 regularly ploughed some three or four 
 times in the season, just as if the corn 
 crop was continued. So obnoxious in 
 our country is the peach tree to the 
 worm, or borer — the ageria exitiosa — 
 that each tree in the orchard should be 
 examined twice a year, summer and 
 fall — say in June and October — by re- 
 moving the earth down to the roots, and 
 killing with a pruning-knife every in- 
 truder — then scraping the injured bark 
 and removing the glue. Thus exposed, 
 they should be left for a few days, when 
 the earth should again be replaced with 
 a hoe. The limbs should be only mo- 
 derately pruned or thinned out, so as to 
 admit the sun and air, avoiding in the 
 operation leaving forks, which incline 
 them to split when burthened with fruit. 
 
PEA 
 
 426 
 
 PEA 
 
 When the peaches ripen, they should 
 be carefully picked from step-ladders, 
 seven to eight feet high, into small hand- 
 baskets, holding one peck each. Our 
 operators for this purpose are both men 
 and women, who earn from fifty to 
 seventy-five cents a day, besides being 
 found. These baskets are gently emp- 
 tied into the regular market baskets, 
 which are all marked with the owner's 
 name and strewed along the whole line 
 of orchard to be picked. As these are 
 filled they are put into spring wagons, 
 holding from thirty to sixty baskets, and 
 taken to the wharf, or landing, where 
 there is a house, shed or awning, for 
 the purpose of assorting them, each 
 kind by itself, which is into prime and 
 cullings — the prime being distinguished 
 not only by their size and selection, 
 but also by a handful of peach leaves 
 scattered through the top. They are 
 then put on board the boats in tiers, 
 separated by boards between, to keep 
 them from injury, and so reach their 
 destined market. We consider a water 
 communication from the orchards, or 
 as near as may be, most essential, as all 
 land carriage more or less bruises or 
 destroys the fruit. Our roads through 
 the orchards and to the landings are 
 all kept ploughed and harrowed down 
 smooth and even. The baskets for 
 marketing the peaches are generally 
 obtained in New Jersey at twenty-five 
 to thirty-seven dollars and fifty cents 
 per hundred. With trifling modifica- 
 tions our culture and practice may be 
 made to suit not only the Southern but 
 the South-Western States. I may here, 
 perhaps, properly remark, that the ave- 
 rage life of our trees is from nine to 
 twelve years, when properly cared for 
 and protected as I have described ; that 
 the two great and devastating enemies 
 the trees have to contend against are 
 the peach worm and the yellows ; the 
 first readily yielding to the knife and 
 the treatment of semi-annual examina- 
 tion ; the latter being a constitutional, 
 consumptive, or marasmatic disease, for 
 which no other remedy is as yet known 
 or to be practiced but extirpation and 
 destruction. There are many theories 
 and some practice recorded on this, by 
 far the most destructive enemy of the 
 peach tree. I may hereafter give my 
 own views on this particular and ob- 
 scure disease. I concur, however, with 
 Mr. Downing, of Newburg, that the 
 
 great and prevailing disposition of the 
 peach tree in our climate is to over pro- 
 duction of fruit in favourable seasons. 
 Our remedy for this is carefully to thin 
 it off by plucking all those that touch, 
 or are within two or three inches of 
 each other, when the size of hickory 
 nuts, which are thrown into some run- 
 ning stream or into the hog-pens to be 
 devoured. This mode < of heading in, ? 
 or pruning one half of the producing 
 buds, is new to me, but which I have 
 just tried upon my garden trees in the 
 city, and will be able to speak of expe- 
 rimentally, hereafter. With us in Dela- 
 ware, as everywhere else, the peach 
 tree succeeds best in a good soil. That 
 preferred is a rich sandy loam, with 
 clay. Many of my finest trees and 
 choicest fruits are grown in a loose and 
 stony soil. The trees should never be 
 set out in wet, low, or springy situa- 
 tions, and for the same reasons, high 
 and rolling ground should be selected 
 for your plantations, and for the addi- 
 tional circumstance that they are less 
 obnoxious to early frosts." 
 
 Wall- Culture. English Method. — 
 Borders should never be deeper than 
 eighteen or twenty inches for the peach, 
 and six feet wide. Soil chopped turfy 
 loam from a rich pasture, rather more 
 clayey than light — beneath a good 
 drainage, at least one foot deep, made 
 of broken bricks and stones, with an 
 outfall into a neighbouring ditch. 
 
 Planting. — Two year old plants are 
 to be preferred, and planted as soon as 
 the leaves begin to fall at the end of 
 October. The best aspects are south 
 and south-east. Plant, at the least, six- 
 teen feet apart ; the stem three inches 
 from the wall, inclining towards it. 
 Nail the branches to the wall, but do 
 not prune them. 
 
 Summer Pruning is of far more im- 
 portance than that of the winter. 
 
 " In May and June, and occasionally 
 in the succeeding months, it is necessa- 
 ry to regulate the shoots of the same 
 year, and to prevent improper growths 
 by disbudding. Pinch off fore right 
 buds or shoots; and pinch off or cut 
 out ill-placed, very weakly, spongy, and 
 deformed shoots, retaining a plentiful 
 supply of good lateral shoots in all parts 
 of the tree, and leaving a leader to each 
 branch. 
 
 " Let them mostly be trained in at 
 full length, all summer, about three 
 
PEA 
 
 427 
 
 PEA 
 
 inches asunder, for next year's bearers ; 
 and divest them of any lateral twigs to 
 prevent a thicket-like intricacy, and to 
 promote a healthy fruitful growth in 
 the shoots themselves. In the course 
 of the summer regulation, if any partial 
 vacancy occurs, or should a young tree 
 under training want an additional sup- 
 ply of wood, shorten some convenient- 
 ly placed strong shoot, in June, to a 
 few eyes to furnish a supply of laterals 
 the same season." — Abercrombie. 
 
 This disbudding and regulation should 
 be done by degrees. If many shoots 
 and leaves are removed suddenly, it 
 occasions gumming, and over-luxuri- 
 ance in the shoots that remain. If 
 shoots are very strong, train them as 
 nearly perpendicular as is admissible, 
 that there may be no check to the sap's 
 return. Shoots less robust train hori- 
 zontally. 
 
 Protect from frosts whilst in blos- 
 som ; and, when the fruit is well set, 
 syringe three times a week with water 
 to which half a pint of ammoniacal li- 
 quor, from gas-works, has been added 
 to each gallon. This will destroy all 
 insects, and especially the aphis, and 
 prevent the occurrence of mildew. 
 
 " Winter Pruning may be performed 
 at the fall of the leaf, and thence, ac- 
 cording to some professional writers, 
 at any time in mild weather until spring. 
 It should be completed in February or 
 early in March, before the blossom- 
 buds are considerably advanced, which 
 are distinguishable by being round, 
 plump, and prominent, while the leaf 
 and shoot-buds are oblong and narrow. 
 Retain, in all parts of the tree, a com- 
 petent supply of such regular grown 
 shoots of last year as are apparently 
 fruitful in blossom-buds. Most part 
 of these should be shortened, not in- 
 discriminately, but according to their 
 strength and situation ; the very strong 
 shoots should be left longer, being 
 topped about one-fourth or one-third. 
 Shoots of middling vigour reduce one- 
 third or one-half; and prune the very 
 weak to two or three buds. Always 
 cut at a shoot-bud to advance for a 
 leader. Sometimes a shoot-bud lies 
 between a twin blossom-bud ; cut half 
 an inch above the bud. As many new 
 shoots as will lie from three to six 
 inches asunder may be deemed a com- 
 petent supply : remove or reduce some 
 part of ihe former bearers. 
 
 quite close the redundant, irregular, 
 and other improper shoots: remove or 
 reduce some parts of the former bearers 
 of the two preceding years, cutting the 
 most naked quite away, and others 
 down to the most eligible young branch 
 or well-placed shoot. Also take out 
 all diseased and dead wood, retaining 
 young where necessary to fill a vacui- 
 ty." — Abercrombie. 
 
 The most systematic mode of pre- 
 serving a constant supply of young 
 wood is that proposed by Mr. Seymour, 
 and described as follows in the Gar- 
 dener's Magazine : — 
 
 "A maiden plant must be cut down 
 to three eyes, a, and three shoots being 
 produced, the two lower ones are left 
 at full length, and the succeeding spring 
 the centre shoot is again cut down to 
 three eyes. At the time of disbudding 
 the trees all the buds on the lower side 
 of the two horizontal branches are rub- 
 bed off, and buds are left on the upper 
 side of the branches at a distance of 
 from nine to twelve inches from each 
 other. These are suffered to grow five 
 or six inches, and are then stopped ; 
 but still suffering the leading shoot to 
 extend itself. At the second spring 
 pruning, the centre shoot is again cut 
 to three eyes ; or, if the tree be v.ery 
 vigorous, five eyes may be left, two for 
 each side, and a centre one for again 
 furnishing leading shoots. The leading 
 shoots are laid in the fan form, nine 
 or ten inches from each other. The 
 shoots on the leading branch are nailed 
 to the wall in summer; but after the 
 winter's pruning they are tied to the 
 leading shoots to be nailed in, where 
 they get well ripened, and mature their 
 buds for another crop. At the winter's 
 pruning they are cut to three or four 
 inches, according to their strength. 
 The maiden plant, being headed down 
 the first winter, will present two late- 
 rals, b. The second year, at the end of 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 summer, there will be four side-shoots, 
 Cut out ' and six or more laterals, c. In the fol- 
 
PEA 
 
 428 
 
 PEA 
 
 lowing spring pruning, the laterals, d, 
 which had been nailed to the wall, are 
 loosened and tied to their main shoot, 
 e, and the upright shoot shortened to 
 three buds, as before. 
 
 " At the end of the third summer the 
 laterals will be doubled on the old wood 
 
 each side shoot; the first about three 
 inches from the stem, as the bud may 
 suit, and the other at the end of the 
 shortened shoots, so as to double the 
 leading shoots. The upright shoot is 
 always cut at three of the lowest and 
 most suitable buds, so that the stem may 
 
 by one having sprung from the base of j be kept as short as possible ; for, unless 
 the shoot tied in, g, and another from | the side shoots are multiplied, the stem 
 
 its extremity, h. 
 
 Fig. 107 
 
 In the pruning of the j gets too high. If the side shoots are 
 strong the year after cutting down, they 
 may be laid in their whole length; but 
 if weak, they must be cut short to give 
 them strength. Continue in this way to 
 double the side shoots for two or three 
 years) by which the tree will get 
 strength, and then it will admit of the 
 side shoot being shortened to about 
 fourteen inches. Cut for two or three 
 years, so as to produce three shoots 
 upon each side shoot, and so continue 
 until there is a sufficient number of 
 leading shoots to furnish the wall. 
 
 " After the tree has got into a bear- 
 ing: state, cut the lateral shoots to about 
 
 following spring the laterals of two 
 years' growth, which had borne fruit, 
 are cut off close, and the young laterals 
 which had sprung from their base, i, 
 
 eight or nine inches, taking care to cut 
 
 are loosened from the wall, and tied ™»— ™ Tu a a' *7u*- f X 
 ' at a wood-bud ; and at the time ot dis 
 
 Fie. 108. budding leave the best situated buds, 
 
 and those nearest the base, for the 
 
 future year's bearing." — Gard. Mag. 
 
 Thinning. — Let there be a space of 
 nine inches between every brace of 
 fruit upon the weaker shoots, and six 
 inches on the stronger. See Thinning. 
 
 Blistering of the Leaf. — This disease, 
 which is called by some gardeners the 
 Bladder Blight, and by the French la 
 cloque, is occasioned by more moisture 
 being forced into the leaves from the 
 roots than they can evacuate by expira- 
 tion. Some gardeners, annotating upon 
 this opinion, expressed by the present 
 writer in the Gardener's Chronicle in 
 June, 1845, have concluded, because 
 the blistering appears more abundantly 
 when cold nights succeed to hot days, 
 that they occasion the disorder ; but 
 they are only the proximate cause ; 
 those cold nights reduce the expiratory 
 power of the leaves, whilst the roots in 
 a soil of unreduced temperature con- 
 tinue to imbibe moisture, and to propel 
 it to the leaves with undiminished force. 
 The blistering is, consequently, more 
 extensive. That the force with which 
 the sap is propelled, is quite sufficient 
 to rupture the vessels in the parenchyma 
 of the leaf, is evident from Dr. Hale's 
 experiment. He found the vine pro- 
 pelled its sap with a force equal to a 
 
 down to succeed them ; the other late- 
 rals, k, are tied in, and the upright shoot 
 shortened, I, as before. 
 
 " Now, or before, the side shoots will 
 have to be headed down once or even 
 twice, so as to increase their number, 
 and regularly cover the wall. The ex- 
 tent to which this practice is carried 
 will depend on the height of the wall, 
 and the distance of the trees from each 
 other ; the ultimate object being to pro- 
 duce a fan form, as regular as possible, 
 of permanent wood, with no young 
 wood thereon, besides what is produced 
 along the spokes of the fan, on their 
 upper side, at about twelve inches 
 apart, and the prolongation of the 
 shoots. 
 
 " In the course of the winter or spring 
 of the third year, I shorten the side 
 6hoots to about ten or twelve inches, as 
 may be most convenient for wood-buds, 
 to get two principal leading shoots from 
 
PEA 
 
 PEA 
 
 column of mercury fifteen inches high. 
 There is no doubt upon my mind, that 
 if the soil be well drained, and not too 
 fertile, blistering will never occur. The 
 remedy, therefore, is obvious in either 
 case. 
 
 Diseases. — See Aphis, Chermes, Honey 
 Dew, Mildew, Extravasated Sap. 
 
 Forcing. Any of the early varieties 
 are suitable for this purpose ; success 
 does not depend so much on the kind, 
 as on the management. 
 
 Form of House. — The best form for a 
 Peach-house, is that thus described by 
 the late T. E. Knight, Esq. 
 
 Fig. 109. 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2> 
 
 
 — * 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 g 
 
 1 ! 
 
 — n 
 
 I i - 
 
 =~^ 
 
 JJ 
 
 l- 
 
 lh^tt"./'...' 1 ,.",' 
 
 
 As the lights to be moved to the re- 
 quired extent with facility must neces- 
 sarily be short, the back wall of the 
 house must scarcely extend nine feet 
 in height, and this height raises the 
 rafters sufficiently high to permit the 
 tallest person to walk with perfect con- 
 venience under them. The lights are 
 divided in the middle at the point A, 
 and the lower are made to slide down 
 to the d, and the upper to the point A. 
 The flue, or hot-water pipe enters on 
 the east or west end, as most conveni- 
 ent, and passes within six inches of the 
 east and west wall, but not within less 
 than two feet of the low front wall, 
 and it returns in a horizontal direction 
 through the middle. The trees must 
 be planted between the flue and the 
 front wall, and the other row near the 
 back wall, against which they are to be 
 trained. 
 
 If early varieties be planted in the 
 front, and the earliest where the flue 
 first enters, these being trained imme- 
 diately over the flue, and at a small dis- 
 tance above it, will ripen first; and if 
 the lower lights be drawn down in fine 
 weather to the point b, every part of 
 the fruit on the trees which are trained 
 nearly horizontally along the dotted 
 
 line c, will receive the full influence of 
 the sun. The upper lights must be 
 moved as usual by cords and pulleys, 
 and if these be let down to the point A, 
 after the fruit in the front tree is gather- 
 ed, every part of the trees on the back 
 wall will be fully exposed to the sun, at 
 any period of the spring and summer 
 after the middle of April, without the 
 intervention of the glass. A single fire- 
 place will be sufficient for a house fifty 
 feet long, and I believe the foregoing 
 plan and dimensions will be found to 
 combine more advantage than can ever 
 be obtained in a higher or wider house. 
 Both the walls and flue must stand on 
 arches, to permit the roots of the trees 
 to extend themselves in every direction 
 beyond the limits of the walls, for what- 
 ever be the more remote causes of mil- 
 dew, the immediate cause generally 
 appears to be want of moisture or 
 dampness above it. A bar of wood 
 must extend from d to b, opposite the 
 middle of each lower light, to support 
 it when drawn down. — Knight's Select 
 Papers. 
 
 The soil, culture, and pruning are 
 the same as required for those trees 
 grown on walls. 
 
 Forcing in Pots is a very excellent 
 mode, and enables the Peach to be 
 thus grown in establishments where 
 there is no regular Peach-house. Pot a 
 three year old tree in a twelve inch pot, 
 cutting it back to four buds ; and shift 
 every year until it has attained an 
 eighteen inch pot, a size which need 
 never be exceeded. Let the soil be 
 turfy, and mixed with decaying wood 
 from the bottom of an old wood 
 stock. 
 
 Commencing forcing and temperature. 
 The best and most successful directions 
 on these points are the following, given 
 by Mr. W. Hutchinson, gardener at 
 Eatington Park. He says : — " Bring the 
 trees into the house in mild weather 
 during November, a little earlier or 
 later according to the slate of the 
 weather ; do not start them all, how- 
 ever, at once ; the last lot are not put 
 in until the first of January. Any later 
 than this would not answer, as the 
 weather, if clear, is then hot through 
 the day. Commence forcing them at 
 55o at night, allowing the thermometer 
 to fall to 50® in the morning, if cold, 
 but if the weather is mild, never to fall 
 below 55° ; and from that to 60° is the 
 
PEA 
 
 430 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 PEA 
 
 usual temperature kept up throughout 
 the period of forcing during the night ; 
 during the day, I make up for low night 
 temperature, when I have the chance, 
 by sun heat. Do not be fastidious about 
 a few degrees : to get it high enough is 
 the main point, say from 70 Q to 85° and 
 90 Q , until the fruit is stoned, then keep 
 them very hot during the day, viz. from 
 95 Q to 105°, and sometimes even as 
 high as 1 10°. Of course a great deal of 
 moisture is required with this high tem- 
 perature : syringe over head twice a 
 day, and sometimes oftener when the 
 air is dry, and you will scarcely ever be 
 troubled with either green fly or red 
 spider. Watering at the root must be 
 carefully attended to ; very little is 
 wanted until the trees get covered with 
 leaves; but after the fruit is stoned they 
 should be watered plentifully. Of course 
 the watering must be gradually with- 
 drawn as the fruit approaches maturity, 
 in order to increase their flavour." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 When the blossoms are well open, 
 impregnation should be assisted by the 
 aid of a camel's hair pencil. 
 
 One essential for securing vigorous 
 production in the Peach-house is to 
 have the roots of the trees well nour- 
 ished. If these are not duly supplied 
 with moisture and food during the time 
 the fruit is setting and swelling, a fail- 
 
 ure of the crop is inevitable. To secure 
 such a supply, it is a most effectual 
 treatment to give the border a top-dress- 
 ing, at the close of February, of charred 
 turf. Liquid manure and water, of 
 course, must be given also, as the dry- 
 ness of the soil and appearance of the 
 trees indicate are necessary. 
 
 Standards. — In Essex, I have grown 
 the peach successfully, both as a stand- 
 ard and as an espalier, in a garden 
 sloping to the south, and well pro- 
 tected from the east and strong wester- 
 ly winds. 
 
 PEAR. Pyrus communis. Of this 
 fruit four hundred and forty-two varie- 
 ties are at present cultivated in the 
 Chiswick Gardens, and these with ma- 
 ny more are described in the Horticul- 
 tural Society's Fruit Catalogue. 
 
 The subjoined list, taken from the 
 catalogue of D. Landreth and Fulton at 
 the old Landreth nurseries comprises a 
 selection of choice and approved varie- 
 ties, abstracted from the mass in cultiva- 
 tion, the larger number of which are 
 only calculated to disappoint those who 
 rely on them — either by reason of the 
 inferiority of the fruit, or want of adap- 
 tation to our climate — the latter to a 
 very considerable extent; how else can 
 we account for the quality of their pro- 
 duct here, compared with their trans- 
 atlantic character ? 
 
 Explanation of Abbreviations. — Colour- 
 r red ; b brown. Size — l large ; m medium ; 
 pyr pyramidal. 
 
 -g green ; y yellow ; rus russet; 
 s small. Form — obov obovate ; 
 
 Those marked * are of American origin. 
 
 
 CO- 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 NAME. 
 
 LOUR. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 N 
 
 03 
 
 ►J 
 & 
 
 SEASON. 
 
 Althorpe Crassanne .... 
 
 g 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. to 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Bartlett . 
 
 
 
 
 gy 
 
 pyr 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Bell Pear 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 py 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Bergamot, Hampden's 
 
 
 
 
 rus 
 
 round 
 
 M 
 
 2 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 *Bergamot, Autumn 
 
 
 
 
 rus 
 
 round 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Bergamotte, Suisse 
 
 
 
 
 yr 
 
 pyr 
 
 M 
 
 2 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Bergamotte, Easter . 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apt. 
 
 Bezi de Lamotte 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 round 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 *Bleeker's Meadow 
 
 
 
 
 gy 
 
 round 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 *Bloodgood 
 
 
 
 
 y rus 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Beurre de Roi 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 pyr 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 " Diel 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 obov 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 " de Capiaumont 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 " d'Amalis 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 obov 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
PEA 
 
 431 
 
 PEA 
 
 Beurre Bosc 
 
 11 Summer 
 
 " d'Aremberg 
 
 " Easter 
 
 " de Ranz 
 Buffum 
 
 *Chapman, Carres 
 Chaumontelle . 
 Columbia . 
 Compte de Lamay . 
 Dearborn's Seedling 
 Dix ... 
 
 Doyenne Gris . 
 Duchess d'Angouleme 
 Early Catharine 
 Flemish Beauty 
 Fondante d'Automne 
 Forelle . 
 
 Frederick of Wirtemberg 
 Gloux Morceau 
 Green Chisel 
 
 * Haddington, Smith's 
 
 * Harvard 
 *Heathcote 
 Holland Green 
 La Bon Cure 
 L'Echasserie . 
 *Lewis 
 
 Leon Le Clerc — Van Mons 
 *Lodge 
 
 Long Green Mouthwater 
 Louise Bonne de Jersey 
 Madeline 
 Marie Louise 
 Muscat Allemande 
 Passe Colmar . 
 
 *Pennsylvania 
 
 *Petre 
 
 Rousselet de Rheims 
 
 *Rushmore 
 
 *Seckel 
 
 Stephen's Genessee 
 
 St. Germaine, Uvedale's 
 
 *St. Germaine, Prince's 
 
 St. Ghislan 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Surpass Virgalieu 
 
 Swan's Egg 
 
 Urbaniste 
 
 *Washington . 
 
 Winter Nelis 
 
 The annexed outlines and descrip- 
 tions of a few prominent varieties will 
 doubtless interest those who may 
 not have access to a work especially 
 devoted to fruits. The descriptions 
 
 b 
 
 py r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 y 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 y 
 
 obov 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 g 
 
 obov 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 g 
 
 pyr 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Feb. 
 
 y 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 gy 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 y 
 
 py r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 y 
 
 obov 
 
 L 
 
 !< 
 
 |Nov. 
 
 y 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 'Sept. 
 
 y 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 l 
 
 Aug. 
 
 y 
 
 py r 
 
 L 
 
 l 
 
 Oct. 
 
 rus 
 
 pyr 
 
 M 
 
 l 
 
 Sept. 
 
 y 
 
 obov 
 
 L 
 
 l 
 
 Oct. 
 
 y 
 
 py. 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 July 
 
 y 
 
 obov 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 y 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 ' Sept. 
 
 y 
 
 py r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 y 
 
 py r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 g 
 
 p"y 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 g 
 
 obov 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 Aug. 
 
 gy 
 
 obov 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 rus 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 y 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 g 
 
 obov 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 y 
 
 py 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 g 
 
 round 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 g 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 y 
 
 pyr 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 rus 
 
 pyr 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 g 
 
 pyr 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 g 
 
 pyr 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 g 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 y 
 
 pyr 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 g 
 
 obov 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 y 
 
 py r 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 g 
 
 obov 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 y 
 
 pyr 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 rus 
 
 pyr 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 y 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 rus 
 
 obov 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 y 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 rus 
 
 pyr 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 rus 
 
 obov 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 y 
 
 pyr 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 y 
 
 pyr 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 y 
 g 
 g 
 
 obov 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 y 
 g 
 
 obov 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1 obov 
 
 1 M 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 have been made as concise as practica- 
 ble, consistent with perspicuity. For 
 further information, see Cox, Kenrick, 
 Downing — American pomologists. 
 
PEA 
 
 432 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 PEA 
 
 Fig. 110. 
 
 Haddington. (Smith's.) (Fig. 110.) 
 We have by the merest chance this ex- 
 cellent addition to our stock of winter 
 pears. Mr. J. B. Smith, when on his 
 farm near Haddington, Philadelphia 
 County, in 1828, reared from the seed 
 of the pound pear, a number of young 
 plants for stocks. This one accident- 
 ally remained unworked, and on Mr. 
 Smith's removal to the city, was brought 
 by him and planted in his garden, where 
 it now stands, singularly erect, and with 
 few horizontal branches. It comes into 
 use in December, and keeps through 
 winter; the skin is green, when ripe 
 slightly yellow on the sunny side, and 
 marked by minute russet dots or specks. 
 The texture of the fruit varies; some 
 are quite melting, others incline to 
 break — it never cracks, bears abund- 
 antly, and we conceive it quite an ac- 
 quisition to our winter pears. 
 
 Pennsylvania. (Smith's.) (Fig. 111.) 
 This, so named by the Pennsylvania Hor- 
 ticultural Society, is a seedling on the 
 grounds of Mr. J. B. Smith, Philadel- 
 phia. The original tree is 35 to 40 feet 
 high, pyramidal in form, of robust habit, 
 retaining its foliage unusually late. Its 
 origin and age are unknown, but this 
 and the Moyamensing (subsequently 
 described) standing in the same gar- 
 den, have recently been recognized 
 by an aged lady, who knew these iden- 
 tical trees when a child. The fruit in 
 outline and general appearance some- 
 what resembles the old Beurre — pre- 
 vailing colour, brownish yellow, occa- 
 sionally speckled and burnished with 
 brighter yellow on the upper portion, 
 the lower or blossom end presenting 
 a uniform dull brown or russet hue, the 
 sunny side dotted with red. Stem deep 
 brown an inch and a quarter long, 
 
PEA 
 
 433 
 
 PEA 
 
 Fig. 111.— (P. 432.) 
 
 standing nearly erect, planted on a full 
 crown ; in some specimens one shoulder 
 more elevated than the other. Calyx 
 small, in a shallow basin. Flesh yel- 
 lowish white, rather coarse grained, 
 and somewhat gritty ; flavour notunlike 
 the butter. Ripe, 10th August to mid- 
 dle September. It is a fine bearer, never 
 cracks, and may be classed among the 
 good American pears. 
 
 Moyamensing. (Smith's Early But- 
 ter.) (Fig. 112.) This is supposed to 
 be a native. It stands in the garden 
 of Mr. J. B. Smith, Philadelphia, is 
 28 
 
 thirty feet high, open in growth, and 
 uniformly sheds its leaves early in 
 August. The fruit vary in shape — some 
 are roundish, others obovate : colour, a 
 uniform light yellow. Stem an inch 
 long, in some specimens set in a shal- 
 low basin, in others rising from the 
 crown with a fleshy and enlarged base. 
 Calyx rather prominent, in a shallow 
 plaited cup. Ripe from middle July to 
 close of August. The texture is but- 
 tery, so much like a Beurre as to have 
 received the above synonym. It is a 
 desirable variety. 
 
PEA 
 
 434 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 PEA 
 
 Fig. 112.— (P. 433.) 
 
 Columbia. (Bloodgood. Downing.) 
 (Fig. 113.) An American, as its name 
 implies, produced in West Chester 
 County, New York, where the original 
 tree still exists. This is truly a valuable 
 variety, in season when most needed — 
 from November to January. Stem an 
 inch long, curved. Calyx comparatively 
 small. Skin, when fully ripe, of a rich 
 golden hue. Flesh whitish, rich and 
 aromatic — worthy of general culture. 
 
 St. Germain of French and English 
 Authors. (Fig. 114.) There are but few 
 winter pears of finer quality than this 
 old favourite ; and were it not particu- 
 larly liable to fire-blight, none would 
 be more cultivated. The outline is fre- 
 quently quite irregular, but in all speci- 
 mens full at the blossom end, narrow- 
 
 ing towards the stem. The skin is 
 thick, and green even when fully ripe. 
 Stem short and obliquelyplanted. Calyx 
 set in a shallow basin. Flesh white, 
 and when in perfection, abounding in 
 juice of exquisite flavour. Ripe from 
 December to March. 
 
 Lewis. (Fig. 115.) This variety de- 
 rives its name from Mr. John Lewis of 
 Massachusetts, on whose farm it origi- 
 nated thirty years ago. It is in season 
 from November to February, and may be 
 enumerated among our valuable winter 
 fruits. It bears most profusely and, 
 though not externally attractive, the skin 
 being rough, would doubtless be highly 
 profitable if cultivated for city sale. Out- 
 line nearly round, a little flattened at the 
 crown. Skin green. Stalk an inch and a 
 
PEA 
 
 435 
 
 PEA 
 
 Fig. 113.— (P. 434.) 
 
 half long, calyx large and open, basin 
 very slightly furrowed. The quality of 
 the fruit, though not " first rate," is such 
 as with its constitution and productive 
 habit must insure this variety extensive 
 cultivation. 
 
 Beurre De Ranz, of Thompson. 
 Beukre Rance, of Lindley. (Fig. 116.) 
 This is a Flemish pear, and obtains its 
 name of Ranz from the district in which 
 it originated. It is one of the longest 
 keepers, not being in perfection until 
 spring. Few pears have received more 
 unqualified praise both here and in Eu- 
 rope. The outline is pyriform or pear- 
 shaped. Skin coarse and always green, 
 with brownish dots. Stem upwards of an 
 inch long. Eye quite minute and but 
 
 little depressed. Flesh melting, abound- 
 ing in rich and highly flavoured juce. 
 
 Beurre Diel, of Thompson, 
 Lindley, and others. (Fig. 117.) "This 
 variety, known by a dozen different 
 names, of which that above is most 
 generally used, and should be alone, 
 is one of the many excellent seed- 
 lings of Van Mons, and named by 
 him after Doctor Diel, a conspicuous 
 amateur fruit cultivator. It has few 
 superiors in its season, September to 
 November (or even December in some 
 climes). We sometimes see specimens 
 much larger than our drawing, and with 
 less elevation of shoulder, but the 
 sketch affords a fair idea of its average 
 size and appearance. Its habit is ro- 
 
PEA 
 
 436 
 
 — • — 
 
 PEA 
 
 Fig. 114.— (P. 434.) 
 
 bust, and rather peculiar, from the turn- 
 ing or twisting of its branches. Color 
 yarying from light to dark yellow, 
 blended and dotted with brown. Skin 
 thick. Stalk an inch or more in length, 
 bold and curved. Eye set in a shallow 
 basin. Flesh yellowish white, rich and 
 buttery. On trees in vigorous growth 
 and heavy land the fruit is sometimes 
 rather coarse-grained, and slightly as- 
 tringent."— Rural Reg. 
 
 Bartlett Pear, of the Americans.— 
 William's Bonchretien, of the Eng- 
 lish. (Fig. US.) "This truly admir- 
 able variety is of British . origin, first 
 
 brought into notice by one Williams, 
 whose name it bears. Many years ago, 
 (1799, according to Downing,) it was 
 imported into Massachusetts by Mr. 
 Enoch Bartlett, from whose grounds, 
 near Boston, it was widely dissemi- 
 nated ; hence the name by which it is 
 known among us. The habit of the 
 tree is thrifty and erect, the shoots 
 strong and vigorous. The fruit is large, 
 quite irregular in outline, and varying 
 considerably in different specimens. 
 Skin smooth, yellow, with a slight 
 blush on those which have ripened in 
 the sun, on others entirely destitute of 
 
PEA 
 
 437 
 Fig. 115.— (P. 434.) 
 
 PEA 
 
 red. Stalk about an inch in length, 
 one shoulder more prominent than the 
 other ; calyx placed in a slightly form- 
 ed cavity. The flesh is white, and 
 combines with a delightful aroma, all 
 the good qualities of the old well- 
 known Beurre or Butter Pear. 
 
 " Ripe middle of August to close of 
 September." — Rural Reg. 
 
 Bezi de la Motte. (Fig. 119.) 
 " This is a pretty widely known French 
 Pear, and is well worthy of perpetuity, 
 even though not decidedly in the first 
 class. Its habit is robust, yields fruit 
 freely, which keeps well ; the flavour 
 is aromatic, texture buttery. Its out- 
 line is roundish — flattened ; the stem 
 under an inch in length. Calyx va- 
 
 riously placed, in some specimens the 
 basin is shallow and the curvature regu- 
 lar, in others quite irregular. Skin, 
 green, in well-ripened specimens yel- 
 lowish, and spotted with brown dots. 
 Ripe in October. — Rural Reg. 
 
 Washington. (Fig. 120.) " We 
 have elsewhere expressed our regret 
 that foreign fruits of doubtful worth, 
 should have been cherished and dis- 
 seminated, to the neglect of unques- 
 tionably fine varieties of native origin. 
 The Washington Pear is a seedling, 
 discovered in a hedge-row on the es- 
 tate of the late Col. Robinson, near 
 Naaman's Creek, Delaware, some 
 forty-eight or fifty years ago. We 
 are informed by our friend Dr. Thomp- 
 
PEA 
 
 438 
 
 — • — 
 
 PEA 
 
 Fig. 11 6.— (P. 435.) 
 
 son of Wilmington, that the tree still 
 stands vigorous and healthy, producing 
 from fourteen to sixteen bushels of 
 fruit annually. Doct. T. says, ( so far 
 as my recollection of it goes, it has 
 never suffered from disease or been 
 attacked by blight, and I have never 
 known the fruit of the original tree, or 
 one of its descendants by budding or 
 grafting to crack, as does the fruit of the 
 old Beurre or Butter.' Doct. T. adds, 
 ' Delaware has some state pride in this 
 pear, quite as much as Pennsylvania 
 has in her fine Seckel, than both of 
 which I have yet to see their superiors 
 among the autumn pears.' In the 
 
 opinion of some competent judges he 
 might have gone a little further and 
 said, their equals ; and yet from some 
 unaccountable cause, the Washington 
 is comparatively unknown. Coxe does 
 not even name it in his e view of the 
 cultivation of fruits' published in 1817, 
 and Kenrick from the notice of it in his 
 ' Orchardist' had evidently never seen 
 it. Downing has several typographical 
 errors in his description ; that portion 
 destined to be history, should be 
 amended in his next edition. 
 
 "The outline is not unlike that of the 
 old Butter, Virgalieu or St. Michael, 
 as it is indifferently called, but rather 
 
PEA 
 
 439 
 
 PEA 
 
 Fig. 117.— (P. 435.) 
 
 narrower, and in several particulars 
 very closely resembles that famous 
 pear; alas! now in its decadence. It 
 is of medium size, uniformly oval. Skin 
 smooth, yellow, and not unfrequently 
 with a ruddy cheek. Stalk an inch or 
 more in length, usually placed on a 
 full crown. Eye, quite small, seated 
 in a slight indentation ; texture that of 
 the Beurre, and exquisitely delicious. 
 Ripe in August (or two or three weeks 
 before the Butter), and continues in 
 season until September." — Rural Reg. 
 Compte De Lamy — (Fig. 121) — Is a 
 Flemish Seedling of late introduction, 
 and thus far promises to be entitled to our 
 regard ; much more so than a majority of 
 recent importations. There appears to 
 be an unusual diversity in the form or 
 
 outline of this fruit. Some specimens 
 are roundish, with the stem inserted, 
 obliquely; in others, as in the drawing, 
 on an elevated, irregularly tapering 
 crown. We have seen them so diverse 
 in appearance, as to be scarcely recog- 
 nized as the same variety. Skin yellow, 
 marked on the sunny side by brownish 
 or russet specks. Stalk an inch or 
 more in length, in some nearly straight, 
 in others curved. Eye of medium size, 
 very slightly indented. Flesh white, 
 buttery, sweet and aromatic. In season 
 September and October. 
 
 Beurre d'Aremeerg, of French and 
 English works. (Fig. 122.)— This Pear, 
 though comparatively little known 
 in the United States, has reached us 
 with a high European reputation, and 
 
PEA 
 
 as both the English and French concur in 
 its praise, it may be safely assumed to be 
 worthy of culture. It was raised by the 
 Abbe Deschamps, in the garden of the 
 Hospice des Orphelius, and has been 
 distributed under several names, as 
 Beurre Deschamps, Due D'Aremburg, 
 &c. The fruit is large, narrowing to- 
 wards the crown. Skin pale, or yellow- 
 ish green, dotted with russet, which 
 
 grows brighter at maturity. Calyx com- 
 paratively small, deeply planted. Flesh 
 white, very juicy, and unusually high 
 flavoured. In season from mid-winter 
 
 t0 SI.' (Fig. 123.) "One of the many 
 eood fruits of American origin, compa- 
 ratively unknown ; whilst foreign varie- 
 ties of less worth have been lauded and 
 disseminated. The parent still exists, in 
 
PEA 
 
 441 
 Fig. 119.— (P. 437.) 
 
 PEA 
 
 " green old age," at the Bartram Gar- 
 den, on the Schuylkill, three miles from 
 Philadelphia. It is the product of seed 
 contributed by Lord Petre to the vene- 
 rable Bartram in 1735. We have fre- 
 quently heard Mr. Carr, a connection of 
 the Bartram family, and present owner 
 of the grounds, relate its history ; a 
 pleasing incident in which, was the pre- 
 sentation to Lord P. after the lapse of a 
 quarter of a century, of fruit, the pro- 
 duct of the identical seed he had con- 
 tributed. We do not think this pear 
 should be placed in the first class, yet 
 award it high praise, and advise its 
 extensive culture. The flesh is buttery, 
 aromatic, and closely resembles its pa- 
 rent the Beurre, or Butter. Fruit of 
 medium size, yellow, occasionally slight- 
 ly marked by russet dots. Stem an 
 
 inch long, planted in some specimens 
 between elevated shoulders. Eye set 
 in a shallow basin. Ripe close of Sep- 
 tember, and admits of being kept seve- 
 ral weeks." — Rural Reg. 
 
 Passe Colmar. hind. : Thorny. : and 
 others. (Fig. 125.) For this, as well as 
 some other important varieties, we are 
 indebted to Hardenpont of Belgium. 
 It is in eating during winter, and as 
 our resources at that season are limit- 
 ed, is additionally valuable. There is 
 considerable variation in its outline. 
 The skin coarse, yellowish when ripe, 
 marked by minute russet dots. Stem 
 prominent, an inch or more in length, 
 inserted between elevated shoulders in 
 many specimens, in others with little or 
 no peculiarity of that kind. The flesh 
 is melting, abounding with rich aro- 
 
PEA 
 
 442 
 
 Fig. 120.— (P. 437.) 
 
 PEA 
 
 matic juice. On the whole this pear 
 has few superiors in its season, and is 
 deservedly a favourite. 
 
 Propagation. — By Seed, to obtain 
 varieties, is best practised by following 
 the directions for raising seedling Ap- 
 ples. For raising grafting stocks, the 
 seeds of the wild pear should be em- 
 ployed, the produce being hardy. 
 
 Grafting and Budding. — Mr. Loudon 
 has collected together the following 
 good directions upon these subjects: — 
 
 " The most common stocks for graft- 
 ing the pear, are the common pear and 
 the wilding ; but as the apple, is dwarfed 
 and brought more early into a bearing 
 state by grafting on the pawell, on the 
 white beam, medlar, service, or apple ; 
 but the wilding and quince are in most 
 general use. Pears, on free stocks, 
 
 grow luxuriantly in good soil on a dry 
 bottom ; those on wildings grow less 
 rapidly, but are deemed more durable, 
 and they will thrive on the poorest soil, 
 if a hardy variety and not over pruned." 
 " On the quince," Miller observes, 
 " breaking pears are rendered gritty 
 and stony ; but the melting sorts are 
 much improved ; trees on these stocks 
 may be planted in a moist soil with 
 more success than those on wildings 
 or thorns." On the thorn, pears come 
 very early into bearing, continue pro- 
 lific, and, in respect to soil will thrive 
 well on a strong clay, which is unsuita- 
 ble both to those on quinces and wild- 
 ings; and the grafts or buds require to 
 be inserted very low that the moisture 
 of the earth may tend to favour the 
 swelling or enlargement of the diame- 
 
PEA 
 
 443 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 PEA 
 
 Fig. 121.— (P. 439.) 
 
 ter of the stock, which does not increase 
 proportionally to, nor ever attains the 
 same size as the stem of the pear. Du- 
 breuil, a French gardener, recommends 
 the quince stock for clayey and light 
 soils, and the free stock for chalky and 
 siliceous soils. — Enc. Gard. 
 
 The suggestion of Mr. D. Mont- 
 gomery, gardener to the duke of Mont- 
 rose, is also worthy of adoption, viz., 
 that by grafting the alternate branches 
 of late pear-trees with early sorts, and 
 early trees with late sorts, there are two 
 chances of success, the early sort being 
 very early in blossom; if that fails in 
 consequence of unfavourable weather, 
 the late sort, flowering at another time, 
 may succeed. Farther, the early sort 
 ripens off before much effort is required 
 from the tree to support the late sort ; 
 
 hence, each sort in its season is brought 
 to greater maturity. — Hort. Trans. 
 
 Soil. — A dry loam, when the pear is 
 grafted upon a pear stock ; but moister, 
 if grafted upon the quince, is suitable. 
 Two feet depth of soil is required, and 
 tiles should be placed beneath the 
 young trees to prevent their rooting 
 deeper. If this be attended to, and the 
 soil be thoroughly underdrained, the 
 subsoil is not of much consequence. A 
 gravelly subsoil is to be preferred. 
 
 Pruning Standards is not often re- 
 quired, and when necessary it is only to 
 remove crowded, diseased, and cross- 
 growing branches. This may be done 
 at any season, unless the branch to be 
 removed is large, in which case it had 
 better be amputated early in the spring, 
 before the sap is in motion. Their 
 
PEA 
 
 444 
 
 ♦ 
 
 Fig. 122.— (P. 439.) 
 
 PEA 
 
 fruitfulness is increased if the branches 
 are fastened down, so that their points 
 are below the level of their bases. 
 
 The shoots of the current year are 
 bent down when fully grown, about the 
 end of July, and fixed in a pendent 
 position by shreds of bass ; in the course 
 of the winter, these shreds are removed 
 to admit of pruning, when the shoots 
 are found to have taken a set ; in the 
 course of the summer, such as grow 
 vigorously are again tied, the object 
 being to check the vigour of the young 
 shoots, and by impeding the return of 
 the sap, to cause it to expend itself in 
 these young shoots in the formation of 
 blossom buds. — Gard. Mag. See 
 Quenouille. 
 
 Culture of Wall Trees.— The follow- 
 ing are the best directions that have 
 
 been given on this subject: — "Plant 
 the trees against the wall, fifteen feet 
 from each other. If they have three 
 shoots properly placed, they may all be 
 retained. If only one strong healthy 
 shoot, in the spring the first tree is to 
 be headed down within nine inches 
 high, the next to that one foot nine 
 inches, and so on alternately, till you 
 get to the other end of the wall. 
 
 " In the summer, train three shoots 
 from the three uppermost eyes of each 
 tree, rubbing off all the rest. Nail in 
 one to the right, one to the left, and the 
 other perpendicularly. The two side 
 branches should not be trained in a 
 horizontal position till the second year. 
 In the following winter, the centre 
 shoot of each is to be cut off two feet 
 above the first pair of lateral branches. 
 
 
PEA 
 
 445 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 PEA 
 
 Fig. 123.— (P. 440.) 
 
 W€" — 
 
 " In the next summer, the three top 
 buds are to be trained one on each 
 side, perfectly horizontal, and the mid- 
 dle one upright ; should the centre this 
 season grow vigorously, and advance 
 two feet before, the end of June, top it 
 at that height with the thumb and finger. 
 Three shoots may probably start from 
 the three upper eyes ; if so, nail them 
 in an easy position, and bring them to 
 their proper places in the winter prun- 
 ing; but most probably only two will 
 break. In this case, as soon as they are 
 six inches long, train them both on the 
 opposite side from which you wish a 
 third shoot, and rather lower than the 
 horizontal line ; this will cause the next 
 bud below the two shoots already ob- 
 tained to start. As soon as this advances 
 a few inches, restore the shoots from 
 the top bud to an erect position, and 
 the other about half the way between 
 the horizontal and perpendicular line ; 
 observing, if one of the side shoots gets 
 
 ! the advantage of the other, to depress 
 ' the strong or elevate the weak as oc- 
 casion may require; by which means 
 both will be kept of an equal length. 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 
 " If by the autumn the centre shoot 
 has not advanced two feet, or if it does 
 not appear to have ripened, cut the 
 three summer shoots off within half an 
 inch of the place from whence they 
 sprang; there will then be an upright 
 centre two feet above the second pair 
 of horizontal branches, which will not 
 fail to push vigorously the next spring, 
 and although in this case only one pair 
 of branches will be produced this sea- 
 
PEA 
 
 446 
 
 PEA 
 
 Fig. 125.— (P. 441.) 
 
 son, the tree will be much benefited 
 from having the upright shoot topped, 
 as the sap by this check will be forced 
 into the horizontal branches below, 
 which are often starved by the prodi- 
 gious and in a great measure useless 
 growth of the centre. All superfluous 
 shoots are to be pinched off within an 
 inch or two as they appear, and, as far 
 as may be, without leaving the branch 
 absolutely bare, and entirely cut out in 
 the winter pruning. 
 
 " This treatment is to be repeated till 
 
 those trees which have their first pair 
 of horizontal branches within nine inches 
 of the ground, arrive within two feet or 
 eighteen inches of the top of the wall. 
 These trees are to be considered per- 
 manent; those which have no branch 
 till they are one foot nine inches high, 
 are for a temporary purpose only, and 
 they may have a pair of branches within 
 four inches of the top of the wall. 
 
 " In ten years, we will suppose, on a 
 twelve feet wall, most of the branches 
 will reach twelve or thirteen feet from 
 
PEA 
 
 447 
 
 PEA 
 
 the stem. The wall, therefore, presents 
 somewhat the appearance of the follow- 
 ing figure. 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 " Hitherto it is obvioue, that as we 
 have doubled the number of trees, and 
 each tree has produced as many, or 
 perhaps more branches than are capable 
 of bearing fruit, and those owing to 
 stopping the leader longer than usual ; 
 so we must up to this time have double, 
 or more than double, the usual quantity 
 of fruit. 
 
 " After the temporary trees are re- 
 moved, the crops will be still larger. 
 Riders would not have answered the 
 same purpose, as they would have al- 
 ready interfered for the last two or three 
 years with the principals, that is, on a 
 wall not exceeding twelve feet; and on 
 this plan the temporary trees are to be 
 trained three or four years longer, during 
 which time they may be expected to pro- 
 duce considerable crops. The extremi- 
 ties of the horizontal branch being now 
 within a foot or two of the stem of the next 
 tree, the management of the permanent 
 trees is to be altered. Instead of pinch- 
 ing off all shoots as they appear, at 
 every fifteen or eighteen inches all 
 along the horizontal branches, retain a 
 well-placed shoot in an easy slanting 
 position upwards, towards the branches 
 of the temporary trees. Next year 
 continue to train them in the same di- 
 rection ; and, in order to give them 
 more room, elevate the branches of the 
 temporary trees six inches above the 
 place they have hitherto occupied. 
 
 " The third year the shoots will most 
 likely show blossom; the free bearing 
 sorts will do so in two years; but it 
 must be recollected, we are speaking 
 exclusively of the shy bearers. If 
 plenty of blossom appears, the tempo- 
 rary trees may now be taken up and 
 planted in, otherwise they may remain 
 another year. After the temporary 
 trees are removed, the young shoots, 
 which we will suppose are now fully 
 furnished with blossom buds, may be 
 trained in a direction sufficiently sloping 
 
 upwards for the terminal bud of each 
 to be within four or five inches of the 
 horizontal branch above. 
 
 " If they show a disposition to grow 
 too strong, they may be deeply notched, 
 or a ring may be made round such as 
 require it, about the eighth of an inch 
 wide. In either case, let it be close to 
 the branch from which the shoots spring. 
 As they become diseased or worn out, 
 or have produced long spurs, train in a 
 young shoot by the side of any it may 
 be proper to displace, and after the se- 
 cond year cut the old one out. In case 
 a tree, after it has filled the space 
 allowed, continues very luxuriant in 
 growth, recourse may be had to the 
 usual methods of checking it, either by 
 cutting the roots or sawing the stem 
 half or two-thirds through, just below 
 the surface of the ground, or deep 
 notches may be made on each side with 
 the chisel . A single tree may of course 
 be treated according to this plan. 
 
 " The temporary trees, if taken up 
 with care, will certainly grow, and be 
 found very valuable ; they may be either 
 planted against another wall, or if of 
 sufficiently hardy kinds, treated as espa- 
 liers, cutting off the two or three upper 
 pairs of branches ; in either case, young 
 shoots are to be trained in between the 
 old ones, as already directed for the 
 permanent trees. Should you have a 
 wall with an aspect not sufficiently 
 good to ripen the fruit of these removed 
 trees, or should they be of those kinds 
 which will not come to perfection as 
 espaliers, they will nevertheless still 
 be valuable in this case. After they 
 have been removed a twelvemonth, 
 treat them according to Mr. Knight's 
 mode of changing the sort ; that is, 
 leave the horizontals at very nearly the 
 full length, but cut off all the spurs, 
 leaving only bare poles at every twelve, 
 fifteen, or eighteen inches, according to 
 the growth of the sort you intend to in- 
 troduce. 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 On the upper side, all along the 
 
PEA 
 
 448 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 PEL 
 
 branches, make a notch a little deeper 
 than the bark ; it may be done by two 
 cuts with a sharp knife, the side nearest 
 the trunk being perpendicular, the other 
 sloping ; the graft may then be intro- 
 duced by the common mode of crown- 
 grafting. Train the shoots from the 
 grafts as before directed. In two years 
 and a half most kinds will produce an 
 abundant crop, and the trees will be 
 very nearly as large as those on the 
 wall from whence they were taken; 
 thus having an advantage over young 
 trees of at least ten years." — Gard. 
 
 In pruning pear trees, never cut off 
 a shoot which can be laid to the wall ; 
 for by cutting off the foreright shoots 
 you produce a succession of the same 
 without a chance of producing fruit. 
 By laying in these shoots, less wood is 
 produced; and those buds either on 
 the old wood, or any short spurs which 
 otherwise would have produced only 
 wood shoots, bear a succession of blos- 
 som. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Impregnating the Blossom of Wall 
 Trees. — Mr. Harrison truly observes, 
 that " it is very usual to see healthy 
 pear trees produce an abundance of 
 bloom, but set a very small proportion 
 of fruit : this is particularly the case 
 with the tenderest kinds. The reason 
 is in some cases from the stamina being 
 destitute of farina ; and in others, from 
 the farina having been dispersed before 
 the pistils had arrived at a proper state 
 for its reception. To remedy this, as 
 soon as the first blossoms have ex- 
 panded, and the pistillum is in a proper 
 state of maturity, impregnate six upon 
 each corymb of blossom. The florets 
 to choose for this operation are those 
 situated nearest the origin of the spur ; 
 for when pears set naturally, it is very 
 generally such florets. The time for 
 this operation is calm, dry days, and, if 
 possible, when the sun is not very hot 
 upon the trees. Immediately after- 
 wards give each tree about eighteen 
 gallons of manure water, or soft pond 
 water, at the roots. The trees should 
 never be washed over the tops for a 
 considerable time after this impregna- 
 tion has been effected." — Treat, on 
 Fruit Trees. 
 
 PEAT-EARTH. See Bog Earth. 
 
 PEAT-EARTH PLANTS. See Ame- 
 rican Plants. 
 
 PECTINARIA articulata. Stove 
 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings in spring. 
 Sandy loam and lime rubbish. 
 
 PEDICULARIS. Twenty-one spe- 
 cies, chiefly, if not all, hardy herba- 
 ceous. Sandy light loam and peat. 
 
 PEGGING-DOWN is a process which 
 has to be pursued annually, in arrang- 
 ing the lower branches of shrubs, &c, 
 on flower borders. It is usually done 
 with little hooked sticks ; but Mr. Bea- 
 ton, the scientific gardener at Shrubland 
 Park, says, — " We take a handfull of 
 matting, and cut it into four-inch 
 lengths; then divide each piece into 
 three or four pieces ; we double these 
 pieces round the shoots, and fasten the 
 ends of the matting in the soil with a 
 small dibber, or with the fore finger. 
 In this way a boy may train and tie 
 down all the plants in a flower garden 
 in less time than it would take to pro- 
 cure pegs for two or three beds, and the 
 work is much neater than when done 
 with the best pegs." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 PELARGONIUM. Two hundred and 
 fifty species. Chiefly green-house ever- 
 greens ; but a few are herbaceous, and 
 a still smaller number tuberous-rooted. 
 The shrubby evergreens are increased 
 by cuttings : new varieties from seed ; 
 and the ,tuberaus-rooted from seed ; 
 and all will thrive in a mixture of light 
 loam and leaf-mould. It is to the 
 shrubby evergreens that we shall con- 
 fine our attention, these being the most 
 beautiful and most generally cultivated. 
 They form a portion of that large family 
 formerly known collectively as "Gera- 
 niums;" but modern botanists have 
 divided these into three genera : Pelar- 
 goniums, having usually seven stamens, 
 and unequal-sized petals; Geraniums, 
 having ten stamens, and equal-sized 
 petals ; and Er odiums, having five sta- 
 mens. 
 
 Characteristics of Excellence in the 
 Pelargonium. — "The flower should be 
 large, composed of broad rose-leaf pe- 
 tals, free from crumple or unevenness 
 of any kind ; smooth on their edges, 
 and forming a compact surface ; round 
 which, if a circle be drawn, the perfect 
 symmetry of the flower would appear 
 by the extremity of each petal touching 
 the circle, without extending beyond 
 it. It is indispensable that the flower 
 should be of a stout firm texture, with 
 sufficient liberty at the bottom of the 
 cup to prevent its being in the least 
 cramped ; but allowing it to retain, 
 
PEL 
 
 449 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 PEL 
 
 when fully expanded, a fine cupped 
 form, and preventing the falling back 
 or reflexing of the petals. Its colour, 
 whether rich or pale, should possess 
 great clearness : the under petals must 
 be free from veins, and the upper petals 
 should have a large dark spot running 
 to the bottom of them, as destitute as 
 possible of a small white feather, which 
 is usually present, and which greatly 
 impairs the richness of this important 
 part. The beauty of the flower is 
 greatly enhanced by having this spot 
 clearly defined ; and if it is surrounded 
 by a dash of crimson, that should have 
 a distinct termination also. The petals 
 ought to be quite free from the least 
 appearance of a watery edge. Finally, 
 it is essential that the leaves should be 
 large, delicate, and have a healthy ap- 
 pearance ; and that the truss should be 
 composed of several flowers, supported 
 by a firm foot-stalk standing quite clear 
 of the foliage." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Varieties. — These are so numerous, 
 fresh varieties appearing annually, that 
 it is useless to attempt to enumerate 
 them ; and the attempt is less needed, 
 because each has passed its period of 
 excellence after four or five years. 
 The following are the best that have 
 been introduced during the last two 
 seasons : 
 Alba Perfecta (Thurtell's), white and 
 
 purple. 
 Arabella (Beck's), white and rose. 
 Aurora (Beck's). 
 Bellona (Beck's), rosy, purple and 
 
 crimson. 
 Chastity (Beck's). 
 
 Desdemona (Beck's), maroon and pink. 
 Desdemona (Thurtell's), claret and 
 
 white. 
 Defiance (Thurtell's), purplish crimson 
 
 and white. 
 Dr. Lindley (Foster's). 
 Duchess of Leinster (Gaine's), orange 
 
 pink, scarlet spot. 
 Emperor Nicholas (Silverlock's). 
 Exactum (Foster's). 
 Favourite (Beck's), like, but not so 
 
 good as, Foster's. 
 Gulnare (M'Cormack's), pink and white. 
 Hector (Cock's), rose and white. 
 Isabella (Beck's), pink and maroon. 
 Juno (Beck's), carmine and scarlet. 
 La Polka (Staine's). 
 Lurida (Beck's). 
 
 Mark Antony (Beck's), rose and purple. 
 Margaret (Beck's), maroon and pink. 
 29 
 
 Master Peel (Beck's). 
 
 Mustee (Beck's), pink, purple spot. 
 
 Orion (Foster's), scarlet and maroon. 
 
 Othello (Beck's), purple and rose. 
 
 Othello (Thurtell's), mulberry and lilac. 
 
 Pearl (Catleugh's), white and crimson. 
 
 Queen Philippa, rose. 
 
 Rainbow (Thurtell's), mulberry and 
 
 white. 
 Regulator (Thurtell's), violet, purple 
 
 and white. 
 Rosy Circle (Beck's), dark rose. 
 Satellite (Thurtell's), puce and white. 
 Sir J. Broughton (Foster's). 
 Stromboli (Thurtell's), salmon and pur- 
 ple. 
 Sultana (Foster's), orange and scarlet. 
 Sunset (Beck's), maroon and pink. 
 Superb (Thurtell's), purple and lilac. 
 Titus (Hoyle's), rose and carmine. 
 Trafalgar (Thurtell's), crimson and 
 
 purple. 
 Unique (Thurtell's), mulberry and 
 
 white. 
 Zanzummim (Beck's), crimson and flesh. 
 Zenobia (Beck's), rose and mulberry. 
 
 Varieties for Forcing. — Admiral Na- 
 pier; Albamultiflora; and Washington, 
 for earliest; Bella; Gauntlet; Grand 
 Duke ; Commodore ; Lord Mayor; King 
 Rufus; and Madeline, for succession. • 
 
 liaising Varieties. — Captain Thurtell, 
 one of the most successful improvers of 
 this flower, gives these directions : — 
 
 " First. Destroy every bad shaped 
 (or elongated) under petalled flower in 
 your possession. 
 
 "Secondly. Impregnate (if possible) 
 every flower yourself, the moment it is 
 ready to receive the farina, and thus 
 effectually prevent the effects of the 
 bee. But so long as you allow bad 
 shaped flowers to remain in your house, 
 you can never calculate On impreg- 
 nating with any certainty; and those 
 who attend to colour in preference to 
 shape, will have to retrace their steps. 
 Captain Thurtell never raised a good 
 flower until he attended rigidly to the 
 above rules." See Hybridizing. 
 
 Sow in July. The seedlings soon 
 appear; when with four leaves, besides 
 the seed leaves, pot into 60's ; keep 
 in warm green-house. In April, shift 
 into 32's. In June, plunge the pots 
 in a warm border. At the close of 
 September, return to the green-house. 
 They will bloom in the winter or spring. 
 
 Soil. — The best compost for growing 
 Pelargoniums is half sandy loam and 
 
PEL 
 
 450 
 
 PEL 
 
 half leaf-mould. The best manure is 
 liquid, made of sheep's dung. See 
 Liquid Manure. 
 
 Propagation. — By Cuttings. — Take 
 the cuttings in mid-July, and plant 
 these in an open border exposed to the 
 sun. 
 
 " In about six weeks," says Mr. Cat- 
 leugh, the florist, of Hans Place, Chel- 
 sea, " the cuttings will be sufficiently 
 rooted to remove, and I pot them into 
 sixty-sized pots. To prevent the worms 
 getting into the pots, they are placed 
 upon a temporary stage, and allowed 
 to remain in a shady situation about 
 three weeks, by which time the plants 
 will be well established, and bear re- 
 moving to a more exposed spot, where, 
 under the influence of the sun and air, 
 the wood will attain a necessary degree 
 of hardness. Here they remain until 
 taken into the house for the winter, 
 which is generally done about the end 
 of September, before danger arises 
 from frost. To make them compact 
 and bushy, stop them at the third or 
 fourth joint, and shift them into forty- 
 eight sized pots, mixing a little turfy 
 loam and sand with the compost, to 
 allow the water to pass freely through 
 the soil ; give but little air during eight 
 or ten days, the plants will be then re- 
 established, and afterwards as much air 
 may be given as the state of the atmo- 
 sphere will permit, until the beginning 
 of December. The side lights must be 
 kept closed during the prevalence of 
 cold winds. The pots by this time will 
 be well filled with roots, and the plants 
 will require shifting into thirty-two 
 sized pots. The bone dust which is 
 now added must be used with caution ; 
 being of a drying nature, it is not used 
 near the surface of the soil ; the shoots 
 are again stopped at the third joint, the 
 house is kept at a temperature of 45° 
 Fahrenheit for about ten days, and then 
 allowed to fall to 40° or 42°, at which 
 it is kept. The flues are damped two 
 or three times every night to prevent 
 the air from becoming too dry, and 
 a little top air is admitted whenever 
 the weather is sufficiently favourable. 
 About the middle of February those 
 plants, which are intended to be large 
 specimen plants are shifted again into 
 twenty-four sized pots; those of vigor- 
 ous growth will require a size larger. 
 A small stick is now put to each stem 
 to train them into uniform and well- 
 
 shaped plants. In the beginning of 
 April, when fires are discontinued, the 
 plants are syringed over the top three 
 times a week ; this is done about four 
 o'clock, at the time the house is closed, 
 and continued during three or four 
 weeks. The house is well damped 
 every evening at the bottom, and 
 the top sashes opened the first, thing 
 in the morning, to allow the damp 
 air to escape, and during the day all 
 the air is admitted that can be given 
 with safety. The plants when begin- 
 ning to bloom are freely watered, and 
 protected from the scorching rays of 
 the sun during the middle of the day 
 by means of canvas, and are thus re- 
 tained in blossom a much longer time 
 than would be possible if this precau- 
 tion were omitted. When the plants 
 are housed the decayed leaves are re- 
 moved, and whenever the green fly 
 makes its appearance, the house is 
 well fumigated : to do this effectually, 
 it must be performed when the plants 
 are in a dry state, and they must be 
 well watered the day following. When 
 the flowering is over, the plants are 
 exposed for about a fortnight to the sun 
 and air, to harden the wood before be- 
 ing cut down. Those plants which are 
 intended as specimen plants the second 
 season after heading down, are placed 
 in a sheltered situation, when little 
 water is given, and as soon as the new 
 shoots are an inch long are repotted 
 into pots from one to two sizes smaller, 
 the old soil is shaken from the roots, 
 and good drainage given. The plants 
 thus treated are kept in better health 
 during the winter, from having less soil 
 about their roots. When repotted they 
 are placed upon a stage in a shady situ- 
 ation, removed into the house at the 
 proper time, and undergo the same 
 treatment the second winter as de- 
 scribed for the first. When those plants 
 which are intended for exhibition begin 
 to show their bloom they receive addi- 
 tional attention, a little liquid manure 
 is occasionally given, they are no longer 
 syringed over the top, bees are kept 
 out of the house by means of gauze 
 blinds, every precaution is taken to 
 preserve their beauty, and they are 
 never allowed to flag from exposure to 
 the sun or want of water. Every grow- 
 er should begin early to train his plants 
 for exhibition ; when the shoots are 
 young and tractable any direction may 
 
PEL 
 
 451 
 
 PEL 
 
 be given to the stems ; a uniform and 
 handsome appearance will arise from 
 the practice, and the plants will require 
 fewer supports and less pulling about 
 at the time they receive their final 
 dressing. The flowers should be so 
 arranged as to present' an equal dis- 
 tribution of bloom over the leaf of the 
 plant, to effect which the stems must 
 be secured to small willow twigs." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Grafting. — Mr. J. Alexander, of 
 Heath Farm, Atley, has grafted the 
 Pelargonium very successfully, and his 
 method is as follows : — 
 
 " Graft in August or September, 
 using pretty well ripened wood of the 
 same year's growth ; cut back the stock 
 to about three inches long, and in ten 
 days afterwards graft in the manner of 
 whip-grafting, and tie with bast and 
 clay, over which put a little moss to 
 keep the clay from cracking, and to 
 preserve the whole in a moist state, 
 being occasionally sprinkled with wa- 
 ter in a shadowy part of a vinery, and 
 in a month the grafts begin to grow ; 
 put into a cold frame for a few days, 
 then take out of the pot, and all the 
 earth being shaken from the roots, re- 
 pot in fresh soil, and treat as the other 
 Pelargoniums. Weak growing sorts 
 grow stronger when grafted on robust 
 kinds than on their own roots." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Where the saving of space in the 
 green-house is desirable, two or more 
 Pelargoniums may be grafted upon the 
 same stock. As many as ten have 
 been thus united. Pelargonium ele- 
 gans and Beauty of Ware have been 
 employed successfully as stocks. Cleft- 
 grafting succeds as well as whip-graft- 
 ing. Worsted may be employed in- 
 stead of bast ; and inarching is even a 
 better mode of propagating than graft- 
 ing. 
 
 Growing in Open Ground. — Mr. J. 
 Murdoch has given us the following 
 directions on this head : — 
 
 " Put the cuttings into small pots at 
 once, which obviates any check they 
 would receive when removing them, 
 either from cutting-pots or the open 
 ground ; make beds of mixed varieties, 
 chiefly the Old Graveolens, Fair Helen, 
 Lady Essex, Emily, and Moore's Vic- 
 tory, which flower freely all the sum- 
 mer, and though not so gaudy as some, 
 have a more delightful fragrance. — 
 
 About the end of July, having removed 
 all Pelargoniums to the back of a north 
 wall, commence cutting them down, 
 arranging the prunings as cut off alpha- 
 betically for the convenience of finding 
 the sorts. When cut remove them into 
 a shed; on the following morning com- 
 mence planting the cuttings. The 
 scarlet ones put into sixty or small 
 forty-eight pots, and place on a flue, 
 within a green-house, where they re- 
 quire very little water until they are 
 struck, when remove them to a cold 
 frame ; give them plenty of air, and 
 keep them there till the beginning of 
 November, when stow them away in a 
 vinery intended to be forced about the 
 beginning of February. At that time, 
 or earlier, repot them and place them 
 in another vinery to be forced. By 
 turning-out in time they are nice plants. 
 The cuttings of other sorts put in smaller 
 pots, and plunge in saw-dust on a gen* 
 tie hot-bed made of leaves covered by 
 a frame; give a litle water to settle 
 the mould about the cuttings. They 
 require very little after, as the greatest 
 enemy is damp ; frequently give a little 
 air. They require scarcely any shad- 
 ing, unless the sun is very hot. After 
 they are struck they receive the same 
 treatment as the scarlet ones." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Growing for Exhibition. — Mr. Cock, 
 the florist, of Chiswick, one of the most 
 successful cultivators of this flower, has 
 published the following directions : — 
 
 " Strike the cuttings the beginning of 
 June, or sooner if the plants are suffi- 
 ciently strong to allow taking two or 
 three shoots off without injury. As 
 soon as they are rooted, pot them in 
 sixty-sized pots, and remove them to a 
 shady situation, or place them in a cool 
 frame, shading them constantly when 
 the sun is out, until they have taken 
 fresh roots. Next transfer to an open 
 situation, and place on slates or boards. 
 As soon as the plants will bear the sun 
 without flagging, stop them. In Sep- 
 tember repot them into forty- eight sized 
 pots, and at that period commence 
 training them into the forms you intend 
 them to have. In December or Jan- 
 uary, those which are sufficiently strong 
 are shifted into sixteen-sized pots, al- 
 lowing plenty of potsherds for drain- 
 age ; the others do not shift till March. 
 In these pots they remain to flower. 
 About the middle of July, or the begin- 
 
PEL 
 
 452 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 PEN 
 
 ning of August, cut them down and 
 place them in a shady situation, to 
 keep the sun from drying the soil too 
 fast; water is now applied very spar- 
 ingly. As soon as the plants have 
 thrown out shoots an inch long, the 
 soil to be nearly all shaken off, and 
 repotted into the same sized pots. 
 
 " When they have taken fresh root, 
 the superfluous shoots are thinned out; 
 in this state they remain until they are 
 removed into the green-house. 
 
 " 2d. Treatment in the Green-house. 
 — The plants for exhibition are placed 
 on the stage at least four feet apart; 
 air liberally supplied where the situa- 
 tion will allow it; the front sashes 
 should be left open all night, while the 
 weather will permit. In November the 
 plants are stopped, a stick put to each 
 shoot to make the plants uniform, and 
 the leaves thinned out to allow the air 
 to pass freely through the plants. 
 
 " In December or January the strong- 
 est plants are again selected, and re- 
 potted into No. 8 sized pots ; additional 
 heat should then be applied to enable 
 the plants to root quickly. In Feb- 
 ruary commence syringing them ; this 
 is done early in the afternoon, so that 
 the leaves may dry before night. 
 . <c In March again repot into No. 2 
 sized pots, allowing a larger quantity 
 than before of potsherds for drainage ; 
 water is now very liberally supplied. 
 
 <l When the flowers begin to expand, 
 they are shaded on the outside of the 
 house with cheese-cloth, which is bet- 
 ter than canvas, as it admits more 
 light, and the temperature will not be 
 higher. Ai 
 
 before the sun has mucn powe 
 glass ; this precaution in a great mea- 
 sure prevents the appearance of the 
 green-fly. 
 
 " 3d. In applying fire heat the great- 
 est care is required, for on this success 
 will in a great measure depend. Light 
 the fires at three or four o'clock in the 
 afternoon, as circumstances may dic- 
 tate; the fires to go out at eight or nine 
 o'clock, by which time the temperature 
 ought to be 40° or 42° Fahrenheit, 
 which is amply sufficient; relight them 
 at three or four o'clock in the morning, 
 -by which means the plants are never 
 overheated, as is frequently the case 
 when the fires are continued until a 
 later period in the evening. 
 
 " 4th. Preparing the Soil. — Chop up 
 
 loam with the turf and place in a deep 
 pit ; shake up lightly into a heap in the 
 form of a mushroom bed. If the wea- 
 ther is hot and dry at the time, well 
 water with strong manure water, and 
 cover over with slates as closely as 
 possible to keep the ammonia, &c, 
 from disengaging. In this state let it 
 remain for fifteen or sixteen days, then 
 put to every barrowful of loam one of 
 dung, covering the heap slightly over 
 at last with loam ; let this heap remain 
 for a month or five week?, then to be 
 turned over three or four times, that 
 the loam and dung may be well mixed 
 together; in twelve months it will be 
 fit for use. To two barrowfuls of this 
 compost add one of leaf-mould and a 
 peck and a half of silver-sand." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Manures. — As already stated liquid 
 manure made from sheep's dung is the 
 best application, but a little rubbly char- 
 coal, about the size of nuts, and a small 
 quantity of bone-dust, promote the lux- 
 uriance and beauty of these flowers. 
 
 Disease. See Spot. 
 
 PELLITORY OF SPAIN. Anthemis 
 Pyrethrum. 
 
 PELTARIA alliacea, herbaceous, and 
 P.glastifolia, annual, are hardy plants. 
 Seed. Light loam. 
 
 PEN^EA. Eight species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 PENNYROYAL. See Mentha 
 pulegium. 
 
 PENTAPELES. Two species. Stove 
 herbaceous. Cuttings. Light rich loam. 
 
 PENTARAPHIA longijlora. Stove 
 r should always be admrtted | evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich light 
 sun has much power on the i r 
 
 oam. 
 
 PENTAS carnea. Stove shrub. Cut- 
 tings. Light rich loam. 
 
 PENTLANDIA miniata. Hardy 
 herbaceous twiner. Probably by divi- 
 sion. Rich light loam. 
 
 PENTSTEMON. Of this hardy herb- 
 aceous flower there are forty-one spe- 
 cies, but the following is a good selec- 
 tion : — 
 
 P. argutus, purple. 
 P. atropurpureus, brownish purple. 
 P. campanulatus, rosy red. 
 P. crassifolius, deep lilac. 
 P. diffusus, deep blue. 
 P. gentianoides, brownish purple. 
 P. gent, coccineus, scarlet. 
 P. glandulosus, deep blue. 
 
PEN 
 
 453 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 PET 
 
 P. latifolius, white, slightly stained with 
 
 purple. 
 P. Mackayanus, purple and white. 
 P. Murrayanus, bright scarlet. 
 P. ovatus, bright blue. 
 P. procerus, bright blue. 
 P. pulchellus, light blue. 
 P. Scouleri, lilac. 
 P. speciosus, bright blue. 
 P. venustus, light purple. 
 
 Soil. — A light rich loam, mixed with 
 peat. They may be increased by divi- 
 sion, but the strongest plants are raised 
 from seed. 
 
 Propagation. — Sow in October, or 
 until January, in a cool frame. Keep 
 the plants near the glass until strong 
 enough for planting out in late spring. 
 Always save seed when you can, and 
 keep a stock of young plants to supply 
 vacancies. 
 
 P E N T Z I A flabelliformis. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 PEPPERMINT. Mentha piperita. 
 
 PEPPER VINE. Ampelopsis bipin- 
 nata. 
 
 PERENNIAL. A plant that lives 
 for more than two years. 
 
 PERESKIA. Five species. Stove 
 cactaceous plants. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 PERGULARIA. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen twiners. Cuttings. 
 Rich loam. 
 
 PERICALLIS tmsilaginis. Green- 
 house herbaceous. Seed and cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 PERILOMIA ocymoides. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Young cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 PERIPLOCA. Four species. Hardy 
 twiners, except the stove climber, P. 
 mauritiana. Layers and cuttings. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 PERIPTERA punicea. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Seed and cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 PERISTERIA. Dove Flower. Six 
 species. Stove orchids. Division of the 
 bulbs. Turfy loam and sandy peat, with 
 a little leaf-mould. P. Barkeri is one 
 of the most beautiful of this genus, and 
 for its cultivation Mr. Insleay, of Spring- 
 field, near Birmingham, gives the follow- 
 ing directions : — 
 
 " On either a square twig or a conical 
 wire basket, with the bottom and sides 
 covered with moss, put pieces of pot- 
 sherds, afterwards that of the pseudo- 
 
 bulbs, and lastly fill up the basket with 
 peat in pieces about the size of walnuts; 
 place the plant near the glass. 
 
 "When the plant begins to grow, 
 supply it moderately with water; but 
 as its growth increases a larger quantity 
 must be given, and when in full flower, 
 water freely. Some of this elegant tribe 
 of plants are injured if syringed over 
 head ; such, however, is not the case 
 with this plant. 
 
 " The plant having flowered, and the 
 pseudo-bulbs being matured, (but in a 
 dormant state,) they should not be re- 
 moved from the same temperature they 
 were in, when in flowering condition, 
 which ranged from 70° to 80°, but 
 especial care should be taken to keep 
 them dry until the period of rest is 
 over." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 PERITOMA serrulata. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seed. Sheltered border. 
 
 PERIWINKLE. Vinca. 
 
 PERNETTIA. Arbutus. 
 
 PERSEA gratissima. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Layers and ripe cuttings. 
 Turfy loam aud peat. 
 
 PERSIAN SUN'S-EYE. Tulipa ocu- 
 lus solis. 
 
 PERSICA. Two species and many 
 varieties. Hardy deciduous trees. P. 
 vulgaris the Peach, and P. Icevis the 
 Nectarine, which see. 
 
 PESOMERIA tetragona. Stove 
 epiphyte. Division of bulbs. Wood 
 covered with moss. 
 
 PERSOONIA. Eighteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
 cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PETALIDIUM barlerioides. Stove 
 shrub. Cuttings. Rich light loam. 
 
 PETIVERIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 PETREA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreens. P. stapelia as a climber, 
 and P. volubilis as a twiner, are among 
 our handsomest plants. Cuttings. Rich 
 loam. 
 
 PETROBIUM arboreum. Stove ever^ 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam. 
 
 PETROCALLIS pyrenaica. Green- 
 house herbaceous. Seed or division. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PETROMARULA pinnata. Half- 
 hardy herbaceous. Division. Sheltered 
 light rich loam, and winter protection. 
 
 PETROPHILA. Ten species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
 Turfy sandy loam. 
 
PET 
 
 454 
 
 PHA 
 
 PETR.OSELINUM. Two species. 
 Hardy biennials. Seed. Common soil. 
 See Parsley. 
 
 PETTY- WHIN. Genista anglica. 
 
 PETUNIA. Five species. Tender 
 or half-hardy herbaceous. Seed and 
 cuttings. Sandy loam and leaf-mould. 
 From P. nyctaginiflora, which is white, 
 and P. violacea, purple, are raised the 
 numerous varieties adorning our gar- 
 dens. 
 
 Select Varieties: 
 Alice Gray. 
 Arethusa. 
 Beauty. 
 
 superb. 
 
 Bicolor. 
 
 Bumons de Willi 
 
 (Van Houte's). 
 Caryophylloides. 
 Constance. 
 Delicata. 
 Dwarf-pencilled. 
 Enchantress. 
 Exactum. 
 Gem. 
 Gigantea. 
 Grand is. 
 Highclare. 
 Hildida. 
 Hope (Smith's). 
 Illuminata. 
 Kentish Beauty. 
 
 Bride. 
 
 Lady Sale. 
 
 Magician. 
 
 Magna Charta. Variegata. 
 
 Characteristics of Excellence. — Flow- 
 ers flat, circular, free from indenta- 
 tions, and firm of texture. Colour, 
 bright and well-determined. Flowers 
 numerous. 
 
 Propagation by Seed. — Sow in March 
 in a gentle hot-bed, and plant out at the 
 end of May, like the half-hardy annuals; 
 or sow on an open compartment, when 
 the spring is farther advanced. 
 
 By Cuttings. — May be struck almost 
 at any time, but a good time is " early 
 in September. The cuttings should be 
 put into sixties, and placed in the front 
 of a hot-bed until they have struck root, 
 which will be in about three or four 
 weeks, at which time they may be re- 
 moved to a cold pit, or to the front of a 
 green-house. 
 
 " Early in February they should be 
 shifted into forty-eights, in a mixture of 
 sandy peat, leaf-mould, and loam, and 
 repotted as fast as the pots become full 
 
 Magna rosea. 
 
 Magnet. 
 
 Massengii. 
 
 Medora. 
 
 Ne plus ultra 
 (Pearson's). 
 
 Nixenii (Harri- 
 son's). 
 
 Ornatissima. 
 
 Othello. 
 
 Ovid. 
 
 Pet (Ivery's). 
 
 Picta. 
 
 Prince Albert. 
 
 Psyche. 
 
 Punctata (Mil- 
 ler's). 
 
 Reliance. 
 
 Rook's Nest. 
 
 Rosea alba. 
 
 Splutherii. 
 
 Striata superb. 
 
 Unique. 
 
 superb. 
 
 of roots, using an inch and a half of 
 rubbly charcoal, to act as drainage, at 
 the bottom of each pot. During the 
 time they are growing in pots they 
 should be watered two or three times a 
 week with liquid manure ; and the latter 
 end of May they may be turned out into 
 the flower garden." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Winter Protection is best afforded 
 them in a cold pit, frame, or green- 
 house. By a little attention, and judi- 
 cious watering, &c, they will begin to 
 bloom early in the spring. 
 
 PEYROUSIA. Eight species. Green- 
 house and half-hardy bulbs. Offsets. 
 Sandy loam and leaf-mould. Like Ixia, 
 they will usually thrive in a light-soiled, 
 sheltered, south border. 
 
 PHACA. Fourteen species. Hardy 
 herbaceous, except P. canescens, re- 
 quiring a green-house. P. glabra is a 
 hardy deciduous trailer. Seed. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 PHACELIA. Six species. Hardy 
 herbaceous or annuals. Division or 
 seed. Common soil. 
 
 PHACOSPERMA peruviana. Stove 
 herbaceous. Seed. Peat and loam. 
 
 PHAIUS. Five species. Stove 
 epiphytes and orchids. Of the former 
 P. albus is most desirable. It is propa- 
 gated from young shoots. Peat and 
 potsherds. The other species are in- 
 creased by division of the roots. Peat 
 and sandy loam. 
 
 PHAL^NA vanaria. A moth, 
 abounding usually in June and July, is 
 thus described by Mr. Curtis : — 
 
 " The horns of the male are pecti- 
 nated ; the wings are of an ash colour 
 and freckled ; the upper have four 
 brown marks on the superior margin, 
 the second crossing the centre of the 
 wing. 
 
 " The larva is a looper, having only 
 ten legs. It infects the red currant and 
 gooseberry bushes, feeding upon the 
 leaves, and is found in May. It is about 
 an inch long, bluish green, with two 
 white dorsal and two yellow lateral 
 lines. It is dotted with little black 
 tubercles, which produce short black 
 hairs. It changes late in May to a 
 chestnut-coloured chrysalis, in a slight 
 web, on the surface of the earth." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 PHALJEONOPSIS amabilis. Stove 
 epiphyte. Side shoots. Wood and 
 moss. 
 
 PHALANGIUM. Five species. All 
 
PH A 
 
 455 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 PHY 
 
 herbaceous ; P. long? folium, green- 
 house ; P. glaucum, and P. repalense, 
 half-hardy; the others hardy. Division 
 and seed. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PHALEROCARPUS serphyllifolia. 
 Hardy evergreen creeper. Cuttings. 
 Moist bog. 
 
 VHALOC A.LLIS plumbea. Half-hardy 
 bulb. Seed. Probably in a light soil, 
 under a south wall. 
 
 PHARBITIS. Twelve species. 
 Twiners, chiefly annual. P. casrulescens 
 is a hardy evergreen ; and P. varla, a 
 stove evergreen twiner. The others 
 are hardy and green-house, except P. 
 lispida, requiring a stove. Seed. Sandy 
 loam and leaf-mould. 
 
 PHASEOLUS. Thirty species. An- 
 nual twiners, chiefly hardy ; a few are 
 deciduous perennials. Seed. Light 
 rich loam. See Kidney Bean. 
 
 PHEASANT'S-EYE. Adonis au- 
 tumnalis. 
 
 PHEBALIUM. Six species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Peat, sand, and loam. 
 
 PHILADELPHUS. Fourteen spe- 
 cies. Hardy deciduous shrubs. Layers 
 and suckers. Common soil. 
 
 PHlLIBEPvTI A. grandiflora. Green- 
 house evergreen twiner. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PHILLYREA. Ten species. Half- 
 hardy evergreen shrubs. Cuttings and 
 layers. Common soil. 
 
 PHILOTHECA australis. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Young cut- 
 tings. Sandy peat and sandy loom. 
 
 PHILYDRUM lanuginosum. Green- 
 house biennial. Seed. Loam and peat. 
 PH LOGO CAN THUS curvifio- 
 rus. Stove evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Light rich loam. 
 
 PHLOGOPHORA. meticulosa. Angle 
 shades moth. This is a night moth, 
 appearing from May to October. The 
 caterpillar is green, spotted with white. 
 Upper wings of the moth, rosy white. 
 The caterpillar feeds upon the Erassica 
 tribe. 
 
 PHLOMIS. Twenty-four species. 
 Hardy and half-hardy evergreens and 
 herbaceous perennials. Cuttings. Light 
 rich loam. 
 
 PHLOX. Forty-eight species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division and cuttings. 
 Rich loam. P. Drummondi is one of 
 the prettiest of the genus, and its cul^ 
 ture is thus detailed by Dr. Lindley :— 
 " The seeds should be sown about 
 
 the end of March, in pots filled withi 
 light sandy soil, and placed on a mo- 
 derate hot-bed, or in a cucumber or a 
 melon frame. In this situation they 
 will soon germinate ; and before the 
 first rough leaf appears they should be 
 potted off, three or four together in a 
 large sixty pot, placing the plants at 
 equal distances round the side. When 
 potted, they should be returned to the 
 frame, and kept close for a few days, 
 to recover from the effects of their re- 
 moval ; after which they should be 
 gradually hardened off", by giving them 
 plenty of air during the day in fine 
 weather. Finally, about the beginning 
 of May, they should be removed to a 
 cold pit or frame, where they can be 
 fully exposed during the day, covering 
 them with the lights only at night, and 
 in bad or cold weather. About the end 
 of May, when all danger of late spring 
 frost is over, they may be planted in 
 the open border. The soil into which 
 they are transferred should be either 
 a light rich sandy soil or peat, with 
 which a little well-rotted dung has 
 been mixed. The plants will require 
 to have a little water once or twice 
 after they are planted, especially if the 
 weather is dry at the time ; but it is 
 advisable not to water them after they 
 are once well established. The chief 
 causes of failure are, sowing the seeds 
 too soon, or allowing the plants to get 
 very dry, or pot-bound, before they are 
 planted out. If once they become 
 stunted, they will never make good 
 plants; and the same may be said of 
 those which have been kept in too 
 warm a place." — Gard. Chron. It may 
 be had in perfection from seed sown on 
 a rich border, latter end of spring, and 
 cultivated without transplanting. 
 
 PHOENIX. Date Palm. Eight spe- 
 cies. Stove palms. Seed. Rich clayey 
 loam. 
 
 PHCENOCOMA prolifera. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
 sandy loam. 
 
 PHOLIDOTA. Four species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Division of bulbs. Wood 
 and moss. 
 
 PHOTINIA. Four species. Half 
 hardy evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings. 
 Loam and peat, and on a south wall. 
 
 PHYCELLA. Eight species. Green- 
 house bulbs; but they will grow in a 
 warm border if protected. Seed and 
 offsets. Loam, sand, and peat. 
 
PHY 
 
 PIN 
 
 PHYLICA. Thirty species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. 
 
 PHYLLIS nobla. Green-house ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Rich clayey 
 loam. 
 
 PHYLLOCLADUS rhomboida- 
 lis. Green-house evergreen tree. Ripe 
 cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 PHYLLOMA. Four species, all ever- 
 greens. P. aloiflorum is a stove tree ; 
 the others, green-house shrubs. Suck- 
 ers. Sandy loam. 
 
 PHYLLOPERTHA horticola. The 
 garden beetle. It is thus described by 
 Mr. Curtis : — " It is about four lines 
 and a half long, and three broad. Its 
 elytra, or wing cases, are reddish- 
 brown, shining, and do not reach quite 
 to the extremity of the body ; the head 
 and thorax are dark green. It appears 
 on the leaves of the apple and pear in 
 June, feeding on the very young fruit. 
 When alarmed it feigns death, by fall- 
 ing on its back, and extending its legs 
 in a stiffened manner, and in different 
 directions. The female deposits her 
 eggs in the earth, and the larvae feed 
 on the roots of plants. 
 
 The only method we are acquainted 
 with of lessening the numbers of these 
 beetles, is to collect and destroy them 
 early in the morning, or late in the 
 evening, when they may be found stick- 
 ing to the plants, and they can readily 
 be seen from their colour and size. 
 During the day, and particularly if the 
 weather is hot, they fly about with great 
 swiftness, and are not easily caught." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 PHYSEMATIUM. Two species. 
 Stove herbaceous. Division. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 PHYSIANTHUS albens. Stove 
 evergreen climber. Seed and cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 PHYSOCLAINA. Two species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Seed and division. 
 Common soil. 
 
 PHYSOPIPHON. Four species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Division of bulbs. 
 Wood and moss. 
 
 PHYSOSTEGIA. Seven species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Division. Rich light 
 loam. 
 
 PHYSURUS pictus. Stove shrub. 
 Cuttings. Light rich loam. 
 
 PHYTELEPHAS macrocarpa. 
 Stove evergreen shrub. Seed. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 PHYTEUMA. Twenty-three spe- 
 
 cies. Hardy herbaceous. Seed and 
 division. Common soil. 
 
 PHYTOLACCA. Nine species. 
 Chiefly stove herbaceous. P. decandra 
 is hardy and wide spreading. Seed and 
 cuttings. Rich light soil. 
 
 PIARANTHUS. Seven spe- 
 cies. Stove evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings in the spring. Sandy loam and 
 lime rubbish. 
 
 PICK-AXE, should have a handle 
 three feet and a half long, made of 
 ash; and the points or edges of the 
 head should be of well-steeled iron. 
 There are three varieties : — 1. The pick 
 with two points, for loosening hard sur- 
 faces. 2. The pick-axe, for cutting 
 through roots of trees when felling. 
 3. The mattock, with one pointed and 
 one flat edge, for loosening surfaces, 
 and grubbing up roots. 
 
 PICOTEE. See Carnation. 
 
 PICRIDIUM. Four species. Hardy 
 herbaceous and annuals. Division or 
 seed. Common soil. 
 
 PICTETIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Young cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 PIERARDIA dulcis. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Sandy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 PIERIS Cratagi. Hawthorn, or 
 Black-veined Butterfly. Is white, with 
 black ribs or veins on the wings. It is 
 very much like Pontia Brassicce. The 
 caterpillar is dirty yellow, hairy, black- 
 headed, and a brown stripe down its 
 sides. The caterpillars mould several 
 times, and they are usually found on 
 the apple-tree, where both the yellow 
 eggs and caterpillars may be found in 
 June. The caterpillars draw two or 
 three leaves together with a web. 
 These should be sedulously sought for 
 and destroyed. 
 
 PILEA muscosa. Stove evergreen 
 trailer. Cuttings. Common soil. 
 
 PIMELEA. Twenty-eight species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings. Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 PIMPERNEL. Anagallis. 
 
 PINCKNEYA pubens; a beautiful or 
 rather curious southern shrub, scarcely 
 sufficiently hardy to support the winters 
 of Pennsylvania. Cuttings. Sandy peat, 
 beneath a south wall. 
 
 PINE-APPLE. Ananassa. The 
 pine-apple is but little cultivated in the 
 United States, though it is probable the 
 
PIN 
 
 457 
 — ♦ — 
 
 PIN 
 
 increase of wealth and luxury among 
 us, may ere long induce its culture un- 
 der glass, in common with the grape, 
 peach, &c, though the same necessity 
 as in England does not exist — our 
 proximity to the tropics enabling us, at 
 least on the seaboard, to obtain the pine 
 in tolerable perfection, and at a tithe of 
 the cost of producing it ourselves; we, 
 however, insert the article on this fruit 
 as it stood in the original edition of this 
 work. 
 
 I believe the most successful cultiva- 
 tor of this fruit is Mr. Barnes, gardener 
 to Lady Rolle,at Bicton,near Sidmouth, 
 and to that excellent horticulturist I am 
 indebted for the following detail of his 
 latest system of culture : — 
 
 Varieties: — We cultivate the Queen 
 principally for fruiting at all seasons. 
 We also grow a few of the large black 
 kinds, which are all of easy culture, 
 and may be grown to a very large size 
 indeed. We have of late grown the 
 Queen Pine from six to nearly eight 
 pounds in weight, and those have been 
 produced from plants of only a few 
 months' growth. The other varieties 
 we cultivate are — the Russian Globe, 
 English Globe, Enville, Green Olive or 
 St. Vincent, Montserrat, Black Ja- 
 maica, Otaheite, Brown-leaved Sugar 
 Loaf, and Black Antigua, only two or 
 three plants of each, and those we are 
 about reducing. All these varieties are 
 of easy culture, and free swellers, ca- 
 pable of being grown to a great weight. 
 To equal a Queen of six pounds weight 
 they ought to be from ten to fourteen 
 pounds weight each fruit, but we only 
 average them from six to ten pounds 
 weight. 
 
 " Propagation. — I have practised in 
 my time various methods, but my pre- 
 sent mode is only by suckers. These 
 are pulled off immediately the fruit is 
 cut, and at once potted, no matter what 
 season of the year it may be. Thus, as 
 soon as a fruit is ripened, the plant is 
 lifted out, and another at once planted 
 in its place. One sucker, or, perhaps, 
 two, are occasionally left, but not often. 
 Those taken off are at once potted. By 
 this practice a constant succession of 
 plants is kept up, and fruit of various 
 ag€s. I never care for the crowns, 
 though, if taken off in due time, and 
 potted at once, in well sweetened dry 
 pulverized earth, they will make equal- 
 ly good plants. Of course the suckers 
 
 should be placed in the same kind of 
 earth, not damp, or they will be liable 
 to be affected at the base with rot or 
 mildew. 
 
 " Soil. — The pine will grow well in 
 any kind of turfy, rooty, well-sweetened 
 pulverized soil, from heath soil to a 
 heavy clayey loam. I make choice of 
 a heathy turf when obtainable, with the 
 roots and its natural vegetation all with 
 it ; never breaking it until at the pot- 
 ting bench, as the process of potting is 
 going on. Then we break the sods, 
 which are mostly chosen about two or 
 three inches in thickness, in such kind 
 of pieces as we can thrust into the pots, 
 putting in, as we proceed, some pieces 
 of charcoal, always taking care to drain 
 the pots carefully, which is one of the 
 chief* essentials. Our drainage is prin- 
 cipally coarse charcoal, averaging one- 
 fourth of broken rubbly potsherds, 
 which are placed first round about the 
 bottom ; then, if it is a seven-inch pot, 
 for a sucker, the drainage averages two 
 inches at least ; and if fifteen or eight- 
 een-inch pots, which are the largest 
 fruiting pots I make use of, the drain- 
 age is employed in a coarser state, and 
 about two inches more of it, and the 
 soil too is thrust into the pots rougher — 
 brambles, furze, bushes, heath, and 
 grass altogether — with no other kind of 
 manure, besides an occasional lump or 
 handful of rubbly charcoal, merely to 
 fill up some of the crevices. It is not 
 rammed, that is to say, not pounded, or 
 jammed together in the same way pot- 
 ting is too often done, but pushed down 
 as we proceed, quietly. Thus the soil 
 is really a whole body of drainage — 
 there is no obstruction either to the 
 atmosphere or the water. I have no 
 particular time or season for shifting, 
 potting, or repotting — we do all these 
 at any season of the year, whenever we 
 fancy the plants seem to require it. 
 Never shift a plant, or repot, but twice 
 at the most. If it is a strong spring 
 sucker, it gets with me but one potting 
 from the sucker pot to the fruiting pot. 
 I have left off altogether making use of 
 any kind of manure with the earth be- 
 sides charcoal ; excepting to free-grow- 
 ing plants occasionally we apply weak 
 liquid manure — as clear as wine — al- 
 ways applying it in a tepid state, and in 
 the growing, warm part of the season. 
 To the succession plants we apply it 
 with the syringe or engine over the 
 
PIN 
 
 458 
 
 — • — 
 
 PIN 
 
 whole of the foliage and surface of the 
 plunging materials. 
 
 " The Bottom Heat is at all times 
 kept very moderate, the surface loosen- 
 ed often with a pointed stick, or two- 
 pronged fork, so that there is no ob- 
 struction to prevent the free circulation 
 of the atmosphere. As to stating the 
 exact temperature in our variable dark 
 climate, it is impossible — but the right 
 side is to aim at a too low, instead of 
 overdoing it ; the former is the easiest 
 to be got over. A small portion of 
 fermenting or plunging materials, kept 
 in a kindly condition, is always quite 
 sufficient to command bottom heat 
 enough. My fruiting plants have about 
 one foot eight or nine inches of plung- 
 ing materials, and stand on loose bricks 
 in it; of course, as the season and tem- 
 perature of the interior atmosphere 
 alter, so does the bottom heat, under 
 this system ; I look to nature for the 
 example. I cannot inform you how 
 strong, or to what extent, the manure 
 water ought to be applied to plants of 
 such or such an age, or size, or va- 
 riety — so much depends on a variety of 
 circumstances ; all I know is, what to 
 apply to those I have under my own 
 charge. A pot or two of good ale, or 
 a slice of beef or bacon will do won- 
 ders with a hard-working, strong, 
 healthy-constituted man — which would 
 not be likely in the least to agree with 
 another person, afflicted with disease 
 or weakness. 
 
 " The Temperature of the Air. — I at 
 all seasons regulate according to the 
 light we receive, never tying it down to 
 a certain degree. Some light, still, 
 mild days, even in late autumn or 
 winter, five degrees more can be well 
 afforded, with air, than in a dark, cold, 
 gloomy, windy, or stormy day, could 
 safely be applied in summer. Suffice 
 it to say, I regulate the atmospheric 
 interior air from about 55 Q to 75°, the 
 former the minimum in short dark days, 
 and the latter the maximum in long 
 light days ; for heat without light is 
 sure to cause, in time, immaturity, dis- 
 ease, and vermin. 
 
 " Diseases and Vermin. — By follow- 
 ing the above directions, no such thing 
 will be seen or known, and those that 
 are already troubled with either, will, 
 by following the above directions, get 
 very soon clear of either." 
 
 To this mode of Pine-growing made 
 
 easy, but little need be added. Those 
 who are not so successful in keeping 
 their pine-apples free from Scale, and 
 other diseases, will find some informa- 
 tion on those points under their respect- 
 ive titles in other pages of this volume. 
 I will only venture to add, that I think 
 growing the pine-apple in beds is pre- 
 ferable to growing it in pots ; all Mr. 
 Barnes's directions being adapted to 
 *hat. I also think Mr. Barnes's maxi- 
 mum temperature rather too low, and 
 that during bright sunny weather, and 
 the long days of summer, 80° may be 
 used with advantage. In Bengal, pine- 
 apples grow in the open air with very 
 little cultivation, and attain a weight of 
 seven pounds, in a temperature rang- 
 ing between the extremes 120o and 53°. 
 
 PINE-TREE. Pinus. 
 
 PINEASTER BEETLE. See Bos- 
 trychis. 
 
 PINGUICULA. Six species. Hardy 
 and half-hardy herbaceous. Division. 
 Shaded, boggy soil. 
 
 PINK. Dianthus. 
 
 Varieties.— -These are added to an- 
 nually ; but the following are first-rate 
 flowers, sufficient for any amateur: — 
 
 Acme (Brown's). 
 
 Alpha (Garrat's). 
 
 Achates (Neville's). 
 
 Alfred (Wallace's). 
 
 Beauty (Fairbairn's). 
 
 Beauty (Turner's). 
 
 Conqueror (Barrett's). 
 
 Defiance (Norman's). 
 
 Dr. Edwards (Ottey's). 
 
 Duke of Northumberland (Head- 
 ley's). 
 
 Duke of Wellington (Norman's). 
 
 Eclipse (Brown's). 
 
 Eclipse (Bankell's). 
 
 Enchantress (Neville's). 
 
 Garland (Brown's). 
 
 Gauntlet (Dawson's). 
 
 Gem (Hodge's). 
 
 Great Britain (Ward's). 
 
 Henry (Norman's). 
 
 Henry (Wallace's). 
 
 Lord Brougham (Acres). 
 
 Mary Anne (Jelf's). 
 
 Masterpiece (Turner's). 
 
 Miss Kate (Fairbairn's). 
 
 Monitor (Nevilles). 
 
 Ne plus Ultra (Kean's). 
 
 Omega (Unworth's). 
 
 One Hundred and Thirty-four 
 (Brown's). 
 
 One Hundred and Sixty-six (Hodge's). 
 
PIN 
 
 459 
 
 PIN 
 
 President (Creed's.) 
 
 Prince Albert (Legg's). 
 
 Prince of Wales (Wilmer's). 
 
 Queen of England (Hale's). 
 
 Itoseana (Church's). 
 
 Triumphant (Ibbet's). 
 
 Warden (White's). 
 
 Characteristics of Excellence. — Flow- 
 er circular when viewed in front ; semi- 
 globular in profile, and uniform in size 
 on the same plant. Petals stout, smooth- 
 edged, each row smaller than those be- 
 low it. Colour, ground white ; lacing, 
 whatever its tint, should have a border 
 of white beyond it; colour of the lower 
 limb of the petal extending so as to be 
 seen above the while edge of the petals 
 above. Lacing unbroken. 
 
 Raising Varieties. — M. Fries Movel, 
 gives these directions: — 
 
 " Just before sunrise open carefully 
 the flower to be operated on, and ab- 
 stract the anthers with small pincers. 
 About eight or nine o'clock place the 
 ripe pollen from another flower upon its 
 stigma, and repeat this two or three 
 times in the course of the same day. If 
 the act of impregnation has taken place, 
 the flower will fade in twenty-four or 
 thirty-six hours; but if not, the flower 
 will remain in full beauty, in which 
 case, the attempt must be repeated. 
 This should always be done in fine 
 serene weather, and care should be 
 taken to defend this impregnated flower 
 from rain and mists. Plants raised from 
 seeds which have been crossed always 
 bear the form of the mother, but take 
 the colours of the male parent. Fewer 
 seeds are produced by art than by na- 
 ture alone ; and the impregnated flow- 
 ers are less visited by bees than others." 
 — Gard. Mag. 
 
 Layering. — Mr. J. Mearns, of the 
 Manchester Zoological Gardens, says 
 that he thus conducts this operation : — 
 
 " I do not use a dibber to plant with, 
 but my forefinger ; I lay the lower end 
 of my slip horizontally upon the surface 
 of the soil, and so press it down into 
 it; when from the firmness of the soil, 
 the slip is compelled to clip round the 
 end of the finger. With the other hand 
 I turn up the top to its perpendicular, 
 and press the lower end down till the 
 tail is about half an inch beneath the 
 soil ; I then make the soil firm, and the 
 operation is complete. The pipings 
 are best left with no other attention 
 after planting, besides occasional water- 
 
 ing in dry weather, and keeping them 
 free from weeds till the time for plant- 
 ing out, which may be done at any time 
 after the plants are perfectly rooted ; 
 the usual season, however, to plant 
 out for the flowering in the highest per- 
 fection is September, and for propaga- 
 tion all the month of June, even to the 
 middle of July." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 By Pipings. — In selecting the grass 
 (stems) for pipings, strong and short 
 jointed shoots should be chosen. The 
 piping should be cut off with a sharp 
 knife immediately below the second or 
 third joint from the top of the shoot, and 
 it may then be readily disengaged from 
 the two leaves which surround its base, 
 and which are commonly termed a 
 sheath. The tips of the leaves should 
 be shortened for the sake of conve- 
 nience, otherwise when planted it will 
 be difficult to prevent the hand glass 
 from resting upon them, or from dis- 
 turbing them whenever it is removed. 
 As the pipings are prepared, they should 
 be put into a basin or pan filled with 
 water to prevent them from flagging be- 
 fore they are planted. For this and 
 similar delicate operations the cool 
 hours of the evening are most suitable. 
 In planting the pipings they should be 
 pressed firmly into the soil to the depth 
 of about half an inch, leaving them 
 an inch and a half apart every way; 
 and after being properly secured, they 
 should be gently watered through a fine 
 rose to settle the mould closely round 
 the stems, and as soon as the leaves 
 become thoroughly dry, a bell glass 
 should be placed over them. The glass 
 should be pressed lightly into the mould, 
 to prevent as much as possible the in- 
 gress of air. In sunny days, the bed 
 should be shaded from seven to eight 
 o'clock in the morning until five or six 
 in the evening ; and if there is any ap- 
 pearance of damp amongst the pipings, 
 the glasses should be occasionally taken 
 off to allow them to dry, and all plants 
 so attacked should be immediately re- 
 moved. It is very probable that the 
 pipings will not require to be watered 
 until the greater part of them have taken 
 root; should watering, however, be ne- 
 cessary, the leaves must be allowed to 
 become dry before the glasses are re- 
 placed. As soon as roots are formed 
 the hand glasses should be slightly 
 raised on one side, and may be gradu- 
 ally withdrawn. The young plants, 
 
PIN 
 
 460 
 
 PIP 
 
 after being by degrees inured to the 
 sun, may be transplanted six inches 
 apart in an open bed previously pre- 
 pared for the purpose, in which situa- 
 tion they may remain until required for 
 planting finally in the beds, where they 
 are to bloom. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Soil and Manure. — Sandy turfy loam, 
 such as the top spit of an old pasture, 
 mixed with one-fourth its bulk of old 
 cow-dung, makes a soil very beneficial 
 to this flower. Woollen rags mixed 
 with the soil are also strongly recom- 
 mended. 
 
 Bed. — Raise the bed six inches above 
 the soil around, and formed like a 
 pitched roof, thus : The compost should 
 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 be at least a foot deep. Plant in rows, 
 and twelve inches apart each way. 
 
 After Culture. — " The first thing to 
 be attended to will be to thin out the 
 flower-stems, in order to throw more 
 strength into those which are left. 
 When the plants are weak all the 
 stems should be removed but one, and 
 on a plant of moderate size not more 
 than three should be retained. These 
 again should be looked over, and the 
 lateral flower-buds removed from them, 
 leaving only the terminal bud and the 
 next but one below it; provided these 
 are perfect in form, all the rest may be 
 pinched off. In tying up the stems of 
 pinks and other plants of this class 
 great judgment is required ; in fact, de- 
 lay is better in this instance than too 
 much haste. If tied too high at first, 
 the stems, as they lengthen, are pre- 
 vented by the ligature from growing 
 erect, and become crooked, or perhaps 
 snap off" at the joints. They should, 
 therefore, be looked to every day 
 where practicable; and if there is the 
 least appearance of any flower-stem 
 having become cramped the tie should 
 immediately be cut loose. The safest 
 way is to secure the bush to the flower 
 stick, to which the stem should be 
 loosely tied so as to allow it perfect 
 liberty to slide through as it increases 
 in height. These ligatures, when the 
 plants have acquired their full growth, 
 can be easily removed, and the plants 
 
 tied close withoutfurther hazard. When 
 the forwardest blooms begin to expand, 
 hoops should be fixed across the bed, to 
 support mats or any other lighter mate- 
 rial that will serve to protect the flow- 
 ers either from the rain or from the rays 
 of the sun. They need not, however, 
 be shaded earlier than nine o'clock in 
 the morning, or later than five or six in 
 the evening ; but if there is the least 
 appearance of a wet night, they had 
 better be covered before leaving them. 
 Should the season be dry, they will re- 
 quire regular watering between the 
 rows ; rain or pond water, where pro- 
 curable, is always to be preferred. A 
 little clay or stir? loam placed in the 
 form of a margin round the edge of the 
 bed would serve as a basin, and prevent 
 the water from escaping into the path 
 or alley." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 PIN- PILLAR. Opuntia curassavica. 
 
 PINUS. Fir Tree. Sixty-eight spe- 
 cies and many varieties. Seed, layers, 
 inarching or grafting. Sandy loam on 
 a dry subsoil. See Coniferce. 
 
 PIP, in floriculture, is a single corolla 
 or flower, where several grow upon a 
 common stem, as in the Polyanthus and 
 Auricula. The pips thus growing to- 
 gether are described as a Truss. 
 
 PIPER. Pepper. Twenty-seven 
 species. Stove evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings and suckers; loam and peat. On 
 the culture of the Black Pepper, (P. 
 nigrum,) Dr. Lindley observes, that 
 "it grows luxuriantly in many stoves, 
 but is shy in ripening its fruit. This is 
 probably owing to the uniform moisture 
 which is kept in these places. It should 
 be planted in a large tub or box well 
 drained, all the strong flower-bearing 
 shoots should be supported with strong 
 stakes, and the small useless ones cut 
 away. When not growing much, keep 
 it rather dry, and give it a slight check, 
 and be careful not to give it too much 
 water after flowering. Bottom heat, 
 particularly when growing, is indispen- 
 sable." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 PIPERIDGE, the Barberry. 
 
