Oass_J Book -J-^ PINNOCK'S SCHOOL SEKIE8. HISTORY OF r RANGE NOEMANDY, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE YEAR 1884. WITH QUESTIONS rOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OP EACH SECTION. / BY w. c.'tayloe, ll.d., iOTBOR OF " MANUAL OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY," ETC., AND EDITOR OF PINITOOK'fl DfPBOVED EDIIIONa OF goldsmith's GREECE, ROME, AND ENGLANO REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION. //I') V' *^ PHILADELPHIA: CHARLES DE SILVER & SONS, PUBLISHERS. -6^ Copyright. CHARLES DE SILVER & SONS. 1884. PBKS3 OF SHEKMAN & CO. PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. The greatest nation of Europe at the present day, in point of industrial, scientific, and artistic development, is France, and her people, guided by the experience of past ages, are yet advaneifig steadily along the high road of social and moral improvement marked out for them by wise and patriotic men. From the period when Christianity first asserted its sway over the Gallic mind, France has powerfully promoted the advance of civilization, with all its attendant benefits, throughout the European continent ; and the histories of the difi"erent dynasties which have swayed the sceptre, are so many landmarks by which to trace the progress of this re- markable people from barbarism and poverty to civilization and wealth. The study of history is ever important to the proper edu- cation of the youthful mind, which, if wanting in a thorough understanding of the events of past time, can form no ade- quate idea of the present position of nations, or of the privileges and benefits enjoyed by the individual members thereof, as compared with preceding generations. But, apart from this consideration, the youth of our country shoula, and must, naturally feel a strong interest in the his- tory of a people, who so zealously and effectually aided our (iii) IV PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. forefathers in their struggle for national independence. The names of La Fayette, D'Estaing, De Grasse, Eochambeau, and Armand, occupy a proud position in the details of our revolutionary contest; and well may the youthful American entertain sentiments of respect and esteem for a nation which produced such noble and self-sacrificing men. No better history than that of France can be put into the hands of the rising generation; for, by the proper exercise of their own reasoning powers, they can draw therefrom profitable lessons in political science. The accomplished Dr. Taylor has narrated all the events clearly and forcibly in their chronological order, and he has done ample justice to the great characters who have at vari- ous times played their parts on the stage of Grallic history. The task of the American editor has not been confined to mere emendations of the text; he has brought the work down to the present time by the addition of six chapters, which for interest cannot be surpassed by any others in the volume. These chapters include the Rebellions of February and June, 1848; the Else of Louis Napoleon; the Coup D'Etat; the inauguration of the Empire; the Crimean War; and the Italian War; all of which, as well as the preceding chapters, are copiously illustrated with historical pictures of battles and sieges, views of important places, portraits of dis- tinguished soldiers and civilians, and sketches of the costumes worn in diflferent ages. Each chapter is prefaced with an appropriate motto, and closed with questions for the exami- nation of pupils; and no pains have been spared to make the work as complete as the requirements of the present age demand in books adapted to the education of youth. Philadelphia, October 1, 1859. CONTENTS. CHAP. PAOI I. TheG^ 6 7 IL The Fn iks, from Clovis to Charlemagi e 14 III. The reign of Charlemagne 28 IV. The Carlovingian race 35 V Do. continued 43 VI. Do. concluded 49 VII. From the accession of Hugh Capet to the First Cru- sade 56 VIII. The History of Normandy 63 IX. The History of France from the First Crusade to the accession of Philip Augustus 72 X. The reign of Philip Augustus 85 XI. The reigns of Louis VIII. and IX 101 XII. Do. of Philip the Hardy, and Philip the Fair 112 XIII. Do. of Louis the Quarrelsome, Philip the Long, and Charles the Fair 122 XIV. The reign of Philip of Valois 127 XV. Do. continued — John 137 XVI. John— the Regency 149 XVII. Charles V., surnaraed the Wise 154 XVm. Charles VI 161 XIX. Charles VI.~Henry V. of England 17: XX. Charles VII., surnamed the Victorious 180 XXL Louis XI 190 XXII. Charles VIII. surnamed the Affable and Courteous. 200 XXIIL Louis XII., surnamed the Father of his People. ... 208 XXIV. Francis 1 214 XXV. Do. continued 225 XXVI. Henry IL— Francis II. 232 XXVIL Charles IX 240 1* (v) ri CONTENTS. CHAP. PAGB XXVIII. Henry III 252 XXIX. Henry IV 266 XXX. Louis XIII 276 XXXL Louis XIV.— the Wars of the Fronde 290 XXXII. Louis XIV. to the treaty of Ryswick 300 XXXIII. Do. to the War of the Spanish succession 312 XXXIV. Louis XV 321 XXXV. Do. continued 330 XXXVL Louis XVI 337 XXXVII. Do. continued 348 XXXVIII. The Republic 356 XXXIX. The Empire 374 XL. Do. continued 383 XLL Do. Do 394 XLIL The Hundred Days 400 XLIII. The Restoration and Revolution of 1830 409 XLIV. Louis Philippe L— Revolution of February, 1848, 419 XLV. TheNationalAssembly— Rebellion of June, 1848, 438 XLVI. The Rise of Louis Napoleon 455 XLVn. The Coup D'Etat 467 XLVIII. Louis Napoleon, Emperor — The Crimean War.. 474 XLIX. The Italian War 489 L. Peace Concluded — Annexation of New Territories 497 LI. Alliance with Spain and England and the War in Mexico — Occupation of Vera Cruz 501 LIT. The Franco-Prussian War 510 LIU. Dethronement of Napoleon — Establishment of the Republic 520 LIV. The National Assembly at Versailles, and the Com- mune at Paris 530 LV. France under the Presidency of Marshal McMahon —The Septenate 539 LVL The Presidency of Jules Gr6vy 545 Genealogy of the Kings of France 554 Chronological Index 562 THE HISTORI OF FRANCE AND NORMANDY. CHAPTER I. An Ancient Gaul. THE GAULS. From Ister's icy stream a barbarous crowd In horrent furs, a herd promiscuous stood, Swift as their savage game, far wide they roam; In tribes and nations ignorant of home. EpieoxiAS. 1. The difficulties that impede our inquiries into the origin of nations are so many, and so various, that we must, in most cases, be contented with probability, since the most laborious (7) 8 HISTORY OF FRANCE. researches fail to supply us with certain information. But as the Gauls were a conspicuous portion of that great Celtic family by which all the western continent of Europe and the British Isles were peopled, some brief sketch of their several migrations, as far as they have been ascertained, cannot fail to be interesting. The offspring of Japhet, we are told in Scripture, colonized "the isles of the Gentiles," as Europe is designated in the Old Testament ; of these the Cimmerians, or Cimbrians, who were descended from Gomer,* settled in the north and east of Europe, and gradually spread them- A Romanized Gaul. ♦ The numerous descendants of Gomer are usually called the Celtic tribes ; but the names given to the Cushite warriors are as numerous as thejr conquests ; to them belong the Scythians, the Tar tars the Goths, the Scots, and almost all the tribes of wandering warriors who have at ditterent periods effected the greatest revolu lions in the Eastern and Western world. THE GAULS. 9 selves westwards. 2. The descendants of Cush, known by the names of Scytliians and Tartars, have, from the earliest ages, been tlie greatest wanderers and the most warlike of na- tions. A horde of these barbarians attacked the Cimmerian colonies, expelled the inhabitants, and gave their own name to the country they had subdued. The Cimmerians, driven from their former settlements, fled through the extensive forests of Germany, and took up their residence in Gaul, of which they appear to have been the first inhabitants. 3. The date of this migration is probably about the ninth or tenth century before the Christian era; for Homer men- tions the Cimmerians as the inhabitants of the countries bor- dering on the Don and Danube, but when Herodotus wrote, we find that they had been displaced by the Scythians. 4. The offspring of Cush, who delighted in a wandering life, spread themselves over ihe German forests, every where driving the Cimbri before them, until at length the Rhine formed the boundary between the two nations. In the time of Julius Caesar the distinctions between the two nations were strongly marked, and that great warrior and historian more than once declares that the Germans must have been a nation differing in origin from the Gauls. 5. The southern part of Gaul was frequently visited by the Phoenician, Carthagenian and Grecian merchants, for the purpose of commerce, but the most important event connected with this part of the country was the foundation of Marseilles by the Pho- J„f.' caeans, who introduced a spirit of commercial enterprise, and taught the inhabitants the arts of social life. 6. Although the Gauls did not make such extensive conquests as the de- scendants of Cush, they sent out several hordes at various timv s which spread ruin and devastation over the finest parts of Eu-ope. About the time of the first Cimbrian migration a body of these wanderers crossed the Alps and seized the Ita lian province, which, by a slight corruption of their name, was thence called Umbria. At a subsequent pe- -*„q* riod a new horde seized the north of Italy, and gave it the name of Cisalpine Gaul. The rich productions of Italy, and especially its wines, continued to attract fresh war- riors across the Alps, and Rome itself nearly fell a „q^' prey to these barbarians. Another equally numerous horde penetrated into Greece and laid siege to Delphi; they were driven from this with great slaughter, but their numbers being increased bv fresh recruits, they became formidable 10 HISTGilY or FRANCE. enemies to the successors of Alexander, they engaged in de- structive civil wars. After a variety of adventures some of them settled in the north of Thrace, but the greater part, passing over the Hellespont, seized on a province of Asia Minor, which was thence called Gallatia or Gallo-Grsecia. 7. The Gauls were always jealous of the people of Mar- seilles, whom they looked on as intruders, and the wars be- tween the native Celts and the Grecian colonists afforded the first pretence to the Romans for invading their country. They did not resign their liberties without a desperate re- sistance, and Caesar resided ten years in their country before he had completed their subjugation. 8. The Gauls possessed all the characteristics of the Celtic race : they had a fair complexion, light hair, blue eyes, and loud voices ; their temper was lively and enthusiastic, but they were deficient in steadiness and perseverance. Their first attack in battle was almost irresistible, but if that was repelled, they did not sustain the fight with equal courage. They were ardent in their likings and dislikings, but so fickle as to pass from the extreme of affection to that of hatred on the most trivial grounds. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that a similar character is usually given to the modern French. 9. The rivers of ancient Gaul frequently overflowed the country, and the marshes thus formed divided it into three great districts, Aquitain in the south, the territory of the Celts in the middle, and that of the Belgae on the north The inhabitants were divided into several tribes, each governed by their respective sovereign, and these were again subdivided into septs or clans, the head or chief of which possessed an almost absolute authority in his own domains. 10. These different communities were held together by a federal union similar to that of the Amphictyonic council in Greece, but there was no regular time appointed for holding the grand council ; it was only summoned on occasions of great emer- gency, and consequently frequently met too late to avert the evil against which it was summoned to provide. The govern- ment of the Celts appears to have been every where a complete aristocracy, differing from that established in the feudal limes by the absence of any gradations between absolute power and absolute slavery. 11. But the most remarkable feature in all the Celtic na- tions is their order of ecclesiastical nobility called Druids. This class of men enjoyed the highest honours, and the THE GAULS. 11 greatest privileges; they had the supreme control overall re- ligious ceremonies, and appeal could be made to their tribunal in civil cases ; their persons were sacred, and they were ex- empted from all taxes and militarj service : in a word, they enjoyed so many immunities and distinctions, that princes were ambitious of being admitted into their societies. 13. They are divided into three classes, the Druids, properly so called, to whom the care of religion was entrusted; the Bards, who were the historical poets of the nation; and the Euvates, who were a kind of religious poets, that pretended to inspiration and delivered oracles. There were also female Druids, who were held in high respect, and frequently called Druids. to assist at the council of the nation. The British Druids were the most celebrated, and the candidates for the priest- hood were freauently sent from Gaul into Britain to complete their education. 13. The sun and fire were worshipped as the most forcible emblems of the Supreme Divinity; but they also adored the moon, and a host of inferior deities. The Druids exceeded all other heathens in the extravagant cruelty of their sacrifices; they not only offered up human victims singly, but on some occasions they formed a huge colossal figure of a man, from osier twigs, and having filled U with human beings, surrounded it with hay, and reduced 12 HISTORY OF FRANCE. it, with all the miserable creatures it contained, to ashes. Th« great object of their reverence was the deru^ or oak, from which their name is derived ; and the misletoe, a parasitical plant, sometimes found growing on the oak, was especially venerated; it w^as annually cut with great ceremony, and carefully preserved by the Arch-Druid, or chief of the priests. 14. The learning of the Druids was confined, in a great degree, to a smattering of astronomy and anatomy : the for- mer they cultivated in consequence of their belief in the in- riuence of the stars, the latter they learned from the dissec- tion of their human victims; but they seem never to have derived any practical advantage from either study. Like the priests of Egypt and Persia, they are said to have had two systems of religious belief, one for the vulgar, and one for the initiated ; to the latter they taught the unity of the God- head, the doctrine of the immortality of the soul, and the worthlessness of many practices required from the vulgar. The doctrine of the Metempsychosis which Pythagoras pub- lished to the Greeks appears to have prevailed amongst the Druids from the remotest antiquity. 15. The Druids were detested by the Romans because they stimulated the inhabitants to the most vigorous efforts for their independence ; when, therefore, Gaul became a Ro- man province, the Druids were discouraged and their num- bers diminished. Early in the second century, Christianity was introduced into the country, and spread over it with sur- prising rapidity. Many superstitious observances derived from the Druids prevailed, however, for several centuries after- wards. 10. It is worthy of remark, that the Celts were the most easily converted, and the most devotedly attached to the church of all the nations of antiquity. The Gothic nations, after their conversion, for the most part fell into the Arian heresy, but the Gauls were always zealously attached to the Catholic doctrines. 17. After the subjugation of Gaul by the Romans, the van- quished adopted the language and customs of the conquerors; the ferocity of the Gauls was abated, the arts of civilized life introduced, and the former national character almost effaced. But with their freedom the Gauls lost the military spirit by which their ancestors had been distinguished ; luxury de- stroyed their courage, and they fell an easy prey to the de- scendants of those barbarians, by whom their ancestors had been expelhd from the east of Europe. THE GAULS IS Questions. 1. From whom were the Cimbri descended? 2. What nations sprung from Ciish ? 3. When did the Cimmerians migrate from the Danube* 4. How were the territories of the Celtic and Scythian tribes divided? 5. What mercantile nations colonized the south of Gaul ? 6 Dill the Gauls invade any of the European states? 7. How did they regard the Phocean settlement of Marseilles 7 8. What were the national characteristics of the Gauls ? 9. How was the country divided? 10. Was there any bond of connection between the several tribes! 11 Who were the ministers of their religion? 12. What were the gradations of rank among the Druids? 13. Can you mention any particulars of their religion? 14. In what branches of learning were they distinguished? 15 Why were the Druids disliked by the Romans? 16 How did the Gothic and Celtic Christians differ ? 17 What was the eftect of the subjugation of Gaul ? Ancient Celts or Cymri, called by Herodotus Cimmeriana. u HISTORY OF FRANCE. Merovaeus. CHAPTER II. THE FRANKS— FROM THE REIGN OF CLOVIS TO THE ACCESSION OF CHARLEMAGNE. How easy 'tis when destiny proves kind, With full-spread sails to run before the wind. Drtdeit, 1, The Romans continued undisturbed masters of Gaul during two entire centuries ; but about the year 260, various barbarous tribes began to make incursions into it; the em- perors, sunk in debauchery, neglected the care of the pro- vinces, and this beautiful country became the prey of its fero- cious invaders. In the year 414, the Biirgundians and Visi goths, two Germanic tribes, obtained from the emperor Hono- rius settlements in the southern provinces of Gaul, while the northern parts were seized on by the Franks, a tierce tribe, who had assumed their name from their firm determination io THE FRANKS. 15 remain free. Tnese people invaded Belgic Gaul, and, after a struggle which continued more than a century, succeeded in making themselves masters of a considerable tract, of which they made Treves the capital. Inauguration of a King of the Franks. 2. Before the accession of Clovis, several kings ruled over the Franks, of whom the most celebrated .0^' was Pharamond ; he, as well as king Arthur, is a fa- vourite hero of romance; his dynasty is usually called the Merovingian, from Meroveus their supposed ancestor. 3. On the accession of Clovis, who was inaugurated in the usual manner of kings of the Franks by raising him on the shield, Gaul was divided into five states; tliat of the Bur- gundians and Visigoths in the south, that of the Franks in the north-east, the independent republic of Armorica, which oc- cupied the place of the present province of Brittany, and a small part of Belgic Gaul, which still remained subject to the Romans. 4. The first enterprise of Clovis was an attack on the Roman province where Syagrius, the provincial go- vernor, was aiming at royal power ; Clovis, at the early age of nineteen, completely defeated Syagrius near Soissons, drove out the Romans, and thus laid the foundation of the future greatness of the French monarchy. It was after this battle, and the sacking of the city of the Soissons, that an 16 HISTORY OF FRA.NCE. incident occurred, showing the little authority possessed by the kings of the Franks over their subjects. Saint Reini, the Bishop of Rheiras, demanded of Clovis a sacred vase, wliich he had seen among the spoils of the city. Willing to pro- pitiate the priests, and if possible gain them to his interests, Clovis was about to take up the vase and present it to the bishop, when a soldier, springing forward, struck it a violent blow with his battle-axe, which broke it into many pieces, de- claring that he would not let the king take any thing belong- ing to his part. of the booty. Clovis for a time restrained his anger; but about a year afterwards, seizing the opportunity of a review of his troops, he struck the battle-axe from the hands of the soldier, and while he stooped to pick it up he killed him with a blow of his own axe, saying, Remember tlie vase of Soissons. The Vase of Soissons. 5. The Gauls detested the Roman yoke, and were ilrongfy attached to Christianity. Clovis won their affections by treating them with mildness, respecting their religion, and fa- vouring their bishops. His marriage with Clotilda, niece of Gondebald king of Burgundy, made his new subjects enter HISTORY OF FRANCE. THE FRANKS. 19 tain hopes that he would abjure idolatry for the Christian faith ; to which he was gradually reconciled by the exhorta- tions of that pious princess ; but he hesitated to make an im mediate change on account of the attachment of the Franks to their ancient faith. 6. At length, having defeated the Alemanni at Tolbiac, and attributing that victory .' ' to the God of Clotilda, whom he had invoked in th-e Clovis at the Battle of Tolbiac. crisis of the engagement, he caused himself to be baptized by St. Remi, bishop of Rheims, and the greater part of his sub- jects followed ilis example. After this event, having the sup- port of the bishop'j, Clovis greatly enlarged his dominions. He extended his conquests to the Loire ; and the battle of Voille, near Tour?- gained against the Visigoths, enabled the victorious Franks to carry their banners from Toulouse to Bonrdeaux, across the whole of Aquitania. On his return from the conquest Clovis entered in triumph the _' „' city of Tours. 7. The crimes of Gondebald afforded Clovis a pretext for attacking the Burgundians ; he was joined in this war by Theodoric the Great, king of Italy; but after having completed the conquest, Clovis found that he had more cause to dread his ally than his enemy, he therefore made peace with Gondebald and restored him to his dominions 20 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 8. Clovis next resolved to seize on the territoiies of Ala- lic, king of the Visigoths; he covered his designs under the mask of religion, continually exclaiming against the horrid impiety of suffering Arians to reign in Gaul, for the Visigoths had adopted that heresy. Though Alaric was no persecutor, the Catholic clergy in his dominions favoured the enterprise of Clovis, and afforded one of the earliest instances ^(17* ^^ ecclesiastical interference in the affairs of nations. At the battle of Vouille, near Poictiers, Clovis crowned the wishes of his party by a decisive victory, in which the Visigoths were totally overthrown and their sovereign Alaric slain. 9. Theodoric, alarmed at the progress of the Gauls, sent an army across the Alps, which checked the victorious career of Clovis, and inflicted on him a severe defeat near Aries. In consequence of this, Provence and part of Aqui- lain became subject to the Gothic monarchs of Italy. Clovis. 10. Clovis dishonoured the latter part of his reign by Btrocious acts of treach-^ry and cruelty to his own relations, virhom he stripped of their possessions. At the same time he built churches and monasteries; doubtless from A. D. a persuasion that the Divine laws, like those of the barbarians, admitted a pecuniary compensation foi every crime. THE FRANKS. 21 11. On the death of Clovis his dominions were shared among his four sons, Thierry, Clodomir, Childebert, and Ciotaire ; and the monarchy was unhappily dismembered into four kingdoms ; Austrasia or Metz, Orleans, Paris, and Soissons. This division of necessity produced the most bloody civil wars ; the brothers became bitter enemies, and perpetrated the most savage enormities. Ciotaire and Chil- debert wrested their dominions from the sons of Clo- domir, two of whom Ciotaire stabbed with his own /„ .' hand. They afterwards united in an invasion of Bur- gundy, in which they were completely successful. ciotaire I. 12. After a series of ruinous wars, Ciotaire I. became the sole monarch of France; but deriving no advantage from ex- perience of the calamities that had been caused by the former dismemberment of the kingdom, he too divided the monarchy between his four sons, and thus bequeathed another half- century of civil war to his unfortunate country. 13. The evils of this calamitous period were greatly ag- gravated by the sanguinary ambition of two women, who rather deserved the epithet of furies than the title of queens These were Brunehaut and Fredegonde. The former, a princess of Spain, had married Sigebert, king of Austrasia 22 HISTORY OF FRANCE. the latter, at first mistress of Chilperic, king of Soissons, had prevailed on him to espouse her after divorcing his wife. Their mutual hatred and uncontrolled influence over theii husbands, gave birth to numerous crimes equally fatal to the people and the royal family. Sigebert was murdered by Fre- degonde's emissaries while he was besieging Chilperic in Tournay. She afterwards sacrificed the children of her hus- band by his former marriage to secure for her own son the Brunehaut. right of succession. Brunehaut, on her part breathing ven- geance, armed the princes, and fanned the flames of civil war ; but at last, falling into the hands of Clotaire, the son of Fredegonde, she was condemned to the most horrid tor- ments, as guilty of the murders of ten kings or children of kings. There was an old German custom, according to which, the chief of a troop of warriors was expected to grant them, from time to time, some mark of his favour, generally an ornamented battle-axe, or a fine war-horse. When the Franks were established in Gaul, and the chief had become the king, instead of arms and horses, he preferred to distribute among them a part of his domains. Originally, these benefices were only temporary, being reunited to the royal domain after the death of the chief to whom they had been granted, or even THE FRANKS 23 during his life, in case of forfeiture or of treason. Trius the king's favours seldom lessened his means ; but, when he consented to alienate for ever portions more or less consider- able of his domain, he soon found it impossible to repair his prodigalities. When the leudes could obtain no more from the king, they began to desert him •, an independent aristo- cracy was formed, which daily increased in power as the royal authority became less. It was the Austrasian leudes who first obtained this right by the treaty of Andelot : the Neustrian and Burgundian leudes were not slow in demand- ing and obtaining it also. 14. Clotaire II., son of Chilperic and Fredegonde, again united France under a single monarch, after massacring a multitude of princes. He restored tran- quillity, and gained the confidence of his subjects, but by in- creasing the power of the nobility, and confiding tlie admi- nistration of government to the mayors of the palace^ he opened a way for the revolution which expelled his Simily from the throne. A. D. 613. Fredegonde. 15. Clotaire II. left the kingdom between his two sons, but Dagobert, by the murder of his brother, ob- ^'J^' tained possession of the entire. He is the most cele- brated of the Merovingian princes, and though he was guilty •24 HISTORY OF FRANCE. of many atrocious crimes, he is deservedly praised for hi* impartial administration of justice, which was publicly sold by his predecessors. On the other hand, he loaded the peo- ple with severe impositions, both to supply his debaucheries, 8nd according to the custom of the period, to expiate his •"imes by profuse donations to the church. Throne of Dagobert, in the Museum at Paris. 16. After the death of Dagobert the monarchy fell ' „■ into the possession of a series of monarchs who fol- lowed each other in rapid succession, and whose reigns present an almost perfect blank. They are commonly called Les Rois Fain^ans, or the sluggard kings, and appear to have well merited the disgraceful appellation. 17. The entire power of the state was possessed by the mayors of the palace, who left to the monarch little more than the shadow of royalty ; of these the most illustrious was Pepin d'Heris- tal, who ruled the province of Austrasia for twenty-seven years with equal prudence and courage. During the greater part of this period Pepin was virtually the sovereign of France, and kept the rightful monarch a prisoner in the palace, per- mitting him only to show himself annually to the people at the assemblies in ;;«aet, Siiield, and Saddle. 28 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Gbarlemagne, from a Mosaic, made by order of Pope Leo QL CHAPTER III. THE REIGN OF CHARLEMAGNE. All was prepared — T;he fire, the sword, the me To wield them in their terrible array; The army, like a lion from his den, March'd forth with nerves and sinews bent to slay. A human Hydra issuing from his fen To breathe destruction on its winding way. Btrsx. 1. The French monarchy was divided between ',' Charles, called afterwards Charlemagne, or Charle* the Great, and his brother Carloman. A civil war which was on the point of breaking out between the rival brothers was prevented by the death of the latter, and Charle- magne became the sole monarch of France. Having secured his accession he married the daughter of Didier, king of the Lombards, but soon after divorced her without assigning any cause. Didier, enraged at this affront, afforded an asylum to C>arloman's widow and her two sons, who had been deprived THE REIGN OF CHARLEMAGINE. 29 of their inheritance by Charles, and attempted to gain over pope Adrian I. to his side. 2. But the pope was far from wishing to gratify the Lombard prince ; on the contrary, he entered into a closer alliance with the French king, on which Didier ravaged the territories that Pepin had given to the church, and which were now called the patrimony of St. Peter. Upon the news of these events Charlemagne passed the Alps with a numerous army, and by forced marches arriving at Verona before his approach was suspected, cap- tured the town, and made his sister-in-law with her two chil- dren prisoners. He next laid siege to Pavia, and by its capture put an end to the kingdom of the Lombards, -I,' which had subsisted two hundred and six years. Didier died in a monastery, but history is silent as to the fate of Charlemagne's nephews. 3. During the siege- of Pavia Charlemagne paid a visit to Home, where he was met by the whole body of the clergy, with banners in their hands : Adrian received him with great pomp in the church of St. Peter, and the people sung " Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord.'''' Charlemagne is said to have ratified the gift made to the church by Pepin ; but as neither the original nor any copy of such an important deed has been ever produced, the truth of this event appears very questionable. 4. Almanzor, the king of the Saracens in Spain, was one of the greatest and wisest monarchs in Europe; he had com- pletely subdued the Christian princes in the Peninsula, and compelled them to pay him tribute ; the rulers of Sara- gossa and Arragon however revolted, and called in '^n' Charlemagne, whom they acknowledged as their sovereign. The French monarch passed the Pyrennees and subdued the whole country as far as the Ebro, but on his return the rear of his army was attacked at Roncesvalles by the duke of Gascony, and his gallant nephew Roland slain. This trifling engagement has furnished the theme of an im- mense number of romances. 5. During all this period the war with the Saxons con- tinued : Pepin had compelled them to pay tribute, and besides forced them to receive missionaries, but they could neither bear to pay the one nor embrace the religion of the other, the pacific spirit of which was so contradictory to the human passions. Having massacred several of the missionaries, and committed several other outrages, they provoked Charlemagne 30 HISTORY OF FRANCE. to wage war against them, and so strenuously were they at- tached to liberty, that they held out against his power ^Q.-,' for thirty years. 6. In one of these battles Witikindf the Saxon general, inflicted a severe defeat on the French, which Charlemagne cruelly revenged by the massacre of Verden, where four thousand five hunch'ed of the principal Saxons were beheaded. 7. At length Witikind, after being Submission of Witikind. defeated with great slaughter in several battles, made his sub- mission, and embraced Christianity. His followers were not equally tractable; they often revolted, and were not com- pletely subdued until Charlemagne removed many thousand families of them, which he dispersed through Flanders and other countries. Some of the most resolute tribes retired into Scandinavia, carrying with them an implacable hatred against the dominion and religion of the French. 8. Every nation in Germany that attempted to make the least resistance to the arms of Charlemagne was subdued ; the Sclavonians in Pomerania shared the fate of the Saxons, and were compelled to become Christians and subjects. Tassilo, duke of Bavaria, the nephew of Charlemagne, had THE REIGN OF CHARLEMAGNE. 31 encouragea the Saxons in their rebellion, and Charlemagne in turn entered Bavaria. The duke in his distress sought the alliance of the Huns or Abares, who had settled in the king- dom of Hungary, to which they have given their name. This nation of robbers used to sally out and plunder all the neigh- bouring states, and then return with their booty to some for- tified enclosures which tiiey called rings. This alliance with the Bavarian duke was fatal to both parties ; his own subjects, disgusted with their barbarous allies, rebelled against Tassilo, and delivi red him up to Charlemagne, by whom he was sen- tenced to perpetual imprisonment; the Huns, after a severe and protracted struggle, which lasted nine years, were totally subdued, iheir rings taken, and the accumulated plunder of two hundred years seized on by the French monarch. 9. On the death of queen Hildegard, Charlemagne took for liis wife Fastrade, a woman of low birth, but „* ' of a vindictive and haughty temper; this marriage was fatal to his peace and to his fame : she filled his mind with jealousies and suspicions, stimulated him to acts of cruelty, and made him the oppressor both of the nobles and the people. 10. This conduct created disafl^ection, a conspiracv was formed to dethrone Charlemagne, and ' * to place the crown on the head of Pepin, one of his natural si.ns. The plot was fortunately discovered, and most of the conspirators punished, but Charlemagne never again recovered the full confidence of his subjects. 11. Leo III., who succeeded Adrian on the papal throne, immediately after his accession sent the stan- ' ' dard of Rome to Charlemagne, entreating him to send a deputy to that cily to receive the allegiance of the inhabit- ants ; a clear proof that the pontiffs at this period acknow ledged the sovereignty of the emperor. Three years after, the relations of the late pope brought an accusation against Leo, attacked him in the open street, overwhelmed him with a shower of blows, and shut him up half dead in the prison of a monastery. From thence, however, he contrived to make his escape, and fled to Charlemagne, who received hira with the greatest respect, sent him back loaded with honours, and pronused soon to foUovv him into Italy. 12. Li the following year Charlemagne proceeded to Rom(=, to investigate the changes made against Leo ; „' „ several of the clergy objected to this proceeding, de- claring that ecclesiastics could not be tried by a lay tribuna) 32 HISTORY OF FRANCE. out Leo consented to make his defence, and was honourably acquitted. On the Christmas-day following, the pope, in the midst of divine service, placed an imperial crown on the head of Charlemagne, and the people shouted, " Long life to Charles Augustus^ crowned by the hand of God, great and pacific emperor of the RotnansP Leo by this act threw off the nominal subjection under which the popes still were to the emperors of Constantinople, and from this period there were two empires, the eastern and the western, Charlemagne being the first emperor of the west. 13. The death of Fastrade having left Charlemagne again a widower, he designed to marry Irene, who had usurped the throne of Constantinople, after having dethroned and mur- dered her son Constantine. This match was prevented by a new change in the east ; Irene was dethroned by the patrician Nicephorus, who confined her in a monastery, and mounted the throne. 14. The new emperor, dreading the power of „", j' Charlemagne, hastened to enter into alliance with him ; a treaty was concluded, by which the limits of the two empires were settled ; and thus the sovereignty of the entire Roman empire, so long claimed by the monarchs of Constantinople, was resigned. 15. The fame of Charlemagne penetrated into Asia. The celebrated caliph, Haroun al Raschid, whose name is familiar to every reader of the Arabian Tales, and who was one of the greatest encouragers of learning in the east, sent an em- bassy to Charlemagne with many valuable presents, among which was a striking clock, said to have been the first ever seen in France : as a further proof of his friendship, the caliph ceded to him the sovereignty of Jerusalem, which, even at this period, was frequented by pilgrims for the pur- poses of devotion. 16. Charlemagne had now vanquished all his old J^' enemies, when a new and more formidable foe ap- peared on his coasts ; the Normans, a people from the northern shores of the Baltic, under the command of a brave leader named Godfrey, made several piratical incursions on the shores of France, and carried off immense spoil, Charlemagne led an army against the country of 'ihese pirates, but finding the difficulties of the war insuperabJe, was com- pelled to make peace with them and return home. 17. One great cause of the ruin of states, in the middle THE REIGN OF CHARLEMAGNE. 38 ages, was the absurd custom of dividing them, after the de cease of the sovereign, among several princes ; Charlemagne adopted this absurd practice, and by his will, which he caused to be signed by the bishops and other great lords, he shared his empire between his three sons, Charles, Pepin, and Louis, appointing them also his lieutenants during his „' ' life-time. But soon after this arrangement the two eldest died, and Charles associated his surviving son Louis with him in the kingdom. 18. The death of ' ' his children weighed heavily on the mind of Chailes; from a state of vigorous health he passed all at once to the infirmity and decrepitude of old age ; as the hour of his dis- solution approached, he devoted his time to preparation foi the awful change, and spent the last year of his life in the study of the Scriptures, in prayer and in acts of charity. When Charles felt that the moment of his dissolution was at hand, he gathered sufficient strength to make the sign of the cross with his right hand ; then quietly composing himself in the bed, he exclaimed, " Into thy hands I commend my spirit," and expired as he uttered the words. 19. Charlemagne died in the seventy-second year of his age, and the forty-fourth of his reign, after having acquired a vast empire, which his abilities could alone maintain. He was master of all France, Germany, Hungary, and Belgium, together with the country of Barcelona in Spain, and Italy as far as Benevento. His abilities, as a conqueror and general, did not surpass his great qualities as a ironarch and states- man. He created a naval force to control the piratical at- tempts of the Normans, he designed a canal of communica- tion between the Rhine and Danube, which would have united the commerce of the Atlantic Ocean and the Black Sea — a useful project, which the want of intelligent work- men prevented from being put into execution ; he founded schools and universities, and gave his subjects a code of laws called capitularies ; which, amid many absurdities, contain a great number of useful enactments. The administration of justice during the reign of Charlemagne, was provided for by the establishment of commissioners, who made quarterly circuits through the provinces, to receive and juage of all complaints against the local governors, and to whom the clergy were subject as well as the laity. The greatest defect in the policy of Charlemagne was his constant intermeddling with points of religious belief, and his issuing edicts on ob C 34 HISTORY OF FRANCE. BCiire questions of theology, many of which transcended thfl bounds of human knowledge. The procession of the third person in the Trinity, was one of the topics on which Charlemagne thought fit to legislate, and but for the prudence of Leo IIF. the emperor's determination on this subject would have produced as great a schism between the Italian and Gal- ilean churches, as that between the Latins and Greeks. Though Charlemagne censured the riches and luxury of ec- clesiastics, he made several rich donations to the churcli, and greatly increased the power and possessions of the papal see. 20. In private life the French monarch was a very estima- ble character; he divided tlie day into several portions, as- signing to each its different employment. He was a kind master, a tender husband, and an affectionate father. He was strongly attached to literature, and conversation with men of learning was the favourite employment of his hours of re- laxation. Questions. 1. What was the cause of the war between Charlemagne and Didier? 2. How did it terminate ? 3. In what manner was Charles received at Rome 4. What led to the battle of Roncesvalles ? 5. With what German nation was Charles at war? 6. Was he ever defeated 7 7. How did the war terminate? 8. What other nations were subdued by Charlemagne? 9. Why was his second marriage unfortunate ? 10. What was the consequence of his cruelty ? 11. To what dangers was Pope Leo HI. exposed ? 12. How did the pope reward Charlemagne? 13. What prevented the marriage of Charles and Irene 14. Wliat remarkable treaty was concluded with Nicephorus T If). How does it appear that the fame of Charles penetrated inM the east ? 16. What new enemy attacked the French coasts 7 17. How did Cliarles provide for his children? 18. How was the close of his life spent? 19. What was the character of his reign 7 aC. How did he conduct himself in private life I THE CARLOVINGIAN RACE. 35 Ancient Crossbow Men. CHAPTER IV. FRENCH MONARCHS OF THE CARLOVINGIAN RACE O monarch, listen. — How many a day and moon thou hast reclined Within these palace wails in silken dalliance, And never shown thee to thy people's longing! — Till all, save evil, slumbered in the realm. BrRoir. 1. The empire which had been established by the wisdom and policy of Charlemagne, soon crumbled q*, .' lo pieces during the reigns of his weak and inglorious successors. The entire history of the period is confused and entangled by the divisions which the sovereigns made of their dominions between their children, by the rapid changes of territory and succession of monarchs, distinguished only by their name ; the reader should therefore refer to the tabular view of the French kings at the end of the volume, when^ ever he finds himself impeded by these difficulties. The people of France hailed the accession of Louis with joy, be- cause he had endeared himself to the people of AquitaiiL 36 HISTORY OF FRANCE. where he had hitherto resided, by gentleness and good temper, and seemed more attached to his native subjects than to foreigners*, while Ciiarleinagne was supposed to have dis- liked both the language and the people of France. From the suavity of his manners and kindness of his disposition, his subjects called him Louis Le Debonnaire, or the Good-natured j a name expressive of qualities valuable in private life, but nut the best suited for the management of a powerful empire. 2. Two years after his accession he received the o"]^' "mperial crown from the hands of Pope Stephen V., and soon after committed the greatest and most com- mon error of the French sovereigns, by dividing the monarchy among his children ; thus still more weakening an authority already much enfeebled by the folly of the government. He gave Aquitain to Pepin, Bavaria to Louis, and made Lothaire, the eldest of these princes, his partner in the empire. 3. Bernard, the nephew of Louis, enjoyed the crown of Jtaly as a fief of the empire ; indignant at the elevation of Lothaire, he raised the standard of revolt, and broke out into open rebellion. Being abandoned by his troops, he was taken prisoner, tried, and condemned to death ; but Louis commuted the punishment, and caused his eyes to be put out; three days after the young prince died. In order to prevent new troubles, the emperor shut up in a monastery three natural soos of Charlemagne, and compelled them to take the mo- nastic vows. 4. After these acts of rigour, Louis became distracted with remorse ; he reproached himself as the murderer of his ne- phew, and the tyrant of his brothers ; these feelings were ag- gravated by the artifices of the clergy, who, at length, per- suaded the king to accuse himself in a general assembly, and to solicit the prelates to admit him to public penance. Though the clergy pretended to be greatly edifiecl by his proceedings, they saw how easily a man of such feeble un- derstanding might be enslaved to their authority, and were not slow in taking advantage of the mistaken devotion which degraded the imperial majesty. 5. An opportunity soon pre- sented itself; after the death of his first wife, Louis had been united to Judith, daughter of the count of Bavaria, and had by her a son who was afterwards king of France, under the name of Charles the Bald. As this child seemed to be ex eluded from the succession by the partition made in favour of the children of the first marriage, Louis was prevailed upon THE CARLOVINGIAN RACE. 37 to make a new division, and obtain the consent of Lothaire. who was principally concerned to oppose it, and who soon found reason to lament his complaisance. The three princes soon after formed a party to re- store the original arrangement, and received efJeclive q^q' aid from Vala, abbot of Corbie, who, though reputed a saint, did not scruple to put himself at the head of a fac- tion. Prodigies were invented to inflame the credulous mul- titude, the most odious charges were brought against the go- vernment, and especially the empress was accused of having committed adultery with Count Bernard, a minister who had rendered himself odious by his stern inflexibility. G. The weak-minded Louis humbled himself to the rebels, his em- press was confined to a cloister, the king himself narrowly escaped a similar fate, and was compelled to publish a general amnesty, which only increased the insolence of the seditious. 7. The flames of this rebellion had scarcely been extinguished, when a multitude of errors kindled an- qoo* other. Louis began once more to exercise the powers of a sovereign ; he recalled Judith to court, when her am bition was exasperated by a thirst of vengeance ; he banished Vala, regardless of the popularity which he had acquired by his pretensions to sanctity, and finally he disinherited his two sons Lothaire and Pepin, thus affording them a pretext for their unnatural hostility.^ He even made himself odious to his able minister, count Bernard, by giving himself up to the councils of a monk, who had unhappily gained his confii- dence. 8. Lothaire, Pepin, and Louis, assembled their troops in Alsace, and prepared to march against their jao.^' father and their sovereign. Pope Gregory IV. joined them under the pretence of acting as a mediator, but dis- played all the zeal of a warm partizan, and threatened the weak monarch wiih the terrors of excommunication. Upon this several of the loyal prelates of France sent a spirited remonstrance to the pope, accusing him of treason to his sovereign, threatening him with excommunication for excom- munication, and even with deposition, if he persevered in hia rebellion. Agobard, bisliop of Lyons, the most celebrated c.i the French prelates, rei'used to concur with his bretliren, and joined with Vala and a monk named Ratberl, in asserting tliat the pope was invested with the aulh.orily of universal judge and was amenable, to nu hnuian tribunal. Gregory, acting on 4 38 HISTORY OF FRANCE. the principles of his srpporters, replied to the renionstranp.f. of the loyal prelates in terms of haughtiness, previously unparalleled, and asserted an authority which no pope had hitherto claimed, 9. The crafty Lothaire sent Gregory to propose terms of accommodation with Louis : it is not known what passed at the interview, but the consequences were destructive of the royal cause. By the intrigues of Gregory the monarch was suddenly deprived of all support, and obliged to surrender to his enemies at discretion. He was then deposed by a tumul- tuous assembly, and the empire conferred on his son ; after which the pope returned to Rome. 10. In order to give permanency to this revolution, Ebbo, whom Louis had raised from a servile condition to the see of Rheims, proposed the following extraordinary and iniquitous method. "A penitent," he said, " ought to be excluded from Holding any civil office ! therefore a king who is a penitent must be incapable of governing; consequently, to subject Louis to penance, will for ever bar his way to the throne." The advice was acted upon, Louis was compelled to perform public penance in the monastery of St. Medard de Soissons, and after having signed a written confession, was stripped oi his royal robes, clothed in the habit of a penitent, and ira mured in a cell ; while Agobard was employed to write a vindication of all these horrors. 11. But the prelates had proceeded too far; the cry „" ' of outraged nature and the voice of justice made a deep impression on the minds of the people ; Lothaire became the object of universal detestation, and a new revolu- tion restored Louis to his throne. His superstitious weakness became now more conspicuous than ever; he refused to re- sume the title of sovereign until he had received absolution professed the most profound submission to Gregory, and, after a short suspension, restored Agobard to his formei authority. 12. A repetition of the same faults naturally pro- _* ■ duced the same misfortunes ; on the death of his son Pepin, Louis divided his dominions between Lothaire and Charles, to the exclusion of the Bavarian prince, who immediately had recourse to arms. While the emperor was on his march against this rebellious son, tortured with grief and terrified by an eclipse of the sun which he deemed an «vil omei:, he fell sick in the neighbourhood of Men tz, where rhE CARLOVINGIAN RACE. 39 ne expired in the twenty-eightli yeai of his reign A pro- vision for his favourite son Charles occupied his attention even in his last moments, and he hequealhed to him the pro- vinces of Burgundy and Neustria, which was subsequently called Normandy. 13. During this reign the Saracens having subdued Sicily, infested the Tuscan Sea and threatened to make themselves masters of Italy ; and in the mean time the Normans con- tinued to ravage the coasts of Flanders and France. Thus wnth enemies on the north and south, discord, crime, and civil war raging within, Europe at this period presented a most lamentable picture ; the misfortunes of France above all demand our attention, for its crimes were the greatest and its sufferings were the most severe. 14. A bad son will never make a good brother: . A. D. scarcely had Lothaire been seated on the throne, when '/ he prepared to strip his brothers of their dominions. Louis and Charles, united by common interest, marched against their eldest brother, and defeated him at Fontenai in Burgundy. Few battles have been more bloody than this; historians differ as to the precise number of the slain, but all agree that the loss which France sustained in that fatal field, was one of the principal causes of the subsequent triumphs of the Norman invaders. 15. In order to procure the assistance of the Saxons, Lo- thaire had promised to suspend the laws of Charlemagne, which compelled them to observe the ordinances of Chris- tianity ; this afft^rded his brothers a pretence for endeavouring to procure his deposition. A numerous meeting of bishops was held at Aix-la-Chapelle, before whom the two princes preferred their complaint ; and the bishops having examined the charge, pronounced that Lothaire had forfeited his right to tlie empire, which they assigned over to his brothers. This decree would have been observed to its iuU extent, had Lo- tliaire been as ready to obey it as his brothers. But this prince was still formidable, and compelled his rivals to a new treaty of partition, subsequently confirmed at Mersen on the Maes, by which he retaineil most of his former dominions. 16. A few years after these transactions, Lothaire A. Da died; a litth^ before iiis dissolution he commanded op-,-' riiinself to be clothed in a monkish dress ; a convenient piece of devotion, by whicfi bad princes thought that their crimes might be expiated at the moment of death Hia 40 HISTORY OF FRANCE. dominions were divided among his sons ; Louis had Italy with the title of emperor, Lothaire II. obtained that province which from him was called Lotharingia, and subsequently Lorraine^ and Charles had the kingdom of Provence. Thus the empire of Charlemagne was divided into a number of petty states, the mutual jealousies of which were productive of constant bloodshed. The dominions of Charles the Bald were the most unfortunate of these states ; governed by a prince who inherit&d the weakness of his father and the turbulent spirit of his mother, devastated by the Normans, who carried fire and sword to the very gates of Paris, and distracted by dis sensions between the clergy and nobility, who, intent on their own petty jealousies, abandoned the state to its enemies. In this condition of aflairs Charles was unable to make any re- sistance to the Normans, and when they sailed up the Seine to besiege Paris, he could only save the city by bribing them to retire ; a course of proceeding which only made them the more eager to return. 17. Tiie weakness of the successors of Charle- c.'on' magne, had stimulated the ambition of the popes to ■ establish their authority over all the European monarchs, and an event which occurred about this time not a little contributed to their success. Lothaire II. king of Lor- raine, divorced his veife Teutberga on a false charge of incest. She had first justified herself by the ordeal of boiling water, but was subsequently convicted on her own confession, if a declaration extorted by threats and brutal violence, can be called by that name. Lothaire then married his concubine Valdrada, and persuaded a council of bishops assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle, to sanction his proceedings. 18. The flagrant iniquity of this act in some degree justified the inter- ference of the pope : it was perhaps his duty to have rebuked Lothaire, but Nicholas was resolved to bring him to trial. A council was assembled at Mentz which proceeded to examine into the affair, and, contrary to the universal expectation, i decided in favour of Lothaire. Nicholas deposed the bishops who had been most influential in procuring this decision, and sent a legate to threaten the king of Lorraine with prompt excommunication unless he recalled Teutberga. The intimi- dated monarch consented, and even gave up Valdrada to be taken as a prisoner to Rome. She however escaped on the road, and returning to Lorraine, was restored to her formei honours; while Teutberga, wearied out by the contest, as- THE CARLOVINGIAN RACE. 41 sented to the nullity of her own marriage, and acknowledged her rival as legitimate queen. 19. This did not satisfy Nicholas; but death prevented his interference, and his suc- cessor, a prelate of greater moderation, contented himself with summoning Lothaire to Rome. That prince swore on the Holy Sacrament, that he was innocent of the crimes laid to his charge ; and his death, which occurred soon after, was universally looked upon as the punishment of his perjury. 20. The dominions of Lothaire were seized by his uncles, Charles the Bald and Louis the Germanic, to the exclusion of his brother the emperor Louis. In vain did pope Adriaa threaten the king of France as an usurper ; supported by the celebrated Hencraar of Rheims, he issued a manifesto assert- ing the supremacy of the state over the church, and declaring that free men would not allow themselves to be enslaved by the bishop of Rome. The pope soon found means to annoy the French monarch ; Charles had shut up his two younger sons in a monastery ; Lothan-e, who was lame and sickly, re- conciled himself to his lot, but Carloman resisted his father's determination, and found the pope an assistant in his rebel- lion. Carloman was eventually defeated, and obliged to seek an asylum in the court of Louis the Germanic. 21. Meantime Louis II. died without male issue, and their mutual advantage persuaded the French q^,-' court and the holy see to lay aside their jealousies. Adrian wrote a friendly and even flattering letter to Charles; his successor, John VIII. went farther, and crowned him as Bmperor at Favia. About the same time died Louis the Ger- manic, dividing his kingdom as usual among his three chil- dren. Charles made an ineffectual attempt to deprive them of their possessions, but was defeated with loss and disgrace It appears a strange instance of imprudence that he should thus aim at foreign conquests, while he was unable to pre- serve his own dominions from the ravages of the Normans, who devastated the country in every direction. 22. The Saracens -still continued to lay waste the shores of Italy, and the pope, terrified at their progress, q~-.* summoned the emperor to his assistance, threatening that he would deprive him of the erhpire in case of a refusal. Charles complied with the mandate, but he had scarcely ar- rived in Italy, when the news reached him that his nephew Carloman was on his march to deprive him of the imperial crown. He hasted to return to France, but on the road he 4* 42 HISTORY OF FRANCE. was deserted by his lords, and being seized with disease, dic6 miserably in a wretched hut by the way-side. 23. This reign is remarkable as being that in which the feudal system was finally established. The government of provinces and districts, which had been previously held during pleasure, or at most for life, was by a capitulary enacted in the last year of this reign, made hereditary; and thus the power of the nobles was firmly established on the ruins of the royal authority. 24. About this time also, the Gauls and Franks began to be amalgamated into one nation, and the lan- guage of the country, which had been previously a mixture of Latin and German, began to settle down into two dialects, deriving their name from the word in each that signified yes. The southern was called langue dPoc, and was the parent of the Provencal or language of the Troubadours, the northerns used the langue dPoui^ from which the modern French has been derived. Questions. 1. Why were the French pleased at the accession of Louis? 2. What error did he commit? 3. How did he suppress the rebellions that threatened his se- curity ? 4. Did be repent of his severity ? 5. What event occasioned new disturbances 1 6. How did the rebellion terminate? 7. What were the causes of the second civil war ? 8. By what prelate were the rebels aided ? 9. How did the war terminate ? 10. By what artifice was it attempted to exclude Louis from the throne ? 11. What was the consequence ? .12. What caused the death of Louis'? 13. In what situation was Europe at this time ? 14. How did the sons of Louis behave to each other ? 15. Under what pretext did his brothers attack Lothaire? 16. Why was the empire further subdivided 1 17. What circumstance enabled the popes to increase ihei/ power ? 18. How did pope Nicholas behave ? 19. In what manner did this affair terminate? 20. Who seized on the dominions of Lothaire ? And what wai the consequence ? 21. How were the French and papal courts united ? 22. Was there any thing remarkable in the death of Chailesf 23. When was the feudal system established, and howt 24. What two languages prevailed in France? THE CARLOVINGIAN RACE, 43 Charles the Bald. CHAPTER V. THE CARLOVINGIAN RACE CONTINUED. In vain recorded in historic page They court the notice of a future age : Those twinkling tiny lustres of the land Drop one by one from Fame's neglecting hand ; Lethean gulfs receive them as they fall, And dark oblivion soon absorbs them all. 1. Charles the Bald was succeeded by his son Louip, sur named Le Begue^ or the Stammerer, during whose brief reign of two years, no event of importance occurred. He 'eft behind two sons, Louis and Carloman, and some „' p* months after his death, a posthumous son, Charles, was born, who was afterwards surnamed the Simple. Louis HI. and Carloaian shared between them the dominions of their father, and lived together in harmony. But Bozon, the father-in-law of Carloman, dismembered the French monarchy by the erection of a new kingdom. A council, held at Mante, "n Dauphiny, declared that they had been divinely inspired to g'ive the kingdom of Aries, or, as it is more usually called 44 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Provence, to the Duke of Bozon, 2. The pope sanctioned the proceeding, and personally crowned the new monarch Bozon proved a wise and politic sovereign ; he preserved his little kingdom safe from all the calamities by which the rest of the country was devastated, and during several centu- ries Provence continued the centre of all the elegance and re' fineraent of France. 3. The sons of Charles the Bald did not long pos- „Q . ' sess the throne ; both died prematurely, and the right of inheritance devolved to Charles the Simple, then in his fifth year. The nobles of France saw that in the present condition of that country, an infant sovereign would precipi- tate the ruin of the state, and they therefore gave the crown to Charles, surnamed le Gros, or the Fat, the only surviving son of Louis the Germanic. As he had previously succeeded to the inheritance of his two brothers, and had obtained the imperial crown from the pope, the greater part of the domi- nions of Charlemagne were again united under one head ; but that head, destitute of genius and courage, was unequal to the management of such extensive territories. 4. Charles was proud and cowardly ; he was also rendered contemptible by his gluttony, and infamous by his disregard of treaties. Sooi after his accession, he purchased a peace from the Normans, by yielding up to them the province of Friezland, and stipu- lating to pay them tribute ; but he again provoked their hos- tility by repeated acts of treachery, and they fell upon France with greater fury than ever. 5. Advancing through the coun try, they burned Pontoise, and at length laid siege to q'qo' Paris. This siege is celebrated both in history and romance for the valiant resistance of the besieged. Eudes, Count of Paris, had put the town into a good state of defence, and augmented the garrison by the addition of several brave nobles, among whom two bishops, Goslin and Ansheric, were conspicuous. 6. For more than a year they held out, anxiously expecting the approach of their sovereign to raise the siege. At length he appeared at the head of a numerous army, but though almost sure of victory, he had not the spirit to hazard an engagement, but purchased the re- treat of the Normans by the payment of an enormous ransom. 7. All the nations of the French empire were seized with a spirit of revolt, principally arising from their disgust at this disgraceful transaction. The Germans first took up arms THE CARLOVINGIAN RACE. 45 ■nd elected Arnolph, a natural son of the king of Bavaria, as their sovereign. Italy submitted to the dukes of Friuli and Spoleto, and France chose as its sovereign, Eudes, the heroic defender of Paris. The unhappy Charles fell into a state of confirmed insanity ; deserted by his servants, and expelled from his palace, he would have wanted the common neces- saries of life but for the compassion of Luitbart, bishop of Mentz, and under the protection of that generous '' prelate he terminated his miserable existence. 8. Eudes had been elected king of France, but his domin- ions were limited to the provinces that lie between the Meuse and the Loire ; even in this diminished territory there were several principalities, whose submission to the sovereign was only nominal, of whom the counts of Flanders and Anjou were the most powerful. After a short time, the people of France became dissatisfied with the vigorous administration of Eudes, and the count of Vermandois united with the archbishop of Rheims to restore the throne to the ^\n rightful heir, Charles the Simple. 9. After some fight- ing, it was agreed to divide the kingdom between the two monarchs; Eudes retaining Paris and its neighbourhood 16 HISTORY OF FRANCE. while the court of Charles was established on the q' / banks of the Moselle. At length Eudes died, and Charles became the sole monarch of France. 10. After an absolute blank of some years, we meet with an account of the appearance of RoUo, the most celebrated of the Norman chieftains. He every where defeated the French forces, seized on Rouen, which he converted into a place of arms, and struck the king with so much terror, that lie resolved to purchase peace on any conditions. He sent a bishop as an ambassador to Hollo, offering to give him his daughter in marriage, and cede the province of Neustria to him and his followers, provided that he should become a Christian, acknowledge the king of France as his feudal sove- reign, and aid in repelling any future invasions of his coun- trymen. Rollo, to whom religion was a matter of perfect indifference, assented to all the conditions, stipulating only thfet Bretagne should be ceded to him until the other province was cultivated. This was granted, the marriage soon after- wards took place, and Rollo paid homage to the crown more jke a conqueror than a vassal. 11. The weakness and incapacity of Charles became „' ■ every day more apparent; he allowed himself to be entirely governed by Haganon, a man of low birth, hated by the nobility, and despised by the people. Robert, brother of king Eudes, appeared in arms against him ; and Charles, instead of levying an army, assembled a council. where he procured the excommunication of his opponents. 12. After a slight struggle, Robert was killed in battle, and his son, Hugh the Great, or the Abbot, though he might have obtained the crown for himself, chose rather to bestow it on Raoul or Rodolph, duke of Burgundy. Rodolph gained over the nobles by lavish donations of the land, which still belonged to the crown ; Charles was made a prisoner, and his A. D - 1 qon" queen Elgiva fled to the court of her brother Athelstan, king of England, accompanied by her son, a boy about nine years old. Herbert, count de Vernandois, had obtained possession of the person of the unhappy Charles, under the pretence of undertaking his defence ; but he detained him a prisoner, in order to procure good terms from Rodolph by threatening him with the liberation of his rival. By this means he procured the county of Laon from the new sove reign, and Charles soon afterwards died, poisoned, as it is said bv the count de Vernandois, THE CARLOVINGIAN RACE. 47 13. During his unhappy reign, France was for ever deprived of Germany and the empire. Despising the weakness of Charles the Simple, the German states unanimously elected Otho, duke of Saxony, to the imperial throne; but Otho de- clining it on account of his advanced age, proposed Coniad, duke of Frariconia, and his choice was confirmed by the assembly of the states. This monarch died in 919, recom- mending to the nobility Henry, son of his benefactor Otho, as his successor. At a general assembly of the states this recom- mendation was adopted ; and Henry, surnamed the Fowler, from his love of hawking, obtained possession of the empire. This prince and his immediate successors were celebrated for their valour and prudence ; they restored tranquillity to the middle of Europe, and thus the house of Saxony became the heirs both to the glory and power of Charlemagne. 14. Though Rodolph was nominally king of France, all the real power of the state was lodged in the haiids of Hugh the Great, who had raised him to the throne. In addition to his hereditary property, he enjoyed the revenues of so many abbeys, that he is frequently called the Abbot. The posses- sions of the church were now so great that they had attracted the cupidity of the laity, and though the papal see frequently endeavoured to check such a fflaringf abuse, it con- o o " A. D. tinned to prevail during this and the following age. g!^/ Rodolph did not long enjoy the crown; he survived the unhappy Charles about six years, leaving no children. Rollo, the conqueror of Normandy, died about three years before, leaving his son William, surnamed longue epee^ oi Long-sword, the heir both of his principality and bis virtues (questions. 1. By whom was the kingdom of Provence founded ? 2. What was the character of Bozon ? 3. By whom were the dominions of Charlemagne again anitsd under a single sovereign ? 4. What was the character of Charles the Fat? 5. Did any thing remarkable occur at the siege of PariaT 6. How was the siege raised ? 7. What was the effect of the king's cowardice? 8. Why did the French revolt against Eudes i HISTORY OF FRANCE. 9. How was the war terminated? 10. On what condition was peace made with Rolio? 1. Who raised the standard of revolt against Charles f 12. What were the events of the war ? 13. By whom was the empire of Germany founded! 14. How was France governed ? of the NonanRTti or XonnsMi THE CARLOVINGIAN RACE. 40 CHAPTER VI. THE CARLOVINGIAN RACE CONCLUDED. O mortal, mortal Ptate ! and what art thou ? Even in thy glory comes the changing shade, And makes thee like a vision fade away! And then misfortune takes the moisten'd sponga And clean effaces all the picture out. JCSCHTIVS. 1. On the death of Rodolph, the supreme power mmained in the hands of Hugh, who, in addition to '„„' tiS9 county of Paris, his paternal inheritance, possessed the duchies of France and Burgundy. Either disliking the title of king, or dreading the jealousy of the nobles, Hugh a second time refused the crown, and invited Louis, the son of Charles, to return from his place of refuge in England, 5 D 60 HISTORY OF FRANCE. and assume the reins of government. 2. Athelstan dreading some treachery, endeavoured to dissuade his nephew from compliance; but the young prince was eager to return to his country, and the character of Hugh removed all grounds of apprehension. Louis, surnamed (VOutremer^ or the Stranger, was received on his landing with the greatest respect; Hugh conducted him to Rheims, where he was crowned by the title of Louis IV. 3. Louis was superior to his predecessors in ability and courage, but he was destitute of honour and in- tegrity, deficiencies which made all his other qualities ineflec- tual. Hugh had indeed invited Louis to return, but had not the slightest intention of giving up the administration. The king made an attempt to obtain the reins of power, but Hugh then became his enemy, placed him under restraint, and did not restore his liberty until he had ceded the county of Laon, which was almost the only part of the royal domains that re- mained unappropriated. 4. Hugh had been excommunicated by several councils, and even by the pope : the clergy, and especially tlie bishops of Lorraine, consequently embraced the cause of Louis, and thus originated a war which continued for several years. The principal ally of Hugh in this conflict was William Longue epee, duke of Normandy, one of the bravest nobles of the time. 5. The count of Flanders adopted the royal cause, and having a private quarrel with the duke of Nor- mandy, procured him to be assassinated under circumstances of the greatest treachery. William left a young son named Richard, whom Louis brought to court under pretence of un- dertaking the care of his education. 6. The count of Flan- ders instigated the king to murder the orphan, but by a strata- gem of Osmond, his governor, the young prince was rescued from their grasp, and placed under the protection of his ma- ternal uncle, the count de Senlis. Soon after these Q^y transactions Louis was made a prisoner by the count de Senlis, and could not obtain his freedom until he had restored several places in Normandy, which he had un- - justly seized on. Richard was at length established in hia dukedom ; he was a good and a pious prince, equally con- spicuous for his personal graces and moral qualifications. The Norman historians called him Richard Sans Peur^ or the Fearless, and relate many anecdotes of his piety, charily, and intrepidity. 7. Louis d'Outremer died in the thirty-third year of his THE CARLOVINGIAN RACE. 5J age, by a fall from his horse, leaving behind him two sons, Lothaire and Charles. Lothaire was only four- q^-j' teen years old when he began to reign, but the go- vernment was so well administered by his mother and her brother, St. Bruno, that for three years France enjoyed a pro- found tranquillity. Hugh the Great died two years after Louis, and his son Hugh Capet inherited both his wealth and his ambition. 8. Lorraine, an ancient fief of the French crown, had been seized on by the German emperor, and Otho, to secure the possession, bestowed it as a iief on Charles the brother of Lothaire. This arrangement equally displeased the French king and the people ; Lothaire was indignant at the loss of the province, and the nation considered their honour degraded by one of their princes becoming tributary to a foreign power. 9. Lothaire, without waiting to publish a declaration of war, invaded the dominions of Otho, and nearly made the young emperor a prisoner at Aix-la-Chapelle ; so completely was he surprised, that he was obliged to rise from the table where he was sitting at diiuier and trust to the ileetness of his horse for escape. Lothaire stripped the palace at Aix-la-Chapelle of every thing valuable, and returned to Paris laden with booty. 10. Otho in turn invaded France, and advanced to the very gates of Paris, but Hugh Capet had so well secured the town, that Otho was compelled to vent his rage in empty menaces. 11. On his return, Otho had to cross the river Aisne, but as his army arrived on the banks late in the day, the emperor and a part of the army only could pass ovev ; during the nigiit the water rose so considerably that the "second division were unable to ford the stream. In this situation they were attacked by Lothaire, and Otho had the mortification of witnessing the defeat of his army, with- out being able to afford them any assistance. At length he sent over the count of Ardennes in a small skiff, to challenge. Lothaire to single combat : the French nobles would not per- mit this challenge to be accepted, declaring that they did not wish to lose their own king, and that under no circumstances would they recognise Otho as a sovereign. 12. Peace was eventually concluded between the rival monarchs, and soon after Lothaire died. His son qqq' and successor, Louis V. survived him but a few months, and Charles, duke of Lorraine, was now the sole survivor of the race of Charlemagne. But the character of Charles was jdious to the French people, his acceptance of Lorraine as a 52 HISTORY OF FRANCE. fief of the empire was looked on as an act of treason agamat his country ; the nation therefore rejected him, and chose as their monarch Hugh Capet, count of Paris, whose family, like the ancient mayors of the palace^ had long been the real sove- reigns of France. 13. Before entering on the history of a new dynasty, it will be useful to take a view of the state of society during the period whose history we have just completed ; because there were many institutions originated in those dark ages, which long exercised a powerful influence over the whole of" Europe. Those which more particularly demand our atten- tion are the usurpations of the church, the establishment of the feudal system, and the institution of chivalry. The in- crease of power acquired by the clergy during the reigns of Charlemagne's successors, was for the most part owing to their being the sole depositaries of learning. Ignorance had risen to such a height in the West, that few persons except the monks could either read or write. Hence they brought under their cognizance some of the most important relations of life, and became the registrars and judges in all matters connected with contracts, marriages, and wills. This pro- duced a mixture of civil and ecclesiastical law, which created the most fatal confusion among all ranks, while it opened to the clergy new sources of wealth and power. 14. In mar- riage especially their interference was productive of many serious evils. Under the first Christian emperors marriage had always been considered as a civil contract, and as such subjected to the control of the general legislature ; but the clergy averred that marriage was a sacrament, and, therefore, could only be regulated by ecclesiastical authority. They formed new obstacles of consanguinity and affinity, which they carried to such a length that people scarcely knew where to find a lawful wife; for there was none within the seventh degree. As the popes assumed a special right of determining on this important subject, and of granting dispensations, they obtained a power of interfering in the domestic concerns of princes, which they frequently perverted to the worst of purposes. 15. Religion was overwhelmed with a multitude of cere- monies ; pilgrimages, the procuring of relics, offerings, anj egacies to the church, were represented as of more value and importance than piety and virtue ; nay, were even considered as an expiation of the most atrocious crimes. The censure? THE CARLOVINGIAN RACE. 53 of the church, which in a purer age had been used to check tiansgressions, were now made the instruments of party ven- geance. The priesthood, originally designed to bless, was more employed in cursing; excommunications were inflicted according to the dictates of policy or revenge, and hurled against nobles or princes whom the prelates were anxious either to plunder or enslave. 10. The manners of the clergy themselves were a scandal to religion. Scarcely were they acquainted with common decency. Debauchery and vice spread their sway over the entire ecclesiastical body, and not unfrequently found their way to the papal throne. The possessions of the church were openly exposed to sale, and ecclesiastical dignities were either the purchase of bribery, or the reward of violence. The sovereigns were unable to restrain these excesses, for the clergy asserted their independence of every civil tribunal ; in many instances they appealed to the pope to remedy these evils, and thus afforded precedents for papal interference, which khey afterwards had reason to lament. 17. But the great source of the power which the popes soon after obtained, and the great support of their subsequent influence, arose from the creation of several new monastic orders. The monastic reformation of Clugny took its rise about the beginning of the tenth century, and its progress was amazingly rapid. The monks of this order, distinguished for their piety and austerity, seemed, in an age of general de- pravity, like angels sent from heaven to save the human race. They soon triumphed over all the ancient orders, as well as the secular clergy ; but the wealth that had corrupted their predecessors, proved equally fatal to their virtues. The court of Rome lavished upon them unheard-of privileges ; exempt- ing them from every jurisdiction except their own, and bind- ing them to her interest by every imaginable tie. In return they exalted every where the power of the popes ; besides being accustomed from their youth to obey the commands of a superior with the same implicit submission as the mandates of Heaven, they were easily led to suppose that the head of the church was invested with unbounded authority. Thus, in the subsequent age, did religion serve more than ever as a pretext for the greatest excesses : it entered into all afiairs o*" importance, and was the primary spring of all events. It is, therefore, necessary to be acquainted with the errors and sbuses by which it was corrupted ; for at that time theology 5* 54 HISTORY OF FRANCE. mingled with all political transactions, and seemed to hare absorbed tlie mental powers of mankind, who certainly were never so little acquainted either with politics or religion. 18. The establishment of the feudal system made the nobles independent sovereigns in their respective districts; the greater part were tyrants in their own domains, and rob- bers in those of others. Hence arose innumerable private wars which kept the country in continual anarchy, and the very remedies applied to cure the evil, were sources . ■ ' of fresh calamity. 19. The bishops, to check these enormities, published what they called " The Truce of God,''^ enacting, that from Wednesday evening until Mon- day morning, no act of violence should be committed, under paiti of fine and excommunication. But this was found too severe a law, and the truce was subsequently shortened to the interval between sunset on Saturday and sunrise on Monday; so that during all the rest of the week, murder and robbery might seem to be authorized. 20. The institution of chivalry served in some degree to alleviate these horrors. Romantic notions of honour, and an extravagant devotion to the fair sex, however absurd ia modern times, were a check to many extravagances in an age of violence. And when justice in courts of law was impos- sible to be obtained, the existence of a body of men sworn to redress wrongs, and defend innocence, could not have been wholly destitute of utility. It must be confessed, however, that chivalry tended to keep alive the love of war, and a thirst for military adventure, which, in a subsequent age, caused those calamitous wars, the crusades ; but it also introduced a spirit of generosity which often softened the horrors of wai by noble instances of magnanimity and humanity. Questions. 1. By whom was Rodolpb succeeded ? 2. How was Louis received in France ? 3. What was his character ? 4. By what ally was Hugh Capet supported ? 5. How was William slain ? 6. By what means was the young duke of Normandy rescued from his enemies ? 7. Who succeeded Louis d Outremers? 8. How did Charles displease the French nation? THE CAKLOVINGIAN RACE. 55 9. What danger did tlie German emperor escape ? 10. How far was Otho successful in his invasion of France? 11. How was his army defeated ? 12. What circumstances gave the crown of France to the family of Capet? 13. What was the state of the church during this age ? 14 How were the laws respecting marriage a means of in- creasing the power of the clergy? l&. Was the power of excommunication abused? 16. Were the manners of the clergy corrupt? 17. What institution particularly strengthened the papal power? 18. What evils resulted from the independence of the noblei under the feudal system? 19. What was the Truce of God? 20. What effect had the institution of chivalry ? Ship of the Tenth Century. 56 HISTORY OF FRANCE, Hugh Capet. CHAPTER VII. rBOM THE ACCESSION OF HUGH CAPET TO THE FIRST CRUSADE. Ill bap attend That worst of traitors, a perfidious friend! Loyal in guise, his serpent-coil he winds Round the frank singleness of noble minds. Wai A. D. 1. The abilities of Hugh Capet did not rise above tX^* the standard of mediocrity, but he possessed a great share of strong sound sense, and that practical know- Wge which is commonly called worldly wisdom. Perceiving the vast influence of the clergy, he gained them over to his side by renouncing the rich abbeys which his father had pos- sessed, and through their means spread a report, that St. liiquier, whose shrine he had visited barefoot, had made him a promise of the crown. In an assembly held at Noyons he was formally elected king, and was immediately after confe- erated at Rheims. HUGH CAPET. 57 2. Charles of Lorraine did not endure his exclusion pa- tiently ; but as he was unable to cope with his adversary in the field, he had recourse to treachery and fraud. Arnolph, the illegitimate son of his brother Lothaire, was a priest at Laon ; through his means, Charles being admitted into the town, took possession of the palace of his ancestors, and was proclaimed king by the old retainers of his family. Ancelin, bishop of Laon, took a prominent part in these transactions, and thus acquired the confidence of Charles, whom he had previously determined to betray. 3. Capet, alarmed at the progress of his rival, endeavoured to detach Arnolph from his interest, and accordingly raised him to the archbishopric of Rheims. But Arnolph proved ungrateful to his benefactor; he admitted Charles into Rheims, but to save appearances, required the prince of Lorraine to send iiim as a prisoner to Laon. 4. Hugh at length levied an army, and formed the siege of Laon, but his forces were defeated by an unexpected sally of the enemy, and he was compelled to retreat. Pros- perity was ruinous to Charles ; believing that the rais- ing of the siege of Laon left him in perfect security, qqr>' he gave himself up to ease and enjoyment. This was the opportunity which Ancelin 'had long expected ; he in- vited Hugh to approach the town, opened the gates to him during the night, and made iiim master of the persons both of Charles and his queen. They both died in confinement, leaving behind them two sons, who were born in prison, and two daughters, who, having remained in Germany, escaped the captivity of their parents. 5. The sons of Charles ap- pear to have been taken under the protection of the emperor of Germany, and to have resigned all claims to the throne of France. A descendant of one of the daughters was married to Philip Augustus, and through her the late royal family of France claim to be descended from Charlemagne. 6. The trial of Arnolph soon after this engaged the attention of the state. His partisans maintained that this cause ought to be carried before the pope, but the Bishop of Orleans strenuously maintained the contrary, and persuaded the council to adopt the same opinion. The king came in person to pass sen- tence, when Arnolph threw himself at his feet, promising obedience for tiie future. His life was spared, but he was de;prived of his see, and the celebrated Gerbert appointed in his stead. 7. Gerbert had been originally the son of a pea Rant, afterwards he became a monk at Aurillac, and soon ou* 58 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Stripped all his brethren in literature and science. The envy of the other monks compelled him to quit his convent, he passed into Spain, and there studied mathematics and natural philosophy among the Arabians. The fame that he acquired in these pursuits, made him suspected by the vulgar as a magician, but recommended him also to the emperor of Ger- many and the king of France, as a fit tutor for their children. 8. The fortune and merit of the new archbishop made him an object of envy to the French prelates ; they appealed to the court of Rome against Arnolph's deprivation, because the consent of the pope had not been previously obtained. The pope sent a legate into France, and Hugh, who dreaded a quarrel with his holiness, was compelled to deprive Gerbert and restore Arnolph. 9. But the fortune of both was only changed in appearance ; Arnolph was detained in prison, but Gerbert obtained the archbishopric of Ravenna from his former pupil, Otho III., emperor of Germany, and eventually became pope under the title of Silvester JI. 10. Hugh died in QQ * the tenth year of his reign, and was suc- ceeded by his son, Robert I., surnamed the Pious, whom the old French historians describe as a saint, and the moderns as an idiot ; to a weak intellect, he united a scrupulous and ignorant de- votion, which exposed him to the artifices of an ambi- tious and enterprising clergy 11. He married Bertha, daughter of Conrad, duke of Burgundy, who was equally distinguished by her good temper and beautiful person. Unfortunately, she was fourth cousin to the king, a degree prohibited by the canons of the Romish church ; and though several French bishops had assented to tlie marriage. Pope Gregory V. undertook to annul it. 12. Accordingly, without even hearing the parties, he issued a decree, ordering the king and queen to separate under pain of excommunication, and suspending all the bishops who had been accomplices in their Robert the Pious. HUGH CAPET. 59 pretended crime. Robert, passionately attached to liis wife, made no haste to comply, but reckoned himself as excommu- nicated. 13. Such was the superstition of the period, that he was immediately forsaken by all his courtiers; only two do- mestics continued their services, and even they cleansed with lire the plates used at table by the king, believing that they were polluted by his sacrilegious touch. 14. Robert, worn out by importunity, and dreading a revolt, at length consented to a divorce, and Bertha retired to a con- vent. The king's next marriage was with Constance, daugh- ter of the count of Aries ; a woman of insatiable ambition, proud, cruel, fond of expense, and totally devoted to pleasure, Robert found his court insupportable, he gave himself up en- tirely to the monks, and spent his time in the practice of superstitious austerities ; while the queen, with her train of troubadours and young Proven9al nobles, filled the palace with noisy festivity. 15. About this time, the news of the cruelties practised on the Christians of Palestine , „' ' by the Saracens excited the indignation of all Europe. Pope Silvester II. preached up a crusade, but ineflectually, and the wrath of Christendom was vented on the Jews. These unfortunate people, whose persecution in the middle ages was almost considered a virtue, were suspected of acting as spies for the Saracens, and on this vague suspicion numbers were ruthlessly massacred. ] 6. Henry, duke of Burgundy, brother to Hugh Capet, dying without issue, Otho William, his wife's son by a former husband, took possession of his dominions. Robert, conceiv- ing that his own claim to the duchy was superior, proceeded to assert it by force of arms. As he was not a warrior him- self, he summoned to his aid the duke of Normandy; and having by his means assembled a considerable army, he laid siege to Auxerre. Near the town was an abbey sacred to Saint Germain, which it was necessary to storm previous to the assault of the garrison. When the royal troops were about to advance to the attack, a priest met the king, and warned him not to violate the sanctuary of the saint; while he was yet speaking, a mist rose from a neighbouring river, superstition magnified this common event into a miraculous appearance ; the soldiers exclaimed that the saint had come to defend his temple, and took to flight with their king at then head. After this strange termination of the first cam- r>a!gn, the war lingered a few months longer ; it eventually 60 HISTORY OF FRANCE. erminated by William's resigning the dukedom to the kinjj, but retaining all the power and real advantages of sovereignty under the hvjmbler title of count of Burgundy. 17. Robert's eldest son died young; the second was ao idiot, and Henry was therefore chosen by Robert as his suc- cessor. This arrangement was opposed by Constance, who endeavoured to secure the crown for her younger son Robert the strict friendship that existed between the brothers, and the unexpected firmness of Robert, defeated her intrigues: she, however, succeeded so far as to fill the royal lo'si ^'^"^'^y ^^'"-^ quarrels and disunion. The inglorious * reign of Robert terminated in the sixtieth vear of his age ; on his return from a pilgrimage he was seized with a violent fever at Melun, which soon ended his life. 18. Henry I. was about twenty years of age when he succeeded to the throne; Constance and Robert op- posed his accession, but by the aid of the duke of Nor- mandy he triumphed over all opposition. Constance retired to a convent, where she soon after died ; as the king be- lieved that his brother's hos- tility had arisen more from the persuasion of his mothei than his own inclinations, he not only restored him to his confidence, but gave him the province of Burgundy. 19. The most remarkable circum- stance in the reign of this prince is, that he took for his second wife Anne, daughter of Jarodislas, czar of Muscovy. The obstacles to marriage were so greatly multiplied, and the example of his father so terrifying, that he thought it expe- dient to send for a wife into a country then almost unknown, rather than encounter the dangers of an excommunication. 20. The evils that had arisen from the disorders of the clergy dnd the feuds of the nobles, appear to have reached their height. Hildebrand, who was afterwards pope under the name of Gregory VII., laboured strenuously and successfully to sub- Henry 1. HUGH CAPET. 61 ject all Europe to the despotism of the church ; he virtually ruled the holy see long before his election to the papal throne, and directed all his efforts to subject monarchs and emperors to the papacy. The private wars of the nobles were more like those of princes than subjects, and during the reign of Henry, several pitched battles were fought, attended with un- usual slaughter. 21. Henry at his death left three sons, of whom Philip, the eldest, was only seven years old. Pur- -.nnn suant to the will of the late king, the regency was en- trusted to Baldwin, earl of Flanders, who took better care of the monarchy than of the monarch. Philip was permitted to grow up uneducated, the slave of uncontrolled passions and unregulated desires. 22. In his fourteentli year he was freed from all restraint by the death of his guardian, and soon after was involved in a war with Robert, count of Friezland. Philip was compelled to make peace with the count, and aa one of the conditions, was obliged to marry Robert's step- mother. The king was by no means pleased with the match, and after some years divorced her on the plea of con- sanguinity. 23. He then enticed from her husband, i/^qo Bertrade, the wife of Fulk, count of Anjou, and openly married her in spite of every remonstrance. Pope Urban II., after many ineffectual threats, excommunicated Philip; the monarch took no notice of the proceeding, but continued to live with Bertrade, deriving new hopes from the death of his former wife, and from the consent of Fulk, who bore the loss of his faithless spouse with great patience. 24. The conquests of the Saracens in the east, and ♦specially the capture of Jerusalem, had alarmed the i^q/ emperor of Constantinople for his safety; in an evil hour he wrote to the pope, soliciting him to stir up the west- ern princes to form a league against the Saracens. The con- sequence of the papal exertions was the Crusades, or Holy Wars, but before we enter on the history of that eventful period, it is necessary to give some account of the province of Normandy, from which England had about this time r&- reived a new race of sovereigns. Questions. 1. What was the character of Hugh Capet f 2. By whom was His accession opposea 7 6 62 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 3. How did Arnolph behave in tl s civil war? 4. How did the contest terminate? 5. Why did the last race of French monarchs boast to be de scended from Charlemagne ? 6. What was done to Arnolph? 7. By whom was he succeeded in his bishopric ■* 8. Did the clergy acquiesce in this arrangement? 9. To what eminence did Gerbert subsequently rise? 10. By whom was Hugh Capet succeeded ? 11. To whom was Robert married? 12. How did the pope proceed in annulling the marriage? 13. What proves the excessive superstition of the age? 14. To whom was Robert subsequently wedded? 15. What unfortunate people were bitterly persecuted at thil time ? 16. What strange event occurred at the siege of Auzerre? 17. How did Robert's queen excite disunion in the royal family ? 18. By whom was the accession of Henry opposed? 19. Is there any thing remarkable in his marriage? 20. What pope made the greatest efforts to obtain universal do minion ? 21. How was Philip educated? 22. To whom was he first married ? 23. In what manner did he obtain his second wife ? 84. What remarkable wars commenced about this time ? HISTORY OF NORMANDY. 63 fin Ship in which William the Conqueror sailed to England. CHAPTER VIII. THE HISTORY OF NORMANDY. O'er the glad waters of the dark blue sea, Our thoughts as boundless, and our souls as free, Far as the breeze can bear, the billows foam, Survey our empire and behold our home. Bmow I The nations who successively invaded southern Europ« ifom the ninth to the twelfth centuries, were originally de- scended from the same stock ; but when, by conquest, they had obtained a settlement in any country, they gradually adopted the arts of the vanquished, and laid aside their habits of plunder for the more useful pursuits of agriculture. The next horde of invaders refused to acknowledge these degene- rate warriors as their countrymen, and inflicted on them the same calamities which they had caused the original inhabi tents to suffer. The Saxons in Britain, the Goths and Frank? 64 HISTORY OF NORMANDY. in Gaul, found in the Danes or Normans the avengers of thi; cruelties which they had previously practised on the Celtic population. The severe persecution of the Saxons by Char- lemagne induced many of their bravest warriors to fly into Scandinavia; their representation of the cruelties practised on the worshippers of Odin, stimulated their brethren of the north to prepare for revenge, and we have already seen that even in the reign of Charlemagne, the northern shores of France were devastated by Scandinavian pirates. 2. The invasion of Rollo, in the reign of Charles AT) . . q", * the Simple, was the last of their plundering expedi- tions ; by an agreement with that monarch, who was anxious to save his country from devastation, and to secure for himself an active body of partisans, the province of Neus- tria, and the hand of the king's daughter, were given to Rollo, who thenceforward took the title of Robert I., duke of Nor- mandy. The remains of the Celtic Gauls, who had been cruelly oppressed by the Franks, gladly submitted to the equitable administration of Rollo, and the number of his sub- jects was continually increased by parties of the aboriginal natives, who sought, under a new master, relief from the op- pression of their former conquerors. 3. But the Normans were not so successful in obtaining the affections of the inha- bitants of Brittany, whom Charles, unable to subdue himself, had transferred to his new allies. This province, situated at the north-western extremity of Gaul, was known to the Romans by the name of Armorica ; it was inhabited by the bravest Celtic tribes, and had successfully resisted most of the invaders who had seized on the rest of Gaul. 4. When the Saxons had established their dominion in Britain, many of the ancient inhabitants removed to Armorica, with the consent of the ancient inhabitants, who acknowledged them as brethren of tlie same origin ; the new settlers distributed themselves Dver the whole northern coast, as far as the territory of the Veneti, now called Vannes. The name of Brittany waS thenceforth given to this province. The increase of the population of this western corner of the country, and the great number of people of the Celtic race and language thus assem- bled within a narrow space, preserved them from the irruption of the Roman tongue, which, under a form more or less cor- rupt, had gradually become prevalent in every other part of Saul. 5" Remembering the evils that had forced them to become exiles the Bretons had a vehement dislike of all HISTORY OF NORMANDY. 65 /breign rule, and under every change of fortune, were eager to seize an opportunity for asserting their independence. 6. Under the command of their Tierns, or Counts, as the Normans called them, Alan and Berenger, they made a des- perate resistance to Robert, and were with difficulty subdued. The conqueror appears to have exercised his victory with moderation, and to have been contented with receiving homage from the leaders as their feudal suzerain. 7. The conduct of the Norman duke, and his successors m their dominions, is honourably contrasted with that of their contemporaries. Robert gave his subjects a charter, provided for the due administration of justice, and encouraged strangers to settle in his dominions. The historians describe the tranquillity and security of Normandy during his reign, by assuring us that ornaments of gold and silver were ex- posed unguarded on the highways without any danger of their being carried off by robbers. 