Lfl 251 B7 V2 ICopy 1 Ov' REPORT OF THE EXAMINATION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF BRIDGEPORT, CONNECTICUT CONDUCTED BY James H. Van Sickle it Issued by The Board of Education 1913 0, CNF i, SEP 28 1914 SPRINGFIELD, MASS., February 20, 1913. To the Special Committee on Investigation of the School System, Bridgeport, Conn. GENTLEMEN: — I have the honor to present herewith my report upon the condition and needs of the schools of your city. In making this investigation, I have been assisted in portions of the work as follows: In comparing the expenditures for schools in Bridgeport with those oi other cities, by Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, Director of the Division of Education, Russell Sage Foundation, New York City. In the study of the City Normal School, by Dr. Andrew W. Edson, Associate Superintendent of Schools, New York City. In the study of the High School situation, by Dr. Henry S. West, of the College for Teachers, University of Cincinnati, serving as a city assistant superintendent of schools, assigned to high school supervision. In the study of the work in history in the grades and the High School, by Mr. Wilbur F. Gordy, specialist in history, Hartford, Conn., formerly Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, Mass. In the study of industrial conditions, by Mr. Egbert E. MacNary, Supervisor of Manual Training and Principal of the Vocational School, Springfield, Mass. In the study of arithmetic work in the grades, by Mr. Edwin Hebden, Director of the Bureau of Statistics and Research, Depart- ment of Education, Baltimore, Md. In the study of language work in the grades, by Mr. Edward H. Webster, Head of the Department of English in the High School of Commerce, Springfield, Mass. Without the aid of these men, each of whom is an expert in his particular field, it would have been impossible for me, within the time available, to make sufficiently extended observations in all of the fields covered by this report to give warrant for the positive recommendations which I am now able to present for your considera- tion. I have, however, spent many days in your schools and have given personal attention to every phase of the school work here dis- cussed. Therefore, while making grateful acknowledgement of the indispensable aid which I have received from each of my assistants, I assume full responsibility for every portion of this report. In making my report, I desire to call your attention at the out- let to those findings and recommendations which seem to me of great- est importance. The subjects mentioned in section I are treated at greater length in the pages which follow, along with a number of others which have seemed to me worthy of consideration. Such a report as this must necessarily mention defects before it can propose remedies. If more space seems to be taken in setting forth the shortcomings of the school system than in commendatory observations it is not because of any lack of excellent features to commend. The schools are well-organized, considering the serious financial limitations under which they have been conducted. Much has been accomplished in the face of almost insurmountable ob- stacles, and a well-knit, coherent system exists which may be de- pended upon to respond to all reasonable demands, provided proper financial backing is given. When the rapid growth of the schools is considered, with their constant demands upon a too limited super- visory force for administrative adjustment and re-adjustment, it is not surprising that some matters of importance have lacked attention. Very truly yours, JAMES H. VAN SICKLE. I. PBELIMEVABY COMMENTS AND BECOMMENDATIONS. Expenditures. The expenditures for education in Bridgeport are low. When a growing city attempts, as Bridgeport has done, to meet all its needs for new school buildings out of the annual tax levy, other school needs are hound to suffer. Future generations may properly be al- lowed to share the cost of improvements as permanent as school- houses. Not enough schoolrooms are provided and they are not ade- quately supplied with textbooks and other teaching equipment. Sal- aries of teachers are not high enough and are not so regulated as to furnish adequate reward for superior service. A higher maximum salary, if awarded upon the basis of merit, and not merely length of service, would prove a good investment. The facilities which are furnished the superintendent for the oversight of the work in the growing system of schools for which he is held responsible are notably deficient. His office force should be increased and he should have additional assistance in the field. While there are things in the school system that must be criticized adversely, there are many other things that command approval. Many of the defects to which attention is called owe their existence to the limited appropriations upon which the schools have had to depend. Overcrowding breeds retardation and early elimination of pupils from school. Lack of sufficient clerical force in the superintendent's office makes it impossible to keep and utilize such records as are needed in studies looking toward improvement. There are far too many pupils in the lower grades in proportion to the whole number in school. This means that many are repeating grades. Too many leave school altogether before they have received more than a modicum of education. Bridgeport's rank is very low in these particulars. The city cannot afford to give such meagre training to its future citizens. Teaching and Supervision. The spirit of the teaching force is notably good. The teachers are co-operative, loyal to their supervising officers and faithful in following out directions. They are doing team work. All this makes for the good of the service. Teachers do not demand more of their pupils in the matter of obedience to properly constituted authority than they themselves are willing to exemplify in their own conduct. The demands of office routine have so encroached upon the time needed for professional supervision that it has not been possible to raise the work in all subjects to the level attained by those that are best taught. For instance, in the grades the classroom work in geography is good, while that in history is extremely poor. There is no reason to suppose that teachers who do well in geography would be unable to do equally well in history if there had been time to give that subject the same effective supervision that geography has evi- dently received. The discipline of the schools is good. The attitude of pupils to- ward their teachers is one of confidence and respect. At first glance the order in some schoolrooms seems rather too rigid, yet stern re- pression is not in evidence. The greatest strength in teaching, as observed in classroom after classroom, is plainly in drill rather than in reasoning. Here we see one disadvantage in limiting admission to the teaching force to local candidates trained in the City Normal School. There 'is too much sameness of method, too little variety in procedure. All have learned in the same school to do things in the same way. By employing some teachers trained elsewhere, the city would not necessarily secure individuals of great- er personal power; the advantage would lie rather in the discussions that would arise through the comparison of ways learned elsewhere with those employed by the locally trained teachers. Practically all of the teachers in Bridgeport have received their training in the local training school. No matter how good the ideals and practices of the school may be, there must be relatively few differences of opinion among its graduates leading to discussion, and as a conse- quence less thought must be put into the work than where teachers who have learned different ways, or who have worked out individual ways of doing things, are working side by side with the uniformly trained home product. Teachers but begin their training in the normal school; their after-training is equally important. Conditions most favorable for good after-training are those which force teach- ers away from mere routine and stimulate them to do their own thinking. Course of Study. As an outline of work, the course of study is ingenious in ar- rangement and convenient for reference. The outline of the require- ment of a grade in any given subject may be seen at a glance, and the statement of requirement is terse but not sufficiently definite un- less supplemented by explanatory matter. The outline has been re- duced to its lowest terms, and a syllabus of each subject, indicating more fully the ground to be covered and the ends to be sought in teaching should accompany the outline. The appendix to the course contains such a syllabus for grade III geography, together with sev- eral pages of suggestions on the teaching of arithmetic throughout the grades, and brief directions for teaching spelling. It is prob- able that similar directions for the teaching of the other subjects in the curriculum have been given in teachers' meetings, but if these were summed up for each subject in a printed syllabus, the effect would be more permanent and teachers new to the city would be- come more immediately effective. In several subjects the textbooks form the basis for the work, and certain pages in the book are assigned to certain grades. If the requirements for each grade were stated under subject headings, and teachers directed to teach given phases of the subject, rather than certain pages of a textbook, there would be greater incentive to re- search and supplementary study of other textbooks. In geography, grades V to VII, time might be saved if the sylla- bus were to make mention of the more important topics to be studied and to indicate the desirability of a more cursory study of unim- portant detail. In the review in geography outlined for grade VIII, this plan has been approximated and the relative importance of the study of the various countries is indicated by the time allotted to them. The division of the time allotted to a subject in 'the daily pro- gram between study and recitation seems admirable in theory, and its results so far as they were observed in practice call for com- mendation. Reading. As an exclusive method, the method of teaching beginning read- ing employed in the first grades of Bridgeport is not the best now available. The method employed in teaching children to read has a very direct bearing upon their future progress in the schools. During the first two or three years of a child's school life, proficiency in reading is the main requisite for promotion from grade to grade, and a pupil's progress throughout the school course is influenced largely by his power to read and interpret the books to which he has access. By means of the most approved modern methods, it is possible for five-year old children to learn to read in a surprisingly short period of time, and without apparent mental or nervous strain. They proceed naturally from the oral repetition of a familiar rhyme, poem, or story, to the recognition of the printed symbols in which it is told on blackboard or chart, and they thus become acquainted with many sentences and words that stand for familiar ideas. The printed se- lection is, therefore, not merely "a sequence of word sounds and word names" to them, but it "has a distinctive total sound appearance and meaning." In this case the early vocabulary is not limited by the necessity for using phonetic words, and in consequence a large percentage of first grade pupils are able by the middle of the first year in school to read with much pleasure to themselves the delight- ful illustrated story books that publishers are supplying. The work in phonics is not allowed to interfere with this early recognition of sentences and words, but is pursued as a separate study until needed by the children as a key to the multitude of unfamiliar words that they meet as they delve into school and library books. From the first, attention is centered upon the meaning of what is read, and the context serves as an aid to word recognition. Children are encouraged to read fluently, and to this end short phrases printed on slips of paper are read by pupils at a glance. Children do not begin to apply their knowledge of phonics until they tave acquired power to recognize separate words and phrases with considerable rapidity. ■ One of the most effective of the modern methods used in teach- ing children to read is thus briefly outlined because of the conviction that strong and intensive work in this subject during the first school year, supplemented by a generous supply of suitable and interesting reading matter, must tend to decrease retardation in the schools of any city. Geography. The work done in this subject deserves special commendation. It was during the geography hour that the wisely conceived plan of dividing the time between preparation and recitation was observed at greatest advantage. During the first half of the period, the chil- dren, with their books open before them, read and discussed with the teacher the lesson for the following day. There was no stiffness and formality about this exercise. In all the geography classes visited, there existed a very pleasant relation between teacher and pupils. The conditions for learning, except as to over-large classes, were at their best. After a pleasant, and in most cases, lively discussion of the lesson for the next day, books were closed and the recitation of the lesson learned the day before was taken up. In all of the principal subjects, this study-recitation plan is prescribed. Not the least of its benefits is the tendency to reduce home study to a min- imum. In locative geography, the aim is to have the children fix in their minds such a picture of the map that recitations can be made from the mental picture. Wall maps are often used, however, in this study of locations, and some excellent rapid competitive drill exercises were observed, each lasting about five minutes. Cause and effect elements in geography receive due attention, and the study of grand divisions is conducted in accordance with a carefully prepared outline. Arithmetic. The work in arithmetic is carefully planned and the teaching evi- dently effective. The emphasis is placed upon fundamentals, and ac- curacy in abstract work is strongly emphasized. The course of study also lays stress upon the intelligent solution of concrete problems. When one considers the examination results in this subject, as set forth in another part of this report, the question arises whether th < S5 O i— i H < £ Oh O fa pi h3 PQ < H < H S3 fa hi w o < Q < - fa ft < o fa fa & O o X o w fa o fa rt bO 2 V v o -5 >, £■" v- P. ifl O! O) t- O n o ■* ■* » «) lO lO 00 © 00 69- rt.CT>OCD^r , «#C0C0rt:CN!£-in r+io^OrtOiooocooocom COinOOOOt-CO©COOCO©00 -3" cT r-T in" 00" o cm co ao" © !> cT MCOHiOHOlHMlMIOlOto 69- coaoco>-*-*G>ini>cim" 69- i-H rt t-\ rH rt OliS001 w t»!ONs)lOt-» i-HC5!>CM"*©l©C5^t CD in m o 00 cq_ c* -*_ !>_ *tf 00^ i> 01 to" cj in 10" 'f O 00 n o" o ffl 00" 69- tOOOtDOJ'HlOOltBlloOriTf caratooKOricooi? 01 " OjtD^t-tO^ffliflcOriONo t-T in", o" ffl i> W C5 M CO* H H o" 69- CO ri ri H WWW H N OtONi-OffllfJiOCil'OfflcO oocot-t^^rH^t-oo^cot^ TtoomcococN!-*»n lO^COCO^HNi'tONHOl ■*£ ©" cb" o" 00" I> i>" 00" co" i-l t-* CO 69- i-l o'cfcTTiiro'eo'co -*"co"crin"o t— I t— C i-li-ii-fi-lr-li-lr-li-fCN! COCOCOt-00«*CX!o5rHt-CO»2 ■^ojcot-coioocoi-t-o 1 — > l-OlW^lflO^OOiO'OO'O co* 06" o" 04 -rt* c*? •** ^)" W CO ■** CO 00 00 00 o> OS O tH i-l CM M u • 05 CO! S -O •rt -S c a o a cs rt ic ' rt C O4 fi bo J iri J> § c « M " CJ 'C ? in ' rtQ-^ctfrtiHC^rt rt rt rt K rt CJ What the Schools Cost for One Child for One Tear. The amount that a community feels that it can afford to pay for the education of each school child each year is in some measure an index of its financial resources and in much larger measure an index of its estimate of the value of education. The amounts that different cities pay vary over a considerable range. In comparing these amounts for the twelve cities entering into this study, the total sum paid for school support during the year has been divided by the number of children in average attendance in all day schools. Average attend- ance has been chosen as a basis for these per capita computations because the figures expressing it are much more exact than are those for enrollment. Data for evening schools have been excluded for greater clearness and because their inclusion would have but slight effect on the results. The annual per capita costs of the schooling of the children in average attendance in the day schools of the twelve cities are shown in Table II and in graphic form in Diagram I. Table II. Annual per Capita Cost for Children in Average Attendance in the Day Schools of Twelve Cities. Spokane $49.37 Springfield 45.77 Tacoma 44.20 Salt Lake City 43.50 Dayton 42.58 Omaha 42.34 Camden 41.15 Grand Rapids 40.54 Cambridge 37.24 Lynn 33.99 New Haven 31.74 Bridgeport 26.81 15 •3 o o ■s CO 6 o h i 16 Spokane pays almost twice as much per child per year as Bridge- port. The annual per capita cost for the average of the other eleven cities excluding Bridgeport, is §41.13. If Bridgeport spent as much on the education of each child as does the average city, she would be forced to increase her per capita expenditure by more than 50 per cent. The added cost for each child would be over $14, while the added expense for the entire city would amount to nearly $200,000 per year. This added expenditure would not lift Bridgeport to a high rank among her sister cities but would merely carry her up as far as the average. The Amount and Quality of Teaching per Child. In general, two factors largely determine the amount and quality of teaching received by each child in attendance. These are first, the size of class, and second, the salary of the teacher. In many individual instances this rule does not hold, but in the long run instruction suffers in over-crowded classes, and low salaries secure poor teachers. The salaries of teachers and the sizes of classes should be studied in relation to each other because together they largely determine the value of the results secured. Table III and Diagram II give the figures for the 12 cities. Table III. Average Annual Salary and Average Number of Pupils per Teacher in Twelve Cities. City Salary Pupils Spokane $1000 31 Tacoma 958 33 Dayton 801 31 Grand Rapids ......... 800 30 Cambridge 792 33 Salt Lake City 777 30 Springfield 754 27 Omaha 744 30 Lynn 723 32 Camden 718 28 New Haven 690 34 Bridgeport 654 88 The figures presented by the table and diagram show that itt Spokane, at the head of the list, the average salary is $1000, while the average number of pupils per teacher is 31. This means that if teaching be measured in terms of money cost the average child gets $32 worth of teaching during the year. The corresponding figures for Bridgeport, at the foot of the list, show that the average child re- ceived $17 worth of teaching during the year, or little more than half as much as the Spokane child. For the eleven cities besides Bridgeport, the average teacher's salary is $796 and the average number of pupils 31, which means that in the average city each pupil 17 Qnn An/7 POO 70 10 30 M SPOKANE m TACO/VA 777%L 7J¥-m 713 1 7/81 690 ■{/va/r/uisc mjlakec/i m OMAHA VA7/V 7VEWUAVB \ V< WI8M hffWFZ- 'T 30 • ; l'i ■ : 1 ,_L'_'^_^ . :. l._ „; J ;_1 .'j :.':' J 30 , . SO : ' :]dt ■ ■ ■- ? ; f"- •-'■'■iw-^... — i - J -__L.^,l^,_'J-L-L^l^; "'■lM^J Diagram II.