 PIPES for heating horticultural struc- 
 tures are preferably made of cast iron, 
 painted black. Earthenware has been 
 recommended for the purpose, but they 
 are so much more liable to breakage 
 and leakage, as to outweigh any original 
 saving in the cost. For draining, earthen 
 pipes with a bore an inch in diameter 
 are the best. 
 
PIP 
 
 461 
 — ♦— 
 
 PIT 
 
 Table of the quantity of pipe, four inches diameter, which will heat one 
 thousand cubic feet of air per minute, any required number of degrees ; the 
 temperature of the pipe being 200° Fahrenheit. 
 
 Temperature of 
 
 Tempe 
 
 rature at which the room is required to 
 
 external air. 
 
 
 
 
 be kept. 
 
 Fahr. Scale. 
 
 45° 
 
 50° 
 
 55° 
 
 60° 
 
 65° 
 
 70° 
 
 75° 
 
 80° 
 
 85° 
 
 90° 
 
 10° 
 
 126 
 
 150 
 
 174 
 
 200 
 
 229 
 
 259 
 
 292 
 
 328 
 
 367 
 
 409 
 
 12 
 
 119 
 
 142 
 
 166 
 
 192 
 
 220 
 
 251 
 
 283 
 
 318 
 
 357 
 
 399 
 
 14 
 
 112 
 
 135 
 
 159 
 
 184 
 
 212 
 
 242 
 
 274 
 
 309 
 
 347 
 
 388 
 
 16 
 
 105 
 
 127 
 
 151 
 
 176 
 
 204 
 
 233 
 
 265 
 
 300 
 
 337 
 
 378 
 
 18 
 
 98 
 
 120 
 
 143 
 
 168 
 
 195 
 
 225 
 
 256 
 
 290 
 
 328 
 
 368 
 
 20 
 
 91 
 
 112 
 
 135 
 
 160 
 
 187 
 
 216 
 
 247 
 
 281 
 
 318 
 
 358 
 
 22 
 
 83 
 
 105 
 
 128 
 
 152 
 
 179 
 
 207 
 
 238 
 
 271 
 
 308 
 
 347 
 
 24 
 
 76 
 
 97 
 
 120 
 
 144 
 
 170 
 
 199 
 
 229 
 
 262 
 
 298 
 
 337 
 
 26 
 
 69 
 
 90 
 
 112 
 
 136 162 
 
 190 
 
 220 
 
 253 
 
 288 
 
 327 
 
 28 
 
 61 
 
 82 
 
 104 
 
 128 
 
 154 
 
 181 
 
 211 
 
 243 
 
 279 
 
 317 
 
 30 
 
 54 
 
 75 
 
 97 
 
 120 
 
 145 
 
 173 
 
 202 
 
 234 
 
 269 
 
 307 
 
 Freezing point 32 
 
 47 
 
 67 
 
 89 
 
 112 
 
 137 
 
 164 
 
 193 
 
 225 
 
 259 
 
 296 
 
 34 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 81 
 
 104 
 
 129 
 
 155 
 
 184 
 
 215 
 
 249 
 
 286 
 
 36 
 
 32 
 
 52 
 
 73 
 
 96 
 
 120 
 
 147 
 
 175 
 
 206 
 
 239 
 
 276 
 
 38 
 
 25 
 
 45 
 
 66 
 
 88 
 
 112 
 
 138 
 
 166 
 
 196 
 
 230 
 
 266 
 
 40 
 
 18 
 
 37 
 
 58 
 
 80 
 
 104 
 
 129 
 
 157 
 
 187 
 
 220 
 
 255 
 
 42 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 72 
 
 95 
 
 121 
 
 148 
 
 178 
 
 210 
 
 245 
 
 44 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 42 
 
 64 
 
 87 
 
 112 
 
 139 
 
 168 
 
 200 
 
 235 
 
 46 
 
 
 15 
 
 34 
 
 56 
 
 79 
 
 103 
 
 130 
 
 159 
 
 190 
 
 225 
 
 48 
 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 48 
 
 70 
 
 95 
 
 121 
 
 150 
 
 181 
 
 214 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 40 
 
 62 
 
 86 
 
 112 
 
 140 
 
 171 
 
 204 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 32 
 
 54 
 
 77 
 
 103 
 
 131 
 
 161 
 
 194 
 
 To ascertain by the above Table the quantity of pipe which will heat one 
 thousand cubic feet of air per minute : — find, in the first column, the tempera- 
 ture corresponding to that of the external air, and in one of the other columns 
 find the temperature of the room; then in this latter column, and on the line 
 which corresponds with the external temperature, the required number of feet 
 of pipe will be found. See Hot water and Steam. 
 
 PIPE-WORT. Eriocaulon. 
 
 PIPING. See Pink and Carnation 
 for this mode of propagation. 
 
 PIPTANTHUS nepalensis. Hardy 
 deciduous shrub. Layers and cuttings. 
 Rich loam. 
 
 PIPTOCLAINA supina. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 PIQUERIA trinervia. Hardy herb- 
 aceous. Division. Light rich loam. 
 
 PISCIDIA. Jamaica Dogwood. 
 Two species. Stove evergreen trees. 
 Cuttings. Light loam. 
 
 P1SCINARY is another name for a 
 fish pond, which in landscape garden- 
 ing comes under the general terms 
 Water and Pond, which see. 
 
 PISTACHIA. Four species and 
 more varieties. Hardy and half-hardy 
 evergreen and deciduous trees. Lay- 
 
 ers and ripe cuttings ; light rich loam. 
 Even the hardy species of this genus 
 do best against a wall. 
 
 PISTORINIA hispanica. Hardy 
 biennial. Seed. Light well-drained soil. 
 
 PISUM. Pea. Seven species and 
 many varieties. Hardy annual climbers, 
 except the herbaceous perennials, P. 
 americanum and P. maritimum. Seed. 
 Rich dry soil. See Pea. 
 
 PIT, in the Conservatory, is the body 
 of soil in which the shrubs, &c, are 
 planted ; in the Stove, it is the excava- 
 tion in which is the tan, or other mate- 
 rial for plunging the pots; and for 
 Forcing, it is a structure having a glass 
 roof, and differing from a forcing frame 
 only in being larger, and with sides 
 fixed to the soil. Pits for this purpose 
 were usually sunk in the ground ; but 
 
PIT 
 
 462 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 PL A 
 
 it has been justly observed, that " sunk- 
 en pits are inconvenient to get at ; there 
 is no pulling their sashes off and on 
 with ease, and ventilation is trouble- 
 some. Then, again, in spite of all that 
 can be done, they will always be damp ; 
 and although this is advantageous for 
 some purposes, it is destructive to 
 green-house plants in long winters. 
 Upon the whole, the inconveniences 
 are at least as considerable as the ad- 
 vantages. We doubt whether sunken 
 pits can often be recommended in gar- 
 dens." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Under the various titles Melon, Cu- 
 cumber, Pine Apple, fyc, descriptions of 
 pits suitable for their cultivation will 
 be found. The following outline is of 
 one for various purposes, strongly re 
 commended by Mr. R. Fortune, gar 
 dener at the Chiswick Gardens : 
 
 Fig. 129. 
 
 a, stages and back and front shelf; 
 5, passage along the middle; c, pro- 
 posed tank ; d, proposed ventilators. 
 
 The width of the pit is nine feet ; 
 and, as the sketch is drawn from mea- 
 surement, any one may easily ascertain 
 the different proportions. 
 
 The two stages are made of wood, 
 having cross bars, as seen at a, and up- 
 right bearers on each side of b. The 
 small shelf in front is supported by a 
 bracket, which also supports the hot 
 water pipes ; and the back shelf might 
 be supported in the same manner, al- 
 though in this instance it is formed out 
 of the thickness of the back wall. The 
 only improvement in its construction, 
 is to have a large tank in some conve- 
 nient place in front, as at c, to receive 
 the rain which falls on the roof; and also 
 some wooden ventilators in the back and 
 front wall at d, which could be opened 
 at those times when it is not prudent to 
 draw down the sashes. By having the 
 
 door in the back wall, and the passage 
 along the middle, a person can go in at 
 any time without pushing down the 
 sashes, and reaching from the back to 
 the front, he can water or do anything 
 else the plants may require. 
 
 " This pit is extremely useful for 
 raising seeds, or for growing small 
 green-house plants, and keeping such 
 things as verbeneas, petunias, and scar- 
 let pelargoniums, for turning out into 
 the flower garden during the summer 
 months ; or by dividing it into two parts 
 by a partition, having a door in it, one 
 half may be used for striking cuttings, 
 raising seeds, or keeping plants, which 
 have been newly potted off, and the 
 other filled with well established plants, 
 requiring more light and air; so that, 
 with a little contrivance, it is astonish- 
 ing how many things the amateur may 
 do in a small place like this." — Gard. 
 Chron; 
 
 PITCAIRNIA. Seventeen species. 
 Stove herbaceous. Seed and suckers. 
 Moss potsherds. They are really epi- 
 phytal. 
 
 PITCHER-LEAF. Nepenthes phyU 
 lamphora. 
 
 PITCHER-PLANT. Nepenthes dis- 
 tillatoria. 
 
 PITTOSPORUM. Eighteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs, except 
 P. tobira, which, matted, will sustain 
 the winter south of Virginia. Ripe cut- 
 tings. Peat and loam. 
 
 PLADERA. Two species. Green- 
 house biennials. Seed, and cultivated 
 like the Balsam. 
 
 PLAGIOLOBIUM. Two species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PLASTER OF PARIS. See Gypsum. 
 PLANERA. Two species. Hardy 
 deciduous trees. Layers on grafts of 
 the elm. Light loam, near water. 
 PLANE TREE. Platanus. 
 PLANK PLANT. Bossicea scolopen- 
 dria. 
 
 PLANTAIN TREE. Musa. 
 PLANTATION. The ornamental 
 distribution of trees is considered under 
 the titles Clump, Wood, fyc. ; and here 
 will be considered only a few practical 
 details relative to the planting and ma- 
 nagement of trees. 
 
 Selection. — Our guide in this must be 
 the nature of the soil. If chalk is a 
 principal constituent of this, the beech, 
 birch, and ash must be the trees chiefly 
 
PL A 
 
 463 
 
 — t — 
 
 PL A 
 
 adopted ; if clay, the oak ; if rich loam, 
 the elm. In moist situations, the alder, 
 sallow, and willow; and in mountain, 
 and dry soiled districts, all the hardy 
 conifers, the birch and the ash. Peat, 
 if well drained, will bear the Scotch fir ; 
 and the Spanish chestnut will flourish 
 on light sheltered loam. On the poor- 
 est and lightest soils, if well drained, 
 the larch will establish itself. Similar 
 attention must be paid to the soil in 
 locating the shrubs. Rhododendrons 
 delight in shade and leaf-mould ; and 
 others have their particular soils, of 
 which information will be found in other 
 pages, under their appropriate titles. 
 
 Manures. — Trees, like all other 
 plants, are benefited by being appro- 
 priately manured; their growth is thus 
 accelerated, and contrary to old opin- 
 ions, it is found that the wood of 
 quickly-growing trees is more durable, 
 and more tough than that of trees of 
 the same species which have vegetated 
 more tardily. Calcareous matter is al- 
 ways required by trees; and my brother, 
 Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, has truly stated 
 that on the poor hungry heath lands, 
 such as those of Norfolk, Surrey, and 
 the north, which contain hardly a trace 
 of carbonate of lime, they find that, by 
 dressing with chalk or marl, land in- 
 tended for planting, the growth of the 
 trees is very materially increased ; and 
 more recently, as in the forest of Dama- 
 way in Scotland, the planters have 
 found the greatest advantage from plac- 
 ing only a handful of lime (about four 
 bushels per acre is sufficient) in the soil 
 under the plants. By this means the 
 young trees, they say, are forced for- 
 ward ; that is, they are supplied with 
 the carbonate of lime at the very period 
 of their growth, when their roots, from 
 want of extent and vigour, are least 
 able to absorb from the soil the portion 
 of this earth so essential for their healthy 
 growth. And it is precisely such heath 
 soils as those to which I have alluded 
 as being so materially benefited by the 
 application of lime, chalk, or marl 
 (which also contains chalk), that are 
 found, when examined in their natural 
 state, to be nearly destitute of carbon- 
 ate of lime. 
 
 It is for the same reasons that, in 
 the early state of their growth, timber 
 plantations are benefited so materially 
 by being manured with organic mat- 
 ters — a fact well known to those who 
 
 plant for merely ornamental purposes; 
 and it is because all timber trees con- 
 tain phosphate of lime in very con- 
 siderable proportions, that crushed 
 bones are found to be so excellent a 
 fertilizer for them ; and hence one rea- 
 son, why it has long been a well-known 
 fact, that by burying dead animals un- 
 der trees nearly exhausted for want of 
 nourishment, those trees will almost 
 invariably be considerably revived, and 
 send out their shoots with unusual vi- 
 gour ; and how essential the presence 
 of phosphate of lime is to their growth, 
 may be judged of from the fact, that 
 this salt constitutes 45 per cent, of the 
 ashes of the oak ; 35 in those of the 
 hazel; 16.75 of the poplar; 23 in the 
 hornbeam ; 12 per cent, in those of the 
 fir. 
 
 These chemical examinations natu- 
 rally support the conclusion to which I 
 have long come in my own experiments, 
 that in all plantations of timber trees, 
 both on the score of profit and of orna- 
 ment, it is in almost all situations de- 
 sirable to assist the growth of the young 
 trees by a small addition of manure. 
 On a large scale this must be chiefly 
 confined to the use of the earths, either 
 lime, chalk, or marl, according to their 
 respective local value ; and for this 
 purpose a smaller proportion per acre 
 of any kind of manure is of much great- 
 er value than is commonly supposed. 
 I have usually, under every plant, mere- 
 ly applied a small shovelful of tolerably- 
 rotted stable dung, stirring it up with 
 the mould ; and, as these experiments 
 were principally made on a poor hungry 
 gravelly soil, nearly destitute of carbon- 
 ate of lime, I have usually added to the 
 beach plants, instead of the farm-yard 
 manure, a small quantity of chalk. 
 
 Trenching. — In preparing the land 
 for plantations, the same chemical ex- 
 amination of the composition well illus- 
 trates the advantages derived by the 
 plant, from merely previously stirring 
 the soil ; since it is evident that when 
 the constituents of the young trees are 
 contained in it in only very limited pro- 
 portions, in such case the more easily 
 their roots are enabled to penetrate in 
 search of that necessary nourishment, 
 the more rapid will be their growth. 
 
 Previous trenching of the soil also 
 conduces to the healthy growth of trees 
 in more ways than one. It renders 
 them less subject to injury from want 
 
PL A 
 
 464 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 PL A 
 
 of moisture in the heats of summer ; 
 the atmosphere more freely finds access 
 to their roots; and not only yields its 
 watery vapour in the warmest weather 
 for their service, but its gases, so es- 
 sential to their very existence, are also 
 in a similar manner more readily ab- 
 sorbed. 
 
 Draining. — The most neglected, yet 
 most important, of all the branches of 
 forest culture, is draining. This ought to 
 be done thoroughly before planting ; but 
 if it has been neglected, may be done 
 at any time, the sooner the better, and 
 the effects will surprise, in a year or 
 two, even the most sanguine. I have 
 seen larch plantations, by draining only, 
 converted from sickly worthless trees 
 to thriving valuable woodlands. 
 
 Planting. — " Too little attention," 
 Mr. C. Johnson justly observes, " is 
 usually paid by planters in the choice 
 of their plants, the manner in which 
 they have been reared, and in the care 
 of their removal. Instead of attending 
 to the acquired habits of the tree, it is 
 a very common practice for the plants 
 to be bought of some nurseryman who 
 has reared them in a warm rich bottom, 
 and then, as a natural consequence, 
 when the trees are transplanted to a 
 cold, poor, hungry, exposed soil, a 
 large proportion of them are sure to 
 perish, or, if they live, many become 
 stunted or stag-headed. 
 
 " There are other very common er- 
 rors, of which I have long noticed the 
 ill effects ; for instance, the want of 
 care with which the roots of the young 
 trees are deposited in the earth, and 
 the unnecessary length of time which 
 is suffered to elapse between the period 
 when the plant is taken from the nur- 
 sery and replanted. I have always 
 found the good effect of causing the 
 roots of the young plant to be carefully 
 arranged and spread out before the 
 earth is thrown in upon them — the 
 usually heedless way in which the roots 
 are thrust into the hole, and perhaps 
 broken or materially bruised in the act 
 of treading in the earth upon them, is 
 of necessity prejudicial to the young 
 plant; and then, again, a still more 
 negligent practice, that of ploughing 
 in the young trees, is too often adopted 
 on a large scale, by which the plants 
 are still more hastily deposited in the 
 soil, and are neither fixed with suffi- 
 cient firmness in the ground, nor even 
 
 placed in an upright position." — Farm. 
 Enc. 
 
 There is certainly no economy in this 
 hasty mode of planting ; the trees perish 
 in great numbers ; they linger for years 
 without vigour ; have to be replaced at 
 a considerable expense; and, in the 
 mean time, the owners lose all the ad- 
 vantage which might have been ensured 
 from a more skilfully obtained rapidity 
 of growth. In planting on a large 
 scale, the same pains and care should 
 be taken as in inserting a shrub in the 
 parterre. 
 
 Pruning. — If care be taken to rub 
 off ill-placed shoots in the early stages 
 of a tree's growth, no after-pruning — 
 no extensive application of the knife 
 and saw — will be required, except in 
 case of casualties. When a large branch 
 requires amputation, it is best to leave 
 a stump projecting a full foot from the 
 stem. The face of the wound should 
 be towards the ground, and the edges 
 trimmed smooth with a very sharp 
 knife. 
 
 PLASHING is " a mode of repairing 
 or modifying a hedge by bending down 
 a portion of the shoots, cutting them 
 half through near the ground to render 
 them more pliable, and twisting them 
 among the upright stems, so as to render 
 the whole more effective as a fence, 
 and at the same time preserve all the 
 branches alive. For this purpose the 
 branches to be plashed, or bent down, 
 must not be cut more than half through, 
 in order that a sufficient portion of sap 
 may rise up from the root to keep alive 
 the upper part of the branches. 
 
 " Where hedges are properly formed 
 and kept, they can very seldom require 
 to be plashed." — Farm. Enc. 
 
 PLATANTHERA. Thirteen species. 
 Hardy orchids, except the stove, P. 
 susannce, and the green-house, P.flava. 
 Seed. Loam, peat, and chalk. 
 
 PLATANUS. Plane-Tree. Two spe- 
 cies and three varieties. P. orientalis 
 does not suffer from the disease which 
 has of late years attacked one indige- 
 nous species. Hardy deciduous trees. 
 Layers, cuttings, and seed. Common 
 light soil. 
 
 PLATYCARPIUM orinocense. 
 Stove evergreen tree. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 PLATYCHILUM celsianum. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Young cut- 
 lings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
PL A 
 
 465 
 
 PLU 
 
 PLATYLOBIUM. Six species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Seed. 
 Sandy peat and a little loam. 
 
 PLATYLOPHUS trifoliatus. White 
 ash. Green-house evergreen tree. Ripe 
 cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 PLATYSTEMON. Two species. 
 Hardy annuals. Seed. Sandy loam. 
 
 PLATYSTIGMA linear e. Half-hardy 
 herbaceous. Division. Sandy loam. 
 
 PLATYSTYLIS. Three species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Division and seed. 
 Light loam. 
 
 PLEASURE-GROUND is a collective 
 name for that combination of parterres, 
 lawns, shrubberies, waters, arbours, &c. 
 which are noticed individually in these 
 pages. One observation may be ap- 
 plied to all — let congruity preside over 
 the whole. It is a great fault to have 
 any one of those portions of the plea- 
 sure ground in excess ; and let the 
 whole be proportioned to the residence. 
 It is quite as objectionable to be over- 
 gardened as to be over-housed. Above 
 all things eschew what has aptly been 
 termed gingerbread-work. Nothing of- 
 fends a person of good taste so much 
 as the divisions and sub-divisions we 
 are sometimes compelled to gaze on 
 " with an approving smile." 
 
 PLECTRANTHUS. Six spe- 
 cies. The annual and biennial species 
 by seed; the shrubs and herbaceous by 
 cuttings. All in rich light loam. They 
 are all tenants of either the green-house 
 or stove. 
 
 PLECTRITIS congesta. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 PLECTRONIA corymbosa. Green- 
 house evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 PLEROMA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Young cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PLETHORA. See Extravasated Sap. 
 
 PLEURANDRA. Seven species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
 cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PLEUROTHALLIS. Twenty-three 
 species. Stove epiphytes. Division. 
 Wood and moss. 
 
 PLOCAMA pendula. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 PLOUGHMAN'S SPIKENARD. 
 Baccharis. 
 
 PLUM. Prunus domestica. 
 
 Varieties. — One hundred and twenty- 
 seven are cultivated in the Gardens of 
 30 
 
 the London Horticultural Society at 
 Chiswick. The following limited, 
 though select number, we extract from 
 the catalogue of the old Landreth Nur- 
 series. (See p. 466.) 
 
 The descriptions and cuts of a few 
 choice kinds may aid those about to 
 plant, in selecting with advantage. 
 
 Fig. 130. 
 
 Washington. (Bolmar's Washing- 
 ton.) (Fig. 130.) " This is an Ameri- 
 can seedling, accidentally produced in 
 the city of New York. Its great size 
 and beautiful appearance, at once intro- 
 duced it into general culture ; it must 
 be confessed, there are many of greater 
 merit, though but few of more prepos- 
 sessing aspect. 
 
 " Skin yellow, or yellowish-green, 
 when fully matured dotted with red. 
 Flesh yellow, separating freely from 
 the stone. The tree is of vigorous 
 growth, hardy, and well suited to our 
 climate." — Rural Reg. 
 
 Columbia. (Fig. 131.) " An admi- 
 rable plum, well worthy of its name ; 
 raised by Mr. Lawrence, of Hudson, 
 New York, who has doubly served us 
 by producing another first rate plum, 
 < Lawrence's Favorite.' The Columbia 
 is a free bearer, fruit of the first class, 
 both as regards size and quality. Skin 
 purple, abounding in bloom. Flesh 
 orange. Ripe at Philadelphia close of 
 August." — Rural Reg. 
 
PLU 
 
 466 
 
 PLU 
 
 Plums. — Explanation of Abbreviations. — Colour — y yellow; b blue ; r red ; 
 p purple. Size. — l large ; m medium. 
 
 * American Seedl 
 
 Ings t 
 
 rf acknowledged 
 
 merit. 
 
 
 NAME. 
 
 COLOUR. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 N 
 
 CO 
 
 H SEASON. 
 
 •J 
 
 Apricot plum .... 
 
 y 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 August 
 
 *Bingham's Egg . 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 oval 
 
 L 
 
 
 August 
 
 *Bolmar's Washington . 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 oval 
 
 L 
 
 
 September 
 
 *Bleeker's Red . 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 round 
 
 M 
 
 
 August 
 
 Blue Gage 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 round 
 
 M 
 
 
 August 
 
 *Brevoort's Purple 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 oval 
 
 L 
 
 
 September 
 
 *Bleeker's Gage . 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 
 August 
 
 Coe's Golden Drop 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 oval 
 
 L 
 
 
 September 
 
 *Cooper's Red American 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 oval 
 
 M 
 
 
 September 
 
 *Columbia 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 
 August 
 
 Damson, Yellow . 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 round 
 
 M 
 
 2 
 
 September 
 
 Gage, Yellow 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 round 
 
 M 
 
 
 September 
 
 *Gage, Scarlet 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 oval 
 
 M 
 
 
 September 
 
 *Gage, Schuyler's 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 
 August 
 
 *Gage, Prince's Imperial 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 oval 
 
 M 
 
 
 August 
 
 Goliah . • . " . 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 oval 
 
 L 
 
 
 August 
 
 *Huling's Superb . 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 
 August 
 
 *Jefferson . . 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 oval 
 
 L 
 
 
 September 
 
 Red Magnum Bonum . 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 oval 
 
 L 
 
 
 August 
 
 White Magnum Bonum 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 oval 
 
 L 
 
 
 August 
 
 Morocco Plum 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 round 
 
 M 
 
 
 August 
 
 Nectarine Plum . 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 
 August 
 
 Orleans, Red 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 
 August 
 
 Orleans, Early 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 round 
 
 L 
 
 
 August 
 
 Prune, German 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 oval 
 
 L 
 
 
 September 
 
 *Verplanck's Purple 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 round 
 
 M 
 
 
 August 
 
 Fig. 131.— (P. 465. 
 
Coe's Golden Drop, of Hooker, Lind- 
 lay, and others. — Coe's Imperial, Coe's 
 Seedling, &c. (Fig. 132.) "Mr. Coe, 
 a market gardener of Norfolk, England, 
 who raised this plum, has perpetuated 
 his name by association with it. Many 
 varieties have been subsequently pro- 
 duced, but few of them have as high 
 claims to regard, as the Golden Drop — 
 indeed it has been pronounced superior 
 to any late plum cultivated in Britain. 
 
 " The fruit is of extra large size, 
 rich, and in the opinion of competent 
 judges, not inferior to the celebrated 
 Green Gage, to approach which in 
 quality, is usually deemed high merit. 
 Skin greenish yellow, spotted on the 
 sunny side with violet and crimson. 
 Flesh firm, adhering to the stone. The 
 tree is of vigorous habit, and has proved 
 well suited to the middle States." — 
 Rural Reg. 
 
 Imperial Gage, (Prince's Imperial.) 
 (Fig. 133.) " This is a seedling from 
 the Green Gage, raised by the late Mr. 
 Prince, of Flushing, New York, and 
 has received much praise. The tree is 
 of robust habit; fruit larger than the 
 Green Gage, and of good, quality. Ken- 
 
 rick cites a single tree at Charlestown, 
 Mass., the fruit of which, for several 
 successive years, sold for $40 to $50. 
 Downing says it is particularly fitted for 
 light dry soils, and that on heavy lands 
 it is often insipid. 
 
 " Skin light green, when fully ma- 
 tured inclining to yellow, with a profu- 
 sion of bloom. Flesh green, and of a 
 sprightly flavour. Ripens at Philadel- 
 phia late in August. It is a liberal 
 bearer, and may be safely recommended 
 as a desirable variety." — Rural Reg. 
 
 Fig. 134. 
 
 Green Gage, of the English and 
 American gardens. (Fig. 134.) There 
 is no plum better known (and none 
 more worthy of being known) than the 
 Green Gage, which derived its name 
 
PLU 
 
 PLU 
 
 from a family of the name of Gage who 
 obtained it in France, where it is popu- 
 larly termed the Reine Claude, (or 
 Queen Claude,) after the wife of Francis 
 I. Those qualified to give an opinion 
 on the subject, have declared it to be 
 
 the best plum known in England. The 
 size is below medium. Skin green, 
 inclining to yellow when fully ripe, and 
 occasionally marbled with red. Ripe 
 middle of August. 
 
 Fig. 136. 
 
 Jefferson. (Fig. 135.) This excel- 
 lent variety is the product of the late 
 Judge Buel of Albany, so long and so 
 favourably associated with the " Culti- 
 vator." Mr. Downing, whose opinion 
 has great weight with us, says, if he 
 were asked which he thought the most 
 desirable and the most beautiful of all 
 dessert plums, he should undoubtedly 
 give the name of this new variety. He 
 thinks it, when fully ripe, nearly if not 
 quite equal in flavour to the Green Gage 
 —"it is as large as the Washington, 
 more richly and deeply coloured, being 
 dark yellow, uniformly and handsomely 
 marked with a fine ruddy cheek. It is 
 about ten days or a fortnight later than 
 the Washington, ripening the last of Au- 
 gust, when ithas the rare quality of hang- 
 ing long on the tree, gradually improv- 
 ing in flavour." — "Fruits of America." 
 
 Magnum Bonum, {Yellow Egg.) (Fig. 
 
 136.) These are the two popular names 
 for a variety very generally cultivated 
 in France and England, and known to 
 a considerable extent in the gardens of 
 our sea-board. It is an attractive variety, 
 and though by no means equal in point 
 of quality to many less prepossessing, 
 is nevertheless in high repute. Skin 
 yellow. Flesh closely united to the 
 stone, sub-acid until dead ripe, when 
 the flavour is highest. It is an excel- 
 lent preserving plum — its large size 
 adding to its merit in that particular. 
 
 Propagation by Seed. — This mode is 
 adopted for raising stocks and new 
 varieties. For the latter purpose cross- 
 impregnation has been successively 
 pursued, attention being paid to the 
 suggestions offered under the title Hy- 
 bridizing. Sow in October, in rich 
 light loam, in drills twelve inches apart 
 and two inches deep, when two-year 
 
PLU 
 
 469 
 
 PLU 
 
 old buds may be taken from them and 
 inserted on older trees early, to ascer- 
 tain the value of the fruit. At two years 
 old they are also fit to be stocks for 
 budding or grafting. 
 
 Grafting and Budding. — The former 
 is to be done in July or March, and the 
 latter in July or August. 
 
 Suckers. — Damsons and bullaces are 
 usually raised in this mode, without 
 grafting or budding. 
 
 Layers of the young wood may be 
 made at any time between November 
 and March. In twelve months they are 
 established, and may be separated from 
 the parent. 
 
 " Planting and Culture. — The season 
 for planting all the sorts of plum-trees, 
 is any time in open weather, from the 
 fall of the leaf until the approach of 
 vegetation in spring. 
 
 " The trees of all the varieties will 
 succeed in any common soil, and in any 
 open exposure. Those for walls should 
 generally have an east or southwest 
 wall for some of the choicest sorts ; and 
 some may also be planted against a 
 north wall, to furnish some late fruit ; 
 and those for espaliers may be planted 
 around any of the open quarters, as 
 may also the standards. 
 
 " Plant the wall and espalier trees 
 eighteen feet distance ; though if the 
 walls, &c, are rather low, twenty feet 
 distance will be requisite, that, in de- 
 fault of a proper height of walling, there 
 may be more scope to train the branches 
 horizontally. If the trees thus planted 
 are quite young, being only of one 
 year's shoot from the grafting or bud- 
 ding, they should, in March, be headed 
 down to four or five eyes, to force out 
 lower horizontals in the ensuing sum- 
 mer, which, according as they advance 
 in length, train them in horizontally at 
 full length, unless you would forward a 
 further supply of lower branches as fast 
 as possible, when you may pinch the 
 young shoot, in May, down to a few 
 eyes. Each will throw out several late- 
 rals the same year, which train also 
 horizontally at full length during the 
 summer's growth; and in winter pruning 
 cut not only any fore-right and back 
 shoots, but train in all the regular ones 
 at full length; for the branches of these 
 trees must be shortened only occasion- 
 ally, to procure wood to fill vacancies; 
 because the branches always form fruit 
 spurs first towards their extreme parts. 
 
 I which would be destroyed by shorten- 
 ing. So that, after having shortened 
 ' the first and second year's shoots occa- 
 sionally as above, and thereby procured 
 a proper set of lower horizontals, to 
 give the head its first form, let the 
 whole then be trained in entire, about 
 four, five, or six inches asunder; and, 
 according as the trees shoot every sum- 
 mer, train in a necessary supply of the 
 regular shoots to fill the wall, &c. ; at 
 the same time retrench superfluities and 
 irregular wood — still at full length at 
 the above distance. For all plums bear 
 principally upon spurs half an inch or 
 an inch long, arising from the sides of 
 the branches, from one or two to many 
 years old. When trained, always at 
 full length; but, if shortened, they 
 would throw out a multiplicity of use- 
 less wood, and hardly any fruit-spurs. 
 
 " The wall and espalier plum-trees 
 should be pruned every summer and 
 winter. 
 
 " Standard plum-trees may be trained 
 both as full standards and half-stand- 
 ards, budding or grafting the former 
 six feet high, and the latter only three 
 or four; or both kinds may be worked 
 low. in the stock, and the first shoot 
 trained to those heights for a stem, 
 then let them branch away and form a 
 head. These standards may be planted 
 both in the garden and orchard, at from 
 about twenty to thirty feet distance." — ■ 
 Abercrombie. 
 
 Forcing. — To obtain an early crop, 
 in March or April, trees planted in 
 large tubs are to be preferred ; but for 
 the general crop, in May or June, the 
 trees are best planted in the borders of 
 the stove. Mr. Loudon says that : — 
 
 " For a crop to ripen in the second 
 week in May, the house must be co- 
 vered in early in January, commencing 
 with a temperature of 42° of Fahrenheit 
 for the first fortnight; after which the 
 heat may be gradually raised to 52°, at 
 which it may continue until the flowers 
 make their appearance. During this 
 time frequent changes of air must be 
 admitted to strengthen the bloom ; and 
 the crop will be rendered more certain 
 by keeping the trees in blossom, as long 
 as possible, by light shading where ne- 
 cessary ; and when the petals begin to 
 fall, gentle dews may be raised from the 
 surface of the mould. As the fruit 
 forms, the thermometer should be raised 
 to 58°. This must be done gradually, 
 
PLU 
 
 470 
 
 — • — 
 
 POI 
 
 as the consequence of a rapid rise may 
 be a casting of the fruit. During the 
 progress of shooting great care must be 
 taken against sudden variations of the 
 temperature, water very sparingly used, 
 and every check, by fumigation, be 
 given to the various insects, which will 
 be particularly active at this period. 
 
 " When the fruit is safely stoned, a 
 moderate dressing of rotten manure 
 may be spread on the surface of the 
 mould, the heat increased to 68°, and 
 a more liberal supply of water given. 
 
 " After the fruit has obtained a full 
 size, and approaches maturity, air may 
 be freely admitted, and water should 
 be given in less quantities, and finally 
 discontinued a few days before gather- 
 ing." — Enc. Gard. 
 
 PLUMBAGO. Eleven species. 
 Some hardy herbaceous, others stove 
 and green-house evergreen shrubs and 
 climbers. P. capensis produces a good 
 effect when plunged or planted out on 
 a rich border during summer. P. rhom- 
 bifolia is a stove annual ; this is propa- 
 gated by seed, the others by cuttings, 
 and all in common soil. 
 
 PLUMIERIA. Twenty-two species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs and trees. 
 Large cuttings, slightly dried. Sandy 
 loam, and a little peat. 
 
 POCOCKIA cretica. Hardy annual. 
 Seed. Common soil. 
 
 PODALYRIA. Thirteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PODANTHE. Seven species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings in spring, 
 slightly dried. Sandy loam and lime 
 rubbish. 
 
 PODANTHUS mitiqui. Hardy ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 POD-FERN. Ellobocarpus. 
 
 PODOCARPUS. Eleven spe- 
 cies. Green-house and stove evergreen 
 trees. P. chinensis, P. macrophyllus, P. 
 nur.ifer, and P. verticillatus, are quite 
 hardy, if grown in a light-soiled border, 
 sheltered from the north and east, and 
 well drained. Cuttings. Light loam, 
 and a little peat. 
 
 PODOLEPJS. Five species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Seed and division. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 PODOLOBIUM. Five species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. P. 
 scandens is a climber. Young cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PODOPTERUS mexicanus. Green- 
 
 house evergreen shrub. Young cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 PODOSPERMUM. Nine species. 
 Hardy herbaceous, biennial, and an- 
 nual. The first is increased by divi- 
 sion, and all by seed. Common soil. 
 
 PCECILOCAMPA populi. December 
 Moth, is found in this month in orchards 
 sticking against the trunks of trees. 
 The wings are about an inch and a 
 quarter broad, and of a chestnut brown 
 in colour: on the upper pair there is a 
 pair of incurved bands, and a wavy one 
 near the centre ; the wings have also a 
 grayish or brownish fringe. The lower 
 pair are brown. The caterpillar is 
 ashy gray at the sides, and rather dark- 
 er on the back, and it has four red 
 spots on each segment ; at first these 
 caterpillars are gregarious, under a 
 silken tent, from which they issue at 
 night to feed, but after a little time they 
 become solitary. They feed on various 
 kinds of fruit trees in the early part of 
 the summer, and when full grown, they 
 spin a silken case in which they change 
 the pupae. The December Moth is not 
 one of the most injurious to fruit trees, 
 but still, in localities where it is found 
 in tolerable abundance, the caterpillars 
 do considerable damage to the leaves. 
 Hand picking when the caterpillars are 
 living in society, is the best means of 
 diminishing them. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 POET'S CASSIA. Osyris. 
 
 POGONIA. Three species. Hardy 
 orchids. Offsets. Sandy peat. 
 
 POGOSTEMON plectranthoides. 
 Stove evergreen shrub. Young cut- 
 tings. Rich sandy loam. 
 
 POINCIANA. Five species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Seed and cuttings. 
 Rich light soil. 
 
 POINSETTIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings of previ- 
 ous year's shoots, slightly dried. Rich 
 sandy loam. Of these plants the most 
 beautiful is P. pulclierrina. On the 
 cultivation of this we have the follow- 
 ing directions from Mr. W. Tillery, the 
 gardener at Welbeck: — 
 
 " Raise the plants from single eyes, 
 (like vines,) from the hard ripened wood 
 of last year, and re-pot them in sandy 
 loam and leaf-mould ; keeping them in 
 a cucumber-frame, and then in a low 
 stove, as near the glass as possible. 
 They do pretty near the glass and not 
 drawn, and then put into the stove in 
 September, watering freely when in 
 
POI 
 
 471 
 
 POI 
 
 flower. Old plants that have been cut 
 down, never have the floral leaves as 
 large as a young plant raised from eyes 
 or cuttings with one stem." 
 
 The following additional instructions 
 are given by Mr. D. Beaton, gardener 
 to Sir W. Middleton, at Shrubland : — 
 
 " As an additional means of improv- 
 ing the size of the flowers, a strong 
 healthy plant, not less than two years 
 old, should be kept to propagate from 
 by eyes. This plant should be kept in 
 the stove all summer, encouraged dur- 
 ing its growth by all safe stimuli, and 
 have only two or three of its strongest 
 shoots allowed to remain. When these 
 shoots have nearly done growing, cut 
 off their tops, that the plant may throw 
 all the strength of its vital energies into 
 those eyes destined for your next year's 
 plants. 
 
 " When the young wood ripens, al- 
 low the plant to go gradually to rest, 
 and when you cease watering it, place 
 it in a dry part of the stove; should it 
 offer to vegetate too soon in spring, 
 remove it to a dry place in the green- 
 house to keep it back. About the be- 
 ginning or middle of April will be quite 
 time enough to begin to propagate it. 
 At that time take the most prominent 
 eyes from the ripest portion of the 
 branches. 
 
 " Cut the old plant down to the form- 
 er year's wood, shake off all the soil 
 from its roots, cut away all decayed 
 roots, and shorten the strongest ones; 
 repot it in as small a pot as you can put 
 its roots into, and place it in bottom 
 heat; treat it with due care as in the 
 former season, and for the same pur- 
 pose." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Aphelandra cristata maybe managed 
 the same way, and no plant will more 
 amply repay the care and attention be- 
 stowed on it. 
 
 POIRETIA scandens. Stove ever- 
 green climber. Young cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 POISON-BULB. Brunsvigia toxica- 
 ria, and Crinurn asiaticum. 
 
 POISON-NUT. Strychnos nux 
 vomica. 
 
 POISON-OAK. Rhus toxicodendron. 
 
 POISONOUS PLANTS. Gardeners 
 should be much more careful than they 
 usually are in handling the plants they 
 cultivate, for many of them have deadly 
 qualities. M. Neumann, chief gardener 
 of the Paris Jardin des Plantes, says 
 
 that pruning knives and hands washed 
 in a tank after they have been em- 
 ployed upon some of the exotics, will 
 destroy the fish it contains. Hippo- 
 mane biglandulosa, the Manchineel, 
 the Tanghin, Sapium laurocerasus, and 
 Camocladia dentata, are equally dele- 
 terious to man. Gardeners who have 
 merely rubbed the leaves of the latter 
 between their fingers, have had swol- 
 len bodies and temporary blindness. 
 Wounds from pruning knives smeared 
 with the juices of such plants, are like 
 those from poisoned arrows. 
 
 POISONS. Soils containing obnox- 
 ious ingredients are certain introducers 
 of disease and premature death. An 
 excess of oxide of iron, as when the 
 roots of the apple and pear get into an 
 irony red gravelly subsoil , always causes 
 canker to supervene. In the neighbour- 
 hood of copper-smelting furnaces, not 
 only are cattle subjected to swollen 
 joints and other unusual diseases, caus- 
 ing decrepitude and death, but the 
 plants also around are subject to sud- 
 den visitations, to irregular growths, 
 and to unwarned destruction; and a 
 crop once vigorous will suddenly with- 
 er as if swept over by a blast. There 
 is no doubt of this arising from the salts 
 of copper, which impregnate the soil 
 irregularly, as the winds may have 
 borne them sublimed from the furnaces, 
 and the experiments of Sennebier have 
 shown that of all salts those of copper 
 are the most fatal to plants. That they 
 can be poisoned, and by many of those 
 substances, narcotic as well as corro- 
 sive, which are fatal to animals, has 
 been shown by the experiments of M. 
 F. Marcet. 
 
 The metallic poisons being absorbed, 
 are conveyed to the different parts of 
 the plant, and alter or destroy its tissue. 
 The vegetable poisons, such as opium, 
 strychnia, prussic acid, belladonna, al- 
 cohol, and oxalic acid, which act fatally 
 upon the nervous system of animals, 
 also cause the death of plants. 
 
 The poisonous substance is absorbed 
 into the plant's system, and proves in- 
 jurious when merely applied to its 
 branches or stem, almost as much as 
 if placed in contact with the roots. 
 Ulcerations and canker are exasperated 
 if lime be put upon the wounds, and 
 when Dr. Hales made a golden rennet 
 apple absorb a quart of camphorated 
 spirits of wine through one of its 
 
POI 
 
 472 
 
 POL 
 
 branches, one-half of the tree was de- 
 stroyed. — Trine, of Gardening. 
 
 POIVREA. Six species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Young cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 POLANISIA. Five species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seed. Sheltered, light rich 
 loam. 
 
 POLEMONIUM. Twelve species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Division. Light 
 loam. 
 
 POLIANTHES. Tuberose. Two 
 species. Green-house bulbs. Bulbs 
 imported. Sandy loam and leaf-mould. 
 
 POLYANTHUS. Primula vulgaris, 
 var. polyantha. A florist's flower much 
 esteemed in England ; in the United 
 States but little attention has been paid 
 to it. 
 
 Varieties. — Mr. Slater, florist, of 
 Manchester, gives the following lists: — 
 
 FIRST CLASS. 
 
 Barrow's Dutchess of Sutherland. 
 Buck's George the Fourth. 
 Bullock's Lancer. 
 Clegg's Lord Crewe, alias George 
 
 Canning. 
 Collier's Princess Royal. 
 Cox's Regent. 
 Crownshaw's Invincible. 
 Eckersley's Jolly Dragoon. 
 Gibbon's Sovereign. 
 General Bolivar. 
 Gond's Independent. 
 Hetcher's Defiance. 
 Hilton's President. 
 Hufton's Earl Grey, alias Clegg's Lord 
 
 John Russell. 
 Hufton's Lord Rancliffe, alias Clegg's 
 
 Prince of Orange, and Clegg's Golden 
 
 Hero. 
 Hufton's Lord Lincoln. 
 Maude's Beauty of England. 
 Nicholson's Bang Europe. 
 Ollier's Beauty of Over. 
 Pearson's Alexander. 
 Saunders's Cheshire Favourite. 
 Wood's Espartero. 
 
 SECOND CLASS. 
 
 Beauty of Coven. 
 Buckley's Squire Starkie. 
 Burnard's Formosa. 
 Dew's Britannia. 
 Faulkner's Black Prince. 
 Fillingham's Tantarara. 
 Queen's Earl Fitzwilliam. 
 Hepvvorth's Elizabeth. 
 Jolly Sailor. 
 
 Nicholson's Ranger. 
 
 Nonsuch. 
 
 King. 
 
 Sir Sidney Smith. 
 Telegraph (Head's). ^ 
 Turner's Emperor Buonaparte. 
 Princess. 
 
 Timm's Defiance and Yorkshire Re- 
 gent. 
 
 Characteristics of Excellence, are 
 thus enumerated by Dr. Lindley : — 
 
 " The pip of the Polyanthus should 
 be large, and the nearer the outline 
 approaches a circle the better ; it 
 should be free from any unevenness, 
 and lie perfectly flat; the edge must be 
 smooth, and the divisions in the corolla, 
 which form it into heart-shaped seg- 
 ments, should reach the eye but not 
 cut into it. The segments should be 
 well rounded, making the divisions be- 
 tween them small and shallow. The 
 tube must be of a fine yellow, round, 
 clearly defined, well filled with an- 
 thers, and terminating in a narrow 
 ridge raised slightly above the surface 
 of the eye. 
 
 " The eye should be of a bright rich 
 yellow colour, of a uniform width 
 round the tube. The ground colour 
 must be entire, free from specks or 
 blemishes, of a dark or rich crimson, 
 not paler at the edges, and uniform in 
 every division. The edge should form 
 a narrow well defined rim of yellow, 
 perfectly regular, bordering each seg- 
 ment, and passing down the centre of 
 each division to the eye. 
 
 " It is essential that the edge and 
 the eye be of a uniform yellow. These 
 qualities in the pips, and the flowers 
 forming a compact truss, standing well 
 above the foliage on a firm upright 
 stem, will constitute perfection in the 
 polyanthus." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Propagation by Seed. — Dr. Lindley 
 says, " during February sow in pots in 
 a light and moderately rich soil, and 
 give the seed, when sown, a slight 
 covering of sifted soil; the pans should 
 then be placed under hand-glasses. It 
 
 better to raise them without bottom- 
 heat, as the young plants are apt to 
 damp off. As soon as the seeds begin 
 to vegetate, air should be given ; and 
 as they increase in size, care must be 
 taken to keep away slugs. When the 
 sun has much power, it will be advisa- 
 ble to remove the pans to an east or 
 north aspect, to prevent them from be- 
 
POL 
 
 473 
 
 PON 
 
 coming too dry. In August they will 
 be ready for transplanting." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 General Culture.— This is detailed 
 by that most successful floriculturist, 
 Dr. Horner, of Hull, and from his di- 
 rections are taken the following ex- 
 tracts : — 
 
 " Situation and Soil. — A free and 
 pure air is necessary for its vigorous 
 growth. It should aiway be grown in 
 a bed or open border, and in one which 
 has an eastern aspect. It is most im- 
 patient of heat and drought, but de- 
 lights in a cool, or rather moist and 
 shaded locality, where it can enjoy 
 about two hours of the morning sun. It 
 thrives best in a retentive soil from a 
 rich old pasture, to which has been 
 added about the sixth part of cow 
 manure, two or three years old, and 
 the same quantity of leaf-mould. The 
 natural soil of the garden should be 
 dug out to the depth of a foot, and the 
 space filled up with the above, three 
 months previously to planting them, 
 that the bed may have become settled 
 before it is required for the plants. 
 
 " Planting. — The proper time is at 
 the end of July, not later. Shorten the 
 main or tap-root, as it is called, to 
 within about half an inch of the leaves, 
 that a few of the vigorous young fibrous 
 roots only may be retained; with a 
 small trowel make a hole in the soil 
 sufficiently deep that the plant may 
 have the very crown of the main root 
 covered at least one inch with the soil. 
 
 " It is of the utmost importance that 
 the polyanthus should be thus deep 
 set ; for the young roots always ema- 
 nate from the very top of the main 
 root, and throw themselves out for the 
 most part, if a somewhat curved or hori- 
 zontal method of planting is adopted. 
 
 " Having well watered the bed, the 
 plants require no more care whatever, 
 except being kept clean. They should 
 be left entirely without covering or pro- 
 tection in the winter. 
 
 "Blooming, fyc. — In spring, just 
 when the pips are about to expand, if 
 wanted for the purpose of exhibition, 
 or to ornament the stage or cool green- 
 house, they may be taken up with a 
 moderateJy-sized ball of earth, and put 
 into common auricula pots, for they 
 bear this removal without the slightest 
 injury or apparent check. Water must 
 now be supplied rather freely, and 
 
 should occasionally be sprinkled over 
 the foliage (avoiding the flowers) ; and 
 the smaller and central pips should be 
 thinned out, that the truss or umbel of 
 flowers may have a uniform and un- 
 crowded appearance. When the bloom 
 is over, the plants should be turned out 
 of their . pots into the border from 
 whence they were taken ; here they 
 must remain without further care, ex- 
 cept an occasional watering, till the 
 end of July, when they should be taken 
 up, the soil crumbled from their roots, 
 and those which present two or more 
 heads divided gently with the fingers, 
 and prepared and planted as before de- 
 scribed." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 POLYBOTRYL Three species. 
 Stove ferns. Division and seed. Sandy 
 peat and turf. 
 
 POLYGALA. Forty-four species. 
 Herbaceous, shrubby, and annual. All 
 hardy or green-house, except the stove 
 annuals, P.paniculata and P.umbellata. 
 Division, cuttings or seed. Sandy peat 
 and a little loam. 
 
 POLYGONATUM. Thirteen species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Seed and division. 
 Light rich loam. 
 
 POLYGONUM. Forty-eight species. 
 Chiefly hardy herbaceous or annual 
 plants, some being aquatics and trailers. 
 A few require the shelter of the green- 
 house. Seed and division. Light rich 
 loam. 
 
 POLYPODIUM. Sixty-six species. 
 Chiefly stove ferns. Division and seed. 
 Light loam and peat. 
 
 POLYPODY. Polypodium. 
 
 POLYPTERIS integrifolia. Hardy 
 annual. Seed. Light rich loam. 
 
 POLYSPORA axillaris. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Unripe cuttings. Light 
 loam and peat. 
 
 POLYSTACHYA. Seven species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood and 
 moss. 
 
 POMADERRIS. Sixteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 POMAX hirta. Green-house ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Sandy peat and 
 loam. 
 
 POMBALIA ituba. Stove herbaceous. 
 Seed and young cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 POMEGRANATE. Punica. 
 
 POMPION. See Gourd. 
 
 PONCELETIA sprengeiloides. 
 
PON 
 
 474 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 PON 
 
 Green-house evergreen shrub. Young 
 cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 PONDS, are reservoirs of water dug 
 out of the soil, and made retentive by 
 puddling with clay their bottoms and 
 sides. 
 
 Puddling is necessary in almost all 
 instances and the mode of proceeding 
 is thus detailed by Mr. Marnock, in the 
 United Gardeners' Journal. When the 
 excavacation is formed, or partially so, 
 the bottom puddle near the outer edge 
 is formed, and upon this is raised the 
 upright or side puddle ; and as this 
 proceeds the ordinary clay or earth is 
 raised at the same time, and by this 
 means the upright puddle is retained in 
 itsplace; and ultimately the sides, being 
 formed in a sloping direction, admit of 
 being covered with gravel or sand, and 
 may be walked upon, or stakes may be 
 driven to a considerable depth without 
 reaching the .puddle or in any way in- 
 juring it; this can never be the case if 
 the puddle, as is sometimes done, be 
 laid upon the sloping side of the pond. 
 The sides may slope rapidly, or the re- 
 verse : if the slope be considerable, 
 sand or gravel to give a clean appear- 
 ance will be the more likely to be re- 
 tained upon the facing; plants can be 
 more easily fixed and cultivated; gold- 
 fish also find in these shallow gravelly 
 
 and marked out, it will then be neces- 
 sary to form a second or outer mark, 
 indicating the space required for the 
 wall or side puddle, and about three 
 feet is the proper space to allow for 
 this — the puddle requiring about two 
 feet, and the facing which requires to 
 be laid upon the puddle ought to be 
 about a foot more, making together 
 three feet. Ponds may be made very 
 ornamental, and for suitable suggestions 
 on this point, see Water. 
 
 PONGAMIA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 PONTEDERA. Seven species. 
 Stove aquatics, except the hardy P. 
 ccerulea. Division. Rich light loam 
 in water. 
 
 PONTHIEVA. Two species. Stove 
 orchids. Division. Sandy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 PONTIA. A genus of butterflies of 
 which the following one is most ob- 
 noxious to the gardener: — 
 
 P. brassicce, the large white cabbage 
 butterfly is thus described by Mr. Kol- 
 lar : — « The wings are white ; the up- 
 per wings with broad black tips, and 
 the female has two black spots on the 
 middle. The under side of the under 
 wings is light yellow. Breadth, when 
 expanded, two inches. It appears from 
 
 parts under the leaves of the plants j May to October. The caterpillar 
 
 suitable places to deposit their spawn 
 and without this they are seldom found 
 to breed. Ponds made in this way may 
 be of any convenient size, from a couple 
 of yards upwards to as many acres. 
 The following is the section of a pond 
 
 Fig. 137. 
 
 thus formed : a indicates the surface of 
 the ground at the edge of the water; 
 b, the puddle; c,the facing to preserve 
 the puddle from injury; d, the water; 
 e, the surface of the latter ; and /, the 
 ordinary bottom. When a small pond 
 of this kind is to be made, and the ex- 
 
 bluish-green, thinly haired, and sprin- 
 kled with black dots, having a yellow 
 stripe on the back, and the same on the 
 sides. These caterpillars are found, 
 throughout the summer and autumn, 
 on all the sorts of cabbage, on horse- 
 radish, radishes, mustard, and similar 
 plants, as well as on water -cresses. 
 The pupae are yellowish-green, with 
 black dots, with a point on the head, 
 and five on the back. The best way to 
 destroy them is picking off and killing 
 the caterpillars, as well as the pupae, 
 as far as it is possible; the latter are 
 found attached to adjacent trees, hedges, 
 and walls. But care must be taken not 
 to destroy those pupae which have a 
 brown appearance; because they are 
 full of the larvae of ichneumons, and 
 other allied parasites, which are the 
 great scourge of these caterpillars." — 
 Kollar. 
 
 P. rapes. Small White Cabbage But- 
 terfly. The following extracts are from 
 the same good authority : — " This But- 
 
 tent of the surface is determined upon I terfly resembles the foregoing, but 
 
POP 
 
 475 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 POT 
 
 one half smaller; and the black tinge 
 at the points of the uper wings is faint- 
 er, and not visible on the outer edge. 
 The time of appearance is the same as 
 of the former. 
 
 " The caterpillar is of a dull green, 
 with fine white minute hairs, a yellow 
 stripe on the back, and yellow spots on 
 the sides, on a pale ground. In some 
 years it is very injurious to the cabbage 
 and turnip plants ; it also infests the 
 mignionette, which it strips entirely of 
 its leaves. It is very difficult to be dis- 
 covered from its colour. The pupa is 
 yellowish or greenish-gray, with three 
 yellow stripes. Like the former kind, 
 it is found attached to trees, hedges," 
 &c. — Kollar. 
 
 POPLAR. Populus. 
 
 POPPY. Papaver. 
 
 POPULUS. Poplar. Fifteen species, 
 and many varieties. Hardy deciduous 
 trees. Cuttings and layers. Light loam, 
 near flowing water. 
 
 PORANA volubilis. Stove evergreen 
 twiner. Seed. Loam and peat. 
 
 PORANTHERA ericifolia. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Young cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PORLIERA hygrometrica. 
 evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings, 
 and peat. 
 
 PORTHESIA. See Bombyx. 
 
 PORTLANDIA. Two species, 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings, 
 loam and peat. 
 
 PORTUGAL LAUREL. Cerasus lu- 
 sitanica. This is a beautiful evergreen 
 shrub, not sufficiently hardy to with- 
 stand the winters of the middle states — 
 farther south it would be highly useful 
 as a decoration to the garden and lawn 
 during winter. 
 
 PORTULACA. Purslane. Fifteen 
 species. Stove, green-house, and hardy 
 annuals. Seed. Light loam. P.grandi- 
 flora is a tuberous perennial, increased 
 by offsets. See Purslane. 
 
 PORTULACARIA afra. African 
 Purslane Tree. Green-house evergreen 
 shrub. Young cuttings. Sandy loam, 
 well drained. 
 
 POSOQUERIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 POTATO. Solarium tuberosum 
 Varieties, for forcing or first crop, in 
 the open ground : — Walnut-leaved Kid- 
 ney, earliest ; Broughton Dwarf; Early 
 Warwick; Ash-leaved Kidney, white, 
 
 Stove 
 Loam 
 
 Stove 
 Sandy 
 
 best; Soden's Early Oxford; Fox's 
 Seedling, perhaps the best; Early 
 Manly; Early Mule. 
 
 Earliest for general cultivation : — 
 Early Kidney; Nonsuch; Early Shaw; 
 Gold Finder ; Taylor's Forty-fold. 
 
 For main crops, the varieties are 
 ranged in this class, according to their 
 forwardness in ripening : — 
 
 Early Champion ; Leathercoat ; Ox 
 Noble ; Red Nose Kidney, very good ; 
 Large Kidney ; Irish Cup ; Bread Fruit, 
 the best; Red Streak, or Lancashire 
 Pink Eye; Black Skin; Purple; Red 
 Apple ; Rough Red. — All these are 
 English varieties. At Philadelphia, 
 where we write, but two sorts are 
 extensively grown, viz., Mercer and 
 Foxite; the former has had great popu- 
 larity for both quality and product — 
 the latter, though not productive, is the 
 best we have ever seen grown in this 
 country. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — No inhabitant of 
 the garden varies more in quality in 
 different gardens than the potato ; for a 
 variety will have a strong unpleasant 
 flavour in one soil, that has a sweet 
 agreeable one in another. In a heavy 
 wet soil, or a rank black loam, though 
 the crop is often fine and abundant, it 
 is scarcely ever palatable. SiJicious 
 soils, even approaching to gravel, 
 though in these last the tubers are 
 usually corroded or scabby, are always 
 to be planted in preference to the above. 
 A dry, friable, fresh, and moderately 
 rich soil, is unquestionably the best for 
 every variety of" the potato ; and for the 
 earliest crop, it may be with advantage 
 more silicious than for the main ones. 
 
 The black-skinned and rough-red, 
 thrive better than any other in moist 
 strong cold soils. 
 
 If manure is necessary, whatever 
 may be the one employed, it is better 
 spread regularly over the surface pre- 
 vious to digging, than put into the holes 
 with the sets, or spread in the trench 
 when they are so planted. 
 
 Stable dung is perhaps the best of all 
 factitious manures; sea-weed is a very 
 beneficial addition to the soil ; and so 
 is salt. 
 
 Coal-ashes and sea-sand are applied 
 with great benefit to retentive soils. 
 The situation must always be open. 
 
 Time and Modes of Propagation. — It 
 is propagated in general by the tubers, 
 though the shoots arising from thence, 
 
POT 
 
 476 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 POT 
 
 and layers of the stalks, may be em- 
 ployed. New varieties are raised from 
 seed. 
 
 Planting in the open ground must be 
 done with reference to the latitude in 
 which we live — in Pennsylvania, for in- 
 stance, those intended for the earliest 
 crop may be planted in March; for a 
 succession, in April ; and for the main 
 winter supply, in May. Formerly large 
 crops were produced from plantations 
 made in July, but latterly they have not 
 succeeded. 
 
 Sets. — The next point for considera- 
 tion is the preparation of the sets. Some 
 gardeners recommend the largest pota- 
 toes to be planted whole; others, that 
 they be sliced into pieces containing 
 two or three eyes ; a third set, to cut 
 the large tubers directly in half; a 
 fourth, the employment of the shoots 
 only, which are thrown out if potatoes 
 are kept in a warm damp situation ; and 
 a fifth, that merely the parings be em- 
 ployed. Cuttings of the stalks, five or 
 six inches in length, or rooted suckers, 
 will be productive, if planted during 
 showery weather, in May or June ; and 
 during this last month, or early in July, 
 it may be propagated by layers, which 
 are formed by pegging down the young 
 stalks when about twelve inches long, 
 they being covered three inches thick 
 with mould at a joint. These three 
 last modes are practised more from 
 curiosity than utility, whilst at the same 
 time, none of the first five mentioned 
 plans can be individually followed to 
 advantage without modification. For 
 the main crops, it is evident from ex- 
 periment that moderate sized whole 
 potatoes are the best, from which all 
 but two eyes have been removed ; but 
 especially having the crown, which is a 
 congery of small eyes, first removed ; 
 for from these proceed little spindled 
 stalks, which are comparatively worth- 
 less, and injure the main stem. 
 
 For the early crops almost the very 
 contrary to the above is the most ad- 
 vantageous to be practised. The set 
 should have the crown-eye, which is 
 one growing in the centre of the con- 
 gery of small ones above mentioned, 
 preserved. Some potatoes have two 
 such eyes, but the generality only one. 
 This is always the most prompt to ve- 
 getate, and if not known by this de- 
 scription, may be evinced by placing 
 two or three potatoes in a pan of moist 
 
 earth near the fire. If the earth is kept 
 moist, the crown-eye will be in a state 
 of vegetation in five or six days. 
 
 To obtain early crops, where tubers 
 are rapidly formed, large sets must be 
 employed. In these one or two eyes 
 at most should be allowed to remain. 
 If the sets are placed with their lead- 
 ing buds upwards, few and very strong 
 early steins will be produced; but, if 
 the position is reversed, many weak 
 and later shoots will arise, and not only 
 the earliness but the quality of the pro- 
 duce be depreciated. For the earliest 
 crops there are likewise several modes 
 of assisting the forward vegetation of 
 the sets. These should be prepared 
 by removing every eye but one or two ; 
 and being placed in a layer in a warm 
 room, where air and light can be freely 
 admitted, with a covering of straw, 
 they soon emit shoots, which must be 
 strengthened by exposure to the air and 
 light as much as possible, by taking off" 
 the cover without injuring them. Dur- 
 ing cold weather, and at night, it must 
 always be removed : the leaves soon 
 become green and tolerably hardy. In 
 early spring they are planted out, the 
 leaves being left just above the surface, 
 and a covering of litter afforded every 
 night until the danger of frost is passed. 
 
 The only modification of this plan 
 that is adopted in Cheshire, where they 
 are celebrated for the early production 
 of potatoes, is, that they employ chaff 
 or sand for a covering instead of straw. 
 
 Planting. — In garden culture the 
 most preferable mode of inserting them 
 is with the dibble, in rows ; for the 
 early crops twelve inches apart each 
 way, and for the main ones eighteen 
 inches. The sets should be placed six 
 inches beneath the surface. The po- 
 tato-dibble is the best instrument that 
 can be employed ; the earth being after- 
 wards raked or struck in with the spade, 
 and the soil not trampled upon but 
 planted as sufficient is dug for receiving 
 a row. 
 
 The compartment may be laid out 
 level and undivided if the soil is light ; 
 but if heavy soil is necessarily em- 
 ployed, it is best disposed in beds six 
 or eight feet wide. If the staple of the 
 soil be good throughout, the alleys may 
 be two feet wide and dug deep, other- 
 wise they must be made broader, and 
 only one spit taken out, the earth re- 
 moved being employed to raise the 
 
POT 
 
 477 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 POT 
 
 beds, which should not be more than 
 four parallel ridges, and the sets in- 
 serted along their summits. 
 
 Hoeing. — As soon as the plants are 
 well to be distinguished, they should be 
 perfectly freed from weeds ; and of the 
 early crops the earth drawn round each 
 plant, so as to form a cup as a shelter 
 from the cold winds, which are their 
 chief enemy at that season. But the 
 main crops should not be earthed up, 
 for earthing up diminishes the crop one 
 fourth. Throughout their growth they 
 should be kept perfectly clear of weeds. 
 
 It is very injurious to mow off the 
 tops of the plants, as is sometimes re- 
 commended. The foliage ought to be 
 kept as uninjured as possible, unless, 
 as sometimes occurs on fresh ground, 
 the plants are of gigantic luxuriance, 
 and even then the stems should be only 
 moderately shortened. It is, however, 
 of considerable advantage to remove 
 the fruit-stalks and immature flowers as 
 soon as they appear, unless the stems 
 are very luxuriant. A potato plant 
 continues to form tubers until the 
 flowers appear, after which it is em- 
 ployed in ripening those already formed. 
 
 The very earliest crops will be in 
 production in July, or perhaps towards 
 the end of June, and may thence be 
 taken up as wanted until October, at 
 the close of which month, or during 
 November, they may be entirely dug up 
 and stored. In storing, the best mode 
 is to place them in layers, alternately 
 with dry coal-ashes, in a shed. But a 
 still better plan, usually, is to allow 
 them to remain where grown, moulding 
 the rows over six inches deep, and 
 taking them up a week before wanted. 
 The best instrument with which they 
 can be dug up is a three-flat-pronged 
 fork, each row being cleared regularly 
 away. 
 
 The tubers should be sorted at the 
 time of taking them up ; for, as the 
 largest keep the best, they alone should 
 be stored, whilst the smaller ones are 
 first made use of. The most common 
 mode of preserving them, throughout 
 the winter, is in heaps or clamps some- 
 times called pyeing. The heaps are 
 laid in pyramidal form on a bed of straw, 
 and enveloped with a covering, six or 
 eight inches thick, of the same ma- 
 terial, laid even as in thatching, and the 
 whole inclosed with earth, in a conical 
 form, a foot thick, taken from a trench 
 
 dug round the heap, and well smooth- 
 ened with the back of the spade. 
 
 Potatoes should not be stored until 
 perfectly dry, nor unless free from 
 earth, refuse, and wounded tubers. It 
 is a good practice to keep a hole open 
 on four different sides of the heap, 
 entirely through the earth and straw, 
 for a week or two after the heap is 
 formed ; for in proportion to its size it 
 always ferments, and these orifices 
 allow the escape of the vapours and 
 perfect the drying. 
 
 To raise Varieties. — A variety of the 
 potato is generally considered to con- 
 tinue about fourteen years in perfection, 
 after which period it gradually loses its 
 good qualities, becoming of inferior 
 flavour and unproductive ; fresh va- 
 rieties must, therefore, be occasionally 
 raised from seed. The berries, or ap- 
 ples, of the old stock, having hung in a 
 warm room throughout the winter, the 
 seed must be obtained from them by 
 washing away the pulp during February. 
 This is thoroughly dried and kept until 
 April, and then sown in drills about 
 half an inch deep and six inches apart, 
 in a rich light soil. The plants are 
 weeded, and earth drawn up to their 
 stems, when an inch in height: as soon 
 as this has increased to three inches 
 they are moved into a similar soil, in 
 rows, sixteen inches apart each way, 
 and during their future growth earthed 
 up two or three times. Being finally 
 taken up, in the course of October, they 
 must be preserved until the following 
 spring, to be then replanted and treated 
 as for store crops. 
 
 Some gardeners sow in a moderate 
 hot-bed, very thin, in drills the same 
 depth as above, and nine inches apart. 
 Water is frequently and plentifully 
 poured between the rows, and earth 
 drawn about the stems of the seedlings 
 until they are a few inches in height. 
 They are then transplanted into rows, 
 water given, and earthing performed as 
 usual. The only additional advantage 
 of this plan is, that as the seed can be 
 sown earlier, the tubers attain a rather 
 larger size the first year. 
 
 It is to be remarked, that the tubers 
 of every seedling should be kept sepa- 
 rate, as scarcely two will be of a similar 
 habit and quality, whilst many will be 
 comparatively worthless, and but few 
 of particular excellence. If the seed 
 is obtained from a red potato that flow- 
 
POT 
 
 478 
 
 POT 
 
 ered in the neigbourhood of a white- 
 tubered variety, the seedlings, in all 
 probability, will in part resemble both 
 their parents ; but seldom or never does 
 a seedling resemble exactly the original 
 stock. At all events, only such should 
 be preserved as are recommended by 
 their superior earliness, size, flavour, or 
 fertility. 
 
 The early varieties — if planted on 
 little heaps of earth, with a stake in the 
 middle, and when the plants are about 
 four inches high, being secured to the 
 stakes with shreds and nails, and the 
 earth washed away from the bases of 
 the stems by means of a strong current 
 of water, so that the fibrous roots only 
 enter the soil — will blossom and perfect 
 seed. 
 
 Forcing. — The season for forcing is 
 from the close of December to the 
 middle of February, in a hot-bed, and 
 at the close of this last month on a 
 warm border, with the temporary shelter 
 of a frame. The hot-bed is only re- 
 quired to produce a moderate heat. 
 The earth should be six inches deep, 
 and the sets planted in rows six or eight 
 apart, as the tubers are not required 
 to be large. The temperature ought 
 never to sink below 65°, nor rise above 
 80°. 
 
 The rank steam arising from ferment- 
 ing dung is undoubtedly injurious to the 
 roots of potatoes ; and to obviate this 
 they may be planted in narrow beds, 
 and the dung applied in trenches on 
 each side ; or all the earth from an old 
 cucumber or other hot-bed being re- 
 moved, and an inch in depth of fresh 
 being added, put on the sets, and cover 
 them with four inches of mould. At 
 the end of five days the sides of the old 
 dung may be cut away in an inward 
 slanting direction, about fifteen inches 
 from the perpendicular, and strong lin- 
 ings of hot dung applied. 
 
 If the tubers are desired to be brought 
 to maturity as speedily as possible, in- 
 stead of being planted in the earth of 
 the bed, each set should be placed in a 
 pot about six inches in diameter; but 
 the produce in pots is smaller. But 
 young potatoes may be obtained in the 
 winter, according to the following plan, 
 without forcing : — 
 
 Plant some.late kinds, unsprouted, in 
 a dry rich border, in July, and again in 
 August, in rows two feet apart. They 
 will produce new potatoes in October, 
 
 and in succession until April, if covered 
 with leaves or straw to exclude frost. 
 If old potatoes are placed in dry earth, 
 in a shed, during August, they will emit 
 young tubers in December. 
 
 Preparation of Sets for forcing. — 
 They should be of the early varieties. 
 To assist their forward vegetation, plant 
 a single potato in each of the pots in- 
 tended for forcing, during January. 
 Then place in the ground, and protect 
 with litter from the frost. This renders 
 them very excitable by heat; and, con- 
 sequently, when plunged in a hot-bed, 
 they vegetate rapidly and generate tu- 
 bers. The seed potatoes are equally 
 assisted, and with less trouble, if placed 
 in a cellar just in contact with each 
 other, and as soon as the germs are 
 four inches long, are removed to the 
 hot-bed. 
 
 Management. — More than one stem 
 should never be allowed, otherwise the 
 tubers are small, and not more nume- 
 rous. 
 
 Water must be given whenever the 
 soil appears dry, and in quantity propor- 
 tionate to the temperature of the air. 
 Linings must be applied as the temper- 
 ature declines; and air admitted as 
 freely as the temperature of the atmo- 
 sphere will allow. Coverings must be 
 afforded with the same regard to tem- 
 perature. 
 
 From six to seven weeks usually 
 elapse between the time of planting and 
 the fitness of the tubers for use. The 
 average produce from a light soil is 
 about five pounds. 
 
 There is another mode of obtaining 
 young potatoes, during the winter, 
 which is much practised on account of 
 its facility ; though, being produced 
 without foliage, they are not so fine in 
 flavour, are deficient in farina, and are 
 otherwise inferior. Old potatoes often 
 throw out from their sides young ones, 
 early in the spring ; and of this habit 
 advantage is taken in obtaining them 
 still earlier. Some full-grown and ripe 
 tubers, of the ox noble variety, that 
 have no appearance of vegetating, must 
 be laid alternately with layers of per- 
 fectly dry, rich, vegetable mould, four 
 inches deep, in pans or boxes, until 
 they are filled. These may be placed 
 in a thoroughly dry shed, or on a shelf 
 in the kitchen. If the layers are con- 
 structed in the corner of a shed or cel- 
 lar, the produce will be equally good, 
 
POT 
 
 479 
 
 POT 
 
 though longer in coming to perfection, the ichor to the tubers. These should 
 
 No foliage is produced, the potatoes 
 soon are surrounded by numerous young 
 ones of moderate size. No water must 
 ever be admitted on any account. No- 
 tice is to be taken that between three 
 and four months elapse between the 
 time of forming the layers and the fit- 
 ness of the produce for use. Thus if 
 made early in September, the crop will 
 be ready in the course of December. 
 When they are examined, those that 
 are fit may be taken off, and the old 
 potatoes replaced until the remainder 
 are ready. 
 
 Potato Murrain. — By the above 
 name was distinguished a moist gan- 
 grene which attacked very generally 
 the potato crop of England late in the 
 summer of the year 1845. July and 
 August were unusually wet and cold, 
 and early in August there were sharp 
 morning frosts. Immediately after, the 
 stems began to decay; but the weather 
 continuing wet, instead of their decay 
 being dry, and attended with the usual 
 phenomena of their reduction to mere 
 woody fibre, the putrefaction was moist, 
 and the smell attendant upon it precise- 
 ly that evolved during the decay of dead 
 potato haulm partly under water. The 
 stem decayed whilst the fibres connect- 
 ing the tubers with them were fresh 
 and juicy — the putrefaction spread 
 along these, the ichor being absorbed 
 by their still energetic vessels, and 
 passing into the still immature and un- 
 usually juicy tubers, imparted to them 
 the gangrene; the infection first being ap- 
 parent at the end nearest the connecting 
 fibre, spreading gradually throughout 
 the liber of the tuber, rendering it brown 
 like a decayed apple, and lastly causing 
 the decay of its interior portion. Pre- 
 viously to the final decay, the increased 
 specific gravity of the potato was re- 
 markable, amounting to one-third more 
 than that of a healthy tuber — an increase 
 caused by its greater amount of water. 
 When boiled it became black; but when 
 submitted to a dry heat of about 200°, 
 it rapidly lost moisture, and the pro- 
 gress of the ulceration was retarded, if 
 not entirely stopped. 
 
 There can be no preventive for such 
 a disease as this — and the only chance 
 of saving the tubers is to mow off all 
 the haulms close to the ground the 
 moment infection is apparent in them. 
 This might prevent the circulation of 
 
 be taken up forthwith and clamped as 
 recommended by Dr. Lindley, with a 
 layer of earth or sand alternating with 
 each layer of potatoes. 
 
 •The disease seems to be the natural 
 result of an excessive degree of wet and 
 cold at that period of closing growth 
 when all bulbs and tubers require an 
 increased degree of dryness and warmth. 
 If the hyacinth, or tulip, or dahlia are 
 submitted to similar unpropitious con- 
 tingencies, their bulbs or tubers simi- 
 larly decay. 
 
 It is not a new disease, for to a less 
 extent it has been frequently noticed 
 before. The best preservative of the 
 tubers in such ungeniai seasons is to 
 take them up, to dry them perfectly, 
 and then store them in a dry shed in 
 dry coal ashes. 
 
 Much has been written on this sub- 
 ject, and the newspapers here and in 
 Europe have been filled with specula- 
 tions as to its duration, &c. The failure 
 to a considerable extent of the crop of 
 the present year, (1846,) would indicate 
 that the disease is not of such temporary 
 character as had been hoped and pre- 
 dicted. If it continue all the old varie- 
 ties must necessarily be abandoned, and 
 reliance placed on new ones, raised 
 from the seed proper ; therefore, as a 
 matter of precaution, we would recom- 
 mend attention to that object. They 
 are readily produced by carefully sow- 
 ing the seed, and replanting the young 
 tubers in successive seasons, until they 
 attain full size. There is reason to hope 
 such would be free from disease, or at 
 any rate less liable to it, than the older 
 varieties. 
 
 POTATO or UNDER-GROUND 
 ONION. Allium aggregatum. This 
 species of Allium has received the 
 above appellations, on account of its 
 producing a cluster of bulbs or offsets, 
 in number from two to twelve, and even 
 more, uniformly beneath the surface of 
 the soil. From being first introduced 
 to public notice in Scotland by Captain 
 Burns of Edinburgh, it is there also 
 known as the Bum Onion. 
 
 Varieties. — There evidently appear to 
 be two varieties of this vegetable, one 
 of which bears bulbs on the summit of 
 its stems, like the tree onion, and the 
 other never throwing up flower stems 
 at all. One variety is much larger than 
 
POT 
 
 480 
 
 POT 
 
 the other, and this vegetates again as 
 soon as ripe. 
 
 Both varieties are best propagated 
 by offsets of the root of moderate size, 
 for if those are employed which the one 
 variety produces on the summit of its 
 stems, they seldom do more than in- 
 crease in size the first year, but are pro- 
 lific the next ; this also occurs if very 
 small offsets of the root are employed. 
 
 Planting. — They may be planted, 
 during October or November, or as ear- 
 ly in the spring as the season will allow, 
 but not later than April. They are 
 either to be inserted in drills, or by 
 a blunt dibble, eight inches apart each 
 way, not buried entirely, but the top of 
 the offset just level with the surface. 
 Mr. Maher, gardener at Arundle Castle, 
 merely places the sets on the surface, 
 covering them with leaf-mould, rotten 
 dung, or other light compost. The beds 
 they are grown in are better not more 
 than four feet wide, for the convenience 
 of cultivation. 
 
 Cultivation. — The only cultivation 
 required is to keep them clear of weeds. 
 The practice of earthing the mould over 
 them when the stems have grown up is 
 unnatural, and by so doing the bulbs 
 are blanched and prevented ripening 
 perfectly, on which so much depends 
 their keeping. So far from following 
 this plan, Mr. Wedgewood, of Betley, 
 recommends the earth always to be 
 cleared away down to the ring from 
 whence the fibres spring, as soon as 
 the leaves have attained their full size 
 and begin to be brown at the top, so 
 that a kind of basin is formed round the 
 bulb. As soon as they vegetate, they 
 intimate the number of offsetts that will 
 be produced, by showing a shoot for 
 each. 
 
 They attain their full growth towards 
 the end of July ; for immediate use they 
 may be taken up as they ripen, but for 
 keeping, a little before they attain per- 
 fect maturity, which is demonstrated by 
 the same symptoms as were mentioned 
 in speaking of the onion. 
 
 POTENTILLA. One hundred and 
 sixteen species. Hardy herbaceous, 
 except the green-house P. lineariloba. 
 Seed and division. Light loam. 
 
 POTERIUM. Burnet. Six species. 
 Chiefly hardy herbaceous and shrubby. 
 The latter are increased by young cut- 
 tings, and the others by seed. Light 
 rich loam. 
 
 Poterium Sanguisorba. Small, or 
 Upland Burnet. Used in cool tankards, 
 soups, and salads. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — It delights in a 
 dry, poor soil, abounding in calcareous 
 matter ; any light compartment that has 
 an open exposure, therefore, may be 
 allotted to it, the only beneficial addi- 
 tion that can be applied being brick- 
 layers' rubbish or fragments of chalk. 
 A small bed will be sufficient for the 
 supply of a family. 
 
 Propagation is either by seed, or by 
 slips and partings of the roots. The 
 seed may be sown towards the close of 
 February, if open weather, and thence 
 until the close of May; but the best 
 time is in autumn, as soon as it is ripe; 
 for, if kept until the spring, it will often 
 fail entirely, or lie in the ground until 
 the same season of the following year, 
 without vegetating. Insert in drills, 
 six inches apart, thin, and not buried 
 more than half an inch. The plants 
 must he kept thoroughly clear of weeds 
 throughout their growth. When two 
 or three inches high, thin to six inches 
 apart, and those removed place in rows 
 at the same distance, in a poor, shady 
 border, water being given occasionally 
 until they have taken root, after which 
 they will require no further attention 
 until the autumn, when they must be 
 removed to their final station, in rows 
 a foot apart. When of established 
 growth, the only attention requisite is 
 to cut down their stems occasionally in 
 summer, to promote the production of 
 young shoots, and in autumn to have 
 the decayed stems and shoots cleared 
 away. 
 
 If propagated by partings of the roots, 
 the best time for practising it is in Sep- 
 tember and October. They are planted 
 at once where they are to remain, and 
 only require occasional watering until 
 established. The other parts of their 
 cultivation are as for those raised from 
 seed. 
 
 To obtain Seed some of the plants 
 must be left ungathered from, and al- 
 lowed to shoot up early in the summer ; 
 they flower in July, and ripen abund- 
 ance of seed in the autumn. 
 
 POT-HERBS. See Herbary. 
 
 To Dry Pot-Herbs. — Though grow- 
 ing plants can bear an elevated tem- 
 perature without injury, a very different 
 effect is produced upon them by even a 
 lower heat after they have been sepa- 
 
POT 
 
 481 
 
 POT 
 
 rated from their roots. This has to be 
 borne in mind in the drying of pot-herbs, 
 which, though it is a process very sim- 
 ple and very important for the winter 
 cuisine that it should be conducted cor- 
 rectly, is usually more neglected and 
 more thoughtlessly practised than any 
 other in the varied range of the garden- 
 er's duties. To demonstrate this, will 
 only require to have pointed out how it 
 ought to be managed. The flavour of 
 almost every pot-herb arises from an 
 essential oil which it secretes, and this 
 being in the greatest abundance just 
 previously to the opening of its flow- 
 ers, that is the time which ought to 
 be selected for gathering. Pot-herbs 
 ought to be dried quickly, because if 
 left exposed to winds, much of the es- 
 sential oil evaporates, and mouldiness 
 occurring and long continuing destroys 
 it altogether; for nearly every plant 
 has its peculiar mucor, (mould,) the 
 food of which is the characteristic oily 
 secretion of the plant on which it vege- 
 tates. A dry brisk heat is therefore 
 desirable ; and as the fruit store-room 
 ought always to have a stove, and is 
 untenanted when herbs require drying, 
 no other place can be more efficiently 
 employed for the purpose. The tem- 
 perature should be 90°, for if it exceeds 
 this, the essential oils are apt to burst 
 the integuments of the containing ves- 
 sels and to escape. Forty-eight hours, 
 if the heat is kept up steadily, are suffi- 
 cient to complete the process of drying. 
 
 The leaves, in which alone the essen- 
 tial oils of pot-herbs reside, should then 
 be carefully clipped with scissors, not 
 crushed, from the stalks, and stored in 
 tightly corked wide-mouthed bottles. 
 Each will thus preserve its peculiar 
 aroma, not only through the winter, 
 but for years, and be infinitely superior 
 to any specimens producible in the 
 forcing department, for these are una- 
 voidably deficient in flavour. — Princ. 
 of Gardening. 
 
 POTHOS. Thirty-three species. 
 Stove orchids. Division. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 POT-MARIGOLD. Calendula 
 officinalis. 
 
 POTTING. Pots are the first con- 
 sideration, and these are considered 
 under the title Flower Pot. 
 
 Materials required. — These must not 
 be sifted, but the pebbles and rough 
 vegetable fibres be allowed to remain. 
 31 
 
 Mr. Errington has in his potting-shed 
 twenty bins containing as follows: — 
 
 1. Strong tenacious loam. 
 
 2. Half-rotten leaf-mould. 
 
 3. Heath soil. 
 
 4. Horse manure. 
 
 5. Cow manure. 
 
 6. Charcoal wood-ashes. 
 
 7. Fine bone manure. 
 
 8. Sharp sand. 
 
 9. Burnt turf of No. 1. 
 
 10. Sphagnum, well scalded. 
 
 11. Heath soil of No. 3, in one inch 
 
 squares. 
 
 12. Loam of No. 1, in one inch 
 
 squares. 
 
 13. One-inch mixed drainage. 
 
 14. Two-inch mixed drainage. 
 
 15. Mixed drainage, small. 
 
 16. One-inch bottom-crocks. 
 
 17. Two-inch bottom-crocks. 
 
 18. Three-inch bottom-crocks. 
 
 19. Charcoal, large lumps. 
 
 20. One-inch boiled bone for bottoms. 
 Bin 1. (Strong Tenacious Loam.) — 
 
 This is obtained from very old rest land, 
 on a clayey or marly sub-soil ; the more 
 rushes and old coarse grass it contains, 
 the better it is for the potting-shed ; 
 this is piled up in a sharp ridge out of 
 doors, so as to exclude rain ; it should 
 be used for general purposes, when 
 from six to twelve months old ; I house 
 a smaller portion in the compost shed 
 after being dried in the sun; and this, 
 I use for very particular purposes, such 
 in fact as require, according to my esti- 
 mation, lumps of turf in its native state, 
 and for these purposes it is chopped info 
 squares for bin 12. This loam is chop- 
 ped down from a perpendicular facing, 
 (like cutting hay,) when wanted for bin 
 1, and being somewhat mellow, a con- 
 siderable portion of the mere soil falls 
 out loose in the act of chopping. This 
 is rejected, and the masses of chopped 
 turf alone fill bin 1. 
 
 Bin. 2. (Half-rotten Leaf-mould.) — 
 This is generally slightly mixed with 
 rotten dung, as it is the worn out pit 
 linings, which have generally a little 
 dung blended with the leaves. By ly- 
 ing in the compost yard for a few 
 months, the outside becomes mellowed 
 down, and after shaking some of the 
 finest out through a quarter of an inch 
 riddle, it is passed through a sieve of 
 at least one inch in the mesh, and what 
 comes through this is put into bin 2. 
 
 Bin 3. (Heath Soil.) — Obtained from 
 
POT 
 
 482 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 POT 
 
 Delamere Forest, in parts where the 
 heather is cut for making besoms. The 
 upper surface of this heath soil is com- 
 posed of heath leaves and moss, in a 
 raw or half-decomposed state, and too 
 fresh for the purposes of potting ; but 
 beneath this, and in contact with the 
 gray sand, lies a flake of vegetable 
 matter full of the roots of heather, pos- 
 sessing little sand, and compressed by 
 the weight of centuries. This, when 
 divested of the dirty sand under it, and 
 of the mossy and raw matter on the 
 surface, is put in bin 3, after being 
 half-dried. 
 
 Bin 4. (Horse Manure, or Old Horse 
 Droppings.) — Obtain them before high 
 fermentation takes place, and ridge 
 them up in the compost yard, three feet 
 in width, three feet in height, and in- 
 stantly roof them over (to shut in the 
 gases) with double turves, each over- 
 lapping the other: in this way a slight 
 fermentation takes place, which, being 
 arrested, is beneficial. Rain is at all 
 times excluded from this in the compost 
 yard by the roofing. 
 
 Bin 5. (Cow Manure.) — This is cow 
 droppings placed in a ridge, and roofed, 
 similarly to the horse-dung, but allowed 
 to remain to a much greater age ; in 
 fact, when placed in Bin No. 5, it has 
 the appearance of rich peat, being at 
 least two years old. 
 
 Bin 6. (Wood Ashes and Charcoal.) 
 — Brush-wood at bottom, covered with 
 all sorts of garden refuse, viz. cabbage 
 stalks, potato haulm, hedge clippings, 
 and in fact weeds and rubbish of all 
 kinds, which, when about half-burned, 
 are closed up with soils of any kind, 
 and kept smouldering for days; when 
 the combustion is complete it is sub- 
 jected to a riddle of an inch mesh, and 
 what comes through is housed in a dry 
 state in this bin, the rest belongs to 
 bin 19. 
 
 Bin 8. (Sharp Sand.) — Coarse river 
 sand ; but every potting-shed should be 
 furnished with two kinds, the one very 
 coarse and the other very fine, both as 
 sharp as they can be obtained ; the 
 London propagating sand is an invalu- 
 able article. 
 
 Bin 10. (Sphagnum, well scalded.) — 
 This is chiefly for orchidaceous plants, 
 and requires to be steeped in boiling 
 water for some hours previously to be- 
 ing transferred to this bin, in order to 
 destroy insects. It is also useful to j 
 
 cover fresh sown seeds, where it is de- 
 sirable to insure a permanent moisture 
 without frequent watering; it also pro- 
 duces a darkness favourable to germi- 
 nation. 
 
 Bin 13. (One-inch Drainage termed 
 No. 1.) — This is composed of about 
 equal parts of boiled bone, charcoal, 
 and pounded crocks, in lumps averaging 
 an inch square, and intended to cover 
 the rough crock placed over the hole of 
 pots, from No. 32 to No. 16 of the Lon- 
 don sizes inclusive. 
 
 Bin 19. (Charcoal in large lumps.) — 
 This is used to mix with the potsherds 
 for orchidaceous plants, and when large 
 masses are wanted for very large shifts. 
 
 Bin 20. (One-inch boiled Bone.) — 
 This is used after the manner of No. 19, 
 when considered requisite. To the 
 above may be added old tan, riddled 
 particularly clean ; to be intermixed 
 with or placed over the drainage ; for 
 such it answers exceedingly well, not- 
 withstanding the prejudice against it. 
 It is very well adapted for annuals in 
 pots, a single crock with a handful or 
 two of old tan over it, provides a safe 
 drainage for a season, and withal a 
 rooting medium. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Care required. — A principal object to 
 be aimed at in potting is complete drain- 
 age, for nothing is more injurious to 
 most plants than stagnant water about 
 their roots. The drainage is best ef- 
 fected by filling one-fourth the depth of 
 the pot with the larger fragments of 
 bones and charcoal mixed in equal pro- 
 portions; this and the pebbles, woody 
 fibres, &c, which are now allowed to 
 remain in the soil, will remove from it 
 all superfluous water. Dryness in the 
 centre of the ball of earth is another 
 evil to be avoided. Though not usual- 
 ly suspected, it occurs more often than 
 excess of wet, and deprives the roots 
 of a large proportion of their pasturage. 
 To prevent it, a small rod of iron should 
 be thrust through the earth around the 
 stem occasionally, to allow the water 
 poured upon the surface a freer en- 
 trance. Mr. Moore, to effect the same, 
 says — " Whenever a plant (most parti- 
 cularly a valuable specimen plant) is 
 repotted, either in its infancy or in its 
 maturity, I would introduce a few sticks 
 of charcoal perpendicularly into the 
 pot; these should be long enough to 
 extend from the bottom of the pot to 
 the top of the soil j about three might 
 
POU 
 
 483 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 PRO 
 
 be placed at regular intervals, and they 
 should be as close to the roots, and as 
 near to the centre of the pots as possi- 
 ble. Thus if a plant is shifted but 
 once, it will be provided with some chan- 
 nels for moisture, extending throughout 
 the soil, and if it be frequently repotted, 
 the number of these channels may be 
 increased. When these are once in- 
 troduced into the soil they are perma- 
 nent ; for being of material which is 
 not subject to rapid decay, they will 
 serve at least the lifetime of a plant, 
 and by occasionally making use of a 
 simple siphon, a mere worsted thread, 
 in contact with moisture, a slow, mo- 
 derate, and constant supply of moisture 
 may be conveyed at pleasure to and 
 through the centre of the soil, and the 
 whole mass may thus be kept regularly 
 and equably moistened."— Gard. Chron. 
 See One-Shift System. 
 
 POUPARTIA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 POURRETIA. Five species. Stove 
 herbaceous. P. magnispatha is an or- 
 chid. Seed and suckers. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 PRATIA. Three species. Green- 
 house herbaceous. Seed and division. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PREMNA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Seed and cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 P R E S LI A cervina. Hardy herba- 
 ceous. Division. Moist soil. 
 
 PRESTONIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 PRICKLY CEDAR. Cyathodes oxy- 
 cedrus. 
 
 PRIESTLEYA. Fourteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PRIMROSE. Primula vulgaris. 
 
 PRIMULA. Forty-nine species and 
 many varieties. Herbaceous and all 
 hardy except the fringed green-house 
 varieties, P. preenitens, and the species 
 P. verticillata. Division and seed. 
 Loam and leaf-mould. 
 
 P. auricula. See Auricula. 
 
 P. elatior. Oxl ip. 
 
 P. prcenitens or sinensis. Chinese 
 Primrose. This is hardy if grown in a 
 light, well-drained soil, but its white 
 and pink fringed varieties require win- 
 tering in the green-house. 
 
 P. veris. Cowslip. 
 
 P. vulgaris. Primrose. Of this there 
 are the following cultivated varieties: 
 Brimstone: Crimson; Hose-in-hose; Li- 
 lac; Purple; Scotch; Stemless White; 
 White and Yellow. All the species 
 may be cultivated like the Polyanthus. 
 
 PRINCE, WILLIAM. The name of 
 Prince is identified with American hor- 
 ticulture. Perhaps no man has done 
 more to gratify the taste of amateurs of 
 flowers and fruit than the late William 
 Prince, whose extensive grounds at 
 Flushing, New York, were the nursery 
 of almost every vegetable calculated to 
 please the eye or palate. We regret 
 that there is not within our reach the 
 data from which to draft a particular 
 description of the foundation, rise and 
 progress of the " Linnsean Botanic 
 Garden." 
 
 PRINCE'S FEATHER. Amaran- 
 thus hypochondriacus. 
 
 PRINOS. Eleven species. Hardy 
 deciduous shrubs, except the stove 
 evergreen P. montanus and P. lucidus, 
 which is evergreen and hardy. Cut- 
 tings and layers. Light loam and 
 peat. 
 
 PRISMATOCARPUS. Four species. 
 P. diffusus is a green-house evergreen 
 shrub ; P. fruticosus is a hardy ever- 
 green shrub ; the others green-house 
 herbaceous. Young cuttings and seed. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PRIVET. Ligustrum. 
 
 PROCKIA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 PROLIFEROUS. See Double- 
 Flower. 
 
 PROPS are the supports required by 
 plants to sustain them in a desired 
 position. They must vary in height 
 and strength accordantly with the plant 
 to which they are applied, and should 
 always be as slight as is consistent 
 with efficiency. Nothing looks worse 
 than a disproportioned prop ; indeed it 
 should be concealed as much as pos- 
 sible. The props for peas should be 
 of the branches of the hazel ; for run- 
 ner kidney beans, rods of ash. For 
 flowers, stout iron wire painted dark 
 green are to be preferred. Some 
 flowers require props of a peculiar 
 form ; but these will be described 
 when giving directions for their cul- 
 | ture. Whenever wooden props are 
 
PRO 
 
 484 
 
 PRU 
 
 used, the end thrust into the ground 
 should be previously charred ; if this 
 precaution be taken, and when no 
 longer required, they are stored in a 
 dry shed, they will last for several 
 seasons. Props should be placed on 
 the south sides of the plants, as they 
 incline in that direction, as being most 
 light. 
 
 PROSERPINACA. Two species. 
 Half-hardy annual aquatics. Seed. 
 Rich loam in water. 
 
 PROSOPIS. Five species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 PROSTANTHERA. Seven species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 PROTEA. Forty-seven species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
 cuttings taken off at a joint ; sandy turfy 
 loam, well drained. Water moderate- 
 ly, but regularly. 
 
 PRUNELLA. Self-Heal. Fourteen 
 Bpecies. P. Browniana and P. ovata 
 are hardy annuals, the others hardy 
 herbaceous. Seed or division. Light 
 rich loam. 
 
 PRUNING, as practised in the gar- 
 den, has for its object the regulation of 
 the branches to secure the due pro 
 duction of blossom and maturity of 
 fruit. If carried to too great an extent, 
 that object is not attained, for every 
 tree requires a certain amount of leaf- 
 surface for the elaboration of its sap ; 
 and, therefore, if this be reduced too 
 much, blossom buds are produced less 
 abundantly, for leaves are more neces- 
 sary for the health of the plant, and by 
 a wise provision the parts less requi- 
 site for individual vigour are super- 
 seded by the parts more needed. On 
 the other hand, if the branches are left 
 too thick, they overshadow those be- 
 neath them, and so exclude the light, 
 as to prevent that elaboration of the 
 sap, without which no blossom buds 
 are formed, but an excessive produc- 
 tion of leaves, in the vain effort to at- 
 tain by an enlarged surface that elabo- 
 ration which a smaller surface would 
 effect in a more intense light. The 
 appropriate pruning is given when 
 considering each species of fruit trees, 
 and here we must confine ourselves 
 to a few general remarks : " The 
 season for pruning must be regulated 
 in some degree by the strength of the 
 tree ; for although, as a general rule, 
 
 the operation should not take place un- 
 til the fall of the leaf indicates that 
 vegetation has ceased, yet if the tree 
 be weak, it may be often performed 
 with advantage a little earlier ; but 
 still so late in the autumn as to pre- 
 vent the protrusion of fresh shoots. 
 This reduction of the branches before 
 the tree has finished vegetating, directs 
 a greater supply of sap to those re- 
 maining, and stores up in them the 
 supply for increased growth next sea- 
 son. If the production of spurs is the 
 object of pruning a branch, it should be 
 pruned so as to leave a stump ; because 
 as the sap supplied to the branch will 
 be concentrated upon those buds re- 
 maining at its extremity, these will be 
 productive of shoots, though otherwise 
 they would have remained dormant, it 
 being the general habit of plants first to 
 develop and mature parts that are far- 
 thest from the roots. It is thus the 
 filbert is induced to put forth an abund- 
 ance of young bearing wood, for its 
 fruit is borne on the annual shoots, and 
 similar treatment to a less severe ex- 
 tent is practised upon wall fruit." — 
 Trine, of Gardening. 
 
 The mystery of pruning consists in 
 being well acquainted with the mode of 
 the bearing of the different sorts of 
 trees, and forming an early judgment 
 of the future events of shoots and 
 branches, and many other circum- 
 stances, for which some principal rules 
 may be given ; but there are particular 
 instances which cannot be judged of 
 but upon the spot, and depend chief- 
 ly upon practice and observation. — 
 Peaches, nectarines, apricots, &c, all 
 produce their fruit principally upon the 
 young wood of a year old ; that is, the 
 shoots produced this year bear the year 
 following ; so that in all these trees, a 
 general supply of the best shoots of 
 each year must be everywhere pre- 
 served at regular distances, from the 
 very bottom to the extremity of the 
 tree on every side ; but in winter prun- 
 ing, or general shortening, less or 
 more, according to the strength of the 
 different shoots, is necessary, in order 
 to promote their throwing out, more 
 effectually, a supply of young wood 
 the ensuing summer, in proper place 
 for training in for the succeeding year's 
 bearing. 
 
 Vines also produce their fruit always 
 upon the young wood shoots of the 
 
PRU 
 
 485 
 
 PRU 
 
 same year, arising from the eyes of the 
 last year's wood only; and must, there- 
 fore, have a general supply of the best 
 regular shoots of each year trained in, 
 which, in winter pruning, must be 
 shortened to a few eyes, in order to 
 force out shoots from their lower parts, 
 only properly situated to lay in for bear- 
 ing the following year. 
 
 Figs bear also only upon the young 
 wood of a year old, and a general sup- 
 ply of it is, therefore, necessary every 
 year ; but these shoots must at no time 
 be shortened, unless the ends are dead, 
 because they always bear principally 
 towards the extreme part of the shoots, 
 which, if shortened, would take the 
 bearing or fruitful parts away ; besides, 
 they naturally throw out a sufficient 
 supply of shoots every year for future 
 bearing, without the precaution of 
 shortening. 
 
 Apple, pear, plum, and cherry trees 
 bear principally on spurs, arising in the 
 wood of from two or three, to ten or 
 twenty years old, the same branches 
 and spurs continuing bearing a great 
 number of years ; so that, having once 
 procured a proper set of branches in 
 the manner already directed to form a 
 spreading head, no farther supply of 
 wood is wanted than some occasional 
 shoots now and then to supply the 
 place of any worn out or dead branch. 
 The above-mentioned spurs or fruit- 
 buds are short robust roots of from 
 about half an inch to one or two inches 
 long, arising naturally, first towards the 
 extreme parts of the branches of two or 
 three years old, and, as the branch in- 
 creases in length, the number of fruit- 
 buds increases accordingly. 
 
 In pruning always cut quite close, 
 both in the summer and winter prun- 
 ing, which, in the summer pruning, if 
 attended to early, while the shoots are 
 quite young and tender, they may rea- 
 dily be rubbed off quite close with the 
 thumb; but when the shoots become 
 older and woody, as they will not rea- 
 dily break, it must be done with a knife, 
 cutting them as close as possible ; and 
 all winter pruning must always be per- 
 formed with a knife. In pruning in 
 summer, the necessaj-y supply of regu- 
 lar shoots left for training in should 
 never be shortened during this season, 
 unless to particular shoots,, to fill a va- 
 cancy ; for, by a general shortening in 
 this season, all the shoots so treated 
 
 would soon push again vigorously from 
 every eye, and render the trees a thick- 
 et of useless wood. Therefore, all 
 sorts, whether they require shortening 
 in the winter pruning or not, should, in. 
 the summer dressing, be layed in at 
 full length; but towards the end of Au- 
 gust, the extreme points may be pinch- 
 ed off with great advantage. The sap 
 is thus made to complete the growth of 
 the shoot, and not to increase its length ; 
 and it is too late in the season for fresh 
 shoots to be induced. 
 
 Summer pruning is a most necessary 
 operation. Young shoots require thin- 
 ning to preserve the beauty of the trees, 
 and encourage the fruit ; and the soon- 
 er it is performed the better. It is, 
 therefore, advisable to begin this work 
 in May, or early in June, removing 
 all superfluous growths and ill placed 
 shoots, which may be performed with 
 considerably more expedition and ex- 
 actness than when after the trees have 
 shot a- considerable length. Where, 
 however, a tree is inclined to luxuri- 
 ancy, it is proper to retain as many of 
 the regular shoots as can be commodi- 
 ously trained in with any regularity, in 
 order to divide and exhaust the too 
 abundant sap. It will be necessary to 
 review the trees occasionally, in order 
 to reform such branches or shoots as 
 may have started from their places, or 
 taken a wrong direction; also that, ac- 
 cordingly as any fresh irregular shoots 
 produced since the general dressing 
 may be displaced ; and, likewise, asi 
 the already trained shoots advanced 
 in length, or project from the wall 
 or espalier, they should be trained in 
 close. 
 
 In the winter pruning, a general re- 
 gulation must be observed, both of the 
 mother branches, and the supply of 
 young wood laid in the preceding sum- 
 mer ; and the proper time for this work 
 is any time in open weather, from the 
 fall of the leaf in November, until 
 March; but the sooner the better. In 
 performing this work, it is proper to 
 unnail or loosen a chief part of the 
 branches, particularly of peaches, nec- 
 tarines, apricots, vines, and other trees 
 requiring an annual supply of young 
 wood. First look over all the principal 
 or mother branches, and examine il 
 any are worn out, or not furnished with 
 parts proper for bearing fruit, and let 
 such branches be cut down to the great 
 
PRU 
 
 486 
 
 PS Y 
 
 branch from which they proceed, or to 
 any lower shoot or bottom part, leaving 
 these to supply its place. Likewise 
 examine if any branches are become too 
 long for the allotted space, either at 
 sides or top, and let them be reformed 
 accordingly, by shortening them down 
 to some lower shoot or branch proper- 
 ly situated to supply the place, being 
 careful that every branch terminates 
 in a young shoot for a leader, and not 
 stumped off at the extremity. From 
 the principal or larger branches pass to 
 the shoots of the year which were train- 
 ed up in summer, first cutting out close 
 all foreright and other irregular shoots 
 that may have been omitted in the sum- 
 mer pruning 5 likewise all very weak 
 shoots, and those of very luxuriant 
 growth, unless it be necessary to keep 
 some to supply a vacant place. In this 
 pruning, as in the summer dressing, it 
 is of importance to have a strict eye to 
 the lower parts of wall-trees, &c, to 
 see if there is any present vacancy, or 
 any that apparently will soon happen, 
 in which cases, if any good shoot is 
 situated contiguous, it should be train- 
 ed in, either at full length, or shorten it 
 to a few eyes, to force out two or more 
 shoots, if they shall seem necessary; for 
 precaution should ever be observed in 
 taking care to have betimes a sufficient 
 stock of young wood coming forward to 
 fill up any casual vacancy, and substi- 
 tute a new set of branches in place of 
 such as are either decayed or stand in 
 need of retrenchment. 
 
 Sometimes in wall-trees and espaliers 
 there are many large disagreeable bar- 
 ren spurs, consisting both of old worn 
 out fruit spurs, and of clusters of stumps 
 of shortened shoots projecting conside- 
 rably from the branches, occasioned 
 by unskilful pruning, when retrenching 
 the superabundant and irregular shoots 
 which, instead of being cut out close, 
 are stumped off to an inch or two long. 
 At this season of pruning, it is advisable 
 to reform them as well as possible, by 
 cutting all the most disagreeable stumps 
 close to the branches, leaving these at 
 full length, especially if apples, pears, 
 &c, and reserve an occasional supply 
 of young wood in different parts, and 
 thus, in two or three years, you may 
 reduce such trees to a regular figure, 
 and a proper stale of bearing. 
 
 Too severe pruning is greatly preju- 
 dicial to the health of some sorts of 
 
 fruit. Plums and cherries, in particu- 
 lar, are often greatly damaged by a too 
 severe discipline of the knife, these 
 trees being very liable to gum by large 
 amputations. It is, therefore, of import- 
 ance to attend to these trees well in the 
 summer pruning, to retrench all the 
 superfluous and irregular shoots while 
 quite young, and pinch others occasion- 
 ally where wood is wanted to fill va- 
 cancies, so as to require but little prun- 
 ing out of large wood in winter. — 
 Abercrombie. 
 
 PRUNING APPARATUS. In all 
 mechanical operations success is more 
 certainly attained by the use of proper 
 implements; though pruning or the lop- 
 ping of branches may be very simple, 
 yet there is great advantage in execut- 
 ing it with the instruments best adapted 
 to the purpose, most of which are de- 
 scribed in these pages, under their 
 proper heads. 
 
 PRUNUS. Plum. Eight species and 
 many varieties. P. domestica, see Plum. 
 All hardy deciduous trees. Seed, suck- 
 ers, and grafting or budding. Common 
 soil, well drained. 
 
 PSIDIUM. Guava. Thirteen spe- 
 cies. Stove evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 PSOPHOCARPUS tetragono- 
 bulus. Annual stove twiner. Seed. 
 Light rich loam. 
 
 PSORALEA. Forty-two species. 
 The green-house and stove evergreens 
 are increased by cuttings ; the half- 
 hardy herbaceous, by seed and cut- 
 tings ; the biennials, by seed. All re- 
 quire light loam and peat. 
 
 PSYCHOTRIA. Sixteen species. P. 
 daphnoides is a green-house evergreen 
 shrub; P. parasitica is a parasite, and 
 the others stove evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 P S Y L L A . The chermes, nearly 
 allied to the aphis. P. pyri, Pear 
 chermes, appears in May, not unlike a 
 large aphis, crimson coloured, shaded 
 with black. Mr. Kollar thus details its 
 habits : — 
 
 " As soon as the fruit trees put out 
 buds, the winged chermes makes its 
 appearance. When pairing is over, the 
 female lays her eggs in great numbers 
 near each other on the young leaves 
 and blossoms, or on the newly formed 
 fruit and shoots. They are of a longish 
 shape, and yellow ; and, without a mag- 
 nifying glass, they resemble the pollen 
 
PS Y 
 
 487 
 
 PTE 
 
 of flowers. They are called either 
 nymphs or larvae in this state (accord- 
 ing to the extent of their develop- 
 ment); and, like their parents, have 
 their mouth in the breast. After a few 
 days, they change their skins, and be- 
 come darker, and somewhat reddish on 
 the breast, and rather resemble bugs 
 than plant-lice, having the extreme 
 point of the body somewhat broad, and 
 beset with bristles. After changing 
 their skins, they leave the leaves, blos- 
 soms, and fruit, and proceed more 
 downwards to the bearing wood and 
 the shoots of last year, on which they 
 fix themselves securely, one after the 
 other, in rows, and remain there till 
 their last transformation. 
 