8. Robert re- q.^' signed the crown to his son William, called Longue- epee, or Long-sword, and spent the remaining three years of his life in retirement. 9. .An insurrection of the Bretons, and a more formidable rebellion of the Normans, broke out during the first years of William's reign ; but by united valour and prudence he sup- pressed both, and treading in the steps of his father, applied himself diligently to the improvement of his dominions. The Danes maintained a friendly intercourse with the con- querors of Normandy ; and when Harold, king of Denmark, was dethroned by his rebellious son Svveyn, he sought refuge in the Norman court, and owed his restoration to the friend- ship and valour of William. 10. To succour unfor- tunate princes, seems to have been the fated employ- '' ment of the Norman duke. When Hugh, count of Paris, endeavoured to deprive Louis d'Outremer of the throne, William exerted his utmost efforts in behalf of the rightful sovereign of France, and was the principal means of securing him on the throne. With similar generosity, he embraced the cause of Herbin, count of Montreuil, whom his treacher- ous neighbour Arnold, count of Flanders, had expelled from his dominions. William defeated the usurper in a decisive engagement, and rejected every reward which the restored nobleman offered to him. 11. But this expedition was the cause of his death. Arnold, enraged at his defeat, resolved 6* E 66 HISTORY OF NORMANDY. A. D. 942. to err.ploy treachery, since open force had failed ; he solicited an interview with William in one of the is- lands of the Somme, and having craftily separated the duke from his attendants, caused him to be assassinated. 12. Richard I. was but a child at the time of his father's death, but the administration of affairs was undertaken by four Norman nobles, of whom Bernard, count of Harcourt, commonly called Bernard the Dane, was the chief Louis, who owed his crown to William, ungratefully conspired with Hugh, count of Paris, to strip his son of his dominions With this design he entered Normandy, at the head of a nu- merous army, pretending that his intention was merely to avenge the murder of the late duke : but after he had been received as a friend at Rouen, he seized on the person of the young duke, and sent him off to Paris under the pretence of having him properly educated. 13. At the instigation of the count of Flanders, Louis designed the assassination of Richard, but he was rescued from the danger by the ffdelity of his tutor Osmond. This faithful attendant went to the castle of Laon, where his young master was confined, and under pretence of going to feed his horse, conveyed him out of the castle en- veloped in a truss of hay. They directed their course to the residence of the Count de Senlis, Richard's maternal uncle, and reached their place of refuge in safety. 14. Meantime the gratitude of a prince whom William had benefited, was about to be displayed by the restoration of his son to his do- minions. Bernard, count of Harcourt, had successfully ex- erted himself to sow disunion between the French king and the count of Paris ; he had also sent a secret message to Harold, king of Denmark, informing him of the state of affairs, and entreated him to aid in the deliverance of Nor- mandy from the dominion of the French. Harold came at the first summons ; the Normans, headed by Bernard, has- tened to join him, and Louis, unable to compete with their united forces in the field, solicited an interview to settle the terras of peace. While the two kings were discussing the articles, a Norman, recognising the count of Montreuil in tht hostile army, bitterly reproached him with his ingratitude, and, when he made a haughty reply, a Dane that was present struck him dead. This became the signal for a general en- gagement, which commenced before the two kings had heard of the transaction. The French were totally defeated, and Louis made prisoner ; his captors treated him with great re« HISTORY OF NORMANDY. 6? spect, but he was obliged to restore Normandy to the young duke, and pay a heavy ransom before he could obtain his liberty. 15. Richard was surnamed Sans Peur, or the Fear- less; he inherited all the noble qualities of his race, and thouo-h surrounded by powerful enemies, preserved his domi- nions secure and tranquil. His marriage with the daughter of Hugh the Great alarmed the fears of Louis ; he entered into an alliance with Olho, emperor of Germany, Conrad, king of Burgundy, and Arnold, count of Flanders, to over- whelm both Hugh and Richard. But the eflbrts of the allies were every where unfortunate : unable to make any impres- sion on Paris, they directed their march towards Normandy, where Richard cut off some of their best soldiers in an am- buscade, and repulsed them from before the walls of Rouen with loss and disgrace. 16. On the death of Hugh the Great, Richard was ap- pointed guardian to his children, and by his fidelity in the execution of that office, again provoked the hostility of the French monarch. After a long struggle, in which the Nor- mans were every where successful, Richard triumphed over the treachery and the forces of his opponents, and compelled them to beg a peace. Some years after, Hugh Capet, ^^ ^ aided by his former guardian, obtained the throne of gg^* France, and thus changed that from a hostile Into a friendly country. The rest of Richard's reign was spent in profound peace, and at his death Normandy was one of the most flourishing countries in Europe. 17. Richard H., sur- named the good and intrepid, succeeded. Tiie early part of his reign was disturbed by an insurrection of the peasantry, and by the rebellion of his natural brother, the count de Hiemes. Richard having quelled his adversaries, shut up his brother in a prison, where he remained five years. ^^ ^ Having at length made his escape, he suddenly pre- jqq3^ sented himself before Richard, while he was hunting, in a squalid dress, and earnestly solicited forgiveness. The duke generously granted him his pardon, and restored all his former possessions. 18. The throne of England was at this time possessed by Ethelred, who with difficulty maintained himself against the Danes ; to secure a powerful ally, he mar- ried Emma, sister to the duke of Normandy; but no aid that he could obtain was sufficient to repel the invasion of Sweyn, the Daoish monarch ; and Ethelred, compelled to abandon bis kingdom, lived for some time in exile at the court of his 68 HISTORY OF NORMANDY. brother-in-law. 19. The king of France, having united with some of the princes who bordered on Normandy, Richard found himself unable to resist the coalition alone, and soli- cited the aid of the Danes. A numerous army was sent to his assistance, but he found that his allies were more injurious to his cause than even his enemies. The king of France having agreed on terms of peace, the Danes, enraged at losing the prospect of plunder, turned their arms against Brittany, where they committed the most frightful outrages. Richard was obliged to purchase their departure with a large sum of money, and from this time forward, the intercourse between Denmark and Normandy appears to have declined. 20. So great was the duke's character for honour, that Geoffry, count of Brittany, with whom he had been often at war, nominated the Norman regent of that province, during his absence on a pilgrimage. Geoffry was accidentally killed, but Richard acted as a faithful guardian to his children, and when they came of age, gave them immediate possession of their father's territories. 21. On the death of Ethelred, Canute became sole monarch of England, and queen Emma, with her two children, were compelled to take refuge in the court of her brother. Richard prepared to invade England, but his - ■ ' fleet being shattered in a storm, he made peace with ■ Canute, and gave him Emma as his wife. 22. The sons of Ethelred seemed by this specification to have lost all chance of inheriting the British crown ; but several years after, Canute's sons having died without heirs, Edward, sur- named the Confessor, returned from exile, and obtained the throne of his ancestors, Richard, after a long and successful reign, died, leaving behind him two sons, Richard and Robert. 23. Richard 111. did not long survive his father; after a short reign of eighteen months, he died at Rouen, poisoned, as is believed, by his brother. 24. Robert II., surnamed the liberal and magnificent, suc- ceeded his brother; the early part of his reign was disturbed by insurrections, but he so completely subdued them, that he thought he might with safety venture on a pilgrimage ^ ^' to Palestine. The climate of Asia completely de- ■ stroyed his health, and he was obliged to complete his journey in a litter. Another Norman pilgrim returned from the holy city, met Robert, supported by four Saracens ; he asked the duke what account he should give of him on his return ? " Tell my friends,'' said Robert, " that you saw me HISTORY OF NORMANDy. 69 borne into Paradise by four devils." He died on his way back at Nice, in Bithynia, leaving no legitimate heir. 25. Before Robert had set out for Palestine, he had nomi- nated his natural son William to be his successor, and the states of Normandy had confirmed his choice; but when the news of his death reached Europe, several of the ducal family endeavoured to have William set aside. The states, however, obstinately adliered \,d their former decision, and William triumphed over all his competitors. 26. These wars evidently proved the source of the duke's future prosperity, as they supplied him with an army inured to combats, and inspirited by repeated success, with which he was enabled to take advantage of the opportunities presented him by fortune. Sdward the Confessor, on his return to England, became dis- justed with his Saxon subjects, and gave himself up to IsCor- man favorites. The family of Godwin, Earl of Kent, were particularly odious to him, and to prevent their becoming his successors, (which, as he had no heirs, appeared very proba- ble,) he bequeathed his crown to William, duke of Normandy. On the death of Edward, Harold assumed the crown of England, but William passing over at the head of ^^^^ a gallant army, defeated the English at the decisive battle of Hastings, slew Harold, and subjected the whole William the Conaueror receiving the Crown of England. 70 HISTORY OF NORMANDY. country to the Norman sway. From henceforward the his- tory of Normandy is so intimately connected with that of France and England, that it is no longer necessary to treat of A separately. 27. A little before the conquest of England, some Norman adve'iturers founded a new kingdom in Italy, under circum- stances so extraordinary as to demand some notice AD • ,^.p Forty Norman gentlemen, returning from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, saved the city of Salerno, which was on the point of being seized by the Saracens, and refused to re- ceive any of the rewards offered to them by the gratitude of the inhabitants. The fame of tliis exploit spreading th'-ough Italy, induced several of the Italian princes to take into their pay troops of Norman adventurers, who were ever ready to sell their services. The duke of Naples, to whom they had been of great use in his contest with the prince of Capua, bestowed upon them a considerable territory, situated between the two cities, where they founded the city of Aversa. This establishment attracted new adventurers. Three sons of Tan- cred of Hauteville, a gentleman of Normandy, one of whom was called JVllliam Fier-a-bras, or Bras-de-Fer (Iron AD • • . * ^ arm) laid the foundation of a new principality for ■ their family. After having wrested La Puglia from the Catapan, the title of a magistrate acting under the authority of the court of Constantinople, they shared the conquest with the other officers. Bras-de-fer was elected count of La Puglia by his soldiers; he was succeeded by his brothers, Drogon and Humphrey, who being afterwards joined by their younger brother, Robert Guiscard, soon became formidable to the Italians. Leo IX. dreading that these adventurers would not respect the property of the church more than that of the laity, formed an alliance against the strangers, whom he had previously excommunicated. The Normans, who scarcely exceeded three thousand men, sent him a most respectful message, promising to do him homage for their fiefs ; but the pope having refused the ofier, they cut his army in pieces, took himself prisoner; but instead of doing him any injury, they prostrated themselves before him, and having received absolution, restored him to liberty. 28. What they offered to Leo IX. was accepted by 1 ■ Q Nicholas II. Robert Guiscard having received from, him the investiture of all the conquests which he had fained in La Puglia and Calabria, and all that he might afte' HISTORY OF NORMANDY. 71 vvarrls make in those provinces or in Sicily, took the oath of feudal fidelity to the pope. With equal vigour and success they attacked the forces of the Greek empire in the south of Italv, and the Saracens in Sicily, victory followed victory in rapid succession, until they had obtained actual possession of tliose countries of which the pope had only given thera the tmpty titles. Thus powerful vassals were attached to the Loly see, valuable rights of lordship were acquired, and new iseans of aggrandizement were procured. Questions. 1. What stimulated the Normans to attack France? 2. How did RoUo acquire and secure IS'ormandy? 3. Did he meet with any resistance ? 4. Why did Armorica receive tlie name of Brittany? 5. What was the character of the Bretons'? S. How were they treated by Robert ? Was Normandy well governed? 8. By whom was Robert succeeded ? 9. In what wars was William Long-sworri engapced 7 10. What princes did he assist in their misfortunes'? 11. How did William die? i2. To what dangers was young duke Richard exposed? 13. How was he rescued ? 14. By whose assistance was he restored to his dominions? 15. What formidable alliance did Richard defeat? 16. What caused his second war with France? 17. Who headed the rebellion against Richard II.? 18. Did any exiled sovereign take refuge at his court? 19. What remarkable events occurred during his war with France? 20. Does any remarkable circumstance prove his high character for honour and integrity ? 21. How was the war between Richard and Canute prevented ' 22 Did any son of Ethelred reign in England ? ■23 How did Richard III. die? 24. Is any curious anecdote told of Robert II.? 25 By whom was Robert succeeded ? 26. What circumstances led to the Norman conquest of England J 87. Did the Normms found any other kingdom ? 38, Was the ersaioa of a Norman power in Italy aseful to the pope? IIISTORl OF FRANCE. Philip I. CHAPTER IX. FROM THii > -RST CRUSADE TO THE ACCESSIOPl OP PHILIP AUGUSTUS. A. D. But when on high the sacred standard rose, Through al". their veins a brisker current flows, New hopes, new strength, inspire the pious throng, " 'Tis Hkav£n's high will," they shout, and rush along. Miss Porden. A. V. ^' ^^ '""^^ "^^ return to the history of France 1095. A'^'^*'"^'^ Urban II. had excommunicated the king, he * did not hesitate to take refuge in France when exposed »3 danger by the quarrels between the emperor and the holy Bee. He called a council at Clermont, and In a long speech recommended to the assembly's notice the state of Palestine, exhorting all to take up arms and rescue its sacred soil from the infidels. 2. The preaching of Peter the Hermit, an en- thusiastic monk of Picardy, who had lately returned from a 74 HISTORY OF FRANCE. THE FIRST CRUSADE. 75 pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and who gave a most pathetic de- scription of the calamities to which the pilgrims were exposed, had prepared their mintis ; no sooner then did they hear thti papal recommendation, than all with one acclaim shouteA Deus id vuh, " God wills it." 3. At the same council. Ur- ban once more excommunicated Philip, forbade princes to give investitures* and ordered that bishops and priests should raot for the future do homage to their sovereigns. He next travelled from province to province, commanding the people everywhere to join the crusades; deposing those bishops who had in any way resisted his power, and lavishing privi- leges on the monks, who had been found by experience to be the most strenuous supporters of the holy see. 4, The crusading frenzy which seized on France produced the most dreadful calamities ; a disorderly rabble, headed by Peter the Hermit, and a Norman gentleman called Walter the Pennyless, first set out; their numbers exceeded 300,000. They displayed their furious zeal on the way, by the mas- sacre of Jews, laid waste for subsistence the countries through which they passed, and excited against themselves the ven- geance of the indignant population. On his arrival at Con- stantinople, Peter the Hermit was graciously received by the emperor of the east, Alexis Comnenus, who hastened to for- ward the march of the rabble who accompanied him, into Asia Minor. Nearly all of them perished miserably of hun- ger, fatigue, and suffering, before they reached the Holy Land. In the regular army that followed under the command of Godfre}' of Bouillon, were some of the principal nobles of France; among these the most conspicuous were, Hugh de Vermandois, brother to the king; Robert of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror; Robert, earl of Flanders ; Ste- phen, count of Blois, father of king Stephen ; and Ray- mond, count of Toulouse. After many vicissitudes, the cru- saders captured Jerusalem, July 15th, A. D. 1099, and founded a Christian kingdom in Palestine. 5. After this exploit, most of the French who survived returned home; but being re- proached by their countrymen as deserters of the sacred cause, they again set out for Palestine under the command of William, duke of Aquitaine. This chieftain, more distin- * The right of the king to give the investiture or possession of the see to a bishop was always resisted by the popes ; they thought that if they permitted any interference of the state in ecclesiastica' matters, their own supremacy would be gradually undermined. 76 HISTORY ')F FRANCE. guished foi his literary talents than political wis'ioin, was soon involved in a dispute with the emperor of Constanti- nople. 6. The treacherous Greek, in revenge for some insults he had received, betrayed the Crusaders to the Sara( ens; they were led by false guides into defiles tisat exposed them to be attacked at a disadvantage ; in tills situation they were assailed by an army of the Saracens, who routed them with great "laughter, a few only of the nobles saving themselves by flight. 7. While the bravest of his subjects were thus uselessly wasting their strength in Palestine, Philip continued sunk in the lowest debauchery ; he obtained absolution from the pope, and went barefooted to a council at Paris with Bertrade, to swear that they would live no longer together. The pope's legate gave them absolution ; but the condition of repudiating Bertrade does not appear to have been insisted on, for the king continued to live with her, and had her children de- clared capable of inheriting the crown. 8. Philip died in the fiftieth year of his inglorious 1 ins '"^•g"* The royal dominions did not at this time ex- tend over more than one hundred square miles; but the monarchy had reached its lowest, state of debasement, and from henceforward began to increase in power and terri- tory during every succeeding century. 9. The accession of Louis VI. was hailed by the French with delight; he had been associated with his father in the sovereignty several years before, and had given striking proofs both of his valour and justice, by subduing and punishing the lords of Mont- I'heri, Montford, and other barons who had become cap- tains of banditti, and sallied out from the towers which they had erected along the roads, plundering travellers, and devastating the cotmtry. 10. The popularity he had thus obtained, exposed him to great danger, for Bertrade, jealous of his fame, and anxious to secure the crown for h^^r own son Philip, gave him a poisonous draught. Thou» S / THE FIRST CRUSADE. 7? Louis was saved by a skilful physician, he ever after felt the injurious effects of it, and his complexion even till his death continued pale and sallow. 11. Tiie education of the young prince had been shamefully neglected, but his own taste led him to cultivate the manly exercises of chivalry, and at the same time he acquired those high principles of honour and integrity, by which knighthood was distinguished in the earlier ages. His great corpulence, which procured him the surname h. Gros^ or the Fat, did not render him inactive, and the situation of France at the time of his accession, was such as to require the most vigorous exertions. 13. The nobles still continued to act the part of oppres- sors, and Louis scarcely subdued one ere he was compelled to march against another; however he persevered, and though his half-brother Philip joined with some of the factious nobles, he finally prevailed in restoring something like social order to tiie distracted country. 13. A few years j/iq after Louis was engaged with a more powerful foe. Henry L of England had seized on the duchy of Normandy, shut up his brother Robert, the rightful duke, in prison, and compelled Robert's son, William, to seek for safety in the court of France. Louis undertook to restore William to his dominions the more readily, because Henry had lately erected the strong castle of Gesors on the frontiers of Normandy, and had thus become formidable to the French monarchy. A battle was fought at Brenneville, in which the English were victorious, but there was not much blood shed, as both . - ■ A. D. parties were anxious to take their enemies alive for . .* ,' the sake of their ransom. This was the first battle ''ought between two nations whose subsequent hostility has shed so much blood. 14. Henry I. of England, was a more clever politician than his gallant rival, and he contrived to involve Louis in a qiiar* rel with Henry V. of Germany. Pope Calixtus V. had been •iriven out of Italy by the emperor, and compelled to take 'efuge in France. The pope assembled a council at Rheims, iiid thundered out an excommunication against the emperor, who on his part resolved to destroy the town where so gross in insult had been offered to him. 15. The king of France unfurled the orijlamme* the several vassals of the crown * The oriflainme, or sacred banner of France, was reported to have descended from heavep, in honour either of Clovis or Charle- magne. It 'vas, according to Mailly, a square banner of flame- 7* 78 HISTORY OF FRANCE. flocked to the sacred standard, and he soon found himself at the head of 200,000 men. The emperor did not venture to come to an engagement, but quickly repassed the Rhine with all his forces. Louis wished to take advantage of these cir- cumstances and invade Normandy, but his nobles refused to join in the expedition, dreading that the precedent of punish- ing a disobedient vassal might at some future period be turned •jgainst themselves. 16. The death of his eldest son in the prime of , 'j.* life, by a fall from his horse, was the source of bitter affliction to Louis ; he never afterwards took the same interest in public affairs ; and when he had procured the co- ronation of his second son Louis, he seemed to devote AD 1 1"^7 ^^i™^^!^ entirely to the affairs of another world. 17 On his death-bed he addressed his son in words that cannot too often be repeated to a sovereign : " Remember, my son, that a kingdom is a public trust, for the exercise of which you must render a strict account after your death." 18. This reign is distinguished by several useful establish- ments, especially by that of communes,, which were some- thing like our corporations. To check the extravagant power of the nobility, whose excesses the royal power was unable to restrain, the king sold permission to several of the cities and towns to form associations for mutual protection, coloured taffeta, without figures or embroidery, but with three deep indentures at the bottom ; and suspended from a gilded lance. Hence was derived its compound name; or, alluding to the gilded staff, 3.i\d fiamme, signifying both the colour of the silk and the shape of the banner. It was always raised when the king intended to summon the aid of all his vassals. When displayed in the battle- field, it was a signal that no quarter would be given. The folly of the age attributed many fabled virtues to this banner, and it was oelieved that its presence would ensure victory. The falsehood of •-his, however, was fatally proved at Crecy. Nothing can more de- cidedly mark the respect in which the orifiamme was held, than ;he oath administered to its bearer: — "You swear and promise, on the precious body of Christ JesiiSi here present, and on the bodies of Monseignenr St. Denis and hii .lompanions, here also, that you will loyally, in your own person, guard and govern the oriflamme of our lord the king, also present, to the honour and profit of himself and hi^ kingdom, and that you will not abandon it for the fear of death or any other cause, but that you will in all things do your duty, as becomes a good aid loy«i inight, towards your sovereign and liege lord." THE FIRST CRUSADE. 79 and to choose their own magistrates. This example was im- itated by several of the nobility, anxious to raise money to furnish themselves for the crusades; and thus a system of municipal government was gradually established in France, which greatly tended to promote commerce and civilization. 19. After the example of Charlemagne, Louis sent justices itinerant through the country, who formed a court of appeal against unjust sentences in the baronial courts. This institu- tion was equally beneficial to the king and the people ; it diminished the authority which the nobles derived from their territorial jurisdiction, and corrected many evils which had arisen from local oppression. These wise establishments were the work of four brothers named Garland, and of the abbe Segur, who were the principal ministers of Louis le Gros. 20. During this reign the monasteries were greatly multi- plied ; and the authority of the monks everywhere increased. The most conspicuous of the ecclesiastics who interfered in public affairs, was St. Bernard, abbe of Clairvaux, a man greatly celebrated for his piety and eloquence ; by the force of his talents he acquired a great personal influence over the pontifl^s, kings, and nations, but not possessing real political wisdom, he did not exercise his power to any beneficial pur- pose. 2L Arnold de Brescia, another monk, preached against the influence exercised by ecclesiastics in state affairs, and maintained that the clergy violated their duty by interfering in politics. These doctrines roused the in- dignation of the ambitious clergy, and the tenets of Arnold were everywhere proscribed ; still the number of his followers increased, until the pope, dreading the pro- gress of such opinions, had him condemned and burned as a heretic. 23. Louis Vll., surnamed the youngs had been associated in the kingdom with his father, some years before the death of that monarch. His ardent temper soon after his accession involved him in a quarrel with the church. The chapter of Bruges elected an arch- j^juig vil. 80 HISTORY OF FRANCE. bishop displeasing to the king, Louis annulled the election and commanded them to proceed to a new one. Pope Inno- cent II., although he owed the tiara in a great measure to the influence of the French monarch, warmly espoused the cause of the chapte"-, consecrated the new archbishop himself, and when Louis refused to admit him, placed the kingdom under an interdict. Thibaut, Count of Champagne. 23. Thibaut, count of Champagne, devoted to the cause of the monks more through ambition than zeal for religion, took up arms against his sovereign ; while St. Bernard filled the country with faction, by incessantly declaiming against the king's impious interference with religion. 24. Louis ni^ assembled his forces, and invading Champagne, took ■ the town of Vitri by storm : a merciless slaughter was made of the inhabitants; thirteen hundred had fled into a church, hoping that the sanctity of the place would prove their protection ; but by command of the king, the edifice was set on fire, and they all perished miserably in the flame? 25. Remorse for this crime ever after preyed on the mind of Louis, and to make atonement, he resolved, at the instigation THE SECOND CRUSADE. SI of St. Bernard, to join in the second crusade. 26. On this occasion, all the enthusiasm of the former expedition was re- newed. At an assembly held at Vezelai, the kin;^ and Ber- nard, mounted on a scaffold, addressed the multitude, and impressed on them the duty of waging war against the idola- ters, as they ignorantly called the Mohammedans. So great was the enthusiasm produced in the assembly, that the crosses which had been prepared were not sufficient, and Bernard tore his robe in shreds to supply the crowd of volunteers. The command of the expedition was offered to the saint, but he had the good sense to refuse; he trusted to his talents as a preacher rather than as a warrior, and having succeeded in France, he proceeded to Germany, where he kindled a similar flame. 27. Two monarchs, Conrad III., emperor of Germany, and Louis of France, were the leaders of the , ,' . * second crusade. Few expeditions have been more calamitous. The treachery of the Greeks, who dreaded the crusaders even more than the Saracens, the ignorance of the leaders, the disunion of their followers, and the total absence of discipline, combined to ruin the two armies. After a series of calamitous defeats, the monarchs were obliged to visit Je- rusalem as pilgrims instead of conquerors ; and returned to Europe without honour, and almost without followers. 28. Eleonora, the queen of Louis, had accompanied him on this expedition ; she was the heiress of Poitou and Aquitaine, and by her marriage these rich provinces had been united to France ; but while Louis was advancing through Palestine, Eleonora remained at Antioch, indulging in th^ most criminal excesses, and Louis resolved at all hazards to obtain a divorce. During the absence of the king the administration of affairs had been trusted to the abbe Segur, under whose judicious management the nation enjoyed peace and tranquillity. He had opposed the project of the crusade, but was borne down by the superior influence of Bernard, and he made an equally ineffectual resistance to the meditated divorce. 29. Louia repudiated Eleonora on the old pretext of consanguinity ; six wiieks after she married Henry H. of England, and thus united the provinces of Aquitaine and Poitou to the English crown. This created mutual jealousy between the rival monarchs, and produced a desultory warfare, which, with little interruption, lasted nearly twenty years. 30. During one of the brief in- tervals of peace, the two monarchs went to visit pope Alex- ander in., whom the disturbances of Italy had compelled ta F 82 HISTORY OF FRANCE. take refuge in France, and showed their submission to th«» pontiff by taking each a rein of his horse's bridle, and con- ducting him in this state to the lodgings that had been pre- pared for his reception. 31. Through hatred of Henry, Louis strenuously supported the celebrated Thomas-a-Becket, in his resistance to his sove- reign, and aided Henry's unnatural sons in tlieir frequent rebellions against their indulgent father. Queen Eleanor waa the principal cause of these troubles in the family of Henry ; as she had brought him so rich a dowry, she expected that the monarch would have evinced his gratitude by devoted afTection ; and when she found herself neglected, she urged her sons to raise the flames of civil war in those provinces that had been committed to their government. Young Henry in Normandy, Geoffry in Brittany, and Richard in Aquitaine, threw off' allegiance to their king and father nearly at the same time. The war was principally remarkable for the mutual treachery of the rebels and their adherents ; the brothers seemed to hate each other as much as they did their father, and one of them, GeofTry, declared that " mutual hatred was the family inheritance of the Plantagenets." 32. Louis dur- ing the war exhibited several gross instances of vile treachery, especially at the siege of Rouen, where, having granted the inhabitants a truce, he attempted to storm the town while they were off" their guard ; but a priest on the walls having observed the bustle in the enemy's camp, rung the alarm-bell, the garrison at once hurried to the walls, and Louis was re- pulsed with disgrace. 33. After the conclusion of a truce with the English, Louis resolved to crown his eldest son Philip ; but on the day ap- pointed for the ceremony, the young prince lost his way while hunting in the forest; and when discovered, had suffered so much from cold and fatigue that he fell into a dangerous sick ness that threatened his life. The fond father undertook a pilgrimage to the shrine of Thomas-a-Becket, on whose pa- tronage he conceived that he had had a strong claim. The journey was fatal to the old king ; the rapidity with which he travelled, and the anxiety of his mind, brought on an attack of the palsy, from which he never recovered. The corona- tion of Philip was celebrated with extraordinary splendour, but illness prevented his father from witnessing the ceremony; he lingered, however, some months longrr, and when he felt LOUIS VII. 83 the near approach of death, he ordered all his private properly lo be distributed among the poor. 34. In this reign the poetry of the Troubadours had at- tained the summit of its popularity. These poets were for the most part natives of Provence, and their songs vi^ere writ- ten in the dialect of that country. Love and gallantry were the principal subjects of their poetic effusions; but though many of them display considerable refinement, a great num- ber are sullied by grossness and indelicacy. 35. About this time also we find the first traces of the French drama, in the theatrical representations introduced by the monks. The subjects were principally some of the historic events recorded in Scripture, or the legend of some favourite saint. They were called mysteries^ and long continued to form an import- ant part of every religious festival. 36. Coats of arms and surnames became hereditary about the time of the second crusade; they were introduced to designate the rank and lineage of the several leaders engaged in the wars for the recovery of Palestine. Louis the Young was the first king who assumed the Jleur-de-lis, as the royal cognizance; it is disputed by antiquarians whether this en- sign be really the flower of the lily, or rather the head of the ancient French javelin. The majority of heraldic writers seern inclined to adopt the latter opinion. Questions. 1. By what pontiff were the crusades preached in France 7 2. Did he succeed in persuading the French to join in the wars 7 3. Wliat else was done at the council of Clermont 1 4. Who were the leaders of the crusaders ? 8. By whom were they induced to undertake a second expe^ dition ? 6. What success had they? 7. How was the life of Philip spent? 8. What was the extent of the royal territories during the reign of Philip? ^. Why were the French delighted at the accession of Louis? 10. To what dangers had he been exposed in his youth ? ..1. How did he remedy the defects of his education? 12. In what domestic wars was he engaged? 13. What was the cause of war between Louis and Henry L ol England? 14. On what account did the emperor of 6-?rmany invada France ? S4 HISTORY OF FRANCE. l5 What were the events of the war? 16. By what domestic calamity was Louis le Gros afflicted f 17. What advice did he give his son on his death-bed ? 18. What useful institutions were made in tljis reign? 19. Was any beneficial institution revived? 20. For what is St. Bernard remarkable? 21. What was Arnold de Brescia? 22. Wliat was the cause of quarrel between Louis VIL and thfl Pope? 23. Did any nobleman of importance join the monks'? 24. What was the massacre of Vitri 1 25. How did Louis strive to expiate his crime? 2(3. Where, and by whom, was this new crusade proposed ? 27. What was the event of the expedition? 28. How did the queen Eleonora provoke the hostility of he/ husband ? 29. To whom was she subsequently married ' 30. What instan'^e of submission to the pope is recorded of the rival monarchs, Louis and Henry? 31. By what domestic calamities was the family of Henry di» tracted ? 32. What act of treacliery did Louis attempt? 33. What was the cause of his death 1 34. Who were the Troubadours? 35. What was the origin of the French drama . 36. Wlien were coats of arms introduced? PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 85 Philip II., surnamed Augustus. CHAPTER X. THE REIGN OF PHILIP AUGUSTUS Still if you glory in the lion's force, Come, nobly emulate that lion's course! From guarded herds he vindicates his prey, Nor lurks in fraudful thickets from the day. LOVIBOITD I. The reigc of Philip Augustus forms an import- tnt era in the history of France ; previous to his ac- . *„„ cession, the monarchs had only a nominal supremacy over a confederation of princes, who were in reality inde- pendent sovereigns ; but in the course of this reign, the power of these vassals was broken, and the absolute authority of the king established. As he was only fifteen at the time of his father's death, the regency was entrusted to the count of Flanders, but Philip, impatient of control, soon took the reina of government into his own hands. 2. The first act of the oew monarch was one of questionable policy and absolute injustice; he confiscated the property of all the Jews in France, and banished them from his dominions, under thfi 8 S6 HISTORY OF FRANCE. pretence that they had been guilty of usury and extortiun lut subsequently finding the want of rich capitalists, he per mitted them to return. 3. The vigour of the young monarch was soon experienced by the clergy and nobility. When the clergy atRheims were asked for a subsidy, they requested the king to be contented with their supplications for his success ; soon after, they applied to Philip for protection against some nobles that ravaged their territories, and Philip replied that he would supplicate these nobles to abstain from injuring the church. The entreaties of Philip were encouragement to th« assailants; a fresh complaint was made by the clergy, and Philip, in reply, said, " Of what do you complain, my friends ? have not I protected you with my prayers, as you assisted me with yours .?" The clergy then promised that they would, for the future, exhibit more substantial proofs of loyalty, and Philip, in his turn, afforded them more efficient protection. The count of Flanders, who had usurped some of the royal domains, was forced by the vigorous measures of Philip to restore them ; and Henry II., who had often cajoled Louis VII., found the new sovereign a formidable rival in policy. 4. The causes of disunion between the French and English sovereigns were numerous and complicated ; the more so, because they were mixed up with the quarrels between Henry and his sons. The possessions of Aquitaine and Brittany, which Henry had obtained by his wife Eleonora, made his share of France nearly equal to the dominions of Philip, and the union of so many provinces under a single sovereign made him too formidable a vassal. The daughter of Louis had been betrothed to Richard, count of Poitiers, the son of Henry ; and the young princess was sent to the court of the British king until she attained a marriageable age. The mar- riage was delayed in consequence of the wars between Henry and his children ; but slander assigned other reasons, and it was asserted that a criminal intercourse had taken place be- tween Henry and his intended daughter-in-law. Several con- ferences on these topics took place between Philip and Henry, under an elm near Gisors, which grew exactly at the confines of France and Normandy ; but the superior wisdom of Henry so frequently baffled the French monarch, that he ordered the elm to be- cut down, declaring that no future conferences should be held under its shade. 5, At length the interference of the pope restored peace foi a time : when the news of the capture of Jerusalem, by PHILIP AUGUSTUS 87 Saladin, reached Europe, the tloman pontiff sent legates into every part of Christendom, entreating princes to lay aside their mutual jealousies, and unite for the recovery of the holy sepulchre. Amongst others, appeared William, archbishop of Tyie, driven from his see by the victories of the Saracens — one of the most celebrated men of the age for learning and eloquence. By his persuasion, the two kings agreed to ad- journ their differences, and to unite in a new expedition against Palestine. 6. But this apparent reconciliation lasted only for a short time ; count Richard engaged in war with the count of Toulouse; the French king, to avenge the cause of his vassals, attacked the English territories, and Henry, much against his will, found himself involved in a new war. Richard, who had been the original cause of the war, made a private offer to the king of France of doing him homage, and swearing fealty, provided that he were put in possession of all his father's continental dominions, and Philip readily agreed to the condi^ons. 7. Against such a coalition, Henry found himself unable to maintain a contest, and solicited the intervention of the pope. A legate was sent, who threatened to place the kingdom of France under an interdict, but Philip was not to be daunted by this threat. 8. He replied, " Sir legate, pass the sentence if it please thee, for I fear it not. The Roman church has no right to harm the kingdom of France, eitiier by interdict or otherwise, when the king thinks proper to arm against his rebellious vassals, to revenge his own injuries and the honour of his crown. Besides, I see by thy discourse, that thou hast smelled the king of Eng- land's esierlinsP 9. To annoy Henry the more, Philip and Richard made a great parade of their friendship; they lived in the same tent, ate at the same table, and slept in the same bed ; and yet we shall see their friendship after a few years terminating in the most rancorous hatred. At length Henry, worn out . . A. D. by successive calamities, died at Chinon, having pro- . * „' nounced a malediction on his children, which he could uever be prevailed on to retract. Richard visited his father on his death-bed, and afterwards returned to the French camp, where he jested about the impotent hostility the old king had shown during the interview. 10. Richard, now become king of England, prepared to join with Philip in the third crusade ; the two monaichs pub- licly rf^newed their former league of amity, and swore that 88 HISTORY OF FRANCE. each snould protect the dominions of the other as if the) were his own. But this friendship was not of long duration; during their delay in the harbour of Messina, which was the rendezvous of their fleets, frequent subjects of dispute arose. Richard was haughty and tyrannical, both in manner and dis- position ; Philip was proud, jealous, and deceitful ; violence on the one side was opposed by artifice on the other, and the other crusaders had reason to dread that the expedition would be frustrated by a war between the ambitious rivals. 11. These dissensions were with difficulty quelled in Messina, but they broke out with fresh violence in Palestine, until at length, Philip, unable to brook the pre-eminence that Richard had obtained by his superior valour, feigned indisposition, and returned to Europe. In his way back, he applied to the pope to be absolved from his oath of fidelity and friendship, but the pontiff rejected his request with becoming indignation. 12. Notwithstanding Philip stimulated John to rebel against his absent brother, and attempt to seize on- his dominions, the labours of both were frustrated by the Norman nobles, who admired the valour of their sovereign, and felt a personal interest in the honour that the prowess of Richard, whom they surnamed the Lion-hearted, had added to the Norman name. 13. The news of these events recalled Richard from Pales- tine; but on his return, while passing through Ger- ■. /q,,' many in the disguise of a pilgrim, he was discovered and imprisoned by the duke of Austria, whom he had grievously insulted in the Holy Land. After a long and tedious captivity, the English monarch was liberated, and re- turned to England eager to avenge the wrongs inflicted on him by his rebellious brother and treacherous rival. When Philip heard of Richard's liberation, he sent John a billet announcing the news in these emphatic words, "Take care of yourself; the devil is unchained." 14. From Richard's return until his death, an almost inces- sant war was continued between hi-m and Philip; but their hostility was confined to petty skirmishes on the borders, and to aiding rebellious vassals who took up arms against the rival s6vereig.ns. The king of France, dreading the military skill of Richard, only once ventured to encounter him in the field, and was then defeated with the loss of hi:5 baggage axnong which were the archives of the kingdom. PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 89 15 The death of Richard liberated Philip from a powerful rival; and a conjuncture of favourable cir- , /qq ciunstances in the inglorious reign of his successor, enabled him to seize on the hereditary dominions which the English kings had for so many years possessed on the Con- tinent. We have previously seen that the people of Brittany M'ere strenuous assertors of their own independence, and very averse to foreign domination. In order to secure their affec- tions, Henry II. having appointed his second son count of Brittany, united him in marriage with Constance, a descendant of the native princes of that country. As soon as Constance had borne a son, the Bretons insisted on his being baptized by the name of Arthur, because there had been for a long period, prophecies circulated among all the Celtic tribes, fore- telling that a prince of that name should restore the ancient glories of the Breton race. 16. John was recognised as king, in England, Normandy, and Aquitaine; but the duchy of Brittany, the counties of Anjou, Maine, and Touraine, with several others, acknowledged Arthur as their sovereign, and "laimed the protection of the king of France. Philip having thus obtained an entrance, dismantled the towns and razed the fortresses of his new vassals ; but despairing of being able to retain these provinces against the will of the in- habitants, and in despite of the king of England, he made peace with John, and sacrificed to him Arthur and his fol- lowers. 17. But while Philip was thus despoiling young Aithur of his inheritance, he had him educated at court with his own sons, and kept him as an useful agent in the possible case of a new rupture with John. This rupture soon took place, in consequence of an insurrection of the Poi- tevins under the command of the court de la Marche, ,.-,'qo from whom the king of England had taken his be- trothed wife. Philip on this broke the peace, proclaimed Arthur count of the Bretons, Anjoi"*,",s, and Poitevins, mar- ried him to the princess Mary, then only five years old, and BPUt him afthe head of an army t' conquer thg>se towns of Poitou, which still held out for thf king of England. 18. The issue of the war was •'•^lamitous to Arthur, he laid siege to Mirebeau, a small town near Poitiers, in which the dowager queen of England then T<--sided. The town was taken, but Eleanor retired into the citiv^lel, and -sent pressing messengers to John to advance to her 'elief. Eager to libe- rate his mother, the English king nume ' across t>« country 8* 90 }USTORY (3F FRANCE. Death of Prince Arthur. by foroed marches, attacked the besiegers, who were totallji unprepared, and made Arthur, together with the principal leaders of the insurrection, prisoners. He carried them all into Normandy, where Artliursoon disappeared, murdered by his uncle, as the Bretons affirmed ; or accidentally killed in attempting to make his escape, as the Normans relate the story. 19. The death of Arthur slung the Bretons to madness; in him they had placed the l.ast hope of regaining their national independence, and tlie same ardent imagination which had led them to believe their future destiny connected with that of this child, inspired them with a sort of mad affection for Philip, because he was the enemy of young Arthur's murderer They accused John before the French king, as his feudal suzerain, of young Arthur's murder; and he in consequence summoned John as his vassal for Normandy, to 'appear and defend himself before the twelve peers of France. As no notice was taken of this summons, the lands which John held under the French crown were declared forfeit, and an army was levied to put the sentence into execution. 20. The conquest of Normantiy was effected almost with- out an effort on the part of Philip. The Bretons, forgetful that »hey were forging chains for themselves, and listening PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 9J only to the dictates of a blind revenge, poured their forces into the country, and committed such ravages ,.^,^1 that the other parts of the province gladly submitted to the king of France, from whom alone they could expect protection. The English monarch made no attempt to rescue his dominions, but passed his time in hunting and other diver- sions. 21, When the people of Rouen, after having made a fierce resistance, and endured every extremity, sent a deputa tion to inform him that they must surrender unless relieved, the envoys found their king playing at chess ; he did not rise from the board, nor give tliem an answer, until the game was finished. He then said to them drily — " 1 have no means of succouring you within the time appointed, so do the best you can." The town of course surrendered ; those which still held out followed its example; and the conquest of all the English dominions but Guienne was completed. 22. In less than a century after this conquest, the Normans had become so identified with the French, that in every war against Eng- land, their privateers did more injury to the British trade than any ot.lier portion of the French navy. 23. The reign of Philip Augustus is remarkable by being intimately connected with the pontificate of Innocent 111. This pope, who seemed to have inherited tho haughtiness and ambition of Gregory VII., treated crowned heads as if they were merely his vassals. He commenced by excommup.irat- ing Philip, and placing his kingdom under an interdict, on account of his having divorced his wife Ingeberge, and the king was forced to make a show of submission. 24. The vengeance of the pope was next directed against John, for refusing to allow Stephen Langton to take possession of the see of Canterbury; not content with placing the kingdom under an interdict, he declared the throne vacant, and offered to bestow it on Philip. The French monarch, listening only to the dictates of ambition, and forgetting that this precedent might hereafter be directed against himself, prepared a fleet a~?,d levied an army to go and take possession. John was too great a coward to encounter the storm ; he surrendered his crown to Pandolf, the papal legate, and consented to hold England for the future as a vassal of the holy see. in conse- quence he was formally reconciled to the churchy anrt the French were forbidden to attempt any thing again.* one 'vh« Was under the peculiar protection of the holy see 92 HISTORY OF FRANCE. King John of England. 25. Indig-nant at being thus deceived, Philip con tinued his preparations : and though attacked by a crowd of enemies, extri- cated himself by his valour and prudence. The empe- ror Otho and the count of Flanders, united with the English, invaded France, and Philip, with far inferior forces, met them on the plains of Bouvines, near Tournay. The French ob- tained a complete victory J Otho having encountered a French knight, was dis- mounted and rescued with difficulty; alarmed at the danger, he seized another horse and fled ; while Philip with an exulting smile said to his nobles, " My friends, we shall see nothing to-day but his back." The flight of the emperor was the signal for the ruin of his army ; the Imperialists no longer resisted, and a terrible slaughter ensued. After having obtained so glorious a victory, Philip returned to Paris, and entered his capital in triumph. His two most bitter enemies, the count of Flanders and the count of Boulogne, were led in triumph and confined in the Louvre, then a castle in the vicinity of Paris, which served both for a palace and a prison. 26. John, after this defeat of his allies, was on the brink of ruin ; he had been compelled by his barons to sign Magna Charta, and swear to its observance, but the oath was violated almost as soon as it had been taken. On this the barons declared him deposed, and elected as their J^'^' sovereign Louis, the eldest son of Philip, whose wife, Blanche of Castile, was the grand-daughter of Henry H.; Riid this prince was actually proclaimed in London. When Innocent heard of these transactions, he redoubled his ex- communications, but they were disregarded; indignation threw him into a fever, and he died wliile meditating new PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 9:^ PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 95 acts of violence. 27. The greater part of England had already submitted to Louis, when the death of John saved that country from a foreign yoke; the English everywhere submitted to Henry III., the son of John, and Louis had the good sense to resign a crown which he could scarcely have retained. 28. We have already seen how the death of prince Arthur enabled Philip to establish the royal authority in the northern provinces of France ; circumstances, equally extraordinary, destroyed all the national power of the inhabitants of the country between the Mediterranean, the Rhone, and the Ga- ronne. These men, for the most part vassals of the count of Toulouse, were, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, far superior to the rest of Gaul in wealth and civilization. They carried on an extensive and lucrative commerce with the East, where the signature of their count had then greater weight than the king of France's great seal. Their towns had a municipal constitution like the Italian republics, their mer- chants enjoyed many of the privileges of nobility, their litera- ture was the most refined in Europe, and their literary dialect, the Proven9al, was classical in Italy and Spain. But with all these advantages, they had one greater source of pre-eminence, which yet was the cause of their ruin. They had anticipated, and in some degree exceeded, the religious reforms of the six- teenth century; they had virtually renounced the authority of the Romish see, which vainly exhausted the resources of its immense diplomatic organization to bring them into obe- dience. The emissaries of the pontiff brought to Alby, ISTar- bonne, and Toulouse, bulls of excommunication against the enemies of the Romish faith ; but the clergy, and even the bishops, had shared in the alleged heresy, and the weapons of the church were disregarded. To stop this spreading con- tagion, it was necessary to destroy the freedom and social order from which it arose, and Innocent III. ,o\q' undertook the task. He preached a crusade against the inhabitants of the county of Toulouse and diocese of Alby, as his predecessors had done against the Saracens; and published throughout Europe, that whoever would take up arms and war against them to the uttermost, should obtain remission of all his sins, and a part of the property of the heretics. 29. Unforiunalely the period was favourable for this cru «ade of Christians against Christians. The conquest of Nor I>6 HISTORY OF FRANCE. inandy had dispossessed many of its gallant knights, and made llieni soUners of fortune ; companies of warlike adven- turers roamed through Euiope, offering their services to any sovereign tliat would take tiiem into pay, and there were few kings who dared to refuse sending soldiers to the aid of a pontiff, who was so ready to fulminate interdicts and excom- munications. Besides, the pilgrimage against the Albigense* (for so was this war called) promised greater profit, with less risk, than the crusade against the Saracens. A numerous army was levied, entitled Post de noire Seigneur, (the host of our Lord,) and its general, Simon, count de Montford, did homage to the king of France for territories over which his sovereignty was not as yet extended. 30. Raymond VJ., count of Toulouse, interested himself in favour of his unhappy^ subjects, the Albigenses, whom the pope wished to exterminate ; fortius he was excommunicated as a favourer of heresy, and all his dominions confiscated. No submission, no degradation, not even submitting to be oeaten with rods as a public penance, and taking up arms against his faithful subjects, could procure Raymond's pardon. He was obliged to seek refuge in the court of his brother-in- law, the king of Arragon, and leave his unfortunate subjects to their fate. 31. The war was carried on with more fero- cious cruelty than any ever recorded in history; the fanatical fury of the soldiers was stimulated by the exhortations of the clergy; at the storming of Beziers, when it was pro- 1 '21 S pt'^ed to spare the Catholics, a monk exclaimed, "■ Kill all, God will recognize his own ;■" and the atrocious precept was but loo well obeyed. The war terminated by the complete devastation of the country, and the almost com- plete extermination of its inhabitants. Philip obtained the sovereignty oyer these valuable provinces, and the inquisition was established at Toulouse, to prevent the profession of any doctrines condemned by the pope. A singular crusade took place during the' reign of Philip Augustus. His sister, Margaret of France, was married to Pela, king of Hungary-. At his decease she took an oath to live only for Christ, and to close her life in the Holy Land. Accordingly she herself headed a crusade of her subjects, and led them to the holy war. 32. hi the close of Philip's reign, the fifth crusade took place. This expedition sailed against Egypt. At first they were successful, and captured Damietta, but fortune soon PHILIP AUGUSTUS. ■Mi fliSp-fi^^^-) G PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 99 changed ; when they advanced into the country, the adven- turers were suddenly hemmed in by an inundation of the Nile, and were glad to purchase a safe letreat by the surrender of all their conquests. 33. Philip died in the 44th year of his reign, after having laid the permanent foundation of the royal au- ,9*90 thofity in France. His claim to the title of Augustus, uniformly given to him by the French historians, appears very questionable ; his treachery to king Richard and prince Arthur, his persecution of the Jews, and his crusade against ti/.e Albigenses, are foul blots on his character, not to be com- ponsated by his having paved the streets of Paris, erected an aqueduct, or having reduced all the provinces of Gaul into the kingdom of France. He was the first European sovereign who maintained a standing army 5 under pretence that he was in danger of being assassinated by his rival Richard, he insti- tuted a corps of body-guards, whom he called ribands, and on whom he conferred many privileges. During his reign, the university of Paris acquired great eminence, but no useful branches of learning were cultivated ; science still was con- fined to the Arabians, and religion was disgraced by a number of offensive ceremonies, all of them absurd, and many inde- cent. New orders of preaching friars were instituted during this period, of whom the most remarkable were the followers of St. Dominic, to whom the care of the inquisition was con- fided. Yet, with all their efforts, what they called heresy was not extirpated in France. The Protestants, who at this day remain in the southern provinces of that country, are descended from the Albigenses, whose piety and constancy they still deservedly venerate. Questions. 1 Who was regent during Philip's minority? 2. With what unjust act did he begin his reign 7 3. How did he act to the clevgy and nobles ? 4. What was the principal cause of disunion between the Frensh and English monarchs ? 5. By whose interference was peace restored for a time 7 6. Who caused a new war ? 7. To whose mediation did Henry appeal? 8. How did Philip treat the papal legate ? 9. In what manner did Richard treat his father and king? 10. Whence arose the hostility between Philip and Biohaidf^ 100 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 11 How was It injurious to the cause of the crusaders? 1.2 Of what treachery was Philip guilty? 13. How did Philip communicate to John the news of Richard'* liberation ? [.4. In what manner was the war between Richard and Pbil.in carried on ? 15. Why were the people of Brittany attached to prince Artbtijrl 16. Did the Bretons find Philip a faithful ally ? 17. What caused a new war? 18. What became of prince Arthur? 19. How were the Bretons affected by the news of ,bfs death ? 20. By whose assistance did Philip subdue Normandy? 21. How did John behave when his territories were invaded 7 22. Did the Normans retain any affection for the English ? 23. How did Innocent II. treat Philip? 24. By what means was John rescued from the dangeis by which he was threatened ? 25. What were the events of the battle of Bouvines? 26. To what dangers was John exposed? 27. How was England saved from becoming a French province ? 28. Why were the Albigenses persecuted? 29. How does it appear that the time chosen for this iniquitom war was well selected ? 30. What became of Raymond? 31. How were the Albigenses treated? 32. What was the fortune of the fifth crusade ? S3. What was the general character of Philip's reign 7 Figures taken from Monuments of the Twelfth Century. LOUIS IX. 101 Louis VIII. CHAPTER XI. LOUIS VIII. LOUIS IX. On their broad shields they bore him from the plain. To sense a corpse, and number'd with the slain. His fixed eyes in hovering shades were drowti'd, His gallant limbs in death-like fetters bound. The shouts tumultuous, and the din of war, His ear rereived like murmurs heard afar; Or as some peasant hears, securely laid Beneath a vaulted cliff or woodland sliade, When o'er his head unnumber'd insects sing In airy rounds ; the children of the spring. Epi&oiriAD 1 Loris VIIL, descended from Charlemagne by the A. D. aioOier's side, was the first of the Capetian line who 1090 had not been crowned auring the lifetime of his father. Previous to his accession, he had been engaged in endeavour- ing to drive the English from Guienne, and had so far suc- 9* 102 HISTORY OF FRANCE. cceded, that only a few towns on the sea-coast renmhied in their possession. These must soon have yielded, had not Louis been summoned away by the pope to complete the sub- jugation of the Albigenses. He captured Avignon, situated in the independent territory of Provence, and even penetrated as far as Toulouse. On his return he died, poisoned, it is said, bj»Thibaut, count of Champagne, who was in 1 22fi ^°^^ wiih the queen. 2. Louis IX., afterwards called St. Louis, was but twelve years old at the time of his father's death, but the regency was ably managed by his mo ther, Blanche of Castile. Th proud nobles were averse to the government of a foreigner, and a woman;*- but the queen, by a mixture of prudence and firm- ness, disconcerted all their ef- forts, and retained the reins of government until the young king had reached his twenty-first year The persecution of the Albigen- ses still continued ; this unfortu- nate people having made some resistance to the crusaders, were assailed by fresh armies, and forced into submission. 3. When the young king came of age he showed his gratitude to his mother by con- tinuing to her a share in the ad- ministration; he then applied himself diligently to the refor- * A. strange anecaote is recorded of the oppression of the clergy, and L)old spirit of the queen regent. In the year 1223, the chapter of Notre Dame levied a heavy tax on the villages over which they had jurisdiction. The innabitants of Chatenay vi'ere either unable or unwilling to pay the required sum ; they were all arrested and crowded into a small prison by their reverend taskmasters. Queen Blarxhe having learned that these unfortunate beings were deprived of air and food, solicited the chapter to set them at liberty. But the canons, so far from complying, were so enraged at the queen's in terfcrence, that they apprehended the wives and children of the prisoners, and thrust them into the same wretched place of confine- ment. Exhausted by hunger, thirst, and want of air, many of these ur.fortunate beings died miserably; when the queen, exasperated &t the conduct of the canons, went to the prison, accompanied by Blanche of Castile. 104 HISTORY OF FRANCE. LOUIS IX. 105 mation of the state, and especially the abuses intro- duced by the licentiousness of the clergy, and he so , ' ' far succeeded as to correct some of the most glaring evils. 4. His tranquillity was first disturbed by the revolt ol the count of Marche, who, being aided 6y Henry III., took up arms against Louis. The revolters and their allies were twice defeated, and the war terminated by the annexation of a considerable portion of the count's territory to tiie crown of France. 5. Soon after this Louis fell sick, and while hia recovery was doubtful, made a vow tliat he would, on his restoration to health, attempt the liberation of Palestine. His mother and his wisest counsellors in vain endeavoured to change his resolution ; as soon as he became well, he assumed the cross, and the nobility, who were ardently attached to him, followed his example. 6. Three years were spent in preparations for this expedi- tion ; and the precautions taken by the king showed, that though seduced by the prejudices of the time to adopt this absurd scheme, yet he could display such prudence and wis- dom in the execution, as almost to atone for its defects. Tha Sieur de Joinville, who accompanied the king, has left us an interesting record of this calamitous expedition, j^'^J from which the following sketch is extracted. 7. After a long delay at Cyprus, Louis directed his course to Egypt, where he found an army of Saracens prepared to oppose his landing. No sooner had his vessel touched the ground, than Louis leaped into the water, followed by his bravest troops, waded to the shore under a heavy fire of arrows, and attacked the ene- my with so much impetuosity, that they were instantly broken, and forced to fly in disorder. So great was tlie panic produced by this de- feat, that Damietta, wliich was well prepared to make a long resistance, was surrendered almost without a blow. 8. Louis, compelled to re- Louis ix. main at Damietta during the inundation of the Nile, had the eome servants whom she commanded to break the door. The ser rants refused, dreading the consequences of a quarrel with the 0(3 HISTORY OF FRANCE. grief to see his soldiers give themselves up to every species of licentiousness. At length the falling of the waters per- mitted the advance of the crusaders, and Louis prepared to lay siege to Cairo. During the march, the army were ex- posed to uicessant attacks from the Saracens, which, thougn they were always repulsed, greatly harassed the invaders. A more serious impediment soon appeared ; they reached the banks of the Astmoun canal, and were utterly at a loss how to proceed. 9. After some delay, an Arab, induced by a large bribe, pointed out a ford, and the count of Artois, brother to the king, passing over, defeated a body of Mamelukes who had been posted there to defend the passage. Contrary to the advice of the Templars, and those who were acqnainted with the Saracenic mode of warfare, the count pursued the fugi- tives into the town of Massoura, where his cavalry were soon entangled in the streets. Assailed by stones from the roofs of the houses, and attacked by the troops, who had rallied afresh, the whole detachment would have perished had not Louis come to their assistance. The Saracens were finally defeated, but the victors had suffered more loss from the battle than the vanquished. 10. New combats increased the glory, but weakened the strength of the crusaders; while the Sara- cens, constantly on the watch, cut off all their supplies ; famine and disease attacked the camp at the same time, while their enemies were every day strengthened by the arrival of fresh troops. While preparing to retreat to Damietta, the camp of the crusaders was suddenly attacked, when the king lay exhausted in his tent by disease and disappointment; even in this bitter moment he displayed all the valour and energy of his character ; he mounted his steed, and endeavoured to. marshal his line, but fell exhausted by weariness. IL One of his knights dragged him with difficulty out of the melee^ and gave him in charge to a woman that followed the camp; the victory of the Saracens was complete, and Louis remained a prisoner. 12. His queen, who had accompanied him in the chuich. The qiieen determined to accomplish her design, coin nienced breaking the door herself; when the first blow was struck, the charm was dissolved, and an entrance was soon forced by the attendants- A multitude of men, women, and children, pallid and tottering through weakness, immediately came forth, and dreading to be subjected to fresh punishment, implored protection of the queen, who succeeded in delivering them from their state of bond «g© to the chapter. LOUIS IX. 107 expedition, was at Damietta when this unfortunate event oc- curred, unable to move, as she was near the time of her con- finement. An old knight was her only attendant, and from him she obtained a promise that he would put her to death sooner than see her fall into the hands of the Saracens. In the midst of this distress she was delivered of a son, whom, in allusion to her calamity, she named Tristan. 13. Louis entered into a treaty with the Sultan of Egypt, by which he agreed to restore Damietta for his own ransom, to pay one hundred thousand marks of silver for the redemption of the other captives, and to keep peace with the Saracens for ten years. From Egypt he proceeded to Palestine, where he col- lected the money that he had promised the sultan, and hon- ourably fulfilled all the conditions of the treaty. At length the news of his mother's death showed him the necessity of returning to his own dominions. Grief for the misfortunes of her son, and remorse for the unjust execution of two men whom she had deemed guilty of spreading a false account of the great calamity that had overwhelmed the French army, brought down the queen regent's gray hairs with sor- row to the grave. Louis, at his landing, was received 1.-,^^ with the greatest joy by the people, but, at the same time, they remarked with sorrow, that he still continued to wear the cross, a sign that his crusading spirit was not yet extinct, and that he still meditated a new expedition. 14. The aflkirs of the government at home engaged all the king's attention after his return ; the tyranny and oppression of the nobles had risen to an extravagant height, and the courts of justice were notoriously influenced by the most corrupt motives. In his own conduct, Louis exhibited the most diflicult part of justice to put in practice, the virtue of restitution ; he ordered that all the fiefs which had been un- justly annexed to the royal domains, should be restored to their legitimate owners. He gave up to the king of England several of the towns which his father had conquered in Guienne, receiving in return a renunciation of that monarch's claims over Normandy and Touraine. 15. Such was the im- pression produced by this generous conduct, that Louis was chosen arbitrator of the disputes between i.-,,.^ Henry HI. and his turbulent barons, headed by the earl of Leicester. An assembly of the slates of France was summoned at Amiens, and there, in the presence of that as- sembly, as v/ell as in that of the king of England, and Peter 108 HISTORY OF FRANCE. de Montfort, Leicester's son, he brought this great cause to a trial and examination. The decision of Louis was, that the royal authority should be restored, and the provisions of Magna-Charta observed ; but this equitable sentence displeased both parties, and it became manifest that the dispute could only be settled by a civil war. 16. During this reign the au- thority of the kings of France v^as extended over new portions of the southern provinces ; Charles of Anjou, brother to the king, before the crusade had been married to Beatrice, the heiress of Provence ; and thus the national independence of that interesting little country was annihilated. The Provencals made several ineffectual efforts to shake off the yoke, but these be- ing defeated, served only to rivel their fetters the tighter. Louis exchanged with the king of Arra gon his right to Catalonia, for that monarch's claim to several towns in the south of France ; and ac- quired by purchase a great portion of the territories of the count of Champagne. 17. The prudence that dictated these measures seems to have forsaken the king on another occasion, where it is difficult to reconcile his conduct either with wisdom or justice. — The hatred which the popes had shown to Frederic JI. extended to his posterity. On his death, Innocent IV. offered the crown of Naples to the king of England, for his second son prince Edmund ; but this invasion was defeated by the emperor Conrad, who appears to have inherited the abilities of his father. Soon after, the victor was poisoned by- las natural brother Manfredi, who assumed the reins of go- vernment nominally as guardian to the young prince 19fifi Conradin. The pope however claimed the kingdom of Naples as a fief of the holy see, and offered it to Charles of Anjou. Louis was weak enough to permit hia brother to accept the offer, and allowed a crusade to be preached throughout his dominions against Manfredi and Conradin. Bv this means Charles soon found himself at the Charles of Anjou, King of Sicily. LOUIS IX. 109 hcfld of a powerful army, and passing into Italy, defeated and slew Manfred], at the battle of Benevento. Conradin, who was only sixteen years old at the time, still continued the war, but at length the superior skill of Charles prevailed, the young prince was defeated and made a prisoner. 18. As Conradin had been excommunicated, his cruel cap- tor refused him the rights of a prisoner of war, and ordered him to be publicly executed. In this trying moment Con- radin exhibited a courage and spirit worthy of his illustrious race. When brought to the scaffold, he drew off his glove, and flinging it into the midst of the assembled multitude, en- treated the person into whose hands it might fall, to bear it to some of his relations as a symbol of inheriting his rights and an obligation to avenge his judicial murder. The glove was picked up by a knight, and carried to Peter, king of Arragon, who subsequently exacted terrible vengeance for Conradin's death. 19. Although the former crusade had been attended with such calamitous consequences, Louis was eager to engage in another ; and the English king, relieved from his difficulties by the defeat and death of the earl of Leicester, promised to send him a body of auxiliaries under the command of his gallant son Edward. 20. Louis did not wait for -.n-^n the arrival of his allies ; he embarked on board some Genoese vessels, but instead of proceeding to Egypt or Pales- tine, he directed his armament against Tunis. The siege had not lasted more than a few weeks when a pestilence broke out in the camp, and destroyed great numbers of the troops. At length the king himself fell sick, and finding his end ap- '^roachinsr, sent for his eldest son Philip, and put into his hands a manuscript containing directions for his future con- duct. He then received the comforts of religion prescribed by the Romish church, and piously resigned his soul into the hands of his Creator. 2L Charles, of Anjou, about the same time landed to join his brother, but he found Louis and his son Tristan dead, Philip sinking under disease, and the army on the brink of ruin. In these calamitous circnmstancesj Charles took upon himself the management of affairs, and adopted such measures as the emergency rendered necessary. 22. Louis IX. was a good, rather than a great king ; his piety was sincere and unaffected, but greatly sullied by the prejudices of the age. His crusading expeditions were not ihe only instances of his intolerance* for he continued the in- 10 no HISTORY OF FRANCE Punsrsl of St. Louis. quisition at Toulouse, and joined in the persecution of the unhappy Albigenses. Be was so much attached to monastic institutions that he intended at one time to become a monk, and was with difficuhy disseadeo by his son and brother. To the lower ranks of his subjects he was deservedly dear; he afforded them protection agauibt the nobles, and appointed a day in every week for receiving and examining their petitions. He also increased the municipal pnvileges of cities and towns, established a judicious system of polu".e, and encouraged com- mercial enterprise. His most valuable bequest to his subjects was a code of laws containing many jnJicious regulations.* * The reign of Saint Louis may be conoiileTed the golden age of religious communities in France. He founded several new monas- teries, and enlarged the revenues of othero. He was constantly sur- rciir.ded by monks, who inspired him with a blind confidence in all they did. The king was even anxious to enter the cloister, but be- ing prevented by the remonstrances of his family, he contented himself with practising the austerities of a monastic life. He kept all the fasts of the church in their utmost rigour, frequently per- formed severe penance, and even suffered himself to be whipped by his confessor. The following is the extraordinary list of relics which he pur chased from the emperor Baldwin : — 1. Our Lord's croivn of thorns. i. Part oi cne true cross. 3. A cross called the Crosis of Triumph. LOUIS IX. Ill Finally though he does not appear to have quite deserved the title of saint, it is certain that the name has been given to many of inferior merit. Questions 1. Were there any remarkable events in the reign of Louia VIII. ? 2. Who became regent after his death? 3. How did Louis IX. behave after his accession? 4. Did he meet with any enemies? 5. On what expedition did he resolve? 6. Was there much time consumed in preparing for the cru- sade? 7. Where did the French land ? 8. Into what errors did they fall? 9. Why were they defeated at Massoura ? 10. Did they meet with any additional losses .- IL How was the king made prisoner? 12. Where was his queen at this time? 13. What circumstances induced him to return to France? 14. How did he exert himself to remedy the evils under which that country was suffering? 15. BetM'een what parties was he chosen as mediator? 16. Did he enlarge his hereditary dominions? 17. What events led to the invasion of Naples, by Charles of Anjou ? 18. Did any thing remarkable occur at the execution of Conradin ? 19. Was Louis di3<"0uraged by his ill-success in his first crusade? 20. What calamil'ss destroyed the second expedition against the infidels ? 21. Who took '.>'.e command of the remnant of the French army? 22. What W3'j the character of Louis IX.? oecause it was carried before the Christian emperors in battle. 4. ■^ome blood of Jesus Christ. 5. The clothes in which he was wrap- ped in his infancy. 6. Some blood that flowed from a miraculous image when struck by an infidel. 7.- The chain with which Christ vas bound. 8. The holy tablecloth. 9 A piece of the holy sepulchre. 10. Some of the virgin's milk. 11. Part of the head, of the lance by which Christ was pierced. 12. Part of the purplo robe. 13. The reed given to Christ as a sceptre. 14. Part of the sponge dipped in vinegar. 15. His grave-clothes. 16. The towel with which he wiped the feet of the apostles. 17. The rod of Moses. 18. The top of the head of St. John the Baptist. 19. The Bkuiis of St. Blaise, St. Clement, and St, Simon. 112 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Philip the Bold. CHAPTER XII. PHILIP THE HARDY AND PHILIP THE FAIR. " Cruelties you 've practised, Practised on us with rigour, this hath forced us To shake our heavy yokes off; and if »edres3 Of these just grievances be not granted us. We'll right ourselves, and by strong ha id defend What we are now possessed of. Massutser 1. Phit.ip III. was twenty-five years old at the um« of his father's death, but as he was sick of the disease which caused the death of Louis, Charles of Anjou took the command of the French army, and defeated every attack of the Moors. When Philip was recovered, he wisely resolved on withdrawing his forces from Africa. Peace was concluded with the king of Tunis, on condition that he should defray the expenses of the war, permit the public ex ercise pf Christianity in his dominions, liberate all his captives A. D. 1270. PHILIP IHE HARDY. 113 und pay an annual tribute to Charles of Anjou. This was the last crusade ; these wars, which had cost the blood of two millions, and incalculable sums of money, terminated by leaving Palestine in the possession of the Mahommedans. 2. After Philip had honoured his father's remains with a mag- nificent funeral, he applied himself to the affairs of state, but evinced in their management little of that spirit which in his earlier years had procured him the epithet Hardy or Bold. Warm, if not rash, in the formation of projects, tlie vigour with which he commenced his undertakings was lamentably contrasted with the weakness displayed in their execution This instability of character exposed him to tiie artifices of favourites, and one La Brosse, who had been his father's bar- ber, having insinuated himself into the king's confidence, instigated him to the commission of several crimes. 3. On the death of his first wife, Philip was united in marriage to Maria of Brabant, a princess whose talents and accomplish ments gave her considerable influence over the mind of her husband. Jealous of this. La Brosse resolved to effect her destruction, and on the death of Philip's eldest son, spread a report that he had been poisoned by his step-mother. Accord- ing to the custom of the age, the queen offered to prove her innocence by a judicial combat* Her champion triumphed in the lists, and this was deemed a sufficient proof of her innocence. 4. Alphonso, king of Castile, was a monarch so devoted to literary pursuits, that he totally neglected the affairs of his kingdom ; his eldest son had married Philip's sister, but on his death the widow and children were seized on, and impri- soned by Sancho, Alphonso's second son, who wished to secure the crown for himself Philip undertook the liberation of his nephews, but, by the treachery of his favourite, all his counsels were betrayed to Sanoho, and he was obliged to re- treat without having performed any service. Soon after Philip lertrned the treason that had been practised by La Brosse, and he immediately ordered him to be executed. 5. The tyrannical conduct of Charles of Anjou, in bicily, had alienated the affections of his subjects; ,n'Q„* Peter III. of Arragon had received the glove of the • A nun, who pretended to the gift of prophecy, was also consulted by the king respecting the queen's guilt; and the testimony of this impostor, in favour of the accused, is said to have -roduced a very powerful effect on the mind of the king. 10* H Ii4 HISTORY OF FRANCE. •nurdered Conradin, and was married to the daughter of Man frech ; Pope Nicholas HI. was indignant with Cliarles for Having refused to give him his daughter for one of his ne« pliews; and from tliese circumstances originated one of the most ttroeious conspiracies recorded in history. It was de- termined to massacre all the French in Sicily at the same mo- ment. John de Procida, whom Charles had illegally deprived of his property, was the principal agent in preparing this horrible tragedy : during two years the measures for its exe- cution were carried on with so much secresy, that not a single circumstance appeared which might warn the victims of their impending fate. 6. In this interval Nicholas died ; his suc- cessor was not made acquainted with the conspiracy, for, being a Frenchman by birth, it was feared that he would have prevented such an attack on the family of his native sovereign. The signal for arms was the ringing of the vesper bell on Easter eve, whence this massacre is commonly called the Sicilian Vespers ; as soon as its fatal knell sounded, the un- suspecting Frenchmen were everywhere attacked, and in two hours one of that nation alone survived in the island,* whose superior probity made him respected even by the assassins. Peter of Arragon had waited the event with a considerable fleet on the coast of Africa, and as soon as he had learned the fjomplete success of the conspiracy, hasted over to Sicily, where he was received as its legitimate sovereign. 7. Peter dreaded the power of the king of France, who was greatly attached to his uncle, and in order to gain time, sent Charles a challenge to meet him, and decide their pre- tensions to Sicily by single combat. Charles, more chival- rous than wise, accepted the challenge; and, on the morning of the appointed day, appeared on the ground that had been specified, but waited in vain for his antagonist; at length the count of Anjou, wearied out, departed. Late in the evening of the same day Peter came, and satisfied with having made this mock appearance, returned from the field of battle with the utmost speed, pretending that he was afraid of being ar- rested and detained by the king of France. But during the absence of Cliarles, the Neapolitans had revolted, and his son had been taken prisoner by De Lauria, the Arragonese admi- ral, the most celebrated commander of the time. ■ Charles of Anjou in vain endeavoured to retrieve his losses, and died of sheer vexation and disappointm ent. * His uame was William des Pourcelets, a native of Provence PHILIP THE FAiR. 113. 8. The pope had in the meanthne excommunicated tlie king of Arragon, and given his dominions to i.Vq- Cliarles, the second son of Philip. The French king advanced with a powerful army to place his son on the throne, but his success did not answer his expectations; his fleet was captured bvDe Lauria, and disheartened by the mis* fortune, he resolved to return home. On his way back he died at Perpignan in tlie forty-first vear of his a^e. 9. The reign of Philip is not remarkable for anv improvement in the territories or government of France : he is said to have been the first monarch that granted patents of nobilitv, a preroga- tive which he exercised in favour of his goldsmith, who was also his banker, 10. Philip IV., surnamed the Fair, obtained the crown in his seventeenth year: the war with the king of Arra- gou still continued ; but, after much bloodshed, the son of Peter retained possession of Sicily and Arragon, while the son of Charles of Anjou was permitted to keep the crown of Naples. 11. This war had scarcely terminated, when another more furious arose out of a trivial circumstance. A quarrel having arisen be- tween an English and a jS^or- man sailor, the latter was slain. The Normans cruized against the English to revenue the death of their coun- trj-rnan ; but they were defeated, and an English fleet appearing on their coast, plundered several of their towns. Philip summoned Edward I. as duke of Guienne, tn appear before the court of peers, and answer for having borne- arms aofainst his suzerain ; Edward sent his brother, the ear. of Cornwall, to plead his cause, but he being overmatched by the policy of Philip, surrendered some towns in Guienne as pledges for his brother's appearance, which, when Philip once got into his possession, he refused to restore. The English engaged the count of Flanders on their side, while Philip per- snaded the king of Scotland to espouse his cause. 12. Thia Pliilip the Pair. A. D. 1293. 116 HISTORY OF FRANCE. war was faLal to the allies on both sides ; the principals en- cred into a treaty of peace which was cemented by a double marriage, Edward espousing Margaret, sister to the king of France; and his son, afterwards the unfortunate Edward II., was married to Philip's daughter Isabella. Edward then di- rected his whole strength against Scotland, which he easily subdued; and Philip sent his uncle, Cliarles of Valois, to at- tack Flanders, which was unable to make any effective re- sistance. The count of Flanders was in the decline of life ; he had served in the crusades under Saint Louis, and believing that he had therefore some claim on the moderation of France, he obtained a safe conduct from Charles of Valois, and pro- ceeded to Paris. Philip, contrary to the law of nations, threw him into prison, and the Flemings, partly by bribes, and partly by force, were completely subjected to the French crown. 13. But Philip the Fair had soon to engage with a more formidable enemy, pope Boniface VIII., whose manner of ob- taining the papal crown is the best description of his charac- ter. He persuaded Celestine V., who, with all the sanctity of an anchorite, was the most simple of the human race, to abdicate an employment for which he was totally unfitted, and then got himself elected in his room. He afterwards confined the virtuous Celestine in a vile prison, and had him put to death. No one was ever more intoxicated with the chimerical pretensions of the Church of Rome to universal empire than Boniface ; he sent his orders to all crowned heads as if he had been their legitimate sovereign. 14, But the obstinacy of Philip was fully a match for the violence of Boniface ; when summoned by the pope to appear at Rome and answer for his invasion of Flanders, Philip treated the insolent message with merited contempt, and thus provoked the anger of the pontifl^, who wanted only an opportunity of venting his indignation. This he soon obtained ; Philip see- ing his resources exhausted, insisted that the clergy should bear a part of the burdens of the state ; they, on their part, claimed their privilege of exemption, and appealed to Rome. 15. Boniface forthwith published a bull, prohibiting the clergy, or any religious order, to pay any tax whatever without the pope's special permission ; and all who either paid or received such tax were declared to be excommunicated. Philip in his turn issued an edict, prohibiting the exportation of money from the kingdom, a severe stroke against the court of Rome, PHILIP THE FAIR. 117 which annually obtained enormous sums from France. Boni- face declared by another bull, that if the prohibition extended o him and the clergy it was madnpss, as no secular princes had any authority over them. The king retorted by a spirited manifesto, that as the clergy were members of the state they were as much interested in its preservation as the rest of the people, and ought therefore to contribute to its necessities. The pope replied by a series of bulls in rapid succession, each more violent than the preceding, but Philip treated them with contempt, and declared that he believed the pope had lost his senses. 16. At length, to put an end to this unseemly contest, Philip assembled the states general; this as- sembly consisted of tiie clergy and nobles, to whom lono* Philip, for the first time, added deputies from the com- mons. The states general unanimously asserted the inde pendence of the crown, but in their declarations of attach ment to the king, most of the clergy inserted the following clause; saving the fidelity due to the pope. Had Boniface mingled any share of prudence with his violence, he might have had better success ; but his rashness and vehemence oply covered him with ridicule. He held a council at Rome, in which he procured it to be decided, that the two swords mentioned in the gospel were symbols of the temporal a.id spiritual authority with which the pope was invested. 17. He published the bull wliich, from its two first words, is com- monly called Unam Sanctum, in which it is declared, that " the temporal sword ought to be emp! jyed by kings and warriors in the service of the church, as the pope shall per- mit and direct. The temporal power is subject to the spiritual, and cannot itself be judged but by God alone. To resist the spiritual power, then, is to resist God, unless the two princi- ples of the Manichaeans be admitted." 18. Philip again had recourse to a council of the states ; before them the chevalier de JVagaret, advocate-general, accused the pope of simony, heresy, and magic, and insisted on the necessity oi his depo- sition. Boniface, on his part, put the kingdom under an in- terdict, and offered the crown of France to Albert of Austria, whom he had hitherto treated as a rebel and usurper, but whom he acknowledged as emperor when about to employ him as the instrument of his passion. All the orders of the kingdom joining with Philip appealed to * future pope and a general council against what had been or should be done to the disadvantage of the royal authority. 19. Boniface fulini- 118 HISTORY OF FRANCE. ndterl his bulls against the king and the nation, and was pr©. paling another still more injurious to crowned Veads. when he was arrested at Anagni by Nagaret and Sciarra Colonna The latter, who was the pontiff's personal enemy, loaded him with abuse, and even struck him on the face : perhaps Boni- face might have been subjected to still greater indigni- 1 ^"n^* *'®^ ^^^ ""'' ^^^^ people of the town taken up arms in his defence, and rescued him from the hands of his enemies. The pontiff returned to Rome, but vexation for the insult he had received threw him into a fever, and his death relieved Philip from his most dangerous enemy. 20. During the heat of the disputes with Boniface, Philip the Fair experienced a sad reverse of fortune. The tyranny of the governors to whom the administration of afiairs in Flanders had been committed, made the Flemings rebel, and, being animated by a simple citizen of Bruges, they massacred almost all the French. The count d'Artois, who was sent with a numerous army to reduce them, despising them as a mob, rashly exposed himself in the year 1302, when he lost the famous battle of Courtrai, where he and the flower of the French nobility fell. So many knights were slain, that four thousand gilt spurs remained with the enemy as monuments of their victory. 21. The king marched in person to exact vengeance for his loss, but his first campaign was ineffectual, and though ho obtained a great victory the following year, the revolters re- turned so often to the charge, that the king exclaimed, '' I believe it rains Flemings." 22. A treaty was at length made, by which it was agreed that tlie count of Flanders should be restored to his dominions on condition of his acknowledging the king of France as his suzerain, and thus, after torrents of blood were shed, matters reverted to their original situation. Nearly at the same time, Robert Bruce expelled the English from Scotland, and thus these unjust aggressions, which com- menced at the same time, had the same disgraceful termination. 23. Though Benedict XI., the successor of the , ■ ■ violent Boniface, had absolved Philip the Fair from the ' excommunication, that haughty and revengeful prince was not yet satisfied. After the death of Benedict, the cardi- nals being divided into two parties, he caused the votes to fall upon Bertrand de Got, a native of Gascony, devoted to the interests of France. The principal bulls of Boniface were suspended or annihilated, and a prosecution '■onui>enced PHILIP THE FAIR. 119 against his memory. The council assembled at Vienna ^ ^ for this extraordinary trial acquitted tne deceased pon- ^^^^ titf of heresy, and refused to investigate the other ' charges. Two Spanish knights offered to vindicate his memory by judicial combat; a strange proposition to make in a council ! 24. The Templars, a military and religious order instituted for the recovery of Palestine, had rendered themselves odious by their riches, pride, and debauch- ery ; their immense possessions had excited the cupidity of Philip, and he prevailed on the pope to unite with him i.Ja.^ for their destruction. Under the pretence of consulting about a new crusade, they were summoned to meet at Paris, and no sooner had they assembled, than they were all arrested and , thrown into prison. They were accused of the most horrid, but at the same time the most absurd crimes, and were tortured into confessions. These they afterwards retracted, and were in consequence sentenced to death as relapsed heretics and traitors. 25. Fifty-seven of the knights were burned alive, and after some delay, James de Molai and three others were put to death by the most ex- cruciating tortures, protesting the innocence of the order with their last breath. The property of the Templars was nomi- nally transferred to the Hospitallers, now called the kniglits of Malta, but the greater part of it was retained by their per- secutors. 26. The expenses of the crusades and other wars, had so impoverished the royal exchequer, that Philip debased the coin to recruit his finances ; an expedient which produced incalculable evils. Some of his regulations were, however, more valuable ; he gave form and permanency to the courts of justice, which the French call parliaments ; he introduced into them legists, or men of the law, by whose report causes were decided, and raised the legal professiDU to its proper im- portance in the state. A Kniglil Templar. (20 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 27. If we were to judge of the national manners from those if the court during this reign, the following anecdote must ^ive us a dreadful idea of them. Before the death of Philip the Fair, the wives of his three sons were accused of adultery Onfc of them was strangled in prison ; the second escaped by •aying that her marriage was null on account of kindred ; and the third was reconciled to her husband. 28. Pliilip died by a fall from his horse while hunting, in the 46th year of his age and 28th of his reign. 39. It was during this reign that the league of Swiss inde- pendence was formed. The emperor Albert of Austria, seeing the spirit of liberty spreading among his subjects, thought that he could stifle it by the rigours of a despotic government. Three cantons, that of Schvveitz, which gave name to the en- tire confederacy, and those of Ury and Underswalden leagued together in 1307, to free themselves from an odious yoke, Knd after a series of brilliant victories, succeeding in establish- ing a free constitution. Questions. 1. How were the crusades terminated* 2. Did Philip prove a good monarch? 3. What remarkable trial took place in his reign 7 4. Why was the king's favourite, La Brosse, executed ? ft. By whom was the plot formed to drive the French out of Sicily? 6. What were tlie Sicilian vespers? 7. What finally became of Charles of Anjou? 8. To whom did the pope next give the crown of Sicily? 9. What cliange was made by Philip in the French constitution ? 10. How did the Sicilian war terminate? 11. Whence originated the war between France and England? 12. How did this war terminate? 13. What was the character of pope Boniface? 14. From what causes sprung the quarrel between Philip and tha pope ? 15. Hew was the contest carried on? 16. By what means did Philip endeavour to put an end to tha dispute ? 17. For what is the bull Unam Sanctum remarkable ? 18. What charges did Philip bring against the pope? 19. How did this end? 20. What reverse of fortune did the French experience about thli time? 9w Did the Flemings resist the French vigorously? PHILIP THE FAIR. 121 22. WLat two nations lost and recovered theii liberty at the same time? 23. Was the memory of pope Boniface's bulls efl'aced by his death? 24. What religious and military order was persecuted by Philip and the popel 25. How were the knights treated 7 26. Did Philip introduce any new institutions? 27. What circumstance shows the depravity of the court? 28. What was the age of Philip at his death ? 