— Average Annual Salary and Average Number of Pupils Per Teacher in Twelve Cities. receives $26 worth of teaching each year. As lias been pointed out, such comparisons as these are not valid in individual instances but when applied to large groups of cases they throw light on the exist- ing conditions in a truly significant way. In the present instance they show in general terms that Bridgeport children get far cheaper teaching and much less of it than the children of the other cities. * The Amount Spent for Each Child -for Each School Purpose. The foregoing comparisons have shown that the average city spends each year more than half as much again as does Bridgeport for the education of each child. This does not mean that the Bridge- port expenditures fall' below those of the average city in just the same degree for each of the 12 main purposes for which the funds are spent. For some of these the Bridgeport child gets far less- than > the child of the average city, while for others the disproportion is not so great Just how much each city spends per child for each purpose is shown in Table IV. *Salary of teachers in elementary schools, B] ddgeport: Grade. Minimum Yearly increment. Maximum. I $500 $50 $800 II 500 50 750 III 500 50 750 IV 500 50 750 V . 550 50 800 VI 550 50 800 VII 550 50 800 VIII — — 850 The lowest salary paid to an assistant In the high school is $750, and the highest $1700. IS CO © t- OT o m tH « i- 01 m h o >*i()MfflH'dciNdweiri H O g- > •J 1? , "° £ O 4) -w F. ■ s " c rt O 1 aj s* co O o V light, power, janitors' supplies, etc. K o CO *iu W 3 fe K H ' Z *+-< '-.en O m OJ d> t— i » 3 £ Si a 03 ~ T3 CX co O fc~g a ft . > c M « C $ •- .2 Jj 13 ft o r^ a S 3 u 5 o. .a n a co 3 H m X E in O w cy o < in w D O « H J2 o ft H en « & ctj O ,3. "7! o H CO S M P a 01 8 H w °C "2 c *" — < p^ « « g o o X W < CO X in tu o « , w • in nil tn iu eu c V> ° ft & ii « SB CO ,H .J T3 3 rt in tn 2 rt S.hS8 2 1 O rt rt U5 CR "3 8 .g ° i M w in Hj T! « U mO5CO>nrH«'r0COT-IO500 W « H CO pj h H H M (l) H "0 N 05-M) "# CD C3 t-I O © o th eg «o co os oo t- t-NHOl^caW^t-iVOlO ^^IflMN^OOOffiiHOlr) NefjeiNMH^coesimMtji Oj J> rH •># tH O 00 ^ r-j I> ca to iri I> GX! CO 00 CO O I- o ^ CM CO CO *0 "^ O MCJSIWfflrtCOiMisNlSSI 00lOC0»'l> lo O)cfl^O)e!M Cfl'«WMo!5jnclfj' r J»O^CO-*cO ^ (M O rH oo J> o t-. "* « 2 ° M •* tH OJ C5 ~. * 00 15 lO tH 00 W- O5 COto T *|'*e0 ,H ."*C»r-l T *-* w- ci ca O .3 u J CO IS a cd h^,-igoomc/}UOQO;z; For comparative purposes the facts presented in Table IV become much, clearer when they are gathered together so as to show the relation between per capita expenditures for each purpose in the average city and in Bridgeport. This is done in Table V. Table V. Per Capita Expenditure for Each Purpose in the Average City and in Bridgeport. Average Bridge- Dift'er- Purpose City port ence Salaries of teachers ............... $25.88 $17.07 — $8.81 Salaries and expenses of principals 2.95 2.51 — .44 Wages of janitors & other employees 2.85 1.48 — ■ 1.37 Maintenance 2.28 1.51 — .77 Fuel ..... . 1.46 1.33 — .13 Stationery and supplies 1.39 .42 — .97 Board of Education office .85 .30 — .55 Textbooks 85 .50 — .35 Salaries and expenses of supervisors .73 .52 — .21 Water, light and power 73 .55 — .18 Superintendent's office 63 .33 — .30 Other expenses .53 .29 — .24 Total $41.13 $26.81 —$14.32 The facts of Table V are presented in graphic form in Diagram III. The circle in outline represents the total per capita expenditure in the average city. The 12 sectors into which the circle is divided are proportional in area to the amounts expended for each of the 12 main purposes for which the school funds are spent. The portion of the surface of each sector that is shaded represents the expendi- ture for that purpose in the Bridgeport schools. The diagram clearly shows that in some respects Bridgeport expenditures are not far be- low the standard, while in others' they are notably deficient. Most striking of all is the fact that in every one of the twelve items the Bridgeport expenditures are below the average standard. Unless the Bridgeport money is spent far more efficiently than is that of other cities, this means that the Bridgeport child does not get his fair share of any single sort of educational opportunity. How Much Bridgeport Spends for Every Dollar That the Average City Spends. In the long run, cities, like individuals, purchase about what they pay for, not much more and not much less. Since Bridgeport spends far less than the average city of her size for every purpose of educa- tional effort, there can be but little doubt that she is not only paying less, but purchasing less. The degree of these discrepancies between 20 Diagram III.— Surface of Circle Represents Total Per Capita Ex- penditure in the Average City. Sectors Are Proportional to Amount Spent for Each of the Twelve Main Purposes for Which Funds Are Expended. Shaded Portion Represents Expenditure in Bridgeport. Under Each Heading the First Figure Gives in Dollars and Cents the Amount Spent Per Child Per Year in the Average City and the Second Figure the Corresponding Amount for Bridgeport. 21 the expenditures of Bridgeport and those of her eleven sister cities may be better realized by discovering the amount she spends for each purpose for every dollar spent by the average city of similar size for the same purpose. This comparison has been made in Table VI and Diagram IV. In order to make the data comparable, they have been computed on the basis of the per capita expense for each child in average attendance in the day schools. Table VI.. Expenditure for Each Purpose by Bridgeport for Each ■' Dollar Spent by the Average City for That Purpose. :'"•;■' For each dollar the average Bridgeport Purpose city spends Fuel $1-00 Salaries and expenses of principals 1.00 Water, light, and power 1.00 Salaries and expenses of supervisors 1.00 Salaries of teachers 1.00 Maintenance 1.00 Text books 1.00 Superintendent's office 1.00 Wages of janitors and other employees 1.00 Stationery and supplies 1.00 Board of Education office 1.00 .22 All other purposes 1.00 .55 The facts of the table are illustrated in Diagram IV, which shows in graphic form the comparative amounts spent for each purpose by the average city and by Bridgeport. ' The Share of Each Citizen' in City Support and School Support. The comparisons so far made % refer to the per capita expenditures for each child in school. Further light may be thrown on the situa- tion by computing the per capita expenditures for each inhabitant of the city not only for school support but for all municipal purposes. These data are available from the report of the United States Census for 190.8 presenting statistics of .cities for that year. The population figures have been corrected by the data from the census of 1910. The comparison reveals the conditions presented in Table VII and Dia- gram V. 22 FOA FVF/RY DOLLAR T//AT THE AVf/?AG£ C/TV SPE/VDS FUEL - fg|£/ SALAP/ES OFPP/A/C/ PALS ( )£/ SA/ATEP.L/GHT; AA/D PO\NEA&'%$ / SALAP/ES QFSUPEftV/SOAS $ALA#/ES OF TEACH 'EAs MA /WTSA/A /VC £ <*&? /*'"^>.. TEXT BOOKS SUPEP/A/ TENDEN TS OPF/CE ppj| $ / WA(J£S OF J A A/ /TORS > ' -P STAT/OA/EPV ETC. SO A AD 0FE6UCA T/OM 0F/7C£m%Jk $ / AIL THER PUP P OSES */ BP/DGEPORT SPENDS | 9 /CENTS # BS IS w 7/ i s? 30 i ss Diagram IV.— Expenditure For Each Purpose By Bridgeport For Each Dollar Spent By the Average City For That Purpo&e. Table TIL Expenditures per Capita of Population for poses and For School Support. Data from Cities, United States Census, 1908. Per capita expenditure Cities for all city purposes Springfield $16.69 Cambridge 15.39 Dayton 13.61 Tacoma 13.51 Salt Lake City 13.27 Spokane 13.02 New Haven 12.92 Lynn 12.76 Omaha 12.29 Grand Rapids .. 12.21 Bridgeport 11.51 Camden 11.18 for All City Pur- Statistics of Per capita expenditure public schools $6.17 4.93 4.81 5.11 6.17 5.73 4.29 3.85 4.51 5.03 3.17 4.65 SPRINGFIELD CAMBRIDGE DAYTON TACOMA BALTLAKECITY SPOKANE NEW HAVEN LYNN OMAHA GRAND RAPIDS MtBGiPOM CAMDEN 6.11 6.11 ]V6.» ] /S.99 1 /3.6/ 1 13. SI 3/3.02. 3/2S2 [J/2..76 3 I2-3-9 1 lt.2.1 3 USt J 11-19 Diagram V. — Each Bar Represents Expenditure Per Inhabitant For All Municipal Purposes In That City In 1908. Black Portion Represents Expenditure Per Inhabitant For Public Schools. The results show that Bridgeport spends less per citizen for its community activities than does any other of the cities save Camden. For the support of its schools it spends not only less per inhabitant than does any other city, but very much less. How Each Thousand Dollars is Spent. The figures of the fundamental table show how much money is spent for each purpose in each city, but since the cities differ in size they are not directly comparable. In order to find out not how much is spent in each locality, but how it is spent, a computation has been made to reduce all the data to a single basis and show how each city spends each thousand dollars. The results are presented fn Table VIII. 24 u. o en o o X u 0) IX] X H 4J 4> o B « c ll V s d 3 o a '3 U u o o © o o o o o o o O O O O O O o © o o © o ■m OOOOOO©©©©©© O ,_|rHrHrHrHrHrHT-{rHY-lrHrH CMCOoO°0>0©©rH©COCO<3> rt-i »n i*» m rv> 1A t— rH CM O © 00 tfi Tj< rH CO* »^ tfi co m m © CO >rt OS *> •" ">* N . tH *". fc- th co ^h »» ei e© o w n to ■* w m £-. (S fl> oi CJ ri Ol (B J ■* "* © <» -* en eu en O 0. p < > III tn u] x H ft o u. en o rJ o Q Q 55 < en D O s H 53 O < UJ U. O ttl 05 D H <— i Q 2 ID 0. X UJ £^ S 9 ** >> ^> ^5 u o c (^ O* V 3 OJ a> a j3 t o, 3 ■+* t; X H .<= § W • - c .5 £ '3 cE co © t~' en © CO ,h ■* 6M ^ 00 ©. 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O © rH t- O f5 Tt< t- rH CO° © M irj rH eo © CM rH ^4 CO «2 CM CO rH ^ CM — rH I- rH © rfi •* •* CM rH ©' ■** CO rH ("M CM CO >. • CO G • JO ; • *o j_- D O. 1) h. 1) ! '43 4, c T3 K ■r c o .5 as a , 2ND 3RD 3/?0 7m 1 /S3/?D /E4-TN Diagram VII.— Rank of Bridgeport Among the 168 Towns and Cities of Connecticut in Each of Nine Educational Comparisons. 29 IV. DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS IN THE SCHOOLS. "The general tendency of American cities is to carry all of their children through the fifth grade, to take one-half of them to the eighth grade and one in ten through the high school." (Laggards in Our Schools, Ayres, p. 4.) This statement was made in 1909 at the close of the most comprehensive study of retardation that has yet been undertaken. In discussing the condition' of the schools of Bridgeport, it is proper to note how closely its results in respect to progress and survival tally with this general tendency. Bridgeport is an industrial city with an unusually large foreign- born population engaged in industries, most of which utilize un- skilled labor. It might be expected then that Bridgeport would fall somewhat below the average standard in the high school and per- haps also in the upper grammar grades, but since the common school course is conceived of as representing the least amount of schooling that should be permitted to anyone, we ought to expect even a city of this markedly industrial type to conform in the lower grades to the general tendency. The degree of conformity to this general tendency exemplified in the Bridgeport schools will be discussed in connection with statis- tical tables, the data for which were furnished by the School Department. We shall first treat year by year the membership of the class that constituted the first grade twelve years ago. TABLE 1. Class Membership Elementary and High School Grades Bridgeport Per cent of Year Grade Papils ' Beginners Beginners 1902 I 3241 *1727 100 1903 II 2022 117 1904 III 1827 106 1905 IV 1498 87 1906 V 1127 65 1907 VI 841 49 1908 VII 529 31 1909 VIII 460 27 1910 H. S. 1st yr. 308 18 1911 H; S. 2d yr. 249 14.4* 1912 H. S. 3d yr. 182 10.5 1913 H. S. 4th yr. 91 5.3 =t 'For method of estimating the number of beginners, see page 31. 30 At first glance this table would seem to show that only 460 pupils out of 3241, or 14% of the class of 1902, were carried to the eighth grade, and that less than one-half of the class remained in school after the third grade. But it must be remembered that the number of children in a first grade is never the number of beginners. A first grade is always made up of some children who entered this year, plus some who entered a year ago, plus some who entered two years ago or even earlier. The records do not show how many children entered school in 1902 as beginners, but their number may be estimated from the num- ber of beginners in 1912-13, which the records do show. Beginners, 1912-13, Bridgeport: April, 1912 Sept., 1912 1894 Feb., 1913 2508 If, on the basis of the recorded increase in population in ten years (43.7%), we consider 2508 to be 43.7% greater than the num- ber of beginners in 1902, we get 1640 as the number of beginners in 1902. If we proceed on the basis of the increase in total enrollment in ten years (Municipal Register 1912, page 586) or 39.4%, we get 1814 as the number of beginners in 1902. Averaging 1640 and 1814, we get 1727. The number of beginners in Bridgeport in 1902 could not have been far from 1727. Using this as a basal number repre- senting the number of beginners in 1902, we find that only 841 pupils, or 49 % of the class, progressed as far as the sixth grade. The strik- ing feature of this record is the congestion in the lower grades and the rapid elimination of pupils as we approach the upper grades. When the class of 1902 reaches the eighth grade, it numbers 460, or only 27% of its original membership, although it has had accessions in grades above the first hj reason of the rapidly increasing popu- lation. In the first high school year we find 308 pupils, most of whom, probably, were in the original class of 1902, but some of whom were later accessions. Their number is 18% of the original class. The fourth year high school class has retained 5.3% of the membership with which the original class started. Betardation. Pupils who have taken more than one-half year to reach grade I 2 , more than one year to reach grade II 1 and more than one and one-half years to reach grade II 2 are retarded. No school system i3 free from retardation. The amount of retardation in Bridgeport must, however, be pronounced excessive. To illustrate: According to the Progress and Age Study blanks returned under the direction of the School Department for September of the present scholastic year, grades I 2 , II 1 and II 2 were made up of children who had attended school as follows: 31 Grades I 2 IP II 2 % year 46 3 3 1 year 303 181 19 1% years 344 286 53 2 years 207 385 226 2% years 98 236 145 3 years 44 179 238 3% years 22 53 79 4 years 15 61 100 More than 4 years 16 74 81 1095 1448 944 Retardation by Age and Grade. The amount of retardation in all the elementary grades is shown in another way by the "age and grade" standard in the following table compiled from data furnished by the School Department. The standard commonly agreed upon rates as above normal age all chil- dren in the first grade who are eight years of age or older, those in the second grade who are nine years of age or older, and so on for each succeeding grade. TABLE 2. Distribution Ages Under 5 yrs 5 years 6 years 7 years 8 years 9 yesrs 10 years 11 years 12 years 13 years 14 years 15 years 16 years 17 years 18 years 1912. VII. Vlll. Totals 16 Totals 3911 2488 2172 2022 1405 958 713 Above normal age 655 921 1153 1207 861 518 281 Per cent, above normal age 16% 37 53 59% 61 54 39 404 14073 112 5708 27 40 32 Table 2 shows the ages of pupils at the beginning of the school year. Figures taken in September will show a lower percentage of retardation than will similar data gathered later in the school year. These numbers and percentages, therefore, are as favorable as any that the school records could yield. All below the broken line in the table are above normal age for the grades they are in. The number of over-age pupils in each grade is shown in a line below the table and in the next line these num- bers are reduced to a percentage basis. Out of a total of 14,073 pupils, 5707, or 40 % , of the whole number are above the normal age for their grades. It will be noted that there is a decided falling off in attendance after the fourth grade. In fact, the greatest loss occurs at this point. The fourth grade loses 617 pupils, while the fifth loses 447, the sixth 245 and the seventh 309. (The discrepancy between the number of children in first and second grade has been explained in connection with Table 1.) Since the fifth grade is 30% smaller than the fourth, it is evident that in Bridgeport the general tendency is not to carry all the chil- dren through the fifth grade, but only through the fourth grade. The records of the State Agent's ofhce show that children begin to drop out of school in the third grade. From September, 1911 to December, 1912, working certificates were given to 49 children in the third grade, 192 in fourth grade, and 564 in the fifth grade. In Ayres' study of retardation in 31 cities, 24 cities of the 31 show a lower proportion of their pupils above normal age for their grades than Bridgeport. Bridgeport's rank, if included in this table, would be 25. (Ayres, Laggards in Our Schools, p. 45). For purposes of comparison, the distribution of pupils by ages in the eight grades of the Grand Rapids, Michigan, schools, as found in the annual report for 1911, is here given. The two separate tables, one representing boys and the other girls, have here been combined in one table. Grand Rapids has been chosen for comparison because it is an industrial city of composite population, not much larger than Bridgeport, — not because of any noteworthy record of pupil progress. In fact, its rank in this respect in the Ayres table of 31 cities would be 22, only three points above Bridgeport; but its pupils are better distributed through the grades. 33 TABLE 3. Grand Rapids, Michigan. Distribution of Pupils by Ages and Grades, September, 1910. A g es I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Vlll. Totals 5 years 43 1 44 6 years 813 45 1 859 7 years 800 616 57 2 1475 8 years 27T 685 440 52 1451 9 years 50 ""HF 656 272 36 3 1329 10 years 20 108 "~33T" 570 314 26 1 1373 11 years ...... 11 21 134 361 452 175 35 1 1190 12 years 3 5 50 184 364 345 183 39 1173 13 years 5 18 72 170 336 360 224 1185 14 years 1 5 29 116 236 329 280 996 15 years 1 3 13 38 107 189 295 646 16 years 1 2 11 36 61 123 234 17 years ...... 3 3 24 30 18 years ...... 66 Totals 2014 1800 1699 1557 1501 1267 1161 992 11991 Above normal age 358 453 545 661 669 718 582 448 4464 Per cent, above normal age 17.7 30 32 42 46 57 50 45 37 Comparing the percentages representing the children who are over-age for their grades in the two cities, we have the following: Grade I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Vlll. Totals Bridgeport 16.5 37 53 59.5 61 54 39 27 40 Grand Rapids . . . 