 " When the nymphs have moulted 
 for the last time, and have attained their 
 full size, the body swells out by de- 
 grees, and becomes cylindrical. They 
 then leave their associates, and before 
 they lay aside their nymph-like cover- 
 ing, they search out a leaf to which 
 they fasten themselves firmly, and ap- 
 pear as if they were lifeless. After a 
 few minutes the skin splits on the upper 
 part of the covering, and a winged in- 
 sect proceeds from it. It is of a plea- 
 sant green colour, with red eyes, and 
 snow-white wings. It very much re- 
 sembles its parents in spring, even in 
 the colour. After a few days, this 
 chermes has assumed the colours of 
 the perfect insect ; the head, collar, and 
 thorax, are of an orange colour, and 
 only the abdomen retains its green hue. 
 It now flies away from the place of its 
 birth, to enjoy the open air." 
 
 P. mali. Apple Chermes. For the 
 following I am also indebted to the too 
 much neglected work of M. Kollar : — 
 
 " It usually appears in June. In 
 September, the apple chermes pair, and 
 lay their eggs. They are white, and 
 pointed at both ends, a line and a half 
 long, and the fourth of a line thick, 
 and become yellow before the young 
 escapes. The apple chermes lays its 
 eggs in different places of the twigs of 
 an apple-tree ; usually, however, in the 
 furrows of the knots, and sometimes in 
 a very regular manner. The larva? 
 were scarcely escaped from the egg, in 
 the open air, when they hastened to 
 the nearest bud, and began to gnaw its 
 scales, because the bud was only some- 
 what swollen, and had not begun to 
 sprout. On the second day after their 
 
 birth, they cast their first skin, after 
 which they appeared nearly of their 
 former shape and colour. The second 
 changing of the skin can sometimes be 
 scarcely seen at all, because the larva 
 not only puts out a thicker string with 
 the tubercle, but also an immense num- 
 ber of very fine entangled threads or 
 small hairs, which it turns upwards 
 over its back, and with them entirely 
 covers its body and head. In sunshine, 
 these strings look transparent, as if 
 they were made of glass, and become 
 of a greenish variable colour. Under 
 this screen the chermes are secured 
 from every attack of other insects ; for 
 no ants, mites, or bugs can disturb 
 them in their fortification, or consume 
 them as their prey. After changing 
 the second skin, the young assumed a 
 different colour and form ; they now 
 became light green all over, the abdo- 
 men was much broader than the thorax, 
 and on the side of the latter, rudiments 
 of the wings were distinctly seen. The 
 third time of changing the skin comes 
 on in about eight days, sometimes 
 sooner and sometimes later, according 
 to the weather. After this skin the 
 wing rudiments very distinctly make 
 their appearance, and become larger 
 and whiter the nearer the insect ap- 
 proaches to the perfect state. The 
 body is also of a light green, and the 
 larvas have black eyes, and blackish 
 antenna?. At last the time arrives when 
 the insect assumes the perfect state ; 
 when it retires to a part of a leaf which 
 it had selected, and after having firmly 
 fixed itself there, the back splits open, 
 and the beautiful winged chermes ap- 
 pears from the nymph. The back of 
 the thorax is of a light green, the abdo- 
 men is marked with yellow rings, and 
 the membranous wings with strongly 
 marked snow-white veins." 
 
 P. cratcegi infests the camellia. It 
 is destroyed by syringing with tobacco 
 water, or diluted gas ammoniacal liquor, 
 until the insects are dead, and then 
 syringing with water only. 
 
 P. ficus and P. ?~os<z, are respectively 
 on the fig and rose trees. 
 
 PTELEA trifoliata. Hardy decidu- 
 ous shrub. Layers. Light rich loam. 
 
 PTELIDIUM ovatum. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Ripe cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 PTERIS. Forty-six species. Stove, 
 green-house, and hardy and herbaceous 
 
PTE 
 
 PUT 
 
 ferns. Division and seed. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 PTEROCARPUS. Eight species. P. 
 scandens is a stove climber, and the 
 others stove evergreen trees. Young 
 cuttings. Rich light loam. 
 
 PTEROCEPHALUS. Four species. 
 P. dumetorum is a green-house ever- 
 green shrub, the others are hardy an- 
 nuals ; the first is increased by cuttings, 
 and all by seed. Light loam. 
 
 PTERODISCUS speciosus. Stove tu- 
 ber. Division. Rich sandy loam. Pro- 
 bably half-hardy. 
 
 PTERONEURON. Two species. 
 One herbaceous, the other annual ; 
 both hardy. Seed. Light loam. 
 
 PTERONIA. Nine species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 PTEROSPERMUM. Six species. 
 Stove evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 PTEROSTYLIS. Twelve species. 
 Green-house orchids. Division. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 PTILOSTEPHIUM. Two species. 
 Hardy annuals. Seed, in a hot-bed; 
 and seedlings planted in light open 
 border. 
 
 PUCCOON. Sanguinaria. 
 
 PUDDLING. See Mudding. 
 
 PUERARIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen climbers. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PULMONARIA. Eight species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Division. Light 
 loam. 
 
 PULTEN^EA. Fifty species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Half-ripe cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 PUMPKIN. Cucurbita pepo. See 
 Gourd. 
 
 PUNICA. Pomegranate. Two spe- 
 cies, and several varieties. Half-hardy 
 deciduous shrubs. All are increased 
 by cuttings and layers, and the less 
 common by grafting on the more com- 
 mon. Light rich loam. The fruit of 
 the common pomegranate, P. granatum, 
 ripens well against a south wall. 
 
 PUNNET. See Basket. 
 
 PURSBIA tridentata. Hardy ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Light well 
 drained loam. 
 
 PURSH, FREDERICK, was a native 
 of Germany, and is distinguished as an 
 early classifier of our native vegetables. 
 He immigrated to the United States 
 somewhere about 1800, and was for a 
 
 short period, we believe, in charge of 
 the Hamilton collection, at the Wood- 
 lands, near Philadelphia. His "Flora 
 Septentrionalis , or a systematic arrange- 
 ment and description of the plants of 
 North America," is a standard work, 
 and evinces his thorough acquaintance 
 with the subject. But little is known 
 of Pursh's personal history. 
 
 PURSLANE. Portulaca. 
 
 P. oleracea. Green, or Garden Purs- 
 lane. 
 
 P. sativa. Golden Purslane. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — A light rich soil 
 is the one in which they thrive most, 
 and they must have a warm situation, 
 as a south border. Sow in February 
 and early in March, in a moderate hot- 
 bed, to remain where sown ; and at the 
 close of March, and once monthly, 
 during April, May, and the summer 
 months until the end of August, in the 
 open ground. 
 
 Sow in drills six inches apart, very 
 thin, and about half an inch deep. The 
 plants soon make their appearance. 
 They must be kept clear of weeds, and 
 thinned to six or eight inches asunder. 
 In dry weather water is required mode- 
 rately two or three times a week. 
 
 In general, they are ready forgather- 
 ing from in six weeks after sowing, the 
 young shoots being made use of from 
 two to five inches in length, and the 
 plants branch out again. 
 
 The hot-bed crops require the air to 
 be admitted as freely as possible, the 
 temperature ranging between 50° and 
 75°. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — As a small quantity 
 will suffice for the largest family, a few 
 of the earliest border-raised plants must 
 be left ungathered from; the strongest 
 and largest leaved being selected; they 
 blossom in June and July. They must 
 be cut immediately the seed is ripe, laid 
 on a cloth, and when perfectly dry, 
 thrashed. The refuse is best separated 
 by means of a very fine sieve. 
 
 PURSLANE-TREE. Portulacaria. 
 
 PUSCHKINIA scilloides. Half-hardy 
 bulb. Offsets. Sandy loam. 
 
 PUTTY is a compound of boiled lin- 
 seed oil and whiting, but as it may be 
 bought in London at half-a-guinea per 
 cwt., it is scarcely worth the gardener's 
 while to make it. One hundred weight 
 is enough for puttying about three hun- 
 dred square feet of glass. 
 
 Old putty may be softened by apply- 
 
PYC 
 
 QUI 
 
 ing to it rags dipped in a saturated solu- 
 tion of caustic potash, leaving them on 
 for twelve hours ; or by rubbing a hot 
 iron along the putty. 
 
 If the gardener does make putty, the 
 whiting should be well dried, and then 
 pounded and sifted till it becomes a fine 
 powder, and is quite free from grit. 
 The whiting, a little warm, should be 
 gradually added to the oil, and well 
 mixed by means of a piece of stick, or 
 a spatula. When it is sufficiently stiff, 
 it should be well worked with the hand 
 on a table, and afterwards beaten on a 
 stone with a wooden mallet, till it be- 
 comes a soft, smooth, tenacious mass. 
 A ball of putty, when left some days, 
 becomes somewhat hard, but may be 
 easily softened by beating. 
 
 PYCNANTHEMUM. Seven species. 
 Hardy herbaceous. Division. Peat, 
 with a little light loam. 
 
 PYCNOSTACHIS ccerulea. Stove 
 annual. Seed. Light rich loam. 
 
 PYRALIS forficalis. Cabbage-gar- 
 den Pebble Moth. Its appearance and 
 habits are thus detailed by M. Kollar : 
 — ^The head, back, and upper wings 
 of the moth are hazel-brown, and brown- 
 ish gold ; the antennae light brown ; the 
 abdomen and under wings whitish. On 
 the upper wings are two distinct, and 
 two faint deep rusty-brown stripes. 
 The first brood flies in May, and the 
 second in August. The caterpillar is 
 found in May and June, and the second 
 generation in September and October. 
 It has a light-brown head, and a yel- 
 lowish-green body, with blackish stripes 
 running lengthwise, and blackish dots 
 having fine white lines between, and 
 white incisions and spiracles. Its length 
 is about eight lines. When these cater- 
 pillars are numerous, they do important 
 damage to the cabbage tribe, and horse- 
 radish. 
 
 PYRASTER. Pyrus communis py- 
 raster. 
 
 PYRETHRUM. Fifty species. 
 Hardy herbaceous, and green-house 
 evergreen shrubs, except a few hardy 
 annuals, and P. simplicifolium, which 
 is a stove evergreen trailer. The shrubs 
 are increased by cuttings, the herba- 
 ceous by division, and the annuals by 
 seed. A light rich loam suits the 
 whole. 
 
 PYROLA. Eight species. Hardy 
 herbaceous. Division and seed. Shady 
 border of peat, with a little light loam. 
 
 PYROLIRION aureum. Green-house 
 bulb. Offsets. Sandy loam. 
 
 PYRULARIA pub'era. Half-hardy 
 deciduous shrub. Cuttings. Light 
 loam. 
 
 PYRUS. Forty-four species, and 
 very numerous varieties. Seed, cuttings, 
 and grafting. Light loam, well drained. 
 See Apple, Pear, and Service. 
 
 PYXID ANTHER A barbulata. Half- 
 hardy trailer. Cuttings and division. 
 Peat, and a little sandy loam. 
 
 QUAMOCLIT. Ten species. Herb- 
 aceous, and annual. Q. sanguined is 
 evergreen. Young cuttings or seed. 
 Light rich loam. 
 
 QUENOUILLE is a fruit tree, with 
 a central stem, and its branches trained 
 in horizontal tiers, the lowest being the 
 longest, and the others of course gradu- 
 ally lessening in length as they do in 
 age, so that the tree, like a spruce fir, 
 acquires a pyramidal form. 
 
 QUERCUS. The Oak. Forty-eight 
 species, and many varieties. Hardy 
 evergreen and deciduous trees. Seed, 
 and grafting for some of the merely or- 
 namental kinds. Deep clayey loam in 
 valleys. Q. cerris, Bitter Oak. Q. 
 robur or sessiliflorum, Common Oak. 
 Q. ilex, Evergreen Oak. 
 
 QUICKSET, the same as the Haw- 
 thorn, or Whitethorn, Cratcegus oxya- 
 cantha. See Hedge. 
 
 QUINCE. Cydonia vulgaris. 
 
 Varieties: — Common ; Apple-shaped; 
 Pear-shaped ; and Portugal. The last 
 is the best, and very distinct from the 
 others. C. sinensis, the Chinese Quince, 
 has been fruited in this country, but it 
 requires a wall. The fruit is very dif- 
 ferent from that of either the common 
 or Portugal quinces; it is cylindrical, 
 about six inches in length, and exceed- 
 ingly gritty. 
 
 Method of Propagation and general 
 Culture. — The trees may be raised from 
 seed sown in autumn, but there is no 
 certainty of having the same or any good 
 fruit from seedlings. But the several 
 varieties may be propagated by cuttings 
 and layers ; also by suckers from such 
 trees as grow upon their own roots, and 
 by grafting and budding upon their own 
 or pear-stocks. 
 
 The propagation by cuttings, layers, 
 and suckers, may be performed in 
 autumn, winter, or early spring. 
 
 Choose young wood for the cuttings 
 and layers. They will be rooted by 
 
QUI 
 
 490 
 
 RAD 
 
 next autumn; then transplant into nur- 
 sery rows two feet asunder; plant the 
 suckers also at the same distance, and 
 train the whole for the purposes intend- 
 ed; if for standards with a stem, to any 
 desired height, from three to six feet; 
 then encourage them to branch out at 
 top, to form a head ; and those designed 
 as dwarfs must be headed near the 
 ground, and trained accordingly, for 
 espaliers or dwarf standards. 
 
 When they have formed tolerable 
 heads, plant them out finally. Standard 
 quinces, designed as fruit trees, may be 
 stationed in the garden or orchard and 
 some by the sides of any water in by 
 places, suffering the whole to take their 
 own natural growth. And as espaliers 
 they may be arranged with other mode- 
 rate growing trees, about fifteen feet 
 apart. — Abercrombie. 
 
 QUINCUNX is the form resulting 
 from planting in rows, with one plant 
 opposite the centre of each vacancy 
 in the row on each side of it, as in this 
 diagram. — 
 
 Fig. 138. 
 
 QUISQUALIS. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Young cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 QUIVISIA heterophylla. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Ripe cuttings. Peat and 
 light loam. 
 
 RADISH.— "The Radish is originally 
 from the East Indies, but cultivated in 
 Europe since the sixteenth century. 
 Formerly the leaves were often boiled 
 and stewed ; but now the roots are 
 chiefly employed. The young seedling 
 leaves are often used with cress and 
 mustard, as small salad, and radish seed 
 pods, when of plump growth, but still 
 young and green, are used to increase 
 the variety of vegetable pickles, and 
 are considered a tolerable substitute for 
 capers. 
 
 "The well known manner in which 
 this vegetable is cultivated, renders 
 any observations thereon unnecessary. 
 All that is required, is to point out the 
 
 varieties which answer best at different 
 seasons of the year. For the early 
 crops, use the Long Scarlet Short Top ; 
 the Long Salmon, similar to the above, 
 but of lighter colour, and white at the 
 point; the Scarlet Turnip Rooted, and 
 White Turnip Rooted ; frequent sow- 
 ings are necessary, as all the foregoing 
 soon become pithy and shoot to seed. 
 In flavour they differ but little; dis- 
 crimination is from fancy. At the same 
 time the early kinds are sown, make 
 a sowing of the Yellow Turnip, and 
 Summer White, which are fine kinds, 
 withstand the heat, and are firm and 
 crisp even in hot weather ; frequent 
 sowings of these, as well as the White 
 Spanish or Black Spanish, as mostliked, 
 should be made during the summer 
 months. The two latter kinds sown in 
 the autumn, keep well throughout the 
 winter, if secured from frost. In the 
 autumn, any of the early kinds may be 
 again sown ; when about to do so, al- 
 ways observe to dig the earth deeply, 
 and pulverize it well, which tends to 
 produce fine shaped roots." — Rural 
 Reg. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — Leave in April or 
 early May, some of the most perfect 
 plants of a main crop. When in full 
 vigour they must be taken up with as 
 little injury as possible to the roots and 
 leaves, and planted in rows three feet 
 asunder each way, being inserted by 
 the dibble, completely down to the 
 leaves. Water must be applied until 
 they have taken root, and occasionally 
 throughout their growth,, especially 
 when in flower. If practicable, it is 
 best to leave some plants where raised. 
 
 To obtain seeds of the Black Span- 
 ish, some seeds must be sown in March, 
 or some of the winter-standing crop 
 left or transplanted during that month. 
 
 The flowers open from June until 
 August, and their pods are of a size fit 
 for pickling, as they must be gathered 
 whilst young and tender, during that 
 last month, or July. For seed, they 
 must be cut as soon as they become of 
 a brown hue, and well dried, otherwise 
 it will thresh with difficulty. 
 
 Two varieties must never be raised 
 near each other, and seed of the pre- 
 vious year's raising should always be 
 employed. 
 
 Forcing. — A moderate hot-bed is re- 
 quired for this crop, of a length ac- 
 cording with that of the frame to be 
 
RAF 
 
 491 
 
 RAM 
 
 employed ; the earth about eight inches 
 deep, on the surface of which the seed 
 is to be sown as soon as the violent 
 heat is abated, and an additional half- 
 inch sifted over it. 
 
 The seedlings are in general up in 
 less than a week, and in six they will 
 be ready to draw. Throughout their 
 growth air must be admitted as freely 
 as is allowable. The glasses, however, 
 must be closed on the approach of even- 
 ing, and mats or other covering put on 
 in proportion to the severity of the sea- 
 son. When the earth appears at all 
 dry, a light watering must be given 
 during the noon. 
 
 The plants must not stand nearer 
 than two inches to each other. The 
 temperature required is from 50° to 
 70° ; and it must be kept to this heat 
 by moderate coatings as required. 
 
 If there be a deficiency of frames, 
 hoops and mats may be employed, a 
 
 Fig. 
 
 frame of boards being formed round the 
 bed, light and air being admitted as 
 freely and as often as possible. If seed 
 is sown within a frame without any 
 bottom heat, the plants will be two or 
 three weeks forwarder than if sown in 
 the open ground. 
 
 RAFNIA. Five species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. R. triflora is 
 a biennial. Young cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 RAGGED ROBIN. Lychnis Flos- 
 cuculi. 
 
 RAGS. See Vegetable Manures. 
 
 RAGWORT. Othonara. 
 
 RAGWORT. Senecio Jacobaa. 
 
 RAILING is of various forms, but 
 all, if made of wood, are soon decayed 
 if slight, and clumsy and inelegant if 
 strong. Iron railing is at once light, 
 neat, and enduring, and like the follow- 
 ing, may be purchased in England for 
 about fifty cents per yard. 
 139. 
 
 RAKE (Fig. 140). "Garden Rakes 
 vary in the length and strength of their 
 teeth, as well as in their number; they 
 are used for covering seeds, raking off 
 weeds or cut grass, smoothing and 
 pulverizing surface, &c. This imple- 
 ment is now much less in use than 
 formerly, when broadcast sowing was 
 prevalent. Now the broad hoe is quite 
 as efficient in covering drill-sown seed. 
 
 Fig. 140. 
 
 "The Grass Lawn Rake, (Fig. 141,) 
 has teeth sharpened on both edges, 
 and is used for raking the grass in order 
 
 to cut off the flower heads or buds of 
 daisies, dandelions, and other plants, 
 and the uneven tufts on grass lawns." 
 — Rural Reg. 
 
 Fig. 141. 
 
 RAMONDIA pyrenaica. Hardy herb- 
 aceous perennial. Division. Light 
 soil. 
 
 RAMPION. Phyteuma and Cyphia 
 Phyteuma. 
 
 RAMPION. Campanula rapunculus. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — The soil ought 
 to be moderately moist, but it must be 
 light. A shady rich border is most 
 favourable. If it is cloddy or subject 
 
RAN 
 
 492 
 
 RAN 
 
 to bind and crack in hot weather, the 
 plants will not thrive. 
 
 Time and Mode of Sowing, during 
 March, April, and May, the plants from 
 sowing in the two first months, soon, 
 however, run up to seed. 
 
 The insertions are to be performed in 
 drills six inches apart. 
 
 The plants are to remain where sown ; 
 though in case of any deficiency, those 
 which are taken away in thinning the 
 crops, may be transplanted successfully, 
 if removed to a border similar to the 
 seed-bed, and inserted with the roots 
 perpendicular, and without pressing the 
 mould too close about them. The best 
 time for performing the removal is of an 
 evening. 
 
 They are fit for thinning when of six 
 or eight weeks' growth, or when about 
 two inches in height; they must be set 
 at a distance of six inches apart, being 
 hoed at the time, and the same opera- 
 tion repeated two or three times. 
 
 The plants of the sowings during the 
 two first-mentioned months will be fit 
 for use at the close of August, or early 
 in September, and continue throughout 
 the autumn. Those of the last one will 
 continue good throughout the winter, 
 and until the following April. 
 
 The soil throughout their growth 
 must be kept moist by giving frequent 
 but moderate waterings through the fine 
 rose of a watering-pot, as required. 
 
 The root for which it is cultivated, 
 either to be sliced together with its 
 leaves in salads, or eaten as the radish, 
 as well as to be boiled like asparagus, 
 is most palatable when drawn young, 
 and eaten fresh from the ground. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — A few of the 
 winter-standing plants are left unmoved. 
 These shoot up in the spring, flowering 
 in July and August, and ripening abund- 
 ance of seed in early autumn. Nothing 
 more is necessary than to gather it be- 
 fore it begins to scatter, and to lay it on 
 a cloth to become perfectly dry before 
 thrashing. 
 
 RANDIA. Ten species. Stove ever- 
 green shrubs. Partly ripe cuttings. 
 Loam and peat, and a strong moist heat. 
 RANUNCULUS. One hundred and 
 two species, and many varieties. R. 
 asiaticus, the Garden Ranunculus, is 
 a truly beautiful flower, unfortunately 
 not adapted to the climate of the United 
 States. 
 
 Varieties: — Mr. Jackson, the florist 
 
 of Kingston, has published the follow- 
 ing selection : — 
 
 CLASS I. — SELFS. 
 
 XEil Noir, very fine, dark rich colour ; 
 Naxara extra, fine dark (one of the best 
 of its class) ; Fete Nocturne, rich pur- 
 ple, fine; Duke of Bedford, large fine 
 formed, crimson ; Giles's Eliza, very 
 fine, straw, extra form, super variety; 
 Costar's Apollo, very fine dark, rather 
 coarse ; Plaisance, very fine, yellow, 
 good form ; Les Vos, dark purple, very 
 fine ; Rosa Montana, superior bright 
 rosy crimson, excellent form; Tyso's 
 Nivis, fine white ; Costar's Tippoo Saib, 
 rich dark ; Condorcet, fine pure purple ; 
 Bouquet Nonpareil , dark olive, very fine. 
 
 CLASS II. 
 
 Flavimorus, cream, with purple edge, 
 very fine ; Tyso's Victoria, clear white, 
 with crimson edge, very fine ; Aust's 
 Henrietta, white, crimson-edged, good 
 shape, very fine; Horatio, yellow-edged, 
 fine free bloomer, not quite a pure 
 ground; Tyso's Herbert, yellow, with 
 red edge, very fine ; Temeraire, white, 
 red-striped (one of the best of its class); 
 Lightbody's William Penn, white, with 
 purple edge, very fine, strongly marked 
 ground, colour seldom pure; Melange 
 des Beautes, red and yellow-striped 
 (an excellent old flower, merits well 
 known) ; Tyso's Alexis, yellow-spotted, 
 extra fine, good form ; Tyso's Attractor, 
 white, with purple edge, large, very 
 fine ; Kilgour's Queen Victoria, cream, 
 crimson-edged, large, and extra fine ; 
 Costar's Coronation, half pink mottled, 
 very fine ; Grand Monarque, yellow- 
 edged, fine petals, rather loose ; Aust's 
 Nonsuch, white, purple-edged, distinct, 
 very fine; Tyso's Felix, buff, with dis- 
 tinct spot, extra fine ; Lightbody's No 
 Mistake, cream, purple-edged, strong 
 marking, very fine ; Dr. Franklin, fine 
 clear white, with purple edge, very fine; 
 Tyso's Edgar, yellow-coffee-edged, ex- 
 cellent form, extra fine ; Quentin Dur- 
 ward, yellow-edged, very fine colours, 
 rather thin; Tyso's Delectus, yellow, 
 red-edged, very fine ; Lightbody's Rob 
 Roy, cream, crimson edge, very fine ; 
 Imbert, yellow, with faint-brown spot, 
 very good ; Tyso's Harmonius, yellow, 
 with dark spot, extra (one of the best of 
 its class); Herald, white, crimson-edged, 
 very fine, excellent shape, high crown ; 
 Tyso's Creon, buff, dark edging, very 
 
RAN 
 
 RAN 
 
 fine; Glacia, yellow-mottled, large and 
 very fine ; Paxos, white, with deep 
 purple edge, extra fine ; Biddal's Duke 
 of Wellington, yellow, delicate-edged, 
 very fine; Macrobius, white spotted, 
 very fine; Lightbody's Endymion, white, 
 with delicate rose edging, very good ; 
 Tyso's Premium, white, purple spot, 
 very fine, high crown ; Aust's Queen 
 Victoria, white, with delicate edging, 
 very fine ; Saladin, fine yellow, with 
 faint spot ; Sophia, cream, with rose 
 edge, very good ; Tyso's Vendome, 
 cream, with dark purple edge, extra 
 fine, rather spotted : Waterstone's 
 Epirus, yellow - spotted, very fine. — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Character Sportive. — " There is in 
 the ranunculus what is by florists called 
 a sportive character — that is, they run 
 from their original colour. Some that 
 have yellow ground, delicately spotted, 
 will come plain yellow, and some red 
 and white striped will come plain red ; 
 sometimes the colours will mix, and 
 the flowers will become dingy." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 " Sometimes the flowers will be as 
 green as the grass of the plants from 
 which they grow. Some of the finest 
 seedlings are weak, and therefore die 
 in a few years, though for a short time 
 they had great renown. Such has been 
 the case with Abbe St. Andrew, Quixos 
 Viol le. Vrai Noir, Grand Berger, and 
 Rose Incomparable, and some others of 
 later date. But there are others of 
 first-rate character which are remark- 
 ably strong, and increase abundantly, 
 such as Attractor, Felix, Saladin, Ed- 
 gar, Eureka, Victor, and many others." 
 —Ibid. 
 
 Characteristics of a Good Flower. — 
 " The form of the ranunculus should 
 be two-thirds of a ball; petals, broad, 
 thick, free from notch or indentation, 
 cupping a little, and so disposed that 
 each cover the place where the two 
 under ones join ; commonly concealing 
 the anthers, abundance of petals lying 
 close over each other, and forming a 
 compact flower, open enough to show 
 the colour on their inside, but not 
 enough to be loose; and the under 
 ones must hold well in their places, 
 forming a square, if not a hollow back. 
 The stem thick, strong, and elastic ; 
 but the flower upright, and from one 
 and a half to two inches in diameter. 
 The colour is a matter of taste, but 
 
 must be dense and distinct ; the purer 
 the white or yellow, and the more con- 
 trasted the edging or spotting is, the 
 better the flower; in selfs the more 
 brilliant the colour is, the more likely 
 to be attractive ; but so long as the 
 colour is decided, the only advantage 
 that can be gained by colour is novelty. 
 The outside of the petal should be as 
 bright as the inside. 
 
 If shown in a stand, there must not 
 be two alike : all the flowers in a row 
 should be of one size, and the back row 
 the largest." 
 
 Propagation. — By Seed. — To the Rev. 
 Joseph Tyso we are indebted for the 
 following directions : — 
 
 " Impregnate the double flowers with 
 the farina of the single ones. This can- 
 not be done with effect in every case ; 
 but whenever an old flower, with a 
 pericarpium or eye, gather a single or 
 semi-double flower, and apply the farina 
 to the eye of the double flower. 
 
 " The seedlings will bear a striking 
 resemblance to the mother plant, as to 
 colour and habit of growth. The seed 
 may be sown at all seasons, from the 
 1st of August to the 1st of March, 
 the middle or latter end of October, 
 and the beginning of January. Sow in 
 boxes eighteen inches by eleven inches, 
 and four inches deep, full of loamy 
 earth, and the surface level. Sow the 
 seeds about an eighth of an inch apart; 
 cover them as thinly as possible, and 
 water with a fine rose ; but place the 
 boxes under glass, without heat. The 
 plants usually make their appearance 
 in about a month. Give air day and 
 night, except in severe frost ; then cover 
 up with straw mats. With such pro- 
 tection, the young plants will endure 
 the severest seasons. Clean the surface 
 of the boxes from green moss in Feb- 
 ruary, and top dress them. Put the 
 boxes in the open ground up to the 
 second week in May, and water daily 
 until the grass begins to wither ; then 
 suffer the boxes to become quite dry ; 
 and in the middle of July, take them 
 up, and preserve the roots in bags until 
 February, and then plant them as the 
 general stock. In the following June 
 they flower in great profusion." — Gard. 
 Mag. 
 
 By Offsets.—" Unlike the offsets of 
 the hyacinth and tulip, those of the 
 ranunculus generally attain perfection 
 in the season of their formation on the 
 
RAN 
 
 494 
 
 RAN 
 
 parent plant, and are, therefore, fit to 
 be planted as full grown tubers the 
 same season in which they are removed. 
 Smaller ones, which are unfit to bloom 
 the following year, maybe planted in a 
 bed prepared, as to be directed for the 
 full sized roots." 
 
 By Dividing the Tubers. — In minutely 
 examining the crown of a ranunculus 
 root, several small protuberances will 
 be found, from each of which a shoot 
 will arise, and the root may, therefore, 
 be divided by a sharp knife into as 
 many parts as there are protuberances ; 
 and thus the danger of losing any rare 
 variety is much diminished. These 
 sections will not bloom till the second 
 year." — Hort. Trans. 
 
 Soil. — Mr. Hovy of Boston, one of 
 the best of the American horticulturists, 
 is quite right in recommending, as " the 
 best soil for the ranunculus, a strong 
 rich mellow loam ; but good garden 
 loam, enriched with very old cow ma- 
 nure, or leaf-mould, will answer — fresh 
 mould, however, will insure a much 
 better bloom." 
 
 " A somewhat moist and cool situa- 
 tion," says Dr. Horner, one of the best 
 of amateur floriculturists, " is the most 
 suitable. The bed, therefore, should 
 be so situated that it receive but a few 
 hours of the morning sun, and be in the 
 lowest part of the garden. It must not 
 be raised higher than the surrounding 
 walks ; should be two feet in depth of 
 soil, and have board instead of box 
 edging, that slugs, &c, which often eat 
 the tender foliage and opening flower- 
 buds of some varieties, may not be 
 sheltered. The only suitable soil is a 
 retentive loam, from the surface of a 
 rich old pasture, the sods included ; to 
 which should be added, and well in- 
 corporated, one third of thoroughly- 
 decayed cow manure. Fresh manure 
 
 will not reach it at all, or if they do, 
 their sudden transition into deep com- 
 post is at least unnatural : it is more 
 consonant with reason that the food 
 should be generally and equally dis- 
 tributed." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Planting. — "The bed being about 
 four feet in width," adds Dr. Horner, 
 " and any suitable length, and having 
 been neatly smoothed over, the roots 
 should be planted about five inches 
 distant from each other in rows, which, 
 again, should be about six inches apart. 
 If planted closer, as is commonly the 
 case, the plants will grow comparatively 
 weak, and bloom more sparingly. 
 
 " The situation of the rows having 
 been marked out, holes, one and a half 
 inch deep, should be dibbled with the 
 finger, or other instrument, in which 
 the roots should be compactly set, and 
 covered over with soil, after the manner 
 of dibbling beans, by this means the 
 surrounding soil is not disturbed, but 
 left close and retentive. 
 
 " The next best plan is drawing drills 
 across the beds in rows, setting the 
 roots therein, and then filling them up 
 with the displaced soil ; the worst of all 
 plans being the raking the bed evenly 
 over, setting the roots on it, and then 
 covering the whole one and a half inch 
 with loose soil — yet this is commonly 
 practised. " — Ibid. 
 
 Choice of Roots. — Mr. Glenny recom- 
 mends " the middle sized, with firm 
 tubers and plump buds, as preferable 
 for planting; and care should be taken 
 to place a little sand under and over 
 each, to guard them against too much 
 moisture." — Gard. and Tract. Florist. 
 General Management. — " About the 
 beginning of April," says Dr. Horner, 
 " the young plants will appear above 
 ground, when the loosened soil should 
 be carefully yet firmly compressed with 
 
 must be avoided, as the roots will not j the fingers about the roots. 
 
 bloom where it exists, but many will 
 perish. All hot and stimulating com- 
 posts are equally pernicious. With the 
 enriched soil just recommended, the 
 bed should be made at the beginning 
 of October, and finished off", and, on no 
 account, disturbed till planting time ; 
 for it is all important that the soil be 
 compact and close in which the roots 
 are planted. 
 
 " The practice of putting some inches 
 of manure at the bottom of the bed is 
 not to be commended ; the roots either 
 
 " During the months of April and 
 May, should a continuance of dry 
 weather prevail, water may be cautious- 
 ly administered at intervals in an even- 
 ing, but only just so much as will pre- 
 vent the soil of the bed from cracking ; 
 or a little moss, or old spent tanner's 
 bark, &c, may be neatly placed be- 
 tween the rows, which will retain the 
 moisture in the soil. The injudicious 
 and over abundant application of water 
 is a very common error, and one of the 
 greatest evils. It not unfrequently hap- 
 
RAN 
 
 pens that plants, which have looked 
 well for a time, at length begin to turn 
 yellow in the foliage, and the flower 
 buds dwindle and go off. 
 
 " The dying of the leaves in some in- 
 stances evidently depends on a want of 
 vigour, or partial rot in the root ; and, 
 in some few cases, it would appear to 
 be caused by large earthworms, forming 
 their wide tracks amid the roots of the 
 plants, nearly undermining them ; but 
 in the great majority of cases, it is pro- 
 duced by injudicious watering. 
 
 " During the expansion of the flower 
 buds, and when they are fully blown, a 
 stage and awning should be erected 
 over the bed, as in the case of tulips, 
 that rain and hot sun may be excluded ; 
 and gentle watering every second or 
 third evening, may be given, which will 
 keep the bed cool and moist, and pro- 
 mote the size of the flower. As much 
 air should be admitted as possible, that 
 the flower-stems be not drawn and 
 weakened." — Gard. Ch'ron. 
 
 Protection during Winter. — This 
 is essential ; and the following plan, 
 adopted by Mr. Glenny, is excellent : — 
 
 " Let the bed be made just the size 
 of a cucumber frame ; place one of 
 these on the bed, and if there is danger 
 of heavy rains, or severe weather, put 
 on the sashes. As soon as heavy frost 
 sets in, the whole of the interior of the 
 frame must be filled with leaves, and 
 the sashes replaced, and a few boards 
 laid on to keep the leaves from blowing 
 away. In this manner, the whole may 
 remain until April, or until all danger 
 of frost is over, when the leaves, frames, 
 &c, may be entirely removed." — 
 Gard. and Prac. Flor. 
 
 Taking up the Roots. — Upon this 
 point, the same excellent authority di- 
 rects this to be done « a fortnight after 
 the last flowers have faded, when the 
 foliage looks yellowish. It is a very 
 nice operation, and should not be done 
 hastily. The best way is to pare off 
 three inches of the soil into a sieve, if 
 the bed is composed of mixed sorts, 
 and then, by shaking out the earth, the 
 roots will remain. 
 
 " When the varieties are named, 
 they must be taken up singly, and put 
 in a box correctly labeled. They must 
 not be placed in the sun, but may be 
 carried to a dry room, where they may 
 remain till the earth is sufficiently dry 
 to shake off easily, when they should 
 
 495 
 
 -♦ — 
 
 RAP 
 
 be put into paper bags." — Gard. and 
 Prac. Flor. 
 
 Late Succession of Blooms. — To ob- 
 tain this, we have the following direc- 
 tions by Mr. H. Groom, the well known 
 florist : — 
 
 " The beds are prepared in the usual 
 manner, the ground immediately after- 
 wards well watered with lime water; 
 but to destroy the worms, which are 
 otherwise apt to draw the roots from 
 their places ; afterwards water with 
 clear cow-dung water, until the foliage 
 makes its appearance. The beds are 
 then kept shaded from nine in the morn- 
 ing till five or six in the evening, till the 
 bloom is over. For a bloom all the sea- 
 son, commence in February, and plant 
 every fortnight or three weeks; in Sep- 
 tember, plant in a frame, and you will 
 have a bloom about January or Februa- 
 ry." — Hort. Trans. 
 
 Forcing.— Mr. Bouche of Berlin, a 
 florist, gives these directions : — 
 
 " Select tubers which have been kept 
 three or four months, or even a year, 
 over the season of planting, these being 
 more easily excited than those which 
 have been only the usual time out of the 
 soil, plant them in pots about the be- 
 ginning of August; and, by bringing 
 these into the green-house at different 
 periods, a bloom is kept up from Octo- 
 ber to February." — Gard. Mag. 
 
 RAPE, or COLESEED. Brassica na- 
 pus esculentus. Like mustard and other 
 small salading, it may be sown at any 
 period of the year, when in request, 
 being allowed a separate bed. It is 
 cultivated as Mustard, which see. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — Some plants of a 
 sowing made about the middle of July 
 must be thinned to eighteen inches 
 apart; they will survive the winter, and 
 flower in the May and June of the next 
 year. The seed, which is produced in 
 great abundance, ripens in July and 
 August, and must be cut as it does so, 
 and laid upon cloths to dry, as it is very 
 apt to shed. 
 
 RAPE (EDIBLE-ROOTED). This 
 name may be applied to a variety of the 
 rape mentioned by Mr. Dickson, one of 
 the vice-presidents of the Horticultural 
 Society. Its root is white and carrot- 
 shaped, about the size of the middle- 
 finger. It is much more delicate in 
 flavour than the turnip, like which root 
 it is cooked, only that it is not peeled 
 but scraped, its skin being remarkably 
 
RAP 
 
 496 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 R AS 
 
 thin. It has been cultivated for a great 
 length of years on the continent, and 
 for about thirty years in this country ; 
 but only by one person, as far as Mr. 
 Dickson is aware. 
 
 Time of Sowing. It is propagated by 
 seed, which, for the main crop, may be 
 sown from the middle of July to the 
 end of August, or even later. These 
 will supply the table until April ; and 
 if wanted throughout the year, a little 
 may be sown in the latter end of Octo- 
 ber, the plants from which will be fit 
 for use, if they succeed during April 
 and May: the last crop to be inserted 
 from the middle of January to the mid- 
 dle of February, which will come in at 
 the end of May and during June. On 
 a north border, and if the soil is sandy 
 and moist, it is possible to have them 
 sweet and tender during the whole 
 summer, to effect which the seed must 
 be sown at the close of March and May. 
 
 Cultivation is the same as turnips. In 
 dry weather the beds must be watered 
 regularly until the plants have got three 
 or four leaves. 
 
 Soil. — One great advantage attending 
 the cultivation of this vegetable is, that 
 it requires no manure. Any soil that is 
 poor and light, especially if sandy, is 
 suitable to it. In rich manured earth it 
 grows much larger, but not so sweet 
 and good. 
 
 To obtain seed. — Mr. Dickson recom- 
 mends, in February or March, some of 
 the finest roots to be transplanted to 
 two feet asunder; but it would perhaps 
 be a better practice to leave them where 
 grown. The ground is to be hoed re- 
 peatedly, and kept clear of weeds. The 
 seed must be cut as soon as ripe, and 
 treated as directed for turnips, &c. 
 
 RAPHANUS. Three species. Har- 
 dy annuals, except R. landra, which is 
 an herbaceous perennial. Seed. Rich 
 mould. See Radish. 
 
 RAPHIOLEPIS. Four species. 
 Half-hardy evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 RASPAILIA microphylla. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Young cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 RASPBERRY. Rubus idaus. 
 
 Best Varieties. — Red. — Fastolff, or 
 Bee-hive, Franconia, Antwerp, red ; 
 Barnet; Cornish; Double-bearing, and 
 Genncssee. 
 
 Yellow. — Antwerp, yellow; Cox's 
 Honey; Old white. 
 
 The Fastolff (Fig. 142) has been " re- 
 cently received from England, where 
 it was raised or discovered near the 
 castle of that name. It has produced 
 fruit at Philadelphia the two past sea- 
 sons, and quite equals its transatlantic 
 character, which is higher than that of 
 any of its tribe. The fruit is large, deep 
 red, inclining to purple, well flavoured, 
 and yielded longer than usual. Such was 
 the description written before the fruit 
 of the present year (1846) had matured ; 
 another season's observation has con- 
 firmed it. The annexed drawing, ac- 
 curately copied from nature, has been 
 supplied by Doctor William D. Brinckle. 
 The plants are yet scarce, and conse- 
 quently higher priced than the old va- 
 rieties ; but from its adaptation to our 
 climate, it will, it is hoped, be speedily 
 increased, and widely distributed — so 
 valuable an acquisition one could desire 
 to see domesticated in every garden in 
 the land." — Rural Reg. 
 
 The Franconia was "imported from 
 France some years since; it is hardy, 
 fruitful, and may be safely recommend- 
 ed as in all respects desirable. This is, 
 perhaps, taking all its merits into ac- 
 count, next in value to the Fastolff." 
 — Rural Reg. 
 
 Propagation by Seed. — New varieties 
 are easily raised from seed. Wash 
 away the pulp from some of the finest 
 thoroughly ripe fruit, dry the seed, and 
 sow it the same autumn in a dry border, 
 giving it the shelter of a frame through 
 the winter. Trim and plant out the 
 seedlings to remain in the autumn fol- 
 lowing, and they will bear in the suc- 
 ceeding summer. 
 
 By Suckers. — These spring from the 
 root annually, and grow from three to 
 five feet in height the same year, form- 
 ing plants by autumn or winter for 
 transplanting, to bearfiuit the following 
 summer. 
 
 Planting maybe done any time from 
 October till March, the earlier the bet- 
 ter, in open weather. Raise the plants 
 carefully with plenty of fibres; shorten 
 any long straggling root; and cut off 
 any naked woody part of the root of 
 the old stool, observing at the same 
 time, if one or more buds appear near 
 the root, they, being the embryo of 
 future shoots, must be very carefully 
 preserved ; and shorten each sucker at 
 top to about three or more feet long, 
 according to their strength — they are 
 
497 
 Fig. 142.— ( p. 4 96.) 
 
 ^m it 
 
 It * I 
 
 w 
 
 RASPBERRY. 
 
R AS 
 
 498 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 RED 
 
 then ready for planting : having previ- 
 ously to this chosen an open spot of 
 good ground and trenched it, put in the 
 plants as soon as possible, in rows a 
 yard and a half apart, and a yard asun- 
 der in the rows. If planted closer the 
 plants, producing numerous suckers in 
 summer, grow so close as to exclude 
 the due influence of sun and air from 
 the fruit, as well as render it trouble- 
 some to gather the produce. If the 
 planting is performed late in the spring, 
 give a good watering, and repeat it oc- 
 casionally till the plants have struck 
 fresh root. 
 
 After-Culture. — Keep them clean 
 from weeds all summer by broad hoe- 
 ing, giving an annual dressing in au- 
 tumn, cutting down the decayed stems 
 that bore the preceding summer. Thin 
 the young succession bearers; clear 
 away all intermediate suckers between 
 those of the main stocks ; and then 
 point with a fork the ground between 
 the rows. 
 
 Previous to the above-mentioned an- 
 nual dressing of raspberries, observe 
 that, as they produce a fresh supply of 
 shoots or suckers every year for bear- 
 ing the next, therefore the annual dress- 
 ing be performed anytime from October 
 till March. First proceed to clear out 
 all the decayed stems, being last sum- 
 mer's bearers, breaking them down 
 close to the bottom ; then examine the 
 supply of young shoots for next year's 
 bearing. In March select three or four 
 of the strongest shoots on each stool, 
 cutting all the others away close to the 
 ground ; shorten those left according 
 to their strength, cutting them general- 
 ly a little below the bend, at the top of 
 the shoots, to about three or four feet 
 in length, both to render them more 
 robust, to support themselves more 
 firmly upright in summer, and to pro- 
 mote a stronger supply of laterals for 
 flowering and fruiting. Allow them a 
 little rotten dung or leaf-mould once 
 every other year, applying it in the 
 spring. Make a plantation every four 
 or five years in a fresh spot of ground ; 
 as, after that period of time, the plants, 
 although they may continue shooting 
 with tolerable vigour, yet are apt to be 
 less fruitful, and the fruit smaller, than 
 in younger plantations in fresh ground. 
 — Abercrombie. 
 
 Autumn Crop. — To obtain of the 
 Antwerp, and other large varieties, 
 
 Mr. Mearns recommends, " in May 
 the removal of the young fruit-bearing 
 shoots from the canes, leaving in some 
 cases one or two eyes, in others cutting 
 them clean off. Under either plan they 
 soon show an abundance of vigorous 
 shoots, frequently three or four from 
 each eye, which produce plenty of blos- 
 soms in the beginning of July, and on 
 these a good crop of fine raspberries is 
 borne in August." — Hort. Trans. 
 
 Training. — The earliest and finest 
 are obtained from canes planted beneath 
 a south wall, and trained against it in 
 this form. (Fig. 143.) But in the open 
 ground the best mode of training is 
 round small hoops, thus. (Fig. 144.) 
 The worst form is plaiting the canes 
 together; and training in arches or other 
 compact forms, excluding the light and 
 warmth of the sun, is little better. 
 
 Fig. 144. 
 
 Forcing. — Raspberries may be forced 
 growing either in pots or in the borders 
 of the house. They may be also plant- 
 ed on the outside of a pit, the bearing 
 canes being introduced withinside and 
 trained to a trellis, whilst the present 
 year's shoots are left outside. 
 
 RATABIDA columnaris, and its va- 
 riety. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 Division or seeds. Common soil. 
 
 RATTLESNAKE FERN. Botrichium 
 virginicum. 
 
 RATTLESNAKE ROOT. Polygala 
 senega. ' 
 
 RAUWOLFIA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs or trees. Cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 REAUMURIA. Two species. Half- 
 hardy evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 RED BAY. Laurus carolinensis. 
 
 RED CEDAR. Juniperus virginiana. 
 
 RED GUM TREE. Eucalyptus re- 
 sinifera. 
 
RED 
 
 REN 
 
 RED NIGHTSHADE. Erica Hali- 
 cacaba. 
 
 RED SPIDER. See Acarus. 
 REEDS. See Shelter. 
 REEVESIAThyrsoidea. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings, with 
 the leaves. Light turfy loam, or loam 
 and peat. 
 
 REHMANNIA chinensis. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennial, but it succeeds 
 best in a cool green-house. Cuttings. 
 Common soil. 
 
 REICHARDIA hexapetala. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich soil 
 and a strong heat. 
 
 RELHANIA. Five species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loamy soil. 
 
 RENANTHERA. Three species. 
 Stove orchids. Cuttings. Peat mixed 
 with broken potsherds, moss, or wood. 
 RENDLE'S TANK SYSTEM. First 
 suggested, I believe, by Mr. Rendle, 
 nurseryman, of Plymouth. I have given, 
 in the customary monthly calendars, the 
 necessary intimations when the bark- 
 beds will probably require stirring, but 
 those troublesome, uncertain, and dan- 
 gerous operations, dangerous to the 
 plants, are entirely rendered needless 
 by Mr. Rendle's plan. It has been 
 adopted by some of the best practical 
 gardeners with entire satisfaction. 
 
 A tank of iron or wood, twenty feet 
 long, five feet broad, and six inches 
 deep, is constructed in the centre of 
 the house, and surrounded by a walk, 
 except at the end, where the boiler is 
 fixed for heating it. The top of the 
 tank is covered with large slabs of 
 slate, cemented together, to prevent 
 the excessive escape of steam. Around 
 this is a frame sufficiently high to re- 
 tain the bark, in which the pots are 
 plunged. The boiler and tank are 
 filled with water, and this circulates, 
 when the fire is lighted under the 
 former, by means of two pipes, one 
 from the top of the boiler, and the 
 other returning nearer to its bottom. 
 The expense of piping, and danger of 
 their freezing, is avoided ; the fire only 
 requires to be kept lighted for two 
 hours at night, and again for the same 
 period in the morning; the water, 
 when once heated, retaining its tem- 
 perature for a long time. In a small 
 house, the apparatus can be constructed 
 for 51. , and in all, for less than half the 
 cost of hot-water pipes. The saving 
 
 in tan and labour is also very great ; 
 in some places tan is expensive, and 
 where it is cheaper, the trouble and 
 litter incident to its employment, and 
 the dangers of loss from fungi and in- 
 sects, of which it is the peculiarly 
 fertile foster-parent, render it objec- 
 tionable as a source of heat. And 
 whenever the tan has to be renewed, 
 the trouble and destruction of plants is 
 always great. 
 
 " In my new propagating house," 
 says Mr. Rendle, " the tank or cistern 
 is placed in the centre, with a walk 
 surrounding it, so as to enable the 
 propagator with greater ease to attend 
 to the plants, &c. 
 
 "On the outside of the house is a 
 fire-shed, in which the boiler is fixed. 
 The tank, made of wood, one and a 
 half or two inches thick, which I find 
 the cheapest material, (it also prevents 
 the water cooling so fast as it does 
 either in stone or iron,) may be lined 
 with lead or zinc. Exactly in the cen- 
 tre of the tank is a partition, serving 
 the double purpose of causing the water 
 to circulate, (as well as to support the 
 edges of the slates,) an aperture being 
 left, in the partition, of about two inches 
 in breadth, to allow the water a free 
 passage. The flow-pipe enters near 
 the appendage of the tank, at the mouth 
 of which pipe a piece of perforated 
 copper is placed, as also at the return- 
 pipe, to prevent dirt and sediment from 
 finding its way into the boiler. After 
 everything is properly fixed, the tank 
 is filled with water, which, of course, 
 
 at the same time fills the boiler 
 
 The tank is about four inches deep. 
 Across it, and resting on its sides, are 
 placed slate stones about an inch and a 
 half thick, cut square at the edges. 
 These are fastened to each other by 
 Roman cement, or Aberthaw lime, to 
 prevent a superfluity of steam from 
 
 escaping into the house Around 
 
 the edges of the slates a piece of inch 
 board, about nine inches deep, should 
 be placed to enclose the sawdust, sand, 
 moss, or other plunging material." 
 
 In the following sketch, for which, 
 as well as for the next, I am indebted 
 to Mr. Rendle, A is a transverse sec- 
 tion of Rogers's conical boiler; B is 
 the fireplace ; g, the tank : c, the flow- 
 pipe; d, the pipe by which the water 
 returns to the boiler ; e, is the hole for 
 the smoke, which, joined to a flue, /, 
 
REQ 
 
 500 
 
 RH A 
 
 can be made either to ascend the chim- 
 ney at once, or to pass round the house. 
 
 Fig. 145. 
 
 The next sketch is a Pinery, 
 up with Mr. Rendle's tank. 
 
 fitted 
 
 It is described as " a very useful and 
 most desirable structure for the growth 
 of the Pine Apple, with a hollow wall, 
 recommended by all garden architects 
 in preference to a solid wall — the heat 
 or cold being not so readily conducted 
 as through a solid mass of masonry." 
 Mr. Rendle might have added, that 
 hollow walls are also much drier. — 
 Rendle , s Treatise on the Tank System. 
 See Stove, &c. 
 
 REQUIENIA obcordata. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Young cuttings. Peat, 
 loam, and sand. 
 
 RESEDA. Mignonette. Seventeen 
 species. Chiefly hardy annuals, bien- 
 nials, herbaceous perennials, and a few 
 green-house evergreens. Cuttings or 
 seeds. Light rich soil. See Mignon- 
 ette. 
 
 RETARDING requires as much skill 
 as forcing, for as the latter requires the 
 application of all that is suitable to the 
 promotion of a plant's rapid healthy 
 growth, so retarding requires the with- 
 holding from it of those contingencies. 
 Thus to retard growth, the lowest tem- 
 
 perature, and the least degree of light 
 compatible with healthy growth must 
 be secured ; and to this end plants for 
 succession are often placed on the 
 north side of a wall. 
 
 Then again, as in the case of rasp- 
 berries and strawberries, plants are 
 often cut down in the spring, compelling 
 them to form fresh foliage and stems, 
 and thus be productive in the autumn 
 instead of the summer. 
 
 The vegetation of many bulbs may 
 be prevented by merely keeping them 
 dry, and, indeed, the withholding the 
 usual supply of water, giving it only in 
 diminished quantities, is necessary in 
 all retarding treatment. To secure the 
 entire quiescence of bulbs, and of such 
 plants as will bear so low a tempera- 
 ture, the atmosphere of the ice-house 
 is effectual ; and to this end it should 
 have a few shelves for the support of 
 boxes or flower pots. Banks of earth 
 ranging east and west, and facing the 
 north at a very acute angle, are very 
 useful in retarding the early advance to 
 seed in hot weather, of spinach, let- 
 tuces, &c. Espaliers ranging similarly, 
 and shaded during the whole of March, 
 and the two following months, will 
 blossom later and more unfailingly than 
 trees more exposed to the sun in spring. 
 Similar exclusion of heat and light re- 
 tards the ripening of picked fruit, and 
 if the air be excluded from them, or 
 its oxygen withdrawn, fruit will remain 
 unripened for weeks. To effect this, 
 put a paste formed of lime, sulphate of 
 iron, and water, at the bottom of a 
 wide-mouthed glass bottle, then a layer 
 of large pebbles to keep the fruit from 
 the paste, — then fill the bottle with 
 peaches, apricots, or plums, gathered 
 a few days before they are ripe, cork 
 the bottle tight, and cover the cork 
 with melted resin. They have been 
 thus kept for a month, and summer 
 apples and pears for three months. 
 They ripen when again exposed to the 
 air. 
 
 RHAMNUS. Thirty-eight species. 
 Chiefly hardy evergreen, or deciduous 
 shrubs, or trees. Layers, seeds. Com- 
 mon soil. The few stove and green- 
 house kinds, increase by cuttings; and 
 require a light soil. 
 
 RHAPIS. Two species. Dwarfish 
 palms. Suckers. Sandy loam. 
 
 RHAPONTICA. Four species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials, except 
 
RHE 
 
 501 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 RHO 
 
 R. pulchra, which is a biennial. Divi- 
 sion. Common soil. 
 
 R H E E D I A javanica. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Ripe cuttings. Peat, loam, 
 and sand. 
 
 R HEM AN EI A chinensis. Hardy 
 shrub. Cuttings and layers. Rich light 
 loam. 
 
 RHEUM. Rhubarb. Fifteen spe- 
 cies. Hardy fusiform-rooted peren- 
 nials. Division or seed. Rich loamy 
 soil. See Rhubarb. 
 
 RHEXIA. Four species. Hardy herb- 
 aceous perennials. Division. Peat soil. 
 
 RHINOPETALUM karelini. 
 Hardy tuberous-rooted perennial. Off- 
 sets. Light rich soil. 
 
 RHIPODENDRON plicatile, and its 
 variety. Green-house evergreen shrubs. 
 Suckers or leaves slightly planted. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 RHODANTHE manglesii. Green- 
 house annual. Dr. Lindley recommends 
 that " its seeds should be sown at two 
 seasons : the first about the beginning 
 of September; the second about the 
 end of February. The soil the seeds 
 are sown in should be rather strong, 
 but not rich, for the first sowing, con- 
 sisting of a mixture of sandy loam and 
 leaf-mould. They should be sown in 
 pots and placed in a cold pit or frame, 
 if sown in the autumn, which should be 
 kept close until the plants are up. The 
 young plants should be potted off when 
 small, for if allowed to get large before 
 potting, they never do any good ; put a 
 single plant into a small sixty-pot, they 
 must then be returned to the pit or 
 frame, and keptclose until they recover 
 the effects of the shift ; afterwards hard- 
 en by admitting air. Then when there 
 is danger of frost, remove them to an 
 airy part of the green-house for the 
 winter, taking care that they are not 
 over watered ; for much depends on 
 the manner in which they are treated 
 during the winter, as too much or too 
 little water will destroy the healthiest 
 plants in a short time. In the spring, 
 February, repot them into a richer but 
 light sandy soil, and place them in a 
 warmer and moister situation, and pinch 
 off all the first flowers as they appear. 
 
 " The spring-sown plants may be 
 treated like other half-hardy annuals, 
 only they must have plenty of air to 
 keep them from being drawn up weak- 
 ly."— Gard. Chron. 
 
 RHODODENDRON. Twenty-six spe- 
 
 cies, and many varieties. Hardy and 
 half-hardy evergreen shrubs, except R. 
 rhodora, which is deciduous and hardy. 
 R. ponticum, Common Rhododendron. 
 R. maximum ; R. Caucasicum; R. cam- 
 panulatum ; and JR. Catawbiensis, are 
 the best hardy species. It is to be re- 
 gretted that such a noble evergreen 
 shrub as JR. maximum should be so sel- 
 dom seen in our grounds. Here in the 
 United States, where it is indigenous, 
 it is really less known than in England, 
 where it forms one of the main features 
 of the undergrowth in lawns and plea- 
 sure grounds, — when will Americans 
 learn to estimate as they deserve, their 
 own natural products ! From the above 
 named species have been obtained the 
 following superior 
 
 Varieties. — R. Russellianum, scarlet ; 
 R. Lowei, pale straw; R. tigrinum, 
 pale rose: R. nobleanum, dark red; 
 R. splendidum, (Cunningham's,) white ; 
 R. altaclerence, scarlet; R. multimacu- 
 latum, pale rose, spotted; R.arboreum 
 roseum, bright rose ; R. Victoria, deep 
 red; R. venustum, pink ; R. augustum, 
 pale flesh spotted ; R. pulcherrimum, 
 scarlet; R. grandiflorum, (Cunning- 
 ham's,) pale flesh ; R. macranthum, 
 rose; R. Knightii, scarlet ; and R. Car- 
 narvonianum, bright rose. 
 
 Hybrids with Azalea. — R. Adonsonii ; 
 R. Azaleoides ; R. azaleoides album; 
 R. fragrans ; R. luteum ; and R. Gow- 
 erianum. 
 
 Green-house Species and Varieties.—- 
 R. anthopogon, purple ; R. arboreum 
 cinnamomeum, reddish purple; R. lap-, 
 ponicum, crimson; R. setosum, purple. 
 
 Characteristics of Excellence. — Mr. 
 Glenny gives the following good crite- 
 ria : — " The flower large, circular, and 
 campanulated, or hollow like a globular 
 cup. The five divisions of the petals 
 should be concealed by means of the 
 lapping over. The petal thick, smooth- 
 edged, and stiff. The truss, pyramidal 
 or dome-shaped, standing clear of the 
 foliage ; the flower compact, touching, 
 but not crowding each other ; footstalks 
 stiff and elastic. The colour brilliant, 
 the spots distinct and contrasted, and 
 stand well without fading. The plant 
 should be bushy, the foliage bright, 
 clear, green, large, and disposed all 
 round the branch, especially round the 
 flower ; the stems should be well cover- 
 ed with leaves, and the bloom should 
 be abundant. It should not bloom 
 
RH 
 
 502 
 
 — • — 
 
 RHO 
 
 until the middle of May, if hardy, for j pots requires much care ; the best and 
 those flowering before the frosts have easiest way is to plunge the pots to the 
 
 ceased, have the blooms spoiled." 
 Gard. and Prac. Flor. 
 
 Propagation. — By Seed. — The same 
 good floricultural authority gives these 
 excellent directions : — " The seed ves- 
 sels must be gathered as soon as ripe, 
 and before they burst ; let them lie in 
 a drawer in the stove or green-house, 
 or a sunny window, to burst and give 
 out their seed : sow immediately ; and, 
 to sow thin enough, mix it with twenty 
 times its quantity of the smallest sand. 
 Sow in pots with good drainage, and the 
 
 rim in coal ashes, and still have frames 
 over them for the purpose of preserving 
 them from excessive wet, heat, and 
 cold. When they have perfected a 
 second growth, and are resting, shift 
 them into forty-eight sized pots, and 
 treat them as before, and so continue 
 shifting from size to size until they 
 flower." — Gard. and Prac. Flor. — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Raising Varieties is best done in 
 April from forced plants, the two in- 
 tended to be bred from being brought 
 
 following compost. One half rich loam, into bloom at the same time. They 
 such as the top spit of an old meadow, | should be widely different in colour, 
 sifted through a coarse sieve ; the other! or form, or habit, or some peculiarity 
 half the best peat or bog earth, such as ; which may be desirable to combine in 
 is formed of the half-decayed fibres j one. Hybrids may be obtained by im- 
 broken into pieces and rubbed through pregnating the Rhododendron with pol- 
 the same sieve ; by knocking the bottom len from the Azalea, 
 of the pan or pot on the potting table or j Grafting. — Mr. Glenny gives these 
 bench, the compost will be solid enough j directions: — " Young plants of the R. 
 without pressing ; level it and sow very Ponticum must be potted and well es- 
 thinly ; then with a fine sieve, sift a lit- tablished before you want to use them. 
 tie of the compost on the seeds very | Cut them down within three inches of 
 evenly, and only just enough to cover j the pot, and adopt the mode of saddle 
 them; over this put a little fine sand, [grafting. See Grafting. 
 not more than one sixteenth of an inch " Let the bark of the stock and scion 
 deep. Take a brush about the texture [ touch, if possible, all over ; but as the 
 and strength of a clothes brush, dip it j stock may be, and often is, the largest, 
 in water, turn its hairs upwards, point- j let the bark fit perfectly on one side, 
 ing at the seeds, draw your hand along I and fall short on the other. The plants 
 the hairs towards you, and they will i should be placed after the operation in 
 throw off an almost imperceptible show- i a garden frame kept from the air for a 
 er of moisture, by means of which the day or two, and shaded altogether from 
 whole surface can be fairly wetted with the sun. Side-grafting and inarching 
 out disturbing a seed or a grain of the are better modes of increase for the 
 compost. When the seedlings have Rhododendron than saddle-grafting. In 
 four good leaves, prick out into other order to insure success, August or Sep- 
 pans of the same kind of compost, three i tember is the best time for budding or 
 inches apart, carefully raising them grafting Rhododendrons in the open 
 without disturbing the surface to hurt , air. This plant being thin-rinded does 
 the more backward seedlings, and the best by side-grafting, and buds of it had 
 pan may be put back to its place, for also better be inserted after the manner 
 the seeds will continue coming up for a of side-grafting, with a portion of the 
 considerable time. When pricked out, | soft wood retained behind the bud." — 
 they should be watered, and afterwards i Gard. Chron. — Gard. and Prac. Flor. 
 regularly. Though in the green-house Grafting may be done at almost any 
 keep them under hand-glasses for a few j season of the year, and even the Chinese 
 days until re-established, after which | Azalea may be inarched upon them. In 
 
 they may be removed to a cold frame, 
 or put out of doors. Shade from the 
 mid-day sun, weed regularly, and care- 
 fully tend until they have grown to 
 touch each other. They should then 
 be potted in sixties in the same kind of 
 soil. They have now only to be kept 
 from getting dry, which in such small 
 
 summer, if a low stock be employed, it 
 is sufficient to turn over it a hand-glass; 
 f the grafting be in the spring or 
 
 but 
 autumn 
 
 to obtain success a little bot- 
 
 tom heat is necessary. 
 
 Other Modes of Propagation. — Lay- 
 ering and inarching may both be suc- 
 cessfully practised with the E.hododen- 
 
RHU 
 
 503 
 
 — • — 
 
 RHU 
 
 dron, but require no particular direc- 
 tions. Cuttings will also sometimes 
 succeed, and if a branch is desirably 
 removable let it be cut off. The cut- 
 tings should be only half ripe. Plant 
 in a large sized pot, two-thirds full of 
 the compost, cover with a glass, fitting 
 within the rim of the pot: place in a 
 frame, with a trifling bottom-heat, or in 
 a common propagating house; or, for 
 want of a better accommodation, in a 
 green-house or cold garden frame. The 
 glass must be wiped clean every morn- 
 ing, and the sand kept moist. Neglect 
 of watering is fatal . When the cuttings 
 are struck they must be treated as seed- 
 lings. — Gard. and Prac. Flor. 
 
 Soil for Out-door Kinds. — A light 
 loam, manured annually with a mixture 
 of peat and leaf-mould suits them best. 
 The subsoil should be retentive, for if 
 very dry they will not flourish. 
 
 Pruning. — They require but little 
 pruning, except to remove superfluous 
 branches, &c, and this is best done in 
 April. Mr. Glenny says that old plants 
 which have become bare at the bottom 
 are easily converted into standards by 
 selecting the largest bare stem, cutting 
 all the rest away, and pruning the head 
 into shape. If the stem be growing out 
 slopingly, you have only to dig up the 
 plant and place it upright. 
 
 Green-house Culture. — Whilst grow- 
 ing, that is from about the end of April 
 to the middle of June, keep them in a 
 temperature of which the extreme at 
 night and in the day are 45° and 60o. 
 Supply them liberally with water during 
 that time, and then remove them to a 
 cool situation out of doors, otherwise 
 they will be super-luxuriant and not 
 flower. 
 
 Forcing. — To obtain early flowers, 
 place some potted plants in a very gen- 
 tle heat the last week in December. 
 
 RHUBARB. Rheum rhaponticum, R. 
 hybridum, R. undulatum, and R. palma- 
 tum. This last is the medicinal, or 
 Turkey Rhubarb of the shops — the es- 
 culent one or pie-plant, as it is familiar- 
 ly termed, has become quite a common 
 inmate of our American gardens; its 
 early growth, affording facility for pies 
 and tarts, long before green fruit can be 
 obtained, and its close resemblance in 
 flavour to the gooseberry, render it al- 
 most indispensable. 
 
 Varieties. — There are several varie- 
 ties, of which the most preferable are 
 
 the Tobolsk ; Gigantic ; Victoria, (best;) 
 and Bucks or Elford. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — The soil best 
 suited to these plants is light, rich, 
 deep, unshaded, and moderately moist. 
 A poor heavy or shallow soil never pro- 
 duces them in perfection. 
 
 Sowing. — It may be propagated by 
 cuttings, but the mode almost univer- 
 sally practised is by seed. Sow soon 
 after it is ripe, in September or October, 
 for if kept out of the ground until the 
 spring, it often continues dormant for 
 twelve months : if the danger of this, 
 however, is risked, sow early in Feb- 
 ruary or March, in drills three feet 
 apart, and an inch deep, the plants to 
 remain where raised ; for although they 
 will bear removing, yet it always checks 
 and somewhat lessens their growth. 
 When they make their appearance in 
 the spring, and have been thoroughly 
 cleared of weeds, thin to six or eight 
 inches asunder, and let the surface of 
 the ground about them be loosened 
 with the hoe. At the close of summer, 
 when it can be determined which are 
 the strongest plants, finally thin to three 
 or four feet, or the Gigantic and Victo- 
 ria to six. In autumn remove the de- 
 cayed leaves, and point in a little well 
 putrefied stable-dung, and earth up the 
 stools. In the spring hoe the bed, and 
 as the stalks when blanched, are much 
 less harsh in taste, require less sugar to 
 be rendered palatable, and are greatly 
 improved in appearance, dig a trench 
 between the rows, and the earth from 
 it place about a foot thick over the stool. 
 This covering must be removed when 
 the cutting ceases, and the plants allow- 
 ed to grow at liberty. As the earth in 
 wet seasons is apt to induce decay, the 
 covering may be advantageously formed 
 of coal ashes or drift sand. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — Those plants pro- 
 duce the seed in greatest perfection 
 that are not gathered from, but on no 
 account must they be subjected to the 
 process of blanching. Two year old 
 plants often produce seed, but in their 
 third year always. It must be gathered as 
 soon as ripe, and great care taken that 
 none is scattered over the beds, for the 
 plants thence produced often spring up, 
 and greatly injure the old plants by 
 growing unobserved amongst them. 
 
 Forcing. — Plant a single row three 
 feet apart in ground that has been 
 trenched two spades deep, and dressed 
 
RHU 
 
 504 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 RIC 
 
 ■with well putrefied dung at the time. | the roots are placed on a level with 
 The forcing may commence in Decern- each other, and about an inch below 
 ber ; first cover either with sea-kale or j the surface. These being covered with 
 common garden pots (twelves), but inverted pots of the same size, may be 
 chimney pots are still better, the leaf- placed in a vinery or hot-bed, and on 
 stalks becoming much longer and finer, the approach of spring, probably any 
 and envelope them with fermenting time after January, any room or cellar 
 dung. When well up, the pots are re- will be sufficiently warm. If copiously 
 moved, except when chimney pots are supplied with water, the plants vege- 
 used, and large hand-glasses substi- tate rapidly and vigorously, and each 
 tuted; covering is required every night, I pot will produce three successional 
 
 and in dull weather with thick mats 
 By this mode the plants are very liable 
 to be broken, as their leaves soon touch 
 the sides. A frame is much less objec- 
 tionable, formed by driving stakes into 
 the ground on each side of the bed, al- 
 ternating with the plants. These are to 
 be three feet high above ground, and the 
 space between the two rows of stakes 
 two feet at the bottom, but approach- 
 ing each other, and fastened by cross 
 pieces, so as to be only fifteen inches 
 apart at top. To the sides and top stout 
 laths are fixed to prevent the dung fall- 
 ing upon the plants, as represented in 
 the accompanying sketch. 
 
 Fig. 147. 
 
 The dung may either be fresh, or 
 Jhat which has previously undergone 
 fermentation, and placed all round the 
 frame eight, or ten inches thick, and the 
 top covered with long litter. The tem- 
 perature in the interior should have a 
 range from 55° to 60°. If it rises higher, 
 two or three large holes made through 
 the top soon corrects it. 
 
 A frame renders hand-glasses or any 
 .other coverunnecessary, requires much 
 less attention, and produces plants of 
 excellent quality. Rhubarb may be 
 forced without either pots or frame, by 
 merely covering the plants six inches 
 deep with light litter, care being taken 
 that the plants are not injured. 
 
 Mr. Knight's mode of forcing is to 
 place " in the winter as many plants as 
 necessary in large deep pots, each pot 
 receiving as many as it can contain, and 
 the interstices entirely filled up by fine 
 sandy loam, washed in. The tops of 
 
 cuttings, the first two being the most 
 plentiful. As soon as the third is ga- 
 thered, the roots may be changed, and 
 those removed replanted in the ground, 
 when they will attain sufficient strength 
 to be forced again in a year's time. If 
 not, it is of little consequence, for year- 
 old roots raised from cuttings, or even 
 seed sown in autumn, are sufficiently 
 strong for use." 
 
 Propagation by Division. — Mr. Ro- 
 gers, a successful cultivator, says, that 
 " when the rhubarb is propagated by 
 the root, care must be taken to retain a 
 bud on the crown of each offset, toge- 
 ther with a small portion of the root 
 itself, with, if possible, some fibres at- 
 tached to it. These offsets may be taken 
 from roots of three or four years old, 
 without injury to the plant. They may 
 be planted where they are intended to 
 remain, at the same distance and in the 
 same manner as advised for the seed- 
 lings." 
 
 Taking for Use. — " Scrape away a 
 little of the earth, then bend down the 
 stalk you wish to remove, and slip it 
 off from the crown without breaking it, 
 and without using a knife. The stalks 
 are fit to gather when the leaves are 
 but half expanded, but a larger produce 
 is obtained by letting them remain till 
 full grown." — Gard. and Pract. Flor. 
 
 RHUS. Seventy-seven species. 
 Chiefly green-house evergreen shrubs, 
 some hardy deciduous trees, shrubs, 
 and climbers, or creepers. The stove 
 and green-house kinds increase by ripe 
 cuttings, the hardy species by cuttings 
 and layers. Common soil suits them 
 all. 
 
 RIBES. Forty-four species and many 
 varieties. Hardy deciduous shrubs. 
 Cuttings. Common soil. See Currant 
 and Gooseberry. 
 
 RICHARDIA athiopica. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennial. Offsets. 
 Light rich soil. 
 
 R I C H I E A fragrans. Stove ever- 
 
RIC 
 
 green climber. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
 and sand. 
 
 RICINUS. Eight species. Half- 
 hardy annuals and green-house ever- 
 green shrubs. Seeds and cuttings. 
 Rich soil. R. communis produces the 
 Castor Oil. 
 
 RICOTIA lunaria. Hardy annual. 
 Seeds. Light sandy soil. 
 
 RIDGING is digging the soil into 
 aaa parallel ridges in this form — so 
 ' ' ' as to expose it thoroughly to the 
 action either of the atmosphere or of 
 frost. 
 
 M. Schluber says, "that freezing re- 
 duces the consistency of soils most re- 
 markably, and that in the case of clays 
 and other adhesive soils, the diminution 
 of this consistency amounts to at least 
 fifty per cent." 
 
 In hoeing clay he found it reduced 
 from sixty-nine to forty-five of the scale 
 already stated, and in the ordinary 
 arable soil from thirty-three to twenty. 
 He satisfactorily explains this phenome- 
 non, by observing that the crystals of 
 ice pervading the entire substance of 
 the frozen soil, necessarily separate the 
 particles of earth, rendering their points 
 of contact fewer. 
 
 Ridging, however, should not be con- 
 fined to the winter, for in summer the 
 extra exposure to the air and heat is 
 highly promotive of vegetation — it im- 
 pregnates the soil with oxygen, pro- 
 motes the decay of stubborn vegetable 
 remains, and disturbs predatory vermin. 
 
 Mr. Barnes says, " I keep all ground, 
 as soon as a crop is done with, well 
 trenched, burying all the refuse I pos- 
 sibly can in a green state, casting the 
 earth into rough ridges, tumbling those 
 ridges over with a strong fork on frosty 
 mornings in winter and spring, and 
 during hot sunny days in summer, con- 
 tinually changing the crops. Keeping 
 the hoe at work at all seasons in suit- 
 able weather, forking up all odd cor- 
 ners and spare ground without loss of 
 time. By this management, I find the 
 ground is always in good condition and 
 never tired by cropping, some judgment 
 only being exercised in applying such 
 properties again to the soil that have 
 been taken from it, or that are likely to 
 be required by the succeeding crop." 
 
 An effectual mode of ridging is thus 
 described : 
 
 " Let a, 6, c, d, represent a section 
 of the ground to be trenched two feet 
 
 a. \c ' \ / d 
 
 tii 
 
 deep. In the first place the ground is 
 measured out in longitudinal beds four 
 feet wide ; this done, the top spit of the 
 bed c. is laid on the bed g, and the 
 second spit of the bed c, is laid on h. 
 The first or top spit of the bed /, is then 
 laid on h, so that the top soil and sub- 
 soil are kept on separate and alternate 
 beds, and may be mixed, reversed, or 
 returned as taken out, at the will of 
 the operator. By this method the ad- 
 vantages are — much greater exposure 
 of surface to the action of the weather; 
 the opportunity of incorporating with 
 the soil any desirable or obtainable 
 manures, and at any desired depth ; a 
 thorough blending of the soil to the 
 depth of two or three feet; and it also 
 facilitates the operation of draining, 
 where necessary. It is needless to add, 
 that when the first thrown-out beds are 
 sufficiently pulverized, they are levelled 
 down, and others thrown out in the 
 same manner; g, h, i, represent the 
 ridges thrown out and left as rough as 
 possible." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 RIGIDELLA flammea. Stove tuber- 
 ous-rooted perennial. Offsets or seeds. 
 Light rich soil. 
 
 RINGING is a practice adopted for 
 the purpose of checking the return of 
 the sap, and thereby confining a larger 
 supply to the blossom. It is removing 
 an entire zone of bark, about an inch 
 wide, around the branch to be ren- 
 dered more fruitful, and taking care 
 that the bark be completely removed 
 down to the very wood. This was 
 designated the ring of Pomona, but it 
 certainly was not auspiciously received 
 by that deity ; for although it renders 
 the part of the branch superior to the 
 wound more fruitful for two or three 
 seasons, yet it renders the branch un- 
 sightly by the swelling which occurs 
 around the upper lip of the wound, and 
 is always followed by disease and un- 
 fruitful ness. See Ligature. 
 
 RIPOGONUM. Two species. 
 Green-house evergreen climbers. — 
 Young cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 RIVEA UlicefoUa. Stove evergreen 
 twiner. Cuttings. Rich .oam ana peat. 
 
RI V 
 
 506 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 ROC 
 
 RIVINA. Seven species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Seeds or cuttings. 
 Light soil. 
 
 ROBINIA. Seven species and many 
 varieties. All hardy deciduous trees, 
 except R. guineensis and jR. purpurea, 
 which are stove evergreens. Increased 
 by young cuttings. Loam, sand, and 
 peat. The hardy kinds are increased 
 by layers or grafts, and require only 
 common soil. 
 
 ROCAMBOLE. Allium Scorodo- 
 prasum. Sometimes called Spanish 
 Garlic, has its bulbs or cloves growing 
 in a cluster. The stem bears many 
 bulbs at its summit, which as well as 
 those of the root are often preferred in 
 cooking to garlic, being of much milder 
 flavour. 
 
 Time of Insertion. — It is best propa- 
 gated by the root bulbs, those of the 
 stem being slower in production. The 
 plantation may be made either in Feb- 
 ruary, March, or early part of April, 
 as well as throughout the autumn, in 
 drills or by the dibble, in rows six 
 inches apart each way, and usually 
 two inches within the ground ; though 
 the plants would thrive better if grown 
 on the surface as recommended for 
 the shalot. In other respects they are 
 cultivated as directed for Garlic. A 
 very small bed is sufficient for the sup- 
 ply of the largest family. 
 
 ROCHEA. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Partly dried 
 cuttings. Sandy loam, peat, and brick 
 rubbish. 
 
 ROCKET. Hesperis. 
 ROCK ROSE. Cistus and Convolvu- 
 lus Dorycnium. 
 
 ROCK- WORK. "Mere rocks, un- 
 less they are peculiarly adapted to cer- 
 tain impressions, may surprise, but 
 can hardly please ; they are too far 
 removed from common life, too barren 
 and inhospitable, rather desolate than 
 solitary, and more horrid than terrible. 
 So austere a character cannot be long 
 engaging if its rigour be not softened 
 by circumstances, which may belong 
 either to these or to more cultivated 
 spots ; and when the dreariness is ex- 
 treme, little streams and waterfalls are 
 of themselves insufficient for the pur- 
 pose : an intermixture of vegetation is 
 also necessary, and, on some occa- 
 sions, even marks of inhabitants are 
 
 proper. 
 
 "If such a scene 
 
 occurs within the 
 
 precincts of a park or a garden, no ex- 
 pense should be spared to meliorate 
 the soil, wherever any soil can be 
 found. Without some vegetation 
 among the rocks, they are only an 
 object of curiosity or a subject of won- 
 der ; but verdure alone will give some 
 relief to the dreariness of the scene, 
 and shrubs or bushes, without trees, 
 are a sufficiency of wood. The thickets 
 may also be extended by the creeping 
 plants — such as pyracantha, vines, and 
 ivy— to wind up the sides, or cluster on 
 the tops of the rocks; and to this vege- 
 tation may be added some symptoms of 
 inhabitants, but they must be slight and 
 few : the use of them is only to cheer, 
 not to destroy the solitude of the place; 
 and such therefore should be chosen as 
 are sometimes found in situations re- 
 tired from public resort. A cottage 
 may be lonely, but it must not here 
 seem ruinous and neglected ; it should 
 be tight and warm, with every mark of 
 comfort about it, to which its position 
 in some sheltered recess may greatly 
 contribute. A cavity also in the rocks 
 rendered easy of access, improved to a 
 degree of convenience, and maintained 
 in a certain state of preservation, will 
 suggest similar ideas of protection from 
 the bitterest inclemencies of the sky, 
 and even of occasional refreshment and 
 repose. But we may venture still fur- 
 ther. A mill is of necessity often built 
 at some distance from the town it sup- 
 plies ; and here it would at the same 
 time apply the water to a use, and in- 
 crease its agitation. The dale may, 
 besides, be made the haunt of those 
 animals — such as goats — which are 
 sometimes wild and sometimes domes- 
 tic, and which, accidentally appearing, 
 will divert the mind from the sensa- 
 tions natural to the scene, but not 
 agreeable if continued longer without 
 interruption. 
 
 " These, and such other expedients, 
 will approximate the severest retreat 
 to the habitations of men, and convert 
 the appearance of a perpetual banish- 
 ment into that of a temporary retire- 
 ment from society. 
 
 " When rocks retire from the eye 
 down a gradual declivity, we can, 
 by raising the upper ground, deepen 
 the fall, lengthen the perspective, and 
 give both height and extent to those at 
 a distance. This effect may be still 
 increased by covering this upper 
 
ROC 
 
 507 
 
 ROC 
 
 ground with a thicket, which shall 
 cease, or be lowered, as it descends. 
 A thicket, on other occasions, makes 
 the rocks which rise out of it seem 
 larger than they are. If they stand 
 upon a bank overspread with shrubs, 
 their beginning is at the least uncer- 
 tain, and the presumption is that they 
 start from the bottom. 
 
 " Another use of this brushy under- 
 wood is, to conceal the fragments and 
 rubbish which have fallen from the 
 sides and the brow, and which are 
 often unsightly. 
 
 " Rocks are seldom remarkable for 
 the elegance of their forms ; they are 
 too vast and too rude to pretend to 
 delicacy ; but their shapes are often 
 agreeable, and we can affect those 
 shapes to a certain degree — at least 
 we can cover many blemishes in them 
 by conducting the growth of shrubby 
 and creeping plants about them. For 
 all these purposes mere underwood 
 suffices ; but for greater effects larger 
 trees are requisite. They are worthy 
 of the scene, and not only improve- 
 ments but accessions to its grandeur. 
 We are used to rank them among the 
 noblest objects of nature ; and when 
 we see that they cannot aspire to the 
 midway of the heights round them, the 
 rocks are raised by the comparison. A 
 single tree is, therefore, often prefera- 
 ble to a clump ; the size, though really 
 less, is more remarkable ; and clumps 
 are, besides, generally exceptionable, 
 in a very wild spot, from the suspicion 
 of art which attends them. But a wood 
 is free from that suspicion ; and its own 
 character of greatness recommends it to 
 every scene of magnificence. 
 
 " On the same principle, all the con- 
 sideration which can be should be given 
 to the streams. No number of little 
 rills are equal to one broad river; and, 
 in the principal current, some varieties 
 may be sacrificed to importance. But 
 a degree of strength should always be 
 preserved. The water, though it needs 
 not be furious, must not be dull ; for 
 dignity, when most serene, is not lan- 
 guid ; and space will hardly atone for 
 want of animation. 
 
 " Inhabitants furnish frequent oppor- 
 tunities to strengthen the appearances 
 of force by giving intimations of danger. 
 A house placed at the edge of a preci- 
 pice — any building on the pinnacle of a 
 crag — makes that situation seem form- 
 
 idable, which might otherwise have 
 been unnoticed. A steep, in itself not 
 very remarkable, becomes alarming 
 when a path is carried aslant up the 
 side. A rail, on the brow of a perpen- 
 dicular fall, shows that the height is 
 frequented and dangerous; and a com- 
 mon foot-bridge, thrown over a cleft 
 between rocks, has a still stronger 
 effect. In all these instances the im- 
 agination immediately transports the 
 spectator to the spot, and suggests the 
 idea of looking down such a depth ; in 
 the last that depth is a chasm, and the 
 situation is directly over it. 
 
 "If the body of the rock is intended 
 to be raised much above the ground 
 level, a quantity of soil and rubbish 
 should be carried into the centre of the 
 space. This soil, besides serving to 
 support the rockwork, will also form a 
 border for the plants to grow in. Hav- 
 ing at hand plenty of large rough stones, 
 broken bricks, or stony rubbish of any 
 kind or colour, proceed with these to 
 imitate the form of natural rock as 
 nearly as possible. Rough, bold, an- 
 gular projections, and deeply-formed 
 chasms, are the principal features in 
 natural scenery which please us most. 
 A rock, with a flat unbroken surface, 
 whether horizontal or perpendicular, 
 presents too much sameness to be pleas- 
 ing to the eye: therefore, in imitating 
 nature, the projections should be varied 
 and bold, and unless raggedness and 
 intricacy form principal features in its 
 composition, it will lose much of its 
 effect. If the rock-work be on a large 
 scale, it should not be one continued 
 line, but broken at intervals, in one part 
 lost beneath the surface of the earth, 
 and again rising in another part and 
 resuming its sinuous form. 
 
 " So far there is little difference be- 
 tween this and the common method of 
 making artificial rock. When, how- 
 ever, every stone has been arranged to 
 suit the eye, the interstices between 
 them are to be filled up with any kind 
 of rough mortar. Of course fissures, 
 and similar places intended for the 
 plants which are to cover the rock, 
 must be left open, so that the roots may 
 penetrate to the soil beneath the stones. 
 The next operation is to daub the whole 
 mass over with Roman cement. For 
 this purpose the latter should be mixed 
 with water until it is of the consistence 
 of thick paint, in which state it may be 
 
ROC 
 
 508 
 
 ROO 
 
 applied to the stones with a large 
 painter-s brush. The spaces between 
 the stones having been tilled with rough 
 mortar prevents the cement from being 
 wasted. The thickness of the latter on 
 the stones need not be more than the 
 eighth of an inch: it will unite the 
 whole into one mass; and rock-work, 
 thus constructed, is beyond all compa- 
 rison far more natural than that made 
 in the usual way. It has none of that 
 disjointed appearance which usually ac- 
 companies rock-work made without 
 cement. After a few months' exposure 
 to the weather, rock-work thus formed 
 (if skillfully made) cannot without care- 
 ful examination be distinguished from a 
 natural mass; it will soon cover all but 
 the most prominent parts. If the ce- 
 ment be of a colour too light, which, 
 for some situations, may be the case, a 
 little lamp-black, or soot, may be mixed 
 with it. Care must, however, be taken 
 that no substance which may make the 
 cement more porous is used, otherwise 
 it will peel from the stones after a hard 
 frost. For the benefit of those who 
 are not accustomed to using cement, I 
 may mention that no more should be 
 moistened at once than can be used in 
 a short time. If the cement be good it 
 will quickly harden, and will then be in 
 a manner useless. 
 
 " In preserving cavities in the rock 
 for plants, care should be taken that no 
 places are left in which the water may 
 lodge, or, in frosty weather, the ice, by 
 expansion, would split and peel off the 
 thin crust of cement, or lowest part of 
 them, communicating with the soil be- 
 neath the stones, so that the water may 
 drain off. 
 
 " In making artificial rock for water- 
 falls, or other constructions, where the 
 cement may be constantly exposed to 
 the action of water, the best water-ce- 
 ment should be used. Any preparation 
 that does not quickly indurate under 
 water, will, in a short time, be washed 
 away, and leave nothing but the bare 
 stones." — Whateley. 
 
 Plants suited for Rock-work are : — 
 Rhododendron ferrugineum; R. hirsu- 
 tum; Arctostaphylos Uva ursi ; Cha- 
 moeledron procumbens ; Sedum rupes- 
 tre; S. Forsterianum ; S. populifolium; 
 S. villosum ; S. hexangulare; Arbutus 
 phillyreaefolia ; A. pilosa ; Mahonia aqui- 
 folium; Ramondia pyrenaica; Soldanella 
 alpina ; Androsace villosa ; Crydalis 
 
 nobilis; Phlox ovata; P. subulata ; P. 
 nivalis; Vinca minor, florepleno; Cam- 
 panula pumiia ; Gentiana verna ; Dryas 
 octopetala; Digitalis lutea ; Sibthorpia 
 europjea ; Arabis alpina ; Draba azoides; 
 Premanthes purpurea ; P. Muralis ; 
 Antennaria plantaginea ; Gnaphalium 
 arenanum ; Polypodium vulgare cam- 
 bricum; P. dryopteris ; Onoclea sensi- 
 bilis ; Asplenium adiantum nigrum ; 
 Pteris caudata ; Adiantum Capillus 
 veneris; Aspidium rigidum; A. Lon- 
 chitis. 
 
 RODRIGUEZIA. Six species. Stove 
 orchids. Division. Peat and wood. 
 
 ROELLIA. Six species. Chiefly 
 green-house evergreen shrubs. R. &e- 
 currens, a half-hardy annual ; R. mu- 
 cosa, an herbaceous perennial. Seed, 
 or young cuttings. Sandy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 R. ciliata is a Cape plant, and re- 
 quires a green-house in this country. 
 It should be potted in light rich soil, 
 such as a mixture of peat, leaf-mould, 
 sand, and loam. Keep it rather dry 
 when it is not growing, but give it plenty 
 of water at other times. 
 
 RGEPER4. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings or seeds. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 R. aurantiaca will flower in an open 
 border. 
 
 ROLANDRA argentea. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 ROLLER. This is best made of cast- 
 iron, and may be had of four different 
 sizes, viz. with a diameter of sixteen, 
 eighteen, twenty-two, or twenty-four 
 inches. The roller and water-engine, 
 where either the lawns or roads are 
 extensive, may be combined advan- 
 tageously. 
 
 RONDELETIA. Eleven species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 ROOTS are either annual, biennial, 
 or perennial, but in all roots, and under 
 any mode of management, the fibrous 
 parts (radiculse) are strictly annual ; they 
 decay as winter approaches, and are 
 produced with the returning vigour of 
 their parent in the spring. Hence the 
 reason that plants are transplanted with 
 most success during the season of their 
 decay: for, as the root almost exclu- 
 sively imbibes nourishment by the 
 mouths of these fibres, in proportion as 
 they are injured by the removal, so is 
 
ROO 
 
 509 
 ♦ ■ - 
 
 ROO 
 
 the plant deprived of the means of sup- 
 port ; that sap which is employed in 
 the formation of new fibres, would 
 have served to increase the size of other 
 parts. 
 
 The quantity of root I have always 
 observed to increase with the poverty 
 of the soil in which it is growing. A 
 root always proceeds to that direction 
 where food is most abundant; and from 
 a knowledge of this fact, we should be 
 circumspect in our mode of applying 
 manures, according to the crop and ob- 
 ject we have in view. The soil in my 
 own garden being shallow, never pro- 
 duced a carrot or a parsnip of any size ; 
 but almost every root consisted of nu- 
 merous forks thickly coated with fibres ; 
 digging two spades deep produced no 
 material advantage, the gardener ap- 
 plying as usual manure to the surface ; 
 but by trenching as before, and turning 
 in a small quantity of manure at the 
 bottom, the roots always spindled well, 
 grew clean, and had few lateral fibres. 
 For late crops of peas, which mildew, 
 chiefly from a deficiency of moisture to 
 the root, it is an object to keep their 
 radicular near the surface, for the sake 
 of the light depositions of moisture in- 
 cident to their season of growth ; hence 
 it will always be found of benefit to 
 cover the earth over the rows, with a 
 little well-rotted dung, and to point it 
 in lightly. 
 
 If it be desirable to prevent the roots 
 of any plant travelling in a certain di- 
 rection, the soil on that side should be 
 excavated, and the cavity refilled with 
 sand, or some other unfertile earth, 
 whilst the soil on those sides of the 
 plant whither the roots are desired to 
 tend, should be made as fertile as is 
 permissible with its habits. 
 
 It may be accepted as a universal 
 maxim, that whatever causes an exces- 
 sive development of root, prevents the 
 production of seed ; and vice versa, the 
 productiod of seed, especially in tuber- 
 ous-rooted plants, reduces the amount 
 of root developed. Thus, frequent 
 transplanting the young plants of the 
 lettuce, brocoli, and cauliflower, causes 
 the production of numerous fibrous 
 roots, and is found effective in prevent- 
 ing the mature plants advancing early 
 to seed. 
 
 The early varieties of the potato do 
 not naturally produce seed ; but if their 
 tubers are removed as soon as they are 
 
 formed, these early varieties bl< 
 and bear seed as freely as the latter 
 kinds, a fact suggesting many experi- 
 ments in the cultivation of shy-blooming 
 tuberous-rooted flowers. Again, if the 
 blossoms of these later varieties are 
 plucked off as they appear, the weight 
 of tubers produced will be very mate- 
 rially increased. 
 
 According to the usual acceptation 
 of the term, the roots of plants do not 
 emit excrements, yet it is quite certain 
 that, in common with all the other parts 
 of a plant, they perspire matters differ- 
 ing in their amount and composition in 
 every species. The earth in contact 
 with the tubers of a potato fully ripe 
 contains mucilage, and has the peculiar 
 odour of the root; that in contact with 
 the roots of peas is also mucilaginous, 
 and smells very strongly of that vegeta- 
 ble ; and the freshly upturned soil where 
 cabbages have been growing, always 
 smells offensively. 
 
 MM. Sennebier and Caradori found 
 that if roots of the carrot, scorzonera, 
 and radish, are placed in water, some 
 with only their extremities immersed, 
 and others with their entire surfaces 
 plunged in except the extremities, the 
 former imbibe the water rapidly, and 
 the plants continue vegetating, but the 
 others imbibe no perceptible quantity, 
 and speedily wither. It suggests also 
 the reason why the gardener in apply- 
 ing water or manure to trees or shrubs, 
 does so at a distance from their stems. 
 
 A good rule, for ascertaining the 
 proper distance for such applications, 
 seems to be to make them beneath the 
 circumference of the head of the tree ; 
 for, as M. De Candolle observed, there 
 is usually a relation between that and 
 the length of the roots, so that the rain 
 falling upon the foliage is poured off 
 most abundantly at the distance most 
 desirable for reaching the extremities 
 of the roots. 
 
 This explains why the fibrous points 
 of roots are usually annually renewed, 
 and the caudex (or main limb of the 
 root) extended in length; by these 
 means they each year shoot forth into 
 a fresh soil, always changing their di- 
 rection to where most food is to be ob- 
 tained. If the extremity of a root is cut 
 off, it ceases to increase in length, but 
 enlarges its circle of extension by late- 
 ral shoots. 
 
 The roots of plants, unless frozen, 
 
ROO 
 
 510 
 
 ROO 
 
 are constantly imbibing nourishment, i with a superabundance of roots, the 
 and even developing parts ; for if the j loss, in their case, is not so much felt. 
 
 roots of trees planted during the winter 
 be examined after an interval of a few 
 weeks, they will be found to have emit- 
 ted fresh radicles. 
 
 The food they imbibe is slowly ela- 
 borated in the vessels of the stem and 
 branches, and there deposited. In ge- 
 neral, roots have no buds, and are, 
 therefore, incapable of multiplying the 
 plant to which they belong. But it 
 constantly happens in some species, 
 that they have the power of forming 
 what are called adventitious buds ; and 
 in such cases, they may be employed 
 for purposes of propagation. 
 
 There is no rule by which the power 
 of a plant to generate such buds by its 
 roots can be judged of: experiment is 
 therefore necessary, in all cases, to 
 determine the point. When there is a 
 difficulty in procuring a suitable stock, 
 pieces of the roots of the plant to be 
 multiplied are often taken as a substi- 
 tute, and they answer the purpose per- 
 fectly well ; for the circumstance which 
 hinders the growth of pieces of a root 
 into young branches, is merely their 
 want of buds. If a scion is grafted 
 upon a root, that deficiency is supplied, 
 and the difference between the internal 
 organization of a root and a branch is 
 so trifling as to oppose no obstacle to 
 the solid union of the two. 
 
 ROOT-PRUNING has been thus con- 
 sidered by Dr. Lindley, in his excellent 
 Theory of Horticulture : — 
 
 " In the nurseries, it is a universal 
 practice to prune the roots of trans- 
 planted trees: in gardens, this is as 
 seldom performed — which is right. If 
 a wounded or bruised root is allowed 
 to remain upon a transplanted tree, it 
 is apt to decay, and this disease may 
 spread to neighbouring parts, which 
 would otherwise be healthy: to remove 
 the wounded parts of roots is, therefore, 
 desirable. But the case is different with 
 healthy roots. We must remember that 
 every healthy and unmutilated root 
 which is removed, is a loss of nutriment 
 
 If performed at all, it should take place 
 in the autumn ; for, at that time, the 
 root, like the other parts of a plant, 
 are comparatively empty of fluid ; but 
 if deferred till the spring, then the roots 
 are all distended with fluid, which has 
 been collecting in them during winter; 
 and every part taken away carries with 
 it a portion of that nurture which the 
 plant had been laying up as the store 
 upon which to commence its renewed 
 growth. 
 
 "It must now be obvious that, al- 
 though root-pruning may be prejudicial 
 in transplanting trees, it may be of the 
 greatest service to such established 
 trees as are too prone to produce 
 branches and leaves, instead of flowers 
 and fruit. In these cases, the excessive 
 vigour is at once stopped, by removal 
 of some of the stronger roots, and con- 
 sequently, of a part of the superfluous 
 food to which their 'rankness' is owing. 
 
 " The operation has been success- 
 fully performed on the wall trees at 
 Oulton, by Mr. Errington, one of our 
 best English gardeners, and by many 
 others, and, I believe, has never proved 
 an objectionable practice under judi- 
 cious management. Its effect is, pro 
 tanto, to cut off the supply of food, 
 and thus to arrest the rapid growth of 
 the branches. 
 
 " Under all ordinary circumstances, 
 the roots must necessarily be injured 
 more or less by removal: in that case, 
 all the larger wounds should be cut to 
 a clean smooth face, and not in long 
 ragged slivers, as is often the case, and 
 which is only substituting one kind of 
 mutilation for another; but at an angle 
 of about 45°, or less. 
 
 " If the ends of small roots are 
 bruised, they generally die back a little 
 way, and then emit fresh spongioles; 
 but the larger roots, when bruised, lose 
 the vitality of their broken extremity ; 
 their ragged tissue remains open to the 
 uncontrolled introduction of water ; de- 
 cays in consequence of being in con- 
 
 to the plant, and that, too, at a time I tact with an excess of this fluid; and 
 when it is least able to spare it; and , often becomes the seat of disease which 
 there cannot be any advantage in the spreads to parts that would be healthy, 
 removal. The nursery practice is pro- " When, however, the wound is 
 bably intended to render the operation j made clean by a skilful pruner, the 
 of transplanting large numbers of plants \ vessels all contract, and prevent the 
 less troublesome : and, as it is chiefly j introduction of an excess of water into 
 applied to seedlings and young plants | the interior; the wound heals bygranu- 
 
ROP 
 
 511 
 
 — # — 
 
 ROS 
 
 lations formed by the living tissue ; 
 and the readiness with which this takes 
 place is in proportion to the smallness 
 of the wound. It may be sometimes 
 advantageous to remove large parts of 
 the coarser roots of a tree, even if 
 they are not accidentally wounded 
 when taken up, the object being to 
 compel the plant to throw out, in room 
 of those comparatively inactive subter- 
 ranean limbs, a supply of young active 
 fibres. 
 
 <l This is a common practice in the 
 nurseries in transplanting young oaks 
 and other tap-rooted trees, and is one 
 of the means employed by the Lan- 
 cashire growers of gooseberries, in or- 
 der to increase the vigour of their 
 branches ; in the last case, however, 
 the operation is not confined to the 
 time when transplantation takes place, 
 but is practised annually upon digging 
 the gooseberry borders. The reason 
 why cutting off portions of the princi- 
 pal roots causes a production of fibres 
 appears to be this ; the roots are pro- 
 duced by organizable matter sent down- 
 wards from the stem ; that matter, if 
 uninterrupted, will flow along the main 
 branches of the roots, until it reaches 
 the extremities, adding largely to the 
 wood and horizontal growth of the 
 root, but increasing in a very slight de- 
 gree the absorbent powers : but if a 
 large limb of the roots is amputated, 
 the powers of the stem remaining the 
 same, all that descending organizable 
 matter which would have been ex- 
 pended in adding to the thickness of 
 the amputated part, is arrested at the 
 time of amputation ; and, unable to 
 pass further on, rapidly produces granu- 
 lations to heal the wound, and imme- 
 diately afterward young spongioles, 
 which soon establish themselves in the 
 surrounding soil, and become the points 
 of new active fibres." — Theory of Hort. 
 
 ROPALA. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 ROSE. Rosa. Seventy-eight spe- 
 cies, and an almost innumerable num- 
 ber of varieties, principally hardy de- 
 ciduous or evergreen shrubs. To 
 attempt an enumeration, much less a 
 description of all the varieties which 
 they profess to cultivate in Europe, 
 would be an unnecessary waste of 
 space, for the simple reason that many 
 of them are unworthy of preservation, 
 
 and others vary so slightly that a prac- 
 ticed eye is scarcely able to detect the 
 difference. The Queen of Flowers had 
 at no previous day attained the cele- 
 brity and popular favour it now enjoys, 
 and never was it so well worthy that 
 popularity. Ever charming, it is now 
 doubly so from exhibiting its beauty 
 almost without intermission, whilst very 
 many of them yield powerful and de- 
 licious perfume. Those who may be 
 resident in remote positions, and whose 
 idea of the rose, pleasing as it maybe, 
 is the recollection of it, as it was in by- 
 gone years, are far behind the age — 
 nothing, whether it be artificial, or the 
 product of nature assisted by art, has 
 kept more steady pace with the im- 
 provements of our day. 
 
 The following select varieties in each 
 of the divisions into which by common 
 consent this flower has been divided, 
 are abstracted from the catalogue of 
 the old Landreth nursery, and though 
 they are now certainly among those 
 most to be desired, who can tell how 
 soon many of them may be superseded 
 by more attractive varieties? Whilst 
 speaking of varieties it may not be out 
 of place to remark that great disap- 
 pointment has been endured by im- 
 porters of roses from Europe, induced 
 to order by the enticing descriptions in 
 English and continental works: a large 
 majority, it is believed, have fallen short 
 of their transatlantic character, and 
 American florists have not al ways escap- 
 ed censure for distributing varieties of 
 little worth, when their only fault was 
 reliance on the fidelity of European 
 descriptions. 
 
 ROSA INDICA. 
 
 Bengal, or Daily Rose. 
 
 Animated, rosy blush. 
 Arsenie, light rose. 
 Augustine Hersent, superb rose. 
 Assuerus, crimson. 
 Admiral Duperre, dark rose. 
 Belle Isidore, crimson. 
 
 " de Monza, dark rose. 
 
 " Violet, violet purple. 
 Bisson, rosy blush. 
 Burette, dark red. 
 Cameleon, rose. 
 Cramoisi superieur, crimson. 
 Cels, blush. 
 
 Comble de Gloire, crimson. 
 Don Carlos, dark rose. 
 
ROS 
 
 Duchess of Kent, pink. 
 
 Eugene Beauharnais, crimson. 
 
 Fabvier, scarlet. 
 
 Grandral, crimson. 
 
 Grandida, rose. 
 
 Hortensia, light rose. 
 
 Indica Alba, pure white. 
 
 Jacksonia, bright red. 
 
 Louis Philippe, crimson. 
 
 Lady Warrender, white. 
 
 Lawrencia, pink. 
 
 Marjolin, crimson. 
 
 Mrs. Bosanquet, large blush. 
 
 Napoleon, rose fine. 
 
 Heine de Lombardie, cherry red. 
 
 Samson, light rose. 
 
 Triomphant, crimson. 
 
 Vanilla, dark rose. 
 
 ROSA INDICA ODORATA. 
 
 Tea scented Roses. 
 Archduchess Theresa, white. 
 Aurora, blush. 
 Alba, pure white. 
 Arkinto, flush colour. 
 Adelaide, blush. 
 Antherose, blush white. 
 Adam, rosy blush. 
 Belle Marguerite, rosy purple. 
 Bougere, light rose. 
 Boutrand, rosy blush. 
 Bon Silene, superb red. 
 Bourbon, white. 
 Barbot, blush. 
 Camellia, white. 
 Caroline, bright rose. 
 Countess Albemarle, straw colour. 
 Due d'Orleans, bright rose. 
 Devoniensis, creamy yellow. 
 Devaux, blush. 
 Delphine Gaudot, white. 
 D'Arrance de Navarre, light pink. 
 Eliza Sauvage,pale sulphur. 
 Flon, buff. 
 Flavescens, yellow. 
 Golcondi, blush white. 
 Goubault, rosy blush. 
 Gigantesque de Lima, light yellow. 
 Gloria de Hardi, light rose. 
 Hymenee, white. 
 Jaune Panache, straw colour. 
 La Sylphide, rosy buff. 
 Lilicina, lilac. 
 Lyonnais, rose. 
 La Pactole, yellow. 
 La Renomme, white. 
 Madam Desprez, white. 
 Mansais, rosy buff. 
 Niphetos, white. 
 Odoratissima, rich blush. 
 
 512 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 ROS 
 
 Princesse Maria, blush. 
 
 e< d'Esterhazy, light rose. 
 Strombio, white. 
 Triomphe de Luxembourg, rosy 
 
 blush. 
 Victoria Modeste, blush. 
 William Wallace, pale blush. 
 
 ROSA BOURBONIANA. 
 
 Bourbon Roses. 
 
 Augustine Lelieur, bright rose. 
 
 Acidalie, white, large and fine. 
 
 Comte de Rambuteau, violet purple. 
 
 Ceres, dark rose. 
 
 Cytherea, rosy pink, very fragrant. 
 
 Comte d'Eu, bright carmine. 
 
 Doctor Rocques, purple crimson. 
 
 Dumont de Courset, deep purple. 
 
 Du Petit Thouars. 
 
 Emilie Courtier, rosy red. 
 
 Gloire de Rosamene, brilliant crimson. 
 " de Paris, bright red. 
 
 Grand Capitaine, brilliant scarlet. 
 
 Gloire de France, rose, very fragrant. 
 
 Hermosa, light pink. 
 
 Henri Plantier, pale rose. 
 
 Imperatrice Josephine, creamy white. 
 
 Lady Canning, deep rose. 
 
 Madam Desprez, rosy lilac. 
 " Souchet, blush, fine. 
 t( Lacharme, blush white. 
 " Nerard, light rose. 
 
 Marechal de Villars, rosy purple, fine. 
 
 Ninon de l'Enclos, dark rose. 
 
 Paul Joseph, velvet crimson. 
 
 Princesse Clementine, deep rosy pur- 
 ple. 
 
 Phoenix, rose red. 
 
 Pierre de St. Cyr, light rose. 
 
 Queen, delicate blush. 
 
 Reine de Fontenay, brilliant rose. 
 
 Souchet, deep crimson. 
 
 Souvenir de la Malmaison, creamy 
 white, fine. 
 
 Theresita, bright carmine. 
 
 REMONTANT, OR HYBRID PERPETUAL 
 ROSES. 
 
 Note.— In Europe these roses are highly 
 esteemed; here their reputation as "per- 
 petuals" has been seriously injured, in 
 consequence of their having been in 
 many instances, worked on stocks un- 
 suited either to this rose, or to our cli- 
 mate. 
 
 Antinous, dark crimson. 
 Aubernon, clear red, very fine. 
 Augustine Mouchelet, clear bright 
 
 rose. 
 Baronne Provost, fine rose colour. 
 