29. Did any nation about this time assert its independense ? Huiitsioaii and Valet of Philip tbe Fair. 12 122 HISTORY OF FRANCS. Louis X. CHAPTER XIII. LOUIS THE QUARRELSOME. — PHILIP THE LONG CHARLES THE FAIR. In quick succession xegal forms pass by, Their pride, their power, but creatures of the day, Like the bright meteor of a summer sky, Their short-lived glory dies and fades away. Coo ex. 1. Louis X., surnamed HutJn, or the quarrelsome, ' ' succeeded his father, and commenced his reign with ' an act of" injustice, sacrificing the superintendant Marigni, who was persecuted by the pubhc haired, and un- justly accused of being the author of the national misery. Some Italian financiers, for the French were too ignorant to transact the business of the revenue, had caused the coin to be debased during the late reign, and this pernicious system was attributed to Marigni. Magic made one of the articles of his indictment, and absurdity served instead of proofs LOUIS THE QUARRELSOME. 123 The count de Valois, uncle to the king, and the minister's personal enemy, caused him to be condemned without a hearing, and hanged as if he were a worthless criminal. His ^eath was in some degree avenged by the remorse with which the count was seized, and even the people were afflicted at his execution. 2. In the mean time, money was wanted to supply the exigencies of the state ; and the same expedients which had occasioned disturbances on former occasions, could not be repeated. A scheme was therefore conceived to sell liberty to the inhabitants of the country, who were still serfs, bound to the soil, and could not leave the lands of their lords, or dispose of their property. 3. The king's edict for the general enfranchisement, says, " according to the law of nature every man is horn free ;" an expression the more remarkable, as that natural right w^as obliged to be purchased ; and what appears rather whimsical, numbers who were not desirous of freedom were actually compelled to purchase it against their will. 4. Louis engaged in war with the Flemings, and formed the siege of Courtray, but the elements conspired against him ; famine also appeared in his camp, and he was compelled to withdraw his army. He died the following year, not without some suspicions of poison. 5. After the death of Louis, a great difficulty ,oiA ' , ° , ■' 1316. arose about the succes- sion. The queen was delivered of a son, w\\o lived only eight days ; and the duke of Burgundy maintained that Joanna, the king's daughter, ought to succeed ; but the three estates of the realm de- cided that, according to the Salic law, no female could inherit the crown of France. They there- fore elected Philip V., surnamed the Long, brother to the late king. 6. This did not extend to any other countries, nor even to the grand fiefs. Joanna, whose claim iiad been rejected, was acknow- ledged queen of Navarre, which thus became again separated from France. Philip the Long. 124 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 7. The Jews and lepers were accused of having agreed with the Turks to poison all the wells and springs ; their real crime was, that the former had acquired great wealth by commerce, and that the charitable bequests made to erect lazar-houses or hospitals for the latter, amounted to a very considerable ?um. Great numbers of these unfortunate people were burned, and their property seized by the king. 8. During the brief reign of Philip, some good was done, and much more attempted. He excluded the bishops from parliament, where they had too great influence, in order that the ecclesiastical jurisdiction might no longer interfere with the civil tribunals. He paid large sums to several barons as a compensation for their resigning their privilege of coining money, which they had grossly abused. The frequency of private wars, and the disturbances which party quarrels con- tinually created, had risen to an intolerable height ; and, as a remedy, the king compelled the citizens to deposit their arms in arsenals, from whence they could not be taken but in his wars, and for his service. He proposed to fix an uniform standard for money, weights, and measures, through his do- minions; but the nobles every where opposed this beneficial project, which they supposed to be in some way or other connected with a new scheme of taxation ; and while the matter was yet in debate, Philip was seized with a quartan fever, which soon terminated his existence. 9. As he died without male issue, his brother A99 Charles IV., surnamed the Fair, succeeded him with- ■ out opposition. The great vassals of the crown were summoned to attend the coronation ; all obeyed but the count of Flanders, and the duke of Guienne, who was also king of England. This was made the pretext for a war on the dominions that the English still retained on the continent ; and Charles of Valois being sent with a numerous army, re- duced Edmund, earl of Kent, brother to the king of England, and governor of the province, to such straits that he was compelled to surrender himself a prisoner. He was, however, permitted to return home, on the condition that if the king of EnglarJ did not, within a certain space, give satisfaction to his suzerain, the earl of Kent should come back to his piison. 10. Edward 11., who was at that time on the throne of England, was a prince equally weak and unfortunate ; by his attachment to favourites, he had provoked the enmity of his queen and nobility, who were secretly preparing to remove CHARLES THE FAIR. 125 him from the throne. When the earl of Kent arrived in Eng- land, queen Isabella offered to conduct the negociation with her brother the king of France. She took her children with ner on this journey, and conducted the negociations with so much prudence, that her son, prince Edward, was invested with the duchy of Guienne, and the county of Poictou, foi which he did homage. 11. But Isabella, after having finished this business, refused to return home, pretending that her life was endangered by the Spencers, and applied to her brother for assistance and protection. Charles at first espoused the cause of Isabella, but disgusted with the open preference she showed for the company of Mortimer, more than suspected of being her paramour, he ordered her to quit his dominions. 12. Driven from France, she retired to the county of Ponthieu, and from thence to Haiiiault, where the brother of the count, according to the custom of the times, declared himself her knight, and assembled a large body of troops, by wliich she was enabled to vanquish and imprison her unfortunate hus- band. 13. The pope during this reign was involved in a long war, and made several attempts to obtain money from the Gallicau Church, which were successfully resisted by the king and the clergy. But the pope, by ofl^ering to share with the monarch, induced him to withdraw his opposition, and the clergy were forced to submit to their united influence. 14. Charles of Valois, who had acted so conspicu- ous a part in this and the former reigns, was seized iq'oti with a disease, which being unknown to the physi- cians, was of course attributed to magic ; while a few sus pected that he had been poisoned, for during this century the crime of assassination by poison had fearfully increased in France. On his death-bed he bitterly repented the share that he had in procuring the unjust condemnation of Marigni, and took every means in his power to efface the stigma that had been affixed to his character. It was remarked of Charles as of the English John of Gaunt, that though he never sat upon the throne, yet his father, broiher, nephew, and son, were kings. 15. Charles the Fair, though avaricious, appears to have been a good king; he provided for the due ad- i o'oo ministration of justice, and employed no ministers but such as were distinguished for wisdom and integrity. He died at Vincennes at the early age of thirty-four. 11* [26 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Questions. 1. With what act of injustice did Louis X. commence his reignl 2. How did he endeavour to raise money? 3. What strange inconsistency was there in his proceedings? 4. How did he die ? 5. What disputes about the sticcessicfn arose after his death? 6. Did the Salic law of inheritance extend farther than the royal succession'? 7. On what pretence were the Jews and lepers persecuted? 8. Were there any beneficial institutions made in the reign of Philip the Long? 9. What war arose between Charles the Fair and the English * 10. Who offered to negociate a peace ? 11. How did Isabella behave? 12 By whose assistance did she dethrone her husband ? 13. Did any thing remarkable occur in the church during thit reign ? 14 For what is Charles of Valois remarkable ? 15. What was the character of Cliarles IV. ? ^(^W|y Charles the r«ir. PHILIP OF VALOI«. 127 CHAPTER XIV. PHILIP VI., CALLED ALSO PHILIP OF VALOIS, AND THE FORTUNATE. Hopeless and sad they mourn'd their heroes slain, The best and bravest on their native plain, The king himself in deeper sorrow mourn'd; With rage and mingled grief his bosom burn'd. Like the grim lion, when his offspring slain He sees, and round him draws the hunter's train ; ("ouch'd in the shade with fell intent he lies, And glares upon his foes with burning eyes. EpiooiriiD. 1. The death of the three last monarchs without A. D male issue, made room for the election of Philip, and j^^g procured him the surname of Fortunate, an epithet wliich the misfortunes of his calamitous reign strongly co!». 12B histohy of France. tradicted. Another candidate for the crown was Edward III of England, and as their respective claims are not very com monly understood, it may be useful to state them. Edward was son to the sister of the late king, Philip was that mon- arch's cousin-german. 2. The points admitted on both sides were, that a nephew was a nearer relative than a cousin, and that no female could inherit the crown ; but on the part of Edward,* it was contended, that though his mother could not have ascended the throne, yet as her claim was only barred by the incident of her sex, she could transmit her claim to her next male representative, who would, therefore, possess the right free from the disqualification. On the part of Philip, it was asserted that the exclusion of females was absolute, that Isabella consequentlv never had a right to the throne, and therefore could not transmit that which she never pos- sessed. The peers and great barons of France were assem- bled to decide this great question ; Robert d'Artois, count de Beaumont, warmly supported the cause of Philip, and finally prevailed in having him acknowledged as sovereign. 3. This reign was almost one continued series of wars ; the first in which Philip engaged was with the Flemings, who had expelled their count and his principal nobility The very day after his coronation, Philip advanced against these insur- gents, accompanied by the king of Bohemia, and the count of Hainault. The Flemings took up a strong position on the mountains near Cassel, and when they saw the French en- camped in the valley below, undertook an enterprise of great hardihood, which was very near being crowned with success. Dividing their army into three bodies, they made a desperate attempt to break into the French camp and seize the three leaders ; the French, however, were on the alert, and the three parties, overwhelmed by superior numbers, suffered very se- * When Edward assumed the arms of France, he explained his ilaim to them in the following Leonine verses, — Anglorum regno sum ego rex jure paterno, Matris jure quidem Gallorum nuncupor idemj Hinc est armorum variatio justa meorum. Tc this specimen of royal reasoning in verse, a Frenchman r» ^lied in the following lines, — Prcedo regnorum qui diceris esse duorum, Regno materno privaberis atque paterno, Mater ubi nullum jus, natus non habet ullum; Hinc est armorum variatio stulta tuorjm. PHILIP OF VALOIS. 129 verely ; but such was their (Jetermined valour, that they main- tained the fight until night, and Philip dreading their despair, drew off his troops to allow them an opportunity of retreat ing. 4. In consequence of this victory, all Flanders sub- mitted to the victorious monarch ; several of the towns were dismantled, others deprived of their municipal privileges, and compelled to receive foreign garrisons ; the leaders of the in- surgents were driven into banishment, and thus the country was reduced to apparent tranquillity; but there remained a bitter hatred of the invaders in the breasts of the population, which only waited for an opportunity to burst forth with fresh violence. 5. The delay of Edward to perform homage for the duchy of Guienne created suspicions in the mind of Philip ; he therefore sent an embassy to England, summoning him as hig vassal to appear under pain of forfeiting his fief Edward on this assembled his council; the state of the kingdom com- pelled him to temporize ; the nation was still distracted b}' the intrigues between the queen-dowager and Mortimer; the Scots under the Bruces were a powerful nation, and in close alliance with France; Edward, therefore, saw that the time was not yet arrived for preferring his claim, and resolved to wait for a more favourable opportunity. 6. Having privately made a protestation to his council that he reserved his claim to the throne of France, he promised that he would in a short time proceed to Philip's court, and there perform homage similar to his predecessors. Accordingly, in a short time Ed- ward went to Amiens, where Philip, accompanied by the kings of Bohemia and Majorca, made the most brilliant preparations for his reception. 7. The English monarch acknowledged himself a vassal to the crown of France in general terms, but absolutely refused to perform liege homage ;* Philip insisted on this important ceremony, and Edward, either fearing, or pretending to fear, that he would be detained as a prisoner, privately returned to England. Soon after, dreading that Philip might seize on Guienne, he executed letters patent sealed with the great seal of England, in which he acknow- ledged that, as duke of Guienne, he owed liege homage to the king of France. * The important phrase used in liege homage was, "I becomt your man," a humiliating expression which Edward was naturally inwilling to use. I 130 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 8. Philip, believing that his throne was now perfectly se« cure, prepared to embark on a new crusade, and for this pur- pose levied considerable sums on the nobles, clergy, and people. One of his taxes, that on salt, called the gahelle^ was particularly obnoxious ; in allusion to it, Edward called Philip the inventor of the Salic law. 9. But the money which he had raised for this purpose was soon diverted to other objects. 10. Several circumstances occurred nearly at the same time, adverse to Philip and favourable to Edward, which induced the latter to assert his claim to the crown of France, and to prepare for an invasion of that kingdom. Ro- bert of Artois, to whom Philip was in a great degree indebted for his crown, had been deprived by the king of the county of Artois, and in consequence of some rash expressions of indignation, had been driven out of the kingdom. The Fle- mings, enraged by the loss of their privileges, were eager to engage in a new insurrection ; and de Montfort, a claimant for the duchy of Brittany, saw that he could not succeed without the aid of England, as his competitor was a favoured cousin of the French king. At the same time, Edward, by the im- prisonment of the queen-dowager, and the execution of her paramour Mortimer, had restored tranquillity and order to England, while his signal victory over the Scots had freed him from all dangers on that side. 11. The war that now broke out is remarkable for . ■ ■ the numerous instances of chivalrous heroism it exhi- bited, and on that account its history is valuable, as throwing some light on the state of society and manners pro- duced by the institution of chivalry. No sooner had Edward and his allies resolved on the war, than they severally wrote challenges to Philip, and sent them to him by a bishop ! Sir Walter Manny, without waiting for a declaration of war, in- vaded France on the side of Flanders, and by the successes that he obtained, both inspired the English with fresh courage, and induced the Flemings openly to embrace the quarrel. 12. The principal person employed by Edward to stir up the people of Flanders was Jacob Van Arteveld, a rich merchant, whose great wealth gave him more influence than was pos- sessed by any nobleman at the time; he prevailed on the towns to declare in favour of England, and when some scru- pled to violate the allegiance they had so lately sworn, Edward assumed the title and arms of king of France^ and thus quieted their consciences. PHILIP OF VAI.OIS. 131 13. Philip having entered into alliance with the king of Castile, obtained from him the aid of a fleet, which, united with his own, dreadfully ravaged the coasts of England ; but being soon after met by Edward, near the Scheldt, a fierce engagement ensued, in which the French were defeated, with the loss of half their vessels and twenty thousand men. 14. Edward followed up this victory by attacking several towns on the borders of Flanders ; but in the midst of his suc- cesses he consented to a truce, which by the interference of a papal legate was protracted for two years. 15. The waragaif' A. D broke out on the ioa{ side of Brittany. John de Montfort had been taken prisoner by his rival, and sent a prisoner to Paris , Charles of Blois thought that his triumph was secure, but Margaret, countess of Montfori, one of the great- est heroines that the world has produced, defended the sinking cause of her hus- band, and with unexampled mlrepidity, prepared for a desperate resistance. 16. At length she was shut up in the castle of Hermebond, and so closely besieged that every chance of escape seemed cut off: she had J°h'i de Mont'--' and his Countess. even commenced to treat of a surrender^ Dm turning once more an anxious glance to the sea, she saw in the distance the English fleet, under Sir Walter Manny, coming to her re- lief; ail tlioughts of yielding were given up, and that evening Hermebond was relieved. The siege, however, was still con- tinued, but Manny, at the head of a small body of adventur- ous knights sallied out, destroyed the engines of the besieg- ers, and returned almost without loss to Hermebond. The countess was so pleased with this exploit, that she ran out and kissed Manny in the street, declaring that he was truly a gallant and accomplished chevalier. Charles of Blois sood 132 HISTORY OF FRANCE. A. D. 1344. ufter consented to a Uuce, and Margaret passed over to Eng- land in order to obtain more effective aid. 17. A sliocking act of treacliery on the part of the king of P^ ranee renewed the flames of war. Oliver <]r Clisson, with several other knights of Brittany, hac^ accompanied Charles of Blois to a tournament at Paris ; Philip SMspectnig that they were secretly attached to the English, had them all seized and put to death without even die form of a trial. 18. The French nobility were jnstly indignant at this infamous proceeding, and withdrew their affections from a monarch who had acted with so much cruelty and perfidy. Edward on hearing of the event prepared to renew the war with greater spirit than ever : he proceeded himself to Nor- mandy ; the earl of Derby was directed to attack France on the side of Guienne, and Robert of Artois was sent to sup port the de Montfort party in Brittany. 19. Although Nor- mandy had been so lately a fief to the English crown, its in- habitants made a fierce resistance to the invaders, and were conse- quently treated by them with great severity ; having laid waste their country, the English mon- arch advanced into Picardy, marking his path by ruin and desolation as far as the gates of Paris. 20. At length Philip col- lected an army far superior in number to the invaders, and Ed- ward retreated with the utmost speed towards the boundaries of Flanders. But the rapid advance of the French compelled him to make a stand, and though he had only 24,000 men, enfeebled by fatigue and disease, he resolved to hazard an engagement with Philip''s army, amounting to more than 100,000 men, on the memorable plains of Cre^y. 21. The king of France had encamped the night "|\ ' before the battle at Abbeville, about nine miles from ■ the field of battle ; the morning of the engagement was spent in consultations, and when the resolution to fight was taken, the march was made with so much haste that the Charles of Blois. PHILIP OF VALOIS. 133 ■*nks were a little disordered. Several other circumstances eontribnted to increase this confusion; the sun and wind were in the face of the advancing army; an order to halt, partially heard and still more partially obeyed, mingled the first and second lines; finally a heavy shower of rain damaged the bow-strings of the Genoese archers, on whom Philip placed his principal reliance. 22. At lengdi about four o'clock in the afternoon they came in sight of the English army, drawn up in three lines, of which the foremost was commanded by Edward the Black Prince, and the reserve by the king him- self. 23. Having made a brief pause, the count d'Alengon ordered the Genoese archers to begin in the name of God and St. Dennis. They advanced in rather a strange way ; they took three leaps forward, setting up a shout after each ; and EutUe of Cre.;y. 12 134 HTSTORY OF FRANCE. when they had given the third spring they discharged their arrows. Bnt as their strings had been damaged by the rain their shot produced but little effect, while the English archers, who had kept their bows in cases, returned a flight of arrows so close and well directed, that the Genoese fell into irreme- diable disorder. The count d'Alen^on, surprised and morti- fied at the conduct of the archers, called out treason, ordered the cavalry to ride over the run-a-ways, and fall on the Eng- lish lines. This foolish command increased the confusion ; the cavalry rode down their own archers, but were in their turn entangled among the routed Genoese, while the English archers kept up an incessant "hail-shower of shafts," that did fearful execution. " There were besides," says an old histo- rian, ^ some rough feUozos in the English army, who being farmed only with knives, ran out of the ranks when they saw a knight dismounted and cut his throat." 24. When Alen9on at last freed himself from this tangled rout and came up with the English line, his troops were disordered and out of breath, while his enemies were fresh and vigorous. The French che- valiers maintained the battle valiantly, but the total want of discipline in their army, the dis- order of their ranks, and the continued fire of the archers, who availed themselves of every opportunity, rendered all theii valour unavailing. 25. The blind king of Bohemia, who had accompanied his friend and ally to this fatal field, kearing the rout, resolved to lose his life rather than fl^, and ordered two of liis knights to fasten the reins of his horse to the bridle of theirs and gallop with him into the midst of the enemy, that he might strike one good stroke. His commands were obeyed ; befell in the first line fighting valiantly, and the three ostrich feathers which adorned his crest, together with his motto Ich Dien, / serve^ were assumed by the Black Prince, and" have ever since been the cognizance of princes of Wales. 26. Pliilip made several eflx)rts to rally his troops, but they were ineffectnal, and at length his at Crossbow Man, from an old Picture of the Battle of Crecy. PHILIP OP VALOIS. 135 Earl of Alpucon, killed at Crecr rendants bore him off badly wounded from the field. The batfle continued until late in the evening, and several slight skirmishes took place during the night; but on the follow- ing morning the English learned the extent of their victory ; thirty tliousand of the enemy's infantry, and twelve hundred knights, amongst whom were the kings of Bohemia and Ma- jorca, lay upon the plain. 27. There appears to have been no quarter given in this battle. As a signal of his determination to show no mercy, Philip in the commencement of the bat- tle had ordered the Oriflamrae to be unfurled, which added, to all the other advantages oi the English, the furious courage arising from despair. 28. The day after the battle was equally distinguished by slaughter; large bodies of recruits from the neighbouring towns had come to join the army of Philip, whom they be- lieved marching to certain victory; these unfortunate persons fell in with a detachment of the English, and were literally slaughtered without resistance. 29. In another part of the kingdom, the French suffered a similar calamity about this time. John, duke of Normandy, son of king Philip, had been long besieging the castle of Aiguillon, on the borders of Guienne, and had made a vow that he would not depart from before its walls until he had captured the place; but the valour of the garrison, and the advance of the earl of Derby compelled him to raise the siegre. In his retreat, the English, under the command of Sir Wulter Manny, harassed his rear, made several important prisoners, and compelled him to change his retreat into a hurried flight. The earl of Derby being thus left master of the field, reduced several towns in the neighbourhood of Guienne, and became as formi- dable in the west, as his sovereign was in the east of France. Questions. 1. Who were the candidates for the crown of France? S. What were iheir respective claims ? * 136 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 3. Did the Flemings make any daring attempt on the person ot the French king 7 4. What was the consequence of their defeat 1 5. Why did not Edward immediately assert his claim to th« French crown ? 6. Had he any reservation 1 7. Did any dispute arise respecting the species of homage? S. What obnoxious tax was levied by Philip 1 9. Why did he not pursue his project of a new crusade? 10. Did any circumstances favourfible to Edward occur? 11 In what manner did the war commence? 12 How did Edward obtain the assistance of the Flemings? 13. What naval victory did Edward obtain? 14. Did he follow up his successes? 15. Where did the war recommence? 16. Did any lady distinguish herself by her bravery? 17. Of what gross treachery was Philip guilty? 18. What was the consequence? 19. How were the English received in Normandy? 20. Where did the rival monarchs come to an engagement? 21. To what disadvantages were the French exposed ? 22. How were the English drawn up? 23. How did the Genoese archers behave ? 24. Did the French cavalry retrieve the day? 25. What ally of Philip behaved remarkably in this battle? 26. How did the fight conclude? 27. Why was there ao quarter given ? 28. Did any thing remarkable occur on the following day? ■iQ. Were the French defeated in any other part of the kingdoM about this time? Ladies of the Twelfth Century. PHILIP OF VALOIS. 137 A Knight of the Fourteenth Century. CHAPTER XV. PHILIP OF VALOIS CONTINUED. — JOHN 8, Bring up the catapults and shake the walls ; We will not be outbraved thus. N. Shake the earth, Ye cannot shake our souls. Bring up your rams, And with their armed heads make the fort totter ; Ye do but rock us unto death. Beaumont. 1. The war in Brittany presented a very extraordi- lary spectacle ; Charles de Blois having laid siege to . ' " Roche d'Arien, a fortress of great importance, the countess de Montfort sent a party under the command of sii 12* 138 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Tliomas Dagworth, to seek means of conveying relief to the garrison. As his party was too small to attack the besiegmg army with any prospect of success, he resolved to proceed by stratagem, and accordingly ordered a knight named Hartwell to beat up the enemy's quarters, and then to retreat towards a defile where the rest of the forces would remain in ambush, Hartwell attacked the camp, but led on by youthful impetu- osity, instead of retreating after having given the alarm, he led his little troop into the midst of the hostile lines, where they were surrounded, and as they disdained a surrender, only two or three escaped. Seeing their plan defeated, the officers in Dagworth's detachment proposed to retreat; but he wisely remarked, that their success would throw the besiegers so much off' their guard, that victory was more certain now than ever. After midnight, he advanced to the hostile camp, and found its inmates as he had anticipated, rendered secure and careless by their late success : a sudden attack surprised them so much that scarcely any resistance was made, and Charles de Blois remained a prisoner. 2. His wife, emulating the countess de Montfort, thenceforward took the command, and these two heroines continued to carry on the war in Brittany ; but although these contests were distinguished by many traits of individual valour, they were not productive of any event which produced a lasting effect. 3. After his victory at Cregy, Edward saw the necessity of securing some town which would facilitate his communica- tion with England, and for this purpose resolved to lay siege to Calais ; but before detailing the events of the siege, it may be as well to mention the adventures of one who performed there a part equally conspicous and honourable. 4. Sir Wal- ter Manny had been engaged in attacking the French on thp side of Guienne; he had performed there many actions of the most heroic valour, and when the siege of Aiguillon was raised, he had harassed severely the duke of Normandy in his retreat, and taken several prisoners. Soon after he heard of Edward's victory at Cregy, and of his intention to besiege Calais ; anxious to serve personally under his sovereign, lie went to one of his captives, and proposed that instead of ran- som, he should procure a safe conduct for Sir Walter and twenty followers through France. The knight to whom the ofl^er was made being a relative and favourite of the duke's, gladly accepted the offer, and in a short time procured the passport. Sir Walter proceeded through the country as fai PHILIP OF VALOIS. 139 as Orleans, bui was there arrested and sent as a prisoner to Paris. Aftfir being detained there for some time, Philip was at length prevailed on to respect his son's plighted word, and not only consented to the liberation of Sir Walter, but invited him to a royal entertainment. He then, before finally dis- missing him, made him several rich presents, which Sir Wal- ter accepted only on the condition, that his sovereign would consent to his retaining them. When the gallant knight ar- rived before the walls of Calais, Edward requested him to re- turn the presents of Philip, saying, '• I trust, cousin, that I am not yet so poor, but that enough is left for me and you." Sir Walter immediately returned the presents by a young knight named Mansell to Philip; the French king refused to receive back what he had once bestowed, and JMansell, who was not quite so scrupulous as Sir Walter, kept them himself. 5. The siege of Calais was protracted to an unusual length ; at an early period the garrison turned out all useless persons in order to spare their provisions, and Edward, with great hu- manity, permitted these unfortunate beings to pass through his camp. But this was only a temporary relief to the de- fenders of the walls ; when they had been shut up more than a year, their provisions became quite exhausted ; but^they had not quite lost the dauntless spirit which har enabled them so long to resist a victorious army, and to baffle every effort which the chivalrous spirit of enterprise, that so peculiarly characterized Edward's army, had made for their subjugation ; a letter \a hich they sent to the king of France, and which was intercepted by Edward, will best illustrate their state and their feelings. 0. " Sachez, tres-doule seigneur, que vos gentz in Caleys ont mangez leurs chevals, chiens, et ratz, et nest remit rien pour leur vivre, sinon chescun mange aultre. Par quey tres- honeurable seigneur, si nous ne eymes hastife succoure la ville est perdue ; et nous sommes toutz accordes, si nos ne eymes eyde, de yesser et mourir sur nos ennemis, en honneur, plus tost que dedens mourir par defaulte." " Know, dread lord, that your people in Calais have eaten their horses, dogs, and cats, and there is nothing left for their support unless they eat each other. Wherefore, honourable lord, if we have not hasty succour the town is lost, and we are all agreed if we do not receive aid, to go and die honour- ably over our enemies, rather than perish here by hunger." 7. Edward transmitted this letter to Philip v,'ith an insult ]40 hlSTOKY J>P FRANCE. \ng message to hasten to ^he relief of his subjects. The F'rench king immetliately asjeiiiWed all his forces and marched to raise the siege, but when he arrived before Calais, he found the besiegers so strongly entrenched, that he could not attack them with any prospect of success. In vain did he send heralds to Edward, offering to fight him in a fair field", the challenges were treated as Philip had himself previously- treated similar messages ; they were answered by a declara- tion that Edward would not relinquish the advantages of situ- ation. Finding all his efforts ineffectual, Philip was obliged to draw off all his forces the third day after his arrival. 8. The brave defenders of Calais had given way to the most en- thusiastic joy when they perceived from their battlements the banners of France waving in the distance ; during the inter- val of delay, they endeavoured, by various devices, to de- scribe their calamitous condition to their countrymen ; but when they saw the army retreating witliout attempting their deliverance, they broke out into wild shouts of despair, tore down the standard of France from their rampart, hurled it into the ditch, and unfurled the banner of England in its stead. 9. When Edward saw this sign of submission, he sent Sir Walter Manny to inform the garrison that they should sur- render at discretion, but was afterwards prevailed on to pro- mise, that if six principal burgesses were sent as an atone- ment for the rest, that he would spare the lives of the inha- bitants. 10. When this cruel message was delivered to the inhabitants of Calais, the whole town resounded with lamenta- tions. At length, Eustace St. Pierre came forward and volun- tarily offered himself as a victim ; this noble act of heroism was imitated by five others, and Sir Walter Manny led back the devoted band to the English camp. Edward, irritated by the length of the siege, and by the great losses which he had sustained before the place, ordered them to instant execution. 11. Sir Walter Manny and the principal commanders in the English army supplicated for the lives of Eustace and his companions in the most moving terms, but Edward was im- placable, until his queen, Philippa, who had lately arrived from England, after having obtained a brilliant victory over the Scots, fell on her knees before her husband, and with some difficulty procured their pardon. Calais was afterwards re-peopled from England, and was not re-laken by the French until after the lapse of two centuries. 12. During this period, several important events had oc- PHILIP OF VALOIS. 141 Queen Philippa interceding for the Citizens of Calais. curred in Flanders; Von Arteveld had promised Edward tliat he would procure for his son the title of count of that pro- vince, but the Fleminofs, though displeased with their prince, were unwilling- to deprive him of his inheritance, and the only effect produced by the proposal was to deprive Arteveld of all his popularity. His enemies were not slow in taking advantage of this, and procured the assassination of the de- magogue in a popular tumult. 13. The Flemings, however, still adhered to the English cause, and refused to aid their count, who warmly supported the pretensions of Philip; at length he fell on the field of Cregy, and his subjects, on hear- ing the news, sent for his son from Paris. When the young count arrived in Flanders, the burgesses of the cities possessed all the real authority, and gave a strong proof of it by con- tracting him in marriage to Edward's daughter, without even asking his consent. The youthful prince, disliking the match, fled to the court of Philip, and was some time after permitted by that monarch to conclude a private truce with England, which pledged Flanders to a total neutrality. 14. France was not devastated bv the horrors of war alone, a severe famine first afflicted the people, , " * and this was followed by the most terrible plague that bad hitherto appeared in Europe. It appeared first in China 142 HISTORY OF FRANCE. or, ay it was then called, Cathay, and iiaving traversed Asia and Greece, attacked the territories of France and Germany, where it literally decimated the population. 15. Religions fanaticism produced at the same period a new sect, called the Flagellants, who asserted that the anger of Heaven could only be averted by voluntary tortures; they proceeded through the cities and country, lacerating themselves with whips, but at kngth their enthusiasm degenerated into robbeiy, and they were suppressed. 16. The war went on but slowly after the capture of Ca- lais; a truce was concluded between the rival monarchs, which, with little interruption, continued to the end of Philip's reign. An attempt was niade to recover Calais, by bribing one of the commanders of the garrison, but he, after receiving the niDiiey, betrayed the conspiracy to Edward, who imme- diately went over with a reinforcement; when the French presented themselves before the town, instead of being ad- mitted, they were attacked by a numerous party which had been placed in ambush, and cut to pieces. 17. In the midst of all his misfortunes. Philip had the satisfaction to see the province of Dauphiny annexed to the crown of France. Its last count dying without issue, bequeathed his dominions to Philip, on condition that the eldest son of the French , ■ ■ king should bear the title of Dauphin. Soon after, Philip, broken down by cares and misfortunes, died, leaving to his son a disunited people, and a shattered kingdom. 18. John, duke of Normandy, succeeded his father, and seemed to have inherited his faults as well as his dominions. Philip, by illegally putting to death those whom he suspected of being attached to the English, had alienated the affections of many of his subjects, and John commenced his reign by a similar exhibition of crime and folly. The noblemen whom the king gave into the hands of the executioner, without even the form of trial, were his natural brother, the count of Marche, and the count d'Eu ; the causes of his suspicion furnish a curious illustration of the manners of the time, and are, therefore, worthy of being recorded. 19. James, count of Marche, while serving against the Saracens, was accused of treason by Visconti, a near relation of the king of Cyprus. The loaders of the Christian army fearing to offend either of the crowned heads, to whom the disputants were related, re- .^rred tfie decision of the matter to Edward, king of Eisgland. A'n.iui iiicj looked o'l as the flower of chivalry. 20. Marche JOHN. 143 and Vigconti having agreed to the reference, came to the Eng- lish court, where it was resotved that the controversy should be decided by judicial combat. Lists were prepared in West- minster, and the combat took place in pqfisence of the king and a brilliant court. Both warriors were completely locked in steel, and wore barred visors over their face ; on this ac- count, the lance and sword could produce little effect. 21 The count de Marche, wearing gauntlets ^gloves cased with steel) having spikes at every joint, struck his adversary back- handed blows on the visor, through whose bars the spikes could penetrate, which Visconti, whose gauntlets were plain, could not return. The pain of these blows at length com- pelled Visconti to scream, on which Edward called out "Ho," and threw down his wardouv, declaring Visconti conquered by the laws of arms, and totally at the disposal of his adver- sary, 22. The count of ]Mar';he declared that he was satis- fied by having thus vindicated his character, and delivered over Visconti to the will of the prince of Wales. 23. When Marche returned to France, he found the king very indignan'r at his having submitted to the arbitration of Edward, the ene- my of iheir family ; he apologised by mentioning the higi> chivalrous character of Edward, in which he was joined b^ the count d'Eu, who had been a prisoner in England, Bm the apolocry seemed to John a greater crime than the original offence; they were both arrested and privately beheaded. 24. Among the vassals of France was Charles, king of Navarre, who appears to ha?e v/ell deserved the epithet of the Bad, which is given him by all ihe French historians; he had married one of John's daucfhters, and claimed as her portion several fiefs which, being already in the possession of others, it was not in the power of the crown to bestow. Suspecting that the constable of France had influenced the king to refuse his requests, Charles watched his opportunity, attacked the constable's residence during the night, and murdered him in his bed. 25. Not satisfied with this outrage, he sent a letter to John justif;-ing his conduct; the weakness of nis kingdom compelled the monarch to temporise, a mock investigation -ook place, and Charles was acquitted of guilt. But John only waited for an opportunity of vengeance ; he ordered his son to court the favour of the king of Navarre, and when suspicion was lulled, he arrested Charles and his principal friends while dining with the prince-royal. The friends of 144 HISTORY OF FRANCE. the king of Navarre were put to death without trial, and Charles himself sent a close prisoner to Paris. 26. This treachery produced the most lamentable conse- quences to John ; the brother of the imprisoned king, and the relatives of the murdered nobleman, applied to England for aid in avenging their injuries, and as the truce had terminated some time before, the war broke out with greater fury than ever. 27 Edward the Black Prince, to whom his father had given the duchy of Guienne, assailed John on one side, while the earls of Derby and Lancaster, aided by the friends of Navarre, attacked him on the other. The Black Prince was his most impetuous adversary ; he overran all the provinces in the neighbourhood of Guienne, but as he had laid waste the country wherever he came, he soon found himself with diminished forces at a distance from all his resources, A. D. ,,,'p.^' and unable to retreat with his army through an ex- hausted country. 28. In this situation prince Edward, with only 8000 men, was overtaken by John, accompanied by an army of more than 60,000. 29. The ruin of the Prince of Wales appeared inevitable ; he took up, indeed, a strong position, but his army was destitute of provisions, his retreat cut off, and his enemies need only have remained quiet to ensure his destruction. The cardinal of Perigord, the pa- pal legate, thought that this was a favourable opportunity for restoring peace; he went frequently between both armies, but the unreasonable demands of the French prevented all ac- commodation, and after a day had been wasted in useless negociations, both sides prepared for the memorable battle of Poictiers. o ,Q 30. The prince of Wales had drawn up his little Joka ' band on a rising ground surrounded with vineyards and hedges ; in his front was a long and narrow lane, running through a thick coppice ; this he lined with archers, and at the end of the lane in front of his cavalry and men-at-arms, he placed a strong body of archers, disposed in the form of a hearse. When the French king saw these ar- rangements, he ordered all his cavalry to dismount except the German auxiliaries, and a body of about three hundred, whom he placed in the van. 31. The English archers were always considered the best in the world, and never did they maintain their fame better than on this eventful day. The van of the French had no sooner entered the lane, than a well directed and close fire opened on their flanks and front, which they JOHN. 143 could neither retaliate nor avoid, so that their/first line wat defeated almost before it reached the enemy. The charge of prince Edward completed their overthrow, and the cavalry was ordered up to their rescue ; but while they were advanc- ing, the English archers had gained a favourable position on their flanks, a cloud of arrows threw them into confusion, they fell back on the Germans, who in their turn, recoiled on the second line, and broke its ranks. 32. Edward seized the decisive moment to charge, and the cowardly flight of a large body that had been left to guard the four sons of John adding to the enemy's dismay, there was scarce a moment's resist- ance when the French were completely broken, and their gallant army scattered over the plain. Bitterly did they la- ment the latal order tiiat had deprived them of their horses; encumbered by heavy armour, their lines broken, and theil 13 Battle of Poictiers. K !46 HISTORY OF France. lances useless, they were trampled down by the Ei'glish ca* airy, or swept away by the dense body of men-at-arms who advanced under the cover of the archers. 33. John [lad still a third division of his army under the command of himself and his youngest son Philip, which, being superior in number to the English, might have changed the fate of the day ; but they were dispirited by the defeat of their companions; they were, besides, for the most part unused to fight on foot, and being drawn up in close column, they presented an unerring mark to the archers. The English, "mad with success and drunk with gore," broke this last body by one furious- charge ; but the individual valour of John and his immediate attend- ants still maintained the fight. 34. The English and Gascon knights, who recognised his person, frequently exhorted him to surrender, but he refused to yield to any but his cousin, the Prince of Wales ; having learned, however, that he was in a distant part of the field, he gave his gauntlet to John de Morbeck, a gentleman of Artois, whom he had banished some years before.* John and his son Philip remained prisoners, * The individual heroism shoviri by an English knight in this battle deserves to be recorded, especially as his conduct displays much of that noble and generous spirit which chivalrous feeling frequently produced. The lord James Audley had been long a fa voured friend of the Black Prince, and materially assisted him in making those arrangements which produced this great victory. When every preparation was made, he rode up to Edward, accompanied by his four esquires, and stated that he had made a vow to strike the first stroke, in whatever battle he should be engaged. Edward peimitted him to advance with his four esquires beyond the front of the English lines; he proceeded down the lane, and taking post under the cover of some trees, patiently awaited the approaching vanguard of the French. When they rushed tumultuously into the lane, Audley furiously attacked them, and was saved from the con- sequences of his hardihood by the French becoming entangled in the difficult grountl, and disordered by the heavy showers of arrows. When the English charged through the disordered lines, Audley kept »till in front, and was one of the foremost who cut through tlie se- cond line of the French. Duririg the entire fight he was the most conspicuous among the English chivalry, but towards the end of the day he was no longer seen in the field. When the fight was over, Edward earnestly inquired after his gallant friend ; he was brought before him, borne in the arms of his faithful esquires, covered with blood, and exhausted by his wounds and exertions. The prince complimented him on his valour, and as a reward settled on him a ppu.sion of 500 marks annually. No sooner was Audley cairied to JOHN. 147 but the greater part of the French nobility fell. Indeed, the slaughter was principally confined to the knights and nobles, owing, probably, to tlieir having been deprived of their horses before the beginning of the engagement. 35. The generous Edward treated his royal captive as his sovereign ; he refused to be covered or sit down in his pre- sence, and even attended him at supper. Afterwards, when he brought him over to England, John rode into London on a white horse, richly caparisoned with all the ensigns of sovereignty, while the victor attended him, mounted on a little black pony, as a sign of his inferiority. John was lodged in the palace of the Savoy, and was treated rather as a king than as a prisoner. Questions. 1. What remarkable event took place at the siege of Roche d'Arien? 2. Who headed the party of de Blois? 3. What town ditl Edward resolve to besiege ? 4. Is there any honourable anecdote recorded of Sir Waltoi Manny ? 5. To what calamities were the citizens of Calais exposed 7 6. How did they describe their distressed situation? 7. Were they relieved by Philip f 8. How did they behave when they saw the French king retreat! 9. On what conditions did Edward offer to spare the town? 10. Who offered to devote themselves for their fellow-citizens f 11. How were the lives of these heroes saved 7 12. Did any thing remarkable occur at this time in Flanders? 13 Were the Flemings very submissive to their rulers? i4. Was France visited by any calamities in addition to the war? 15. What new sect appeared ? 16. Did the French attempt to recover Calais 1 17. What addition was made to the dominions of France in th« close of this reign ? 18. Did John commit any imprudence on his accession? 19. What remarkable quarrel was left to the arbitration of Edward? his tent than he sent for his nearest friends, and in their presence mar^e over the entire grant on his four esquires, to whose valour and ficlelity he declareu himself indebted both for life and honour. When Edward was informed of this generosity he not only con- firmed the former, but settled a new pension of greater amount on Audley, and afterwards spoke of him as the most perfect exatiiplfl of what a true knight should be. 148 HISTORY OF FRANC'l!.. 20. Where was the duel fought 1 21. How did the count of Marche obtain the victory? 22. In what manner did he act towards Visconti? 23. What evil consequence resulted t 24. What assassination was committed by Charles the Badf 25. Of what treaclieiy was John guilty? 26. Was it attended by any unfortunate result? 27. What English prince invaded France? 28. To what danger was he exposed? 29. Where did the two armies come to an engagement' 30. How were they arranged? 31. In what manner did the English archers behave? 32. How was the first line of the French thrown into con fusion f 33. Why did not the third division of the French retrieve the dayl 34. To whom did John surrender ? 35. How was the captive monarch treated by the Black Pr'-^el K'ng John riding into LonooB. JOHN. 149 King John. CHAPTER XVI. JOHN. — THE REGENCY. Within that land was many a malcontent, ♦ Who curs'd the tyranny to which he bent; That soil full many a wringing despot saw, Who work'd his wantonness in form of law ; Long war without, and frequent broil within. Had made a path for blood and giant sin. That wanted but a signal to begin New havock, such as civil discord blends, Which knows no neuter, owns but foes or friends. Bl RO V. 1. The situation of France after its monarch had b^^en taken prisoner, was the most miserable that can . J-1 be conceived ; the dauphin was young and fiiexperi- enced, the officers of the crown destitute both of wisdom and patriotism, the nobility intent on serving themselves, the generals robbing friend and foe under pretence of supporting their troops, and the lower classes of the population, maddened by oppression, ready to break out into open rebellion When the dauphin assembled the States-general to consult 13* 150 HISTORY OF FRANCE. about the slate of the kingdom, he heard i )thif,, c ' »'■'> plaints of the administration ; they refused to ei-.r tst hft with the regency, and elected a council of fifty to take charge, of the finances. 2. The rapacity of the new government sur passed all that had preceded it ; the taxes were levied almost at discretion ; those who refused to pay were cruelly tortured, and the nation became hostile to the States-general, which had sanctioned these exactions, and which protected the tax- gatherers in hopes of sharing their plunder. This afforded pritice Charles an opportunity of shaking off the yoke of par- liamentary control, which he eagerly embraced ; aided by a numerous body of the nobility, he expelled the council and assumed the reins of government. 3. But his authority was only nominal, every noble acted as if he were a sovereign in his own domains, every city became a little republic ; the citizens of Paris armed themselves, chose as their leader a merchant named Marcel, and assumed hoods of mixed red and blue as the badge of those who defended the privileges of the city. The escape of the king of Navarre from prison made matters still worse •, once at liberty, he recovered all his for- mer dominions, and became so formidable that the dauphin was obliged to submit to whatever terms he thought proper to impose. 4. He was invited to Paris, and on his arrival there he made a long speech to the citizens on the hardships which he had suffered during his imprisonment, his zeal for the benefit of the state, and above all his great affection for the city of Paris. His flatteries had so great an effect on the citizens, that the dauphin found himself totally destitute of authority, and was obliged to submit to the insults offered by the wearers of the variegated hoods, who had chosen the king of Navarre as their patron. 5. On one occasion. Marcel, the leader of the mob, rushed into the presence of the dauphin, attended by his partizans, seized on three noblemen, whom he asserted had given bad advice, ordered them to be massa- cred on the spot, and then, going up to the prince, made him take off his hat and put on the parti-coloured hood. 6. While the city was thus distracted by faction, a 'r. terrible insurrection of the peasantry broke out in the country, which threatened the most calamitous result?. The nobility, who looked on their serfs as an inferior order of beings, treated them with the most savage cruelty; they also reduced several to slavery who had purchased their free- ilom from the king, until at length human nature could no JOHN. (5J onger submit, and tne peasants every where broke out into rebellion. They avowed their determination to exterminate every nobleman and gentleman, and they proceeded to exe- cute their resolution with the sternest ferocity. The castles of their oppressors were stormed, their wives and children ruthlessly slaughtered, every noble who fell into their hands was tortured for their amusement, and in fine, every horror that could be expected from exasperated barbarians, was per- petrated. 7. This rebellion was called the. Jacquerie, because, when the nobles plundered the peasants, they called in derision any one that complained, Jacques hon homme (good man James), not remembering that an injury, sharpened by an in- sult, is never forgiven or forgotten. At length the nobles of every party combined to check this wide-spreading evil, in the suppression of which, England, France, and Navarre, were equally interested. The Jacquerie was suppressed, but the country was left a desert. 8. Marcel was doomed to experience the truth of the asser- tion, that popular favour is an uncertain support ; being sus- pected of an intention to admit the English into Paris, he was murdered m a popular commotion, and the crowds, who an hour before followed shouting in his train, saw with indiffer- ence his ba- CHARLES V. 155 merits of chivalry. 2. The king of Navarre and the duke of Brittany, not having been included in the treaty of Bretigny, continued to maintain a desultory warfare; the former prin- cipally relied on the valour of the captal of Buche, whom we have before mentioned ; but the captal being defeated and made prisoner by dn Guesclin, Charles, of Navarre found himself no longer able to maintain a war against the king of France. Dn Guesclin was next sent to support the cause of de Blois in Brittany, where the count de , " * Montfort, aided by the talents of the English general, lord Chandos, had recovered most of his paternal possessions. In this expedition du Guesclin was in his turn defeated and made prisoner; but Charles turned even this misfortune to advantage, for when he learned that de Blois was killed in the battle, he put an end to the war by acknowledging Mont- fort as duke of Brittany, provided that he would hold the duchy as a vassal of France. By thus availing himself equally of victory and defeat, Charles was enabled to make peace with the sovereigns of Navarre and Brittany, and to obtain an opportunity for consolidating the strength of his kingdom, previous to his intended plan of re-conquering the provinces which had b^en wrested from France by the English. 3. France, however, was still laid waste by other enemies; a great number of military adventurers, whose only trade was war, had formed themselves into troops under different leaders, and supported themselves by levying heavy contri- butions on those parts of the country which they thought fit to visit. These banditti, whom the English called free -com- panies, and the French malandrins, were too numerous and formidable to be subdued by force, when it was attempted by James de Bourbon, a prince of the royal blood ; he was defeated with great loss, and the companies be- ^oaei came in consequence worse than ever. 4. But a for- tunate circumstance soon enabled Charles to get rid of these robbers, and at the same time to render an essential service to one of his most valuable allies. Peter I. king of Castile, surnamed the Cruel.) on his acces- sion to the throne, had treacherously murdered his father's mistress, and by similar tyrannical deeds, had provoked the hostility of all his subjects; Henry, count Tratnstamora, his natural brother, resolved to avenge the wrongs of his mother and his country. But not being able to compete with his brother unaided', he sought the assistance of the king ot 156 HISTORY OF FRANCE. France, alread\' irritated against Peter on account of hia cruelly to his queen, a princess of the Bourbon branch of the royal family. On his arrival in France, Henry requested per- mission to take the companies into his pay ; his request was cheerfully granted, and du Guesclin undertook to be ..heii eader. He met the commanders of most of the bands, and set before them the great advantages of the expedition, ex- horting them by every religious motive to atone for their ovi'n fiins by punishing the impious Peter, who had been lately put under the ban of the church. 5, The free companies had been lately excommunicated themselves, and were eager to obtain absolution ; the means, which under the guidance of du Guesclin they took to ob- tain it, give us a very strange? picture of the times. Advanc- ing under his guidance towards Avignon, where the pope re- sided, they threatened the pon- tiff and his court, unless they obtained the pardon of their sins, and a large contribution besides. The pope hesitated about complying with the lat- ter part of their requisition, but the companies soon showed such a determination to enforce their demands, that his holiness was obliged to comply ; and the adventurers having thus obtained absolution and money, declared themselves ready to follow du Guesclin into Spain. 6. Peter, deserted by his subjects, was unable to jop~ meet Henry in the field, and seeing no other means of safety, he fled across the Pyrenees to the prince of Wa es, who was then in Guienne, seeking from him protec- tion and assistance. 7. Edward, who envied the glory of Guesclin, unhesitatingly adopted the cause of Peter, and im- mediately led his army into Castile. At his approach, the " troops of the free companies," who almost adored the Black Prince, at once flocked to his banner; Henry was obliged to confide in the undisciplined forces of his own kingdom, and ^^ Bertrand du Guesclin. CHARLES V. 157 these were unable to meet warriors who had oeen so long inured to battles. 8. At Najara, Henry was totally defeated, and du Guesclin taken prisoner. But the prince of Wales had no reason to rejoice in his victory ; Peter refused to pay \he expenses of the war, a fearful sickness broke out in the English camp, and Edward was obliged to retrace his steps, after having exhausted his funds, wasted his men, and irre- trievably injured his constitution. He liberated du Guesclin, who again joined Henry in an invasion of Castile, when Peter was defeated and slain. 9. The prince of Wales had exhausted all his revenues in the Castilian expedition ; on his return, he levied a tax on the provinces, which they refused to pay, and appealed to the king of France as their feudal sovereign. Charles received the appeal, and summoned Edward to appear i qoq in Paris and answer for his conduct. The prince of Wales refused to obey ; in consequence of vi^hich, Charles declared that he had forfeited all the provinces that he held under the crown of France, 10. The war on this broke out afresh, and the English were every where unsuccessful. Their armies indeed laid waste the country and ravaged the fields as far as the gates of Paris, but the towns opened their gates to the troops of France ; the peasantry concealed their provi- sions when Edward appeared, but readily yielded up their stores to the soldiers of Charles, and thus every victorious march became a real source of weakness. 11. Du Guesclin, who had been appointed constable of France, had been the first to suggest this harassing mode of warfare, and to him the management of it was entrusted. 12. At length, after having captured Limoges, Edward found himself so com- pletely enervated by disease, that he was compelled to return to England, and though he lived three years longer, the state of his health prevented him from again seemg the theatre of his glory.* * The premature decease of the Prince of Wales was >X)ked upon by the English people as the greatest national calamity. Hia death is thought to have shortened the days of his royal father, and broke the heart of that renowned warrior, John de Grielly, captal de Buche, Avho refused all nourishment, and was impatient to follow his beloved master to the grave. The parliament, though in no very good humour, discovered the deepest concern for his death, and tho highest veneration for his memory, by attending his remains to the sathedral of Canterbury, and by petitioning the king to introduce 14 158 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 13. When the Black Prince returned home, the English in France were overwhelmed by a long succession of misfor- tunes ; the leaders of several companies who had been per- sonally attached to Edward, when he was no longer present joined du Guesclin : their fleet, under the earl of AD . ,.j-,o Pembroke, was defeated by the Spaniards; the king of Navarre withdrew from their alliance; the captal of Buche fell into the hands of the French ; and finally, a fleet which had been prepared for the relief of some towns ihat were besieged, was prevented from sailing by stormy weather until the towns had surrendered. 14. Du Guesclin died in the midst of his brilliant career, just after he had signed the capitulation of the fortress of Auvergne, which he was besieging. When the garrison heard of his death, they desired the governor to refuse a surrender, but he, faithful to his promise, brought the keys of the garrison, and laid them as a trophy at the feet of the departed hero. 15. During this period, war had been re-kindled in Brittany by the French king's attempt to annex that province com- pletely to the French crown; but de Montfort, supported by the people, was enabled to maintain his duchy, and Charles seemed to be aware of the injustice of his attempt; for after his first vigorous efforts were defeated, he allowed the war to linger for a great length of time. Eventually, de Montfort, by the aid of the English, recovered all his dominions ; and Charles directed his attention to the more honourable and useful task of driving the English from their remaining pos- sessions in Guienne. 16. The glories which had adorned the com- ,0,77 mencement of the reign of Edward Til. were now vanished, he was broken down by misfortunes, and grief for the death of his gallant son " brought down his grey hairs with sorrow to the grave." His successor, Richard II., was a minor; the devastation of England by a pestilence, and the incursions of the Scots in the commencement of his reign, so weakened a government already distracted by the jealousies of the king's uncles, that no succour was sent to the English in France. 17. In a very short time Charles so improved his advantages, that out of all their brilliant acqui- sitions, there only remained in the possession of the English, the prince's only son, Richard, then only ten years old, >nto iheil assembly, that they might have the pleasure of beholding this only "•p'esentative of their beloved prince. CHARLES V. 159 Calais in Artois, Cherburg in Normandy, and Bordeaux in Guienne. 18. Cliarles of Navarre had attempted to poison the king of France while he was yet dauphin, he re- 10,70 newed the attempt after the expulsion of the English, dreading that the increased power of the king would be di- rected against his dominions. To effect this detestable design, he sent his son with several attendants on an embassy to Paris, but the meditated treachery was discovered; two knights who were charged with its execution were put to death, and the prince of Navarre, who seems not to have participated in his father's treason, was shut up in prison. 19. The king of France had long been wasting away ; it was said that he never recovered the effects . " ' of the poison that had been administered in his youth, however the physicians kept him alive by opening an issue, declaring that when that dried up his case would be hopeless. When it did cease, Charles prepared himself for death with becoming fortitude, and in his last moments employed him- self in directing his sons to persevere in the paths of justice and rectitude. 20. Charles appears to have merited the name of Wise, •which has been given him by the French writers ; the state of France in the beginning and end of his reign is the noblest tebtimony to his character; on his accession, he found the throne tottering, the people distracted, the best provinces in *he possession of the enemy, and the country almost a desert; to his son he bequeathed a peaceful succession, a rich treasure, and, above all, subjects thriving and contented. How few princes merit such an eulogy ! Questions. 1. By what excellent general was Charles the Wise assisted ? 2. How did Charles equally avail himself of victory and defeat! 3. What class of men still devastated France ? 4. How were they removed from the country ? 5. In what manner did the free companies obtain absolution' 6. To whom did Peter the Cruel apply for assistance 7 7. Why was Edward so ready to comply? 8. How did the expedition terminate ? 9. What caused the war to be renewed between die English and French ? 160 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 10. How did the French manage the war ? 11. By whose advice was this plan adopted? 12. Why did the Black Prince return home? 13. What evils overtook the English after his departure? 14. What compliment was paid to du Guesclin after his death • 15. How did the war in Brittany terminate? 16. Why did the English lose their acquisitions in Franco ? 17. What towns did they retain ? 18. Did Charles of Navarre succeed in his attempt on the liT* fd the king ? 19. Hew did Charles the Wise die 7 aO. What was his character ? dtisens of Paris in the Reign of CharlM • CHARLES VI. 161 Charles VI. CHAPTER XVIII. CHARLES VI Unhappy king! even by thy pomp opprest, Like some rude clown for royal pageant drest, Who struts his hour of borrowed state, and then Stripp'd of his robes to notliing sinks again — How poor, how less than little art thou grown, Mean in all eyes, and meanest in thine own. Miss Pordxw, ^. The last reign was short and prosperous, that on which we are about to enter was long and calamitous ; , ^^^ tlie ambition of the young king's uncles, the licen- tiousness of the nobles, the madness of the king, the crimin- alities of his wife, and a new invasion of the English, pro- duced a series of miseries, if possible worse than any we have hitherto narrated. Charles VI. was but thirteen years old at the time of his father's death, the regency was entrusted to his uncle the duke of Anjou, but the dukes of Burgundy 14* L I(T2 FHSTORY OF FRAMCE. ami liourbdii were jealous of liis authoiitv, and anxiously eiuleavoureil to obtain a share in the government. For this purpose they compelled the regent to consent to the king's coronation, after which the States declared tliat Cliailes shonld himself assume the administration of atiairs, and be guided by the counsels of his uncles. 2. Joanna, queen of Naples, having been driven from tlie throne by her cousin Charles Dnrazzo, had in revenge adopted the duke of Ai\jou as- her heir, and soon after falling into the hands of her enemies, was strangled in prison. The duke of Anjou then resolved to assert his claim to the Neapolitan crown, and in order to obtain forces, lie resolved to seize on tlie royal treasures which had been collected bv the late mon- arch. These were concealed in the castle of IMelun, and the secret of the place where they were deposited entrusted to a c mJidential servant named Savoisy. The duke prevailed on him to betray his trust, and having thus provided liimself with funds, he levied an army, and led them across the Alps into Italy. 3. This expedition was singularly unfortunate, a few successes in the beginning were followed bv such a rapid suc- cession of reverses, that in a few months the duke of Anjou saw his baggage lost, his army destroyed, and himself re- duced to such poverty, that of all his ill-gotten wealth, only a single silver goblet was left. He died soon after of vexa- tion and disappointment, leaving his son Louis the inheritor of his pretensions. 4. Tliis fruitless attempt proved the source of many cala- mities to France ; a promise had been made to the people that they should be released from some of the severe taxes which had been levied during the last reign; but as the royal trea- sures were exhausted, instead of decreasing their burdens, the king f >und himself compelled to redouble the imposts, and thus prochiceil universal chssatisfaction through the country. 5. The Flemings, for similar reasons, had revolted against their count; he appealed to the king of France for assistance as his feudal sovereign, and through the influence of .".-,■ his son-in-law, the duke of Burgundy, who had suc- ceeded the duke of Anjou in the manaijement of alfeirs, his request was readilv granted. 6. Charles headed tlie army in person, a decisive battle was fought at Rosbec, in which the Flemings were defeated, and their leader, Arteveld, son to the former ilemagogne of the same name, slain 7 Having U"iumphed over the insurgents in Flanders, Charles lesolved CHARLES VI. 163 Battle of Rosbec. to punish those in his own dominions, who, oppressed by a load of taxes, had been induced to commit several excesses. On his approach to Paris, the citizens went armed to meet him, hoping by this display of strength to inspire the monarch with fear. But they did at once too much and too little, — they convinced him that they were formidable subjects, but, by dispersing on the first summons, they left themselves and their city totally at his mercy. Charles entered Paris as a place which had been conquered ; he dismantled its fortifica- tions, broke down its gates and barriers, disarmed the inhabit- ants, and, without any form of trial, put to death more than three hundred of the factious by the gibbet, or by tying them up in sacks and throwing them into the liver. 8. Having thus filled the city with terror, Charles sum- moned all the citizens of both sexes to a public assembly in the courts of the palace. There they were received by the king seated on his throne, and addressed on the subject of their manifold treasons by the Chancellor d'Orgemont, in terms so harsh and threatening, that the whole assembly ex- pecting nothing but instant death, threw themselves on their l^nees, and earnestly supplicated for mercy. The dukes of Berry and Burgundy united in the petition, until at length Charles, as if moved with compassion, declared that he would 104 HISTORY OF FRANCE. subslitr.te civil for criminal punishment; in other words, that he would commit robbery instead of murder. 9. The end of this '' tragic farce," as the French call it, was, that the Paris ians were obliged to pay more than half their wealth in fines, and that the taxes were levied with greater severity than ever, 10. The duke of Burgundy, on the death of his father-in- law, had become count of Flanders, and endeavoured to con- ciliate his new subjects, whom commercial wealth had ren- dered haughty and turbulent. The greater part of the trade of Europe at this time centered in the Low Countries. Bruges especially was the depot of commerce ; the treasures of the east were brought thither from Italy by the Lombard mer- chants, and exchanged for the less costly, but more useful productions of northern and western Europe. Their raanu- fectories, especially of woollen, were unrivalled ; and the wealth which they acquired by their trade had given them a consequence and importance which made them proud and others jealous. IL Through the influence of the duke of Bur- - ■ * gundy, Charles was married to Isabella of Bavaria, a princess remarkable for her personal qualifications, and for every bad disposition which could render her charms pernicious. She brought innumerable misfortunes on her husband, her family, and the whole kingdom. 12. Under the weak and despicable government of Richard II., England had lost her former eminence, and the French, eager to revenge the calamities that had been inflicted on them by Edward III., resolved to invade that country, A great naval force was collected at Sluys, every vessel that could be purchased or hired between Sweden and Flandera was collected, and a huge wooden castle was constructed to be towed across the channel,, an invention from which great advantages were anticipated. 13. But all these mighty pre- parations were rendered unavailing by the jealousy of the duke of Berry; unwilling that an expedition planned by his rival Burgundy should succeed, he detained the fleet at Sluys until the sea was no longer navigable; the stormy season came on, a great part of tlie armament was destroyed, and the wooden castle floating out to sea, fell into the hands of the English mariners. The project of an invasion was renewed in each of the two succeeding years, and was similarly de- feated by the mutual quarrels of the king's uncles and the* great nobles CHARLES VI. 165 Philip the Bold, John the Fearless, and Philip the Good, Dukes of Burgundy 14. During this period of ineffectual preparation, an instance occurred of tlie vengeance that overtakes . ' * the guilty even in this life. Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, found at length a death worthy of his crimes. Worn out by debauchery, he endeavoured to restore vital heat to his limbs by wrapping himself in sheets soaked in spirits ; by some accident these took fire ; before any assistance could be obtained, the fire had reached his vitals ; he lingered for a few days in the most excruciating agonies, and at length expired, to the great joy of every party by whom his secret treach- eries were equally feared and detested. 15. When Charles had arrived at the age of man- hood, he became jealous of the power wielded by his . ' ' uncle, the duke of Burgundy, and determined to take the administration of affairs into his own hands. The duke, with a very bad grace, resigned the delegated authority, and had the mortification to see all his friends at once stripped of their offices, and their places supplied by the creatures of the duke of Orleans, the king's brother and most favoured adviser 16. Oliver de Clisson, who had worthily succeeded du Gues« clin in the office of constable, was the president of the king's council, and under his guidance affairs began to assume an aspect of tranquillity. But de Clisson had, by some ambi- tious projects, provoked the hostility of the duke of Brittany, a prince long suspected by the French court, on account of 166 HISTORY OF FRANCE. the former connection between the Montforts and the Etiglish. A nobleman of infamous character, named tie Craon, attempted to assassinate the constable in the streets of Paris, and be- lieving that he had been successful, fled for safety to the count of Brittany. The protection given him by the duke afforded some ground of presumption that he had been the original instigator of the crim.e. De Clisson, who had teen onlv wounded, called loudly for redress, and Charles, ever rash and impetuous, without waiting to make any inquuies, levied an army, and hastily marched towards Brittany. 17. On a very hot day in the month of August, iQqo the king, wearing on his head a heavy cap of scarlet cloth, rode apart from his company, attended only by two pages. Weakened by the debaucheries of youth, and oppressed by a cumbrous dress, he passed slowly on, almost fainting beneath the rays of a sultry sun. Suddenly a tall spectre-like figure in black sprung from a neighbouring thicket, seized the king's bridle, and exclaimed, "■Slop, king, whither are you going ? you are betrayed." Having said these few words, he again disappeared among the trees. Nearly at the same time, one of the pages, whom the overpowering heat had inclined to slumber, let his lance fall against the helmet of his companion. This sudden clash of arms, combining with the recent warning, was too powerful for the mind of the unhappy monarch; in a moment he became raging mad, and drawing his sword, fell furiously on his servants. 18 With great difficulty he was overpowered and secured ; his attendants fastened him with ropes on a cart, and in this piteous state he was conveyed to the nearest town. His uncles had him brought to Paris, and took on themselves the admi- nistration of atfairs for some months ; but on the king's reco- very, the duke of Orleans again recovered his power, and thua commenced the hostility between the factions of Orleans and Burgundy, which had nearly caused the utter ruin of thn nation. 19. A strange accident soon after caused a return ■ ■ of the king's malady. At the marriage of one of the queen's attendants, the king and five young nobles re- solved 1o appear in the character of savages ; for this purpose they prepared dresses of coarse cloth, smeared with pilch, and then sprinkled over with loose flax. When they enlere-i the saloon, the duke of Orleans took a torch to examine their dresses more closely ; a spark fell on the flax, it imme niARLES VI. Hi1 diately burst into flames, and a scene of indescribable confn- bIou ensued ; four of the masques were burnt lo death, a tifth escaped by phmging into a cistern of water: the king was saved by the presence of mind of the duchess of Berri, who threw a cloak over him, and kept him in a corner of the apartment until the flames were extinguished. This horrid scene produced a second fit of insanity, which, with a f'='w lucid intervals, lasted during the rest of the king's unfortunate life; prayers were offered up, and processions made, medicine and magic were both tried, but all the remedies that the wis- dom of the age could suggest were equally inefficacious. 20. In one of the king's lucid intervals, a success- • -AD ful attempt was made to reconcile for a time the dif- . ' ' ferences between France and England ; the sovereigns of both met near Calais, and agreed on a truce; in con- sequence, Richard married the daughter of Charles, and re- signed the towns of Brest and Cherburg. 21. An unfortunate event for the English monarch, as it increased the discontents among his subjects, who justly dreaded that these ports would again become nests of privateers, and harass the English trade. 22. The dukes of Orleans and Burgundy continued to con- tend for the supreme power, and their contests kept the court and the kingdom in constant agitation. The disputes of tlieir wives aggravated their mutual haired : the duchess of Bur- gundy, proud of her illustrious descent and immense wealth, looked down with contempt on Valentina of Orleans ; she, in ^'9T turn, confiding in her beauty and accomplishments, ridiculed the person of her haughty rival. The duchess of Orleans was universally esteemed one of the most charming women of the time; she had so much influence over Charles, even m the most violent of his paroxysms, that her enemies attributed her power to magic. A truce of ' ' twenty-eight years had been concluded witli the Eng- lish, when the aid of the French was solicited i)y Sigismond, king of Hungary, against the redoubtable Bajazet, the Turkish sidtan, and the count de Nevers, John sans Peur, (John the Fearless,) son of ihe duke of Burgundy, led a numerous army to his relief. This force was defeated beneath the wall.>» of Nicopolis, and tlie flower of the warriors of France were slain or made prisoners on that fatal dav. The count de Nevers was ransomed by the people of Burgundy for two hundred thousand crowns. At length th.e death of the duke uf Puigundy, in 1404, seemed to have secured the triuni[)h 168 HISTORY OF FRANCE. John the Fearless before Nicopolis. of Orleans, but he found the son and successor of his rival & Btill more tormidable enemy than the father had been. 23. The qi.rren was a warm parlizan of the Orleans' party, she was indtea more than suspected of having carried her attach- ment to the duke beyond the bounds of innocence, and it is questionable whether she did him more service by the aid she afforded, or injury by the hostility which her crimes pro- voked. Her conduct as a mother and wife was infamous ; the tutor of her children was unable to procure the common ne- cessaries of life for his charge, and when complaints were made to the wretched Charles, he replied, "Alas ! lam not better treated." In fact, it appeared that he had passed five months without a bed or a change of linen. 24. After the kingdom had been long distracted by the contending factions, an apparent reconciliation was effected between the rivals ; the duke of Burgundy feigned a more ',han ordinary affection for his cousin of Orleans, lamenteil A.D. 1407. CHARLES VI. 169 the length of time that they had been disunitea, and appeared anxious to drown the memory of former hostilities by con- tinued marks of favour and kindness. But all this was pre- paratory to an act of execrable treachery. While the duke of Orleans was going one night to visit the queen, he was suddenly attacked by assassins, whom his rival had hired, and cruelly murdered. 25. After this horrid deed, the duke of Burgundy fled to his estates, and the widcw of the deceased prince came to Paris, accompanied by her three children, to claim vengeance. The duke of Burgundy was, however, a criminal too power- ful to be punished. When summoned to take his trial, he appeared at the head of an army ; a monk whom he had hired, pleaded his cause before the council, but his soldiers were ar- guments still more powerful; he was acquitted and restored to all his former authority. 26. The young duke of Orleans had married the daughter of the count d'Armagnac, one of the most powerful nobles of Gascony, and as he gave himself up entirely to the direc- tions of his father-in-law, the partizans of Orleans were for the future called Armagnacs. At first they were reduced to the very brink of ruin by the Burgundians, whose party was warmly embraced by the populace of Paris ; the duke of Burgundy, by his immoderate use of victory, pro- i /i^ voked the hostility of the nobles, and was compelled to give way in his turn. He fled to his estates, a royal army marched against him, and he was obliged to purchase peace on the most humiliating conditions. Questions. 1. Wno was appointed to the regency on the death of Charles V. ? 2. To what use did the duke of Anjou apply the royal treasures 1 3. What was his success ■? 4. Did this pioduco any evil consequence in France? 5. Why did the Flemings revolt against their count? 6. Were they succes-jful ir their rebellion'? 7. Why did Charles march in a hostile manner against Paiis? 8. How did he treat the citizens ? 9. In what manner was the business terminated? 10. How were the possessions of the house of Burgundy incre^ise^ at this time ? 11. To whom was the king of France married ? 12. Did the French make any attempt to invade England* 15 170 HISTORY OF FRANCE. IS How was it frusirated ? 14. In what misery did Charles of Navarre die? 15 To what mortification was the duke of Burgundy subjected t €, "What caused a war between the liing and Uie duke of Brit- tany 7 17. By what strange accident were the king's senses affected? 18. What caused the hostility between the houses of Orleans and Burgundy? 19. How was the king's malady renewed? 20 On what conditions was peace made between France and England ? 21. Why was the treaty displeasing to the English people? 22. How was the hostility between the houses of Orleans anJ Burgundy aggravated ? 23. What was the character of the queen? 24. Of what great crime was the duke of Burgundy guilty? 25. Was he punished ? 26.- How was the struggle between the factions continued? Ladies of the Fifteenth Centiuy CHARLES VI. 171 Knight of the Fifteenth Century, in full Armour. CHAPTER XIX. CHARLES VL— HENRY V. OF ENGLAND. Hadst tbou seen, Skilful as brave, how Henry's ready eye Lost not a thicket, nor a hillock's aid; From his hersed bowman, how the arrows flew. Thick as the snow flakes, and with lightning force. Thou wouldst have known, such soldiers, such a chief, Could never be subdued, Socthbt 1. While the Armagnacs and Burgundians weic exhausting themselves and their country by their )loody contests, the English were preparing to renew A. u 1415 172 HISTORY OF FRANCE. the glories of Edward, and make a second effort for the sub« jugation of France. The reign of Richard II. had been too weak, and that of the usurper Henry IV. too turbulent, for any attempts at so great an enterprise ; but on the accession of Henry V. the whole English nation so passionately cla moured for an invasion of France, that Henry would pro- bably have endangered his throne had he hesitated to com' ply. With no better excuse than the almost forgotten pre« tensions of Edward II f. he published a declaration of war, and passing over into Normandy, laid siege to Harfleur. 2. The garrison made an obstinate defence for several months, but at length their provisions were exhausted ; their suppli- cations for assistance were disregarded by the government, and they were forced to surrender at discretion. 3. From Harfleur, Henry advanced through Normandy towards Calais, meeting with little or no resistance, but the heat of the wea- ther and the quantities of rich fruits eaten by the soldiers, produced a pestilence in his camp, by which numbers of his soldiers were destroyed, and the rest gi-eatly weakened. n t 94 ^' ^" ^'^'^ calamitous situation, Henry was over- , .' ' taken by the constable d'Albret, with an army eight times more numerous than his own, on the plains of Azineourt. It was late in the evening when the two armies came in sight of each other, and the engagement was consequently deferred to the following day. On the side of the French, there was confidence in strength and numbers, " they jested," says an old historian, " at those scarecrows of English who could scarcely sit on their famished horses." 5. Notwithstanding the disparity of forces, two anecdotes will serve to convince us that the English and their gallant sovereign were not totally destitute of hope. Henry sent a Welsh captain named David Gam, to bring him some account of the number of the French, and David returned with the following report, " May it please your majesty, there are enough to be killed, enough to be taken, and enough to run away." When Henry heard his brother wish for more men, he said, " I would not desire another : if we are to fall, I wish not that the loss of our country should be increased ; if we are to win, the fewer that share our glory the better." The morning of St. Crispin's day saw both armies prepared for the battle. The fight, though the odds were so unequal, was not long maintained by the French, they were defeated, as at Cref;y and Poictiers, by the heavy fire of the archers, CHARLES VT. 173 The Duke of Orleans, taken Prisoner at Azincourt. toH.- h drove their cavalry back on the infantry, and mingled botii in remediless confusion. 7. The Duke of Orleans was one Mf the prisoners taken by the English. But the victori- ous lamiy was unable to maintain its conquests ; sickness and the C/imate were enemies not to be resisted, and Henry hav- ing with difficulty brought his shattered bands to Calais, re- turned home. 8. It would have been naturally supposed, that the pre- sence of a public enemy would have checked the private dis- sensions of France; but on the contrary, they seem rather to have become worse in consequence. The two eldest sons of the king having died within a very short space, Charles, a sworn enemy to the house of Burgundy, succeeded to the title of Dauphin, and united himself in strict alliance with d'Armagnac, who on the death of d'Albret, had been ap- pointed constable of France. The queen was the only per- son whose authority could counterbalance the weight of this party, and the constable resolved to remove her from his path. As she lived in the practice of open and avowed licentiousness, it was not difficult to find a pretence for put- ling her under arrest ; one of her paramours was seized, con- victed, and drowned, and she was sent as a prisoner to Tours. Thenceforward she was animated with the most im placable hatred against the constable, and against the dauphiu ber own son, whom, though only sixteen years old, she de- tested for having assented to her degradation. 15* 174 HISTORY OF FRANCE- Henry V. of England. 9. The imprisonment of the queen, the unhappy , /, J death of two dauphins, the deprivation of a great num- ber of officers, the pillage of the open country by the unpaid soldiery, and the depredations of the Armagnacs, who tven took the plate out of the churches, afforded the duke of Burgundy pretexts sufficiently specious for renewing the war, under pretence of liberating the king, and tranquillizing the nation. At the request of the queen he came to Tours and rescued her from captivity 5 thence he proceeded to Troyes, where the queen proclaimed herself regent, summoned an as- sembly of the states, and had a great seal made, on which her own figure was engraved. 10. In so favourable a con- juncture the English monarch was not remiss, he invaded Normandy a second time, and soon made himself master of the greater part of that province. And yet the constable was contented to see France dismembered by the English, rather than hazard its being governed by his enemy. 11. The citi* tens of Paris were become weary of a domestic war which CHARLES VI. 175 exhausted all their resources ; they had not forgotten their former attachment to the house of Burgundy, and the Armag- nacs had on many occasions violated the privileges of the city ; for these reasons when PIsle Adam, a partisan of the duke, appeared in the streets shouting, " Peace and Burgundy," he was immediately joined by such a numerous body of the citizens, that it was impossible for his enemies to make any resistance. 12. But the cry of peace was treacherous and delusive, a cruel slaughter of the Armagnac party commenced ; nor was it confined to them, every man that had a personal enemy was designated an Armagnac, and the name at once procured him to be murdered. The dauphin was saved with difficulty by a faithful friend *, but the count d'Armagnac, and the ministers of the crown, remained prisoners with an infu- riate mob, who knew not the name of mercy.* They were all cruelly put to death, and with bitter mockery, the erect^ or St. George's cross, was cut on their bodies, for that was the symbol of the Armagnacs, as the oblique^ or St. Andrew's, was of the Burgundians. 13. The flight of the dauphin was the signal for civil war in every part of France ; while the English taking advantage of these chssensions, steadily pursued their career of victory, and subdued town after town without meeting any effective resistance. At length the duke of Burgundy , .' „* made proposals to the dauphin for an accommodation, it was agreed that they should meet on the bridge of Monte- reau, and a barrier was erected on it to protect both from the hostility of their mutual followers. Some friends of the murdered duke of Orleans took this opportunity to revenge his death ; leaping over the barrier in the midst of the confer- ence, they fell on the duke of Burgundy and slew him. It is uncertain whether the dauphin had any share in this treach- erous transaction, but its consequences nearly proved fatal to him and to his followers. 14. Philip, son of the murdered duke, assembled a numerous army, the queen joined him with her forces, and a peace was concluded with England, by which * These excesses, we are told by the old historians, were followed by the most brilliant processions ever seen. The murderers sought to palliate their crimes by associating them with religious ceremo- nies. The scarcity occasioned by the pillage and conflagrations in the environs of Paris, was followed by a contagious disease, which made such dreadful ravages, that, in the space of five weeks, fifty thousand of the citizens died. 176 HISTORY OF FRANCE. it was stipulated that Henry V. should m-arry Catharine, the daughter of the French king, that he should be appointed re- gent during the life of Charles VI., that then the crown of France should devolve on Henry and his successors, and that no peace should be made with the dauphin without the con- sent of the two kings, the duke of Burgundy, and the three estates of the realm. Catharine, Wife of Henry V. of England. 15. When this treaty had been completed, Henry 1420 ^^'^ Charles proceeded together towards Paris, where the duke of Burgundy appeared before the council, and entered an accusation in form against the dauphin for the murder of his father. After the absent prince had been re- gularly summoned, sentence of confiscation and banishment was pronounced against him, and the succession of Henry formally recognized by the parliament and the council. 16 The following year, during Henry's absence in England, his army, under the command of his brother the duke of Clarence, was attacked by the dauphin's soldiers, under the guidance CHARLES VT. 177 uf tne earl of Buchan, a Scotch nobleman, while besieging Beange in Anjou. In this engagement the English were de- feated and their general slain. 17. When the news reached Henry, he passed over into France with a fresh army, and used every exertion in his power to provoke the dauphin to come to an engagement ; but that prince was too wise to hazard a battle, and the English monarch, after having ex- hausted his soldiers by long and fatiguing marches, gave up the pursuit and returned to Paris. 18. A little before this, his queen had been delivered of a son, to whom the name of his father was given. Henry made his tri- ,^'.^o umphant entry into Paris on the day of Pentecost, but did not long enjoy his tranquillity; having learned that the dauphin meditated some fresh enterprises he marched against him, but on the road was seized v/ith a disease which soon proved mortal : with his dying breath he appointed the cardinal of Winchester guardian of his infant son, the duke of Gloucester regent of England, and the duke of Bedford regent of France ; particularly recommending the latter to use every possible means of retaining the friendship of the duke of Burgundy, on whose alliance he justly believed that the security of the English conquests in France depended. 19. In a few months after, died Charles VI. of France, who had been politically dead for several years past. He was buried in the cathedral of St. Denis, unattended to the tomb by any prince of his blood; even the dcke of Burgundy was absent, as he did not think it consistent with his dignity to yield precedency to the duke of Bedford. 20. During this troubled reign, Europe was dis- tracted by what is usually called "the schism op 10,70 THE WEST." The inhabitants of Rome had been long grieved by the continued residence of the popes at Avig- non, and on the death of Gregory VI. they surrounded the conclave to demand a pope of their own nation, threatening to exterminate the wiiole college in case of a refusal. Urban VI. was chosen and consecrated, but soon after, rendering himself odious to a great body of the cardinals, they retired to Fondi, where they elected a second pope, Clement VII., under the pretence that the former election was void, in consequence of the force that had been used. 21. Thus there were two popes, one at Avignon and one at Rome, both claiming infallibility, and both excommuni- liting each other as heretics and schismatics. This disgrace- M 178 HISTORY OF FRANCE. fill exhibition contimied for forty years; all Europe was di« vided as the potentates happened to be led either by prejudice or interest. France embraced the cause of Clement and his successors, but England and Germany asserted the cause of Urban and the popes chosen in Rome ; a division that not a ittle exasperated national animosities. 22. While these two pontiffs thundered curses and ana- themas against each other, engaged in a most furious war distracted the consciences of men, and disturbed the govern* ment of kingdoms, each of them reckoned a number of saints on their side, of whose revelations and miracles they boasted as proofs of the goodness of their cause. St. Catharine of Sienna wrote every where in favour of Urban, and in her letter to the king of France, called the cardinals who were favourers of Clement, devils incarnate. Such a powerful authority re- quired a counterpoise, and some miraculous claims equally strong were opposed to it ; but the greatest miracle would have been to act with temper, a miracle which it is scarce necessary to add was not exhibited. 23. At leno'th the sovereigns of Europe combined A. D. . 1 1414. ^^ P^"^ ^'^ ^""^ ^'^ what they jusdy deemed a scandal * on religion ; and a council being assembled at Con- stance, both popes were deposed, and Martin V. elected in tiieir stead. 24. But the council sullied the glory that they obtained by thus putting an end to the schism. They sum- moned John Huss and Jerome of Prague to appear before them on a charge of having broached heretical doctrines, and notwithstanding the emperor's safe-conduct, condemned them to the flames. They also refused to make any of those re- forms in the church which the general wishes of Europe and the increasing knowledge of the age demanded, and thus they prepared a way for the great religious revolution which was about to commence in a succeeding century. 25. Neither were the followers of Huss in Bohemia reduced to submission, they took up arms in defence of their liberties, and maintained a desperate war against their oppressors. Their general, John Trasnow, surnamed Ziska or the One-eyed, defeated his an- tagonists in several engagements ; on his death-bed he gave orders that a drum should be made of his skm, to inspire the soldiers with courage. At length a peace was concluded, by which the privileges of the Bohemians were confirmed, and freedom of religious worship conceded to the Hussites. 26. The reion of Charles VI. is also remarkable for the first CHARLES VI. 179 appearance in Europe of that extraordinary people who have been called Zingeys, Bohemians, or Gypsies ; , ^ , ~ it is not easy to account for their origin, but the most probable opinion appears to be, that they were an Indian tribe expelled from their country by some of the revolutions which have taken place in that country. They certainly were not Egyptians, as has been generally supposed ; for in language, dress, and manner of life, they are totally different from any people that ever inhabited Egypt. They were soon treated as a proscribed race, and, like the Jews, persecuted wherever they appeared ; but, like that people, they survived persecutions, and their descendants still continue to exist as a distinct people in many parts of Europe. Questions. 