17.7 30 32 42 46 57 50 45 37 The fact that strikes one's attention here is the higher percentage of over-age children in Bridgeport through the fifth grade and the higher percentage in Grand Rapids after the fifth grade. The explanation is obvious. There are more repeaters in Bridge- port than in Grand Rapids, and there is also greater elimination. The over-age pupils have dropped out of school. Grand Rapids has carried pupils to the eighth grade, 45 % of whom are above the standard age for the grade, and this is creditable. In Grand Rapids 28.5% of all pupils enrolled in the elementary schools are in grades VI, VII and VIII; in Bridgeport 14.7%. In Grand Rapids 31.6% of all pupils in grades I to V are retarded; in Bridge- port, 40%. Over-age pupils are found in all grades in all school systems. We judge the standing of a school system in the matter of progress and survival (1) by the proportion of its pupils who are not over- age in 'the grades in which the compulsory attendance laws are oper- ative, and (2) by the proportion of its pupils that it holds in school 34 after the law allows them to leave. Thus measured, the standing of Grand Rapids is by no means high, but that of Bridgeport must be pronounced decidedly low. To meet the moderate standard set by Grand Rapids, Bridgeport should have 4011 pupils in grades VI to VIII (28.5% of 14,073), whereas we find only 2075, too few by 1936. By the Grand Rapids standard, Bridgeport should have only 3791 over-age pupils in grades I to V (31.6% of 11,998), whereas it has 4797, too many by 1006. Analysis of Fifth Grade Enrollment. The "age and grade" table for judging retardation needs to be supplemented by one showing the time in school as well as age and grade, for in Tables 2 and 3 children who enter late and have made regular progress appear as retarded along with those who have been held back to repeat one or more grades. The fifth grade has been selected for analysis. It is in this grade that retardation culminates at 61%. Two tables .are shown. One table represents the pupils in grade V 1 , the other those in grade V 2 . Age and Time in School, Grade V 1 , Bridgeport, September, 1912. AGES. Years in Sch'l 5 6 1 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Total % 1 iy 2 1 1 2 2V 2 3 2 3 6 2 1 1 15 3y 2 2 3 5 10 4 20 27 17 28 56 5 69 4y 2 8 1 28 68 10 1 1 76 5 40 12 1 178 5y 2 1 22 33 22 9 1 88 6 2 65 57 27 3 154 ey 2 25 41 16 4 1 87 7 .7 53 37 15 3 115 7y 2 14 22 7 2 45 8 1 28 13 5 47 8y 2 3 7 10 9 3 10 4 17 9y 2 10 1 2 3 io y 2 n 238 Total 2 35 156 244 159 63 18 915 35 This table shows that in September there were 915 children in the V 1 grade in Bridgeport. By referring to the top row of figures, it will be seen that these children varied in age from 8 to 15 years, and reference to the first column shows that they had been in school from 1V 2 to 10 years. According to the commonly accepted standard, the age of 11 years is the normal age for children of t'he fifth grade; and thus, by drawing through the table two heavy vertical lines, we divide the figures into three groups, leaving on the left all the children below normal age, and on the right those above normal age. When the figures of the three groups are added, we have the following re- sults: Below normal age, 193 Normal age, 238 Above normal age, 484 In a similar way, divisions into progress groups are made by drawing two heavy horizontal lines between which should be includ- ed children who have been in school four years and have just begun the fifth grade, thus making normal progress. But to err on the side of over fairness, we assume 4% years in school to be normal for beginning the V 1 grade and 5 years for beginning the V 2 grade, thus allowing V 2 year for good measure. Those remaining above the lines ihave made rapid progress, while those below have made slow progress. Adding the figures for these groups we have the following: Rapid progress 95 Normal progress, • ... 76 Slow progress 744 We have noted that 484 pupils are over-age and that 744 have made slow progress, but we see that the terms "slow" and "over-age" will not invariably refer to the same pupils. Some of the over-age pupils are not slow and some slow pupils are not over-age. We find 94 pupils who are young but slow, and 8 who are over-age but rapid, and other combinations between. If we add the figures in each di- vision we have a new table in which the 915 children are distributed by age and progress groups as follows: Youag Normal Over-age Total Rapid ............ 63 24 8 95 Normal 36 28 12 76 Slow 94 186 464 744 Total 193 238 484 915 36 Age and Time in School, Grade V 2 , Bridgeport. September. 1912. AGES. Years in Sch'l 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Total y 2 i 1% 2 2y 2 3 i ?. 2 3i/2 4 3 3 3 i 3 7 4% 2 1 4 18. 2 34 _ 21 32 3 1 ■» 13 5 15 .1 69 5% 6 13 3 22 34 16 23 1 3 73 95 6y 2 10 27 30 2 1 70 7 18 28 7 1 54 7% 8 17 4 20 16 6 8 3 1 1 47 29 sy 2 9 6 7 9 13 9 9% 10 1 2 1 1 3 2 10% 11 11% 12 ^05 1 1 Total 3 41 143 141 45 9 3 490 Treating this table as we treated trie table for grade V 1 , we have rmal Over-age Total 28 8 25 34 16 69 63 317 396 the following: Young Rapid 9 Normal 19 Slow 16 Total 44 105 341 490 Combining the figures for grades V 1 and V 2 we have the following: Age and Progress Groups, Fifth Grade. Young Normal Over-age Total Rapid 72 32 16 120 Normal 55 62 28 145 Slow 110 249 781 1140 Total 237 343 825 1405 37 Reducing the numbers in the above table to a percentage basis, we have the following: Per cent Per cent Per cent Young Normal Over-age Total Per cent, rapid 5 2 1 8 Per cent, normal 4 4 2 10 Per cent, slow 8 18 56 82 . Total 17 2i 59 100 This is not a good showing. It cannot be expected, of course, that all children in a grade will make normal progress, but there should be a closer correspondence between the number who are young and have made rapid progress and the number who are over-age and have made slow progress, the two extremes in the table. These num- bers are 72 and 781. The ratio is 1 to 11. Comparison with 31 Other Cities. Some of the causes contributing to this condition will be pointed out later. At this point it is desirable to show by comparison that the percentages yielded by the Bridgeport table are unusual. Many more children are leaving school in Bridgeport without receiving a toler- able minimum of education than in 29 cities studied by the Division of Education of the Russell Sage Foundation in 1911. The following table shows the result of that study in percentages as published in the American School Board Journal for December, 1911. School Children by Young, Normal, and Old, and by Rapid, Normal, and Slow Groups. Average Conditions for 29 Cities. Per cent Per cent Per cent Young Normal Over-age Total Per cent, rapid 6 3 2 11 Per cent, normal 21 21 10 52 Per cent, slow 2 10 25 37 Total 29 34 37 100 It will be noted that in these 29 cities the percentage represent- ing the children who are young and have made rapid progress is related to that representing those who are old for the grade and have made slow progress as 1 to 4, while in the Bridgeport table the ratio is 1 to 11. In the table for the 29 cities, it will be noted fur- ther that there is better balance between the percentages whether we compare them horizontally or vertically. For instance, the per- centage of those old for the grade (37) is nearly balanced by the per- centage of those who are young for the grade (29). In the Bridge- port table the corresponding numbers are 59 and 17. 38 It is clear that according to generally accepted standards too few children in the elementary grades of Bridgeport are making rapid or even normal progress, and that far too many are making such slow progress that they arrive at the age when they may legally receive the working certificate before they have reached the fifth grade. Causes of Excessive Eetardation. Some of the causes of this unfavorable condition are obvious: (1) The schoolrooms are overcrowded. According to the month- ly report for February. 50 or more pupils are in attendance in each of 33 rooms, and from 45 to 49 in each of 150 rooms. No teacher can do justice to her pupils under such conditions. The maximum number of pupils per teacher should be 42. The best work cannot be done when the number in the class exceeds 35. Thirty-two additional classrooms would be needed to reduce the present attendance to 42 pupils per room, not counting rooms needed for special classes and industrial work. (2) There are no special classes for foreign born children, whose chief need at first is to learn the English language. (3) There are no special classes for retarded children, and only one for the feeble-minded. Scattered through the lower grades, a few in each room, they learn little and they impede the progress of normal children. (4) Though the state law permits school boards to fix a school grade which the pupils must pass before they can receive the working certificate, no such action has been taken in Bridgeport. During the fifteen months ending last December, 1356 children in grades II to VI, all of the retarded class and over fourteen years of age, left school to go to work. (5) The course of study in arithmetic makes heavier demands upon the pupils in the first three grades than is now customary in most school systems. Doing so much in arithmetic in the lower grades is not essential to securing the high rank in fundamentals which Bridgeport has attained in the upper grades. (6) The phonetic method by which all beginners are taught to read fails to appeal to the natural interests of children and makes too great a demand upon their feeble power to deal with abstractions. Children make much more rapid progress in learning to read, and attain no less independence in reading, by methods which involve less sheer drudgery. This method as used makes learning to read so difficult that only the very brightest children can meet the first grade requirement in a year. (7) The requirement in formal grammar in all grades below the seventh is too heavy. Such definitions and grammatical forms as are called for in grades I to V, inclusive, have little or no value as 39 training in the use of language in speaking and writing. Grade VT is 'the first in which formal grammar should begin, and it would be better to defer it till the seventh grade is reached. (8) It is questionable whether examinations should play so im- portant a part in the promotion of pupils as they appear to do in Bridgeport. When examinations are used primarily as teaching exer- cises, and secondarily as a check upon varying judgments of teachers, they need not be retarding influences. Perhaps all principals in Bridgeport so use them, but unless the official circulars are inter- preted more liberally than their language warrants, the examination system an use must be responsible for a large share of the retarda- tion which is so conspicuous in the schools. V. PROPOSED CHANGES IN ORGANIZATION. In the seventh and eighth grades the enrollment is relatively small. We find in them only 1117 pupils out of a total of 14073 (see table 2, p. 32). In several schools the classes in these grades are so small that for the sake of economy they must occupy the same room. Results under such an arrangement must be unsatisfactory. Recommendations. Reorganize the elementary grades so that grades I-VI shall con- stitute a unit and grades VII-VIII a unit. In the two-year unit formed by grades VII-VIII, provide for differentiation of work in ac- cordance with the needs of different groups of pupils and particu- larly in the interest of pupils destined to leave school at the end of the eighth grade. Through grades VII and VIII offer four distinct lines of instruction: (1) academic; (2) commercial; (3) industrial; (4) domestic. And in the academic course provide foreign language study (Latin and Ger- man or French), this particularly for pupils destined to go to college. Have the seventh and eighth grade instruction conducted on a carefully arranged departmental plan, collecting all the seventh and eighth grade classes into certain buildings conveniently located about the city; but in any one such center not all four of the differentiated courses need be offered, consideration being given to the character of the neighborhood in selecting the courses to be offered. Transfer seventh and eighth grade classes from the Clinton Ave- nue School to the building now used as the High School, thus giving added facilities to the City Normal School in the Clinton Avenue building. Transfer other seventh and eighth grade classes now in the smaller outlying schools to the old high school building to the limit of accommodations. Distance should not be an objection, since the .proposal anticipates the inevitable transfer by only two years and offers opportunities greatly superior to any that can be provided in scattered outlying schools. Reorganize the four high school grades so that there shall be certain coherently planned two-year courses alongside the four-year courses. For several specific recommendations along this line, see the section on the Program of Studies. Grammar Grade Differentiation. Not only educational principles, but also certain obvious facts suggest that in the upper grades there should be differentiation of instruction to meet the varying needs of different groups of children. The traditional uniform academic course (with perhaps some little time given to manual training or domestic science) which still pre- vails in many cities is an arrangement good enough for pupils who are to have a long period of schooling; but much more profitable courses can be offered for pupils whom economic impulse will force into productive work at a comparatively early age. The latter class of pupils are now leaving school at various points from the fourth or fifth grade on, and often just as soon as they reach the legal limit of compulsory schooling. They quit school because of the attraction of wages, it is true, but chieflly because they have natural inclina- tions that lead away from the bookish interests of pupils destined ultimately to enter the professions; and such unliterary pupils would remain in school longer and receive more adequate training for good citizenship and efficient social service, if the school offered, alongside the academic work, parallel courses of industrial, commercial, and domestic instruction. Into the latter lines of activity many pupils will eventually go, and they will prove much more reliable and con- tented employees if they have received instruction enlightening them in the importance and dignity of callings other than the so-called professions, and if they have been given an introductory training pre- paring them for the rapid acquisition of skill when they enter par- ticular lines of business or definite trades. The foregoing considerations lead to the recommendation for a differentiation of school work at the beginning of the seventh grade. Boys and girls certain to go into the high school (and in a number of cases even to college) would continue to pursue through the sev- enth and eighth grades the present academic studies with the added privilege, entirely optional, however, of beginning a foreign language at the age, twelve to fourteen years, when the drill incident to lan- guage acquisition is most acceptably undertaken. Pupils, on the other hand, destined to begin work toward self-support at an early age, either in business or in the industrial field, would find in the pro- posed seventh and eighth grade industrial courses just the sort of instruction and training most interesting to them and most profitable for the future life work to which they are to devote themselves. More- over, the industrial instruction and practice here proposed can be developed along either or both of two lines: (1) the prevocational course to awaken interest in industrial pursuits and disclose the natural bent of the pupil; (2) specific trade training courses for those in whose cases decision has been made for this or that leading trade of the community. And finally, the proposed domestic course for seventh and eighth grade classes will afford to many girls the only opportunity they will ever have for systematic instruction to- ward becoming in the future the efficient home-makers that every community so sorely needs. 41 Departmental Instruction. Differentiation of instruction in the upper grades naturally sug- gests departmental teaching, because no single teacher can be ex- pected to teach the whole range of subjects included in the group of parallel differentiated courses. Departmental teaching is the plan common in high schools, where several teachers co-operate in the instruction of a group of classes by having the classes pass from teacher to teacher, receiving from each teacher instruction in only a single subject or in but two or three related subjects. This plan of teaching is to be recommended for grammar grade classes, at any rate for the seventh and eighth grades, whether or not differentiated courses are offered. It is true that departmental teaching in the ele- mentary school has dangers (.for example, the overworking of pu- pils), that must be guarded against; but any competent principal with intelligent assistants frequently conferring together can avoid the possible disadvantages of departmental instruction and secure all the real advantages of the plan. Of these advantages (frequently set forth in educational litera- ture) the following may be here enumerated: better teaching; bet- ter equipment; enriched curriculum; promotion by subject; improved physical conditions for pupils; interest and stimulus of several teach- ers instead of one only; college graduates in grammar grade posi- tions; transition to high school attitude and methods. Xo argument, is needed to establish the fact that a teacher can become more expert in her teaching when she has to prepare upon only one subject or a few related subjects, and these subjects a^&o in the line of her special interests, than when she must prepare upon the whole round of subjects now taught in the seventh and eighth grades of any progressive school system. Similarly, it is a great ad- vantage to the pupil to be taken on from grade to grade in a given subject by the same teacher, an expert in the particular subjec\ Again, no argument is needed to show that a given outlay to pur- chase equipment for, say, geography instruction, will go much farther when applied in the fitting up of a single room, the geography teach- er's room, than when divided up among several rooms to give each of several teachers a share of the equipment for her geography les- sons. Better teaching and better equipment inevitably bring about an enriched curriculum; for each of the teachers., in learning more and more about her chosen subject and in accumulating more and more equipment, will step by step develop the more important phases of her work and give less attention to or even discard entirely the less important phases; and, moreover, every study in the course, be- ing in the hands of a sort of specialist, will receive its due share of time and attention, and will be taught so as to stir interest and pro- duce truly educative effects. On the other hand, when a pupil has difficulty with any subject, the departmental plan, in affording a medium for promotion by subject, makes it an easy matter to advance this pupil in everything he has been successful with, while at the 42 same time holding him back for review upon the subject only in which he has failed. Pupils also enjoy improved physical conditions under the departmental plan in getting the relief, activity, and va- riety afforded by moving from room to room as the periods of the day roll by. And many a pupil who finds school irksome and mo- notonous, or even repellent under the one-teacher plan (especially with a teacher not in Group A of the superintendent's efficiency roll), will develop a new interest and pleasure in his work under the stim- ulus of several teachers co-operating in departmental organization. It is just the departmental organization, moreover, that will bring into the grammar grades scholarly and enthusiastic college graduates, for college graduates entering the school service have quite as lively an interest in seventh and eighth grade children as in high school pupils; but the task of teaching the whole work of a grade, including subjects quite outside the teacher's special inter- ests, is not