ROS 
 
 513 
 
 ROS 
 
 Comte de Paris, dark crimson. 
 
 Claire du Chatelet, purple red. 
 
 Clementine Syringe, pale rose. 
 
 Comtesse Duchatel. 
 
 Crimson orRosedu Roi,lightcrimson. 
 
 D'Angers, delicate rose. 
 
 Doctor Marjolin. 
 
 Due de Aumale. 
 
 Duchesse de Nemours, pale rose. 
 
 " de Sutherland, bright rose. 
 Edouard Jesse, dark purple crimson. 
 Isaure, bright pink. 
 Israel, sable. 
 Insigne D'Estotells. 
 Josephine Antoinette, rosy blush. 
 Louis Bonaparte. 
 Lady Fordvvich, deep rose. 
 
 " Alice Peel, rosy carmine. 
 La Reine, or Queen, rose colour, 
 
 superb. 
 Madame Laffay, brilliant rose. 
 Marquise Bocella. 
 Mrs. Elliott, rosy red. 
 Melanie Cornu, deep crimson. 
 Newton. 
 Palmyre, blush. 
 
 Princesse Helene, large deep rose. 
 Prince Albert, very dark crimson, 
 
 fine. 
 Prudence Rceser, rosy pink. 
 Prince de Salm, dark crimson. 
 
 " of Wales, rose carmine. 
 Reine de la Guillotiere, brilliant 
 
 crimson. 
 Desquermus or Royal, large rose. 
 Stanwell, blush very fine. 
 Sisley, large bright red. 
 
 NOISETTE OB. CLUSTER FLOWERING ROSES. 
 
 Those marked * are dwarfs. 
 
 *Alba, creamy white. 
 *Aimee Vibert, pure white. 
 Bengal Lee, blush, fragrant. 
 Cadot, blush lilac. 
 Charles Tenth, purple. 
 Conque de Venus, white rose centre. 
 Coeur Jaune, white yellow centre. 
 Champneyana, rosy white. 
 *Countesse de Grillion, blush. 
 Chromotelle, large yellow fine. 
 *Euphrosine, pale yellow. 
 Fellenberg, crimson, superb. 
 *Gabriel, blush, fine. 
 Jaune Desprez, rosy yellow. 
 *Julienne le Sourd, rose. • 
 Julie de Loynes, white. 
 Lamarque, creamy white, fine. 
 La Biche, flesh colour. 
 Lady Byron, pink,./ine. 
 33 
 
 Lutea or Smithii, fine yellow. 
 Landreth's Carmine, carmine. 
 *La Nymphe,pale rose. 
 Miss Simpson, blush. 
 Orloff, pink, fine. 
 *Ophire, yellow,/rcrgTanL 
 Sir Walter Scott, deep rose. 
 Solfatare, superb dark yellow. 
 Vitellina, white. 
 
 CLIMBING ROSES. 
 
 These flower annually in immense 
 clusters, grow rapidly, and are quite 
 hardy. 
 
 Banksia lutea, double yellow. 
 
 " alba, white. 
 Boursault, rose colour. 
 
 " purpurea, purple. 
 
 ',' blush, large blush. 
 
 " gracilis, bright rose. 
 
 Bengalensis scandens, large rosy 
 
 white. 
 Felicite perpetuelle, blush white. 
 Grevillia. Greville produces immense 
 clusters, of various colours and 
 shades, from white to crimson. 
 Multiflora, pink. 
 
 " alba, blush white. 
 
 Rubifolia, single Michigan or prairie. 
 " elegans, double pink. 
 " purpurea, double purple. 
 tc Queen, double pink. 
 " alba, double blush white. 
 Russelliana, crimson cottage rose. 
 Sempervirens plena, superb white. 
 Triomphe de Bollwyler, blush white. 
 Laura Davoust, white. 
 
 MICROPHYLLA ROSES. 
 
 Maria Leonid a, white, extra fine. 
 Microphylla rosea, rose colour. 
 
 " odorata alba, creamy 
 
 white. 
 
 MUSK-SCENTED ROSES. 
 
 Moschata, white semi-double. 
 
 " superba, pure white, very 
 
 double. 
 Princesse de Nassau, white double. 
 
 HARDY GARDEN ROSES. 
 
 Miaulis, rosy purple. 
 Coronation, purple crimson. 
 Reine des Roses, bright crimson. 
 Due d'Orleans, dark rose. 
 Painted damask, white. 
 Brennes, dark pink. 
 Rivers' Geo. IV., superb crimson. 
 Hybride blanche, white. 
 
RO S 
 
 514 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 ROS 
 
 Heureuse surprise, carmine. 
 
 Ranunculus, purple, compact. 
 
 La capricieuse, purple crimson. 
 
 Royal Provins, superb pink. 
 
 Du Roi, perpetual, bright red. 
 
 Harrisonii, yellow Austrian briar. 
 
 Moss single, crimson, very mossy. 
 11 common, rose. 
 " Luxembourg, crimson. 
 " white, perpetual. 
 " crested. 
 " Adelaide. 
 
 York and Lancaster, red and white. 
 
 Provins Belgic, large pink. 
 
 Four Seasons, pink. 
 
 Moretti, light rose. 
 
 Burgundy, rose, compact. 
 
 Persian, this is the finest yellow rose 
 now in cultivation. 
 
 Characteristics of Excellence. — Petal s 
 thick, broad, and smooth edged; highly 
 perfumed; outline of flower, circular ; 
 outer petals, curving slightly inwards, 
 and imbricated in distinct rows ; colour, 
 distinct and permanent ; flowers, uni- 
 form in size, well above the foliage, 
 and on foot-stalks stiff but elastic; 
 foliage, bright green; habit of the 
 plant, shrubby. 
 
 Propagation. — We give the direc- 
 tions for propagation by budding, graft- 
 ing, cuttings, &c, and the general 
 management of this plant, just as it 
 appears in the English edition of this 
 work. The American florist has greatly 
 simplified much therein described — 
 still it is well to exhibit what is done 
 by others. 
 
 By Seed. — Mr. Paul, the eminent 
 florist, recommends the following, — 
 " which," he says, " seed freely, and 
 appear well suited for female parents. 
 First among the hybrid Chinese are, 
 Athelin and Celine ; Ne plus Ultra ; 
 Duke of Devonshire ; Chatelain ; Prin- 
 cess Augusta; Henri Barbet ; Globe, 
 White Hip ; General Allard, Aurora, 
 and others. These might be crossed 
 with some of the freest blooming da- 
 mask, perpetual, or Bourbon roses, to 
 endeavour to obtain an increase of, and 
 an improvement among, the hardy au- 
 tumnal roses. The Ayrshire and Sem- 
 pervirens, among which there is a 
 paucity of high-coloured flowers, might 
 be fertilized with the farina of some 
 dark varieties selected from those sec- 
 tions which approach nearest to them 
 in natural character. Here Ruga Splen- 
 dens, and Leopoldine d'Orleans, might 
 
 form the female parents. Among the 
 moss, the Single Crimson, Du Luxem- 
 bourg, and Eclatante, occasionally seed. 
 Among the briers, the Double Yellow, 
 and Harrisonii. Among the Bourbons, 
 the old or de Lisle, Augustine Lelieur, 
 Dubourg, Gloire de Rosamene, Emile 
 Courtier, and Bouquet de Flore. Among 
 the Chinese, Camellia Blanc, Fabvier, 
 Therese Stravins, Alba, Belle Elvire, 
 Henri Cinque, and Madame Bureau. 
 Among the tea-scented, Odbrate, Jaune 
 Hamon, Lyonnais, Hardy, Lady Gran- 
 ville, Caroline Gonbault, Belle Alle- 
 mande, and Bardon. Many of the least 
 double Gallica roses also seed freely. 
 As the female parent will, in many 
 cases, be but semi-double, we should 
 endeavour to counteract the probable 
 results of this by crossing with farina 
 gathered from the most double varieties 
 that we can collect it from. The plants 
 intended to seed should be selected in 
 a good state of growth, and never al- 
 lowed to suffer from drought. When 
 the bloom is in trusses, the backward 
 flower buds should be cut out, leaving 
 not more than six of the plumpest and 
 most perfect buds on one flower-stalk." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Those who wish to raise seedling 
 roses should not gather the hips until 
 they have been exposed to frost, for it 
 is a curious fact that the seeds of those 
 thus subjected to a low temperature 
 germinate with less failures. This is a 
 lesson probably from nature, for it is 
 certain that the hips of the rose never 
 fall or shed their seed to the ground 
 until they have been frosted. 
 
 Budding. — Preparing Stocks.— The 
 Boursault and De Lisle roses have been 
 suggested as the best stocks for pot- 
 culture, and if grown in a rich shel- 
 tered soil, and cut down for stooling, 
 some of the shoots of the second year 
 may be layered the same season. If 
 the end of the layer is tied carefully to 
 a stick, it will allow a bud to be in- 
 serted in a few weeks. The tongue 
 being cut on the layer's upper side will 
 save the shoot from breaking. Mr. 
 Reid, of Noble Thorpe, near Barnsley, 
 from whom these directions come, re- 
 commends a piece of clay or a small 
 stone to be inserted in the opening, to 
 prevent its adhering before roots are 
 formed. About the end of October 
 these early layers will be rooted, and 
 may be potted. Only one bud to be 
 
ROS 
 
 515 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 ROS 
 
 inserted on a stock. Many varieties, as 
 Bourbon, Noisette, China, Tea-scented, 
 &c, if well managed, will bloom beau- 
 tifully in the spring and summer fol- 
 lowing. 
 
 Mr. Jos. Baumann recommends the 
 seeds of the dog rose to be sown in 
 „ February, the seedlings, cut back to 
 two eyes, potted in forty-eights next 
 autumn ; plunged in a border until early 
 in July; to be budded at the end of 
 August; headed down in November; 
 potted in thirty-twos; protected in a' 
 frame during winter ; started by dung 
 heat in January, and the shoots when 
 three inches long pinched back to one 
 inch, this being repeated two or three 
 times to form a good head. In autumn, 
 prune and shift to larger pots, to re- 
 main for some years. These stocks 
 produce very enduring and bright flow- 
 ers. Rosa Banksia, herberifolia, brac- 
 teata, and multiflora, do best on Quatre 
 Saisons stocks. 
 
 In budding on the Boursault, and in- 
 deed on any other rose, an excellent 
 mode is, in April, to tongue a strong 
 shoot, pass it through a forty-eight pot, 
 until the tongue is in the centre, and 
 then press the pot full of a mixture of 
 rotten dung and sand. It may be bud- 
 ded at the time, but whenever done, 
 the shoot should be headed down at the 
 time of budding to within two eyes of 
 the bud. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Mr. Glenny recommends the stocks 
 to be planted in a rich stimsh ground, 
 two feet apart in the row, and three 
 feet between the rows, with a stake 
 every ten feet, and rods of sufficient 
 strength, reaching from one to another, 
 to secure them against the effects of the 
 wind. Plant no deeper than just to 
 cover the crown of the roots. When 
 growing commences rub off, twice a 
 week, all the buds that are not wanted, 
 but let the highest remain, for a stock 
 six feet high often produces no shoots 
 higher than half its height. In the first 
 week of July, the thorns should be re- 
 moved from those places on the stocks 
 intended for budding roses. If they be 
 not taken away, the operation is ren- 
 dered needlessly troublesome ; and it 
 is best done now as time is thus allowed 
 for the bark's healing. The best time 
 for budding the rose is towards the end 
 of July, a dormant eye being employed, 
 just after a fall of rain, and when no 
 strong dry wind is moving. An atten- 
 
 tion to these circumstances insures that 
 the sap is flowing freely, and avoids a 
 rapid evaporation, so often preventing 
 success. But budding may be in spring, 
 if the buds are extracted with a small 
 portion of wood adhering to them. For 
 this purpose, scions are cut before win- 
 ter, and stuck into the ground till the 
 moment when in spring the bark of the 
 stock will run. To prepare the bud, 
 we make firstly, a transverse cut into 
 the wood a little below an eye, which 
 incision is met by a longer cut down- 
 wards, commencing at a short distance 
 above the eye, care being taken that a 
 portion of wood is removed with the. 
 bark. This bud is inserted into the 
 bark of the stock, which is cut like 
 an inverted T, the horizontal edges of 
 this cut in the stock, and of the bud, 
 must be brought into the most perfect 
 contact with each other, and then bound 
 with waterproof bast, without, however, 
 applying grafting clay. Eight days after 
 the insertion of the bud, the stock is 
 pruned down to the branch, which is 
 immediately above the opposite side, 
 and this branch is stopped by being cut 
 down to two or three eyes; all the side 
 wood is destroyed, and when the bud 
 has pushed its fifth leaf, compel it to 
 branch by pinching its extremity ; it will 
 then flower in September of the same 
 year. You may also bud the rose in 
 the spring without waiting till the bark 
 separates, by placing the bud with some 
 wood on it, in a niche made in the 
 stock, similar to what would be formed 
 by taking an eye for budding from it in 
 the manner above described, and into 
 which it is fitted exactly with a slight 
 pressure. It is recommended to make 
 the cut for the niche where there is al- 
 ready a bud on the stock ; when placed, 
 the bud is then bound with bast and 
 covered with mastic. — Gard. Mag. 
 
 Grafting. — " The exact time," says 
 the best treatise on the ' Tree Rose,' 
 " for removing the scions from the pa- 
 rent tree, must depend upon the season ; 
 some time during the first three weeks 
 in February is the usual period. There 
 does not exist an actual necessity for 
 cutting the scions until they are required 
 for use; but then it will be more diffi- 
 cult to select the numbers required in 
 a state fit for use, and there is a greater 
 chance of their going off, if the weather 
 remain cold, or the sap be not imme- 
 diately supplied. Scions cut when the 
 
ROS 
 
 516 
 
 ROS 
 
 sap is quite down, carry better and are 
 in every way more hardy. Let the 
 shoot remain for three weeks in an out- 
 house, or any other place, neither very 
 dry nor very damp, where neither wind 
 nor sun can come in contact with them; 
 the clay being damped with a sparing 
 hand, if the generality of the scions 
 appear to shrink. During the first week 
 in March the head of the stock (in which 
 the sap should be beginning to rise) is 
 to be cut off horizontally, a slit made 
 in it straight downwards of a couple of 
 inches, or an inch and a half long, with- 
 out injuring the sides of the bark. The 
 scion is to be taken in the left hand, 
 ^hree buds, or two if the stock be not 
 large, being left upon it; the lower ex- 
 tremity must then be cut in the shape 
 of a wedge, the back being rather the 
 thinnest, and the lowest bud about half 
 an inch above the thick end of the 
 wedge. In doing which, care must be 
 taken that the bark be undisturbed, and 
 each scion so placed that when entered 
 in the stock, all the buds may point 
 outward, or at any rate be in such posi- 
 tion, that the shoots from them may not 
 interfere with each other. The end of 
 a budding knife or a little wooden or 
 ivory wedge may be used to open the 
 slit in the stock on one side, and the 
 scion, with the thickest part or front 
 outwards, must be placed in the other, 
 care being taken that the edge of the 
 inner bark or liber of the scion touches 
 the edges of the inner bark of the stock 
 all the way down ; the wedge may then 
 be removed and another scion entered 
 in its place, the slit being kept open by 
 the first : if the size of the scion be only 
 half the size of the stock, a shoulder 
 may be left to the former, and the 
 chances of success thereby increased. 
 Any number of scions may be inserted 
 in the same stock, but from one to four 
 at most are all that are desirable in the 
 present case to cover completely the 
 head of the stock, which is apt to re- 
 ceive much injury from the weather, if 
 not carefully attended to. The object 
 of laying by the scions, is that the stock 
 may be forwardest, and be enabled to 
 supply the sap and force them forward 
 at once, instead of lingering while they 
 perish from exposure and want of nou- 
 rishment. When the shoots are on, the 
 whole must be tied up with a bast liga- 
 ture to prevent the scions from shifting, 
 
 will have a tendency to do, when the 
 rise of the sap swells the stock, thereby 
 diminishing the juxtaposition of their 
 respective libers, and the whole be- 
 neath the lowest bud covered with 
 grafting clay, totally excluding air, sun, 
 and rain. If the clay crack, it must be 
 renewed, not by shifting, but by filling 
 up the crack. In about six months the 
 clay may be removed, and the wound 
 covered with grafting wax; this latter 
 on no account must be omitted." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 " In Flanders, cleft-grafting is adopt- 
 ed, and care taken that the scion is of 
 the same diameter as the stock, or the 
 cleft in the stock made sufficiently near 
 one side of the cross section, that the 
 bark of the scion may fit the stock on 
 both sides. This mode is adopted in 
 grafting one sort of garden-rose upon 
 another. In grafting upon the dog- 
 rose the same practice is followed, with 
 this addition, that a shoulder is very 
 often made to the scion, so as that it 
 may rest with greater firmness upon 
 the stock ; such stocks being often em- 
 ployed as standards, and therefore more 
 exposed to wind. 
 
 " Mr. Calvert, of Rouen, observes 
 that it is the general practice to form 
 the wedge in a part of the scion where 
 there are no buds, but that he adopts a 
 contrary practice, and finds that a bud, 
 on the wedge part of the scion, greatly 
 contributes to the success of the graft. 
 By taking care to have a bud on the 
 lower part of the scion, Mr. Calvert has 
 even been successful in grafting roses 
 by the whip or splice method, which, 
 without a bud on the lower part of the 
 scion, very often fails; but, with a^bud, 
 fails very seldom." — Gard. Mag. 
 
 Cuttings are made to succeed by the 
 following treatment : — 
 
 " Take a cutting of a this-year's 
 shoot, removing all but one leaf, and 
 cutting off the upper part of the shoot 
 above the leaf, and reducing its entire 
 length to six inches. The cutting 
 should be planted on the north side of 
 a wall, under glass in a small frame, on 
 a newly prepared hot-bed, and in a soil 
 of leaf-mould, eight inches deep, well 
 soaked with water, and covered over 
 with sand. Water is to be given, and 
 air abundantly, for the first four days, 
 lessening its admission daily, until root- 
 
 which from their wedge-like shape they i ing is completed, which will be in about 
 
ROS 
 
 517 
 
 ROS 
 
 three weeks. In the fourth week the 
 cutting may be potted." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 By Suckers. — Roses send up many 
 suckers annually, which may be taken 
 up in autumn, winter, or early spring, 
 with some rootlets attached ; and the 
 strongest may be planted out finally, 
 and the weakest in the nursery for a 
 year or two or longer. They will 
 readily grow, and will, most of them, 
 produce flowers the following summer. 
 
 When rose-trees have grown into 
 large bunches, with many suckers, the 
 whole may be taken up and slipped, or 
 divided into separate plants. The moss, 
 and some others, furnish suckers but 
 sparingly. 
 
 By Layers. — To obtain shoots for 
 layering, a quantity of rose-trees should 
 be planted for stools, which, being 
 headed down low, will throw out shoots 
 abundantly near the ground, in summer, 
 for layering in autumn or winter follow- 
 ing. They will be rooted by next 
 autumn, and fit for transplantation in 
 nursery rows; though sometimes the 
 moss-rose and some others require two 
 years before they are tolerably well 
 rooted. But of these sorts you may 
 also try layers of the shoots of the year, 
 layered in summer, any time in June. 
 They will probably root a little the 
 same season. The layers of all the 
 sorts, after being properly rooted, 
 should be taken up in autumn and 
 planted in the nursery, to have one or 
 two years' growth. — Abercrombie. 
 
 Soil. — All the cultivated roses, and 
 especially the double-flowering kinds, 
 require a rich loamy soil inclining to 
 clay rather than sand ; and they require 
 also, like most double flowers, plenty 
 of moisture when in a growing state. 
 
 Manures. — The best is a mixture of 
 one part guano, three parts charred 
 turf and earth, and six parts cow-dung. 
 A thin dressing pointed in every spring. 
 
 Pruning. — Mr. Glenny gives these 
 very good and full directions : — 
 
 " Suppose we have a standard, with 
 only one branch from the bud, which is 
 always stronger and better than if there 
 are two or three — the first season we 
 should cut that to within two eyes of 
 the ground, if a rose on its own root, or 
 within two eyes of the stock, if it be a 
 budded one. These two eyes would, 
 the very first year, send out two bloom- 
 ing branches, which would grow a con- 
 siderable length. The next season we 
 
 should cut both of these into within two 
 eyes of the short branch they started 
 from ; and this would make each of 
 those branches start out two more ; and 
 unless to get the tree, or the dwarf 
 bush, into any particular form, we 
 should never omit cutting down shoots, 
 and often cut out old lumps of wood 
 and branches to thin the tree, which 
 must never get crowded. By the same 
 rule we should always cut away all the 
 spindly shoots. China roses, and all 
 constant bloomers, which require con- 
 tinued attention, should have only the 
 old wood and the weak shoots cut away, 
 because any violent pruning would 
 throw the plant out of flower for a con- 
 siderable time ; while carefully remov- 
 ing the seed-vessels, and taking away 
 weak wood to make room for the 
 stronger, will keep them constantly 
 flowering. This is especially requisite 
 with climbing roses, where the favour- 
 able aspect, and other circumstances, 
 may set the seed ofalmost every bloom. 
 The swelling of their seed-vessels will 
 take all the nourishment from the shoots 
 that would otherwise continue to grow 
 and bear flowers ; and the seed will 
 often complete its growth and ripen 
 before there is anything like a general 
 bloom again." — Gard. and Prac. Flor. 
 
 " A very good time for performing 
 the operation is immediately after the 
 bloom is over ; cutting out old exhausted 
 wood, shortening shoots which have 
 flowered to a good bud accompanied 
 with a healthy leaf, but leaving such 
 shoots as are still in a growing state 
 untouched till October. 
 
 " Where very large roses are wanted, 
 all the buds but that on the extreme 
 point of each shoot should be pinched 
 off as soon as they make their appear- 
 ance, and the plant liberally supplied 
 with water. 
 
 " To lessen evaporation, and keep 
 up a constant moisture at the root of 
 their roses, the Paris gardeners gene- 
 rally mulch them with half-rotten stable 
 dung or partially rotten leaves." — Enc. 
 Gard. 
 
 The Banksian Rose must be pruned 
 at no other time, but immediately after 
 it has done blooming in June, or early 
 in July. 
 
 Planting. — "On removing trees," 
 says the author of the Tree Rose, " the 
 fresh shoots they have made, and the 
 appearance of those which were left, 
 
ROS 
 
 518 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 ROS 
 
 will require attention in the applica- 
 tion of the knife. In pruning a large 
 root it should be cut to a lateral; in 
 shortening a small one, to a fibre. 
 Where a plant has been examined and 
 trimmed recently, however, the knife 
 should be sparingly used. 
 
 " And it may here be well to observe, 
 that all cuts to remove branches, knots, 
 or roots, should be quite clean, slant- 
 ing (and deep enough to the stem, viz. 
 even with it), and nothing left projecting 
 lest dead wood be the consequence, 
 and the plant be eventually injured. 
 All wounds should be carefully healed, 
 and dead wood should, in all cases, be 
 removed, and living bark encircle that 
 which remains." 
 
 The best time for planting is No- 
 vember. 
 
 Forcing. — For the following very 
 successful mode of forcing roses, we 
 are indebted to R. A. Salisbury, Esq : — 
 
 " Take off strong suckers about the 
 end of October or beginning of No- 
 vember, with all the fibres they may 
 have formed, which can only be well 
 done by digging up the parent stock. 
 Plant these suckers in pots only about 
 four inches diameter at the top, wind- 
 ing the sucker three, four, or five times 
 round the inside of the pot ; and prune 
 it, so as to leave no more than two 
 buds, or three at most, above ground. 
 Fill the pots with hazel loam, mixed 
 with one-third equal parts charred turf 
 and vegetable mould, pressing it firmly 
 down to keep the sucker from starting, 
 and plunge them to the brim close to 
 one another quincunx fashion, in an 
 open bed fully exposed to the sun and 
 air. 
 
 " The small size of these pots makes 
 stronger blossoms, even the first if the 
 suckers are large ; and as they are to 
 be shifted annually, it is absolutely 
 necessary to begin with small pots. 
 To have a plentiful supply of blos- 
 soms during the months of December, 
 January, February, March, April and 
 May, from one hundred to three hun- 
 dred suckers must be thus prepared. 
 
 " For the plants to be forced, from 
 December to March, a small frame 
 should be devoted, about twelve feet 
 long, five feet wide, seven feet wide 
 behind, and only six or eight inches in 
 front. This pitch admits the rays of | 
 
 or tank, or pipes, if hot water be used, 
 running from one end to the other. If 
 the floor be built thick, and the fire- 
 Fig. 149. 
 
 place, as well as the chimney-top, be 
 well closed up after the heat has pene- 
 trated the flue, the air within will be 
 sufficiently heated with very little fuel, 
 and require no attendance at night, ex- 
 cept in very severe frost. The back of 
 this frame may consist of wood, or a 
 narrow brick, at pleasure, and should 
 have a door in the middle, just suffi- 
 ciently large to admit the gardener to 
 creep in and water the plants, by 
 reaching over them from one side to 
 the other without any walk inside. , 
 
 " A strong latticed floor must be fixed 
 six inches above the flue, on which the 
 pots must be placed when introduced ; 
 and these must have a pan or receiver 
 under each, to prevent the heat of the 
 flue, which will now and then be smart 
 notwithstanding every precaution, from 
 striking directly on the pots them- 
 selves. After the month of March, 
 roses may be advantageously forced in 
 other houses and situations, but hardly 
 sooner, except on the front flue of a 
 pine-stove : and a small frame like this 
 is not only built and maintained at a 
 small cost ; but the lights may be used 
 for other crops, especially melons, after 
 June. 
 
 " The plants to be forced into blos- 
 som by Christmas-day should be placed 
 in this frame on the first day of October, 
 lighting fires gradually, so as to keep 
 rather 
 
 the temperature, in the daytime 
 light, at that period, to strike upon the I increasing than decreasing — from GO* 1 
 plants to the greatest advantage, a flue, I of Fahrenheit to 80^ ; but at night 35 ; 
 
ROS 
 
 519 
 
 ROS 
 
 is not too low. If the plants meet with 
 one frosty night or two in the beginning 
 of October, so much the better ; for 
 they will push more vigorously after 
 the heat is applied. The first year 
 none of the crops will come in so early 
 as afterwards; and I advise all the 
 young suckers to be forced in succes- 
 sion the first year, not waiting till ihey 
 have had one year's growth in the open 
 air. Moreover, if the suckers are 
 strong, they will produce more blos- 
 soms than might be expected. The 
 second crop of plants introduced on the 
 first of November will blossom from the 
 middle of January to mid-February ; the 
 third crop, introduced December 1st, 
 from mid-February to the middle of 
 March ; those of the fourth crop, intro- 
 duced on the first of January, from the 
 middle of March to the middle of April ; 
 those of the fifth crop, introduced on 
 the first of February, from the middle 
 of April to the middle of May ; those of 
 the sixth and last crop, introduced on 
 the first of March, from the middle of 
 May till the middle of June, when 
 several varieties in the open ground be- 
 gin to blossom. 
 
 " As soon as the plants begin to push 
 their buds, whether any aphides ap- 
 pear upon the young shoots or not, fill 
 the frame with tobacco-smoke ; and do 
 not fail to repeat this every third week 
 till the flowers appear ; smoking, for 
 the last time, just before any red tints 
 appear on the earliest buds. No un- 
 pleasant smell of the tobacco will re- 
 main upon the plants after a day or 
 two. The young shoots must also be 
 carefully examined when half an inch 
 long, and any grubs feeding upon them 
 destroyed. 
 
 (f After the blossoms are gathered 
 the plants must not be removed to a 
 back shed, but kept in the frame, or 
 brought back into it, if they have been 
 taken into the apartments of the owner, 
 permitting them to grow as they do in 
 summer, in the open air, for at least 
 two or three months. They must then 
 be placed in a shady situation, and kept 
 rather dry than moist, to throw them 
 into a state of rest. 
 
 " After the month of May, Mr. Salis- 
 bury prefers inverting them, especially 
 the earlier crops, between two plank 
 raised upon tressels, high enough to 
 prevent the branches from touching the 
 earth, as in the annexed sketch, having 
 
 for twenty-five years experienced the 
 utility of this treatment, and suspecting 
 that it strengthens the future blossoms 
 by retaining sap in the branches, which 
 would otherwise descend to the root or 
 form suckers. 
 
 Fig. 150. 
 
 " While the plants are growing they 
 must be constantly supplied with moist- 
 ure — water and guano, or pigeons' 
 dung infused in it a few days before, in 
 the proportion of one ounce of the 
 former, and of the latter one ounce to 
 a gallon of water. Where pigeons' 
 dung cannot be had, two ounces of 
 sheep or deer's dung may be substi- 
 tuted to each gallon of water. 
 
 " It now only remains to add, that it 
 is most important in forcing roses to 
 mark all the plants, so that those intro- 
 duced into the frame in October, the 
 first year, may be introduced on the 
 same day, the second and every suc- 
 ceeding year. To secure this, paint 
 No. 1, 2, 3, &c, upon the pots them- 
 selves, No. 1 to go in first, and so on. 
 
 " Every year, about a fortnight be- 
 fore the plants are forced, they must be 
 shifted into larger pots, exactly one 
 inch wider in diameter, and not more, 
 turning them out without breaking the 
 ball or disturbing any of the fibres, and 
 filling the pots with the same compost 
 of hazel loam, charred turf, and vege- 
 table earth. By this method the same 
 plants may be forced for ten years, 
 without the inconvenience of using a 
 very large pot, as the last season they 
 will not want to be removed, or may 
 be shifted into the same pot again. 
 
 "With respect to pruning, I have 
 never been in the habit of leaving more 
 than two buds on each branch, and, as 
 the plants increase in size and number 
 of branches, often only one bud upon 
 the weaker branches. It is much bet- 
 ter to have from ten to twenty strong 
 blossoms than a larger number of weak 
 ones, and the foliage is likewise more 
 healthy." — Gard. Mag. 
 
 Pot-Culture has been more fully dis- 
 
ROS 
 
 520 
 
 — • — 
 
 ROS 
 
 cussed by Messrs. Paul and Son, the 
 florists of Cheshunt, than by any other 
 authority ; and from their observations 
 I have made these extracts : — 
 
 " Transplanting and Potting. — Early 
 in autumn, immediately after rain, re- 
 move both worked plants and others 
 from the ground. Such as have grown 
 moderately, with well ripened wood, 
 should be chosen. The pots best suit- 
 ed are numbers thirty-two, twenty-four, 
 sixteen and twelve, according to the 
 size of the plant, and they should be 
 well drained. The soil should be 
 pressed firmly in the pots, watering 
 freely afterwards, through a fine rose, 
 to settle the soil. 
 
 " The cultivation of the autumnals, 
 on their own roots, maybe commenced 
 at any season, as they are usually kept 
 growing in pots. If purchased in spring, 
 in sixties, they may be immediately shift- 
 ed into forty-eights, then plunged, and 
 watered continually as required. Our 
 aim being to get the plants strong, they 
 should not be suffered to flower, but 
 endeavour, through the growing season, 
 to bring them to form only a few vi- 
 gorous shoots. To accomplish this it is 
 advisable to rub out some of the buds 
 when first pushing, but keeping in view 
 the handsome formation of the plant. 
 
 "The plantsmay be shifted on through 
 the season ; and in the following spring 
 we shall probably find them in sixteen 
 or twelve-sized pots, preparing for a 
 vigorous growth and bloom. 
 
 ''Thinning out. — When potting, all 
 suckers should be cut from the worked 
 plants, and straggling shoots shortened 
 back to within a few eyes. Where too 
 thick, some of the shoots may be cut 
 out entirely, from three to ten, accord- 
 ing to the age or growth of the plant, 
 being in most cases sufficient. Thin- 
 ning, in summer, immediately after 
 flowering, is very beneficial. The best 
 ripened snoots should be left, and such 
 as stand in the best position. These 
 may be shortened in November and 
 March, some at both periods, to obtain 
 an early and late bloom. 
 
 "Soil. — Two parts of fresh turfy loam, 
 broken up but not sifted, two parts ma- 
 nure (road gatherings laid by for a sea- 
 son, or the remains of a hot-bed not too 
 far decomposed), and one part burnt 
 earth. 
 
 " This compost should be thrown up 
 in a heap in autumn, and turned two or 
 
 three times during winter, and a little 
 newly slaked lime scattered throughout 
 to destroy worms and grubs. This ia 
 the soil used for the moss, but for the 
 delicate varieties, (Chinese, &c.,) it may 
 be improved by the addition of one part 
 leaf-mould or well pulverized manure." 
 
 Protection. — After potting, the plants 
 taken from the ground, should be re- 
 moved to a cold pit, syringing and shad- 
 ing if sunny weather, for a week or ten 
 days. It will be well if the tender va- 
 rieties can be allowed to remain in the 
 pit during winter, at which season they 
 require scarcely any water, otherwise 
 they should be removed to the north 
 side of a wall or fence, and a thatch of 
 fern or beech boughs, with the leaves 
 on, formed. The hardy ones may be 
 removed from the pits about a month 
 after being potted, and plunged at once 
 in the open ground where intended to 
 be grown and flowered. 
 
 Pruning. — About the middle of No- 
 vember pruning may be performed, in 
 order to effect an early bloom. The 
 plants having been thinned out previ- 
 ously, all that is now required, is the 
 shortening in of the remaining shoots. 
 
 Among the hybrid Chinese, the two 
 favourite old roses, Brennus and Ful- 
 gens, both vigorous growers, frequently 
 occasion great disappointment by not 
 blooming. The failure will probably 
 be found to arise from the method of 
 pruning. 
 
 These roses, and others of like habit, 
 should be well thinned out, but the 
 shoots that are left for flowering short- 
 ened but little. Others of the same 
 class (hybrid Chinese), that are weak 
 growers, may be shortened in close, 
 such are General Allard and Lady Stuart. 
 
 There are also varieties of interme- 
 diate growth, which may be pruned in 
 proportion. The classes Gallica, Pro- 
 vence, and Moss, may be pruned closer 
 than the hybrid Chinese. 
 
 The autumnal roses there is but little 
 fear of pruning out of bloom ; early or 
 late, they are sure to flower. These, 
 when grown on their own roots, should 
 be cut down almost close to the ground, 
 to induce them to throw up suckers 
 from beneath, which will grow much 
 stronger than shoots formed above 
 ground, and flower beautifully through 
 the summer and autumn. One point 
 too should be borne in mind, that roses, 
 when grown in pots, may be pruned 
 
ROS 
 
 521 
 
 — ♦- 
 
 ROS 
 
 closer than when grown in the open 
 garden. 
 
 Removal of Tender Varieties. — By 
 the end of March, if room cannot be 
 granted them in pits or a green-house, 
 the tender varieties may be brought 
 from their winter residence and plunged 
 in an airy situation, and such as were 
 left unpruned for late flowering, should 
 now be pruned. But if allowed to re- 
 main in the pits through spring, they 
 will bloom much earlier, in greater 
 perfection, and with finer foliage. 
 
 Plunging. — Place the pots so that 
 the bottoms rest on an inverted seed- 
 pan or flower-pot. This secures drain- 
 age, prevents the roots growing through 
 the bottom of the pot into the soil, and 
 is an effectual barrier to the ingress of 
 worms. The pots may be plunged level 
 with the ground, and so far apart that 
 the plants may not touch each other 
 when full grown. After plunging, it is 
 beneficial to cover the surface lightly 
 with stable manure. 
 
 Watering. — Water should be given 
 abundantly through the growing and 
 blooming season. Guano-water is an 
 excellent manure for roses in pots ; it 
 should, however, be used cautiously. 
 If the plants require watering oftener 
 than once a week, pure water should 
 be given at the intervening periods. 
 
 Disbudding, SfC. — When the buds 
 first push, if two or three break close 
 together, the weakest, or those taking 
 the least favourable direction, should 
 be rubbed out. Such shoots as are in- 
 clined to grow rank without blooming, 
 should be stopped or taken out, if not 
 wanted to form the head, for they ap- 
 propriate to themselves the sap, which 
 should be directed into the flower 
 branches, and further render the plants 
 of uneven growth. When the flower- 
 buds are forming imperfectly, they 
 should be nipped out; and the size of 
 the early flowers may be increased by 
 removing, at an early stage, the small 
 backward flower-buds. 
 
 Suckers from the stock should be in- 
 variably cut out. It will also be found 
 beneficial to keep the surface of the 
 soil constantly in a loose state. 
 
 Tying-up and Training. — As the 
 plants advance in growth, some will 
 require sticks to support the flowers, 
 and keep the shoots apart. But those 
 which hold their flowers gracefully and 
 show themselves well are not, perhaps, 
 
 improved by being drawn from their 
 natural position of growth. Where 
 the flowers do not show themselves to 
 advantage, or the shoots become much 
 crowded, the dwarf standards may be 
 improved in appearance, and really 
 benefited, by drawing the lower shoots 
 downwards towards the edge of the 
 pot, where they may be fastened to a 
 piece of bast or wire made to pass be- 
 neath the rim ; the upper shoots may 
 then be drawn out to sticks ; or a neat 
 hoop, fixed horizontally about the cen- 
 tre of the head of the plant, admits of 
 a very pretty method of arrangement. 
 If the plant be large, two or even three 
 hoops may be requisite, to which the 
 shoots should be drawn inclined down- 
 wards ; as they are, when growing, 
 sure to rise sufficiently upwards. 
 
 Shading. — When the plants com- 
 mence flowering, it will be necessary 
 to shade them during the middle of the 
 day ; and the covering should be mova- 
 ble, that they may have the advantage 
 of slight rains and dews. — Gard. and 
 Prac. Flor. 
 
 Diseases. See Extravasated Sap, Cy- 
 nips, Mildew, Aphis, and Ornix. 
 
 ROSCOEA. Five species. Stove 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Light 
 turfy loam. 
 
 ROSE. See Rosa. 
 
 ROSE ACACIA. Robinia hispida. 
 
 ROSE BAY. Epilobium angustifo- 
 Hum. 
 
 ROSE BEETLE. See Anisopia. 
 
 ROSEMARY. Rosmarinus officina- 
 lis. 
 
 Varieties. — There are three varie- 
 ties — the green, golden-striped, and 
 silver-striped. The first is in general 
 cultivation. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — It thrives best 
 on a poor light soil mixed with old 
 mortar, or other calcareous matters, 
 In such, or when the plants are self- 
 raised on an old wall, they will bear 
 our severest winters; but in a rich 
 soil they lose much of their aromatic 
 nature, and perish in frost. For the 
 green variety, the situation may be 
 open, but the other two being tender, 
 require to be planted beneath a south 
 wall, or in pots to be allowed the shel- 
 ter of a green-house in winter. 
 
 Propagation is by cuttings and rooted 
 slips, during any of the spring months, 
 or by layers in the summer. But the 
 finest plants are raised by seed, which, 
 
ROS 
 
 522 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 ROT 
 
 and by layers, is the only mode of pro- j derive different materials from the soil ; 
 
 pagating the gold and silver-striped 
 varieties. Sow in March or early in 
 April, in drills one inch deep and six 
 inches apart. The rooted slips, and 
 the cuttings of the young shoots, must 
 be from five to seven inches long, and 
 planted in a shady border, in rows 
 eight or ten inches apart. Previously 
 to being inserted, remove the leaves 
 from the lower two-thirds of their 
 length. Layers may be formed by cut- 
 ting young branches half through on 
 their under side, and pegging them 
 down an inch or two below the sur- 
 face ; they become established plants 
 by autumn. Water must be applied 
 abundantly at the time of planting, 
 and occasionally afterwards until es- 
 tablished. 
 
 The plants require no further care 
 than to be kept clear from weeds, and 
 in September to be transplanted to re- 
 main, being performed, in preference, 
 
 and though the vegetables having the 
 smallest systems of leaves, will propor- 
 tionately most exhaust the soil of com- 
 mon nutritive matter, yet particular 
 vegetables, when their produce is car- 
 ried off, will require peculiar principles 
 to be supplied to the land in which 
 they grow. Strawberries and potatoes 
 at first produce luxuriantly in virgin 
 mould recently turned up from pasture, 
 but in a few years they degenerate and 
 require a fresh soil; and the organiza- 
 tion of these plants is such as to be 
 constantly producing the migration of 
 their layers. Thus the strawberry by 
 its long shoots is continually endea- 
 vouring to occupy a new soil ; and the 
 fibrous radicles of the potato produce 
 bulbs at a considerable distance from 
 the parent plant. The most remarkable 
 instance of the powers of the plant to 
 exhaust the soil of certain principles 
 necessary to its growth, is found in 
 
 during mild showery weather; but if ! certain fungi. Mushrooms are said 
 not removed thus early in the autumn, | never to rise in two successive seasons 
 
 they are bes't left until the following 
 March. They may be either grown 
 in rows two feet apart each way, or 
 trained in a fan form against a wail. 
 
 ROSE OF HEAVEN. Lychnis Cali- 
 Rosa. 
 
 ROSE OF JERICHO. Anastatica. 
 
 ROSE OF THE WORLD. Camel- 
 lia japonica Rosa-mundi. 
 
 ROSE SNOWBALL TREE. Vibur- 
 num Opulus roseum. 
 
 ROSMARINUS officinalis. See 
 Rosemary. 
 
 ROTATION IN CROPS. There are 
 three circumstances to be regarded in 
 regulating the order in which crops 
 should follow each other: — 1. Each 
 crop should be as dissimilar as possible 
 from its predecessor. 2. The exuviae 
 of the preceding crop should not be 
 offensive to its successor. 3. A fusi- 
 form-rooted crop should succeed a 
 fibrous-rooted crop, or vice versa. 
 
 1. Dissimilarity in the following crop 
 is desirable, because, so far as the sa- 
 line constituents of the soil are con- 
 cerned, every tribe of plants in some 
 measure takes from it distinct food. 
 Sir H. Davy truly observed upon this 
 point, that, " though the general com- 
 position of plants is very analogous, 
 yet the specific differences in the pro- 
 ducts of many of them, and other well 
 ascertained facts, prove that they must 
 
 on the same spot; and the production 
 of the phenomena called fairy-rings, 
 has been ascribed by Dr. Wollaston,to 
 the power of the peculiar fungus which 
 forms it to exhaust the soil of the nu- 
 triment necessary for the growth of the 
 species. The consequence is that the 
 ring annually extends, for no seeds 
 will grow where their parents grew 
 before them, and the interior part of the 
 circle has been exhausted by preceding 
 crops ; but where the fungus has died, 
 nourishment is supplied for grass which 
 usually rises within the circle, coarse 
 and of a dark green colour." 
 
 Again, exhausting crops should never 
 be grown successively; and the follow- 
 ing observations of one of the best of 
 modern gardeners, the late Mr. G. 
 Sinclair, afford much light npon this 
 point : — 
 
 " If we take the weight of nutritive 
 matter which a plant affords from a 
 given space of ground, the result will 
 be found to agree with the daily expe- 
 rience in the garden and the farm ; and 
 the following figures represent the pro- 
 portion in which they stand to each 
 other with respect to the weight of nu- 
 tritive matter they contain, with their 
 having exhausted the land : — 
 "Potatoes .... 63 
 
 Cabbage .... 42 
 
 Mangold wurzel ... 21 
 
ROT 
 
 523 
 
 RUB 
 
 Carrots .... 24 
 Kohl-rabi .... 17 
 Swedish turnip ... 16 
 Common turnip . . . 14" 
 
 2. It is important that the exuviae of 
 a preceding crop should not be offen- 
 sive to its successor. 
 
 Thus, brassicas will not grow health- 
 ily upon soil where the immediately 
 previous crop was of the same tribe ; 
 but if the ground be pared and burnt, 
 they will grow luxuriantly; and the 
 same occurs to ground exhausted by 
 strawberries : if it be burned and ma- 
 nured, strawberries will grow as vigor- 
 ously as upon fresh ground, but they 
 will not do so if manure only is applied. 
 
 It has also been observed that the 
 roots of plants placed in water give out 
 their characteristic flavours to the liquid; 
 but on this, as evidence that they emit 
 excrements, no great reliance can be 
 placed, for some of the roots, during 
 removal from the soil, must be wound- 
 ed. The fact that the roots of plants 
 do give out peculiar and varying mat- 
 ters to the soil which sustains them, 
 aids to explain why one rotation of crops 
 is superior to another. 
 
 3. As fusiform-rooted crops should 
 precede or follow a fibrous-rooted crop, 
 because the one draws its chief supply 
 of food from a greater depth than an- 
 other, and, consequently, exhausts a 
 different portion of pasturage ; founded 
 upon these considerations, and sanc- 
 tioned by practice, the following rota- 
 tions are recommended : — 
 
 Onions. Turnips. 
 
 Lettuce. Celery. 
 
 Cabbage. Peas. 
 
 Carrots. Potatoes. 
 
 Manure. Manure. 
 
 Mr. Kelly, of Airthrey Castle, Scot- 
 land, says, that " on poor ground the 
 rotation he finds best is celery : second 
 season, cauliflowers and red beet; third, 
 onions ; fourth, German green, or peas. 
 By digging deep, and manuring abun- 
 dantly, for celery, the ground is brought 
 into such fine tilth, that the whole rota- 
 tion is often gone through without any 
 further addition, and without failing in 
 any of the crops. Another good rota- 
 tion is strawberries, celery, cauliflow- 
 ers." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Mr. Errington, gardener at Oulton 
 Park, Cheshire, recommends the fol- 
 lowing as good successions : — 
 
 " Brassicas after raspberries or straw- 
 berries ; peas after brassicas; celery 
 after peas ; celery after asparagus ; 
 beans and brocoli after celery ; carrots 
 or parsnips or beet after brocoli." — 
 Gard. Mag. 
 
 The writer of the Kitchen Garden 
 Calender in the Gardener's Chronicle for 
 1844, (p. 72,) says, "the chief rule is 
 never to have two crops of the same 
 class directly following each other." 
 He adds, that "celery is a good pre- 
 paration for carrots, turnips, parsnips, 
 onions, and early cauliflowers, or for 
 peas, with potatoes and winter greens 
 or brocoli between the rows. Autumn- 
 sown onions, followed by spinach, let- 
 tuce, &c, and early cauliflowers by au- 
 tumn onions. Spring-sown onions are 
 well succeeded by cabbages in beds, 
 and scarlet runners between ; and if the 
 cabbages remain through the summer 
 and next winter, the ground will be for 
 celery, potatoes, and peas in the spring." 
 In gardens of limited extent it is not al- 
 ways practicable to observe a system- 
 atic rotation of crops, even though it 
 were as important to successful culture 
 as some writers declare. For all prac- 
 tical purposes deep tillage will suffice, 
 and there can be little doubt that if the 
 land be deeply dug or ploughed after 
 each crop, and the exhaustion supplied 
 by manure, that the same description of 
 vegetable growth may be successfully 
 produced for successive seasons — in- 
 deed the only inmate of the garden 
 which we have seen tire the land, as it is 
 termed, is the pea. Some market gar- 
 deners, whether from habit, or an idea 
 that particular localities answer better 
 for certain vegetables, invariably use 
 them for such, and year after year the 
 same crop may be seen growing there- 
 on. 
 
 ROTPIIA trifoliata. Hardy trailing 
 annual. Seeds. Common soil, and a 
 warm situation. 
 
 ROXBURGHIA. Two species. 
 Stove evergreen climbers. Suckers. 
 Light turfy loam. 
 
 ROYAL BAY. Laurus nobilis. 
 
 ROYENA. Eleven species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 R Y L E A elegans. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light rich 
 soil. 
 
 RUBIA. Five species. Hardy herb- 
 
RUB 
 
 524 
 
 RUI 
 
 aceous perennials, and half-hardy ever- 
 green shrubs. Seeds or division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 RUBUS. [Bramble.] Seventy-three 
 species, and some varieties. Hardy de- 
 ciduous trailers and shrubs, and a few 
 green-house and stove evergreens, as 
 well as herbaceous perennials. Rubus 
 Idceus is the Raspberry. Suckers or cut- 
 tings. Rich loam. 
 
 RUDBECKIA. Thirteen species, 
 chiefly hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 R. anvplesifolia is a hardy annual. R. 
 radula, a biennial. Division, seeds, 
 and common soil. R. napifolia is a 
 green-house perennial, succeeding best 
 in peat and loam. 
 
 RUDOLPHIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Suckers. Light 
 turfy loam. 
 
 RUE, or HERB GRACE. Ruta 
 graveolens. Thrives best in a poor 
 clayey loam, mixed with calcareous 
 rubbish, in an open situation. It is 
 propagated by slips and cuttings, as well 
 as from seeds ; the first two modes be- 
 ing usually practised as being the most 
 easy. It may be planted or sown at any 
 time during the spring. The seed in 
 drills six inches apart, and one deep. 
 The seedlings are not long in making 
 their appearance, and only require to 
 be thinned to a similar distance in the 
 rows, and kept free of weeds. The 
 rooted slips, or cuttings, may be planted 
 on a poor, shady border, and watered 
 occasionally until taken root. 
 
 In the autumn, the plants may be 
 removed to their final compartment. 
 During their after-growth, they must be 
 kept pruned in a shrubby form, and 
 never be allowed to produce seed. 
 The decayed branches, &c, may be 
 removed in the spring and autumn, and 
 the surface of the bed stirred. 
 
 RUINS, are a class of buildings 
 beautiful as objects, expressive as cha- 
 racters, and peculiarly calculated to 
 connect with their appendages into ele- 
 gant groups : they may be accommo- 
 dated with ease to irregularity of ground, 
 and their disorder is improved by it; 
 they may be intimately blended with 
 trees and with thickets, and the inter- 
 ruption is an advantage ; for imperfec- 
 tion and obscurity are their properties ; 
 and to carry the imagination to some- 
 thing greater than is seen, their effect. 
 
 They may for any of these purposes 
 
 be separated into detached pieces; con- 
 tiguity is not necessary nor even the 
 appearance of it, if the relation be pre- 
 served, but straggling ruins have a bad 
 effect, when the several parts are equal- 
 ly considerable. 
 
 There should be one large mass, to 
 raise an idea of greatness, to attract the 
 others about it, and to be a common 
 centre of union to all; the smaller pieces 
 then mark the original dimensions of 
 one extensive structure; and no longer 
 appear to be the remains of several little 
 buildings. 
 
 All remains excite an inquiry into 
 the former state of the edifice, and fix 
 the mind in a contemplation on the use 
 it was applied to ; besides the characters 
 expressed by their style and position, 
 they suggest ideas which would not 
 arise from the buildings, if entire. 
 
 The purposes of many have ceased ; 
 an abbey, or a castle, if complete, can 
 now be no more than a dwelling ; the 
 memory of the times, and of the man- 
 ners to which they were adapted, is 
 preserved only in history and in ruins ; 
 and certain sensations of" regret, of ve- 
 neration, or compassion, attend the re- 
 collection ; nor are these confined to 
 the remains of buildings which are now 
 in disuse ; those of an old mansion raise 
 reflections on the domestic comforts 
 once enjoyed, and the ancient hospital- 
 ity which reigned there. Whatever 
 building we see in decay, we naturally 
 contrast its present to its former state, 
 and delight to ruminate on the compari- 
 son. It is true that such effects pro- 
 perly belong to real ruins ; but they are 
 produced in a certain degree by those 
 which are fictitious ; the impressions are 
 not so strong, but they are exactly sim- 
 ilar; and the representation, though it 
 does not present facts to the memory, 
 yet suggests subjects to the imagination ; 
 but in order to affect the fancy, the sup- 
 posed original design should be clear, 
 the use obvious, and the form easy to 
 trace ; no fragments should be hazarded 
 without a precise meaning, and an evi- 
 dent connexion ; none should be per- 
 plexed in their construction or uncertain 
 as to their application. Conjectures 
 about the form, raise doubts about the 
 existence of the ancient structure ; the 
 mind must not be allowed to hesitate; 
 it must be hurried away from examining 
 into the reality by the exactness and 
 
RUI 
 
 525 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 SAG 
 
 the force of the resemblance. — Whate- 
 ley. 
 
 RUIZIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam, 
 peat and sand. 
 
 RUN. A plant advancing to seed is 
 said by gardeners to have "run." Also, 
 when the dark colouring of a carnation, 
 or other flower, becomes confused or 
 clouded with its lighter ground colour, 
 they say it is " a run flower." Abund- 
 ance of moisture and a rich soil promote 
 the development of leaves, and, con- 
 sequently, check running, or producing 
 seed. A suitably fertile soil also pre- 
 serves the colours of a flower pure and 
 distinct — over-fertility or poverty of soil 
 will equally cause the colours to run. 
 
 RUNNERS are young shoots issuing 
 from the collar or summit of the root, 
 and creeping along the surface of the 
 soil, but producing a newrootand leaves 
 at the extremity, and forming a new in- 
 dividual, by the decay of the connect- 
 ing link. This takes place in a. great 
 variety of herbs, but particularly the 
 strawberry, which is a good example. 
 
 They afford very ready and unfailing 
 means of increasing the species or va- 
 riety, all the care required being to see 
 that the plantlet is well rooted before 
 the connecting string is divided. 
 
 RUSCUS. Butcher's Broom. Five 
 species. Chiefly hardy evergreen shrubs. 
 Suckers. Common soil. R.androgynus 
 is a green-house evergreen climber. 
 Division. Rich soil. 
 
 RUSSELIA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Light rich 
 soil. 
 
 RUST. A disease of the berries of 
 the grape. It appears in the form of a 
 rough, rusty appearance of their skins, 
 which have, in fact, become thick and in- 
 durated. Some think it arises from their 
 being handled, or the hair of the head 
 touching them ; but the disease is often 
 too general to admit of this topical 
 explanation. I believe it to arise from 
 an over-heating of the vinery, however 
 unintentional, whilst the grapes were 
 young, and thus tending to force them 
 to a premature rapidity of growth. Any 
 excessive pressure upon the cuticle, 
 whether from within or from without, 
 causes its thickening. 
 
 RUSTIC STRUCTURES are pleas- 
 ing in recluse portions of the pleasure 
 ground, if this style be confined to the 
 formation of either a seat, or a cottage; 
 
 but it is ridiculous and disgusting to 
 good taste, if complicated and elegant 
 forms are constructed of rude materials. 
 Thus we have seen a flower-box, in- 
 tended to be Etruscan in its outlines, 
 formed of split hazel stakes — a combi- 
 nation of the rude and the refined, giv- 
 ing rise to separate trains of ideas to- 
 tally unassociable. 
 
 RUTA. Two species. Hardy and 
 half-hardy evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Light rich soil. See Rue. 
 
 RUYSCHIA clusicefolia. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Ripe cuttings. Loam and 
 vegetable mould. 
 
 RYANCEA speciosa.. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Ripe cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 RYTIDOPHYLLUM auricula- 
 turn. Stove evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 SxlBAL. Five species. Stove palms. 
 Suckers. Light loamy soil. 
 
 SABBATIA. Five species. Hardy 
 biennials, except S. paniculata, an 
 herbaceous perennial. Seeds. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 SACCOLABIUM. Ten species. 
 Stove orchids. Peat, potsherds, and 
 wood. 
 
 SACRED BEAN. Nelumbium. 
 
 SAFFRON. Crocus sativus. 
 
 SAGE. Salvia officinalis. 
 
 Varieties. — The Common Green; 
 Wormwood ; Green, with variegated 
 leaves; Red, with variegated leaves; 
 Painted or Parti-coloured : Spanish or 
 Lavender leaved ; and Red. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — A dry mode- 
 rately fertile soil is best suited to their 
 growth, in a sheltered situation. 
 
 Propagation. — By Cuttings. — These 
 may be either of the preceding or same 
 year's growth ; if of the first, plant in 
 April, but if of the latter, not until the 
 close of May or middle of June. The 
 shoots of the same year are usually em- 
 ployed, as they more readily emit roots, 
 and assume a free growth. The out- 
 ward and most robust shoots should be 
 chosen, and cut from five to seven 
 inches in length. All but the top 
 leaves being removed, insert by the 
 dibble almost down to these, in rows 
 six inches apart each way, in a shady 
 border, and during moist weather, 
 otherwise water must be given imme- 
 diately, and repeated occasionally, until 
 they have taken root. When the plants 
 thus raised have an appearance of spind- 
 
SAG 
 
 526 
 
 SAL 
 
 ling, or run up to flower, they are to be | finest plants of two years' growth must 
 
 be left, not nearer to each other than 
 four feet, and when the plants begin to 
 flower, a plentiful watering given, and 
 repeated every other day until the seed 
 has attained its full growth. When 
 perfectly ripe, the plants being pulled 
 up, and completely dried, they easily 
 shed their seed if struck on the floor. 
 
 SAGITTARIA. Fifteen species. 
 Hardy, half-hardy, stove and green- 
 house aquatic perennials. Division. 
 Loamy soil. 
 
 SAGUS. Four species. Stove palms. 
 Sandy loam and a strong moist heat. 
 
 ST. ANDREW'S CROSS. Ascyrum 
 Crux Andrea. 
 
 ST. BARNABY'S THISTLE. Cen- 
 taurea solstitialis. 
 
 SAINTFOIN. Onobrychis. 
 ST. JOHN'S WORT. Hypericum. 
 ST. MARTIN'S FLOWER. Als- 
 trcemeria Flos-Martini. 
 
 ST. PETER'S WORT. Hypericum 
 Ascyron. 
 
 SALADING. See the following : 
 American Cress. Horse Radish. 
 Beet Root. Lettuce. 
 
 Borage. Mint. 
 
 Mustard. 
 Onions. 
 Purslane. 
 Radishes. 
 Rape. 
 
 Scurvy Grass. 
 Dandelion. Succory. 
 
 Endive. Water Cress. 
 
 Finochio. Wood Sorrel. 
 
 Garden Rocket. 
 
 SALICORNIA. Six species. Hardy 
 d green-house evergreen shrubs and 
 annuals and half- 
 Seeds or division. 
 
 topped to induce laterals. In the au 
 tumn, if they have attained a tolerably 
 shrubby growth, otherwise not until the 
 succeeding spring, remove to their final 
 stations; being taken up with as little 
 injury as possible to the roots, and 
 planted, if in a bed in rows two feet 
 apart each way. 
 
 By Slips. — When there are rooted 
 slips, they may be taken off separately, 
 with their fibrous roots still pertaining, 
 or the whole plant may be taken up and 
 divided into as many separate slips as 
 can be furnished with roots. These 
 may be planted both in spring and au- 
 tumn, but the first season is to be pre- 
 ferred. Set out at once where they are 
 
 to remain. 
 
 By Seed is the most preferable mode, 
 the plants affording finer flavoured, 
 larger and greater abundance of leaves, 
 than those raised by other modes. Sow 
 
 in April, in a bed of rich light earth, in 
 
 drills half an inch deep, and six inches 
 
 apart. The plants soon make their ap- 
 pearance, and when two or three inches 
 
 high, thin to half afoot apart, and those 
 
 removed prick out at a similar distance. 
 
 In the autumn or succeeding spring, as Burnet 
 
 the plants are strong or weak, remove Celeriac. 
 
 them to their final stations. Celery. 
 
 After- Culture. — During their future I Chervil. 
 
 existence, keep constantly clear of Corn Salad. 
 
 weeds. The decayed flower-stalks, Cress. 
 
 stunted branches, &c, remove in early 
 
 winter and spring, and the soil of the 
 
 beds slightly turn over. All irregular 
 
 growth may be corrected during the 
 
 spring and summer. When the plants 
 
 have continued two or three years, a 
 
 little dry, well putrefied dung may be ! creepers. Hardy 
 
 turned in during early spring with con- I hardy perennials. 
 
 siderable advantage. A due attention Common soil. 
 
 to the mode of gathering has no small | SxiLISBURIA adiantifolia. Maiden 
 
 influence in keeping the plants healthy ] Hair Tree. Hardy deciduous tree. 
 
 and vigorous. The tops ought never to I Layers. Common soil. "The Salis- 
 
 be cropped too close, so as to render j buria is a native of Japan and China, 
 
 the branches naked or stumpy. This j and forms a large tree in its native 
 
 should be especially attended to in au- I country. Bunge, who accompanied the 
 
 tumn and winter. During this last sea- j Russian mission to China, states, that 
 
 son, they are less liable to be injured 
 by severe frost, if kept with a full re- 
 gular head. If appearance is consider- 
 ed, fresh plants must be raised every 
 three or four years. For drying, the 
 
 he saw one with a trunk nearly forty 
 feet in circumference. Mr. Loudon 
 says, the tree grows with considerable 
 rapidity in the climate of London, and 
 has attained the height of forty or fifty 
 
 shoots and leaves may be gathered any feet, in as many years. The longevity 
 
 time in summer before the plants flower, of the Salisburia promises to be great, 
 
 which they do in July. as the largest trees in England continue 
 
 To obtain Seed. — Two or three of the j to grow with as much vigour, as when 
 
SAL 
 
 527 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 SAL 
 
 newly planted. The highest tree there, 
 planted in 1767, was, in 1838, above 
 sixty feet. 
 
 " It was introduced into the United 
 States, by Mr. Hamilton, in 1784, and 
 the tree now growing at the Woodlands, 
 near Philadelphia, is, doubtless, the 
 one then imported. A specimen at the 
 Landreth Nurseries, when planted is 
 unknown, has attained the height of 50 
 feet and continues in fine health. There 
 is also one of considerable size in the 
 Mall, at Boston." — Comp. Florist. 
 
 SALIX. The Willow. One hundred 
 and eighty-five species. Hardy decidu- 
 ous shrubs and trees. Cuttings. Swampy 
 soil. 
 
 SALMEA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Young cuttings. 
 Light rich soil. 
 
 SALPIGLOSSIS sinuata, and its va- 
 rieties. Hardy and green-house annuals 
 and biennials. Seeds. Peat and loam. 
 
 S ALS AF Y. Tragopogon porrifolius. 
 
 Soil. — This should be light and mode- 
 rately fertile. At the time of sowing 
 trench it, turning in a little manure with 
 the bottom spit only. 
 
 Sow in March and April, in an open 
 situation to remain, in shallow drills, 
 nine inches asunder, scatter the seeds 
 thinly, and cover them half an inch 
 deep. When the plants are up two or 
 three inches high, thin and weed them, 
 leaving them ten inches asunder, re- 
 peating the weeding as may be required 
 during the summer and during very dry 
 weather, watering occasionally very 
 plentifully, and if half an ounce of guano 
 is added to each gallon of water it will 
 be very beneficial. This is all the cul- 
 ture they require. They will have large 
 roots by September or October; when 
 you may begin taking them up for use; 
 and in November, when the leaves be- 
 gin to decay, a quantity may be pre- 
 served in sand for use in time of severe 
 frost; but those left in the ground will 
 not be injured. In spring, when those 
 remaining in the ground begin to vege- 
 tate, the shoots when a few inches high 
 may be cut for use as asparagus, being 
 excellent when quite young and tender. 
 Suffer, however, always a few plants to 
 run up to stalk every spring to produce 
 seed. 
 
 The best mode of cooking the roots 
 is to boil and mash them, form them 
 into cakes and fry them in butter. The 
 
 flavour is that of oyster patties. — Aber- 
 crombie. Hovey's Mag. 
 
 SALTPETRE. See Salts,— Nitrate 
 of Potash. 
 
 SALTS. The day has long passed 
 when it was disputed whether any saline 
 bodies are promotive of the growth of 
 plants. It is now determined that some 
 plants will not even live without the 
 means of procuring certain salts. Bo- 
 rage, the nettle, and parietaria will not 
 exist except where nitrate of potash is 
 in the soil ; turnips, lucerne, and some 
 other plants will not succeed where 
 there is no sulphate of lime. These 
 are facts that have silenced disputation. 
 Still there are found persons who main- 
 tain that salts are not essential parts of 
 a plant's structure ; they assert that 
 such bodies are beneficial to a plant by 
 absorbing moisture to the vicinity of its 
 roots, or by improving the staple of the 
 soil, or by some other secondary mode. 
 This, however, is refuted by the fact 
 that salts enter as intimately into the 
 constitution of plants as do phosphate 
 of lime into that of bones, and carbo- 
 nate of lime into that of egg-shells. 
 They are part of their very fabric, uni- 
 versally present, unremovable by edul- 
 coration however long continued, re- 
 maining after the longest washing, and 
 always to be found in the ashes of all 
 and of any of their parts, when sub- 
 jected to incineration. Thus Saussure 
 observes that the phosphate of lime is 
 universally present in plants.— Sur la 
 Veget. c. 8. s. 4. 
 
 The sap of all trees contains acetate 
 of potash ; Beet-root contains malate 
 and oxalate of potash, ammonia and 
 lime; Rhubarb, oxalate o£ potash and 
 lime; Horse-radish, sulphur; Aspara- 
 gus, super-malates, chlorides, acetates, 
 and phosphates of potash and lime ; 
 Potatoes, magnesia, citrates and phos- 
 phates of potash and lime ; Jerusalem 
 Artichoke, citrate, malate, sulphate, 
 chloride, and phosphate of potash ; 
 Garlic, sulphate of potash, magnesia, 
 and phosphate of lime ; Geraniums, 
 tartrate of lime, phosphates of lime and 
 magnesia ; Peas, phosphate of lime ; 
 Kidney Beans, phosphate of lime and 
 potash ; Oranges, carbonate, sulphate, 
 and muriate of potash ; Apples and 
 Pears, malate of potash ; Grapes, tar- 
 trate of lime ; Capsicums, citrate, mu- 
 riate, and phosphate of potash ; Oak, 
 carbonate of potash ; and the Lilac, 
 
SAL 
 
 528 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 SAL 
 
 39.8 
 
 nitrate of potash. Let no one fancy 
 that the salts are a very trivial propor- 
 tion of the fabric of plants. In the 
 Capsicum, they constitute one-tenth of 
 its fruit ; of carrot juice, one-hundredth 
 of Rhubarb, one-eleventh ; of Potatoes, 
 one-twentieth; whilst of the seed of the 
 Lithospermum officinale, they actually 
 constitute more than one-half. Their 
 constituents are as follows . — 
 
 Carbonate of lime . . . 43.7 
 
 Silica 16.5 
 
 Vegetable matter, phos-) 
 phate of lime, &c. . 5 
 These amounts are nearly as much 
 of earthy saline matters as exist in hu- 
 man bones ; but if we turn to the mar- 
 row, it only contains one-twentieth of 
 saline matters; the blood only one- 
 hundredth; muscle, only one-thirty- 
 fourth ; yet no one will argue that these 
 saline constituents, though smaller than 
 those in vegetables, are trivial and un- 
 important. 
 
 Saline manures are generally bene- 
 ficial, and often essential. An import- 
 ant consideration, therefore, is con- 
 tained in the answer to the query — so 
 often put. How should saline manures 
 be applied ? Our answer is, that, when 
 practicable, they ought to be in very 
 small quantities and frequently, during 
 the time of the plant's growth. No 
 plan can be worse than soaking seed in 
 a saline solution, for the purpose of 
 giving such salt to the plant of which it 
 will be the parent. It is soddening the 
 embryo with a superfluity totally use- 
 less to it, and if it does not injure the 
 germination, it will be most probably 
 washed away before the roots begin to 
 absorb such nutriment. For the mode 
 in which salts are beneficial to plants, 
 see Manures. 
 
 Common Salt. — Chloride of sodium, 
 applied in the spring at the rate of 
 twenty bushels per acre, has been found 
 very beneficial to asparagus, broad 
 beans, lettuces, onions, carrots, pars- 
 neps, potatoes, and beets. Indeed its 
 properties are so generally useful, not 
 only as promoting fertility, but as de- 
 stroying slugs, &c, that 'it is a good 
 plan to sow the whole garden every 
 March with this manure, at the rate 
 above specified. The flower garden is 
 included in this recommendation ; for 
 some of the best practical gardeners 
 recommend it for the stock, hyacinth, 
 amaryllis, ixia, anemone, colchicum, 
 
 narcissus, ranunculus, &c. ; and in the 
 fruit garden it has been found beneficial 
 to almost every one of its tenants, espe- 
 cially the cherry and apple. On lawns 
 and walks it helps to drive away worms, 
 and to destroy moss. 
 
 Ammonia. — The salts of ammonia 
 are highly stimulating, and afford by 
 their ready decomposition, abundant 
 food to plants. The dungs of animals 
 are fertilizing exactly in proportion to 
 the amount of ammonia in them. The 
 only care required is not to apply them 
 too abundantly. Half an ounce to each 
 gallon of water, given at the most twice 
 a week, is a good recipe for all the am- 
 moniacal salts. The ammoniacal gas 
 liquor at the rate of one pint to two 
 gallons of water, is highly beneficial to 
 spinach and grass. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Phosphate of Ammonia has been ap- 
 plied with advantage to cress. 
 
 Sulphate of Ammonia. — This, and the 
 nitrate of ammonia, have proved bene- 
 ficial to potatoes in Scotland. A writer 
 in the Floricultural Cabinet says, that 
 having obtained a pailful of gas liquor, 
 he diluted it with water, and added 
 some sulphuric acid, thus forming a 
 solution of sulphate of ammonia, and 
 watered with it in October, a bed (twen- 
 ty feet long by four feet two inches 
 wide) destined to be planted with Ra- 
 nunculuses. They bloomed very strong 
 in this bed, some of the flower-stems 
 were two feet high ; the blooms averag- 
 ing between three and four inches in 
 diameter; the roots also lifted large 
 and clean. — Flor. Cab. 
 
 Chalk may be applied in large quan- 
 tities, twenty or thirty tons per acre, to 
 render a light siliceous soil more re- 
 tentive or a heavy soil more open. Its 
 basis, lime, enters into the composition 
 of most plants in some state of combi- 
 nation. It is very far from immaterial 
 where this mineral is obtained from to 
 improve the staple of our soils. Those 
 chalks which are merely carbonate of 
 lime, with a trace of oxide of iron, are 
 unexceptionable ; but there are some 
 which contain phosphate of lime, and 
 these are very much to be preferred. 
 Mr. Brande states the chalk of Brighton 
 to be thus constituted. 
 
 Carbonate of lime . . 98.57 
 
 ■ magnesia . 0.38 
 
 Phosphate of lime . . 0.11 
 Oxides of iron and manganese 0.14 
 Alumina and silica . . 0.80 
 
SAL 
 
 529 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 SAL 
 
 If the chalk is to be burnt into lime 
 before it is applied, care should be 
 taken that it does not contain, like some 
 of the Yorkshire chalks, a large propor- 
 tion of carbonate of magnesia. Mag- 
 nesia remains long in a caustic state, 
 and has been found injurious to the 
 plants to which it has been applied. 
 
 Chloride of Lime gradually gives out 
 a portion of its chlorine, and is con- 
 verted into muriate of lime, a very de- 
 liquescing salt, which can hardly exist 
 in any soil, however light, without 
 keeping it moist; and its nauseous 
 odour may be found to keep off the 
 attacks of the fly, and other vermin. A 
 solution containing one ounce in five 
 gallons of water, is said to destroy the 
 aphis and the caterpillar, if poured over 
 the trees they infest. 
 
 Gas Lime is a hydro-sulphuret of lime, 
 with a little ammonia. It is an excel- 
 lent manure, especially to cabbages, 
 turnips, cauliflowers, and brocoli, dug 
 in at the time of planting or sowing. 
 If sown over the surface at the time of 
 inserting the crop, at the rate of twenty 
 bushels pe^ acre, it will effectually 
 drive away the turnip-fly, slug, &c. 
 
 Gypsum, or Plaster of Paris, is sul- 
 phate oflime, composed of 
 
 Sulphuric acid ... 43 
 
 Lime ..... 33 
 
 Water .... 22 
 
 It has been found very useful as a 
 top dressing to lawns, and' dug in for 
 turnips and potatoes. Three hundred 
 weight per acre is abundance. 
 
 Nitrates of Potash (Saltpetre), and of 
 Soda (Cubic Petre), have been found 
 beneficial to carrots, cabbages, and 
 lawns. One pound to a square rod of 
 ground is a sufficient quantity. Both 
 these nitrates have been found bene- 
 ficial to potatoes in Scotland. Mr. 
 Murray says that, from 1810 down to 
 the present time, he has been in the 
 habit of watering pinks and carnations 
 with solutions of these two nitrates, 
 and the benefit has been uniform and 
 eminent in promoting their luxuriance. 
 — Gard. Gaz. 
 
 They have also been given in solu- 
 tion with great benefit to lettuces, 
 celery, fuchsias, and dahlias. One 
 pound to twelve gallons of water. 
 Nitrate of Soda destroys slugs. 
 
 Phosphate of Lime. — The importance 
 of bones and other manures containing 
 phosphoric salts as a general manure, 
 34 
 
 is further sustained by the experiments 
 of Dr. Jackson, the American chemist. 
 He found phosphates in peas and beans 
 of various kinds, in pumpkin seeds, 
 chestnuts, potatoes, raspberries, and 
 turnips. See Bones. 
 
 Super- Phosphate of Lime. — Chrysan- 
 themums were much increased in vi- 
 gour when watered with a solution of 
 this salt in the Chiswick Garden, at the 
 end of July. It is thought, if the appli- 
 cation had been made earlier, the be- 
 nefit would have been still more marked. 
 Professor Lindley says this salt seems 
 to have a beneficial effect on most 
 plants, and that it may be applied in 
 different proportions without the least 
 risk of injuring the plants. — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Heaths appear to like it. The best 
 practical mode of obtaining super-phos- 
 phate of lime for manure, is to pour 
 one pound of sulphuric acid, mixed 
 with one pound of water, upon each 
 two pounds of bone dust, allowing the 
 mixture a week to complete the decom- 
 position. Sulphate of lime and super- 
 phosphate of lime are the result. The 
 Duke of Richmond and others have 
 tried this with very great success upon 
 turnips. It being in a liquid form, it 
 must be mixed with earth to facilitate 
 its application, or else be applied 
 through the rose of a watering-pot. 
 
 SALT TREE. Halimodendron. 
 
 SALVIA. See Clary and Sage. 
 One hundred and five species. The 
 shrubby, stove, and green-house kinds, 
 increase by cuttings ; the herbaceous, 
 by division ; the annuals and biennials, 
 seeds. Common soil suits them ail. 
 S. patens makes a splendid bed. The 
 flower-spikes should be cut off for a 
 time, and the young shoots regularly 
 pegged down till they nearly cover the 
 bed, when the flowers will be produced 
 so numerously as to form one mass of 
 intense blue. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Mr. Vaux, of Ryde, in the Ise of 
 Wight, says, that there " it ripens seeds 
 perfectly in the open air. Sow it in 
 pots in autumn ; put the pots in a cool 
 frame protected from frost, where they 
 may remain during the winter. In the 
 spring, place in the green-house when 
 the seedlings come up ; and in the early 
 part of May, bed them out ; they bloom 
 beautifully during the summer and au- 
 tumn. For beds they are superior to 
 
SAM 
 
 530 
 
 S A V 
 
 cuttings, as they grow dwarf and more 
 bushy." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 SAMBUCUS. Elder. Seven spe- 
 cies and many varieties. All hardy. 
 The deciduous shrubby kinds are in- 
 creased by cuttings ; the herbaceous 
 perennials, by division. They will 
 grow in any soil. See Elder. 
 
 SAMOLUS. Three species. Green- 
 house or hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 Division. Common soil, and a rather 
 moist situation. 
 
 S AMPHI RE. Crithmum maritimum, 
 though a native of the sea-shore, may 
 be cultivated successfully in the garden. 
 
 Soil. — It requires a sandy or gravelly 
 soil, and the north side of a wall. 
 
 Propagation. — The roots may be 
 planted, or the seed sown, in April ; 
 the only cultivation required being to 
 keep the plants free from weeds, and to 
 •water it about twice a week with water 
 containing half an ounce of guano and 
 one ounce of salt per gallon. 
 
 SAMYDA. Seven species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 SAND is one of the agents most fre- 
 quently employed by the gardener in 
 the culture of potted plants. The kind 
 most suitable to his purpose, is either 
 silver sand, or drift river-sand, both of 
 which are silica nearly in a state of 
 purity. These sands being very slow 
 conductors of heat, and affording a 
 ready escape for superfluous moisture, 
 are admirably adapted for promoting 
 the rooting of cuttings, and preventing 
 the damping-off of seedlings. See Pot- 
 ting, Soil, and Damping-off. 
 
 SAND WOOD. Bremontiera am- 
 moxylon. 
 
 SANGUINARIA. Two spe- 
 cies. Hardy tuberous-rooted peren- 
 nials. Division or seeds. Sandy loam 
 or peat. 
 
 SANGUISORBA. Burnet. Eight 
 species. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 Division, seeds. Common soil. See 
 Burnet. 
 
 SA.NSEVIERA. Fourteen species. 
 Stove herbaceous perennials. Suckers. 
 Sandy loam. S. carnea is hardy. 
 
 SANTOLINA. Five species. Hardy 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Common 
 soil. 
 
 SANVITALIA procumbens. Hardy 
 trailing annual. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 SAPONARIA. Soapwort. Thirteen 
 species. Hardy annuals and biennials, 
 
 hardy and half-hardy herbaceous peren- 
 nials and creepers. Division, seeds, 
 and also by young cuttings of the 
 branching species. Sandy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 SARACHA. Three species. Hardy 
 trailing annuals. S. viscosa, a green- 
 house deciduous shrub, is increased by 
 cuttings, the others by seeds. Common 
 soil. 
 
 SARCANTHUS. Six species. Stove 
 orchids. Cuttings. Moss, potsherds, 
 and wood, and a moist atmosphere. 
 
 SARCOCAPNOS enneaphylla. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennial. Seeds or cut- 
 tings. Common soil, rock work. 
 
 SARCOCAULON. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, leaf-mould, and sand. 
 
 SARCOCEPHALUS esculentus. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
 and sand. 
 
 SARCOLOBUS. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Rich 
 mould. 
 
 SARCOPHYLLUM carnosum. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 SARCOSTEMMA. Two species. 
 Stove evergreen twiners. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 SARRACENIA. Side Saddle 
 Flower. Five species. Half-hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Divisions. Peat 
 and sphagnum. They require a close 
 damp atmosphere. 
 
 SASSAFRAS. Laurus sassafras. 
 
 SATUREIA. Savory. Seven spe- 
 cies. Hardy and half-hardy evergreen 
 shrubs, and herbaceous perennials. S, 
 hortensis is an annual. Division, slips, 
 cuttings, seeds. Dry light sandy soil. 
 See Savory. 
 
 SATYRIUM. Eight species. Green- 
 house tuberous-rooted orchids. Divi- 
 sion. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 SAURAUJA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 SAUROGLOSSUM elatum. Stove 
 orchid. Division. Sandy peat. 
 
 SAUSSUREA. Twelve species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division 
 or seeds. Common soil. 
 
 SAUVAGESIA. Two species. Stove 
 annuals. Seeds. Peat and loam. 
 
 SAVORY. Satureia. 
 
 S. montana, winter or perennial sa- 
 vory. S. hortensis, summer or annual 
 savory. 
 
 
SAW 
 
 531 
 
 — • — 
 
 SCH 
 
 They may be sown in the open 
 ground in spring. In the latter end 
 of March or in April, sow the seed in 
 a light rich soil, moderately thick, and 
 rake them in evenly ; the seedlings 
 soon come up; give occasional weed- 
 ing, and thin them moderately, and they 
 may either remain where sown, or may 
 be transplanted. Observe, however, 
 of the Winter Savory, that when the 
 seedlings are about two or three inches 
 high, it is eligible to plant out a quan- 
 tity of the strongest, in moist weather, 
 in nursery rows six inches asunder, to 
 remain till September or spring follow- 
 ing, then to be transplanted with balls 
 where they are finally to remain, in 
 rows a foot asunder. But the Annual 
 or Summer Savory may either remain 
 where sown, thinning the plants to six 
 or eight inches' distance, or when two 
 inches high may be pricked out in beds, 
 in rows the above distance ; in either 
 case the plants will become useful in 
 June or July, and until winter. Or 
 when designed to have the Winter or 
 Summer Savory remain where sown, 
 the seeds may be sown in shallow drills, 
 either in beds, or along the edge of any 
 bed or border by way of an edging. 
 
 By Slips, 8fC — In the spring or early 
 part of summer, the Winter Savory may 
 be increased plentifully by slips or cut- 
 tings of the young shoots or branches, 
 five or six inches long; plant them with 
 a dibble, in any shady border, in rows 
 six inches asunder, giving occasional 
 waterings, and they will be well rooted 
 by September, when they may be trans- 
 planted. 
 
 SAW-DUST mixed with dung of any 
 sort speedily decays, and forms a very 
 valuable manure. In one instance, the 
 dung of four rabbits and their young 
 ones, saw-dust in their hutches being 
 used instead of straw, was the only 
 manure used upon one-quarter of an 
 acre. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 SAW-FLY. See Athalia. 
 
 SAWS for garden pruning must have 
 a double row of teeth, to obviate the 
 tendency to nip, that the dampness of 
 green wood and the leverage of the 
 branch occasions. One with a very 
 narrow blade, and one with a handle 
 six feet long, will be found convenient. 
 The face of the wound made by a saw 
 should always be cut smooth with the 
 knife, otherwise the wet lodging on its 
 
 rough surface occasions decay. See 
 Bill. 
 
 SAW-WORT. Serratula. 
 
 SAXIFRAGA. Saxifrage. Ninety- 
 two species, and some varieties. Chief- 
 ly hardy herbaceous perennials; a few 
 are annuals, and some half-hardy. — 
 Seeds. Division. Light sandy soil. 
 
 SCABIOSA. Seven species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Seeds. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 SCABIOUS. Scabiosa. 
 
 SCJEVA. Hawk Fly. Of this genus 
 there are several species, of which the 
 most common are S. ribesii and S. py- 
 rastri. Wherever aphides are abun- 
 dant, whether on the cabbage, hop, or 
 elsewhere, there is a fleshy green mag- 
 got. This is the larva of a hawk-fly, 
 and should be left undisturbed, as it is 
 a voracious destroyer of plant lice. — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 SC^VOLA. Eight species. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennials, or stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Turfy 
 loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 SCALLION. See Ciboule, 
 
 SCARES are but very inefficient pro- 
 tections ; for birds soon sit on the very 
 branches which bear the malkin. To 
 frighten them effectually, it is best to 
 employ boys, for the short time scaring 
 is required. Over seed beds a net is 
 the best protection ; but threads taut- 
 ened across the beds, are said to be 
 equally efficacious. 
 
 SCARLET POMPONE. Lilium pom- 
 ponium. 
 
 SCEPTRANTHES Drummondi. Half- 
 hardy tuberous-rooted perennial. Off- 
 sets. Rich mould. 
 
 SCHELHAMMERA. Two species. 
 Green-house herbaceous perennials. 
 Division. Peat and loam. 
 
 SCHIMIDELIA. Five species. Stove 
 evergreen tree. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 SCHINUS. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen tree and shrub. Ripe cut- 
 tings. Common soil. 
 
 SCHIZ^EA. Five species. Stove, 
 green-house, and hardy herbaceous 
 perennials. Division or seeds. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 SCHIZANDRA coccinea. Green- 
 house evergreen trailer. Ripe cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 SCHIZANTHUS. Six species. Har- 
 dy annuals. Seeds. Light soil. 
 
 SCHIZOMERIA ovata. Green-hous 
 
SCH 
 
 532 
 
 — • — 
 
 S CI 
 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 sandy peat. 
 
 SCHIZOPETALON Walkeri. Half- 
 hardy annual. Seeds. Loam, peat, 
 and sand. 
 
 SCHOMBURGHIA. Three species. 
 Stove orchids. Division. A block of 
 wood, or turfy heath mould and pot- 
 sherds. 
 
 SCHOTIA. Five species. Stove or 
 green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 SCHRADERA cephalotes. Stove 
 evergreen climber. Cuttings. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 SCHRANKIA. Two species. Stove 
 and half-hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 Young cuttings or division. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 SCHUBERTIA graveolens. Stove 
 evergreen twiner. Cuttings. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 SCIARA. A genus of Midges. S. 
 pyri, Small Pear Midge. S. Schmid- 
 bergeri, Large Pear Midge. When a 
 fallen pear is cut open, it is often found 
 core-eaten, and with a brown powder 
 marking the progress of the assailant. 
 This is caused by the larva of these 
 insects. The midges appear early in 
 July. M. Kollar says, that the small 
 pear midge has club-shaped halteres, 
 the club dark brown, and the stem 
 whitish. When alive, the abdomen is 
 of a lead colour, with black wings. 
 The head and thorax are black, as are 
 also the antennae; the palpi are of a 
 pale yellow, the feet whitish, and the 
 tarsi black. 
 
 The Large Pear Midge appears 
 about the same time as the preceding. 
 M. Kollar thus describes it: "The 
 female is little more than a line long, 
 and half a line thick, also much larger 
 than the smaller pear midge ; the male is 
 more slender, and somewhat shorter. 
 The antenna? are blackish, and not so 
 long as the body. The head is black 
 and shining, as is also the thorax ; the 
 proboscis ash-gray, the abdomen of the 
 male a deep black, that of the female 
 browner, with black wings ; the anal 
 point, however, is quite black. The 
 feet ash-gray, and the tarsi and wings 
 black. They both survive the winter, 
 and deposit their eggs in the blossom, 
 when it opens in early spring. The 
 larva eats its way into the core of the 
 young fruit, and again eats its way out 
 at one side, when the time arrives for 
 
 it to bury itself in the ground, and pass 
 into the chrysalis form." — Kollar. 
 
 SCILLA. Squill. Thirty-one species, 
 and many varieties. All bulbous per- 
 ennials, and chiefly hardy. S. brevi- 
 folla is a green-house, S. indica is a 
 stove species. Offsets. Light soil. 
 
 SCIODAPHYLLUM. Seven species. 
 Stove or green-house evergreen trees, 
 shrubs, and climbers. Cuttings. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 SCION is the portion of the branch 
 selected for insertion in the stock, and 
 destined to become the future plant. 
 The following directions, given by Mr. 
 Loudon, embrace all the information 
 generally applicable to the subject. 
 All particular directions will be found 
 under the title of the plant to be graft- 
 ed from : — 
 
 " Scions are generally the shoots of 
 last summer's growth, from the outside 
 lateral branches of healthy trees, be- 
 cause in them the shoots are not so 
 robust and apt to run to wood as in the 
 centre and top of the tree, nor so weak 
 as those which are at its base, and uc- 
 der the shade and drip of the rest. An 
 exception to this rule is to be found in 
 the case of debilitated trees, where the 
 scions should be taken from the strong- 
 est shoots. The middle part of each 
 shoot makes always the best scion ; but 
 long shoots, and especially where the 
 scion is of a rare variety, may be cut 
 into several scions of four or six inches 
 in length, reserving not fewer than two 
 nor more than five eyes to form the 
 future head of the tree. 
 
 " Scions should be cut several weeks 
 before the season for grafting arrives; 
 the reason is that grafting may most 
 successfully be performed by allowing 
 the stock to have some advantage over 
 the graft in forwardness of vegetation. 
 It is desirable that the sap of the stock 
 should be in brisk motion at the time 
 of grafting ; but by this time the buds 
 of the scion, if left on the parent tree, 
 would be equally advanced ; whereas, 
 the scions being gathered early, the 
 buds aTe kept back, and ready only to 
 swell out when placed on the stock. 
 Scions of pears, plums, and cherries 
 are collected in the end of January or 
 beginning of February. They are kept 
 at full length, sunk in dry earth, and 
 out of the reach of frost, till wanted, 
 which is sometimes from the middle 
 of February to the middle of March. 
 
SCI 
 
 533 
 
 SCO 
 
 Scions of apples are collected any time 
 in February, and put on from the mid- 
 dle to the end of March. The Scions 
 are used as gathered." — Enc. Gard. 
 
 It is quite true that the scion " over- 
 rideth the stock ;" — a peach scion pro- 
 duces its peculiar foliage, fruit, &c, 
 
 SCOP ARIA dulcis. Stove annual. 
 Seeds. Sandy loam. 
 
 SCOPOLIA carniolica. Hardy herb- 
 aceous perennial. Division. Light dry 
 soil. 
 
 SCOPUL A forficalis, Garden Pebble 
 Moth, is thus accurately described by 
 
 though grafted upon a plum stock ; yet Mr. Curtis :— " The perfect insect mea 
 
 Fig. 151. 
 
 the stock influences the habits and pro 
 duce of the scion. Thus an apricot is 
 said to have been worked on a green- 
 gage plum, and a quince upon the au- 
 tumn bergamot pear; the apricot be- 
 came as juicy as the green-gage, and 
 far more delicate ; the quince was much 
 more tender, and less gritty. See 
 Stocks and Grafting. 
 
 SCISSORS of vari- 
 ous sizes are required 
 by the gardener. A 
 pair with very sharp 
 and pointed blades is 
 required for cutting 
 away the anthers of 
 flowers in hybrydiz- 
 ing. Stouter pairs 
 are used for removing 
 flower stalks, when 
 the petals have fallen 
 from roses, &c. Slid- 
 ing pruning scissors 
 (Fig. 151) are em- 
 ployed for cutting the 
 shoots ofshrubs; they 
 are powerful instru- 
 ments for the pur- 
 pose. See Shears. 
 SCLEROTHAMNUS microphyllus. 
 Green-house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 SCOLOPENDRIUM. Two species, 
 and many varieties. Ferns. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Seeds and di- 
 vision. Rock work. 
 
 SCOLYMUS. Three species. S. 
 maculatus is a hardy annual, the others 
 hardy herbaceous perennials. Division 
 or seeds. Common soil. 
 
 SCOLYTUS. A genus of Beetles. 
 S. hmnorrhous, small Bark Beetle, at- 
 tacks apple trees in May, making fur- 
 rows into the inner bark and alburnum, 
 where it deposits its eggs. The larvae 
 continue feeding there until late in au- 
 tumn. 
 
 S. destructor, elm-destroying Scoly- 
 tus, does not confine its ravages to the 
 elm, but often attacks fruit trees, as the 
 plum. — Kollar. 
 
 res rather more than an inch across, 
 
 when its wings are expanded. The 
 upper pair are hazel-coloured, with 
 four stripes, two of which are distinct, 
 and the other faint; the under wings 
 as well as the body are whitish, and 
 on the former, near the centre, there 
 is a curved brown streak and another 
 black on the margin. The first brood 
 of caterpillars occurs in May, and the 
 second in the autumn; and when very 
 numerous they do considerable injury 
 to cabbages and plantations of horse- 
 radish. The caterpillar is eight or ten 
 lines long, with the head of a light 
 brown colour, and the body is yellowish 
 green, with black longitudinal stripes. 
 Almost the only method of destroying 
 these caterpillars, is to hand-pick them, 
 which, from their small size, will be 
 very tedious; if, however, a mat or 
 piece of linen be laid under the infest- 
 ed plants, they may be shaken into it, 
 and thus a great number be collected 
 in a short time." — Gard. Chron. 
 SCORPION. Genista scorpius. 
 SCORPION GRASS. Myosotis. 
 SCORPION SENNA. Coronilla 
 emerus. 
 
 SCOR-ZONERA. Seventeen species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. S. villosa 
 is a biennial. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 S. hispanica. Common Scorzonera. 
 Though a perennial, yet, for general 
 use, it should be treated as an annual. 
 Sow annually in any open light spot of 
 ground, the latter end of March or be- 
 ginning of April, not earlier, lest the 
 plants run to seed. Trench the ground, 
 and with the bottom spit turn in a little 
 dung; sow in shallow drills, twelve 
 inches asunder, raking the mould even- 
 ly over them half an inch deep. The 
 plants will rise in two or three weeks. 
 When they are a little advanced in 
 growth, let them be thinned and clean- 
 en from weeds by hoeing. Thin the 
 plants to ten inches' distance; they 
 will grow freely, and their roots con- 
 tinue increasing in size till September, 
 when they will have acquired their full 
 
SCO 
 
 534 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 SCR 
 
 size, discoverable by their leaves be- 
 ginning to decay. 
 
 The roots may either remain in the 
 ground, to be drawn as wanted, or 
 taken wholly up in autumn when their 
 leaves decay, and preserved in sand all 
 winter. 
 
 To save seed. — Let some of the plants 
 remain where sown, when they will 
 shoot up in the spring, and produce 
 plenty of seed in autumn. — Abercr ombre. 
 
 SCOTCH ASPHODEL. To; 
 fieldia alpina. 
 
 SCOTCH LABURNUM. Cytisus al- 
 pinus. 
 
 SCOTTIA. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 SCREEN. All cooling is occasioned 
 either by the heat being conducted from 
 a body by a colder, which is in contact 
 with it, or by radiating from the body 
 cooled, though circumstances accelerate 
 or retard the radiation ; and whatever 
 checks the radiation of heat from a body 
 is a screen, and keeps it warmer. 
 
 For example, a thermometer, placed 
 upon a grass plot, exposed to a clear 
 sky, fell to 35° ; but another thermo- 
 meter, within a few yards of the pre- 
 ceding, but with the radiation of the 
 rays of heat from the grass checked by 
 no other covering than a cambric pocket 
 handkerchief, declined no lower than 
 42°. No difference of result occurs 
 whether the radiating surface be paral- 
 lel or perpendicular to the horizon ; for 
 when the mercury in a thermometer, 
 hung against an openly exposed wall, 
 fell to 38°, another thermometer, against 
 the same wall, but beneath a web of 
 gauze stretched tightly, at a few inches 
 distance, indicated a temperature of 
 43°. 
 
 These results explain the beneficial 
 operation of apparently such slight 
 screens to our wall-fruit when in blos- 
 som. A sheet of canvas or of netting 
 prevents the direct radiation of heat 
 from the wall ; the cooling goes on 
 more slowly, and is not reduced to that 
 of the exterior air at night, before the 
 return of day begins to re-elevate the 
 external temperature. 
 
 The colder the body surrounding 
 another body, the more rapid the radia- 
 tion from the latter ; for it is a law of 
 heat that it has a constant tendency to 
 be diffused equally ; and the greater 
 
 two bodies in contact with each other, 
 the greater is the rapidity with which 
 the progress towards equilibrium goes 
 on. This is one reason why a tempera- 
 ture of 32°, with a brisk wind attending 
 it, will injure plants to a far greater 
 extent than a temperature many de- 
 grees lower, with a still atmosphere ; 
 but it is aided by the operation of ano- 
 ther law of heat, viz., that aeriform bo- 
 dies convey it from a cooling body, as 
 a wall or a tree, by an actual change 
 in the situation of their own particles. 
 That portion of the air which is nearest 
 to the cooling body is expanded, and 
 becoming specifically lighter, ascends, 
 and is replaced by a colder portion. 
 This, in its, turn, becomes heated and 
 dilated, and gives place to another 
 colder portion. And thus the process 
 goes on, until the cooling body is re- 
 duced to the same temperature as the 
 air. 
 
 In a still atmosphere, this goes on 
 slowly ; the air in contact with the 
 wall and tree rises very gradually as it 
 imbibes warmth from them ; but if there 
 be a brisk wind, a constant current of 
 air at the lowest temperature then oc- 
 curring, is brought in constant contact 
 with them, and the cooling is rapid, in 
 accordance with the law of equilibrium 
 just noticed. A shelter of netting, or 
 even the sprays of evergreens, are of 
 the greatest service in preventing the 
 sweeping contact of cold air at such 
 times. Snow is a good shelter; it pre- 
 vents heat radiating from plants ; pro- 
 tects them from the chilling blasts ; and 
 is one of the worst conductors of heat. 
 I have never known the surface of the 
 earth, below a covering of snow, colder 
 than 32°, even when the temperature 
 of the air above has been 28°. 
 
 Strange as it may appear, yet it is 
 nevertheless true, that a screen is more 
 beneficial in preserving the tempera- 
 ture of trees, when from three to sis 
 inches from them, than when in imme- 
 diate contact with their surfaces. When 
 a woollen net was suspended four in- 
 ches from the wall on which a peach 
 tree was trained, the thermometer fell 
 very slowly, and the lowest degree it 
 reached was 38°; when the same screen 
 was twelve inches off, it fell to 34°; 
 and when drawn tightly over the tree, 
 it barely kept above 32°, the tempera- 
 ture of the exterior air. When at 
 
 the diversity of temperature between | twelve inches from the wall, it permit- 
 
SCR 
 
 535 
 
 ♦ 
 
 scu 
 
 ted the too free circulation of the air; 
 and when in immediate contact with 
 the polished bark of the peach, perhaps 
 another law of cooling came into ope- 
 ration. The law is, that polished sur- 
 faces radiate heat slowest. Thus, if 
 two glass bottles, equal in size and 
 thickness of glass, and of the same 
 shape, be filled with warm water, and 
 one of the bottles be covered with an 
 envelope of fine muslin, this bottle will 
 give out heat to the surrounding air 
 with much greater rapidity than the 
 other bottle; so that, in a given time, 
 the bottle with the envelope will be 
 found colder than the one which has 
 no covering. 
 
 Screens, such as the preceding, or 
 the slighter agents, sprays of ever- 
 greens, placed before the branches of 
 wall-trees or other plants, as already 
 noticed, operate beneficially in another 
 way, checking the rapid passage of the 
 air over them: such passage is detri- 
 mental in proportion to its rapidity, for 
 the more rapid it is, the greater is the 
 amount of evaporation, and, conse- 
 quently, of cold produced. Mr. Daniell 
 says, that " a surface which exhales 
 one hundred parts of moisture when 
 the air is calm, exhales one hundred 
 and twenty-five parts when exposed to 
 a moderate breeze, and one hundred 
 and fifty parts when the wind is high." 
 
 During all high winds, but especially 
 when blowing from points varying be- 
 tween the east and the south, for they 
 are the driest in this country, the gar- 
 dener will always find shelter is bene- 
 ficial to his plants, whether in blossom, 
 or with fruit in its first stages of growth, 
 for these winds cause an evaporation 
 much exceeding in amount the supply 
 of moisture afforded by the roots. 
 
 In March, such shelters are much 
 required, for the winds are then violent 
 and dry even to a proverb ; but it is 
 during the days of its successor, April, 
 that sets in the only periodical wind 
 known in this island. It comes inter- 
 mittingly, and with a variable force 
 from points ranging from east to north- 
 east, and is one of the most blight- 
 ing winds we have. It continues until 
 about the end of the second week in 
 May, though often until its close ; and 
 it is a good plan to have the tree, dur- 
 ing the whole period, by day as well 
 as by night, protected. This periodical 
 wind is occasioned, probably, by Swe- 
 
 den and Norway remaining covered 
 with snow, whilst England is some 20°, 
 or more, warmer; and an upper cur- 
 rent of warm air is consequently flow- 
 ing hence to those countries, whilst a 
 cold undercurrent is rushing hither to 
 supply its place. This wind, and its 
 consequent cold weather, is so regular 
 in its appearance, that in Hampshire, 
 and some other parts of England, the 
 peasantry speak of it as the black thorn 
 winter, that bush being in blossom dur- 
 ing a part of its continuance. — Princ. 
 of Gard. 
 
 Not only are screens required for 
 out-door plants, but for those under 
 glass ; and Mr. Paxton is quite right in 
 saying, that '* one of the things which 
 should be constantly borne in mind, 
 and more especially in the forcing sea- 
 son, is the most effectual means of keep- 
 ing up the requisite temperature in the 
 hot-houses with least fuel ; and that, in 
 all cases where practicable, the use of 
 external coverings, if properly used, 
 will render strong fires in a great mea- 
 sure unnecessary. Some coverings are 
 used at Chatsworth constantly at night, 
 which makes from ten to fifteen degrees 
 difference in the temperatures of the 
 houses where they are. applied, and to 
 maintain which, without them, would 
 consume three times the quantity of 
 fuel now necessary." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 For wall-trees, now that glass is be- 
 come so much cheaper, the best of all 
 screens may be employed, viz., glazed 
 frames, of a length extending from the 
 coping of the wall, to the surface of 
 the soil, about two feet from the stems 
 of the trees. 
 
 SCREW PINE. Pandanus. 
 
 SCREW TREE. Helicteres. 
 
 SCROPHULARIA. Figwort. Seven 
 species. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 8. vernalis, a biennial. Seeds. Light 
 soil, and a moist situation. 
 
 SCRUBBY OAK. Lophira africana. 
 
 SCURVY GRASS. Cochlear ia offici- 
 nalis. " This vegetable grows sponta- 
 neously on the sea shores of England, 
 and is also found in the interior. It is 
 used like the Cress, and occasionally 
 mixed with corn salad. 
 
 " Sow in autumn and manage as di- 
 rected for winter spinach; it is used 
 during the winter and spring." — R. Reg. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — A few plants must 
 be left ungathered from in the spring. 
 They will run up to flower about May, 
 
scu 
 
 536 
 
 SEA 
 
 and perfect their seed in the course of i dung must be added ; but decayed 
 
 the two following months 
 
 SCUTELLARIA. Twenty-seven 
 species. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 8. humilis is a half-hardy. S. havenen- 
 sis, a stove herbaceous perennial. Seeds 
 and division. Common soil. The shrub- 
 by species increase by young cuttings. 
 
 SCYPHANTHUS grandiflorus and 
 elegans. Hardy twining annuals. Seeds. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 SCYTHE. This mowing implement 
 being confined, in the garden, to cut- 
 ting the fine short grass of lawns, re 
 
 leaves are preferable, and sea-weed 
 still more so. Common salt is a very 
 beneficial application, either applied 
 dry, in the spring, in the proportion of 
 twenty or thirty bushels per acre, or by 
 occcasional waterings, with a solution, 
 containing four ounces in the gallon, 
 round every stool during the spring. 
 The situation cannot be too open and 
 free from trees. 
 
 Propagation is both from seed and 
 slips of the root. The first is the best 
 mode ; for, although from slips it may 
 
 quires to be much sharper than that be obtained with greater certainty, yet 
 
 used in cutting the coarser grasses, 
 which stand up more firmly to the 
 
 the plants arising from seed are the 
 strongest and longest lived. Sow from 
 
 scythe. It is also necessary that the i October to the commencement of April; 
 mowers should not score the grass, that but the best time for inserting it is 
 
 is, snould not leave the mark of each 
 stroke of the scythe, which has a very 
 unsightly appearance; to prevent which, 
 have the scythe laid out rather wider, 
 an inch or two beyond heel and toe, 
 especially for very short grass; and in 
 mowing, keep the point rather out, and 
 do not draw that part too fa,st toward, 
 gathering the grass neatly to the left in 
 a range; and having mowed to the end 
 of the swaith,mow it lightly back again, 
 to trim off all scores, and other irregu- 
 larities, unavoidably left the first time. 
 — Abercrombie. 
 
 SEA-BUCKTHORN Hippophte. 
 
 SEAFORTHIA elegans. Stove palm. 
 Seed. Turfy loam and sand. 
 
 SEA-HEATH. Frankenia. 
 
 SEA-HOLLY. Eryngium. 
 
 SEA-KALE. Crambe Maritima. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — A light mode- 
 rately rich soil, on a dry substratum, 
 suits it best, though in any dry soil it 
 will succeed. Abed may be. composed 
 for it of one-half drift sand, one-third 
 rich loam, and one-third small gravel, 
 road stuff or coal-ashes; if the loam is 
 poor, a little well-rotted dung or de- 
 cayed leaves being added. The soil 
 must be deep, so that the roots can 
 penetrate without being immersed in 
 water, which invariably causes their 
 decay. The depth should not be less 
 than two feet and a half; and if not so 
 naturally, worked to it by trenching. 
 If at all tenacious, this opportunity may 
 be taken to mix with it drift or sea-sand, 
 so as to reduce it to a friable texture. 
 If wet it must be drained, so that water 
 never shall stand within three feet of 
 the surface. If poor, well putrefied 
 
 during January or February. Leave 
 the plants where raised ; and, to guard 
 against failure, insert the seed in patch- 
 es of six or twelve seeds, each six 
 inches apart, and the patches two feet 
 asunder. If intended for transplanting, 
 the seed may be sown in drills twelve 
 inches asunder; in either case it must 
 not be buried more than two inches be- 
 low the surface ; and it is a good prac- 
 tice, previous to inserting it, to bruise 
 the outer coat of the seed, without in- 
 juring its vegetating power, as by this 
 treatment the germination is accele- 
 rated. The plants will in general 
 make their appearance in four or five 
 months, never sooner than six weeks ; 
 but, on the other hand, the seed will 
 sometimes remain twelve months be- 
 fore it vegetates. 
 
 The best time for increasing it by 
 slips is in March. Rooted suckers may 
 be detached from established plants ; or 
 their roots, which have attained the 
 thickness of the third finger, be cut into 
 lengths, each having at least two eyes. 
 The cuttings must be inserted in an up- 
 right position, two or three inches be- 
 neath the surface. It is best to plant 
 two together, to obviate the danger of 
 failure, at two feet apart, to remain. 
 Some persons, from a desire to save a 
 year, recommend yearling plants to be 
 obtained and inserted in February or 
 March ; but as the shoots ought not to 
 be cut for use the first season after 
 planting, the object is not attained, for 
 seedlings may be cut from the second 
 year. 
 
 The beds should be laid out three 
 feet wide, and a two feet alley between 
 
SEA 
 
 537 
 
 SEA 
 
 every two, in preference to the plan 
 sometimes recommended of planting 
 three rows in beds seven feet wide. If 
 the months of June and July prove dry, 
 the beds should be plentifully watered. 
 The seedlings require no other atten- 
 tion, during the first summer, than to 
 be kept free from weeds, and to be thin- 
 ned to five or six in each patch. When 
 their leaves have decayed and are clear- 
 ed away, about November, they must 
 be earthed over an inch or two with dry 
 mould from the alleys, and over this 
 about six inches depth of long litter 
 spread. In the following spring the 
 litter is to be raked off, and a little of 
 the most rotten dug into the alleys. 
 "When the plants have perfectly made 
 their appearance they must be thinned, 
 leaving the strongest plant, or, as Mr. 
 Maher recommends, the three strong- 
 est, at each patch, those removed being 
 transplanted at similar distances if re- 
 quired ; but it must be remarked, that 
 those transplanted never attain so fine 
 a growth, or are so long lived. In the 
 second winter the earthing must be in- 
 creased to five or six inches deep over 
 the crowns, and the covering of litter 
 performed as before. In the third 
 spring, the litter being removed, and 
 some dug into the alleys, as before, 
 about an inch depth of drift sand or 
 coal-ashes must be spread regularly 
 over the surface. The sprouts may 
 now be bleached and cut for use ; for, if 
 this is commenced earlier, the stools 
 are rendered much less productive and 
 much shorter lived. In November, or 
 as soon as the leaves are decayed, the 
 beds being cleared of them, the coating 
 of sand or ashes removed, and gently 
 stirred with the asparagus-fork, they 
 must be covered with a mixture of three 
 parts earth from the alleys, and one part 
 of thoroughly decayed leaves, to the 
 depth of three or four inches. The 
 major part of this is to be removed in 
 the following spring, the beds forked, 
 and the covering of sand renewed, this 
 routine of cultivation continuing during 
 the existence of the beds. 
 