1. Why did Henry V. renew the war with France 7 2. What town did he first besiege ? 3. Why was it surrendered? 4. la what situation were his soldiers when overtaken by tho Frencli army? 5. From what circumstances does it appear that the English army were not dismayed by the superior forces of the enemy ? 6. What were the circumstances of the engagement ? 7. Why did the English not follow up their victory? 8. How did the faction of the Armagnacs obtain a temporary superiority ? 9. Did their rivals, the Burgundians, acquire any advantage 7 10. How did tho English take advantage of these dissensions? 11. Who headed the Burgundian party in Paris? 12. In what manner did the Burgundians use their victory 7 13. How was the duke of Burgundy slain ? 14. What was the consequence of this murder? 15. Was Henry's title to the Frencli crown recognised publicly? 16. By whom were the English defeated ? 17. How did the dauphin batile the English monarch? 18. To whom did Henry bequeath the government of his domi- nions? 19. For what was the funeral of Charles VI. remarkable? 20. How did 'he schism of the west commence? 21. Where did the rival popes hold their courts? 22. How (lid they endeavour to obtain partisans? 23. By what council was this schism terminated? 24. Were all the proceedings of the council of Constance equally honourable? 25. Were the Bohemian protestants dispirited by the lossof theii pastors ? 20. What strange people, during this reign, appeared in Europe? 180 HISTORY OF FRANCK. Charles VII. CHAPTER XX. v,riARLES VII., SURNAMED THE VICTORIOUS. Thus the French, In cright array, and high in confident hope, Await the signal ; wliilst with other thoughts, And anxious awe, once more the invading host Prepare them in the field of fight to meet The Maij> of Orleans. Southkt. 1. Nothing could be more deplorable than the . .' ■ prospects of Charles VII. when, by his lather's death, he became the lawful monarch of France. All the provinces from the Scheld to the Loire and the Saone, were possessed by the Burgundians and the English, the duke of Brittany deserted him, his treasury vvas so low that a shoe- maker refused to give him credit for a pair of shoes, and his favourite general, the earl of Buchan, had fallen into the hands of his enemies. His infant rival, Henry VI., wasf peace- CHARLES VII. 181 tkjl] crowned at Paris, most of the great cities sent their de- puties to swear allegiance to the English, and the wise admi- nistration of the duke of Bedford seemed to have reconciled ihe French to an English government. 2. Charles himself apfieared to have lost all hope, for, neglecting public aflairs, he gave himself up to indolence and dissipation ; his friends in vain endeavoured to inspire him with better thoughts, and one of them, when asked his opinion of some festival which engaged the attention of Charles, replied, " Sire, I do not be- lieve it possible for any one to lose a kingdom with greater gaiety." 3. This state of affairs was first disturbed by the mad am- bition of the duke of Gloucester, who had married Isabella, countess of Hainault, while her husband, the duke of Bra- bant, was alive, and had taken up arms to obtain possession of her dominions. Such a proceeding greatly displeased the duke of Burgundy, who was cousin-german to the injured husband, and the war which took place between him and Gloucester inspired the Burgundian v.'ith a distaste for the English, which all the skill of the duke of Bedlord was una- ble to remove. The war terminated when the pope declared Jacqueline's second marriagre null and void, but the • • • • AD jealousies to which it had given rise were never ef- i /nq faced. 4. Orleans was now the only town of im- portance which Charles possessed, and it was closely besieged by the Earl of Salisbury. Charles, unable to relieve the town, was preparing to yield to his unhappy fate, and retire into Dauphiny, but he was diverted from this disgraceful course by the exhortations of his mistress, the celebrated Agnes Sorel, a woman whose many virtues in some degree atone for her single crime. 5. Tlie garrison of Orleans pro- posed to surrender the town to the duke of Burgundy, to be held in trust for their duke, who had been a prisoner in Eng- land ever since the fatal battle of Agincourt ; but this proposal was r(!Jected by the besiegers, and thus a new cause of jeal- ousy arose between the dukes of Burgundy and Bedford. The earl of Salisbury was killed by a cannon-shot while di recting the siege, but this loss was compensated by the total defeat of tlie French army while endeavouring to intercept a convoy of herrings that were being conveyed to the English camp. 6. When Orleans almost approached its ruin, and nu hope seemed to appear in any quarter, the town was saved, and the fortunes of Charles restored by one of the most ex- 16 !82 HISTORY OF FRANCE. traordinary revolutions recorded in history. A young girl, about eighteen years of age, called Joan of Arc, declared her- self commissioned by heaven to rescue Orleans, and have Charles crowned at Rheims. It is not easy to determine whether she was an enthusiast or an impostor; it is probable that, like Mohammed and many others, she united both cha- racters. Her pretensions were at first derided, but Charles, in the unfortunate posture of his affairs, eagerly caught at the first glimpse of hope, and summoned her to his presence. 7. On this occasion she is said to have given miraculous proofs of her vocation ; she discovered the king, though disguised, amidst a crowd of courtiers ; she pointed out a place in a church where a sword, ornamented with the cross and the arras of France, had been concealed for time beyond human memory, and the king declared that she had discovered to him a secret known to himself alone. In short, as the delusion or imposture was likely to be of service, no means were left untried to confirm its authority. 8. Armed with the miraculous sword, and displaying a consecrated banner, the Maid of Orleans, as she is usually called, advanced against the English with an army whom en- thusiasm had made irresistible. The siege of Orleans was raised, and the English, who believed that they had to con- tend against a supernatural enemy, began to lose their con- quests with greater rapidity than they had been gained. 9. Her next exploit was one of equal difficulty and importance; she escorted Charles safely to Rheims almost througW the very midst of his enemies, and personally assisted at his coro- nation. As a reward for these services, Joan and her laniily were ennobled ; she now declared, that as the objects of her mission were accomplished, she would again return to 'private life, but allowed herself to be persuaded that it was Lur duty to remain until the English were totally banished from i'Vance. Ere long she had cause to repent this change in hcK resolu- tion ; Compeigne being besteged by the Burgundians., the he- roine threw herself into the place with some of hei devoted followers, and by her means the town was enabled tj make a successful defence. 10. But the governor, jealous that his honours should be shared with a woman, closed the barriers against her as she was returning from a successful aally , and thus Joan fell into the hands of the Burgundians, who sold iheir prisoner to her inveterate enemies the English. CHARLES VII. 183 Coronation of Charles VII. 11. The duke of Bedford, enraged that the wise plans and labours of himself and his deceased brother , /qi' should have been baffled by a female, refused to treat the Maid of Orleans as a prisoner of war ; a species of eccle- siastical tribunal was appointed for her trial at Rouen, and there she was accused of sorcery, heresy, and unchastity. 12. The only charge proved against her was that she had worn the dress of a man, and consequently her judges could not with any appearance of justice condemn her to death ; they sentenced her to perpetual imprisonment — in their own ex- pressive words — " to drink the cup of sorrow and eat the bread of affliction," adding, that if she were to be again de- lected wearing the dress of a man, death would be the ceuain consequence. 13. The latter part of the sentence suggested to her enemies a piece of execrable cruelty; they left in her prison several articles of male attire, and watched for the mo- ment when she would be tempted to try them on. The event answered their expectation; in an unguarded moment the jnaid put on some portion of a warrior's dress, she was 184 HISTORY OF FRANCE. dragged a second lime before the barbarous tribunal, con- demned, and burned to death in the streets of Rouen. 14. In her last moments she protested her innocence, and appealed to Heaven for vengeance on her persecutors. She is said by some to have prophesied that God would punish the nation which had thus murdered the innocent ; if so, the expul- sion of the English from France, and their subsequent suflerings in the civil wars betv/een the houses of York and Lancaster, were an ample fulfilment of her prediction. 15. Twenty-five years after her death, tardy justice was done to her memory; Charles directed the proceedings on her trial to be subjected to the higher courts in Paris, by whom they were unanimously set aside as illegal and un- just. 1 6. *The forces and treasures of both na- 1435. Monument of Joan of Arc. tions being exhausted by the length of the war little of importance was at- tempted on either side for some years. But the English power at length met two unex- pected misfortunes, which soon destroyed all the effects of their former victories. The first of these was a reconcilia- tion between the king of France and the duke of Burgundy, the second was the death of the duke of Bedford, whom vexation and grief for this unexpected event hurried to his * The wars had so depopulated the country, that wolves and other beasts of prey infested even the city of Paris. In 1437 they entered the city by the river, and devoured fourteen or fifteen persons. In the following year they appeared again, killed four women and se- verely bit seventeen other individuals, of whom eleven died of their wounds. There was one formidable wolf in particular, called Courtani, because he had no tail, that became an object of universal dread. When any person was leaving the city, it was said, " gardez vous de Courtand,'" which afterwards passed into a pnvfjrb CHARLES VJl. 185 Deatb of Joan of An. 16' CHARLES VII. 187 grave. Paris opened her gates to Charles, city after city fol lowed the example of the capital, England became distracted by civil war, and in a few years nought remained of all their bodsted conquests but Calais. 17. The kingdom had been scarcely freed from the evils of a foreign enemy, when Charles found his quiet -.iaJ disturbed by the artifices and cabals of his eldest son Louis. This prince, who was a monster of depravity, had employed assassins to murder a nobleman against whom he had conceived some personal dislike. When the attempt was discovered, Charles reproved the treachery of his son in se- vere terms, and Louis, impatient of control, retired from the court with a firm resolution never again to be subject to his father's power. He is accused, but rather from his general character than from any definite proofs, of having poisoned Agnes Sorel, the beloved mistress of his father; but his cha- racter is sufficiently blackened by undeniable crimes, without those which at best have no foundation but suspicion. 18. The people of Guienne, and especially the citi- zens of Bordeaux, had been always remarkable for , /^„' their attachment to the English ; after they had re- mained for some time subject to Charles, they became wearied of a government which disregarded their privileges and loaded them with oppressive taxes. Deputies were sent to England, entreating Henry VI. to receive them again under his protec- tion, and to send them a body of forces to assist in the ex- pulsion of the French. 19. Talbot, the most celebrated general of the period, was sent to Guienne with a strong body of forces. At first he obtained several victories, and reduced the greater part of the province, but Charles having assembled all the forces of the kingdom, overpowered the little army of the English near Castillon. Talbot and his gallant son were slain, the greater part of their soldiers either killed or made prisoners, and no means of resisting the power of Charles remained. Bourdeaux surrendered after a short siege, several of its inhabitants were banished, two castles called the Chateau Trompette, and the Chateau-Ha, were erected to control the rest, and thus Guienne and Aquitaine were irrevocably united to the crown of France. 20. When Louis the dauphin had withdrawn from his father's court, he retired to his own province, Dauphin y^; bu» there his cruelties and exactions were so intolerable, that his subjects were compelled to appeal to the king, .^j-/* Charles sent Dammartin to arrest his disobedient son . 1 B8 HISTORY OF FRANCE. but Louis, having obtained notice of his approach, fled to the territories of tfie duke of Burgundy, who received him with all the respect due to the son of his sovereign. Charles sen* frequent embassies to the duke, requiring him to withdraw his protection from the dauphin, warning him that " he nourished a serpent who would repay his hospitality by attempting his life." The Burgundian would not listen to these remonstrances, although he knew that Louis had excited his own son, the count of Charolois, to acts of rebellion. Charles was ' ■ so exasperated against Louis, that he was with difH- ' culty prevented from disinheriting him, and transfer- ring the right of succession to his second son. 2L But in the midst of his deliberations, he received positive intelligence that his domestics had been bribed to poison him by his un- natural son. His apprehensions became so great, that not knowing from whose hand he could receive food with safety, he abstrtined from eating for several days ; at the end of that lime it was no longer in his power to swallow, and thus his death was accelerated by his precautions. He *died in the 59th year of his age, and 39th of his reign ; having, by a series of favourable chances, overcome so many dangers and difRculties, that he would have deserved the epithet of For- tunate, had he been blessed with a different father and a dif- ferent son. 22. The wars in this leign show us that the spirit of chi- valry was fast declining. We meet no traces of that indi vidual heroism which throws such a romantic interest over the history of Edward's invasion, and Azincourt was the last great battle in which the superiority of the English archers was made available. Fire-arms were gradually superseding the use of the bow, and cavalry, which had been hitherto the most important part of an army, was, by the new system of warfare, considerably diminished in value. These changes in the art of war had a considerable influence on the political condition of society : for the knights and small proprietors, who had hitherto possessed great influence by the importance • of their services, sunk all at once when tliese were performed by hired soldiers. The authority of the feudal aristocracy was thus destroyed : in England it was transferred to the members of the house of commons, and thus secured for that country the blessings of a free constitution ; but in France it centered in the crown, and thus the government became an absolute monarchy. CHARLES VII. 189 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Questions. What vas the situation of Charles VII. at the time of hia father's death ? In what manner did Charles behave? How was the misconduct of the duke of Gloucester injurious to the English ? By whom was Charles instigated to defend his kingdom ? What occurred at the siege of Orleans 7 By whom was the town saved ? What proofs of a divine mission did the Maid of Orleans pretend to give ? Did the French derive any advantage from this deception? Were the services of the Maid of Orleans limited to raising the siege ? How was Joan of Arc betrayed ? In what manner was she betrayed by the English? Of what crimes was she accused ? How was sentence of death procured ? Did any thing remarkable occur at her execution' Was justice ever done to her memory? What mjsfortunes did the English soon after experience if How did Louis the Dauphin conduct himself? What part of France was anxious to remain under the go- vernment of the English ? How did the expedition in their favour terminate ? Where did the Dauphin reside when he left his father's court? What caused the death of Charles? Does there appear to have been any change in the mode of warfare introduced about this time ? • ohert. Count of Clermont, Son of St. liOiiis. ami ."Vrice.stor of Henry IV., w**» the Lady of Boiirlion, Wif,; of Robert. ido HISTORY OF FRANCB. Louis XL CHAPTER XXr. LOUIS XI. Not serve two masters? here's a man will try itj Will still serve God, yet give the devil his due; rfays grace before he does a deed of villany, And returns thanks devoutl/ when 'tis acted, Scott. 1. The conduct of Louis XL, while dauphin, t* 14fiT* '^^^'^s his father and his subjects in Dauphiny, suSl ciently proved to the people of France, that his accea sion to the throne would be any thing but desirable. Ha seemed to have some nnisgivings on the subject himself, hr when he heard the news of his father's death, he came to Paris escorted by the duke of Burgundy and his son, with about fourteen thousand horse. He treated his subjects as if they were a conquered people ; he deprived of tbeir situa- tions every officer that his father had appointed, took a ma- acions pleasure in undoing every thing that had been done id LOUIS XI. 191 ihe former reign, limited ihe provision made for his brother, loaded the people with taxes, plundered the nobles, and in- sulted the clergy. 2. These proceedings naturally provoked the hostilitj'' of nis subjects ; an alliance was formed against Louis, called the league of the public good, but in which every leader sought merely his own private advantage. The duke of Berri, brother to the king, looked for a larger appanage* the dukes of Bourbon and Brittany wished for an enlargement of their dominions, the count of Saint Paul desired the office of con- stable, and the counts of Armagnac and Damartin sought the restitution of their estates. At the head of this confederacy was Charles, count of Charolois, the former friend and future rival of Louis ; the friendship that they had professed in the court of Burgundy while Louis was an exile, had changed into the most bitter enmity, and indeed mutual hatred appears to have been the necessary consequence of the character of Doth. 3. Charles was headstrong, impetuous, and self-willed, unable to disguise or control his violent passions, ambitious of glory, regardless of consequences, but possessing many re- deeming quahlies of the soldier, for he was frank, sincere, candid, and generous. Louis, on the other hand, was a con- summate master of hypocrisy ; his manners were gentle, kind, and insinuating; he never forgave, but he could dissemble his hostihty until a moment favourable for its display had arrived ; he felt more pride in having overreached an enemy than in winning a battle ; fraud and perjury were his favourite weapons, and few have ever wielded them with equal dex- terity ; he had no confidence in men, for he believed that all were hypocrites like himself. Both the rivals were harsh, cruel, and unprincipled, but the unthinking Charles broadly exhibit- ed his faults to the public, while Louis disguised them under an affected appearance of humility, which rendered him less suspected but more dangerous. It is a strange part of this monarch's character, that he was the most credulous as well as the most crafty of mankind, he devoutly believed in all the absurdities of judicial astrology, and usually had several professors of this pretended science in his train ; he was a complete devotee in all the forms of worship, frequently con- fessing himself to his chaplain, and addressing prayers to the leaden images of the saints with which he had adorned his dress. His favourite companions were selected from the lowest • Property assigned for the support oi a younger son. iy2 HISTORY Ol FRANCE. grade of society; indeed the character of Louis and his court may be sufficiently determined by the fact, that his principa' favourites were Ohver Dain his barber, and Tristan I'tlermitev the pubhc executioner. 4. The count of Charolois without waiting for his allies ad^ vanced towards Paris, and Louis eager to save his capital, hastened to reach it before his rival. The two armies met at Mont I'Hery ; both were anxious to avoid an engagement, but the seneschal of Normandy, one of the leaguers, precipitated a ba.;tle, and was himself one of the first that fell. From the description given us of this fight, it appears to have been the most extraordinary that ever took place, the greater part of both armies ran away, and when night separated the combat- ants, each believed himself defeated. It was proposed in the Burgundian camp to take advantage of the night in order to make good their retreat, and they were not a little surprised in the morning to find themselves masters of the field. 5. "This unexpected victory," says Philip de Comines, " was the source of all the calamities which the count of Charolois afterwards experienced, for it inspired him with so much confidence in his own skill and prowess, that he disregarded all advice." 6. Louis retired to Paris, and there began to pracise the counsel given him by his ally, Sforza, duke of Milan ; the crafty Ita- lian had recommended him to promise the leaguers all that they demanded, and then, after they had disbanded their troops, to sow causes of dissension among them, and attack them in detail. This was just the plan which Louis was calculated to execute, he made a truce with the leaguers, went into the hostile camp, and pretended to feel a wonderful revival of af- fection for the count of Charolois ; he made similar demonstra- tions of esteem to all the principal leaguers, and expressed the utmost anxiety to regain their friendship on any terms short of resigning his crown. 7. The treaty was accelerated by an unexpected event, which made Louis consent to the ar- ticle which he had hitherto most pertinaciously refused. The leaguers insisted on the duchy of Normandy as an mr>ana^t for the king's brother, and Louis dreading that the possession of such an important province might prove a step to the crown, had rejectea the proposal; but while the matter was still a Bubject of negociation, the Normans, eager to obtain provincial independence, everywhere opened their gates to the forces of the league. When the news reached the king, he resolved to make a merit of granting what he could no longer withhold, and immediately signed the treaty. LOUIS XI. 193 8. The policy of Sforza's advice soon appeared: the duke of Brittany wished to I'ule over Normandy in the name of its new duke ; Berri was unwilling to permit him, and th.s quar- rel nearly caused the ruin of boih. Louis marched his forces towards Caen, and summoned the duke of Brittany to appear before him : that prince, terrified and surprised, consented at the conference to resign into the king's hands all the towns that his soldiers garrisoned in Lower Normandy. The re- mainder of the province yielded either to threats or violence, and the duke of Berri, destitute of friends, money, spirit, or counsel, thought himself happy in escaping with his life to the court of Briitany. Normandy enjoyed its qualified inde- pendence only two months, but the desire shown to obtain it cost the life of several of its nobles, whom Louis put to death without any of the formalities of justice. 9. The count of Charolois was very indignant w^hen the news of these pro- ceedings reached him, but Louis had provided employment for him at home, by stirring up the factious citizens of Liege and Ghent to rebellion. While the count was reducing the insurgents to obedience, his father died, and he succeeded to the immense riches and resources of the duchy of Burgundy. The citizens of Ghent and Liege were forced to submit to very severe terms, and the young duke having increased his treasury, by exacting from them heavy pecuniary punish- ments, prepared to turn his attention to France, where Louis was rapidly recovering all that he had resigned at the peace. 10. The king had made a furious irruption into Brittany: several of the frontier towns had submitted 14^ to his arms, when news reached his camp, that Charles of Burgundy with a gallant army was rapidly advancing towards the Somme. Before his arrival, the leaguers, unable to make any effective resistance, had made terms with the king ; a piece of news which so surprised and enraged Charles, that he was with difficulty prevented from hanging the herald who brought him the intelligence. H. Louis was naturally anxious to get rid of his vigorous rival, whose presence at the head of an army gave encouragement to all the discontenteo spirits of the kingdom. For this purpose, by the advice of the cardinal Balue, he took the most extraordinary step that can be imagined. Relying on his own superior address, he re- solved to pay a personal visit to Charles in Peronne, attended only by four or five followers, hoping that he wo.uld thus be enabled to divert his attention to other objects, or to excue jealousy between him ar^d thi? confederates. 12. But, a few 17 N 194 HLSTORY OF FRANCE. days before his journey, Louis had sent emissaries tt excite another rebellion in Liege, and in his hurry either forgot to countermand thein, or persuaded himself that the insurrecticia would not break out during his visit. On his arrival ai Peronne, he v\?as alarmed at meeting in the court of Charles several nobles whom his tyranny had banished from France ; to save himself from their vengeance, he entreated to be lodged in the citadel, and thus voluntarily threw himself into prison. 13. Meantime the people of Liege had broken out into a fierce rebellion, murdering the Burgundian officers and several of the clergy, whom they deemed hostile to their civic privi- leges. When this news reached Peronne, Charles became furious with indignation ; he shut the gates of the town, thus making Louis a close prisoner, and was with difficulty pre- vented from proceeding to farther outrages. 14. For three days Louis remained in terrible suspense, but he did not forget his accustomed arts ; he bribed with large sums and larger promises, all those courtiers whom he supposed likely to have any influence over the mind of Charles, and amongst the rest, Philip de Comines, to whom we are indebted for this narra- tive. At length Charles consented to be pacified ; a new- treaty was made, by which several counties were annexed to Burgundy, and it was further stipulated, that Louis should personally assist the duke in the reduction of Liege. 15. The anger and disappointment both of the king and Charles were vented on that unfortunate place ; it was taken by storm, the greater part of its inhabitants were put to the sword, and of those that escaped, many subsequently perished by cold and famine. 16. The people of Paris were infinitely amused at the manner in which Louis had outwitted himself by too much artifice, and taught all their magpies to cry out Peronne. Peronne. But the king punished them for their jest, by ordering all the tame animals which were kept as pets through ihe city to be put to death. The cardjnal Balue, who was s>ispected of secret intelligence with the duke of Burgundy, was arrested and confined in an iron cage, a punishment that he well merited, as he was the original inventor of such a barl)arous torture, 17. The king persuaded his brother to take the 147^ duchy of Guienne instead of the provinces bordering ■ * on Burgundy, that had been agreed on at Peronne. The inhabitants of Guienne and Gascony still remembered iheir national independence with regret, and intrigued wilb LOUIS XI. 195 their new duke to throw off the yoke of France. But the duke of Guienne was taken off by poison as soon as the king, his brother, perceived that he was hstening to these sugges- tions ; and a French army came and besieged, in Lectoure, count John of Armagnac, who evinced the most activity in the old Gascon interest. The town was taken by assault and given up to fire and sword, the count perished in the mas- sacre ; and his wife, in the seventh month of her pregnancy, was compelled to take a beverage to produce abortion, of which she died herself in two days. Finally, James d'Ar- magnac, duke of Nemours, who harboured, or was supposed to harbour similar designs, was decapitated at Paris ; and his childi^n were placed under the scaffold, that their father's blood, dropping on their heads, miffht warn them never again to attempt war against the king of France. IS. The impetuous duke of Burgundy frequently renewed the war with Louis, and as frequently was bribed to grant fresh truces ; the constable Saint Paul, who had possessed himself of some towns on the confines of Burgundy, exasperated the animosities of both parties, foreseeing that their agreement would prove his destruction. Equally distrusted by the king and the duke, he dealt out impartial treachery to both, and made his eventual destruction certain, though, by his artifices, it was for some time deferred. The insatiable -i /^-* ambition of Charles involved him in wars with the German princes and with the Swiss, but his hatred of Louis was the principal guide of his actions. Though he mortally hated the house of York, yet he accepted the " order of the garter" from Edward IV., and invited him to invade France, promising that he would aid him with all his forces. 19. Ed- ward, glad of such a pretence for levying money on his sub- jects, wiih whom a French war was always popular, passed over to Calais. The duke of Burgundy failed to appear ai the rendezvous, and when he arrived after a long delay, he was unable to furnish his quota of troops. 20. Tlie constable had promised that he would surrender Saint Gluentin to the duke's allies, bui when the forces of Edward came before tb* town, they were fired on and compelled to retire. These cir- cumstances furnished Edward with an honourable excuse foi puitmg an end to the war, of which he was already weary, and the liberal offers of Louis were not less influential mo- cives. In fact, the French king literally bribed Edward and his principal nobility, who for several years after disgracefully continued the pensioners of France. 21. The two monarcha I96 HISTORY OF FRANCE. had an interview at Pequigni, in which the terms of a treaty were soon arranged ; but the dulce of Burgundy was so in- dignant that he refused to be comprehended in it, yet after- wards being eager to continue his unjust war on the Swiss and the princes of Lorraine, he concluded a truce with Louis. 22. The constable St. Paul saw now that his ruin was in- evitable, he fled as a last resource to the court of Burgundy, but Charles delivered him up to the king, who instantly o^ dered him to be executed. 23. The success of the war that Charles waged against the Swiss was proportioned to its injustice, he was defeated l^'^J at the battle of Granson with great loss, and the follow- ing year he lost his army and his life together at the still more fatal field of Morat, by the treachery of an Italian officer, the count of Campobasso\ This traitor had been long attached to the house of Lorraine, of whom Charles was a bitter enemy ; he had sworn the destruction of his unhappy master, and had almost openly bargained for his assassination. Charles, with almost inconceivable credulity, continued to trust him, though warned of his treachery ; and when Louis sent him word to beware of the Italian, the unhappy duke declared the letter to be the strongest proof of Campobasso's fidelity: for, said he, "if evil were designed, Louis would be the last to send me warning." Scarcely had the armies of Lorraine and Burgundy met on the field of Morat, when Campobasso deserted with his followers, leaving behind him fourteen desperadoes to assassinate the duke in the confusion. Dismayed by this unexpected defection, the Burgundians gave way at the first onset ; after the slaughter, rather than the battle, was over, Charles was found lying under a heap of slain, so disfigured with wounds that he could scarcely be re- cognised. 24. His generous enemy, the young duke of Lor- raine, when shown the dead body, took hold of his once for- midable right hand, and pronounced these simple words, "God rest thy soul ! thou hast caused us much evil and sorrow." He then ordered his body to receive an honourable interment. The Swiss were so little accustomed to articles of luxury, that they did not know the value of the rich plunder found in the Burgundian camp, and it is said that they sold the silver ves- sels found there as pewter. 25. The death of his rival left Louis without a competitor, he at once seized on several towns of Burgundy, though at the same time honourable means were offered to him of ob- taining the whole ; for the princess Mary, daughter and heiress LOUIS XI. 197 of the unfortunate Charles, offered to unite her dominions to those of France by a marriage with the dau- phin. But Louis seemed to despise possessions acquired honestly ; he was even base enough to betray the letters of the young princess to the factious citizens of Ghent, who were her masters rather than her subjects. In consequence of this perfidy, the people of Ghent seized several of the princess's most fa- voured servants, and murdered them almost in her presence. She was afterwards married to Maximi- lian, son of the emperor Frederic TI., but died in a few years by a fall from her horse. The people of Ghent chose her infant son and dauffhter for their sovereigns, and betrothed the girl to the dauphin. 26. Louis had now overcome all his enemies, but the vengeance of Heaven would not permit him to en- J^J^ joy prosperity purchased by crimes ; while sitting at dinner, he was suddenly seized with a species of apoplectic fit, which at once deprived him of sense and speech. Though he partly recovered from the attack, his health was never per- fectly restored; day after day he visibly declined, and the nearer death came, the more did he show that he dreaded its approach. Every thing seemed to inspire him with jealous fear, he removed his queen from the court, kept his son a close prisoner in the castle of Amboise, and always retained in his euite Louis, duke of Orleans, the first prince of the blood, whom, with barbarous policy, he had deprived of the advan- tages of education. He forced him to marry the princess Jane, who possessed, indeed, an amiable disposition, but was deformed and barren. 27. There is a kind of gloomy satis- faction in contemplating the miseries which this cruel tyrant Buffered from the dread of death. Shut up in his castle of Plessis les Tours, which could only be entered by a single wicket, and which was fortified with the most extraordinary care, the wicked monarch employed every means to prolong life that superstition and quackery could suggest, for h'li disease ivas beyond the reach of medical art. The companions of 17* An Archer of ilie Guard of Louis XI. A. D. 198 HISTORY OF FRANCE. his solitude were his barber, his hangman, and his physician ; the la'ter, named Coctiers, was an artful quack, and had per- suaded Louis that, according to the decrees of fate, he should die exactly four days before the king. 28. Louis, therefore, took care of a life with which he believed his own so inti- mately connected, and submitted to all the insola^ce which the impostor chose to exhibit. While thus lingering at the point of death, the tyrant en- deavoured to persuade the world that his health was perfectly re-established, sending embassies to foreign princes, wearing the richest robes instead of the plain, not to say shabby, dress that he had hitherto worn, and adding, while he lived, fresh victims to his suspicious cruelty and undying revenge. He had placed his principal hope in the efficacy of the prayers of Francis de Paule, a pious hermit whom he sent for out of Calabria; before this man he prostrated himself, supplicated, flattered, entreated ; but the hermit, with unusual honesty, de- clared to him that his case was hopeless, and recommended him to prepare for another world. Thus deprived of his last hope, and finding himself grow weaker every day, Louis sent for his son, and exhorted him not to govern without the aid and counsel of the princess and nobles, not to change the great officers of state at his accession, not to continue 148^' ^^^^ oppressive taxes, and in fine to make his adminis- ' tration as unlike his father's as possible. Soon after this he died, in the 61st year of his age and 22d of his reign. 29. There are few princes whose memory has been held in more universal execration than that of Louis XL ; more than four thousand persons perished for slate ofTences by the hand of the executioner during his reign, and he took a diabolical pleasure in witnessing their torments. It is but fair, however, to state, that he diligently attended to the administration of justice, and made several judicious regulations in the law courts; he was the first who established posts through the kingdom, in order to gratify his restless anxiety for news, and finally, in his reign, the first printing-press was erected in l-*aris. Questions. 1, How did Louia behave at the beginning of his reign ? 2. Who were the leaders of the league formed against him 7 3, What were the characters of Louis and Charles 7 4. For what is the battle of Mont I'Hery remarkable 7 LOUIS XI. 199 5. How was victory ruinous to Charles of Burgundy ? 6. What artful plan did Louis pursue? 7. What circumstance led to the speedy conclusion of a treaty! 8. Did any disputes arise among the leaguers, of which Louis took advantage 1 9. Why did not the count of Charolois march to the relief of hi« allies? 10. How did he behave when he heard of the peace 1 11. What extraordinary resolution was formed by Louis? 12. Was the visit to Charles inconsistent with any previous plot formed by the king ? 13. To what danger did this expose the king? 14. On what conditions was peace made? 15. How was the town of Liege treated? 16. In what manner did Louis punish the ridicule of the Paris- ians? 17. What cruelty was exhibited at the execution of d'Armagnac ? 18. How did the duke of Burgundy show his inveterate hostility to Louis ? 19. Why did Edward IV. invade France ? 20. How did the constable St. Paul behave? 21. By what means did Louis obtain peace from Edward? 22. Wliat became of the constable St. Paul 1 23. In what manner did the duke of Burgundy fall a victim to ambition ? 24 How did the conquerors behave? 25 In what way did Louis behave towards tne family of the de- ceased duke of Burgundy? 2<3 By what calamities was Louis overtaken ? 27 How did he show his attachment to life? 28 What was the manner of his death ? 89 «Jot with Stan ding his bad character, was not Franco indebted to him for some useful institutions? Louia XI. and Francis de Paula. 200 HISTORY OF FRANCB. Charles VUI. CHAPTER XXII. CHABLES "\ni., SURNAMED THE AFFABLE AND COURTEOUS. The king of France, with twenty thousand men, Marched* up the hill, and then marched down again. Old Pkovehb. 1. Charles had reached his fourteenth year, the , /oo* legal age of majority, at the time of his father's death, but the weakness of his constitution, and the ignorance in Avhich he had been brought up, rendered him unfit to un- dertake the management of affairs. Louis had by will ap- pointed Anne, princess of Beaujeu, guardian to her brother, a woman of excellent understanding, high spirit, and vigorous resolution, possessing much of her father's craft, without any share of his cruelty and perfidy. 2. The princes of the blood especially the dukes of Bourbon and Orleans, thought it be noath their dignity to submit to the control of a woman ; thej CHARLES VIII. 201 declared that since the Salic law excluded females from the crown, by similar reasoning it made them incapable of exer- cising regal functions, and the states general were summoned to decide on this important point. Contrary to the expectation of the princes, the states confirmed the will of the late k'jig, and acknowledged the lady of Beaujeu as regent, but they ap- pointed a council of twelve, selected from the highest ranks of the nobility, to aid her in the administration. The dukes of Bourbon and Orleans took up arms, but the promptitude of the regent disconcerted their plans ; the former weis obliged to submit to whatever terms she pleased to dictate, and the latter was compelled to seek a refuge in Brittany. 3. We ha\^e already seen on several occasions the strong love of independence by which the inhabitants of Brittany were animated, and their unwillingness to become incorporated with either Normandy or France ; but the discontent of a large portion of that people induced them to solicit the aid of the king of France against their duke, and they found too late that a powerful ally soon becomes a master. Charles sent them an army far surpassing the number that had been stipu- lated ; he garrisoned the towns with French troops, and laid claim to the duchy in right of the family of Blois, the former rivals of the Montforts, who had bequea.hed their pretensions to the king-. 4. The Bretons discovering their error when too late, submitted to their duke and joined him with all their forces; but the allied forces were totally defeated -ijo^a' by the French at Saint Aubin, their bravest leaders either slain or made prisoners, and the whole country placed at the mercy of their victorious enemies. Amongst the prison- ers were the duke of Orleans and the prince of Orange ; the lady of Beaujeu shut up the former, whom she mortally de- tested, in close prison, but liberated the latter. 5. In consequence of this decisive overthrow, the duke of Brittany was compelled to make peace on very disadvantageous terms; but grief shortened his days, he died soon after, leav- ing behind him two daughters, one of whom quickly followed her father to the grave. Anne, the heiress of Brittany, though only in her fourteenth year, conducted herself with great wis- dom under all the difficulties of her situation. Her subjects were divided into several parties concerning her marriage; she herself selected the archduke Maximilian, and the nuptials were celebrated by proxy ; but that prince, either from indo- lence or inability, never came to her assistance, though he fcaew that she was attacked by all the p nver of France. 202 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Under these circumstances, the duke of Orleans, whom thn king had released from prison, contrived an mterview betweeti Charles and Anne at Rennes ; both were so well 14Q9 pl^^s^d ^^''h ^^^'^ other, that a marriage was the con- sequence, and thus Brittany became completely united to France. 7. This Avas a double insult to Maximilian, for Charles had been long contracted to his daughter, and she waa actually at the time residing in France, whither she had been Bent by the people of Flanders in the former reign, waiting for the completion of the marriage, but as the archduke was powerless, and had in some degree caused his own misfortunes by his neglect and irresolution, he could only show his indig- nation by vain complaints and idle menaces, which nobody regarded. 8. Charles when advanced in life became sensible of the defects of his early education, and made some attempts to supply them by study; but with the unsteadiness of purpose, which was his most distinguishing characteristic, he gave up the attempt, and gave himself up to folly and dissipation. 9. As heir to the house of Lorraine, he had some slight preten- sions to the kingdom of Naples, which would probably have remained for ever buried in oblivion, but for the artifices of Ludovico Sforza, a man remarkable even in that depraved age, for his pre-eminence in every base quality that can dis- grace humanity. Anxious to wrest the duchy of Milan from his nephew Galeazzo, he had been long restrained by his fear of Ferdinand, king of Naples, to whose grand-daughter Galeazzo was married ; and in order to remove this impedi- ment, he incessantly solicited Charles to invade Italy. 10. All the old advisers of the king endeavoured to dissuade him from this expedition, but his resolution was fixed: he wasted however two years in making preparations, and at length set out with an army in which the regular troops did not exceed 18,000 men ; but there were besides great numbers of the young nobility serving as volunteers ; soldiers, whose valour might be serviceable in the field of battle, but quite unfit for a long and tedious enterprise, as they could not endure either fatigue or disciphne. 11. The state of Italy at this time presents a frightful pic- ture of crime ; Ferdinand, king of Naples, and his son Al- phonso, duke of Calabria, were universally execrated by their subjects for their oppressive exactions and sanguinary cruel- ties. Alexander VI. possessed the see of Rome ; his cha racter is thus emphatically described by a Roman Catholic CHARLES VIII. 203 historian : " The abominations and crimes of this monster would have been unparalleled, but for the still greater atrocities of his natural son, Csesar Borgia." The Venetians had made perfidy a law of their state, Peter de Medicis was labouring to establish the supremacy of his family at Florence, without being very scrupulous about the means. Finally, to use the words of Mt'zeray, " all the Italian princes of the period were destitute of religion, displa5'^ing a brutal atheism in their words and actions, but priding themselves on their profound wisdom and crafty policy " But they certainly did not show much of the latter quality on this occasion, for during the two years employed in making preparations for the invasion, not a single step was taken to dissuade an unsteady prince, or to resist a weak army directed by a brainless council. 12. Charles crossed the Alps, and after some delay at Asti, where he was seized by the small-pox, ad- iVq^ vanced to Turin. Here he found his resources already so exhausted, that he was obliged to borrow the jewels of the duchess of Savoy, and marchioness of Montferrat, which he pledged in order to raise money for the payment of his troops. He then marched to Pavia, where he found his cousin Galeazzo, duke of Milan, dying of poison, which had been administered to him by the perfidious Sforza; when he reached Placentia, he learned the death of this unfortunate prince, and was at the same time deserted by Sforza, who hastened back to Milan to reap the fruit of his crimes. The French were indignant at being thus made in some degree participators in the murder of a prince who was the cousin- gertnan of their sovereign ; they would gladly have stopped to exact vengeance, but Charles hurried on to complete his conquests, and equally disregarded the claims of his relative and the anger of his soldiers. 13. His success was indeed sufficient to intoxicate a young monarch possessed of a stronger mind than Charles; his progress resembled a triumphal pro- e3ssion, for no enemy appeared to impede his march ; Pisa.. Floience, and even Rome itself, submitted to his forces; Ferdinand died at Naples of sheer terror, Peter de Medicia fled into exile, and Alexander submitted to the king's plea- sure, giving his son Cassar Borgia, and the Turkish prince, Zizim,* as hostages. • This young prince was tlie brother of the sultan Bajazet, and having been engaged in an unsuccessful insurrection, was com peUed tc consult his safety by flight. Alexander treated him a* 204 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 14. The conquest of Naples was effected with as ^ " ■ much facility as the inarch throucrh Italy. Alphonso ■ resigned his crown to his son Ferdinand, and fled icross the Sicilian strait to Messina. His terror was so great, ih{\t although his enemies were still 180 miles off, "he ima- gined that he saw them in the streets of Naples, and that the walls, trees, and stones were shouting the war-cry of France. His wife entreated him to remain at least three days longer, in order that he might complete a year in his kingdom, but he refused to give her this satisfaction, and threatened to throw himself out of the window if further attempts were made to detain him." His son Ferdinand, who merited a better father and a better fate, in vain endeavoured to resist the in- vaders ; his troops deserted, his cities opened their gates to the French, he was compelled to seek refuge in the island of Ischia, and thus in fifteen days Charles obtaii>ed the possession of all the Neapolitan territories, with the exception of Brindisi, Reggio, and Gallipoli. 15. Success produced its natural effects on weak minds : the king and his followers neglecting every kind of business, gave themselves up to riot and debauchery ; the soldiers lived at discretion, the public treasures were squandered, the inha- bitants plundered and insulted, until at length the Neapolitans found reason to regret even the tyrants whom they had so lately hated. But, in the mean time, a powerful league was formed against Charles, at the head of which were his old enemy Maximilian, now become emperor of Germany, and the pope. 16. Having entrusted the care of the newly-ac- quired kingdom to the count d'Aubigny and the duke de Montpelier, with whom he left about 4000 soldiers, Charles proceeded to return homewards at the head of an array dimin- ished to about 9000 men. He delayed some time at Pisa, vainly expecting to be joined by the duke of Orleans with a reinforcement : but that prince having some claim to the duchy of Milan, had attacked Sforza on his own account, and after some trifling successes, was closely blockaded in Novarra. a prisoner, and even entered into a negociation for delivering up the l\apless fugitive to his cruel brother. This meditated treachery was prevented by the king of France, but before the pope gave Zizim up to Charles, he is said to have poisoned him. It is not easy to discover vi^hether there is jnst ground for this accusation, bal any charge against pope Alexander is credible. He w^as a monstof that disgraced not merely the chyrch but human nature. CHARLES VIIT. 205 17. This deJay gave the confederates time to concentrate their forces ; they assembled an army of 40,000 men, and posted them in a valley near Fornova, through which the French would necessarily pass. The folly of the confederates in post- ing themselves in a space so very narrow, that their numbers ■ served only to create confusion ; the avarice of some who hurried to plunder the baggage, instead effacing the enemy, and the terror which the previous triumphs of the French inspired, combined to give Charles an easy victory. With the loss of only eighty men, Charles routed the confederates, and forced them to take flight, leaving 3000 dead upon the field. 18. But notwithstanding this success, the French suf- fered almost as much as if they had been defeated, for^their provision waggons were destroyed, and they had to endure all the extremities of famine before they reached the friendly town of Asti. 19. Here a new treaty was concluded with Sforza, but Charles, scarcely waiting for its conclusion, re- passed the Alps, and hastened to Lyons, where he soon forgot his love of military enterprise in riotous excesses and dissipa- tion. 20. The kingdom of Naples was lost almost as easily as it had been won : all the Italian princes assisted i^qa Ferdinand ; but his most efTective ally was the king of Arragon, who sent him a body of Spanish troops under the command of Gonsalvo de Cordova, surnamed "the Great Captain." The French made a courageous resistance, but their enemies being masters of the sea, cut off all reinforce- ments ; victory itself became a source of weakness, since they could not replace those who fell ; the generals were therefore" compelled to surrender, and in a few months the only trace of the conquests of Charles was the memory of the evils they had caused. 21. The French were naturally indignant at this termina- tion of their brilliant exploits, but many causes combined to prevent them from recovering what they had lost. The king had destroyed his constitution by debauchery ; he was jealous of the duke of Orleans, the presumptive heir of the crown, and he was naturally of a fickle and wavering disposition. He njused himself, however, so far as to assemble an army, bu' when part of them had already crossed the Alps, the expedi- tion was suspended and finally laid aside. 22. Charles find- ing his health beginning to decay, resolved to adopt a new course of hfe ; he dismissed the companions of his guilty 18 206 HISTORY OF FRANCE. pleasures, and began to apply himself diligently to the reform- ation of the kingdom ; but before his subjects could derive much advantage from this beneficial change, he was I /qo* suddenly attacked by a fit of apoplexy, of which he died, in the 28th year of his age and 15th of his reign. 23. Charles appears to have been a monarch of good natu ral dispositions : he was so dearly beloved by his domestics that some of them died of grief for his loss ; but the barbarous policy of his father in depriving him of the advantages of education, and shutting him up in the company of menials, produced the most destructive effects on his character; it gave him a taste for sensual pleasures, because he knew no other, and led to that mixture of obstinacy and indecision in his cha- racter which is commonly observable in men of vigorous minds and httle information. His courtesy and kindness of manner endeared him to all who knew him ; and it is said, that during his whole life, he never made use of an expression which could hurt the feelings of a single individual. 24. Charlee died without issue, and the crown consequently came to the duke of Orleans, his cousin in the third degree ; this was the second time that the succession in the Capetian family devolved on a collateral branch. Questions. 1. By whom was Charles aided in the government of France f 2. With what success was the princess Anne opposed ? 3. What war took place in Brittany ? 4. How was the independence of Brittany overthrown? 6. To whom was the heiress of Brittany at first contracted ? 6. Why was the marriage broken off? 7. Was there any additional insult offered to Maximilian? 8. Did Charles endeavour to remedy the deficiencies of his eatif education ? 9. How was he involved in an Italian war ? IG. Did he evince any military skill in his preparations 7 1 1. What was the state of Italy at this time ? 12. How did Sforza behave 1 13. What success had Charles in Italy? 14. Did the king of Naples make a vigorous resistance? 15. What enem.es rose up against the French? CHARLES VII. 207 16 What errors were committed by the French generals on theij return ? 17. For what is the battle of Fornova remarkable ? 18. From what cause did the French suffer severely? 19. How was the war ended 1 20. In what maimer were the French driven from. Naples 7 21. Did they make any effort for its recovery ? 22. How did Charles pass the latter part of his life ? 23 What was the character of this monarch? 24. Had he any lineal successors? Huimilian, Emperor of Germany, Husband of Mary of BungVB^ 208 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Louis XII. CHAPTER XXIII. LOUIS XII., SURNAMED THE FATHER OF HIS PEOPLE. Seek not to govern by the lust of power ; Make not thy will thy law ; believe thy people Thy children all ; so shalt thou kindly mix Their interest with thy own, and fix the basis Of future happiness in godlike justice. C. JoHNSoir. A. D 1. The calamities which Louis had sufferea m the id'oft ^^rly part of his life produced a beneficial effect on his * character ; " he had suffered persecution, and had learned mercy ; he was a good king, because he had long been a faithful subject, and he had learned to moderate the rigours of despotism, because he had personally experienced their effects." On his accession to the throne, he declared that he would not punish any of those by whom he had been injured or offended in the former reigns, declaring, " that the king of France would not revenge the injuries of the duke of Orleans.'' 2. Unfortunately for his subjects, he was like his predecessor infatuated with the desire of Italian conquests, and duped b) LOUIS XII. 209 Itie artifices of the perfidious potentates who then ruled that ill-fated land. Pope Alexander had taken an invincible dis- like to Ferdinand of Naples, because he had refused to give his daughter to Cassar Borgia, the pontifl"'s natural son ; the Venetians were anxious to ruin Sforza, whom they found a powerful and dangerous foe ; the Florentines were eager to recover Pisa ; and all were dissatisfied with their present con- dition, 3. The pope had it in his power to oblige the king; he had been married in his early youth much against his will, to Jane, the daughter of Louis XL, and he now sought a di- vorce on the ground of the force' that had been put on his in- clinations. To obtain this favour, Louis created Cfesar Borgia duke of Valentinois, and entered into a close alliance with Alexander; the pope, on his part, sent Borgia with a bull, constituting a court to try the validity of the king's marriage. The form of a trial was gone through, the divorce was formally pronounced, and Louis immediately after was married to the queen dowager, a choice probably dictated by his anxiety to keep the province of Brittany united to the crown of France. 4. The invasion of Italy was crowned with success ; the character of Sforza was so infamous that no one iVqq' would venture to support his cause; his subjects de- serted him, and the governors of his cities, emulating their master's treachery, sold themselves to the enemy. Louis, on the news of this success, passed the Alps, made his public entry into Milan, clothed in the ducal robes, and was acknow- ledged as its legitimate sovereign by all the Italian princes. On the king's return to France, Sforza, by a new revolution, re- gained the greater part of the Milanese territories, but was soon after defeated and made prisoner by La Trimouille, Louis's bravest general. Sforza, on account of his crimes, was imprisoned for life in the castle of Loches. 5, Though Louis was sufficiently powerful to attempt the conquest of Naples without foreign aid, he was unfortunately induced to engage the assistance of Ferdinand of Arragon, whose general, Gonsalvo, already had possession of several of the principal fortresses. Frederic, king of Naples, unable to resist so powerful a coalition, surrendered himself a prisoner to Louis, by whom he was generously treated, and presented with a pension, which was continued even after the expulsion of the French from Naples. The Spaniards and French, after having subdued the Neapolitan dominions, quarrelled about iheii shares of the prize ; a furious war commenced between 18* O 2J0 HISTORY OF FRANCE. them, whicn ended with the total defeat of the French, and their complete expulsion from all their conquests. 6. The death of pope Alexander produced an entire lfin4 change in the politics of Italy; he had prepared poi- ■ soned wine to destroy a rich cardinal whose inheritance he desired, but through a mistake of the servants, the poison was given to the pontiff himself and his son ; Caesar Borgia escaped, because he had only taken a small quantity, but Alexander perished miserably. He was succeeded by Pius II., who survived his election only twenty-six days ; Julius II, was elected in his room, a pontiff remarkable for his crafty policy, restless ambition, and intense hatred of the court of France. 7. Louis made vigorous attempts to punish the Spaniards for their perfidy, but the death of La Trimouille caused the ruin of the expedition sent against Naples ; two armies which had been sent to invade Spain were defeated, from the incapacity or treachery of the leaders, and Louis was so mortified by these repeated disappointments, that he fell into a dangerous illness, which nearly proved fatal. 8. In the reign of Louis XI. we mentioned that the people of Flanders had undertaken the guardianship of the son and daughter of their count the duke of Burgundy, whom their unfortunate mother had left at her death in helpless infancy. The son, on reaching the years of maturity, found himself in peaceable possession of Flanders and its riches, his father elevated to the empire, and his wife presumptive heiress to the throne of Castile. The kingdoms of Castile and Arragon had been united by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, during whose reign the power of the Moors was destroyed in Spain, and the new world discovered. 9. But the happiness of Isabella was not unmixed ; her only son and eldest daugh- ter, whom she passionately loved, died in the prime of life, and grief for their loss hurried her to the grave. The crown of Castile descended to the archduchess Joanna, who proceeded to Spain, accompanied by her husband and her infant son, afterwards the celebrated Charles V. Soon after Philip died, and grief for his loss produced such an effect on the - J^^ mind of Joanna, that she became incapable of manag- ' ing the affairs of state ; in consequence of this, Ferdi- nand of Arragon took upon himself the office of regent, acting in the name of his grandson Charles, then only seven years uld. 10. Charles had been contracted to the princess royal of France, who, in default of male heirs, had succeeded to her mother's right over the duchy of Brittany ; but the states- LOUIS XII. 211 general, unwilling that this province should be d'sunited from the kingdom, protested against this union, and caused the princess to be married to her cousin Francis, duke of Valois, *he presumptive heir to the crown. This was the third insuA which Maximilian had received in a similar manner, and he ardently longed for opportunities of revenge. 11. The Venetians, enriched by a long monopoly of eastern commerce, which, notwithstanding the dis- |p-'r.Q covery of the passage round the cape of Good Hope, continued to flow for some years in its accustomed channels, had, by their haughtiness and ambition, offended ail the princes of southern Europe. Their most dangerous enemy was pope Julius, who formed against them the powerful league of Cambray ; by which the emperor, the pope, the kings of France and Spain, with the duke of Savoy, were united against the republic. 12. Louis was the first to take the field ; he almost annihilated the Venetian forces at the battle of Agnadello, and Venice would have been utterly ruined but for a new change in the policy of Julius. The senate conciliated the pontiff by the cession of all the towns that he de- -icifj manded ; upon which the pope, breaking his engage- ment with the allies, detached the king of Spain from their league by giving him the full and entire investi'ture of the kingdom of Naples, and turned a J the activity of his hatred against the king of France. 13. Louis, before entering on a war with the pope, consulted the clergy as to the lawfulness of a war with the head of the church, and having received a favourable answer, prepared to carry on the contest with vigour. The French gained many victories, especially one at Ravenna, where their favourite hero, Gaston de Foix, was slain ; but they obtained no permanent advantage, partly from the king's unwillingness to reduce Julius to extremities, and the scruples of his queen, who believed a war with the pope impious ; but still more from the hatred of the inhabitants, who were wearied of the French. 14, The Swiss, who had been long the faithful allies of Louis, were induced to join the papal side, because Louis had spoken of them slightingly, and refused to increase their pay, while the monarchs of England and Germany were silently preparing to dismember his do minions. 15. In the midst of the struggles Julius died, a vic- tim to a violent fit of passion, and was succeeded by le'iq* Leo X. ; a prelate conspicuous for his talents and pa- tronage of literature, but whose vices rendered him unfit to be the head of the Christian Church ; he continued the war 2J2 HISTORY OF FRANCE. ngainsv France, but was not so virulent an adversary as hw predecessor. 16. Henry VIII. of England, eager to prove both his va- lour and his devotion to the cause of the church, invaded the province of Picardy in conjunction with the emperor Ms-ximi lian. The French, advancing to prevent him from besieging Terouenne, commenced an engagement at Guinnegate, where they were totally defeated, and the duke de Longueville with the celebrated chevalier Bayard, were among the prisoners. This is usually called the battle of the spurs, because the French made more use of them than of their swords on that day. In consequence of this victory Terouenne surrendered, but the two princes not being able to agree about its posses- sion, terminated their dispute by burning it to the ground. Tournay shortly after submitted, and was garrisoned by the English. 17. But Henry soon became wearied of the war, especially when his father-in-law, Ferdinand of Arragon, by whose means he had been chiefly induced to engage in it, re- fused to perform any of his promises. The death of the French queen suggested to the duke of Longueville apian for effecting a peace ; he proposed that Louis should marry the princess Mary,* Henry's sister, and that a large sum of money should be paid to defray the expenses of the war. 18. On these conditions the treaty was concluded, but the rejoicings on account of the marriage so weakened the constiiu- ,_', ^' tion of Louis, already broken down by the vexations * resulting from fifteen years of unsuccessful warfare, that he died shortly after in the 53d year of his age, and the 17th of his reign. 19. The memory of Louis XII. was deservedly venerated by his subjects, because he diminished the old taxes one half and riever imposed any new, notwithstanding his long wars and numerous reverses. In vindication of his economy, he frequently said, " I had rather see the courtiers laugh at my avarice, than ray people weep on account of my expenses." Had he spared the blood of his subjects as well as their money, he would have better merited the applause of posterity ; but the desire of acquiring dominions in Italy seems to have been * This marriage was negociated by de Longueville, who haa oeen a prisoner ju England since tke battle of the spurs. She had been previously contracted to the Spanish prince Don Carlos, and had even taken the title ; but the object of her affections was the beauti ful and accomplished Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, to whorp she was married after the death of Louis. LOUIS XII. 213 bng a mania of the French princes, of which they could not be cured, even by misfortune. When on his death-bed, Louis Bent for his heir, the duke of Valois, and embracing him said, •' I am dying, I commend my subjects to your care." Thus showing that anxiety for the welfare of his people occupied his last moments. Questions. 1. How did Louis behave on his accession ? 2. What caused a new war in Italy? 3. Why was Louis anxious to conciliate the pope ? 4 Did the French succeed in this new invasion of Italy 7 5. What results followed from the alliance of the French and Spaniards against Naples 1 6. What remarkable revolution took place in Italy? 7. Did the French meet any reverses? 8. What change took place in the fortunes of the house of Biw gundy? 9. Did they suffer any calamities? 10. What third insult was offered to Maximilian? 11. Who formed the league of Cambray? 12. Did the Venetians conciliate any of their adversaries? 13. Why did not the French reap the fruit of their victories? 14. What new alliance was formed against France ? 15. What was the character of pope Julius? 16. Was any remarkable victory oljtained by the £I»M;!ifih ? 17. On what condition was peace concluded ? 18. When did Louis die ? 19. What was bis character ? A Courtier of the Fifteenth Century. 214 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Francis 1. CHAPTER XXIV. FRANCIS I. Hold, good sword, but tiiis day, And bite hard, where I hound thee ; and hereafter I'll make a relique of thee, for young soldiers To come like pilgrims to, and kiss for conquest. Beacmoht. 1. Francis, count d'Angouleme and duke of Valois, J A J was in the twenty-first year of his age at the time of his accession ; he was brave, generous, and open- hearted, but at the same time rash and daring, ambitious of mihtary glory, but destitute of the wisdom and steadiness necessary for the completion of great enterprises. Like his predecessor he made the acquisition of the duchy of Milan his principal object, and like him he was destined to meet with great triumphs followed by signal disappointment Maximilian Sfor/a, who was at that lime duke of Milan, see- ing the storm ready to burst over his head, applied to the different princes of Europe for protection, and a confederacy FRANCIS I. 215 was formed, consisting of the emperor, the pope, the Swiss cantons, and Ferdinand of Arragon, to prevent the French from re-establishing themselves in Italy. 2. The Swiss hav- mg secured the principal passes of the Alps, it was thought that Francis would be compelled to resign the contest; but Trevu-lzio, an old Milanese general in the service of France, led the army through the mountains of Piedmont, and at the same time the advanced guard having entered Italy by a dif^ ferent route, surprised the papal forces, and made their gei> eral. Prosper Colonna, prisoner. So little was the appearance of the enemy expected, that Colonna was preparing to sit down to dinner at the moment he was taken. 3. On the news of this success, Francis hastened to join his army, which had already advanced within sight of Milan, The confederates, terrified at his rapid success, and not very -jlosely united amongst themselves, proposed terms of peace ; the treaty was on the point of being completed, when the arrival of 10,000 Swiss auxiliaries at once interrupted the oegociations. Eager for plunder they demanded to be led immediately to battle; their leaders were obliged to comply, and about four in the evening a furious attack was made on ■he French camp at Marignano. 4. The advanced guard of ihe French, after some resistance, were compelled to give ground, but the king coming up with some of his choicest troops, prevented the enemy from pursuing their advantage. Never was there so well contested a fight. Trevulzio said that the twenty-five battles in which he had been before, were but children's play compared with this, which viras a battle of giants. The combat continued through a great part of the night, until both armies were so exhausted as to be compelled to desist by mutual consent. The soldiers on both sides were intermingled, but so complete was their lassitude, that they lay down to sleep in the order, or rather disorder, in which they found themselves. Francis spent the night on the car- riage of a gun, and was compelled to quench his thirst with a little water mingled with mud and blood, which a soldier brought him in his cap ; but fatigue and heat made even this draught a luxury. Before dawn Francis was on the alert, disposing his artillery, musketry, and Gascon cross-bows in the most favourable positions. The Swiss renewed the attack ai daylight, but the artillery and musketry placed on their flanks, threw their battalions into confusion, their lines began to waver ; at this decisive moment the cavalry charged, and cut lo pieces the disordered ranks by which they were opposed 216 HISTORY OF FRANCE. I^lie Swiss commanders made an effort to rally their forces, in which they were partially successful, but the appearance of Venetian troops advancing to the assistance of the French, convinced them that their case was hopeless; they retired in good order, but ten thousand of their best troops were left dead upon the plain. 5. In consequence of this victory, Francis obtained posses- sion of Milan ; Maximilian Sforza resigned his claim to the duchy, in exchange for a pension ; the Swiss cantons agreed to a cessation of hostilities ; and the pope paid him a visit at Bo- logna, in order to treat with him in person. Having thus, as he believed, firmly established his power in Italy, the king re- turned to Lyons, where his mother and wife awaited him, so elated by his victory that he thought himself irresistible. 6. In the following year died Ferdinand of Arragon, who had been the principal cause of all the wars that devastated the south of Europe ; one of his panegyrists observes, that " the only thing for which he deserves blame was his habit of al- ways breaking his word ;" a crime which the Italian historians seem to think very pardonable. On his death, Francis made some preparations for the invasion of Naples, but the deter- mination of the emperor, the Swiss, and all the Italian powers to check his further progress, prevented him from putting his intentions into execution. 7. Charles V. succeeded to the crowns of Arragon and Castile, as his mother was now sunk into confirmed insanity, and one of the first acts of his govern menl was to make peace with France. 8. The death of the emperor Maximilian, the most ._',q* extraordinary character of aU his cotemporaries, was destined to produce a great change in the politics of Europe. 9. This prince had been equally distracted by ava- rice and ambition ; his marriage with the heiress of Flanders and Burgundy, gave him a claim to the extensive dominions of Charles the Bold, but his efforts to recover them were weak and desultory ; on the death of his wife, the Flemings deprived him of all authority, and took upon* ttemselves the guardian- ship of his children, an arrangement to which he submitted with a very bad grace. A new opportunity of acquiring power was presented to him by Anne of Brittany, who chose him for her husband ; but Maximilian, instead of affording her any assistance, deserted her in the midst of her enemies ; she in consequence broke the contract and married the king of France. Maximilian in revenge made several confederacies agamst the French power, but as he always deserted his alhes FRANCIS I. 217 n the time of action, all the preparations ended in nothing, ♦.)ne of his schemes was to have himself elected pope, on the death of Julius II. ; but his unwillingness to pari with money, was probablj' the cause of his not coming forward as a candi- date at the election. 10. His reign will ever be memorable for the commencement of the Reformation in German3% Pope Leo X. had exhausted the papal treasury by the magnificent buildings which he erected in Rome, and in order to replenish his funds, issued bulls for the sale of indulgences ; Tzetzel, the papal agent in Germany, conducted the infamous traffic with such indecent vehemence, that he provoked IMartin Lu- ther, an Augustinian monk, to oppose the sale. The pope sided with Tzetzel, and in the progress of the dispute, Luthei was led to oppose not only indulgences, but several other gross corruptions which had crept into the Christian Church. The Romish clergy instead of making any concessions, which the increasing spread of knowledge imperatively required, clung to the corruptions as if they were the essentials of Christianity, and thus closed the door against all accommodation. Luther and his followers in Germany, Zuinghus in Switzerland, the remnant of Wickliffe's followers in England, and the descend- ants of the Albigenses, called Hugonots, in France, made al- most a simultaneous attack on the papal power, and finally succeeded in withdrawing a great part of Europe from its al- legiance to the holy see. 11. On the death of JVTaximilian, Francis and Charles be- came candidates for the empire, protesting at the same time, that their rivalry would make no change in their mutual friend- ship. Charles was the successful candidate, partly by the ex- ertions of the duke of Saxony, who refused the empire him- self, and partly by the influence of a large sum of money, which had been sent from Spain to be distributed among the electors. In spite of his professions, Francis could not but feel disappointed at his defeat ; besides, he was justly alarmed at Lie increase of power obtained by his rival, who being the legal representative of the dukes of Burgundy, he feared might attempt to recover the possessions and avenge the wrongs of his family. 12. To secure himself from these threat- ening dangers, he courted an alliance with Henry VIII. yr^'^n of England, who was equally jealous of the increased power of Charles; an interview was arranged between the monarchs, and in June they met near Ardres, in a plain, called from the magnificence displayed there, the field of the doth of gold. After the young monarchs had met, they ahghted 19 2JS H.STORY OF FRANCE. and entereii into a pavilion prepared for their reception, r-ach attended by two or three ministers, where they held a brief conference on public affairs. They soon became wearied ot business, and spent the following fourteen days in festivals and tournaments. Before separating, they confirmed their treaty by a solemn oath on the sacrament, which they received to- gether. 13. Francis did not derive any advantages from this alliance, for Charles V. soon after took an opportunity of land- ing in England, and prevailed upon Wolsey by bribes and flatteries, to persuade his vacillating master to hold himself neuter, and to be ready to act as an umpire if required. 14. A war soon commenced between Charles and Francis, each accusing the other of having been the first to commence hostilities. The two rivals somewhat resembled Louis IX. and Charles the Bold in their character and conduct. The empe- ror was cautious, prudent, and calculating, never hazarding any enterprise until he had taken every precaution to ensure its success; careful in his selection of ministers and generals, and more proud of skill in negociations than of glory in the field. The king, on the other hand, was hasty, rash, and im- provident, ready to undertake the most dangerous expeditions, but utterly regardless of his means ; extravagant in his plea- sures, the slave of his mother; a bold unprincipled woman, the dupe of corrupt ministers and unskilful generals. 15. The war first commenced in Flanders, where Francis had an op- portunity of crushing the power of his rival by a single blow, but neglected to avail himself of it, in order to annoy the con- stable, Charles of Bourbon, against whom he had conceived a fatal dislike. The constable had affronted the king's mother by some harsh ren)arks on her glaring vices, and had dis- pleased the king by the stern severity of his morals, but he was the only general then in France capable of managing an army. 16. In Italy the French were everywhere defeated, notwithstanding all the exertions of their leader, Lautrec ; and before the first year of the war had ended, they had been driven from all their conquests in the Milanese. This event gave so much pleasure to Leo X. that he died of joy. 17. Francis, who was the real author of this calamiij'', as he had wasted the money required for the payment of the troops in luxury and debauchery, severely reproached Lautrec. for having suffered such a loss. The general threw the blame un Semblan^ai, the minister of finance, for not having furnished him with the means of satisfying the soldiers. Semblancai 4eclarea tnat he hqd paid the rnoney to the queen -dowager FRANCIS I. 219 and offered to produce her receipt; but that princess dn>ading an exposure, had bribed a clerk in the treasury to steal the receipt, and the venerable minister was sentenced to be exe cuti^d. The chancellor du Prat is said to have participated in this crime, from envy of the influence that Semblan^'ai had with the king, who always called him " his father." Du Prat Tlie Chancellor du Prat and his Wife. A. D. 1523. was then employed to raise money, which was effected by the most illegal and scandalous methods : the royal domains were alienated, the offices of state publicly sold to the highest bid- der, and the taxes, already oppressive, were doubled. 18. The artifices of Wolsey, who expected to be raised to the papacy by the influence of Charles, had .nduced Henry to join in the war against Francis, but the king's folly and his mother's iniquity raised up a mort; dangerous enemy in the bosom of his kingdom. We have already seen that the constable of Bourbon had been treated with neglect, but the king's mother, not satisfied with this, resolved to rob him of his property. For this purpose she laid claim to ihe duchy of Bourbon, and as she had the selec- tion of the judges by whom her claims were to be tried, it was not difficult to foresee how the matter would be decided. At the same time the admiral Bonivet, who looked upon the con stable as his rival, laboured to widen the breach between him and 1^3 king, and succeeded so completely, that Bourbon was 220 HISTORY OF FRANCE. reduced to despair. In his distress, he adopted the unfortU' nate resolution of deserting- to Charles. Francis was on the point of setting out for Italy when the defection of Bourbon alarmed him with the danger of an insurrection at home; but notwithstanding this peril, and though an English army had actually invaded France, he sent Bonivet across the Alps to make another effort for the recovery of the Milanese. 19. Bonivet was by no means a match for Launoy, Pescara, and Bourbon, the generals of Charles ; after an infinite num- ber of errors, which he was unable to repair, he found himself compelled to retreat, hotlj. pursued by his justly exasperated enemy the constable of Bourbon. The French did not, how- ever, suffer much during the retreat, owing to the admirable arrangements of the chevalier Bayard, who commanded the rear. This favourite hero of the age was the last model of chivalry that appeared in Europe ; he was usually called the knight without fear and without reproach, (le chevalier sans peur et sans reproche) ; though he held only the rank of cap- lain, he really possessed more influence than any general, from the universal respect and admiration inspired by his high character. 20. Unfortunately, while engaged in repelling an attack on the rear-guard, he was mortally wounded ; unwil- ling that the army should be delayed by his misfortune, he ordered himself to be placed against a tree with his face toward the enemy. In this condition he was found by the constable, who began to lament the chance of war that had reduced so noble a knight to such a miserable condition ; be* Bayard declared, " I am not an object of pity, sir duke ; J die happy in having performed my duty to my king and country; it is you who deserve pity, w'ho are bearing arms against your native land, forgetting that the death of every traitor is violent, and his memory detested." 21. France was now on every side encompassed with 1^24.' tiangers; Charles, Henry, and the Bourbon, had en- * tered into a treaty of partition for dividing it between them; Henry was to have the provinces which formerly be- longed to England, the Bourbon was to receive the ancient kingdom of Provence, and all the rest was to be given to Charles. But it was nece.ssary to conquer France before di- viding it, and in this the confederates totally failed ; Bourbon invaded the country, but not one of his former partizans would take up arms in his behalf; the English king did not send the promised subsidies, the en)peror withheld the auxiliaries ne- cessary to recruit the invading army, and on the approach of FRANCIS I. 221 Francis with a numerous train, the constable was obliged to raise the siege of Marseilles, and retreat precipitately into Italy. 22. Thither, with his characteristic imprudence, Francis resolved to follow him. He was at first very successful, Milan surrendered without any resistance, the imperial generals fled before him, and had Francis pursued their dispirited forces, be would probably have put a glorious end to the war; but yielding to the injudicious advice of Bonivet, he laid siege to Pavia, a well-fortified town, defended by a numerous garrison under the command of Antonio de Leyva, a general of great abilities. At the same time Francis weakened his army by Rending one detachment to invade the kingdom of Naples, and mother to take possession of Savona. 23. The siege of Pavia went on but slowly ; so great A'as the improvidence of the king, that his attacks jcor* were frequently suspended from want of ammunition, ind his schemes disconcerted by want of wisdom in his offi* ".ers and discipline in his soldiers. Meantime, Launoy and Bourbon having recovered from their panic, advanced with a numerous army to raise the siege. Had Francis retreated on irheir approach, he might easily have entrenched himself in Milan, and set the imperialists at defiance, but he had made a promise not to stir from before Pavia until it had submitted, ind all persuasions to the contrary were useless. 24. On the night of the 23d of February, the imperialists attacked the camp of the French, but were repulsed from the entrench- ments with some loss ; Francis, believing that victory was now in his hands, imprudently sallied out, and by the impetu- osity of his charge, threw the hostile cavalry into confusion; but Bourbon coming up, rallied his forces, and introducing some bodies of musketry between the troops of horse, com- pelled the French to give ground in turn. At this moment, Ley\a, making a sally from the town, fell on the rear of the French ; the effect of this manoeuvre was decisive ; placed between two fires, the lines were everywhere broken. The duke d'Alencon, first prince of the blood, seized with a dis- graceful panic, set the example of a shameful flight, and neve, halted until he arrived at Lyons, where he soon after died of shame and vexation ; several of the nobility followed him, and Francis was left almost alone in the midst of his enemies. Yet, even in this distress, the king showed a courage worthy of his fame ; he fought gallantly against the fearful odds by which he was opposed, and when all hope was gone, he re- fused to yield himself to the traitor Bourbon," but surrende'^d 19* 222 HISTORY OF FRANCE. himself a prisoner to Launoy. The French had not raei with so great a calamity since the battle of Poicliers, their king was a captive, the flower of their nobihty and the best of theii soldiers were slain. Bonivet fell amongst the rest, and when Bourbon saw his dead body, he exclaimed, " Unfortunate man, vou have ruined France, yourself, and me." 25, The battle of Pavia produced terror in France, joy in Spain, jealousy in England, and dissatisfaction in Italy. Louisa of Savoy, the king's mother, took upon herself the regency, and by her prudent conduct, restored order and confidence to France. Wolsey, finding that he had been duped by Charles inspired his capricious master with so much distrust of the emperor, that Henry entered into a league with the regent to preserve the integrity of France. The Italian states, dreading to be overwhelmed by the victorious Charles, entered into a confederacy for their mutual protection, while the emperor himself affected to conceal his joy under an appearance of moderation, but rejected the counsels of those who advised him to immortalize himself by an act of generosity, and set Francis at liberty without ransom. 26. Launoy did not know in what manner to secure his illustrious captive ; if he kept him in Italy, he had reason to dread that the Swiss or the Italian princes would rescue him in hopes of obtaining a reward ; the number and strength of the French galleys rendered it dan- gerous to send him by sea to Spain, and the journey to Ger- many was equally hazardous. In this dilemma, Launoy craftily suggested to Francis that every thing might be arranged by a personal interview with Charles ; weary of his imprisonment, the king eagerly caught at the proposal, and issuing orders to his naval forces, not to intercept him on the voyage, allowed himself to be quietly transmitted to Spain. 27. On his arrival there, he was not received by the em- peror as he expected, but was shut up a close prisoner in the tower of Madrid. Vexation for his losses, and that delay of hope which makes the heart sick, soon produced a violent fit of illness that brought the royal captive to the verge of disso- lution ; Charles dreading that his prisoner would thus escape, and deprive him of his expected advantages, paid him a visit, and held out expectations of a speedy and honourable accom- modation. This gleam of hope restored the health of Francis, t)ut his captivity was prolonged for several months. 28. At 'ength it was agreed that he should be liberated on condition of paying a large ransom, resigning to Charles the duchy of Burgundy, and all the provinces claimed by the French in FRANCIS I. 223 Italy, giving his two sons as hostages, and plighting his kingly word, that if the conditions of the treaty were not observed, he would return to prison. 29. But Francis had no intention of dismembering his kingdom ; under the pretence that the states of |*cg« Burgundy would not consent to the proposed arrange- ment, he refused to give Charles that province, and at the same time entered into an alliance with the king of England, the pope, and the princes of Italy, to check the alarming power of the emperor. Nothing could equal the indignation of Charles when he learned this news ; he saw that he had lost an opportunity which he could scarcely hope to regain, and that he had been guilty of a harsh ungenerous action without obtaining any advantage. He vented his indignation on the unfortunate young princes who had been left to him as hostages, conduct which served only to increase the hostility of Francis, and to excite the indignation of all the European princes. Questions. 1. In what wav Jid Francis I. engage ? 2. What success had his forces ? 3. How was a treaty of peace prevented ? 4. What were the circumstances of the battle of Marignanof 5. What were the consequences of this victory? 6 What was the character of Ferdinand of Arragon ? 7. By whom was he succeeded ? 8. What were tlie consequences of the death of the emperor Maximilian ? 9. Are not some strange instances recorded of his avarice and ambition ? 10. What remarkable revolution commenced in his reign? 11. Who were the competitors for the empire? 12. Where had Francis a remarkable interview with Henry VIII.' 13. Why was the treaty with England productive cf no beneficial result ? 14. How are the characters of Francis and his rival Charles coa* trasted ? 15. What error did Francis commit in Flanders'? 16. How was the campaign in Italy mismanaged? 17. What innocent person suffered in consequence 7 18 Why did the constable Bourbon revolt? 19. How did Bonivet manage the war in Italy? 20. What was remarkable in the death of Bayard? 21 How did the invasion of France succeed' 224 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 22. What 'own did Francis besiege"* 23. How was the siege conducted ? 24. What were the events of the battle of Pavia? 25. What were its consequences 1 26. Whither was Francis sent as a prisoner ? 27. How was he treated ? 28. On what conditions was he liberated ? 29. Were they fulfilled ? Monument of Montmannef. FRANCIS I. 225 f ranch Knight of the Sixteenth Century. CHAPTER XXV. FRANCIS I. CONTINUED. Fight like your first sire, each Roman, Alaric was a gentle foeman, Match'd with Bourbon's black banditti! Rouse thee, thou eternal city ! BXHOS. A. n 1527 1. Charles, anxious to regain his Italian acquisi- tions, sent the constable Bourbon to seize the Milanese territory, promising him the investiture of the duchy, to the exclusion of Sforza. Bourbon having soon subdued the Milanese, prepared to march against Rome, in order to satisfy 'vitii its plunder his soldiers, who were mutinous for want o< 226 HISTORY OF FRANCE. pay . On the evening of the 5th of May, the imperialists ar rived before the walls of Rome, and on tlie following morning the orders for the assault were given. 2. The constable waa slain by a musket-shot at the very first onset, but his death being concealed from the soldiers, they advanced as if ani- mated by his spirit, and " the immortal city" fell into the hands of barbarians, as savage and as merciless as those hordes whose ravages had before levelled her beauties to the earth. For several months the city remained in the possession of the imperialists, and was the theatre of every crime which the worst passions of the heart could dictate, or the fiercest vio- lence execute. The pope was taken prisoner, and was long in great danger of his life from those who pretended to be his most devoted adherents ; for it is a strange circumstance, that the Catholic Spaniards evinced more hostility on this occasion to the city and the pope than was shown by the Germans, who were for the most part Lutherans. 3. This event occa- sioned two other strange proceedings, which may well be styled solemn farces. The imperialists gravely proclaimed Martin Luther pope ! The emperor, upon receiving news of the captivity of his holiness, instead of sending orders to set him at liberty, ordered prayers to be offered up, and proces- sions to be made for his deliverance, after which he compelled him to purchase his freedom with a large ransom. The con- querors of Rome, by their excesses, soon destroyed themselves ; a pestilence broke out among them, and out of all their force.« scarcely five hundred survived when the city was liberated by the French general Lautrec, ten months after its capture. 4. The war between Francis and Charles was now renewed, but it was not productive of any very important events ; the rival sovereigns mutually gave each other the lie, and sent challenges to decide their disputes by single combat, but these indecent bravadoes served only to make both contemptible. 5. Meantime, Italy was a prey to the ravages of war. The French at first had the advantage, and Pavia was sacked with tl.e utmost cruelty in memory of the battle that had been lost before it. But Andrew Doria, a Genoese of distinction, who had essentially aided the French with the galleys of his re- public, became suddenly discontented with the conduct of E'rancis ; he went over to the emperor, and fortune changed with him. The same errors which had produced former calamities were repeated ; the money raised for the support of the army was lavished by the king and his court in luxury, the suj^plies were delayed until they were no longer useful ; FRANCIS I. 22? the siege of Naples, undertaken by the French general Lau- tree, was protracted with obstinacy as blind and fatal as thai which Francis had displayed at Pavia ; and at length the entire army was obliged to surrender to the imperialists, almost at discretion, f). This contest, as well as many others, was attended with no other fruit than the spilling of human blood; but at length the course of these numerous calamities was suspended by the treaty of Cambray, concluded for the two monarchs by two women, the duchess of Angouleme and Margaret of Austria, governess of the Low Coun- icon tries. 7. Francis I. abandoned his allies, gave up his claim on Milan, his lordship of Artois and Flanders, and en- gaged to pay two millions of gold crowns for the ransom of his children; Charles V., besides these advantages, reserving to himself the power of prosecuting at law his pretensions to Burgundy. Sforza had the Milanese, and by an article of a treaty before concluded between the pope and the emperor, the Medicis were to be reinstated in the government of Florence. The ransoming of the two French princes was found a diificult task in the exhausted state of the finances, and could not have been effected but for the generous assist- ance of Henry VIII., who presented Francis with a consider- able sum of money. 8. The followers of Luther, about this time, took the name of protectants, because they protested against an edict issued at Spires, prohibiting innovations in religion. They also pub- lished an authentic statement of their principles, drawn up by Philip Melancthon, the most moderate of Luther's followers; this important document is usually called the confession of Augsburg, from the place where it was written. Soon after, perceiving that their ruin was determined upon, the protestant princes entered into an alliance called the league of Smalkald, and applied for assistance to Francis, the inveterate enemy of the emperor, and Henry VIIL, who was now in open hostility with the pope. 9. Charles V. did not, however, immediately proceed to extremities with his protestant subjects ; the necessity of check- ing the increasing power of the Turks, and his anxiety to se- cure his superiority in Italy, compelled him to temporize; and by the aid of those persons on whose destruction he was re- solved, the emperor obtained several triumphs over the Turks in Hungary and the Moors in Africa. Francis, during the peace, employed himself in improving the city of Paris, and indulging his taste for the fine arts, but he had not laid asid« 228 HISTORY OF FRANCE. his ambiaou and thirst for revenge. From the time that he had signed the humiliating treaty of Cambray, he meditated new projects of war, and used every effort to stir up all the powers of Europe, but his measures did not succeed. Pope Clement VII., whose niece he had married to his second sor Henry, died before any advantage could be derived from the alliance. Henry VIII. was too much embarrassed with the consequences of his divorce to engage in any hazardous enter- prise, and the members of the league of Smalkald, irritated by Francis's conduct to the French protestants, refused him the least assistance. 10 Francis had indeed acted with a violence sufficient tc etir up the professors of the new rehgion against him. Some fanatics having posted up libels against the clergy and the eucharist, he ordered a solemn procession, in order to efface the scandal, and assisted at it himself with a torch in hia hand ; he afterwards pronounced a vehement speech before the bishop of Paris, in which he said, "that if one of his hmbs was infected with heresy, he would cut it ofT, and would sacrifice his own son if he found him guilty of that crime." To conclude the scene, six Lutherans were burned alive in the most cruel manner, being alternately let down and drawn up from the flames by means of a machine, until they ex- pired. 11. The war between Charles and Francis was soon IMC renewed with all its former violence; the emperor in- vaded Provence, but by the judicious measures of the constable Montmorency, was compelled to retreat with pre- cipitation. The French king summoned Charles to appear before the parliament as his vassal for Flanders and Artois ; no notice of course was taken of the summons, and the two fiefs were declared legally confiscated. After two years of desultory warfare, a truce was concluded. 12. The in- habitants of Ghent, dissatisfied with the heavy taxes imposed upon them by Charles, broke out into open rebellion and ofTered to aid Francis in the subjugation of Flanders, if he would grant them his protection ; but he was infatuated with the desire of the duchy of iVIilan, the investiture of which he ardently desired, and in hopes to obtain it, he betrayed the whole negociation to the emperor. Charles, perfectly ac- quainted with the character of his rival, engaged to grant him the object of his desires, provided that he would permit the emperor and his train to pass through France in his way to the Low Countries ; Francis readily assented ; Charles was re- FRANClo 229 Charles V. and Francis I. Visiting the Tomb of St. Oei js. ceived with the greatest pomp, remained seven days at Paris, where he was loaded with marks of friendship and confidence, and after visiting the Tomb of St. Denis in company with Francis, he was permitted to depart without even leaving any authentic testimony of his promises. Ghent was soon re- duced, the rebels in Flanders forced to yield themseJA'es to the mercy of the emperor, but the promises made to Francis were forgotten. 13. War again recommenced, Henry VIII. a second time embraced the cause of Charles, and France was invaded by their united armies. Inevitable destruction would have overtaken the kingdom had the invaders acted in concert, but their mutual jealousies prevented them from un- dertaking any thing of importance ; on the other hand, the army of the empire might have perished by famine but for the treachery of the king's mistress, who betrayed the coun- cils of her lover to Charles. A new treaty was concluded at Cressy, by which it was stipulated that the investiture of the Milanese should be given to the duke of Orleans on his mar* tiage with the daughter or niece of the emperor. The death 20 A. D. 1542. 