attractive to one who has gone to college for the express purpose of getting superior knowledge and training in the two or three selected subjects that the candidate wants to teach. Finally, and as a consequence of all the foregoing, departmental instruction in grammar grades is an admirable device for mediating the transition from the elementary school to the high school, be- cause under this plan pupils are introduced gradually to high school methods and assume quite easily the high school attitude; and al- though this consideration may be said to apply only to the pupils who go on to the high schools, it is nevertheless an important factor both in determining how many will thus prolong their schooling be- yond the eighth grade and also in unifying the whole school system of a city. Bridgeport, it is believed, would experience every one of these educationally beneficial effects from the introduction and judicious management of departmental teaching in the seventh and eighth grades. YI. THE CITY NORMAL SCHOOL. The city training school for teachers is in Public School build- ing Xo. 3, located on Clinton Avenue, near State Street. The build- ing was erected in 1890. In this building and in a portable building in the rear yard is an elementary school of fifteen classes of all grades through the eighth year. The normal department has forty-nine students, twenty-one seniors and twenty-eight juniors. The students who are not teach- ing in the elementary school, recite and study in one room. In this room are the text-books, reference books, library books, and practic- ally all of the apparatus and illustrative material used in the normal department. Teaching Force. The teaching force consists of a principal and five critics or super- visors. The principal is a graduate of the Bridgewater, Mass., State Nor- mal School, has studied one year at Radcliffe College, and has taken extension courses at Clark University, Yale University, and Colum- bia University. She was a teacher and principal in various schools in Massachusetts and Connecticut for fourteen years; assistant super- intendent in Worcester, Mass., three years, and has been principal of the Bridgeport City Normal School for fourteen years. One of the critics is a college graduate. This one and three others are graduates of the Bridgeport High School and had taught for a number of years in Bridgeport before appointment to the Normal School faculty. The other critic is a graduate of the Lowrie Kindergarten Training Institute, Jersey City, and of the New Paltz (N. Y.) Normal School. She taught in schools in New York and New Jersey, eleven years, and has been critic in the Bridgeport Normal School four and one- half years. All have broadened their experience by taking extension work or attending one or more University Summer sessions. The assignment of work to the teaching force is as follows: The principal supervises the work of the entire building, attends to all of its administrative features, and teaches school management and prin- ciples of education in the theory department, three periods per week in the first term, four periods the second term, and three periods the third term. The critic teachers, "supervisors," both give the theory and direct the practice. Also each critic (except one) has two or three rooms in charge with four or six students at practice. Here there is too much to be done; the conditions render adequate supervision of each student's practice simply impossible, on the other hand it is impos- sible to conduct the theory instruction in the best way. Consequently the pupils in the classrooms are not being properly cared for, and the normal students are not receiving as high grade training as the city should provide. There should be a liberal addition to the teach- ing force if the normal faculty are to be responsible both for normal instruction and for the progress of the children in so many classes; or the building should be allowed additional regular teachers for some of the rooms which need not thereby cease to be practice rooms for part of each day. With such heavy assignments to the normal instructors and with no study rooms and no library, the teaching is largely by teachers' lectures based on outline notes. Hence much of the students' theory work cannot amount to more than note-taking practically at dictation and cramming the contents of the note books. 44 The special supervisors of music, drawing, writing.' and physical training in the city schools instruct the normal students one period per week. Entrance Bequirenients. Candidates for entrance to the City Normal School must be resi- dents of Bridgeport and must be graduates of the Bridgeport High School, or must have completed a course of study considered equiva- lent, or must pass a satisfactory examination. Graduates of the Bridgeport High School are accepted from either the English or College Preparatory Course. The courses differ considerably. The English Course provides a review of grammar, geography and arithmetic, two periods per week for one semester of the senior year for those planning to attend the City Normal School. A definite standard of scholarship in these elementary school subjects is not insisted upon if students have points to their credit in other high school subjects. Several students have been graduated from the high school and thereby admitted to the City Normal School, although they did nol do satisfactory work in their review of the elementary school sub- jects dn high school. The College Preparatory course does not offer a re- view of the elementary school subjects. Of those at present in attend- ance at the City Normal School, two juniors and four seniors are graduates of the College Preparatory Course. Every candidate must present evidence of good health, and must possess good moral character. The physical examination is not defi- nitely outlined. No city medical examiner is employed. The family physician, or any physician, gives such an examination as he sees fit, in order to be able to sign the following certificate: "I have this day given Miss ■ a medical exam- ination and find her in good health with no tendencies toward weak- ness or disease that should interfere with her pursuit of the Course of Study and Practice in the City Normal School for teachers or of the vocation of teaching. " — ■ M. D." No further physical examination is given before appointment to the teaching force. There is no prescribed limit to the number of candidates admitted. 45 Course of Study. Juniors — 1st Term— -14 weeks— -Theory all day 2nd Term- —14 weeks- —Theory A. M. 14 weeks- -Practice P. M. 3rd Term- - 9 weeks- -Theory all day Seniors — 1st Term— -14 weeks— -Practice all day 2nd Term- —14 weeks- —Practice A. M. 14 weeks- -Theory P. M. 3rd Term- — 9 weeks- —Practice all day Division of Theory Work. Forty Junior Yeai minute periods Hour periods 1st Term Principles of Education, Equivalent 55 38 Methods of Recitation, " 40 27 School Mechanics, " 20 13 14 wks. Phonics, " 70 47 " Nature Study, " 50 33 Arithmetic, " 70 47 Geography, cc 70 47 Music, " 20 13 Drawing, " 20 13 Writing, " 20 13 Physical Training, 20 455 13 304 (A. M.) 2nd Term Principles of Education, tt 35 23 Methods of Recitation, " 20 13 Psychology, II 20 13 14 wks. Reading, II 40 27 << Arithmetic, II 20 13 English, II 40 27 Music, II 20 13 Drawing, II 20 13 Writing, not common. There was practically no evidence that the pupils had read anything whatever outside of their textbook. There were, however, so far as could be observed, almost no books in the school for the children to read, even if they had been expected to do so. This condition of affairs is to be deeply regretted, for in order to do effective work, books to supplement the text should always be at hand. By such a method as has just been outlined, the children are memorizing the paragraphs and pages of a book, but they are not studying history as the embodiment and interpretation of human life. Recommendations. All the foregoing points to a few definite recommendations. In the first place, more time should be devoted to history teach- ing in the first six grades. In the second place, the methods of teaching should! be so modified as to make history a vital force in the education of the pupil. History should be made a humanizing factor in enlarging the intellectual and moral outlook of the learner and in leading him to understand more or less clearly his opportunities, privil- eges and responsibilities as a citizen in a democracy like ours. But in order to make history a vital force in any school system, it is absolutely necessary that there should be in daily use something more than a single textbook. Even the scholarly and sympathetic teacher cannot secure satisfactory results without having at hand suitable tools and good material. It is just as important for the history department to have good equipment, whether in the grades or in the high school, as it is that the science teacher should have a well equipped laboratory. Maps, charts, objects and pictures must be made use of, or else the teaching is likely to be mechanical and 80 barren. The school authorities in Bridgeport could not easily make a better investment than by spending a considerable sum of money in supplying the teachers of history, especially in grades VII and VIII and in the 'high school, with the tools that would enable them to teach much more effectively than they can under present conditions. In the third place, the course of study in history should be made more definite and concrete. It is not enough to mention a few books, or even to prescribe them for reading and study. Definite work should be outlined and required from the third grade to the high school. Course of Study. As a minimum, the following may be suggested: In the first two grades the children should get some impressions of primitive life — which may be gained largely through simple oral work about the American Indians — and some appreciation of the meaning of a few of our public holidays. In the third grade some- thing should be done in a definite way to give the children pictures of historical scenes and persons in different ages, with the emphasis upon those great leaders who have played a conspicuous part in American history. In grades IV, V and VI, some definite knowledge should be gained of the leading events and of the leading representa- tive men in our national history. The whole period of American history should at least be touched upon before the end of the sixth grade, for it is important to remember that this is a pivotal grade, because in a manufacturing city like Bridgeport, it ends the school life of perhaps a half of the boys and girls. In grades VII and VIII a strong effort should be made to give the pupils a good understanding of what our history means and of the meaning of good citizenship. In view of the complex conditions of social and political life today, it seems unwise and unfair alike to the individual and to the community at large to do less than this. But even more is demanded if we are to have that high grade of intelligent citizenship that is fundamental to the best interests of our national life. Enough work in general history should be done to make clear, though in a very simple way, how American life had its beginnings and how from its very first stages it was closely related to the life and thought of the European world. By the use of such a plan, American boys and girls can be given a much more intelligent conception of the meaning of our national life than they can acquire if they are taught that American history began with the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492. If the pupils of grade VI get intelligent impressions of the great fact that American life has all along been identified with the life of the world, they will be more likely to have a realizing sense of the meaning of present conditions and problems in our life as a people 81 -and of the relation of the individual as a citizen and a man to the community in meeting and solving such conditions and problems. If history is taught with this aim in mind, it will be given the prom- inent place in the school curriculum which its importance justifies. In the high school, history is accorded a place of prominence, especially in the English course, where Greek and Roman history are required in the Freshman year, Mediaeval and Modern history in the Sophomore, English history in the Junior, and United States history in the Senior year. Much of the history teaching in the high school was good, and some of it was very effective. An excellent lesson was observed in a Senior class which was studying American history. The pupils in the class were required to keep in notebooks, which were handed in once a week, a report of from ten to fifteen pages of reading in some good authority. This work was done with evident intelligence and discrimination; and the same may be said of the use which the class was making of the outline maps. X. ENGLISH. "Language and thought are inseparable. Words without thoughts are dead sounds; thoughts without words are nothing * * * The word is thought incarnate." This quotation from Professor Max Muller suggests two very diverse ways of teaching language. The teacher may emphasize the vital qualities of oral and written expres- sion in such a manner that his pupils will feel that words are alive, and capable of expressing very clearly and forcibly every thought and emotion they experience ; or he may divorce language and thought to such an extent that children will fail to grasp any practical con- nection between the language work of the school and their own methods of self-expression. The teacher following the first method will use grammar, punctuation, phonics, spelling, and penmanship merely as a means to an end, thus unifying all language work; the teacher following the second method will use each as an end in itself, thus making language a complex subject of diversified parts and therefore difficult of mastery. The first method is thoroughly modern and vitalizes all language study; the second, timeworn and deadening in its ineffectiveness. "The Course of Study and Directions" for .the teachers of Bridge- port divides the study of English into two parts, Language and Com- position. In the work for the elementary school (grades I — V) punctuation and technical grammar are discussed under the head of Language; talking, letter writing, sentence and paragraph struc- ture under Composition; while spelling, phonics, and penmanship are given separate places in the program of studies. Thus there 82 ie little unity in this teaching scheme, and if the teachers follow the daily program required of everyone in the system, they have little opportunity to unify the work for themselves. The directions for the teaching of technical grammar through the fourth grade, the grade from which the children in any noticeable degree begin to leave school, are both simple and practical. The oral and written use of the various parts of the common irregular verbs and the possessive case of nouns and all cases of pronouns is the complete requirement. This should give the teachers ample time in which to drill upon a few of the most difficult forms of English expression. The real effectiveness of this work, however, lies in its constant application to every day speech. It is not to be found in the reciting of definitions and the giving of mere illustrations of rules, which is the present interpretation of the course by the majority of the Bridgeport teachers. The composition course for the first four years is as follows: Grade I 1 Talking. Grade I 2 Sentences about things, events, or subjects. Words given as a basis. Oral story telling. Grade II 1 Write sentences about pictures and from story. Oral story telling. Grade II 2 Narratives of sentences. Write short story. Grade III 1 Combine sentences. Sentence arrangement. Grade III 2 Stories from suggested expressions. Grade IV 1 Letter writing. Paragraph. Reproductions. Grade IV 2 Related parts of sentences. Character sketches. The teaching of elementary composition is thus dismissed with the most general directions. "Talking" is about as indefinite a direc- tion as could be imagined. The purpose, the subject matter, the method are left to the teachers and principals to determine largely for themselves. If these directions were later to be interpreted by a competent supervisor of elementary work, through model lessons in the class room and by teachers' meetings, some uniformity of effort might be expected. But since this careful supervision is lack- ing, there must be uncertainty many times on the part of teachers in following such general directions and, as a result, a constant over- lapping of effort. Whether the directions in many cases refer to oral or written composition, it is difficult to determine. The course as it stands, however, suggests that comparatively little time is given to oral composition, i. e., training in larger units than the sentence. This, indeed, is unfortunate when it is recalled how much oftener the children speak than write. Daily practice in oral composition would not only of itself be of immeasurable value to the pupils but it would aid them, to a marked degree, in all efforts at writing. Grade IV 1 seems to be illogically arranged. Work in reproduction is easier than letter-writing, and very naturally prepares the way for a study of the paragraph. A better order would be — reproduction, paragraph study, letter-writing. 