 The above course is the one also pur- 
 sued if the plants are raised from off- 
 sets or cuttings, as it is by much the 
 best practice not to commence cutting 
 until they are two years old. 
 
 Blanching may commence the second 
 spring after sowing. The most simple 
 mode is that originally adopted, namely, 
 
 to cover over each stool sand or ashes 
 to the depth of about a foot ; the shoots, 
 in their passage through it, being ex- 
 cluded from the light, are effectually 
 bleached. Dry clean straw may be 
 scattered loosely over the plants to 
 effect the same purpose. But pots are 
 by much to be preferred to any of these 
 coverings. Common flower-pots, of 
 large dimensions, may be employed, 
 care being taken to stop the hole at 
 the bottom with a piece of tile and clay, 
 so as to exclude every ray of light ; but 
 those suggested by Mr. Maher are ge- 
 
 Fig. 152. 
 
 nerally adopted. They are of earthen- 
 ware, twelve or eighteen inches in 
 diameter, and twelve high. Mr. Sabine 
 improved upon them by making the top 
 moveable, which prevents the trouble 
 arising from the escape of the spread- 
 ing shoots, or the entire removal of the 
 dung at the time of forcing. Frames of 
 wicker are sometimes employed,' being 
 covered with mats more perfectly to 
 exclude the light. See Rhubarb. 
 
 Previously to covering the stools with 
 the pots, &c.,the manure laid on in the 
 winter must be removed ; and the ope- 
 ration should commence at the close of 
 February, or at least a month before 
 the shoots usually appear, as the shel- 
 ter of the pots assists materially in 
 bringing them forward. In four or six 
 weeks after covering the plants should 
 be examined, and as soon as they ap- 
 pear three or four inches high, they 
 may be cut; for if none are taken until 
 they attain a fuller growth, the crop 
 comes in too much at once. In order 
 to prolong the season of production, 
 Mr. Barton recommends plants to be 
 raised annually, so that every year a 
 cutting may be had from a yearling 
 crop, which come in much later, and 
 consequently succeed in production the 
 old established roots. The shoots 
 should be cut whilst young and crisp, 
 not exceeding five or six inches in 
 height; the section to be made just 
 
SEA 
 
 538 
 
 — ¥— 
 
 SEA 
 
 within the ground, but not so as to in- 
 jure the crown of the root. Slipping 
 off the stalks is much preferable to cut- 
 ting. The plants may be gathered 
 from until the flower begins to form, 
 when all covering must be removed. 
 If, when arrived at the state in which 
 brocoli is usually cut, the flower is em- 
 ployed as that vegetable, it will be 
 found an excellent substitute. When 
 the cutting ceases, all covering must 
 be removed, and the plants be allowed 
 to grow at liberty. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — A stool, which has 
 not been cut from, or even covered at 
 all for blanching, must be allowed to 
 run in spring. It flowers about June, 
 and produces abundance of seed on 
 every stem, which ripens about the 
 close of July, or early in August. 
 
 Forcing. — To force sea-kale, some 
 established plants, at the end of Oc- 
 tober or early in November, being 
 trimmed as directed above at that sea- 
 son, and the bed covered with a mixture 
 of moderately sifted light earth, and 
 sand or coal ashes, two or three inches 
 deep, each stool must be covered with 
 a pot, set down close, to keep out the 
 steam of the dung ; or, bricks or planks 
 may be placed to the height of eight or 
 ten inches on each side of the row to 
 be forced, and covered with cross spars, 
 having a space of about an inch between 
 them. The dung employed must be 
 well tempered and mixed for three 
 weeks before it is required, or for four, 
 if mingled with leaves, otherwise the 
 heat is violent, but transient. When 
 thus prepared, each pot is covered ten 
 inches thick all round, and eight inches 
 at the top. The heat must be constant- 
 ly observed ; if it sinks below 50°, more 
 hot dung must be applied ; if above 
 60°, some of the covering should be 
 removed. Unless the weather is very 
 severe, it is seldom necessary to renew 
 the heat by fresh linings ; when the 
 thermometer indicates the necessity, a 
 part only of the exhausted dung should 
 be taken away, and the remainder mixed 
 with that newly applied. In three or 
 four weeks from being first covered, 
 the shoots will be fit for cutting, and 
 they will continue to produce at inter- 
 vals for two or three months, or until 
 the natural crops come in. To have a 
 succession, some should be covered 
 with mulch, or litter that is little else 
 than straw; this, by sheltering the 
 
 plants from cold, will cause them to be 
 forwarder than the natural ground ones, 
 though not so forward as those under 
 the hot dung ; and by this means it may 
 be had in perfection from Christmas to 
 Whitsuntide. 
 
 It also may be forced in a hot-bed. 
 When the heat moderates, a little light 
 mould being put on, three or four year 
 old plants, which have been raised with 
 as little injury as possible to the roots, 
 are to he inserted close together, and 
 covered with as much earth as is used 
 for cucumbers. The glasses must be 
 covered close with double matting to 
 exclude the light, and additional cover- 
 ing afforded during severe weather. 
 Sea-kale, thus forced, will be fit for 
 cutting in about three weeks. Instead 
 of frames and g'asses, any construc- 
 tion of boards and litter that will ex- 
 clude the light, would undoubtedly 
 answer as well. A common melon 
 frame will contain as many as are capa- 
 ble of being produced in two drills of 
 twenty yards each, and with only one- 
 third the quantity of dung. To keep up 
 a regular succession until the natural 
 ground crop arrives, two three-light 
 frames will be sufficient for a large 
 family; the first prepared about the 
 beginning of November, and the second 
 about the last week in December. 
 Another mode is, on each side of a 
 three-foot bed to dig a trench two feet 
 deep, the side of it next the bed being 
 perpendicular, but the outer side slop- 
 ing, so as to make it eighteen inches 
 wide at the bottom, but two feet and a 
 half at the top. These trenches being 
 filled with fermenting dung, which of 
 course may be renewed if ever found 
 necessary, and frames put over the 
 plants, the light is to be completely 
 excluded by boards, matting, &c. 
 
 Unlike the generality of vegetables, 
 the shoots of forced sea-kale are always 
 more crisp and delicate than those pro- 
 duced naturally. Those plants will not 
 do for forcing a second time which have 
 been forced in frames ; consequently a 
 small bed should be sown every year 
 for this purpose, so that a succession of 
 plants may be annually had, they not 
 being used until three years old. Some- 
 times a plant will send up a flower- 
 stalk; this must be immediately cut 
 away, it will then be as productive as 
 the others. But those plants which are 
 forced by whelming dung over the pots, 
 
SEA 
 
 539 
 
 SEN 
 
 are not much detrimented for the na- 
 tural ground production of the succeed- 
 ing year. When, therefore, they have 
 done producing, all covering must be 
 removed, and the ground dressed. 
 SEA-LAVENDER. Statice. 
 SEASIDE GRAPE. Coccoloba. 
 SEASIDE LAUREL. Xylophylla la- 
 tifolia. 
 
 SEATS require to be in unison with 
 the portion of the pleasure-grounds in 
 which they are placed. In shady re- 
 tired spots, they may be made of the 
 limbs of trees, (see Rustic,) but near the 
 house, or among the parterres, where 
 trimness is the prevailing characteristic, 
 more art is desirable to be apparent in 
 their construction. They may be made 
 of wood, and so constructed as to shut 
 up, so that the seat is never wet; and 
 if painted annually they last for many 
 years. Made of iron, 
 they are more light 
 in appearance, and if 
 painted yearly' will 
 not iron-mould dress- 
 es which rest upon 
 them. Being made 
 of open work, the 
 wet does not rest 
 upon them, and they 
 are soon dry even 
 after heavy rains. 
 The following (Figs. 
 153, 154) are made 
 by Messrs. Dean, King William Street, 
 London. 
 
 Fig. 154. 
 
 SEA-WEED. See Green Manure. 
 
 S E B M A. Four species. Green- 
 house annuals. Seeds. Peat and loam 
 or common soil. 
 
 SECAMONE. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 SECURIDACA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 SECURIGERA coronilla. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 SEDUM. Sixty-four species. Chiefly 
 hardy herbaceous perennials; with a 
 few annuals and biennials. These lat- 
 ter grow well on rock work, and in- 
 crease by seeds. The green-house spe- 
 cies increase by partly ripe cuttings; 
 the rest by cuttings or division. Sandy 
 loam, or loam and brick rubbish. A 
 few are evergreen shrubs and creepers. 
 
 SEED ROOM. All that has been said 
 relative to the Fruit Room, is applica- 
 ble to this : everything promotive of 
 decay or germination is to be avoided ; 
 and if one relative direction more than 
 another requires to be urged upon the 
 gardener, it is comprised in these words 
 — keep it as dry as possible : the room 
 may be even hot, so that it is not damp. 
 Mr. Forsyth says, that " a dry room, 
 hot room, or something very nearly re- 
 sembling a slow corn-kiln, is essentially 
 necessary in every garden, not only for 
 seeds, but also for all other articles re- 
 quiring drought, or liable to injury from 
 damp, such as the nets and bunting for 
 wall-trees and the like ; garden-mats ; 
 glazed lights in wet weather, or when 
 washed previous to painting ; and last, 
 though not the least necessary, the 
 proper drying of pot-herbs, a process 
 seldom, if ever properly done." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 In such a room should be a nest of 
 very shallow drawers or trays, divided 
 into compartments, each holding a tin 
 box three inches in diameter, and on 
 the lid of each a label, inscribed with 
 the name of the seed. Such an ar- 
 rangement not only saves the seed, but 
 saves the gardener's time, especially if 
 the seeds are arranged alphabetically 
 in the drawers. 
 
 SELAGO. Eighteen species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Loam, peat and sand. 
 
 SELFHEAL. Prunella. 
 
 SEMPERVIVUM. House-leek. 
 Thirty species. Green-house evergreen 
 shrubs, annuals, and biennials ; and 
 hardy and half-hardy herbaceous peren- 
 nials. The green-house evergreens in- 
 crease by partly ripened cuttings, and 
 require a mixture of sandy loam and 
 brick rubbish. The hardy kinds increase 
 by offsets, and grow on rocks or walls. 
 The annuals and biennials increase by 
 seed. 
 
 SEN AC I A. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Ripened cuttings. 
 Light rich soil. 
 
SEN 
 
 540 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 SEP 
 
 SENECILLIS. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Light 
 rich soil. 
 
 SENECIO. Fifty-eight species. Har- 
 dy herbaceous perennials and annuals, 
 and green-house evergreen shrubs. The 
 latter increase by cuttings, and require 
 a light rich soil. The hardy kinds in- 
 crease by division, the annuals and 
 biennials by seed. Common soil suits 
 both the last-named species. 
 
 SENSITIVE FERN. Onoclea Sensi- 
 bilis. 
 
 SENSITIVE PLANT. Mimosa. 
 There are several plants, however, be- 
 sides the mimosa which give evidence 
 of being sensitive. The Venus Fly Trap 
 (Dioncea muscipula) has jointed leaves, 
 which are furnished on their edges with 
 a row of strong prickles. Flies, attract- 
 ed by honey which is secreted in glands 
 on their surface, venture to alight upon 
 them. No sooner do their legs touch 
 these parts than the sides of the leaves 
 spring up, and locking their rows of 
 prickles together, squeeze the insects 
 to death. The well-known sensitive 
 plant (Mimosa sensitiva), shrinks from 
 the slightest touch. Oxalis sensitiva 
 and Smithia sensitiva are similarly 
 irritable, as are the filaments of the 
 stamens of the berberry. One of this 
 sensitive tribe, Hedysarum gyrans, has 
 a spontaneous motion ; its leaves are 
 frequently moving in various directions, 
 without order or co-operation. When 
 an insect inserts its proboscis between 
 the converging anthers of a dog's bane 
 (Apocynum androsscemifolium), they 
 close with a power usually sufficient to 
 detain the intruder until death. 
 
 SEPT AS. Two species. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennials. Division. 
 Peat, loam and sand. 
 
 SEPTEMBER is a month of decay, 
 yet much has to be done to the living. 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 Angelica, sow. — Aromatic pot-herbs, 
 finish gathering. — Artichokes, break 
 down. — Balm, plant. — Beans, earth up, 
 &c, e. — Borage, sow ; thin advancing 
 crops. — Burnet, plant. — Cabbages, sow, 
 for autumn and spring plants ; earth 
 up advancing ; (Red), are ready for 
 pickling. — Cardoons, earth up. — Car- 
 rots, advancing, thin. — Flowers, sow 
 for plants to preserve under glass dur- 
 ing winter. — Celery, earth up. — Chervil, 
 mw. — Coleworts, plant out. — Cori- 
 
 ander, sow. — Corn Salad, sow. — 
 Cress (American), sow, b. ; (Water), 
 plant. — Bill, sow. — Earthing-up, at- 
 tend to. — Endive, plant ; attend to ; 
 blanch, &c. — Fennel, plant. — Finochio, 
 earth up. — Herbary requires dressing, 
 b. — Hoeing, attend to. — Hyssop, plant. 
 — Jerusalem Artichokes, take up as 
 wanted, e. — Kidney Beans, earth up 
 advancing, b. — Leeks, plant, b; attend 
 to advancing. — Lettuces, sow for autumn 
 and spring planting. — Mint, plant. — 
 Mushroom-Beds, make; Spawn, collect. 
 — Nasturtium-berries, gather as they 
 become fit. (Potato), take up for stor- 
 ing. — Orach, sow. — Parsley, cut down. 
 — Peas, hoe, &c. — Pennyroyal, plant. 
 — Pot Marjoram, plant. — Radishes, 
 sow, b. — Rhubarb, sow. — Sage, plant. 
 — Savory, plant. — Seeds, gather as they 
 ripen. — Small Salading, sow. — Sorrel, 
 plant. — Spinach, sow, b. — Tansy, plant. 
 — Tarragon, plant. — Thyme, plant. — 
 Turnips, sow, b. ; hoe advancing. 
 
 ORCHARD. 
 
 Composts, prepare. — Dress borders 
 by forking, so soon as fruit is gather- 
 ed. — Gathering of Apples and Pears to 
 store commence, e. — Grapes, bag, to 
 protect from wasps, &c. — Layers and 
 cuttings may still be inserted. — Leaves, 
 be careful not to injure or remove from 
 Wall Trees. — Nets, spread over fruit 
 trees, to protect from birds. — Planta- 
 tions, intended, prepare ground for, by 
 trenching, &c. — Planting may be com- 
 menced, e., in some kinds of Apricots, 
 Peaches, &c. — Strawberries, plant in 
 moist weather ; clean old beds ; pot for 
 forcing. — Stones of fruit save, to sow 
 for stocks. — Vines, remove straggling 
 useless shoots. — Wall-trees, generally, 
 look over and train as required. — 
 Wasps, entrap in bottles, &c. 
 
 FLOWER GARDEN. 
 
 Aconite (Winter), plant, e. — Ane- 
 mones, plant best, e. ; sow, b. — An- 
 nuals (Hardy), sow, b. — Auriculas not 
 shifted in August, now remove ; water 
 and shade ; prepare awning to protect, 
 in autumn and winter; sow, b. — Bulb- 
 ous roots, plant for early blooming, e. ; 
 sow, b. — Carnation layers remove, b. — 
 Chrysanthemums, plant cuttings, &c, 
 b. — Dress borders assiduously. — Edg- 
 ings, trim; plant. — Evergreens, plant, 
 make layers. — Fibrous-rooted peren- 
 nials, propagate by slips, parting roots, 
 
S ER 
 
 541 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 SET 
 
 &c. — Fork over vacant compartments. — 
 Grass, mow and roll; sow, b. — Gravel, 
 weed and roll. — Guernsey Lilies , pot. — 
 Heartsease, plant cuttings ; trim old. — 
 Hedges, clip, e. — Mignonette, sow in 
 pots to shelter in frames. — Pipings of 
 Pinks, &c, plant out for blooming. — 
 Polyanthuses, plant. — Ranunculuses, 
 plant best, e. ; sow, b. — Seedlings, plant 
 out. — Seeds, gather as ripe. — Transplant 
 perennials, e. — Tuberous rooted plants, 
 transplant. — Turf, lay. — Water annuals 
 and other plants every day in dry 
 weather. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, admit freely every day. — Bark- 
 beds, renew. — Bulbs, plant, b. — Com- 
 posts, prepare. — Dress the plants regu- 
 larly. — Earth, give where required. — 
 Leaves, wash ; remove decayed, &c. — 
 Pines, shift, if neglected before, b.; 
 attend to bottom heat; water every 
 third day. — Propagate by offsets, seeds, 
 slips, and suckers. — Shifting neglected 
 before, complete, b. — Succulents, re- 
 place under glass. — Watering gene- 
 rally is required two or three times 
 weekly. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 Air, give very freely to plants re- 
 turned into house. — Camellias, bud. — 
 Earth, give fresh. — Geraniums and 
 Myrtles planted in borders, return into 
 pots, b. ; cuttings, plant, b. — Glass, 
 Flues, 8/-C, repair, before the plants are 
 moved in. — Oranges and Lemons, re- 
 move into house, e.; thin fruit. — Prune 
 and dress as the plants are removed. — 
 Roses, pot for forcing. — Seedlings and 
 other young plants, if well rooted, 
 transplant, b. — Succulents, remove into 
 house, b.; shift into larger pots. — 
 Suckers, layers, cuttings, &c, may be 
 planted. — Tender plants, generally 
 remove into house, e. — Water is not 
 required so freely. 
 
 SERAPIAS. Three species. Stove 
 orchids. Division. Light sandy soil. 
 
 SERINGIA platyphylla. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. — 
 Sand, loam, and peat. 
 
 SERISS A fatida. Green-house ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
 and sand. 
 
 SERPICULA repens. Green-house 
 herbaceous creeper. Division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 SERRATULA. Saw-wort. Twenty- 
 
 ennials, annuals, and biennials. The 
 former, seeds or division; the latter, 
 seeds only. Common soil suits them all. 
 
 SERRURIA. Thirty-four species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
 cuttings, taken off at a joint. Light 
 turfy loam, with a little sand. 
 
 SERSALISIA sericea. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
 and sand. 
 
 SERVICE. Pyrus Sorbus. There 
 are three varieties. P. S. maliformis, 
 apple-shaped; P. S. pyriformis, pear- 
 shaped ; P. S. bacciformis, berry- 
 shaped. 
 
 Propagation. — By Grafting on the 
 apple, medlar, and hawthorn. 
 
 By Cuttings. See Apple. 
 
 By Seed. — The berries ripen abund- 
 antly in autumn, which is the proper 
 time for sowing them when perfectly 
 ripe. Sow them as soon after they are 
 gathered as possible, selecting a spot 
 of lightish ground, and dividing it into 
 four-feet- wide beds, in which sow the 
 berries in drills an inch deep. Some of 
 them will rise the following spring ; 
 they, however, frequently remain till 
 the second spring before they come up; 
 observing in either case, that in the 
 spring following, when the seedlings 
 are a year old, they should be planted 
 out in nursery rows, to remain till they 
 acquire a proper size for final trans- 
 plantation at thirty feet apart. 
 
 By Layers. — Having some of the 
 trees while young cut down near the 
 ground, they will throw out lower 
 shoots, which being layered in the 
 common way in autumn and spring, 
 will readily emit roots, and be fit to 
 transplant in nursery rows in one year. 
 
 Soil. — Clayey loam well drained suits 
 it best. 
 
 Culture. — They are best trained as 
 dwarf standards or espaliers. See 
 Medlar. 
 
 Gather the fruit in autumn, and treat 
 it like that of the medlar. 
 
 SESBANIA. Twelve species. Stove 
 annuals, biennials, or evergreen shrubs. 
 The latter increase by cuttings; the for- 
 mer by seeds. Loam and peat suits 
 them all. 
 
 SESUVIUM. Four species. Stove 
 annuals and herbaceous perennials. 
 Partly dried cuttings. Sandy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 SETHIA indica. Stove evergreen 
 
 nine species. Hardy herbaceous per- I tree. Cuttings. Turfy loam and peat 
 
SET 
 
 542 
 
 S H A 
 
 SETS are the tubers, or portions of 
 tubers, employed for propagating tube- 
 rous-rooted plants. It may be accepted 
 as a rule universally applicable to them, 
 that a moderately-sized whole tuber is 
 always to be preferred to a cutting of a 
 tuber. The latter are invariably more 
 subject to failure, but if employed, it is 
 a good plan to roll them in gypsum 
 powder. This checks the escape of 
 their sap, and is friendly to vegetation. 
 
 SEYMERIA. Two species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Peaty soil. 
 
 SHADING deserves more attention 
 than it usually obtains, for there is not 
 a plant when in blossom that is not pro- 
 longed in beauty and vigour by being 
 shaded from the midday sun. Nor 
 should shading be attended to merely 
 with regard to blooming plants ; for 
 they are benefited by it during all 
 periods of their growth. Every plant 
 transpires at a rate great in proportion 
 to the elevation of the temperature : 
 the greater the transpiration the more 
 abundant is the absorption of moisture; 
 and the moment the roots fail in afford- 
 ing a supply equivalent to the transpi- 
 ration, the leaves flag, or become ex- 
 hausted of moisture, and if this be 
 repeated often, decay altogether. — 
 Shades, properly managed, prevent 
 this injurious exhaustion. Those used 
 at Sion House deserve particular atten- 
 tion, not only because they are appli- 
 cable to hot-houses, pits, and hot-beds 
 of every description, but because they 
 may be rendered available in the cover- 
 ing of fruit walls, to exclude the frost 
 from the blossom, and the birds or flies 
 from ripe fruit; and also in the cover- 
 ing of flower beds, hay ricks, harvested 
 corn, temporary structures for public 
 assemblages, &c. 
 
 Fig. 155. 
 
 " The length of these rolls at Sion 
 House is between fifty and sixty feet, 
 but we have no doubt they might be 
 made longer, since this depends on the 
 diameter of the pole or rod, a, and the 
 toughness of the timber employed, or 
 its power to resist torsion. On one end 
 of this rod, and not on both, as is usual, 
 a ratchet wheel, b, is fixed, with a plate 
 against it, c, so as to form a pulley 
 groove between, d, to which a cord is 
 fastened, and about three inches further 
 on the rod is fixed a third iron wheel, 
 about six inches in diameter, and half 
 an inch thick, e. This last wheel runs 
 in an iron groove, /, which extends 
 along the end rafter or end wall of the 
 roof to be covered. 
 
 " The canvas or netting being sewed 
 together of a sufficient size to cover the 
 roof, one side of it is nailed to a slip of 
 wood placed against the back wall, that 
 is, along the upper ends of the sashes; 
 the other side is nailed to the rod, a. 
 When the canvas is rolled up, it is held 
 in its place under a coping, g, by a 
 ratchet, h, and when it is let down, the 
 cord,i, of the roll is loosened with one 
 hand, and the ratchet cord, /c, pulled 
 with the other, when the canvas un- 
 rolls with its own weight. The process 
 of pulling it up again needs not be de- 
 scribed. The most valuable part of 
 the plan is, that the roll of canvas, 
 throughout its whole length, winds up 
 and lets down without a single wrinkle, 
 notwithstanding the pulley-wheel is 
 only on one side. This is owing to 
 the weight of the rod, and its equal 
 diameter throughout. By this plan a 
 house 100 or 150 feet long, might be 
 covered with two rolls, the two pulleys 
 working at the two ends ; but if it were 
 thought necessary, the two rods might 
 be joined in the middle, and by a little 
 contrivance, the pulley and groove 
 placed there, so as to work both of the 
 rolls at once from the inside of the 
 house, from the back shed, or from the 
 front." — Gard. Mag. 
 
 SHALLOT. See Eschalot. 
 SHANKING is the technical term 
 for a gangrene which attacks the foot- 
 stalks of grapes and the stems of cab- 
 bages which have vegetated through 
 the winter. The shanking of the grape 
 appears to be occasioned by the tem- 
 perature of the soil being too much 
 below that in which the branches are 
 vegetating ; and, consequently, the sup- 
 
SH A 
 
 543 
 
 S HR 
 
 ply of sap to the grapes is too much 
 diminished, and the parts which thus 
 fail of support immediately begin to 
 decay; this is an effect always the con- 
 sequence of a diminished supply of sap, 
 apparent either in the leaves, flower, 
 or fruit. The disease, like every other 
 putrefaction, does not advance rapidly | 
 unless there be much moisture in the 
 atmosphere. Shanking never appears 
 in the grape if the roots of the vine are 
 within the house. Shanking in the 
 cabbage arises from a very different 
 cause, viz., the freezing of the stalk of 
 the cabbage just where it comes in con- 
 tact with the soil. The best preventive 
 is dressing the soil with salt, about five 
 bushels per acre, late in the autumn. 
 
 SHARP CEDAR. Acacia oxycedrus 
 and Juniperus oxycedrus. 
 
 SHEARS are of various kinds, dif- 
 fering in form according to the purpose 
 for which they are intended. Hedge- 
 shears for clipping hedges are the most 
 common. 
 
 Sliding Pruning Shears withamove- 
 able centre so as to make a drawing 
 cut when used as when the pruning 
 knife is employed. See Averruncator. 
 The drawing shows the 
 smaller size, used with one 
 hand. See Scissors. The 
 large size, which has wood 
 handles, will, when em- 
 ployed with both hands, 
 cut through a bough full 
 three inches in circum- 
 ference, with the greatest 
 ease. 
 
 Verge Shears are merely 
 the hedge shears set near- 
 ly at a right angle on long 
 handles for the conveni- 
 ence of the gardener in 
 clipping the sides of box 
 edging, and the verge of 
 grass plots. 
 Turf Shears are set also at an angle, 
 but in a different direction for cutting 
 the tops of edgings, and grass growing 
 in corners unapproachable by the scythe. 
 SHEEP LAUREL. Kalmia angusti- 
 folia. 
 
 SHELLS. See Animal Matters. 
 SHELTER. See Screen. 
 SHEPHERD I A. Two species. 
 Hardy deciduous trees. Layers. Peat 
 and loam, or common soil. 
 SHEPHERD'S BEARD. Amopogon. 
 
 Fig. 156. 
 
 SHEPHERD'S CLUB. Verbascum 
 Thapsus. 
 
 SHIFTINC. See Potting and One- 
 shift System. 
 
 SHREDS for fastening trees to walls 
 are best made of the list or selvage torn 
 from black or blue cloth, and may be 
 obtained of any tailor. The smallest 
 possible number of shreds, and the nar- 
 rowest consistent with strength should 
 be employed ; for wherever the shred 
 envelops the branch, the wood beneath 
 is never so well ripened as those parts 
 exposed to the light and air, which are 
 so essential to enable the bark to as- 
 similate and separate from the sap those 
 secretions which are required for the 
 next year's growth. Shreds should 
 always be long enough to permit the 
 ends to be doubled over, so that the 
 nail may pass through four thicknesses 
 of the cloth, otherwise theylook ragged 
 and are liable to tear away from the 
 nail. If old shreds are re-used, they 
 should be previously boiled for a few 
 minutes to destroy any insect-eggs, or 
 larvae they may contain. 
 
 SHRIVELLING of the berries of the 
 grape in stoves arises from the roots of 
 the vine not supplying a sufficiency of 
 sap. This occurs if the roots are in a 
 cold heavy soil, or are vegetating in an 
 outside border, the temperature of 
 which is too low compared with that of 
 the stove. In the first case, thorough 
 draining and the incorporation of cal- 
 careous rubbish ; and in the second 
 case, protection to the border and stem, 
 will remove the evil. 
 
 SHRUBBERY is a garden, or portion 
 of a garden, devoted to the cultivation 
 of shrubs. It is not necessary, as Mr. 
 Glenny observes, " That there should 
 be any flowers or borders to constitute 
 a shrubbery, but there should be great 
 taste in forming clumps, and grouping 
 the various foliages and styles of growth. 
 The groundwork in such a garden con- 
 sists of gravel walks and lawn. If flow- 
 ers be intermixed, or, which is very 
 generally adopted, there be a space left 
 all round the clumps to grow flowers 
 in, it becomes a dressed or pleasure 
 ground, rather than a shrubbery. — 
 Though any part of a ground in which 
 shrubs form the principal feature, is 
 still called a shrubbery. — Gard. and 
 Prac. Flor. 
 
 SHRUBS are trees of a dwarf growth, 
 not exceeding in height twelve or fif- 
 
SHU 
 
 544 
 
 SLI 
 
 teen feet, unless they are climbers, and 
 having, if permitted, branches and fo- 
 liage clothing the entire length of their 
 stems. 
 
 SHUTERIA bicolor. Stove ever- 
 green twiner. Seeds. Rich light loam. 
 
 SHUTTLECOCK. Peripetera 
 punicea. 
 
 SIBBALDIA. 
 
 Four species and 
 some varieties. Hardy herbaceous pe- 
 rennials, or evergreen trailers. Divi- 
 sion. Loam, peat and sand. 
 
 SIBERIAN CRAB. Pyrus pruni- 
 folia. 
 
 SIBERIAN PEA TREE. Cara- 
 gana. 
 
 SIBTHORPIA europcea. Hardy 
 herbaceous creeper. Division. Peaty 
 soil, and a moist situation. 
 
 SIDA. Sixteen species. Hardy an- 
 nuals, biennials, and herbaceous pe- 
 rennials; and stove evergreen shrubs, wood has been cut 
 Seeds. Rich soil. The shrubby kinds 
 are also increased by cuttings. 
 
 SIDERITIS. Eighteen species. 
 Hardy annuals and herbaceous peren- 
 nials, and hardy, half-hardy and green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings, 
 seeds, and division. Dry sand or chalk. 
 
 SIDERODENDRON trifiorum. 
 Stove evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 SIDESADDLE FLOWER. Sarra- 
 cenia. 
 
 SIEGESBECKIA. Six species. 
 Hardy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 SIEVE. See Measures. 
 
 SIEVERSIA. Seven species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Seeds or divi- 
 sion. Light soil. 
 
 SILENE. Catch Fly. One hundred 
 and fifty-one species. Chiefly hardy 
 annuals, biennials, and herbaceous pe- 
 rennials. Seeds. Light rich soil. The 
 shrubby kinds increase by young cut- 
 tings also. A few are green-house bi- 
 ennials. 
 
 SILK COTTON TREE. Bombax. 
 
 SILK TREE. Acacia Julibrissin. 
 
 SELPHIUM. Three species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Com- 
 mon soil.- 
 
 SILVER TREE. Leucadendron se- 
 riceum. 
 
 SIM ABA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Turfy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 SINAPIS. Mustard. Six species. 
 Chifly hardy annuals. S. frutescens is 
 a green-house evergreen shrub. S. me- 
 
 dicaulis a perennial. Seeds. Common 
 soil. 
 
 SINNINGIA. Six species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 SIPHOCAMPHYLUS. Four 
 species. Stove and hardy evergreen 
 shrubs. Cuttings. Light sandy soil. 
 
 SIREX gigas. This fly pierces the 
 fir, and other growing timber, deposit- 
 ing its eggs in the alburnum. M. Kol- 
 lar says that: — 
 
 "In the seventh week after the eggs 
 are laid, the maggot has attained its 
 full size, and then generally buries it- 
 self six inches deep in the wood, where 
 it is transformed in a cavity into a pupa, 
 covered with a thin transparent skin. 
 It remains in this state a long time ; and 
 examples are given of the perfect insect 
 only making its appearance when the 
 up for useful pur- 
 poses." 
 
 SIR JOSEPH BANKS' PINE. 
 Araucaria imbricata. 
 
 SISYMBRIUM millefolium. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light 
 soil. 
 
 SISYRINCHIUM. Twenty-seven 
 species. Hardy, half-hardy, green- 
 house and stove herbaceous perennials. 
 Seed, or offsets. Light soil. 
 
 SIUM. Two species. Hardy herb- 
 aceous perennials. Division or seeds. 
 Moist soil. 
 
 SKIP-JACK. See Elater. 
 
 SKIRRET. Siflro Sisarum. 
 
 Propagation. — By Seed. — Sow at the 
 end of March, or early in April, in 
 drills one inch deep, and twelve inches 
 apart. The seedlings will be up in 
 five weeks. Weed and thin to twelve 
 inches apart. In autumn, they will be 
 fit for use like parsneps. 
 
 By Offsets. — Old roots throw off these 
 in the spring, when they may be slip- 
 ped off, and planted in rows a foot 
 apart each way. 
 
 Soil. — A light loam is best, trenched, 
 with a little manure dug in with the 
 bottom spit. 
 
 To save Seed, let a few of .the old 
 roots run up in spring; they will flower 
 in July, and ripen their seed in the au- 
 tumn. 
 
 SKULL-CAP. Scutellaria. 
 
 SLIPPER PLANT. Pedilanthes. 
 
 SLIPPER WORT. See Calceolaria. 
 
 SLIPS are employed for increasing 
 the number of an established variety or 
 
SLO 
 
 545 
 
 SNA 
 
 species. In the woody kinds, the young i 
 shoots are slipped off from the sides of 
 the branches, &c, with the thumb and 
 finger, instead of cutting them off with 
 a knife, but is more commonly practised I 
 to the lower ligneous plants, such as 
 sage, southernwood, rosemary, rue, and 
 lavender. The best season of the year 
 for effecting the work is generally in 
 spring and beginning of summer, though 
 many sorts will grow if planted at al- 
 most any time of the year. 
 
 Select the young shoots, chiefly of 
 but one year's growth, and in many 
 sorts the shoots of the year will grow 
 the most readily, even if planted the j 
 summer they are produced, especially J 
 the hard wooded kinds ; but in the more | 
 soft wooded plants, the slips will also 
 often readily grow when a year or two I 
 old, being careful always to choose the j 
 most robust shoots, situated on the out- | 
 ward part of the plants, from three to 
 sjx, or eight, or ten inches long, slip- 
 ping them off close to the branches. 
 Clear off the lower leaves, then plant 
 them two parts in the ground, giving 
 occasional shade and water, if in sum- 
 mer, till properly rooted ; and towards 
 autumn transplant them where they are 
 to remain. 
 
 Many shrubby plants growing into 
 large branches from the root, such as 
 roses, spicas, and raspberries, may be 
 slipped quite to the bottom, into sepa- 
 rate plants, each furnished with roots, 
 and may be planted either in nursery 
 rows, or at once where they are to re- 
 main. 
 
 Herbaceous plants may be slipped 
 into many separate plants, and it is 
 effected by slipping off the increased 
 suckers, or offsets of the root; some 
 sorts, by the offsets from the sides of 
 the heads of the plants ; and some few J 
 sorts by slips of their stocks or branches, j 
 
 Slipping should generally be per- 
 formed in the spring, or early part of j 
 autumn, which may be effected either | 
 by slipping the outside offsets with, 
 roots, as the plants stand in the ground, | 
 or, to perform it more effectually, you I 
 may take the whole plants up, and slip i 
 them into several separate parts, each 
 slip being furnished also with roots, 
 planting them, if small, in nursery rows 
 a year, to gain strength ; or such as are 
 strong, may be planted at once in the 
 borders, &c. — Abercrombie. 
 
 SLOANEA. Two species. Stoveever- 
 35 
 
 green trees. Ripe cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 SLOE TREE. Prunus spinosa. 
 
 SLUGS are of many species, and the 
 smaller are much more injurious to the 
 gardener than those of a larger size, 
 because they are much less discernible, 
 and their ravages being more gradual, 
 are not at once detected. They are 
 effectually destroyed by either salt or 
 lime; and to secure its contact with 
 their bodies, it is best first to water 
 the soil where they harbour with lime 
 water, in the evening, when they are 
 coming out to feed, sprinkling the sur- 
 face also with dry lime ; and at the end 
 of a week, applying a surface dressing 
 of salt, at the rate of five bushels per 
 acre. If cabbage leaves are spread 
 upon the surface of land infested by 
 slugs, they will resort to their under 
 sides, and thus they may be trapped ; 
 but lime and salt are most efficacious. 
 Lime-water may be poured over wail- 
 trees infested with them, and they may 
 be syringed with it as well as with 
 water in which gas liquor has been 
 mixed, about half a pint to a gallon. 
 If lime be sprinkled along the top, and 
 at the base of the wall, renewing it 
 weekly, the slugs cannot get to the 
 trees. 
 
 SMALL CARDAMOM. Amomum 
 cardamomum. 
 
 SMALL LUPINE. Lupinus nanus. 
 
 SMALL MONARDA. Pycnanthe- 
 mum monar delta. 
 
 SMALL PALM. Sabal Palmetto. 
 
 SMALL PEPPERMINT. Thymus 
 Piperella. 
 
 SMEATHMANNIA laevigata. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Half-ripened cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 SMILACINA. Nine species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Light 
 soil. 
 
 SMITHIA. Three species. Stove 
 trailing annuals. Seeds. Peat, sand, 
 and loam. 
 
 SNAILS. See Slugs. 
 
 These marauders are said to be very 
 fond of bran, and that they are readily 
 trapped if this be put in heaps under 
 flower pots, with one side propped up 
 to admit them. The common garden 
 snail, Helix hortensis, is thus noticed 
 by Mr. Curtis: — 
 
 " Snails are said to be hermaphro- 
 dites, and, consequently, they are all 
 capable of laying eggs ; and there have 
 
SNA 
 
 546 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 SOI 
 
 been found eighty in one heap. They 
 are globular, whitish, shining, and not 
 larger than swan-shot. If kept in a 
 damp place, they readily hatch, at 
 once-becoming little, thin, transparent, 
 and nearly colourless shells. In a short 
 time, they increase to twice the size, 
 even when they have had nothing to 
 feed upon. They are then of a dark, 
 ochreous colour, with three imperfect 
 rings, composed of brownish dots and 
 streaks, and a transverse line of the 
 same colour next the pale lip or mar- 
 gin ; and these spots seem to vary as 
 the animal withdraws or extends itself, 
 owing to the dark tints shining through 
 the semi-transparent shell. 
 
 As the snail grows, it has the faculty 
 of enlarging the shell, from its own se- 
 cretions ; and, when full grown, it is as 
 large as a small plum. It is convo- 
 luted obliquely, striated of an ochreous 
 colour, variegated with pitchy spots, 
 giving it a marbled appearance, and 
 forming two or three transverse bands ; 
 the lip is ochreous, the margin slightly 
 reflexed, the under side is smooth and 
 white, with a pinkish tint. 
 
 " There are various ways of reducing 
 the numbers of this pest — the simplest 
 is, by searching amongst the leaves of 
 wall-fruit in April, when the snails first 
 leave their winter quarters, to satisfy 
 their long abstinence, and they con- 
 tinue feeding until August or Septem- 
 ber. 
 
 " To protect seedling plants, a thick 
 dusting of lime and soot round the 
 stem will keep the snails away in dry 
 weather. 
 
 " In August, the eggs may be found 
 at the roots of pot-herbs, in the cavities 
 of muck heaps, at the rotten foot of 
 paling, &c. These should be diligently 
 sought for and destroyed; for they 
 nearly all will hatch. 
 
 " Salt and urine are destructive to 
 snails ; but it is difficult to apply either 
 to them with much advantage. Lime, 
 soot, and wood ashes are excellent 
 checks.; but the first loses its efficacy 
 as soon as it becomes wet, and even 
 the dews of the evening will frequently 
 exhaust its caustic properties. Cabbage 
 leaves are not an invariable decoy for 
 the old snails: young ones, however, 
 are very fond of them, especially when 
 wet and withering." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 SNAIL FLOWER. Phaseolus cara- 
 calla. 
 
 SNAKE GOURD. Trichosanthes. 
 
 SNAKE ROOT. Aristolochia ser- 
 pentaria. 
 
 SNAPDRAGON. Antirrhinum and 
 Silene antirrhina. 
 
 SNAP TREE. Judicia hysopifolia. 
 
 SNEEZEWORT. Achillea Ptarmica. 
 
 SNOW is one of the gardener's best 
 shelters, and should never be removed 
 from his out-door crops. It prevents 
 heat from radiating from them ; pro- 
 tects them from freezing, drying blasts ; 
 and, being a bad conductor of heat, 
 thus prevents its escape from them. 
 I have never known the surface of the 
 earth, below a covering of snow, colder 
 than 32°, even when the temperature 
 of the air above has been 28°. — John- 
 son's Principles of Gardening. 
 
 SNOWBALL TREE. Viburnum 
 Opulus. 
 
 SNOWBERRY. Chiococca. 
 
 SNOWDROP. Anemone sylvestris, 
 and Galanthus. 
 
 SNOWDROP TREE. Halesia. 
 
 SNOWFLAKE. Leucojum. 
 
 SOAP-BOILERS' ASHES. See Ashes. 
 
 SOAPWORT. Saponaria. 
 
 SOBOLEWSKIA lithophila. Hardy 
 annual. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 SOIL. However varying in the pro- 
 portions, yet every soil is composed of 
 silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, oxide 
 of iron, salts, and animal and vegetable 
 remains. The most important conside- 
 ration is, what proportions those are 
 which constitute a fertile soil ? 
 
 The beau ideal of a fertile soil is one 
 which contains such a proportion of de- 
 composing matter and of moisture as to 
 keep the crop growing upon it always 
 supplied with food in a state fit for 
 introsusception, yet not so superabun- 
 dantly as to render the plants too 
 luxuriant, if the object in view is the 
 production of seed ; but for the pro- 
 duction of those plants whose foliage 
 is the part in request, as spinach, or of 
 edible bulbous roots, as onions, which 
 have a small expanse of leaves, so as 
 to be almost entirely dependent upon 
 the soil for nourishment, there can 
 scarcely be an excess of decomposed 
 matter presented to their roots. 
 
 Spinach, on rich soils, will yield suc- 
 cessive cuttings, the same as asparagus ; 
 the latter especially demands abundant 
 applications of nourishment to its roots, 
 since, like the onion, it has little foliage 
 
SOI 
 
 547 
 
 SOI 
 
 and slightly fibrous roots, at the same 
 time that, like the spinach, it has to 
 afford repeated cuttings; and thus, re- 
 quiring a repeated development of 
 parts, it needs abundant food in its im- 
 mediate neighbourhood. A soil with a 
 just proportion of decomposing matter 
 will be capable of absorbing moisture, 
 during the droughts of summer, from 
 the atmosphere; for the most fertile 
 soils are always the most absorbent. 
 Yet it must not be too retentive of 
 moisture, which is the case in such 
 soils as contain too much alumina; 
 neither must it too easily part with 
 moisture, a fault which is a character- 
 istic of those soils which contain an 
 excess of silica. 
 
 A subsoil of gravel, mixed with clay, 
 is the best, if not abounding in oxide 
 of iron ; for clay alone retains the moist- 
 ure, on the arable surface, in too great 
 an excess; and sand or chalk, on the 
 contrary, carries it away too rapidly. 
 It is, however, evident, that to insure 
 these desiderata in any soil, at all sea- 
 sons, is impossible; and it is manifest 
 that a soil that would do so in one cli- 
 mate would fail in another, if the mean 
 annual temperature of them should dif- 
 fer, as well as the amount in inches o 
 rain which fall during the same period- 
 Thus, in the western parts of England, 
 more than twice as much rain occurs 
 as in the most eastern counties, or in 
 the proportion of forty-two to nineteen ; 
 a soil in the east of England, for any 
 given crop, therefore, may be richer 
 and more tenacious than the soil re- 
 quired for it on the western coast. 
 
 Alumina, or clay, imparts tenacity to 
 a soil when applied ; silica, or sand, 
 diminishes that power ; whilst chal k and 
 lime have an intermediate effect. They 
 render heavy soils more friable, light 
 soils more retentive. These simple 
 facts are important ; two neighbouring 
 gardens, by an interchange of soils, 
 being often rendered fertile, which be- 
 fore were in the extremes of tenacity 
 and porosity. 
 
 From these statements it is evident 
 that no universal standard or recipe can 
 be given for the formation of a fertile 
 soil; but a soil, the constituents of 
 which approach in their proportions to 
 those of the following, cannot be un- 
 productive in any climate. It is a rich 
 alluvial soil, which Mr. Sinclair, in his 
 invaluable Hortus Gramineus Woburn- 
 
 ensis, gives as being the most fertile 
 for the grasses : — 
 
 " Fine sand, 115; aluminous stones, 
 70; carbonate of lime, 23; decompos- 
 ing animal and vegetable matter, 34 ; 
 silica, 100; alumina, 28; oxide of 
 iron, 13; sulphate of lime, 2; soluble 
 vegetable and saline matter, 7 ; loss, 8 ; 
 total 400." 
 
 I have already stated what forms a 
 fertile soil ; it may be added, that, to 
 constitute it eminently such, its earthy 
 particles must be in a minute state of 
 division; the more so the more fertile it 
 will be. 
 
 In the above analysis 185 parts only 
 were separable by sifting through a fine 
 sieve; 215 parts were impalpable; 
 whereas poorer soils will often have 
 300 parts coarse matter to every 100 of 
 finely pulverized constituents. 
 
 In affording warmth to plants the 
 earth is of considerable importance, 
 and the power of accumulating and re- 
 taining heat varies as much in soils as 
 the proportions of their constituents. 
 Sir Humphrey Davy found that a rich 
 black mould, containing one-fourth of 
 vegetable matter, had its temperature 
 increased in an hour, from 65° to 88° 
 by exposure to the sunshine, whilst a 
 chalk soil was heated only to 69° under 
 similar circumstances. But the first} 
 when removed into the shade, cooled 
 in half an hour 15 e ; whereas the latter 
 lost only 4°. This explains why the 
 crops on light-colored tenacious soils 
 are in general so much more backward 
 in spring, but are retained longer in 
 verdure, during autumn, than those on 
 black light soils. The latter attain a 
 genial warmth the more readily, but 
 part from it with equal speed. Different 
 plants affect different soils. Every 
 gardener must have observed that there 
 is scarcely a kitchen garden but has 
 some particular crop which it sustains 
 in luxuriance, far superior to any other 
 garden in its neighborhood, or to any 
 other crop that can be grown on it. A 
 garden I once cultivated would not 
 produce, without the preparation of an 
 artificial soil, the common garden-cress 
 (Lepidium sativum), whilst the raspberry 
 was remarkably luxuriant; and we- 
 have seen that the composition of a soil 
 has a main influence in these peculiari- 
 ties. It is certain that a soil is often 
 considered unproductive, and the un- 
 productiveness attributed to some de- 
 
SOI 
 
 548 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 SOL 
 
 ficiency in its staple, when, in truth, 
 the defect arises from erroneous man- 
 agement. 
 
 I have before stated an instance of 
 tap-rooted plants being produced, of 
 superior size and form, by means of ap- 
 plying the manure deep below the sur- 
 face. In another instance, some pars- 
 neps being of necessity sown in a poor 
 soil, having turned in some manure by 
 trenching full twelve inches deep, I 
 would not allow any to be applied to 
 the surface, but, at the time of thinning 
 I set half the bed out at an average of 
 twelve inches' distance between each 
 plant, the other half at nine inches. 
 When taken up for storing, the whole 
 were alike perfectly, fusiform ; but those 
 grown at twelve inches apart were the 
 finest, as four and a half is to three. If 
 manure had been applied to the surface, 
 the fibrous roots, I calculated, would 
 be multiplied at the expense of the 
 caudex, to its much greater detriment 
 than by making the few usually pro- 
 duced by this root extend in length, 
 thus enlarging the circuit of their pas- 
 turage. 
 
 Again, a more silicious, darker co- 
 lored soil should be employed for the 
 growth of an early crop, of any given 
 plant, than is required by the main crop ; 
 because such soil will more readily 
 get rid of the superfluous moisture, and 
 earlier acquire a genial warmth, two 
 great desiderata for vegetation in spring. 
 On the contrary, in autumn, for a late 
 crop of peas, for instance, the soil 
 should be more aluminous, that such 
 moisture may be retained. 
 
 The quantity of soluble matter ob- 
 tainable from a soil, at any one time, 
 is very small, seldom exceeding a one- 
 thousandth part of its weight; and even 
 pure vegetable mould, the debris of 
 entirely putrefied plants, was found by 
 
 big and others have most illogically 
 concluded, from the smallness of the 
 soluble extract contained in a soil, that 
 it is of small importance, forgetting 
 that as fast as it is taken by the roots of 
 the crop, it is generated again by the 
 decomposition of the animal and vege- 
 table remains. This is one reason why 
 fallowing is beneficial ; easily decom- 
 posing matters have been exhausted by 
 successive crops; and by a year's rest, 
 and exposure to the putrefactive agency 
 of the air, the more stubborn and more 
 slowly decomposing exuviae have time 
 to resolve into and accumulate soluble 
 compounds in the soil. — Trine, of Gard. 
 
 SOJA hispida. Hardy annual. Seed. 
 Common soil. 
 
 SOLANDRA. Five species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Turfy 
 loam and peat. S. grandiflora. Mr. 
 J. Brown, gardener at Whittlebury 
 Lodge, near Towcester, says that — 
 
 " After it attains to the height of from 
 three to five feet, it must not be shifted, 
 but allowed to remain in as small a pot 
 as it will grow in until the roots be- 
 come matted round the inside. Early 
 in autumn keep it in a cool situation, 
 and allow it to become perfectly dry, 
 when the leaves will drop off. About 
 the beginning of November, introduce 
 it into heat, and force gently, supply- 
 ing it plentifully with water when it 
 begins to grow. Being thus excited for 
 a short time, the plant grows freely, 
 and produces blossom-buds on the 
 young wood, and at the end of each 
 shoot; these in January and February 
 expand. As soon as it has done flow- 
 ering, which is generally in March, the 
 shoots are to be cut back, and the 
 plant, being shifted, put into heat and 
 encouraged to grow, stopping the young 
 shoots frequently, to induce it to throw 
 out laterals, and to keep it dwarfed. 
 
 Saussure to yield only one-eleventh of | By this treatment it very often forms 
 
 soluble matter. This mould was too 
 rich for horticultural purposes, peas 
 and beans grown in it being too luxuri- 
 ant ; and they were more productive in 
 a soil containing only one-twentieth of 
 organic constituents dissolvable by wa- 
 ter. Small in amount, however, as is 
 the soluble constituents of the most 
 fertile soils, they are necessary for the 
 vigorous vegetation of plants; for when 
 a soil is deprived of those constituents J 
 by frequent washings with boiling water, | 
 it is much less fertile than before. Lie- 
 
 spurs similar to a pear or apple-tree, at 
 the ends of which, after allowing the 
 roots to become matted in the pot, giv- 
 ing it a rest, and keeping it dry and cool 
 from August till November, blossoms 
 are produced in abundance, upon its 
 being put again into heat." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 SOLANUM. One hundred and thirty- 
 six species, and some varieties. Stove 
 and green-house evergreen shrubs and 
 annuals; hardy annuals, deciduous 
 climbers, herbaceous, and a few tuber- 
 
SOL 
 
 549 
 
 SOR 
 
 ous-rooted perennials. To this latter 
 belongs S. tuberosum, the potato. The 
 annuals are increased by seeds ; the 
 other species by seeds, cuttings, or 
 tubers. Light rich soil suits them all. 
 
 SOLDANELLA. Seven species. 
 Hardy or half-hardy herbaceous peren- 
 nials. Seeds or division. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 SOLDEVILLA setosa. Hardy herba- 
 ceous perennial. Seed. Common soil. 
 
 SOLDIER-WOOD. Inga purpurea. 
 
 SOLIDAGO. Golden Rod. Sixty- 
 seven species. Hardy herbaceous pe- 
 rennials, except S. leucanthemifolia, 
 which is half-hardy, and S. spuria, a 
 green-house evergreen. Division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 SOLLYA. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen climbers. Cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 SOLOMON'S SEAL. Convallaria. 
 
 SOOT is the volatilized unconsumed 
 portion of common coal. It is thus 
 constituted: — 
 
 Charcoal . 
 
 Salts of ammonia 
 
 potash and soda 
 
 371 
 427 
 24 
 50 
 65 
 31 
 31 
 2 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 Silica 
 
 Alumina . 
 
 Sulphate of lime 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia 
 
 It is an excellent manure for peas, 
 onions, carrots, and probably all garden 
 crops. An excellent liquid manure is 
 soot mixed with rain water, in the pro- 
 portion of one tablespoonful of soot 
 to a quart of water, for plants in pots ; 
 but for asparagus, peas, &c, six quarts 
 of soot to a hogshead of water. It 
 must never be applied to plants in a 
 state of rest. It succeeds admirably 
 with bulbs. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 S P H R A. Fourteen species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials and deci- 
 duous trees; stove and green-house ever- 
 green shrubs and trees. The latter in- 
 crease by cuttings, the former by divi- 
 sion. S. chinensis and S. japonica, 
 hardy deciduous trees ; by layers or 
 seeds. Light loamy soil. 
 
 SOPHRONITIS. Three species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Division. Wood with 
 a little moss on the roots. 
 
 SORINDEIA madagascariensis. 
 Stove evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 SOROCEPHALUS. Seven species. 
 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Ripe 
 cuttings taken oif at a joint. Turfy 
 loam and sand. 
 
 SORRELS. These are Oxalis Aceto- 
 sella, Wood Sorrel ; Rumex acetosa, 
 Garden Sorrel ; R. scutatus, French or 
 Roman Sorrel. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — They thrive best 
 in any garden soil that tends to light- 
 ness rather than tenacity, and is not 
 too poor. The situation must be open. 
 Propagation. — The rumexes are pro- 
 pagated by seed, and all of them by 
 parting the roots, both which modes 
 may be practised from the middle of 
 February until the same period in May, 
 and by the latter also in September 
 and October. The finest plants are 
 raised by seed, but those from portions 
 of the roots are soonest in production. 
 The seed is best sown in drills, six 
 or eight inches apart, and half an inch 
 in depth. When two or three inches 
 high, the seedlings must be thinned to 
 three or four inches apart, and those 
 removed, if required, pricked out at 
 similar distances. In September or Oc- 
 tober, or in the March and April of the 
 succeeding year, they may be removed 
 into their final stations, in rows twelve 
 inches apart, each way, or, if the 
 French, eighteen inches. The only 
 attention they require down to this 
 state of their growth, is to be kept clear 
 of weeds, and to have water given in 
 moderate quantities after each removal, 
 until established. 
 
 When divisions of the root are em- 
 ployed, they must be set at once where 
 they are to remain, at the final dis- 
 tances above mentioned ; and the same 
 attention paid in weeding and watering 
 them. Established plants must in a 
 like manner be kept constantly free 
 from weeds. In summer, as they run 
 up to seed, the stalks must be cut down 
 as often as is required, to encourage 
 the production of leaves. In autumn 
 and spring, the surface of the ground 
 should be gently stirred, and in the 
 former season, a little manure, or in 
 preference, a similar proportion of de- 
 cayed leaves, turned in. Some garden- 
 ers raise fresh seedlings annually, but 
 a fresh plantation is seldom necessary 
 oftener than every fourth year ; before 
 which, however, it must be made, if the 
 plants dwindle or produce diminutive 
 leaves. 
 
S OR 
 
 550 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 SPA 
 
 To obtain Seed. — Some plants must 
 not be gathered from, and allowed to 
 run up unchecked. They flower in the 
 course of June, July, and August, per- 
 fecting their seed in autumn. Wood- 
 sorrel never produces seed. See Ox- 
 alis. 
 
 SORREL TREE. Andromeda arbor ea. 
 
 SOULANGIA. Twelve species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 SOURSOP. Anona muricata. 
 
 SOUTHERNWOOD. Artemisia ar- 
 bor ea. 
 
 SOUTH SEA TEA. Ilex vomitoria. 
 
 SOWERBiEA juncea. Green-house 
 herbaceous perennial. Division. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 SOWING. See Germination. In 
 addition a few practical directions may 
 be given. Let all sowing be done in 
 drills. For small seeds, such as let- 
 tuce, cabbage, &c, the drills may be 
 sunk by pressing the handle of the hoe 
 into the freshly dug soil ; but for larger 
 seeds, as parsneps, beet, and onions, 
 the drills must be struck with the hoe. 
 
 All sowing should be performed in 
 dry weather, more particularly all early 
 sowing in winter and spring ; but in hot 
 weather, in summer and autumn, it 
 
 evenly, the depth required, the earth 
 remaining close along the side of the 
 drill, ready for turning in again over 
 the seeds ; but where flat or shallow 
 drills are required for smaller seeds, it 
 may in many cases, be more eligible to 
 draw the drill with the hoe flatwise, 
 holding the edge in a horizontal position. 
 
 Bedding in Sowing. — In this method 
 the ground being dug and formed in 
 four or five feet wide beds with alleys, 
 a spade width or more between bed 
 and bed, and the earth being drawn off 
 the top of the bed with a rake or spade, 
 half an inch or an inch deep into the 
 alleys, the seed is then sown all over 
 the surface of the bed, which being 
 done, the earth in the alleys is immedi- 
 ately drawn or cast over the bed, again 
 covering the seeds the same depth, and 
 the surface is raked smooth. 
 
 The method of bedding in sowing by 
 sifting, is sometimes practised for very 
 small or light seeds of a more delicate 
 nature, that require a very light cover- 
 ing of earth when sown, so in order to 
 bury them as shallow as possible, cover 
 them in by sifting fine earth over them 
 out of a wire sieve. — Abercrombie. 
 
 SOY. See Soja. 
 
 SPADE. This most important of the 
 
 ay often be eligible to take advantage ! gardener's tools, varies in its form and 
 
 of sowing immediately after a shower 
 or moderate rain. 
 
 The drills being at some distance 
 from one another, not only admit the 
 sun, air, and rain more effectually to 
 the plants, and give them a greater 
 scope, than such as are sown broadcast, 
 but admit more readily the hoe between 
 the drills to cut down weeds and loosen 
 the soil. 
 
 The general method of forming drills 
 for the reception of seeds, is with a 
 common drawing-hoe, sometimes with 
 a large hoe, and sometimes a middling 
 
 size. 
 
 The Common Digging Spade is of the 
 largest size, being generally from four- 
 teen to sixteen inches long in the plate, 
 and nine or ten broad, narrowing half 
 an inch to the bottom. 
 
 The Middling Spade is about a foot 
 long in the plate, and seven or eight 
 inches broad, and is useful in digging 
 any narrow compartments and between 
 rows of small plants, also in flower- 
 beds and borders ; and in stirring and 
 fresh earthing the surface of beds occa- 
 
 onally, between close placed plants 
 
 or small hoe, according to the size of ; of long standing; planting and trans- 
 
 the drill required, and size and nature 
 of the seeds ; drawing the drill some- 
 times with the corner of the hoe, espe- 
 cially for larger seeds, and sometimes 
 with the edge of the hoe flatwise or 
 horizontally; but large seeds, such as 
 peas, kidney beans, many of the nut 
 kinds, and other large seeds, both of 
 trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, 
 require a deep angular drill, drawn 
 with the corner of the hoe, turning the 
 face or edge close to the line, so draw 
 
 planting many sorts, both in the ground 
 and in the pots. 
 
 The Small Spade. — Size ten or twelve 
 inches long in the plate, and five or six 
 wide. It is convenient in pointing-up 
 or slight digging, and fresh earthing 
 the surface between close rows of 
 small plants, in beds and borders, &c, 
 where neither of the two former spades 
 can be readily introduced ; likewise in 
 planting and potting many sorts of small 
 plants, taking up small roots and for 
 
 the drill along with an angular bottom 1 other light purposes. Proper garden 
 
SPA 
 
 551 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 SPH 
 
 spades have the plate wholly of iron, 
 not above a quarter of an inch thick 
 upwards, growing gradually thinner 
 from the middle downward, the tree or 
 handle being generally of ash, about 
 two feet and a half long and an inch 
 and a half thick, with a firm open han- 
 dle at top, formed out of the solid wood, 
 just big enough to admit of taking ready 
 hold, one hand at top and the other be- 
 low, and with an iron rivet through it 
 to prevent it splitting. 
 
 Semicircular or Scooped Spade, has 
 the plate made semicircular like a gar- 
 den trowel, and is very useful in taking 
 up plants with balls of earth to preserve 
 them more firmly about the roots. — 
 Abercrombie. 
 
 Foster of Stourbridge, and Lyddon 
 of Birmingham, make very improved 
 spades, wearing with a good edge 
 throughout. 
 
 SPANISH BROOM. Sparcium jun- 
 ceum. 
 
 SPANISH CRESS. Lepidium cala- 
 mines. 
 
 SPANISH ELM. Cordia Geraschan- 
 thus. 
 
 SPANISH GARLIC. See Rocam- 
 bole. 
 
 SPANISH NUT. Morcea Sisyrin- 
 chium. 
 
 SPANISH VIPER'S GRASS. Scor- 
 zonera. 
 
 SPARAXIS. Ten species and some 
 varieties. Green-house and half-hardy 
 bulbous perennials. Offsets or seeds. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 SPARMANNIA africana. Green- 
 house evergreen tree. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 SPARROW WORT. Erica passe- 
 rina. 
 
 SPARTIUM. Broom. Two species, 
 and two varieties. Hardy deciduous 
 shrubs. Seeds or cuttings. Common 
 soil. 
 
 SPATALANTHUS spsciosus. Har- 
 dy bulbous perennial. Offsets. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 SPATALLA. Nine species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Seeds, ripe 
 cuttings. Light sandy loam. 
 
 SPATHODEA. Eight species. 
 Stove evergreen trees, shrubs, and 
 climbers. Cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 SPATHOGLOTTIS fortunatus. 
 Green-house tuber. Division. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 SPAWN is the white filamentous mat- 
 
 ter produced in the soil by mushrooms, 
 and by which they are propagated. It 
 is doubtful whether it arises from their 
 seed, or whether it is a mass of under- 
 ground runners. See Mushroom. 
 
 SPECKLINIA. Five species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Division. Wood, with a 
 little moss on the roots. 
 
 SPECULARIA. Six species, and a 
 few varieties. Hardy annuals. Seeds. 
 
 SPERMACOCE. Five species. Har- 
 dy annuals and stove annuals and bien- 
 nials. Seeds. Light soil. 
 
 SPERM AXYRUM strictum. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 SPHACELE. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Light rich soil. 
 
 SPH51RALCEA. Eight species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs and herb- 
 aceous perennials ; a few, hardy annu- 
 als ; the latter increase by seeds, the 
 others by cuttings. Rich soil. 
 
 SPH^ROLOBIUM. Two species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 SPH^ROPHYSA caspica. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennial. Seeds, common 
 soil ; it should be watered sometimes 
 with salted water. 
 
 SPHMROTEMA propinquum. Stove 
 evergreen climber. Cuttings. Sandy 
 peat and loam. 
 
 SPH^ROSTIGMA. Three species. 
 Hardy annuals and biennials. Seeds. 
 Common soil. 
 
 SPHAGNUM is a white spongy moss, 
 found only in bogs, and used for grow- 
 ing orchidaceous plants, or covering 
 the drainage in flower pots. 
 
 SPHENOGYNE. Ten species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs, and 
 green-house and hardy annuals; the 
 latter increase by seeds, the former by 
 cuttings. Loam and peat. 
 
 SPHINX. S. tipaliformis. Currant 
 Sphinx is thus mentioned by Mr. Cur- 
 tis : 
 
 « Towards the end of May, and in 
 June, we see the beautiful little cur- 
 rant sphinx sporting in the morning and 
 noonday sun, about the flowers of the 
 Persian Lilac, the Common Syringa, 
 and other plants; at this time the fe- 
 males also resort to the currant trees to 
 deposit their eggs in the crevices of the 
 twigs, and as soon as the larva emerges 
 from its tiny shell, it penetrates to the 
 centre to feed upon the pith, proceed- 
 
SPI 
 
 552 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 SPO 
 
 ing downward until it has arrived at ! cold weather give a light covering of 
 its full growth ; it then changes to a straw, cedar brush, or anything that 
 pupa serrated with transverse short will lay lightly, and partially protect 
 spines, which enable it to ascend to an 
 opening previously prepared by the 
 larva, from which the sphinx escapes, 
 
 leaving the pupa case half protruding 
 from the branch. 
 
 " The caterpillar is fleshy and whitish, 
 with an obscure dorsal line: the head 
 and four homy spots upon the first 
 thoracic segment are bright brown ; it 
 has six pectoral, eight abdominal, and 
 two anal feet, which are of a similar 
 colour, and a few fine longish hairs are 
 scattered over its body. The moth is 
 of a brilliant chalybeon black, inclining 
 to purple, which is beautifully contrast- 
 ed with the golden wings encircling its 
 body when glittering in the sunshine. 
 The black currants appear to be the 
 most subject to these attacks of the 
 currant sphinx caterpillar, and the first 
 indication of its presence is the wither- 
 ing of the leaves and branches." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 SPIDER OPHRYS. Ophrys 
 aranifera. 
 
 SPIDER WORT. Tradescantia. 
 
 SPIELMANNIA africana. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light 
 rich soil. 
 
 SPIGELIA anthelmia, a stove an- 
 
 it; otherwise the finest and most suc- 
 culent leaves become discoloured by 
 the frost." — Rural Reg. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — A sowing of each 
 variety may be made in February or 
 March, according to the openness of 
 the season, or of the round-leaved va- 
 riety some plants of a regular crop may 
 be allowed to run up in April or May ; 
 and of the triangular-leaved, some 
 plants of the winter standing crops may 
 be suffered to remain. Keep them clear 
 of weeds. Spinach is dioecious, and 
 many ignorant persons, perceiving 
 some of the plants to have no appear- 
 ance of bearing seed, advise these to 
 be pulled up, but these are the male- 
 bearing plants, without which the 
 others would be unfruitful. If, how- 
 ever, they are very numerous, some of 
 them may be removed with benefit to 
 those that remain, care being taken that 
 some are left in every part of the bed. 
 When the seed is set the male plants 
 may be entirely removed, which allows 
 more room for the fruitful. When the 
 seed is ripe, which is known by its be- 
 ginning to shed, in July or August, the 
 plants ought to be pulled up and laid to 
 dry thoroughly on a cloth, previously 
 
 nual, and S. marilandica, a hardy herb- j to its being beaten out and stored 
 
 aceous perennial. Seeds and cuttings 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 SPINACH. Spinacea oleracea. 
 
 " The Spinage or Spinach has been 
 long cultivated, and is supposed to have 
 come originally from Western Asia. Its 
 use is well known. 
 
 " The principal varieties are the round 
 seeded Savoy-leaved and Prickly-seed- 
 ed. The former is best for spring and 
 summer use, the latter is preferred 
 for autumn sowing, being considered 
 hardier. 
 
 " It may be sown broad cast or in 
 drills. When drilled, it is easier kept 
 clean, and more readily gathered for 
 use. The drills should be twelve inches 
 apart, the plants four inches apart in 
 the rows. If sown thicker, thin out 
 when young, as 
 
 at proper distances. For spring and 
 early summer use, sow early in spring, 
 and occasionally afterward; for the 
 early autumn supply, sow at close of 
 summer, and for the main winter crops 
 about middle of autumn. Before very 
 
 S P I R JE A . Forty-one species and 
 many varieties. Hardy deciduous 
 shrubs or herbaceous perennials, a few 
 are tuberous-rooted. Layers or young 
 i cuttings, and the herbaceous species by 
 | division. Peat and loam, or common 
 j soil. 
 
 SPIRALEPIS. Four species. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennials. S. squar- 
 \ rosa, an evergreen shrub. Seeds, cut- 
 I tings, and division. Sandy peat and 
 I loam. 
 
 SPIRANTHERA odoratissima. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Half ripened cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 SPIRANTHES. Four species. Stove 
 , green-house and half-hardy orchids. Di- 
 ! vision. Peat and loam. 
 
 SPIRONEM A /ragmns. Stove herb- 
 anted : leaving plants ' aceous perennial. Division. Light rich 
 loam. 
 
 SPONGE TREE. Acacia farnesiana. 
 SPOT, a disease occurring on the 
 leaves of the pelargonium, is a dry gan- 
 grene, occasioned by an irregularity in 
 the supply of moisture and vicissitudes 
 
SPR 
 
 553 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 S T A 
 
 of temperature, but especially if one of 
 the extremes is much below the degree 
 of heat most favourable to the healthy 
 growth of that plant. The reason of 
 this is very obvious. If a pelargonium, 
 or any other plant, be placed in a highly 
 stimulating heat, and is abundantly sup- 
 plied with root moisture, it immediately 
 increases its surface of leaf to elaborate 
 and digest the large amount of sap for- 
 warded from the roots. If this amount 
 of sap is subsequently suddenly re- 
 duced, by lowering the temperature 
 and adding water to the soil less freely, 
 the increased surface of leaf is no longer 
 required, and it is a law pervading all 
 the vegetable creation that the moment 
 any of the parts of a plant are unneces- 
 sary to it, that moment it begins to de- 
 cay. I placed a plant of the Marvel of 
 Peru, or Heliotrope, in a high tempera- 
 ture and abundant moisture ; these were 
 then much reduced, and the leaves in 
 a kw days were completely decayed 
 round their edges, and in spots upon 
 their surfaces. The extent of* leaf was 
 accommodated to the amount of sap to 
 be elaborated. — Princ. of Gard. 
 
 SPREKELIA cybister and its varie- 
 ties. Stove bulbous perennials. Offsets. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 SPRENGELIA incarnata. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. San- 
 dy peat. 
 
 SPRUE, a market name for the small- 
 est sprouts of asparagus. 
 
 SPUR, is a lateral branch cut back, 
 or shortened to a length of about two 
 inches. 
 
 SPURGE LAUREL. Daphne laure- 
 ola. 
 
 SPURLESS VIOLET. Erpetion. 
 
 SQUASH. Cucurbita melopepo. See 
 Gourd. 
 
 STAAVIA. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Sandy peat. 
 
 STACHYS. Thirty species. Hardy 
 and green-house herbaceous perennials 
 and evergreen shrubs, hardy annuals 
 and biennials. The latter increase by 
 seeds. The perennials by division, and 
 the green-house species by cuttings. 
 Common soil suits them all. 
 
 STACHYTARPHETA. Nine species. 
 Stove or green-house annuals, biennials, 
 herbaceous perennials, and evergreen 
 shrubs. The latter increase by cuttings, 
 the former by seeds. Light rich mould 
 suits them all. 
 
 STACKHOUSIA Unaricefolia. 
 Green-house evergreen shrub. S. mono- 
 gyna, hardy herbaceous perennial. Cut- 
 tings. Sandv loam and peat. 
 
 STADMANNIA australis. Green- 
 house evergreen tree. Ripe cuttings, 
 with the leaves on. Loam and peat. 
 
 STAFF TREE. Celastrus. 
 
 STALAGMITIS. Seven species. 
 Stove evergreen trees. Cuttings. Turfy 
 loam and peat. They require a strong 
 heat. 
 
 STANDARD. A tree unsupported by 
 a wall or trellis. 
 
 Full Standards are such trees as are 
 trained with tall straight stems six or 
 seven feet high, clear of branches, and 
 are then suffered to branch out. All 
 trees designed as full standards should 
 be trained accordingly in their minor 
 state, by trimming all lower laterals 
 gradually as the stems advance in height, 
 suffering the leader always to remain 
 entire, especially in all forest trees; or 
 if it should happen to fork, taking off 
 the worst, and leaving the straightest 
 shoot to run up, to continue the pro- 
 longation of the stem ; and having thus 
 run them up with clean stems six or 
 seven feet in height, to force out laterals 
 in that part to form a regular spreading 
 head of but moderate height, for the 
 greater convenience of gathering the 
 fruit; but of forest tree standards never 
 reduce the tops, but permit the leader to 
 remain ever entire to run up in height, 
 for the beauty and worth of such con- 
 sists in their lofty stature. All fruit trees 
 designed for full standards, are raised by 
 grafting, &c, on the freest strong shoot- 
 ing stocks, and are trained with straight 
 clean stems full five to six feet high, 
 either the stock trained up to that sta- 
 ture, and so grafted or budded at the 
 desired height, or the graft or bud is 
 trained up for a stem to the height afore- 
 said, then suffered to send forth branch- 
 es; observing in either method, it is to 
 be considered whether you intend the 
 tree shall form a spreading open head 
 or assume a more erect and aspiring 
 growth : in the former case, if you top 
 the leading shoot of the graft or bud, at 
 six or seven feet from the ground, it will 
 force out lateral shoots at that height, 
 and commence a spreading head open 
 in the middle; suffering, however, the 
 whole afterwards to take their own 
 growth ; and, in the second instance, 
 that by permitting the leading shoot to 
 
ST A 
 
 554 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 STE 
 
 remain entire, it will rise in height, and i 
 the whole head will assume a more up- 
 right and lofty stature. In both methods 
 the heads will afterwards naturally 
 branch out abundantly, and furnish 
 themselves sufficiently with bearing 
 wood, producing fruit in two or three 
 years from the grafting or budding; suf- 
 fering them generally to take their own 
 growth, without shortening, and very 
 little other pruning, except the regu- 
 lating any great irregularities. 
 
 Half Standards are trees trained with 
 short stems only three or four feet high, 
 then suffered to branch out at that height 
 to form heads; having low heads the 
 fruit is more easily gathered. Concave 
 dwarfs have the middle hollow, and the 
 branches all round in a cup form. Hori- 
 zontal dwarfs, having the branches ex- 
 tended all round in a flat or horizontal 
 position, but the concave dwarf is in 
 most esteem. — Abercrombie. 
 
 STANHOPE A. Eleven species. 
 Stove orchids. Division. Peat and pot- 
 sherds. 
 
 STANLEYA pinnatifida. Hardy her- 
 baceous perennial. Division or seeds. 
 Vegetable mould. 
 
 STAPELIA. Thirty-three species. 
 Green-house and stove evergreen shrubs; 
 partly dried cuttings. Sandy loam and 
 brick or lime rubbish. 
 
 STAR APPLE. Chrysophyllum. 
 
 STAR FISH. Stapelia asterias. 
 
 STAR OF BETHLEHEM. Ornitho- 
 galum . 
 
 STAR THISTLE. Centaurea calci- 
 trapa. 
 
 STAR WORT. Aster. 
 
 STATICE. Sea Lavender. Sixty- 
 four species. The hardy herbaceous 
 perennials increase by division or seeds. 
 The green-house and half-hardy species 
 by cuttings. Annuals and biennials by 
 seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 S. Arborea, a green-house evergreen 
 shrub. 
 
 " When practicable, this plant should 
 be turned out in the border of a con- 
 servatory. It may, however, be grown 
 to great perfection in a pot, if the roots 
 are allowed plenty of room. 
 
 "The soil should consist of equal 
 parts of turfy loam and peat, or vegeta- 
 ble mould." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 STAUROCANTHUS aphyllus. Hardy 
 evergreen shrub. Young cuttings or 
 seeds. Peat and loam. 
 
 STEEPING. See Germination. It is 
 
 a very unfounded idea, that by steeping 
 seeds in certain solutions the vigour and 
 fecundity of the plants to which they 
 give birth might be promoted. A cer- 
 tain degree of heat, oxygen gas, and 
 water, are all the requisites for germi- 
 nation, — and until this process has com- 
 menced, no liquid but water at common 
 temperatures will pass through the in- 
 teguments of a seed. So soon as germi- 
 nation has commenced, this power to 
 exclude foreign fluids ceases, but the 
 organs starting into activity — the radicle 
 and the plumule — are so delicate, that 
 the weakest saline solutions are too 
 acrid and offensive for them. So utter- 
 ly incapable are the infant roots of im- 
 bibing such solutions, that at first they 
 are absolutely dependent, themselves, 
 for their very existence upon the seed- 
 leaves, and if these are removed the 
 plant either makes no further advance, 
 or altogether perishes. Many years 
 since I tried various menstrua to facili- 
 tate the germination of seeds, but, with 
 the exception of those which promoted 
 the decomposition of water, and the 
 consequent more abundant evolution of 
 oxygen, I found none of any efficiency. 
 As to keeping the seeds in saline solu- 
 tions until they germinated, I never, 
 certainly, carried the experiments so far 
 as that, and I shall be most astonished 
 if any other effect than injury or death 
 to the plant is the consequence. Such 
 has been the result in the Horticultural 
 Society's gardens, where the seeds of 
 Lupinus Hartwegii were made to ger- 
 minate in a weak solution of phosphate 
 of ammonia. — Johnson's Gardeners' Al- 
 manack. 
 
 STENACTIS speciosa. Hardy herb- 
 aceous perennial. Division or seeds. 
 Common soil. 
 
 S TEN ANTHER A pinifolia. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Very 
 sandy peat and loam. 
 
 STENIA pallida. Stove epiphyte. 
 Division. Wood, with a little moss on 
 the roots. 
 
 STENOCARPUS salignus. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 STENOCHILUS. Five species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 STENOMESSON. Three species. 
 Stove or green-house bulbous peren- 
 nials. Offsets. Sandy loam. 
 
 STEPHANIA cleomoides. Stove ever- 
 
STE 
 
 green shrub. Young cuttings. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 STEPHANOTIS floribunda. Stove 
 climber. Cuttings. Light rich loam. 
 
 STEPTOCARPUS rexii. Mr. M'ln- 
 tyre, of* Hillsborough, gives the follow- 
 ing ^directions for the culture of this 
 green-house evergreen : — 
 
 " The seed should be sown in the 
 month of April, in pans, in a mixture of 
 peat and loam ; then place the pans in 
 a hot-bed, frame or pit, until the plants 
 are fit for potting off. The seed should 
 be sown very thin; if not, the greater 
 portion of the plants will rot off for want 
 of air and room to their stalks, as they 
 grow with their foliage prostrate. As 
 soon as the plants are large enough for 
 potting off, fill a quantity of pots with a 
 mixture of leaf-mould, loam, and sand ; 
 place a plant in each pot, and give a 
 little water. 
 
 "Afterwards remove them into the 
 frame or pit; when they have got es- 
 tablished in their pots, they may be 
 removed to a cold frame or green- 
 house. 
 
 " In June, they may be placed in the 
 open air, and regularly watered during 
 the summer. 
 
 " Towards the end of October, re- 
 move them to a frame, to protect them 
 from frost. In May or June following 
 they may be planted out where required. 
 As soon as frost is apprehended, take 
 up the plants, with a ball of earth at- 
 tached to the roots, repot them and 
 place them in a green-house or frame, 
 till again required." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 STERCULIA. Eighteen species. 
 Stove evergreen trees and shrubs. Ripe 
 cuttings, with the leaves left on. Light 
 turfy or peaty loam. 
 
 STERIGMA. Two species. Hardy 
 biennials. Seeds. Sandy loam. 
 
 STERILE is a term applied to unpro- 
 ductive land and flowers. For some 
 observations on the first, see Barren. 
 Sterile flowers are the male flowers on 
 monoecious and dioecious plants. They 
 occur on the cucumber, melon, gourd, 
 asparagus, &c. They must not be de- 
 stroyed, for without the pollen produced- 
 by their stamens, the fertile or female 
 blossoms will not produce fruit. If 
 planls are grown in too high a tempera- 
 ture, there is reason to believe they 
 produce an excess of these sterile or 
 male blossoms. 
 
 STERNBERGIA. Four species. 
 
 555 
 
 -♦ — 
 
 STO 
 
 Hardy bulbous perennials. Offsets. Rich 
 loam. 
 
 STEVENIA. Two species. Hardy 
 annual and biennial. Seeds. Common 
 soil. 
 
 STEVIA. Thirty-one species. Hardy, 
 half-hardy, or green-house herbaceous 
 perennials. Cuttings, divisions and 
 seeds. Peat and loam. 
 
 STE WARTIA virginica. Hardy de- 
 ciduous tree. Layers or ripe cuttings. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 STIFTIA insignis. Green-house de- 
 ciduous shrub. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 STIGMAPHYLLON. Four species . 
 Stove evergreen twiners. Cuttings . 
 Peat and sandy loam. 
 
 S TIL AGO. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 STITCHWORT. Stellaria. 
 
 STOB51A pinnata. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Young cuttings. 
 Light rich soil. 
 
 STOCK. Mathiola. This genus was, 
 until lately, united with the wall-flower, 
 under the generic name Cheiranthus. 
 Some of the following are species, but 
 others only very distinct varieties. 
 
 M. acaulis. (Stemless Stock.) Hardy 
 annual. Red. Flowers in June. 
 
 M. alpina. (Alpine Stock.) Hardy 
 evergreen. Yellow. May. 
 
 M. annua. (Ten-week Stock.) Hardy 
 annual. Various colours. August. 
 Many varieties. 
 
 M. coronopifolia. Hardy biennial. 
 Purple. June. 
 
 M.fenestralis. Hardy biennial. Pur- 
 ple. July. 
 
 M. glabrata. Half-hardy evergreen. 
 White. August. 
 
 M. graca. Hardy annual. White. 
 August. 
 
 M. helvetica. (Swiss Stock.) Hardy 
 evergreen. Yellow. June. 
 
 M. incana. (Brompton and Twick- 
 enham Stock.) Hardy evergreen shrub. 
 Crimson. August. Many varieties. 
 
 M. livida. Hardy annual. Purple. 
 July. 
 
 M. longipetala. Hardy annual. Red. 
 June. 
 
 M. maritima. (Virginia Stock.) Hardy 
 annual. Red and white. June. 
 
 M. mutabilis. (Changeable Stock.) 
 Green-house evergreen. Yellow and 
 purple. May. 
 
S TO 
 
 556 
 
 STO 
 
 Hardy annual. Crim- 
 Hardy annual. Pur- 
 Half-hardy evergreen. 
 Lilac. 
 
 ill. odoratissima. Green-house ever- 
 green. Crimson. June. 
 
 M. oxyceras. 
 son. July. 
 
 M. parviflora. 
 pie. July. 
 
 M. purpurea. 
 Purple. August 
 
 ill. sicula. Hardy biennial. 
 July. 
 
 M. simplicicaulis. Hardy biennial. 
 Purple or white. July. 
 
 M. sinuata. Hardy biennial. Red. 
 July. 
 
 M. tartarica. Hardy biennial. Red. 
 or yellow. July. 
 
 M. tenella. (Five-leaved Stock.) 
 Hardy annual. Brown. July. 
 
 M. tortuosa. Green-house evergreen. 
 Purple. July. 
 
 M. tricuspidata. Hardy annual. Pur- 
 ple. July. 
 
 M. tristis, M. varia. (Night-smell- 
 ing or Dark-flowered Stock.) Green- 
 house evergreen. Crimson. June. 
 
 Sowing Annuals. — Best time, end of 
 August, in pans filled with a soil of 
 equal parts peat and loam, and placed 
 in a cold frame; water frequently; 
 when they have got six leaves prick 
 singly into pots three inches and a half 
 diameter, in same kind of soil. Keep 
 in frames through the winter, and shel- 
 ter from frost. Remove without dis- 
 turbing the roots into beds and borders, 
 at the end of May. 
 
 Spring sowings in May, June, and 
 July, will succeed the autumn sown ; 
 if sown in a hot-bed during April, they 
 will be nearly as forward as the autumn 
 sown, but not bloom so strong. 
 
 Sowing Biennials. — This may be 
 done in any moderately rich border in 
 June; to be transplanted where they 
 are to remain, when of a moderate 
 size. 
 
 Cuttings may be planted in May, of 
 any very good double variety, cutting 
 them off with a portion of the stern's 
 bark, in a shady border, watering, and 
 covering with a hand-glass until esta- 
 blished. Select robust shoots of the 
 same year's growth ; strip off the leaves 
 from the bottom half of their length. 
 Water frequently, and by September 
 they will form dwarf bushy plants. I 
 know of no means of promoting the 
 production of double flowers, except 
 applying abundance of liquid manure 
 so soon as the flower buds appear. The 
 
 weakest seedlings are most likely to 
 produce double flowers. 
 
 STOCK-GILLIFLOWER. See Wall- 
 flower. 
 
 STOCKS are young trees or shrubs 
 raised from seed, suckers, layers, and 
 cuttings, for the reception of buds or 
 grafts from other trees or shrubs of a 
 kindred species. 
 
 Although the sap increases in specific 
 gravity, and, consequently, obtains most 
 accession of solid matter during its pro- 
 gress up the stem, yet the matter thus 
 obtained is not of paramount import- 
 ance, nor absolutely controlling the 
 subsequent changes to be effected ; for, 
 in such case, the green-gage would be 
 altered by its plum stock, and the non- 
 pareil by its crab stem. So far from 
 this being the case, the old gardener's 
 maxim, ' the graft overruleth the stock 
 quite,' is consonant with truth, though 
 it is to be taken with some reservation. 
 The graft prevails, and retains its quali- 
 ties, yet the stock has the power of in- 
 fluencing its productiveness, as well as 
 the quality of the fruit. Thus, a tree 
 having an expansive foliage, and robust 
 growth, indicative of large sap vessels, 
 and vigorous circulation, should never 
 be grafted upon a stock oppositely cha- 
 racterized, for the supply of sap will 
 not be sufficient. Illustrations are af- 
 forded by the codlin never succeeding 
 so well on a crab, nor a bigoureau on a 
 wild cherry, as they do on freer grow- 
 ing stocks. Indeed I have no doubt 
 that every tree and shrub succeeds 
 best, is most productive, and freest 
 from disease, if it be supplied with sap 
 from roots, and through a stem, of its 
 own particular kind. This is evident 
 to common sense ; nor would any fruit 
 scion be grafted upon a stock of another 
 species or variety, if it were not that 
 such stocks are most easily obtainable. 
 For example, our choicest cherries are, 
 for the reason assigned, grafted or bud- 
 ded upon the wild cherry ; and every 
 one must have noticed the frequently- 
 occurring consequence, an enlarge- 
 ment, appearing like a wen, encircling 
 the tree just above where the graft and 
 the stock joined, the growth of the 
 former having far outstripped that of the 
 latter. If a tree could be nourished 
 from its own roots, from organs as- 
 signed by its Creator, as those best 
 suited to supply the most appropriate 
 quantity and quality of sap, there can 
 
STO 
 
 557 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 STO 
 
 be no doubt that it would be productive 
 of benefit; and this desideratum seems 
 to be secured by the plan suggested by 
 M. Aibrett in the instances of apples 
 and pears ; and I see no reason forbid- 
 ding its adoption to any other grafted 
 
 hours ; a birch tree, a quantity equal to 
 its own weight, during the bleeding 
 season; and a moderate sized maple, 
 about two hundred pints, during the 
 same period. 
 
 The habit of the stock, also, is of 
 
 tree. He recommends the grafts always much more importance than is usually 
 to be inserted close to the surface of considered. If it grows more rapidly, 
 
 the ground, or they might be even 
 rather below the surface, by scooping 
 out the earth around the stems of the 
 stocks. When planted out, the lowest 
 extremity of the graft should be about 
 four inches below the surface. 
 
 or has larger sap vessels than the scion 
 or bud, an enlargement occurs below 
 these; but if they grow more rapidly 
 than the stock, an enlargement takes 
 place just above the point of union. In 
 either case, the tree is usually rendered 
 
 After two or three years, at the close temporarily more prolific ; but in the 
 
 of June, the soil should be removed, 
 and just above the junction of the graft 
 
 case where the stock grows more slow- 
 ly, the productiveness is often of very 
 
 and stock, with a gouge, one fourth of j short duration, the supply of sap annu- 
 
 the bark removed by four cuts on op 
 posite sides of the stem. 
 
 ally becoming less and less sufficient to 
 sustain the enlarged production of blos- 
 
 The cuts being deep enough to re- sora and leaves. This very frequently 
 move the inner bark, and the wounds occurs in the freer growing cherries, 
 
 covered immediately with rich soil, 
 formed of one part putrescent cow- 
 dung, and two parts maiden loam, if 
 kept constantly moist with water, and 
 occasionally with liquid manure, roots 
 will usually be speedily emitted, espe- 
 cially if the place where a bud once 
 was formed be thus kept moist beneath 
 the soil. 
 
 But the stock has some other influ- 
 ence over the sap, besides limiting the 
 quantity supplied to the scion, an in- 
 fluence not only arising from the size of 
 its vessels, but upon its susceptibility to 
 heat. It has a further influence over 
 the scion, by the sap becoming more 
 rich, indicated by its acquiring a great- 
 er specific gravity in some stocks than 
 in others, during its upward progress. 
 The specific gravity of the sap of a 
 black cluster vine stock, on which a 
 black Hamburgh had been grafted, was, 
 when obtained six inches from the 
 ground, 1003 ; and at five feet from the 
 ground, 1006 ; but the same black Ham- 
 burgh, growing upon its own roots, 
 had specific gravities at corresponding- 
 heights of 1004 and 1009. 
 
 This increase is of great importance 
 to a tree's growth, when the quantity 
 of sap passing annually through its ves- 
 sels is considered. The exact amount 
 of this it is, perhaps, impossible to dis- 
 cover; but its extent may be appreciated 
 by the quantity of moisture their roots 
 are known to imbibe, and by the facts 
 that a small vine branch has poured out 
 sixteen ounces of sap in twenty-four 
 
 when inserted upon the wild species ; 
 and still more frequently to the peach 
 and apricot upon stocks of the slow 
 growing plums. It is highly important, 
 therefore, to employ stocks, the growth 
 of which is as nearly similar as may be 
 to the parent of the buds or scion. 
 
 The earlier vegetation of the stock 
 than of the bud or graft is also import- 
 ant ; for, if these are earliest in develop- 
 ment, they are apt to be exhausted and 
 die before the flow of sap has enabled 
 granulation and union between the faces 
 of the wounds, at the junction, to occur. 
 Mr. Knight's observations upon this 
 point are the results of experience, and 
 are so consonant with the suggestions 
 of science, that I will quote them in his 
 own words, without comment : — 
 
 " The practice of grafting the pear 
 on the quince stock, and the peach and 
 apricot on the plum, when extensive 
 growth and durability are wanted, is 
 wrong; but it is eligible whenever it 
 is wished to diminish the vigour and 
 growth of the tree, and where its dura- 
 bility is not thought important. The 
 last remark applies chiefly to the Moor- 
 park apricot, the abricot peche, or abri- 
 cot de Nancy, of the French. 
 
 " When great difficulty occurs in 
 making a tree, whether fructiferous or 
 ornamental, of any species or variety, 
 produce blossoms, or in making its 
 blossoms set when produced, success 
 probably will be obtained by budding 
 or grafting upon a stock nearly enough 
 allied to the graft to preserve it alive 
 
STO 
 
 558 
 
 STO 
 
 for a few years, but not permanently. 
 The pear tree affords a stock of this 
 kind to the apple, and I have had a 
 heavy crop from a graft inserted in a 
 tall pear stock, only twenty months 
 previously, when every blossom of the 
 same variety of fruit in the orchard was 
 destroyed by frost. The fruit thus ob- 
 tained was perfect externally, and pos- 
 sessed all its ordinary qualities ; but 
 the cores were black, without seed; 
 and every blossom would have fallen 
 abortively, if growing upon its native 
 stock. The graft perished the winter 
 following. 
 
 " My own experience induces me to 
 think very highly of the excellence of 
 the apricot stock for the peach or 
 nectarine ; but whenever that or the 
 plum stock is employed, I am confident 
 the bud cannot be inserted too near the 
 ground, if vigorous and durable trees 
 are required. 
 
 "The form and habit which a peach 
 tree, of any given variety, is disposed 
 to assume, is very much influenced by 
 the kind of stock on which it is budded. 
 If upon a plum or apricot stock, its 
 stem will increase in size considerably 
 as its base approaches the stock, and it 
 will be much disposed to emit many 
 lateral shoots, as always occurs in 
 trees whose stems taper considerably 
 upwards ; consequently, such a tree 
 will be more disposed to spread itself 
 horizontally, than to ascend to the top 
 of the wall, even when a single stem is 
 suffered to stand perpendicularly. On 
 the contrary, where a peach is budded 
 upon a stock of some cultivated variety 
 of its own species, the stock and the 
 budded stem remain very nearly of the 
 same size at the point of function, as 
 well as above and below. No obstacle 
 is presented to the ascent or descent 
 of the sap, which appears to rise more 
 abundantly to the summit of the tree. 
 It appears, also, to flow more freely 
 into the slender branches, which have 
 been the bearing wood of preceding 
 years? and these extend, consequently. 
 
 but I have ample reason to believe that 
 this opinion is wholly erroneous, and 
 this kind of hardiness in the root alone 
 never can be a quality of any value in 
 a stock, for the branches of every spe- 
 cies of tree are much more easily de- 
 stroyed by frost than its roots. 
 
 " Many believe also that a peach 
 tree, when grafted upon its native 
 stock, very soon perishes; but my ex- 
 perience does not further support this 
 conclusion than that it proves seedling 
 peach trees, when growing in a very 
 rich soil, to be greatly injured, and 
 often killed, by the excessive use of the 
 pruning-knife upon their branches, 
 when these are confined to too narrow 
 limits. I think the stock, in this in- 
 stance, can only act injuriously by sup- 
 plying more nutriment than can be 
 expended ; for the root which nature 
 gives to each seedling plant must be 
 well, if not best, calculated for its sup- 
 port; and the chief general conclusions 
 which experience has enabled me to 
 draw safely are, that a stock of species 
 or genus different from that of the fruit 
 to be grafted upon it, can be used rare- 
 ly with advantage, unless where the 
 object of the planter is to restrain and 
 debilitate ; and where stocks of the 
 same species with the bud or graft are 
 used, it will be found advantageous, 
 generally, to select such as approxi- 
 mate in their habits and state of change, 
 or improvement from cultivation, those 
 of the variety of fruit which they are 
 intended to support." 
 
 The only situation in which I can 
 believe that the stock of another spe- 
 cies can be advantageously employed, 
 is where the soil happens to be un- 
 friendly to the species from which the 
 bud or scion is taken. This is justified 
 by my observing that, in a garden so 
 low lying as to be very subject to an 
 overflow of water, the only pear trees 
 which were at all productive were those 
 grafted upon quince stocks, and the 
 quince is well known to endure water 
 much better than either the apple or 
 
 very widely compared with the bulk of pear. — Trine, of Gard. 
 
 the stock and large branches. 
 
 " When a stock of the same species 
 with the graft or bud, but of a variety 
 far less changed by cultivation, is em- 
 ployed, its effects are very nearly allied 
 
 Stocks for general use may be used 
 for grafting or budding, when from the 
 size of a good goosequill to half an 
 inch, or not more than an inch in the 
 part where the graft or bud is to be in- 
 
 to those produced by a stock of another serted. Stocks of two or three inches, 
 species or genus. Some think the stock or more, diameter, either the stems or 
 influences the hardiness of the scion ; ' branches, are also occasionally grafted 
 
S TO 
 
 559 
 
 S TO 
 
 or budded with success, but are not 
 proper for general practice. 
 
 Crab Stocks are all such as are raised 
 from seeds, &c., of any wild ungrafted 
 trees, particularly if the fruit-tree kind, 
 such as the wild crab-apple of the 
 woods and hedges, wild pears, plums, 
 wild cherry, and of such other trees as 
 have not been grafted or budded. 
 
 Free Stocks are such as are raised 
 from the seed, layers, &c, of any of 
 the cultivated varieties of fruit-trees, 
 and others. 
 
 Paradise or Doucin stocks are raised 
 from layers or suckers, from a dwarf 
 variety of apple, the roots of which are 
 produced nearer to the surface than 
 those from crab stocks. 
 
 The French Paradise stock is dis- 
 tinguished from all others by its very 
 dwarf growth, clear chestnut-coloured 
 shoots, and small fibrous roots, which 
 spread near the surface. 
 
 The English Paradise may be either 
 referred to as the Doucin of the French 
 or the Dutch Paradise; for in English 
 nurseries, trees propagated on either 
 are said to be on paradise stocks. Of 
 these two, the Doucin has the darkest 
 shoots. Their effects on the growth of 
 the trees worked upon them are simi- 
 lar, being intermediate between the 
 very dwarf habit induced by the French 
 Paradise, and the luxuriant growth in- 
 duced by the crab or free stocks. — 
 Gard. Chron. See Scion, Grafting, 
 and Budding. 
 
 STffiBE. Four species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 STOKESIA cyanea. Green-house 
 herbaceous perennial. Seeds or divi- 
 sion. Common soil. 
 
 STONECROP. Sedum. 
 
 STONE PINE. Pinus Pinea. 
 
 STOPPING is pinching or nipping off 
 the extremity of a branch to prevent its 
 further extension in length. It is fre- 
 quently done either to promote its 
 robustness, or to promote the produc- 
 tion of laterals. 
 
 STORAX. Styrax. 
 
 STORK'S BILL. Pelargonium. 
 
 STOVES, as they are usually called 
 in England, or hot-houses, as distinct- 
 ive from green-houses, are variously 
 constructed in accordance with the ha- 
 bits of the plants for which they are 
 intended. Those especially adapted to 
 one tribe of plants will be particularly 
 
 described under the name of that tribe, 
 as Pine Apple, Orchidaceous Plants, 
 Peach, &c. 
 
 Before giving a plan of each general 
 kind, a few observations may be pre- 
 fixed applicable to all. 
 
 Glass. — This should be of the best 
 manufacture, for just in proportion to 
 its goodness of quality is the freedom 
 with which the rays of light pass 
 through, and a plant performs its di- 
 gestive and assimilating processes the 
 nearer to the vigour with which it effects 
 them in a state of nature, just in pro- 
 portion as the light it basks in is similar 
 to that of its native habitant. But this 
 is not the only reason why good glass 
 should be employed in our garden 
 structures ; for whilst panes of common 
 crown glass readily break from frost or 
 the slightest twist of the wood-work, 
 good sheet glass will remain uninjured 
 by much greater violence and by the 
 fiercest hailstorms. Some injury from 
 the last, however, will always arise, 
 and this leads me to observe, that no one 
 having green-houses or stoves should 
 fail to have them insured by the " Hail- 
 storm Insurance Company." Good 
 glass is of little value unless kept clean, 
 and for this purpose it should be 
 cleansed on both sides twice annually, 
 early in February and October, and on 
 the outside only in June. 
 
 The angle formed by the glass roof 
 of the hot-house is of very considerable 
 importance, because rays of light are 
 reflected in proportion to the obliquity 
 with which they fall upon any given 
 surface : those which fall upon it per- 
 pendicularly from the source of light 
 pass through with very slight diminu- 
 tion, but those falling upon it in a slant- 
 ing or oblique direction are reduced in 
 number in proportion to the obliquity 
 of that direction. To ascertain how a 
 glass roof may be constructed, so as to 
 receive the greatest number of rays of 
 light from the sun perpendicularly, or 
 near to perpendicularity, at any given 
 time of the year, it is necessary to know 
 the latitude of the place where the hot- 
 house is erected, and the sun's declina- 
 tion at the period when most light is 
 required. The latter information may 
 be obtained from most almanacks, and 
 if it be subtracted from the latitude, the 
 remainder will- be the angle desired. 
 If London be the place, and May the 
 6th the time about when the most light 
 
ST 
 
 560 
 
 S TO 
 
 is desired, the latitude being 51° 31\ 
 and the sun's declension then 16° 36^ 
 north, therefore the roof ought to slope 
 
 at an angle of 34° 55' 
 
 Fig. 157. 
 
 In latitude 52°, Mr. Knight found 
 from lengthened experiments, that the 
 best angle is about 34°, considering the 
 services of a hot-house through the year, 
 and to illustrate this, he gave the" pre- 
 ceding diagram. About the middle of 
 May, the elevation of the sun at noon 
 corresponds nearly with the asterisk 
 a; in the beginning of June and early 
 in July it will be vertical at b, and at 
 midsummer at c. only six degrees from 
 being vertical. The asterisk d points 
 out its position at the equinoxes, and e 
 its position at midwinter. If the best 
 glass be employed, it is an excellent 
 plan to have it put double in each sash, 
 an interval of half an inch being left 
 between the two panes, and a small 
 hole at the corner of the inner one to 
 prevent the glass being broken by the 
 expansion or contraction of the air be- 
 tween. This confined air is one of the 
 worst possible conductors of heat, keep- 
 ing the house from being rapidly cooled 
 during the coldest weather, and thus is 
 effected a very great economy of fuel, 
 whilst little or no interruption is caused j gal 
 to the entrance of light. — Trine 
 Gard. 
 
 Glazing, or the mode in which the 
 glass is inserted in the frames, is a very 
 important consideration ; for if done 
 imperfectly, moisture from rain, dew, 
 or vapour condensed within the house 
 penetrates between the rebate of the 
 frame-work and the glass, or between 
 the laps of the panes themselves, and 
 expanding in the act of freezing unfail- 
 ingly cracks them. Again, if the panes 
 fit tightly into the rebates, any sudden 
 expansion causes a similar fracture. 
 
 Mr. Seymour, gardener to the Count- 
 ess of Bridgewater, at Ashridge Park, 
 has these sensible remarks upon the 
 subject: — 
 
 " There ought to be three or four 
 sizes of panes used in horticultural struc- 
 tures ; suppose, for example, the largest 
 size for vineries, peach, and fig-houses ; 
 the next for pits for growing pines, 
 melons, and cucumbers; a third size 
 for frames; and the smallest for hand- 
 glasses. If the sizes are so arranged, 
 they will be found economical by the 
 saving of glass. When there is a gene- 
 ral repair going on with the hot-houses, 
 the glazier ought to begin with that in 
 which the largest sized panes are first, 
 and work down to the smallest, and not, 
 as is frequently the case, cut a large 
 piece of glass away to replace a small 
 one. In my opinion, there are no better 
 sized panes for hot-houses than seven 
 inches wide, by four and a half deep ; 
 for pits, by three inches deep ; for 
 frames, five and a half by two and a 
 half inches deep, &c, with a lap of one- 
 eighth of an inch. The glass should be 
 clear, stout, and selected as flat as pos- 
 sible, so that the panes may lie perfectly 
 level one upon the other, and so cut 
 that they may not fit too tightly against 
 the ribs, (which is frequently practised 
 by some glaziers,) but room should be 
 left for the ribs to swell and expand. 
 Before a light is glazed, all the panes 
 should be laid in loose, to see that they 
 fit easy and are quite level, as well as 
 range one with the other; when that is 
 done, the panes must be taken out and 
 some well worked putty laid in the re- 
 bate, the panes must then be replaced 
 and pressed firmly down, and the bot- 
 tom frame bedded in the putty, so as 
 not to leave a vacancy. When the glass 
 is bedded in the putty along the astra- 
 the usual way is to < front putty' 
 o/l the whole at once; but at Kew, the 
 | lights are put by after the glass is bed- 
 ded till the bedding putty is dry. The 
 astragal then gets a coat of paint, and 
 also a strip of the glass, the depth of 
 the bedding on the astragal, and when 
 this is dry the front putty is put on. 
 The coat of paint on the glass will cause 
 the front putty to adhere to the glass, 
 and it will remain sound many years 
 longer than when it is put on without 
 this precaution. This is a capital con- 
 trivance for lights that slide up and 
 down j but for lights that are fixed, the 
 
S TO 
 
 561 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 S TO 
 
 Fig. 158. 
 
 best way is to have no front putty at all. 
 Instead of overlapping the panes as is 
 done in the ordinary way, I cause the 
 glazier to cut each with a perfectly 
 straight edge, and then to place them 
 one before the other, so that they shall 
 all fit exactly. When the light is com- 
 pleted, the surface of the glass is per- 
 fectly level, and there are no interstices 
 in which the dust, &c, can accumulate, 
 or for the deposit of moisture. By this 
 means one cause of considerable break- 
 age in frosty weather is entirely avoided; 
 and if a pane of glass is accidentally 
 broken, as each pane is independent of 
 the others, the fracture does not extend 
 beyond the single pane. The whole is 
 very firm and compact, and the glass is 
 not liable to shake out, as frequently 
 occurs in opening and shutting sashes." 
 —Gard. Chron. 
 
 If lapping be permit- 
 ted, its width should not 
 exceed one-eighth of an 
 inch, and the panes 
 should be acutely rhom- 
 boid, to throw the con- 
 densed vapour down to 
 the lower corner, and 
 .j: induce it to trickle down 
 s^^ the bars instead of drop- 
 ping. It is very doubt- 
 ful whether it reduces 
 the amount of moisture 
 taken between the laps 
 by capillary attraction. 
 
 Flues are best built of 
 bricks set on their 
 edges, and the top form- 
 ed of a shallow iron 
 trough for the purpose 
 of holding water, and 
 thus keeping the air 
 moist as required. At 
 night, for retaining heat, 
 pantiles may be placed 
 along within the trough ; 
 the best form is the an- 
 nexed. 
 Roof. — The framework of this may 
 be of iron or of wood, and the com- 
 parative merits of the two materials 
 are thus fairly stated by Dr. Lindley : — 
 " The advantages of iron roofs for 
 hot-houses are, that they are more dur- 
 able than wood, and allow a far greater 
 quantity of light to pass through them 
 than wooden roofs, the difference being 
 as seven to twenty-eight, or even 
 thirty, in favor of iron, and this is a 
 36 
 
 Fig. 159. 
 
 r 1 
 
 
 
 most important property, when we con- 
 sider that the healthy action of plants 
 is in proportion to the quantity of light 
 which reaches them. The disadvan- 
 tages of such roofs are, that they ra- 
 pidly heat, and as quickly cool down; 
 they are therefore liable to sudden 
 changes of temperature, which can 
 only be guarded against by great atten- 
 tion, which is expensive, and by a large 
 consumption of fuel. We should say 
 use iron, if you prefer success and 
 beautiful form to cost, and can rely 
 upon the attention of your people, but 
 employ wood if you are obliged to study 
 economy." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Heating. — Flues for imparting heat 
 to hot-houses are for the most part su- 
 perseded by either tanks or hot-water 
 pipes; but where retained, the top 
 should be formed of iron plates, these 
 admitting the heat most readily into the 
 house, and consequently requiring a 
 less consumption of fuel. If it be de- 
 sirable to have covering for the flues 
 that will retain the heat longer, as 
 when the fires are made up at night, 
 this may be readily accomplished by 
 putting a row of the thick square pav- 
 ing tiles on the top of the whole length 
 of the flue, an hour or two before the 
 houses are finally closed. 
 
 The power of retaining heat, or in 
 other words of cooling slowly and gra- 
 dually, which renders the covering of 
 paving tiles desirable, renders the tank 
 system of heating by hot-water still 
 more efficient. It is a scientific opera- 
 tion throughout, and will be best appre- 
 ciated by a reference to Mr. Rendle's 
 diagram and description at page 500. 
 
 It is a law of fluids that their hottest 
 portions rise to the surface of the con- 
 taining vessel, and the coldest portions 
 as invariably subside to the lowest sur- 
 face, because heat makes them expand, 
 and consequently diminishes their spe- 
 cific gravity; and the abstraction of 
 heat makes them contract, and as conse- 
 quently increase that gravity. When 
 the boiler and tank are filled with 
 water, as well as their connecting pipes, 
 and a fire is lighted, the hottest portions 
 rise to the top, flow along the surface, 
 and getting cool, sink to its bottom, and 
 passing downward enter again at the 
 lower part, to be once more heated and 
 pass through the same circulatory sys- 
 tem. A very small boiler will speedily 
 raise the heat of the water, in a very 
 
STO 
 
 562 
 
 STO 
 
 large tank, to 180°; and if this heat be 
 imparted late in the evening, it will 
 retain its N heat but little diminished until 
 the morning. The smoke, by means of 
 a flue, may be made to impart heat to 
 the house, by passing through it, or 
 may at once enter the chimney or pipe 
 attached to the summit of the boiler. 
 