230 HISTORY OF FRANCE. of this prince soon after nullified this article, and the Milanese remained in the possession of Charles. The war with Henry VIII. continued for some time longer, but at length terms of accommodation were agreed to, and Henry retained posses- sion of Boulogne as a security for an annuity of 800,000 crowns, to be paid him during eight years, by Francis. 14. Neither of these princes long survived the treaty. , *.J Henry VIII. died in January; and Francis in the March following. His funeral procession was the most "mposing ceremony that had been hitherto witnessed in France. Vhe follies and errors of Francis were pardoned for the sake of his magnificence and generosity ; the tears of his people watered his hearse, and his memory was consecrated by the eulogiums of the hterary men, of whom he had been ever a generous patron. But the bigotry of which Francis afforded an example, and the persecutions which he not merely tolerated but encouraged, were the deepest stains on his cha- racter. One instance will suffice. The parliament at Aix had issued an arret against the Protestants so very atrocious, that its execution was for some years suspended by the court. They had condemned to the flames as heretics, all the mas- tors of famihes of Merindoi, at the same time giving orders to raze all the houses of that large market-lown, and even to rooL-- up the trees of the neighbouring forests. The cardinal de Tournon persuaded Francis to have this barbarous decree put in execution. As soon as the court had granted its permis- sion, two magistrates, more deserving the name of execution- ers, at the head of a body of troops, proceeded to commit the most horrid cruelties. They massacred three thousand per- sons without distinction of age or sex. Merindoi, with twenty-two other towns and villages, fell a prey to the flames. An act of barbarity so calculated to bring odium on the re- ligion in support of which it was perpetrated, that it may be looked on as the signal for those dreadful wars, which bigotry and fanaticism soon after kindled in the kingdom. 15. Francis died in the fifty-third year of his age and the thirty-second of his reign ; he was succeeded by his second son, Henry; Francis, the eldest, having died by poison several ?'ears before his father. The poison was administered by an talian physician named Montecuculi, at the instigation, as Bome say, of the emperor, but as others, with more pro- bability, assert, at the command of Catherine de Medicis, the wife of prince Henry. FRANCIS I. 231 Questions. 1. What enterprise was undertaken by the Bourbon ? 2. How were the Romans treated by the victors ? 3. What absurd scenes were acted? 4. In what foolish manner did the rival monarchs behave? 5. How was the war carried on in Italy ? 6. By whom was a treaty of peace negociated ? 7. What were the conditions of the treaty 7 8. How did the followers of Luther act at this time ? 9. In what manner were Charles and Francis employed during the interval of peace ? 10. How did Francis show his bigotry ? 11. With what piece of absurdity did he commence the WM against Charles V.? 12. What great opportunity did Francis neglect? 13. How was the war terminated ? 14. What was the character of Francis ? 16. Why did not his eldest son succeed him 7 Catherine de Medicii. 232 HlSTORf OF FRANCE. CHAPTER XXVI. HENRY II.— FRANCIS 11. What trivial influences hold dominion O'er wise men's counsels, and the fate of empire! The greatest schemes that human wit can forge, Or bold ambition dares to put in practice, Depend upon our husbanding a moment, And the light lasting of a woman's will ! Rows. 1. Francis on his death-bed had given his son a ^-\J great deal of good counsel, and amongst other matters, had advised him to beware of the ambition of "the house of Lorraine," and not to recal the constable de Mont- morenci, whom he had sent into banishment ; the tomb had scarcely closed over him, when Francis, duke d'Aumale, the son of Claude, duke of Guise, the most powerful of the Lor- raine family, was loaded with favours, and Montmorenci sum- moned to court. 2. Henry, like his father, was devotedly attached to his favourites ; the person by whom he was most HENRY II. 233 ntiuenced was Diana of Poictiers, a lady neither very young nor very handsome, yet whose arts and accompHshments enabled her to maintain a complete supremacy over the king's affections. This had, however, one beneficial effect, it checked the influence of the queen, Catherine de Medicis, a woman capable of every crime, and not possessed of a single virtue. 3. The situation of Europe was at the moment of Henry's accession very critica.1 ; the Protestants in Germany, weakened by the defection of Maurice of Saxony, were placed almost at the mercy of the emperor; the council of Trent, which had been for some time assembled, were strenuously labouring to restore the papal supremacy; in England, the guardians of young Edward were employed in endeavouring to aggrandize themselves, regardless of the honour or good of the country; the neighbouring slate of Scotland v\'as similarly distracted during the minority of its infant sovereign, the un- fortunate Mary, and there seemed to be no means left by which the exorbitant power of the house of Austria could be checked. 4. But at the very moment when every thing seemed to promise Charles the quiet possession of ail his acqui- -i-'-o sitions, a sudden and unexpected revolution overthrew the fabric which he had spent so many years in erecting. Maurice of Saxony, foreseeing the utter ruin which impended over the Protestant religion and the liberties of Germany, secretly prepared a league against the emperor, and secured the assistance of the French king. So well were all his pro- ceedings concealed, that he was commissioned by the emperor to conduct the siege of Magdeburg, at the very time that he was making preparations for the war. Magdeburg surren- dered on conditions apparently the most favourable to the interests and wishes of Charles, but measures were at the same time privateiy taken to make all these stipulations ineffectual. At length when every thing was ripe for action, Maurice pub- lished a manifesto calculated to gain men of every party. He declared that his design was to secure the Protestant religion, to maintain the liberties of Germany, and to deliver the land- grave of Hesse from his unjust confinement. So rapid were his movements, that the emperor narrowly escaped being made a prisoner at Inspruck, and was obliged, notwithstanding lii? illness, to be conveyed across the Alps in a Utter during a heavy storm of wind and rain. Henry, on the other side, as- sumed the title of Protector of the Germanic liberties, and marched his troops into Lorraine, where he scarcely met with 20* 234 HISTORY OF FRANCE. any resistance. Toul, Verdun, and Metz, which had beer long considered the bulwarks of the empire on that side, sur rendered, and have ever since remained in possession of the French. 5. Charles finding himself destitute of men and money, was obliged to submit to the demands of the German princes ; a treaty was concluded at Passaw, by which the religious hberiy of the Protestants, and the independence of the German statea was secured ; but no mention was made of the king of France, who experienced the treatment thai foreign princes generally meet when they interfere in a civil war. 6. The emperor, eager to regain the frontier towns from the French, hasted to lay siege to Mentz, whose dilapidated fortifications made him expect an easy conquest. But the duke of Guise, assisted by several of the young nobilit}^ who came as volunteers from every part of France, made such an excellent defence, that Charles was obliged to raise the siege. So much had his troops suffered from cold and famine, that several entire battal- ions surrendered to the duke of Guise, who harassed the retreat, without firing a shot. With humanity the more credit- able as it was unusual at the period, the duke of Guise treated his prisoners with the greatest humanity. The next year Charles was more successful at the siege of Tourenne, but having taken the place by assauh, he put the entire garrison to the sword, and so efl^ectually destroyed the town, that its very ruins have perished. 7. The fatigues and disappointments which Charles , Jf. J had undergone, produced an injurious effect both on his mental and bodily health ; the death of his mother, to whom he was ardently attached, increased his weariness of the world ; he resolved to retire from the busy stage of life, where he had so long played a conspicuous part, and spend the remainder of his life in seclusion. He resigned the crown of Spain to his son, Philip 11., an ambitious, hypocritical bigot, who had been lately married to the English queen, Mary, a princess every way worthy of him. In the following year, Charles gave up the empire to his brother Ferdinand, and retired into a monastery in Spain. 8. His last public act was the conclusion of a truce with the French, in order to secure the peaceable commencement of his son's reign. Bui this suspension of arms did not long continue ; pope Paul IV., anxious to extend the dominions of the holy see, entreated Henry to aid him in expelling the Spaniards from Italy promising that he would give him-the investiture of the king* HENRY II. 235 (iom of Naples as a reward. The exptiience of the last cen- tury ought to have convinced the Freneh of the perfidy of the [talian princes, and the uncertainty of any possessions in that country ; but the monarchs were infatuated with the desire of dominions beyond the Alps, and to obtain transitory glory, neglected permanent advantages. 9. The duke of Guise led an army into Italy, but his success did not answer his expec- tations ; pride and presumption prompted him to efforts which produced nothing but reverses, and he would have entirely lost his brilliant reputation, had not greater disasters at home recalled him to a new scene. 10. While the duke of Guise was making fruitless attacks on the kingdom of Naples, Philip, aided by the English, had sent a numerous army, commanded by the duke of Savoy, to invade France, The invaders laid siege to St. Q,uentin, which was gallantly defended by the admiral Coligny, nephew to the constable Montmorenci. But as the garrison was in adequate to the defence of the place, the constable, conscious of its importance, advanced to its rehef, and after experiencing considerable difficulties, succeeded in throwing a small garri- son into the town. Having performed this duly, he would gladly have retreated without coming to an engagement, but the Spaniards pursued him with so much celerity, that he was obliged to fight without having time to put his men in order of battle. The valour of the French kept the fate of the day undecided for four hours, but they were finally defeated with. the loss of their baggage, artillery, and the greater part of their army. Four thousand men, of whom six hundred were gen- tlemen, fell ; the constable with a great number of the nobility were made prisoners ; France had not experienced so calami- tous a defeat since the days of Cre^y and Azincourt. 11. The ignorance and obstinacy of Philip prevented him from obtaining any decisive advantages from this splendid victory. Instead of advancing against Paris, he ordered the duke of Savoy to continue the .siege of St, Q,uentin, Its gov- ernor, Coligny, maintained the town against the victorious army for three weeks longer, and during that time, Henry had made such preparations as enabled him to set the Span- iards at defiance. 12, Never did France exhibit a more patriotic spirit; the nobility assembled from every quarter to defend the kingdom ; the cities and towns subscribed large sums to pay the troops, and the peasants hastily formed them selves into a rude militia to check the advance of the invaders 13. The return of the duke of Guise still further tended t« 236 HISTORY OF FRANCE. elevate the spirits of the French ; his popularity does not ap. pear to have been destroyed by his misconduct in Ita.y ; ana his first enU'rprise after his return completely effaced the memory of his former errors. Calais, the last remnant of the conquests of Edward III., had remained in the possession of the English during more than two centuries. Its garrison was always diminished during the winter, when it was supposed to be secure from the dangers of a siege. The duke of Guise y Q came before it while thus unprepared, and after a ,plo' Aveak defence of only eight days, the town was sur- rendered. The popularity of this success added greatly to the power of the duke of Guise, which was still further strengthened in the following year, by the marriage of the dauphin to his niece Mary, the young queen of Scotland. 14. In the following year a treaty was concluded at Cha- teau-Cambresis, between Philip and Henry, in which the English queen Elizabeth was included. To strengthen the union it was agreed that Philip should marry the eldest daughter of Henry, and that his sister should be united to the duke of Savoy. 15. The most brilliant preparations were made for the celebration of these nuptials, and tournaments (which were not yet out of fashion) were celebrated at Paris. The king, who excelled in these chivalrous exercises, ran several courses with great success ; but at length, while tilting with the count of Montgomery, a splinter of the lance entered his eye, and he fell without sense or motion to the ground. He survived in a state of insensibility for eleven days, and then expired, in the forty-first year of his age and the thir- teenth of his reign. 16. The persecution of the protestants was rigorously con- tinued during this entire reign. They were burned alive without mercy, the judges were prohibited from alleviating the severity of the sentence ; those who petitioned in their favour, were themselves subjected to the penalties of heresy ; and some members of the parliament were sent to prison for re- monstrating against the severity of these edicts. The family of Lorraine, with the duke of Guise at their head, were the principal patrons of persecution ; but in spite of their effort* the number of protestants increased every day. 17. Francis II. was but sixteen years old at the time ,_"_Q of his father's death; feeble both in body and mind, he was incapable of managing the -affairs of the state, she admmistraiion of the government devolved in consequence DP. the duke of Guise and the cardinal of Lorraine, uncles to FRANCIS II. 237 Francis II. the queen. Catherine de Medicis, the king's mother, anxious to obtain the management of affairs, adroitly increased the jealousies that sub- sisted between the families of Lor- raine and Bourbon, while the con- stable Montmorenci sought to re- cover the authority which he had possessed in the former reign. 18. Religion was another source of dis- cord, Coligni and d'Andelot, ne- phews of the constable, and the prince of Conde, the youngest of the Bourbon princes, were steady protestants ; but the queen, the con- stable, and the entire Lorraine family, were bitter persecutors of all who professed the principles of the reformation. The head of the house of Bourbon was first prince of the blood, and king of Navarre, but the latter was little more than a nominal title, as the greater part of Navarre had been seized by the Spaniards in 1512, and nothing left to its former possessors but a few districts east of the Pyrenees. The party of the duke of Guise, supported by the queen and the clergy, triumphed over the friends of the Bourbons ; they renewed the persecutions of the former reign with greater severity, and established tribunals called Les chambres ar- denies, because they condemned protestants to flames. 19. These atrocities roused the persecuted to resistance, a conspiracy was formed to destroy the family of Guise, and place all the authority of the stale in the hands of the Bour- bons ; but all who shared in the plot were sworn to attempt nothing against the king, the two queens, and the princes. By the imprudence of La Renaudie, one of the leaders, the whole plot was discovered ; the court retired to Amboise on the Loire, the duke of Guise was appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and detachments of soldiers stationed on tha several roads, arrested the parties of conspirators who were proceeding to the appointed place of rendezvous. 20. These unfortunate men were mercilessly butchered, twelve hundred were put to death in Amboise by the most cruel tortures, while Catherine de Medicis and the ladies of the court witnessed their sufferings as a most gratifying spectacle. The prince of 238 HISTV.RY OF FRANCE. Conde was more than suspected of having had a share in this conspiracy, but he defended himself with so much eloquence i\nd ability before the council that he was set at liberty. 21. Soon after these transactions, the admiral Coligny had the courage to present a memorial in favour of the protesiants, to the king in council. A debate ensued, in which two bishops, John de Moutluc and Charles de Marsilac, strenu- ously advocated the cause of the petitioners, asserting that the religious schism was not so much attributable to the preaching of the reformers as to the tyranny of the pontiffs and ignorance of the clergy. The result of this council was a convocation of the states-general at Orleans. 22. The king of Navarre and the prince of Conde were summoned to attend, and a solemn pledge for their safety was given. They had, how- ever, scarcely arrived when they were arrested and thrown into prison. They had formed a new conspiracy against the Guises, which had been betrayed by one of their agents, and their destruciion was fully determined. The prince of Conde refused to plead before the commissioners appointed to con- duct his trial, and appealed to the court of peers. Sentence of death was passed against him, but the chancellor de I'Hopital, the only honest minister in the court of France, exerted himself to save the prince, and interposed so many delays that he eventually succeeded ; for while Conde was thus on the brink of destruction, the king was suddenly seized with an abscess in the head, and died after an illness of a few days. This unexpected event caused an immediate change in the politics of all parties ; Catherine de Medicis set the prince of Conde at liberty, because she wished to secure the aid of the Bourbons in checking the power of the house of Lor- raine. 23. Francis was notOjuite eighteen months upon the throne, and had just attained his seventeenth year at the time of his death. His remains were treated with the greatest neglect, so intent were the queen-mother and the rival princes to secure their own power. His unfortunate consort, Mary, queen of Scots, was compelled to quit the brilliant court of France and return to her native country. J^ if foreseeing the calamities which awaited her at home, she gazed on the receding coast of France with tearful eyes, nor could she be persuaded to quit the deck of the vessel until night intej-rupted her view. It is said that Elizabeth, irritated with Mary for having claim( d the crown of England, intended to intercept her return, and .hat she only escaped by accident. FRANCIS II. 2^ Questions. 1. Did Henry observe ilie advice given him by bis father? 2. By whose influence was the autliority of Catherine de Medicif controlled ? 3. What was the state of Euiope at this time? 4 Wha, great revolution was effected in Germany? 5. How was the war terminated ? 6. How did Charles succeed in his war with France ? 7. What induced him to resign bis crown? 8. Where did the war next break out? 9. How did the duke of Guise conduct affairs in Italy? 10. Describe the causes and results of the battle of St. Quentio 11. Did the Spaniards improve their victory? 12. How did the French nation behave on this occasion? 13. What important conquest was made by the duke of Guise f 14. On what conditions was peace made? 15. By what accident was Henry killed? 16. How were the Protestants treated during this reign , 17. By what dissensions was the reign of Francis II. disturbed? 18. How did religion increase the evil ? 19. By whose treachery v/as the enterprise of the ProtestanU disconcerted ? 20. How were they treated ? 21. What remarkable persons advocated the cause of toleration' 22. How v/as the prince of Conde rescued from death ? 23. What were the consequences of the death of Francis ? The Tilting between Henrj- II. and it* Count of Montgomery 240 HISTORY OF FRANCE, Charles IX. CHAPTER XXVh. CHARLES IX. Oh shame to religion! when God's holy word Is proclaimed by the trrimp and confirmed by the swerd. CuKjfiHaaiAK I. The hopes entertained by the French people mat UJ\n ^^^ '^'•^ king, on attaining the years of discretion, ■ would have put an end to the factions by which the country was distracted, were frustrated by his premature death ; and France was now in a worse condition than it had been at the decease of Henry II. The houses of Lorraine and Bourbon were at the heads of the Cathohc and Protestant parties : they were bitterly exasperated against each other, nut merely on account of religious differences, but also in con- sequence of the late attempts against the life of the prince of Conde. Catharine de Medicis. intent on usurping the powei CHARLES IX. 241 of the stale, intrigued with, and betrayed both parties, dealing out ireactiery with the most perfect impartiality. The duke of Guise, not having the same claim on power that he pos- sessed during the former reign, entered into alliance with the constable Montmorenci and the marshal St. Andre, an union which was very aptly designated the triumvirate. 2. The prince of Conde and the admiral Coligny were the leaders of the Protestant party, but were weakened by the defection of the king of Navarre, who, with his characteristic weakness, joined the party of his most bitter enemies. Catharine saw that under these circumstances the duke of Guise would be her most formidable opponent, and as a counterpoise she pro- cured a formal acquittal of the prince of Conde from the states, and published an edict in favour of toleration. The zealous catholics of the kingdom look the alarm ; they believed that their church was in danger, and every where prepared to de- fend their faith by force of arms. The protestants on the other side, confiding in the' protection of the court, re-opened their churches, and publicly celebrated t'he reformed worship. 3, When the minds of two parties are thus inflamed, a small spark will suffice to produce a conflagration, |k/>o The duke of Guise, while coming to Paris, happened to pass on the road a congregation of Hugonots worshipping their God in a barn. Some of his servants insulted the pro- testant assembly, a scuffle took place in which many were wounded on both sides, and some of the protestants killed. This event, which both parties misrepresented, was the signal of civil war. 4. The duke of Guise and his friends took pos- session of the person of the king and brought him by force to Paris, where the citizens were all in their interpst. Catherine, who had fallen into the usual error of all in'.riguing persons, that of using too much dissimulation, was obliged to follow in her son's train. The prince of Conde proceeded to Orleans and put himself at the head of the protestants, a party inferior in number, but possessing that species of sullen enthusiasm which cannot be subdued by defeat, or cooled by misfortune. 5. The first important enterprise was the siege of Rouen, the Drincipal support of the protestant cause in Normandy; after a gallant defence it was taken by assault, and for eight days given up to be plundered at the mercy of a bigoted and savage soldiery. Its governor, the count de Montgomery, whonr. Catharine hated for having accidentally killed her husoand, made his escape with some difficulty to Havre. 6. In the assault, the king of Navarre received a wound which his de- 21 ^ Q 242 HISTORY OF FRANCE. bauchery rendered fatal; and died as he had lived, "halting between two opinions," for he received the sacrament from a catholic minister, and immediately afterwards declared that if he recovered he would become a champion of protestantism. His dying recommendation to his wife and son Avas, to keep away from the court, and to be always on their guard against the treachery of Catharine and the Guises. 7. The Hugonots soon after experienced a second calamity; they waited for their enemies at St. Dreux, in Normandy, and m the early part of the engagement, slew St. Andre, took Montmorenci prisoner, and put an entire wing of the enemy to flight; but the fortune of the day soon changed, the pro- estants were every where repulsed, the prince of Conde taken {jrisoner, and their entire army only saved from destruction by the able manner in which the admiral Coligny covered the retreat. 8. Inspired by this victory the duke of Guise laid siege to Orleans, which was on the point of being captured, when the duke received a wound in the shoulder from a pistol fired by a person named Poltrot, who had been lying in wait for him. The assassin was arrested, and being put on the rack, declared that he had been instigated to make the attempt by Coligny. But little credit is due to an accusation obtained by torture, and it is worthy of notice that when Coligny de- manded a truce, in order that he might be confronted with Pollrot, he met with a peremptory refusal. 9. The duke only survived six days : before his death he exhorted Catherine to lay aside her schemes of persecution, and make peace with the Hugonots. He left behind him three sons, of whom the eldest became duke of Guise; the second cardinal of Guise, and the third duke of Mayence ; his only daughter was mar- ried to the duke de Montpensier. He appears to have been a nobleman possessed of many good qualities, which ambition and bigotry perverted to his own destruction and that of his country. 10. During this period, Catharine was diligently employed in strengthening her authority, and, by alternately holding out hopes to the two great parties which divided the kingdom, she rendered both subservient to the purposes of her ambition ; under pretence of an interview with her daughter the queen of Spain, she held a conference at Bayonne with the duke of Alva, the most cruel persecutor of the reformed religion, and at the same time pretended to the protestant princes that she was arxious to secure the free toleration of their faith, Tba subsequent cruelties of Alva, when he assumed the govern- CHARLES IX. 243 ijient of Flanders, greally alarmed the protestants ; the prince of Conde and the admiral Coligny, believing that their lives were in danger, formed a plan for surprising the court at Meaux, and would have succeeded, had not their march been jnaccountably delayed until Catharine and her son had time lo escape. 11. A second civil war began; the prince of Conde, far from being disconcerted by his failure at Meaux, surprised the town of St. Denys and set fire to twenty-four windmills in sight of the walls of Paris. Though his forces scarcely ex- ceeded three thousand men, he held the city blockaded for six weeks, and then fearlessly gave battle to the constable Mont- morenci, who was marching to its relief with about twenty thousand soldiers. The battle lasted three hours; it ended in the defeat of the Hugonots, but their adversaries had not much reason to boast of their victory, having lost their leader Mont- morenci and a great number of their bravest troops. The defeat of the insurgents was not so pleasing to Catharine as the death of the constable ; she had now seen every person removed who could dispute her authority, and she was ena- bled to gratify the ambition of her favourite son Henry by having him appointed to the command of all the royal forces, with the title of the king's lieutenant-general. But Henry of Anjou was not able to compete with Conde ; the protestants, though abandoned by their allies, made so vigorous a resist- ance, that the court consented to grant them peace on favour- able conditions. 12. An iniquitous attempt to seize the admiral and Conde led to the third civil war; they narrowly escaped from their pursuers, and fled to Rochelle, whither they were followed by the whole force of the protestants, in spite of the resistance of the royal troops. The queen of Navarre, accompanied by her son the prince of Beam, afterwards Henry IV. of France, joined the revolters, and they were further strengthened by queen Elizabeth of England, who sent Conde a sum of money and a considerable supply of ammunition and artillery. The duke of Anjou on the other side took the field with a power- ful force, commanded by the best generals of the age. An engagement soon took place at .Tarnae, in which the protest- ants were routed, and their leader, Conde, after surrendering himself a prisoner, was murdered in coid blood. The admiral made an excellent retreat, Jane of Navarre encouraged the Erotestants not to despair, and induced them to choose as theii ;aders her son the prince of Beam, and Henry, the son (rf 244 HISTORY OF FRANCE. their late general Conde. Though again defeated at Moncar- tour, the protestants maintained so bold an aspect, that the court again had recourse to negocialion, and granted all the Jlemands of the Hugonot leaders. 13. The events which followed have been so fiercely con- troverted, and so foully misrepresented by rival parlies, that it is not easy to determine the truth from the contradictory state- ments. In the following account, the authorities from which the narrative is deduced, are the contemporary memoirs of persons who were actors in the scenes, and strict attention has been paid to the distinction between the facts which they saw, and the conjectures which they formed. Charles, who was now about twenty years of age, was, or affected to be, weary of the state of pupilage in which he was kept by his mother, and jealous of the preference which she showed for her fa- vourite son, Henry of Anjou. He averred that the merit of the peace was his own, and that he had made it, in spite of the queen-mother, the Spaniards, and the Guises. His directions respecting the execution of the treaty were more favourable to the protestants than the articles themselves; and, finally, he intimated his design of giving his sister in marriage to the prince of Beam, threatening the duke of Guise with death for daring to aspire to the hand of that princess. 14. The difficulty is to determine whether Charles was sin- cere in this line of conduct, or whether he was induced by hi« mother to adopt a course of dissimulation unparalleled in the annals of human wickedness. The memoirs of his brother and sister attest his sincerity, which is rendered still more pro- bable by the weakness of his character and the violence of his passions ; qualities quite inconsistent with the astonishing power of hypocrisy ascribed to him by the contrary supposi tion. He was informed that the admiral was sending some assistance to the oppressed protestants, and Charles not only declared his approbation of the proceeding, but promised to aid the enterprise, and actually commenced preparations for the purpose. He finally invited the admiral to court, and treated him with the greatest confidence and kindness. 15. Henry of Anjou, afterwards Henry HI. of France, de- clares that he and his mother were greatly alarmed by the king's avowed determination to make the admiral Coligny his principal adviser. Nor were these alarms groiindless; a pro- ject had been formed by some influential persons for changinsr the succession to the crown, and recognising Francis, duke of AlenQon, as heir to Charles, instead of Henry, duke of xlnjoii. CHARLES IX. 245 (tnd several of the protestant leaders openly favoured the pro- ject. It would be impossible indeed to describe the various intrigues which agitated the courts both of France and Na- varre when they met in Blois to arrange the terms of union between the princess Margaret and Henry of Navarre. 16. Early in the negociations Jane, queen of Navarre, died ; many suspected that she was poisoned by the agency of Ca- tharine de Medicis, who dreaded a rival possessing so much talent, discretion, and influence, but the examination of the body refuted this suspicion, and the protestants showed that they did not believe the charge by continuing to frequent the court and urge forward the preparations for the mar- riage. On the 17th of August, Henry of Navarre, ij-'-y^ che founder of the Bourbon dynasty, was affianced to ihe princess Margaret, but she was so disinclined to the match .'.hat she refused to sign the contract ; and when the marriage •/Cremony was performed she would not speak, but the king her brother forced her to nod her head, which was taken as a sign of consent. The marriage took place on a Monday, which, with the three following days, was spent in revelry and rejoicing. 17. On Friday the 22d of August, as the admiral was walking from the court to his lodgings, he received a shot from a window in the street, which wounded him severely in the left arm. He immediately said, "Behold the fruits of my reconciliation with the duke of Guise." In the evening the king visited Coligni and said, "Though it is you who are wounded; it is I who suffer!" At the same time Charles vowed that he would take vengeance on the assassins. 18. The admiral suspected that his murder had been planned by the duke of Guise, bui there is abundant evidence to prove tlaat the crime was planned by Henry of Anjou and the queen-mother, who were both afraid of the political in- fluence which the admiral had acquired, and alarmed, lest he should persuade the king to alter the succession in favour of the duke of Aleneon. Their failure in the murder increased their peril; the protestants had gained evidence implicating the duke of Anjou, and they imprudently vented their rage against him and his mother, vaunting that the king was of their party. 19. Catherine de Medicis, under these circum stances, held a cabinet council, which was attended by the following persons: Henry, duke of Anjou, afterwards king of I-'oland and France ; Gonzagua, duke of Nevers ; Henry of Angouleme, grand prior of France, and natural brother to the king; the marshal de Tavannes, and the count de Retz. 20. 21* 246 HISTORY OF FRANCE, After a brief debate it was resolved ' massacre- all the chiefs of the protestant party, and it was ith some difficulty iha' the more merciful cr more pruden' of the party obtained an exception in favour of the king of Navarre and the prince of Conde. It was further resolved, that the execution of this atrocious plot should be entrusted to the duke of Guise; that the guards should be placed under arms, that the city militia should be assembled by its officers, and that the work of de- struction should commence when a signal was given by ring- ing a bell at the Louvre. 21. These resohitions were adopted late on Saturday, and were communicated to the young king by his mother. The unfortunate Charles shrunk with horror from the atrocity pro- posed to him, but the persuasions of his mother, the dread of a new civil war, and the hopes of reigning without control prevailed ; he passed from one extreme to the other, and ex- claimed, "If any are to die, let there not be one left to re- proach me with breach of faith." But his mother and bro- ther were still so much afraid of his hesitating or altering his mind, that they gave the signal before midnight, the hour originally appointed. 22. Scarcely had the bell sounded when the duke of Guise, accompanied by some nobles of his party, and a detachment of Swiss guards, attacked the house of the admiral Colign;, and soon forced an entrance. Awakened by the noise, the admiral sprung from his bed, and perceiving that his life was principally sought, commanded his attendants to make their escape while he faced the assassins. These soon rushed into his room ; the aged hero fell under a multitude of wounds ; and his body, after having been treated with savage indignity by the duke of Guise, was suspended from a gibbet. Coligni's attendants were slaughtered as they attempted to escape over the tops of the houses, and amongst the victims was the gal- lant Tehgny, son-in-law of the murdered admiral. 23. In ♦.he Louvre itself the gentlemen in waiting on the king of Navarre and the prince of Conde, were butchered in the king's presence ; two of them, wounded and bleeding, sough) shelter in the bed-chamber of the young queen of Navarre, and were pursued thither by the assassins. 24. The princess herself had been kept in ignorance of the plot, and was in some danger of faUing by the random blows of the pursuers; she hurried to her mother's chamber, followed by other shriek- mg vicxims, be&eeching her pity and claiming her protection. But she was helpless, and in momentary dread that the lives CHARLES IX. 24* of herself and her husband would be sacrificed with the rest. 25. We must now direct our attention to the other incidents of this fearful night. The infuriate populace filled every part of the city with corpses ; old and young, male and female, rich and poor, all who were Hugonots, or suspected of favour- ing their principles, were mercilessly slaughtered. The aged, borne down by the decrepitude of years, were extended on the same pile with the infant that had scarcely seen the light; whole families lay exposed together on the same bloody couch ; and the monsters who conducted this butchery, added insults to the dead and dying which will not bear to be recorded. 26.. From the palace windows, Catharine beheld with a fiendish joy the progress of the murderers. Her son having recovered from his indecision, had now gone into the opposite extreme, and resolved himself to bear a share in the massacres ; he posted himself with a musket at one of the windows facing the Seine, and fired on those who endeavoured to escape by swimming across the river. 27. The protestants in the suburbs hearing the shouts in the city, supposed that their brethren had been attacked by the faction of the duke of Guise, and resolved to go and solicit the protection of the king, whom they still believed their friend. Fortunately, they could not obtain im- mediate admission at the gates; during the delay, a wounded fugitive acquainted them with the real state of affairs, and they had time to make their escape before the arrival of the soldiers sent for their destruction. 28. The massacre continued eight days with scarce any in- termission. Many Catholics were destroyed in the indiscri- minate slaughter. " It was heresy to possess wealth, to hold an envied office, to have a personal enemy, or an avaricious heir." At length, when more than five thousand had been slain, the murderers ceased their labours from actual weari- ness. 29. The young king of Navarre and the prince of Conde were spared, but were compelled to conform to the Ca tholic religion. The king had the honour of procuring their conversion ; his arguments were, it must be confessed, rathei difiicult to be resisted, since they consisted only of three em phatic words, "i/te mass, the bastille, or death.'''' 30. Orders were sent to commence a sjmilar massacre m the provinces. Some governors obeyed, but others immortal- ized their names by a spirited refusjil. The viscount d'Orthe. governor of Bayonne, wrote to the court that " the king Mq many brave ioidiers in that garrison, but not a single execir 248 HISTORY OF FRANCE. ^^oner." The bishop of Lisieux acted in a manner wurlny of his dignity and Christian character. When the commandant had exhibited to him the orders of the court, "You shall not execute them," he replied ; " those whom you wish to mur- der are the sheep entrusted to my charge ; they have strayed, mdeed, but I am daily endeavouring to bring them back to the fold. The gospel does not command the shepherd to massacre his charge ; I read there, on the contrary, that he should lay down his life for theirs." 31. It had been originally the intention of Catharine and Charles to throw the entire blame of this atrocious proceeding on the duke of Guise ; but when Guise and his party refused to accept such a tremendous responsibility, they changed their mind, and glorying in their wickedness, ordered a medal to be struck in commemoration of the event, with the motto, Pietas armavit justitimn, " Piety has armed justice." 32. At Rome and in Spain, thanksgivings were offered up for this triumph of the faith, and Pope Gregory XIII. ordered it to be cele- brated by a jubilee ! In every other part of Europe it was regarded with just detestation, and the, massacre of St. Bar- tholomew, as it was named from the day of its perpetration, made the name of France odious in every land where the in quisilion was not established. 33. In concluding this painful narrative, it may be remarked that every one of the actors in the horrid tragedy seem to have been overtaken by divine vengeance. The duke of Guise was assassinated by the com- mand of his partner in guih, the duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. Henry met the same fate on the very spot where he had first joined in the conspiracy, the cardinal of Lorraine died raving mad, Catharine de Medicis met a worse fate, she lived on to an unhonoured old age, imprisoned by her favourite son, deserted by all her former friends, tormented by the pangs of disappointed ambition, and still more by the consciousness that she was the object of universal scorn. 34. Notwithstanding the share that Charles had in the mas- sacre, his subsequent remorse entitles him to our pity, and ren ders it probable that he was the involuntary agent of his mo- ther through the entire transaction. Immediately after it, he had boasted that " he should now enjoy peace," but peace was ever after a stranger to his bosom. The visions of a troubled conscience haunted his pillow, a terrible disease that caused blood to issue from every pore of his body, rendered his life miserable, and he had every day more reason to believe that "nis mfaraous mother was inchned to hasten his death in ordei' CHARLES IX. 249 10. procure the crown for her favourite son the duke ot Anjou. 35. To these calamities was added a civil war, which burst forth with new violence. The Hugonots, indignant at the massacre of St. Bartholomew, took up arms with a firm reso- lution never to lay them down until they were secured in the free profession of their religion : they made Rochelle the capi- tal of their league, and chose as their leaders the king of Na- varre and the prince of Conde, who had escaped from the Louvre, and again embraced that religion which they had only resigned through terror. The duke of Anjou was ap- pointed by Catharine to conduct the royal army, much against the will of Charles, who viewed his brother with just suspi- cion. 36. The king's forces being far superior to the Protest- ants in number, were enabled to undertake the siege of Ro- chelle. The inhabitants of the town made a gallant resistance, they valiantly repelled the assaults of the besiegers, and en- dured with patience the severest extremities of famine. 37 Henry of Anjou was at length wearied of the protracted siege, and besides, received an account of his election to the crown of Poland. Under these circumstances, he con- i-W eluded a treaty with the Protestants on the most favour- able conditions, and returned to Paris. 38. He did not, how- ever, on his arrival display any great alacrity to visit his new kingdom. Love or ambition made him linger at court, until Charles, becoming hourly more jealous of his designs, threat- ened to proceed to violence. Catharine then interfered ; she desired her son to depart for Poland, adc^ing that his delay there would not be long, and Henry at length set out, to the great gratification of the king. 89. Catharine was now the real sovereign of France, but the use she made of her power provoked the hostility of all parties. Charles was eager to shake off her authority, but his mind and body were so enfeebled by disease, that he was un- equal to the exertion. The Hugonots looked on her as an in- carnate fiend, and the Catholics suspected her sincerity. To add to the distraction of the kingdom, a third faction now sprung up, who called themselves ihe politicians. They pro- fessed themselves indifferent to the religious disputes, but de- clared that their object was to reform the state, humble the Guises, exclude the queen from the administration, and banish all Italians from the kingdom. The Montmorencis were the first who formed this design, in which they were joined by the duke of Alengon the king's brother, and by all the leaders of the Protestant party. 40, A new war was just commeiic 250 HISTORY OF FRANCE. ing, when Charles concluded his miserable career m , pT^ .' the twenty-fourth year of his age and the fourteenth ' ■ of his reign. His last act was to appoint his mother regent until the return of his brother from Poland. Catharine is said to have obtained this appointment from him with great difficulty, and to have been bitterly reproached by him foi ah the crimes that he had committed by her instigation. 41. Nature had gifted Charles with a fine form, talents above mediocrity, and a good disposition ; but his mother, intent only on acquiring power, had designedly corrupted his education, and early instructed him in every species of vice. He was so accustomed to the absurd vice of swearing, that oaths formed the ordinary staple of his conversation. His temper was violent and unregulated, his manners coarse and boorish, his amusements disgraceful and infamous. To coin false money, to play such practical jokes as the most riotous school-boy would be ashamed to own, were the favourite pas- times of this sovereign. But as he grew up, he discovered his errors when too late ; just as he was about to atone for them by commencing a new mode of life, death arrested hira in the midst of his imperfect resolutions. His lasthours were disturbed by remorse for the massacre of St. Bartholomew ; with his latest breath he declared how agonizing was the re- membrance of the event, and asserted that he had been forced to sanction it by his mother. Questions. 1. Who were the leaders of the parties by which France was distracted? 2. What was the origin of the league ? 3. How did the civil war originate ? 4. In what manner was it commenced? 5. How was the city of Rouen treated ? 6. What remarkable person was slain in the assault? 7. Did the Hugonots suffer any other defeat? 8. What remarkable circumstances attended the assassinaiioiv of the duke of Guise ? 9. In what manner did he die? 10. How were the years of peace spent? 11 What caused the second civil war? 12 Did the new peace continue? 13 For what was the battle of Jarnac remarkable ? 14. Did Charles change his policy towards the protestcmttf 15. Why were Catharine and Henry alarmed ? CHAKLES IX. 25^ j6 DM any circumstances create suspicion among the protestants 17. When was Coligni shot? 18. By whom was the murder of Coh'gni contrived? 19. Who attended the secret council held by Catharine ? 20. What was the resolution of the council? 21. How was the king induced to consent? 22. On whom was the first attack made ? 23. Did Coligni's attendants escape? 24. Were any persons murdered in the palace? 25. Were there many other victims? 26. Did the Ifiiig recover from his indecision? 27. How were the protestants in the suburbs saved? 28. How long did the massacre continue ? • 29. Were any of the protestant leaders spared ? 30. Did any persons of distinction refuse to join in the massacres! 31. How was this atrocity commemorated? 32. In what manner was the account received in other countrieg 1 33. Did the perpetrators of the massacre escape punishment f 34. What calamities did Charles endure ? a5. Were the Hugonots totally destroyed by the massacre? 36. To what town did the king's brother lay siege? 37. How was Rochelle saved? 38. Why was the king jealous of his brother? 39. What new party appeared in France ? 40. How was a civil war prevented ? «1 What was the character of Charles ? The Dukes of Guise «52 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Henry III. and his Qu«en. CHAPTER XXVIII. HENRY III. The baffled prince in honour's flattering bloom Of hasty greatness finds the fatal doom ; His foes' derision and his subjects' blame; And steals to death from anguish and from shame. JoHirsow. 1. The death of Charles without heirs gave tha ■i^j4 throne of France to Henry III., the favourite son of Catharine ; he had joined in all her plots and persecu- tions, had been the commander of forres against the Hugo- nots in the field of battle, and their virulent persecutor in the time of peace. But in his progress to Poland, the coolness with which he was treated by the princes of Germany, had served to show him the horror with which the massacre of St. Bartholomew was viewed by all but the slaves of Rome, and he never after amidst his many crimes and foilies showed him self a persecutor. 2. On learning the news of his brother's HENRY HI. 253 Jeath fearing to be detained by the Polish nobles, he abandonei his kingdom secretly; some of the nobility followed him be- yond the boundaries, and to them he gave an indefinite promise of returning at some future period, which he had no intentioa to perform. The Poles eventually elected another king, and Henry and his former subjects seem speedily to have forgotten the existence of each other, 3. In his earlier years, Henry had shown some traits of a manly and energetic spirit, but all traces of it seemed to have disappeared at his accession. He showed from the very beginning a dishke of serious occupations, a devotion to trifles and debauchery, and a total abandonrnent of all the cares of government to his mother and his favourites. 4. Catherine encouraged these dispositions, which allowed her to gratify her insatiable thirst of dominion. The two great parties by which the kingdom was divided, had now acquired so much strength and consistency, that impartiality was scarcely possi- ble ; the royal council was similarly divided ; the president, de Thou, treading in the steps of the chancellor de I'Hopital, recommended that peace should be established on the basis of an amnesty for the past, and a toleration of the protestants for the future ; the partisans of the duke of Guise would be con- tented with nothing short of a total extirpation of heresy. The queen, as usual, endeavoured to make both parties sub- servient to her purposes ; but her arts had been too often practised to be any longer available, and both parties prepared to recommence the war, if indeed they can be said ever to have laid it aside. 5. The duke of Alenqon, who afterwards obtained the title of duke of Anjou, and the king of Navarre, had been restored to liberty by Henry immediately after his arrival in France ; but finding themselves exposed to suspicion, and deprived of all interest in the state, they quitted the court to place them- selves at the head of the politicians and the protestants. 6. The war was distinguished by no great exploit on either side, and was terminated by a peace, in which more favour- able conditions were granted to the Hugonots than they ic-vfi had hitherto obtained. The violent catholics, headed by the duke of Guise, loudly protested against this treaty, which they deemed subversive of the established religion, and entered into an alliance called the Holy League, in defence of A'hat they called true Catholicity. The declared objects of his union were to defend the church, the king, and the state; ts effects were the dishonouring of religion, the murde'- T»f tha 22 254 HISTORY OF FRANCE. King, and almost the utter ruin of the nation. As soon as the Hugonots had learned the news of this powerful combination for their destruction, they prepared to defend themselves, and Btood to their arms in every part of the provinces. 7. Henry III., after some vain attempts to remain neutral, embraced the party of the league, and recalled the edicts of toleration w^hich he had lately issued ; but there is some reason to doubt hia eincenty in this transaction ; in fact, he seems to have placed himself at the head of the league, merely to exclude the duke of Guise from being appointed its leader. 8. For five years the history of France presents nothing to our view but a series of petty combats, enterprises badly planned and worse executed, treaties hastily made, and as hastily broken ; treachery, disunion, and discontent in every part of the kingdom. The protestants were broken into as many parties as there were leaders; the king of Navarre, who was nominally their head, suffered full as much from the jealousy of his followers, as from the malice of his enemies ; on the other hand, the king mortally detested the duke of Guise, whose popularity with the clergy and people made him a rival rather than a subject, and the duke despised the king, to whose incapacity he attributed the continued existence of heresy. 9,: An unexpected event produced a new change of parlies, by compelling the queen-mother and the duke of Guise to remove the veil which had hitherto concealed the objects of their ambition. The duke of Anjou having j-'k^o deserted the king of Navarre, became apparently re- conciled to his brother, and even led an army against those Hugonots of whom he had been once the leader. 10. But not being able to continue at the court of his brother, where he found himself equally detested and despised, he secretly fled into Flanders, and placed himself at the head of the provinces which had revolted from the crown of Spain. The states of Holland chose him for their prince, partly in- fluenced by a belief that he was likely to become the husband of queen Elizabeth, and that they would thus obtain the assistance both of England and France. But Elizabeth had no intention of marrying any body, she coquetted with the duke of Anjou as she had done with many others, and broke off the negociation when it seemed on the point of being com- pleted. 11. The report was, however, serviceable to the duke, as it facilitated his reception by the Flemings, and gave bim some authority with his new subjects. But the prince soon lost these advantages ; he displayed incapacity in the fieW HENRY III. 2hb ind treacnery in the cabinet, until at length bejng detected in in attempt to make himself king, he was compelled to fly ■nto France, where he died overwhelmed with shame and "taxation. 12. The death of the duke of Aniou, and the im- AD probability of Henry's ever having any children, soon ir'eV made the members of the league develop their real designs. Henry of Navarre, according to the fundamental laws of the kingdom, was the next heir to the crown ; but as he was only related to the king in the fourteenth degree, and was besides a protestant, Catharine and the duke of Guise severally laboured to prevent his succession. Catharine re- solved, in defiance of the Salic law, to procure the crown for the descendants of her favourite daughter, the duchess of Lor- raine ; the duke of Guise, with duplicity equal to her own, pretended to join in her design, but strenuously laboured to procure the rich inheritance for himself. 13. The clergy were the foremost in exciting a new vi'ar ; every pulpit re- sounded with declamations on the dangers of the church if the throne were possessed by a protestant, every confession-box became the means of secretly whispering treason into the ears of the populace, and the press, which was almost totally in the hands of the ecclesiastics, produced daily the most inflam- matory appeals to the prejudices and bigotry of the nation. In these invectives the king was not spared ; his severe edicts for raising new taxes, his lavish profusion to unworihy favourites, his disgraceful debaucheries, and the hypocritical grimace which he substituted for devotion, furnished ample scope for satire ; and it was said in addition, that he had formed a secret alliance with the king of Navarre for the pro- tection of the Hugonots. 14. The duke of Guise was the main-spring of all these complicated movements ; as he could not openly claim the crown for himself, he persuaded the old cardinal of Bourbon, uncle to the king of Navarre, that he was the right heir to the crown in consequence of his ne- phew's heresy. The cardinal, whom contemporary his- torians briefly but emphatically designate an old fool, was easily persuaded to assert his chimerical claim, and published a manifesto declaring himself chief of the league. Henry, however, could not be persuaded to set aside the claims of his oousin, the king of Navarre, even though that prince had re- fused to come near the court after he had been frequently in- vited, and had firmly resisted every attempt made to persuade him to change his religion. 256 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 15. The accession of the king of Spain to the leagui ■•r'oK, b'^came the signal for renewing the war; the Protest- ^ ' snts fought no longer for their privileges but for tneii existence ; the duke of Guise scarcely concealed his designs upon the throne, the king of France was exposed to the at- tacks of both factions, and was in equal danger from the sue cess of either. This is generally called the war of the thiee Henrys, viz. the king of France, the king of Navarre, and the duke of Guise. 16. The most extraordinary of all the matters connected with this tedious conflict was the conduct of the pope; though the league was professedly intended to exalt the power of the holy see, Sextus V. looked upon it as a rebellious alliance, equally dangerous to the interests of royalty and religion. Possessed of as proud and ambitious a spirit as any pontiff that had ever held the papal throne, he reverenced in others any manifestations of that courage and vigour which formed so conspicuous a part of his own character. He ex- communicated Henry of Navarre and queen Elizabeth ; the former made a spirited appeal to a general council, and had his defiance posted on the gates of the Vatican ; Elizabeth excommunicated the pope in her turn. When Sextus heard of those instances of intrepidity, he declared, that though he- retics, these were the only sovereigns in Europe that deserved to wear a crown. 17. But whatever may have been the private sentiments of the pope, his bull afforded a pretext to the leaguers, of which the duke of Guise was not slow in availing himself. The leaders of the sixteen departments into which Paris was di- vided, the entire mob of that city, all the clergy, regular and secular, were on his side ; and the deposition of Henry III. was an object openly avowed by his partisans. The duke's brother, the cardinal of Guise, declared publicly that the king should be sent into a monastery: his sister, the duchess of Montpensier, whom Henry had insulted by some remarks on her want of personal beauty, exhibited the scissors which were to give him the clerical tonsure. 18. Henry of Navarre began now to show some proofs of those noble qualities, which have since deservedly procurea for him the title of Great. The weakness and indecision of his father had shaken the confidence of the protestants in the house of Bourbon ; but his mother had redeemed the errors of her husband ; she was adored by her subjects, with whom she loved to reside, far from the intrigues and vices of the court. In the remote and wild districts of Bearne, Henry re HENRY III. 257 ceived the education of a hardy mountaineer, and was early taught to encounter difficulties and dangers. When brought to court, he was not proof against the seductive arts by which Catharine de Medicis endeavoured to bring him over to her party. Indifferent as to the means by which her ends were accomphshed, Catharine laboured with some success to lead the young prince into habits of debauchery, in order that she might rule his actions by means of the artful mistresses with which she had supphed him. But the impending dangers of the league woke him from his dream of guilty pleasure; he placed himself at the head of the protestant party when its fortunes were at the lowest ebb ; often defeated but never con- quered, he maintained his ground amidst the violence of ene- mies and the insincerity of friends, until he finally triumphed, as much by the admiration inspired by his moral character, as by the terror of his arms. 19. Catharine made some ineffectual efforts to pre- vent this war by negociation, but being distrusted by ^ p^J both parties, she completely failed. The royal army, under the duke of Joyeuse, an unworthy favourite of Henry's, was totally defeated at Contras by the king of Navarre. On the other hand, the duke of Guise cut to pieces an army of Germans, who had invaded France to make a diversion in fa- vour of the Hugonots. The populace of Paris were so in- toxicated with joy at the news of the victory obtained by their idol, that Henry, who had appeared for some time to have re- signed all care of the state, was roused from his lethargy by the imminent peril that threatened his crown and life. 20. He sent an express to Guise, forbidding him to approach Paris ; but the duke, pretending not to have received , ^ao the royal mandate, hastened his approach to the city, and was received there with all the honours of a triumph. In order to reduce the power of the Sixtem, Henry introduced a body of his Swiss guards into Paris, but the citizens, instigated by the partisans of Guise, immediately took up arms ; the shops were shut, the alarm bells rung, barricades and chains w^ere drawn across the streets, and the soldiers driven back from post to post, until the king found himself and his attend- ants closely penned up in the Louvre. Henry escaped during the night, leaving the duke of Guise in full possession of the capital, but Catharine remained behind to exert her arts of in- trigue in bringing about an accommodation. 21. A treaty was concluded, which neither party intended to observe, and in consequence ot on? of its stipulations, an assembly of the 22* R 258 HISTORY OF FRANCE. «!tates was ordered to be held at Blois. The debates and voles in this assembly sufficiently showed the dangerous designs en- tertained by the duke of Guise, and the great resources that he possessed for their accomplishment. To proceed against him for high treason would have been absurd, when all the states of the realm were in his favour; open war would cer- tainly terminate in the king's defeat ; nothing then remained but the detestable means of assassination, and this Henry de- termined to adopt. 22. A letter from pope Sextus greatly contributed to confirm his resolution ; his holiness advised tha King "to render himself master of his rebellious subjects by any means in his power." Having armed nine of his most •rusty followers with daggers, Henry sent to invite the duke of Guise to a speedy conference on matters of the utmost im- portance. The duke hastened to obey, but just as he was about to enter the room in which the king was, the assassins fell on him altogether, and he was instantly slain. His brother, the cardinal, shared the same fate on the following day. Thus fell, in the prime of life, two men whom nature had endowed with abilities that might have made them the brightest orna- ments of France, but which bigotry and ambition had rendered useless to themselves and pernicious to the nation. 23. Henry proceeded from the scene of blood to his mother's apartments, and announcing to her the news, said, "Now, madam, I am indeed a king ;" she heard the account with the utmost indifference, but advised him to take advantage of the confusion which the event would cause in the league, and se- cure Paris. But Henry, believing all danger removed by the death of his greatest enemy, relapsed into his ordinary indo- lence. Soon after, Catharine, overwhelmed with sorrow at the disappointment of all her schemes, and broken down by witnessing the ruin which her profligate ambition had brought on her children, felt herself sinking into an unhonoured grave. Her last advice to Henry was to establish liberty of conscience, and to enter into close alliance with Henry of Navarre. She died unlamented and almost forgotten: the dissolution of one who had played so prominent a part was regarded everywhere as an ordinary incident of trifling importance. 24. Instead of "finding himself indeed a king," Henry, in consequence of his crime, was on the brink of ruin. The members of the league openly threw off their allegiance, and choosing as their leader the duke de Mayenne, the brother of the murdered duke, gave him the pompous title of " lieutenant general of the royal state and crown of France," which was HENRY III. 259 HENRY III. 261 m fact giving him the authority of a sovereign without 4;he name. 25. Most of the provinces and large cities of France declared in favour of the league, and Henry saw no hopes of preserving his authority unless he obtained the assistance of his cousin of Navarre. That prince suspected the king's sin- cerity, for oncn, unjustly, and remembered too well the share that Henry had taken in the massacre of St. Bartholomew to trust him too readily. But their natural necessities compelled both to bury their former animosities in oblivion ; the two Henrys had an interview at the castle of Plessis jcjaq' les Tours, and entered into a close alliance which was never afterwards violated. 26. Henry III. was now superior to his enemies; he advanced to Paris and laid close siege to the city ; the inhabitants were unprepared for his attacks, they had but a small stock of provisions and an inadequate garrison ; the duke de Mayenne was unable to collect an army for their relief; every thing seemed to promise a speedy surrender, when an unexpected event produced a new and total revo- lution. 27. A monk, named James Clement, was persuaded by hia own fanaticism, aided by the artful suggestions of some of the leaguers, that he would perform a meritorious action by killing a monarch who was an enemy to the church. For this pur pose he resolved to go on to St. Cloud, where the king resided, and under the pretence of giving him a letter, stab him in the midst of his guards. Never did, an assassin display so much intrepidity; on his road he met La Guesle and his brother, who were going to join the royal army ; he was by them con- veyed to the camp, and spent the night of his arrival in their tent. He supped gaily with La Guesle's followers, retorted with considerable humour the jokes passed on his monkish habit, readily answered every question put to him, and aftei leaving the table, spent the night in a profound sleep. On the following morning he was introduced to the king, and pre- sented his letters ; while Henry was engaged in looking at them, Clement stabbed him with a knife which he had con- cealed in his sleeve; the king immediately called out that he was murdered, and drawing out the knife from the wound, struck the assassin in the face ; at the same time the attendants despatched him with their swords. The death of Cleme«« prevented any discovery of those by whom he had been in- stigated to the atrocious deed, but it appears very probable thai the family of Lorraine were those who had most share in the contrivance, in revenge for the murder of the duke of Guise 262 HISTORY OF FRANCE. When Henry found that his wound was mortal, he prepared for death with much apparent resignation. He took an affectionate farewell of the king of Navarre, whom he declared his successor, after having strenuously exhorted him to conciliate his future subjects, by embracing the Catholic religion. Having then confessed himself with much apparent devotion, he expired in the 38th year of his age and the 16th of his reign. 28. With him ended the house of Valois, which had held the throne of France for 261 years. During their dynasty, the several in- dependent principalities into which Gaul had been so long divided, were consolidated into the single compact kingdom of France ; but this advantage was more than counterbalanced by the establishment of arbitrary principles of government, and the continual weakening of the influence previously pos- sessed by the assemblies of the states. Questions. 1. "What made Henry sensible of the folly of persecution? 2. How did he part from the Poles ? 3. In what way did he behave on his accession ? 4. What was the state of parties at this time? 5. Who placed themselves at the head of the malcontents ? 6. What party was opposed to peace ? 7. Why did Henry place himself at the head of the league? 8. How did the several parties conduct themselves during the war. 9. In what manner did the duke of Anjou behave to the pro- testants. 10. What circumstances favoured his enterprise against Flan- ders ? 11. What caused his death ? 12. W^hat intrigues were formed about the succession to the crown ? 13. By what means did the clergy inflame the nation ? 14. Whom did the duke of Guise use as a cover for his own am- bition ? 15. Why was the war renewed ? 16. How did pope Sextus behave? 17. Were the leaders personally hostile to the king? 18. What was the character of Henry of Navarre ? 19. How was the war conducted ? 20. To what danger -was the king exposed from the partisans of the duke of Guise ? 21. Why could not the king punish the duke by course of law ? 22. To what means did he resort ? HENRY III. 2m l88as3itiaiiuo ot Hoarr Hi HENRY III. 265 23. What remarkable person died about this time? 24 Did Henry derive any advantage from the murder of Guise f 25. With whom did the king of France reconcile himself? 26. What siege did he undertake ? ?7. By whom was Henry III. assassinated ? ♦8. How long did the house of Valois possess the throne of France ? Valet kiid Footman of Henry IlL SE) 266 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Henry IV., his Queen, and the Dauphin. CHAPTER XXIX. HENRY IV. But be thy failings cover'd by thy tomb. And guardian laurels o'er thy ashes bloom ! Hatlkt. 1. The death of Henry III. relieved Paris from tL«s ■*'J^ imminent dangers to which it had been exposed; the title of Henry IV. was indeed acknowledged by the principal leaders of the besieging army, but his religion pre- vented them from warmly espousing his cause ; the greater part drew off their forces, and Henry was compelled to raise I he siege, which his diminished forces could no longer con- tinue. The duke of Mayenne, who might have assumed the title of king, chose rather to proclaim the cardinal of bourbon, though he remained a prisoner; and having collected a nu- merous band of leaguers, he pursued Henry on his retreat to Normandy. 2. The royahsts, though inferior in numbers, gained two brilliant victories at Arques and Ivri, over the par- tizans of the league ; but though these triumphs served to HENRY IV. 267 raise tne character of Henry, they were not sufficient to crush a party bound together by their own bigotry, the gold of Spain, and the spiritual authority of the pope. 3. His own followers gave the king nearly as much trouble as his enemies ; the catholic royalists detested tht Hugonots ; the proiestants returned the hatred, and were, besides, divided amongst them- selves ; the princes of the blood were either too young to exert any influence, or had ranged themselves under the banners of the league, and Henry found himself engaged in this dan- gerous war almost solely dependent on his own personal resources. 4. The king of Spain was anxious to obtain the crown of France for his daughter, Clara Eugenia; the pro- testant princes of Europe, dreading the additional power that would thus be added to the Spanish monarchy, already formi- dable, resolved to support the cause of Henry, the queen Eli- zabeth, especially, assisted him with money and warlike stores. 5. These aids, and the confidence inspired by seve- ral successive triumphs, soon enabled Henry to under- ij-'^jr,' take the siege of Paris, where the hatred of the leaguers displayed itself with more violence, in proportion as the king showed himself more worthy of affection. Though their shadow of a king, the cardinal de Bourbon, had lately died, and they had not selected any other in his place, so far were they from thinking of submitting to their rightful sove- reign, that the doctors of the Sorbonne declared that Henry, being a relapsed heretic, could not receive the crown even though he should obtain absolution, and this shameful decree was confirmed by the parliament. 6. In the meantime, Paris being closely blockaded and ill supplied with provisions, was attacked by all the horrors of a severe famine. Bread was made of bones ground into powder, food the most revolting was eagerly sought after, multitudes dropped daily dead in the street from extreme starvation, but no one spoke of yielding-. The clergy had promised a crown of martyrdom to all who died in the cause of the church, and their deluded followers submitted to every privation without a murmur. Still, had Hanry not been moved with a paternal pity for his frantic sub- jects, he might have taken Paris by assault; but when urged to give orders for the purpose, he replied — "1 had rather lose Paris, than get possession of it when ruined by the death of so many persons." He gave the fugitives from the city a safe passage through his camp, and permitted his officers and sol- diers to send in refreshments to their friends. By this lenity he indeed lost the fruit of his labours for the present, but he 268 HISTORY OF FRANCE. gained the approbation of his own conscience and the adn)ira tion of posterity 7. The prince of Parma, who commanded the Spanish army in Flanders, advanced to the relief of Paris when the citizens were at the very point of despair ; by a series of masterly movements, he disconcerted the efforts made by Henry to bring on an engagement, relieved the garrison, and returned to continue his wars with the Dutch : after having performed this essential service to the league with scarcely the oss of a man. 8. The following year, Henry met a similar disappointment at the siege of Rouen, where the escape of the prince of Parma was effected under such difficult circum- stances, that Henry could scarcely believe the evidence of his senses when he found that the hostile troops were beyond his reach. 9. Death soon after delivered the king from this for- midable rival ; the prince died in Flanders at the age of forty- seven ; his military talents and great virtues would have brought the United Provinces again under the yoke of Spain, had it been possible to find a remedy for despotism and per- secution. 10. The conduct of the Sixteen at Paris, contributed much to weaken the influence of the league ; these hot-headed rebels pretended to give the law both to the duke de Mayenne and the parliament. When a man whom they wished to destroy was acquitted, they suddenly broke out into the most furious excesses, and actually hanged three of the magistrates who had been judges at the trial, amongst whom was Brisson, the first president of the parliament. The dukede Mayenne acted on this occasion with a promptitude and decision foreign to his character ; he marched to Paris at the head of his most trusty followers, delivered the most violent of the murderers to the executioner, deprived the Sixteen of the Bastille, which had been their principal stronghold, and thus finally crushed a de- testable faction, which derived its whole strength from the madness of fanaticism. 11. But these favourable events were not sufficient to put Henry in possession of the kingdom, while he professed a religion odious to the majority of his subjects ; his most faithful followers, protestant as well as catholic, re- commended him to change his rehgion, and Henry only de- layed through fear of offending Elizabeth and the protestant princes of Germany. At length, finding that the states-general had proceeded so far as to offer the crown to the Spanish in- fanta, on condition of her marrying a French prince, Henry saw that further delay might bring ruin on his CRUse, and ._",.,■ publicly abjured protestantism in the church of St Denis. 12. Though this conversion was any thing HENRY IV. 269 mil sincere, it was followed by the most beneficial effects. The nobility, in general, hastened to reconcile themselves to a king ivhose character they respected, and most of those who still held out, only did so in hopes of receiving some reward for returning to their allegiance. 13. The duke de Mayenne and some few of the more violent leaguers, however, obstinately refused to acknowledge the king, until he had received abso- lution from the pope ; the bigoted clergy preached with their accustomed vehemence against the man of Beam, as they still called their sovereign ; but the efforts of some men of genius who had joined the royal cause, weakened the force of their invectives. 14. Several ingenious writings against the follies and absurdities of these ignorant bigots, especially the Menippean satire, covered them vi^ith such merited ridicule, that they found their declamations unheeded and neglected. At length Paris opened its gates to Henry, and found in 'aim not a vindictive conqueror, but a paternal sove- ic-q7 re^gn. 15. While he was employed in giving the Henry IV. Entering Paris. most remarkable proofs of his beneficence and zeal for the fublic good, his life was attempted by a young fanatic, named ohn Chatal. When the assassin was interrogated, he pleaded in excuse the doctrine of tyrannicide, which he had learned among his masters, the Jesuits, and had heard preached by the 270 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Capuchins. The parliament having witnessed so forcible a proof of the dangerous tendency of the doctrines preached by these monastic orders, commanded them to be banished from the kingdom. 16. At length the long expected bull of absolution ,f.'q/ arrived from the pope; and the leaguers having no further grounds of resistance, prepared everywhere for submission. The duke de Mayenne set the example, and during the remainder of his life was one of Henry's most faithful and devoted subjects ; the other chiefs followed his example, but exacted a high price for the purchase of their loyalty, which Henry, notwithstanding the disordered state of ' his finances, faithfully paid. 17. Phihp, king of Spain, was now Henry's only enemy ; and even he, notwithstanding his blind and brutal obstinacy of character, saw that the league was irretrievably ruined. He still continued the war, captured Calais, and soon after added to his conquests the city of Amiens, which his forces surprised. IS. But Henry soon recovered the latter, and forced the Spanish army to retreat. The pro- testants were naturally displeased with the king for having deserted their religion, and were inclined to create dis- irqc turbances in the provinces. Henry, therefore, to con- ciliate this portion of his subjects, issued the celebrated edict of Nantes, by which they were granted a perfect tolera- tion of their religion, and full security both in person and pro- perty. 19. Soon afterwards the war with Spain was termin- ated by the treaty of Vervins, which Henry, by the tacit con- sent of his alhes, the Dutch and English, concluded separately with Philip. 20. The death of the Spanish king followed ii? a short time after the conclusion of this pacification, and witti him the power of Spain seems to have terminated. His efforts to crush protestantism in Europe, dictated by bigotry rathei than by policy, were eminently unsuccessful, and served in the end to ruin the country which was cursed with him as a sove- reign. England defeated the armada arrogantly named in- vincible, and crushed the naval power of Spain ; Holland suc- ceeded in throwing off Philip's yoke, and acquiring independ- ence ; the league perished in France ; his only successful project was the establishment of the inquisition in Spain, which long continued to degrade that unhappy country. 21. The return of peace and tranquillity produced a period of comparative happiness in France, to which its inhabitants had been long unaccustomed. The protestanis, indeed, thought that Henry was not sufficiently grateful to his oldest and mos( HENRY IV^. 271 faithful friends, but the nation in general were delic^hted with ji monarch, whose greatest anxiety was to prove himself the father of his subjects, and who, unlike all his predecessors, extended his care to the peasantry, who had been hitherto treated as an inferior class of beings. 22. But though the dis- positions of the king were noble and generous, it is doubtful whether they would have proved so beneficial, had they not been directed by his faithful friend and able minister, the marquis de Rosny, afterwards duke of Sully. Under him the Sully. finances, which were in a frightful state of disorder, were, by a series of judicious measures, made available for the services of the kingdom ; commerce, which had been oppressed by a load of monopohes and absurd restrictions, was unfettered ; industry was every where encouraged, useful public works undertaken, and the administration of justice purified from the corruptions which had long made it a system of legahzed ini- quity. Henry, too sensible to the allurements of pleasure, was frequently made the dupe of his mistresses, and the beau- tiful Gabrielle d'Estrees had so much power over him, that he designed to marry her if he could obtain permission from Rome to divorce his wife, Margaret of Valois, with whom he had not hved for several years. On the death of Gabrielle, Henry took as his second mistress Henrietta d'Entragues, an artful woman, who very nearly succeeded in becoming his queen. Henry showed his promise ready signed to Sully, ^'hen the virtuous minister, transported with indignation, iff &72 HISTORY OF FRANCE. stantly tore it to pieces. " I believe you are mad," cried Henry in a rage. "It is true, I am mad," replied Sully, " and I wish I were the only madman in France." Henry was finally divorced from Margaret, and soon after married Mary de Medicis ; by her he had a son who afterwards suc- ceeded him, but in every other respect the match was unfor* tunate. 23. During the wars of the league, the duke of ir(M\ ^^^°y had made several encroachments on the territory * of France ; the exertions of Sully had supplied the king with the means of punishing these usurpations, and he accordingly commenced a vigorous war against that prince. It began and ended in one campaign ; the duke was compelled to beg a peace, which he could only obtain by the cession of a considerable portion of his dominions. 24. But the duke had left the seeds of rebellion in the kingdom, and even seduced the marechal de Biron, who had been one of Henry's best and earliest friends, to obhlerate the remembrance of his former services, by joining in a treasonable conspiracy against hia country and his king. Henry, who had the most unquestion able proofs of his guilt, offered him a pardon if he would can- didly confess his crime ; but Biron obstinately refusing to make any acknowledgment, he was delivered over to justice. It is remarkable that this nobleman, who had always exhibited great personal bravery in the field of battle, betrayed the most womanish weakness on the scaffold ; so much does heroism consist in a consciousness of moral rectitude. 2.5. The kingdom of France for several years continued to enjoy the fruits of an excellent administration, and saw her strength revive with her happiness ; but plots were daily con- trived against the king, principally fomented by his perfidious mistress d'Entragues. So infatuated was Henry, that he con- tinued his affection to this perfidious woman even after he had received the most unequivocal proofs of her guilt. The duke de Bouillon, who had received the greatest marks of kindness, endeavoured to excite a new civil war, by working on the dis- contents and disappointments of the Hugonots. Henry hav- ing in vain tried gentler methods, at length marched against the duke, and deprived him of his principality, Sedan, but restored it again on his repentant submission. 26. These disturbances did not, however, produce Jti^ any serious effect on the general tranquillity of France ; under the prudent administration of Sully, that coun- try was fast recovering from the evils that had been inflicted HENRY IV. 273 by the civil wars ; and Henry being left at liberty to direct eis attention to foreign affairs, endeavoured to merit the name of the Pacifier of Europe, a title more honourable than that of the most illustrious conqueror. The republic of Venice had provoked the hostility of the 'court of Rome, by sentencing to capital punishment an Augustine monk, who had been guilty of the most enormous crimes, and prohibiting the alienation of lands to the clergy, who had become a burden to the state, from their numbers, their extensive possessions, and their ex- emption from taxation. Paul V., who was then pope, excum- municated the republic, and not trusting entirely to the effi- cacy of ecclesiastical censures, levied an army in order to compel the Venetians to submission. Henry, perceiving the scandal that this war was hkely to bring on religion, successfully offered himself ais a mediator, and notwilh- -if^nn standing the vehement opposition of the Spanish court, effected a reconciliation. The states of Holland, though vir tually independent, were not as yet acknowledged as a separate state by their former masters, the Spaniards ; the war had now lasted forty years, and the Dutch had not only driven their oppressors out of the country, but also obtained several im- portant settlements in the extremity of Asia. 27. Henry me- diated a peace between the new states and their former rulers ; a labour of no small difficulty, for the Spanish court, with the same obstinate pride by which it is distinguished at the present day, preferred a nominal title over their former subjects, to the solid advantages of a beneficial peace. 28. We are told by Sully, that Henry meditated the forma- tion of a Christian republic in Europe ; it was proposed to divide Europe between fifteen sovereigns, none of whom should be permitted to make any new acquisition, but should form altogether an association for maintaining a mutual balance and preserving peace. This project was one of very ques- tionable utility, and at all events could never be realized; his second object, to set bounds to the ambition of the house of Austria, both in Germany and Italy, was more practicable, and more immediately useful. 29. He had already made the ne- cessary preparations for this enterprise, when the emperor, Rudolph II., furnished him with a pretence for commencing the war, by sequestrating the duchies of Cleves, Juliers, and Bergue, after the death of the last duke. Henry entered into a league with the elector of Brandenbureh and the count Pa- latine of Neuburg, who both pretended to the succession. The protestants of Germany, always justly suspicious of Austriao S 274 HISTORY OF FRANCE. .teachery, formed a new alliance, for the protection of tneit civil and religious liberties, of which Flenry was privately th« contriver, and publicly the chief support. The pope, the re- public of Venice, and the confederacy of the Swiss cantons, all led by separate interests, were united in the common reso- lution of checking the imperial power. 30. Never was any enterprise better concerted. Henry was to march into Germany at the head of forty thousand excel- lent soldiers. Sully had provided ample resources for the ex- penses of the army ; the allies were all eager to perform their several stipulations. On the other side, the emperor was im- mersed in the study of astrology, and a vain search after the philosopher's stone; his only supporter, the king of Spain was the slave of bigotted inquisitors and avaricious favourites both were destitute of wisdom, confidence, and resources. 31 Henry was impatient to join the army, but was detained much against his will to gratify the queen with the vain ceremony of a coronation, which she insisted on with the most eager vio- lence. During the festivities which took place on this occa- sion, the mind of Henry was distracted by the most gloomy forebodings, and he more than once felt that "coming events cast their shadows before," in fearful anticipations of a sudden and violent death. 32. His apprehensions were fatally ful- filled. Passing along a street, his coach was entangled in a crowd, and a desperate fanatic, named Ravaillac, took that op- portunity of stabbing him. The assassin mounted on the hind wheel of the coach, and plunged a knife into the king's bosom, who was so intent on the perusal of a letter, that he did not even see his murderer. The courtiers who were in the coach drew up the windows, and ordered the driver to return to the Louvre, but life was extinct before they reached the palace. 33. Thus died at the age of fifty-seven a prince worthy of im- mortahty, against whom more than fifty conspiracies were formed by his contemporaries, but whose memory has been hallowed by the admiration of posterity, and whose reign might serve as a model to all princes who love their subjects. Let us bury in oblivion a few spots which stain his private life, weaknesses which are unhappily too common to heroic minds and honour him for the clemency which he showed to his in< veterate enemies, the wisdom with which he tranquillized a land distracted by civil wars for nearly half a century, and the enlightened toleration of which he gave a bright example him self, and recommended the practice to his successors. 34 Much of the glory both of the public works that Henry exf HENRY IV. 275 cuted, and those still greater which he had projected, undoubt- edly belongs to Sully ; but it is no small praise to have selected such an adviser, and to have borne wiih patience the reproofs which Sully frequently gave him with a boldness almost re« publican. The king was happy in possessing such a minister, and the minister was as happy in having such a king. The nation was still more fortunate in enjoying such a rare combi- nation as a virtuous sovereign and a patriotic administration. Questions. 1. Why was Henry IV. compelled to raise the siege of Pu/is? 2. Did he obtain any victories? 3. What was the state of parties at this time ? 4. How were foreign powers divided ? 5. In what manner did the clergy show their inveterate hostility to Henry? 6. How did Henry's generosity prevent che capture of Paris? 7. By whom was the siege raised ? 8. Did the king subsequently meet with a similar disappoint- ment ? 9. What was the character of the prince of Parma? 10. By whom was the power of the Sixteen overthrown? 11. What change was necessary to secure Henry's final success? 12. Was this attended by any beneficial result? 13. Did any party still hold out? 14. How were the hostile exertions of the clergy made ineffectual 7 15. Why were the Jesuits expelled from France? 16. How was the civil war terminated ? 17. Were there any remarkable events in the Spanish war? 18. What was the edict of Nantes ? 19. Where was peace concluded with Spain? 20. What was the character of Philip of Spain 7 21. How did Henry treat his subjects ? 22. What benefits resulted to France from the administration of Sully? 23. How did the war with the duke of Savoy terminate? 24. What former favourite of Henry proved a traitor? 25. Whose intrigues still disturbed France? 26. How did Henry obtain the title of the Pacifier of Europe? 27. Why was it difficult to mediate a peace between Spain and Holland ? 28. What curious project is Henry said to have meditated? 29. Aided by what states did Henry resolve to attack the empire f 30. Why was this a favourable opportunity? 31. How was the king's march delayed? 32. What misfortune was the consequence? 33. Was Henry a good sovereign ? U Who shares the glory of this reign? HISTORY OF FRANCE. Louia XIII. CHAPTER XXX. LOUIS XIII. Talents angel bright if wanting worth are shining instruments, In false ambition's hands, to furnish faults Illuptnous, and give infamy renown. Yorire. I. The assassination of Henry IV. overthrew the it'in ^^hole structure which his wise conduct had raised, ' dispelled ail tht? hopes that lovers of their country had formed, and plunged the kingdom into every species of mis- fortune. In the midst of the public sorrow, the queen and several of the courtiers could scarcely conceal their joy at the removal of the restraint which had hitherto checked their am- bnion and rapacity. Louis XIII. was but nine years old, and the appointment to the regency was a natural source of all the artifices of political intrigue. 2. The queen dowager, Mary de Medicis, was like her predecessor Catharine in desire of power, but was not quite so unscrupulous in the use of ini LOUIS XHi. 277 quitous means for its attainment. Her great friend and assist- ftnt, the duke d'Epernon, went to the parliament which was then sitting, and threatened violence if the queen were noi immediately invested with the sole authority of the regency. That body, partly moved by his threats, and partly anxious to annex the legislative authority of the slates-general to their judicial functions, complied with his request. 3. Nothing could equal the vices and follies of the new go- vernment. The Florentine Concini, Marquis d'Ancre, and his wife Eleanor, obtained a complete ascendancy over the mind of the queen, who was as weak in intellect as she was ardent in ambition. These two foreigners, equally rapacious and subtle, raised themselves from a condition below mediocrity to the summit of fortune. With them were joined the pope's nuncio, the Spanish ambassador, and a Jesuit named Cotton, the whole forming a secret conclave by which all the import- ant measures of the state were directed, whilst the delibera- tions of the council of state were rendered an absolute nullity. 4. The objects that engaged their attention were to cement an union between France and Spain, by the marriage of Anne of Austria with the king, and his sister Elizabeth with the son of Philip III., to dissolve all the alliances formed in the last reign, to exterminate the Hugonots, and to dissipate all the treasures that had been collected by the economy of the former reign. 5. Sully soon became wearied of witnessing crimes that he could not check, and profusion that he could not con- trol ; he demanded and obtained permission to retire to his country-seat, where he parsed the remainder of his life in literary retirement, engaged in composing those interesting memoirs of his own times, which have proved almost as useful to succeeding generations as his pubUc life was to France. Once again he returned to court, when Louis XIII. wished for his advice. The young courtiers began to ridicule his old- fashioned dress and behaviour, which Sully perceiving, said to Louis, " When the king, your father, did me the honour of consulting me, he first dismissed all the buflToons of the court.' This great man survived to the year 1G41. 6. The misconduct of the government soon produced a civil war. The prince of Conde, with several of the most power- ful nobles, took up arms, and ihe queen, unable to resist them in the field, was compelled to conclude all their demands by the treaty of Sainte-Menehoulde. 7. One of these -ifi^ was the convocation of the slates-general, which were tccordingly assembled, but spent their whole time in useless 24 27S HISTORY OF FRANCE. disputation. The clergy insisted on the publication jf tne decrees of the council of Trent, which the other orders looked on as subversive of the independence of the kingdom; on the' other hand, a proposal of the third estate to enact a law de- claring, "That no temporal or spiritual power has a right to dispose of the kingdom and absolve the subjects from their allegiance," was rejected by the ecclesiastics as an heretical novelty. This can scarcely be deemed surprising when we iearn that the regency annulled an arret of the parliament, declaring the king independent of foreign jurisdiction. One would almost have supposed that the court of Rome had pre- sided in the king's council. 8. The parliament were at length roused to enquire into the state of the country ; they made remonstrances to the court on the dissipation of the royal treasures, but were severely checked for intermeddling with affairs of state. The prince of Conde, placing himself at the head of the Hugonots again, had recourse to arms. After publishing a most violent manifesto, he suffered himself to be duped by the Italian arti- fices of the queen, laid down his arms, returned to court, and was shut up a close prisoner in the Louvre. Soon after, the Marchioness d'Ancre made a total change in the ministry, and promoted to the office of secretary of state, Richelieu, bishop of Lucon, who was afterwards destined to be the virtual', sovereign of France. 9. The Concinis, though equally despised and de- ■toy^ tested by the great, were long enabled to resist all their efforts ; but they met with a more formidable enemy in young Luines, whose rise was almost as rapid and astonishing as their own. This man had risen to favour by his skill in training birds for the amusement of the monarch ; he found means to inspire Louis with a jealousy of the authority possessed by the regency, persuaded him to shake off the yoke of his domineering mother, and the still more odious slavery in which he was held by foreigners, who, through her means, were his masters, and the actual rulers of his kingdom. 10. These insinuations produced their in- tended effect : orders were issued to arrest the marquis d'An- cre , and Vitri, captain of the guard, executed them according to the intention of Luines; that is, Concini was slain under pretence of having made some resistance. This service pro- cured for Vitri a marechal's staff; the same honour had previ'- ously been conferred on one Themines, for having arrested the prince of Conde. What must the government have bee* LOUIS XIII. 279 *vhen such services were rewarded with the highest mihtary honours! 11. The trial of the marchioness d'Ancre was a glaring mixture of folly and absurdity. The principal accusa- tion against her was that she had obtained an influence over the queen by sorcery ! When asked by her judges, " what magic she had used to fascinate Mary de Medicis ?" she replied with equal sense and spirit, " the ascendancy which a superior genius has over a weak mind." The parliament de- clared her guilty of treason against God and man, without specifying any particular action which could be con- sidered as either, and sentenced her to be beheaded, iJiq after which her body was to be burned. 12. The exile of the queen mother was a necessary con- sequence of the execution of her favourites ; she was sent to Blois, where she intrigued with the duke d'Epernon to regain her influence by force of arms. Twice was she on the point .of commencing a civil war, but the evil was on both occasions averted by negociations, in the latter of which Richelieu was honourably distinguished. Luines imitated the example of the Florentines, whose ruin he had effected ; he enriched himself with their spoils, and in a short time rose from the rank of a private gentleman to the very highest dignities of the state. His weak-minded master gave him the sword of constable, and, with still greater folly stirred up a war amongst his subjects, in which his favourite might have an opportunity of exhibiting his incapacitj'-. 13. The edict of Nantes having been flagrantly and repeatedly violated, the Hugonots resolved *o defend themselves from continued insults and oppressions: an assembly of their leaders was held at Rochelle, where it was resolved, unless their wrongs should be redressed, that they would throw off' the yoke of France and erect a republic on the model of the Dutch. 14. The constable Luines, equally ignorant and presump- tuous, imagining that he could easily crush this formidable party, undertook the management of the war ; and Louis, at his instigation, laid siege to Montauban, but ic-'q/ after having wasted much blood and treasure before its ' '^ ' walls, was forced to make a hurried and disgraceful retreat, 15. Two great captains, the duke of Rohan and his brother Soubise, were at the head of the protestants, and nothing could detach them from a cause which they thought it their duty to defend. Luines died after this disgraceful expedition ; the office of constable, which became vacant by his death, was an ')bject sufficiently tempting to prevail on the brave but ambi- 280 HISTORY OF FRANCE. ticjs Lesdiguieres, to desert his religion and his party , he at» jured protestantism, and became a formidable enemy to ths Hugonots, of whom he had long been one of the most favourite leaders. 