83 The directions for the teaching of spelling in the first four grades are admirable. Teachers are advised to work with this subject daily and in all lessons. Thus spelling is closely correlated with all forms of self-expression, regardless of the subject matter. And if the spirit of the directions is adhered to, the words are not isolated but studied in relation to the context. If a study of punctuation can ever be separated profitably from composition, the course for Grades I-V should produce results. The lessons advised for the various years seem to correlate naturally with the subject of composition. For instance, teachers are directed in Grade IV 1 to teach letter writing, paragraph structure, and reproduc- tion. In this same year, they are asked to give lessons in punctuat- ing an explanatory modifier, and a phrase out of order. Better far, however, would 'it be to give the same injunction here as in the course for spelling — "Daily from all lessons." The discussion of the course up to this point has not taken into consideration the fact that many of the children of Bridgeport are of foreign parentage and hence hear no English spoken at home. The work as outlined thus far has been general and practical enough so as not to hamper any teacher who is dealing with immigrants or the children of immigrants. When it comes to the subject of read- ing, however, the case is different. All schools should not be re- quired in these primary grades to read the same books. Schools like the Longfellow, in which 97% of the enrollment is made up of Hungarians, should be allowed to use texts especially made to meet their particular problems. Several series have been prepared with the idea of teaching English "by using it in the class-room." The lessons in these texts are so arranged that "the pupil's whole atten- tion should be given to correct pronunciation; he will infer the rules of grammar." And the authors of one series maintain further, "if the pupil always talks and writes grammatically there will be no need of learning rules." The use of such specially prepared texts, furthermore, would be of great service to the teacher of foreign born children who have been partially educated in the old country. Children of this class are taught to read English largely by the phonetic method. It is not at all an uncommon experience to find these children glibly calling words of whose meaning they have no understanding. A close union of language and thought in such classes would open up a new world to these strangers. This could be effected by using special texts and making the language work objective. These chil- dren at present are concerned more in acquiring a knowledge of arithmetic than in learning a new tongue. Their securing a working certificate depends upon their ability to use fractions, not upon their ability to use English. If they can read and write in any tongue, the present requirements of the State law and the Board of Education are satisfied. The Board should, therefore, since it has the power, make the completion of, at first, the fifth and, later, the sixth grade 84 the minimum requirement for a working certificate, and should also, during this period of change, make sure that these children receive particular training in English by means of specially prepared texts and at the hands of teachers vitally interested in solving the immigrant problem. Thas far an attempt has been made to estimate in a broad way the efficiency of the course offered in English in the elementary grades. Before passing to the language work of the "grammar school" it might be well to consider briefly what the purpose of such work should be. Probably one of the best ways to discover this is to compare the grammar school teaching in language a generation ago with that of today. The emphasis according to the old ideal was placed upon the study of technical grammar, hence the name ".gram- mar" school. A child's power to express himself clearly and forcibly was determined largely by his ability to parse, conjugate, or to analyze isolated sentences composed by others. Occasionally, he was asked to write a composition. This he did blindly, imitating, no doubt, some story he had read in his reader. When he recited in his- tory or geography, he answered the teacher's questions, aiming as nearly as possible to express himself in the language of the text. Rarely, if ever, he considered these subjects from any other stand- point than the mastery of facts. He learned his spelling mainly from the spelling book and the words he found there he spelled orally or in long lists. Punctuation, if acquired at all, he .learned through the memorizing of rules. The old grammar school ideal was, broadly speaking, a knowledge of facts. But today in the most advanced school systems, the child is trained according to a very different ideal. He learns technical grammar and he analyzes as of old, but he does these things that he may know how to eradicate faults in his com- positions. In some school systems this correlating of technical grammar with composition is so close that the errors the child makes determine largely the technical grammar he is to study. In other words, he is tested in a knowledge of grammar by his ability to write and speak correctly. He expresses himself daily in email units at his seat or at the board. These compositions are criticised by the pupils and teachers and form the basis of the next day's work in language drill. When he recites in geography or history, he talks from outlines, aiming to give a connected talk upon some division of the subject under discussion. He learns to spell from lists of words selected from his various lessons, from words mis- spelled in his own compositions, and from spellers which group troublesome words under rules or root stems. He is trained to choose in- telligently the punctuation marks that will best suit his own definite purpose. He reads many readers and in the last years of his course he studies several masterpieces suited to his own enjoyment and his unconscious imitation. Thus his daily training is entirely directed toward one common end — a clear, forceful, and easy expression of his own or another's thoughts. The course of study in English of the Bridgeport grammar grades suggests at present, a commingling of these two ideals. Technical grammar as a distinct study is rigidly insisted upon. Promotion from grade to grade depends in many cases upon the pupil's knowledge of definitions, his ability to conjugate, parse, and analyze. Punctua- tion is considered as an independent study to be finished by the end of the fifth grade with reviews through the eighth. Spelling is taught from a book 'throughout the four years with the injunction that there be "One lesson each week made from other lessons." Instruction in composition, both written and oral, is given, but, as a subject, it is not considered as important as grammar. This is shown by the fact that it is assigned less time than technical gram- mar;* it does not affect materially the promotion of a child; and, after the fifth grade, it may be taught largely as the principal and teachers of a school see fit. Reading is required for half an hour daily in all grammar grades. In grades seven and eight, the classics suggested for study are, for the greater part, those which should interest the child and aid him in the development of his mode of expression. To determine the effectiveness of the foregoing course of study, two examinations were given, one in the sixth g^rade (VI 2 ) ; the other in the eighth. The former was to test the efficiency of the work midway between the point of greatest elimination of students and the end of the course; the latter to judge the work of those who had had advantages of the complete course. In both of these examinations, each pupil was asked to write an original composition, 1 and a reproduction. 2 1 In the sixth grade, he was asked to write upon one of the fol- lowing subjects: Stalled in a snow storm A rainy day at camp Making a snow fort Why I am a scout A circus parade Caught in a thunder storm Feeding the monkeys In the eighth grade, upon one of the following subjects: Locked out! An exciting bicycle ride Dead broke! The study I like best An April fool joke The games I like best Main street on election night A narrow escape from drowning A daring feat An encounter with an angry dog An interesting vaudeville act A winter evening at home Lost in the woods An amusing occurrence at school My room after a hurried dressing How to make a fire at camp 2 In the sixth, he was required to reproduce Calvin C. Colton''., "A Leap for Life." In the eighth, he was required to reproduce an adaptation of Washington Irving's "The Adventure of My Aunt." * Grammar is given iy 2 hours a week; composition, only 1 hour. The work of examining the sixth grade papers was entrusted to two English teachers, one a teacher of the grades, the other with both graded and high school experience. The eighth grade papers were criticised by a committee composed of the two teachers that had had charge of the sixth grade work, with the addition of another teacher of the grades, and two more high school English teachers. The same plan virtually was carried out in the exam- ination of the two grades of work. On the first day, the commit- tee worked together, in order to secure a uniform standard of criticism. It was decided that all papers should be judged from two points of view — originality of expression, and mechanical cor- rectness. With this standard as a guide, the papers of a school were read with the idea of securing general impressions of the work of a class, rather than of individuals. To effect this plan, the compositions, while being read, were classified in five groups: In the first were the "exceptional" or A papers; in the second, the "strong" or B papers; in the third, the "average" or C papers; in the fourth, the "weak" or D papers; and in the fifth the "impossible" or E papers. Compositions placed in the fourth and fifth groups showed that the students had little or no power of self-expression. In comparing the following results, it should constantly be borne in mind that the sixth grade, as far as Bridgeport is con- cerned, represents a more normal condition of what might be ex- pected of public school training than the eighth. The former grade, broadly speaking, includes nearly every class of children that might hope to receive an efficient, practical training in English; the latter grade, a limited class, as it will be seen by reference to Table 2, (Distribution of Pupils by Ages and Grades) that there is loss of over fifty per cent in enrollment in the eighth, as compared with the sixth grade. The eighth grade pupils have had, moreover, the advan- tage of fairly prosperous surroundings, and a two-years' study of classics, easy of imitation. Another fact should be remembered: as there are no eighth grade classes in the Longfellow and Walters- ville schools, where the majority of the foreign children are trained, the results of these schools are not included in the estimate of the work of the higher grade. This, very naturally, gives another ad- vantage to the eighth grade results. A tabulated report of the results of the examinations follows. The figures refer to the combined re- sults of the original compositions and reproductions. Tables 1 and 2 give the general results of this examination. Both original compositions and reproductions are included in each table. 87 Results of the Examination in English. TABLE 1 Sixth Grade Classification A or exceptional papers B or strong papers C or average papers D or weak papers E or impossible papers Total Eighth Grade Classification A or exceptional papers B or strong papers C or average papers D or weak papers E or impossible papers Number Percentage of the Whole 15 2.8 96 18.2 225 42.7 140 26.6 51 9.6 527 99.9 TABLE 2 Number Percentage of the whole 26 4. 197 30.2 315 48.2 95 14.5 19 • 2.9 Total 652 99.8 Connecting the facts shown in these tables with the discussion of the relative emphasis placed upon the teaching of technical gram- mar as compared with composition, it is apparent that the present course is not producing satisfactory results. Taking first the figures of the table for the sixth grade, it is to be noted that over forty per cent, display only average ability, while over thirty-three and a third per cent, 'have failed to secure any practical results whatsoever. When it is realized that over fifty per cent, of the children never reach the eighth grade, that thirty and one-half per cent, leave at the end of the fourth grade, and thirty-one and eight-tenths per cent, at the end of the fifth, these figures become startling. A consideration of them, moreover, in their immediate bearing upon the examination shows that over one-third of these sixth grade children knew so little about the ordinary principles of composition that their papers were considered below a passing grade. In reviewing the causes of these failures, the sixth grade papers will still be considered and, later, those of the eighth. An illogical arrangement of sentences (the frequent cause of poor paragraph structure) was the determining factor in the failure of 127 papers; weak sentence structure, of 117 papers; no knowledge of punctuation, of 38; and poor spelling, of 31. What do these figures show? The study of technical grammar s'hould, if it has any value at all, accomplish two things at least: — it should aid the students in the construction of their sentences, and should develop their logical faculty. Inasmuch as the greatest causes of failure in this grade were due to an inability to construct coher- ent sentences and arrange sentence units, it is evident that the con- stant drill upon the technical side of language has not produced 88 practical results for a large proportion of the pupils. The figures in punctuation, moreover, do not reveal the exact condition of affairs, as no papers were given a failing grade on the sole ground of lack of knowledge in 'this subject. The work in punctuation throughout the sixth grade was exceedingly weak. Spelling, how- ever, except on the part of foreigners, showed considerable strength. The papers as a whole were neat, but the ink, in many cases, was so thin that the examining committee had difficulty in reading the papers. It is easy to foresee the inevitable effect this will have upon the eyesight of the children if better ink is not supplied. Turning now to the subject of the general organization of ma- terial, the sixth grade papers indicated a very meagre training in reproducing the thoughts of others. As has been said elsewhere, this power can be gained in the geography, history, and science les- sons, as well as in the composition classes. That it should be culti- vated there can be no doubt. Reproduction work is of great assist- ance in training children to determine the relative value of ideas. It should give them judgment in deciding what is of importance, and what is not. It should aid them naturally, in an unconscious form- ing of their own power of self-expression, and, finally, it should be of great assistance dn enlarging their vocabularies. The sixth grade papers showed that the children had had little training in this kind of composition work, for insignificant details were given the same importance as leading ideas. Moreover, the poem in many instances, was reproduced in a peculiar kind of prose which showed that the children were trying to reproduce the story in the poetic form of the original. The following table will show how much greater was the percentage of failures in reproduction work than in the writing of original compositions: TABLE 3 Sixth Grade Original Compositions Classification of mark. Number Percentage A 8 3.0 B 59 22.4 C 136 51.7 D 43 16.3 E 17 6.4 Total 263 Eeproductions 99.8 Classification of mark. Number Percentage A 7 2.6 B 37 14.0 C 89 33.8 D 97 36.7 E 34 12.8 Total 264 89 99.9 In the original work, the sixth grade children displayed consid- erable skill in story-telling. The subjects assigned were such as might naturally be expected to interest them. The exercise was given to test their powers of imagination, of observation, and of rea- soning. Such an exercise should reveal, furthermore, their ability to plan, (I. e., power to select and arrange material with a given pur- pose in mind;) their individuality of expression and the extent of their vocabularies. The papers proved that the children had a good sense of the value of words. In many instances words and expres- sion were selected, exceptionally well suited to express the ideas the pupils had in mind. In writing upon subjects like "A circus parade" or "Caught in a thunder storm" the compositions showed spon- taneity and individuality. At the same time, however, many of these original narratives revealed a poor sense of proportion, and little ability to keep to one subject. The pupils had written apparently without outlining their stories ahead of time. Planning is a neces- sary preparation for all thought work and, if the pupils are ever to be trained to speak and write correctly, this essential form of com- position study must always precede every oral and written exercise. • The results of the eighth grade examinations can be considered in a more general manner inasmuch as they affect, at present, the teaching of such a small percentage of the total school enrollment. By examining Table 1 again, it is seen that about two-sixths are doing strong or exceptional work, about three-sixths average or pass- ing work and one-sixth weak or impossible work. Many of the weak- nesses characteristic of the sixth grade work are apparently cor- rected by the time the children reach the eighth grade. The sen- tence structure is good, and the relating of sentences into fairly-well constructed paragraphs is rather remarkable for children of this age. The spelling, considering the amount of time given to the subject, 1 is not as good in this grade as might be expected. The children spelled the words dictated- to them better than those they used in their own compositions. But the real value of the study of spelling lies, it must be remembered, not in an ability to spell isolated words, but in an ability to spell words as they are needed to express related ideas. Punctuation here, as in the sixth grade, is very faulty. The children, judging from the directions given in the Course of Study, may know the rules, but, if they do, they rarely, if ever, apply them. Leaving this technical side of composition work for a considera- tion of the manner of telling both the original stories and the repro- ductions, it is worthy of note that the students felt a keen interest ■in the subjects assigned. This interest is often manifested by the original and spontaneous way the children express themselves. In such compositions — and they are generally the original stories — 1 It should be remembered that spelling has been taught for 15 minutes each day, for five days in a week, throughout the course. 2 Fifty words were dictated, as a part of the examination. 90 -r.^anical difficulties seem to droj am ay '. 1. : free -: E If in an HBeonseic-.is manner Ba: geaaexal :r- ganiza*.;:n :f are a parent as in the stsjii Table 4 "*ri : _:>::"::-- 777- :ll: ::; writing : : •: Dngfna] eoi Zon. 3 D 7 IAELI 4 Eig-iith Grade Original Compositions - 11 ::: Si :. .: A B C 1 ■ ductions - : 7 ; ial 71 . : Irving . by no meant QC end :; ::: 77- 7_ . - . e :: h^t Qie ; and :: _ .7e tale, as . ■ :__; Easy : : aa _r_: a 1 i masm 1 eafeefci '--.'. : jmpletelj Hie origin; E J S I ■ .-:;;:.- . a e ins ". ... "." ' ". • _ ■ id ::~.i reproduction sawi angina] eon I - . 1 .-..". • : : - nes to Ik made Exmeias work ._ as .1 Dot B»ly esadieaie - ; 1 aa and ~— -. laek : _----- as in it 2 of ie- Bc "■" i" -. - . :: ■ .. • : : : 1- : E " : :Z :.... . already Deing k b. . a Boaae Bridgeport Bcfeot 7: one Ed| a twi :t::.^- a week are regt s . ral • :ns ^ere Bhown Noi ^ Bangle papei in Sie sagas ■ "- -. • • . n CB£ ( - : : 1 1 grade 1 See note ;^e^ 33 To sum up the work of the lower grades (Grades I-V) in language: Findings : 1. "Language" is divided into a study of "capitals and marks" and "technical forms." Each is considered as a separate study. The work in punctuation is that which is usually found in elementary schools. 2. The course of study for teaching composition is very general and indefinite. It includes both oral and written expression with emphasis upon the latter. 3. Spelling is emphasized both as a separate subject and in cor- relation with all written work. 4. Reading is taught in a uniform manner throughout the sys- tem. The same texts are used in the schools composed of foreigners as in those attended by Americans. The method of teaching reading in all schools is, for the greater part, based upon a knowledge and use of phonetics. Objective leaching is thus neglected. 5. No requirement in reading and writing English is made of children desiring working certificates. Recommendations. (Grades I-V) 1. Unify all teaching with English as a basis. Consider spelling, punctuation, grammar, and penmanship not as subjects per se but as aids to all written and oral expression. Teach geography, history, physiology, and nature work ("General Lessons") as a foundation for the expression of the thoughts and observations of the children. To do this, make all of this elementary work objective. 2. Emphasize oral composition. Train the children, especially In the science lessons, to talk in paragraph units. This is easy of accomplishment if the children work directly with the objects they are studying. Use this oral work as an immediate preparation for written composition. Have the children write daily at the board. Employ for this work pupil and teacher criticism of a constructive kind. 3. Give language lessons preparatory to reading. Depend less upon phonetics and more upon connecting the printed text with the thought to be conveyed by the reader. 