 Hot water in a tank is superior to the 
 same source of heat in pipes, because 
 it is not liable to freeze ; and it is pre- 
 ferable to steam, because its heating 
 power continues until the whole mass 
 of water is cooled down to the tempe- 
 rature of the house, whereas steam 
 ceases to be generated as a source of 
 heat the moment the temperature falls 
 below 212°. If steam be employed, 
 Mr. Tredgold has given the following 
 rules for calculating the surface of 
 pipe, the size of the boiler, the quan- 
 tity of fuel, and the quantity of ventila- 
 tion, required for a house thirty feet 
 long, twelve feet wide, with the glass 
 roof eight feet, length of the rafters 
 fourteen feet, height of the back wall 
 fifteen feet. The surface of glass in 
 this house will be seven hundred and 
 twenty feet superficial, viz., five hun- 
 dred and forty feet in the front and roof, 
 and one hundred and eighty feet in the 
 ends. Now, half the vertical height, 
 seven feet six inches, multiplied by the 
 length in feet, and added to one and a 
 half time the area of glass in feet, is 
 equal to the cubic feet of air to be 
 warmed in each minute when there are 
 no double doors. 
 
 That is, 7.5 X 30 -f H X 720 = 1305 
 cubic feet. But in a house with wooden 
 bars and rafters, about one-tenth of this 
 space will be occupied with woodwork, 
 which is so slow a conductor of heat, 
 that it will not suffer a sensible quan- 
 tity to escape, therefore 130 feet may 
 be deducted, leaving the quantity to be 
 warmed per minute = 1175 cubic feet. 
 
 To ascertain the surface of pipe re- 
 quired to warm any given quantity of 
 air, multiply the cubic feet of air to be 
 heated per minute, by the difference 
 between the temperature the house is 
 to be kept at, and that of the external 
 air in degrees of Fahrenheit's thermo- 
 meter, and divide the product by 2-1, 
 the difference between 200, which is 
 the temperature of the steam pipes, and 
 the temperature of the house: the quo- 
 tient will be the surface of cast iron 
 pipe required. 
 
 Now in the house, the dimensions of 
 which are above given, if the lowest 
 temperature in the night be fixed at 50°, 
 and 10 c are allowed for winds, and the 
 external air is supposed to be at zero or 
 of Fahrenheit, then 1175 multiplied 
 by 60°, and the product divided by 2-1 , 
 the difference between 200 and 60, will 
 give us the quotient 236 = to the sur- 
 face of pipe required. Now the house 
 being thirty feet long, five pipes of that 
 length, and five inches in diameter, 
 will be about the proper quantity. 
 
 If hot water be employed instead of 
 steam, the following proportions and 
 information, obtained from Mr. Rendle, 
 may be adopted confidently as guides. 
 In a span roof propagating house, forty 
 feet long, thirteen feet broad, seven 
 feet high in the centre, and four feet 
 high at the two fronts, having a super- 
 ficial surface of glass amounting to 
 538 square feet, Mr. Rendle has a tank 
 eighty-three feet long, running round 
 three sides of the house, four feet wide 
 and about eight inches deep, and con- 
 sequently capable of containing nearly 
 300 cubic feet of hot water, though only 
 half that quantity is used. This is 
 closely approaching to the size pointed 
 out, according to Mr. Tredgold's for- 
 mula. The mean temperature of a hot- 
 water tank, will never be much above 
 100°, so that for the sized house men- 
 tioned by that skillful engineer, the 
 divisor must be 2-1 times the difference 
 between 100° and 60 c , which gives as 
 the quotient 335 cubic feet. 
 
 The tank in Mr. Rendle's propagating 
 house, is built lined with Roman ce- 
 ment, and if the temperature at the 
 time of lighting the fire be 90°, the tem- 
 perature of the atmosphere of the house 
 67°, and the temperature out of doors 
 50°, the quantity of small coal or 
 breeze required to raise the tempera- 
 ture of the water to 125°, is 28 pounds. 
 In twelve hours, the water cools after 
 the fire has been extinguished, from 
 125° to 93°. 
 
 When steam is employed, the space 
 
 for steam in the boiler is easily found 
 
 by multiplying the length of the pipe 
 
 in feet, by the quantity of steam in a 
 
 foot in length of the pipe. 
 
 T , . j. Decimal parts of a 
 
 Interior diameter 
 
 of pipe in inches. 
 
 cubic fool of sieam 
 in each footof pipe. 
 
 1 .... 0.0545 
 H .... 0.1225 
 
STO 
 
 563 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 STO 
 
 2 .... 0.2185 
 2i .... 0.34 
 
 3 .... 0.49 
 
 4 .... 0.873 
 
 5 .... 1.063 
 
 6 .... 1.964 
 
 7 .... 2.67 
 
 8 .... 3.49 
 
 9 .... 4.42 
 10 .... 5.45 
 
 In the above noticed house, the 
 length of pipe five inches in diameter, 
 is 150 feet; and these multiplied by 
 1.363=20.5 cubic feet of steam, and 
 as the pipe will condense the steam of 
 about one cubic foot and one-third of 
 water per hour, therefore the boiler 
 should be capable of evaporating H 
 cubic feet of water per hour, to allow 
 for unavoidable loss. In the extreme 
 case of the thermometer being at zero, 
 the consumption of coals to keep up 
 this evaporation will be 12f pounds per 
 hour. 
 
 These calculations are all founded 
 upon the supposition that the condensed 
 water is returned to the boiler whilst 
 hot ; but if this cannot be effected, 
 then one-twelfth more fuel will be re- 
 quired. The boiler for the supply 
 either of steam or hot-water, should be 
 covered with the best available non-con- 
 ductor of heat, and this is either char- 
 coal or sand. 
 
 A case of brickwork, with pulverized 
 charcoal, between this and the boiler, 
 is to be preferred to any other. A 
 boiler having a surface of seventy feet 
 exposed to the air, in a temperature of 
 32°, requires an extra bushel of coals 
 to be consumed per day, to compensate 
 for the heat radiated and conducted 
 from that surface ; and the smaller the 
 boiler, the greater is the proportionate 
 waste. The surface of the pipes should 
 be painted black, because a surface of 
 this colour gives out more heat in a 
 given time than any other. — Prin. of 
 Gardening. 
 
 Ventilation. — The accumulation of 
 gaseous matters, such as sulphurous 
 acid and ammonia, and the consumption 
 of carbonic acid, render ventilation 
 essential to the health of plants in forc- 
 ing-pits and hot-houses. They cannot 
 inhale air overloaded with these con- 
 taminations, without being speedily in- 
 jured, and the proportions of those 
 gases which rapidly cause disease, or 
 even death, are much less than the 
 
 gardener usually suspects; for if the 
 sulphurous acid amounts to no more 
 than one cubic foot in ten thousand of 
 the air in a hot-house, it will destroy 
 most of its inhabitants in two days. 
 To avoid such destruction, for the com- 
 fort of visitors, and above all for the 
 sake of the plants' vigour, air should be 
 admitted as freely as the temperature 
 will permit. The foul warm air can 
 be easily allowed to escape through 
 ventilators in the most elevated parts 
 of the roof, and fresh warm air can be 
 as readily supplied through pipes made 
 to enter near the flooring of the house 
 after passing through hot water, or 
 other source of heat. 
 
 I am quite aware that Mr. Knight 
 has stated that he paid little attention 
 to ventilation, and that plants will be 
 vigorous for a time in Wardian cases; 
 but this does not prove that their Creator 
 made a mistake when he placed vege- 
 tables in the open air. 
 
 Plants confined in houses or other 
 close structures may be made to grow 
 in spite of such confinement; but all 
 experience proves that other favourable 
 circumstances, such as heat, light, and 
 moisture being equal, those plants are 
 most vigorous and healthy which have 
 the most liberal supply of air. 
 
 There have been many modes sug- 
 gested for self-acting ventilators, de- 
 scriptions of which may be found in 
 Loudon's Encyclopedia of Gardening, 
 and the Transactions of the London 
 Horticultural Society; but there are 
 none that can supersede the gardener's 
 personal care, directed by the ther- 
 mometer and experience. 
 
 The practice of all ventilation is 
 founded on the principle that the hot- 
 test air rises to the highest part of the 
 house, and if there allowed to escape, 
 colder air will come in below, if al- 
 lowed, to supply its place. To pre- 
 vent the hot air escaping too rapidly, 
 the ventilators should be fitted with 
 doors or caps, capable of regulating the 
 size of the orifice ; and the openings 
 admitting fresh and colder from with- 
 out, should have similar regulators, 
 and be made by means of pipes passing 
 through the bark-bed, tank of hot water, 
 or other source of heat, so that the 
 reduction of temperature be not too 
 rapid. 
 
 Some guide in constructing venti- 
 lators proportioned to the size of the 
 
S TO 
 
 564 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 STO 
 
 house to be ventilated, will be found 
 in Mr. Hood's following table of the 
 quantity of air, in cubic feet, discharged 
 per minute, through a ventilator, of 
 which the area is one square foot. 
 
 
 Difference between temperature 
 
 o _c 
 
 bD.2 
 
 B5 
 
 of room and external air. 
 
 5° 
 
 10° 
 
 15° 
 
 20° 
 
 25° 
 
 30° 
 
 10 
 
 116 
 
 164 
 
 200 
 
 235 
 
 260 
 
 284 
 
 15 
 
 142 
 
 202 
 
 245 
 
 284 
 
 318 
 
 348 
 
 20 
 
 164 
 
 232 
 
 285 
 
 330 
 
 368 
 
 404 
 
 25 
 
 184 
 
 260 
 
 318 
 
 368 
 
 410 
 
 450 
 
 30 
 
 201 
 
 284 
 
 347 
 
 403 
 
 450 
 
 493 
 
 35 
 
 218 
 
 306 
 
 376 
 
 436 
 
 486 
 
 521 
 
 40 
 
 235 
 
 329 
 
 403 
 
 465 
 
 51S 
 
 570 
 
 45 
 
 248 
 
 348 j 427 
 
 493 
 
 551 
 
 605 
 
 50 
 
 260 
 
 367 450 
 
 518 
 
 579 
 
 635 
 
 The foregoing table shows the dis- 
 charge, through a ventilator of any 
 height, and for any difference of tempe- 
 rature. Thus, suppose the height of 
 the ventilator from the floor of the room 
 to the extreme point of discharge to be 
 thirty feet, and the difference between 
 the temperature of the room and of the 
 external air to be 15°, then the dis- 
 charge through a ventilator one foot 
 square, will be 347 cubic feet per mi- 
 nute. If the height be forty feet, and 
 the difference of temperature 20°, then 
 the discharge will be 465 cubic feet per 
 minute. 
 
 Bark or Moist Stove. — Mr. Loudon 
 gives the following design and descrip- 
 tion of a moist stove, warmed on the 
 old plan of deriving heat by the com- 
 bined agency of bark and flues. In- 
 stead of a stage in the centre it has 
 a pit, which may be from two and a half 
 to four feet deep, according as bark or 
 leaves are to be used, the latter mate- 
 rial requiring the greatest depth. It is 
 
 Fig. 160. 
 
 commonly surrounded by a thin brick 
 wall : but planks of stone, or plates of 
 slate or cast-iron, are to be preferred. 
 The roof, when necessary, may be sup- 
 ported by iron columns from the middle 
 of the pit, a. 
 
 " Shelves may be placed against the 
 back wall, b, and occasionally a nar- 
 row-leaved creeper run up the roof, c. 
 We may add, that houses of this de- 
 scription are generally placed east and 
 west against walls, on account of the 
 shelter thereby obtained during winter, 
 when a high degree of heat is kept up 
 within, while the cold is excessive with- 
 out." — Enc. of Gard. 
 
 But the tank system is far superior to 
 the foregoing; and the following de- 
 tail, given by the Rev. John Huyshe, is 
 so full of information upon the point, 
 that I extract it entire from the Gar- 
 dener's Chronicle: — 
 
 Fig. 161. 
 
 "a is the boiler, its top level with 
 the floor of the house, the fireplace 
 being in a back shed. The boiler is 
 small and conical; b L and b 2 are the 
 tanks ; c is a trap-door opening into the 
 tank, to fill the house with steam at 
 pleasure. The arrows indicate the 
 course of the water through the tanks 
 and pipes. The two pipes, though 
 drawn side by side, are really one 
 above the other; the return pipe being, 
 of course, the lower. Above these 
 pipes is a stone shelf. Tank b 1 is 
 made of oak ; the other, b 2, of elm. 
 The wood of each is two inches and a 
 half in thickness; and they stand on 
 oak blocks, three inches thick, to raise 
 them from the floor. This tends to 
 prevent their decay, and promotes a 
 freer circulation of hot air. The bot- 
 tom boards are placed the lengthway 
 
S TO 
 
 565 
 — ♦ — 
 
 STO 
 
 of the tank. The bottom, as well as 
 the sides of the tanks, are bolted to- 
 gether by iron bars, five-eighths of an 
 inch in thickness, passed through the 
 wood, and screwed up as tightly as 
 possible. Each tank is divided by an 
 inch and a half elm board, and is co- 
 vered with common roofing-slates — 
 those that are generally called ' Prin- 
 cesses,' twenty-four inches long and 
 fourteen wide; the edges not cut 
 square, but used just as purchased, 
 and the joints stopped merely with 
 wetted clay : there is no fear of too 
 much steam escaping into the house. 
 
 " As the divisions of tank b were 
 fifteen inches wide, a small strip of oak 
 is nailed on the inside of the tank, of 
 sufficient thickness to allow the slates, 
 which were fourteen inches wide, to 
 reach across. Round the edges of the 
 tanks is an inch board, eleven inches 
 deep; and the plunging material is fine 
 sand. The slates carry the weight of 
 this sand, though eleven inches deep, 
 with ease, not one of them having 
 cracked. 
 
 " In a considerable part of tank b 1, 
 rich mould is put instead of the sand, 
 in which pines are planted without any 
 pots, after the French mode. The tank 
 holds twenty-two hogsheads; and the 
 boiler, though a small one, is fully able 
 to heat this quantity. The water, heat- 
 ed to 114° or 115° of Fahrenheit, is 
 high enough to keep the house at a 
 temperature of 70° at night; and a mo- 
 derate fire, kept up for five or six hours 
 
 in the twenty-four, is abundantly suffi- 
 cient." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Dry Stove. — Formerly this was heat- 
 ed by flues only, a stage for plants oc- 
 cupying the place of the bark-pit in the 
 moist stove. But modern science has 
 suggested the far better mode of heat- 
 ing by either steam or hot water. Of 
 these two the latter is by far the most 
 preferable. The following is the plan 
 adopted at Elcot^ and has never been 
 much improved :•— 
 
 " Brick flues are subject, from their 
 numerous joints and the mortar crack- 
 ing, to give out at times a sulphureous 
 gas, which is injurious to plants; and 
 even with two fireplaces in a house 
 forty or fifty feet long, it is impossible 
 to keep up an equal temperature in the 
 whole length. The houses get over- 
 heated in the neighbourhood of the 
 fireplace; and it is difficult to maintain 
 a proper warmth at the extremities of 
 the flues. 
 
 " Steam may do very well on a large 
 scale, and where there is constant at- 
 tention to the fire, both day and night; 
 but the objections are, the great ex- 
 pense of a steam-boiler and the appa- 
 ratus belonging to it, the frequent 
 repairs that are required, and the 
 necessary attention to the fire, which 
 is as great upon a small scale as upon 
 a large one. Besides this, there is a 
 greater risk of explosion in a hot-house 
 steam-boiler than in that of a steam- 
 engine ; for steam-engines generally 
 have persons properly instructed to 
 
 Fig. 162. 
 
S TO 
 
 566 
 
 S TO 
 
 manage them ; but gardeners, or their 
 assistants, cannot be so competent. 
 
 " The heating with hot water has 
 none of the objections I have men- 
 tioned as belonging to flues and steam. 
 The apparatus is simple, and not liable 
 to get out of order. The boiler has 
 only a loose wooden cover, and no 
 safety-valves are required. The fuel 
 consumed is very moderate, and when 
 once the water is heated, very little at- 
 tention is wanted ; for it retains its 
 heat for many hours after the fire has 
 gone out. 
 
 " The house is forty feet long and 
 ten feet wide inside, heated by a boiler, 
 a, placed in a recess in the centre of 
 the back wall ; the fireplace under the 
 wall is got at from a back shed, b. The 
 boiler is two feet six inches long, one 
 foot six inches wide, and one foot eight 
 inches deep. From the end of the 
 boiler proceed horizontally four cast- 
 iron pipes of three inches and a half 
 diameter ; two of them are joined to the 
 boiler just above the bottom, and the 
 other two directly above these, and 
 just below the surface of the water. 
 The house is divided by glazed parti- 
 tions into three compartments, d, e,f, 
 for the'convenience of forcing one part 
 without the other. 
 
 " The middle compartment is two 
 lights in width, and the other two have 
 four lights each. 
 
 " The pipes from the boiler go hori- 
 zontally to the front of the house, where 
 one upper and one lower pipe branch 
 to the east compartment, and other 
 two pipes to the west, and are carried 
 
 to the ends of the house along the sides 
 of the flues, where they unite to cast- 
 iron reservoirs at each end of the house, 
 g g, which reservoirs are each three 
 feet six inches long, one foot six inches 
 wide, and one foot eight inches deep, 
 having iron covers. These reservoirs 
 are filled with water that communicates, 
 by means of the pipes, with the water 
 in the boiler. 
 
 " When the boiler, pipes, and reser- 
 voirs are filled, and a fire lighted under 
 the boiler, the heated water, ascending 
 to the top of the boiler, forces its way 
 along the upper pipes to the reservoir, 
 the cold water finding its way back to 
 the bottom of the boiler through the 
 under pipes ; and the circulation con- 
 tinues regular as long as there is any 
 heat under the boiler, the hot water 
 flowing through the upper pipes to the 
 reservoir, and, as it cools, returning 
 back to the boiler through the under 
 pipes. 
 
 " I have repeatedly, after the water 
 has been heated, immersed a thermome- 
 ter in the reservoirs at the ends of the 
 house, and have only found a difference 
 of three or four degrees between that 
 and the water in the boiler. It is not 
 necessary to make the water boil ; and, 
 if the fire is judiciously managed, no 
 steam will be raised and no water 
 wasted. It is, however, necessary to 
 examine the boiler occasionally, and to 
 add water when any has evaporated. 
 
 " Valves might be fixed in the boiler, 
 pipes, and reservoirs, for letting steam 
 into the house if required ; but that 
 would induce the necessity of boiling 
 
 Fig. 163. 
 
STR 
 
 567 
 
 STR 
 
 the water; and it has not been done 
 here, as I find I can produce all the 
 steam I require, with little trouble, by 
 wetting the pipes with a watering-pot. 
 
 " I am persuaded that the advantages 
 of this mode of heating, with its great 
 simplicity, will give satisfaction to every 
 practical gardener who has an oppor- 
 tunity of trying it. When once the 
 water is heated and the fires well 
 made, he may retire to rest, certain 
 that the pipes will not get cold during 
 the night, but retain a considerable heat 
 in the morning." — Trans. Hort. Soc. 
 
 STRANV MSI A glaucescens. Hardy 
 evergreen tree. Grafting or budding. 
 Common soil. 
 
 STRAPWOOD. Corrigiola. 
 
 STRATIOTES aloides. Water 
 Soldier. Hardy aquatic perennial. 
 Suckers. Loam and peat. 
 
 STRAVADIUM. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen trees. Layers. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 STRAWBERRY. Fragaria. 
 
 Species and Varieties. — F. Virgin- 
 iana: Scarlet or Virginia Strawberry. 
 American Scarlet; Bishop's Wick; 
 Black Roseberry ; Coul's Late Scarlet ; 
 Garnstone Scarlet ; Grove End Scarlet ; 
 Melon ; Old Scarlet ; Roseberry ; South- 
 borough ; and Wilmot's Late Scarlet. 
 
 F. Vesca Nigella : Black Strawberry. 
 Downton ; Elton ; and Myatt's Pine. 
 
 F. Grandiflora: Pine Strawberry. — 
 Myatt's British Queen ; Myatt's Eliza ; 
 Keene's Seedling ; Old Caroline, or 
 Pine ; Round White Caroline ; and 
 Swainstone's Seedling. 
 
 F. Chilensis : Chili Strawberry. — 
 The Scarlet Chili, Yellow ChilL, and 
 Wilmot's Superb, are the only varieties 
 of this class at all deserving cultivation; 
 and even these are woolly and defi- 
 cient in flavour. 
 
 F. Moschata : Hautboy Strawberry. — 
 Black Hautbois, Common Hautbois ; 
 Large Flat ; Prolific, or Conical ; and 
 Round-fruited Muscatelle. 
 
 F. Collina Viridis : Green Strawber- 
 ry. — Of this class the Green Pine, or 
 Pine-apple, deserves culture ; its fruit 
 being solid, juicy, and fine-flavoured. 
 
 F. Collina Alba and Rubra: Alpine, 
 
 or Monthly, and Wood Strawberry 
 
 American Alpine; Red Alpine; Red 
 Wood (F. Vesca Rubra) ; White Alpine ; 
 White Wood (F. V. Alba). 
 
 The following is a selection from the 
 best of the preceding, in the order of 
 
 their ripening: — White Alpine; Old 
 Scarlet; Grove End Scarlet; Keene's 
 Seedling; Roseberry; Garnstone Scar- 
 let ; Myatt's Eliza ; Old Pine ; Myatt's 
 British Queen ; Large Flat Hautbois ; 
 American Scarlet; Downton; Elton; 
 Coul's Late Scarlet ; and Turner's 
 Pine. The chief bearing-time of these 
 is from the end of June to the middle 
 of July ; but the White Alpine pro- 
 duces successive crops until November. 
 I have even gathered from them a dish 
 late in December. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — Any good deep 
 loamy soil will produce good strawber- 
 ries. It should be well trenched and 
 manured previously to planting. Though 
 they will succeed when partially shaded 
 by trees, yet they are best flavoured 
 when grown in an open compartment, 
 with no other shade than that from their 
 own leaves. If Alpines are planted on 
 south-west, east, and north borders, 
 they will give a succession of fruit from 
 June till December. 
 
 " Beds, four feet wide, should be 
 marked out with a foot-alley between 
 each, which is highly necessary to pre- 
 vent those who gather the fruit from 
 treading between the plants ; and lastly., 
 the runners are planted two feet apart. 
 A bed thus made will last three years, 
 without requiring anything further, not 
 even so much as a top-dressing. My- 
 att's pine will grow profusely on light, 
 rich, sandy, alluvial soils, near the sea. 
 In such situations other strawberries 
 are apt to throw out too many runners ; 
 and for such Myatt's plan is well adapt- 
 ed." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Manures. — The best top-dressing for 
 strawberry beds is a little leaf-mould, 
 pointed in with a fork, early in March. 
 A good addition also is nitrate of soda, 
 three ounces to each square yard, 
 sprinkled over the surface at the same 
 season. Bone dust, and charred turf, 
 pointed in with a fork, in October, have 
 also been found highly beneficial. 
 
 Propagation. — This is chiefly by run- 
 ners; but the Alpines are best propa- 
 gated by seed. All other kinds can 
 only be obtained true by planting the 
 runners. The first of these should be 
 pegged down as early as possible, and 
 all others removed to promote the 
 quick rooting and strength of the young 
 plants. 
 
 " It is a very good plan to encourage 
 the earliest runners by letting them 
 
STR 
 
 568 
 
 STR 
 
 root in small pots sunk in the earth ; as 
 soon as they are well rooted, pkint them 
 in their beds." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 " The seeds of the true Alpine straw- 
 berry may be obtained from the Paris 
 seedsmen. The seeds should be sown 
 in a bed of light rich soil, or in pans, 
 and the plants afterwards planted where | 
 they are to remain for fruiting, the soil 
 being trenched, and well mixed with 
 rotten dung. You may insure a more 
 abundant crop late in the season by 
 cutting off the blossoms that appear 
 previously to June." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Planting. — The best period for mak- 
 ing strawberry beds is from the close of 
 July until the middle of October — the 
 earlier the better — but this must be con- 
 trolled by the rooting of the runners. 
 If the planting be deferred until spring, 
 they never succeed so well, and the 
 produce that year is very small. Show- 
 ery weather is the best for planting, and 
 the less the roots are disturbed the bet- 
 ter, which is the chief reason why in- 
 ducing the runners to root in small pots 
 is beneficial ; they can be turned out 
 of these without any injury to the 
 roots. Myatt's pines are more difficult 
 to grow fruitfully than other varieties, 
 but Mr. Mearns says they will not fail 
 if the following precautions are adopt- 
 ed :— 
 
 " Take off the first runner plants as 
 soon as they have rooted : the weather 
 being showery is the more suitable for 
 transplanting. Get a piece of well-ex- 
 posed rich ground ready for their recep- 
 tion, according to the quantity desired, 
 and let it be divided into four-feet beds. 
 Plant them about four inches apart; 
 water them, and shade them for a few 
 days if the sun should be powerful, and 
 keep them clear from weeds. Get a 
 piece of ground prepared for their final 
 transplanting, either in autumn or the 
 following spring, by trenching and ma- 
 nuring it. Plant them eighteen inches 
 row from row, and nine inches in the 
 row; and if any blossoms appear the 
 first season pinch them off, and keep 
 them free from weeds; but it is not 
 necessary to divest them of their run- 
 ners until the following spring, when 
 the beds are to be cleaned, and all 
 runners cut oft"; but the soil should by 
 no means be stirred between them any 
 further than with a Dutch hoe, to 
 loosen the surface lightly, and without 
 destroying more of the surface-roots 
 
 than can possibly be avoided, as they 
 are of great importance towards the 
 success of the crop. Before the leaves 
 cover too much of the surface, hoe 
 gently amongst them to destroy all 
 weeds, and afterwards cover the sur- 
 face with clean straw. Take the first 
 produced runners from them, and plant 
 them in a nursery bed as in the previous 
 season ; and when the fruit is all ga- 
 thered, destroy the old plants, and the 
 ground will be then ready for cauli- 
 flowers, or any other crop required to 
 be put out at that time. Myatt's pine 
 will do little good by remaining a third 
 season upon the same ground, however 
 well manured; and this is generally 
 applicable to hautboys, the Elton pine, 
 Downton, and in fact to all strawber- 
 ries." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Beds. — "Never have more than three 
 rows in a bed. Let them be eighteen 
 inches apart, and the plants twelve 
 inches apart in the rows; or two feet 
 by eighteen inches, according to the 
 richness of the soil, and vigorous 
 growth of the variety. The pines re- 
 quire more room than the scarlets. 
 
 " Strawberries generally, but espe- 
 cially Myatt's pine, succeed best upon a 
 bank facing the south-west. 
 
 " The old Hautboy strawberry bears 
 the male and female flowers on differ- 
 ent roots. The mode of planting is 
 this: mark the male plant, the sterile, 
 and plant the lines in quincunx thus — 
 
 : X : X : X : X : 
 
 the middle roots marked X to be the 
 male plants, and the others the female. 
 If this rule is observed, you will never 
 fail to have abundance of fruit. The 
 only time to mark the males is when 
 they are in blossom ; and every gar- 
 dener should know them, and keep 
 them apart in his nursery, to take young 
 ones from." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Dr. Lindley has these justly discri- 
 minating observations on the frequent 
 renewal of the beds : — 
 
 "With regard to the opinion that a 
 fresh plantation of strawberries should 
 be made every year, to be destroyed 
 after having once born fruit, and that 
 the finest crops can only be obtained by 
 this method, there are some doubts. 
 Mr. Keene, the fortunate raiser of the 
 seedling which bears his name, and an 
 extensive cultivator, had a tolerable 
 crop the first year, an excellent one the 
 
STR 
 
 569 
 
 STR 
 
 second, and after the third year he de- 
 stroyed the plantation. Those called 
 Pine Strawberries, such as the Old 
 Pine, Keene's Seedling, Elton, &c, 
 will bear well in th* same situation for 
 many years, if pro™rly managed. 
 
 " That scarlets are best when the 
 plantations are frequently renewed, is 
 generally admitted ; and there are some 
 large varieties which appear to have 
 more or less of the Chili in their con- 
 stitution, as Myatt's Seedlings, which 
 require that runners be early establish- 
 ed, for bearing in the following season, 
 as the old plants are apt to die off. As 
 fruit can be obtained earlier in the sea- 
 son from plants that have not previously 
 borne, it is advisable to renew some 
 portion every year; but the propriety 
 of annually destroying the whole, de- 
 pends very much on circumstances, and 
 therefore the method cannot be recom- 
 mended except in particular cases." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 The surface of the soil should be co- 
 vered with straw, or the mowings of 
 grass-plots, during the bearing season, 
 to preserve moisture to the roots of the 
 plants, and to keep the fruit from being 
 dirt-splashed. 
 
 To promote an early produce of fruit, 
 it is also suggested by Mr. G. L. Smartt, 
 of Enfield, — that " there should be fixed 
 on each side of the rows of strawber- 
 ries, just before they come into blossom, 
 feather-edged boards, at an angle of 50° 
 or 55°. This may be effected by nail- 
 ing two narrow slips of wood to each 
 board, and pushingthem into theground. 
 The boards should be painted black. 
 This plan makes two or three weeks 
 difference in the ripening of the fruit ; 
 but glass or an oiled paper frame being 
 placed on the top, makes a greater dif- 
 ference still, and prevents any of the 
 fruit from being trod upon, or eaten by 
 vermin. This plan at first sight may 
 appear to be an expensive one, but it is 
 not so ; any old boards will answer the 
 purpose. I have bought old feather- 
 edged boards at one half-penny per 
 foot ; and as they are only used in sum- 
 mer, they last for many years. The 
 expense is saved in the first year; for 
 the wood, although painted on each 
 side with a coat of invisible green, costs 
 only about three-halfpence the foot, 
 while the increase of fruit in quantity, 
 as well as in quality, quite compen- 
 sates for the outlay." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 After-Culture. — " Remove all runners 
 not required for planting as often as 
 they appear, for their growth at first is 
 at the expense of the parent, and the 
 more beds are matted with plants, the 
 more those will draw the moisture out 
 of the soil. 
 
 " What would be just sufficient for 
 supplying the evaporation of a moderate 
 quantity of plants, would be completely 
 exhausted by an excessive number. 
 Stirring the soil so as not to injure the 
 roots, mulching with grass or litter, or 
 paving with fiat tiles or small round 
 pebbles and occasional waterings, are 
 the best means to adopt. 
 
 " In thin soil the plantations will re- 
 quire to be more frequently renewed 
 than where it is deeper, and of a more 
 substantial quality." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 The spade should never be permitted 
 to enter among strawberries, except to 
 dig them up when a bed is to be de- 
 stroyed ; the hoe, or at the most point- 
 ing with a three-pronged fork, is all the 
 surface-stirring required, if the beds 
 were well trenched when made, and 
 have not been trampled upon. 
 
 Late Crops. — To obtain these of the 
 Alpine, it is correctly recommended to 
 sow the seed in pans, and place in a 
 hot-bed about February, or not later 
 than the first week in March. " When 
 the plants are hardied off, plant out in 
 good time in May; they will bear a 
 plentiful crop in August and September 
 following, and continue to bear until 
 stopped by the frost. The same plants 
 will also bear earlier than the larger 
 sorts, and continue on until the crop 
 raised from seed (as above) succeed, 
 when they can be thrown away. Large 
 stones, or tiles, or slates, placed be- 
 tween the plants, will keep the roots 
 moist through the summer months, and 
 ripen the fruit. Seed should always be 
 saved from the finest fruit ; to get them 
 large and plentiful, waterings (with now 
 and then manure water) will improve 
 the size of the fruit."— Gard. Chron. 
 
 To obtain late crops of other straw- 
 berries, as of the Keene's Seedling, 
 Mr. W. Godwin recommends — " plants 
 which were early in spring to be plant- 
 ed out into a rich border, to remain 
 until the last week of September, when 
 they will throw up very strong spikes 
 of flowers; take up and pot in the same 
 soil in which they were growing, and 
 place in a pine frame. They will bear 
 
STR 
 
 570 
 
 — « — 
 
 STR 
 
 fruit to near the close of the year." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Forcing. — On this point we have the 
 following directions from one of the 
 most eminent of modern horticulturists, 
 Mr. Paxton : — 
 
 " Select for this purpose, in the mid- 
 dle of August, a sufficient number of the 
 best runners from approved kinds to 
 have choice from, and plant them six 
 inches apart, in beds, upon a strong 
 
 must be immediately pinched out; they 
 should have their balls carefully re- 
 duced, and be repotted in larger pots 
 early in August, protecting them from 
 the late autumnal rauis, and from frost." 
 — Gard. Chron. ™ 
 
 " For succession," Mr. Paxton says, 
 te , strong runners are taken up in Sep- 
 tember, and planted about six inches 
 apart, in manured and well-prepared 
 beds, four feet wide, in a somewhat 
 
 border in a dry and sheltered situation, i sheltered situation ; there they are al- 
 
 As soon as the leaves have withered, 
 mulch them lightly with well-rotted ma- 
 nure, and if very severe weather occur, 
 protect them for the time with fern or 
 litter. They must be kept the follow- 
 ing spring free from weeds and runners, 
 removing also any flowers as they ap- 
 pear. Towards the latter end of May 
 or beginning of June, whenever dull or 
 rainy weather may occur, remove them 
 carefully into forty- eight-sized pots. It 
 is optional with the grower, whether 
 one, two, or three plants are put in one 
 pot, according to his object being quality 
 or quantity; but we, desiring fine fruit 
 in preference to number, only place one 
 of the strongest or two of the weaker 
 in one pot, using enriched melon soil 
 or turfy loam. Place them, when pot- 
 ted, in a situation where they can be 
 readily shaded for a short time, and 
 receive regular supplies of water if 
 necessary. About the latter end of 
 July, or early in August, these pots 
 will be filled with roots, when the 
 plants must be repotted into flat thirty- 
 two-sized pots, usually termed straw- 
 berry pots, and at this time plunged in 
 old tan or coal ashes. The best man- 
 ner of plunging them we find to be, 
 forming beds wide enough to contain 
 five rows of pots, when plunged, upon 
 a hard or gravelly surface, to prevent 
 them rooting through, the sides sup- 
 ported by slabs of the same width as the 
 depth of the pots, and filling them up 
 with old tan or ashes ; the plants re- 
 main here until wanted to take in, and 
 are easily protected from severe frosts. 
 It will be found an excellent plan to 
 preserve the latest forced plants, which 
 are not much exhausted, for forcing the 
 first the next season ; these, from their 
 long period of rest, and well-ripened 
 buds, are predisposed to break earlier 
 and stronger than the others ; some of 
 them, if the autumn is moisl, will be 
 excited, and produce flowers, which 
 
 lowed to remain until the following 
 July, during which period they must be 
 kept very clean from weeds, have the 
 flowers and runners regularly pinched 
 off, and be watered whenever likely to 
 suffer from drought. About the middle 
 of July they are potted in small thirty- 
 two-sized pots, two plants in a pot, 
 taking the greatest care that neither 
 roots nor leaves are damaged in the 
 operation, and an important part of it 
 is to press the earth firmly about them ; 
 the soil used is two parts loam to one 
 of well-rotted dung. Beds which will 
 hold five or six rows of pots are then 
 formed in the following manner : — level 
 the surface of the ground, and spread 
 upon it a layer of coal ashes; above 
 which must be nailed firmly slabs, or 
 any rough boards, as wide as the depth 
 of the pots, which are then to be plunged 
 to the rim in spent bark or ashes. All 
 that they will here require is attention to 
 watering when necessary, and a slight 
 protection with fern, or other light cover- 
 ing, during severe frosty weather. I al- 
 ways preserve from 300 to 400 of the 
 latest forced plants of the above descrip- 
 tion, and after having carefully reduced 
 their balls, repot them in large thirty- 
 two-sized pots in July, treating them 
 afterwards precisely as the others. I 
 find these by having their buds formed 
 early (through the slight forcing they 
 have received), and becoming very 
 strong, are admirably adapted for the 
 first crop, and always repay me for the 
 extra trouble. Begin forcing with a 
 temperature of 40°, increasing to 50° 
 when in bloom, and to 55° when ripen- 
 ing." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Mr. Brown, gardener to Lord South- 
 ampton, at Whittlebury Lodge, near 
 Towcester, says, that " Mr. Paxton's 
 | method of preparing strawberry plants 
 for forcing is a good one where time 
 and trouble are of no consequence ; but 
 for the last fifteen years he has adopted 
 
S TR 
 
 571 
 
 STR 
 
 a plan which answers well, and by 
 which good strong plants are procured 
 in one month from the present year's 
 runners. 
 
 " The compost used is good strong 
 loam, well mixed with rotten dung from 
 the hot-bed linings; twenty-four-sized 
 pots are the best for Keene's Seedlings, 
 and thirty-twos for Grove End Scarlets. 
 The latter variety answers for early forc- 
 ing better than any other sort, when 
 strawberries are wanted by the end of 
 March. 
 
 " Having filled the pots with the com- 
 post, they are removed at once to the 
 strawberry quarters, and arranged on 
 each side of the rows, amongst the run- 
 ners. The middle of July, when the 
 plants are emitting roots, is the proper 
 time to begin the operation of layering; 
 having previously prepared a quantity 
 of pegs, the runners that are rooted into 
 the ground are carefully removed, and 
 their roots inserted in the pots, and peg- 
 ged down. Put three plants into the 
 twenty-four pots, and one in the thirty- 
 twos ; they immediately begin growing, 
 being supported by the mother plant, 
 and will only require occasional water- 
 ing in dry weather. 
 
 " When the plants are well rooted, 
 which is in about one month, detach 
 them from the old plants, and remove 
 to their winter quarters. 
 
 " Beds are prepared for them with a 
 bottom of coal ashes, and they are 
 plunged in old tan ; each bed surrounded 
 with a stratum of coal ashes six inches 
 wide, and as high as the top of the pots, 
 which prevents worms from working 
 amongst them." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Thus far we have copied the English 
 edition of this work. The American 
 reader, though he will find that which 
 will instruct in the culture of this de- 
 licious fruit, will perceive there is too 
 much detail and tedious labour for his 
 practice. 
 
 Many of the varieties named in the 
 preceding article are comparatively un- 
 known in this country, and others have 
 been tested, and found wanting. Our 
 American Seedlings have, on the whole, 
 given most satisfaction, and are most 
 reliable, whilst the efforts now being 
 made to produce varieties promise, from 
 the success already attained, to give all 
 that could be desired. 
 
 " The market gardeners around Phi- 
 ladelphia, who are successful cultivators 
 
 of the strawberry, plant both in spring 
 and early in autumn ; their method is 
 to plant two rows about twelve inches 
 apart, and the plants twelve inches from 
 each other in the rows; between every 
 two rows as described, they leave spaces 
 of two feet, which are, by the growth of 
 the vines, reduced to one foot, thus 
 making each bed two feet wide with an 
 alley of twelve inches between them; 
 when planted in the spring they usually 
 raise some dwarf crop on the same 
 ground, but that had better be omitted 
 — keeping the soil cultivated and top- 
 dressed with some well-rotted manure. 
 In the autumn, they spread on the sur- 
 face, both beds and alleys, a good coat 
 of coarse manure, such as will lie light- 
 ly, the loose portion of which may be 
 raked off in the spring, when the alleys 
 are dug, and covered with straw, to ex- 
 clude draught and screen the trusses of 
 fruit on the edge of the bed from con- 
 tact with the earth. Exhausted tanner's 
 bark, or saw-dust scattered among the 
 plants, is highly serviceable in protect- 
 ing the fruit from grit. 
 
 " Varieties. Hudson or Scarlet.— 
 This variety is grown almost exclu- 
 sively for the supply of the Philadelphia 
 market; it appears to be distinct from 
 what is known as the old Hudson, in 
 New York, which Downing describes as 
 having a neck, whereas the Philadelphia 
 Hudson has none, (unless occasionally 
 spontaneous seedlings are found with 
 elongated crowns.) It is undoubtedly 
 one of the best, though from want of 
 skill in its culture it is frequently unfruit- 
 ful. The fruitful and barren flowers are 
 on separate plants, and as the barren are 
 most vigorous, they are liable to take 
 nearly exclusive possession; in such 
 cases the inevitable result is, but little 
 fruit is obtained. The proper method 
 is to carefully cull them when in flower, 
 (the experienced can detect them by the 
 foliage as well as flowers,) exterminating 
 the larger portion of the male or stami- 
 niferous plants, as one in ten suffices to 
 impregnate the pistil iferous or fruit- 
 bearing flowers. Much has been said 
 on this subject, and most positive deni- 
 als of the fact here stated have been 
 made, but after all it is incontrovertible, 
 and remains a ' fixed fact.' Our limits 
 will not admit of embarking further in 
 the controversy, which has been prac- 
 tically settled around Philadelphia for 
 fifty years, by the German truck women, 
 
STR 
 
 572 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 STR 
 
 who may be seen in the spring, with 
 their linsey petticoats and short- gowns, 
 busily engaged plucking out the ' he 
 plants,' as they term them. 
 
 " In France the Chili strawberry is 
 highly esteemed, but as it requires for- 
 eign fertilization, they mix with it other 
 varieties, and adopt artificial methods 
 of impregnation. Duchesne has suc- 
 ceeded by cutting off the half-closed, or 
 rather half-opened umbils of staminife- 
 rous flowers, with foot-stalks from one 
 to three inches long, which being placed 
 in phials filled with water, were dis- 
 tributed among the Chili plants; the next 
 day the blossoms opened and the im- 
 pregnation was successfully completed. 
 
 "Many experiments with like re- 
 sults, have been practised by others, and 
 what in some of the periodicals is called 
 'Longworth's theory,' is nothing more 
 than that of the Philadelphia truck-wo- 
 men, from one of whom that gentleman, 
 as he says, received the hint. 
 
 " Methven Scarlet, also termed 
 Keene's seedling (erroneously), is a very 
 large variety, sometimes exceeding five 
 inches in circumference; it is but indif- 
 ferently flavoured, but much admired 
 for preserving. The flowers of this va- 
 riety are pistilate (female), though sta- 
 mens are also present, generally in an 
 imperfect state, hence it fruits more 
 surely in company with those which have 
 strong staminate flowers, as for instance 
 the Iowa, or the males of the Hudson. 
 
 "Hovey's Seedling (Fig. 164) was 
 raised from the seed by the Messrs. 
 Hovey, of Boston, some years since, 
 and is one of the most desirable straw- 
 berries among us. It is of vigorous 
 growth, withstands the winter equal 
 to any other, produces fruit of an 
 enormous size, and exquisite flavour; 
 too much cannot be said in its praise. 
 Mode of cultivation same as others; it 
 does not, however, always produce 
 fruit when planted alone, from a defi- 
 ciency of pollen in the anthers, and in an 
 unfavourable state of the weather, fails 
 to produce fruit at all : the better plan, 
 therefore, is to mix with it some other 
 variety, as directed for the Methven 
 scarlet, or grow others in immediate 
 contiguity, where the flies and air can 
 affect the impregnation. It is true, fine 
 crops from this variety are sometimes 
 produced where no other variety is 
 within a considerable distance, but it is 
 attributable to most favourable states of 
 
 the weather, in which the scanty pollen 
 is all available, and also to impregnation 
 from seedlings, which are, more or less, 
 in all beds of one year's standing, and 
 some of which, proceeding from the old 
 Hovey, have strong erect stamens, not 
 unlike the Hudson males, with this dif- 
 ference, however, the pistil is fruitful 
 and the fruit perfect. 
 
 "Ross's Phozintx. — This variety has 
 been much praised in New York. It was 
 produced by Mr. Alexander Ross, of 
 Hudson, in that state, and from its 
 character for hardiness and product (if 
 true), would speedily attain popularity 
 and general culture — unfortunately for 
 its reputation it has suffered greatly by 
 the past season's drought, whilst other 
 varieties have sustained themselves un- 
 injured. We must have further confir- 
 mation of its value, before recommend- 
 ing it for enlarged culture. 
 
 "Cushing. — (Fig. 165.) This is one of 
 a multitude of seedling strawberries, 
 raised by that indefatigable amateur cul- 
 tivator, Dr. Wm. C. Brinckle, of Phi- 
 ladelphia, to whom we are indebted for 
 the drawing, Fig. 165, and many other 
 favours. He thus describes it in an arti- 
 cle communicated to the Farmers' Cabi- 
 net, vol. xi., No. 1. 
 
 " ' Cushing, so named as a compli- 
 ment to J. P. Cushing, Esq., of Boston, 
 to whom I am under a thousand obliga- 
 tions — produced from a seed of a berry 
 of No. 72, A., [Dr. B.'s private cata- 
 logue,] the anthers not having been 
 extracted; planted May 31st, 1845; 
 fruited in 1846, one year from the seed ; 
 flower large, with perfect anthers; leaf 
 large and roundish, like that of Keene's 
 Seedling and Ross's Phoenix ; differing, 
 however, from these two varieties, in 
 having a hairy leaf stem, and when full 
 grown, the leaf is slightly twisted ; fruit 
 very large, round, some of the berries 
 with a short neck, light scarlet colour; 
 seed inserted in slight depressions; fine 
 flavour, and very productive. This plant 
 was exhibited at one of the meetings of 
 the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society 
 this summer, with 26 fine berries on it, 
 several of them four and a quarter inches 
 in circumference. Not long since, Mr. 
 Longworth, of Cincinnati, offered one 
 hundred dollars for a strawberry with 
 perfect anthers that will bear a full crop 
 of fruit as large as Hovey's Seedling. 
 Such a strawberry is, I think, the Cush- 
 ing.' 
 
 
573 
 Fig. 164.— (P. 572.) 
 
574 
 Fig. 165.— (P. 572-) 
 
STR 
 
 575 
 
 sue 
 
 "If Dr. Brinckle's opinion should be 
 confirmed by further observation, he 
 will have contributed an invaluable va- 
 riety of this delicious fruit." — Rural 
 Register . 
 
 STRAWBERRY BLITE. Blitum. 
 
 STRAWBERRY SPINACH. Blitum. 
 
 STRAWBERRY TREE. Arbutus. 
 
 STRELITZIA. Eight species. Stove 
 herbaceous perennials. Suckers. Turfy 
 loam. 
 
 STREPTANTHERA. Two species. 
 Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
 sets. Loam and peat. 
 
 STREPTANTHUS. Two species. 
 Hardy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 STREPTIUM asperum. Stove herb- 
 aceous perennial. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 STREPTOCARPUS rexii. Stove 
 herbaceous perennial. Division. Rich 
 soil and vegetable mould. 
 
 STREPTOPUS. Five species. Herb- 
 aceous perennials; all hardy except S. 
 simplex, which belongs to the green- 
 house. Seeds or division. Light soil. 
 STROBILANTHES Sabiniana. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Light rich 
 soil. 
 
 STROPANTHUS. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. San- 
 dy loam and peat. 
 
 STRUMARIA. Ten species. Green- 
 house bulbous perennials. Offsets. San- 
 dy loam. 
 
 S TRUTH I OLA. Fifteen species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 STRUTHIOPTERIS. Two species. 
 Ferns. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 Division. Loam and peat. 
 
 STRYCHNOS. Six species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. S. colubrina is a 
 climber. Half-ripe cuttings and seeds. 
 Loam and sandy peat. Nux vomica is 
 one of the species. 
 
 STYLIDIUM. Nine species. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennials or ever- 
 green shrubs. The latter increases by 
 cuttings, a few of the herbaceous by 
 division, but chiefly by seeds. Sandy 
 loam and peat suit them all. 
 
 STYPANDRA. Five species. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennials. S.fru- 
 tescens an evergreen shrub. Division. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 STYPHELIA. Eight species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Sandy peat and sandy loam. 
 
 STYRAX. Four species. Hardy 
 
 deciduous shrubs. S. officinale produces 
 the balsam of storax. Layers. Light 
 soil. 
 
 SUCCORY, CHICORY, or WILD 
 ENDIVE. Cichoriumintybus. Although 
 this hardy perennial plant is much used 
 on the Continent in salads, yet it has 
 never been employed to any extent for 
 that purpose in Britain. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — Like endive, for 
 the main crops it requires a rich light 
 soil, and for the earlier sowings a moist- 
 er one, in every instance having an open 
 situation allotted to it. 
 
 Sowing must be annually; for, al- 
 though it is a perennial, yet, after being 
 cut from two or three times, the radical 
 leaves become bitter and worthless. 
 Mr. Oldaker says, it should be sown at 
 the end of June, or early in July ; but 
 L'Quintinye recommends it to be per- 
 formed in the beginning of March; and 
 it may be performed, for successive 
 crops, between the two periods men- 
 tioned by the above writers, in the same 
 manner as endive, and also like that 
 salad herb in small portions at a time, 
 the earliest sowings being very liable to 
 run to seed. Sow moderately thick, in 
 the same manner as endive, the direc- 
 tions for cultivating which are equally 
 applicable in every other particular. 
 
 Cultivation. — When the plants begin 
 to cover the ground, they are thinned to 
 nine inches apart; and those removed 
 planted out at similar distances. They 
 require to be kept very clear of weeds ; 
 and if the leaves grow very luxuriant, 
 and shade the roots much, they must 
 be cut off within an inch of the ground. 
 Those grown from sowings antecedent 
 to June, when of nearly full growth, 
 which they arrive at in about four 
 months from the insertion of the seed, 
 must have all their leaves trimmed 
 away, so as not to injure their hearts, 
 and then covered over thick with sand, 
 ashes, or long Jitter. By this treatment, 
 those fresh leaves which are produced 
 become etiolated and crisp, losing their 
 bitterness. Those which arise from the 
 sowings of June and July, must, at the 
 end of September, or early in October, 
 be raised, and planted very close, by the 
 dibble, in pots or boxes, having their 
 leaves trimmed as before directed, and 
 their roots shortened previous to plant- 
 ing. Water must be given moderately 
 in dry weather, until they are establish- 
 ed, and shelter, if frosts occur, by a 
 
sue 
 
 576 
 
 sue 
 
 light covering of litter. When well 
 rooted they may be removed into the 
 cellar, or other place, where the light 
 can be completely excluded from them, 
 to blanch for use as wanted, which 
 change will be effected in six or seven 
 days. Succory will bear a temperature 
 of 60°, but thrives better in a rather 
 lower one. 
 
 If the roots are vigorous, they will 
 bear cutting from two or three times, 
 after which they are unproductive. 
 
 To obtain Seed, a few plants must 
 be left in the open ground of the June 
 sowing ; they bear the severity of win- 
 ter without protection, and shoot up in 
 the spring, running to seed about May. 
 
 SUCCOWIA balearica. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seeds. Light soil. 
 
 SUCCULENT PLANTS are so cha- 
 racterized on account of their thick juicy 
 leaves. " They are formed to exist," 
 says that excellent botanist and horti- 
 culturist, Mr. Fortune, now traveling 
 for the London Horticultural Society, 
 " in countries and situations where they 
 are often exposed to intense light and 
 dryness ; their skins are thick ; they 
 have few evaporating pores ; and they 
 have, likewise, few roots to gorge their 
 tissue with food during the rainy season. 
 Therefore, we find the dry sandy plains 
 of the Cape abounding in aloes and 
 mesembryanthemums ; and the bare 
 volcanic rocks of Mount Etna covered, 
 
 ticularly during winter, as more plants 
 are killed by over-watering, than by 
 any other cause. At this time, once in 
 ten days or a fortnight will generally 
 be found sufficient; but as this depends 
 upon the situation and the weather, 
 much must be left to the good sense of 
 those who attend them. Those kinds 
 which are more luxuriant in growth, 
 and not so succulent, require more 
 water, and are not so easily injured by 
 it. By far the greatest number succeed 
 perfectly, where the temperature is 
 merely high enough to exclude frost, 
 that is, anywhere between thirty-five 
 and forty-five degrees, as may be most 
 agreeable to the cultivator. 
 
 " Succulents are generally easily 
 multiplied, either by seeds or cuttings. 
 If the cutting is very soft, and liable to 
 damp, it ought to be dried a little be- 
 fore it is put into the sand. Sometimes 
 a little quicklime is useful for prevent- 
 ing decay, and can be either used for 
 the base of the cutting, or to any part 
 of the plant from which a damping 
 piece has been removed." — Gardeners'* 
 Chron. 
 
 SUCKERS, says Dr. Lindley, in his 
 Theory of Horticulture, " are branches 
 naturally thrown up by a plant from its 
 base, when the onward current of 
 growth of the stem is stopped. Every 
 stem, even the oldest, must have been 
 once covered with leaves: each leaf 
 
 any places, with the common prick- i had a bud in its axil ; but of those buds, 
 
 ly pear. In Mexico, also, and in many 
 other parts of Central and South Ame- 
 rica, the extensive race of cacti, with 
 their curious unvegetable-like forms, 
 are at home, and flourish even in those 
 dry and parched seasons when the 
 whole face of nature besides seems 
 withered and destroyed. I wish particu- 
 larly to draw attention to the natural 
 circumstances in which these plants 
 are found ; because, if these are once 
 known, they are sure and certain guides 
 in cultivation. 
 
 " To be grown well, the whole race 
 of what are called succulent plants re- 
 quire to be kept in the lightest possible 
 situation in the green-house. It is true 
 they may be grown in heavy-shaded 
 green-houses, but their leaves will ne- 
 ver acquire that beautiful colour which 
 is seen in light situations, nor will they 
 flower so freely. Water should be 
 given to the slow-growing kinds at all 
 times with a judicious hand, but par- 
 
 few are developed as branches, and 
 the remainder remain latent, or perish. 
 When the onward growth of a plant is 
 arrested, the sap is driven to find new 
 outlets, and then latent buds are very 
 likely to be developed ; in fact, when 
 the whole plant is young, they must 
 necessarily shoot forth under fitting 
 circumstances; the well-known effect 
 of cutting down a tree is an exemplifi- 
 cation of this. Such branches, if they 
 proceed from under ground, frequently 
 form roots at their base, when they are 
 employed as a means of propagation ; 
 and in the case of the pine-apple they 
 are made use of for the same purpose, 
 although they do not emit roots till 
 they are separated from the parent. 
 Gardeners usually satisfy themselves 
 with taking from their pine-apple plants 
 such suckers as are produced in con- 
 sequence of the stoppage of onward 
 growth by the formation of the fruits ; 
 but these are few in number, and not 
 
SUF 
 
 577 
 
 ♦ 
 
 SWt 
 
 at all what the plant is capable of 
 yielding. Instead of throwing away the 
 " stump" of the pine-apple, it should 
 be placed in a damp pit, and exposed 
 to a bottom heat of 90°, or thereabouts, 
 when every one of the latent eyes will 
 spring forth, and a crop of young plants 
 be the result." 
 
 Taking up or transplanting suckers 
 may be performed almost at any time, 
 in open weather, from October to 
 March, being careful to dig them up 
 from the mother plant with as much 
 root as possible, and cutting off any 
 thick knobbed part of the old root that 
 may adhere to the bottom, leaving only 
 the fibres arising from the young wood. 
 Though it is probable some will appear 
 with hardly any fibres, they will be dis- 
 posed to produce them after removal. 
 
 SUFFOCATION is a term employed 
 by Keith and others to describe any 
 stopping of the transpiratory organs of 
 plants, whether it arises from extrava- 
 sated sap, mosses, fungi, or even from 
 a deficient supply of sap. 
 
 SUGAR BAKERS' REFUSE. See 
 Animal Matters. 
 
 SUMACH. Rhus. 
 
 SUNFLOWER. Helianthus. 
 
 H. annuus. Annual Sunflower. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — A light rich soil, 
 and as unshadowed by trees as possible, 
 suits it best. It is now much cultivated 
 for its oil, and as a food for cattle and 
 poultry. The following directions for 
 its culture on a large scale, are applica- 
 ble on a reduced extent for the gar- 
 den : — 
 
 The earlier the seed can be got into 
 the ground the better, say the beginning 
 of April, as the crop will be ready to 
 harvest the latter part of August, which 
 will be of the greatest importance to 
 growers. The necessary quantity of 
 seed required for an acre depends upon 
 the conditions of the soil, and varies 
 from four pounds to five pounds ; but, 
 of course, it is advisable to sow a little 
 more than is actually wanted, to pro- 
 vide against accidents. The seed should 
 be drilled into the ground, and the dis- 
 tance from row to row eighteen inches ; 
 the plants to be thinned out to thirty 
 inches from plant to plant, and the 
 number of plants at this distance would 
 be about 14,500 per acre ; at eighteen 
 inches from, plant to plant, 25,000 per 
 acre ; and at twelve inches from plant 
 
 to plant, 32,000. 
 37 
 
 kind of grain, like that of most others, 
 varies considerably, according to the 
 state of the soil, climate and the cul- 
 tivation that is employed; but the 
 average quantity of seed is about fifty 
 bushels per acre. This will produce 
 fifty gallons of oil, and of oil-cake 1,500 
 pounds. The stalks, when burnt for 
 alkali, give ten hundred weight of po- 
 tash. 
 
 SUNFLOWER. Actinotus Helianthi. 
 
 SUN ROSE. Helianthemum. 
 
 SURFACE GRUBS, or caterpillars, 
 are the larva? of several species of 
 Noctua, or Night Moths. Gardeners 
 thus name them because they attack the 
 roots of the turnip, mangold wurtzel, 
 &c, just at the surface of the soil. 
 
 SUTHERLANDIA frutescens. Half- 
 hardy evergreen shrub. Seeds or young 
 cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 SUWARROW NUT. Caryocar. 
 
 SWAINSONIA. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings or seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 SWALLOW WORT. Asclepias. 
 
 SWAMP LOCUST TREE. Gledit- 
 schia monosperma. 
 
 SWAMP POST. Quercus lyrata. 
 
 SWARTZIA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings with the 
 leaves on. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 SWEDISH BEAM TREE. Pyrus 
 
 SWEDISH TURNIP. Brassicacam- 
 pestris; var. rutabaga. 
 
 SWEEPING. See Broom. It is 
 best done in calm weather, and early, 
 whilst the dew is strong enough to al- 
 lay the dust and keep the light refuse 
 from blowing about. 
 
 SWEET BAY. Laurus nobilis. 
 
 SWEET BRIAR. Rosa rubiginosa. 
 It is of the easiest propagation in any 
 common garden soil. Cuttings, suck- 
 ers, and seed may be indifferently em- 
 ployed. 
 
 " To form a hedge of it sow the heps 
 in the autumn as soon as ripe, or which 
 is better, in the month of March, hav- 
 ing kept them in the meanwhile mixed 
 with sand. But it is far more conveni- 
 ent to buy sweet briar ' layers,' (young 
 plants,) from the nurseryman, and to 
 plant them a foot apart early in the 
 month of November. Let them grow 
 as they like for the first year, and cut 
 them down to the ground the second ; 
 they will then spring up and require no 
 
 The produce of this more care than occasional trimming 
 
S WE 
 
 578 
 
 S WI 
 
 light loam on a dry subsoil. Leaf-mould 
 and liquid manure the best additions. 
 
 Propagation. — They are propagated 
 by seed, layers, and slips. 
 
 By Seed. — March and April is the 
 season for sowing ; sow it in a bed or 
 border of light earth broadcast, and 
 rake it in. In a fortnight the plants 
 will come up. In June or July trans- 
 plant into nursery beds of common 
 earth, in rows six or eight inches dis- 
 tant, to remain until autumn or spring 
 following, then to be taken up and 
 planted in the places where they are to 
 flower. 
 
 By Layers. — June and July is the 
 proper season, and the same method is 
 to be observed in every respect as for 
 the Carnation. This is the only me- 
 thod of propagation to continue the 
 same double-flowered varieties. Being 
 layered, give frequent waterings in dry 
 weather, and they will be well rooted 
 in six or seven weeks, then to be sepa- 
 rated from the old plant, and removed 
 to a bed of light soil ; and in October 
 some of them should be potted to move 
 to occasional shelter from frost, for 
 although the doubles are almost as 
 hardy as the single, yet being more 
 choice, it is necessary always to have 
 some that may have protection in severe 
 winters, the same as for choice Carna- 
 tions. 
 
 By Slips. — July is the best month for 
 slipping; observing, if it is to be per- 
 formed upon the year-old plants, they 
 must be slipped quite down to the 
 roots, so as to have fibres to each slip ; 
 plant them at once where they are to 
 flower, but these never make such good 
 plants as seedlings and layers, nor do 
 they generally flower so strongly. 
 Large double deep purplish! Saving Seed. — "The flowers which 
 Double variegated. All the have the most beautiful colours, should, 
 when in full bloom, be marked from 
 which to have seed ; if any ordinary 
 sorts grow near them, let them be re- 
 moved to prevent hybridizing. Let the 
 branches of seed be gathered in dry 
 weather, and after lying a few days in 
 the sun be beaten out and stored till 
 abundance of seed in autumn. The | spring." — Abercrombie. 
 plants, although usually of several I SWIETENIA. Two species. Stove 
 years' duration, yet, after the first year j evergreen trees. Ripe cuttings with 
 of flowering, the shoots generally be- j the leaves on. Loam and sand, 
 come longjWaggling, and of dwindling i SYMPHIANDRA pendula. Hardy 
 growth, so that a supply should be raised i biennial. Seeds. Common soil, 
 every year from seed or layers. SYMPHORICARPUS. St. Peter's 
 
 Soil. — The best is a moderately rich ! Wort. Three species. Hardy decidu- 
 
 with the pruning-knife or shears, so as 
 to keep the hedge in shape. When it 
 gets naked at the bottom it must be 
 again cut down." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 SWEET CALABASH. Passiflora 
 maliformis. 
 
 SWEET CICELY. See Chervil. 
 
 SWEETIA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Cuttings or seeds. 
 Loam and sand. 
 
 SWEET MARJORAM. Origanum 
 majorana. 
 
 SWEET MAUDLIN. Achillea age- 
 ratum. 
 
 SWEET PEA. Lathyrus odoratus. 
 
 SWEET POTATOE. Batata. 
 
 SWEET SOP. Anona squamosa. 
 
 SWEET SULTAN. Centaur ea mos- 
 chata. 
 
 SWEET WILLIAM. Dianthus bar- 
 batus. 
 
 Varieties. — Narrow-leaved kinds : 
 Deep Red; Pale Red; Pale Red and 
 Flesh-coloured; Purplish, white-eyed; 
 Snow White; White and Flesh-colour- 
 ed ; White and Purple ; White Spotted ; 
 Red flowers and white borders, called 
 Painted Lady Sweet- William, and many 
 other intermediate shades of colours 
 and variegations, and which frequently 
 vary in the flowers of the same aggre- 
 gate; there are also single and double 
 flowers of each variety. Among the 
 doubles of this class of narrow leases, 
 is that sort called the Mule, having a 
 bright red double flower in smallish ag- 
 gregates, said to have been accidentally 
 produced from the seed of a Carnation 
 impregnated by the Sweet- William. 
 
 Broad-leaved kinds : — Tall deep red ; 
 Tall flesh-coloured; Pure White; White 
 dotted; Striped leaves and red flowers; 
 Large double rose-coloured; Sweet 
 scented 
 burster; 
 
 varieties, about forty in number, are 
 hardy herbaceous evergreen perennials, 
 rising the first year with a large bushy 
 tuft of leafy shoots, continuing green 
 the year round, and the second year 
 shooting up flower-stems, producing 
 flowers in June and July, succeeded by 
 
S YM 
 
 579 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 TAN 
 
 ous trees. Cuttings or suckers. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 SYMPHYTUM. Eight species. 
 Hardy herbaceous or tuberous-rooted 
 perennials. Division. Off-sets. Any 
 soil suits them. 
 
 SYMPIEZIA capitellata. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Young cut- 
 tings. Turfy peat and sand. 
 
 SYMPLOCOS. Three species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs, or stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam, 
 peat and sand. 
 
 SYNCHRONICAL TIMES are va- 
 lidly observed for the performance of 
 gardening operations. More than one 
 botanist has observed that if the time 
 of the foliation and blossoming of trees 
 and herbs, and the days on which the 
 seed is sown, flowers, and ripens, were 
 noted, and if the observer continued 
 these observations for many years, there 
 can be no doubt but that we might find 
 some rule from which we might con- 
 clude at what time grains and culinary 
 plants, according to the nature of each 
 soil, ought to be sown ; nor should we 
 be at a loss to guess at the approach of 
 winter; nor ignorant whether we ought 
 to make our autumn sowing later or 
 earlier. 
 
 M. Barck would derive his intima- 
 tions from the vegetable tribes alone, 
 but, I think, the other kingdoms of 
 organic nature might be included; as 
 the appearances of certain migratory 
 birds, and the birth of certain insects. 
 For example, in the east of England, it 
 is a common saying among gardeners, 
 confirmed by practice — "When you 
 have seen two swallows together, sow 
 kidney beans." 
 
 Mr. Stillingfleet, one of the most 
 careful of Nature's observers, says, that 
 in his time "the prudent gardener never 
 ventured to put his house-plants out 
 until the mulberry leaf was of a certain 
 growth." — Gard. Aim. 
 
 SYNNETIA. Three species. Green- 
 house bulbous perennials. Offsets. 
 Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 SYRINGA. Lilac. Five species and 
 many varieties. Hardy deciduous 
 shrubs. Seeds, layers, or suckers. 
 Common soil. 
 
 SYRINGE. This is a most useful 
 implement for impelling water over 
 plants in pots, wall-trees, &c. Read's 
 syringes are excellent. When the ob- 
 ject is merely to refresh the plants, the 
 
 operator should stand at some distance 
 from the plants, so that the water may 
 spread and fall upon them like a shower. 
 But if aphides have to be destroyed he 
 may be closer to the plants, and drive 
 forth the water with greater force. 
 
 SYZYGIUM. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen trees or shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy peat. 
 
 TABERNtEMONTANA. Fifteen 
 species. Stove evergreen shrubs and 
 trees. Cuttings. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 TACCA. Six species. Stove bulbous 
 perennials. Division. Loam, peat, and 
 sand. 
 
 TACHIA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat, sand, 
 and loam. 
 
 TACHIGALIA bijuga. Stove ever- 
 green tree. Cuttings. Light loam. 
 
 TACSONIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 TiERRITIS. Three species. Ferns. 
 Stove evergreen creepers. Division or 
 seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 TAGETES. Fifteen species. Hardy 
 annuals, except T.florida and T. lucida, 
 the first a half-hardy, the second a 
 green-house herbaceous perennial. The 
 annuals increase by seed, the others by 
 cuttings or division. Light rich soil. 
 
 TALAUMA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Layers or inarching 
 on Magnolia obovata, and ripe cuttings 
 with the leaves on will root, but not 
 easily. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 TALIERA bengalensis. Palm. Seeds. 
 Turfy loam and sand. 
 
 TALIRIUM. Seven species. Stove 
 and green-house evergreen shrubs and 
 herbaceous perennials. Cuttings. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. T. reflexum, a stove 
 biennial, increases by seeds. 
 
 TALISIA guianensis. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Large cuttings with the 
 leaves on. Turfy loam and peat. 
 
 TALLIES. See Labels. 
 
 TAMARINDUS. Tamarind. Two 
 species. Stove evergreen trees. Seeds 
 and cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 TAMARIX. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs or trees, except T. 
 gallica, which is a hardy deciduous 
 shrub. Cuttings. Any soil suits them. 
 
 Manna is produced from a variety of 
 T. gallicia. 
 
 TAMONEA. Two species. Stove 
 biennials. Seeds. Sandy soil. 
 
 TAN. See Bark. 
 
TAN 
 
 580 
 
 — • — 
 
 TAX 
 
 TANACETUM. Tansy. Nine 
 species. Hardy or green-house herba- 
 ceous perennials. The hardy kinds 
 increase by division, the green-house 
 by cuttings. Light rich soil. T. globu- 
 l{ferum a hardy annual. Seeds. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 TANGIER PEA. Lathyrus tingi- 
 tanus. 
 
 TANK SYSTEM. See Stove, Hot 
 Water, and Rendle. 
 
 TANSY. Tanacetum vulgare. 
 
 Varieties. — The Curled or Double 
 Tansy, the one chiefly grown for culi- 
 nary purposes ; the Variegated ; and 
 the Common or Plain. This last is but 
 of little worth, except for medicinal 
 preparations. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — A light, dry, and 
 rather poor soil, in an open exposure, 
 is best suited to it, as in such it is the 
 most hardy and aromatic. 
 
 Planting. — It is propagated by rooted 
 slips, or divisions of its fibrous creeping 
 root, planted from the close of Febru- 
 ary until that of May, as well as during 
 the autumn. Established plants may 
 be moved at any period of the year. 
 Insert in rows twelve inches apart each 
 way ; a gentle watering being given, if 
 the season is not showery. As the 
 roots spread rapidly, plants will soon 
 make their appearance over a large 
 space of ground if left undisturbed ; to 
 prevent it, a path should be left entirely 
 round the bed, and often dug up to keep 
 them within bounds. The plants run 
 up to seed during summer, but the 
 stalks must be constantly removed, to 
 encourage the production of young 
 leaves. Weeds should be extirpated, 
 and the decayed stalks cleared away in 
 autumn, at the same time a little fresh 
 mould being scattered over the bed. 
 
 Forcing. — If required during the 
 winter and early spring, old undivided 
 roots must be placed in a moderate 
 hot-bed once a month, from the middle 
 of November to the close of February. 
 They may be planted in the earth of the 
 bed, in pots, and plunged in a similar 
 situation, or placed round the edges of 
 the bark pits in a hot-house. A frame 
 is not absolutely necessary, as a cover- 
 ing of mats supported on hoops, afforded 
 during frost, at night, and in very in- 
 clement weather, will answer nearly as 
 well. 
 
 TARCHONANTHUS. Two species. 
 
 Green-house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. 
 Light rich soil. 
 
 TARRAGON. Artemisia dracuncu- 
 lus. Use it in salads to correct the 
 coldness of the other herbs ; and its 
 leaves are likewise excellent when 
 pickled. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — It will flourish 
 in any that are poor and bleak. Indeed, 
 a poor dry earth is essential to produce 
 it in perfection as to flavour, and hardy. 
 
 Propagation by parting the roots, 
 slips, and cuttings; as also by seed to 
 be sown in the spring, but this mode is 
 attended with much trouble. To have 
 green Tarragon during the winter and 
 spring, strong-rooted plants must be 
 planted, small portions at a time, once 
 or twice a month, from the close of 
 October to the end of January. For the 
 main crop, it may be planted any time 
 from the end of February until the con- 
 clusion of May ; and by cuttings of the 
 young stalks, from the close of June 
 until the same period of August ; this 
 last mode is not often adopted, on ac- 
 count of the uncertainty attending the 
 rooting of the cuttings. 
 
 Cultivation. — The plants must be at 
 least ten inches apart; and if dry 
 weather, especially in the summer 
 months, water must be given regularly 
 every evening until they are rooted. 
 They soon establish themselves, and 
 may be gathered from the same year. 
 As they run up, if seed is not required, 
 the stems should be cut down, which 
 causes them to shoot afresh. The only 
 additional cultivation required is to 
 keep them free from weeds. 
 
 At the end of autumn, if some estab- 
 lished plants are set beneath a south 
 fence, they will often afford leaves 
 throughout the winter, or, at all events, 
 come early in the spring. Some of the 
 leaves should be gathered in the sum- 
 mer, and dried for winter's use. 
 
 To obtain Seed, it is only necessary to 
 allow it to run up without molestation. 
 It flowers about July, and when the 
 seed is ripe, in early autumn, must be 
 cut, and completely dried before it is 
 beaten out. 
 
 TASMANNIA aromatica. Green- 
 house shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 TAVERNIERA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreens; one a trailer, the 
 other a shrub. Seeds. Sandy loam. 
 
 TAXODIUM capense. Green-house 
 
TAX 
 
 581 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 TEN 
 
 evergreen shrub; and T. distichum 
 (Deciduous Cypress), and its varieties, 
 hardy deciduous trees. Seeds, layers, 
 or cuttings with the leaves on, placed in 
 water. Rich moist soil. 
 
 TAXUS. Yew Tree. Five species. 
 Evergreen shrubs and trees, all hardy 
 except T. nucifera, which belongs to 
 the green-house. They increase chiefly 
 by seeds, but may also increase by cut- 
 tings. Moist soil. See Coniferce. 
 
 TEA-TREE. Thea. 
 
 TECOMA. Fifteen species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs and trees. Green- 
 house, hardy, and half-hardy evergreen 
 and deciduous climbers. Cuttings and 
 layers. Peat and loam, or common 
 soil, and a warm situation. 
 
 TEEDIA. Two species. Green- 
 house biennials. Cuttings or seeds. 
 Light rich soil. 
 
 TEESDALIA. Two species. Har- 
 dy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 TELEKIA speciosa. Hardy herba- 
 ceous perennial. Division. Common 
 soil. 
 
 TELLIMA grandiflora. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennial. Division. Peaty 
 soil. 
 
 TELOPEA speciosissima. Warratah. 
 Green-house evergreen tree. Layers 
 and also cuttings. Sandy loam and 
 heath mould. 
 
 TEMPERATURE is the most im- 
 portant circumstance connected with 
 the cultivation of plants; for upon its 
 proper regulation and just accommoda- 
 tion to the intensity of light depend, in 
 the chief degree, whether a plant is 
 healthy and capable of performing its 
 functions. Every seed has its appro- 
 priate temperature for germinating (see 
 Germination) ; every root has a temper- 
 ature in which it imbibes food most 
 favourably (see Bottom-heat) ; and every 
 leaf has a temperature in which it re- 
 spires most vigorously (see Leaves and 
 Night Temperature). 
 
 TEMPLES dedicated to some deity 
 of the heathen mythology, as to Pan in 
 a grove, or to Flora among bright sun- 
 ny parterres, are not inappropriate, if 
 the extent of the grounds and the ex- 
 penditure on their management allow 
 them to be of that size, and of that cor- 
 rectness of style, which can alone give 
 the classic air and dignity which are 
 their only sources of pleasure. 
 
 TEMPLETONIA. Two species. 
 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 TENTHREDO. Saw-fly. T. moris, 
 Plum Saw-fly, attacks the green-gage, 
 and other plums, when about the size 
 of peas. It pierces them, causing their 
 fall, to deposit its eggs in their pulp. 
 M. Kollar gives these correct particu- 
 lars of this insect : — 
 
 "At a distance it resembles a small 
 house-fly ; but it has four wings, where- 
 as the house-fly has only two. The 
 head and body are completely black, 
 and the feet of a reddish yellow. 
 
 " It lays its eggs in the notched part 
 of the calyx of the flowers, cuts in 
 obliquely with its saws, without com- 
 pletely piercing it through, and intro- 
 duces the egg into the deepest part, so 
 that, when it flies away, nothing is seen 
 on the exterior but two very small 
 brown spots. 
 
 " The egg is very small, greenish- 
 white, and transparent. It is hatched 
 in the course of a few days, and pro- 
 duces a delicate whitish larva, with a 
 dark-brown head, six pairs of middle 
 feet, three pairs of fore feet, and one 
 pair of anal feet." 
 
 T. hcemorrhoidalis, Pear Saw-fly, re- 
 sembles the former, but is rather larger, 
 and has more yellow about it. The 
 same authority last quoted says that it 
 " appears usually late in May, some of 
 them only in June, if the warm spring 
 weather sets in late. The female lays 
 from forty to sixty eggs, and almost 
 always on the under side of the leaf. 
 The caterpillar, which is hatched in a 
 few days, at first is of a whitish yellow, 
 but becomes darker every day. As soon, 
 as it is exposed to the light, it spins a 
 web over itself, the threads of which 
 proceed from its mouth. The caterpil- 
 lar never appears out of this web ; and 
 when it has partly eaten a leaf, it spins 
 itself a web on another, and always in 
 company with the other caterpillars. It 
 has a black head, and, immediately un- 
 der the throat, two black dots : the other 
 parts of the body are ochre-colored and 
 transparent, without hairs." — Kollar. 
 
 T. difformis, Antler Rose Saw-fly. 
 Its caterpillar feeds on the leaves of 
 rose-trees ; and they are thus described 
 by Mr. Curtis : — 
 
 "They are nearly cylindrical, taper- 
 ing a little to the tail. They are bright 
 green, and covered with short upright 
 hairs, with a darker line down the back, 
 
TEN 
 
 582 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 TEN 
 
 and one of a deeper tint down each 
 side. Having arrived at their full 
 growth, they spin a web either between 
 the contiguous leaves, or in a fold, by 
 drawing the sides of a leaf slightly to- 
 gether ; but sometimes it is attached to 
 the stem only at a fork of the branches. 
 In this web they form a yellowish-white 
 cocoon, somewhat oval. In these co- 
 coons the green larvae rest a short time, 
 losing, it is said, their fourteen false 
 legs, and eventually changing to a pupa. 
 The flies are hatched in twelve or thir- 
 teen days. The perfect insect is found 
 from the end of May to the middle of 
 August. 
 
 " It would not, perhaps, be an easy 
 matter to get rid of these troublesome 
 caterpillars, except by hand-picking and 
 shaking the branches over a cloth ; for, 
 as they keep on the under surface of 
 the leaves, no application except fumi- 
 gating with sulphur would fairly reach 
 them. It is possible that sprinkling 
 hellebore powder over the leaves would 
 annoy them." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 T.populi, Peach, or Poplar Saw-fly, 
 also resembles the first-named, and M. 
 Kollar says that, — 
 
 "As soon as the first leaves of the 
 stone-fruits are unfolded in spring, this 
 saw-fly visits them, and attacks the 
 peach, apricot, and plum trees. They 
 choose days that are particularly still 
 and warm, and lay their eggs on a leaf 
 in rows, one after another, from thirty 
 to forty in number, not all at once, but 
 often disburden themselves of their eggs 
 at different times. They are longish, 
 cylindrical, and of a light yellow color. 
 
 " If the weather is favorable the eggs 
 are hatched in a few days, and a white- 
 greenish grub is produced from them. 
 They no sooner begin to move than 
 they surround themselves with a web ; 
 thus surrounded they roam from one 
 leaf to another, from which they select 
 the best parts for their food ; therefore 
 a leaf is never found entirely con- 
 sumed. 
 
 "As soon as they have attained their 
 full growth they retire into the ground, 
 form themselves a chamber, make them- 
 selves a dark-brown roomy case, the 
 material for which they produce from 
 themselves, and remain in the earth till 
 spring, when they again appear as saw- 
 flies to propagate their species." — 
 Kollar. 
 
 T. grossularia and T. ribesii are 
 
 very destructive of gooseberries. Mr. 
 Curtis says that, — 
 
 " The larvae, of which there are two 
 generations in the course of the year, 
 live in societies consisting of from 50 
 to nearly 1000. One family, so to 
 speak, frequently occupy one bush, 
 and destroy all the leaves, thus prevent- 
 ing the fruit from arriving at maturity. 
 
 " The larvae are of a grayish colour, 
 covered with small black warts ar- 
 ranged in rows, and have twenty feet. 
 Their transformation also takes place 
 in society, one fixing the end of its 
 cocoon to the end of the next, and so 
 on. Many remedies have been sug- 
 gested, but none have been attended 
 with perfect success. Perhaps the surest 
 way of all to diminish the numbers is 
 to hand-pick the larvae, and collect the 
 cocoons wherever they appear, and 
 destroy them, thus killing many hun- 
 dreds in embryo." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 T. pini, T. erythrocephala, and T. ru- 
 fus, infest the pine and fir species. 
 
 T. cerasi produces a slimy catepillar, 
 commonly called a slug-worm, very in- 
 jurious to the leaf of the cherry, plum, 
 and pear. Mr. Curtis observes of 
 " these very singular and inactive cat- 
 erpillars," that they " are more like 
 little black slugs, or tadpoles, than the 
 larvae of a saw-fly, being entirely co- 
 vered with a slimy matter which gives 
 them a moist and shining appearance ; 
 and when at rest, upon the foliage, 
 they might easily be mistaken for the 
 droppings of sparrows or swallows. 
 Upon closer examination they will be 
 found to exhibit the typical characters 
 of the family to which they belong, 
 having six pectoral and fourteen abdo- 
 minal feet, but no anal ones. They 
 are of a deep bottle-green color ; the 
 thorax is dilated, being very much 
 thicker than the rest of the body, and 
 concealing the head, or nearly so. 
 
 " After four or five weeks, when 
 they have arrived at their full growth, 
 they cast off their bottle-green jackets, 
 and then appear in a suit of buff, being 
 entirely changed in their appearance ; 
 they no longer shine, neither are they 
 smooth, but covered with small trans- 
 verse wrinkles ; and, a short time after, 
 they leave the leaves for the purpose 
 of entering the earth, where they spin 
 an oval brown cocoon composed of silk, 
 with grains of the soil adhering to the 
 outside. 
 
TEP 
 
 583 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 TER 
 
 " Towards the end of July, after 
 having lain dormant nearly ten months, 
 the flies emerge from their tombs. The 
 female is of a shining black, with a 
 violet tint ; the head and thorax are 
 pubescent; the horns are short, pointed, 
 and composed of nine joints; the ovi- 
 positor is nearly concealed ; the wings 
 are often more or less stained with 
 black. 
 
 " The eggs are deposited on the 
 upper side of the leaves, probably un- 
 der the skin. They are oval, and of a 
 clear yellow colour : the young larvae 
 are hatched from them in a few days. 
 Dusting the infested trees with quick- 
 lime is certain death to the larvae, es- 
 pecially in their earlier stages ; but it 
 ought to be repeated once or twice, as 
 they change their skins, and can thus, 
 like slugs, get rid of the noxious matter 
 with their slough, for the first time, but 
 not so at the second dusting. On a 
 small scale, the powdered and unslaked 
 lime might be scattered over the leaves 
 with a tin box, having a number of holes 
 in the lid like a dredging-box ; and on a 
 larger scale a fine sieve might be used by 
 a man on a ladder or steps. Decoction 
 of tobacco water, about a quarter of a 
 pound of tobacco to two gallons of 
 water, thrown over the trees with a 
 garden-engine, will destroy them. 
 
 " Some persons have employed lime- 
 water with complete success ; about a 
 peck of lime to thirty gallons of water; 
 and if two pounds of soft soap be added, 
 it will improve the mixture. 
 
 " The best periods for applying these 
 liquids, are before seven in the morn- 
 ing and after five in the evening. The 
 syringing should be repeated until the 
 trees are free from the slug worm ; they 
 may afterwards be washed clean with 
 pure water ; and if the lime water be 
 used in the evening the cleansing may 
 be deferred until the following morn- 
 ing." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 TEPHRITIS onopordinis. Celery 
 Fly. This insect causes blisters on the 
 leaves of celery by puncturing them, 
 and depositing its eggs within their 
 tissue. Mr. Curtis observes that, — 
 
 " On examining these blisters they 
 are found to be considerably inflated, 
 and, on holding them up to the light, a 
 maggot may be seen moving between 
 the thin and somewhat transparent cu- 
 ticles, where it has been consuming 
 the parenchyma. Those parts of the 
 
 blisters where it commenced its opera- 
 tions being withered, they become 
 ochreous or brown ; and the other por- 
 tions, but recently deprived of the 
 pulpy substance, partake of a pale 
 green tint. In this way one maggot 
 will form a patch of more than an inch 
 in diameter before it is full grown. 
 
 "The larvae are of a glossy pale 
 green, with the alimentary canal shin- 
 ing through the back ; the head is at- 
 tenuated, and the tail obtuse, with a 
 few tubercles. The maggots leave 
 their habitations and probably enter the 
 earth to undergo their transformation to 
 the pupa. The male flies are shining 
 ochreous, with a few black bristles on 
 the head and thorax, which are dark 
 ochreous; the lower part of the face 
 and horns is yellowish ; the latter droop, 
 and are furnished with a fine bristle or 
 seta, which is black, except at the 
 base. The eyes are deep green ; the 
 body, which is five-jointed, is rusty 
 brown and downy ; the wings are much 
 longer than the body, iridescent, pret- 
 tily variegated with brown, leaving 
 two transparent spots on the costal 
 edge, and five large irregular ones on 
 the inferior margin. The female is 
 larger and darker, especially the tho- 
 rax, abdomen, and the brown markings 
 on the wings." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 The blisters are most prevalent in 
 September and October, and are occa- 
 sionally found on those of the Alex- 
 ander and Parsnep. 
 
 TEPHROSIA. Twenty-eight spe- 
 cies. Stove and green-house evergreen 
 shrubs, and a few herbaceous peren- 
 nials of the latter species. T. virgini- 
 ana is half hardy. Seeds or young cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 TERAMNUS. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 TEREBRATION, or peg-grafting, is 
 an obsolete mode, in which a hole 
 was bored in the stock, and the scion 
 was cut in a peg form to fit iu See 
 Grafting. 
 
 TERMINALLY. Fifteen species. 
 Stove evergreen trees and shrubs. Ripe 
 cuttings. Loam aud peat. From T. 
 catappa the Indian ink is obtained. 
 
 TERNSTROMIA. Four species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 TERRACES are not permissible any- 
 where but around the mansion. Mr. 
 
TES 
 
 584 
 
 THE 
 
 Whately justly observes, in connection 
 with these structures, that,— 
 
 " Choice arrangement, composition, 
 improvement, and preservation, are so 
 many symptoms of art which may occa- 
 sionally appear in several parts of a 
 garden, but ought to be displayed with- 
 out reserve near the house; nothing 
 there should seem neglected ; it is a 
 scene of the most cultivated nature ; it 
 ought to be enriched — it ought to be 
 adorned ; and design may be avowed 
 in the plan, and expense in the execu- 
 tion." 
 
 Mr. Loudon is more practical on this 
 subject, and observes, — 
 
 " The breadth of terraces, and their 
 height relatively to the level of the floor 
 of the living-rooms, must depend jointly 
 on the height of the floor of the living- 
 rooms and the surface of the grounds 
 or country to be seen over them. Too 
 broad or too high a terrace will both 
 have the effect of foreshortening a lawn 
 with a declining surface, or conceal- 
 ing a near valley. The safest mode, 
 in doubtful cases, is not to form this 
 appendage till after the principal floor 
 is laid, and then to determine the de- 
 tails of the terrace by trial and correc- 
 tion. 
 
 " Narrow terraces are entirely occu- 
 pied as promenades, and may be either 
 gravelled or paved ; and different le- 
 vels, when they exist, connected by in- 
 clined planes or flights of steps. Where 
 the breadth is more than is requisite for 
 walks, the borders may be kept in turf, 
 with groups or marginal strips of flowers 
 and low shrubs. In some cases the 
 terrace-walls may be so extended as to 
 enclose ground sufficient for a level 
 plot to be used as a bowling green. 
 These are generally connected with one 
 of the living-rooms, or the conservatory; 
 and to the latter is frequently joined an 
 aviary, and the entire range of botanic 
 stoves." — Enc. Gard. 
 
 TESTUDINARIA. Two species. 
 Green-house deciduous climbers. Im- 
 ported roots. Turfy loam and peat. 
 
 TETRACERA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Ripe cuttings. 
 Turfy loam and peat. 
 
 TETRAGONOLOBUS. Hardy trail- 
 ing annuals or deciduous trailers. 
 Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 TETRAGONOTHECA helianthoides. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennial. Division 
 or seeds. Rich light soil. 
 
 TETRAMENA mexicanianum. 
 Green-house shrub. Cuttings and seed. 
 Light rich loam. 
 
 TETRANTHERA. Eight species. 
 Stove and green-house evergreen trees 
 and shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Turfy loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 TETRANTHUS littoralis. Stove 
 evergreen creeper. Division. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 TETRAPELTIS fragrans. Stove 
 orchid. Division. Peat and potsherds. 
 
 TETRAPTERIS. Two species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 TETRATHECA. Seven species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Young 
 cuttings. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 TETTIGONIA spumaria. Froth Fly, 
 or Cuckoo Spit. The frothy patches 
 seen in April and May upon the young 
 shoots of hawthorn, lilac, peach, &c, 
 are formed by this insect. As the froth 
 is formed from the sap of the plant, 
 the insect is by so much injurious to it. 
 The froth protects the insect from the 
 sun, from night colds, and from parasitic 
 insects ; but it betrays the insect to the 
 gardener, whose hand is the best re- 
 medy. 
 
 TEUCRIUM. Forty-seven species. 
 Hardy, half-hardy, and green-house 
 evergreen shrubs and herbaceous pe- 
 rennials ; some hardy annuals, and T. 
 cubense a stove biennial. The herba- 
 ceous perennials increase by division 
 and seeds; the shrubby kinds by young 
 cuttings ; the annuals and biennials by 
 seeds. Common soil suits them all. 
 
 THALIA dealbata, a half-hardy aqua- 
 tic perennial, and T. geniculata, a stove 
 herbaceous perennial. Division. Light 
 rich soil. 
 
 THALICTRUM. Fifty-six species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials : a few 
 are twiners. Division. Light soil. 
 
 THAPSIA. Seven species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials^ Seeds. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 THAPSIUM. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division or 
 seeds. Common soil. 
 
 THEA. Tea. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. San- 
 dy loam and peat. 
 
 THEOPHRASTA Jussieui. Stove 
 evergreen tree. Cuttings, with the 
 leaves left entire. 
 
 THERMOMETER. This instrument 
 is the only unfailing guide for the gar- 
 
THE 
 
 585 
 
 THE 
 
 dener in regulating the heat to which 
 he allows the roots and foliage of his 
 plants to be subjected. Fahrenheit's is 
 that employed in England ; but as on 
 the Continent others, differently gradu- 
 ated, are employed, and referred to by 
 
 foreign writers, the following table, 
 showing the synonymous degrees of 
 each, will be useful. [See table.] 
 
 Fahrenheit's is used chiefly in Britain, 
 Holland, and North America, the freez- 
 ing point of water on which is at 32° ; 
 
 Fah. 
 
 Reau. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fah. 
 
 Reau. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fah. 
 
 Reau. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fah. 
 
 Reau. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 212 
 
 80.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 153 
 
 53.7 
 
 67.2 
 
 94 
 
 27.5 
 
 34.4 
 
 35 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.6i 
 
 211 
 
 79.5 
 
 99.4 
 
 152 
 
 53.3 
 
 66.6 
 
 93 
 
 27.1 
 
 33.8 
 
 34 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.1 
 
 210 
 
 79.1 
 
 98.8 
 
 151 
 
 52.8 
 
 66.1 
 
 92 
 
 26.6 
 
 33.3 
 
 33 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 209 
 
 7-*.6 
 
 98.3 
 
 150 
 
 53.4 
 
 65.5 
 
 91 
 
 26.2 
 
 32.7 
 
 32 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 208 
 
 78.2 
 
 97.7 
 
 149 
 
 52.0 
 
 65.0 
 
 90 
 
 25.7 
 
 32.2 
 
 31 
 
 — 0.4 
 
 — 0.5 
 
 207 
 
 77.7 
 
 97 2 
 
 148 
 
 51.5 
 
 65.4 
 
 89 
 
 25.3 
 
 31.6 
 
 30 
 
 — 0.8 
 
 — 1.1 
 
 206 
 
 77.3 
 
 96.6 
 
 147 
 
 51.1 
 
 63.8 
 
 88, 
 
 24.8 
 
 31.1 
 
 29 
 
 — 1.3 
 
 — 1.6 
 
 205 
 
 76.8 
 
 96.1 
 
 146 
 
 50.6 
 
 63.3 
 
 87 
 
 24.4 
 
 30.5 
 
 28 
 
 — 1.7 
 
 — 2.2 
 
 204 
 
 76.4 
 
 95.5 
 
 145 
 
 50.2 
 
 62.7 
 
 86 
 
 24 
 
 30.0 
 
 27 
 
 — 22 
 
 — 2.7 
 
 203 
 
 76.0 
 
 95.0 
 
 144 
 
 49.7 
 
 62 2 
 
 85 
 
 23.5 
 
 29 4 
 
 26 
 
 — 2.6 
 
 — 3.3 
 
 202 
 
 75.5 
 
 94.4 
 
 143 
 
 49.3 
 
 61.6 
 
 84 
 
 23.1 
 
 28.8 
 
 25 
 
 — 3.0 
 
 — 3.8 
 
 201 
 
 75.1 
 
 93.8 
 
 142 
 
 43.8 
 
 61.1 
 
 83 
 
 22 6 
 
 28.3 
 
 24 
 
 — 3.5 
 
 - 4.4 
 
 200 
 
 74.6 
 
 93 3 
 
 141 
 
 4S.4 
 
 60 5 
 
 82 
 
 22.2 
 
 27.7 
 
 23 
 
 — 4.0 
 
 — 50 
 
 199 
 
 742 
 
 92.7 
 
 140 
 
 48.0 
 
 60.0 
 
 81 
 
 21.7 
 
 27 2 
 
 22 
 
 — 4.4 
 
 — 5.5 
 
 198 
 
 73.7 
 
 92.2 
 
 139 
 
 47.5 
 
 59.4 
 
 80 
 
 21.3 
 
 26.6 
 
 21 
 
 — 4.8 
 
 — 6.1 
 
 197 
 
 73.3 
 
 91.6 
 
 138 
 
 47.1 
 
 58.8 
 
 79 
 
 20.8 
 
 26.1 
 
 20 
 
 — 5.3 
 
 — 6.6 
 
 196 
 
 72.8 
 
 91.1 
 
 137 
 
 466 
 
 5S3 
 
 78 
 
 20.4 
 
 25.5 
 
 19 
 
 — 5.7 
 
 — 7.2 
 
 195 
 
 72.4 
 
 90.5 
 
 136 
 
 46.2 
 
 57.7 
 
 77 
 
 20.0 
 
 25.0 
 
 18 
 
 — 6.2 
 
 — 7.7 
 
 194 
 
 720 
 
 90.0 
 
 135 
 
 45.7 
 
 57.2 
 
 76 
 
 19.5 
 
 244 
 
 17 
 
 — 6.6 
 
 — 8.3 
 
 193 
 
 71.5 
 
 89.4 
 
 134 
 
 45.3 
 
 56.6 
 
 75 
 
 19.1 
 
 23.8 
 
 16 
 
 — 7.1 
 
 — 8.8 
 
 192 
 
 71.1 
 
 88.8 
 
 133 
 
 44.8 
 
 56.1 
 
 74 
 
 18.6 
 
 23.3 
 
 15 
 
 — 7.5 
 
 — 9.5 
 
 191 
 
 70.6 
 
 88.3 
 
 132 
 
 44.4 
 
 55.5 
 
 73 
 
 18.2 
 
 22.7 
 
 14 
 
 — 8.0 
 
 -10.0 
 
 190 
 
 70.2 
 
 87.7 
 
 131 
 
 44.0 
 
 55.0 
 
 72 
 
 17.7 
 
 22.2 
 
 13 
 
 — 8.4 
 
 —10.5 
 
 189 
 
 69.7 
 
 87.2 
 
 130 
 
 43.5 
 
 54.4 
 
 71 
 
 17.3 
 
 21.6 
 
 12 
 
 — 8.8 
 
 —11.1 
 
 188 
 
 69.3 
 
 86 6 
 
 129 
 
 43.1 
 
 53.8 
 
 70 
 
 16.8 
 
 21.1 
 
 11 
 
 — 9.3 
 
 -11.6 
 
 187 
 
 6S.8 
 
 86.1 
 
 123 
 
 42.6 
 
 53.3 
 
 69 
 
 16 4 
 
 20.5 
 
 10 
 
 — 9.7 
 
 —122 
 
 186 
 
 69.4 
 
 85.5 
 
 127 
 
 42.2 
 
 52.7 
 
 68 
 
 16.0 
 
 20.0 
 
 9 
 
 —10.2 
 
 -12.7 
 
 185 
 
 68.0 
 
 85.0 
 
 126 
 
 41.7 
 
 52.2 
 
 67 
 
 15.5 
 
 19.4 
 
 8 
 
 -10.6 
 
 —13.3 
 
 184 
 
 67.5 
 
 84.4 
 
 125 
 
 41.3 
 
 51.6 
 
 66 
 
 15.1 
 
 18.8 
 
 7 
 
 -11.1 
 
 —13.8 
 
 183 
 
 67.1 
 
 83.8 
 
 124 
 
 40.S 
 
 51.1 
 
 65 
 
 14.6 
 
 183 
 
 6 
 
 -11.5 
 
 —14.4 
 
 182 
 
 66.6 
 
 83.3 
 
 123 
 
 40.4 
 
 50.5 
 
 64 
 
 14.2 
 
 17.7 
 
 5 
 
 -12.0 
 
 —15.0 
 
 181 
 
 66.2 
 
 82.7 
 
 122 
 
 40 
 
 50.0 
 
 63 
 
 13.7 
 
 17.2 
 
 4 
 
 -12 4 
 
 —15.5 
 
 180 
 
 65.7 
 
 82.2 
 
 121 
 
 39.5 
 
 49.4 
 
 62 
 
 13.3 
 
 16 6 
 
 3 
 
 —12.8 
 
 —16.1 
 
 179 
 
 65.3 
 
 81.6 
 
 120 
 
 39.1 
 
 48.8 
 
 61 
 
 12 8 
 
 16.1 
 
 2 
 
 —13.3 
 
 —16.6 
 
 178 
 
 64.8 
 
 81.8 
 
 119 
 
 38.6 
 
 48.3 
 
 60 
 
 124 
 
 15.5 
 
 1 
 
 —13.7 
 
 —17.2 
 
 177 
 
 644 
 
 80 5 
 
 118 
 
 38.2 
 
 47.7 
 
 59 
 
 12.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 
 
 -14.2 
 
 —17.7 
 
 176 
 
 64.0 
 
 80.0 
 
 117 
 
 37.7 
 
 47.2 
 
 58 
 
 11.5 
 
 14.4 
 
 — 1 
 
 —14.6 
 
 -18.3 
 
 175 
 
 63.5 
 
 79.4 
 
 116 
 
 37.3 
 
 46 6 
 
 57 
 
 11.1 
 
 13.8 
 
 — 2 
 
 —15.1 
 
 —18.8 
 
 174 
 
 63.1 
 
 78.8 
 
 115 
 
 36.8 
 
 46.1 
 
 56 
 
 10.6 
 
 13.3 
 
 — 3 
 
 —15.5 
 
 —19.4 
 
 173 
 
 62.6 
 
 78.3 
 
 114 
 
 36.4 
 
 45 5 
 
 55 
 
 10.2 
 
 12.7 
 
 — 4 
 
 —16.0 
 
 —20.0 
 
 172 
 
 62.2 
 
 77.7 
 
 113 
 
 36.0 
 
 45.0 
 
 54 
 
 9.7 
 
 122 
 
 — 5 
 
 -16.4 
 
 -20.5 
 
 171 
 
 61.7 
 
 77.2 
 
 112 
 
 35.5 
 
 44.4 
 
 53 
 
 9.3 
 
 116 
 
 — 6 
 
 —16.8 
 
 -21.1 
 
 170 
 
 61.3 
 
 76.6 
 
 111 
 
 35.1 
 
 43 8 
 
 52 
 
 8.8 
 
 ll.l 
 
 - 7 
 
 —17.3 
 
 -21.6 
 
 169 
 
 60.8 
 
 76.1 
 
 110 
 
 34.6 
 
 43.3 
 
 51 
 
 8.4 
 
 10.5 
 
 — 8 
 
 -17.7 
 
 —22.2 
 
 168 
 
 60.4 
 
 75.5 
 
 109 
 
 34.2 
 
 42.7 
 
 50 
 
 8.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 — 9 
 
 —18.2 
 
 —22.7 
 
 167 
 
 60.0 
 
 75.0 
 
 108 
 
 33.7 
 
 42.2 
 
 49 
 
 7.5 
 
 9.4 
 
 -10 
 
 —18.6 
 
 —23.3 
 
 166 
 
 59 5 
 
 74.4 
 
 107 
 
 33.3 
 
 41.6 
 
 48 
 
 7.1 
 
 8.8 
 
 —11 
 
 —19.1 
 
 —23.8 
 
 165 
 
 59.1 
 
 73.8 
 
 106 
 
 32.8 
 
 41.1 
 
 47 
 
 6.6 
 
 8.3 
 
 —12 
 
 —19.5 
 
 —24.4 
 
 164 
 
 58.6 
 
 73.3 
 
 105 
 
 32.4 
 
 40.5 
 
 46 
 
 6.2 
 
 7.7 
 
 -13 
 
 -20.0 
 
 —25.0 
 
 163 
 
 58.2 
 
 72.7 
 
 104 
 
 32.0 
 
 40.0 
 
 45 
 
 57 
 
 7.2 
 
 —14 
 
 —20.4 
 
 -255 
 
 162 
 
 57.7 
 
 72.2 
 
 103 
 
 31.5 
 
 39.4 
 
 44 
 
 5.3 
 
 6.6 
 
 —15 
 
 —20.8 
 
 -26.1 
 
 161 
 
 57.3 
 
 71.6 
 
 102 
 
 31.1 
 
 38.8 
 
 43 
 
 4.8 
 
 6.1 
 
 -16 
 
 —21.3 
 
 —26.6 
 
 160 
 
 568 
 
 71.1 
 
 101 
 
 30.6 
 
 38.3 
 
 42 
 
 4.4 
 
 5.5 
 
 —17 
 
 —21.7 
 
 —27.2 
 
 159 
 
 56.4 
 
 70.5 
 
 100 
 
 30.2 
 
 37.7 
 
 41 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 —18 
 
 -22.2 
 
 -27.7 
 
 158 
 
 56.0 
 
 70.0 
 
 99 
 
 29.7 
 
 37.2 
 
 40 
 
 3.5 
 
 4.4 
 
 -19 
 
 —22.6 
 
 -28.3 
 
 157 
 
 55.5 
 
 69.4 
 
 98 
 
 29.3 
 
 36.6 
 
 39 
 
 31 
 
 3.8 
 
 —20 
 
 —23.1 
 
 —28.8 
 
 156 
 
 55.1 
 
 68.8 
 
 97 
 
 28.8 
 
 36.1 
 
 38 
 
 2.6 
 
 3.3 
 
 
 
 
 155 
 
 54.6 
 
 68.3 
 
 96 
 
 28.4 
 
 35.5 
 
 37 
 
 2.2 
 
 2.7 
 
 
 
 
 154 
 
 54.2 
 
 67.7 
 
 95 
 
 29.0 
 
 35.0 
 
 36 
 
 1.7 
 
 2.2 
 
 
 
 
THE 
 
 THI 
 
 and its boiling point, 212°. Reaumur's 
 thermometer was that chiefly used in 
 France before the Revolution, and is 
 that now generally used in Spain, and 
 in some other Continental States. In 
 its scale, the freezing point is 0° ; and 
 the boiling point, 80°. Celsius or the 
 Centigrade thermometer, now used 
 throughout France, and in the northern 
 kingdoms of Europe, the freezing point 
 is 0°; and the boiling point, 100°. 
 Hence, to reduce degrees of tempera- 
 ture of the Centigrade thermometer and 
 of that of Reaumur to degrees of Fah- 
 renheit's scale, and conversely: — 
 
 Rule 1, Multiply the Centigrade de- 
 grees by 9, and divide the product by 
 5 ; or multiply the degrees of Reaumur 
 by 9, and divide by 4 ; then add 32 to 
 the quotient in either case, and the 
 sum is the degrees of temperature of 
 Fahrenheit's scale. 
 
 R,ule 2. From the number of degrees 
 on Fahrenheit's scale, subtract 32; 
 multiply the remainder by 5, for Centi- 
 grade degrees, or by 4 for those of 
 Reaumur's scale, and the product, in 
 either case, being divided by 9, will 
 give the temperature required. 
 
 To ascertain the internal temperature 
 of a hot-house, the thermometer should 
 be fixed near its centre, against a pillar, 
 and under a cupola, or little roof, shad- 
 ing it from the sun. 
 
 A self-registering thermometer should 
 be in every house, for it shows the 
 highest and lowest degrees of heat 
 which have occurred in the twenty- 
 four hours; and, therefore, 
 Fig. 166. serves as a check upon 
 those to whose care they 
 are entrusted. 
 
 Bregazzi's bark-bed ther- 
 mometer is an excellent in- 
 strument for ascertaining 
 the bottom heat of hot- 
 beds, bark-pits, &c. It is 
 a thermometer inclosed in 
 a metal tube, perforated to 
 admitthe heat, pointed so as 
 to be easily thrust down and 
 with a small door in the 
 , JJ side, for observing the de- 
 
 \«/ gree of temperature shown 
 
 V by the scale. Fig. 166. 
 
 THERMO PS IS. Three species. 
 Hardy or half-hardy herbaceous peren- 
 nials. Seeds. Light rich soil. 
 
 THESIUM. Six species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials, except T. am- 
 
 plexicaule, a green - house evergreen 
 shrub ; increased by cuttings, and grow- 
 ing best in loam and peat ; the herba- 
 ceous kinds increase by division or 
 seeds, and require a chalky soil. 
 
 THESPESIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Half-ripe cuttings. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 THIBAUDIA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Turfy loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 THINNING. The exhaustion conse- 
 quent upon the production of seed, is 
 a chief cause of the decay of plants. 
 This explains why fruit trees are weak- 
 ened or rendered temporarily unpro- 
 ductive, and even killed, by being 
 allowed to ripen too large a crop of 
 fruit, or to "overbear themselves," as 
 it is emphatically termed by the gar- 
 dener. 
 
 The thinning of fruit is consequently 
 one of the most important operations 
 of the garden, though one of the least 
 generally practised. On the weaker 
 branches of the nectarine and peach, 
 an average space of nine inches should 
 be between each brace of fruit, and on 
 the most vigorous wood of the most 
 healthy trees, they should not be nearer 
 than six inches. This enforcement of 
 the importance of thinning fruit, is not 
 intended to be confined to the two 
 trees specified; it is equally important 
 to be attended to in all other fruit- 
 bearers, but especially the vine, apri- 
 cot, apple, and pear. It should be 
 done with a bold fearless hand, and the 
 perfection of that which is allowed to 
 remain, will amply reward the grower 
 in the harvest time for the apparent 
 sacrifice now made. But he will not 
 reap his reward only in this year, for 
 the trees, thus kept unweakened by 
 over production, will be able to ripen 
 their wood, and deposit that store of 
 inspissated sap in their vessels, so ab- 
 solutely necessary for their fruitfulness 
 next season. 
 
 The berries of the grape vine are best 
 thinned from the branches with a sharp- 
 pointed pair of scissors, care being 
 taken to remove the smallest berries. 
 This increases the weight and excel- 
 lence of the bunches; for two berries 
 will always outweigh four grown on 
 the same branchlet of a bunch, be- 
 sides being far handsomer, and having 
 more juice, as compared with the skins. 
 The average weight of the bunches on 
 
THO 
 
 587 
 
 THU 
 
 a vine maybe taken, when ripe, at half 
 a pound each, and with this data it is 
 easy to carry into practice Mr. Clement 
 Hoare's excellent rule for proportioning 
 the crop to the size of the vine. 
 