16. The war was carried on with more valour than skill on both sides ; in the attack on the island of Rhe, the king displayed great personal bravery, and cut to pieces a large body of the insurgents ; but the Hugonots were still so formi- dable, that he was obliged to renew his former treaty with them, and again confirm the edict of Nantes; thus a desultory war was again terminated by an insincere peace. 17. The entire policy of Europe was now about to IfiW ""^'^''go a complete revolution, effected by the superior genius of one man. We have already noticed the firs' mtroduction of Richeheu into public life, and the share that he had in reconciling the queen mother to her son ; for this ser- vice he had been rewarded with a cardinal's hat ; but the king had by an express stipulation, excluded him from holding any office in the state. Louis, who was not totally destitute of re- ligious feelings, was disgusted by the cardinal's licentious life, which his sacred profession rendered more disgraceful. At length he yielded to his mother's importunities, and made Richelieu one of his council ; the cardinal knew well how to improve the opportunity; five years after his appointment to the council, he became prime minister and all-powerful; but from the first moment of his introduction he was the master of all his compeers. 18. The great objects of the cardinal's policy were to destroy the Hugonots and humble the house of Austria. For this purpose he undertook and executed several preparatory measures of great importance. He concluded a marriage between Henrietta, the king's sister, and the prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I. ; he delivered the Alpine pro- vince of the Valteline from the yoke of Rome and Spain ; he concluded an alliance with the Dutch, who, though distracted by internal religious wars, were maintaining a vigorous con- test against the Spaniards, and seizing on some of their most important colonies both in Asia and America. 19. Before Richelieu could undertake his magnificent projects with any chance of success, it was necessary to secure himself in the ministry against the factions of the French nobility, who still preserved some portion of their foi'fner feudal power. Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of the king, was at the head of a party opposed to the cardinal, whose assassination he meditated. The fickleness and cowardice of Gaston was the ruin of hia accomplices; he reconciled himself to the court by disclosinjf 282 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Gaston, Duke of Orleans, disclosing the Conspiracy Jo RicheJ-'su. LOUIS XIII. 283 (heir conspiracy to Richelieu, and again formed new conspira cies, whose failure only served to strengthen the exorbitant power of the minister. Never had a statesman so many diffi- culties to encounter, but they only served to give scope to hia genius, and his ambitious spirit supplied him with an energy and perseverance that triumphed over all opposition. 20. To authorise the changes that he intended, an assembly of the Notables was convoked ; this was merely a convocation of the principal nobility, and did not, like the states-general, contain any popular representatives. Richelieu proposed several im portant measures for the reformation of finance, and addressed the assembly with equal wisdom and eloquence ; he said that it was better to provide for the due execution of former edicts than to form new ordinances, and that actions rather than words would be found a proper remedy for the evils of the state. All his edicts were approved without opposition. 21. Whilst the genius of Richelieu ruled the whole kingdom of France, the duke of Buckingham, the im- -i/^o-y prudent minister of Charles I., was arming England against her ancient enemy. The imprudent zeal of Henri etta's catholic attendants had provoked the hostility of the English ; the attacks made on their protestant brethren, the Hugonots, had excited the national sympathy in their favour, and Buckingham took advantage of these circumstances to revenge an insult which had been offered him by Richelieu. Whilst the English duke had been employed in negociating 'the marriage between Henrietta and Charles, he was weak enough to form a romantic attachment for Louis's queen, Anne of Austria. Anxious to pay her a second visit, he passed over into France, under the pretence of concluding a treaty against Spain, but Richelieu being informed of his sentiments, caused him to be denied admittance at court, and Buckingham, irri- tated at his disappointment, resolved to encourage and support the Hugonots, who, equally suspicious and suspected, were again engaged in an insurrection.' 22, The rashness of Buckingham caused the ruin of Rochelle, which had long been justly looked on as the principal bulwark of the French pro- testants. Richelieu undertook its siege in person, and showed, during its continuance, the valour of a soldier, the skill of a general, the wisdom of a statesman, but little of the attributes which belonged to his profession of an ecclesiastic. The duke of Buckingham, on the other hand, undertook nothing that did not prove his complete incapacity for the situation into which he had been thrust by the favour of his foolish sove 284 HISTORY OF FRANCE reijs^n. He made a descent on the isle of Rhe, which waa badly contrived, and worse executed ; after being disgracefully defeated he returned home, leaving Rochelle completely in- vested both by sea and land. To exclude the English suc- cours, the cardinal had caused a mole to be constructed across the entrance of the harbour ; he was not interrupted in the execution of this daring project, for the duke of Buckingham having been assassinated at Portsmouth, the sailing of the English fleet was delayed until after this great work had been completed. 23. The inhabitants of Rochelle bore all the horrors of a fierce siege and pressing famine, with unparalleled courage and patience. Guiton, their mayor, would not listen even to the proposal of a surrender ; when told that the majo- rity of the inhabitants were fast falling victims to hunger and disease, he replied — " it is enough if one remains to shut the gates." The mother and sister of the duke de Rohan ani- mated the garrison by their spirited exhortations, and encour aged the citizens by their example of patient submission to privation. But, though heroic perseverance may be exhibited with the very faintest glimmerings of hope, it decays and per- ishes when the failure of the last faint expectation is witnessed. 24. The hope of relief from England had supported the Rochellans under ail their sufl^erings ; the English fleet hove in sight; the worn-down inhabitants crawled to the walls, eager to witness the success of this their last and only chance. They saw that fleet, after a weak and inefltctual effort to break through the mole, tack about and leave them to their fate. The courage by which they had been hitherto supported at once failed, they immediately surrendered almost at discre- tion, and a royahst garrison manned the walls of Rochelle, ere the topsails of the fleet that had been sent for their de- rfi^S I'verance were out of sight. 25. The victorious army * seemed, on entering the city, to have come into the abode of death ; more than two-thirds of the inhabitants had fallen victims to the calamities of the siege, and the survivors resembled skeletons rather than living men ; the streets were silent and deserted, " there was not a house in which there was not one dead ;" and one of the victorious generals was compelled to exclaim, " we have only triumphed over carcas- ses." A few days after the surrender of the town, a violent tempest destroyed the mole which had proved its ruin, but Richeheu had demolished the fortifications, and the citizens were too few and too dispirited to make any new attempt foi freedom. 26. Nismes and Montauban shortly after surren- LOUIS XIII. 285 dered, but as the protestants were still formidable, the cardinal granted them favourable conditions of peace. The cause of the Hugonots was, however, completely ruined ; they no longer retained any of those cautionary towns, by the possession of which they could enforce the observance of treaties. They were wholly at the mercy of their enemies, and were destined jn the next reign to experience how weak is the security of promises between the powerful and the feeble. 27. The cardinal having subdued the Hugonots pre- pared to execute his great scheme of humbling the i^'oq' house of Austria. The war was successful in Italy, but it was in Germany that the cardinal more fully displayed the resources of his genius, for he had there an ally, whose heroism has been rarely paralleled. The emperor Ferdinand, b)'^ the most flagrant violations of treaties, had provoked the protestant princes to take up arms : they found a leader worthy of their cause, in Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, whom history has honoured with the name o^ the Lion nf the North. 23. This contest in Germany, which is usually called the thirty years' war, was supported by the money of France and the soldiers of Sweden; it was on the whole unfavourable to .he imperial arms, notwithstanding the great abilities displayed by the generals Tilly and Wallenstein. 29. In the mean time, Gaston, duke of ,/^oo Orleans, instigated by the queen-mother, and en- couraged by the duke of Lor- raine, to whose sister he was married, renewed the civil war. Weaker even than his brother, this prince, the slave of unworthy flatterers, com- menced rebellions to gratify his favourites, and then sacri- ficed them to obtain peace. The duke of Lorraine was punished by the loss of his best places, and the forfeiture of a great part of his domi- nions. The duke of Mont- morenci, who had been in- duced to join in the plot by the hope of obtaining the office of constable, was still more unfortunate. Having fallen into / Gaston, Duke of Orlcana. 286 HISTORY OF FRANCE. ihe hands of his enemies, he was sentenced to expiate his am bition on the scaffold, and not-withstanding the great services his family had performed to the state, and the interest made to save his hfe by all the nobility of France, he was publicly executed. Gaston's marriage with the princess of Lorraine, haring been contracted without the royal assent, was declared null by the lawyers of Paris, and set aside by the parliament. The quarrel between him and his brother was after some lime accommodated, but bitter hostility still remained in the breasts of all the parties. 30. The death of Gustavus Adolphus, in the arms of victory, for a time checked the triumphant career of the protestants in Germany; but Richelieu, tiiough the determined enemy of the reformed religion in France, saw that by supporting it in the empire, he could alone check the exorbitant power of the house of Austria. A new treaty was concluded with the duke of Saxe Weimar, and additional subsidies were sent to , p.jJ enable him to carry on the war with vigour. 31. The ■ hostilities between Spain and Holland still continued to the great advantage of the latter ; Richelieu entered into close alliance with the Dutch, and by a treaty agreed to a par- tition of Flanders as if it had been already subdued. 32. The first and second campaigns were disastrous to the French ; the soldiers mutinied for want of pay; the Dutch made but little exertion, dreading to extend the dominions of a neighbour so powerful as France to their frontiers ; the Flemings continued faithful to Spain, because their municipal privileges were re- spected, and, with the single exception of the duke de Rohan, all the French generals exhibited the most signal proofs of presumption and incapacity. The Spaniards invaded Picardy, and were at first so successful, that the French trembled for their capital; but they lost all their advantages through the misconduct of their generals, and the spirit of national resist- ance which is roused in a patriotic people by an invasion. It would be equally superfluous and tiresome to enter into the particulars of a war so complicated, and carried on with such obstinacy, in which the strength of the powers was every- where exhausted as well by victories as defeats. Suffice it to say, that the Spaniards were finally overwhelmed by a series of calamities, their armies were defeated by the count d'Har court, the Dutch admiral. Van Tromp, destroyed their fleet, Catalonia revolted, and placed itself under the protec- \Rd() '''°" °^ France, and Portugal, having thrown off the ' yoke of Spain, placed the duke of Braganza on ita LOUIS XIII. 287 •hrDne. 33, The death of Weimar and Bannier for a time dispirited the Swedes, but they had previously so weakened the empire by several brilliant victories, that Austria contend- ed rather for independence than dominion ; and their new leader, Tortenson, seemed not inferior to any of his prede- cessors. 34. The internal history of France presents us during this period with nothing but a series of intrigues for overthrowing the power of Richelieu, all of which were disconcerted either by his superior skill or the weakness of his enemies. These plots were fatal to many of the French nobilitj% for the car- dinal procured from the corrupted courts of justice the con- demnation of those who had conspired for his overthrow. He continued, however, to veil his passions under an air of gran- deur. After the execution of the last victims that were sacri- ficed to his jealous fears for his security, he wrote to Louis XTII. in the following terms : — " Sire, your enemies are dead, and your arms are in Perpignan." That important town had been just taken from the Spaniards. 35. But when his S)wer seemed to have arrived at its greatest height ; when ary de Medicis, who had been his early patron, but had subsequently become his most bitter and dangerous foe, had perished in misery and exile at Cologne ; when the nobility dreaded him more than their sovereign, and seemed to have resigned all hopes of throwing off the yoke ; at that moment he was surprised by the hand of death, and -.AaA was cut short in the midst of his triumphant career. 36. Richelieu appears to have possessed shining rather than solid abilities ; his enterprises were always vast and magni- ficent, but were not uniformly important and useful. His moral character was of the worst description, unscrupulous in the use of any means by which he might retain the situation of minister, he corrupted the administration of justice, and added to the legal murder of his opponents the mockery of an iniquitous trial before tribunals of his own selection. At the same time it must be confessed that the cardinal does not ap- pear to have been worse than his rivals ; public virtue seems at this period to have been banished from France, and if more of crimes are recorded of Richelieu than of his antagonists, let it be remembered that his situation was more conspicuous. [n private life he was fond of show and grandeur, his expen- diture equalled that of the sovereign, and the palace which ne erected for his own residence (the Palais Royal) is still one ot the noblest structures in Paris. He wished to be deemed a 288 HISTORY OF FRANCE. patron of the fine arts, and had the vanity to think himself an excellent dramatic poet. But to this weakness must be op posed the vigour with which he resisted the whole nobility of France, and destroyed the remnants of their feudal power. Il was during his administration that the government of France was finally formed into an absolute monarchy, and it was the remembrance of this that probably induced Peter the Great of Russia to exclaim, " I would give half my dominions for one Richelieu to teach me how to govern the remainder." 37. Louis XIII. did not long survive his minister, Ifii-^ he died with apparent resignation in the forty-second year of his age and thirty-third of his reign, leaving his kingdom again exposed to all the evils of a long minority for his son and successor had not yet attained his fifth year. Louis had so little share in the government of the kingdom, that he can scarcely be said to have reigned ; his defective education and natural weakness of intellect subjected him com- pletely to his servants, and it has been well observed by a late writer, that "during this reign Louis XIII. vsrore the crown, %nd cardinal Richelieu swayed the sceptre." Questions 1. Did any persons rejoice in the murder of Henry? 2. Who obtained the regency? 3. By whom was the power of the state usurped? 4. What were the designs of this party? 6. How did Sully act? 6. On what terms was the civil war terminated ? 7. How did the assembly of the states act? 8. In what manner was the prince of Cond6 treated t 9. What rival of the Concinis now appeared? 10. By whom was the marquis d'Ancre arrested ? 11. What accusations were brought against the marchJone»« d'Ancre ? 12. How did the queen mother act? 13. To what resolution did the protestant3 come? 14. Who was sent against them, and how did he conduct die war? 15. By whom were the protestants deserted? 16. How was the war carried on? 17. Who now began to sway the destinies of France? 18. What measures did Richelieu take preparatory to his great designs? 19. How did Gaston, duke of Orleans, conduct himself? LOUIS XIII. 289 20 In what manner did Richelieu manage the assembly of the Notables? 21. How did England become involved in a war with France? 22, What contrast was there between the character and conduct of the rival ministers of France and England at the siege of Rochelle ? 23 Did the town make a vigorous resistance ? 24 How were the inhabitants finally induced to surrender? 25 What was the state of Rochelle at the time of its capitulation f 26, On what conditions was peace made with the protestants? 27 What formidable enemy now assailed the empire? 28. By what name is this war known in history? 29. How did the duke of Orleans destroy his friends? 30. Were the protestants overthrown by the death of Gustavua Adolphus? 31. With whom did Richelieu enter into an alliarMie against Spain ? 32. What general summary may be given of the events of the war ? ^3. By whom was the protestant cause maintained ? 34. How did Richelieu conduct himself in France? ?5. When did the cardinal die? J6. What was his character ? .*7. Did Louis long survive his minister'? — what was bis cha- racter ? Lady aii' Cenii^inan riding to Court. — Sixteenth Centuiy. ^5 290 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Louia XIV. CHAPTER XXXI. LOUIS XIV.— THE WARS OF THE FRONDE, Each party joined to do their best, To damn the public interest, And herded only in consults To put by one another's bolts. HvOIBKAt. 1. Louis XIII. on his death-bed had appointed by ui^ his will a council of regency, at the head of which were * placed the queen, Anne of Austria, and the duke of Orleans. To insure its execution, he made the queen and the duke swear to its observance, after which he ordered it to be registered by the parliament. But all his precautions were unavailing ; the grave had scarcely been closed over him, when his will w^as openly and shamelessly violated. The queen, being aided by the duke of Orleans, obtained an arret of parhament, giving to her the nomination of the council, and the right of appointment to all the great offices of state. 2. Having thus obtained all the real authority of the kingdom. LOUIS XIV. 29J •ne chose as her principal adviser and minister, cardinal Ma- Kinn, a native of Italy, whose diplomatic abilities had recom- mended him to the notice of Richelieu, and who seemed to have inherited all the ambition and much of the abilities of his patron. '3. The war with Spain still continued, and was main- tained on the side of Flanders with distinguished ability by the duke d'Enghien, afterwards better known by the name of " the great Conde." On the death of the king, orders had »jen sent him not to risk an engagement ; but anxious to re- lieve the important town of Rocroi, which was closely besieged, he resolved to hazard a battle. The Spanish infantry were at that time considered the best in Europe ; they boasted that their lines had never yet been broken, and deemed that Conde was marching to certain defeat. But the judicious manoeu- vres of this youthful general soon humbled the pride of the Spanish veterans ; in the third charge their ranks were broken, and their entire army hopelessly routed. 4. The capture of Thionville was the consequence of this brilliant victory, which may indeed be said to have placed Flanders at the mercy of France. From thence Conde proceeded to Germany, where the French had experienced some reverses ; but the presence of this young hero soon changed the fortune of the war. 5. With inferior forces he attacked the imperialists in their en- trenched camp near Friburg, and defeated them after an ob- stinate battle which lasted three days. PhiHpsburgh, Mentz, and several other fortresses on the Rhine, were the fruits of this brilliant victory. Gaston, duke of Orleans, had a little be- fore made himself master of Gravelines, which had sustained a vigorous siege for two months. But the French were less successful in Catalonia, where Philip I.V. defeated their forces, and captured the important towns, Lerida and Balaguier. 6. At the end of the campaign, Conde returned to Paris, leaving the command of the army to the mare- ,'l" °* chal Turenne. This general advanced into the heart * of the country to take advantage of a great victory gained by the Swedish general Torstenson, in Bohemia. On this ocra- sion, Turenne committed a capital error, the only one, it is said, of which he had ever been guilty, by consenting to the separation of the allied forces : Merci, the imperial genera., was not slow in taking advantage of this opportunity, he at- tacked the French at Manendahl in Franconia, and gained & complete victory. 7. On the receipt of this news Conde has- tened to join Turenne, he then led his forces against the im- 292 HISTORY OF FRANCE. A. B. 164S. perialists, attacked them at Nordlingen, and obtained a th j triumph even more glorious than his preceding victories. 8- The prince then marched to besiege Dunkirk, but Maza- rin, jealous of his fame and influence, had him removed to the command of the army in Catalonia, where, for want of neces- sary succours, he could undertake no enterprise of importance. His inaction did not long continue ; the emperor's brother, the archduke Leopold, having invaded Flanders and compelled the French army to retire, it was necessary to recai Conde and send him again to the scene of his former glory. He was too late to relieve Lens, which surrendered almost in his sight. But he well avenged his countrymen in the battle that ensued ; he to- tally defeated the archduke after a brief but sanguinary engagement, in which he left it doubtful whether he had displayed more skill or valour. Never since the foundation of the monarchy had France obtained such a series of splendid triumphs ; never be- fore had Frenchmen exhibited so much courage and conduct. 9. On the other hand, the Spanish monarchy had expe- rienced a succession of re- verses at least equally re- markable ; the loss of Hol- land and Portugal had been followed by that of the Brazilian settlements in South America, and the most valuable Spanish colonies in the East Indies. 10. To these was added about this time the revolt of the Neapolitans, who chose as their leader a fisherman named Masaniello. This demagogue was afterwards murdered by the populace, who had only the day before hailed him as a divinity. The insurgenU then resolved to establish a republic under the protection of France, and elected as doge the duke of Guise, who had some hereditary claims on Naples. Guise hastened to take possession of his new dignity, but receiving no succours from Mazarin, he was betrayed to the Spaniards and detained more than four years m prison. The Spaniards punished the revolters with fear- ful severity ; no less than fourteen thousand are said to have be«n ruthlessly massacred. 11. Experience has given a Cardinal Mazarin. LOUIS XIV. 293 further proof of the truth of the remark made by the old Ita- lian historian, Giannone, "No people," says he, "is more greedy and less capable of liberty than the Neapolitans. Giddy in their conduct, inconstant in their affections, unsteady in their opinions, they hate the present, and are too much de- pressed with the fears or hopes of futurity, according to the dictates of impetuous passion." 12. At length the separate interests of the several contend- ing powers required them to think of peace. Spain and Hol- land, after a war which had been protracted for eig-hty years, were wearied of the contest ; the former country saw that it would be vain to continue any further their la- ^/{^s^' hours for the subjugation of the revolted provinces; and the Dutch had begun to dread the dangerous increase of the French power. The complicated interests of the Ger- manic body, made the arrangement of the claims of the dif- ferent parties a matter of considerable difficulty ; but some new successes of the Swedes showed the emperor the danger of delay ; and the dread of a civil war in France made Mazarin still more anxious to bring matters to a satisfactory conclusion. The inferior powers were obliged to follow the example of Austria and France ; and at length the articles of the cele- brated treaty of Westphalia were signed at Munster, on the 24th of October, J 3. Spain and France were now the only countries that re- mained at war, and the civil dissensions that were caused in the latter by the unpopularity of the government greatly facili- tated the progress of the Spanish arms. The hatred that the oppressive taxes and despotic edicts of Mazarin inspired, was the cause of this war. The parliament of Paris not only re- fused to register his edicts, but forgetting the bounds of their jurisdiction, abolished the intendants of provinces, who were instituted by Louis XIII. ; and the court being filled with in- dignation, resolved to strike a decisive blow. By the cardinal's orders, a president and counsellor who had been distinguished for their vehement speeches against the court were arrested and thrown into prison. Upon this the Parisians took up arms, threw chains across the streets, erected barricadoes, killed seve- ral of the royal army, and had nearly made Mazarin himself the victim of their resentment. The cardinal, alarmed at the violence of the populace, displayed weakness as cowardly as his former proceedings had been rash, and ordered the prison- ers to be set at liberty. 25* 294 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 14. The opponents of the court took the title of Frondeurs,* they were stimulated to action chiefly by the coadjutor to the archbishop of Paris, afterwards the celebrated cardinal de Retz, a man equally distinguished by abilities and profligacy. The leaders of the Fronde were the prince of Conti, brother to the great Conde, with the dukes of Longueville, Beaufort, Vendome, and Bouillon. Conde, though discontented, sided with the court, and when the parhament had declared theif intention to take up arms, blockaded Paris. 15. This strange war was carried on by the pen as much as by the sword ; every occurrence was made the subject of a jest or ballad ; satires, lampoons, anAjeux cf esprit of every description were circulated every hour; ladies of rank forgetting the dignity of their sex, forced themselves into every political intrigue ; in short, the war was ridiculously begun, ridiculously con- lfi4Q ducted, and still more ridiculously concluded. 16. A ' seeming accommodation was effected between the par- ties, a general amnesty was published, and the court returned to Paris. But the following year, the prince of Conde, whose pretensions knew no bounds, quarrelled with the cardinal, and was, in consequence, sent to prison ; at the same time his brother, the prince of Conti, and his friend, the duke of Longueville, were arrested. 17. Mazarin could not have re- solved on a bolder, or apparently a more successful measure. The populace celebrated with bonfires the imprisonment of those princes whom they had a few months before looked on as their patrons and defenders, and followed with shouts in the train of a minister so lately the object of their execration. But the intemperate vanity of JVIazarin rendered this tranquil- lity of short duration ; he affronted Gaston, duke of J^5?l* Orleans, a man ever ready to change sides, and pro- voked the Frondeurs, who still breathed sedition. The parliament demanded the release of the imprisoned princes, * The origin of this name has been variously narrated, but the following account appears to be the most probable : — At the commencemen of the troubles, Bachaumont, a counsellor of the parliament, sportively said, that his associates were like school-boys, amusing themselves with a. fronde (sling) in one of the city ditches; they dispersed themselves v/henever the civil lieu- tenant approached, and coUected together as soon as he had turned bis back. This comparison was considered so applicable, that i •was celebrated in songs, and on the same evening the parliament party put bands resembling slings round their hats. From thenc* forward the opponents of the court were called /ro»(ieMr«. LOUIS XR. 295 and pronounced sentence of perpetual banishment against the cardinal. Mazarin went in person to re..ease the prince of Conde and his associates, hoping that he might be able to at- tach them to his interest, but received from them only marks of contempt. He then retired to Liege and afterwards to Cologne, whence he still governed the queen-regent as abso- lutely as if he had never quitted the court. 18. Conde took up arms against the court, and was opposed by Turenne, who had formerly been a leader of the Fronde. The two great generals came to an engagement under the walls of Paris, in which the royalists were victorious, though the daughter of the duke of Orleans, by turning the cannon of the ba;itille against the king's forces, prevented them from immediately reaping the fruits of their triumph. 19. As the hatred against the minister seemed implacable, the king consented to his removal, and dismissed him after having made his eulogium in a declaration. The Parisians then joyfully opened their gates to their sovereign, and the face of affairs was entirely changed. The duke of Orleans went to end his days in banishment, the cardinal de Retz was imprisoned, and Conde took refuge with the Spaniards, where, like the constable of Bourbon, he found that all his former in- fluence and all his former glory were annihilated the moment that he became a traitor. 20. To the storms of the Fronde succeeded so still a calm that Mazarin again appeared peaceably at court, -i «cq resumed all his authority, and saw himself courted by every body, even by the parliament ; a conclusion worthy of an absurd war, the history of which, as was observed by Conde, after he had played his part in it, deserved only to be written in burle'^vque verse. The faction of that prince were called the party of the petits maitres, because they wanted to make themselves masters of the state. In a short time the name petits maitres, given to youthful coxcombs, and the term Frondeurs, applied to factious censurers of the govern- iient, were the only relics of these foolish wars. 21. The Spaniards, during these contests, recovered many of their former losses, and deprived France of the advantages that it had obtained from the victories of the great Conde. That prince was now in arms against his country, and would have exposed it to the greatest dangers had he not been op- posed by Turenne. These great rivals attracted the attention of all Europe. Turenne had been deemed an unequal match for Conde, but the prince was not in a situation to display hi* 2^6 HISTORY OF FRANCE. military taients ; he was depressed by the consciousness oX fighting against his countrymen, and was besides unable to convince the Spanish generals, equally ignorant and obstinate, of the superior merit of his own plans. 22. England, at this time under the vigorous administration of Cromwell, may be said to have held the balance of European power ; the alliance of the protector was eagerly courted by both parties, but at 'ength Mazarin prevailed by his excessive complaisance, not to say meanness. The English auxiliaries restored -i^c-Q suj>eriority to the French. Turenne, aided by six ' thousand British troops, laid siege to Dunkirk, while the port was blocked up by twenty sail of English men-of-war. Don John of Austria and the prince of Conde marched to its relief; Turenne attacked them near Dunes, and gained a complete victory, a consequence which the prince of Conde /lad predicted when he saw the bad dispositions which were made against his will. The fruits of this triumph were the surrender of Dunkirk, which was garrisoned by the English, and the capture of all the frontier towns in the Spanish Neth- erlands. 23. Completely crushed by the weight of the v/ar, Spain began to turn her thoughts on peace, and Mazarin anxiously negotiated a marriage between Louis and the infanta. It would be, perhaps, paying too high a compliment to Maza- rin's prophetic power, to say that he foresaw that in conse- quence of this marriage the throne of Spain would devolve tc the family of the Bourbons ; but such a contingency was fore- seen, as there was an express renunciation of the infanta's claim inserted in the articles, which eventually shared the fate of all similar renunciations, that is to say, was violated on the first opportunity. 24. During the negotiation of this treaty, which Ifi^QiSr ^^^ named that of the Pyrennees, Charles II., the ,^^j^ exiled monarch of England, came to Fontarabia to sohcit the protection of the two crowns, but neither Mazarin nor the Spanish minister, Don Louis de Haro, would deign so much as to listen to him. But at this very moment, when all his hopes seemed blighted, a counter-revolution took place in England, and by the aid of general Monk, Charles was restored to the throne of tiis ancestors. 2.5. In the following year died cardinal Mazarin, as absolute master of the state as Richelieu had been, displaying the same pomp, though he had first put on the appearance of modesty, and leaving to his heirs an immense fortune, accu- niulaced by means that exposed him to just reproaches. His LOUIS XIV. 297 LOUIS XIV. 299 nieces were married to the most illustrious nobles of Franca and Italy ; their portions were paid out of the public funds, which greatly exhausted the finances. Mazarin does not appear to have been a man of brilliant abilities, but he pos- sessed good sense and good fortune, qualities sufficient to make a great though not a good minister. It would, however, be unjust to refuse him the praise he merits for having negociated the treaties of WestphaHa and the Pyrennees ; the title of peace-maker is glorious, and the wars thus concluded had / caused many miseries, devastations, and massacres. Questions. 1. How was the will of the late king violated * 2. Whom did the qneen appoint prime minister? 3. What great victory was obtained by the duke d'Enghien f 4. Were any towns captured in consequence ? 5. With what success was the war conducted in other parts ? 6. By what mistake of their general did the French lose th« battle of Manendahl ? 7. By whom was their loss retrieved ? 8. Did Conde obtain any other victory ? 9. What losses did Spain suffer 7 10. What were the most remarkable circumstances in the Neapo- litan revolution? 11. What character has been given of the Neapolitans? 12. How was peace restored throughout the greater part of Europe 1 13. What civil commotions took place in France* 14. Who were the leaders of the Fronde ? 15. Was there any thing ridiculous in this war? 16. Whose ambition excited fresh disturbances ? 17. How did Mazarin behave? , 18. Was there any battle fought between the parties? 19. How was peace restored ? 20. What proves the fickleness of the French nation? 21. How was the war with Spain carried on ? 22. Did the English take any, and what share in the war 23. On what conditions was peace concluded with Spain < 24. Did any remarkable revolution take place in England about this time ? 85. What M as the character of Mazarin ? 100 HISTORY OF FRANCE. The Grand Dauphin, Son of Louis XIV., and a Lady of the Court. CHAPTER XXXII. LOUIS XIV. TO THE TREATY OF RYSWICK. There shall they rot — ambition's honour'd fools ! Yet. honour decks the turf that wraps their clay! Vain sophistry ! in these behold the tools ! The broken tools, that tyrants cast away By myriads, when they dare to pave their way With human hearts — to what? — a dream alone. . Can despots compass aught that holds their sway^ Or call with truth one spot of earth their own, Save that wherein at last they crumble bone by bone. BmoN. 1. It was not imagined that Louis XIV, after hav- Ififil '"^ ^° '°"§^ delegated his authority to another, would have assumed the reins of government on the death of his minister. Ill-educated, ignorant of business, addicted to pleasure, and of an age in which the passions usually predo- minate over reason, it was naturally supposed that, like se many other princes, he would have devolved the cares of the state on some new favourite, and devoted himself to sensual LOUIS XIV 301 enjoyments. But the predominant passions of his soul were ambition of military glory, and a thirst for extensive domi nions ; even during the life of Mazarin he had been impatient of the yoke, and no sooner was he liberated from it by the death of the cardinal than he declared his resolution to be sovereign of France in fact as well as in name. 2. The finances, under the administration of the able Colbert, were retrieved from their former ruinous state, and became a source of prosperity and splendour; the prince of Conde and mar- shal Turenne, now happily united, were the greatest generals of the age ; and Louvois, the minister at war, possessed abili- ties capable of directing the greatest exploits. 3. While France was thus happily situated, the rest of Europe exhibited nothing but weakness. Holland, though powerful by sea, was destitute of an army ; the empire, weakened by late wars, was scarcely able to resist the arms of the Turks ; England, under the profligate government of Charles II. had lost all the authority which she had acquired during the protectorate; Spain, governed by women and priests, was sunk almost be- low contempt, and the northern powers, engaged in petty dis- putes, possessed no influence on the continent. It is no wonder that, under these circumstances, Louis secretly che- rished the hope of making the French monarchy the first in Europe, and obtainmg for it that pre-eminence which it had possessed in the reign of Charlemagne. 4. Before the commencement of the war which developed these designs, Louis gave several signal proofs of his spirit, and also of his political skill. He threatened to renew the war with Spain, unless the right of precedence was conceded to his ambassador, and actually sent an army into Italy to punish the pope for an insult offered to the French embassy, and which had been provoked by insolence and outrage. Dun- kirk was purchased from the necessitous Charles II., to the great and just displeasure of the English people, who saw it, when strengthened by new fortifications, become a powerful bulwark of France, and a port formidable to the English trade from the protection it afforded privateers in time of war. As- sistance was sent to the Austrians, by which they were ena- bled to check the progress of the Turks ; and by the aid of Rome French forces, the independence of Portugal was finally completed. .5. Commercial jealousy had led to a v^-ar between England and Holland, which was equally injurious to both countries. Louis supported the Dutch, and aided them by a powerful fleet, which the judicious measures of Colbert may 26 302 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Colbert, be almost said to have created Holland was at this time go verned by the grand pension- ary, John de Wit, who opposed the English with equal wisdom and resolution. Several fierce naval engagements were fought without any decisive advantage being gained, and England soon began to disco- ver that the war was any thing but politic. The great plague and the great fire of London were national calamities that calmed the desire for war. Ne- gotiations were commenced at Breda, but before the lo/ijiy" peace was concluded, the English had the mortification to see de Ruyter enter the Thames and burn several vessels. The treaty was not, however, broken off" by this event, and the articles were, on the whole, favourable to England. 6. Although by the treaty of the Pyrennees, the queen of France had resigned all claim to the dominions of her father, yet Louis formed the design of reviving some of those rights, and securing a portion of that vast succession. The emperor Leopold and the French king had actually entered into a treaty for the partition of the Spanish dominions, by which it was agreed that France should receive Brabant and the Nether- lands, and that Spain should be given to Leopold, if, as seemed probable, Charles, the reigning monarch, should die without issue. Both parties seemed ashamed of the agreement, and took the most extraordinary precautions to keep it a profound secret. No copy was taken of the instrument, and the original, locked up in an iron box, of which the two' sovereigns alone kept the keys, was entrusted to the care of the grand duke of Tuscany. 7. But Louis claimed Flanders also in right of his wife, because, by the law of inheritance established in that country, the female issue by a first marriage succeeded in pre- ference to the male offspring of a second union. 8. Aided by such able ministers and generals, the , of'Z king marched to certain conquest, Flanders and Franche Comte were subdued before the end of the second campaign, and would probably have been annexed to the do- minions of France had not all Europe taken alarm at the dangers with which its repose was threatened by the npiJ LOUIS XIV. 303 progress of the French arms. England, Sweden, and Hoi land formed a triple alliance to check the ambitious career of Louis, and he was very unwillingly compelled to resign the greater part of his conquests, and confirm anew the treaty of the Pyrennees. 9. The French monarch was naturally indignant at being thus deprived of a prey which had seemed certain. He was particularly enraged against the Dutch, whom he had assisted when attacked by the English and the bishop of Munster. He thirsted for revenge and conquest, neglecting no means which were likely to insure both. 10. His most important measure was to break the alliance between England and Hol- land, which being dictated by mutual interest, seemed likely to be permanent ; but with a perfect knowledge of the cha- racter of the English king, Louis prepared to assail him by two powerful bribes, a pension and a mistress. Suspected by his parhament of a design to introduce popery and arbitrary power, Charles was not able to procure from his people money enough to support his lavish expenditure ; a slave to depraved passion, it was judged probable that the charms of Madame de Kerouille would be sufficient to ensnare his heart. To complete this disgusting scene, the entire negociation was en- trusted to the duchess of Orleans, Charles's own sister, and by her intervention a secret aUiance was concluded against Hol- land ; the king of England became the pensioner of France, and to secure his obedience, Madame de Kerouille, created duchess of Portsmouth, became chief favourite of the degraded sovereign. IL The emperor Leopold was engaged in war with his Hungarian subjects, the German princes were for the most part purchased by the French monarch, Sweden was bribed to desert the alliance, Spain was utterly helpless, and Louis thought himself sure of easily conquering the defence- less republic. 12. As there was no solid reason for the war, re- course was had to the most ridiculous pretences. A -,Ay^ medal had been struck, on which was an inscription, stating that Holland had secured the laws, purified religion, succoured, defended, and reconciled the monarchs, asscrtea the freedom of the seas, and established the tranquillity of Europe. This innocent piece of national vanity was gravely denounced as a serious grievance ; the Dutch broke the die, but Charles and Louis had taken their resolution, and w^ar waa declared 304 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 13. Holland was at this time divided into two factions , the pensionary de Wit had caused William III. to be forma' ly excluded from the stadtholdership, but with a generosity of which history furnishes but few parallels, he had taken cave that the young prince should receive such an education as would be most likely to render him capable of serving the state in any department. William, who was afterwards the king of England, showed from his earliest youth proofs of the great talents which were destined to preserve the liberties of Europe ; but he was naturally ambitious to recover the dignity that had been transmitted to him by his ancestors, and was ani- . mated rather by a desire of revenge on de Wit than by love for his country. 14. Though the grand pensionary had raised the naval power of Holland to its highest summit, he left ■i^-jA the country totally unprovided with land forces, deem- ' ing an invasion so improbable, that it was not necessary to provide against it. Louis marched at the head of all his forces, accompanied by his most illustrious generals, against the httle repubhc. 15. He passed the Rhine almost without any difficulty, as the river was low and the opposite bank badly defended. But this trivial success was magnified by a host of poets and historians, who formed a regular corps of attend- ance, into one of the greatest exploits of ancient and modern times. The greater part of the provinces were subdued al- most without resistance ; the cannon of the invaders could be heard in Amsterdam, and flying parties of the enemy had ap- peared within sight of its gates. 16. Like the Phocceans in ancient history, the Dutch seriously deliberated on the project of flying in their fleet to the East Indies, and seeking Hberty in another country, leaving their own to Louis a useless desert. De Wit sent deputies to treat about a surrender, notwithstand- ing the opposition of the prince of Orange, who, with all the energies of youth and valour, insisted that they should defend themselves to the utmost extremity. 17. The intolerable con- ditions prescribed by Louis were fatal to de Wit; no sooner were they made known to the populace, than, maddened by indignation and despair, they fell on the grand pensionary and nis brother, and literally tore them to pieces. The young prince of Orange was created stadtholder, and invested with almost absolute authority. 18. His speech on the occasion was brief and characteristic — " I have a sure method," said he, "to prevent my being a witness of my country's ruin, I can die in her last ditch." The entire of the united provinces LOUI5 XIV. 305 ^-,nled to be animated by a similar spirit ; they cut the dikes vrrtich had been erected to keep out the sea, and thus laid the whole counlry under water. At sea, their navy, though op- posed to the combined fleets of England and France, by the valour and dexterity of Ruyter was able to prevent their enemies from becoming masters of that element. 19. The eyes of all Europe were opened to the dangerous ambition of Louis XIV. : Germany, Denmark, and Spain came forward to rescue the Hollanders, and the people of England loudly complained of the impolicy which had forced them into a war with a nation, the destruction of whose hberties would proba- bly have been fatal to their own. Charles 11. seeing the tem- per of the parUament, and having no hope of obtaining new subsidies, sold a peace to the Dutch for a bribe of three hun- dred thousand pounds. However, he still left a body of ten thousand troops at the disposal of Louis, but promised not to recruit their losses. 20. Unable to retain the provinces, Louis was obliged to re- .ease them on the payment of a ransom, and the tide of war flowed to the Spanish Netherlands, which had been almost abandoned by the parent stale. The prince of Conde was opposed to the stadtholder, marechal Turenne found an anta- gonist worthy of him in Montecuculi the imperial general, and Louis himself headed the army that invaded Franche Comte. The bare enumeration of the battles fought in these campaigns would be sufficient to fill a volume ; Montecuculi and William in. were generals equal in ability to Conde and Turenne, they therefore checked the French in their career of conquest, with- out being able to obtain any very decisive advantage. Battles were fought, and an immensity of human blood spilled, but their only effect was to display the talents of the leaders and their utter disregard for waste of lives. 2L During these pro- tracted contests, Turenne sullied aU his former glory by an ac- tion of the most savage barbarity, which he perpetrated by order of his court. The elector palatine having deserted the cause of France, orders were given to lay waste his country ; the cruel edict was fearfully executed ; two cities and twenty- five villages were reduced to ashes, and their innocent inhabit- ants left to perish by cold and hunger! The unfortunate elector who witnessed the devastation from the walls of his palace at Manheim, sent to challenge Turenne to a persona, combat ; but the French general replied, that, " from the time he had been honoured with the command of the French forces, he never fought but at the head of twenty thousand men." 536* U 306 HISTORY OF FRANCE. The military career of those leaders whose lenowi Ifljc^ filled Europe, terminated nearly at the same time. Tu renne was killed at the battle of Salzbach ; Conde, wh« succeeded him in opposing the imperialists, retired at the end of the campaign from public life, and his example was Allowed by Montecuculi, who was unwilling to hazard in a contest with younger men the reputation that he had previously acquired. De Ruyter, whose naval exploits had rivalled their fame, was killed in an engagement with a French fleet in the Mediterra- nean ; after having risen from an humble cabin boy, to be the best admiral in Europe. The war, however, was still pro- tracted, and France made considerable acquisitions in the Spa- nish Netherlands. 22. But the resources of all parties were exhausted, and by the mediation of the king of England, who had given his niece, Mary, in marriage to the prince of Orange, negociations for peace were opened at Nimeguen. Four days after the treaty was signed, the prince of Orange, who ardently desired to continue the war, attacked the French, under the duke of Luxemburg, nearMons, but, after an useless sacrifice of the lives of his soldiers, was compelled to retire. 23. The Dutch, against whom the war had been .^*,ycj' begun, and whose very existence seemed at one time in danger, were restored to all their possessions at the conclusion ; the terms between the French and Germans were nearly the same as those of the treaty of Munster ; but Spain and Sweden, who had joined only as auxiliaries, were severely punished, the former was compelled to cede the greater part of the Netherlands to France, the latter was stripped of all her influence in the empire. 24. Louis having dictated the terms of the peace of Nime- guen, became intoxicated with his successes, and, by his con- duct, provoked the hostility of the greater part of Europe. He seized on several dependencies of the neighbouring Germanic states, under the pretence that they belonged to Franche Comte: he compelled the free city of Strasburg to receive a French garrison : and though he retired from the siege of Luxemburg, when the empire was endangered by an invasion of the Turks, he returned to it again when the Mohammedans were driven out by the valiant king of Poland, John Sobieski. Spain and Austria, unable to resist his power, purchased peace again by making fresh concessions : but they retained a bitter sense of their degradation, and were resolved to seek the ear* liest opportunity of obtaining vengeance. Algiers was bomb* ftrded by the French, and the pirates forced to beg for mercy LOUIS XIV. 307 John Sobieski. Senoa was similarly punished, and its magistrates compelled o make the most humiliating submissions to s'Jbre the republic 'rom ruin. 25. But all these triumphs were more than coun- terbalanced by the ^eath of Colbert, whose labours to establish a good system of finance were less valuable than his success- ful efforts to prevent the renewal of religious persecutions. 26. Colbert protected the Hugonots, from a convic- tion that they were as useful as the other subjects of the if^ac^ crown, and that a persecution would produce nothing but mischief; but by his death they were dehvered up to the chancellor le TelHer, and his son, the marquis de Louvois, two men whose maxim was that every thing civil and religious ehould be regulated according to the king's pleasure. In 1684, they sent troops into the districts inhabited by Protestants, and Louvois wrote, that it was his majesty'' s pleasure that all who did not conform to his religion should suffer the greatest se- verities. The soldiers sent to enforce this absurd and cruel declaration were principally cavalry, whence the persecution has been commonly called the dragonnade ; every cruelty that could be perpetrated by a licentious and rapacious soldiery was committed with impunity, and by an excess of cruelty i« was made a capital offence for Protestants to attempt making their escape out of the kingdom. 27. In the following year JjOS HISTORY OF FRiSfNCE. tne edict or Nantz, by which Henry IV. had esJabHshed live principles of religious libert}', was revoked, freedom of con- science was abolished, all the Hugonot churches were de- stroyed, deci'arations and decrees of councils followed one an- other in rapid succession to heighten their despair, and at length orders were issued to take away the children of Pro- testants from their parents and give them to the care of their Catholic relations. Notwithstanding all the precautions of Louis, nearly half a million of Protestants quitted France, carrying with them some wealth, but what was still more valuable, much industry and ingenuity, the true riches of a nation. England, Holland, and Germany gladly received these useful fugitives, who carried into other countries the knowledge of those manufactures which had been hitherto confined to France, and who diffused through all the Protestant nations of Europe an intense hatred of Louis, which the sub sequent wars gave them many opportunities of displaying. 28. The prince of Orange, whom the French pretended to despise, was far their most formidable enemy ; the just repre- sentations that he made to the different European powers of the grasping ambition of Louis, had mainly contributed to the formation of the league of Augsburg, by which the confede- rates engaged to preserve the boundaries agreed on by the treaties of Munster and Nimeguen. Louis did not want this fresh provocation to stimulate him to war; he resolved to an- ticipate the designs of his enemies, and sent an army of a hun- dred thousand men under the command of the dauphin to invade the empire, which was filled with dismay. 29. Phi- hpsburg, Menlz, Spires, and several other important cities were taken, and the Palatinate was again cruelly given up to the flames. This little principality, which the industry and peaceable habits of its inhabitants had made the most thriving and happy state of Germany, was literally turned into a desert ; more than forty cities, and an infinite number of vil- lages, were reduced to ashes. But while Louis was thus engaged, events were taking place in England, which were Boon destined to make that nation the most determined and formidable of his enemies, by placing on its throne the prince of Orange, whose hatred of Louis seemed to be almost equally personal and political. 30. The attacks which James IL had made on the -^oQ liberties and religion of the country, had made the ' English nation weary of their sovereign, and induced them to apply to the prince of Orange. An expedition w;i& LOUIS XIV. 309 prepared in the Dutch ports, and Louis, who had discovered its destination, sent intelligence to the besotted James, who treated it as chimerical. WiUiam III. landed in England, and in a very short time was joined by the whole nation. Deserted by his friends, and despised by his enemies, James fled to France, and the convention-parliament considering his flight as an abdication of the throne, eUcted William king of Great Britain. The greatest opposition to this signal revolution was made in Ireland, whither James proceeded from France ac- companied by some auxiliary troops. But misfortune still pursued tbe unhappy sovereign ; he was unable to reduce the town of Derry, which its inhabitants defended under the most discouraging circumstances. Soon after, William landed, and at the decisive battle of the Boyne James lost Ireland. The Irish, indeed, held out for some time longer, but at length a treaty was concluded at Limerick, by which that island be- came completely subject to Wilham. 81. The war on the continent was on the whole favourable to the arms of France; the marechal de -i/^qo Luxembourg proved himself a pupil worthy of the great Conde and Turenne ; William was defeated by Luxem- bourg, and Namur was taken by Louis almost in sight of the hostile army. In Italy, the marechal Catinat successfully opposed prince Eugene, and Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy ; de Lorges and de Noailles were equally fortunate in Spain and Germany. 82. But these advantages were counterbal- anced by the total defeat of the French fleet under Tourville, off Cape la Hogue. James II. beheld from a neighbouring eminence this calamity, by which all his hopes of being re- stored to the throne of his ancestors were for ever annihilated. It is said, that when he saw the English sailors boarding the enemy's ships with their acrv^tomed heroism, admiration of their valour overcame his remembrance of the cause in which they fought, and he exclaimed, "None but my brave English could have done this." 33. The war continued with very little advantage to either party ; men and money were lavishly wasted, and nothing gained. Mutual exhaustion made all heartily wish for peace, or rather a suspension of arms, for treaties were universally disregarded. Four treaties were concluded at Ryswick, a small village in Hoi- i Jny land, the conditions of which, notwithstanding all his victories, were very humiliating to Louis. He was compelled to restore all his conquests, and to resign those districts which be had seized on as appendages to Franche Comte. SIO HISTORY OF FRANCE. 34. The people of France murmured at such a conclusion of a war which had gratified their national vanity by numer- ous triumphs. But many circumstances combined to make Louis wish for peace : his able minister, Louvois, and his bes* general, Luxembourg, were dead ; losses not easy to be sup- plied ; the finances were exhausted, the taxes, though severe on the people, were not very profitable to the king, and tne navy was beginning to fall into disorder. Besides, he saw that peace was necessary for maturing his designs on the Spanish succession ; an object which he nad so much at heart, that he not only acknowledged William's title to the throne of England, but even attempted to conciliate him by recret negociations. Questions. 1. What determination did Louis adopt that surprised his cour- tiers 1 2. Had he the support of good ministers? 3. Did the other countries of Europe present so favourable an aspect ? 4. What proofs of spirit and wisdom did the French govern- ment exhibit ? 5. How was the war between England and Holland carried on 7 6. Into what treaty, of which they were ashamed, did the em- peror and the French king enter? 7. Had Louis any claims on Flanders? 8. Did the French succeed in retaining possession of Flanders 7 9. Against whom was Louis particularly irritated ? 10. By what means was Charles II. induced to side against the Dutch ? 11. Why was it unlikely that the other powers of Europe would interfere? 12. What was the oretext for declaring war? 13. Who were the leaders of the parties into which Holland waa divided / 14. What error did de Wit commit? 15. How did the invaders succeed ? 16. What strange step did the Dutch meditate? 17. How was de Wit treated ? 18. What spirited declaration was made by the prince of Orange 1 19. Did the other nations of Europe at length interfere? 20. How was the war carried on in Flanders? 21. Of what cruelty was Turenne guilty? 22. How did the war terminate ? 83. What nations suffered most in the end?. LOUIS XIV. 311 *4. Did Louis use his success with moderation ? 25. What loss did France suffer in the midst of its triumphs? 26. By whom was the persecution of the protestants renewed T 27. What were the consequences of the revccation of the ediel of Nantz ? 28. Did the war break out again ? 29. Were the French generals guilty of any barbarous acdout 30. Whai great revolution took place in England? 31. Did the French obtain any advantages in this warl 32. Where were they defeated ? 33. How was the war concluded? 34. What circumstances made Louis inclined to peaos t Fivaek PtMtUion. — Fifteenth Ctmxmf ai2 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Louis XIV., Madame de Maintenon, -and Philip, Duke of Orleans. CHAPTER XXXIII. LOUIS XIV.— THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. Does he not mourn the valiant thousands slain— The heroes once the glory of the plain, Left in the conflict of the fatal day, Or the wolf's portion, or the vulture's prey ? Prior. 1. The last male descendant of the emperoi 1700 ^^^""'^^ ^' was Charles 11. , king of Spain, a monarcb equally weak in health and intellect. He was fast sinking into the grave, and as he had no children, the ques- tion of his succession was the chief object of speculation throughout Europe. The king of France and the emperor of Germany were both his cousins and his brothers-in-law; their claims to the inheritance were therefore nearly equal, but Louis, who in both ways had the advantage of seniority in the princesses from whom his right was derived, had formally resigned all his pretensions by the treaty of the Pyrennees. Before the inheritance was yet vacant, a treaty of partition was made for dividing the Spanish monarchy between the LOUIS XIV. 313 tonn of the claimants ; but the dying monarch, having heard of the circumstance, published a will in favour of his grand- nephew, the young prince of Bavaria. This prince dying almost immediately after at Brussels, a new treaty was formed; but the emperor, hoping to acquire the whole of the Spanish dominions for his son, refused his assent ; and thus by grasp- I ing at too much lost all. At first, Charles of Spain was so much enraged with Louis, that he acknowledged the arcn- duke as his successor; but the Austrians satisfied with this took no further pains to conciliate Charles, and by their con- tumelious behaviour disgusted a prince, who naturally expected the hveliest gratitude for so rich a bequest. The king's con- fessors, who were in the pay of France, took advantage of this to change his mind, and prevailed on him, a little before his death, finally to bequeath the whole Spanish monarchy to the duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. 2. Such was the astonishment of all Europe at beholding a prince of the Bourbon family ascend the throne of Spain, that all the povversrexcept the empire remained for some time in perfect tranquillity. The duke of Anjou, under the name of Philip v., set out to take possession of the crown, and his grandfather said to him at parting, there are no more Pyren- nees. 3. In Italy the resistance to the will of Charles li. be- gan ; the imperial forces there were commanded by a general, whose fame soon began to rival that of the most illustrious warriors ; a na- tive of France, and its severest scourge. Prince Eugene was son of the count de Soissons and of madame Marcini, niece of cardinal Mazarin ; being slighted in his youth by the French court, he took an eternal farewell of his country, and went to serve the emperor against the Turks. His abil- ities accelerated his promotion, and though very young, he was entrusted with the command of the imperial forces in Italy, and opposed to the veteran Catenat. The French general, restramed by orders from his court, was unable to check the progress of prince Eugene; Villenois, a crafty courtier rather than a prudent general, was then sent to head the army, but he was totally defeated by the imperial generals at Chiari. 4 The war was yet but a single spark, when Louis, by 27 Prince Eugene 314 HISTORY OF FRANCE. one imprudent step, kindled a general condagration. On tho death of James II. he proclaimed his son king of Great Britam, after having determined in council not to take tnis: dangerous step. The indignation of the people of England was the most violent imaginable. William, who had hitherto been thwarted by his parliament, found them ready to forward all his views, and the nation, which had been previously averse to a continental war, were eager to pun sh 5uch an outrageous insult. 5. But before William was able to take advantage of this favourable opportunity of accomplishing his favourite object, the humbling of the French power, he was unfortunately thrown from his horse, an accident which, , Jp.^' combined with his previous ill-heakh, proved faial. It '^' has been quaintly said, that he was king of Holland «nd Stadtholder of England, the parliament of the lacter coun try having always opposed his inclinations, except when animated by their national hatred against France. His highest character is, that he was the principal means of rescuing from ruin the religion and liberties both of England and Holland. 6. The French court had hoped that the death of William would have separated England from the confederates, but the first step taken by Anne after her accession, was to renew the alliance with Holland and the empire. The command of the English and Dutch forces was given to the earl of Marl- borouah, whose abilities both as a general and as a statesmar have had but one parallel in English history. 7. While tho allies were under the direction of such leaders as Marlborough and prince Eugene, France had fallen into extraordinary decay; Louis, completely under the guidance of his mistress, Madame de Maintenon, had lost all the energy of charactei by which he had been formerly distinguished. The opera .ions of the war were decided in the cabinets, no discretion of availing themselves of circumstances was allowed to the gene rals, discipline was permitted to decay, and promotion was re gulated by court favour. 8. On the side of Flanders, the ear) of Marlborough was everywhere successful, but the junction of the elector of Bavaria with the French prevented the allies from obtaining any decisive advantage on the upper Rhine, where at first they had possessed a great superiority. 9. The French did not, however, profit much by their advantages? marechal Villars, whose valour and prudence principally con tributed to their success, was recalled, in consequence of a quarrel between him and the elector of Bavaria; tho generals sent >o replace him were of inferior abilities, and the war was LOUIS XIV 315 permitted to linger. Viilars was sent to command against the protestants of the Cevennes, who, maddened by persecution, had taken up arms against their oppressors. These wild mountaineers derived so much courage from fanaticism, thai three marshals of France, and three royal armies, were sent against them before they were subdued. The emperor also was engaged in a religious war with his Hungarian subjects, whom a better system of government would have made his most faithful defenders. 10. At length the doubts which hung over the final fortunes of the^war began to be dispelled, and Louis 1^04 was destined to meet a succession of calamitous defeats, which effaced the memory of his former triumphs. The forces of the empire being hard pressed in Germany, Marlborough who had lately been elevated to a dukedom, by a brillian', series of manceuvres forced his way through the French lines near Donawert, and joined his forces with those of prince Eugene ; at the same time the elector of Bavaria was joined by the French marechals Tallard and Marsin. The forces of the allies amounted to about fifiy thousand men ; those of the elector exceeded sixty thousand. On the 18th of August, both armies came to an engagement near the villages of Hochslet and Blenheim. The left wing of the allies, under the com- mand of the duke of Marlborough, forded a marsh which had been deemed impracticable, and fell with so much fury on the wing commanded by marechal Tallard, that they broke their ranks irretrievably, and penetrated even to the centre. Tallard, who was short-sighted, threw himself into the midst of a hos- tile squadron by mistake, and remained a prisoner. In the meantime, Eugene, after being three times repulsed, forced the elector and Marsin to a retreat, which the advance of the vic- torious English turned into a complete rout. 11. They fled, leaving twelve thousand of their best troops shut up in the /illage of Blenheim, who were compelled to surrender with- cut firing a shot. The consequences of this briUiant victory, by which the French lost forty thousand men, were the cap- ture of several of the most important fortresses on the upper Rhine, the establishment of the complete superiority of the aUies in the Netherlands, and the total subjugation of Bavaria, whose elector, reduced to the condition of a fugitive, took re- fuge in Brussels. The capture of Gibraltar, and some other triumphs of less importance in Spain, completed ij^r^ the successes of the allies in this brilliant campaign. 12. The following year produced no events of importance, 316 HISTORY OF FRANCE. either in Flanders or Germany; Marlborough was badly sup' ported by the imperialists, who, as usual, thought that the English should fight as well as pay all. But in Spain, the earl of Peterborough, who commanded the auxiliaries which had been sent to sustain the cause of Charles, subdued the whole province of Catalonia. During the winter, the duke of Marlborough successfully laboured to prevail on the states of Holland to lay aside their cautious policy of not risking an engagement ; and at the opening of the next campaign, he began to act with greater boldness than he had hitherto ^'^' displayed. 13. On the 23d of May, was fought the decisive battle of Ramilies, in which the French lost twenty thousand men, and which was followed by the reduc- tion of Spanish Flanders. In Spain also, Phihp had been compelled to raise the siege of Barcelona, and subsequently to yield up the capital to his rival. 14. But their successes in Italy were some consolation to the French for their defeats every where else. The duke de Vendome had completely defeated the imperialists, and the French possessed so decided a superiority, that they ventured to lay siege to Turin, Unfortunately for them, Vendome was recalled to take the command of the army in Flanders, and the conduct of the siege was intrusted nominally to the duke of Orleans, but in reality to the duke de Feuillade, a court favourite, totally destitute of all military experience. Prince Eugene set out to raise the siege, and after a brilliant march, in which his judicious movements were powerfully contrasted with the folly of his enemies, effected a junction with the duke of Savoy. The duke of Orleans then proposed that the siege should be broken up, and that they should march to meet the enemy ; but when the council were about to adopt this judi- cious measure, by which alone they could have any chance of success, Marsin produced a letter from the court ordering the army to remain in its entrenchments. On the 7th of Sep- tember, prince Eugene attacked the French lines, and in about two hours was every where successful ; the camp with all its equipage and munitions of war was taken ; the enemy fled in every direction, and the fugitives were severely harassed by the Piedmontese peasantry, who attacked them in their retreat and cut them off in the defiles of the mountains. 15. By this single defeat France lost the fruits of all her formei campaigns, and was not only deprived of all her conquests in Italy, but saw her southern frontier exposed to the enemy LOUIS XIV. 317 16. The battle of Almanza revived a little the hopes »f France; the duke of Berwick, the natural son of ^^..j James 11., gained a complete victory over the allied forces commanded by lord Galway, afiei which the cause of Philip seemed gradually to gain ground ; but on the othei hand, the allies still retained their superiority in Flan- ders. 17. The dukes de Vendome and Burgundy i-^«o were defeated by Marlborough and prince Eugene at Oudenarde, after which the allies besieged and took Lille, whose possession seemed to open to them the road to Paris. The pope soon after deserted the French, whom he had hitherto supported, and acknowledged Charles's title to the throne of Spain. To so many losses the scourge of nature seemed to be added; prince after prince of the royal family fell victims to disease, so that Louis had reason to dread that he should be left without a successor; and to complete the whole, France was threatened with all the horrors of a severe famine. 18. Under these circumstances, Louis solicited peace; conferences were opened at CJerlruydenbcrg, ^-^lA but the allies, intoxicated with success, insisted on con- ditions so very extravagant, that the negocialions were broken off. They had the cruelly to require that Louis should send an army to drive his grandson from the throne of S[)ain; the aged monarch replied to the insulting |)ro|)osal wiih becoming spirit : " If I n)ust continue the war," he said, " I shoula rather fight against my enemies than my children." The consequences of this inefTectual attempt were beneficial to Louis; his people, who had justly murmured against the calamities by which they were oppressed, now resolved to defend their monarch to the utmost, as he had done every thing consistent with national honour to afi!brd ihem relief. 10. Two unexpected events changed the entire face of European politics. The emperor of Germany died, ^j,i and was succeeded by Charles, the nominal king of Spain ; this of course affected the original principles of the war, for the union of Spain and the empire would have been aa fatal to the balance of power as the joining of France and Spain. In England, the Whigs, who had so long supported the duke of Marlborough, were no longer in office, and their Tory successors, Harley and Bolingbroke, were anxious to ob tain a peace on any terms. 20. In his last campaign, the duke exhibited all the wisdom and skill by which he had been ■G oftet^ distinguished; he forced the lines which Villars had 27* 318 HISTORY OF FRANCE. declared impregnable, and captured Bouchain in the presence of the enemy's army, thus removing the principal obstacles between him and Paris. But at the end of the campaign, he was stripped of all his employments, and the command of the English forces was given to the duke of Ormond, with secret directions to do nothing. 21. The conferences for the celebrated treaty of ^y,A Utrecht began in January, but proceeded at first very ■ slowly ; the Dutch and imperial ambassadors threw every obstacle in the way of accommodation, and the deaths of the dauphin, his wife and son, by opening to Philip the probable succession to the throne of France, created fresh dif- ficulties. At length Philip renounced his future claims in favour of his younger brother the duke of Berry ; as the Eng- lish and French were earnest in their desire of peace, they soon agreed on preliminaries, but the rest of the allies refused to concur. Deprived of the support of the English, the Dutch and imperialists still ventured on another campaign, but prince Eugene being totally defeated at Landrecy, and several of the towns captured by Marlborough having been retaken, Holland became alarmed, and concluded a treaty. The emperor held out a year longer, and lost several advantages by his obstinacy, until finding himself unable to continue the war alone, he was obliged to conclude a separate peace at Rastadt. The Catalans were the last who kept ahve the expiring flames of the war ; they refused to acknowledge Philip as their sovereign, and though deserted by every body, maintained a furious resist- ance. At length Barcelona, the capital of Catalonia, was taken after a vigorous siege, the citizens deprived of their pri- vileges, and some of their leaders capitally punished. 22. The treaty of Utrecht put an end to the long wars which the ambition of Louis XIV. had excited in Europe, and placed all the powers nearly on the same footing that they had been at the commencement. The English ministers whc concluded it were subsequently impeached, and narrowly escaped with their lives; it would be now useless to revive the discussion of a question by which England was once fear- fully agitated, but it may be remarked, that by that treaty England secured all the objects for which the war had been originally undertaken, though the motives and measures of Harlev ard Bohngbroke were any thing but honourable ana patriotic. 23. Though Louis had the satisfaction of seeing a wal w hich threatened the entire ruin of France thus happily con LOUIS XIV. 319 eluded, yet his situation at its close was the most miserable conceivable, all the national resources were exhausted, the manufactures were destroyed, and commerce was totally ex- tinct. The royal family had, as was already mentioned, been visited by an unusual mortality, and the next heir to the crown was the king's great-grandson, a weak and sickly infant. 24. Theological disputes distracted the court and the nation. A divine, named duesnel, had published a book, entitled "Re- flections upon the Old Testament." A hundred and one pro- positions extracted from this book by a bigoted fool, Le Tel- lier, the king's confessor, were condemned by the celebrated bull Unigenitus, issued by pope Clement XI. The disputes about th-e registration of this bull filled the whole kingdom, while its aged monarch, distracted by useless remorse, was fast drawing to the close of his miserable existence. 25. At length, in the seventy-second year of his reign, he became sensible of the near approach of his ij^J dissolution : he sent for his successor, and gave him much good advice, which kings are always more ready to be- stow in the hour of death than to practise in their course of hfe. He made arrangements for the future regency by his will, and ordered that his natural children, whom he had le- gitimated, should be ranked among the blood royal of France, but these regulations were violated immediately after his de- cease. Having thus provided for all his worldly concerns, he received the last offices of the catholic church, and met the stroke of death with becoming resignation. 26. The calamities experienced by the French in the latter part of this reign had so complately effaced the glories of its commencement, that the news of Louis's death was received with joy. Impartial posterity has, however, stripped his cha- racter of the flatteries which loaded it during his life, and the defamation heaped on it after his death. He was a monarch of a great mind and good intentions, but bad education spoiled the one, and artful courtiers depraved the other. He was a great encourager of literature and the arts, and his reign is de Bervedly esteemed the Augustan age of France. Questions. 1. What was the origin of the war of the Spanish succession T 2. How did Louis address his grandson at the parting? 3. Who was prince Eugene ? 320 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 4. How d)d Louis provoke the hostility of the English V 6, What was the character of William III.? 6. Who were the generals of the allies? 7. Did the French government exhibit as much ability in thi* war as in the preceding? 8. How did Marlborough succeed in Flanders? 9. Did religious wars interfere with the operations of the belL gerent powers? 10. How did the allies obtain the victory at Blenheim? 11. What were the consequences of their success? 12. How was the war carried on after this? 13. Did Marlborough obtain any other victory? 14. What great defeat did the French suffer in Italy? 15. Was it attended by any important results? 16. Did the French obtain any victory? 17. By what calamities was Louis overtaken? 18. What was the consequence of the conferences at Gertruyden- berg? 19. By what circumstances was a total revolution in European politics brought about ? 20. How did Marlborough behave in his last campaign? 21. By what means was the treaty of Utrecht concluded? 22. What was the character of the negociations ? 23. To what calamities was France next exposed ? 24. What caused disputes about religion to break oat? 25. How did Louis die ? 86. What was his character? Voltaire. LOUIS XV. 321 CHAPTER XXXIV. LOUIS XV. To swell some future tyrant's pride, Good Fleurjr pours the golden tide On Gallia's smiling shores ; Once more her fields shall thirst in vain For wholesome streams of honest gain, While rapine wastes her stores. Earl Nuoent. 1. The new king of France was but five years oJd at the time of his accession, and the arrangement of 1^1 e th« regency, as usual, gave rise to much poUtical in- trigue. At length the parliament gave undivided power ts Philip, duke of Orleans, nephew to the late king, a man 01" great abilities, but of greater depravitj'', whose private life was stained with the practice of every species of debauchery. He had been unjustly suspected of having poisoned the three dauphins whose successive deaths have already been men V 322 HISTORY OF FRANCE. tioned, and it is probable, had Louis XIV. died a few years earlier, that the regency would never have been con- ferred on the duke of Orleans ; but the natural children of Louis were still more unpopular with the French ; and hatred of them made the nation more ready to submit to their rival. 2. The first opposition made to the regent was by cardinal Alberoni, who then wielded the destinies of Spain. Alberoni was one of the greatest statesmen of the age, but he had one great fault which rendered all his talents useless ; he was too extravagant in his designs, and aimed at effecting great changes without calculating the means necessary for their execution. To place the Pretender on the throne of England, to wrest from the emperor what he had obtained in Italy by the treaty of Utrecht, to make the king of Spain regent of France, and acknowledged heir to the throne, were the daring enterprises contemplated by Alberoni. 3. His schemes were detected, and the parties whom he had endangered combined for their mutual protection. France, England, and Holland united to enforce the observance of the treaty of Utrecht ; they were soon after joined by the emperor, and the system of Alberoni was overturned by the quadruple alliance. Conspi- racies were vainly attempted both in France and England. The Spanish ambassador, the duchess of Maine, the cardinal de Polignac, and several others, joined in forming a scheme for carrying off the regent; but the papers were artfully stolen from a young Spanish abbe who was secretary to the embassy, and thus the whole plot was discovered. The am- bassador and his secretary were seized, several of the principal accomplices sent to the Bastille, and war declared against Spain. Thus France armed against the grandson of Louis XIV., whom she had elevated to a throne at the expense of ber own ruin. 4. Happily the war was not of long continuance, j^,^ The Spanish fleet was defeated by admiral Byng, and ■ twenty-three of their ships taken ; their forces in Sicily were defeated the following year by the imperialists, and the armament designed for the invasion of England dispersed by a storm. Spain itself was destined to feel the horrors of war; the English carried destruction into the port of Vigo, and the French having invaded the country, took several towns, de- stroyed some magazines, and burned sixteen ships of war which had been newly constructed. Philip, naturally j^on a weak monarch, was terrified at such a series of cala- mities ; he acceded to the quadruple alliance, and i.ouis XV. - 323 Mnished Alberoni, whose removal was made an indispensable condition of peace. 5. The wars of Louis XIV. had left the finances of France n a deplorable condition, and an attempt made to remedy the lisorder only completed their ruin. An exiled Scotchman, lamed Law, conceived the scheme of paying off the enormous lebt by an issue of paper money. The duke of Orleans, fond of novelty, adopted the plan, and a commercial company was formed, the profits of whose exclusive trade with Louisiana were to liquidate all the debts by which France was oppressed. The success of the Mississippi scheme, as it was called at first, equalled Law's expectations. The prices of shares in the company rapidly rose to an extravagant height, a blind in- satiable avarice induced people to strip themselves of their money to purchase notes, and to such a pitch was this carried, that the notes issued amounted to more than eighty times the current coin. The effect of such excessive issue was of course the depreciation of the notes; the bank became unable to meet the demands made upon it, and its entire credit vanished in an instant ; the notes became no better than waste paper, and numberless families were reduced to indigence. The regent for some time defended Law from the popular indigna- tion, but was eventually forced to yield to the voice of the na- tion. Law fled from France, scarcely carrying with him a sufficiency to support existence. 6 The fortune of the cardinal Dubois was as extravagant, but more permanent, than that of Law. He was the son of an apothecary, and had come to Paris at a very early age. By a series of fortunate circumstances, he became private tutor to the future regent, and was the detestable cause of the debauchery by which that prince was dishonoured. By flat- tering the vanity and pandering to the passions of his former pupil, he obtained such an ascendancy over him, that he was appointed prime minister of France, and having taken holy orders, was raised to the dignity of cardinal. After his death, the duke of Orleans assumed the title of prime minister, be- cause the king was then of age. 7. But his riotous excesses hastened his dissolution ; he died a victim to 1^90 m temperance, and was succeeded in the ministry by the duke de Bourbon-Conde. The character of the regent has been emphatically given in the following brief sentence by a modern writer — " He was a good ruler and a bad man." 8. The only thing remarkable in the administration of Bourbon-Conde was his having negociateda marriage betweew 324 HISTORY OF FRANCE. the \'*^ung monarch and Maria Seczinska, daughter of Stanis- .aus, the ex-king of Poland. 9. He was succeeded by Car- dinal Fleury, an old man of seventy-three, who had been introduced at court as preceptor to the king, and seldom has any country been blessed with a better minister. He was attentive to economy, studious of peace, amiable and gentle in his manners, just such a minister as suited a nation that required relief rather than splendour. 10. The repose fj^jA that Europe had enjoyed since the treaty of Utrecht furnishes few materials for history, but its tranquiUity was at length disturbed from a quarter in which it was least expected. On the death of Augustus, king of Poland, his old rival Stanislaus was elected to the vacant throne ; the emperor of Germany, in conjunction with Russia, caused this election to be set aside, and gave the crown to the son of the late monarch. Louis XV. felt himself bound in honour to espouse the cause of his father-in-law; but the succours given to Sta- nislaus amounted only to fifteen hundred men, and he was a second time expelled from the kingdom of Poland, which was every day becoming more and more a dependency of Russia. 11. Though France did not act with much vigour in Poland, she compensated for her inactivity there by the vigour of her attacks on the Emperor. In two brilliant campaigns the Austrians were completely humbled in Italy ; the imperialists, though commanded by prince Eugene, were defeated on the Rhine ; and a Spanish army under Don Carlos conquered the entire kingdom of Naples. Defeated on all quarters, the Em- peror applied to the maritime powers, soliciting their media- tion, but the pacific disposition of cardinal Fleury rendered their intervention unnecessary. 12. By the treaty of peace, Spain acquired the kingdom of Naples for Don Carlos ; France obtained the provinces of Lorraine and Bar for Stanis laus, which, after his death, were to be for ever united with the French dominions; and the duke of Lorraine was no- minated successor to the grand duke of Tuscany, the last of the illustrious family of the Medicis. This was the second time that John Gaston, duke of Tuscany, had seen the in- heritance to his dominions arranged by foreign powers ; he made the insult the subject of a jest, humorously asking, "if they would not supply him with a third heir, and what child France and the empire would get for him ?" 13. The reason why the Emperor so readily consented to the strengthening of France by the valuable acquisition of Lorraine, was his anxiety to obtain the guarantee of that LOUIS XV. 325 power to the celebrated pragmatic sanction, an instrument to prevent the partitio i of the Austrian dominions in case of the failure of heirs male, and to secure the peaceable accession of his daughter Maria Theresa, who was married to Francis of Lorrame, the reigning duke of Tuscany. Almost all tha powers of Europe had signed the treaty to this efTect, but prince Eugene very wisely remarked, that "an army of one hundred men would guarantee it better than one hundred thousand treaties." 14. In fact, the Emperor was scarcely laid in his grave when a host of competitors ^JaA appeared to have claims for the succession. The king of Poland, the elector of Bavaria, and the kings of Spain and Sardinia, began to urge their pretensions, but did not imme- diately attempt to enforce them by arms. 15. The signal of universal war was given by a power which had not hitherto taken any leading part in the affairs of Europe, but which the abilities of its monarch was destined to place in the first rank of the continental nations. Frederic III., king of Prussia, was in the twenty-eighth year of his age, and possessed consider- able talents, which had been sharpened in the school of adver- sity. His father had treated him with the most unjustifiable severity, and would probably have taken his life had not the Emperor interfered ; but while detained in prison, he had recourse to the consolations of literature, and improved his mind while he lightened his captivity. But though he had no great reason to be pleased with the manner in which his father had treated him, he had every cause to be pleased with the conduct which made his kingdom a valuable inheritance ; Frederic II. left his son a rich treasury, and a well-disciplined army, valuable acquisitions to a young and ambitious monarch. 16. Two months after the Emperor's death, Frederic appeared in Upper Silesia at the head of thirty thousand men, and re- vived some forgotten claims of his family to that province. His troops were better than his cause ; Silesia was conquered with little trouble, and Frederic, flushed with success, sent to Maria Theresa, offering to secure her in the rest of her do- minions, provided that she would concede to him the quiet possession of his recent conquest. The Empress indignantly rejected the offer, and though surrounded by enemies, spi- ritedly determined not to purchase a peace by the sacrifice of her rights. 17. Cardinal Fleury in vain endeavoured to prevent France from being involved in this war, but the count, -ttyA\ afterwards duke de Belleisle, had sufficient influence 548 326 HISTORY OF FRANCE. to procure the adoption of a contrary resolution. They thought that the favourable moment had arrived for executing the favourite project of Richelieu, the humiliation of the house of Austria, and acting on this design they induced the king ta violate the pragmatic sanction which had lately been con- firmed with so much solemnity. They determined to procure the imperial crown for the elector of Bavaria; a numerous army was raised, and that prince was by letters-patent created lieutenant-general of Louis XV. 18. The success of the French and Bavarians was at first complete ; they marched into Austria, captured Lentz, threatened Vienna with a siege, and then penetrating into Bohemia, took Prague by escalade. Maria Theresa was forced to become a fugitive, but her very misfortunes made her formidable ; she appeared before the states of Hungary bearing her infant son in her arms. The speech which she made in Latin to the assembly, drew tears from all her audience ; the spirit of that chivalrous nation was roused, and they all exclaimed with one accord, Moriamw pro rege nostra Maria Theresa ; " Let us die for our king^ Maria Theresa." The English people were enthusiastic in their admiration of the heroine. The duchess of Marlborough assembled the principal ladies of London, who engaged to raise for her 100,000/. sterUng, and the duchess herself sub scribed 40,000/. ; but the queen of Hungary had the magna- nimity to refuse the offer, declaring that she would receive no assistance except from the nation assembled in Parliament. 19. But the faults of her enemies still more powerfully as- sisted the cause of the empress ; the marechals Belleisle and BrogHo were jealous of each other, the elector of Bavaria was totally destitute of military talents, and the cavalry especially was in a miserable state of inefficiency. The light troops ot the Austrians, Pandours, Croats and Hussars, harassed the scattered^ troops of the French and Bavarians; without a battle being fought they were stripped of all their conquests, and the new emperor being deprived even of his hereditary dominions, was obliged to become the pensioner of France. The king of Prussia made a treaty for himself, by which he secured the possession of Silesia ; and the marechal de Belleisle had only the honour of saving 13,000 men, the wreck of his great ami victorious army, by a brilliant retreat from the heart of Gei many to the banks of the Rhine. • The Hungarians used this form of speech in reference to tha'tf 5ld constitution, which excluded females from the throne. Lou[s XV. 327 20. The death of cardinal Fleury changed the mea- A, D. fares of the French government ; instead of acting any i^^q /onger as auxiliaries, they became principals in the war, and were imitated by the English, whom the Flanoverian possessions of George II. had unfortunately involved in con tinental politics. 21. They tried their strength at the battle of Dettingen, where George II. and his son, the duke of Cumberland, were present in person. The English were commanded by the earl of Stair, a pupil of the famous Marl- borough ; the marechal de Noailles, a cautious and a clever general, was at the head of the French. By the excellent arrangements of the marechal, the English were brought into a very difficult position, where they could neither advance nor retreat without being exposed to be attacked at serious disadvantage, their supplies were cut off, and the French were on the point of obtaining a victory almost without a battle, when the impetuosity of one of their generals disconcerted all their arrangements. He advanced to assail a British post through a dangerous defile ; while his troops were entangled there, the earl of Stair attacked them fiercely, a general en- gagement ensued, and the French, being unable to retrieve their error, were defeated. No advantage, however, was de- rived from this victory, the English having strangely neglected to pursue their success. 22. Flanders next became the theatre of war, and Louis XV. took the field in person. He captured several towns, but was stopped in the midst of his career by receiving the disagreeable news that prince Charles of Lorraine had crossed the Rhine, and reduced the greater part of Alsace. Louis hastened to meet the Austrian forces, but before his arrival, they had been recalled to resist the progress of the king of Prussia, vi^ho, alarmed at the increasing power of Austria, had again taken up arms. While the war was carried on with doubtful success, the elector of Bavaria, whose mad ambition had caused it, died of a broken heart ; and his son entered into a treaty with the empress. 23. It might have been rea- sonably expected that this event would have induced all parties to seek for peace, but the French and English, ani- mated by national hatred, prevented the flames from being extinguished. In Flanders, marechal Saxe, natural son of the king of Poland, was placed at the head of the French forces, and the English had no general at all comparable to him in ability. The decisive battle of Fontenoy ef- -iJa^ faced the memory of Marlborough's triumphs ; the 328 HISTORY OF FRANCE. allies were totally defeated, and were not able in that or the two following campaigns to recover sufficient strength, so as to check the progress of the victorious general. 24. At sea the English were more successful ; two victories were 1747 S^'"^*^ ^y admirals Anson and Hawke in the same year, which reduced the navy of France to a single ship. The allies, after many reverses, were also eventually victorious in Italy, from which they expelled the French and the Spaniards. 25. The invasion of England by the young Pretender, who had made the government at one time tremble for its existence, was the principal cause of the disinclination to peace evinced by the British cabinet ; but the means of revenge were not at their command ; and when Marechal Saxe, by the capture of Maestricht, had opened the frontiers of Holland, it be- J^c came necessary to think seriously about a peace. 26. The preliminaries were settled at Aix la Chapelle the 30th of April, and the definitive treaty was signed October 18th. This treaty was a complete sarcasm on the folly of those who make either war or peace. The contest was com- menced with the design of dismembering the Austrian do- minions, and overturning the pragmatic sanction ; with the single exception of Silesia, Austria lost nothing, and the new arrangement of the succession was solemnly confirmed. 27. But the diplomatists who arranged the differences between England and France exhibited a still more ludicrous spectacle ; they cautiously omitted any mention of the many disputed joints between the two countries, and signed a treaty of peace replete with the elements of future war. Questions. 1. Why was the duke of Orleans permitted to assume the r* gency without opposition ? 2. What was the cliaracter, and what wore the designs af hit opponent, Alberoni ? 3. How were Alberoni's schemes frustrated ? 4. In what manner was the war terminated ? 5. What was the history of the Mississippi scheme 7 6. Who was the cardinal Dubois? 7. What was the character of the Duke of Orleans? 8. To whom was Louis XV. married? 9. Vi iiat celebrated cardinal became prime minister? 10. How was the repose of Europe disturbed 7 LOUIS XV. 329 \ 1. Did France interfere in the war ? 12. On what conditions was peace again concluded? 13. What was the pragmatic sanction? 14. How was it violated ? 15. What was the character of the king of Prussia? 16. How did he begin the war? 17. By whom were the French induced to involve themselves in this contest? 18. What advantage did Maria Theresa derive from her mis- fortunes '! 19. Did the French generals conduct the war with wisdom ? 20. What nations from auxiliaries became principals in this con test? 21. By what error of the French were the English enabled to win the battle of Dettingen? 22. How was the war carried on in Flanders'^ 23. What defeat did the English suifer ? 24. Was this compensated by any successes? 25. How were the English induced to agree to a peaoe ? 26. Where was the treaty concluded ? 17. What proof of wisdom was exhibited by the hegooiiito?* .' Marechal Saxe. ino HISTORY OF FRANCE. Frederic the Great, CHAPTER XXXV. LOUIS XV. CONTINUED. Yet reason frowns on war's unequal game, Wliere wasted nations raise a single name ; And inortgag'd states their giandsires' wreaths regret, From age to age in everlasting debt. JOHKSOW. 