4. To secure recommendations 1, 2, and 3, revise the course of study, making it definite and yet flexible. Appoint, as has been sug- gested elsewhere, a supervisor to assist the Superintendent. This supervisor, on account of her expert training, could give model les- sons in composition in the various class rooms and she could also conduct teachers' meetings for the purpose of interpreting the course, discussing methods and assisting the teachers generally in keeping the work up to a high standard of efficiency. 92 5. Have teachers expressly trained for teaching foreigners, in charge of the classes in the Waltersville and Longfellow schools. Use in these schools, texts specially prepared for foreigners. 6. The Board of Education, since it has the power, should make the completion of at first, the fifth and, later, the sixth grade, the minimum requirement for a working certificate. During this period of change, it should make sure that children partially trained in the old country should receive particular training in English by means of specially prepared texts and at the hands of teachers interested in solving the immigrant problem. To sum up the work of the grammar grades, in language: Findings : 1. Technical grammar is rigidly insisted upon. In Bridgeport, this means a knowledge of definitions and the ability to conjugate, parse, and analyze. A pupil's proficiency in this respect determines his promotion from grade to grade so far as his language work is concerned. The method of teaching used, and the results obtained show that grammar is not taught as a means of self-expression. See Tables 1 and 2. 2. Punctuation is considered an independent study, to be finished by the end of the fifth grade, with reviews through the eighth. The papers show that the pupils have little, if any, working knowledge of this subject. 3. Spelling is taught four days in a week, throughout the course, from a book. This work is supplemented by one lesson each week made from other lessons. 4. Reading is taught daily, and, in the seventh and eighth grades, classics suited to children and easy of imitation are studied. 5. Composition, both oral and written, is taught, but is not given the same amount of emphasis as is technical grammar. Composition is given a half-hour twice a week; technical grammar, the same length of time, three times a week. After the fifth grade, composition may be taught as the principals and teachers see fit. The results of the composition test show: A. In the sixth grade, containing a fairly general representation of school children, (a) About. 21% are doing strong or exceptional work; (b) Over 40% display only average ability; (c) Over 33 J % have failed to secure any practical results; (d) The failures are due, in the majority of cases, to an illogical arrangement of ideas, and to weak sentence structure; in a few cases, to poor punctuation and spelling; (e) Many papers fail to show any plan ability. In the original work, this destroys the proportion of the parts to the whole; in the reproduction work, the differentiation of the value of details to bring out effectively the author's purpose; (f) The work in original composition, which is better than that in reproduction, shows a good sense of the value of words, spontaneity, and individuality of expression. B. In the eighth grade, representing a limited class, (a) 34% are doing exceptional pr strong work; (b) 48% are doing average work; (c) 17% are failing. (d) In the majority of cases in this grade, the failures are due to a poor selection of details; to a lack of proportion of the parts; in a word, to an inability to realize the rela- tive importance of the various thoughts with which the pupils are dealing. Although the sentence and paragraph structure is better in this grade than in the sixth, many failures are due to a lack of feeling for these divisions of thought. The spelling of this grade, considering the formal drills given in the subject, is weak. The punctuation in the pa- pers shows gross ignorance of that subject. (e) Children trained in oral composition write with ease and fluency. In one school where this kind of composition is emphasized, the results in the original work are excep- tional. BecoKimendations: (Grades YI-YIII) 1. Unify all teaching with English as a basis. Emphasize com- position work, both oral and written. Teach technical grammar as an aid to composition. Give less attention to definitions; more to that kind of grammar which will help the children overcome ob- stacles to self-expression. Discontinue using a knowledge of tech- nical grammar as a basis of promotion. 2. Teach punctuation daily, as the work of the children in com- position, geography, history, physiology, shows the need. Develop and use rules in this way. 3. Teach spelling daily in all work. Select words from reading, written lessons, and from spellers which group troublesome words under rules. Develop the rules before giving the words. Use con- stantly all such new words. 4. Study classics suited to children as early as the sixth grade. 5. Outline in detail the course of study in composition for the use of teachers. 94 6. Increase the amount of time given to composition by decreasing the requirement in technical grammar. 7. Have children write often at the board. Continue to criticise constructively all pupil effort with a view to developing a feeling for the structure of the sentence and paragraph. 8. Reproduce constantly in all grammar grades fine units of liter- ature. Eefore doing this work, make a careful plan of the selection. Write always from outlines. Study the choice of words made by the author before attempting the reproduction. Have some of this work oral, some written. 9. Write original compositions as often as possible in all grades. Plan every such composition before writing. Emphasize the relative value of ideas in this preliminary work. Have several children give their compositions orally, before the class writes. Use new subjects for each composition exercise, in order not to dull the interest of the pupils. Keep this work as far as possible close to the lives of the children. 95 XI. KEPOET ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE WORK IN AEITHMETIC DONE BY PUPILS IN THE SCHOOLS OF BRIDGEPORT, CONN. In estimating the efficiency of the work in arithmetic in the Bridgeport schools, the advanced division of the sixth grade was se- lected for the application of a standard test in fundamental operations and in reasoning which had previously been used in twenty-six other systems. In every room the tests were given personally by the out- side examiners in accordance with the exact procedure followed else- where. Bridgeport's results in the test in fundamentals were highest of all; in reasoning they were less favorable, though equal to the av- erage attained by classes elsewhere. It is not known how many pupils had been eliminated in each or any of these twenty-six other systems before reaching the grade in which the tests were applied. Any comparison of results in differ- ent school systems, to be complete, should take this factor into ac- count, for obviously that system in which elimination has set in earliest and been most severe would have a decided advantage over a system which has held its retarded children through the grade tested, because in the former case only the brightest children would remain to be tested. Those tested would be a highly selected class. In Bridgeport, 51% of the pupils are eliminated before they reach the sixth grade (Table I.) A detailed account of the test follows: MEASUREMENT OF THE ARITHMETICAL ABILITIES OF THREE HUNDRED AND TWENTY PUPILS IN TEN CLASSES, SIXTH 2 GRADE (HIGH SIXTH), SCHOOLS OF BRIDGEPORT, CONN., BY RESULTS OBTAINED FROM THE STONE TEST. The measurement of the arithmetical achievements of the schools of Bridgeport is based upon the work of all the pupils in the sixth 2 classes present at the time the tests were given, as follows: aool. No. of pupils 1 17 3 51 5 35 6 45 10 37 14, Room 13 44 14, Room 14 34 17 37 18 7 19 13 = 320 96 In order that the comparison might be made upon a more equit- able basis, the papers from schools Nos. 1, 18, and 19, were combined, thus forming a class of 37 pupils in place of three classes of the smaller numbers. Before any scoring was done, each class was designated by a Roman numeral from I to VIII, inclusive; and it was determined to give the composite score of the city as a unit, 320 pupils, the designa- tion "Bridgeport." These designations will identify the classes and the city throughout this entire study. It is thus seen that no signifi- cance can attach to the order in which these numerals are assigned. The order of achievement is shown by the serial order as arranged in each table, starting with the lowest at the top and advancing in order of achievement to the highest at the bottom of the table. The test selected is that prepared by Dr. C. W. Stone, and used by him in measuring the arithmetical achievements of the following twenty-six school systems: Batavia, New York. Decatur, Illinois. Elwood, Indiana. Ethical Culture School, New York City. Francis W. Parker School, Chicago. Horace Mann School, Columbia University, New York City. Indianapolis, Indiana. Jersey City, New Jersey. Kokomo, Indiana. Linne School, Chicago. Medford, Massachusetts. Montclair, New Jersey. Muncie, Indiana. Natick, Massachusetts. Observation School, State Normal, Providence, R. I. Passaic, New Jersey. Providence, R. I. Rochester, New York. Schools No. 40 and No. 50, Manhattan, New York City. Speyer School, Columbia University. Syracuse, New York. Training School, State Normal, Hyannis, Massachusetts. University Elementary School, University of Chicago. Waltham, Massachusetts. Waukegan, Illinois. Yonkers, New York. The test consists of two parts: First, a series of problems in fun- damentals; and second, a series of problems in reasoning. The method by which these tests were selected, their purpose, content, 97 and scoring, are fully explained in Dr. Stone's "Arithmetical Abilities and Some Factors Determining Them," Columbia University, Contri- butions to Education, Teachers College, Series No. 19. In formulating his tests Dr. Stone had the assistance of Profes- sor Smith, and the content of each test was so organized as to present a definite purpose, accurately measurable. Each test was tried out with pupils to determine the most reasonable time limit as well as arrangement of problems. In Fundamentals the main purpose was the determination of the ability of pupils completing the sixth grade, in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The first six questions embodied all the difficulties of the four fundamental opera- tions, but the test was made purposely too long (fourteen examples) for any except the brightest, most rapid pupil to finish in the twelve minute limit. This not only kept them from getting out of work but also provided means to measure their total ability, including rapidity. In Reasoning the main purpose was the determination of the ability of these children to reason in arithmetic. To this end the problems had been selected and arranged after careful trial with pupils in the classroom and were weighted according to the degree of difficulty ex- perienced by the children in this preliminary study by Dr. Stone. Dr. Stone's weighting and arrangement have been accepted and used throughout this study upon his authority (c. f. Arithmetical Abilities, pages 10 and 18). This test also was made purposely so long that but very few of the most rapid children might be expected to com- plete it in the fifteen minute limit. In this also the first six prob- lems embodied all the conditions deemed essential. Each of the two tests was printed separately, and each pupil was furnished with a copy. A sample of each test is appended hereto so as to show the exact form in which each went into the hands of the pupils. 98 ARITHMETIC TEST. Work as many of these problems as you have time for; work them m order as numbered: 1. Add 2375 4052 6354 260 5041 1543 2. Multiply 3205 by 20 3. Divide 3328 by 64 4. Add 596 428 94 75 302 645 084 897 5. Multiply 768 by 604 6. Divide 1918962 by 543 7. Add 4695 872 7948 6786 567 858 9447 7499 8. Multiply 976 by 87 9. Divide 2782542 by 679 10. Multiply 5489 by 9876 11. Divide 5099941 by 749 12. Multiply 876 by 79 13. Divide 62693256 by 859 14. Multiply 96879 by 896 99 Solve as many of the following problems as you have time for; work them in order as numbered: 1. If you buy 2 tablets at 7 cents each and a book for 65 cents, how much change should you receive from a two-dollar bill? 2. John sold 4 Saturday Evening Posts at 5 cents each. He kept half the money and with the other half he bought Sunday pa- pers at 2 cents each. How many did he buy? 3. If James had 4 times as much money as George, he would have $16. How much money has George? 4. How many pencils can you buy for 50 cents at the rate of 2 for 5 cents? 5. The uniforms for a baseball nine cost $2.50 each. The shoes cost $2 a pair. What was the total cost of uniforms and shoes for the nine? 6. In the school of a certain city there are 2,200 pupils; half are tin primary grades; one-fourth in the grammar grades; one- eighth in the High School and the rest in the night school. How many pupils are in the night school? 7. If V/z tons of coal cost $21, what will 5% tons cost? 8. A news dealer bought some magazines for $1. He sold them for $1.20, gaining '5 cents on each magazine. How many magazines were there? 9. A girl spent one-eighth of her money for car fare, and three times as much for clothes. Half of what she had left was 80 cents. How much money did she have at first? 10. Two girls receive $2.10 for making buttonholes. One makes 42,. the other 28. How shall they divide the money? 11. Mr. Brown paid one-third of the cost of a building; Mr. Johnson paid half the cost. Mr. Johnson received $500 more annual rent than Mr. Brown. How much did each receive? 12. A freight train left Albany for New York at 6 o'clock. An ex- press left on the same track at 8 o'clock. It went at the rate of 40 miles an hour. At what time of day will it overtake the freight train if the freight train stops after it has gone 5& miles? Exactly twelve minutes were allowed for the test in fundamentals, and fifteen minutes for the test in reasoning. All papers were collected immediately and forwarded to Mr. Hebden by express on December 17, 1912. The scoring of all the pa- pers was done entirely by him. The credits for each example are the same as those given by Dr. Stone. In fundamentals each step in the process of working each of the examples was given a score of one: For instance, in "Example 1" Addition received a score of four, being one for each column correctly added; in "Example 6" Division received a score of four, Multiplication a score of four, and 100 Subtraction a score of three, each step thus receiving its due credit. These illustrations will serve to make clear the following complet© list of scores for the several problems, assuming all steps to be cor- rectly worked: 1. Score of 4 in addition. 2. Score of 2 in multiplication, 3. Score of 2 in division, 2 in multiplication, 1 in subtraction. 4. Score of 3 in addition. 5. Score of 3 in multiplication, 2 in addition. 6. Score of 4 in division, 4 in multiplication, 3 in subtraction. 7. Score of 4 in addition. 8. Score of 2 in multiplication, 4 in addition. 9. Score of 4 in division, 4 in multiplication, 2 in subtraction. 10. Score of 4 in multiplication, 7 in addition. 11. Score of 4 in division, 4 in multiplication, 2 In subtraction. 12. Score of 2 in multiplication, 3 in addition. 13. Score of 5 in division, 5 in multiplication, 4 in subtraction. 14. Score of 3 in multiplication, 7 In addition. The step incorrectly done lost the score for that step and counted a mistake instead. Where a mistake was made in copying the ex- ample, no deduction was made, but credit was allowed for the step worked correctly In accordance therewith. In Seasoning a score of 1 is given for each example where the reasoning is correct even though there are errors in the computation; where the reasoning is right in part, and in part wrong, a corresponding fractional credit is given, and the mistake is also counted. This method of scoring follows Dr. Stone's plan, not only making the comparison between cities upon the same basis, but also serving to make the credits stand definitely for that which they were intended to show. The weighting of the scores in Reasoning is that used also by Dr. Stone, as follows: Problem 1, as weighted, gives credit of one score; problem 2, one score; problem 3, one score; problem 4, one score; problem 5, one score; problem 6, one and four tenths scores; problem 7, one and two tenths scores; problem 8, one and six tenths scores; problem 9, two scores; problem 10, two scores; problem 11, two scores; problem 12, two scores. 101 The score for each class, and for the city as a unit, was reduced to the basis of one hundred, the number chosen by Dr. Stone as the basis of his scoring. To be more explicit, the actual score in funda- mentals made by the thirty-six pupils in class VIII is 1458. this score multiplied by one hundred and divided by thirty-six gives 4050, the score representing this class in all the tables used. The actual score in Fundamentals made by the three hundred and nineteen pupils in all the sixth 2 classes (one pupil, coming to school after the test in Fundamentals had been started, was allowed to take the test in Reasoning, thus making the difference of one in the two parts of the test) is 13,477. This reduced to the basis of one hundred pupils gives a score of 4,224.8, or 4225, the nearest integer. In this way the scores for steps attempted, mistakes, and steps ac- complished, have been reduced throughout the study. No attempt is made in this report to consider time expendi- ture in relation to achievements. The effects of the course of study and of supervision are noted only as they become factors in deductions and comparisons of the data given in tables. After presenting in tables 1(a), Kb), 11(a), and 11(b) (the scores achieved by the several classes in Reasoning and Fundamentals when all problems are counted and when only the first six problems are counted) the remaining tables are taken up in such a manner as to compare the achievements of Bridgeport as a system with the twenty- six systems of other cities. In the latter part of the study, brief no- tice is given to the achievements of the Bridgeport classes as com- pared with one another. ' TABLES la and lb Showing the classes in order of achievement in Stone's test in REASONING, the scores made by the several classes and by the city as a whole (each reduced to the basis of 100), when all problems are counted (la), and when the first six problems only are counted TABLE I* Reasoning First problems counted Classes & City in order of achievement VIII IV VI Bridgeport V I Ill VII .......... II Scores reduced to basis of 100 446.? 496.4 518 ' 588.4 609 . 2 637.3 638.9 677.9 688.2 TABLE lb Reasoning First six problems counted Classes & City in order of achievement VIII 418.6 VI 460.7 IV 477.3 Bridgeport 493.8 VII 499.1 I 507.3 V 508.1 II 530.6 Ill ...;....... 