 If its stem, measured just above the 
 ground, be three inches in circumfer- 
 ence, it may bear five pounds weight of 
 grapes. 
 
 3^ inches 10 lbs. 
 
 4 « 15 « 
 
 Ah " 20 " 
 
 5 « 25 " 
 
 And so five pounds additional for 
 
 every half inch of increased circum- 
 ference. 
 
 Thinning is a most necessary opera- 
 tion with plants, as well as with the 
 fruit they bear. The roots of a plant 
 extend in a circle round it, of which the 
 stem is the centre. If the roots of ad- 
 joining plants extend within each other's 
 circle, they mutually rob of nutriment, 
 and check each other's growth. Thin- 
 ning in the seed-bed is the remedy 
 generally applied with too timid a 
 hand. 
 
 THOMASIA. Seven species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
 Loam, peat., and sand. 
 
 THOUINIA pinnata. Stove ever- 
 green shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 THRIFT. Statice armeria. See 
 Edgings. 
 
 THRIPS, a genus of predatory in- 
 sects. 
 
 T. adonidum is particularly injurious 
 to stove plants. Its different forms are 
 thus portrayed by that excellent ento- 
 mologist, Mr. Curtis : — • 
 
 " The larva? and pups are yellowish- 
 white, and the perfect insect is of a 
 dull deep black, with the point, and 
 sometimes the whole of the abdomen, 
 of a rust colour, the wings are dirty 
 white, the horns and legs yellowish, 
 the extremity of the former black ; it is 
 very troublesome in hot-houses, attack- 
 ing tropical plants by piercing the under 
 side of the leaves, and one often sees 
 at the tip of the tail a globule of black- 
 ish fluid, which it soon deposits, and by 
 innumerable spots of this glutinous mat- 
 ter the pores of the leaves are stopped 
 up, and large portions of the surface 
 become blotched. During March the 
 full-grown larvae and pups, which are 
 as large as the perfect insect, are found 
 
 the leaves, and at this time the recently 
 hatched but perfect insect, either lies 
 close under the ribs, or roves about in 
 search of a mate." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 T. ochraceus infests the ripe fruit of 
 plums, peaches, and nectarines, pierc- 
 ing the stalks and causing their fall, and 
 rendering the fruit disgusting. It was 
 first noticed, and thus described by Mr. 
 Curtis : — 
 
 " It is narrow and linear, of a bright 
 and deep ochreous colour, the eyes are 
 black, the horns appear to be only six- 
 jointed and brownish at the tips ; it has 
 three ocelli in the crown, the body is 
 hairy, the tip pointed and bristly, the 
 wings are shorter than the body in the 
 male, lying parallel on the back when 
 at rest, narrow, especially the under 
 ones, and fringed, the hairs longest 
 beneath and at the point, tips of feet 
 dusky." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 THROAT WORT. Campanula cervi- 
 caria. 
 
 THROATWORT. Campanula tra- 
 chelium. 
 
 THROATWORT. Trachelium. 
 
 THRYALLIS brachystachys. Stove 
 evergreen climber. Ripe cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 THUJA arbor vita. Eight species. 
 Evergreen trees, all hardy except T. 
 articulata, which is half-hardy, and T. 
 cupressoides, which belongs to the green- 
 house. Seeds, and T. pendula, one of 
 the rarer kinds, by cuttings. A moist 
 soil suits them best. T. occidentalis 
 and T. orientalis form admirable ever- 
 green hedges, and when properly shear- 
 ed, inclining inward from the base so 
 that no part is overshadowed, retain 
 their beauty for many years. As a 
 standard, the occidentalis or American 
 arbor vitas, has few superiors among the 
 minor evergreens. 
 
 THUNBERGIA. Ten species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers, except T. auran- 
 tiaca, a green-house herbaceous peren- 
 nial. Cuttings or seeds. Sandy loam 
 and leaf mould. 
 
 Mr. Maclntyre says, that the species 
 of this genus, " though usually grown 
 in a stove, will flower freely in a green- 
 house, or even when they are planted 
 out in the open border, during the sum- 
 mer months: if the situation is sheltered, 
 and exposed to the influence of the sun, 
 they will flower well. In propagating 
 those that are intended for planting out, 
 
 in groups, feeding on the under side of I take off the lateral shoots when they are 
 
THY 
 
 588 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 TIL 
 
 of a sufficient length, which, if possible, 
 should be done in March, so that the 
 plants may have attained a medium size 
 before they are put out ; pot them in 
 equal quantities of peat and sand, then 
 plunge them in a hot-bed, and they will 
 strike root in a week or two. When 
 they are rooted, pot them off into small 
 pots filled with good rich loam and 
 leaf-mould, mixed with a little sand; 
 then replace them in the pit or frame 
 until the middle of May, when, if the 
 weather is favourable, they may then be 
 planted out. If the soil is not naturally 
 good, it should be made so; and as the 
 plants advance in growth, they should 
 be trained to some kind of support, 
 which may be of any shape that fancy 
 may suggest. If the season is dry, they 
 should be watered and syringed. About 
 the middle of October, take up the 
 plants with good balls, re-pot them, 
 and place them in the green-house. 
 After they have been there for a short 
 time, they maybe removed to the stove, 
 where they will keep gay for the greater 
 part of the winter. 
 
 " T. alata has a beautiful effect when 
 it is planted out on a rock-work, where 
 the plant appears in its natural charac- 
 ter, clinging to the various projections, 
 which it quickly covers." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 THYMBRA spicata. Half-hardy 
 evergreen shrub. Young cuttings or 
 seeds. Gravelly soil. 
 
 THYME. Thymus vulgaris. 
 
 Varieties. — Broad-leaved Green, Nar- 
 row-leaved Green, Variegated, and 
 Lemon-scented. The Variegated is 
 grown almost solely on account of its 
 ornamental foliage. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — A poor, light, 
 and dry soil, is best. In moist or rich 
 soils, it becomes luxuriant, but deficient 
 in its aromatic qualities, and generally 
 perishes during the winter. The situa- 
 tion cannot be too open. 
 
 Propagation. — By Seeds and rooted 
 Slips. — Sowing may be performed from 
 the middle of March until about the 
 beginning of May, in drills half an inch 
 deep, six inches apart, or as an edging 
 to a bed or border. The seedlings must 
 be kept clear of weeds, and if the season 
 is dry, watered moderately twice a week . 
 When of about six weeks' growth, or 
 when three or four inches high, thin 
 to six inches apart, unless grown as 
 an edging, when they must be left 
 thick. Those removed may be pricked 
 
 out at a similar distance, if required ; 
 water occasionally until they have taken 
 root. The plants may be left in the 
 situations they are placed in at this 
 season, or be finally planted out in 
 September or October, or in the early 
 spring of the following year. To obtain 
 slips, some old stools may be divided 
 into as many rooted portions as possible, 
 or layers may be obtained by loosening 
 the soil around them, and pegging the 
 lateral shoots beneath the surface. They 
 must be planted out at distances similar 
 to those raised from seed, water and 
 weeding being similarly required. 
 
 In autumn the decayed stalks should 
 be cleared away, and a little fresh earth 
 scattered and turned in among the 
 stools. 
 
 Although it is perennial, yet after 
 three or four years, thyme becomes 
 stunted and unproductive, consequently 
 requiring to be raised periodically from 
 seed. 
 
 By Slips. — These may be planted 
 from the beginning of February until 
 the close of May. 
 
 To obtain Seed. — Some plants should 
 be allowed to run up without being 
 gathered from, in early summer. The 
 seed is ripe during July, and must be 
 cut immediately it is so, and laid on a 
 cloth to dry, otherwise the first rain will 
 wash it out of the seed-vessels. 
 
 THYMUS. Thyme. Nineteen spe- 
 cies, and several varieties. Hardy or 
 half-hardy evergreen shrubs or trailers. 
 T. corsicus, an herbaceous perennial. 
 Division, slips, cuttings, or seeds. Dry, 
 light, sandy soil. 
 
 THYSANOTUS. Seven species. 
 Green-house or half-hardy herbaceous 
 or tuberous-rooted perennials. Offsets. 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 TIARELLA. Four species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Sandy 
 peat. 
 
 TIARIDIUM. Two species. Half- 
 hardy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 TIGER FLOWER. Tigridia. 
 
 TIGRIDIA. Two species. Hardy 
 bulbous perennials. Offsets or seeds. 
 Light rich soil. 
 
 TILE ROOT. Geissorhiza. 
 
 TILIA. Lime Tree. Three species, 
 and many varieties. Hardy deciduous 
 trees. Seeds and sometimes layers. 
 Any deep, light, and fertile soil suits 
 them. 
 
 TILIACORA racemosa. Stove ever- 
 
TIL 
 
 TIP 
 
 green climber. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 TILLANDSIA. Thirty-one species. 
 Stove epiphytes. Suckers or seeds. 
 Wood, with a little moss on their roots. 
 
 TINEA, a genus of moths, the larvae 
 of which are very destructive. 
 
 T. daucella. Carret Moth. Head and 
 back and upper wings reddish-brown ; 
 abdomen gray and white. Its cater- 
 pillar is greenish-gray with black tuber- 
 cles, and lives on the flowers and seeds 
 of the carrot, but prefers the parsnep. 
 
 T. padella. Small Ermine Moth is 
 white with black dots on the upper 
 wings. Eggs deposited in June and 
 July, near the blossom buds of the haw- 
 thorn, eunymus, apple and pear tree ; 
 caterpillars appear in autumn, and in- 
 close the twigs with a web. In the fol- 
 lowing spring they attack the petals and 
 calyx. Color, dull lead with a black 
 head. — Kollar. 
 
 T. Clerckella. Pear Tree Blister 
 Moth. The caterpillars of this raise 
 dark brown blisters on the leaves of the 
 pear tree, and less often on those of the 
 apple. The moth is active and minute, 
 shining like pearly satin, the wings hav- 
 ing an orange ground spotted with 
 black and other colors. It appears in 
 May. Mr. Curtis says, — " To check 
 this disease, it will be advisable to wash 
 the tree with soapsuds the end of May 
 or beginning of June, when the moths 
 are pairing and laying eggs for a future 
 progeny ; and if a very valuable tree 
 be only partially attacked, the blistered 
 leaves might be gathered and burnt as 
 soon as any spots began to appear in 
 August." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 T. capitella. Triple-spotted Currant 
 Tinea. The larva? of this feed upon 
 the pith of the young shoots of the cur- 
 rant, which they attack in the spring. 
 The moth itself is fuscous ; the head 
 with an ochreous tuft; superior wings 
 bronzed, spotted with purple and yel- 
 low. 
 
 T. porectella. Rocket or Gray-streak 
 Moth, has its habits and forms thus de- 
 scribed by Mr. Curtis : — 
 
 " During the middle and latter end 
 of April, as the shoots of the rockets 
 advance, it is found that the leaves ad- 
 here firmly together, and those that 
 liberate themselves are perforated with 
 large holes. On forcibly opening a 
 shoot, for the young leaves are con- 
 nected by silken threads, a small green 
 
 caterpillar of different shades, varying 
 with its age, is found in or near the 
 centre feeding upon the tender leaves, 
 and sometimes a little family of four or 
 five inhabit the same head. The head 
 feelers and horns of our little moth are 
 white, the latter with a few black spots 
 near the tips ; the thorax is cream-co- 
 loured, the sides brown, upper wings 
 lance-shaped, very pale clay brown, 
 with whitish streaks. Perhaps the best 
 method of extirpating them would be 
 to search for the young caterpillars 
 between the leaves on the first symp- 
 toms of their presence, and extracting 
 them with a small pair of forceps, such 
 as are used for microscopic objects ; 
 but as some might be too minute at that 
 early period to be detected on the first 
 search, this operation must be repeated. 
 Pinching the maggots in the bud is also 
 recommended as well as dusting the 
 plants with flower of sulphur, which I 
 fear would be of little use. I think, 
 however, that a portable frame might 
 be constructed and covered with tarred 
 or painted canvas, which could be 
 placed over a bush or small bed of 
 flowers, when it is attacked by insects ; 
 and it would then be easy to fumigate 
 any plant by means of an aperture with 
 a tube of leather or any pliable mate- 
 rial which could be tied or plugged up, 
 so as to keep in the smoke of tobacco, 
 or even of sulphur, which last would 
 in ten minutes destroy every living ani- 
 mal within the inclosed space." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 TIPULA. Crane Fly or Daddy-long- 
 legs. 
 
 T. oleracea, the grubs or " leather 
 jackets," so injurious to the market 
 gardener, are its larva?. They attack 
 the roots of scarlet beans, lettuces, 
 dahlias, potatoes, &c, from May to 
 August. During the last month and 
 September they become pupa?. Mr. 
 Curtis observes, that — " It is said that 
 lime water will not kill them, and sug- 
 gests that if quicklime was scattered on 
 the ground at night, it would destroy 
 them when they come to the surface to 
 feed ; and all the gnats that are found 
 on the walls, palings, ground or else- 
 where, should be killed, especially the 
 female, which would prevent any eggs 
 being deposited in the ground. A mix- 
 ture of lime and gas water distributed 
 by a watering pot over grass, has com- 
 pletely exterminated the larvae, where 
 
TIT 
 
 590 
 
 TOM 
 
 they had been exceedingly destructive, 
 and by sweeping the grass with a bag- 
 net, like an angler's landing net, only 
 covered with canvas, immense numbers 
 of the gnats might be taken and de- 
 stroyed." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 TITHONIA tagetiflora. Stove 
 evergreen tree. Cuttings. Light rich 
 soil. 
 
 TOBACCO. Nicotiana, whether in 
 the form of snuff, or its decoction in 
 water, or its smoke whilst burning, is 
 very destructive to insects. 
 
 Tobacco paper is paper saturated with 
 the decoction of tobacco, and when 
 burnt emits a fume nearly as strong. It 
 is an easy mode of generating the 
 smoke. Whenever plants are smoked 
 they should be done, so on two follow- 
 ing nights, and then be syringed the 
 following morning. Mr. Cameron says, 
 — " I have always found tobacco paper 
 the most efficacious substance to fumi- 
 gate with for destroying the aphis with- 
 out doing any injury to the plants; if 
 the house is not filled too rapidly with 
 smoke, and is allowed to reach the 
 glass, without coming in contact with 
 any of the plants, it then descends as 
 it cools, without doing any injury. 
 Plants fumigated in frames, or under 
 hand-glasses, are most liable to be in- 
 jured by the heat of the smoke, if not 
 done cautiously. There is a spurious 
 kind of tobacco paper sometimes offer- 
 ed in spring by the tobacconists, appa- 
 rently made to meet the increased de- 
 mand, and this kind of paper will bring 
 the leaves off plants, without killing 
 many of the aphides. It is of a lighter 
 color than the genuine sort, and may 
 be readily detected by the smell being 
 very different. Foliage should be per- 
 fectly dry when a house is fumigated, 
 and should not be syringed till next 
 morning. If plants are syringed im- 
 mediately after fumigation, many of 
 the aphides will recover even where 
 they have dropped off the plants, a 
 fact which any one may soon prove 
 after fumigating a house." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Another very simple mode of fumi- 
 gating plants in frames, and under 
 hand-glasses turned over them for the 
 purpose, is as follows: — "Dissolve a 
 tablespoonful of saltpetre in a pint of 
 water ; take pieces of the coarsest 
 brown paper, six inches wide, and ten 
 inches long, steep them thoroughly in 
 
 the solution, dry them and keep till 
 wanted. To fumigate, roll one of the 
 pieces into a pipe like a cigar, leaving 
 the hollow half an inch in diameter, 
 which fill with tobacco, twist one end 
 and stick it into the soil, light the other, 
 and it will burn gradually away for an 
 hour or more." 
 
 Tobacco smoke should not be ad- 
 mitted to fruit trees when in bloom, 
 nor when the fruit is ripening, as it 
 imparts to them a flavour. See Fumi- 
 gating. 
 
 Tobacco Water is usually made from 
 what is known as Tobacconists'' Liquor, 
 being a liquor expressed by them, and 
 full of ammonia and the acrid oil of the 
 plant. To every gallon of this add five 
 gallons of water. This mixture with 
 Read's garden syringe may be sprinkled 
 over the trees, putting it on with the 
 finest rose, and being careful to wet all 
 the leaves. This operation is to be 
 performed only in the hottest sunshine, 
 as the effect is then much greater than 
 when the weather is dull; five gallons 
 of liquor reduced as above stated, 
 cleanses seventeen peach and nectarine 
 trees, averaging seventeen feet in 
 length, and twelve in height. The 
 black glutinous aphis, provincially call- 
 ed blight, so destructive to the cherry 
 trees, and in fact every species of aphis, 
 is destroyed in the same way with equal 
 facility ; the grubs which attack the 
 apricot, may be destroyed almost in- 
 stantly by immersing the leaves infested 
 in this liquor. — Gard. Mag. 
 
 As the tobacconists' liquor cannot be 
 obtained always, tobacco water may be, 
 in such case, made by pouring half a 
 gallon of boiling water upon one ounce 
 of strong tobacco, and allowing it to re- 
 main until cold, and then strained. 
 
 TOCOCA. Two species. Stove ever- 
 green trees. Cuttings. Peat and loam. 
 
 TOCOYENA longiflora. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Sandy peat and 
 loam. 
 
 TODDALIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 TODEA. Two species. Ferns. 
 Green-house herbaceous perennials. 
 Division or seeds. Loam and peat. 
 
 TOLPIS. Five species. Hardy an- 
 nuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 "TOMATO or Love-apple. This 
 plant is a native of South America, and 
 perhaps of the West Indies; thence in- 
 
TON 
 
 591 
 
 TOO 
 
 troduced into this country. But a few 
 years since it was scarcely known as an 
 esculent — now it is in very general use. 
 
 " There are six or seven varieties, 
 between which there is not much real 
 difference ; the common red is equal to 
 any. 
 
 " Cultivation same as directed for the 
 Melongena, or Egg Plant. It is, how- 
 ever, more free in growth, and will pro- 
 duce fruit tolerably early, when sown 
 on the open border. 
 
 " On the approach of frost pull up 
 gome of the plants, (root and all,) which 
 are well laden with fruit, and hang them 
 up in a dry, airy apartment. In this 
 manner it may be continued in perfec- 
 tion for some time longer than the natu- 
 ral season." — Rural Reg. 
 
 TONQUIN BEAN. Dipterix. 
 
 TOOL-HOUSE. Upon this too much 
 neglected garden edifice, the editor has 
 been favoured by Mr. Barnes, ofBicton 
 Gardens, with the following excellent 
 remarks : — " Have a place for every- 
 thing, and everything in its place j — 
 kept in good condition, and at all times 
 put away clean ; — for omission of which 
 have rules and fines placed in each of 
 the tool-houses, regularly enforced, and 
 payment demanded for each fine on the 
 labourers' pay-day. At Bicton, a book 
 is kept for entering each fine, and a 
 separate account given of each fine, and 
 for what, or why, it was enforced; an- 
 nually, Lady Rolle doubles the amount 
 so collected, and if good order has been 
 kept, and only a small sum so collected, 
 her ladyship trebles the amount. I add 
 my own mite, and each foreman theirs, 
 as a sort of compound for any matter 
 that may have slipped our memories, 
 &c. ; the amount is then placed in the 
 Savings Bank, as a reserve sum in case 
 of illness, &c. We have the same order 
 and regulation kept in each tool-shed, 
 that is to say, the tool-shed of each de- 
 partment — that I need here describe 
 only one. The tool-shed of the hot- 
 house and flower-garden department is 
 a lean-to shed at the back of a hot-house, 
 substantially built, and covered with 
 slate: — length, fifty-four feet; width, 
 thirteen feet ; height at back, fifteen 
 feet; and height in front, nine feet; 
 paved all through with Yorkshire flag- 
 stones, which are neatly swept up every 
 night, the last thing, and washed every 
 Saturday, thoroughly. There is a door | 
 
 the front wall, and a window on each 
 side of the centre door. Strong beams 
 are thrown across from front to back, 
 and strong planks laid on them, which 
 form a useful loft for placing mats, 
 stakes, laths for tally making, brooms, 
 nets, canvas for covering and shading, 
 &c. &c. Within two feet of the roof, 
 against the back wall, is placed a row 
 of pegs the whole length of the shed, 
 for hanging the long-handled tools, such 
 as grass and leaf rakes, long-handled 
 Dutch hoes and iron rakes, &c; on the 
 next row of pegs, the whole length of 
 the shed, are placed the various kinds 
 of draw hoes, tan forks, dung forks and 
 prongs, strong forks for digging and 
 surface stirring, spades and shovels of 
 various kinds, pickaxes, mattocks and 
 bills, dung drags, edging shears, &c. ; 
 on a third row of pegs, still lower, are 
 placed the water pots, all numbered, 
 with initials as well, thus — B, G — 45, 
 or 60, whatever the number may run 
 to ; underneath those is a row more of 
 pegs, for placing the noses of the water 
 pots — thus the back wall is furnished. 
 The front wall, half way, is furnished 
 with shelves for placing shreds and 
 nails, rope yarn, tallies, flower pegs, 
 whetstones, rubber or scythe-stones, 
 and many other small articles. Under- 
 neath those shelves are pegs for hang- 
 ing the hammers, axes, saws, hatchets, 
 mallets and stake-drivers, trowels, hand- 
 forks, reels and lines, hedge-clipping 
 shears, scythes, chisels, the various 
 sizes of one-handed crane-necked hoes, 
 crowbars, mops, hair -brushes and 
 brooms, and various other articles. 
 The scythes are hung up over the end 
 beam, and on the other side without 
 shelves the hand-barrows are placed ; 
 birch and heath brooms, both round and 
 fan-shaped, that are in daily use; and 
 various other articles. The garden rules 
 are hung in a conspicuous place ; also 
 in the tool-house. Every tool is to be 
 put into its proper or allotted place, 
 every night, thoroughly cleansed; any 
 omission of which subjects the defaulter 
 to a fine. Each tool-house is under the 
 same system. We have separate wheel- 
 barrow sheds ; sheds for placing soils in 
 the dry, arranged in old casks; varieties 
 of sand, pebbles, and flints, for potting 
 purposes, with lofts over for flower pot 
 stowage ; — a shed for the liquid manure 
 casks, which is one of the most essen- 
 
 at each end, and one in the centre ofjtial and valuable of all. A shed for 
 
TOR 
 
 592 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 TR A 
 
 placing the charred articles of all kinds, 
 equal to the last ; a potting shed ; mush- 
 room shed ; stove shed ; fruit rooms, 
 and onion lofts, &c. &c. — Each and all 
 are kept under the above regulations." 
 
 TO REN I A scabra and cordifolia. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs. Seeds. 
 Sandy loam. There are two other spe- 
 cies not worth cultivating. 
 
 TORTRIX. A genus of moths. 
 
 T. luscana generates a red grub, and 
 T. cynosbana a black-spotted green 
 grub, both very destructive of blossom 
 buds. 
 
 T. vitisana. Vine Tortrix. Found 
 on the vine in April and May ; head 
 yellow; upper wings marbled with rusty 
 and gray colours. Caterpillars appear 
 as the blossom buds open, which they 
 unite with white threads. 
 
 T. nigricana. Red Plum Grub Tor- 
 trix. Moth black, appearing in June. 
 Eggs deposited on the plum; grub, 
 small red, pierces the fruit, and is found 
 near the stone. Mr. Curtis observes, 
 that — " If the plums that have fallen off 
 be examined, a small red caterpillar 
 will be found within it; the caterpillar 
 being generally full grown when the 
 plum falls off, soon creeps out, and 
 penetrates the loose bark, forming a 
 case in which it remains during the 
 winter. Early in the spring it changes 
 into a light brown pupa, and the moth 
 emerges about June. The moth is not 
 so large as a house-fly; its wings are 
 almost black, and when the sun is 
 shining on them, they have a remarka- 
 bly metallic lustre ; on the outer edge 
 of the fore wings there is an appearance 
 of fine silver dust. Among the reme- 
 dies proposed to lessen the ravages of 
 this insect, it is recommended to shake 
 the trees, and remove all the fruit that 
 falls off; and another good method is 
 to scrape the rough pieces of bark of 
 the stem, under which the cocoons are 
 concealed ; this must be done late in 
 the autumn, or early in the spring." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 T. Bergmanniana. Rose Tortrix. 
 Differs little to a common observer 
 from the preceding. " Where bushes 
 are much infested with the larvae of 
 these insects, it is much better to cut 
 them down and burn the shoots ; this 
 and hand-picking are the only remedies 
 we are acquainted with. Care must be 
 taken not to disturb the maggots when 
 collecting them, for they will let them- 
 
 selves down by threads, and thus es- 
 cape." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 T. ocellana. This is the parent of 
 the red bud caterpillar, which destroys 
 the buds of the apple and pear. Upper 
 wings gray, with a white transverse 
 band. 
 
 T. Waberiana. Plum tree Tortrix. 
 Its larva feeds on the inner bark of the 
 plum, apricot, almond, and peach. The 
 grubs pierce holes through the bark, 
 which may be detected by small heaps 
 of red powder upon it. Moth brown ; 
 grub greenish, with a red head. 
 
 T. pomonana. Codling Moth. Its 
 reddish-white grub is common in apples 
 and pears. Moth light gray, streaked 
 with dark gray. Seen of an evening 
 during May, and the grubs appear soon 
 after. All fallen apples should be de- 
 stroyed, because they usually contain 
 this or other grubs, which will otherwise 
 produce moths, and multiply the evil. 
 
 " T. turionana, T. hyrcyniana, T. 
 resinella, and T. buoliana, all infest 
 pine trees, injuring them by depositing 
 their eggs in the buds, which are sub- 
 sequently preyed upon by their cater- 
 pillars." — Kollar. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 TOUCH-ME-NOT. Impatiens. 
 
 TOURRETIA lappacea. Hardy 
 climbing annual. Seeds. Light soil. 
 
 TOWER MUSTARD. Arabis Tur- 
 rita. 
 
 TRACHELIUM cceruleum. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennial. Seeds or cut- 
 tings. Light soil. 
 
 TRACHYMENE. Six species. Green- 
 house annuals; increased by seed, and 
 green-house and stove evergreen shrubs, 
 increased by young cuttings. Loam 
 and sandy peat suits them all. 
 
 TRACHYTELLA actaa. Green- 
 house evergreen climber. Ripe cut- 
 tings. Peat and loam. 
 
 TRADESCANTIA. Twenty-seven 
 species. Chiefly stove and hardy herb- 
 aceous perennials. A few hardy an- 
 nuals, and stove and green-house ever- 
 green trailers. T. paniculata is a green- 
 house biennial. T. tuberosa is a stove 
 tuberous-rooted perennial. Division. 
 The annuals, seeds. Rich light soil 
 suits them all. 
 
 TRAGOPOGON. Goat's beard. Fif- 
 teen species. Hardy biennials. Seeds. 
 Common soil. T.porrifolius is the gar- 
 den Salsafy. 
 
 TRAGOPYRUM. Three species. 
 
TRA 
 
 593 
 
 TRA 
 
 Hardy deciduous shrubs. Layers. Peat 
 and sandy loam. 
 
 TRAILERS. See Creepers. 
 
 TRAIN OIL. See Animal. Matters. 
 
 TRAINING has for its object render- 
 ing plants more productive either of 
 flowers or of fruit, by regulating the 
 number and position of their branches. 
 If their number be too great, they over- 
 shadow those below them, and by ex- 
 cluding the heat and light, prevent that 
 elaboration of the sap required for the 
 production of fructification. If they are 
 too few, the sap is expended in the pro- 
 duction of more, and in extending the 
 surface of the leaves required for the 
 digestion of the juices. 
 
 The position of the branches is im- 
 portant, because, if trained against a 
 wall, they obtain a higher temperature, 
 and protection from winds; and if 
 trained with their points below the 
 horizontal, the return of the sap is 
 checked. Shy-flowering shrubs, as Di- 
 placus puniceus, are made to blossom 
 abundantly, and freely-flowering shrubs, 
 as Cytisus hybridus, are made to blos- 
 som earlier, by having their branches 
 bent below the horizontal line. Dr. 
 Lindley, observing upon these facts, 
 proceeds to remark, that — " If a stem 
 is trained erect, it will be more vigorous 
 than if placed in any other position, and 
 its tendency to bear leaves rather than 
 flowers will be increased : in proportion 
 as it deviates from the perpendicular is 
 its vigour diminished. For instance, if 
 a stem is headed back, and only two 
 opposite buds are allowed to grow, they 
 will continue to push equally, so long 
 as their relation to the perpendicular is 
 the same ; but if one is bent towards a 
 horizontal direction, and the other al- 
 lowed to remain, the growth of the 
 former will be immediately checked ; if 
 the depression is increased, the weak- 
 ness of the branch increases proportion- 
 ally ; and this may be carried on till the 
 branch perishes. In training, this fact 
 is of the utmost value in enabling the 
 gardener to regulate the symmetry of a 
 tree. It, however, by no means follows, 
 that because out of two contiguous 
 branches, one growing erect, and the 
 other forced into a downward direction, 
 the latter may die, that all branches 
 trained downwards will die. On the 
 contrary, an inversion of their natural 
 position is of so little consequence to 
 their healthiness, that no effect seems 
 38 
 
 in general to be produced, beyond that 
 of causing a slow circulation, and the 
 formation of flowers." — Theory of Hort. 
 The reason of this appears in the fact, 
 that a plant propels its sap with greatest 
 force perpendicularly, so much so that 
 the sap rising in a vine branch growing 
 in a right line from the root, with a force 
 capable of sustaining a column of mer- 
 cury twenty-eight inches high, will, if 
 the branch be bent down to a right 
 angle, support barely twenty-three 
 inches, and if bent a few degrees be- 
 low the horizontal, the column sustained 
 will not be more than twenty-one 
 inches. This is the reason why at such 
 angles gardeners find the trained 
 branches of their wall trees rendered 
 more productive of blossoms, and fur- 
 nished with a smaller surface of leaves. 
 
 Fig. 167. 
 
 A similar effect is produced by training 
 a branch in a waving form, for two- 
 thirds of its length are placed horizon- 
 tally, as in the accompanying outline. 
 — Princ. of Gardening. 
 
 On the practical parts of training, 
 Abercrombie has the following good 
 directions: — 
 
 " When it is intended to raise trained 
 fruit-trees for walls and espaliers, some 
 of the best young plants of the respect- 
 ive sorts, both dwarf and half-standards 
 of one year old, with the first shoots 
 from the budding and grafting entire, 
 should be transplanted in autumn, at 
 eight or ten feet distance, against any 
 kind offence having a south aspect, in 
 a free situation, not less than four or 
 
TRA 
 
 594 
 
 -♦ — 
 
 TRA 
 
 five feet high, either a wall, paling, 
 reed-fence, &c. 
 
 " The trees thus planted, in spring 
 following, just as they begin to make an 
 effort for shooting, should be headed 
 down ; that is, the first shoots from the 
 budding, &c, to be cut down to within 
 three or four eyes or buds of its place 
 of insertion in the stock, especially 
 those intended for dwarfs ; also the 
 half-standards, if worked on tall stocks; 
 and this heading down both prevents 
 their running up too high with a single 
 naked stem, branchless below, and 
 causes them to throw out lateral shoots 
 from the lower part, to fill the wall or 
 espalier regularly with branches quite 
 from the bottom upward ; for they will 
 soon after push forth strong shoots from 
 all the remaining lower buds, which 
 shoots, when of due length, in summer, j 
 should be trained along to the fence, 
 equally to the right and left, at full 
 length, till next spring, when these 
 shoots may also be cut down to six or 
 eight inches' length, to force out a 
 further supply of more branches near 
 the bottom. Continue shortening, more 
 or less, the two or three first sprigs on 
 the last summer's shoots, as you shall 
 see necessary, in order to obtain a pro- 
 per spread of lower branches to give 
 the tree its intended form. Though this 
 work of pruning short, to obtain Jaterals, 
 may also be performed occasionally in 
 summer, in May, or early in June, on 
 the strong young shoots of the year, 
 cutting or pinching them down to a 
 few eyes, and they will thereby ^hrow 
 out lower laterals the same season^ and, 
 by that means, a year's growth is gained. 
 Branches thus gained arrive to proper 
 length in summer for training in ; they 
 should all be trained along close to the 
 wall ; and if any fore-right or back 
 shoots come out, rub them all off close, 
 leaving the well-placed side shoots in 
 every part; and let the whole, or as 
 many as possible, be trained in during 
 this season, to have plenty to choose 
 from in the general pruning season of 
 winter or spring — train equally to the 
 right and left on each side of the tree, 
 in a spreading somewhat horizontal 
 manner, nowhere crossing one another, 
 but at parallel distances, and mostly 
 all at full length during the summer's 
 growth. 
 
 " In the winter pruning we are to 
 observe that, if more wood was trained 
 
 up in summer than now appears neces- 
 sary, or than can be trained in with due 
 regularity, retrench such superfluities; 
 likewise any remaining fore-right or 
 back shoots, and other irregular growths 
 omitted in summer, not eligibly situated 
 for training in, should also be now all 
 pruned out, cutting everything of the 
 above nature, both superabundances 
 and irregularities, quite close to their 
 origin, being careful, however, to leave 
 all the regular, well - placed, useful 
 shoots that can readily be trained with 
 due regularity, without crowding or 
 crossing one another, all of which 
 should also be cleared from all lateral 
 or side shoots, if any; and with respect 
 to their being shortened more or less, 
 or left entire, you will order, according 
 to your discretion, agreeably to the 
 above-mentioned hints. 
 
 " Thus, having obtained a regular 
 spread of branches sufficient to effect 
 the proper expansion requisite to form 
 a trained wall or espalier tree, they 
 must then be pruned according to the 
 method peculiar to each respective sort 
 of fruit, as directed in their culture, 
 each under its proper genus. Training 
 espalier trees is effected exactly in the 
 manner as above, only these may be 
 also trained as they stand in the nurse- 
 ry lines, in the open quarters or bor- 
 ders, &c, by ranging some stout stakes 
 in the ground, along one side of each 
 tree. Where a general luxuriancy pre- 
 vails, while under the course of train- 
 ing, or after, it is advisable, in the work 
 of pruning, to use the knife with mode- 
 ration ; for the more wood we cut out 
 of a generally vigorous tree, and the 
 more the shoots are shortened, the more 
 vigorous will it continue to shoot with- 
 out ever becoming properly fruitful ; 
 and if severe cutting is repeatedly 
 continued, the tree often exhausts so 
 greatly by luxuriant shooting, that it 
 suddenly assumes a weak consumptive 
 state. Such trees as are vigorous only 
 in particular shoots, may, in some cases, 
 have such shoots radically retrenched, 
 and in others reserved ; that if a very 
 vigorous shoot runs considerably strong- 
 er than all the rest, and seems to sup- 
 port its vigour at the expense of the 
 others in its neighbourhood, it should 
 be retrenched to the very origin, as 
 early in summer as discoverable. In 
 other cases, if a luxuriant shoot arise 
 in any vacant space towards the bot- 
 
T RA 
 
 595 
 
 TRA 
 
 torn, especially where a supply of more 
 wood is wanted, it may be retained, 
 and pinched or topped down to a few 
 eyes in May or June ; it will send out 
 several laterals below, the same sea- 
 son ; and instead of one rude luxuriant 
 shoot, there will be four or five of mo- 
 derate growth to fill the vacancy more 
 effectually, and that will much sooner 
 attain to fruitfulness." — Abercrombie. 
 
 Besides the above usual modes of 
 training — for which see also Walls, 
 Espaliers, and Standards — there are 
 two other modes which deserve notice. 
 
 Quenouille Training " consists in 
 training one upright central shoot in 
 summer, and shortening it down to 
 fifteen inches at the winter pruning, in 
 order that it may, at that height, pro- 
 duce branches forming a tier, to be 
 trained, in the first instance, horizon- 
 tally. The shoot produced by the up- 
 permost bud is, however, trained as 
 upright as possible during the summer, 
 and is cut back, so as to produce an- 
 other tier fifteen inches above the first, 
 and so on until the tree has reached the 
 desired height. In this climate, it is 
 necessary to train the shoot downwards, 
 which is easily done by tying those of 
 the first tier to short stakes, those of 
 each successive tier being fastened to 
 the branches below them. When the 
 shoots are thus arched downwards at 
 full length, or nearly so, they soon 
 come into a bearing state ; but in this 
 climate, if cut short, as the French do, 
 they only send up a number of shoots 
 annually. The plan answers very well 
 where it can be at all times properly 
 attended to ; but if this cannot be 
 guaranteed, the ordinary form of dwarf 
 is preferable. Quenouilles require 
 more time to be devoted to them than 
 espaliers." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Balloon Training. — On this mode I 
 merely extract the following from Dr. 
 Lindley's Theory of Horticulture : — 
 
 " What are called balloon apples and 
 pears, are formed by forcing downwards 
 all the branches of standard trees till 
 the points touch the earth, and they 
 have the merit of producing large crops 
 of fruit in a very small compass; their 
 upper parts are, however, too much 
 exposed to radiation at night, and the 
 crop from that part of the branches is 
 apt to be cut off". One of the prettiest 
 applications of this principle is that of 
 Mr. Charles Lawrence, described in 
 
 the Gardener's Magazine, viii. 680, by 
 means of which standard rose trees are 
 converted into masses of flowers. The 
 figure given in that work represents the 
 variety called the ' Bizarre de la Chine,' 
 which flowers most abundantly to the 
 ends of its branches, and was truly a 
 splendid object." 
 
 TRANSPLANTING is most success- 
 fully performed, whenever the roots are 
 least required for supplying the leaves 
 with moisture. The reason is obvious, 
 because the roots are always in some 
 degree broken, and lessened in their 
 absorbing power, by the process of 
 removal. Now the leaves require least 
 moisture in the autumn and winter, 
 therefore, these are the seasons when 
 transplanting is effected with least in- 
 jury to a plant. That such is the ra- 
 tionale of seasonable transplanting is 
 proved by the fact that pots in plants, 
 with reasonable care, may be trans- 
 planted at any season. This rule, too, 
 is sanctioned both by theory and prac- 
 tice — transplant as early as possible 
 after the leaves cease to require a sup- 
 ply of sap, the reason for which is, 
 that the vital powers in the roots con- 
 tinue active long afterthey have become 
 torpid in the branches and fresh roots 
 are formed during the autumn and 
 winter, to succeed those destroyed by 
 transplanting. 
 
 " If the months of November and 
 December," says Dr. Lindley, " are 
 the most favourable for transplanting 
 deciduous trees, and March and April 
 the worst, how much more important 
 must be those periods to evergreens. 
 An evergreen differs from a deciduous 
 plant in this material circumstance, that 
 it has no season of rest; its leaves re- 
 main alive and active during the winter, 
 and, consequently, it is in a state of 
 perpetual growth. I do not mean that 
 it is always lengthening itself in the form 
 of new branches, for this happens peri- 
 odically only in evergreens, and is usu- 
 ally confined to the spring ; but that its 
 circulation, perspiration, assimilation, 
 and production of roots are incessant. 
 Such being the case, an evergreen, 
 when transplanted, is liable to the same 
 risks as deciduous plants in full leaf, 
 with one essential difference. The 
 leaves of evergreens are provided with 
 a thick hard epidermis, which is tender 
 and readily permeable to aqueous ex- 
 halations only when quite young and 
 
TRA 
 
 596 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 TRA 
 
 which becomes very firm and tough by I exhibit no appearance of having been 
 the arrival of winter, whence the rigi- removed. In the first place, we make 
 dity always observable in the foliage of i the hole where the tree is intended to 
 
 evergreen trees and shrubs. Such a 
 coating as this is capable, in a much 
 less degree than one of a thinner tex- 
 ture, such as we find upon deciduous 
 plants, of parting with aqueous vapour ; 
 and, moreover, its stomates are few, 
 small, comparatively in active, and 
 chiefly confined to the under side, 
 where they are less exposed to dryness 
 that if they were on the upper side also. 
 
 be placed sufficiently large for the roots 
 to be extended at full length; and, in 
 removing the tree, great care is taken 
 to avoid cutting or injuring the roots. 
 If a ball of earth is retained so much 
 the better, as it will assist in steadying 
 the tree; but, if well staked, it is not 
 of much importance. As it is essential 
 that the roots be as little exposed to the 
 atmosphere as possible, we provide 
 
 i But although evergreens, from their sufficient earth, either sifted or finely 
 
 structure, are not liable to be affected 
 by the same external circumstances as 
 deciduous plants in the same degree ; 
 and although, therefore, transplanting 
 an evergreen in leaf is not the same 
 thing as transplanting a deciduous tree 
 in the same condition, yet it must be 
 obvious that the great extent of perspir- 
 ing surface upon the one, however low 
 its action, constitutes much difficulty, 
 superadded to whatever difficulty there 
 may be in the other case. 
 
 " Hence we are irresistibly driven to 
 the conclusion that whatever care is re- 
 quired in the selection of a suitable 
 season damp, and not too cold for a 
 deciduous tree, is still more essential 
 for an evergreen." — Theory of Hort. 
 
 It sometimes happens that transplant- 
 ing has to be performed at the most in- 
 auspicious seasons ; and when this is the 
 
 reduced by a spade or rake, and have 
 in readiness as many buckets of water 
 as will nearly fill the hole; the tree is 
 then placed in its intended position ; the 
 whole of the water is then thrown over 
 the roots, the fibres of which will be 
 supported by it. The fine earth is then 
 expeditiously sprinkled over the surface 
 of the water, and, gradually subsiding, 
 fills all the interstices, and gives sta- 
 bility to the tree, which is further se- 
 cured by three stakes placed at right 
 angles, which finishes the operation. 
 The earth must not be trodden, as is 
 often done." — Card. Chron. 
 
 The following observations, in the 
 Gardener's Chronicle, so epitomize all 
 that is practically essential in trans- 
 planting, that it is extracted with little 
 abbreviation : — 
 
 " In the removal of large trees or 
 
 case the following directions, given by j shrubs, first form the pit, where the 
 Mr. Williamson, of the Sheffield Bo- J plant is to be planted, from twelve to 
 tanic Garden, may be followed with j fourteen inches wider than the roots 
 
 success : — 
 
 « At the Sheffield Botanical Gardens 
 we have for some time practised what 
 we term the washing i?i-system, which 
 has been attended with success in every 
 instance. Indeed, I doubt not that by 
 this method trees of considerable size 
 may be removed, at any season of the 
 year, with safety. Towards the latter 
 end of last May I had occasion to form 
 a block or screen, in a situation fully 
 exposed to the sun, for which purpose 
 I transplanted a number of tall trees 
 
 will reach. 
 
 " In lifting laurels, and other ever- 
 greens, always bind up the plant with 
 strong straw ropes, tying one end of the 
 rope to one of the strong branches in 
 the centre of the plant, and, taking up 
 all the branches, draw into as small a 
 compass as possible, without injuring 
 the plant. Clear the roots, and, sup- 
 posing the plant to be a common laurel, 
 six or eight feet high, begin as many 
 feet from the main stem, and cut a 
 trench round the plant at the said dis- 
 
 and evergreens, not one of which was tance, as deep as it may be supposed 
 
 injured by the removal ; and early this 
 May we disposed of upwards of a dozen 
 large horse-chestnuts, Spanish ditto, 
 limes, sycamore, and birches, all from 
 ten to eighteen feet high, in full leaf, to 
 a gentleman in this neighbourhood, the 
 planting of which I superintended. All 
 at this time (a fortnight subsequently) 
 
 the roots have gone down ; then reduce 
 the ball by degrees with a fork, clean- 
 ing out the soil with a spade, and taking 
 care not to injure any of the roots or 
 fibres. These tie up in trusses with 
 matting, in order to prevent them', as 
 much as possible, from being injured. 
 Clear the roots to within two or three 
 
TRA 
 
 597 
 
 — • — 
 
 TRA 
 
 feet of the main stem, and then under- 
 mine the solid piece that is left. 
 
 " When the plant is ready for re- 
 moval, the strength for lifting it will 
 depend upon its size, and the weight of 
 the ball left, if any. When the plant 
 is brought to the pit and placed in the 
 centre of it, untie the roots, and dress 
 with a sharp knife any that may have 
 been bruised. Shorten strong ones, 
 that they may make young fibres, upon 
 which the welfare of the plant in a great 
 measure depends. After dressing the 
 roots, lay them all carefully out round 
 the pit. If there are one, two, or three 
 layers of roots, as is often the case, keep 
 each layer by itself, and lay out the 
 undermost first, taking care to spread 
 out every fibre with the hand. On these 
 spread well-broken soil; but in doing 
 this, care must be taken not to club the 
 roots together. After the first layer of 
 roots is well covered proceed with the 
 next, and so on until all is finished. 
 
 " After transplanting, never give the 
 plants water oftener than once, which 
 is immediately after the operation of 
 planting is performed. Many young 
 trees and shrubs are destroyed (after 
 having been transplanted) by the fre- 
 quent application of water in dry 
 weather. After the roots are all well 
 covered, leave the pit three or four 
 inches unfilled, and apply the water 
 according to the state of the soil, and 
 size of the plant. To a shrub, that 
 covers about four square yards of 
 ground (if the soil is not very moist), 
 give about eight common sized water- 
 ing potfuls, and so on for every square 
 yard of ground covered. The only 
 treading to be permitted is merely what 
 may take place in going round them in 
 taking away the rope and spreading out 
 the branches in their original position. 
 The above remarks apply well to the 
 common and Portugal laurel, and also 
 to deciduous trees and shrubs in gene- 
 ral. A few kinds that are difficult to 
 remove without balls when they are 
 large plants, are the following : — the 
 holly is one that is impatient of being 
 removed without a ball, and in free 
 light soils it will not lift with one. The 
 best method with it is this. Two years 
 before removal , open a trench round the 
 plant about two feet from the main stem 
 (more or less, according to its size). 
 Two feet will do for a plant six feet 
 high. Go as deep as there are roots, 
 
 and cut clean off all those outside of 
 the ball, and again fill in the soil. In 
 about two years afterwards, the cut 
 roots will have made firm young fibres, 
 which supply the plant with food when 
 it is transplanted. In lifting them, al- 
 ways try to get a good ball with them. 
 The Laurestinus is not very fond of 
 being removed without a ball. There 
 are but very few of the fir tribe that can 
 be transplanted after they have attained 
 the height of from six to sixteen feet ; 
 but the best are the silver, the spruce, 
 and the Weymouth pines. The silver 
 fir bears transplanting tolerably well, 
 provided care is taken not to injure the 
 roots, which run horizontally near the 
 surface. The spruce lifts well, even 
 when sixteen feet high ; and the Wey- 
 mouth pines from ten to twelve feet 
 high. In lifting them always try to get 
 good balls with them, keeping their 
 roots as entire as possible, and making 
 the pits wherein they are to be planted 
 large, so as to get all their roots spread 
 out as regularly as possible ; when 
 covered, water in the same manner as 
 evergreen shrubs. In lifting and trans- 
 planting hard-wooded trees, such as 
 oaks, &c, keep their roots as entire as 
 possible, and shorten in any strong 
 ones ; they should be well watered. It 
 is very essential to the welfare of plants 
 that have been transplanted to have 
 them well supported to prevent them 
 from shaking with the wind, &c. For 
 trees from ten to twenty feet high, use 
 three poles, set up in the form of a tri- 
 angle ; roll a straw rope round the stem 
 of the tree, for the poles to rest on, as 
 it prevents them from hurting the bark ; 
 then, after tying the poles firmly to the 
 tree, and fixing them in the ground, the 
 work is finished. For plants of smaller 
 size use small rope, tied in the same 
 manner to the tree, and fixed to stakes 
 driven into the ground, after the man- 
 ner of tent ropes. 
 
 " No doubt the summer months are 
 not proper for transplanting, therefore 
 it should be avoided if possible. From 
 October to April, all shrubs, &c, may 
 be lifted with safety. November is 
 preferable for lifting large plants, as 
 those planted about that time always 
 send out young roots during winter ; 
 frequently by February, from one to 
 three inches long. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 T R A P A. Four species. Aquatic 
 plants. Green-house, stove, and hardy 
 
TRA 
 
 598 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 TRE 
 
 annuals and biennials. Seeds. Rich 
 loamy soil, in water. 
 
 TRAVELER'S JOY. Clematis vi- 
 talba. 
 
 TRAVELER'S JOY. Clematis vi- 
 orna. 
 
 TREACLE MUSTARD. Clypeola. 
 
 TREE CELANDINE. Bocconiafru- 
 tescens. 
 
 TREE GUARDS. The following are 
 cheap and effectual. Mr. W. Brown, 
 gardener at Merevale Hall, uses stakes 
 about the thickness of the wrist, seven 
 feet in length, and tolerably straight: 
 he chops each a little flat on one side, 
 gets some iron hooping a little thicker 
 than coopers are in the habit of using 
 for barrels; he punches holes through 
 it six inches apart (with one near each 
 end), nails it to the stakes on the chop- 
 ped side, one foot from the top of 
 them, and one foot from the bottom ; 
 then raises it and bends it circularly 
 round the tree, observing that the hoops 
 are placed inside nearest the tree ; the 
 holes left at each end of the hoop are 
 then clenched up with a nail, and the 
 guard is then complete. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 The following plan is somewhat simi- 
 lar: — " Procure stakes of ash or larch, 
 six feet in length, or more if requisite, 
 and about two inches in diameter, and 
 bore holes through the tops and bot- 
 toms, about one foot from each end. 
 Get a similar hole drilled up the centre 
 of a stake, and saw it off in lengths of 
 two inches, or rather less ; pass a strong 
 wire or thick tarred string through one 
 stake, by the holes, at the top and at 
 the bottom, then pass it through the 
 hole made in one of the two inch pieces 
 at each end, and then through another 
 stake, separating each stake at top and 
 bottom by a piece of wood, until you 
 leave enough to surround the tree 
 loosely, leaving plenty of space for 
 growth. Place it round the tree, and 
 fasten the ends of the wire or string. 
 This guard is much the same as a cradle 
 put round the neck of a blistered horse, 
 to prevent his gnawing the irritated 
 part. The stakes merely rest on the 
 ground, and should be cut quite flat at 
 the bottom, to prevent their sticking 
 into the ground. At the upper end they 
 should have a sharp slanting cut with a 
 bill-hook, and threaded with the slope 
 towards the tree. The motion of the 
 tree will not in any degree be impeded ; 
 and the bark cannot be injured, let the 
 
 wind blow as it may, for the guard 
 moves freely with the tree in every di- 
 rection." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 TREES are a chief material in land- 
 scape gardening. Trees and shrubs 
 are of different shapes, colours, and 
 growths. 
 
 "The varieties in their shapes," says 
 Mr. Whateley, " may be reduced to the 
 following heads. Some thick with 
 branches and foliage have almost an 
 appearance of solidity, as the beach, 
 the elm, the lilac, and seringa. Others 
 thin of boughs and of leaves, seem light 
 and airy, as the ash, and the arbele,the 
 common arbor vitse, and the tamarisk. 
 
 " There is a mean betwixt the two ex- 
 tremes, very distinguishable from both, 
 as in the bladder-nut, and the ashen- 
 leaved maple. They may again be di- 
 vided into those whose branches begin 
 from the ground, and those which shoot 
 up in a stem before their branches begin. 
 Trees which have some, and not much 
 clear stem, as several of the firs, belong 
 to the former class; but a very short 
 stem will rank as a shrub, such as the 
 althasa in the latter. 
 
 " Of those whose branches begin from 
 the ground, some rise in a conical figure, 
 as the larch, the cedar of Lebanon, and 
 the holly. Some swell out in the mid- 
 dle of their growth, and diminish at both 
 ends, as the Weymouth pine, the moun- 
 tain ash, and the lilac ; and some are 
 irregular and bushy from the top to the 
 bottom, as the evergreen oak, the Vir- 
 ginian cedar, and Guelder rose. There 
 is a great difference between one whose 
 base is very large, and another whose 
 base is very small, in proportion to its 
 height; the cedar of Lebanon and the 
 cypress, are instances of such a differ- 
 ence, yet in both the branches begin 
 from the ground. 
 
 " The heads of those which shoot up 
 into a stem, before their branches be- 
 gin, sometimes are slender cones, as of 
 many firs, sometimes are broad cones, 
 as of the horse-chestnut, sometimes they 
 are round, as of the stone pine, and 
 most sorts of fruit trees; and sometimes 
 irregular, as of the elm. Of this last 
 kind there are many considerable va- 
 rieties. 
 
 "The branches of some grow hori- 
 zontally, as of the oak. In others they 
 tend upwards, as in the almond, and in 
 several sorts of broom, and of willows. 
 In others they fall, as in the lime and 
 
TRE 
 
 599 
 — ♦ — 
 
 TRE 
 
 the acacia; and in some of these last 
 they incline obliquely, as in many of the 
 firs; in some they hang directly down, 
 as in the weeping willow. 
 
 " These are the most obvious great 
 distinctions in the shapes of trees and 
 shrubs. The difference between shades 
 of green cannot be so considerable, but 
 these also will be found well deserving 
 of attention. 
 
 " Some are of a dark green, as the 
 horse-chestnut and the yew. Some of a 
 light green, as the lime and the laurel. 
 Some of a green tinged with brown, as 
 the Virginian cedar. Some of a green 
 tinged with white, as the arbele and the 
 sage tree. And some of a green tinged 
 with yellow, as the ashen-leaved maple 
 and the Chinese arbor vitae. The varie- 
 gated plants also are generally entitled 
 to be classed with the white or the yel- 
 low, by the strong tincture of the one 
 or the other of those colours on their 
 leaves. 
 
 " The fall of the leaf is the time to 
 learn the species, the order, and the 
 proportion of tints, which blended, will 
 form beautiful masses; and, on the other 
 hand, to distinguish those which are in- 
 compatible near together. 
 
 "■ The peculiar beauty of the tints of 
 red, cannot then escape observation, 
 and the want of them throughout the 
 summer months must be regretted ; but 
 the want, though it cannot perfectly, 
 may partially be supplied, for plants 
 have a permanent and an accidental 
 colour. The permanent is always some 
 shade of green, but any other may be 
 the accidental colour; and there is none 
 which so many circumstances concur to 
 produce as a red. It is assumed in suc- 
 cession by the bud, the blossom, the 
 berry, the bark, and the leaf. Some- 
 times it profusely overspreads, at other 
 times it dimly tinges the plant, and a 
 reddish-green is generally the hue of 
 those plants on which it lasts long or 
 frequently returns. 
 
 " Admitting this, at least for many 
 months in the year, among the charac- 
 teristic distinctions, a large piece of red- 
 green, with a narrow edging of dark 
 green, along the further side of it, and 
 beyond that, a piece of light green, still 
 larger than the first, will be found to 
 compose a beautiful mass. Another, 
 not less beautiful, is a yellow green, 
 nearest to the eye, beyond that a light 
 green, then a brown green, and lastly a 
 
 dark green. The dark green must be 
 the largest, the light green the next in 
 extent, and the yellow green the least 
 of all. 
 
 "From those combinations, the agree- 
 ments between particular tints may be 
 known. A light green may be next 
 either to a yellow or a brown green, and 
 a brown to a dark green; all in consider- 
 able quantities, and a little rim of dark 
 green may border on a red or a light 
 green. 
 
 " Further observations will show, that 
 the yellow and the white greens connect 
 easily; but that large quantities of the 
 light, the yellow, or the white greens, 
 do not mix well with a large quantity 
 also of the dark green ; and that to form 
 a pleasing mass, either the dark green 
 must be reduced to a mere edging, or a 
 brown or an intermediate green must be 
 interposed ; that the red, the brown, and 
 the intermediate greens agree among 
 themselves, and that either of them may 
 be joined to any other tint ; but that the 
 red green will bear a larger quantity of 
 the light than of the dark green near it; 
 nor does it seem so proper a mixture 
 with the white green as with the rest. 
 In massing these tints, an attention must 
 be constantly kept up to their forms, 
 that they do not lie in large stripes one 
 beyond another ; but that either they be 
 quite intermingled, or, which is gene- 
 rally more pleasing, that considerable 
 pieces of different tints, each a beautiful 
 figure, be in different proportions placed 
 near together. 
 
 " Exactness in the shapes must not be 
 attempted, for it cannot be preserved ; 
 but if the great outlines be well drawn, 
 little variations afterwards occasioned 
 by the growth of the plants, will not 
 spoil them. Another effect attainable 
 by the aid of the different tints, is found- 
 ed on the first principles of perspective; 
 objects grow faint as they retire from 
 the eye; a detached clump or a single 
 tree of the lighter green will, therefore, 
 seem farther off than one equidistant of 
 a darker hue, and a regular gradation 
 from one tint to another will alter the 
 apparent length of a continued planta- 
 tion, according as the dark or the light 
 greens begin the graduation. 
 
 " Single trees scattered about a lawn, 
 cast it into an agreeable shape, and to 
 produce that shape, each must be placed 
 with an attention to the rest ; they may 
 stand in particular directions, and col- 
 
TRE 
 
 600 
 
 TRE 
 
 lectively form agreeable figures, or be- 
 tween several straggling trees, little 
 glades may open full of variety and 
 beauty. The lines they trace are fainter 
 than those which larger plantations de- 
 scribe, but then their forms are their 
 own ; they are therefore absolutely free 
 from all appearance of art; any dispo- 
 sition of them, if it be but irregular, is 
 sure to be natural. 
 
 " The situations of single trees, is the 
 first consideration, and differences in 
 the distances between them, their great- 
 est variety. In shape, they admit of no 
 choice but that which their species 
 afford: greatness often, beauty often, 
 sometimes mere solidity, and now and 
 then peculiarity alone, recommends 
 them. Their situations will also fre- 
 quently determine the species; if they 
 are placed before a continued line of 
 wood only to break it, they should com- 
 monly be similar to the trees in that 
 wood, they will else lose their connec- 
 tion, and not affect the outline which 
 they are intended to vary; but if they 
 are designed to be independent objects, 
 they are as such more discernible, when 
 distinguished both in their shapes and 
 their greens, from any plantations about 
 them. After all, the choice, especially 
 in large scenes, is much confined to the 
 trees on the spot; young clumps from 
 the first have some, and soon produce a 
 considerable effect; but a young single 
 tree for many years has none at all, and 
 it is often more judicious to preserve one 
 already growing, though not exactly 
 such as might be wished, either in itself 
 or in its situation, than to plant in its 
 stead another, which may be a finer 
 object, and better placed, in a distant 
 futurity." See Clump, Avenue, Grove 
 and Wood. 
 
 TREE MALLOW. Lavateraarborea. 
 
 TREE OF SADNESS. Nyctanthes 
 arbor tristis. 
 
 TREE or CANADA ONION. Allium 
 proliferum. This, like the Ciboule, is 
 without a bulbous root, but throws out 
 numerous offsets. Its top bulbs are 
 greatly prized for pickling, being con- 
 sidered of superior flavour to the com- 
 mon onion for that purpose, as well as 
 others in which that species is employed. 
 
 Time and Mode of Planting. — It is 
 propagated both by the root offsets, 
 which may be planted during March 
 and April, or in September and October, 
 and from the top bulbs, which are best 
 
 planted in spring. The old roots are 
 best to plant again for a crop of bulbs, 
 as they are most certain to run to 
 stems. If the bulbs be planted earlier 
 than as above directed, they are apt to 
 push up the same season and exhaust 
 themselves, without producing either 
 good offsets or bulbs ; but, on the other 
 hand, by planting the old roots in the 
 previous autumn, or early in the spring, 
 they will produce good bulbs the same 
 year. They must be inserted in rows 
 twelve inches asunder, in holes six 
 inches apart and two deep, a single 
 offset or bulb being put in each. Those 
 planted in autumn will shoot up leaves 
 early in the spring, and have their 
 bulbs fit for gathering in June or the 
 beginning of July; those inserted in 
 the spring, will make their appearance 
 later, and will be in production at the 
 close of July or early in August ; they 
 must not, however, be gathered for 
 keeping or planting until the stalks de- 
 cay, at which time, or in the spring 
 also, if only of one year's growth, the 
 roots may be taken up and parted if 
 required for planting; but when of two 
 or three years' continuance, they must 
 at all events be reduced in size, other- 
 wise they grow in two large and spin- 
 dling bunches ; but the best plan is to 
 make a fresh plantation annually with 
 single offsets. The only cultivation 
 necessary is to keep them clear of 
 weeds ; and when the stems run up, to 
 give them the support of stakes. 
 
 The bulbs, when gathered, must be 
 gradually and carefully dried in a shady 
 place ; and if kept perfectly free from 
 moisture, will continue in a good state 
 until the following May. 
 
 TRELLIS or TREILLAGE, is an 
 arrangement of supporters upon which 
 to train plants. 
 
 Espalier Trellis. — The cheapest, the 
 easiest, and soonest made, is that 
 formed with straight poles or stakes, of 
 ash, oak, or chestnut, in lengths of from 
 five to six or seven feet, driving them 
 in the ground in a range about a foot 
 distant, all of an equal height; and then 
 railed along the top with the same kind 
 of poles or rods, to preserve the whole 
 form in a regular position. They should 
 be full an inch and a half thick, and 
 having pointed them at one end, drive 
 them with a mallet into the ground in a 
 straight range, close along the row of 
 trees, a foot deep at least. To render 
 
TRE 
 
 601 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 TRE 
 
 treillage still stronger, run two, three, 
 or more ranges of rods, along the back 
 part of the uprights, a foot or eighteen 
 inches asunder, fastening them to the 
 upright stakes, either with pieces of 
 strong wire twisted two or three times 
 round, or by nailing them. 
 
 When the treillage is finished, it is 
 advisable to paint the whole to render 
 it both more beautiful and durable ; and 
 the durability is greatly increased by 
 charring the ends of the uprights before 
 driving them into the soil. 
 
 Espalier Trellis made of cast iron 
 rods, is much more durable, and neater, 
 than that made of wood. 
 
 Trellis for Climbers. — These have 
 been greatly improved, or rather created 
 within these few years, for ten years ago 
 we had nothing but stakes and rods. 
 The following observations and designs 
 are from the Gardener's Chronicle: — 
 
 " The beauty of green-houses has 
 been wonderfully increased, by the 
 contrivance of compelling these un- 
 manageable rambling scrambling plants, 
 to grow down upon themselves, or 
 round and round a circular trellis, so 
 as to be compelled to clothe themselves 
 all over with foliage, and to present 
 immediately to the eye whatever flow- 
 ers they produce. Every one who has 
 ever witnessed the exhibitions in the 
 garden of the Horticultural Society, 
 must have been struck with the extra- 
 ordinary beauty of the Russelias, and 
 Tropeeolums, Lichyas, and Hardenber- 
 gias, red, yellow, crimson, and blue, 
 which have graced the stands of even 
 the least extensive growers. It is not 
 because some climbing plants require 
 to have their roots confined in garden 
 pots, nor because being, in the ma- 
 jority of cases, inhabitants of tropical 
 forests, they demand more bottom-heat 
 than they can obtain in this country, 
 when planted in the open border of a 
 conservatory that the modern plan of 
 distributing their branches over the 
 trellis of a flower-pot, is to be so much 
 commended. Nor is it because the 
 flowers, which if the branches are un- 
 controlled, are carried out of sight by 
 the excessive length of the stems, are 
 thus brought immediately before the 
 eye ; but there is another great advan- 
 tage in this practice. Gardeners need 
 not be told that the immediate effect of 
 compelling branches to grow down- 
 wards is to make them bloom. This 
 
 was effected over the walls of Sir 
 Joseph Banks' house ; and as those 
 branches were always loaded with 
 fruit, the practice was soon imitated, 
 and gave rise, among other things, to 
 what is called balloon training. This 
 produces an abundance of flowers, in 
 the most sterile trees, and of fruit, when 
 the branches are not exposed to severe 
 night frosts, which kill the blossoms. 
 Just the same consequences follow the 
 training of climbing plants downwards ; 
 they are compelled to yield a far greater 
 crop of flowers than if permitted to 
 grow at full length. The many kinds 
 of trellises that have been invented for 
 this purpose, are admirably adapted for 
 compelling plants to grow upside down; 
 for the branches can be bent in all di- 
 rections, over and over again, and the 
 more they are entangled, the prettier 
 is the effect produced. 
 
 The accompanying forms will be 
 Fig. 169. 
 
TRE 
 
 602 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 admirably adapted for Gompholobium, 
 TropcBolum tricolor, and other plants 
 possessed of scanty foliage, whose 
 branches require to be closely trained 
 to produce a good effect. 
 
 "The following cut will show the 
 manner in which the wire-trellis for 
 climbing plants, is attached to the pots, 
 a matter of great importance, and of 
 which the separate plans that have 
 been proposed, and some of which are 
 published, convey an incorrect idea. 
 
 Fig. 170. 
 
 " It will be seen that a strong wire 
 ring is carried round the pot, a little 
 above its bottom. To this a sufficient 
 number of upright wires are attached 
 all round. The upright wires are 
 pressed down upon the surface of the 
 pot, till they reach the rim, over which 
 they are firmly bent till they reach the 
 highest point of the rim, or are even 
 bent a little within it. At this point 
 they are secured by a second ring of 
 stout wire, adjusted as in the drawing, 
 which having been done, the uprights 
 are directed upwards, and fashioned 
 into the pattern required. By these 
 means, a sort of collar is formed upon 
 the rim of the pot, which prevents the 
 trellis from slipping downwards, while 
 at the same Itime, the lowest ring of 
 wire keeps it from swinging and sway- 
 ing backwards and forwards." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 Umbrella Trellis is a form excellently 
 adapted for Wisteria sinensis, and other 
 climbers or shrubs having long racemes 
 of flowers. The following (Fig. 171) is 
 its form. 
 
 Hothouse Trellis for training vines 
 near the glass, is usually made of thin 
 rods of deal or of iron, placed about a 
 foot apart, and fastened to the frame- 
 work of the building. Mr. Long, Beau- 
 
 fort Place, Chelsea, has invented a 
 movable wire trellis, by which the vines 
 may be lowered from the roof, or placed 
 at any angle, without injuring the vines. 
 This is an excellent mode of removing 
 them from the influence of extreme ex- 
 terior heat or cold. A still further im- 
 provement would be to have the verti- 
 cal rods movable round the rod horizon- 
 tally fixed to the rafter or roof, for then 
 the whole trellis might be raised to an 
 angle with, or even close to the glass, 
 whenever sun to the vine upon the trel- 
 lis, or shade to the plants within the 
 house was desirable. 
 
 Trellis for Walks. — The following 
 observations made by Mr. Loudon, 
 when criticising the gardens of Lord 
 Selsey, at Westdean, comprise all that 
 need be said upon this kind of struc- 
 ture. 
 
 " Among the contrivances adopted 
 for giving interest to the walks, and to 
 separate one scene from another, are 
 portions of walk covered with arched 
 trellis work. One of these is grown 
 over with climbing roses ; another with 
 laburnums, which in the flowering sea- 
 son has a remarkably fine aspect, few 
 colours looking so well in the shade as 
 yellow, because, with the exception of 
 white, none suffer so little from the ab- 
 sence of light. This laburnum trellis 
 has a new feature, that of a table bor- 
 der of trellis work intended to be co- 
 vered with ivy ; we have no doubt its 
 effects will be good, especially in win- 
 ter. We must remark some circum- 
 stances in the construction of garden 
 
TRE 
 
 603 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 TRI 
 
 trellises, which should be ample in their 
 dimensions, strictly geometrical in all 
 their forms, and most accurately and 
 substantially executed. Nothing can be 
 more miserable in its effect on the eye 
 than a low narrow archway, the support 
 leaning in different directions, and the 
 curve of the ground plan and of the 
 roof in no marked style of determinate 
 line. The most accurate carpentry and 
 smithwork ought always to be employed 
 in such structures, otherwise they had 
 much better be omitted as garden deco- 
 rations. Some attempt forming trel- 
 lises over walks with long hazel rods, 
 but nothing can be meaner than the 
 effect : such rod trellis works or ar- 
 bours are at best fit for a cottage gar- 
 den, or a hedge alehouse." — Gard. 
 Mag, 
 
 TREMBLING ASPEN. Populus 
 tremula. 
 
 TRENCHING is one of the readiest 
 modes in the gardener's power for re- 
 novating his soil. The process is thus 
 conducted : — 
 
 " From the end of the piece of 
 ground where it is intended to begin, 
 take out a trench two spades deep, and 
 twenty inches wide, and wheel the 
 earth to the opposite end to fill up and 
 finish the last ridge. Measure off the 
 width of another trench, then stretch 
 the line and mark it out with the spade. 
 Proceed in this way until the whole of 
 the ridges are outlined, after which 
 begin at one end and fill up the bottom 
 of the first trench with the surface or 
 * top spit' of the second one ; then take 
 the bottom ' spit' of the latter, and 
 throw it in such a way over the other 
 as to form an elevated sharp-pointed 
 ridge. By this means a portion of fresh 
 soil is annually brought on the surface 
 to the place of that which the crop of 
 the past season may have in some mea- 
 sure exhausted." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Bastard-Trenching is thus perform- 
 ed :— 
 
 " Open a trench two feet and a half 
 or a yard wide, one full spit, and the 
 shoveling deep, and wheel the soil 
 from it to where it is intended to finish 
 the piece, then put in the dung and dig 
 it in with the bottom spit in the trench, 
 then fill up this trench with the top 
 spit, &c, of the second, treating it in 
 like manner, and so on. The advan- 
 tages of this plan of working the soil 
 are, the good soil is retained at top, an 
 
 important consideration where the sub- 
 soil is poor or bad, the bottom soil is 
 enriched and loosened for the penetra- 
 tion and nourishment of the roots, and 
 allowing them to descend deeper, they 
 are not so liable to suffer from drought 
 in summer; strong soil is rendered ca- 
 pable of absorbing more moisture, and 
 yet remains drier at the surface by the 
 water passing down more rapidly to 
 the subsoil, and it ensures a thorough 
 shifting of the soil." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 In all trenching, whether one, two, 
 or more spades deep, always, previous 
 to digging, put the top of each trench 
 two or three inches deep or more, with 
 all weeds and other litter at the bottom 
 of the open one, which not only makes 
 clean digging, and increases the depth 
 of loose soil, but all weeds and their 
 seeds are regularly buried at such a 
 depth, that the weeds themselves will 
 rot, and their seeds cannot vegetate. 
 
 TREVIRANIA. See Achimenes. 
 
 TREVIRANIA pulchella. Stove 
 herbaceous perennial. Division. Light 
 rich soil. 
 
 TREVOA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 TREWIA nudiflora. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 TRIBULUS. Eight species. Green- 
 house and hardy trailing annuals or 
 stove evergreen trailers; the annuals 
 increase by seeds, and common soil 
 will suit them ; the evergreens increase 
 by cuttings or seeds, and grow best in 
 loam and peat. 
 
 TRICHOCEPHALUS. Three spe- 
 cies. Greenhouse evergreen shrubs. 
 Young cuttings. Sandy peat. 
 
 TRICHOCLADUS crinitus. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Young cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 TRICHOMANES. Two species. 
 Ferns. Hardy and stove herbaceous 
 perennials. Division or seeds. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 TRICHONEMA. Sixteen species. 
 Green-house, hardy and half-hardy 
 bulbous perennials. Offsets. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 TRICHOPETALUM gracile. Half- 
 hardy herbaceous perennial. Division. 
 Light rich soil. 
 
 TRICHOPILIA tortilis. Stove 
 epiphyte. Division. Wood with a lit- 
 tle moss on the roots. 
 
TRI 
 
 604 
 
 TRO 
 
 TRICHOSANTHES anguina. Snake 
 Gourd. Frame trailing annual. Seeds. 
 Common soil. 
 
 TRICHOSTEMA. Two species. 
 Hardy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 TRICORYNE. Three species. 
 Greenhouse herbaceous perennials, ex- 
 cept T. simplex, a green-house biennial 
 increased by seeds, the other two by 
 division ; a light rich soil suits them all. 
 
 TRIDENTIA. Seven species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and brick rubbish. 
 
 TRIENTALIS. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division or 
 seeds. Light rich soil. 
 
 TRIFOLIUM. Trefoil or Clover. 
 One hundred and two species. All 
 hardy, chiefly annuals, some herba- 
 ceous perennials, and a few deciduous, 
 herbaceous, and annual trailers. Di- 
 vision or seeds. Common soil. 
 
 TRIGONIDIUM. Four species. 
 Stove orchids. Division. Fibrous peat. 
 
 TRIGUERA ambrosiaca. Hardy an- 
 nual. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 TRILLIUM. Fifteen species. Hardy 
 tuberous-rooted perennials. Division 
 or seeds. Peaty soil. 
 
 M. F. Otto observes, that — " Seven 
 species are cultivated in our gardens, 
 namely : Trillium sessile; T. erythro- 
 carpum; T.pusilium; T.cernuum; T. 
 erectum; T. pendulum ; and T. grandi- 
 florum. Their cultivation is very sim- 
 ple. They grow freely in the open air 
 without covering, in shady places, and 
 in a mixture composed of marsh or 
 heath soil, mixed with river sand. They 
 bloom abundantly every year, in April 
 and May, and are a great ornament to 
 our gardens ; the tuberous roots spread 
 rapidly by the formation of lateral eyes, 
 so that after some years, if the plants 
 have not been removed, they will form 
 large handsome bushes. The seeds 
 ripen in August, and if sown imme- 
 diately, they will come up the following 
 year. They may be sown either in the 
 open ground, in a shady peat border, or 
 in pots. The stronger seedlings will 
 bloom in the third season." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 TRIOPTERIS. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen twiners. Ripe cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 TRIPHJENIA pronuba. Yellow Un- 
 derwing Moth. Mr. Curtis says that 
 " its caterpillar is hatched in July or 
 August, and if the egg has been depo- 
 
 sited in a cabbage or cauliflower, the 
 young larva immediately eats its way to 
 the centre, on which it feeds till it is 
 full grown, when it is about two inches 
 long, greenish or brownish green in 
 colour, with two rows of black spots 
 on the back. During the winter, it lies 
 beneath stones or clods of earth, and in 
 April or May it descends a few inches 
 below the surface, where it changes to 
 a reddish pupa, from which the perfect 
 moth emerges in June or July. The 
 moth varies in size from two to two and 
 a half inches: the upper wings are 
 brownish or grayish, with an indistinct 
 kidney-shaped spot near the centre ; 
 the lower wings are bright yellow, with 
 a narrow black band. The moth varies 
 considerably in its colour and markings, 
 scarcely two individuals ever being ex- 
 actly alike. The caterpillar, though it 
 most frequently is found on the cabbage 
 or cauliflower, yet sometimes does con- 
 siderable mischief to celery, and even 
 the young leaves and flower-buds of 
 auriculas, primroses, and violets are 
 destroyed by it. The only remedy we 
 can suggest is to search for and destroy 
 them." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 TRIPHASIA trifoliata. Green-house 
 evergreen shrub. Ripe cuttings. Turfy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 TRIPTILION. Two species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 TRISTANIA. Eight species. Green- 
 house evergreen trees and shrubs. Half 
 ripe cuttings. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 TRITELEIA. Three species. Halt- 
 hardy bulbous perennials. Offsets or 
 seeds. Peat, loam, and sand. 
 
 TRITOMA. Four species. Hardy 
 or half-hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 Suckers. Light rich soil. 
 
 TROCHETIA grandiflora. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Rich light 
 loam. 
 
 TROCHOCARPA laurina. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Sandy 
 peat and turfy soil. 
 
 TROLLIUS. Globe Flower. Seven 
 species. Hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 Division or seeds. Light moist soil. 
 
 TROMOTRICHE. Five species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and brick rubbish. 
 
 TROP^OLUM. Nasturtium. Four- 
 teen species. Green-house hardy and 
 half-hardy annuals, and evergreen 
 twiners. T. brachyceras and T. tube- 
 rosum are half-hardy tuberous-rooted 
 
TRO 
 
 605 
 
 TRO 
 
 perennials. The green-house and half- 
 hardy species increase by cuttings, and 
 require a light rich soil. The annuals, 
 seeds only, and common soil. The 
 tuberous-rooted, cuttings, loam, and 
 peat. Some of the species require par- 
 ticular treatment, as follows: — 
 
 T. tricolorum. — Mr. Falconer, gar- 
 dener to A. Palmer, Esq., of Cheam, 
 enters fully into its cultivation. He 
 says that — " the soil best suited to it is 
 a mixture of loam, peat, and sand, with 
 a small portion of soot; this mixture to 
 be exposed to the influence of the sun 
 from May until time to plant the tubers. 
 About the latter end of June, or as soon 
 as the decay of the stem and ripening 
 of the seed show that the circulation of 
 the sap has ceased, turn out the tubers 
 from the pots, and having carefully re- 
 moved the soil, put the tubers in flower 
 pans upon a shelf in a dry room. About 
 the beginning of September they pro- 
 duce their new stems; let them remain 
 until they have lengthened from twelve 
 to fifteen inches. Having well drained 
 a No. 12 pot, fill it up with the compost 
 to within four inches of the top, then 
 place the tuber in the centre of the pot, 
 and coil the stem or stems around, care- 
 fully filling up with the compost until 
 about two inches of the stem are left 
 above the soil. After potting, place the 
 pots on a stage out of doors, there to 
 remain till the middle of October, they 
 are then removed to the front of a cool 
 green-house, exposed to as much light 
 and air as can be given to them. With 
 respect to watering, keep them rather 
 moist than otherwise: when out of doors 
 they are freely exposed to rain. The 
 early flower-buds should be picked off 
 until the space allotted is covered, the 
 object being to have the greatest quan- 
 tity of bloom at one time. When ne- 
 cessary, in their early growth, they may 
 be stopped to give a supply of laterals. 
 At all times they should have plenty of 
 air and light, more especially after they 
 show their flower-buds, for the joints 
 will be shorter, and consequently the 
 flowers more close together. When in 
 bloom, care must be taken to shade 
 from the midday sun, which will pro- 
 long their season of plenty: take off 
 the weak laterals that are not likely to 
 flower, where about two inches long ; 
 if with a heel so much the better. Any 
 time from February till May fill the pot 
 half full of crocks, then with a mixture 
 
 of peat and sand, till within two inches 
 of the top, fill up with silver sand, and 
 water with a fine rose to settle it. Then 
 dibble in the cuttings all round, within 
 one inch of the rim, leaving about half 
 an inch of the cutting above the sand. 
 Place the pot on a shelf in the front of 
 the green-house, keep the sand con- 
 stantly moist, taking care that the cut- 
 tings are always erect. In the course 
 of two months many of them will throw 
 up shoots from under the sand. The 
 pot should then be removed to a shady 
 situation out of doors. When the stems 
 decay, do not disturb the sand, but 
 water sparingly. In October let them 
 be placed in the green-house, when all 
 that have made small tubers will grow. 
 It is from these plants the best cuttings 
 are obtained in the spring. In the fol- 
 lowing May, turn the whole ball out of 
 the pot, in a warm situation in the open 
 ground. After they have finished their 
 growth, take them up and sift the ball 
 through a fine sieve, carefully picking 
 out the tubers. They are then treated 
 in all respects as the older tubers, and 
 will make fine flowering plants the fol- 
 lowing spring. The seeds before sow- 
 ing should be soaked in milk and water 
 twenty-four hours, and the outer shell 
 carefully removed ; they will under this 
 treatment grow much sooner and with 
 greater certainty. They should remain 
 in the seed pot until after they have 
 formed a tuber. A small stick can be 
 placed against each plant, to which it 
 will climb, and it serves to indicate the 
 place of the tuber when the stem is 
 dead. Many seeds will remain twelve 
 months before vegetating." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 T. moritzianum requires very similar 
 treatment. Dr. Lindley directs that 
 — "After this plant has bloomed, water 
 should be gradually withheld from it, 
 and the pot containing the tubers should 
 be stored away in some dry situation, 
 until the season for starting it into 
 growth returns. The tubers should then 
 be repotted and placed in a gentle heat." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 T. majus is the Nasturtium of our 
 gardens. " The flowers and young 
 leaves are frequently eaten in salads ; 
 they have a warm taste, like the com- 
 mon Cress, hence the name of Nastur- 
 tium. The flowers are also used as a 
 garnish to dishes. The berries are 
 gathered green and pickled, in which 
 
T RO 
 
 606 
 
 TRU 
 
 state, they form an excellent substitute 
 for capers. 
 
 f It should be planted on a warm 
 border in April, having soaked the seed 
 in warm water for twelve hours. The 
 usual mode of planting, is in hills three 
 feet apart each way, four seeds in a 
 hill ; two strong plants are sufficient to 
 remain; when they commence running, 
 place brush around them to climb on. 
 When the berries attain full growth, 
 but whilst yet tender, they are plucked 
 with the foot stalk attached, and pre- 
 served in vinegar." — Rural Register. 
 
 TROWEL. This implement, made of 
 iron from twelve to six inches long in 
 the plate, and half as broad, hollowed 
 like a scoop, and fixed on a short handle 
 to hold with one hand, is convenient in 
 removing small plants, with a ball or 
 lump of earth about their roots, lifting 
 bulbous flower roots after the flowering 
 is past in summer; planting bulbs in 
 patches or little clumps about the bor- 
 ders, as also for digging small patches 
 in the borders, for sowing hardy annual 
 flower seeds ; likewise for filling mould 
 into small pots, stirring the surface of 
 the earth in pots, and fresh earthing 
 them when necessary. And such a 
 trowel is likewise very convenient for 
 pointing over or stirring the ground be- 
 tween rows of small close-placed plants 
 in beds or borders; are made between 
 about twelve inches long in the plate, 
 and six broad, narrowing gradually to 
 the bottom, the other six or eight inches 
 in the plate, and four inches broad, 
 narrowing considerably towards the bot- 
 tom, to introduce between small plants. 
 
 TROXIMON. Two species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 TRUE PARSLEY. Apium Petroso- 
 linum. 
 
 TRUE SERVICE. Pyrus Sorbus. 
 
 TRUFFLE. Tuber magnatum, Pied- 
 montese Truffle ; T. Borchii, Italy ; T. 
 moschatum, Musk Truffle, near Bath ; 
 T. cibarium, Common Truffle, England. 
 But besides the tubers there are other 
 edible fungi known as truffles, viz., Hy- 
 drobolites tulasnei, Spye Park, Wilts ; 
 Melagonaster Broomeianus, Red Truf- 
 fle, near Bath. 
 
 These edible fungi have not yet been 
 cultivated in England, though the Prus- 
 sians have succeeded in making them a 
 garden tenant, and Comte de Borch has 
 been equally successful in Italy. The 
 
 latter cultivates the Piedmont Truffle, 
 and his process is this : — He either em- 
 ploys the soil where the truffle is found, 
 or he prepares an artificial soil of seven 
 parts good garden earth; two, well 
 pulverized clayey soil ; and one, oak 
 sawdust — intimately mixed. Decayed 
 oak or beech leaves would be better 
 probably than the sawdust. If the na- 
 tural soil was used, he trenched it two 
 feet, removing all the large stones, and 
 adding oak sawdust, if necessary, and 
 about one- tenth of powdered snail shells, 
 if the soil was too stiff. 
 
 " Choosing an aspect rather exposed 
 to the north than the south, where no 
 reflected rays could fall upon it, with 
 every precaution to insure its being 
 thoroughly soaked with pure rain-water, 
 and after waiting a day or two till it 
 was in a proper state of moisture, he 
 made rows half a foot deep, and in 
 these, at six inches distance, he placed 
 good and sound truffles, each of them 
 being surrounded with two or three 
 handfuls of oak sawdust, taking care to 
 mark the rows accurately. Ridges were 
 then made over each row, to prevent 
 the truffles being injured by too abund- 
 ant moisture. The bed was then left 
 till the following autumn, with no other 
 precaution than, in dry weather, to take 
 care that it did not become too dry. 
 The result, we are informed, was an 
 abundant harvest, every year, from Oc- 
 tober to January." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Bradley, writing, in 1726, of the culti- 
 vation of the truffle in England, says 
 that — 
 
 " The truffle may be easily cultivated 
 where there are woods or coppices of 
 oak or hazel, and where the soil is not 
 too stiff, or inclining to chalk. The soil 
 where they are most found is a reddish 
 sandy loam ; this will then be the best 
 for our purpose, especially if it has lain 
 long uncultivated. When we are thus 
 provided with the proper soil, we must 
 be sure to let it lie undisturbed till we 
 are ready to plant, which will be in the 
 months of October, November, and De- 
 cember, if the weather be open ; for 
 then the truffles are to be found in their 
 full ripeness, and then, likewise, one 
 may find them in a state of putrefaction, 
 which is the time when the seeds are 
 prepared for vegetation. It is in the 
 last state that one ought to gather truf- 
 fles for planting, or at least they should 
 be in perfect ripeness. 
 
TRU 
 
 607 
 
 TUL 
 
 "The proper soil, and these rotten 
 truffles, being found, we may begin our 
 work as follows : — Open a spot of 
 ground, of a convenient space, and 
 take out the earth about eight inches 
 deep, and screen it, that it may be as 
 fine as possible ; then lay about two or 
 three inches thick of this fine earth at 
 the bottom of the trench or open ground, 
 and upon it lay some of the overripe 
 truffles, about a foot and a half distance 
 from one another; and, as soon as pos- 
 sible, prepare a thin mud, made of the 
 screened earth and water, well stirred 
 and mixed together, and pour it on the 
 truffles till the open ground is quite 
 filled up. By this means, in a few hours, 
 the ground will be as closely settled 
 about the truffles as if it had never been 
 dug or disturbed at all, and you may 
 expect a good crop in due time. You 
 must, however, take care to choose 
 your spots of ground in woods or cop- 
 pices, or such places as are shaded with 
 trees. Their favorite tree is the oak, or 
 the ilex or evergreen oak, as the elm is 
 the favourite of the Morille. 
 
 " Notwithstanding these statements, 
 it is quite certain that, at present, the 
 art of cultivating the truffle is not known 
 in England; and it will remain unknown, 
 probably, until we have discovered how 
 its spawn can be prepared, as for culti- 
 vating the mushroom." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Mr. Gower says he recommended an 
 old truffle-hunter " to bury, at the pro- 
 per depth, some of his truffles that were 
 in a state of decay and unfit for the 
 table, under one of the unproductive 
 trees sufficient in stature and in umbra- 
 geous development. At the beginning 
 of next winter, when his visit was re- 
 peated, he sought for Mr. G., and told 
 him, with great satisfaction, that the 
 scheme had answered ; for he had found 
 two or three pounds of excellent truffles 
 beneath the hitherto barren tree. By 
 following this example, proprietors of 
 trees adapted to truffles, and where the 
 proper trees have been planted, may, in 
 a short period, do that which a lapse of 
 years, unassisted, would not effect. 
 
 " Of all trees the cedar of Lebanon is 
 the most favourable to the growth of the 
 truffle." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 TRUMPET FLOWER. Bignonia. 
 
 TRUSS is the florist's name for what 
 botanists call an umbel of flowers, a dis- 
 tinctive title for that mode of inflores- 
 cence where several flowers have their 
 
 stalks united at one common centre, 
 and thus spring from the root or branch 
 on one stem, as in the auricula, polyan- 
 thus, and cowslip. See Pip. 
 
 TUBE FLOWER. Clerodendron si- 
 phonanthus. 
 
 TUBER cibarium, the well known 
 truffle. It grows under ground, in light 
 dry soils. 
 
 TUBEROSE. Polyanthes tuberosa. 
 Dr. Lindley says that, — 
 
 " To flower the tuberose in the open 
 air the bulbs should be started in a 
 moderately warm frame, and planted 
 out towards the end of May, in a sunny 
 sheltered border. The bottom of the 
 border should consist principally of well 
 decomposed manure, and should be 
 covered, to the depth of six inches, with 
 light sandy loam, in which the bulbs 
 should be planted. Success, in thi3 
 case, will depend greatly upon the sea- 
 son, and upon having good bulbs, which 
 should be planted just as they are re- 
 ceived. When grown in pots the same 
 soil should be used, the plants should be 
 kept near the glass, and they should re- 
 ceive a liberal supply of water when 
 growing." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 TUCKERMANIA maritima. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennial. Division. Sandy 
 loam. 
 
 TULBAGHIA. Five species. Green- 
 house bulbous perennials. Offsets or 
 seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 T U L I P A . Twenty-four species. 
 Hardy bulbous perennials. Offsets. Rich 
 loam and sand. 
 
 TULIP. Tulipa Gesneriane. From 
 this species are descended our innume- 
 rable garden varieties. Of these it is 
 needless to do more than offer a selec- 
 tion ; and the most judgmatical is the 
 following, by Mr. Slater, florist, of Chel- 
 tenham Hill, near Manchester. 
 
 The first class contains all that are 
 worthy of a place in any stand of twelve 
 or twenty-four varieties, and possess 
 every requisite of a fine tulip. In the 
 second the varieties have either fine 
 forms, but tinged stamens, or else have 
 rather long cups and pure bottoms and 
 stamen. Those in the third class are 
 such as deserve a place in any collec- 
 tion, but are not calculated for a south- 
 ern stage. 
 
 FIRST CLASS. 
 
 Rose. — Aglaia; Amelia; Bacchus, 
 alias Atlas, and Rose Baccu; Carnuse 
 
TUL 
 
 TUL 
 
 de Craix ; Catalina, alias Ponceau tres 
 Blanc, and Cerise Blanche; Cerise a, 
 belle forme; Galatea (Slater's); Tri- 
 omphe Royale, alias Heroine, La Belle 
 Nannette, and La Cherie; Madame Ves- 
 tris, alias Clarke's Clio, and Goldham's 
 Princess Sophia of Gloucester; Ponceau 
 tres blanc (Dutch) ; Queen of Hearts 
 (Franklin's) ; Rose Brillant. 
 
 ByUomens. — Anacreon (Slater's); Bi- 
 jou des Amateurs ; Byzantium (Lau- 
 rence's); Camarine;Evequed'Amboise; 
 Holmes' King; Invincible (Franklin's); 
 Mentor, alias Reine de Sheba; Musa- 
 dora ; Pandora ; Roi de Siam, alias Aea- 
 pulco ; Salvator Rosa; Violet Cook; 
 Violet Sovereign; Violet Quarto, alias 
 Violet Alexander; Violet Brun; Zenobia 
 (Slater's). 
 
 Bizarres. — Catafalque (Old Dutch) ; 
 Charbonnier; Curion (Slater's); Duke 
 of Hamilton (Slater's) ; Fabius (Lau- 
 rence's) ; Glencoe ; Iago (Laurence's) ; 
 Marcellus ; Napoleon (Walker's) ; Poly- 
 phemus, alias Goldham's Albion, Ulys- 
 ses, and Nourri Effendi. 
 
 SECOND CLASS. 
 
 Roses. — Brulante Eclatante; Catha- 
 rine; Cerise Royal,a/zasManteau Ducal, 
 Ponceau Brilliant, and Moore's Rose ; 
 Elizabeth Jeffries ; Lady Crewe ; Lady 
 Middleton ; Lac ; Manon ; Mason's Ma- 
 tilda, alias Strong's French Pvose ; Pre- 
 tiosa, alias Thunderbolt; Queen Boadi- 
 cea; Rose Camuse. 
 
 Byblomens. — Ambassador, alias Atlas 
 and Rose Baccu ; Bailleu van Menvede ; 
 Bienfait Incomparable; Beauty (Buck- 
 ley's); Buckley's No. 46; Cleopatra; 
 Comtede Provence ; David, alias David 
 Pourpre ; Davy's Queen Charlotte; Due 
 de Bourdeaux ; General Barneveld ; Im- 
 peratrixFlorum; Incomparable Daphne; 
 Incomparable, (Rowbottom's, alias 
 Haigh's ;) Lancashire Hero (Buckley's); 
 Lord Denbigh; Lord of the Isle (Sla- 
 ter's); Lewold ; Louis XVI.; Ne plus 
 Ultra ; Prince Elie ; Queen Victoria 
 (Wilmer's); Rubens ; Sir E. Knatchbull; 
 Thalia (Clarke's); Violet Sovereign. 
 
 Bizarres. — Charles X., alias Water- 
 loo, Bartlett's Platoff, La Conquerante, 
 Gabel's Glory, Royal Sovereign, and 
 Duke of Lancaster; Catafalque Surpasse; 
 Carter's Leopold; Donzelli, alias Wells' 
 Lord Brougham ; Leonatus Posthumus; 
 Lord Milton ; Lord Lilford ; Leonardo 
 da Vinci ; Optimus (Hutton's), alias Sur- 
 passe Optimus; Richard Cobden ; San- 
 
 zio, alias Abercrombie, Captain White ; 
 Strong's Admiral White, and Strong's 
 Admiral Black ; Shakspeare, alias Gar- 
 rick and Edmund Kean ; Strong's King. 
 
 THIRD CLASS. 
 
 Roses. — Admiral Kingsbergen ; Alex- 
 andre le Roi; Camillus ; Claudiana ; 
 Comte de Vergennes ; Duchess of Cla- 
 rence ; Emily ; Fleur de Dame ; Grand 
 Roi de France ; Incomparable Hebe, 
 alias Iphigenia and Rose Hebe ; Lady 
 Wilmot; La Vandyke; Lavinia (Clarke's); 
 Lilas en Cerise; Maria (Goldham's) ; 
 Mary Ann (Lawrence's) ; Rose Monty, 
 Rose Bianca,Rose Quarto, Rose Primo 
 bien du Noir, and Rose Unique ; Sarah 
 (Lawrence's) ; Strong's Daphne, very 
 like if not the same as La Vandyke; 
 Thalestris; Vesta; Walworth, alias Glo- 
 ry of Walworth, and Glaphyra. 
 
 Byblomens. — Alexander Magnus, 
 alias Alcon and Grand Marvel ; Ange- 
 lina; Bagnel, called also Black Bagnel ; 
 Baluruc; Black Tabbart; Catharina ; 
 Chef d'eeuvre ; Competitor ; Czarine ; 
 Ely's Queen Victoria ; Fair Flora 
 (Buckley's) ; Glory (Buckley's) ; Gro- 
 tius; Imperatrice de Maroc, alias Lady 
 of the Lake, and Valerius Publicola ; 
 Imperatrice des Romaines, alias Du- 
 chesse de Modena; Incomparable Pre- 
 mier Noble, alias Grand Czidt; La belle 
 Narene; La Mere Bruin Incomparable; 
 Laurence's Friend ; Nectar ; Passe 
 Reine d'Egypt ; Patty (Lawrence's) ; 
 Queeu of Beauties ; Queen Charlotte; 
 Reid's Sir John Moore ; Reine d'Hon- 
 grie ; Reine des Tulips; Roscius ; Su- 
 perbeen Noir, alias Lysander Noir ; 
 Transparent Noir; Washington, alias 
 Rodney; Violet a, belle forme, Violet 
 Imperial , Violet Pompeuse, Violet Rou- 
 geatre, Violet Triumphant, and Violet 
 Wallers. 
 
 Bizarres. — Bolivar (Lawrence's) ; 
 Carlo Dolci; Catafalque Superieure ; 
 Duke of Wellington ; Emperor of Aus- 
 tria ; Jubilee (Rider's) ; Sir Sidney 
 Smith, alias Magnum Bonum, Trebi- 
 sonde, Demetrius, and Franklin's 
 Washington ; Osiris ; Prince Albert 
 (Groom's). — Gard. Chron. 
 
 It will be observed, that tulips are 
 divided into different classes, and as 
 the characteristics of these, as well as 
 some other terms applicable to these 
 flowers, may not be understood by all 
 readers, they are here defined. 
 
 Florists call tulips seedlings until they 
 
TUL 
 
 609 
 
 TUL 
 
 have bloomed ; after this those pre- 
 served on account of their good form 
 and habit, as well as the offsets they 
 produce, are called breeders. After 
 some years the petals of these become 
 striped, and they are then said to be 
 broken. If the striping is good, they 
 are said to have a good strain ; if it be 
 inferior, they are described as having 
 a bad strain. A rectified tulip is syno- 
 nymous with a tulip having a good strain. 
 
 & feathered tulip has a dark-coloured 
 edge round its petals, gradually becom- 
 ing lighter on the margin next the cen- 
 tre of the petal ; the feathering is said 
 to be light, if narrow ; heavy, if broad ; 
 and irregular, if its inner edge has a 
 broken outline. 
 
 & flamed tulip is one that has a dark- 
 pointed spot, somewhat in shape like 
 the flame of a candle, in the centre of 
 each petal. 
 
 Sometimes a tulip is both feathered 
 and flamed. 
 
 A Bizard tulip has a yellow ground, 
 and coloured marks on its petals. 
 
 A Byblomen is white, marked with 
 black, lilac, or purple. 
 
 A Rose is white, with marks of crim- 
 son, pink, or scarlet. 
 
 Characteristics of Excellence. — A 
 tulip, however coloured, should be 
 composed of six petals, three outer and 
 three inner, which should be alternate, 
 and lie close to each other; broad and 
 round on the top, quite smooth, and of 
 sufficient width to allow the edges to 
 lie over each other when fully expand- 
 ed. They should be firm in texture, 
 having a slight swell towards the lower 
 part of the midrib of the petal, which 
 will enable it to retain its shape; this 
 in a fully expanded flower should be 
 semi-globular, the stalk being inserted 
 in the pole, which should be a little 
 depressed. The petals should be level 
 on the top, the inner three of the same 
 height as the outer; the latter should 
 not be bent back, as is the case in 
 some flowers. The colour of the 
 ground should be pure and rich, the 
 base of the petals without stain, and 
 the yellow ground should possess the 
 same intensity of colour on the outer as 
 on the inner side of the flower. In the 
 three principal classes, namely, roses, 
 bizards, and byblomens, the colours 
 
 should commence at the bottom of each 
 petal, the deepest marking being on the 
 top, and equal in every one. The 
 flamed flower should likewise possess 
 this feather; with a rich beam up the 
 rib of each petal, branching off on 
 either side, touching the feather, and at 
 the same time preserving sufficient of 
 the ground colour to show it to advan- 
 tage. A flame without a feather, in 
 general, presents a star-like appear- 
 ance, which, though not so correct as 
 the other, is still beautiful. The stem 
 should be elastic, neither too tall nor 
 short for the size of the flower, and suf- 
 ficiently strong to keep itself erect 
 without support. The edge of the petals 
 should be unbroken, their greatest 
 width near the top, which would pre- 
 vent all quartering (a term which in 
 reality means dividing in four), whereas 
 the tulip parts into six, and it would 
 be better in Mr. Groom's opinion if 
 sextalizing, or some more proper term 
 were substituted — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Soil and Situation. — The best soil is 
 formed of good turfy loam from a pas- 
 ture. Some very old cow-dung, say 
 two years old, and road scrapings, in 
 the proportions of three or four barrow- 
 fuls of the loam to one of the others. 
 The best aspect is south-west ; the beds 
 should be upon an open space, eight 
 yards at least from any wall, to avoid 
 the reflection of the sun. The soil 
 should be free from manure, rich, and 
 rendered light by well working it. — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 Propagation. — By Seed. — An excel- 
 lent French authority gives these direc- 
 tions : — "When the ripeness of the 
 tulip seed, where the flower has bloom- 
 ed in a full exposure, is indicated by 
 the opening of the capsule, it is cut off 
 a few inches below the head, and placed 
 in a very dry situation, in order to in- 
 sure its perfect maturity. This being 
 accomplished, the seeds are taken out, 
 and should be sown, about the middle of 
 October,in a bed of well prepared earth, 
 which has been passed through a coarse 
 sieve, and covered about the eighth of 
 an inch in depth with soil of a fine and " 
 light texture, which will allow the free 
 vegetation of the seeds without in- 
 crusting or becoming hard. The beds 
 must be protected from sharp frosts by 
 
 should be brilliant, and well defined, j covering them with leaves or with mats, 
 In Mr. Groom's opinion, the feathered and likewise kept perfectly free from 
 flower is most preferable; the feathers weeds. If these necessary precautions 
 38 
 
TUL 
 
 610 
 
 TUL 
 
 are attended to, the tulips will come 
 up towards the end of February. From 
 the size of a small pea in the first year, 
 the roots will increase considerably 
 during the two following seasons, and 
 each time when the leaves fade, I 
 spread over my seedlings about an inch 
 in thickness of similarly prepared soil 
 to that with which the seed was cover- 
 
 account of their different heights, called 
 first row, second row, third row, or 
 fourth row flowers ; the first row being 
 nearest the sides, and the fourth row 
 being in the middle; of course, both 
 sides being alike. There are but four 
 heights recognised. Although we have 
 said a bed should consist of seven rows, 
 to make the matter plain to those who 
 
 ed, being satisfied, that from the loss of j have not grown a bed of tulips, every 
 time and the greater extent of land they I seven which cross the bed is called a 
 will occupy by taking them up in the j row; and among tulip growers, wher- 
 
 second year and replanting them, it is 
 the better plan to allow them to remain 
 till they have made their third growth. 
 
 " I do not take up mine until that 
 time, and in a few days afterwards I 
 replant them about two or three inches 
 in depth, and about three inches apart 
 from each other, in a well prepared 
 bed. Lastly, in every succeeding 
 year, I set them in fresh soil, being 
 convinced that they attain their full 
 size much sooner when treated in this 
 manner, especially if sand has been 
 mixed with it, or lime rubbish, which 
 has been enriched with good rotten 
 manure or vegetable soil." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 By Offsets. — The same practical hor- 
 ticulturist observes, that — 
 
 " The side bulbs always reproduce 
 flowers identically with those from 
 
 ever they speak of a row, they mean 
 the row of seven which crosses a bed, 
 all these sevens being numbered from 
 1 to 50, as distinct rows, or up to the 
 full number, whatever it may be. Tu- 
 lips should be always planted six inches 
 apart every way, consequently a bed of 
 twenty-five feet would take fifty rows 
 of seven each. The tulips required will 
 be 50 fourth-row flowers, 100 third row, 
 (there being two rows alike of the other 
 heights) 100 second row, and 100 first; 
 and each of these ought to comprise, 
 as nearly as may be, one-third of each 
 class. 
 
 " There should be a few over of each 
 to guard against accident. The parties 
 who supply the tulips should not only 
 send the names attached to each, but 
 their classes also. 
 
 ' Mark a space twenty-five feet long 
 
 which they derived their origin. Their and four feet broad, and lying as near 
 period of blooming varies according to j as may be convenient north and south 
 
 their size; it occasionally happens 
 the first year, but sometimes it is six 
 seven years before they flower. During j 
 
 Dig this clean out to the depth of three 
 feet. 
 
 " If the soil at the bottom is sour or 
 
 August the bed must be prepared for wet, make a drain from the bottom to 
 their reception ; and in September they the nearest place at which the water 
 must be planted from two to four inches i can escape ; this drain should be made 
 apart, according to their size. Should i by cutting a trench even with the bot- 
 their planting be deferred till Novem- torn of the bed all the way to the pro- 
 ber, it is very possible that many of the - posed outlet, half filling it with large 
 smaller ones will shrivel and perish, stones, broken pots, or (for want of 
 
 When they are put into the ground or 
 taken up, the same system is followed 
 as in the main collection, so that all 
 mistakes may be avoided, and by that 
 means the amateur will be able to re- 
 
 harder and more lasting substance) with 
 faggot wood, and fill up the trench with 
 the soil of the garden, 
 
 " If the bottom of the tulip bed should 
 be gravel, there will require no artifi- 
 
 place any bulbs which by accident or j cial drainage. On the bottom of the 
 otherwise he may have lost in hischoice j bed spread a foot of the common soil 
 
 or best beds." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 of the garden ; the real depth of the 
 
 Planting in Beds. — On this part of; bed required for the tulips is but two 
 
 their culture the best practical informa 
 tion is given by Mr. Glenny. He says 
 
 feet ; but in clearing away all that might 
 prove noxious, and making the ground 
 
 A bed properly arranged consists j sound and sweet, by throwing in a foot 
 of seven long rows, of which the tallest ; of good garden soil, an excellent bottom 
 tulips should be the middle, and shorter i is made, which will not again have to 
 ones nearer the sides. Tulips are, on ; be disturbed. 
 
TUL 
 
 61 
 
 " If the bottom be wet and sour, and 
 you have drained it as before denoted, 
 let there be a good six inches of brick 
 rubbish, or broken flowerpots, or both, 
 put at the bottom, and about six inches 
 of the common garden soil upon them. 
 
 " The pit for the bed being now pre- 
 pared for filling, spread dry cow-dung, 
 six inches thick, at the bottom; let it 
 be trodden down, and throw maiden 
 loam, as already described as the top 
 spit of a meadow, with the turf rotted 
 in it ; fill up the bed to eight inches 
 above the surface, drive down at each 
 corner of the bed a stake, to mark the 
 exact size the bed should be, that is, 
 the two end stakes four feet from each 
 other, and from one end to the other 
 twenty-five feet; and let these stakes 
 stand exactly square, one foot above 
 the surface of the path, and perfectly 
 level. 
 
 "If you design to have the sides 
 boarded, which saves much trouble, 
 your best way is to let the carpenter 
 adjust the boards very nicely as to level, 
 to let them go down at least six inches 
 below the surface of the garden or path, 
 and stand eight inches above it ; he must 
 then provide a three-inch width, to fit 
 on and take off at pleasure, because it 
 is of the greatest service in planting. 
 The most simple way of planning this 
 is with bolts ; the boarding should be 
 an inch thick, staples should be placed 
 both in the fixed and in the moveable 
 board, opposite each other, at proper 
 distances. 
 
 « The whole should be covered from 
 heavy falls both of rain and snow ; and 
 from the moment the bulbs are in the 
 ground, have none but genial showers, 
 and not much rain of any sort. We 
 would never see the bed dry, but should 
 be quite as unwilling to see it too wet." 
 — Gard. and Pract. Flor. 
 
 Should very severe frosts occur dur- 
 ing the winter, cover the bed all over 
 a few inches thick with sawdust, which, 
 ifdry, the frost never penetrates. When 
 the frost is over, take away the sawdust, 
 and sift a little fresh soil over the sur- 
 face of the bed. t 
 
 Shade. — Tulips cannotbe grown more 
 advantageously than in two beds, ar- 
 ranged and sheltered according to the 
 plan of which the following is an end 
 view. But whether grown in two beds 
 or in one, highest in the centre, as be- 
 fore mentioned. The edges of the beds 
 
 should be supported by deal planking 
 two inches thick, and painted green, 
 surmounted by a wire trellis, thirty 
 inches high, coloured similarly, and 
 supporting arches of wire to bear a 
 canvas covering, when shade is re- 
 quired. These wire arches fit into 
 sockets in the upper rail of the trellis, 
 and the canvas cover is fastened to 
 them by strings, as in the case of a tent 
 bedstead. 
 