1. The wise negociators at Aix la Chapelle had m Y'rAQ serted in the treaty the following extraordinary clause ; ' " all other matters shall be placed on the same footing that they were or ought to have been, before the commence- menc of the war." The English and French had never accurately nnarked the limits of their colonies in Asia and America, and when they came to determine what they ought- to have been, acts of violence, mutual recriminations and mani- estoes heralded a new war. The French complained that heir British neighbours encroached on Canada : their adver LOUIS XV. 331 fanes retorted oy similar complaints ; both were mutuallj^ ex- asperated, until at length the British government, without .ssuing any formal declaration, caused the French fleet, bound to Canada, to be attacked, and Louis immediately took up arms. 2. Such was the beginning of the celebrated i-^rc seven years' war, a contest which produced events almost incredible, in which France sunk from the summit of glory to the depths of humiliation, at the very moment when her ultimate triumph seemed to be most secure. The most extraordinary feature of all was the alliance between France and Austria, nations that had been at war for nearly two cen- turies, and the junction of England with Prussia, powers that had hitherto shown great jealousy of each other. This change of alliances is said to have been effected by the marchioness de Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV., who was gratified by the compliments of the crafty Maria Theresa, and enraged at the sarcasms which had been uttered against her by the king of Prussia. 3. The commencement of the war was favourable to France ; the English received some severe checks in Canada; the island of Minorca, with the formidable fortress of Port Mahon, was wrested from them by the marechal Richelieu ; the duke of Cumberland was defeated in Germany, and obliged by a disgraceful convention at Closterseven, to capitulate with all his army, and yield up Hanover to the enemy. The king of Prussia, after having conquered Hanover and obtained a brilliant victory at Prague, was in his turn defeated by count Daun, and reduced to the brink of ruin. 4. But the battle of Rosbach, which Frederic gained over the ^.^W united forces of the French and Austrians, produced a change in affairs as great as it was unexpected. By the rapidity of movements which their superior discipline enabled the Prussians to execute with facility, the enemies' lines were thrown into irremediable confusion, and a decisive victory ob- tained almost without a battle. A second victory in the same year at Lissa restored him the possession of Silesia, and the English, notwithstanding the convention of Closterseven, drove the French from Hanover. A long series of battles followed in Germany, without producing any important consequences ; the French were forced to retreat at Crevelt, before the prince of Brunswick ; they were in their turn victorious at Bergen but were overthrown at Warsbourg and at Minden. The hereditary prince of Brunswick does not appear -ijrii 10 have followed up his victories with sufficient prompt- 532 HISTORY OF FRANCE. itude ; he gave the enemy time to recover themselves, ano net with two severe checks, when at too late a period he at- tempted to extend his conquests. 6. The king of Prussia, weakened b)'^ his very victories, seemed to be on the brink of destruction. Russia having united with Austria, the forces of the imperialists seemed on the point of overwhelming him, when he was saved by one of those unexpected events which baffle human calculation. Elizabeth, empress of Russia, died ; her successor, Peter III., was an enthusiastic admirer of Frederic, and not only broke off his alliance with Austria, but promised to assist the Prus- sian king with all his forces. This, which would probably have been the total ruin of the imperialists, was prevented by another revolution ; Peter was dethroned, and his wife Catha- rine, equally conspicuous for her talents and her crimes, as- sumed the Russian sceptre. Catharine resolved to preserve a rigid neutrality, and Frederic, who had maintained the same undaunted spirit during all these changes, was enabled to di- rect all his strength against the Austrians, over whom he ob- tained several advantages. 7. But the principal calamities of the war fell on the fo- reign possessions of France. In India the English took Chan- denagore, Pondicherry, and all the principal settlements of their enemies in that quarter ; in Africa, the fort of Senegal and the island of Goree were captured ; and in America, Ca- nada was subdued by the heroic Wolfe, who died in the arms of victory ; and the greater part of the French West ,^p-j* India islands were surrendered to the British. 8. Alarmed at the rapid increase of the English naval power, Spain, which had hitherto been neutral, concluded a strict aUiance with France by a treaty called the Family Com- pact; but it was only to participate in her calamities and dis- grace. The English rescued Portugal from menaced invasion, captured Cuba in the west, and the Philipine isles m the east, acquiring immense booty in both places, while their fleets everywhere ruled the sea, and totally destroyed the com 1 Jy^.T merce of their enemies. 9. At length all parties be- gan to wish for peace ; it was concluded at Paris on terms the most favourable to England, as she retained the pos- session of almost all her colonial conquests. 10. During this war France was distracted by disputes be- tween the clergy and the magistracy, which brought great dis- grace on religion, and facilitated at a subsequent period the spread of infidelity. The fanaticism excited by these disputes LOUIS XV. 333 .nduced a youno[ enthusiast named Damien to attempt the King's hfe ; he did not succeed, and the manner of his execu- tion will be for ever a stain on the character of the French. A committee of physicians was appointed to determine what were '.he most painful tortures that could be inflicted without imme- diate loss of life ! Damien, whose insanity deserved to be pitied rather than punished, was subjected to all the torments suggested by these scientific barbarians, and finally torn to pieces by wild horses. 11. The Jesuits, who were supposed to have been the principal instigators of this assassin, as they probably were of a similar attempt made on the life of the king of Portugal, experienced the vengeance of the court. Their order was abolished in France, Spain, and Portugal, though no injury was done to their persons. The edict for their suppression was subsequently confirmed by a iyV'^' bull of Pope Clement XIV. It would not be consistent with the design of this work to examine into the truth or false- hood of the charges brought against the Jesuits ; but it is cer- tain that their dissolution was more the result of political in- trigue and private animosity than public justice. 12. The supineness of the British government per- mitted the French to make a valuable acquisition in i-y'^c the Mediterranean. The island of Corsica, unable to support the domination of the Genoese, made a vigorous effort to establish its independence. At the head of the insur- gents was Paschal Paoli, who united to a patriotic spirit supe- rior military talents. The republic of Genoa, unable to main- tain their power, ceded the island to France; and the duke de Choiseul, who was then at the head of the French ministry, availed himself of this cession to seize on the island. Paoli made a gallant but unsuccessful resistance ; at length all hope was banished, and the gallant patriot, unwilling to witness the degradation of his country, became a voluntary exile, and re- tired to England, the common refuge, at that time, of the un- successful friends of the liberties of the human race. 13. Soon after this, the duke de Choiseul was disgraced and banished, chiefly through the influence of madame du Barri, who had succeeded the marchioness de Pompadour, as mistress to the king. His dismissal was followed by a succes- sion of edicts depriving the parliaments of all the privileges they had previously enjoyed, and depriving the nation of the little remnant even of the forms of liberty which they had been hitherto permitted to enjoy. S34 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 14. The remainder of this reign is the most disofracefu. pan of the French history ; the excessive vice and riotous debauchery of the court was infamous and disgusting. The monarch set the example of every species of hcentiousness, and the courtiers emulated his infamy. AH parts of the ad- ministration were in the utmost disorder, the finances were exhausted, national credit gone, and public confidence ban- ished. The charitable donations given for the erection of hos- pitals were used to support luxury and extravagance. The money destined to redeem French captives from the Algerine pirates shared the same fate. All the offices of state, all ap pointments, civil, 'military, and ecclesiastic, were exposed for sale, and were, consequently, the prey of incompetent and rapacious characters. In a word, Louis XV. left to his suc- cessor a kingdom without money, without laws, and without morality. 15. Louis died of the small-pox in the 64th year of -..^j^ his age, and the 59th of his reign. His character may ■ be easily learned from his history ; if any thing more be wanting, it is sufficient to add that his death was deemed a national blessing, and filled France with universal joy. 16. The progress of science and literature during this reign was very great ; but it was more than compensated by the rapid strides with which infidelity advanced through the upper and middle ranks of life. The school of French philosophy may be considered to have been founded by Voltaire and Rousseau, men of unquestionable talents, but whom foolish vanity had induced to reject Christianity, as a system thai fettered too much their mental independence. Their enmity to Christian truth had all the bitterness and all the virulence of personal hostility ; it seemed almost a species of madness, for they exhibited a zeal and eagerness in destroying the prin- ciples of belief which were perfectly astonishing. The moral degradation of the upper ranks contriibuted to their success : men who lived in the practice of every vice were eager to persuade themselves that their fears of future punishment were groundless. We cannot say with some writers that in- fidelity necessarily produces immorality, but we may reverse the proposition, and safely assert that immorality predisposes men to infidelity. To this fatal source may he traced many of the evils by which France was assailed in the next reign; if false philosophy did not generate the revolution, at least it aggravated its horrors and made its consequences fatal. LOUIS XV. 335 17. Voltaire, whose name has obtained such a bad emi- nence, was a native of Paris. The celebrity of his early writing's induced Frederic, king of Prussia, to invite him to his court. Frederic was himself an author and a philosopher, and the vanity of both soon changed their friendship into vio- lent enmity. Voltaire's account of the quarrel is amusing enough : he tells us, " It was reported that I had said the place of king's atheist was vacant, and no notice was taken of the imputation ; but it was whispered that I had called the king a maker of bad verses, and my banishment followed as a matter of course." He retired to Ferney, near Geneva, where he died at an advanced acre. His writings are remarkable for their caustic satirical wit, and exquisite powers of ridicule, but it is melancholy to reflect that such talents were devoted to the worst of purposes. He was also an excellent dramatic poet, but hi's attempt at an epic poem is now generally ac- knowledged to be a failure. 18. John James Rousseau was born at Geneva, of humble parents, and from his earliest years manifested a strong attach- ment to literature. His writings are remarkable for their en- ergetic eloquence, but unfortunately, also, for their pernicious tendency. He was, perhaps, the vainest man that ever ex- isted, and his self-conceit led him into so many absurdities, that we may almost describe him with one of his disciples as " an inspired idiot." Rousseau was for some time in England. where his eccentricities caused shame to his friends, but fur nished every boc'y else with infinite amiise'uent. Questions. ' . What were tne causes of a new war ? 2. Was there anything strange in the arrangement of the allies 3. Did the English and Prussians experience any reverses? 4. How was their fortune retrieved ? 5. Did the allies obtain any other successes in Germany? 6. Was the fortune of the war affected by the revolutions in Russia ? 7. Where did the French experience their greatest losses? 8. Did Spain gain any advantage by interfering in the war? 9. On what conditions was peace concluded? 10. By whom was the life of the French king attempted I 11. Why was the order of the Jesuits abolished? 336 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 12. What island did the French annex to their dominions? 13. Did the king's mistresses interfere in the governrr:ent ? 14. What was the general character of tlie rest of this reign f 15. At what age did Louis die? IC Wliat circnmstances facilitated the progress of irifidelitj Is France ? 17. Where did Voltaire chiefly reside? IS What was the character of Rousseau* KouMeaii. Lours XVI. 337 Louis XVI. CHAPTER XXXVI. LOUIS XVL And since the rabble now is ours, Keep the fools hot, preach dangers in their eacs; Spread false reports o' th' senate; working up Their madness to a fury quick and desp'rate; Till they run headlong into civil discords, And do our business with their own destruction. Otwat. 1. Few monarchs ever ascended a throne under more favourable auspices than Louis XVI. He was ^'^ known to have disliked the vicious profligacy of his ^^^'*" grandfather's court; though scarcely twenty he had shown sonie capacity for conducting the business of the state ; anec- dotes of his generous and kindly disposition were circulated through Paris; finally, his marriage with Marie Antoinette seemed to secure external tranquillity, by unitino- France with 29 W ° 338 HISTORY OF FRANCE. ihe empire. The first measures of the new reign were judi- cious and popular ; the administration of finance was entrusted to Turgot, a minister equally remarkable for his virtues and abilities ; other departments of the state were entrusted to Maurepas and Malesherbes, men who were animated by the soundest loyalty and purest patriotism. 2. But the nobility of France, and especially that part of it immediately connected with the court, had been too much demoralized during the lata reign to be pleased with virtuous measures that threatened to destroy corruption, and deprive them of the pensions w'hich they lavished in guilty indulgence. A resolution was taken to destroy Turgot, and an opportunity for effecting it was soon presented. 3. Louis XVI. had recalled the parliament which his grandfather had sent into exile, in spite of the remonstrances of Turgot, who saw that an institution combining judicial and legislative powers was likely to prove injurious ; the parlia- ments retained their indignation against the minister, and when he presented to them an edict for the abolition of corvees, com- pulsory labours that the tenants were obliged to perform for their landlords, they refused to enrol it, and were supported in their resistance by the whole body of the nobility. This ill-judged effort to preserve the most disgraceful and oppressive part of the feudal system was one principal reason of the in- veterate hatred to the aristocracy subsequently shown by the French people. The in- trigues of interested courtiers succeeded in procuring the dismissal of Turgot ; his place was supplied by Neck- er, a Swiss banker, more popular than Turgot, but fai inferior to him in ability. Necker was too much ad dieted to theory, and seemed totally devoid of practical wisdom ; his speculations on ^''*^'^'^''- finance were ingenious and beautiful, but his measures were injurious. 4. Great Britain, though everywhere successful at the en* of the seven years' war, was greatly exhausted l)y the con test; the ordinary revenue was found insufiicient to pay thi interest of the debt and the ordinary expenses of government some new resources were required, and in an evil hour it waj resolved to levy a tax on the British colonies in North America LOUIS XVI. 339 fox, under the pretext that the war had been undertaken for the protection of their frontier, the ministry alleged that they should bear a proportionate share in liquidating its expenses. The Americans denied the right of the British parliament to levy taxes on them, as they sent no representatives thither; a brief war with the pen was followed by an appeal to the s\Vord ; the exasperation of both parties hourly augmented, until at length the congress of deputies from the several colonies, on the 4th of July 1776, formally threw off their allegiance to the British crown, and proclaimed themselves independent, under the title of the United States of America. 5. The French court and people still smarted under the re- collection of the defeats and disgraces they had endured in the former war; every man in his senses was aware that they would seize the first opportunity of declaring' in favour of the Americans ; but the court of St. James's, shutting their eyes to the dangers by which it was threatened, took every method of widening the breach between Britain and its former sub- jects, nor was the delusion of the English ministry dispelled until the evil was irreparable. An alliance was entered into at Paris between France and the United States, to -ij-^a which Spain and Holland soon after acceded. 6. As this war belongs rather to the history of England than that of France, we shall only give a brief summary of the principal events. At sea, several indecisive actions were fought ; twenty naval engagements at least took place between the belligerent powers, but victory remained undetermined until the 12th of April 1782, when Admiral Rodney totally defeated Count de Grasse in the West Indies, and re-established the superiority of the British flag. In the East Indies the English were everywhere successful, and almost annihilated the power of their enemies in that quarter, but on the other hand the French subdued several of the West Indian islands, and the Spaniards conquered Florida. The Dutch suffered most severely, having been deprived of almost all their colonies by the British. In Europe, the French and Spaniards subdued Minorca, but were defeated at the siege of Gibraltar, by the gallant general E: liot. 7. In North America, the war was carried on for some time with various success, until at length the whole British army, commanded by the marquis Cornwallis, was forced to surrender aimost at discretion to the united forces of the French and Americans, commanded by the marquis de la Fayette and general Washington. When the news of this event reached ^""ngknd, every person in the country saw that the further 340 HISTORY OF FRANCE. prosecution of the war was hopeless. A new ministry ao knowledged the independence of the United States. I Jo.j and entered into negociations with France. 8. A peace was concluded under the auspices of Josej)h [I., em- peror of Germany, and the empress of Russia, who acted as mediators ; and England obtained more favourable terms than could reasonably have been expected after the number of re- verses she had experienced. 9. To support the expenses of this war, Necker had re- course to loans, a fatal system, which only deferred the evil to return with accumulated violence at a future period ; after his dismissal, Fleury, Ormesson, and Calonne pursued the same improvident career, until at length the clamours of the people oppressed by taxation, and the fears of the state-creditors thai a national bankruptcy would reduce them to poverty, brought the country into the most deplorable condition. At the same time, the army who had fought for the freedom of America brought home with them some of that attachment to hberty which they had imbibed from their allies ; and the aspirations for a free constitution, so new to the French, were strengthened when they looked across the channel, and saw England, not- withstanding all her reverses, enjoying comparative happiness and tranquillity. 10. Calonne saw that unless all parties in the state combined to support their relative shares of the public burdens, ruin was inevitable ; he therefore resolved to propose that the nobility and clergy should resign, or at least suspend, those privileges by which they were exempted from , J07 taxation. For this purpose he convened an assembly * of the notables at Versailles, and though they were the persons whose interests were most affected, Calonne would probably have secured the adoption of his plan, but for the in- trigues of De Brienne, who aspired to the post of prime min- ister. 11. After a long struggle between justice and privilege, the latter prevailed, Calonne was dismissed, and after a brief interval succeeded by Brienne, whose first act was to dismiss the notables. The only resource now left for raising money, was by issuing royal edicts, but the parliament refused them registration. The new minister seemed to have chosen Riche- lieu for his model, regardless of the far different circumstances in which the government was placed ; he procured the exile of the parliament to Troyes, whence, after a few weeks ,~oq they were recalled, more refractory than ever. The ' minister next resolved to shelter himself under the king's authority ; at a royal sitting, Louis ordered severaJ LOUIS XVI. 341 ^T■.anclal edicts to be registered in his presence. 12. Theduko of Orleans, who had lately placed himself at the head of the popular party, more through personal hatred of the queen than any regard for the public interest, had the courage pub- licly to protest against the registration, for which he was exiled .0 his country seat. At length Brienne, after having retained the post of minister only eighteen months, during which period, however, he had done more real injury to the state than any of his predecessors, became terrified at the dangers by which he was surrounded, and resigned his situation ; he soon after died in retirement, overwhelmed by shame and disappointment. 13. Necker was recalled to the ministry, and as he attri- buted his former dismissal to the influence of the aristocracy and the clergy, he resolved to strengthen himself by an alli- \nce with Vne popular party, and for this purpose prevailed on the king to convoke the states-general. A convention of .he notables was summoned to decide on the necessary preli- .minaries for this national convocation. There were two great questions to be decided — whether the deputies of the commons "should be equal in number to those of the nobility severally or collectively? and whether the states should meet in separate chambers or in one general assembly ? The first point was decided in favour of the popular party ; the latter, and in- finitely the more important question, was left to the decision of the states-general themselves. Such an assembly had not been convoked since 1614; at no time does their constitution appear to have been fixed and determinate ; the summoning them was therefore looked on as a boon to the nation, and any prudent conditions affixed to their meeting would have met with universal acquiescence ; but the foolish precipitancy of Necker caused this golden opportunity to be neglected, and the consequences were fatal. 14. The assembly of the states-general took place at Versailles on 1e 5th of May; the session was opened i-^jiq by the kinp; a a brief but patriotic speech, Necker presented b"j financial report, and every thing seemed to pro- mise p^.i^^e and tranquillity. But these appearances were delusive ; the representatives of the commons soon perceiveG their superior strength, and at once insisted that the states-gen- eral should form but one body. The clergy and the nobility protested against this claim, by which they foresaw that theii privileges vi'ould be annihilated ; they were supported by the court, but they were betrayed by a large portion of both theii own orders. 15. The inferior clergy were disgusted with the 29* Si2 HISTORY OF FRANCE. The States-General. haughtiness and power of the prelates : they were, besides, united to the coramons by the prejudices of birth and educa' lion ; a considerable body of the nobility, headed by the duke of Orleans, privately encouraged the popular party to persist in their claims, promising to unite with them on the first op- portunity. Thus supported, the deputies of the commons passed a decree, by which they declared themselves the iVa- tional Assembly. The court rashly attempted, by a demon- stration of violence, to compel the deputies to alter their reso- lution, but the firmness of the popular leaders was not to be shaken ; they declared that they would remain in the assembly until they were expelled by actual force. The junction of a majority of the clergy and a large minority of the nobles with the third estate, completed the defeat of the court, and Louis, to prevent greater calamities, wrote, himself, to the remaining portions of the privileged orders, advising them to unite with the national assembly. 16. The courtiers of Louis XVI., more eager to preserve their pensions and privileges than their country or their monarch, hurried the monarch into acts of indiscrefion LOUIS XVI. 343 which stilj more increased the popular excitement. A large army was collected between Paris and Versailles ; Necker, whom the court justly looked on as the cause of all their diffi- culties, was dismissed ; a report was spread that the national assembly would be dissolved, and some of the leading popular deputies capitally punished for high treason. In this stale of things, it required the most extreme caution on the part of the royalists to prevent the people from breaking out into open rebellion ; but, unfortunately, the nobilily of France had been too long accustomed to look upon the commonalty as an infe- rior order of beings, whom the first appearance of a mihtary force would terrify into submission. While an unarmed mob were bearing in procession the images of Necker and the duke of Orleans, they were imprudently attacked by a party of royal dragoons, and the busts broken. The citv at once rose as one man; the citizens formed themselves into a military body, under the title of the national guard ; they seized on all the arms in the gun-smiths' shops, and took possession of several pieces of cannon and thirty thousand stand of arms, which were kept at the hospital of the invalids. 17. The 14th of July is usually esteemed the date of the commencement of the revolution. On that day -i^qq the memorable capture of the Bastille took place. The governor, de Launay, anticipating an attack, had made every possible preparation for defence; the store of ammunition was increased, the garrison were all at their posts, but the assault against which they had to defend themselves was that of the whole population of Paris. The plan of attack was formed on the evening of the 13th, but all plans were superseded by the fury of the populace. Early on the morning of the 14th, groups of armed men were seen forming in the vicinity of the fortress ; the governor ordered the cannon to be turned on the capital, but was prevailed upon to remove them, as they only served to increase the fury of the people. Shortly afterwards, a deputation from the commune of Paris, headed by the pop- ular leaders, arrived, and demanded a conference with the governor. The draw-bridge was lowered for their admission, but they had scarcely entered the first court when they were followed by a multitude demanding arms and ammunition. On seeing this, the governor ordered the bridge to be raised, and directed the garrison to fire upon the intruders. The shrieks of the wounded and dying; the confused cries of" as' eassination ! treason !" redoubled the rage of the assailants. Two men, lowering thf.nselves from a guard-house, got be- 344 HISTORY OF FRANCE. yond the bridge and broke its chains with an axe, under a heavy fire of musketry. The garrison still kept the assailants in check, biU the arrival of a detachment of grenadiers, with some pieces of cannon, gave fresh energy to the besiegers. Heaps of straw were set on fire beneath the walls to conceal their movements, while a heavy fire from the neighbouring houses nearly drove the besieged from the ramparts. The Bastille. The governor, in despair, resolved to blow up the fortress, but was prevented ; he solicited a barrel of gunpowder for his own destruction, but this also was denied ; and at length a white flag was hoisted on the battlements, and the garrison capitulated. The invahds laid down their arms, and a de tachment was ordered to escort the governor to the Hotel de Ville as a place of safety, but, just as he reached the steps of the building, he fell a victim to the fury of the populace ; his head, and that of the second in command, were borne on pikes .« a triumphant procession through the streets of Paris. 18. The two parties into which France was divided were now fairly at issue, the nobility attached to the court, and the feudal lords of the country, were determined at all hazards to retain their privileges ; the middle and lower ranks of hfe were determined to preserve the advantage they had acquired Dver an aristocracy that had abused its powers. The king, placed between both, had not sufficient energy to adhere firmly LOUIS XVI. 345 to either; early associations, the arts of the courtiers, and the influence of the queen, led him to check the rising power of the comnaons by measures both injudicious and intemperate ; while a dread of popular violence and a noble dislike to the shedding of blood, induced him to retrace his steps at the firs* appearance of determined resistance. This vacillating policy, at all time* dangerous, was, under the circumstances of France at the period, certain destruction. 19. On the 4th of August M. de Noailles and M. d'Aiguillon, both members of the no- bility, endeavoured to conciliate the people by a noble sacri- fice. They proposed that all the privileges belonging to theii order should be abolished, and that all remaining traces of the feudal system should be abolished in France. The greater part of the nobility and clergy supported the proposition with zeal, and it was strange to see the enthusiasm with which the different privileged orders hastened to resign all the peculiar distinctions which had hitherto distinguished their rank in the state. But this sacrifice was made in vain ; the popular party looked on it as a boon extracted by terror, and the provincial nobility, a body remarkable for pride, poverty, and ignorance, saw themselves degraded below the class of merchants and traders, whom they had previously been accustomed to de- spise. 20. The very rapidity with which they had obtained their liberty unfitted the French nation for its enjoyment, and made them jealous of its security. Suspicions were naturally enter- tained of the sincerity of the court, and though they were par- tially dispelled by the king's judicious visit to Paris, they broke out with new violence in consequence of the queen's indiscre- tion. At a dinner given by the soldiers of one regiment to the officers of another, Marie Antoinette made her appearance with the dauphin in her arms, probably in imitation of her mother's appeal to the states of Hungary. She was received with enthusiasm ; the king was persuaded to enter, and several royalist toasts were drunk in his presence. The wine flowed freely, and under its influence many of the officers, who were chiefly young nobles, gave vent to sentiments which were ad- verse to the rising liberties of the nation. 21. An exaggerated narrative of these ridiculous orgies was spread through Paris, the dread of a counter-revolution became general, and the na- tiona guard, now organised into a regular army under the command of La Fayette, prepared to defend their liberty, which they believed to be threatened. On the 5th of October the sound of the tocsin alarmed Paris, the people assembled m 346 HISTORY OF FRANCE. tumultuous groups, and a resolution was taken to bring the king by force to the capital. A multitude of both sexes set out for Versailles ; the women to make a representation to the king of the famine which prevailed in Paris ; the men to be revenged on the royal guards for an insult said to have been offered to the national cockade. These were followed by the national guard under the command of La Fayette, whose pro- fessed design AA'as to request of the king to come witn them to Paris, but they were silent as to their intentions in case of a refusal, 22. On the morning of the sixth, the palace was at- tacked by a fierce mob, several of the royal guards murdered, the queen obliged to fly half naked to the king's apartments, and the whole royal family on the very brink of being mur- dered. At this moment La Fayette appeared, but found that he had overrated his influence; nothing would satisfy the mob but the king's immediately setting out for Paris, and with a heavy heart he found himself forced to obey. Nothing can be conceived more humiliating than this journey, which lasted six hours, though the distance is but twelve miles; the royal carriages were surrounded by an infuriate mob, red with slaughter and maddened with success ; the heads of the mur- dered soldiers who had fallen victims to their loyalty were borne on pikes, and even held before the windows of the king'a coach with cruel insult. The king was lodged in the Tuil- leries, the city was brilliantly illuminated, and the Parisians spent the night in extravagant joy. The national assembly followed the king, and for the future held their sittings in Paris. Questions. 1. Why was Louis XVI. popular at his accession ? 2. Did the aristocracy of France show any sympathy with tha people? 3. By whose intrigue was Turgot removed from the ministry? 4. Why did the states of America revolt against England ? 5. Did France join in the war? 6. What are the most important events that occurred in the con- test? 7. By what event was it decided ? 8. By whose mediation was peace concluded? 9. In what state were the French finances at the conclusion M the war ? 10. How did Calonne endeavoirr to remedy these evils 1 11. What means were pursued by the Brienne? LOUIS XVI. 347 12. Why did he resign office? 13. What fatal error did Necker commit? 14. On what important question were the three parts of the states general divided ? 15. From what circumstances was the decision in favour of th"' third estate ? 16. By wliat imprudent proceedings were the people provoked to an insurrection ? 17. What remarkable circumstances occurred at the storming of the Bastille? 18. What was now the state of parties in France? 19. The patriotic sacrifices of the nobility produced no beneficial efl'ect — why ? 90. Did aP7 imprudence on the part of the queen inspire popular ?iess, and solicited a brief delay to arrange his i-Cqo worldly kffairs, and prepare himself for another world. This WIS refused, but he was permitted to see his family, and bid tbem farewell. The abbe Edgeworth was chosen by the king as his confessor, be visited him on the evening of the 20th January, and Louis, after having received the rites of the church, retired to bed, where he slept soundly. At nine o'clock on the following morning, a message was brought to inform him that " a carriage was in waiting." He immedi- ately rose, and, accompanied by his confessor, walked steadily through the outer court of the Temple to the gate, where the mayor's coach stood ready to receive him. The mournful procession moved slowly through deep files of soldiers, who 30* X 354 HISTORY OF FRANCE. lined tne streets from the Temple to the place of execution The meJa.Kholy procession occupied two hours, during which time Louis employed himself in repeating with his confessor the prayers for persons at the point of death. He ascended the scafiold with a firm step, and said with a loud voice, "Frenchmen, I die innocent, and I trust that my blood" — at this moment Santerre ordered the drums to beat, and the rest of the sentence was inaudible. Louis then quietly resig.ied himself to the executioner; he was bound to the fatal instru- ment, and his head fell. Some few cried out Vive la nation, but the greater part of the spectators were melted into tears. His body, without being placed in a coffin, was hurriedly thrown into a plain grave, and quick-lime poured over it to accelerate the decomposition. Thus perished in the 39th year of his age, one of the most virtuous monarchs that ever filled the throne of France, a victim to the indiscretion of his friends and the malice of his enemies. 20. In the course of the year, the unfortunate queen, and madame Elizabeth, the king's sister, were sacrificed to the mad cruelty of the republicans. The young dauphin, after having been forcibly torn from his mother's arms, was given in charge to a cobbler named Simon, a monster that vitiated his infant mind and destroyed his health ; but death fortunately soon released him from his miseries. The last survivor of the royal family, the princess who subsequently became the duchess of Angouleme, was, after a tedious captivity, exchanged with the Austrians for some French prisoners of distinction. 2L Phihp Egalite derived no advantage from the infamous vote by which he had endeavoured to acquire popularity. He was accused of "infidelity to the republic, convicted, and hur- ried to execution, amid the shouts and execrations of the mul- titude, which he sustained with great patience, and submitted to his fate with surprising resolution. Questions. 1. How did the friends of the revolution proceed to make a total change in the constitution ? 2. What viras the character of Necker ? 3. Did any circumstances stiow that there was a want of corv fidence between the king and the people 7 4. Which of the royal family made their escape from France? 5. By what unfortunate circumstances was the flight of Louia prevented ? LOUIS XVI. 355 6. How did the national assembly terminate their labours? 7. Why was their exclusion of themselves from the legislative assembly injurious? 8. What iDJudicious proclamaiiun was issued by the dulce of Brunswick 1 9. Was it followed by any injurious effect ? 10. When did the populace commence their cruel excesses ? 11. What remarkable events occurred in August? 12. Whither was the king sent? 13. Did any fearful massacre occur in September? 14. How did the national conventioti commence its proceedings T 15. Were the invaders of France successful? 16. In what manner were the royal captives treated ? 17. How did Louis behave on his trial ? 18. Whose- is the most remarkable name in the list of the regi cides ? 19. How did Louis behave at the place of execution? 20. Whax became of the rest of the royal family ? 21. How did the duke of Orleans die ? La Fayetta. 356 HISTORY OF FRANCE. The Tuilleries. CHAPTER S XXVIII. THE REPUBLIC. O sacred hunger of ambitious mindes And impotent desire of men to reign! Wliom neither dread of God, tliat devils bindes, Nor lawes of men, that common-weales containe,> Nor bands of nature, that wild beasts restraine, Can keepe from outrage, and from doing wrong Where they may hope a kingdom to obtaine, No faith so firm, no trust can be so strong, No love so lasting then, that may enduren long. Spensek. 1. The tragical end of Louis XVL, the success of T7qQ ^^^ French arms, and a vote of the convention againsl monarchical power, produced a general coalition of the European courts. The convention did not wait to be attacked, but boldly declared that the republic was at war with the king of England and the stadtholder of Holland. The campaign commenced with a series of reverses on the part of the French, which induced the leaders of the Jacobin party to suspect THE REPUBLIC. 357 general Dumouner of treachery. 2. Four commissaries were sent with BoumouviJle, the minister at war, to bring him to Paris for trial ; but Dumourier was by no means willing to fall a victim to the convention ; he arrested the commissioners and sent them as hostages to the Austrians. He hoped that by liis personal influence he would have prevailed on the army to join him in effecting the restoration of monarchy ; but finding himself disappointed, and dreading that he would be given up to the convention, he fled to the Austrian camp, and thus terminated his military career for ever. 3. The party of the Jacobins, or the Mountain, as it has sometimes been called, were now triumphant in the conven- tion ; and it would be impossible to give even an imperfect delineation of the mingled atrocities and absurdities which they perpetrated. Their rule was emphatically denominated the Reign of Terror. All who dared to oppose the madness of the day were dragged to the scaffold ; the catalogue of public crimes to be punished with death was extended to the most innocent actions, and the first fruits of French liberty were a tyranny more odious than had ever before disgraced any country. Impiety accompanied cruelty, Christianity was de- clared to be abolished as an useless superstition, the churches were pillaged, their lands confiscated, and their plate melted down to pay the soldiers. The entire calendar was changed in order to efface the remembrance of the days consecrated to devotion, and it was declared that the only deities acknow- ledged by regenerated France, were Liberty and Reason. In short, a national insanity seems to have prevailed, that hurried men en to commit crime for the mere pleasure of being criminal, 4. The campaign, a httle after its commencement, seemed to promise the allies a favourable issue ; Conde was delivered up to the Austrians, and Valenciennes was captured by the English, under the command of the duke of York. But the British general having laid siege to Dunkirk, was forced to retire by general Houchard, with the loss of a large portion of his arms and ammunition. On the upper Rhine the Austro- Prussian army was more successful, and forced general Cus- tine to retreat. The victorious Houchard and the defeated Custine were, however, equally obnoxious to the convention, and were both guillotined. Shortly afterwards, twenty mem- bers of the convention were brought to trial on vague accusa- tions and sentenced to death. Bailly, the mayor of Paris, whc 358 HISTORY OF FRANCE. had been one of the most conspicuous loaders of the icvolu lion, was among the number. 5. In several parts of the country disgust at the crimes of the capital produced insurrectionary movements. Lyons set the example, and supported a long siege before it fell into the hands of the revolutionary army, but then its fate was dread- ful ; at the head of the commission sent down by the conven- tion to investigate the crimes of the unfortunate city, was a vile buflbon natned CoUot (PHcrbois, who had in former years been hissed ofT that stage. 6. Thousands of persons perished by his orders ; the executioners were unable to destroy the vic- tims with sufficient celerity, and cannon was directed against them to insure their wholesale destruction. Marseilles, to avoid a similar fate, submitted, but the people of Toulon sur- rendered their town and fleet to the English. The revolutionary army approached, and principally by the judicious measures of Napoleon Buonaparte, a young Corsican,* whose name was afterwards to fill so large a portion of the history of the world, compelled the British to evacuate the town. Before their de- parture they burned most of the \'essels which they could not bring off; but the inhabitants of Toulon were left to meet the same fote as those of Lyons. 7. In another quarter a still fiercer war was carried on. The inhabitants of La Vendee had been from the very beginning of the revolution inclined to support the cause of royalty, and had shown many proofs of their dislike for the new republic. At length they commenced a furious war on the convention and its supporters, which in the beginning was everywhere crowned with success. But the allies neglected to send them assistance until it was too late ; the leaders became jealous of each other, disunion crept into their councils, while an over- whelming army of the republic spread devastation through the province. Peace w^as restored to La Vendee, but it was the peace of desolation, obtained by the ruin of the province and massacre of its inhabitants. 8. The close of this eventful year saw the republic every where triumphant. The Prusso-Austrian army were com pelled to retire before the French under Hoche and Pichegru, and the allies who had commenced so successfully, w-ere in the end defeated b}^ an enemy whom they had rashly despised. * Buonaparte's military propensities were inilicated at the school of Brienne, where he commanded his schoolmates in tlieii miniio Warfare of snowballs and snow forts. THE REPUBLIC. S'lrt THE REPUBLIC. 36i 9. The preparations for the following campaign were A. D. on the most extensive scale ; like the former it began i^'qV favourably for the allies and terminated in their total defeat. The convention issued orders to their soldiers to give no quarter to the allies ; on the other hand, the duke of York issued a proclamation forbidding the British soldiers to retaliate, an/J reminding them that humanity is the greatest ornament of heroism. 10. At length the Parisians themselves became wearied of the crimes of the Jacobins. On the 28th of July, France was delivered from those monsters, who set no bounds to their sanguinarj' fury ; they wore all dragged before that revolutionary tribunal, by means of which they had committed so many crimes, and lost their lives on the same scaffold which they had inundated with the blood of so many thousand vic- tims. From thenceforward, the republic ceased to exhibit the horrid scenes of massacre and bloodshed by which it had been hitherto disgraced. 11. In this memorable year the French won six pitched battles, and captured one hundred and twenty-four towns ; bui the British squadron maintained their superiority by sea, and almost all the French colonies in the West -iiy'qK Indies were taken without much difficulty. Pichegru, who commanded the army of the republic in the Netherlands, did not suspend military operations during the winter. Taking advantage of a heavj?^ frost, he crossed the Waal on the ice, and in an incredibly short space of time subdued Holland. The prince of Orange was forced to take refuge in England, and the United Provinces, under the name of the Batavian re- public, became a dependency of France. 12. Soon after, the allies were weakened by the defection of Prussia, which pro- fessed a strict neutrality, and Spain, which, though governed by a prince of the Bourbon family, entered into a league, of- fensive and defensive, with the republic. 13. The burden of the war now fell upon Austria and England ; the imperial forces, after having gained some successes on the Rhine; con- cluded an armistice with their opponents ; the efforts of the British were confined to an ill-concerted expedition against the French coast, designed to revive the war in La Vendee. The ?'rench emigrants, with a numerous body of their countrymen vhich the British government had in pay, made a descent in "le bay of Gluiberon. Having taken possession of a fort de Unded by the republicans, they entrenched themselves in a position selected by their leader, the count d'Herville, with more courage than judgment. Here they were attacked by 31 362 HISTORY OF FRANCE. ihe republicans under general Hoche, their camp surprised and the greater portion of their army either slain or made prisoners. 14. During the armistice between the French and tjqa Austrians, both parties made extensive preparations for renewing the war. The command of the republican army in Italy was entrusted to Napoleon Buonaparte, who had already distinguished himself at the siege of Toulon. Ele- vated at the early age of twenty-six to a station of such im- portance, he soon showed such proofs of military skill, as placed him at the head of all the generals in Europe. In one campaign the Austrians lost the greater part of Italy, the Pied- montese and the pope were forced to purchase security by sub- mitting to whatever terms the conqueror pleased to impose, and the king of Naples compelled to seek peace on humiliating conditions. The most brilliant action of the campaign was the passage of the bridge of Lodi, which was forced by the French grenadiers in the teeth of the Austrian batteries, which vainly poured a murderous shower of grape-shot on the ad- vancing columns. 15. The campaign on the Rhine was less fortunate but equally honourable ; after the Austrians had de- feated marshal Jourdan, the ruin of the French army com- manded by Moreau seemed inevitable, but that general by a masterly retreat, which lasted twenty-seven days, disconcerted all the schemes of the enemy, and brought his army safely across the Rhine in the presence of the hostile army. 16. In the course of the year the French made an attempt to invade Ireland, in order to assist the United Irishmen, who were discontented with the conduct of the British government. The fleet escaped from Brest, without being discovered by the Englisb squadron, but a violent storm dispersed the ships, and prevented those which reached Bantry-bay from effecting a landing. As many of the soldiers thai had been sent on this expedition were criminals taken from the galleys, the French government did not know how to treat them on their return. At length they determined to send them against Great Britain itself They efiected a landing at Fishguard in Wales, on the 23d of February 1797, and surrendered themselves prisoners the same evening without making any resistance. 17. Mantua, the last strong hold of the Austrians in ,Jq,.^ Italy, having surrendered, Buonaparte advanced al ung the shores of the Adriatic, and passing through the Alpine defiles which separate Italy from Germany, threatened Vienna. The emperor, terrified at the dangers by which he {64 HlferTORY OF FRANCE. THE REPUBLir 365 was threatened, hastened to make a peace A treaty was ■joncluded at Campo Formio, by which the Austrian Nether- lands were given up to France, and the north of Italy, nomi- nally formed into an independent state, under the name of the Cisalpine republic, was virtually subjected to the same power. 18. The constitution of France was gradually assuming a monarchical form, two councils, that of the ancients, and that of the five hundred, had succeeded the convention, and the executive power was entrusted to a directory that held the regal authority in commission. 19. England alone now opposed the republic, and by its naval superiority sustained the contest with i^qq vigour. ^Fhe French marine had never recovered the blow inflicted by lord Howe on the 1st of June 1794; the Spanish fleet had been signally defeated off Cape St. Vincent in 1797, and in the latter end of the same year, the Dutch navy had been nearly annihilated in a sanguinary battle near Camperdown. This prevented the French from aiding the insurgents in Ireland, who had actually taken up arms. The rebellion was over before any attempt to aid the insurgents was made by the French, and even then only about a thou- sand men were sent, who were soon forced to surrender. 20. Buonaparte having subdued Switzerland, and deposed the pope without meeting any resistance, resolved, if possible, to humble the British, whose insular situation protected them from his ambition and his vengeance. Perceiving that her commerce with India was one of the great sources of British wealth ; to destroy this, he resolved to take possession of Egypt. At the same time the Directory, probably to disguise their real designs, threatened an invasion of England, but after much boasting it was laid aside as impraclicable. The fleet and army designed for the subjugation of Egypt sailed from Toulon on the 13th of May ; by the treachery of the knights they obtained possession of Malta, and pursuing their course landed safely in Egypt, where they soon made themselves masters of Alexandria. The victory of Embabeh secured them the possession of Cairo, and thus in a very short lime the French found themselves masters of Lower Egypt. 21. Meantime admiral Nelson had sailed in pursuit of the Toulon fleet, and had actually passed them in the Mediter- ranean, but the want of frigates prevented him from discover- ing their movements. At length he discovered them on the 1st of August, moored m the bay of Aboukir, presenting an 31* 866 HISTORY OF FRANCE. .mposing line. Having made his arrangements, the English admiral commenced the engagement about sunset, and before the dawn of the following morning obtained one of the com- pletest victories recorded in the annals of naval warfare. Of the entire French fleet only two line-of-battle ships and two frigates escaped ; the rest were either burned or captured. Even those that fled were afterwards taken by the British cruisers in the Mediterranean. 22. Buonaparte, thus cut off from a^i communication with France, pursued his conquests in Egypt with equal spirit and success. The splendid cavalry of the Mamelukes were de- feated in every attack that they made on the invaders, while the French horse, under the command of " the handsome swordsman," as Murat was generally caHed, were victorious in every encounter. Having provided for the security ^jqq of Egypt, Buonaparte advanced into Syria, but .suUied all his triumphs by remorselessly murdering sll his prisoners in cold blood at JafTa. Soon after, he laid sieg^ to Acre, which the Turks, aided by Sir Sidney Smith, defended with such bravery for sixty days, that Napoleon was com* pelled to return to Egypt. A splendid victory ovei tl»«i Siege of Acre. THE REPUBLIC. 36'^ Mame.ukes near Aboukir revived the drooping spirits of the army; but Napoleon saw in the distraction of France an opportunity of obtaining higher honours than the laurels of Egypt, and having resigned the command of the army to general Kleber, he privately departed from Egypt. 23. Having safely passed through the British cruisers that guarded the Mediterranean, he landed at Frejus and pro- ceeded to the capital, where he was received with the greatest enthusiasm. Aided by 'he unanimous support of the troops, he abolished the Directory, and in its place estabhshed a con- sulate, of which he was himself the chief. The council of five hundred, who opposed this arrangement, were dispersed at the point of the bayonet. This great revolution was effected without bloodshed, although certainly with violence, and thenceforward the French republic existed only in name. 2-1. Meantime the English government had excited the Neapolitans and Austrians to renew the war. The Russian emperor sent an army under Suwarrow to aid the coalition, and thus strengthened, the allies had liberated Switzerland, recovered the north of Italy, and were even threatening an invasion of the southern French provinces. This gloomy aspect of affairs had facilitated the revolution of which we have ju.-t spoken ; for the nation, remembering the former triumphs of Napoleon, trusted that his abilities would restore their concjuests and their glory. The first consul addressed a letter, professing the most pacific intentions, to the king of Great Britain, which was answered by Lord Grenville, in terms that plainly showed it to be the intention of the British cabinet to continue the war. 25. The defection of the Emperor of Russia, who believed, with some justice, that the Austrians had not io/-»rJ properly supported his general Suwarrow, consider- ably weakened the allies, and by giving Napoleon the undis- turbed possession of Switzerland, enabled him to execute the most extraordinary enterprise recorded in the history of war. 2'o. This was to pass over the most difficult part of the Alps, and throwing himself in the rear of the Austrian army, to force general Melas to come to an engagement under circum stances where reverse must needs be ruin. The better tu conceal this project, he pretended to assemble an army of reserve at Dijon, and the Austrians, fixing their entire atten- tion on this mass of raw recruits, gave themselves up to the most extravagan* transports of hope and joy. The march of A numerous army, with its train of ammunition-waggons and 368 HISTORY OF FRANCE. artillery, over mountains covered with eternal snow, along airy ridges of rock, where the iiunter of the chamois, the goat- herd, and the outlawed smuggler, are alone accustomed to venture, was an undertaking so perfectly astonishing, that the Austrians could scarcely believe the intelligence, when ihey learned that Napoleon, after having, like Hannibal, triumphed over nature, was driving their posts before him through the north of Italy. 27. Meias marched to meet him, and on the 13th of April was fought the decisive battle of IMarengo. In this engagement the Austrians at first obtained great ad- vantages, which they failed to improve; the arrival of the reserve under Dessaix checked their advance, while Napoleon recalled his retreating troops. The victory was yet doubtful, when the timely charge of Kellermann on the Austrian flank determined the fate of the day ; the imperialists were every where broken, hundreds were drowned in attempting to pass the little river Bormida, and whole corps, to avoid a similar fate, surrendered themselves prisoners. 28. After this brilliant achievement. Napoleon returned to Paris, where he was re- ceived with the greatest enthusiasm. He concluded an armistice with the Austrians, but the remonstrances of the British cabinet prevented the emperor from concluding the peace. During the progress of the negociaiions, the life of the first consul was in imminent danger from the plots of the jacobins and royalists, who were equally enemies to his usurpation. One of these, called the plot of the infernal machine, had nearly succeeded. A barrel of gunpowder, surrounded with grape-shot, was placed in a cart, which b*"- ing set on fire by a slow match, was to explode at the moment when Buonaparte was passing through a narrow street. The ?ngine exploded only half a minute after his carriage had passed, killing twenty persons, and wounding more than fifty, but Napoleon escaped uninjured. He took advantage of the sensation excited by this treacherous attempt, to create a new arbitrary tribunal for the trial of offences against the state, and to obtain new powers for himself, under the pretence of guard- ing the republic from its secret enemies. 29. In November the war was renewed: it continued foi some time indecisive, but at length the Austrians were de- feated in every point, and the bloody battle of Hohenlinder. laid the empire prostrate at the feet of France. A treaty was concluded at Luneville, on terms dictated by the conqueroi and France was now the undisputed mistress of the con tinent. THE REPUBLIC. 369 30. England still maintained the contest singie- nanded, and sustained the glory of her arms by two ^ani signal triumphs in pans of the globe far remote from each other. The army under the command of general Aber cromby expelled the French from Egypt, but its gallant leader died in the moment of victory. 81. The northern powers having coalesced to destroy the naval superiority of England, admiral Nelson was sent into the Baltic, and having made overtures for negociaiion in va:.n, he attacked and destroyed the Danish fleet at Copenhagen. The French renewed their threats of invasion, but the appointment of Nelson to the command of the channel-fleet made them again lay acide the enterprise as hopeless. 32. The retire- ment of Mr. Pitt from the British ministry was the signal for commencing negociations. After many delays, a treaty was concluded at Amiens on the 10th of October, to the great de- light of both nations. 33. The peace of Amiens had scarcely been signed, when it began to appear nothing better than a mere icno suspension of arms, and that a new war would soon be rekindled by the restless ambition of Napoleon, Shortly after the signing of the preliminaries, he procured himself to be appointed president of the Cisalpine republic in the north of Italy, a proceeding which greatly irritated the Austrian cabinet. His attention was next directed to the organization of the Li- gurian republic, of which Genoa was declared the capital. Ho also brought about a political reform in Switzerland, and sent thirty thousand men into that country to support his ambitious projects. The consolidation of his power at home was not neglected ; by a concordat concluded with the pope, the Ro- man catholic religion was again established in France, and the entire ecclesiastical authority lodged in the hands of the first consul. Universal hberty of conscience was established for all rehgious opinions ; and the emigrant clergy were invited to return to their flocks, provided that they would promise their support to the established order of things. His next step towards despotism was to procure himself to be appointed consul for life; soon after which he instituted a new order of chivalry, called the legion of honour, the members of which were chosen from all the public professions indifFerendy. 34. St. Domingo, the most beautiful and valuable of the French islands in the West Indies, was in a state of frightful insurrection ; the negroes, under the com.mand of Tou^sain* Louverture, had established their independence, and the colo Y 370 HISTORY OF FRANCE. nists had been either driven out or slain. Leclerc, brother-in law to the consul, was sent to recover the island, and suc- ceeded, principally by the treachery of some of the negro- chiefs. Toussaint Louverture surrendered in consequence of a negociation ; but Leclerc, dreading his influence, had him soon after arrested and sent to France, where he died in prison. But the French rulers having attempted to re-establish slavery, the negroes again broke out into rebellion, and after a fearful contest, in which the French lost multitudes of soldiers, the msurgents prevailed. St. Domingo was lost to France, and the island has ever since continued an independent negro slate, under the name of Hayti, 35. One of the conditions of the treaty concluded at 180'^ Amiens was, that the English should restore the island * of Malta to the knights of St. John ; but being con- vinced of the probability of war, they refused to give up a post which secured to them the commerce of the xMediterrancan. On the 16th of May, letters of marque were issued against France, and all the French vessels in British harbours were seized. Napoleon retaliated by seizing on the persons of all the British travellers whom business or pleasure had induced to visit the continent ; and these unfortunate persons were de- tained as prisoners of war. General Mortier marched against Hanover, of which he took possession without resistance ; and the mouths of the rivers Elbe and Weser, which formed the principal outlets of European commerce, were shut against the English. On the other hand, the British navy blockaded the ports, and attacked with success the colonies of the enemy, while a threatened invasion raised such a spirit of patriotic resistance through the island, that the people readily granted to the ministry all the supphes of men and money that they demanded. 36. The attention of Europe was fixed upon the ISni projected invasion of England, when two strange events * occurred in Paris, that excited universal astonishment and indignation. A conspiracy was said to have been dis- covered against Buonaparte, at the head of which were Pichegru, the conqueror of Holland, George Cadoudal, a Ven- dean chief, and Moreau, whose military fame rivalled that of Napoleon. The conspirators were arrested, and the gallant Pichegru secretly assassinated in prison. A few days before this, the Parisians heard in one breath, that the heir ot the house of Conde, the duke d'Enghien, had been arrested at Eitenheim, a town in the principality of Baden, and tried and THE REPUBLIC. 371 Death of the Duke d'Enghien. executed within sight of their own houses at Vincennes. Thia horrid murder was aggravated by a mock trial, in which every form of law and every principle of justice were violated. The unhappy prince was arrested in a neutral state, tried for a civil offence before a mihtary tribunal, at the hour of midnight, when it was against the laws of France to hold any trial ; no counsel was allowed for his defence ; the execution took place immediately after the sentence, without any time being al- lowed for the prince to lodge an appeal, and finally, had even all the legal forms been observed, the duke owed no allegiance to the government of France. He died with a firmness and constancy worthy of his noble birth, and was buried in the ditch of the castle of Vincennes. This fatal event is the greatest blot on Napoleon's character; its imprudence was to the full as great as its wickedness, for such an act of wanton cruelly provoked against him the personal hostility of the Eu- ropean sovereigns. The remark of the callous Fouche on th3 subject has passed into a proverb — "It was worse than a crime — it was a blunder." 37. The first consul soon afterwards obtained the object of his highest ambition ; he was created by a subservient senate emperor of the French, the philosopher and statesman Carnol having alone had the courage to protest against the appoint- ment. Thus vanished like a shadow the French republiCithe Rst^blishment of which had been purchased by so many lives 372 HISTORY OF FRANCE. The only important military event in this year was the seizure pf the Spanish plate-fleet by the English without any formal declaration of war ; this of course produced a close alliance between the courts of Paris and Madrid, though there is reason to believe that they had been previously united in hostility lo LVagland. t^8. The conspirators against Buonaparte were brought to iTial ; George Cadoudal and ten of his associates were exe- fuced ; General Moreau was permitted to transport himself to America; the remainder were pardoned. Freed thus from dangers, Napoleon prepared for the ceremony of his corona- Jion, and, to the astonishment of all Europe, prevailed on the pope to officiate on the occasion. He was crowned emperor of the French on the 2d of December, and in the following year assumed the title and ensigns of king of Italy at Milan. Questions. 1. Against w^hat European powers did the Convention declare war ? 2. How did the military career of Dumourier terminate? 3. Wljat general description maybe given of the reign of terror? 4. With what success was the war carried on ? 5. Did any symptoms of hostility to the Convention appear in any part of France? 6. How were the inhabitants of the discontented towns treated ? 7. By what means was the insurrection in La Vendee quelled? 8. How did the campaign terminate? 9. What contrast is tliere between the orders issued to the French and English armies ? IQ. How was the reign of terror terminated ? 11. By whom was Holland subjugated? 12. What nations deserted the allies'? 13. Did England undertake any unsuccessful expedition? 14. What calamities did the Austrians suffer in Italy? 15. How was the campaign conducted on the Rhine? 16. With what success did the French attempt to invade Britain! 17. Into what terms of peace was Austria forced? 18. Did any change take place in the internal government of France ? 19. Where did England maintain her superiority? 20. In what way did Buonaparte resolve to weaken the powei of Britain ? 21. By what naval victory did the English cut off the commniu> cation between the invaders of Egypt and France ? 2B. Why did Buonaparte return home ? THE REPUBLIC. 373 23. What char.ge did he make in the government on iiis return^ 24. Was there any confederacy now formed against France? 25. Did any one of the alh'es withdraw himself from the rest? 26. What extraordinary march did Buonaparte perform? 27. In what decisive engagement were the Austrians over thrown ? 28. From what great danger did Napoleon escape? 29. How were the Austrians compelled to solicit peace? 30. Did England obtain any triumphs? 31. Was the close of the war remarkable for any naval exploits 32. What facilitated the conclusion of peace between France and England ? 33. How was Napoleon employed during the peace? 34. What occurred during this time at St. Domingo? 35. How did the war between France and England recom- mence ? 36. What legal murders did Napoleon sanction ? 37. To what dignity was he soon after raised? 38 What remarkable circumstances took place at the cl 'se of tha year 1804? i-.J'.mi ^U il-' ik' Jlil'.l-^Ti^-j, ,. V, MiijiiiD -'-■''lEir'.'EICLTiiri Napoleon crowning Josepbiae. » 374 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Napoleon. CHAPTER XXXIX. THE EMPIRE. When Europe bowed beneath the yoke, And Austria bent and Prussia broke. Scott. 1. The murder of the duke d'Enghien facWitafed /^.fcl the formation of a coalition between the cabinets of Petersburgh, Stockholm, and London, against France ft was not, however, until after the delay of some months, thai Austria and Prussia could be prevailed upon to unite with the THE EMPIRE. 375 Other allies for maintaining the independence of Europe ; and the indecision of the latter power prevented her from sharing in the contest. 2. From the extreme of sloth, the Austrian government, irritated by the news of the usurpations of the French in Italy, suddenly passed into the opposite and more dangerous one of inconsiderate rashness. Without waiting for the Russian troops, or even securing tha co-operation of Prussia, the Austrian emperor coramenceu the war. 3. His first proceeding was almost as tyrannical as any of which he complained on the part of the French. The elector of Bava* ria having a son travelling in France, was anxious to remain neutral, and submissively entreated the German emperor to grant him permission to do so ; his request was not only re- fused, but he was ordered forthwith to incorporate his forces with the Austrians, and place his soldiers under their chiefs. This was of course refused. The Austrians poured their forces into Bavaria, and acted as if they were in an- enemy's country, while the elector retired into Franconia, and anxiously awaited the arrival of the French as his deliverers. 4. The army which Napoleon had designed for the inva- sion of England, immediately was ordered to march on the Grerman frontier, while Massena was directed to commence oflensive operations, and penetrate, if possible, into the here- ditary dominions of Austria. 5. On both sides the French were pre-eminently successful ; Mack, the Austrian general, after a series of blundering operations which completely proved his incapacity, shut himself up in Ulm with 20,000 men, and surrendered the town on the 17ih of October, under circum- stances that show he was not only a coward but a traitor. Mas sena defeated the Austrians in Italy, and Napoleon was con sequently enabled to make himself master of Vienna without any opposition. But Austria had still some chances in her favour; the Russian emperor had at length brought up his forces, and the two armies were concentrated in Moravia. 6. Napoleon, with a precipitancy that might have cost him dear, passed the Danube, and afier a series of manoeuvres, in which the allies showed but Utile skill, the two armies met on the second of December, to decide for a time the destinies of Europe, on the plains of Austerlitz. The Russians having incautiously too much extended their line. Napoleon poured a force through the gap which completely severed that wing from the centre ; the centre itself was soon broken by the French cavalry under Murat, and the right wing of the allies^ v^vcb
/I caused these disasters, Prussia rushed heedlessly into war with the French, and committed over again the same faults that led to tlie ruin of the emperor. After some alter- cations in notes and manifestos, the Prussian army marched into Saxony, and treated the country as Bavaria had been treated by the Austrians in the preceding year. 10. Napoleon saw and took advantage of their error; by an unexpected movement, he turned the right wing of his opponents, seized and blew up their magazines, and placed his army between the Prussians and their resources. The explosion ^ ^. of his magazines first made the rash king aware. of the extent of his danger ; his attempts to extricate himself brought on the battle of Jena, in which the Prussians were defeated, and their cause irretrievably ruined. 11. The con sequences of this memorable battle were still more disastrous the different corps of the Prussian army were obliged to lay down their arms in succession ; the fortresses were surren dered after a very inefficacious resistance, either by the cow- ardice or treachery of their governors. Blucher, who alone of all the Prussian leaders had exhibited any courage or mili- tary skill, was forced, after a brilliant retreat, to surrender, and the king of Prussia having abandoned his capital, was com- pelled to take refuge in Konigsberg with the shattered remains of his forces. Thus within the brief space of a month was the fabric of the Prussian power, which the abilities of the great Frederic had erected, totally, and to all appearance, remedilessly destroyed. 12. The emperor of Russia now ordered his forces to unite wi'.h the remnant of the Prussian array, but -lo'n-y the French maintained their superiority until the seve- rity of winier compelled both armies to lay aside hostilities for a brief period. 13. In the latter end of January, the Prus- sians having received some reinforcements, resumed the offen- sive, and on the 8th of February was fought the bloody battle of Eylau. After a horrible scene of carnage, night separated the combatants, and the victory remained undecided. For some time after both armies remained inactive, but during the interval, the French made themselves masters of Dantzic. A {ength, on the 14tb of June, the decisive battle of Friedland was foucrht; the Russians maintained the combat with distiu 32* 378 iiisTorvY OF France. guished bravery, and retreated in good order. 1-1. But the consequences of the battle were as great as those of the nnost brilliant victory ; the emperor of Russia concluded an armis- tice, and on the 25th of June had a personal interview with Napoleon at Tilsit, where a treaty of peace was negociated. The king of Prussia was stripped of half his dominions, and was given to understand that he owed the preservation of the remainder to the friendly intercession of Russia. The cruel and contumelious treatment of the unhappy monarch produced such an effect on his high-spirited and lovely consort, that she died of a broken heart. 15. Napoleon had issued from Berlin those celebrated de crees which forbade the introduction of British manufectures on the continent ; he confirmed them anew at Tilsit, and took the most vigorous means to shut out England from all conri- mercial intercourse with the rest of Europe. But this was an enterprise in which it was impossible for him to succeed ; long habit had made British manufactures and colonial pro- duce necessaries of life ; they continued to be surreptitiously introduced, with the connivance of the French allies, and even of Buonaparte's brother; while the vexatious tyranny of the custom-house officers produced a deep and popular resent- ment, whose effects were severely felt in the sequel. 16. The king of Sweden had engaged in the war as an ally of Prussia, but after the treaty of Tilsit he was forced to retire before the superior power of the French, and a resolu- tion was taken to deprive him of his crown. 17. The situation of Denmark was at this time in the highest degree embarrassing, for it was evident that its govern- ment could not, even if they were inclined, prevent their fleet from being seized upon by ihe French emperor, and made subservient to his purposes. The British cabinet, which up to this period seemed to have resigned all concern for the safety of the country, suddenl^^ acted with a promptitude and decision that formed a powerful contrast to its previous tor- pidity: a fleet consisting of twenty-seven sail of the line, and having on board a respectable body of land-forces under the command of Sir Arthur Wellesle)^ was sent to enforce the surrender of the Danish fleet, not as possessions, but as pledges to be restored at the conclusion of a general peace. 18. The cabinet of Denmark at first refused to comply, bu. the bombardment of Copenhagen terrified them into submis sion, they unwillinaly surrendered their ships, and imme- diately after declared war against England. The seizing of THE EMPIRE. 379 rhe Danish fleet was undoubtedly a strong measure, but il Beems to be justified by the circumstances of the time. 19. The period immediately following the peace of Tilsit was the happiest time of the French empire; the publication of that admirable code of laws, justly styled the code Napoleon, at once raised the legal system of France from the very worst to one of the best in fiurope ; the erection of splendid bridges and aqueducts improved the state of the country, roads and canals were constructed with more skill than had been hitherto witnessed on the continent, and the vanity of the Parisians was gratified by the erection of some magnificent pubHc buildings, and by the adornment of their galleries with pic- tures and statues extorted from conquered states. The strict- ness of the police and the fear of the military conscription were the only severities of despotism that the French ex- perienced ; but these, and especially the latter, were serious evils. 20. We are now approaching the transaction, whose per- fidious commencement and fatal termination should for ever be a lesson to statesmen and princes, that treachery invariably brings its own punishment. Spain was at this time governed by a court, whose criminality can scarcely be paralleled in the annals of infamy. Charles, its sovereign, was a weak ignorant man, whose imbecility bordered on idiotcy ; the queen lived in the open practice of the most revolting de- bauchery; Godoy, her paramour, whom she had raised from the rank of a private soldier to the title of Prince of the Peace, was a compound of ignorance and vanity, with every inchna- tion, but not with sufficient abilities, to attain eminence by the most iniquitous means. Ferdinand, prince of Asturias, the heir apparent, united in an eminent degree his mother's per- fidy with his father's folly, and was at the same time openly hostile to both his parents. 21. With this court Napoleon negociaied a treaty for depriving England of her commerce with Portugal, and sent an army under Junot to enforce obedience to his imperious edicts. The prince regent of Portugal endeavoured to purchase security by an inglorious Bubmission, but at the same time unwilling to commit an act of gross injustice to his oldest and most faithful allies, he gave the English merchants early notice to make their escape with all the property that they could collect, before he published in his dominions the Berlin decrees, which commanded the for- feiture of all British manufactures. 22. This submission did not satisfy Napoleon ; he published in the French official paper 380 HISTORY OF FRANCE. that the house of Braganza had ceased to reign ; the prince regent had then no other means left to escape a prison but tc take refuge on board the English fleet, by which he was escorted to the Brazilian dominions of Portugal in South America. 23. The occurrences which enabled Napoleon to ISOft ^"^'^^ ^"^ '•'^^ persons of the Spanish royal family are still involved in great mystery; a conspiracy was said to have been formed by the prince of Asturias ; soon after the king of Spain and Godoy resolved to quit the kingdom and settle in South America; the news of this caused a popular insurrection, which terminated in the resignation of Charles nnd the quiet accession of Ferdinand. While men were won- dering how all this would end, Charles published a proclama- tion, asserting that his resignation was an involuntary act, and claiming the assistance of his French ally for the recovery of his crown. 24. By the most consummate arts. Napoleon suc- ceeded in persuading all the parties to refer the disputes to his decision, and to come and meet him at Bayonne for the pur- pose. The wretched dupes crossed the frontier, and when they were irrevocably in the power of the emperor, were in- formed that the Bourbon family should no longer govern Spain, and that its crown was transferred to Joseph Buonaparte, who had been hitherto the nominal king of Naples. 25. When the news of this unparalleled treachery was spread through Spain, it produced the most violent effect on that fierce and haughty nation ; the populace everywhere rose and com- mitted furious excesses on the partizans of Godoy and Napo- leon, which the French, and especially Murat, who commanded at Madrid, fearfully retaliated. The Spaniards in every quarter ^reeled provincial juntas to administer the affairs of govern- ment, and raised numerous armies under the command of dif- ferent leaders, but want of skill and unity made their labours inefTectual. The English nation deeply sympathised in the Spanish struggle for independence ; the deputies from that na- tion were received in the most friendly manner, the prisoners were restored, supplies of arms and money forwarded to the peninsula, and a treaty concluded with the leaders of the in- surrection both in Spain and Portugal. 26. The patriots Deing raw and inexperienced troops at first suffered several de- feats, but at length general Dupont was forced to surrender with 20,000 men to the Spaniards under the command of Cas- tanos, and the French besieaprs of Zarago^sa were foiled in their attack on this unfortified city by Palafox, a young noble* man of romantic brave rv THE EMPIRE. 381 27. At length an expedition was sent from Britain to aid in the expulsion of the French from the peninsula; it was com- manded by Sir Arthur Wellesley, already distinguished by his victories in India and Denmark. On the 8th of August, a landing was effected in the bay of Mondego ; on the 17th the French, under general Laborde, were defeated near Roviga, and on the 21st, a still more decisive victory was obtained over Junot, at Vimiera. 28. But after having obtained such bril- liant success, the English general had the mortification to find himself deprived of the supreme command by the arrival of Sir Henry Burrard, and afterwards of Sir Hew Dalrymple. older but less skilful generals. General Dalrymple concluded the celebrated convention of Cinfra with the French general, by which the fruits of Wellesley's brilliant victories were lost, and the French permitted to retire with the plunder of Portugal. 29. The news of the successes obtained by the insurgents in Spain, and the British in Portugal, convinced Napoleon that his presence was necessary to secure the fruits of his perfidy. With his characteristic rapidity, he crossed the Pyrennees ac- companied by a brilliant army, and immediately commenced a series of operations which the unskilful Spaniards were unable to resist. The generals of the patriots could never be Induced to act in concert, they were consequently overpowered in detail, and the English general. Sir John Moore, who had advanced to their assistance, was forced to retreat towards Co- runna. 30. The greater part of Spain was thus again sub- jected to its new king, Joseph, who was, however, nothing more than his brother's deputy ; and Buonaparte having for once seen a British army retreating before him, returned to Paris. Marshal Soult hung close on the rear of the English army during their disastrous retreat, until at length Sir John Moore perceived that it was impossible to em- ^ArJ. bark without either a convention or a battle. He did not hesitate in his choice; on the 19th of January, he attacked ihe French with so much vigour that they were compelled to retreat. The British were consequently permitted to embark without molestation, but their heroic commander had fallen in the arms of victory. He was buried at night on the field of battle. Questions. 1. What nations now^ entered into a coalition against Franca ? S. Did Austria act consistently and prudently ? 'WS HISTORY OF FllAiNCE. 3. With what rash proceeding did the Austrian governmeU begin the war ? 4. What plan did the French adopt? 5. How did both armies succeed ? 6. How was the battle of Austerlitz won ? Wnat were the consequences of this signal victory' 8. Did the French suffer any defeat in another quarter ? 9. How does it appear that Prussia did not profit by the example of Austria ? 10. What led to the battle of Jena? 11. Was it followed by any calamitous results? 12. Did any ally join the Prussians ? 13 Where did the two armies come to an engagement? 14. How was the war terminated ? 15. In what manner did Napoleon endeavour to ruin the English commerce ? 16. Did the king of Sweden join in this war? 17. Why did the British government send an armament against Denmark? 18. How did it succeed? 19 In what manner was the internal government of France managed ? 20 What was the state of the court of Spain ? 21. Did they unite with Napoleon in any enterprise? 22. Whither did the prince regent of Portugal retire? 23. What circumstances afforded Napoleon a pretext for inter* fering in the affairs of Spain? 24. How did he treat the Spanish royal family? 25. What effect did this perfidious conduct produce in the penin- sula? 26. Did the Spanish patriots obtain any military success? 27. Who commanded the English expedition to Portugal? 28. How was Sir Arthur Wellesley prevented from reaping the fruits of his victories ? 29. In wl at manner did Napoleon behave ? 30. What was the event of the battle of Corunna ? Wellington. THE EMPIRE. 3b3 The Retreat from Moscow. CHAPTER XL. THE EMPIRE, CONTINUED, The feign'd retreat, the nightly ambuscade, The daily harass, and the fight delay'd, The long privation of tlie hoped supply, The tentless rest beneath a frozen sky, The stubborn wall that mocks the leaguer's art. And palls the patience of his battled heart. Of these they iiad not dream'd. Bthon. 1 We mentioned in the .ast chapter that Napoleon returned from Spam without completing, as he in- iqqq' tended, and probably might have accomplished, the entire subjugation of that country. The cause of this change ■n his plans Was the news that reached him of the prcbability of a new war with Austria, which still smarted under the de- gradation of its iate defeat, and was eager to retrieve the power and possessions of which it had been deprived. The war was begun and ended in one campaign ; it was com 384 HISTORY OK FRANCE. nienced without the form of a dedaration, and the combatants exhausted all the wiles of diplomacy to throw on each other the blame of the first airaression. The Austrians be^an as before by invading Bavaria, and taking possession of Munich, which the king was obliged to abandon at their approach. 2. But Napoleon's arrival changed the face of things. Witti- out delaying at Paris, he hurried from Spain to Germany, and by his superior skill was enabled to attack the divisions of the Austrian army separately, and beat them in detail. Finally, the battle of Wagram, fougnt almost under the walls of Vienna, completely broke up the Austrian pow^r, and left the country and its sovereign at the mercy of Napoleon.* 3. It was naturally to be expected that the temerity of the Austrian emperor would be punished by his deposition, but to the surprise of all Europe, the terms on which peace was con- ceded were far from being severe, and some persons began to speak of the moderation of Buonaparte ! The secret of this leniency and of the protracted negociations at Schoenbrunn, the palace of the Austrian emperor near Vienna, will be ex- plained in the sequel. 4. In the Peninsula, Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had been again sent out to take the command, expelled the French from Portugal, and having pursued them into Spain, obtained a glorious victory at Talavera on the 28th of July .t But being * Tlirougliout the entire of Germany, a determined spirit of popu- lar resistance was manifested against the French; colonel Schill though wholly unauthorized by his government, raised a small but gallant army in Prussia; the duke of Brunswick at the head of a few faithful followers, became formidable in the north of Germany, and Hofer at the head of the Tyrolese peasantry, emulated the ex- ploits of the Swiss mountaineers in the middle ages. But the total firmness worthy of the cause which he had supported. •f The British government, instead of sending out forces suffieieut to eipel the French from the Peninsula, which at that time thfy might have done, dispatched an expedition to the coast of Flanders uudei the command of the earl of Chatham, an old and incompetea' general. They obtained possession of Flushing, but there their sue cess terminated. The judicious measures of Bernadotte prevented Iheir farther advance, the unwholesome marshes of WalcliP^ren pro- THE EMPIRE. 385 jnaUe to resist the united forces of the French he was obliged to retire within the Portuguese frontier. The Spanish armies were every where beaten, but the country was no where sub- dued ; the strao^gling soldiers and peasantry formed them- selves into small bands called guerillas, which cut off the French convoys, massacred the stragglers, and left no part of the country subject to their sway, except that actually occu- pied bv their military posts. 5. In the north of Europe a strange revolution took place; Gustavus Adolphus IV., king of Sweden, had engaged in a war with Russia, to which his resources were wholly inade- quate ; in consequence, he was deprived of the province of Finland, and this loss so irritated the Swedish nation, that they at once deposed their sovereign, excluded his children from the succession, and elected the duke of Sundermania, the uncle of Gustavus, first regent, and afterwards king. (j. In the south the pope was stripped of his dominions, and sent a prisoner to France ; an event which some years before would have set the whole south of Europe in a flame, but which, on the present occasion, only produced secret hos- tility and a concealed desire of vengeance. 7. The secret of the negociations at Schoenbrunn was at last discovered, and it surprised all Europe, loin Napoleon, seeing that Josephine was childless, and anxious to strengthen his power by an alliance with the old royal families of Europe, had resolved on divorcing this faith- ful companion, and in some degree the principal cause of his fortunes, in order to marry the archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter to the emperor of Austria. 8. The marriage was celebrated with extraordinary splendour, and was at the time looked upon as the greatest security to the throne of the French emperor. But in reality it weakened the foundation of Napoleon's power, for it blighted the hopes which some of the French marshals must have nourished, and it irritated all those attached to revolutionary principles throughout Europe, who looked on the reigning house of Austria as the worst enemies to the freedom and happiness of the human race. 9. The annals of the peninsular war, carried on with con- summate skill by Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had been created rliicsd a fever almost as fatal as a plague, and at lengMi, having Buffered immense loss, the inglorious expedition returned to Eng land, after an useless sacrifice of human life, which ought never to be r'?membered without shame and sorrow. 33 Z 386 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Lord Wellington, belong to the history of England r,ither«than that of France ; suffice it to say, that notwithstanding some brilliant victories, the English general was compelled to retreat into Portugal before the superior forces of Massena. The Portuguese destroyed every thing that could affonl shelter or sustenance to the invading army, and Wellington having placed his army in the impregnable lines of Torres Vedras, which covered Lisbon, quietly waited the time when famine would compel Massena to retire. 10. Louis Buonaparte, king of Holland, had displeased his imperial brother, by conniving at the importation of English merchandise ; he was therefore deprived of his dominions, which, together with the old Hanseatic territories, were united to France. IL This new insult to northern Germany was allowed to pass without remonstrance ; Prussia was too much weakened by recent misfortunes, and Sweden had lately cho- sen for its sovereign a general of France. The prince of Augustenburgh, who had been recognised as heir to Charles XIIL (duke of Sundermania), died suddenly, and the diet chose as his successor Charles John Bernadotte, a French general distinguished above his compeers for honourable and humane conduct. They probably designed by this choice to conciliate the favour of Napoleon, but to him the choice was far from being agreeable, for he was jealous of Bernadotte, whose fame had been established before Buonaparte had been placed at the head of affairs. 12, The birth of a son seemed to make the happi- .A-.^ ness of Napoleon complete; he was immediately pro- ' claimed successor to the empire, with the title " king of Rome," and all the vassal sovereigns of Europe sent am- bassadors to congratulate the emperor on this event. Even the degraded royal family of Spain had the meanness to join in this act of homage, thus showing that they almost merited their fate by succumbing to the author of their ruin, 13. But amid all his pomp and power. Napoleon could not but discern the signs of an approaching storm; the diplomatic intercourse with Russia had begun to assume a very angry character; the English had completed the conquest of all the French and Dutch colonies in the east, the Spanish guerilla warfare was continued with unceasing pertinacity, and Massena was forced to retreat from Portugal. The military skill displayed by Massena in this retreat has been always praised, but the abo- minable atrocities committed by the French soldiery, and sanctioned by their commander, will be remembered with THE EMPIRE. 387 horror to ihe latest posterity. Lust, rai)ine, and cruelty per petrated every crime that such diabolical passions could prompt and ferocious violence execute ; Portugal remained free, but it remained a desert. 14. The emperor of Russia had foreseen from the moment' of the Austrian alliance, that it would be iJ-io scarcely possible for him to avoid hostilities with France ; the necessities of his country had compelled him to relax the severity of the Berlin decrees, and connive at a com- mercial intercourse with England; and he well knew that to thwart Napoleon's favourite project of excluding British manu- factures from the continent, was the surest means of provoking his inveterate hatred. All the statesmen who had in early times possessed the confidence of Napoleon, had remonstrated in vain against a war with Russia ; Talleyrand, Fouche, and his uncle, cardinal Fesch, tried their influence with the em- peror in vain; confident in his resources and his fortune, he mocked at their forebodings, and acted as if victory was al- ready secure. 15. It must be confessed that the military power then possessed by the French emperor in some degree rendered his confidence excusable ; he had a disposable force exceeding half a million of men, a greater number than had ever been commanded by any European sovereign, and far exceeding any that the limited resources of Russia would allow her to bring into the field ; his soldiers were accustomed to triumph, his generals had proved their courage and conduct in many glorious fields, and all the states of the European con- tinent, save Russia itself and the Peninsula, were his tributa- ries and auxiliaries. Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rugen were occupied by the French troops early in January, probably because Napoleon had reason to suspect the designs of Bernadotte ; soon after, a treaty was concluded with Prus- sia, by which that power, much against iis will, was obliged to assist the French with 20,000 men ; Austria had previously agreed to send 30,000 under prince Schwartzenberg. 16. On the 16th of May, Napoleon arrived at Dresden, where the emperor of Austria, the kings of Prussia, Naples, Wirtemberg, and Westphalia, together with all the minor po- tentates of Germany, had been ordered to meet him. Having figured there for some time as the undisputed king of kings, he broke up his court, sent back the empress to France as re- gent, and proceeded to Dantzic, where negociations were con- tinued for a fortnight longer. 17 On the 22d of June, Napoleon published a declaration 388 HISTORY OF FRANCE. of war. whose proud and confident tone was powerfully con trasted with the modest and affectionate address to his subjects which Alexander published in reply. Before conrimencing the Russian campaign, we shall just take a glance at the events that occurred during this yearat the Peninsula. 18. Early in spring, Wellington made himself master of the strong fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo, and Badajoz. He then followed JVlarmont to Salamanca, where he defeated the French army, on the 22d of July, with immense loss. In consequence of this victory, the English army were enabled to march upon Madrid, in the confident expectation that such brilliant exploits would rouse the whole Spanish nation to one simultaneous ex- rtion. But the pride and bigotry of the Spaniards took fire at the idea of submitting to an Englishman, the French were permitted to concentrate their forces, which more than doubled the number of the English, and Wellington leisurely retired with his troops to the frontiers of Portugal. 19. The Poles had anxiously hoped that Napoleon would have restored their independence, but his connection with Aus- tria prevented him from performing an act of justice so advan- tageous to his interests ; had he done so, the enthusiasm of a nation eager to regain its freedom might probably have changed the event of the war. But this golden opportunity was lost, and the Poles, who hated the Austrians at least as much as the Russians, viewed the contest with sullen indifference. 20. Warned by the fatal examples of Austria and Prussia, the Russians resolved to imitate the line of conduct which Wellington, with such brilliant success, had pursued in Por- tugal ; they retreated before the enormous masses of the invad- ing army, deliberately destroying their magazines, and laying waste the country. The first design of Napoleon was to march directly on St. Petersburg, and in his way seize the Russian fleet at Cronstadt ; but the obstinate defence of Riga, the garrison of which was strengthened by the sailors of the English fleet, compelled him to change his plan, and advance in the direction of Moscow. The Russians retired before the advancing army, fighting wherever a favourable opportunity was afforded, but not venturing to hazard a regular engage- ment. On the 16th of August, the French arrived before Sniolensko, which the Russians seemed at first determined to defend ; three times was the place assaulted, and as often were the French repelled, but during the night the garrison set fire to the town, which was almost totally consumed, and retreated lo the army beyond the river. THE EMPIRE. 380 21. ll became now extremely difficult to persuade the Rus- sian soldiers to continue their retreat ; they were eager to take vengeance on the invaders of their country, and there was Bome reason to dread that checking their enihusiasm would be attended with fatal consequences. At the same time, also, Barclay de Tolly, who had hitherto held the supreme com- mand, was appointed to the war-ministry at St. Petersburg, and the veteran Kutusoff, the darling of the Russian soldiers, sent to the army in his room. A strong position between Bo- rodino and Moskwa, on the high road to Moscow, was at length selected by the Russian general, and there he resolved to gratify his troops by giving them an opportunity of meeting their in- vaders. 