547:4 Scores reduced to basis of 100 162 ACHIEVEMENTS OE (CITIES AS SYSTEMS. Comparison of Bridgeport with Other Systems. for convenience of reference, the scores of the several classes,, and of the city us a unit, have been arranged on the preceding page' so as to show in table 1(a) the scores made in Reading, all problems being counted; and in 1(b), the scores in Reasoning where the first six problems are counted. Tables 11(a) and 1Kb) show similar scores made in Funda- mentals. The tables have been thus organized and arranged not only for convenience of reference, but also for ready comparison between the amount of work done beyond the first six problems in Reasoning, and that done beyond the first six problems in Fundamentals. This, is of -interest and will have a bearing in the final deduction concern- ing each of these parts of the test. The lowest class, VIII, scored but 28 credits beyond the first six problems in Reasoning. The high- est class increased its score by 141. In Fundamentals the lowest class, IV, achieved 1046 after the first six problems; the highest class, 2045. The greater facility in Fundamentals over Reasoning is thus clearly demonstrated. TABLES II* and lib Showing the classes in order of achievement in Stone's test in FUNDAMENTALS, the scores made by the several classes and by the city as a whole (each reduced to the basis of 100), when all prob- lems are counted (II a ), and when the first six problems only are counted (II b ). TABLE IIa TABLE IP Fundamentals All problems counted Fundamentals First six problems counted Classes & City Scores Classes & City Scores in order of reduced to in order of reduced to achievement basis of. 100 - ; achievement basis of 100 IV 3362.3 3963.6 II 2637.3 VI IV 2815.6 VIII 4050. Bridgeport 2834.8 II 4109.8 VII 2838.2 V 4121.6 V 2848.7 Bridgeport .... 4224.8 VI 2879.5 Ill 4231.6 I 2881.2 I 4691.9 VIII 2905.5 VII 4997. Ill 2951.5 Tables III and IV show the place of Bridgeport in serial rank as compared with the other cities in Reasoning and in Fundamentals, respectively, all problems being counted. From Table III, Reasoning, it is seen that Bridgeport ranks fifteenth, counting from the lowest 103 city, being two orders above the median of the other cities. By median is meant the number, or score, below which and above which there are an equal number of systems. In Fundamentals (Table IV), Bridgeport is found occupying the highest rank of all, a gain of twelve places in serial order. These comparisons indicate that in Reasoning the Bridgeport schools mani- fest a fair degree of ability, while in Fundamentals, a much higher degree of excellence of achievement is attained. The gain of twelve places in rank in Fundamentals over Reasoning shows a much greater ability in the more formal work in arithmetic. To what extent ac- curacy and rapidity enter into this standing will be noted later in studying the tables showing accuracy and speed. Figure 1 presents a graphic illustration of Table III. The numbers in the column at the left of the figure indicate scores made by the several cities. Each column shows quantitatively the amount of work TABLES III and IV Showing the relative position of Bridgeport, Conn., compared with twenty-six other cities, in order of achievement, as measured by the scores made in Stone's test, all problems counted. TABLE III— Reasoning Cities Scores in order of reduced to achievement basis of 100 XXIII 356 :. XXIV ........ 429 XVII 444 IV 464 XXV 464 XXII 468 XVI 469 XX 491 XVIII 509 XV 532 Ill;/ 533 VIII 538 VI 550 Median 551 I 552 Bridgeport S88 X 601 II 615 XXI \ 627 XIII 636 XIV 661 IX 691 VII 734 XII 736 XI 759 XXVI 791 XIX 848 V 914 TABLE IV— Fundamentals Cities in order of achievement Scores reduced to basis of 100 XXIII XXV XX XXII ........ VIII 1841 2167. 2168 2311 2747 X XV ■'. Ill .; I XXI 2749 2779 2845 2935 2951 II XVII XIII 2958 3042 3049 • Median VI XI 3111 3173 3261 IX ..' xii ...;...... XXIV XIV 3404 3410 3513 3561 IV v :.... XXVI XVI xvm .;...... VII 3563 . . 3569 3682 3707 3758 3782 XIX . 4099 Bridgeport 4225 104 3r i do e. p or~t~ Fig. 1. — Graphical illustration of Table III, showing scores in REASONING made by the pupils in 6 2 classes of the schools in. Bridgeport, Conn., and in twenty-six other cities, ALL PROBLEMS being counted. 105 done by the city designated by the Roman numerals above the column. Bridgeport appears here, as in the table, the second column to the right of the median. Figure 2 graphically illustrates Table IV in a manner exactly similar to figure 1. In this figure, the column representing Bridgeport is found at the extreme right and reaching higher in place than any other city. These graphs, with the others to follow, lend themselves to a ready view of the entire field of comparison, and contrasts are more easily seen in this way, which will lead to a closer examination of the detailed scores given in the tables. It is for such purposes only that they have been made a part of this report. Table V separates .the scores in fundamentals made by the sev- eral cities so as to show the achievements in each of the four differ- ent operations, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Oc- cupying as it does the highest serial place, we must look for Bridge- port in a similar position under each of these heads. The table shows that Bridgeport ranks highest in addition and multiplication. It ranks next to the highest city in subtraction and division. This is consist- ent with the place occupied in the general score, and, further, it shows that the Bridgeport schools maintain an almost even level in the high place of achievement in each of these formal operations. Tables VI and VII show the scores of the Bridgeport schools in Reasoning and in Fundamentals, but include the scores of the first six problems only. In Table VI, we find Bridgeport occupying almost the same relative position as when all problems were counted. In this table it occupies the fourteenth place in rank from the lowest. In table III it held fifteenth rank, thus showing by the gain of one place in rank when all problems are counted that it had maintained about the same ability in achievement without any loss of rapidity in doing the work. Here again, the work measures fair in compari- son with other cities. In Funda,mentals, (Table VII), however, Bridgeport again occupies the highest rank and gains one place over its own position in Reasoning as compared with the difference in rank when all problems were counted. That Bridgeport occupies almost exactly the same positions in these two tables as it did in Tables III and IV, emphasizes the difference in ability between Reas- oning and the simple fundamental operations noted under the previous tables. Figure 3 has been drawn to illustrate Table VI. The scores are again placed at the. left and columns similarly used to represent the achievements of the several cities. In this table, however, a line of dashes has been drawn above the columns to show the highest pos- sible score attainable when the first six problems only are counted. As the number of pupils who failed to attempt the first six problems are so few as to be almost negligible, the space between the top of each column and the line of highest score will approximately illus- ion L0 If oo JtoO ixoo SOoa : a 1 I i Fig. 2.— Graphical illustration of Table IV, showing scores m FUNDAMENTALS made by the pupils in 62 classes of the schools iri Bridgeport, Conn., and in twenty-six other cities, ALL PROBLEM^ being counted. 107 TABLE V Showing the relative position of Bridgeport, Conn., compared with twenty-six other cities, in the order of achievement as measured by the scores made in each of the fundamental operations. cog 'flinOrlinOOOlOlHHHTldni-OKtO^^iat-fflOTHlOfflrt t-ir>i-H PsPsXn h^ W u y u k. k> w n n rS rS 'S k* ri H Sh> O a, «> •JC •— i bo XhX>XXmXXm»<>X«««X 2 co2 H-*W©(l5OC100t»t-01>nHMMfflHM(10 01ONMMNC0lfl Ml'*(ON00t«00000>nM'*OOOOHHHNNMMWWMWti:'*^l 7*4 TT^J <— J »— J .— < *— J **^ .— t **W — i 1_J _J I _J _J I I B Hk * H- 1 i-ti> i— — 1 1 — r t— i k^ I— I K-*t— ( .j ?>H(HMM !X X bO > hh! XXi>XX!XSX>rHX>>MOONt ; 'MO*l>Nt-NIOt-fllOtO(ONt" iSHHMOiaOlOriHHn^tOtONt'COOlOOOWWNOOM' > (— I k> MHij MMMWMrS to. x> > x> ^X r o> hm Cm 4> V) o.n HOnOH!-'*inWCi)(-O'( l HHMHO*t-ftOt0M!0e00 t-O^O^fl>.OOIO(Ot«ffl00009^M9 t-OOoOMOlOOOOOOOriHHHWNNMNMOlMnn^ U 1-1 l-H> HH i—i, .mm^kjmhX t— I r>t— It— ( •-• •'•»<. bo 5. S»«S » > xs TABLES VI and VII Showing the relative position of Bridgeport, Conn., compared with twenty-six other cities, in order of achievement, as measured by the scores for the first six problems only. TABLE VI— Reasoning TABLE VII— Fundamentals Cities Scores in order of reduced to achievement basis of 100 XXIII ... 342 XVII . 389 XVI 389 XXIV .... 396 IV 420 XXII .... 423 XX 426 XXV 438 Ill 445 XVIII ... 452 VI 455 I 466 VIII 468 Me dian 483 Bridgeport 494 XIII 497 x .: 502 IX 503 XV 508 XIV 514 II 516 XXI 532 XII 536 V 549 XIX 564 XXVI 569 XI 576 VII 661 Cities Scores in order of reduced to achievement basis of 100 XXIII 1776 XXV 2078 XX 2084 XXII 2116 X 2383 XVII 2416 I 2456 XV 2494 Ill 2495 VIII .......... 2501 XXI 2548 II ............. 2554 VI 2565 Median 2578 XIII 2590 IX 2650 IV 2694 XVIII ....... 2703 XI 2706 XXVI 2710 XII 2713 XIV 2717 XVI 2728 V 2767 VII 2782 XIX 2791 XXIV 2815 Bridgeport 2835 109 I! no trate the amount of inaccuracy in this part of the work. In this graph Bridgeport itself becomes the median of the twenty-seven cities here represented. Figure 4 similarly illustrates Table VII when only the first six problems in fundamentals are counted. The column representing Bridgeport is again at the extreme right, extending above the others. The line of highest possible score for the six problems is again placed above the several columns, and will serve similarly to show approxi- mately the amount of accuracy. Since these four columns have been constructed on the basis of the actual scores made rather than on the per cent of work done upon equivalent basis, the height of the columns must not be understood to show the amount of work done in Fundamentals as in any way compared with the amount of work done in Reasoning. Such a com- parison is made in presenting the next tables and the graphs repre- senting them, in order that the accuracy in working Fundamentals and the simple problems in Reasoning may be more positively com- pared. Tables VIII and IX are intended to show measures of accuracy In arithmetic work. Table VIII presents definitely the number of problems in Reasoning attempted and the number of mistakes in reasoning, not in computation. The rate per cent, of this number of mistakes is based upon the total number of problems attempted by each system. In this table it is shown that Bridgeport occupies a higher rank in accuracy than it attained in achievement, being twenty- second above the lowest here; whereas, it was fifteenth above the lowest in order of achievement. This does not indicate that the rank in achievement has been lowered because of any great amount of inaccuracy; probably the contrary is the case. In table IX, inaccuracy is measured by the number of mistakes made in the problems calling for addition only, problems 1, 4, and 7. Dr. Stone has shown in his Arithmetical Abilities, page 29, why he considers * * * "addition to be the best of the four fundamental operations to serve as a measure of accuracy in the more formal phases of arithmetic." In Table IX, a considerable change is noted In the rank of Bridgeport from that which it occupied in the table of achievement in Fundamentals. Here it occupies the sixteenth place from the lowest, eleven places below the highest rank, its position in order of achievement. This is a factor which will be considered in finally estimating the relative abilities shown by the pupils in the Bridgeport schools, all things being considered. Figures 5 and 6 are drawn to illustrate graphically the rates per cent, of mistakes set forth in the two tables just discussed. In these graphs, however, it is entirely proper to make an immediate com- parison based upon the height of the columns. The figures at the left of the columns are rates per cent intended to aid in showing the per cent, of mistakes indicated by each column. Again, each of 111 +- go iooo I'M- afjS.i^kejt- gpiSllrla. _Jcarz ,_ First sJ_VL_f>X0 Lhtoa ori/y J-e/ng. coiu^ed '. It 00 — X - X _ — X. 1 1 JbL Fig. 4. — Graphical illustration of Table VII, showing scores in FUNDAMENTALS made by the pupils in 62 classes of the schools in Bridgeport, Conn., and in twenty-six other cities, only the FIRST, SIX PROBLEMS being counted. nz TABLES VIII and IX Showing the relative position of Bridgeport, Conn., compared with twenty-six other cities in order of achievement as measured by mistakes made. c o 13 < u MerHooot-cw (BinMOOOOOOOOWOOOiOt-NawoSBKXOCieiowOO u id i; -u o CU O o C -m c >- rl en-- 5 K CI ff. 00 I- rt t> XX ». >: rt rS 1-4 PS n k' i*N • .£3 ,_ ''S^SE^ • i_i > ^ '"* X ^ ' £>xx>£xxw>x:=::=:xxxxxxx bo c c M o »-t »H (0 > V W w .S J « 10 < H rt s •e-S « " go*-> ►5 a rt O tn I 3 C o X a O o C H v C O q. w y ccijitDc;[-OH «mB«N«MH5)HMNnr.Mi-HriHiHiHHriniHHr* H«Hb-l-t-00al-»O0!D» ■* rt H •* H O! n CC t- 1C t- ■* >■>! 'X! kJUlJ H k> ^ k> K^ K>l >^> K> >-^ K> K> K> r >^t K^ k> k> ^ rN I I'sPsi'si X, ( x>xxxxx>xxx£x>xxmi--!=>xx <% s = 38% n% H% 10% "% IfJ, 10% Fig. 5. — Graphical illustration of Table VIII, showing the relative position of Bridgeport, Conn., compared with twenty-six other cities, when measured by per cent, of MISTAKES made in REASONING, all problems being counted. 114 Fig. 6. — Graphical illustration of Table IX, showing the relative position of Bridgeport, Conn., compared with twenty-six other cities in order of accuracy of achievement measured by per cent of MIS-* TAKES MADE IN ADDITION, problems 1, 4, 7 being counted. 115 TABLE X Showing relative standings in arithmetical abilities and in accuracy, of Bridgeport compared with twenty-six other city systems of schools — averages ranking in serial order, 1 — lowest, 2 — next higher, and so on. Abilities Accuracy Serial Serial Serial Serial standing standing standing standing Average in in Funda- in in Funda- SYSTEMS serial Reasoning 1 mentals Reasoning mentals^ standing (Table (Table (Table (Table III) IV) VIII) IX) XXIII 1 1 1 3 15 XXV 3 4.5 5 4 5 7 4 3 16 8 18 14 XXII 1 XX 2 XVII 7.5 8 3 11 12 5 13 4 VIII 17 XV 8 9 7 6 11 Ill 9 10 10 2 8 18 4 10 20 XXIV 23 X 10 14 6 9 7 I 11 12 13 4 9 20 5 17 3 IV 13 II 13.5 16 11 24 19 XXI 13.5 17 10 26 26 VI 13.5 13 14 7 6 XVI 15 7 23 1 18 XIII 16 16.5 19 9 13 24 11 14 10 XVIII 5 IX 18.5 19.5 21 24 16 15 23 27 8 XI 27 XIV 19.5 20 M 20 23 15 19 17 27 20 21 22 22 XII 21 XXVI 16 23.5 23.5 24 26 25 22 27 26 22 25 21 26 12 19 25 15 24 VII 12 V 9 XIX 25 116 the columns represents the city designated by the Roman numeral placed above it. The great difference in accuracy in working Reas- oning problems and simple Fundamentals becomes evident at once upon comparing the two graphs. Table X brings together the serial standing of all the cities in Fundamentals and in Reasoning from which the rank by average of abilities is obtained. Bridgeport is found ranking twenty-third, count- ing from the lowest, or fifth, counting from the highest rank. The average of abilities which determines the place tin serial standing is obtained by dividing the sum of the numbers, indicating the serial order by the scores made in Reasoning and by scores made in Funda- mentals, by two. For purposes of comparison, the serial standings in accuracy have also been brought together in this table, but they have not been used in computing the average of abilities. It is seen from the foregoing that the arithmetical abilities of the children in the Bridgeport schools stand well up toward the highest. Before deducing a final estimate it will be well to study some of the factors entering into the average attained. First, to what extent has accuracy been a factor in determining the place of Bridgeport among other cities? It will be noticed that Bridgeport ranks fifteen from the lowest in Reasoning. In accuracy it occupies the twenty-second place above the lowest. This indi- cates clearly, as hereinbefore stated, that the relatively lower position occupied in Reasoning is not chargeable to inaccuracy since it has gained seven places in accuracy over the place made in Reasoning. As far as this point Is concerned then, other factors must be studied to explain what is evidently a lower order of ability in Reasoning than in Fundamentals. In Fundamentals, Bridgeport occupies the highest rank in achieve- ment among all the cities. In contrast with the gain in serial posi- tion in Reasoning, there has been a loss of eleven places in the rank attained in accuracy. This shows the greater ability in the funda- mental operations, notwithstanding the relatively lower position in accuracy. Another point that must be considered is the facility or rapidity shown in the work and its effect upon the final standing of the city. Tables XI and XII have been compiled for this purpose. Table XI, Reasoning, compares the scores made in all problems with the scores made In the first six problems by Bridgeport, by the median city, and by the highest city in rank according to Table X. In comparing Bridgeport with the median city, it is seen that Bridge- port scores less by 39, all problems counted. In the first six problems the deficiency was 38, making a loss of but one after the first six problems. This additional loss Is too small to indicate any lower degree of facility or rapidity than was possessed by the median city. In comparing Bridgeport with the highest city, it is seen that Bridge- port is 70 scores lower for the first six problems and 260 below when 117 TABLES XI and XII Showing rapidity or slowness by the higher or the lower scores made in Reasoning and in Fundamentals when all problems are counted; also by the gain or the loss in excess of scores for all prob- lems over the excess when first six problems are counted, the scores made by Bridgeport being compared with the corresponding scores made by the median city (XXI) and the highest city (XIX) in serial rank of average abilities given in TABLE X. -f- = excess or gain, — = deficiency or loss. 1 1 " - -1- 1 rt i- V "C + + W id CO O co O 00 w h ,i o» o 05 O c X rt £ co co ■* II CO c-0 r-l tH II 4) w ° + + 1 + + 1 E id CO , T3 0> jj _o CO MS 00 t- US iH 1 "* C CO ■* 00 CO Cs "* 00 >o Cl CS C"! CM OS CM CJ o 1-1 H £ ft" ** a + . cu •o >> |H 1-. 4_> -^J O f*"y o u Ti tH W o u CO o CO 4) 5 ojo.5 CO CU CJ w CO CU (J •CO ."2 ho ^ in X ms WE . 1 CO 4-> CO U >> f o OS o K-2^ tH tH .