 The wire trellis will preserve the 
 plants from boisterous winds during all 
 periods of the growth, and the whole 
 will be found to be the most efficient 
 shelter, at a moderate expense that 
 combines elegance with utility. The 
 first fortnight of the month of Novem- 
 ber is the best season for planting. A 
 hole should be made with a trowel, not 
 with a dibble, a little sand be placed 
 beneath and over each bulb, and a small 
 hillock marks on the surface its place. 
 
 The only after culture required is a 
 frequent hoeing of the surface of the 
 bed ; and as the flowers fall, to cut off 
 the seed pod. 
 
 Taking up the Bulbs. — This must be 
 done as soon as the leaves in early 
 autumn become yellow. Mr. Glenny 
 says — 
 
 « If you have room and convenience, 
 put them into boxes, with all their skins 
 and roots, and place the drawers singly 
 in an airy dry covered place out of the 
 sun. In a few days they will harden, 
 the skins will come off easy, and the 
 root break away without damaging the 
 bulb. Should any in taking up be found 
 with moist or mildewed skins, which is 
 not unfrequently the case, they should 
 nevertheless be let alone a day or two; 
 the removal of the skins, stalks, and 
 roots is accompanied with much less 
 risk. It is not uncommon for part of 
 the top to come away with the roots, if 
 the latter is broken off at the time of 
 taking up in temporary boxes at first, 
 so that as they are cleared of their 
 skins and roots, they may be laid away 
 
TUL 
 
 612 
 
 — • — 
 
 TUR 
 
 in their own drawers perfectly clean, 
 which is not easily done if they are 
 taken out to clean and returned to the 
 same place, because there will be grit 
 and mould not easily got rid of. Tulips 
 when put away, should have air, with- 
 out heat, or much frost; an outhouse of 
 any kind is better than a dwelling-house. 
 There should be a vacancy between all 
 the drawers, and the case all round 
 should have wire panel sides, back and 
 front." — Gard. and Tract. Flor. 
 
 TULIP TREE. Liriodendron. 
 
 TUP A. Six species. Half-hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division and 
 seed. Light, rich, or peaty soil. 
 
 TURF may be obtained either by 
 sowing grass seeds, or laying turf ob- 
 tained from a common or down ; and if 
 the latter mode can be adopted, it is 
 the best, as the turf is obtained at once, 
 and more regular than can be under the 
 best circumstances from seed. 
 
 All the preparation of the soil re- 
 quired is to dig it level, a spade deep, 
 provided the subsoil is open, otherwise 
 to have a good drainage effected (see 
 Draining); to have all large stones re- 
 moved from the surface, and to have it 
 brought to a perfect level, by repeated 
 rollings, and filling up the hollows 
 when necessary, as indicated by the 
 level. The surface being then loosened 
 by raking, is ready for the seed or turf. 
 
 By Seed. — " Never use that from a 
 haystack, for it will have mixed with it 
 the seeds of weeds ; but buy of respect- 
 able seedsmen, as much as you require. 
 For this purpose the best are Poa pra- 
 tensis, green or spear grass ; Poa com- 
 pressor, blue grass ; Anthoxanthum odo- 
 ratum, sweet scented vernal grass: — 
 either of the above, mixed with a small 
 proportion of white clover, will form a 
 permanent and pleasing sward. 
 
 " Sow evenly, and rake well in, and 
 roll. When the grasses come up, the 
 ground should be carefully gone over, 
 and cleared of all weeds and spurious 
 grasses, as they appear. Strict atten- 
 tion to this will do much to ensure the 
 future excellence of the lawn. During 
 the first season after sowing, the grass 
 may be mown three or four times, but 
 not in hot dry weather; and afterwards, 
 the oftener it is rolled and mown the 
 better." — Gard. Chron. — Gard. and 
 Prac. Flor. 
 
 or May, though it will grow at almost 
 anytime of the year, even if there is 
 occasion to lay it in summer, and dry 
 weather succeed : for although it will 
 open at the joints, and turn brown, as 
 if dead, yet, after the first rain it will 
 close again, and resume its verdure. 
 
 The turf for this use is cut with an 
 iron instrument called a turfing iron, 
 observing to cut the pieces all an equal 
 width, length, and thickness — the pro- 
 per size is a foot wide, a yard long, and 
 about an inch thick ; they should be 
 first marked by line, the proper width, 
 length, and depth with a racer or rutter. 
 Racing them first longwise a foot wide, 
 then across in yard lengths; then pro- 
 ceed to cut them up, having particular 
 regard to cut them level, and equal in 
 thickness, otherwise it will be impossi- 
 ble to lay them level. As you cut, a 
 man or boy should roll each turf up 
 close and tight, the grass side inwards, 
 and pile them up by tens, especially if 
 they are cut by the hundred. They are 
 to be laid regular, turf and turf, unroll- 
 ing them as you lay them, joining them 
 up quite close edge to edge, making 
 good all deficiency of broken parts as 
 you go on ; and as soon as laid, it should 
 be well beaten with broad heavy wood- 
 en beaters, being flat pieces of elm or 
 oak plank, two inches thick, fifteen or 
 eighteen inches long, and a foot broad, 
 having a long handle fixed slanting in 
 the middle of the upper side ; and with 
 these, beat the grass regularly all over, 
 and then roll it well with a heavy roller, 
 observing the beating and rolling should 
 be repeated in moist weather. 
 
 "If very dry hot weather succeeds, 
 so as to occasion the turf to shrink and 
 open at the joints, a good watering will 
 be of much advantage." — Abercrombie. 
 
 By Inoculation. — If turf is scarce, cut 
 turves into pieces, about three inches 
 square, and plant these, green side up, 
 pretty thickly over the space intended 
 for the lawn. Beat them down into the 
 soil, and water freely, roll frequently, 
 and water also in dry weather. The 
 turf will soon be as close, and the sward 
 as perfect, as if the ground had been 
 entirely turved. 
 
 TURF ASHES. See Ashes. 
 
 These, which are the basis of charred 
 turf, now becoming so usual a manure, 
 are, according to M. Sprengel, thus 
 
 By Turf. — The season for laving turf I constituted 
 is any time from September till April ' Silica 93.10 
 
TUR 
 
 Alumina 1.35 
 
 Oxide of iron 1.73 
 
 - manganese . . . 0.32 
 
 Lime . . 0.62 
 
 Magnesia 0.33 
 
 Potash, combined with sulphu- 
 ric acid ...... 0.38 
 
 Common salt 0.08 
 
 Sulphuric acid, combined with 
 
 potash and lime .... 1.70 
 Phosphoric acid, combined 
 
 with lime and magnesia . 0.39 
 TURF TOOLS are the Racer or Flut- 
 ter, for cutting the edges of turf after it 
 has been laid, and for cutting the out- 
 lines of the turves when first obtained. 
 It is a thin sharp edged implement, 
 somewhat resembling a cheese-cutter, 
 fixed to a handle about four feet long. 
 
 613 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 TUR 
 
 The Turfing Iron is for raising or 
 peeling off the turves from the soil. It 
 has an arrow-headed flat blade, with an 
 angular handle, thus : — 
 
 Fig. 174. 
 
 f 
 
 o 
 
 A Turf or Daisy Rake consists of a 
 piece of thin plate iron, cut into teeth, 
 with two slips of ash, or other tough 
 wood, between which it is firmly rivet- 
 ed to form a back, and keep it from 
 bending. When put together, the back 
 is an inch and a quarter thick. The 
 wood is beveled to nothing, half an inch 
 above the interstices of the teeth, at 
 
 which point the iron is slightly bent 
 longitudinally to admit the thickness of 
 wood underneath, and give a proper 
 inclination to the handle. The instru- 
 ment serves both as a grass rake and a 
 daisy rake, and has the advantage over 
 the daisy rakes in common use, of being 
 easier cleaned, from the wideness of 
 the interstices between the teeth. — 
 Gard. Mag. 
 
 TURNERA. El even species. 
 Stove annuals, biennials, and evergreen 
 shrubs. T. trioniflora is an herbaceous 
 perennial ; and T. racemosa a hardy an- 
 nual. Seeds, and the shrubby kinds by 
 cuttings. Rich soil. 
 
 TURNIP. Brassica rapa. "The 
 turnip is a biennial plant, growing 
 in a wild state in some parts of Eng- 
 land, but better known as an inha- 
 bitant of the garden and farm. There 
 are an immense variety: to cultivate 
 all is not so desirable as to plant 
 such as are the more valuable. Those 
 which we deem best for family use are 
 the Early Dutch and Red Top, for au- 
 tumn and early winter supply. The 
 Yellow Aberdeen, Golden Maltese, 
 Ruta Baga (or Swedish), are not so much 
 esteemed in the autumn, but remain 
 firm and solid until late in the spring, 
 (when most other kinds have become 
 pithy,) and are then fine. The Large 
 Globe, and Norfolk Turnip, and the 
 Ruta Baga, are principally cultivated 
 for cattle. 
 
 " The main sowings of all the kinds 
 recommended for family use, are made 
 in the vicinity of Philadelphia from 
 about the middle of August to the first 
 of September. If sown earlier they are 
 not so tender and finely flavoured, and 
 if sown later do not generally attain 
 full growth. The Ruta Baga, Globe and 1 
 Norfolk require more time to perfect 
 themselves ; sow therefore about a 
 month earlier. The more rapidly the 
 root is produced the more tender and 
 well flavoured it will be. Those which 
 are intended for the spring supply should 
 be topped very closely, else when the 
 weather becomes mild, the crown will 
 start, and the root soon gets pithy and 
 unfit for use. 
 
 " Spring sowings seldom answer a 
 good purpose : the Early Dutch and 
 Red Top are, however, best. 
 
 " Should a long continued drought 
 prevail at the time recommended for 
 sowing in the autumn, some difficulty 
 
TUR 
 
 614 
 
 TUS 
 
 may be experienced in getting the seed 
 to vegetate, (unless it be small patches 
 in the garden, which can be shaded and 
 watered.) The only resource is, to 
 make several sowings in freshly dug or 
 ploughed ground. 
 
 "If the seed has Iain long, say two 
 or three weeks, without vegetating, 
 should a shower come, the safer plan 
 will be to re-plough or harrow the 
 ground, and make a fresh sowing. 
 
 " Frequently the < fly' proves very 
 destructive, preying upon the young 
 plants when in so early a stage that 
 they can scarcely be seen without close 
 inspection. To counteract them it has 
 been recommended to soak the seed in 
 sulphur water— an ounce of sulphur to 
 a pint of water. A mixture of quick- 
 lime, ashes, and soot, sprinkled over 
 them, is frequently effectual. 
 
 " The crop may be put in either broad 
 cast, or in drills, raking the seed well 
 in. The latter plan is the better, and 
 if sown on very dry ground during hot 
 weather, it is safer to roll the land im- 
 mediately afterward. Observe, the land 
 cannot be too rich for this crop; old sod , 
 or newly cleared land, produces the 
 largest and finest flavoured roots." — 
 Rural Register. 
 
 To obtain Seed, some of the most per- 
 fect roots of those which will withstand 
 the winter may remain where grown; 
 or they may be transplanted in February 
 or March. 
 
 The plants must stand a foot apart 
 each way; be carefully freed of weeds, 
 and especial care taken to keep away 
 birds, as they are particularly voracious 
 of the seed of this, and of all other spe- 
 cies of brassica. When ripe in July or 
 August, the stalks are cut; and when 
 perfectly .dry, the seed beaten out and 
 stored. No two varieties must be al- 
 lowed to grow together. 
 
 Manures, — The best manure for tur- 
 nips is stable dung; and next in their 
 order, guano, super-phosphate of lime, 
 soot, and salt. 
 
 For the injuries to which the turnip 
 is liable, see Athalia, Amburv* and 
 Black Fly. 
 
 Turnip-cabbage (Brassica napo-bras- 
 sica), and turnip-rooted cabbage (B. 
 caulo-rapa). These species of brassica 
 are but little cultivated, and, at most, a 
 very small quantity of each is in request. 
 The bulbs, for which they are cultivated, I and sand 
 must have their thick outer skin re- | T U S S I L A G 0. 
 
 moved, and, in other respects, be treat- 
 ed as turnips in preparing them for 
 use. 
 
 Varieties. — Of the turnip-cabbase, 
 which is so named on account of the 
 round fleshy protuberance that is form- 
 ed at the upper end of the stem, there 
 are four varieties : — 
 
 1. White turnip-cabbage. 
 
 2. Purple turnip-cabbage. 
 
 3. Fringed turnip-cabbage. 
 
 4. Dwarf early turnip-cabbage. 
 Of the turnip-rooted cabbage, which 
 
 is distinguished from the above by its 
 root having the protuberance near the 
 origin of the stem, there are two varie- 
 ties, the white and the red. 
 
 Sowing.— They are propagated by 
 seed, which may be sown broadcast or 
 in drills, at monthly intervals, in small 
 quantities, from the commencement of 
 April until the end of June. 
 
 Planting.— -The best mode is to sow 
 thin, in drills two feet and a half apart, 
 and allow the plants to remain where 
 sown, the plants being thinned to a 
 similar distance apart; or, if sown 
 broadcast, to allow them to remain in 
 the seed-bed until of sufficient size to 
 be removed into rows, at similar dis- 
 tances, for production, rather than, as 
 is the practice of some gardeners, to 
 transplant them, when an inch or two 
 in height, in a shady border, in rows 
 three inches apart each way, to be 
 thence removed as above stated. 
 
 Water must be given every night after 
 a removal until the plants are again 
 established ; and afterwards, in dry 
 weather, occasionally as may appear 
 necessary. 
 
 Earth may be drawn up to the stem 
 of the turnip-cabbage as to other species 
 of brassica ; but the bulb of the turnip- 
 rooted must not be covered with the 
 mould. For directions to obtain seed, 
 &c, see Brocoli, Turnip, &c. 
 
 TURNIP-FLY. See Black Fly. 
 
 TURNSOLE. Heliotr opium. 
 
 TURPENTINE. Silphium terebintha- 
 ceum. 
 
 TURPENTINE MOTH. See Tor- 
 trix resinella. 
 
 TURPENTINE TREE. Pistacia te- 
 rebinthus. 
 
 TURRvEA. Five species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
 
 Twelve species. 
 
TWA 
 
 615 
 
 VAN 
 
 Hardy or half-hardy herbaceous peren- 
 nials. Division. Common soil. 
 
 TWAYBLADE. Listera. 
 
 TWEEDIA. Two species. Hardy 
 deciduous twiners. Cuttings or seeds. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 TYLOPHORA. Three species. 
 Stove evergreen twiners. Cuttings. 
 Peat and loam. 
 
 TYPOGRAPHER BARK BEETLE. 
 See Bostrichus. 
 
 TYTONIA natans. Stove aquatic 
 annual. Seeds. Rich loamy soil, in 
 water. 
 
 ULCER. See Canker. 
 
 U L E X . Furze. Four species. 
 Hardy evergreen shrubs. U. Europcea 
 is increased by young cuttings, and all 
 by seeds. Common light soil. 
 
 ULMUS. Elm. Thirteen species 
 and many varieties. Hardy deciduous 
 trees. Layers or grafts. Common soil. 
 U. integrifolia is a stove evergreen 
 tree. The Wych elm (U. montana) is 
 also propagated by seed ripened here. 
 
 UMBILICUS. Four species. Hardy 
 and half-hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 Offsets, cuttings, and seeds. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 UMBRELLA TREE. Hibiscus gui- 
 neensis. 
 
 UMBRELLA WORT. Oxybaphus. 
 
 UNCARIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen climbers. Cuttings. Peat 
 and loam. 
 
 UNDER-GROUND ONION. See Po- 
 tato Onion. 
 
 UNONA. Ten species. Stove ever- 
 green shrubs, trees, and climbers. Ripe 
 cuttings. Light turfy loam. 
 
 URANIA speciosa. Stove herbace- 
 ous perennial. Newly imported seeds. 
 Turfy loam and peat. It requires to be 
 well watered. 
 
 URARIA. Six species. Stove and 
 green-house evergreen shrubs, except 
 U. lagocephala, a stove herbaceous pe- 
 rennial. Seeds or young cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 UREDO. See Barberry and Mildew. 
 
 URINE. See Dung. The urine of 
 all animals is excellent as a manure; 
 but it must be given only to plants 
 whilst growing, and in a diluted state. 
 One of the most fertilizing of liquid 
 manures is composed of cabbage-leaves, 
 and other vegetable refuse, putrefied in 
 the urine from a house or .stable, and 
 diluted with three times its quantity of 
 water when applied. If mixed with 
 
 bleaching powder (chloride of lime), 
 there will be no offensive smell. Gyp- 
 sum mixed with urine, or a little oil of 
 vitriol poured into it, adds to its utility 
 as a manure. Sulphate of iron, in the 
 proportion of seven pounds to every 
 hundred of urine, prevents the escape 
 of ammonia during putrefaction. 
 
 UROPETALON. Six species. Half- 
 hardy and green-house bulbous peren- 
 nials. Offsets and seeds. Loam and 
 leaf-mould. 
 
 UTRICULARIA. Hooded Milfoil. 
 Three species. Hardy aquatic peren- 
 nials. Division. Water. 
 
 UVARIA. Six species. Stove ever- 
 green shrubs; U. zeylanica, a twiner. 
 Ripe cuttings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 UVULARIA. Six species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Light 
 sandy soil. 
 
 VACCINIUM. Whortleberry. Thirty- 
 two species and some varieties. Chiefly 
 hardy deciduous shrubs; V. caracasa- 
 num and V. meridionale are stove ever- 
 greens ; and a few are hardy and half- 
 hardy evergreen trailers. Layers, 
 seeds, and the stove species cuttings : 
 sandy peat. 
 
 VALERIANA. Valerian. Nineteen 
 species. Hardy herbaceous perennials, 
 except V. capensis, which belongs to 
 the green-house, and V. sisymbrifolia, 
 is a hardy biennial. Division. Loam, 
 peat, and sand, for the natives of warm 
 climates, and common soil for the 
 hardy species. 
 
 VALERIANELLA. Three species. 
 Hardy annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 VALLARIS pergulana. Stove ever- 
 green twiner. Cuttings. Sandy loam 
 and peat. 
 
 VALLESIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 VALLISNERIA spiralis. Green- 
 house aquatic perennial. Seeds. Wa- 
 ter. 
 
 VALLOTA purpurea, and its variety. 
 Green-house bulbous perennial. Off- 
 sets. Peat and sand. 
 
 VANDA. Five species. Stove 
 epiphytes. Division. Wood, and some 
 of the stronger kinds, sphagnum and 
 potsherds. 
 
 VANDELLIA. Four species. Stove 
 annuals, except V. hirsuta, which is 
 hardy. Seeds. Sandy loam. 
 
 VANGUERIA. Three species. Stove 
 
VAN 
 
 616 
 
 VER 
 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 VANILLA. Three species. V. bi- 
 color, a stove epiphyte, increased by 
 division, and growing on wood. The 
 other two increase by cuttings. Moss 
 and turfv peat. 
 
 VARIEGATION is the col our of 
 leaves different from green, such as i 
 c 'the silvery and golden margins, and 
 varieties of spots, which are common i 
 among garden plants, as in myrtle, j 
 sage, ivy, holly, the Agave Americana, 
 Sempervivum arboreum, and many of 
 the Pelargonice. These spots are not 
 diseases, for the whole plant has all the 
 signs of being in a perfectly healthy 
 state. But neither are they effects of 
 a law of nature, like the spots of Orchis 
 maculata, and the red-coloured leaves 
 of Caladium bicolor and Amaranthus 
 tricolor, inasmuch as they are not con- 
 tinued by propagation by seed. Such 
 discoloured spots are incapable of per- 
 forming the usual function of leaves, 
 namely, the exhalation of oxygen 
 gas.*' — Decandolle. 
 
 Yet this variegation does not render 
 the plant more tender; for the varie- 
 gated holly and ivy are as hardy as 
 those with leaves entirely green. 
 
 VASCOA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Loam and peat. 
 
 Vegetable manures. See 
 
 Green Manures, Ashes, Manures. 
 
 VEGETABLE MARROW. See 
 Gourd. 
 
 VELEZIA rigida. Hardy annual. 
 Seeds. Light soil. 
 
 V E L L A Pseudo - cytisus. Cress 
 Rocket. Green-house evergreen shrub. 
 Young cuttings. Common soil. 
 
 VELLEJA. Three species. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennials. Division 
 or seeds. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 VELTHEIMIA. Three species. 
 Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
 sets. Light loamy soil. 
 
 VENTILATION. See Stove. 
 
 VENUS'S COMB. Scandix pecten- 
 veneris. 
 
 VENUS'S FLY-TRAP. Dionceamus- 
 cipula. 
 
 VENUS'S HAIR. Adiantum capillis 
 veneris. 
 
 VENUS'S LOOKING-GLASS. Spe- 
 cularia speculum. 
 
 VENUS'S NAVEL WORT. Ompha- 
 lodes. 
 
 VEPRIS obovata. Stove evergreen 
 shrub. Cuttings. Peat, loam, and 
 sand. 
 
 VERATUM. Six species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division or 
 seeds. Rich soil. 
 
 VERBASCUM. Sixty-four species. 
 Chiefly hardy biennials, and a few 
 herbaceous perennials. V. spinosum is 
 a half-hardy evergreen shrub; V. hce- 
 morrhoidale, and V. pinnatifidum, are 
 green-house biennials. Seeds ; the pe- 
 rennials by division. Common soil. 
 
 VERBENA. Vervain. Thirty-two 
 species. Hardy, half-hardy and green- 
 house herbaceous perennials, and hardy 
 and half-hardy annuals and biennials. 
 These latter increase by seed, the pe- 
 rennials by cuttings. Light loam. 
 
 Choice Varieties are — ■ 
 
 Scarlet. — V. Atrosanguinea; V. 
 Boule de Feu. 
 
 Orange Scarlet. — V. formosa ele- 
 gans ; Gladiator. 
 
 White. — Princess Royal ; Monarch ; 
 Alba magna. 
 
 Purple. — V. Stewartii ; Emma. 
 
 Reddish Purple. — V. rubra ; V. pur- 
 purea ; Renown ; V. rubescens. 
 
 Ruby. — Defiance ; Ruby. 
 
 Rose. — Bridesmaid ; Wood's Princess 
 Royal; Beauty ; Supreme ; Teucriodes 
 Rosea ; Rose d'Amour. 
 
 Mulberry. — Mulberry. 
 
 Cream. — V. lutescens. 
 
 Lilac. — Messenger ; Giant. 
 
 Propagation. — By Seed. — Sow to- 
 wards the end of February in shallow 
 pans, to be placed in a gentle heat. 
 The seedlings may be planted out in 
 summer in a warm part of the garden, 
 where they will flower in the autumn. 
 
 By Cuttings. — In the last week of 
 August or first week of September, 
 take cuttings from laterals not in bloom. 
 Pot them in sixties, filled firmly with 
 sandy loam and leaf-mould; water and 
 plunge in a hot-bed, temperature not 
 more than 45°, under a hand-glass, 
 shading from sunshine, and when rooted 
 pinch off their tops. 
 
 By Layers. — Verbenas in the open 
 borders are readily propagated by peg- 
 ging down the laterals in September in 
 pots filled with earth and sunk into the 
 bed near the plants. The layers will 
 be rooted in about six weeks, when they 
 may be separated from the parent 
 plant. Put them into a gentle heat, 
 repot them, and keep through the 
 
 
VER 
 
 617 
 
 VI N 
 
 winter in a cold frame, giving very 
 little water during that season. 
 
 General Culture. — Mr. G. Fielder, 
 gardener to W. Brisco, Esq., of Hast- 
 ings, says that six plants of a kind are 
 usually enough to obtain cuttings and 
 layers from for bedding out. His mode 
 of proceeding is as follows : — 
 
 " In the first or second week in July 
 strike in sixty pots as many cuttings of 
 the different kinds as required for fill- 
 ing the beds in the following year, 
 about six pots of a sort being usually 
 sufficient. Early in August, the pots 
 being filled with roots, prepare as many 
 boxes, two feet square sorts, filling one- 
 third of each box with broken tiles, 
 and the rest with one part sand, one 
 leaf-mould, and two parts good rich 
 loam. Plant in them at equal distances 
 apart, and the shoots being pegged 
 down they soon take root all over the 
 box, and form one mass. Place in a 
 cold frame during the winter, and the 
 lights thrown off except in wet or frosty 
 weather. Early in the spring they begin 
 to make young shoots, which pot in sixty 
 pots and strike in a cucumber frame ; 
 these will be ready to plant out by the 
 end of April, at which time the boxes 
 are turned out, one side being removed 
 and the mass planted in the centre of 
 a bed. The bed is then filled up with 
 the young plants from the sixty pots ; 
 those out of the boxes, being oldest 
 and strongest, take the lead and keep 
 it."— Gard. Chron. 
 
 In Pots. — Some of these trained over 
 a trellis should always be on the green- 
 house. All the particular attention 
 required is that they should be kept 
 regularly shifted into pots of a larger 
 size as they require it, and should be 
 grown either in a pit or green-house, 
 where they receive the full benefit of 
 the sun and air. Any free rich soil 
 will suit them. 
 
 Such are the directions for its culture 
 as given in the English edition of this 
 work. In the United States the climate 
 is more favourable for the Verbena, and 
 when turned out in an open border 
 early in summer, the only care requisite 
 seems to be lest it take entire posses- 
 sion of the garden. 
 
 VERBESINA. Eight species. Green- 
 house and hardy herbaceous perennials. 
 V. boswallia is a green-house annual, 
 and V. atriplici 'folia an evergreen shrub. 
 Division. Light rich soil. 
 
 VERNONIA. Fifteen species. Hardy 
 green-house and stove herbaceous pe- 
 rennials, and stove evergreen shrubs. 
 V. linearis is a stove annual. Seeds 
 and young cuttings, and the herbaceous 
 kinds by division. Light rich soil. 
 
 VERONICA. Speedwell. One hun- 
 dred and twenty-five species. Chiefly 
 hardy herbaceous perennials. Some 
 are deciduous trees and trailers, and a 
 few evergreen shrubs and creepers. 
 The green-house shrubs increase by 
 cuttings. The hardy annuals by seeds. 
 The herbaceous by division. Common 
 soil suits them all. 
 
 VERVAIN. See Verbena. 
 
 VESICARIA. Nine species. Hardy 
 and half-hardy annuals, biennials, her- 
 baceous perennials, and evergreen 
 shrubs. Seeds. Sandy loam. 
 
 VESTIA lycioides. Green-house de- 
 ciduous shrub. Cuttings. Peat and 
 loam. 
 
 VIBORGIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 VIBURNUM. Twenty-seven species 
 and some varieties. Hardy deciduous 
 and evergreen shrubs ; a very few be- 
 long to the stove and green-house, and 
 one or two are half-hardy. Layers or 
 cuttings. Peat and loam ; V. opulus is 
 the Guelder Rose. 
 
 VICIA. Vetch. Seventy-seven spe- 
 cies. Chiefly hardy annuals and climb- 
 ing annuals or deciduous climbers. 
 Seeds : and the few perennial kinds by 
 division and seeds. Common soil. 
 
 VIEUSSEUXIA. Eleven species. 
 Green-house bulbous perennials. V. 
 glaucopis is half-hardy. Offsets or 
 seeds. Peat, loam, and sand. 
 
 VIGNA globea. Hardy training an- 
 nual. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 VIGUIERA. Two species. Stove 
 herbaceous perennials. Cuttings. Sandy 
 peat and loam. 
 
 VILLARSIA. Ten species. Hardy, 
 half-hardy, green-house and stove 
 aquatic and herbaceous perennials. Di- 
 vision or seed. Peat and sand ; and 
 the perennial, or marshy kinds, in 
 pots placed in water. 
 
 VILMORINIA multiflora. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Seeds and cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 VIMINARIA. Two species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Light loam and peat. 
 
 VINCA. Periwinkle. Three spe- 
 
VIN 
 
 618 
 
 — • — 
 
 VIO 
 
 Hardy 
 Corn- 
 
 See Grape 
 
 cies and several varieties, 
 evergreen trailers. Division, 
 mon soil. 
 
 VINE. Vitis vinifera. 
 Vine. 
 
 VINE BOWER. Clematis Viticclla. 
 
 VINE LEEK. Allium ampeloprasum. 
 
 VIOLA. Violet. Ninety-nine spe- 
 cies. Chiefly hardy herbaceous peren- 
 nials, annuals, deciduous and evergreen 
 trailers, a few are half-hardy, and a 
 few others belong to the green-house. 
 The herbaceous kinds increase by di- 
 vision or seeds : the shrubs by cuttings. 
 The annuals by seeds. Loam, peat, or 
 leaf-mould, and sand suits them best. 
 
 VIOLET. Viola odorata. 
 
 Varieties. — The best are Neapolitan, 
 double pale blue; Russian, blue ; Tree 
 Violet, semi-double, blue, stem eighteen 
 inches high. Double Blue; White; 
 Pink. 
 
 Soil. — All the varieties prefer a light 
 rich soil on a well drained subsoil. 
 Stable manure makes them too luxuri- 
 ant; and when they require the addi- 
 tion of a fertilizer, none is so beneficial 
 as leaf-mould, or the bottom of an old 
 wood stack. 
 
 Propagation. — By Division, &c. — 
 They all multiply by parting the roots, 
 and by their side shoots rooting in the 
 earth. They may be parted or slipped 
 in spring, summer, or autumn, as soon 
 as they have done flowering, in moist 
 weather. Each plant may be slipped 
 or divided into several slips, not too 
 small ; and planted either at once to 
 remain, or the weakest may be planted 
 in nursery beds ; and in either method 
 each slip will soon increase into a large 
 tuft, and flower abundantly the next 
 year. 
 
 By Seed. — Sow it either soon after it 
 is ripe, or early in the spring, in a bed 
 or border of light earth, and raked in ; 
 and when the plants are come up an 
 inch or two high in summer, prick them 
 out in a shady border to grow till Oc- 
 tober, and then plant out to remain. 
 
 Pink Violets. — The best time to 
 plant them is in September, but they 
 should be planted in a dry situation, 
 and not fully exposed to the sun at any 
 part of the day. The principal points 
 to attend to are, never to disturb them 
 by clearing or digging about them, 
 and always to plant them in a shaded 
 place. 
 
 Russian and Neapolitan Violets— - 
 J There are two double varieties of the 
 I Russian, the purple and the white. At 
 the close of autumn, in a rich yet light 
 soil, some year-old plants of each va- 
 riety should be planted, some in a bor- 
 der which is exposed to the full meridian 
 sun; some in a border which only re- 
 ceives its morning rays ; and a third 
 quantity in pots on a north border. The 
 only attention they require is to keep 
 them free from weeds, and to remove 
 all runners as they appear. These will 
 bloom in succession from March until 
 the end of May; and if those in pots in 
 the north border are prevented from 
 blooming by having their flower-buds 
 picked off as they appear until late in 
 May, and are then plunged in the 
 border which enjoys the morning sun, 
 they will, if carefully watered and at- 
 tended, bloom in June and early in July. 
 The double purple may be most suc- 
 cessfully cultivated in this way. For 
 forcing, Mr. Ayres directs some year- 
 old plants of the Neapolitan varieties 
 to be taken up after having done flower- 
 ing, and planted in a light rich border, 
 a foot apart each way, care being taken 
 to remove all runners, but to injure the 
 roots as little as possible. A copious 
 watering is to be given at the time of 
 planting ; they should be shaded through 
 the summer, and all runners removed 
 as they appear. In September, the 
 Neapolitans with good balls of earth 
 are to be placed in forty-eight or thirty- 
 two size pots, and removed into a gentle 
 hot-bed, and protected by a frame. If 
 air be admitted freely and the heat be 
 kept up very gently, these may be 
 brought to bloom in February. Another 
 mode of making the Neapolitan violet 
 bloom during the winter is to plant some 
 of the runners at the end of April, in 
 small pots filled chiefly with leaf-mould, 
 watering them until rooted, and then 
 moving them to a cold shaded place, as 
 the north side of a wall — the colder the 
 better. In October bring them under 
 the sunny side of the green-house, or 
 into an empty frame to be closed at 
 night, and then move them the second 
 week in December into a sunny window 
 or green-house. They will bloom in 
 January, and for some months after, by 
 having a proper succession. 
 
 Dr. Lindley says — il To have Russian 
 violets in flower during winter, you 
 must treat them in the following man- 
 
VIO 
 
 619 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 WH A 
 
 ner: as soon as they have done flower- 
 ing, about March, sift a little light soil 
 over them, and encourage their growth 
 as much as possible, to obtain early 
 strong rooted runners from the old 
 plants, which if properly managed will 
 be about the end of May. Transplant 
 the young runners into a nursery-bed in 
 a rather shaded but not confined situa- 
 tion. The soil should be fresh sandy 
 loam and peat, with a small portion of 
 leaf-mould, hut by no means made rich 
 with dung, as that causes the plants to 
 grow too vigorously. About the begin- 
 ning of August prepare a place for their 
 final reception, an old cucumber or 
 melon bed will do well, taking away 
 the soil from the frame, and filling the 
 place with a mixture of good loam and 
 sandy peat, adding about one quarter of 
 well rotted cow-dung to it, well water 
 the whole, and let it remain for a few 
 days to settle. After this remove the 
 young plants from the nursery-bed with 
 good balls, and plant them in rows 
 about six or nine inches apart each way, 
 and afterwards place the lights on for a 
 few days until the plants recover the 
 shift. They will afterwards require no 
 further trouble except watering and 
 keeping free from slugs and weeds, 
 which must be attended to. When the 
 weather becomes cold in the autumn, 
 the lights must be put on during the 
 night, and in rough wet weather; and 
 finally the violets must be well protected 
 from frost during winter, by covering 
 them at all times when the weather will 
 permit, to prevent their damping off". 
 Treated in this way, they will then 
 flower freely from December to Febru- 
 ary. They may also be potted and 
 cultivated in the same manner, and 
 when in flower may be planted in the 
 green-house; but they will not bloom 
 during the winter, if exposed to the in- 
 clemency of the weather, or if in a damp 
 situation." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Water should only be applied to them 
 when they really want it, and then it 
 should be given freely, and early in the 
 morning, so that the plants may have 
 plenty of time to dry before the frame 
 is closed. 
 
 Tree Violet. — This requires to be pot- 
 ted in a mixture of peat and sandy 
 loam, and requires no further attention 
 than to be kept in a shady part of a 
 green-house ; supplying it plentifully 
 with water and air. 
 
 VIOLET THLASPI. Clypeola Ion 
 Thlaspi. 
 
 VTORNA. Clematis viorna. 
 
 VIPER'S BUGLOSS. Echium. 
 
 VIPER'S GRASS. See Scorzonera. 
 
 VIRGILIA. Six species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs, except V.lutea, 
 a hardy deciduous tree. Young cut- 
 tings. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 VIRGINIAN CREEPER. Ampelopsis 
 hederacea. 
 
 VIRGINIAN POKE. Phytolacca de- 
 candra. 
 
 VIRGIN'S BOWER. Clematis Viti- 
 cella. 
 
 VISCARIA. Three species. Hardy 
 annuals. Seeds. Common soil. 
 
 V I S C U M album. The Mistletoe. 
 Parasite, increased by putting the ber- 
 ries on trees after cutting the bark. See 
 Mistletoe. 
 
 VISMIA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Young cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 VITEX. Twelve species. Stove, 
 green-house and hardy evergreen shrubs 
 and trees. Cuttings. Loam and peat, 
 and the hardy kinds of common soil. 
 
 VITIS. Eleven species and some 
 varieties. Hardy deciduous or stove 
 evergreen climbers. V. vinifera is the 
 common grapevine: seed, cuttings or 
 layers. Strong rich soil. See Grape 
 Vine. 
 
 VITTARIA. Two species. 
 Stove herbaceous perennials, 
 or seeds. Loam and peat. 
 
 VOANDZEIA subterranea. 
 creeping annual. Seeds. Rich mould. 
 
 VOLKAMERIA aculeata. A stove 
 evergreen shrub, and V. japonica, a 
 green-house evergreen tree. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 VOUAPA bifolia. Stove evergreen 
 shrub. Ripe cuttings. Sandy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 VOYRA rosea. Stove herbaceous 
 perennial. Seeds. Sandy loam and 
 peat. 
 
 VRESIA psittacincu Stove epiphyte. 
 Suckers. Leaf-mould and potsherds. 
 
 WACHENDORFIA. Eight species. 
 Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
 sets or seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 WAHLENBERGIA. Four species. 
 All hardy ; W. grandiflora, an herb- 
 aceous perennial ; W. repens, an ever- 
 green creeper; the other two are an- 
 nuals. Division and seeds. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 Ferns. 
 Division 
 
 Stove 
 
W AL 
 
 620 
 
 — • — 
 
 W AL 
 
 WALDSTEINIA geoides. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennial. Division or 
 seeds. Common soil. 
 
 WALKERA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Sandy 
 loam and peat. 
 
 WALKS. See Gravel. It may be 
 observed here, that of whatever material 
 a walk is composed, that it is essential 
 to have it well under-drained, and for 
 this purpose an understratum offlints or 
 brick-bats, twelve inches deep, is not 
 too much. Walks so founded, are never 
 wet or soft. Coal ashes, or which is 
 still better, fresh tan, makes a pleasant 
 winter walk, particularly on tenacious 
 soils, as it never adheres to the shoes, 
 either during rain or after frost; half 
 an inch I think is sufficient. It likewise 
 makes a soft and pleasant summer walk, 
 and from its loose nature, is readily 
 cleared from weeds. If not wanted 
 during summer, it may readily be swept 
 clean off after a few dry days. It is in- 
 valuable for covering walks or footpaths 
 in the kitchen garden, when there is 
 much wheeling of manure or soil, to be 
 done during frost, which is too often 
 obliged to be suspended after ten or 
 eleven o'clock, when there is clear sun- 
 shine, from the ground getting soft and 
 clammy. With a covering of tan, the 
 operation may be continued throughout 
 the day, and even during wet weather. 
 If the tan remain permanently, it will 
 require renewing every two years. — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 WALL CRESS. Arabis. 
 
 WALL-FLOWER or STOCK-GIL- 
 LIFLOWER. Cheiranthus. 
 
 C. arboreus. Shrubby W. F. Yel- 
 low. June. 
 
 C. cheiri. Common W. F. Yellow, 
 crimson, brown. June. 
 
 C.firmus. Permanent W. F. Yellow. 
 July. 
 
 C. linifolius. Flax-leaved W. F. Pur- 
 ple. July. 
 
 C. scoparius. White, yellow, and 
 purple. June. 
 
 C. semperflorens. Everblooming W. 
 F. White. July. 
 
 Besides these species and varieties, 
 there are many German Wall-flowers 
 imported, mostly semi-double, and well 
 worthy of culture for their peculiar co- 
 lours and habits. 
 
 Sowing is best done in June, the 
 seedlings to be transplanted into nur- 
 sery beds when three inches high. They 
 
 will bloom in the spring, and the best 
 may be then selected. Watering in 
 very dry weather, lengthens the dura- 
 tion of their bloom. Saltpetre one 
 ounce to the gallon, given once in ten 
 days, heightens their colour and vigour. 
 
 Cuttings. — The double varieties are 
 thus propagated. When the old plants 
 are done blooming, cut off their heads ; 
 water them freely, and they will pro- 
 duce shoots along with their entire stem; 
 these when from four to six inches long, 
 must be cut off close to the stem, and 
 be planted in a light rich shady border, 
 under a hand-glass ; watering occasion- 
 ally until rooted. 
 
 Soil. — A light rich loam, mixed with 
 a little lime rubbish, suits it best. See 
 Stock. 
 
 WALLICHIA. Two species. Stove 
 palms. Seeds. Strong rich soil and a 
 strong heat. 
 
 WALLS are usually built in panels, 
 from fifteen to thirty feet in length, one 
 brick thick, with pillars for the sake of 
 adding to their strength, at these speci- 
 fied distances ; the foundation a brick 
 and a half thick. The plan of Mr. Sil- 
 verlock, of Chichester, is worthy of 
 adoption, since if well constructed, it is 
 equally durable, and saves one-third of 
 the expense. Walls so constructed are 
 stated to become dry after rain, much 
 more rapidly than a solid wall of the 
 same or any other thickness, and there 
 appears not a shadow of a reason why 
 it should not ripen fruit equally well. 
 
 He forms the wall hollow, nine inches 
 in breadth, by placing the bricks edge- 
 wise so as to form two facings, they are 
 laid in good mortar, and the joints care- 
 fully finished. They are placed alter- 
 nately with their faces and ends to the 
 outsides, so that every second brick is 
 a tie, and in each succeeding course, a 
 brick with its end outwards is placed 
 on the centre of one laid lengthwise on 
 either side. The top of the wall must 
 be covered with a coping of stone or 
 bricks, projecting two inches. It is 
 strengthened at every twenty feet, by 
 piers of fourteen inch-work, built in the 
 same manner, with bricks laid on edge. 
 The mode of constructing the piers, 
 obviating the disadvantages arising from 
 training branches round their sharp 
 angles, which often causes them to 
 gum, recommended by the Rev. T. Cul- 
 lum, of Bury St. Edmonds, is to have 
 their corners bevelled. He also advises 
 
W AL 
 
 621 
 
 — • — 
 
 W AL 
 
 the copings to project much further 
 than they are usually made to do, even 
 as much as twelve inches ; but his rea- 
 soning refers more immediately to the 
 management of wall fruit. 
 
 It is a practice sanctioned by econo- 
 my, to build the wall half brick thick, 
 on a nine inch foundation, and to com- 
 pensate for its want of strength, a 
 waved form is given. Both the small- 
 ness of its substance and its form, are 
 found, however, to be inimical to the 
 ripening of fruit. 
 
 In every instance a wall should never 
 be lower than eight feet. The thick- 
 ness usually varies with the height of 
 the wall, being nine inches, if it is not 
 higher than eight feet; thirteen and a 
 half inches, if above eight and under 
 fourteen feet; and eighteen inches, 
 from fourteen up to twenty feet. 
 
 Fruit trees will succeed quite as well 
 against a stone wall as against a brick 
 one, although the former is neither so 
 neat in appearance, nor can the trees 
 be trained in such a regular form upon 
 it as upon the latter. The last disadvan- 
 tage may be in a great measure reme- 
 died by having a wooden or wire trellis 
 affixed to it. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 If it be desirable that the roots of the 
 trees should benefit by the pasturage 
 outside the wall, it is very common to 
 build it upon an arched foundation. 
 
 Colour has very considerable influence 
 over a body's power of absorbing heat. 
 If a thermometer on a hot summer's 
 day, be exposed to the sun, it will indi- 
 cate a temperature of about 100°; but if 
 the bulb be blackened with Indian ink 
 or the smoke of a candle, it will rise 
 from ten to twenty degrees higher. 
 The reason for this is that the polished 
 surface of the glass reflects some of the 
 sun's rays, but the blackened surface 
 absorbs them all. Blue absorbs all but 
 the blue rays — red all but the red — 
 green and yellow all but those of their 
 own name — and white reflects all the 
 rays. The lightest coloured rays are 
 the most heating, therefore light co- 
 loured walls, but especially white, are 
 the worst for fruit trees. The ther- 
 mometer against a wall rendered black 
 by coal tar, rises 5° higher in the sun- 
 shine, than the same instrument sus- 
 pended against a red brick structure of 
 the same thickness ; nor will it cool 
 lower at night, though its radiating 
 power is increased by the increased 
 
 darkness of its colour, if a proper screen 
 be then employed. — Johnson's Princ. of 
 Gard. 
 
 Inclined or Sloping Walls have been 
 recommended, but have always failed 
 in practice. It is quite true that they 
 receive the sun's rays at a favourable 
 angle, but they retain wet, and become 
 so much colder by radiation at night 
 than perpendicular walls, that they are 
 found to be unfavourable to the ripen- 
 ing of fruit. 
 
 " The Flued-wall or Hot-wall," says 
 Mr. Loudon, " is generally built entire- 
 ly of brick, though where stone is 
 abundant and more economical, the 
 back or north side may be of that ma- 
 terial. A flued wall may be termed a 
 hollow wall, in which the vacuity is 
 thrown into compartments, to facilitate 
 the circulation of smoke and heat, from 
 the base or surface of the ground, to 
 within one or two feet of the coping. 
 Such walls are generally arranged with 
 hooks inserted under the coping, to ad- 
 mit of fastening some description of 
 protecting covers, and sometimes for 
 temporary glass frames. A length of 
 forty feet, and from ten to fifteen high, 
 may be heated by one fire, the furnace 
 of which, being placed one or two feet 
 below the surface of the ground, the 
 first course or flue will commence one 
 foot above it, and be two feet six inches, 
 or three feet high, and the second, third, 
 and fourth courses, narrower as they 
 ascend. The thickness of that side of 
 the flue, next the south or preferable 
 side, should for the first course, be four 
 inches or brick and bed, and for the 
 other courses, it were desirable to have 
 bricks cast in a smaller mould : say for 
 the second course three, for the third 
 two and three quarters, and for the 
 fourth two and a half inches in breadth. 
 This will give an opportunity of bevel- 
 ing the wall, and the bricks being all of 
 the same thickness, though of different 
 widths, the external appearance will be 
 everywhere the same." — Enc. Gard. 
 
 Mr. Paxton has the following excel- 
 lent observations upon Conservative 
 Walls, or walls so constructed as to 
 shelter trees trained against them from 
 winds, and other natural modes of 
 rapidly lowering the temperature: — 
 
 " In forming a conservative wall, it is 
 necessary that it should have a south or 
 a south-western aspect. It is also desi- 
 rable, in order to give it an ornamental 
 
W AL 
 
 622 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 W AL 
 
 appearance, that there should be promi- 
 nent parts at certain intervals, or that 
 the whole should be divided into re- 
 cesses and projections. The latter, by 
 being of limited dimensions, would 
 serve for the display of the more hardy 
 plant, and also afford additional shelter 
 to the remaining portions. If, more- 
 over, the whole be surmounted by an 
 appropriate coping, its beauty will be 
 greatly enhanced. 
 
 "Much has been said of the conser- 
 vative wall at Chatsworth, the leading 
 characteristics of which are a practical 
 illustration of the opinions now ad- 
 vanced — large retiring compartments, 
 covered with a neat trellis, and relieved 
 by occasional small stone projections or 
 piers ; and as the wall stands on a steep 
 slope, each of the piers is raised con- 
 siderably higher than the one below it, 
 thus constituting as it were a series of 
 very broad ascending steps on the top. 
 
 " The advantage of having a slight 
 wooden trellis against the wall, instead 
 of fastening the plants to it in the usual 
 way, need scarcely be pointed out. 
 Independently of its superior appear- 
 ance, which is a point too frequently 
 neglected in such matters, the greater 
 ease with which the branches can be 
 attached to it, and removed or altered 
 at any time, is quite sufficient to give it 
 the preference, while the destruction 
 and defacement of the wall consequent 
 on the use of nails, and the injury they 
 often occasion to the shoots of the 
 plants, give a value to any system by 
 which they can be discarded. The 
 extra expense of the trellis is too tri- 
 fling to be regarded. 
 
 " It has been found, in attempting to 
 grow exotics against open walls, that 
 whatever tends to preserve the border 
 in which they are planted comparatively 
 dry, during the winter, does more to- 
 wards sheltering them from the frost 
 than extensive protection of any other 
 kind. 
 
 " As the fluids of plants are, for the 
 most part, imbibed through the roots, 
 and as the heat of vegetable bodies 
 escapes mainly in proportion to the 
 fluids they contain, protection to the 
 medium in which they grow is perhaps 
 even more necessary than to the stems 
 and branches. It will therefore be seen, 
 that the portion of the border where the 
 roots lie must be covered, and that, if 
 the canvas or other protection actually 
 
 given to the wall does not extend over 
 the border, a coating of dry litter should 
 be spread over it, as soon as severe 
 weather commences, and be retained 
 on it until the spring. 
 
 " The wall is composed of alternate 
 prominent and retiring compartments. 
 Each of the former includes two stone 
 pillars, which stand out a little beyond 
 all the remainder, and are to be left un- 
 covered ; while, between these, is a 
 division, over which is extended a trellis 
 for supporting the hardiest sorts of 
 climbers and those that demand no pro- 
 tection. 
 
 " The recesses are capable of being 
 covered in cold weather with glazed 
 sashes, which can be placed out of sight 
 in a moment, whenever it is safe to re- 
 move thern, by sliding them behind the 
 other divisions. In these recesses the 
 tenderest green-house plants may be 
 cultivated, and trained against a trellis. 
 
 " Thus are combined a handsome 
 architectural elevation, and the means 
 of having some of the finest exotic plants 
 exposed in summer, without danger, 
 and in a condition incomparably more 
 healthy and attractive than they ever 
 attain in the green-house. 
 
 " If glazed sashes are too expensive, 
 canvas, or other screens, can be readily 
 substituted ; but, in that case, the plants 
 will suffer from being kept in darkness 
 during the winter. Where it is thought 
 preferable, another set of rails, on the 
 outside of those for the sashes, can be 
 prepared, to carry some kind of cover- 
 ing in rigorous weather. Where this is 
 done, the necessity for fire heat will be 
 trifling ; in fact it might be entirely dis- 
 pensed with." — Paxton's Magazine of 
 Botany. 
 
 PLANTS FOR A CONSERVATIVE WALL. 
 
 Abutilon striatum ; Acacia angustifolia, 
 armata, cultiformis, dealbata, decur- 
 rens, juniperina, lancelota, longissi- 
 ma, lunata, and mucronata. 
 
 Bignonia capreolata, grandiflora, and 
 tweediana; Billardiera longiflora ; 
 Bossiasa linophylla and scolopen- 
 drium ; Brachysema bybridum and 
 undulatum ; Brugmansia sanguinea 
 and suaveolens; Budleya Lindleyana. 
 
 Camellia Japonica; Ceanothus azureus; 
 Ceratonia siliqua; Clematis azurea 
 grandiflora, and sieboldi ; Correa 
 bicolor, Harrisii, Lindleyana, and 
 pulchella. 
 
W AL 
 
 623 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 W AL 
 
 Diplacus pumiceus. 
 
 Edwardsia grandiflora and microphylla; 
 Erythrina crysta-galli ; Eutaxia myrti- 
 folia. 
 Grevillea rosmarinifolia. 
 Hibbertia volubilis. 
 Jasminum grandiflorum, and umbella- 
 
 tum. 
 Kennedya lilacina, longiracemosa, and 
 
 ovata. 
 Lagerstrremia indica; Linum trigynium. 
 Malva creeana ; Manettia bicolor; Ma- 
 rianthus caaruleo-punctatus ; Mimosa 
 prostrata. 
 Olea fragrans. 
 
 Passiflora alata, casrulea, csrulea race- 
 mosa, and raayani ; Plumbago capen- 
 sis ; Polygala cordifolia and grandi- 
 flora; Punica granatum. 
 Rhodochiton volubile. 
 Schinus molle; Siphocampyllus bico- 
 lor; Sollya heterophylla and liniaris ; 
 Swainsonia coronillaefolia. 
 Tacsonia mollissima and pinnatistipula. 
 WALNUT, ENGLISH. Juglans regia. 
 Varieties. — Common Duck Nut ; Ha- 
 tif; Highflyer; Double ; Tardif; York- 
 shire. Of these Highflyer and Yorkshire 
 are best. — London Hort. Soc. Catalogue. 
 Propagation by Seed. — Sow in drills 
 twelve inches apart and two inches and 
 a half deep, and the nuts six inches 
 apart. This may be done in October, 
 or the nuts preserved in dry sand until 
 February. They will come up the same 
 spring, and, by the end of summer, the 
 young plants will be half a foot ormore 
 high, which, after having two years' 
 growth in the seed-bed, plant out in the 
 nursery. Previously, when taken up, 
 shorten their tap roots ; but preserve 
 their tops entire, and plant them in 
 rows two feet and a half asunder, and 
 about eighteen inches distant in each 
 row. Here they are to remain a few 
 years, training them with single stems, 
 till five or six feet high, then transplant 
 them where they are to remain. 
 
 Those intended principally as timber 
 trees, as well as to bear fruit, should be 
 always planted out for good when from 
 four to five feet high ; or, if the nuts 
 were planted at once where the trees 
 are designed to remain, without trans- 
 planting, they would assume a quicker 
 and stronger growth. 
 
 By Grafting. — Mr. Knight first suc- 
 ceeded in this operation, and the fol- 
 lowing directions accord with his 
 mode : — 
 
 " The shoot to be grafted must be 
 cut above the place where a young 
 shoot is pushing; this shoot must be 
 preserved, and the scion must be placed 
 opposite to it, being fitted in the man- 
 ner of whip-grafting, care being taken 
 that the inner barks coincide. When 
 the buds of the scion begin to swell, the 
 point of the shoot left opposite on the 
 stock must be pinched; and when the 
 graft has fully burst into leaf, and is 
 consequently in a condition to appro- 
 priate the whole of the sap, the shoot 
 on the stock may be then dispensed 
 with. 
 
 " The scions should be taken off in 
 March, and their ends laid in the ground 
 till required for use, as above men- 
 tioned." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Soil. — It prefers a deep loam, though 
 it will succeed on all light moderately 
 fertile soils, provided they are well 
 drained. 
 
 Planting. — Walnut trees should 
 never be planted nearer to each other 
 than sixty feet. They require no 
 pruning. 
 
 Preserving the Fruit. — It is ripe in 
 October, and should be allowed to hang 
 upon the tree until the outer covering 
 begins to crack. In this state, when 
 the tree is shaken, many of the walnuts 
 as they fall will roll out of the husk. 
 These should be gathered into a basket, 
 separate from those that retain their 
 covering ; the latter should be laid aside 
 for a few days, until the husks burst, 
 and they can be taken out with ease. 
 The great object is to prevent them 
 from becoming mouldy ; they should, 
 therefore, be wiped clean and dry, and 
 laid on a shelf, in a dry place, where 
 they can have a free current of air, until 
 all tendency to mouldiness is overcome. 
 Great care must, however, be taken that 
 they are not over dried, for that will 
 cause shriveling. When sufficiently 
 dry they should be put into boxes in 
 layers, alternately with bran, fine dry 
 sand, or shreds of cloth, and kept for 
 use in a cool dry situation. By this 
 means they will retain their moisture 
 and flavour, and the film will with ease 
 peel off. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Taking the Fruit. — There is an un- 
 gallant distich which says — 
 
 "A woman, spaniel, and walnut tree, 
 The better are, the more well thrash'd they 
 be." 
 But in the third instance most certainly 
 
W AL 
 
 624 
 
 WAT 
 
 it is " a vulgar error." Walnuts should 
 be literally gathered or shaken from the 
 tree, for none other bleeds more freely 
 if wounded : and no result of practice 
 or suggestion of science can point out 
 why the walnut tree, contrary to all 
 others, is benefited by having its 
 branches bruised and broken. 
 
 WALNUT, BLACK. Juglans nigra. 
 
 WARDIAN CASE. See Glass Case. 
 
 WARREA cyanea. Stove. 
 
 WARTWORT. Euphorbia helio- 
 scopia. 
 
 WASPS should be sedulously de- 
 stroyed during April, May, and June, 
 for all appearing in these months are 
 queens, and the foundresses of nests. 
 Their favourite resort at that season is 
 the laurel, for the sake of the honey 
 secreted by the midribs of its leaves. 
 They may then be caught in the hooped 
 gauze net of the entomologist. In Au- 
 gust, wasps' nests should be destroyed, 
 and spirit of turpentine is the best agent 
 that can be employed for the purpose. 
 The mode of using it when the nest is 
 in the earth has been thus detailed. Put 
 some of the turpentine into a large bot- 
 tle, shaking it about until the whole 
 of the inside is wetted by it; then fix 
 the neck of the bottle in the nest's en- 
 trance, and place over it a large flower- 
 pot. By replenishing the bottle with 
 turpentine once or twice, the whole of 
 the wasps will be destroyed by the 
 fumes. — Gard. Chron. 
 
 If the nest, be in a place where the 
 bottle cannot be employed, the spirit 
 may be injected by a syringe, and the 
 fume retained by covering up the nest's 
 mouth. 
 
 WATER being an essential applica- 
 tion to the seed, as well as to the grow- 
 ing plant, the source from whence it 
 comes is by no means immaterial. The 
 best for the gardener's purpose is rain 
 water, preserved in tanks sunk in the 
 earth, and rendered tight either by pud- 
 dling or bricks covered with Parker's 
 cement. To keep these tanks replen- 
 ished, gutters should run round the eaves 
 of every structure in the garden, and 
 communicate with them. Every hun- 
 dred cubic inches of rain water, con- 
 tains more than four cubic inches of air, 
 of which more than half are carbonic 
 acid gas, and the remainder nitrogen 
 and oxygen in the proportion of sixty- 
 two of the former to thirty-eight of the 
 last named. 
 
 Liebig, from actual experiment on a 
 large scale, states that both rain and 
 snow contain ammonia; and its import- 
 ance appears from the fact that if there 
 be .only one-fourth of a grain in each 
 pint of water, the annual deposition 
 from the atmosphere would be more 
 than sufficient, on half an acre of 
 ground, to give all the nitrogen con- 
 tained in the vegetable albumen of 150 
 cwt. of beet root. Rain water also con- 
 tains a peculiar substance, analogous to 
 the extractive matter and gluten of 
 plants, though differing from them 
 chemically. To this substance, Dr. 
 Daubeny has given the name of pyr- 
 rhine. Traces of salts and oxides have 
 also been found in rain water, but, 
 compared with all other naturally pro- 
 duced, it is so pure, and so abounds 
 with the gases beneficial to plants, that 
 none other can equal it for their service. 
 That obtained from ponds or springs, 
 invariably contains matters offensive or 
 deleterious to plants. That known as 
 hard water, containing an excess of 
 salts of lime or magnesia, is invariably 
 prejudicial, and pond water is scarcely 
 less so. If it be stagnant, and loaded 
 with vegetable extract, it is even worse 
 than hard spring water; for it then con- 
 tains carbnretted hydrogen and other 
 matters noxious to vegetables. These 
 last named waters, if obliged to be em- 
 ployed to tender plants, should have a 
 pint of the ammoniacal water of the 
 gas works, mixed thoroughly with every 
 sixty gallons, an hour or two before 
 they are used. 
 
 Mr. Paxton justly observes that 
 " watering outdoor crops is frequently 
 recommended during continued dry 
 weather; but it should be avoided as 
 long as possible, as the benefit of arti- 
 ficial watering is but temporary, and it 
 has the effect of exciting the roots, 
 i thereby rendering them more liable to 
 suffer when the water has evaporated. 
 | When, in a case of emergency, it be- 
 I comes necessary to water, it should be 
 given morning and evening, more 
 j abundantly than is usually done, and 
 ! never discontinued after its commence- 
 I ment, until a change in the weather 
 ! renders it no longer necessary. Dis- 
 i crimination should be used in selecting 
 ! proper objects for watering; for it is 
 i no uncommon occurrence to see small 
 I basins of soil formed round the stems 
 ! of fruit trees, on walls and other per- 
 
 
WAT 
 
 625 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 WAT 
 
 manent plants, into which several pans 
 of water are poured daily during 
 drought. This must be useless or near- 
 ly so, as the roots which would take up 
 the water, for the benefit of the plants, 
 will form a circle at a considerable dis- 
 tance from the stem. Seed beds, or 
 plants which can be regularly and tho- 
 roughly watered, as radishes, lettuce, 
 and salading, will be much benefited, 
 butartificial watering outof doors, in the 
 manner it is usually applied, is of little 
 service ; and in the case of strawber- 
 ries, and similar crops, mulching with 
 straw, grass, or some such contrivance, 
 which will prevent the rapid evapora- 
 tion of moisture from the soil, is much 
 preferable." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Mr. S. Taylor, of Stoke Ferry, in the 
 Gardeners' Magazine for 1840, recom- 
 mends the use of bottles with two small 
 holes in the sides near the bottom, for 
 watering plants. The bottles are buried 
 to the neck, near the roots of the flower 
 whieh requires watering, and after 
 being filled and corked, the water is 
 allowed gradually to exude through the 
 holes. " This," says that good horti- 
 culturist, Mr. W. P. Ayres, " though 
 undoubtedly an ingenious method, is 
 objectionable, because the roots of the 
 plants are liable to be injured in plung- 
 ing the bottles, and that it would require 
 so many of them, where copious water- 
 ing was necessary. A better plan is to 
 take moderate sized flower-pots, and 
 having placed an ineh or two of rough 
 gravel in the bottom of each, to place 
 them round the plant to be watered, 
 and fill with water, which as it perco- 
 lates gradually through the gravel, will 
 soak into the ground. For plants such 
 as standard roses, rhododendrons, &c, 
 closely turfed over on lawns, or for any 
 thing in a sloping situation, this is a 
 most excellent plan, as the pots filled 
 with water may be placed at night, and 
 removed the next morning, so as not to 
 become an eyesore. Watering plants 
 in flower beds is at all times a difficult 
 matter, because if the borders are suf- 
 ficiently full of soil to give them a con- 
 vex form, whieh they always ought to 
 have, the water runs to the sides of the 
 borders as fast as it is poured on. In 
 such eases it will be found advisable to 
 perforate the beds as thickly as possible, 
 without injuring the roots, to the depth 
 of six or eight inches, with a stick one 
 
 ten or a dozen times, the ground will 
 become thoroughly soaked. With 
 annuals, verbenas, and other grouping 
 plants, I have found this a most excel- 
 lent method. In connection with the 
 watering of strawberries, a radical im- 
 provement is required; for although 
 gardeners are prettly liberal with the 
 limpid fluids over the heads of the 
 plants, they are not good conservators 
 of the quality of the fruit. It is true, 
 by copious watering, both the size and 
 quantity of the fruit is much increased ; 
 but it is equally true that if water is 
 used over the plants after the fruit is 
 half grown, the latter will be much de- 
 teriorated in quality. We all know 
 that strawberries in a wet season are 
 never so high flavoured as they are in a 
 dry one, and what is the reason ? Why, 
 because there is a superabundance of 
 aqueous matter in the fruit; and so it 
 is with the plants copiously watered 
 overhead in dry seasons. In truth, it 
 may be laid down as a rule, if fine fla- 
 voured fruit be a desideratum, water 
 ought never to come in contact with it 
 after the saccharine or maturing assi- 
 milation commences. Hence in water- 
 ing strawberries, let it be poured from 
 the spout of the watering pot upon the 
 soil, but on no account is it to touch 
 the fruit; or, what will be better, fork the 
 ground over between the plants, give it a 
 good soaking, to at least the depth of a 
 foot, and cover it two or three inches 
 deep with clean straw. This will both 
 prevent the evaporation of moisture, 
 and the radiation of terrestrial heat ; 
 and as the straw, from its colour and 
 non-conducting qualities, will reflect 
 instead of absorbing the heat, the fruit, 
 being subjected to increased tempera- 
 ture, will, in consequence, be improved 
 in flavour. If water is required after 
 the straw is placed on the beds, let it 
 be applied through pots, placed one 
 foot apart, as recommended above for 
 plants on a lawn." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 I agree with those who recommend 
 " sunrise as the best time for the water- 
 ing of exposed plants. Evaporation no 
 doubt will then go on freely ; but the 
 atmosphere is beginning to get warmer, 
 and the sun's rays to exert their coun- 
 teracting influence. The darkened sur- 
 face — that very condition which made 
 the soil throw off its heat more readily 
 during the night, causes it to imbibe the 
 
 inch in diameter, and by filling these | heat of the sun's rays by day with in- 
 40 
 
WAT 
 
 626 
 
 WAT 
 
 creased facility, so that you thus have 
 the greatest amount of the fostering 
 agencies of heat and moisture for the 
 growth of plants. When evening again 
 comes round, the surface moisture has 
 been dried up, and its colour again ren- 
 dered of a lighter shade ; there is con- 
 sequently little diminution of tempera- 
 ture beyond surrounding objects, either 
 from evaporation or radiation of heat." 
 — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Although an excess of water applied 
 to the roots of plants is injurious to 
 them, yet all of them are benefited by 
 a due supply of that liquid, and the 
 supply has to be regulated by the 
 amount of their daily transpiration. The 
 gardener knows that this differs in every 
 species, and during different seasons. 
 For instance, in a dry hot day, a sun- 
 flower three feet and a half high trans- 
 pired 111b. 4 oz., being seventeen times 
 more than the human body; during a 
 hot dry night, 3 oz.; during a dewy 
 night there was no transpiration, and 
 during a rainy night the plant absorbed 
 3 oz. Therefore, the gardener finds it 
 best to apply water during dry weather 
 early in the morning, just before the 
 chief demand occurs, which is from six 
 A.M., till, two in the afternoon; and 
 during moist weather he refrains from 
 the application entirely. Then again 
 the gardener keeps his agaves and other 
 fleshy-leaved plants in a dry stove, for 
 they transpire but sparingly in propor- 
 tion to their mass, and require watering 
 but seldom, and then abundantly ; for 
 they take up, as in their native silicious 
 habitats, a large supply, and retain it 
 pertinaciously in defiance of the long- 
 protracted droughts to which they are 
 exposed. In the same species I have 
 always found varieties transpire abun- 
 dantly and require a large supply of 
 water in proportion to the extent of 
 their transpiring surface. Thus the 
 broad-leaved fuchsias and pelargoniums 
 transpire from two to three times as 
 much as those varieties which have 
 smaller and less abundant foliage. 
 Excessive moisture induces that over 
 succulency, which is ever attended by 
 weakness, unnatural growth, and early 
 decay. Such plants more than any 
 others are sufferers by sudden vicissi- 
 tudes in the hygrometric state of the 
 atmosphere, and are still more fatally 
 visited, if exposed to low reductions of 
 temperature." — Princ. of Gard. 
 
 WATER CRESS. Nasturtium of- 
 ficinale. 
 
 Varieties. — Small brown - leaved, 
 hardiest; Large brown-leaved, best for 
 deep water; Green-leaved, easiest cul- 
 tivated. — London Hort. Soc. Trans. 
 
 Planting in Water. — On this we 
 have the following good directions in 
 the Bon Jardinier. The depth of the 
 trenches in which they are grown being 
 entirely dependent upon that of the 
 springs by which they are supplied 
 with water, the former are so prepared 
 that, as nearly as possible, a regular 
 depth of three or four inches can be 
 kept up. These trenches are three 
 yards broad, and eighty-seven yards 
 long, and whenever one is to be plant- 
 ed, the bottom is made quite firm and 
 slightly sloping, so that the water which 
 flows in at one end may run out at the 
 other. If the bottom of the trench is 
 not sufficiently moist, a small body of 
 water is allowed to enter to soften it. 
 The cresses are then taken and divided 
 into small sets or cuttings, with roots 
 attached to them ; and these are thrown 
 over the bottom of the trench at the 
 distance of three or four inches from 
 each other. The cress soon attaches 
 itself to the damp earth; in three or 
 four days the shoots straighten and be- 
 gin to strike root. At the end of five 
 or six days, a slight dressing of well 
 decomposed cow-dung is spread over 
 all the plants, and this is pressed down 
 by means of a heavy board, to which a 
 long handle is obliquely fixed. The 
 water is then raised to the depth of 
 two or three inches, and never higher. 
 Each trench is thus replanted annually, 
 and furnishes twelve crops during the 
 season. In the summer the cresses are 
 gathered every fifteen or twenty days, 
 but less frequently during winter : care 
 is taken that at each gathering at least 
 a third part of the bed is left untouched, 
 so that neither the roots may be ex- 
 hausted, nor the succeeding gathering 
 delayed. After every cutting, a little 
 decayed cow-dung, in the proportion 
 of two large barrowfuls to each trench, 
 is spread over the naked plants, and 
 this is beaten down by means of the 
 rammer above mentioned. After the 
 water cresses have been thus treated 
 for a twelvemonth, the manure forms a 
 tolerably thick layer at the bottom of 
 the trench, and tends to raise its level. 
 To restore it to its original level, all 
 
WAT 
 
 627 
 
 WAT 
 
 the refuse should be thrown out upon 
 the borders which separate the trenches 
 from each other. These borders may 
 be planted with artichokes, cabbages, 
 or cauliflowers, which will here attain 
 a great size. Cress-grounds should al- 
 ways be at a distance from trees, on 
 account of the leaves, which otherwise 
 drive amongst the plants, and require 
 much time to pick out. There are 
 two weeds which, even in the cleanest 
 cress-grounds, can scarcely be kept 
 under; these are the Duckweed and 
 Zannichellia palustris, which both mul- 
 tiply so quickly, that unless carefully 
 rooted out, they do great injury to the 
 cresses. The Zannichellia may be 
 kept under by careful hand-weeding, 
 and the Duckweed by raising the wa- 
 ter, so as to make it float above the 
 cress plants, when it may be skimmed 
 off. 
 
 Planting in Borders. — This must be 
 done in September and in a moist shady 
 border. Plant slips, and the only cul- 
 tivation necessary is to dig the earth 
 fine, to draw a slight trench with a hoe, 
 to fill this with water until it becomes 
 a mud, to cOver it about an inch deep 
 with drift sand, and then to stick in the 
 slips about six inches apart, watering 
 them until established. The sand keeps 
 the plants clean. They will be ready 
 for gathering from in a very few weeks, 
 and the shoots should be invariably cut 
 and not picked. They are not so mild 
 flavoured as those grown in water, but 
 then they are free from aquatic insects, 
 &c. 
 
 WATERFALL. See Cascade. 
 
 WATER GERMANDER. Teucrium 
 Scordium. 
 
 WATERING ENGINE. See En- 
 gine. 
 
 WATERING POTS. These should 
 have roses pierced with very fine holes ; 
 the diameter of those usually used is 
 too large. Long-spouted watering pots 
 are required for watering plants in pots 
 upon shelves. French watering pots 
 have zigzag bends in the spout to break 
 from the plant the force of the water. 
 Shelf watering pots are small and flat- 
 bodied for giving water to plants over- 
 head, and near the glass in green-houses 
 or stoves. 
 
 " The accompanying engraving is of 
 a watering pot from Mr. G. Thompson, 
 390 Oxford Street, who states that its 
 superiority consists in the roses being 
 
 so formed as to give the water thrown 
 from them the nearest resemblance to 
 a gentle shower of rain, which renders 
 it peculiarly suitable for watering seed- 
 lings or other tender plants. As the 
 brass joints which connect the roses to 
 the spout are made water-tight, there 
 is no danger of its returning outside, to 
 
 Fig. 176. 
 
 the annoyance of the person using it: 
 a is the spout to which the roses are 
 screwed ; b, the box to contain either 
 spout out of use; c and d, the holes in 
 which the joints are placed ; e, a large 
 rose for watering flower beds; /, a 
 smaller rose for watering plants in 
 pots." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 Another watering pot is the follow- 
 ing, and suggested by Mr. Williamson. 
 
 " No. 1 represents the original, 
 which differs from a common watering 
 pot in having its tube inserted in a 
 horizontal position, with a brass valve 
 near the point, through which passes a 
 brass wire or rod, held in its proper 
 position by two strong transverse pieces 
 of wire, perforated in the centre, and 
 
 Fig. 177. 
 
 connected with a crank or lever, be- 
 tween the lower part of which and 
 the side of the pot is a steel spring, 
 which propels the piston and shuts the 
 valve. From the top of the lever is 
 
WAT 
 
 WE A 
 
 fixed a brass rod, which is kept in its 
 place by a collar brazed to the side of 
 the pot. In raising, the rod is pressed 
 by the finger. No. 2 represents the im- 
 provements, which consist in a double 
 lever, acting like the key of a flute. 
 Instead of the steel spring at the end 
 of the lever, a spiral one of brass wire 
 is fixed within the point of the tube, 
 immediately before the valve, which it 
 shuts; at the other end of the tube is a 
 convex rose of copper, to prevent dirt, 
 &c, passing into the tube, through the 
 centre of which passes the rod in con- 
 nexion with the lever and the valve. 
 No. 3 differs from the preceding only 
 in having a movable curved tube at- 
 tached to the pipe, at the top of which 
 is a very fine rose about an inch in 
 diameter. From the length of tube 
 (about twenty inches) the pressure of 
 water is considerable, when the pot is 
 held in an inclined position, producing 
 a light shower admirably suited to small 
 seeds." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 A third invention is Mr. Saul's, and, 
 he says, " it can be constructed at a 
 very little more expense than those in 
 general use. In the annexed sketch, 
 Fig. 1 represents a section of the can ; 
 1 1 are removeable tubes, having roses 
 on their upper ends, while the lower 
 ends slide over the tube 2, fixed into 
 
 hand or the left : by drawing up the 
 spring 6 with the forefinger, the valve 
 is raised by means of the connecting rod 
 o, and consequently the water flows 
 into the tubes 1 and 2; as soon as the 
 finger is removed from the spring, the 
 valve falls, and the water is stopped. 
 The spring is fixed on the under side of 
 the handle, and nearly all inclosed in 
 that part made to fit the hand. Fig 2 
 represents the bottom of the can ; the 
 dotted line showing the size of the 
 valve ; 1 shows the point at which the 
 water flows into the tubes." — Gard. 
 Chron. 
 
 WATER LEMON. Passiflora lauri- 
 folia. 
 
 WATER LILY. Nymphea. 
 
 WATER MELON. Cucumis Citrui- 
 lus, var. 
 
 WATER PLANTS. See Aquarium. 
 
 WATER PURSLANE. Peplis. 
 
 WATER VINE. Tetracera potato- 
 ria. 
 
 WATER VIOLET. Hottonia. 
 
 WATSONIA. Fifteen species. 
 Green-house bulbous perennials. Off- 
 sets or seeds. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 WAYFARING TREE. Viburnum 
 Lantana. 
 
 WEATHER. The gardener, even 
 more than the farmer, is dependent upon 
 the weather for opportunity to insert and 
 
 the can ; 3 is a valve placed over this j to remove the plants under his care. I 
 tube, made of strong leather, and hav- 
 ing a small block of wood on the top 
 like those in common pumps, the bot- 
 tom of the can being wood, the valve is 
 screwed on it, as shown at 4, in such a 
 
 manner as to be easily taken off, when 
 it requires to be repaired. The rod 5 
 is connected with the valve 3, and the 
 spring 6; when used, the can maybe 
 held by the handle, either in the right 
 
 hall, therefore, give him all the prog- 
 nostics which appearworthy of attention. 
 
 1. The hollow winds begin to blow, 
 
 2. The clouds look black, the glass is low; 
 
 3. The soot falls down, the spaniels sleep, 
 
 4. And spiders from their cobwebs peep ; 
 
 5. Last night ihe sun went pale to bed ; 
 
 6. The moon in halos hid her head. 
 
 7. The boding shepherd heaves a sigh, 
 P. For see, a rainbow spans the sky ; 
 
 9. The xvalls are damp, the ditches smell, 
 
 10. Closed is the pink-eyed pimpernell ; 
 
 11. Hark ! how the chairs and tables crack, 
 
 12. Old Betty's joints are on the rack ; 
 
 13. Loud quack the ducks, the peacocks cry, 
 
 14. The distant hills are looking nigh; 
 
 15. How restless are the snorting swine, 
 lfi. The busy flies disturb the kine : 
 
 17. Low o'er the grass the swallow wings, 
 
 18. The cricket, too, how sharp he sings; 
 
 19. Puss on the hearth, with velvet paws, 
 Sits wiping o'er her whisker'd jaws : 
 
 20. Through the clear stream the fishes rise, 
 And nimbly catch th' incautious flies; 
 
 21. The glow-worms, numerous and bright, 
 Illumed the dewy dell last night; 
 
 22. At night the squalid toad was seen 
 Hopping and crawling o'er the green ; 
 
 23. The whirling wind the dust obeys, 
 And in the rapid eddy plays ; 
 
WE A 
 
 629 
 
 — • — 
 
 WEA 
 
 24. The frog has changed his yellow vest, 
 And in a russet coat is drest ; 
 
 25. Though June, the air is cold yet still ; 
 
 26. The blackbird^ mellow voice is shrill ; 
 
 27. My dog, so alter'd is his taste, 
 Quits mutton bones, on grass to feast ; 
 
 28. And see yon rooks, how odd their flight, 
 They imitate the gliding kite, 
 
 And seem precipitate to fall, 
 As if they felt the piercing ball ; 
 'Twill surely rain, I see, with sorrow, 
 Our jaunt cannot take place to-morrow. 
 
 In the foregoing rhymes, attributed to 
 Dr. Jenner, are comprised nearly all the 
 natural phenomena which predicate ap- 
 proaching rain, and most of them are 
 sustained by our more scienced know- 
 ledge. 
 
 Thus the wind, when rain is ap- 
 proaching, causes more moaning and 
 whistling sounds in passing through the 
 crevices and crannies of our houses, on 
 the same principle that all other gases, 
 in proportion as they are more or less 
 heated, or more or less dry, cause 
 louder or lower sounds in passing 
 through the orifices of small tubes. 
 
 Soot falls because it absorbs more 
 moisture from the air as rain approaches, 
 and becoming heavier breaks away from 
 its slender attachment to the chimney's 
 walls. A halo round the moon is caused 
 by the rays of its light passing through 
 moisture precipitated from the air, and 
 the larger the halo, the nearer is such 
 precipitated moisture to the earth, and 
 consequently the rain is at hand. 
 
 Walls become damp from the same 
 cause that soot falls, when rain is ap- 
 proaching, namely, because the moist- 
 ure in the air is more abundant, and in 
 a state of mixture with it more easily 
 separable. Walls that thus become 
 damp, contain chloride of calcium, or 
 other salts which are deliquescent, that 
 is, absorb moisture from the air. Ditches 
 smell in rainy weather, because all 
 odours are conveyed with more facility 
 by damp than by dry air. Not only 
 does thepimpernell (Anagallis arvensis) 
 close its flowers when exposed to damp 
 air, but those of many other plants are 
 similarly sensitive. Convolvulus arvensis 
 (field Bindweed), Anagallis arvensis, 
 Calendula pluvialis, Arenaria rubra 
 (purple Sandwort), Stellaria media 
 (Chickweed or Stitchwort), and many 
 others, are well known to shut up their 
 flowers against the approach of rain ; 
 whence the Anagallis has been called 
 " the Poor Man's Weather Glass." It 
 40* 
 
 has been observed by Linnaeus, adds 
 Sir J. E. Smith, that flowers lose this 
 fine sensibility, either after the anthers 
 have performed their office, or when 
 deprived of them artificially ; nor do I 
 doubt the fact. I have had reason to 
 think that, during a long continuance of 
 wet, the Anagallis is sometimes ex- 
 hausted ; and it is evident that very sud- 
 den thunder showers oftener take such 
 flowers by surprise, the previous state 
 of the atmosphere not having been such 
 as to give them due warning. 
 
 The cracking of furniture is the ne- 
 cessary consequence of the dry woody 
 fibre expanding when exposed to moist- 
 er air. Distant objects appear nearer 
 when rain is at hand, because the air ia 
 rarer at such times, and objects always 
 appear distinct in proportion to the 
 rarity of the gaseous medium through 
 which they are viewed. Swallows fly 
 low at such times, probably for two rea- 
 sons : insects are then more busy near 
 the earth's surface, and the rarity of 
 the atmosphere renders flying more la- 
 borious in proportion to the height to 
 which a bird soars. The changed habits 
 of animals at the approach of rain, are 
 perhaps to be accounted for by the al- 
 tered state of the atmospheric pressure, 
 and of the air's electricity causing a 
 change of sensations which warns them 
 by past experience that the season of 
 discomfort or of pleasure, as their na- 
 ture may be, is coming upon them. 
 
 These natural phenomena combined 
 with a careful attention to the indica- 
 tions of the Barometer, are much less 
 erring guides than tables founded upon 
 the moon's changes. It is impossible, 
 in the present imperfect state of our 
 meteorological knowledge, to say that 
 the moon has no influence upon the 
 weather, but it is next to certain that 
 other influences are much more power- 
 ful and controlling. The same moon 
 rises and sets and changes in Hindoo- 
 stan as in England, yet in that climate, 
 its wet and hot and cold seasons, its 
 northeast and southwest monsoons ar- 
 rive with a changeless regularity and 
 intensity that demonstrate the moon's 
 influence there has no paramount con- 
 trol. 
 
 The facts established by Mr. Forster 
 and other acute observers of the ba- 
 rometer, appear to be these: — 1. Not 
 the great height or depression of the 
 mercury is so much to be regarded as 
 
WE A 
 
 630 
 
 — • — 
 
 WE A 
 
 whether it continues to rise or decline. 
 2. If the mercury falls when the wind 
 blows nearly from due south, rain is 
 approaching. 3. If it falls in hot wea- 
 ther, there will be thunder. 4. If it 
 rises in winter, frost is nigh ; and if, the 
 frost continuing, it still rises, there will 
 be snow. 5. If it falls much during 
 frost, a thaw will set in. 6. A change 
 taking place immediately after the mer- 
 cury rises or falls, rarely endures. 7. 
 If the mercury continues to rise during 
 wet weather, or to fall during fine wea- 
 ther, apermanent change will come. 
 
 I am indebted to Mr. W. H. White, 
 one of the intelligent Secretaries of the 
 Meteorological Society, for the follow- 
 ing observations: — 
 
 BAROMETRIC FLUCTUATIONS. 
 
 1. The barometer in calm serene wea- 
 ther generally ranges pretty high, 
 rather above thirty inches ; if the 
 fluctuations daily are very small, but 
 still rather getting higher, a fine se- 
 ries of days or weeks may be expect- 
 ed. 
 
 2. When the barometer is below twen- 
 ty-nine inches, and the clouds dis- 
 perse with but little wind, it will be- 
 come stationary for a day or two, till 
 the electrical equilibrium of the air 
 be destroyed : if it then rise, expect 
 fair weather; if it fall, expect a storm 
 of wind accompanied with rain or 
 hail, according to the season. 
 
 3. When the barometer ranges between 
 29 and 29.60, if the clouds hang low 
 and float before a west or southwest 
 wind, almost every cloud will deposit 
 its contents, especially if passing over 
 an elevation, a wood, and sometimes 
 a river. In all cases the hygrometer 
 should be considered : if the air be 
 dry and the barometer fall, wind will 
 follow; if the air be saturated with 
 moisture, rain or sleet, according to 
 season. 
 
 4. When the thermometer ranges in 
 summer between 70° and 80°, and 
 the barometer falls rapidly and exten- 
 sively, thunder will follow with hail 
 or heavy rain. 
 
 5. In winter, when the thermometer 
 ranges below freezing, and a low 
 barometer begins to rise, expect 
 snow to follow ; but if the thermo- 
 meter rise and the barometer fall 
 during frosty weather, a thaw will 
 quickly follow. 
 
 6. The barometer at all seasons of the 
 year will fall very low and very ra- 
 pidly on the approach of a storm of 
 wind without rain ; on the approach 
 of an earthquake too, though it be 
 four or five hundred miles off! 
 
 7. If the barometer fall with an easterly 
 or northeast wind, rain will follow. 
 
 8. If the crown of the mercury in the 
 tube be convex, it indicates a rising 
 will take place ; if concave, it will 
 soon fall. 
 
 These are a few of the changes pecu- 
 liar to England. The operating causes 
 of the oscillations involve one of the 
 most interesting inquiries belonging to 
 meteorology. Electricity is the grand 
 mover of the barometric column. Many 
 other rules might be gathered from the 
 restlessness of animals, the flights of 
 birds, and the gambols of fishes ; all 
 indicating by their motions that there is 
 a change taking place in the electrical 
 condition of the atmosphere. 
 
 NATURAL APPEARANCES. 
 
 1. In winter, a red sky at sunrise indi- 
 cates the speedy approach of rain. 
 
 2. In summer, the same appearance de- 
 notes refreshing showers. 
 
 3. Squalls of wind generally follow 
 these appearances: — "It will be foul 
 weather to-day, for the sky is red and 
 lowering." Matt. xvi. 3. 
 
 4. Small patches of white clouds, like 
 flocks of sheep at rest, indicate con- 
 tinued fine weather. 
 
 5. Large mountainous (or Jupiterian) 
 clouds, called cumulo stratus, pro- 
 duce sudden showers in spring and 
 autumn, and hail-storms in summer 
 and winter. 
 
 6. When large clouds diminish in size, 
 fine weather will follow ; if they in- 
 crease, rain or snow. 
 
 7. Rainbows denote frequent showers. 
 Spiders generally alter their webs 
 
 once in twenty-four hours ; and a rule 
 has been deduced from this, whereby 
 to foretell the coming change. If they 
 thus alter their web between six and 
 seven in the evening, there will be a 
 fine night; if in the morning, a fine 
 day ; if they work during rain, expect 
 fine weather; and the more active and 
 busy the spider is, the finer will be the 
 weather. If spiders' webs (gossamer) fly 
 in the autumn, with a south wind, expect 
 an east wind and fine weather. If gar- 
 I den spiders break off and destroy their 
 
WE A 
 
 631 
 
 ♦ 
 
 WEE 
 
 webs, and creep away, expect continued 
 rain and showery weather. 
 
 The Leech also possesses the pecu- 
 liar property of indicating approaching 
 changes of the weather in a most emi- 
 nent degree. In fair and frosty weather 
 it remains motionless and rolled up in a 
 spiral form at the bottom of the vessel ; 
 previously to rain or snow, it will creep 
 to the top, where, should the rain be 
 heavy, or of long continuance, it will 
 remain for a considerable time ; if tri- 
 fling, it will descend. Should the rain 
 or snow be accompanied with wind, it 
 will dart about with great velocity, and 
 seldom cease its evolutions until it 
 blows hard. If a storm of thunder or 
 lightning be approaching, it will be ex- 
 ceedingly agitated, and express its feel- 
 ings in violent convulsive starts at the 
 top of the glass. These animal move- 
 ments are all induced, probably, by 
 sensations in the animal occasioned by 
 changes in the atmospheric electricity. 
 
 Rain may be Expected — When the 
 sounds of distant waterfalls, &c, are 
 distinctly heard — When the sun rises 
 pale and sparkling — When the sun rises 
 amidst ruddy clouds — When the sun 
 sets behind a dark cloud — When there 
 is no dew after heat in summer — When 
 there is much hoar frost in winter — 
 When mists rest on the mountain tops 
 — When snails and frogs beset your 
 evening walk — When gnats bite vigor- 
 ously — When animals are unusually 
 restless. 
 
 Fair Weather may be Expected 
 — When none of the signs of rain just 
 given occur — When the sun sets red 
 and cloudless — When the moon's horns 
 are sharp — When the stars shine bright- 
 ly — When smoke rises easily — When 
 moths and beetles appear in numbers. 
 
 Clouds. — " When it is evening, ye 
 say, It will be fair weather, for the sky 
 is red." {Matt. xvi. 2.) " And this 
 observation of nineteen centuries past 
 is explained by the optical fact, that dry 
 air refracts more of the red rays of light, 
 than when it is moist ; and as dry air 
 is not perfectly transparent, those rays 
 are reflected in the horizon." — Davy's 
 Salmonia. 
 
 Rainbow. — " When this is seen in the 
 morning, it betokens rain ; but if in the 
 evening, fair weather; and Sir H. Davy 
 thus explains this phenomenon : — ' The 
 bow can be seen only when the clouds 
 
 depositing the rain are opposite to the 
 sun, — thus in the morning the bow is in 
 the west, and in the evening it is in the 
 east ; and, as the rains in this country 
 are usually brought by westerly winds, 
 a bow in that quarter indicates that the 
 rain is coming towards the spectator; 
 whereas a bow in the east indicates that 
 rain is passing away.' " — Salmonia. 
 
 Wind. — Mr. Christensen says, that 
 the wind changing to any point of the 
 compass between e.s.e. and n.n.w. 
 causes the mercury to rise ; and a 
 change to any point between w. and s. 
 causes it to be depressed. 
 
 WEEDS should be warred upon un- 
 remittingly by the gardener, for not only 
 does their presence detract from that 
 neatness which should be the all-per- 
 vading characteristic of the garden, but 
 every weed robs the soil of a portion of 
 the nutriment which should be devoted 
 to the crops. 
 
 To destroy them, the hoes and weed- 
 ing irons should be unremittingly at 
 work. Neither should weeds be al- 
 lowed to remain where cut down, but 
 should be gathered together, and mixed 
 with saline matters, to convert them 
 into most valuable fertilizers. Never 
 burn them. No weed will endure being 
 continually cut down, and when cut 
 down, it should be carried to a common 
 heap, and a peck of common salt, and 
 a gallon of gas ammoniacal liquor, 
 mixed with every barrow load. The 
 whole speedily becomes a saponaceous 
 mass ; all seeds in it are destroyed ; and 
 it is rendered one of the best fertilizers 
 the gardener can command. 
 
 WEEDING TOOLS. See Hoe. Be- 
 
 Fig. 179. 
 
 Fig. 180. 
 
WEE 
 
 632 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 WIR 
 
 sides spuds, weeding pincers, and hoes, 
 there are several implements invent- 
 ed for eradicating the deeper-rooting 
 weeds. Such are Hall's Land Crab 
 (Fig. 179), Dockspuds and the Guernsey 
 Weeding Prong (Fig. 180). 
 
 WEEVIL. See Anthonomus and 
 Otiorhyncus. 
 
 WEIGHTS. 
 
 AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 
 
 16 Drachms, 1 ounce. 
 
 16 Ounces, 1 pound. 
 
 28 Pounds, 1 quarter. 
 
 4 Quarters, 1 cwt. 
 
 20 Cwt., 1 ton. 
 
 WEIGHTS AS IN ENGLAND. 
 
 14 Pounds, 1 stone. 
 8 Pounds, 1 stone butchers* 
 meat. 
 
 56 Pounds, 1 truss of hay. 
 
 36 Pounds, 1 truss of straw. 
 
 36 Trusses, 1 load. 
 
 WELCH ONION. See Ciboule. 
 
 WENDLANDIA particulate/.. A Stove 
 evergreen tree ; and TV. populifolia, a 
 green-house evergreen twiner. Cut- 
 tings. Loam, peat and sand. 
 
 WESTRINGIA. Ten species. Green- 
 house evergreen shrubs. Young cut- 
 tings. Light rich soil. 
 
 WHEELBARROWS. The greater 
 the diameter of the wheel of a barrow, 
 and the smaller the axis or spindle on 
 which it turns, the less power will be 
 required to drive it forward; for the 
 friction is proportionately reduced. 
 
 The diameter of the wheel might be 
 increased with manifest advantage to 
 double that now employed, for even 
 then it would be below the point of 
 draught or impulsion (the hand of the 
 labourer) ; and the nearer it can be 
 brought to a level with this, the more 
 efficiently he exerts his power. 
 
 The breadth ofthe wheel's periphery, 
 or felloes, might be also increased two 
 inches advantageously; for, as it is al- 
 ways employed upon a surface in some 
 degrees soft, such an increased breadth 
 would decrease the depth to which the 
 wheel of a loaded barrow usually sinks 
 into the soil, and would proportionately 
 decrease the power required to over- 
 come the augmented opposition. In a 
 wheelbarrow so constructed, a man 
 might move with more ease eight hun- 
 dred weight, than he now impels five 
 hundred weight, which is a full barrow 
 load. 
 
 If a wheelbarrow be made of wood, 
 the feet and handles should be capped 
 with iron, and its joints strengthened 
 with bands of the same metal. Iron 
 barrows are now made weighing no 
 more than ninety-two pounds, and they 
 run very light. 
 
 The longer the handles of a wheel- 
 barrow are, and the nearer the load to 
 the wheel, the easier is that load lifted, 
 and the easier is the barrow turned over 
 to discharge the load. 
 
 WHIRLING PLANT. Besmodium 
 gyrans. 
 
 WHITE BEAN TREE. Pyrus Aria. 
 
 WHITE CEDAR. Cupressus thy- 
 oides. 
 
 WHITE SPRUCE. Pinus Alba. 
 
 WHITE TREE. Melaleuca Leuca- 
 dendron. 
 
 WHITE VINE. Clematis vitalba. 
 
 WHITEFIELDIA lateritia. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Cuttings. Leafy 
 mould and loam. 
 
 WHORTLE BERRY. Vaccinium. 
 
 WIDOW WAIL. Cneorum. 
 
 WIGANDIA caracasana. Stove de- 
 ciduous shrub. Seeds. Loam and peat. 
 
 WILDERNESS. See Labyrinth. 
 
 WILD LIQUORICE. Abrus. 
 
 WILD SERVICE. Pyrus torminalis. 
 
 WILDENOVIA. Two species. 
 Grasses. Division. Loam and peat. 
 
 WILLEMETIA africana. Stove 
 evergreen shrub. Young cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 WILLOW. Salix. 
 
 WILLUGHBEIA edulis. Stove ever- 
 green shrub. Cuttings. Loam, peat, 
 and sand. 
 
 WIND FLOWER. Gentiana Pneu- 
 monanthe, and Anemone. 
 
 WINGED PEA. Tetragonolobus pur- 
 pur eus. 
 
 WINTER ACONITE. Eranthis. 
 
 WINTER BERRY. Prinos. 
 
 WINTER CHERRY. Physalis, and 
 Cardiospermum Halicacabum. 
 
 WINTER CRESS. Barbarea. 
 
 WINTER MOTH. See Cheimatobia. 
 
 WINTER SWEET. Origanum hera- 
 
 cI-GOtzCUTTL 
 
 WIRE- WORMS are the larva? of 
 various species of Elater, Click Beetle, 
 or Skip Jack. Of these there are more 
 than fifty species ; but the most common 
 are: — 
 
 E. segetis, of which the wire-worm is 
 often so abundant in old pastures, and 
 
WIR 
 
 633 
 
 — • — 
 
 WOR 
 
 of which the ravages are so great oc- 
 casionally upon our corn crops. 
 
 E. sputator. Spring beetle. The 
 larva or wire-worm of this is particularly 
 destructive to the lettuce and carrot. 
 
 The following general description of 
 the click beetles and their larva?, is 
 given by Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, in the 
 Farmers' Encyclopedia : — 
 
 "Click beetles are readily known by 
 having the sternum produced behind in 
 a strong spine fitted to enter a groove 
 in the abdomen, situated between the 
 intermediate pair of legs. By bringing 
 these parts suddenly into contact, the 
 insects are enabled to spring to some 
 height into the air, and thus recover 
 their natural position when they happen 
 to fall on their backs, which they fre- 
 quently do when dropping from plants 
 to the ground. A special provision of 
 this kind is rendered necessary in con- 
 sequence of the shortness and weakness 
 of their legs. 
 
 "The wire -worms have a long, 
 slender, and cylindrical body, covered 
 by a hard crust, which has obtained for 
 them the above name. They are com- 
 posed of twelve segments, fitting closely 
 to each other; and are provided with 
 six conical scaly feet, placed in pairs on 
 the three segments next the head. The 
 latter is furnished with short antennae 
 palpi, and two strong mandibles or 
 jaws. 
 
 '< To remove the wire-worm from a 
 soil, no mode is known but frequently 
 digging it and picking them out, as their 
 yellow colour renders them easily de- 
 tected. To prevent their attack upon a 
 crop, mix a little spirit of tar, or a larger 
 quantity of gas lime, with the soil. It 
 has been stated that growing white 
 mustard drives them away, and it is 
 certainly worth the trial. To entrap 
 them, and tempt them away from a crop 
 they have attacked, bury potatoes in the 
 soil near the crop ; and if each potato 
 has a stick thrust through it, this serves 
 as a handle by which it may be taken 
 up, and the wire worms which have 
 penetrated it be destroyed. To decoy 
 them from beds of anemones, ranuncu- 
 luses, &c, it is said to be a successful 
 plan to grow round the beds an edging 
 of daisies, for the roots of which they 
 have a decided preference. 
 
 " If a crop be attacked, as the pansy 
 or carnation, our only resource is to 
 bury in the soil other vegetable matters, 
 
 of which they are fonder than they are 
 of the roots of those flowers. Potatoes, 
 with a string tied round them to mark 
 where they are, and to facilitate their 
 being taken out of the soil in which 
 they are buried ; and carrots similarly 
 thrust into the earth where the wire- 
 worm is ravaging, are successful lures. 
 The vermin prefers these, buries itself 
 in them, and may be easily removed. 
 The roots of the white mustard also are 
 said to drive the wire-worm away from 
 the soil on which it is grown." — Brit. 
 Farm. Mag. 
 
 Mr. Glenny says, " that Mr. May, 
 nurseryman, Tottenham, plants the 
 common daisy round his principal beds, 
 finding the wire-worm prefer it to the 
 carrot." — Gard. Gazette. 
 
 And Mr. Oram, Edmonton, says "that 
 the double daisy is employed by one of 
 his friends, who, in one summer, from 
 a row of daisies three hundred feet 
 long, has taken 2,000 wire-worms." — 
 Gard. Chron. 
 
 WISE MEN'S BANANA TREE. 
 Musa Sapientum, 
 
 WISTARIA. Two species. Hardy 
 deciduous climbers. Layers, and also 
 cuttings. Light rich soil. W. sinensis 
 requires the shelter of a wall, and to be 
 pruned about the beginning of March ; 
 cut the leading shoots about half-way 
 back, and spur the others in rather short. 
 
 WITCH HAZEL. Hamamelis. 
 
 WITHERINGIA. Seven species. 
 Stove and green-house evergreen shrubs 
 and herbaceous perennials. W. pur- 
 purea is tuberous rooted ; W.phyllantha t 
 a green-house annual. Cuttings or 
 seeds. Light rich soil. 
 
 WITSENIA. Three species. Green- 
 house herbaceous perennials. Offsets 
 or seeds. Sandy peat. 
 
 WOLF'S BANE. Aconitum lupu- 
 linum. 
 
 WOOD ASHES. See Ashes. 
 
 WOODBINE. Caprifolium Pericly- 
 menum. 
 
 WOOD LEOPARD MOTH. See 
 Bombyx. 
 
 WOODLICE. See Oniscus. 
 
 WOODROOF. Asperula. 
 
 WOOD SORREL. Oxalis. 
 
 WOOLLEN RAGS. See Animal 
 Matters. 
 
 WORKING is a gardener's term for 
 the practice of grafting. " To work'* 
 upon a stock is to graft or bud it. 
 
 WORMS are beneficial in all the 
 
WOR 
 
 634 
 
 — ♦ — 
 
 XIP 
 
 compartments of the garden, acting as 
 a kind of underdrainers, by their bur- 
 rowings. To keep them from coming 
 near the surface of lawns, it may be 
 sprinkled with salt at the rate of five 
 bushels per acre, three times a year, in 
 spring, summer, and autumn. The 
 most speedy destruction is brought upon 
 them by dissolving two ounces of corro- 
 sive sublimate in every forty gallons of 
 water, and applying this profusely on 
 the grass infested. The worms come 
 to the surface and may be destroyed by 
 thousands. The sublimate is a virulent 
 poison. Lime-water always must be an 
 uncertain application, because even if 
 the lime be fresh from the kiln, there is 
 never any certainty of its being per- 
 fectly calcined, and every particle 
 which remains combined with carbonic 
 acid, is still chalk, and insoluble. The 
 strength of lime water is consequently 
 never uniform. 
 
 Worms should not be allowed to re- 
 main in garden pots, for they puddle 
 the soil in so confined a space. 
 
 WORMIA dentata. Stove evergreen 
 tree. Ripe cuttings, with the leaves on. 
 Light loam, or loam and peat. 
 
 WORMWOODS. Artemisia. These 
 are perennial rooted bitter aromatics, 
 and cultivated solely for medicinal pur- 
 poses. Common wormwood (Artemisia 
 absinthium) ; Sea-wormwood (A. mari- 
 tima) ; Roman wormwood (^4. Pontica) ; 
 Santonicum, or Tartarian wormwood 
 (A. Santonica). 
 
 Soil. — The soil best suited to them is 
 one that is dry, light, and poor, other- 
 wise they grow luxuriantly, and are de- 
 fective in their medicinal qualities, as 
 well as in their power to withstand the 
 rigour of the winter. Any situation will 
 suit the common and sea wormwoods, 
 that is open and unconfined, but the 
 exotic species require to be sheltered 
 from the severe aspects. In a severe 
 winter, the Tartarian can only be pre- 
 served under a frame. The sea worm- 
 wood seldom flourishes, from the want 
 of a genial soil ; the application of salt 
 would undoubtedly be beneficial. 
 
 Propagation. — They are all propa- 
 gated by seed, as well as slips and cut- 
 tings, the first of which may be sown in 
 March or April ; and the latter planted 
 during June, July, and beginning of 
 August. The seed is sown thinly broad- 
 cast ; and when the plants arrive at a 
 height of two or three inches, are weed- 
 
 ed and thinned to six inches asunder ; 
 and those taken away pricked at a like 
 distance ; water being given if the wea- 
 ther is at all dry. The slips and cut- 
 tings are planted in a shady border, 
 about eight inches apart, and water 
 given regularly every evening until they 
 have taken root. 
 
 The only cultivation required is to 
 clear away the decayed stalks in au- 
 tumn, and to keep them constantly clear 
 of weeds by frequent hoeings. To 
 obtain seed no further care is required 
 than to gather the stems as they ripen 
 in autumn. The Roman seldom per- 
 fects its seed. 
 
 WOUNDWORT. Anthyllis vulnera- 
 ria. 
 
 WOUNDS. See Extravasated Sap. 
 
 WRIGHTIA. Four species. Stove 
 evergreen trees and shrubs. Cuttings. 
 Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 WULFENIA carinthiaca. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennial. Division or 
 seeds. Light rich soil. 
 
 WURMBEA. Four species. Green- 
 house and half-hardy bulbous peren- 
 nials. Offsets. Sandy peat and loam. 
 
 WYCH ELM. Vlmus montana. 
 
 XANTHORIZA apiifolia. Hardy 
 evergreen shrub. Suckers. Common 
 soil. 
 
 XANTHORRH^EA. Six species. 
 Green-house evergreen shrubs, or herb- 
 aceous perennials. Offsets. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 XANTHOSIA rotundifolia. Green- 
 house evergreen shrub. Cuttings or 
 seeds. Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 XANTHOXYLUM. Fourteen spe- 
 cies. Stove and green-house evergreen 
 and hardy deciduous trees and shrubs. 
 Ripe cuttings. Common soil. 
 
 XERANTHEMUM. Three species. 
 Hardy annuals. Seeds. Light rich soil. 
 
 XEROPHYLLUM. Four species. 
 Hardy herbaceous perennials. Division 
 or seeds. Peaty soil. 
 
 XIMENESIA. Five species. Hardy 
 annuals and biennials, and green-house 
 herbaceous perennials. Seeds. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 XIMENIA. Two species. Stove 
 evergreen trees. Cuttings. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 XIPHIDIUM. Two species. Stove 
 herbaceous perennials. Division. Loam, 
 peat, and sand. 
 
 XIPHOPTERIS. Two species. One 
 a stove, the other a green-house peren- 
 
XYL 
 
 635 
 
 — • — 
 
 Z YG 
 
 nial. Division or seeds. Loam and 
 peat. 
 
 XYLOMELUM pyriforme. Green- 
 house evergreen tree. Ripe cuttings. 
 Loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 XYLOPHYLLA. Eleven species. 
 Stove evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. 
 Loam and peat. 
 
 XYLOPIA. Three species. Stove 
 evergreen shrubs. Ripe cuttings. Loam 
 and peat. 
 
 YELLOW SULTAN. Centaurea sua- 
 veolens. 
 
 YELLOW-TAILED MOTH. See 
 Bombyx. 
 
 YEW TREE. Taxus. 
 
 YUCCA. Adam's Needle. Thirteen 
 species. Hardy, stove, and green-house 
 evergreen shrubs, and a few hardy herb- 
 aceous perennials. Y.pendula, a vari- 
 ety of Y. aloifolia, is a hardy deciduous 
 tree. Suckers. Light rich soil. 
 
 ** Cut the flower-stem off Yucca glori- 
 osa directly it has done flowering, and 
 take away all the suckers, except two 
 or three of the strongest. Then remove 
 a little of the soil round the bottom of 
 the plant, and replace it with a dressing 
 of equal parts of sandy loam and cow- 
 dung." — Gard. Chron. 
 
 ZAMIA. Twenty-one species. Stove 
 or green-house herbaceous perennials. 
 Suckers. Light sandy soil. 
 
 ZEBRA PLANT. Calathea zebrina. 
 
 ZEPHYR ANTHES. Eleven species. 
 Green-house and half-hardy bulbous pe- 
 rennials, and a few hardy and half-hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Offsets. Turfy 
 loam, peat, and sand. 
 
 ZEXMENIA tagetiflora. Half-hardy 
 herbaceous perennial. Seeds. Com- 
 mon soil. 
 
 ZICHYA. Three species. Green- 
 house evergreen twiners. Young cut- 
 tings. Sandy loam and peat. 
 
 ZIERIA. Ten species. Green-house 
 evergreen shrubs. Young cuttings. San- 
 dy loam and peat. 
 
 ZIGADENUS. Five species. Hardy 
 herbaceous perennials. Division or 
 seeds. Peaty moist soil. 
 
 ZILLA. Two species. Half-hardy 
 evergreen shrubs. Cuttings. Light rich 
 soil. 
 
 ZINZIBER. Ginger. Thirteen spe- 
 cies. Stove herbaceous perennials, 
 except Z. iniega, which belongs to the 
 green-house. Division. Loam, peat, 
 and sand. 
 
 ZINNIA. Eight species. Hardy an- 
 nuals. Seeds. Rich mould, or common 
 soil. 
 
 ZIZIA. Three species. Hardy herb- 
 aceous perennials. Division or seeds. 
 Moist soil. 
 
 ZIZIPHORA. Seven species. Hardy 
 annuals, Z. acinoides a hardy deciduous 
 trailer, and the others half-hardy ever- 
 green shrubs. The latter increase by 
 cuttings, the former by seeds. Common 
 soil. 
 
 ZIZYPHUS. Lotus. Fourteen spe- 
 cies. Stove, green-house, hardy, and 
 half-hardy evergreen, and a few hardy 
 deciduous shrubs. The stove and green- 
 house kinds increase by ripe cuttings, 
 and succeed in loam, peat, and sand ; 
 the hardy kinds by ripe cuttings or lay- 
 ers, and require a rich soil. 
 
 ZORNIA. Seven species. Stove an- 
 nuals and green-house herbaceous pe- 
 rennials. Seeds. Peat and loam. 
 
 ZYGOPETALUM. Six species. Stove 
 orchids. Division. Peat and potsherds. 
 
 ZYGOPHYLLUM. Thirteen species. 
 Green-house and stove evergreen shrubs. 
 Cuttings. Loam, peat, and sand. Z. 
 prostratum is a trailer ; Z. simplex, a 
 half hardy annual ; and Z.fabago is in- 
 creased by seeds only. 
 
 THE END. 
 

HM 
 
 In 
 
 lIHr 
 
 HIlHffl, 
 lIMmft 
 
 liHiP 
 
 flH r 
 hep 
 
 Hi 
 
 UP 
 

 
 IREGON 
 
 RULE 
 
 CO. 
 
 1 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
7 
 
 S 
 
 9 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 8