„ _ *0 rt t OcS.S n 1 1 CO bO > *a >> Ih ^ O o U T> l-t u o u CO o CO *» 3 CO CU CJ X W ft "■- ■§•- CO cu o X w all problems were counted. In other words, Bridgeport made a "loss in excess" of 190 scores over the deficiency in the scores for the first six problems. This indicates that Bridgeport pupils have been able to do less work than the highest city in the same time, and that the lower ability shown in Reasoning has not been caused by over- speeding. Table XII makes a similar comparison with regard to Funda- mentals. In comparison with the median city, Bridgeport makes a gain in excess of 987 credits over the excess shown in the first six problems. Here Bridgeport has not only attained a higher score for the first six problems, but has also increased that gain by 700 points after the first six, clearly indicating a much higher degree of facility and rapidity in doing this part of the work. In comparison with the highest city, Bridgeport still shows greater speed, though not to so great an extent, the gain in excess here being 82. When it is remem- bered that in Reasoning, the Bridgeport schools ranked higher in accuracy than in the score of achievement, and that they have not been over-speedy, it is indicated clearly that these two factors have not tended to lower the relative rank in Reasoning. Again, it is noted that the rank Jn Fundamentals is not only held for the first six problems, but is more firmly fixed when all problems are considered; that there is a gain in rapidity, while at the same time, there is a lowered rank in accuracy. The deduction is that both facility and accuracy have been forces in determining the rank, but that gain by facility has been so much greater than the loss' of accuracy as to have more than overbalanced its opposing effect. Figure 7 presents in charted form all of these results and de- ductions. The serial order of the twenty-seven cities is noted in the numbers at the left. The charting presents the various changes in standings for Bridgeport, for the city ranking lowest, for the median city, and for the city ranking highest. The heavy solid lines repre- sent Bridgeport. The dot and dash lines represent the other cities. The. chart shows the relative rank of Bridgeport and of the cities just mentioned in Reasoning and in Fundamentals, and contrasts the rankl attained in Reasoning with the rank in Fundamentals. That Bridgeport falls below the median city in Reasoning while it ranks so much above the others in Fundamentals, that over-speeding and inaccuracy cannot be chargeable as the cause, and that the more formal part of the work, Fundamentals, attains the higher rank, with rapidity overbalancing the greater relative degree of inaccuracy, these conditions make it necessary to_inquire to what extent the course of study, its interpretation and use, and supervision may pos- sibly affect the results obtained. An examination of the course of study in arithmetic shows that the topics are definite and clear, that the order of topics conforms to that found in most other cities, and that there are ample suggestions intended to be helpful to the teacher. In some respects, the char- 119 * V ■o V "5 V « # u ^ ■ * T?ea.s OWlTt "Fit. n dtonen/f" a 1 s 5 trial sta.rvairvgs 5er itti stand rv^s who 1 I q o • %■ «- B. V _ 1 * tfl o k •* <0 i V '¥ X «. 1 <»r \ is- \ • i \ i Ii \ / / n 1 / ' ./ A / it / \ * / } / '9 l\ J / %o \ \ \ / T.I \ \ \ / ft*. I i i* \ %i 3rcL>t *"' / ■ 1.H 1 N / \ \ \ ir I ' • ^ ^^ ""N* A it 1 \ ; \ S^~ _« ^K £S 17 X ix. "v' Fig. 7. — Chart showing the rank of Bridgeport, of the highest, of the lowest, and of the median city (Table X) in each of the several serial standings; the upward and the downward changes in rank; the comparison of city with city; and the contrast of standings in reason- ing with those in fundamentals. 120 aoter of these suggestions may be considered as the cause for the emphasis put upon the more formal side of the work. An illustra- tion of this is found on page 36 under "Intelligent Statement." The suggestions here are so definite and precise that they take on the character of being prescribed rather than suggested. This may, and doubtless does, in part, account for the teachers' insisting upon form in the solution of simple concrete problems to so great an extent as to interfere materially with the freedom of the child in working out his own thoughts. One does not suppose that this is the inten- tion of the course. It has been shown by a number of investigators that the course of study in itself is not a very potent factor in the result produced; but that the interpretation and the use of the course of study is of the greatest moment. Where the interpretation is not what it was intended to be, and where the use does not follow the expectation, it would indicate that there is need for a somewhat closer supervision. This study of the arithmetic work of the Bridgeport schools, therefore, leads to the deduction that the work in arithmetic is of a high order, that greater emphasis is placed upon the more formal part of the work, that in Reasoning the work is of a fair order, that the course of study probably emphasizes the formal, and that closer supervision would tend to overcome any misapprehension with regard to what the course of study intended the practice to be. ACHIEVEMENT OF CLASSES AS CLASSES. It was thought that it might be of interest to present briefly the scores of the classes as such in comparison with the score of the city as a whole. Table XIII gives the score in Reasoning for each class, the number of problems attempted, the score achieved, the number of mistakes made, and the per cent, of inaccuracy. Table XIV presents the same points for Fundamentals. The number of classes is so much smaller than the number of systems that no attempt will be made to compare the amount of deviation between the classes with the amount of deviation between the high- est and lowest city systems. It will be noted in Table XIII that class V occupies the median position. The score is 609. The differ- ence between the scores of the lowest class, VIII, and the highest class, II, is 241, which is 39.6% deviation from the median class, mak- ing the same comparison in Fundamentals, the difference between the highest and lowest scores is 1135, which is just 27.5% deviation from the median score of 4122. These rates of deviation' are, of course, much less than that found between the highest and lowest of the twenty-six city systems in the previous part of the study; but here, again, we note that the deviation in Reasoning is over 12% more than the deviation in Fundamentals. This is another way of showing that even within the classes themselves greater ability is developed in form and method than in the concrete process of Reas- oning. 121 ACHIEVEMENT OF THE CLASSES AS CLASSES TABLES XIII and XIV Comparison of the various scores made by the Bridgeport classes and the city as a whole in Reasoning and in Fundamentals, all prob- lems being counted and scores reduced to basis of 100. w < W < Q Per Cent, of Mis- takes on No. attempted O CC iO"f © CO 0C N ffi O O H H ri W H H 1-1 CN! Score (steps correct) c3 rt< © © c; io ea cj ,e* (D O 13 H C! M f^ ffi Ol WO O.rtHW W.» O) CO CO "tf-Tf -*"*■*■*■* No. of steps attempted t- h fc o n N ci ■* m OtiO-*OOKIK© Ot-it-ICOCC^COOON CO l—l V ....... Bridgep't III I VII O CO < Per Cent. of Mistakes on No. . attempted © © © OO CO H th -+ « -? W O « -tH- GO C! N 00 -T"* rs 00.-O H IO tH rlHdri H H Score (to nearest . integer) t> © CO CO © I- © CO 00 * Ol H'CO O W CO t- CO ThrJil0U3©O©OO No. problems attempted ■* co © oo © C! "f io a in o h i> e n n oo is m lo o CD t- t- o t- t- , in in rt U ■. . • • •*- : : : "c E ' "IS * ) > hh!> M Table XV has been added to show the ranking order of the sev- eral classes by an average of their abilities. To anyone knowing the kind of pupils, their home environment, age, and time at school, this table will form an interesting study. TABLE XV Relative serial standing of classes and the city as a whole, based upon average ranking in abilities as shown in Tables XIII and XIV. Serial Standing Average Class of Reasoning Fundamentals abilities (Table XIII) - (Table XIV) IV 1.5 o 1 VIII .... o 1 3 VI 2.5 3 2 Bridge'pt 5. 4 6 V 5. i ' 5 ■- ;.. 5 II 6.5 9. .4 . I 7 6 8 Ill 7. "• 7 "7 VII . 8,5 8 9 123 XII. GENERAL SUMMARY. Financial Support of the School System. 1. How much education and how good an education a community actually gets for its children depends, first, on how much money it spends, and, second, on whether or not it uses each dollar appropri- ated so as to get the best and largest educational return. 2. Bridgeport spends annually for public schools more than a third of a million dollars received from local taxes, state funds, and tuition fees. 3. Bridgeport spends $26.81 each year for the education of each school child, while the average for 11 other cities of similar size is $41.13. To put the Bridgeport schools on a par with those of the average city of like population would cost about $200,000 additional per year. 4. Bridgeport teachers receive lower salaries and teach larger classes than do those of any other city compared, which means that Bridgeport children receive cheaper teaching and less of it than the children of the other cities. 5. Bridgeport spends less per child for every separate item of school expenditure than does the average city of like size, which means that Bridgeport children get a smaller quantity or a lower quality of every sort of educational opportunity than do the children of the other cities. 6. Bridgeport citizens spend less per capita for city support than do those of any other city of similar size save one, but they spend less for their public schools than do the citizens of any other city compared. 7. The particular items in which the Bridgeport expenditures are most deficient when compared with those of other cities are the support of the business office of the Board of Education, the purchase of stationery and supplies, the payment of janitors, the support of the Superintendent's office, and the purchase of text-books. 8. Among the 168 towns and cities of Connecticut, Bridgeport ranks second, third, and fourth in seven comparisons of educational resources, and 153d and 154th in two comparisons of educational expenditures. Differentiation of Functions, Supervision and Organization. 1. All nominations of teachers should be made by the Super- intendent of Schools. The Board's function here is to accept or reject. 2. The supervision is notably insufficient in amount. Employ an assistant superintendent and at least one supervisor of primary work, and two assistant supervisors of drawing and hand work. Let the assistant superintendent be a man who, in addition to skill in the supervision of the more traditional subjects, possesses the technical knowledge and practical experience needed in directing the industrial work in the grades and the high school. 124 3. Employ a stenographer and an additional clerk trained in statistical methods to conserve the time of the Superintendent. 4. Conserve the time of principals for supervision by relieving them of the bookkeeping incident to the penny savings system as now conducted. 5. Carry further and make more systematic the grouping of upper grammar grades in centrally located buildings, and provide for differentiation of work in accordance with the needs of different groups of pupils. Conduct the instruction of these classes on the departmental plan. 6. The schoolrooms are overcrowded and they lack adequate teaching equipment. 7. There are no rooms available in which to organize special classes for foreign-born, backward, and other exceptional children. 8. The city now needs 32 additional rooms to take care of ordinary classes. To provide these rooms at once and, in addition, provide for further needs, involves too great a charge upon the resources of a single year. Future generations may properly be allowed to share the cost of improvements as permanent as school- houses. 9. According to generally accepted standards, too few children in the elementary grades are making either rapid or normal progress. Both retardation and elimination are excessive. In the fifth grade 59% of the pupils are over-age and 51% pf all pupils enrolled have left school before reaching the sixth grade. 10. The schools are strong in drill processes, less strong in reasoning. 11. It is questionable whether formal examinations should play so prominent a part in the promotion of pupils as they appear to do. 12. The discipline of the schools is superior and the spirit of the teaching force notably good. 13. A higher maximum salary for teachers, if awarded strictly on the basis of merit and not merely on length of service, would be a wise investment. The City formal School. 1. The normal school is seriously handicapped by lack of facili- ties of every kind. It needs more rooms, more teachers, more books and apparatus, and more opportunities for observation work and practice teaching. 2. The entrance requirements are too easy. 3. The local normal school should not furnish more than two- thirds of the teachers appointed annually. 125 The High School. 1. Many of the obvious weaknesses of the school on the ed- ucational side are direct cpnsequences of the unsatisfactory physical conditions under which the work is being conducted. 2. The discipline of the school is good. 3. Too little money is expended on the school to give the boys and girls the educational experiences to which they are entitled. 4. Develop the present commercial course into a coherent four- year course and offer a short clerkship course. 5. Greek is being taken by so few pupils that its retention involves an extravagant use of teacher time in view of the other needs of the school. 6. Provide a two-year course in Latin open to pupils not going to college. 7. Provide an industrial department with a full four-year in- dustrial course and a full four-year domestic science course. Pro- vide shorter courses for boys and girls who will leave at the age of sixteen. 8. In co-operation with the bureau for granting work permits, arrange for vocational guidance. 9. In the new high school building provision should be made for the industrial department. 10. The shops should be strictly industrial both as to the ar- rangement of their equipment and the type of work done in them. 11. Strengthen the administration of the" school, particularly in the line of better supervision: so as to develop more unity of effort and more co-operation among the members of certain departments, and so as to improve the quality of the instruction throughout the school. Industrial Education. 1. There is a certain minimum of general' education which every individual ought to have in order that he may be an intelli- gent citizen and get a reasonable amount of satisfaction out of life. 2. It is unreasonable to suppose that this necessary minimum of training can be given in less than six years of schooling. 3. No essential part of this general education should be sac- rificed in order to include training for industrial efficiency. 4. After the general education has been taken care of, there should be provided for the boys in the last two or three years of the elementary school opportunities for training in a number of lines of practical work for the purpose of developing broad indus- trial intelligence, under the guidance of competent teachers, and to assist in the choosing of a life-work. 5. General education for girls should be supplemented in the last two or three years of the elementary school by opportunities corresponding to those proposed for boys, and by practical training 126 in cooking, sewing, dressmaking, millinery, marketing, keeping of household accounts, sanitation and hygiene, for the purpose of help- ing them to an understanding of the principles of home making. 6. After the completion of the general education, there should be provided opportunities for practical industrial courses, closely related to the activities of the community, open to those boys and girls who elect to take them, which will increase the general industrial intelligence and efficiency of those who must become wage- earners at the earliest possible time. 7. The methods and processes employed in industrial courses should be organized about the making of useful projects, rather than abstract exercises which result in a mere waste of material or scrap. 8. The products resulting from the industrial activities of the school shops, while useful, should not be such as to involve unfair competition with the industries of the community. 9. So far as practicable, the products of the school shops may be those classes of articles of equipment and supplies required for use in the school system itself, and articles which are not produced in the community. 10. The different lines of industrial work should be taught by teachers who are themselves skilled workers in the processes to be taught. 11. The programs of the industrial courses should be based on a study of the requirements of the pupils to be taught. Careful ex- perimentation in various cities seems to have demonstrated that a six-hour day produces the most efficient results for pupils of fourteen to sixteen years of age. 12. The classes, should be small enough to make efficient in- struction possible in complete processes from raw materials to fin- ished product. 13. The industrial courses should be controlled, under the au- thority and direction of the Board of Education, by advisory com- mittees which should contain equal representation of wage-earnerb and einr-loyers in the industries concerned. 14. The Board of Education should employ a trained expert to organize and direct the entire scheme of manual training, household training, and industrial courses, and give him sufficient freedom to develop the work. 15. Nothing should be done that will result in diminishing the facilities and opportunities now existing for those boys and girls Who desire to continue in a course of general education in order to prepare for high school, college, technical or professional school, etc. Rather, these facilities should be extended and improved in every way possible, and made available for an increasing number 127 of individuals. The school system must provide opportunities for all boys and girls who are qualified, and have the ambition, to pursue higher courses in professional -training that are equal in every respect to those provided for industrial education. 16. A careful study should be made of local conditions, and a modest beginning made in those directions where the needs seem to be most immediate and pressing, subsequent expansion being based on continued study and experimentation. 17. Provision should be made of opportunities for supplemental instruction in general education, or industrial education, or both, "or workers already engaged in the industries. Course of Study, Geography, History, Arithmetic, etc. 1. If the directions in the course of study were expanded into- a syllabus of each subject, and the requirements under each grade stated under subject headings rather than by pages in the text books, it would have added usefulness. 2. The division of the time allotted to given studies between study and recitation has much to commend it. 3. The work in geography deserves special commendation. 4. The work in history and citizenship ought to receive the same earnest attention that has made the work in geography so satis- factory. 5. In arithmetic the emphasis is rightly placed on fundamental operations and intelligent solution of problems. Bridgeport pupils Who complete the sixth grade take high rank in this subject. 6. It would be well to make careful study of the effect of the relatively high requirements in arithmetic upon promotion, partic- ularly in the lower grades. English. 1. The work in English lacks unity. Spelling, punctuation, and technical grammar are taught as ends in themselves, not as aids to self-expression. 2. The course of study in English is indefinite and general. Technical grammar is given more time than composition. 3. Reading is taught in a uniform manner throughout the system. The method used is, for the greater part, based upon a knowledge and use of phonetics. Objective teaching is thus neglected. The same texts are used in the schools composed of foreigners as in those at- tended by Americans. 4. There is little uniformity in the teaching of oral composi- tion. This work, however, is admirably done in some Schools. 128 5. Little emphasis is given to plan work. As a result the com- positions often show an illogical arrangement of thoughts and a slight .feeling for the relative value of ideas. 6. The penmanship, as a whole,