22. After some preliminary skirmishing, a dreadful battle was fought on the 7th of September, which lasted the entire day. The Russians fought with unparalleled despera- tion ; peasants, that until that day had never seen a hostile army, rushed hke furies on the disciplined battahons of the French ; as they fell before the unbroken lines, others rushed to supply their places, and seemed eager in pursuit of death. At the close of the day the French gave over their attacks ; both sides claimed the victory, but though no less than 80,000 men lay dead on the field, neither could claim a triumph. When the subordinate generals had presented Kutusofl' with their reports of the state of their several divisions, he saw that from the extent of his losses it would be inexpedient to risk another engagement, he accordingly retired slowly, leaving the road to Moscow open to the enemy. 23. Shortly after, it was resolved not to attempt any defence of that capital, which the Russians venerated as the Jews did Jerusalem, or the Mahom- , medans Mecca; its garrison, accompanied by the principal in- habitants, withdrew from the devoted city in mournful silence. 24. On the 14lh of September the French army came with- in sight of Moscow, and were surprised that no civic deputa- tion appeared to present them with the keys of the city ; this was explained when they had effected an entrance, lor they found that all, except the very lowest of the population, had deserted their habitations. The French army dispersed them- selves in plundering parties, and as usual committed frightful excesses. During the night the town was found to be on fire, but the flames were got under, and Napoleon prepared to take measures for the government of the city. 25. But on the. follow^ing night a dreadful conflagration burst forth, Russian emissaries had disposed combustibles in several places ; the water-pipes were cut and rendered useless, the fires broke out 33* tJ90 HISTORY OF FRANCE. in parts the most distant, and it soon became, erident that no- thing could save Moscow from the fiite of Smolensko. During four days the city continued to burn with unabated violence, until four-fifths of the houses were totally consumed. 26. Napoleon, who saw his army thus deprived of all chance of winter-quarters, and exposed at once to the severities of cold and famine, attempted to negociate with the Russian govern ment, but had the mortification to find that all his advances were rejected. However, he still continued to linger at Mos- cow, though dangers were aggregating around him with fear- ful rapidity, until at length the defeat of Murat roused him from his lethargy, and he resolved to retreat towards Poland by a route dififerent from that by which he had advanced. Moscow was totally evacuated on the 22d of October ; multi- tudes of sick and wounded were left to the mercy of the Rus- sians, and yet the French army was encumbered with thou sands of waggons laden with the plunder of the city. 27. Kutusoff seems to have divined the intentions of Na poleon, and baffled them by taking up a strong position on the line of march. The French advanced to Malo-Yaraslevetz, a town in front of the Russian position, and took possession of it ■without resistance ; but that night they were assaulted by the enemy and driven beyond the river. The next day was spent in a succession of obstinate contests, during which the town five times changed masters. Finally the French prevailed, but their victory was useless, for they found the position of the Russian army impregnable. Some precious time was wasted in vain attempts to force a passage, but they were un avaihng, and the Russian army which had occupied Moscov , began now to send out its Cossacks, who severely harassed the French rear. It became manifest that the retreat of the army must be continued through the country which their ad- vance had exhausted, 28. On the 28lh of October the cala- mitous march began, and at every step they met some new disasters ; the Cossacks, under their Hetman, Platoff, hovered around the army, breaking down the bridges before them, charging the rear at every opportunity, cutting ofl^ stragglers and intercepting straggling parties ; the army of Kutusoff was moving in a line parallel to the route of the French, while twt other Russian divisions pressed upon the rear. On the 6th of November a new enemy appeared; a Russian winter of un paralleled severity set in with all its horrors. The train of artillery, and the waggons which had been brought from Mos- tow were abandoned, the horses, badly fed, were unable ta THE EMPIRE. 391 support the cold and fatig-ue, they sank and stiffenea by thou- sands ; all discipline was banished except from a few battalions kept together to protect the rear by the personal exertions of marshal Ney ; the rest dispersed themselves over the fields, and many sunk to rise no more ; others were swept away by the Cossacks. 29. In this deplorable plight they reached Smolensko, where they hoped to find some respite from their woes, but that town had been, as we have seen, almost de- stroyed by the Russians ; its roofless houses and blackened walls afforded but little shelter, its exhausted magazines sup- plied no food. The retreat v.'as continued, but the Russians now made several desperate assaults on the different French divisions, and every where defeated them. Ney, however, managed to preserve the shattered remnant of his battalions, by passing over the thin ice that had just formed on the Dnieper ; the waggons containing the wounded attempted to pass over this frail bridge, but the ice broke, and the wag- gons sunk amid the shrieks of the wretched sufferers, and the groans of their helpless comrades. 30. The grand army, which had hiustered 120,000 men when lenving Moscow, hardly exceeded a tenth of that num- ber when it was joined by the divisions of Victor and Oudinot, who, though defeated by Wittgenstein, still mustered about 50,000 men. Had the Russians taken advantage of their vast superiority, and poured their united forces on the retr'?ating army, a messenger would not have escaped to convey the news of their ruin to France. 31. The passage of the Bere- sina was one of the most fearful scenes in this series of horrors, though the Russians, by the most culpable negligence, did not avail themselves of the opportunity of preventing it altofjether The divisions of Wittgenstein and Platoff arrived on the heights commanding the rear, before the army had completed Us passage. W^hen the Russian cannon opened on the crowd assembled on the bank, eager to place the river betweep them- selves and the enemy, it produced a scene of indescribable confusion. Men, women, horses, waggons, rushed in one mass, to the larger bridge ; the weight was too great for its frail timbers, it broke, and the muhitude were at once precipi- tated into the half-frozen stream. The universal shriek which announced this calamity was heard loud and clear above he roar of artillery and the hurrahs of the Cossacks. The re maining bridge stood firm, but the crowd that hurried over it& narrow planks under the dreadful fire of the Russian artillery fell into the stream by hundreds, swept away by the fierce 992 HISTORY OF FRANCE. ihower of shot, or thrown over by their comrades.* Victor, who had gallantly maintained his post, led his division over the bridge by night and then set it on fire, abandoning to their fate his wounded soldiers, and the attendants of the camp. 32. The remainder of the retreat was equally disastrous; entire companies were frozen to death, or cut off by the inde- fatigable Cossacks, who, as their leader observed, " killed many, but made few prisoners." It is, however, painful to dwell on these horrors, of which the most vivid description would convey but a faint idea. On the 5th of December, Napoleon having learned that a conspiracy for the subversion of his government had been formed in France itself, hastily abandoned his army, and having narrowly escaped being made prisoner, arrived at Warsaw, from whence he proceeded to Paris. 33. The French were driven from Poland by the Cossacks, and at length the miserable remains of this mighty host took shelter in the dominions of Prussia, where they were hospita- bly received by the inhabitants, who generously forgot thfe oppression to which they had been subjected, when they saw the miserable state to which their oppressors had been reduced. 34. The losses of the French in this disastrous campaign have been variously estimated ; but the following list will be found tolerably accurate. Of the invading army there were Slain in battle 125,000 Died of fatigue, famine, and cold . 132,000 Taken prisoners 193,000 Totalloss 450,000 Among the prisoners were forty -eight generals, and nearly three thousand regimental officers. The Russians captured also seventy-five eagles and standards, together with ne5»rl;y & thousand pieces of cannon. Questions. 1. What nation now attaclced France ? 2. How did the Austrians succeed ? 3. Was Austria severely punished for her rashness? • The Russians declare that when the ice of the Beresina broke np in the following year, 36,000 dead bodies were discovered in di» bed ot the river. THE EMPIRE. 393 4 In what manner was the war carried on in Spain ? 5 Did any revolution take place in Sweden' 6. Ho^w was the pope treated by Napoleon? 7. To whom was Napoleon now united in marriage 7 a. What w^as the efl'ect of the Austrian match? 9. Why did Wellington retire to the lines of Torres Vedras 7 10. Did Napoleon ill-treat any of his brothers? 11. On whom was the succession of the Swedish crown con- ferred ? 12. By what event was the happiness of Buonaparte increased t 13. Did the French meet reverses any wheie ? 14. How did the war witli Russia originate? 15. What was the condition of Napoleon's power at the com mencement of the war ? 16. Where did Napoleon assemble his allies? 17. When did he commence the war? 18. What took place in the Peninsula during 1812? 19. Of what great error was Napoleon guilty in his treatment of Poland ? 20. How did the Russians resolve to conduct the war 7 21 Where did the armies come to an engagement? 22. What were the circumstances of the battle of Borodino? 23. What was tlie consequence of the retreat of the Russians? 24. In what situation did the French find Moscow ? 25. Did any conflagration take place ? 26. Were they compelled to evacuate the city? 27. How were the French forced to retreat by the road on whici they had advanced ? 28. What calamities did the French suffer in this retreat? 29. For what is the passage of the Dnieper tnemorable? 30. By whom was the retreating army reinforced? 31. To what evils were the French exposed in passing tlieBeresinal 32. How did Napoleon escape ? 33. Whither did the remains of the grand army retire ? 34. What was the total loss of the French in this campaign T 394 HISTORY OF FRAISCE. CHAPTER XLI. THE EMPIRE, ^CONTINUED. Farewell to the land where the gloom of my glory Arose and o'ershadow'd the earth with her name- She abandons me now — but the page of her story, The brightest or blackest is filTd with my fame. I have warr'd with a world which vanquish'd me only When the meteor of conquest allur'd me too far. I have coped with the nations that dread me thus lonely- The last single captive to millions in war. BlRON 1. The arrival of Napoleon in Paris announced lo A' n the French nation the great misfortune by which they ' had been overtaken ; but their confidence in the for- tune of the emperor was not yet shaken, and the most amaz ing exertions were made throughout France for the com THE EMPIRE. 395 mencement of a new campaign. 2. It was soon known that the Prussians had joined the alliance with Sweden and Russia ; and that the patriotic exertions of the people to supply resources for the war, exceeded the demands of their sove- reign. Napoleon, undaunted by calamities, soon found him- self at the head of 350,000 men, and hasted to Germany, with a confident hope that a battle such as Jena or Austerlitz would again make him the master of Europe. 3. On the 18th of April, Napoleon joined his army and advanced to meet the allies in Saxony. The activity with which he had repaired his losses was a powerful contrast to the negligence of his opponents ; in fact, the Russians had not brought half their disposable forces across the Vistula, while Napoleon had raised a new army and equipped them for the field. The allies were now outnumbered and defeated in two desperate battles ; but the French gained nothing by the victory, no cannon or prisoners were taken. 4. Perceiving all the obstacles which he had to encounter, Napoleon began now to entertain some thoughts of peace ; an armistice was agreed on in June, and conferences were opened at Prague under the mediation of Austria. 5. They continued until the 10th of August, but produced no effect, for the French emperor would not forego his usurpations in Spain and Italy, neither would he consent to restore the independence of Ger- many. It was in vain that his ministers represented to him the danger of arming all Europe against his person ; it wa< in vain that Austria gave unequivocal proofs of her determina- tion to join the allies; Napoleon persisted, until it was too I'lie to retrace his steps. 6. On the 10th of August, Austria joined the allies ; the French emperor, alarmed by the news which he had received from Spain, attempted to renew the ne- gociations, but the allies would no longer listen to his offers. 7. It was late in May when Lord Wellington commenced his last and most glorious Spanish campaign. The French retreated before him until they had concentrated their forces, under the command of marshal Jourdan and Joseph Buona- parte, at Vittoria. On the 21st of June, the English having possessed themselves of some heights previously occupied by the French, a general engagement ensued. The English gained a complete victory, their enemies retreated so rapidly, that they abandoned all their baggage and artillery ; one hun- dred and fifty pieces of cannon, with more than four hundred waggons of ammunition, fell into the hands of the conquerors ; the vanquished army, after sufilsring severely m their retre^it, 396 HISTORY OF FRANCE. escaped into France, whither the victors were preparing m follow them as soon as they had reduced the forlresses, which it would be dangerous to leave in iheir rear. 8. On the recommencement of hostilities, the allies resolved to drive the French fVom their advanced positions on the right bank of the Elbe, as well as in Lusatia and Silesia. They succeeded in the attempt, and soon after occupied the heights above Dresden, in which city Napoleon had fixed his head- quarters. On the 27th of August, the allies made a rash at- tempt on Dresden, in which they were defeated wiih consi- derable loss. On this occasion, general Moreau, who had come from America to assist his old companion, Bernadotte, was killed. 9. The allies retreated across the mountains that sepa- rate Saxony from Bohemia, vigorously pursued by marshal Vandamme, with a division of the French army ; but Van- damme's rashness proved fatal, he was forced to surrender with 10,000 men, his artillery and baggage, to the armies of Russia and Prussia, by which he was surrounded. 10. The arrival of Bernadotte with the Swedish army restored the su periority of the allies, and at the same time they learned that the king of Bavaria had acceded to their coalition, and placed 65,000 men at the disposal of the Austrian government. After a series of complicated movements, the allies so far prevailed, that Napoleon, with his faithful friend, the king of Saxony, was forced to retire from Dresden to Leipsic. 11. The conduct of Napoleon in the last great struggle for the empire of Europe, was worthy his former fame. He drew up his forces in a circle round Leipsic, so as that each might mutually support the oiher, while the allies occupied a parallel, and, of course, a wider circle, which their successes enabled them daily to contract. On the 15th of October, the emperor delivered eagles to some new regiments which had just joined him; it was an imposing ceremony; "the soldiers knelt be- fore the emperor, and in presence of all the line ; military mass was performed, and the young warriors swore to die rathei than witness the dishonour of France. Upon this scene the sun descended ; and with it the star of Napoleon went dowq for ever." 12, On the 16th, 17th, and 18th, the position of the French was vigorously attacked, and as obstinately defended ; but the numerical superiority of the allies was too great to be resisted, and Buonaparte found himself obliged to command a retreat, On the morning of the 19th, Napoleon took a sad farewell of nis ally, the king of Saxony, and quitted the city round whose THE EMPIRE. 397 v^alls the battle was raging with fury. The Saxons now de- serted the French and turned their cannon on the retreating army ; marshal Macdonald and Poniatowski, however, still gallantly protected the rear; but a new calamity rendered all their efforts unavailing. Orders had been given to blow up the bridge over which the army retreated as soon as the pas- sage was completed, but the officer to whom that business was entrusted, terrified at the approach of the allies, fired the mine long before it was needed, and 25,000 Frenchmen, thus left at the mercy of the enemy, suntadered themselves prisoners of war. 13. The retreating army were severely harassed by the irritated peasantry in their flight; but they cut their way through the Austro-Bavarian army, who attempted to inter- cept them. This was, however, only a temporary relief; the retreat became at last a rapid flight, and it was with difficulty that the shattered remains of the second grand army escaped across the Rhine. 14. The battle of Leipsic was followed by a crowd of im- portant events in such rapid succession, that men had scarce time to express their astonishment at one, when they heard intelligence of another still more surprising. The confedera- tion of the Rhine crumbled to pieces in a moment; Hanover, Brunswick, Hesse, returned under the sway of their heredi- tary rulers; and Holland in one simultaneous burst of popular loyalty threw ofT the yoke of France, and invited the stadt- holder to return from his long exile in England. 15. Equally disheartening was the intelligence that Napo- leon received from Italy and Spain. The Austrian general Hiller had defeated the viceroy of Italy, the English were masters of the Adriatic, and Murat was entering into negocia- tions with the Austrians against his brother-in-law and bene- factor. Even in France itself, parties hostile to the emperor began to be discovered. The royalists prepared for the resto- ration of the exiled Bourbons, and some of the old leaders of the revolution began to hope that the republic might yet b<9 restored. 16. The calamities which France had inflicted on other nations, were now about to be severely retaliated 1014 on herself. Early in January, two armies under the command of Blucher and Schwartzenberg passed the Rhine, and masking the fortresses along the river, advanced boldly into the country. The superior skill of Napoleon enabled him to inflict several severe checks on the. advancing 'brces, 34 308 HISTORY OF FRANCE. who did not advance in sufficient union. 17. But these suc- cesses were the ruin of the emperor, for they 1-ed him to break off abruptly the conferences for peace which had commenced at Chatillon, and the alhes, justly indignant at his insincerity, sternly rejected all future attempts at negociation. 18. In the south of France, Wellington appeared with the soldiers that had delivered Spain ; no popular resistance was made to his march, every effort of Soult's army to retard his progress was defeated. Bourdeaux had been taken, and the Bourbons were proclaimed by the people. 19. The French emperor still undauntedly maintained himself under all these evils; but in an ill-omened hour he placed his army in the rear of the allies; and thus left the road to Paris open. On the 30th of March, the division of the French army assigned for the defence of Paris were drawn up in line on the heights that covered the city, defended by one hundred and fifty pieces of cannon. The allies attacked them with great vigour, and Marmont and Mortier resisted the assault with equal spirit, but the force of numbers prevailed, and long ere night the heights v?ere in possession of the allied forces. Joseph Buonaparte, to whom the defence of the capital had been entrusted, fled, anA Mar mont, seeing all further resistance useless, signed a capitulation. 20. On the 31st of March, the allied army entered Paris in triumph, and were received with the loudest acclamations. They acted not as conquerors but as friends, and declared them- selves hostile not to the French nation, but to Napoleon. By their invitation the senate was assembled and a provisional govern- ment established, at the head of which Talleyrand was phced. Soon after the senate decreed the deposition of the emferor, and proclamations in the name of the old royal family were everywhere distributed. In the meantime, Buonaparte hnving discovered the designs of the allies, resolved to make a vigor- ous effort to save his capital; he hasted back with his ?rmy, but on the road he learned that he was too late ; he retired to Fontainbleau, receiving at every step news of the deffction and treachery oi his mmisters and generals. After a vain attempt to have the crown transferred to his son, on the 11th of April, Napoleon signed a formal instrument, "renouncing for himself and heirs the thrones of France and Italy." On the very same day, a glorious but useless victory was obtained by the English, under lord Wellington, at Thoulouse; it is not certain how the news of the capture of Paris was delayed, sr whether marshal Sou It deserves to be blamed for this use* le?!S effusion of blood ; on the 14th, hawever, the tidings of THE EMPIRE. pe&ee leached both camps, and hostilities were immediately suspended. 21. The sovereignty of the island of Elba, with a consi- derable pension, was settled on Napoleon ; the duchies of Par- ma and PJacentia were settled on Maria Louisa and her heirs ; and pensions were granted by the French government to Jo- sephine, and other members of the Buonaparte family. This faithful though deserted woman did not long survive the fall of her beloved lord ; she died of a broken heart before the allies had left France. 22. On the 3d of May, Louis XVIIL entered Paris, where he was received with every demonstration of joy, and France soon after received a constitution, founded on the principles of rational and moderate liberty. On the 30th of the same month the articles of a general peace between France and the allies were signed at Paris, and thus at length the tranquillity of Europe seemed finally secured. Questions. 1. How did Napoleon behave on his return to Paris? 2. With what new enemy had he to contend ? 3. How was the campaign commenced 7 4. Under whose auspices were efforts made to negociate a peace ? 5. Why were they broken off? 6. What was the consequence of Buonaparte's persevering in his exorbitant demands? 7. How was the campaign of 1813 conducted in Spain? 8. What reverses did the allies experience before Dresden? 9. Did they not soon after obtain some advantage 7 10. Whither did Napoleon transfer his head-quarters from Dres- den 7 11. How did the French emperor behave in this crisis of his for tunes? 12. What were the circumstances of the battle of Leipsio? 13. Did the retreating army sufft-r much? 14. What consequence did the battle of Leipsio produce in Hol landl »5 Did any other events adverse to Napoleon occur about the same time ? 16. How did the allied armies act imprudently? 17. Why were these successes injurious to Napoleon? 18. What events took place in the south of France? 1-9. How was Paris taken? 20. What events followed the capture of Paris ? 21. How were Napoleon and his family provided frrf 32. When were the articles of peace signed? 400 HISTORY OF FRAN(JE. Napoleon's Return from Elba. CHAPTER XLII. THE HUNDRED DAYS. And Harold stands npon tliis place of skulls, The grave of France, the deadly Waterloo! How, in an hour, the power which gave annuls Its gifts; transferring fame as fleeting too! In pride of place here last the eagle flew. Then tore with bloody talon the rent plain ; Pierced by the shaft of banded nations through, Ambition's life and labours all were vain; He wears the shatter'd links of the world's broken chain. Btroit. 1. The sudden change from a fierce war to a pro ■,^^~ found peace produced so great a revolution in the ' difierent European stales, that their attention was engrossed with their domestic affairs, and France, with the illustrious exile in Elba, seemed for a time to be forgotten There were, however, causes in operation which threatenea to make this tranquillity of but brief duration. The prisoners of war W'ho returned from the different countries of Europe THE HUNDRED DAYS. 401 sould not conceive how their comrades had been so easily de« fealed ; the army, maintained in full strength, were displeased to find themselves under the control of an indolent and peace- ful prince, instead of the enterprising leader, who had so often led ihem on to giory and plunder; there was a mutual jealousy between the nobility of the royal and imperial courts; and many of the returned emigrants began to speak openly of restoring the same order of things which had existed before the revolution. Joachim Murat, who had been permitted to retain the throne of Naples, became rather suspicious of the sentiments with which he was regarded by the allied sove- reigns ; and finally the French government, with equal folly and injustice, withheld the stipulated pension from Napoleon. During the winter of 1814, Sir Neil Campbell, the British resident at Elba, became aware that some plan for the restora- tion of the deposed emperor was in agitation, and frequently sent intimations on the subject to his government, which ap- pears not to have given these warnings the attention that they merited. 2. Ambassadors from the different European powers were assembled in congress at Vienna, when they were astounded with the intelliorence that Buonaparte had landed at Cannes, on the coast of Provence, on the morning of the 1st of March. The entire number of forces which Napoleon brought with him to invade France did not amount to one thousand men ; he narrowly escaped from the English cruisers and a French man-of-war. But he relied on the magic of his name, and the devoted attachment of the army, to restore to him once more all that had been lost. The success was as astonishing as the attempt. The soldiers every where united themselves to their beloved chief; most of the marshals hasted to renew their allegiance to the emperor, and before the end of a month, Napoleon, almost without firing a musket, found himself master of all France. 3. When the news of these events reached the congress at Vienna, a proclamation was issued, declaring that "the Em- peror Napoleon had placed himself beyond the pale of society, and that as an enemy and disturber of the tranquillity of the world, he had rendered himself liable to public vengeance." A. treaty was at the same time concluded, by which Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England engaged each to maintain 150,000 men in arms, until Buonaparte should either be de- throned or reduced so low as no longer to endanger the repose of Europe. 4. The exertions made by the French to oppose 34 * 2 A 402 HISTORY OF FRANCE. this powerful confederacy, were truly amazing ; the campaigns of 1812, 18, and 14, had almost annihilated their cavalry and artillery, and yet they were in the short space of two month? able to collect a brilliant body of horse, and to procure a park of artillery sufficient for the fearful encounter. 5. In the mean time, Murat hasted to his ruin ; he placed himself at the head of the Neapolitan army, and advancing through Italy, called on the inhabitants to throw off' the yoke of Austria. The Austrian general in Lombardy at once assembled his forcea and advanced against Murat; the cowardly Neapolitans fled almost at the sight of an enemy, and Murat, finding himself unable to retain his kingdom, fled for refuge to France. But fresh mortifications awaited him there : Buonaparte, indignant at the desertion of his brother-in-law in 1814, refused to receive him in Paris. After remaining some time in obscurity at Toulon, Murat proceeded to Corsica, from thence he sailed to the Italian coast to make an efTort for the recovery of his king- dom ; but his little band was defeated, he himself taken prisoner, and soon after shot, pursuant to the sentence of a military commission. He died as he had fived, with un daunted bravery, and Napoleon afterwards said more than once, that the fate of the world might have been changed had Murat headed the French cavalry at Waterloo. 6. The forces of the English and Prussians were in the meantime rapidly concentrating on the Belgic frontier; the head-quarters of Blucher were at Namur, and those of the duke of Wellington at Brussels; the Austrians were known to be advancing through the north of Italy, Spanish troops al- ready occupied the passes of the Pyrennees, and the Russians were fast hastening to the scene of action. Napoleon saw that it would be injudicious to hazard another campaign in France, and hoped that by striking suddenly some great blow, he might break up the great European confederacy, and pro- bably be enabled to dictate the conditions of peace. 7. On the 1st of June, a species of national assembly, called Ze champ de Mai, was held, in which the new constitution of the French empire was ratified with great pomp, but with httle sincerity,- ten days after, Napoleon quitted Paris to place himself at the head of his army; saying, as he entered the carriage, "I go to measure myself against Wellington." 8. On the 15th of June, Napoleon drove in the Prussian outposts, and assaulted Charleroi ; Ziethen, the Prussian general, held out against the immense disparity of force until the alarm had been commu nicated to all the other divisions, and then coolly retired on THE HUNDRED DAYS. 403 Ligny, where Blucher was concent-aling his forces. 9. So totally unexpected was the rapid advance of Napoleon, that on the evening of the 15th most of the Enghsh officers were at a ball given by the duchess of Richmond at Brussels, when the distant roar of cannon interrupted their festivities. The drum beat, and the bugle sounded at midnight; long before the dawn, Sir Thomas Picton, who had only that night arrived from England, was advancing with his division on Q,uatre-bras. 10. On the 16th, at noon, the French emperor, with the main body of his forces, commenced a furious attack on Ligny, while Ney assaulted the English at Q,uatre-bras. The battle of Ligny was long and fierce ; the intense animosity between the Prussians and French gave the combat the character more of personal than national hostility ; quarter was neither asked nor given, each seemed more anxious to destroy his enemy than to save himself. At length Blucher became convinced of the necessity of retreating ; one division of his array under Bulow was absent, and his troops were weakened by succes- sive charges of the French, in one of which the veteran was himself dismounted, and rode over both by friends and enemies without being recognised. 11. At Q,uatre-bras, the English, after a fierce engagement, m which the gallant duke of Brunswick was slain, remained masters of the field ; but the retreat of the Prussians rendered the victory unavaihng, and Wellington, in order to preserve his communication with Blucher, retired on Waterloo. 12. The retreat occupied the greater part of the 17th ; on the evening of that day, the English, amid torrents of rain, took up their station on a rising ground about a mile and a half in front of the httle town of Waterloo. They were drawn up in a convex line, which dropped off at the extremity towards the forest in their rear ; the chateau and gardens of Hougou- mont, and the farm-house of La Haye Sainte were strongly gaiTisoned, and formed the outworks of their line of defence. 13. The morning of the 18th was rainy and tempestuous, when Buonaparte, having ascended the opposite hill of La Belle Alliance, for the first time saw before him the army of the only European general whose fame rivalled his own Time was the most important object with both generals, for Wellington knew that victory was certain if he could only hold out until the Prussians came up. About noon the French commenced the battle by a tremendous cannonade, and under cover of the fire made a furious attack on Hougoumont ; their leader was unable to carry the chateau, and masking the post. 404 HISTORY OF FRANCy. pushed forward against the British right. The Eiighsh formed in squares, and resisted all iheir efforts; after a protracted struggle, the French were forced to retire, and the little garri- son of Hougoumont was relieved and strengthened. 14. The second attack was made on the British centre by a numerous body of cuirassiers, and four columns of infantry. The French cavalry were met in mid career by the English heavy horse, and soon forced to retire behind their artillery ; the English having followed too far, were charged in their turn by fresh troops, and driven back with considerable loss; among others, the gallant Sir T. Picion was slain. 15. The French infantry had in the mean time taken La Haye Sainte, and forced in some Belgian regiments, but being attacked in front by general Pack's brigade of foot, and on the flank by a body of heavy cavalry, they were routed with great loss, and compelled to fly, leaving behind them 2,000 prisoners and two eagles. At the same time they were forced by a heavy shower of shot and shells to evacuate La Haye Sainte. 10. The third assault was made on the British right, where the infantry, drawn up in chequered squares, like those of a chess-board, and protected by a battery of thirty pieces of can- non, awaited the onset of the French cuirassiers. The artil- lerymen were driven from their guns, and the cavalry rode furiously on the British squares ; these steadily waited until the enemy were within ten yards of them, and then poured in a volley so close and deadly that the cuirassiers were forced to give back. These devoted men renewed their onset several limes with fearful desperation ; they rode between the squares, forced their horses up to the very points of the bayonet, but the English line could not be broken, and the close cross-fire of the squares almost annihilated these fearless cavaliers. 17. The battle had now lasted seven hours, three desperate charges had failed to break the British ranks, their wings had also graduall}' advanced, forming now a concave line ; the, heads of the Prussian columns began to be seen through the wood, and Napoleon saw that on one great effort depended the fate of his empire. He formed his favourite soldiers, the im- perial guard, into two columns, and entrusted these, who had not yet shared in the battle, to the guidance of Ney, telling them that if they charged boldy success was certain. 18. Previous to this a fierce cannonade had been kept up on the British line, but the soldiers, by Wellington's directions, lay apon their faces, and thus its deadly effect was much dimin- ished As the charging columns advanced, the English rose. THE HUNDRED DAYS. 405 THE HUNDRED DAYS. 407 and forr.,jng into a line four deep, poured on their front and flank a deadly shower of musketry, which never ceased for a moment. Under this heavy fire the French columns vainly attempted to deploy into line ; they halted for the purpose, wavered, and fell at otjce into remediless confusion. 19. Welhngtcn seized the decisive moment to charge ; some un- broken battalions of the French guard for a moment seemed to oppose a formidable obstacle, but they waited not the attack of the British bayonet ; with indescribable agony Napoleon saw these his last hope, reel, break, and mingle with the mass of fugitives which lately was an army. 20. The Prussians had now come up, and continued the pursuit of the broken army with terrible efTect; the English halted almost on the bloody field, quite spent with the fatigues of this arduous and long-contested fight. They had indeed won a brilliant victory, but it was dearly purchased by the loss of 600 officers, and 15,000 men killed and wounded. 21. Napoleon returned to Paris, and soon found that the army were his only friends in France ; in vain he appealed to the chambers, he was a second time forced to sign his abdi- cation, and a provisional government was at once appointed. Had Napoleon at once attempted his escape to the United Slates of America, he would probably have succeeded ; but he lingered, hoping that some chance might yet appear in his favour. When at length he arrived at Rochfort, he found the coast blockaded by the British cruisers, and found it impos- sible to carry out his design of escaping beyond the Atlantic, 22. On the 15th of July, he surrendered himself to Cap- tain Maitland of the Beilerophon, and on the 24th he arrived in Torbay. After some delay he was informed that the allied sovereigns had resolved to send him as a prisoner to S:. He- lena. Thither he was sent, and there he died on the 5th of May 1821. We are too near the time and the scene of this great man's career, lo form an impartial estimate of his char- acter and conduct; but no stronger proof could be given of the reverence in which his memory is held by his former subjects, than the fact, that after a lapse of nearly twenty years they sent an expedition, commanded by a son of the reigning mon- arch, to bring back the emperor's remains in order that they might be interred in the capital of France. 23. The battle of Waterloo put an end to the war ; a military convention was concluded, according to which the allies took possession of Paris, and the French army retired behind the Loire. Louis XViH. was once more restored Co 408 HISTORY OF FRANCE. the throne of his ancestors; but unfortunately, he adopted harsher measures against the adherents of Napoleon than were prudent, or perhaps justifiable, and thus increased the discon- tent and dissatisfaction of the nation. The allies did not treat France with the forbearance which they had exhibited in the preceding year ; they exacted a contribution to defray the ex- penses of the war; they compelled the restoration of thos* works of literature and art which the French had wrested from copquered countries; they, took possession of several fortresses on the frontiers, and stationed an army of occupation in the country to prevent any insurrection of the people. Queslions. 1. What circumstances contributed to bring about a renewal of war ? 2. With what forces did Napoleon invade France ? 3. How was this attempt viewed by the European sovereigns? 4. In what way did the French prepare to meet the allied sove- reigns ? 5. What became of Murat? 6. In what directions were the allied armies preparing to invade France ? 7. When did Buonaparte leave his capital? 8. How did the campaign commence? 9. Did the English expect this rapid advance ? 10. How did the battle of Ligny terminate? 11. Which side was successful at Quatre-Bras ? 12. What mancEuvres occupied the 17th of June? 13. How did the battle of Waterloo commence ? 14. What success had the cavalry in the second charge? 15. How were the infantry met and repelled? 16. What was the success of the French in their third effort? 17. In what situation was the British army after having repell'irf the cuirassiers ? 18. How did the imperial guard advance to the charge? 19. Was any advantage taken of their confusion? 20. By whom was the pursuit continued? 21. How was the war terminated ? 22. What became of Buonaparte ? 2). How did the allies behave to the conquered French J THE RESTORATION. 409 Louis XVIIl. CHAPTER XLIIL THE RESTORATION, AND REVOLUTION OF 1830. " France gave a crown and half a heart." M. C. 1. France was in a verj'' unhappy condition, after the re- storation of Louis XVIII. ; tlie great body of tiie nation might have been contented vvith the king, but he was surrounded by persons whose counsels were justly suspected of a tendency to despotism. The royah'sts seemed resolved to make an ex- treme use of the victory which the allies had won for them, and to destroy every vestige of constitutional freedom. The appointments to the magistracy, and to the National guard, were taken from the people ; so that the force which ought to have been constitutional, became the mere instrument of a party. The partisans of ultra-royalty were closely allied with the more violent portion of the French clergy, and under their influence several outrages were committed against the pro- testants in various parts of France ; and even when govern- ment was forced to interfere, the murderers were allowed tc 35 410 HISTORY OF FRANCE. escape unpunished. The nobility possessed almost a i.^onopniy of the executive power, and they employed it to deprive the people of the franchises and privileges ceded by the charter. In addition to this, the accusations for treason and sedition brought against all who opposed the government, the violence of the clerical missionaries, who profaned religion to advance political purposes, and the intrigues at the elections for de- puties, diffused feelings of general dissatisfaction through the nation. 2. The accession of France to the " Holy Alliance," at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, engaged the government in a system of policy, designed to secure the power of monarchs throughout Europe ; but a considerable body of the French deputies resisted the extension of the royal prerogative, and Decazes, the prime minister, supported by the moderate royalists, endeavoured to frame a system which would strengthen the monarchy, without injuring the constitution. He was, however, fiercely opposed by the ultras or violent royalists, and an unfortunate event gave them a temporary triumph. The duke of Berry was assassinated by a pohtical fanatic named Louvel, Feb. 13th, 1820, and the ultras, or "the extreme right," as they were called, from the part of the chamber which they usually occupied, denounced Decazes for encouraging doctrines subversive of the monarchy. These accusations produced a sensible efTect on the court, if not on the chambers, and Decazes resigned. He was succeeded by the Due de Richelieu, and a ministry was formed of tht warmest adherents of monarchical power. 3. Laws were passed, giving the minister the power cf arresting suspected persons, imposing consorship on the press and raising the qualifications for the elective franchise ; but even these violati.ons of the charter did not satisfy "the ex- treme right," and they joined "the left," or liberal party, in strenuous efforts to eject the Richelieu ministry. The debates in the chambers were fierce and stormy, often indeed quite unbecoming the dignity of a deliberative assembly, Richelieu resigned his office, Dec. 17th, 1821, and was succeeded by a ministry still more violently royal : the dissatisfaction of the nation was shown by countless plots, conspiracies, riots, and incendiary fires, which were made the pretext for fresh laws of restriction. 4. Villele, the head of the new nimistry, re- solved to send a French army into Spain, for the purpose of restoring the king to the power of which he had been deprived by the Cortes ; but he was opposed by a party, which niofe THE RESTORATION. 411 .han compensated for its weakness in numbers, by talents, ex- perience, and influence wiih the people. Tiie royalist majo- rity, however, showed itself so very unscrupulous, by rejecting a memoer for revolutionary doctrines without allowing him to make any defence, that "the left side" quilted the house in a body, and the funds for the Spanish war were voted without opposition. 5. The French army crossed the Pyrennees and met with little opposition from the Spaniards, who had little money in their exchequer, less valour in their soldiers, and no wisdom in their counsels. Cadiz alone made an attempt at resistance, but was finally compelled to capitulate, and king Ferdinand was restored to absolute power. The monarchical principle was thus established in the person of a Bourbon, and the go- vernment at the same time acquired some popularity with the army; but it is doubtful whether the services rendered to le- gitimacy were not dearly purchased by the heavy expenses of the campaign. 6. Scarcely had the Spanish campaign thus favourably ter- mmated, when the nation was alarmed by the increasing illness of the monarch, who, though not very generally revered, was still far more popular than his brother, the heir to the crown. Ele lingered for several months, enduring his disease with great firmness and resignation ; at length he expired, Sept. 16, 1824. Louis XVin. possessed much natural sagacity and a highly cultivated mind ; but during his long exile he had be- come enfeebled by age and disease : he did not understand the change which had been wrought in the character of the people of France during his banishment; and he wanted firmness of character to resist the ultras, of whom it was said, with equal severity and justice, that during their exile " they had forgotten nothing and learned nothing." 7. Charles X., formerly count of Artois, succeeded his brother, and won at first much favour by consenting to abolish .he censorship of the press ; but he continued to retain Villele at the head of the administration ; and, at his coronation, he revived many of the old superstitious usages which Louis had wisely abandoned. Under the new reign Villele brought for- ward two very unpopular measures ; one granting an indem- nification to the families of those emigrants whose estates had been forfeited during the revolution, and another reducing the rate of interest on the public debt. The laws were carried, but not without great opposition. Some concession, however, was made to public opinion by acknowledging the independ 112 HISTORY OF FRANCE. eiice of Hayti, and opening commercial intercourse with the South American republics. At the same time coipmercial treaties were concluded with Great Britain and the empire of Brazil. 8. In 1826 Villele strengthened his ministry by creating thirty-one new peers. He endeavoured to establish the aris- tocracy on a permanent basis, by reviving the laws of primo- geniture and entail ; but the former was so odious to the great body of the French nation, that it was rejected by the chamber of peers. Public attention was chiefly engaged by the trial of Ouvrard, who had furnished the supplies for the French army when it invaded Spain. The terms of his contract were exorbitant, and he succeeded in effecting it by extensive bribfery ; he had also joined in drawing double rations and double pay for the soldiers employed in the campaign. When Villele first heard of the transaction, he caused Ouvrard to be arrested and brought to trial ; but in the course of the investi- gation it appeared that many persons of great rank and influ ence were implicated in the transaction, and the minister in- duced the peers to bring the matter to a speedy conclusi:)n. The abuses, however, which had been detected, were already made public, and the attempt to screen the guilty, combined with the illegal protection given to the Jesuits, exposed the THE RESTORATION. 413 minister to public and not unmerited reproaclies. The disso- lution of the national guard, the revived censorship of the press, and several harsh measures used in dispersing popular assemblies, completed the ahenation of the Frencli from the minister. Villele felt that he was losing ground, and he there- fore dissolved the chamber, though three years of its time were unexpired. At the same time he created no less than seventy- eix new peers, an act utterly inconsistent with the spirit if not the letter of the constitution. 9. The result of the elections disappointed Villele ; a liberal majority was returned, and the king himself seemed to aban- don the principles of "the holy alliance," by congratulating the chambers on the victory of Navarino, and expressing him- self favourable to the hberties of Greece. Soon afterwards he accepted M. Villele's resignation, and appointed a more liberal ministry, of which M. Portalis was the most distinguished member. 10 The new ministry had no elements of strength : it was violently opposed by " the extreme right," by the clergy, whom the law of sacrilege had filled with hopes of recovering their former supremacy, and secretly by many of its own professed adherents. After a struggle of a year and a half, M. Portalis, hated by '^f the right," and suspected by "the left," found his embarrassments increasing so fast, that he was compelled to resign, but not until he had procured for himself the presidency of the court of cassation, the highest judicial office in France. 11. On the 9th of August, 1829, the ministry, which finally proved fatal to the reigning branch of the house of Bourbon, was formed. Its principal members were prince Polignac, who in his youth had been implicated in Pichegru's conspiracy, and owed his life to the clemency of Napoleon, Since 1833, he had been ambassador to the court of London, and he always professed a predilection for England, though he did not con- ceal his dishke of the democratic part of its constitution. Next to him was count Bourmont, who deserted Napoleon on the field of Waterloo, and found his treachery profitable after the restoration. Baron Montbel, a zealous supporter of the clergy, was naa.ed minister of the interior ; and M. D'Haussey, re- markable only for his ignorance and his conceit, received the charge of the navy. From the very outset, this unfortunate cabinet was assailed with unrelenting hatred by the leading liberals of France, both privately and pubhcly. The minis- ters were accused of having formed fixed plans for the sub- version of liberty and the re-estabhshment of despotism, and 35* 414 HISTORY OF FRANCE. the nation was summoned to guard the franchises which it had gained by the long struggles of the revolLiiion. Poh'gnac and his associates were not daunted ; they hoped thai the declara- tion of war against Algiers would divert the attention of the nation from the constitutional struggle at home ; and without waiting to calculate the elements of their own strength, they opened the parliamentary session with a declaration, which rendered a violent contest between the royal and constitutional parties inevitable. 12. The king's speech to the chambers, March 2d, 1830, contained the following significant threat: "If guilty intrigues should throw any obstacles in the way of my government, which I cannot and will not anticipate, I should find force to overcome them, in my resolution to preserve the public peace, in the just confidence I have in the French nation, and in the love which they have always evinced for their kings." There was a considerable majority in the chamber of deputies against the ministers; the address, in answer to the royal speech, frankly declared that a concurrence did not exist between the views of the government and the wishes of the nation, and with equal firmness and prudence warned the king: "Sire, France does not wish for anarchy any more than you do for despotism." The king, on the other hand, declared his deter- mination to support his ministers, and, to prevent further dis- cussion, prorogued the chambers to the 1st of the following September. 1.3. In the mean time, the French expedition against Al- giers sailed, and soon reached Africa. Algiers was captured with little loss, the treasures of the Dey became the reward of the conquerors, and since that period the city and its de- pendent territory has remained in the possession of the French. 14. In May the king dissolved the chambers, and addressed a justificatory proclamation to the electors, which was one of the most reprehensible public documents yet issued by the ministry. It insulted the nation, it libelled the majority of the late chamber, and it stated the claims of royally with an ab- surd extravagance, which would have disgraced school-boys. The only effect this document produced, was to destroy what- ever little popularity the ministers had gained by the conquest of Algiers ; in consequence, the elections went against the crown, and a majority of opposition members again appeared ready for the field. 15. Bigotry is equally violent and blind, and nothing biU tigotry was the characteristic of the king, his ministers, and THE REVOLUTION OF 1830. 4J5 of the whole court party. Polignac was resolved to subvert ihe constitution, but he wanted talent to act the despot : the wickedness of his proceedings is in some degree hid by their clumsiness and stupidity. On the 2Bth of July three ordinances appeared ; the first annulled the late elections, the second suspended the liberty of tlie press, and the third, on the royal authority, established a new electoral system. So infatuated were the men who perpetrated such outrages against all con- stitutional government, that they seem not to have anticipated any resistance, and made no preparations even for quelling ordinary tumults. It was late in the day when the ordinances became known, but the consequences became apparent in rapid surcession : the bank refused discounts, the chief manu- facturers closed their works and discharged their workmen ; the editors and conductors of journals met, and published their resolutions not to obey the laws ; Polignac's windows were broken, but the mob soon dispersed. 16. On the morning of the 27th, the agents of police seized the types and broke the presses of the refractory journalists ; and as the latter did not in every instance quietly give way, crowds rtrady for tumult were collected around the offices. The signs of commotion were hourly increasing in violence, but they escaped the notice of the king and his ministers. Charles went to enjoy a hunting excursion with the dauphin ; and Polio;'nac gave a splendid dinner to his colleagues. As evening approached, the efforts of the police to maintain order became more and more ineffectual ; recourse was had to the military, which had been placed under the command of Marshal Marmoni, and some smart skirmishes took place, in which the citizens were defeated. 17. When the soldiers returned to their barracks, Polignac A'as congratulated on his victor)'^ ! He went tranquilly to rest, as did the rest of the royalists, in full confidence that the whole business was arranged. The citizens spent the night far differently ; arms were procured, barricades erected, the na- tional guard revived and formed into companies, and all the insignia of royal authority removed from shops and offices. The ministers had limited their operations to issuing a new ordinance declaring Paris in a state of siege. 18. On the morning of the 28th, the citizens commenced the struggle bj'^ raising the tri-coloured flag in every direction ; they carried with little loss the detached guard-houses, the arsena., the powder magazine, and began to menace the Pcdais Royal. It was twelve o'clock before Marraont, wh(^ 416 HISTORY OF FRANCE. waited Jn '.jopes of some conciliatory offers from the court 'I'hich vould have soothed the insurgents, reluctantly led hia soldiers to the fight. He ordered the troops to clear circuits of streets, Dividing them into four columns; and every step taken by each of these divisions was fiercely and steadily dis- puted by the people. After a day of hard fighting the soldiers returned to their barracks, where no provision had been made for their refreshment; while the combatants, on the other side, where cheered with every luxury that the citizens of Paris could command. During the day 'Marmont wrote to the king, that the disturbances were assuming a dangerous and revolutionary aspect, but he received no answer until night, and was then directed to persevere ; some of the lead ing liberals also sought an interview with Prince Polignac but were refused admittance. 19. On the morning of the 29th, hostilities were renewed with great fury, but with no decisive result until noon, when the fifth regiment of the line entered into a treaty of neutrality v.-ith the populace, and abandoned its position. The citizens seized the advantageous post, and the guards made an effcrj Bevolution of 1830. THE REVOLUTION OF 1830. 417 to recover it ; during the struggle two regiments of the lina openly joined the populace, and Marmont was thus forced to consent to a sort of armistice. Before, however, it could be arranged, the citizens stormed the Louvre and Tuilleries, frona the windows of which they opened a murderous fire on the Swiss and the royal guards. These brave men, weakened by hunger, disgusted by neglect, fatigued by extraordinary exer- tions, outnumbered and disadvantageousJy posted, could make no long resistance ; they effected their retreat with some difil- culty, and at three o'clock in the afternoon the revolution at Paris was completed, and the city left quietly in the possessioa of its armed and triumphant citizens. The deputies who had come to Paris were fortunately suffi- ciently numerous to organize a provisional government. 20. They decreed, that the national guard should be organized and placed under the command of the marquis La Fayette ; and on the 30th of July they took the decisive step of inviting the duke of Orleans to place himself at the head of the govern- ment, under the title of lieutenant-general of the kingdom. Charles now recalled his ordinances, but it was too late ; he resigned his crown, as did the dauphin his rights, in favour of the duke de Bordeaux, son of the late duke of Berri ; but no notice was taken of his proceedings, farther than to intimate that his personal safety would be endangered by a longer resi' dence in France. He set out on his second exile, accompa- nied by his family, and on the 17th of August landed in Eng- land. He took up his abode for a short time in Holyrood palace, near Edinburgh, after which he removed to Germany, where he soon sunk into neglect and oblivion. 2L In the meantime the French chambers assembled, and, after some debate, the crown was conferred on the duke of Orleans, under the style of " Louis Philippe I., king of the French." Questions. 1. In what condition was France after the Restoration ? 2. From what events did the ruin of the Decazes rainistjy aris« 1 3. What ministerial changes led to the appointment of Villelf ' 4. How were the funds for tlie Spanish war carried? 5. What was the result of the Spanish campaign? 6. Describe the character of Louis XVIIL 7. How did Charles X. excite suspicion at his accession 7 8 What were the leading events of Villele's ministry .18 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 9. Why did Villele resign? 10. How did the Portalis administration terminate? 11. \^lio were the leading members of the Polignac admini6tn»- tion ? 12. By what event was a contest between the royalists and liberals forced on 1 13. How did the French succeed in Algiers? 14. Did the conquest of Algiers influence the French elections? 15. What were the ordinances issned by tlie Polignac ministry? 16. Hj)w did the Revolution of July commence in Paris? 17. Was there any want of foresight on the part of the royalists IS. Describe the events of the 2Sth of July? 19, What events on the 29th turned the balance in favour of th« people ? 20. How was a provisional government organized? 81. To whom was the French crown ^iven ? VsuMtt. LOUIS PHILIPPE I. 419 Louis Philippe. CHAPTER XLIV. LOUIS PHILIPPE 1.— REVOLUTION OF FEBRUARY, I818. Then came a deeper, dreader sound. Crash echoed crash so loud and fast, We deemed a whirlwind swept the ground, Crushing the forests as it passed ; And quaked the earth: and luridly Coursed the swift lightning through the sky. Hirst. 1. Unfortunately for France, too many of her sons had hrown themselves into a revolution without knowing or caring for principles. The middle class, or bourgeoisie, had called loudly upon the lower ranks of the people to support the charter against the tyrannical ordonncnces of Charles X.; Du'. when the monarchy was overthrown, when their aid was nc longer essential, they were expected to relapse into their tor- mer state. At the same time, the bourgeoisie looked with 420 HISTORY OF FRANCE. hatred and jealousy upon the peerage, and sought to conceti irate all the political power of the stale in themselves. There were some among them, however, of more liberal ideas MM. Duponl de I'Eure, LafBite, and others, were thorough republicans, and Louis Philippe himself professed the most liberal sentiments, saying publicly on one occasion, "T am but a bridge to arrive at a republic." But his real feelings were with Mm. de Broglie and CTuizot, who opposed concessions of freedom to the people, desired to fortify the royal preroga- tive, and considered the revolution as having' been effected only for the re-establishment of the charter. Some of the most zealous of the repubficans, undeceived by the professions of the new sovereign, and deeming themselves betrayed by his election, felt disposed to unite with another class of the people, composed chiefly of unoccupied and discontented young men, Avho declaimed against what they termed the treachery of Louis Philippe, and longed to engage all Europe in a war of opinion. The separation of the church from the state tended to alienate the affections of the clergy from the new throne, and the partisans of the Buonapartes and of the exiled royal family were severally engaged in intrigues for the promotion of their favourite objects. Amid all these elements the throne of the king of the French stood for a long time tottering, sup- ported by a doubtful union bet\veen royalists and bourgeoisie, maintaining its ascendency by hollow concessions, and only developing itself by artifice. 2. The capture of the ministers of the late king gave the severest trial of the strength of the new government. The king made no effort to seize these delinquents, and would have gladly suffered them to leave the country; but four of them were detected at a distance from Par.s as they were endea- vouring to escape under false passports, and hurried by zealous patriots to the capital. The government was forced to send, them for trial to the chamber of peers, where they were con- demned to perpetual imprisonment and civil death, and speed- ily removed to a distant prison. But the excitement produced by their arrest was made the means of inciting the most formi- dable riots in the capital, which all the firmness of the national guard could not succeed in quieting until the third day after the trial. 3. The republicans of the capital w^ere too violent in theii measures, the feelings of man}'' of them amounting to fanati- cism. Frequent attempts to assassinate the king, made by half insane persons, who, when brought to trial, openly derided LOUIS PHILIPPE I. 42i a.l constituted authority, and who were identified by I's ene- mies with the republican parly, brought discredit upon it, and caused it to remain silent. The Carlisis, or partisans of the exiled family, also injured their cause by an insurrection in the south of France. It was immediately suppressed by the government. The duchess de Berri, whose son, the duke of Bordeaux, was the legitimate heir to the crown, landed in La Vendee for the purpose of heading the royalists in that pro- vince. Such preparations had been made, however, that on landing she found her partisans disheartened, and their movements so closely watched, that it was impossible for them to assemble in any force. She resolved, nevertheless, to per- severe, but her enterprise resolved itself into a series of insig- nificant attacks. The duchess was betrayed by one of her followers into the hands of the government, five months after her landing, and thrown into prison. Here it was discovered that she was pregnant, having been secretly married some time before her arrest. This circumstance threw an air of ridicule over her enterprise, and her partisans became quiet. 4. While these events were occurring in the south of France, the funeral of General Lamarque aflxjrded an opportunity for an outbreak in Paris, which lasted five hours, and was attended with gn A loss of life. 5. The energy with which the government interfered in the affairs of Belgium, compelling the Dutch garrison in the citadel of Antwerp to capitulate, thus transferring the fortress immedi- ately to the Belgians, gained for it a degree of popularity at home greater than it had hitherto enjoyed. 0. On the 20lh of September, 1833, Ferdinand, king of Spain, died, leaving his crown to his daughter, who was pro- claimed at Madrid. A rebellion in favour of Don Carlos, the late king's brother, immediately broke out, and insurrections agitated the country for several years. France joined with England, Spain, and Portugal, in what was called the Qua- druple Alliance, for supporting the rights of the infant queen. On the 22d of April, 1834, France agreed to guard the frontiers, to prevent the Carhsts from receiving aid by land ; England blockaded the coasts, and Portugal was to assist the queen with troops, if necessary. But Louis Philippe secretly suffered Don Carlos to travel from London through France to Spain without informing his minister, Marshal Soult, who regarded this treatment as an indignity. He therefore retired from the nnnistry, and was succeeded by Marshal Gerard, who pursued the same policy as his predecessor. The frequent insurrections 86 422 HISTORY OF FRANCE. nad filled the prisi. ns of ihe country, and Marshal Gerard at tempted to have a general amnesty granted for all political o{' fences, which, being disapproved by the king, he retired from the cabinet, October 1834. This step led to the formation of an entirely new ministry, of which Guizot and Thiers were the leading members. This ministry did not possess the con fidence of the chambers, and it was dissolved in the following February. The opposition to this ministry was chiefly mani fested by the refusal of the chambers to provide for the pay ment to the United States of twenty-five millions of francs, indemnity for spoliations committed on American commerce during the reign of Napoleon, according to the provisions of a treaty made in 1831. The hostile attitude assumed by President Jackson speedily brought the refractory deputies to terms, and the new ministry succeeded in carrying an act pro- viding for the payment of the amount required. 7. On the 28th of July, in the year 1835, the king pro- ceeded in the company of a most splendid retinue to review the troops of the line, and the national guard, under arms in Paris. Suddenly a terrific explosion took place from a ma chine in the window of a house adjoining the street the royal cortege was traversing, which killed or wounded upwards of forty persons, among the foremost of whom was Marshal Mor- tier. The king himself, wnth three of his sons, who weie with him at the time, escaped almost miraculously. He be- haved with the utmost bravery, riding calmly along to the end of the line, and then returning oi'er the scene of the catas- trophe to complete the review. The contriver of this " infer- nal machine" was a Corsican named Fieschi, who was imme- diately seized. He assigned no other motive for his act than hatred of the king, and no evidence could be found implicat- ing any party or sect in his guilt. The ministry, however, attempted to make capital out of the occurrence, and succeeded at the next session of the chambers in passing three laws ; one directed against the press; another allowing jurors to vote by ballot, and providing that a mere majority should in future be sufficient to convict, instead of two-thirds, as had hitherto been customary ; and a third providing for the constitution of courts of assize, and the treatment of contumacious prisoners. By ihese measures the libeities of the people were more restricted than they had been since the abdication of Napoleon. 8. In the commencement of the year 1836, the minister of finance reported a continued deficit in the revenue, and sug- g'ested the propriety of meeting it, either by increasing thtr LOUIS PHILIPPE I. 423 tax, or by reducing the interest on the public debt from five to tbree per cent. Out of consideration for the capitalists, who held r.he greater part of the debt, and supported him and his measures, the king preferred the increase of taxation ; the chambers, however, were unwilling to impose new burdens upon the people, and a change in the ministry was the con- sequence. 9. On the 25th of June, 1836, a third attempt Avas made upon the life of the king, as he was leaving the Tuilleries in his carriage, by an enthusiastic republican named Alibaud, who was guillotined on the 11th of July. He narrowly escaped death in December of the same year at the hands of an assassin named Meunier, who was sentenced to death, but afterwards banished. 10. The cabinet of Marshal Soult had been succeeded by one under Thiers, February 1836, who boldly supported the republic of Cracow, the dey of Tunis, and the queen-regent of Spain. But the re-estabhshment in Spain of the constitu- tion of 1812 caused thf. king to refuse his consent to the plans of his minister, and Thiers was succeeded in his ministry in September, by Count Mole, who endeavoured to promote peace with foreign powers, and internal tranquillity. Many of those imprisoned for political offences were pardoned ; among them the ex-ministers of Charles X. This course probably led to an attempt by Louis Napoleon Buonaparte, a nephew of the emperor, to excite an insurrection at Strasburg, October 29th. It was immediately suppressed and the young prince sent to America. He returned to Europe, however, and took up his abode in Switzerland, whence the French government attempted to expel him. To avoid involving that country in a war on his account, he voluntarily quitted it. On the 6th of August, 1840, he again landed in France, at Boulogne. As- suming uniforms and provided wiih weapons, he led his friends into the town, carrying his hat on the point of his sword, while his followers shouted vive Vempereur! in the hope of inducing the troops stationed in the town to join them. Some of these, being told that a revolution had taken place, and that Louis Philippe was dethroned, were about to put themselves under the command of the prince ; when their captain awaking, rushed out of his quarters, and restored order among his men by his shouts of vive le roil The prince fired a pistol at him and wounded a private soldier; but by this time the people began to take notice of the confusion, and to side with the garrison ; several of the prince's party were soon in 424 HISTORY OF FRANCE. prison, and the rest, with their leader, attempted to escape by swimming to the steamboat which had brought them. Boatj were pat out after them, and the prince, with many of the fugitives, were captured and securely lodged in the castle of Boulogne. He was sentenced to imprisonment for life in the fortress of Ham ; whence, however, he escaped in the yeai J847, and has since given in his adhesion to the French republic. Simultaneously with this last attempt, another event oc- curred of great interest to the French people. 11. From the moment of the overthrow of Charles X., the wdent desire of the French to bring back the remains of Na poleon from their exile at St. Helena, began to be manifested Numerous petitions were presented to the government, pray- ing that the necessary steps should be taken to have the warrior's ashes restored to the nation, but for ten years no notice was taken of these requests; fears being entertained that the popular enthusiasm, which the presence of the relics of the emperor could not fail to excite, would inspire the people with the design of reviving the dynasty, and placing one of the Buonaparte family on the throne of France. On the ac- cession of Thiers to the prime ministry, however, the subject was brought before the cabinet, and it was resolved to accede to the popular desire. Accordingly, in May 1840, the British government was requested to permit the exhumation of the imperial remains, and their transportation to France. The request was granted without hesitation, and orders given to the British authorities at St. Helena to render every assistance to the agents of the French government. The frigate Belle Poule and the corvette Favourite composed the expedition, which sailed from Toulon, July 7th, 1840, under the command of the prince de Joinville ; C4enerals Bertrand and Gourgaud, and MiM. Saint Denis and Noverraz, two of Napoleon's valets de chambre, accompanied the prince. On the 7th of October the ships arrived at St. Helena, and on the 8th were moored in the harbour. A few daj^s having been occupied in the necessary preparations, on the 15th of October the exhuma- tion took place, under the direction of the British authorities. Having been covered with an additional leaden coffin, and the whole placed in an ebony sarcophagus, sent for the purpose by the French government, the remains were em« barbed on board the Belle Poule, and on the 18th the expedi- tion commenced its return voyage. On the 30th of Novembef the sqnadron anchored in the port of Cherbourg, and pro LOUIS PHILIPPE I. 425 cecded thence to Havre, which was fixed as the port of de barkalion. Here the coffin and sarcophagus were transferred to the national steamer La Normandie, on which they were conveyed up the Seine as far as Val de la Haye, where the steamer Dorade took the place of the Normandie, and trans- ported the remains to Courbevoie, near Paris. The progress of the Imperial corpse up the Seine drew together thousands of the people, whose enthusiasm knew no bounds. The' national guards were every where under arms, and the most impressive solemnities were observed as the cortege passed. The 15t,h of December was fixed for the entry intp Paris. On that day the capital was thronged by thousands upon thousands, among whom were not a kw of the soldiers of Napoleon. The coffin was conveyed from the suburbs to the Invalides, between lines of national guards several miles in length. The prince de Joinville presented the remains to the king, who received them in the name of France. They were then deposited in state in the church of the Invalides, where they were visited by immense numbers of people, who regarded them with an affection and reverence almost amount- ing to adoration. A monument in the church of the Invalides now marks the resting-place of all that was mortal of Na= poleon. 12. A fifth attempt upon the life of the king was made on the 15th of October, by a man named Darmes, who was guil- lotined. 13. The year 1842 was marked by two disasters. One was a shocking accident on the railroad between Paris and Versailles, which cost the lives of two hundred persons; the other was the death of the duke of Orleans, the heir-apparent to the throne, who was brought to the grave by being thrown out of the carriage in which he was riding. 14. During the whole reign of Louis Philippe, France was engaged, at an immense expenditure of men and money, in supporting her colonists in Algiers against the indefatigable chieftain, Abd-el-Kader. This redoubtable warrior, although -epeatedly defeated, driven from his territories, and stripped of nis authority, continued to annoy the colony by his daring in cursions and restless enterprise. To secure the peace of the settlers, the government was compelled to keep under arms in Africa a force of scarcely less than a hundred thousand men. The opposition of this famous chief ended only with his cap= ture, at the close of the year 1847. He was carried to France, and ordered to be carefully guarded as a prisoner. I.n the 36* 426 HISTORY OF FRANCE. year 1838, the refusal of the government of Mexico to inJem nify France for losses sustained during the troubles of thai republic, by French citizens, led to an attack by rear-admiral Baudin upon the city and castle of Vera Cruz, which were greatly injured by the bombardment, and taken possession of, November 28lh, 1838. War was declared against France, but by the intervention of the British minister, Mr. Pakenham, an amicable arrangement of the difficulties was effected. 15. In the year 1840, a treaty w^as made in London between Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia, settling the ques- tion of the possession of Syria by the pacha of Egypt, without reference to ihe acquiescence of France in their decision. This led to violent expressions of feeling on the part of the French people, who believed their nation insulted ; the ministry breathed the same spirit, and the king consented to the aug- mentation of the army to 639,000 men. The plan for the for- tification of Paris, as it was called, which had been before rejected by the chambers, was resumed by Thiers among his other preparations for war, and this would seem to have been the only object aimed at by the king in apparently coinciding with the war feeling; for he refused to allow his minister to denounce the treaty of July formally to the chambers, and ask for further warlike preparations. Thiers therefore gave up his portfolio, and a new ministry was appointed, of which the master spirit was Guizot. That statesman continued the for- tification of Paris, and coincided fully with the wish of Louis Philippe to preserve the peace of Europe. He remained at the head of the government from 1840 until the revolution of 1848. By every means in his power he preserved France from European hostilities, brought about an exchange of visits between the sovereigns of England and France, and promoted on all occasions the intrigues of the king for the aggrandize- ment of the royal family, and its establishment by intermar- riages in other courts of Europe. At the same time, his inter- nal government was characterized by pride, tyranny, blind- ness, and a constant succession of encroachments upon the liberty of the people. During the whole term of his adminis- tration the work of fortifying Paris was continued, until the whole city was surrounded by a girdle of fortifications of im pregnable strength, the guns of which were expected to serve equally well in repelling a foreign foe and in crushing any revolt in Paris. Secure in the pride of power, Louis Philippe Doasted that he held France in his hand, and Guizot ruled on, <*"ell contented in the seeming success of his policy, and con- REVOLUTION OF FEBRUARY, 1848. 427 viiicecl of the truth of his own saying, that an unpopular gov- ernment is the most successful. 16. On the opening of the French chambers in 1848, a paragraph of the address announced the intention of the min- istry to oppose the holding of a reform banquet in one of thf arrondissements of Paris. The people had been accustomed to these gatherings, which had always been conducted in a quiet and orderly manner, and all Paris resolved to participate in the one thus opposed, as a demonstration of their determi- nation in the matter. On the eve of the day on which it was to be held the government grew alarmed, and issued a procla- mation that it would prevent it vi et armis. This was made known to a meeting of the deputies and electors who were to take part in the festival, and they repaired to the chamber to interrogate the ministry upon the subject, where, in an angry debate, they learned the resolution that had been taken. The opposition deputies, anxious to preserve peace, announced their determination to take no part in the celebration, and the gov- ernment strengthened itself to enforce its decree. The number of the troops was increased to one hundred thousand men, and armed bodies were concentrated about the chamber of deputies. Great bodies of people were in motion early upon the day fixed for the banquet, February 22d, blocking up the avenues to the chambers, and makino- offensive demonstrations before the house of the minister. The troops manifested great reluc- tance to make war upon them, and the day passed over with few occurrences of note, except the impeachment of the min- ister by Odillon Barrot in the chamber, on behalf of fifty-three opposition deputies. 17. During the night the troops demolished the barricades thrown up by the people during the day, and the morning of the 23d was spent in the erecting and destroying of these works. Shortly after noon a large detachment of the national guard came to present a petition to the chamber in favour of reform, but they were met by the commander of the tenth le- gion, in the Place de la Concorde, who told them they would not be permitted to pass. As M. Guizot entered the chamber of deputies on this day, the tenth legion on guard there saluted him with cries of, ^ bas Guizot! Vive Louis Philippe! 18. At half-past three a conflict commenced between the people and the municipal guard; but almost everywhere the national guard fraternized with the people. A lull was pro- duced by the announcement of the resignation of the ministry, and the appointment of Count Mole to the presidency of tha 428 HISTORY OF FRANCE. council ; but the wanton discharge of musketry upon the peo pie, by the guard assembled before M. Guizot's hotel, by which fifty-two persons were killed or wounded, again aroused the people, and everywhere the cry was heard to arms. The dead bodies were carried about Paris in a vehicle, preceded by ar) immense crowd, chanting in a mournful murmur the songs of death. Suddenly there arose a cry for vengeance, and the issue of the revolution was decided. At every corner barrio cades were erected. Gentlemen, shopkeepers, clerks, workmen all laboured equally and effectively. The dawn of the 24th saw the whole city in possession of the people. The Chateau d'Eau, a massive stone building in front of the Palais Royal, was garrisoned by 180 municipal guards, who attacked the people about the palace, and a desperate conflict ensued, in which the populace suffered severely, but demolished the cha teau, chiefly by means of fire. 19. The victors then rushed to the Tuilleries, which was surrounded with thousands of troops, who would not fire upon their brethren. Louis Philippe found that his sceptre had de parted, and he ali^mipted by abdication to transfer his crowp to the count of Paris, his grandson. The mother of the counJ- repaired with him" to the chamber of deputies, where a voice from the public gallery settled the question at once •■ — " It is too late." The members of the royal family retired, followed by all the royalists in the chamber. Dupont de I'Eure, whose sturdy republicanism in 1830 was not forgotten, was carried to the chair, and a provisional government was proclaimed, amid loud shouts of Five la Republique ! 20. Louis Philippe had been escorted by a detachment of guards to Neuilly, whence he made his escape in disguise to England. Apprehensions were entertained that his life would be sacrificed to popular fury; but the only cry that arose from the multitude was one of indifferent derision, "Let him go!" 21. The furniture of the Tuilleries was thrown out of the windows and burned, the wines in the cellar distributed among the multitude, the throne carried in procession through the stre'^ts, and finally burned on the famous place de la Bastille, and the royal carriages were burned at the Chateau d'Eau. All this passed directly beneath the notice of long lines of motionless infantry and cavalry. The respect paid to private property was not less remarkable than it Avas honourable. Several malefactors, caught by the people in stealing, were shot on the spot, and the word " voleur" (thief) fastened upon their bodies. REVOLUTION OF FEBRUARY, 1848. 429 REVOLUTION OF FEBRUARY, 1848. 431 22. The provisional government was installed at the Hota de rule, and at once proclaimed a republic. The chamber of peers was immediately abolished, and steps taken to relieve the people of the burden which the overthrow of existing re^ lati^ins was likely to place upon them. Lamartine, Arago, Ledru RoUin, Lamoriciere, Gamier Pages, Cavaignac, Decou- trias, with the venerable president, Dupontdel'Eure, composed the provisional government. The first act of the government showed Lamartine to be the master spirit. Every citizen was made an elector, and the qualifications for office were citizen- ship and the age of twenty-five years. The penalty of death for political offences was immediately abolished. An act for the emancipation of every slave on territory subject to France was ordered to be immediately prepared. On the 4th of March the victims of the revolution were solemnly interred, in the presence of nearly half a million of people, at the foot of the monument erected to liberty, and the memory of victims ot the three days of July 1830. 23. The earliest occasion was selected by the American minister at Paris, Mr. Rush, for recognising the republic. On the 28th of February he waited upon the provisional govern- ment, and formally acknowledged the republic, in an eloquent speech ; hoping that the friendship of the two republics would be co-extensive with their duration. A deputation of American citizens waited upon the provisional government on the 8lh of March, tenderin.g them congratulations, and presenting them a flag-staff^, with the colours of the two republics united and flowing together. The colour was received by M. Arago, in a handsome address on the part of the government, and placed in the Hotel de Ville. 24. After the restoration of peace, the new government turned its attention to the subject of electing permanent ofli- cers for the republic. The arrangements necessary to enable a national election to take place constituted a gigantic task. The mode of ballot, the rate of representation, the naming of polls, and the qualifications of both voters and candidates, had all to be arranged for a population of some millions of freemen, unaccustomed either to choosing their rulers or ruling themselves. The 9th of April was at first named as the day of election, but this was subsequently changed to the 23d and 24th. The provisional government decided that the new constitution should be drawn up by a constituent assembly, to be elected by the people. A decree was ao- 3ordingly published^ proclaiming that the elf ction should ba 4-:52 HISTORY OF FRANCE. based on the niimber of the population; that the total num. ber of representatives should be nine hundred, including Algeria, and the colonies; the representatives to be divided among the departments; the suffrage to be direct and -ini- versal; every Frenchman twenty-one years of age to be an elector, unless deprived of civil rights; every citizen twenty- five years old, to be eligible if in possession of civil rights; that the ballot should be secret ; that all electors should vote at the principal town of their cantonment; that each repre- eentative should receive during the session of the assembly twenty-five francs per day. 25. Soon after the publication of this decree, two official circulars were issued on the same subject by M. Carnot, minister of public instruction, and Ledru Rollin, member of the provisional government. The former was of an excep- tionable character, and met with general disapprobation. The other made an open appeal to the revolutionary flame still smothering, and declared that it was the duty of the people to elect a certain class from their own number, even though they would be obliged to resort to another overthrow of government. On the appearance of this dangerous paper, a deputation of the club appointed for the liberty of elec- tions, waited upon the government to ren)onsti-ate against the doctrine. Lamartine replied at considerable length, virtually disavowing the document. "The provisional government," he declared, " had not directed any one to speak in its name to the nation, and especially to speak a language superior to the law." Not long after a proclamation appeared in the name of the whole government, calculated to remove the bad impression caused by Ledru Rollin's circular. The cor- rection was ill received by the minister of the interior. This was palpably manifested during the deliberations of the pro- visional government, on the night of March 15th, when after making a proposition which was rejected, he threatened that unless it was reconsidered and agreed to, he would call in the people assembled in the court, and appeal to their sympathies. On hearing this, M. Garnier Pages immediately arose, drew a pistol from his pocket, and declared tliat he would shoot Rollin through the head, should he attempt the execution of his threat. Here the matter dropped. 26. But notwithstanding his unpopularity with the public ministers, Ledru Rollin pursued his favorite schemes with unabated vigor; and so well was he seconded by his agents iu the different departments, that many of the latter were ou REVOLUTION OF FEBRUARY, 1848. 4B3 the eve of plunging into a civil war. One of these function- aries assumed authority to double the taxes in Lyons, and prohibit all persons who left the town from carrying with them more than five hundred francs. The ultra-republican clubs in Paris indulged in the most inflammatory language, threatening to attack the national assembly unless it should be entirely formed by men of their own party. Meanwhile, the working classes, disgusted with the surrounding quiet- ness, and craving excitement, amused themselves by planting " trees of liberty," throughout Paris. Even the clergy joined in this work, sprinkling the roots with holy water, and per- forming other idle ceremonies. At night, houses were illu- minated, volleys of artillery fired, and similar demonstrations made by the different mobs. The spirit of revolution and anarchy was kept alive by inflammatory addresses, posted throughout Paris, and appealing to the lowest feelings of the community. " The elections," observed one of these docu- ments, " if they do not cause social truth to triumph — if they are but the expression of the interests of a caste, extorted from the confiding loyalty of the people — the elections, which should be the safety of the republic, will be its ruin : of that there can be no doubt. There would be then but one means of safety for the people who made the barricades — it would be to manifest a second time its will, and to adjourn the decision of a false national representation. * * * * Paris looks on herself, with reason, as the representative of all the population of the national territory. Paris is the advanced post of the army that combats for the republican idea. If anarchy works in the distance — if social influences pervert the judgment or betray the will of the masses of the people, dispersed and scattered, the people of Paris believe and declare themselves guardians of the interests of the whole nation." 27. The consequences of such appeals soon manifested themselves. On Sunday, April 16th, an attempt was made to overthrow the moderate section of government, and sub- jgtitute for it the so-called committee of safety. This plot was, however, defeated by the prompt and cordial support given to the cause of order by the national guard. As though by magic, two hundred thousand men, of all ranks and conditions, rallied around the government. At the same time, the great bulk of the working men of Paris, emphati- cally declared their adhesion to the honest and rational por- tion of the provisional government, thus separating theii 37 2o 434 HISTORY OF FRANCE. cause from that of the selfish demagogues and spurious phj- lanthropists led by Ledru Eollin and others. Tliis evenl proved the good policy of admitting the workmen into the national guards, since it is probable that in case of being excluded, they would have been made tools of by tlie revolu- tionary factions. Lamartine and his colleagues found their hands greatly strengthened, and were enabled to bring back the army to Paris, without danger to themselves, and with the entire approbation of the citizens. A still more formid- able demonstration made by the clubs and " trades," was sup- pressed by the firmness of the national guard. No lives were lost. 28. On Thursday, April 20th, the grand fete of fraternity to celebrate the return of the troops of the line to Paris took place. That day the city presented a sublime spectacle. Three hundred thousand armed men and as many spectators, were mingled together for seven or eight hours with the greatest cordiality. The illumination in the evening was brilliant and general — even the suburbs being lighted. 29. Meanwhile, the election for representatives to the National Assembly had taken place [April 23—4]. They excited great and universal interest — there being reason to suppose that the republic was not as popular in the provinces as in Paris. Two great parties existed. One composed of moderate men, favorable to the republic, and opposed to the wild schemes of Ledru Rollin and others of his stamp; the other denouncing Lamartine and the provisional government, demanding a common distribution of wealth for the whole nation, and interpreting the words liberty and equality to mean, the privilege of doing as they pleased, and of reducing all, except themselves, to poverty. Amid scenes of great excitement, the elections took place at the time appointed. In several places disgraceful riots occurred, while in others, especially in Paris, thousands abstained from voting, thus proving that, although ready enough to take part in a military revolution, they cared little about any other manner of secu- ring liberty. The republican party were eminently triumph- ant. Late on Monday night, April 24th, the ballot boxes were closed, and the elections terminated. The general examination of votes was reserved for the 28th, when the senior mayor of Paris presided. The candidates who obtained more than two thousand votes were then proclaimed by the mayor " representatives of the people." Their number had been previously fixed at nine hundred. Lamartine was REVOLUTION OF FEBRUARY, 1848. 435 elected by nine of the principal cities of the republic. The announcement of the names was received by the people amid the wildest shouts of enthusiasm. 30. The 4th of May was the day chosen to publish to the people official notice of the new republic. On that day an immense multitude assembled at the Place de la Concorde, on the bridge, and around the national palace. At the re- quest of General Courtais, commander of the national guard, the whole assembly appeared before the people, and pro- claimed the republic amid the waving of innumerable ban- ners, the firing of artillery, and the shouts of the delighted multitude. A resolution passed the previous day to liberate all slaves, either in France or her colonies, and to deprive of citizenship any one engaged directly or indirectly in the slave trade, was received with rapturous applause. 31. On the following day, the assembly met at noon, and after receiving a verification of their powers, entered into an election for president. M. Buchez was chosen by a large majority. The members of the provisional government then appeared, and one by one submitted reports of their proceedings since the 24th of February. Their resignations were then received, and the thanks of the country tendered to them. 32. On the following Wednesday, the assembly appointed five of their number as an executive committee to act in place of the provisional government. The names were Arago, Garnier Pag^s, Marie, Lamartine, and Ledru Rollin. 33. Meanwhile, the doctrines of the ultra-republicans — the questions of socialism and communism had excited scenes of a rather serious character at Rouen, Elboeuf, and other manufacturing towns. In the former place, a report had been circulated that M. Deschamps, the communist candi- date, would not poll the number of votes necessary to his election, and in consequence groups of workmen began to collect, crying, "Down with the National Assembly!" " Down with the aristocrats ! " They were dispersed, how- ever, by the dragoons. The night passed away without any serious occurrence, but on the following morning the disorder «vas renewed with alarming violence. The people threw up barricades, skirmishes were carried on until sunset, and at night the national guard were assaulted by volleys of stones. At length the troops fired, killing ten or twelve of the rioters, and by a vigorous charge compelling the remainder to disperse. On Friday the riots were renewed, and more 436 HISTORY OF FRANCE. blood shed ; but the soldiery having been reinforced by the garde mobile of Paris, were enabled to restore order by Saturday morning. Twenty-two lives had been sacrificed The avowed object of these movements was to bring about a reaction in the new republic, favorable to the dissolution of the then existing condition of society, and establish their absurd schemes of a community of goods and manners. Though often defeated, the advocates of this theory, led by the celebrated Louis Blanc and others, clung to their opinions with fanatical tenacity, and watched gloomily for the moment when they would be favored by fortune to assert them with force of arms. Questions. 1. What feelings were entertained by leading men concerning government? 2. What eiFect was produced by the capture of the late king'a ministers ? 3. How did the parties regard each other? 4. What gave rise to an outbreak in Paris? 6. What is said of the government's interference with Belgium ? 6. What is said of the relations with Spain and the United States ? 7. What occurred July 28, 1835? 8. What caused a change of ministry? 9. What other attempts were made on the king's life? 10. What is said of Prince Louis Bonaparte? 11. Describe the ceremonies attending the removal of Napoleon's remains? 12. Who made a fifth attempt on the king's life? 13. What disasters occurred in 1842? 14. Describe the war with Abd-el-Kader and Mexico. 15. Describe the Guizot ministry. 16. What eiFect was produced by the refusal of the ministry to sanction the holding of the reform banquet? 17. What occurred on the 28d of February, 1848? 18. Describe the outbreak. 1 9. What form of government was substituted ? 20. What is said of Louis Philippe? 21. What took place at the Tuilleries? 22. Describe the organization of the Provisional government? 23. What was done by the American minister? 24. What steps were taken respecting the election ? REYOLUTION OF FEBRUARY, 1848. 437 25. What was the conduct of Ledru Rollin ? 26 What was done by Ledru Rollin and the peop.e? 27. What is said of the plot of April 16th? 28. What took place on the 29th of April? 29. Describe the election. 30. What was done on the 4th of May? 81. On the following day? 32. On the following Wednesday ? 83. What took place at Rouen Duke of OrleaoB. 87* 438 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Arm and Marrast. CHAPTER XLV. THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY— REBELLION OF JUNE, 1848. The sight Of blood to crowds begets the thirst of more, As the first •wine cup leads to the long revel; And you will find a harder task to quell Than urge them when they have commenced ; but till That moment a mere voice, a straw, a shadow, Are capable of turning them aside. Byron's Doge of Venice. 1. The bitterness of faction had been, in a great measure, mollified by the operations of the provisional government, and the expectation of benefit to be derived therefrom, con- tributed largely to the maintenance of peace, and the repres- sion of mob rule. But, with the transference of power from the temporary to the permanent government, discord again began to show a bold front, the slight barrier which had for the time held in check the flood of partisan strife, gave way under the pressure, the song of freedom was changed into the battle cry of infuriate opposing forces, and, fired with all th« rancor of incurable partisan hatred and revenge, a terrible struggle was again made for supremacy and revenge. REBELLION OF JUNE, 1848. 439 2. Early on the morning of May 15, the Parisian clubs and ac immense concourse of people having assembled in the capital to express sympathy for the cause of the unfortunate Polish patriots, inflammatory addresses were made to the masses, the National Assembly denounced, and red flags dis- played beside those emblematic of sympathy for the Poles. A committee, appointed to petition the Assembly to interfere in behalf of Poland, was followed to the national Chamber by more than 50,000 persons. The Assembly, which had convened at noon, took the precaution of posting a number of the National Guard outside the building to prevent an outbreak ; but General Courtais, the commander, allowed the mob to pass unmolested, when they rushed into the Chamber, where a scene of indescribable confusion immediately ensued, which was only quieted by the appearance of Louis Blanc near the president's chair. At his instance M. Raspail read the petition in favor of Poland, which was received with shouts of applause that lasted for several minutes. M. Blanqui, a prominent member of the clubs, then made a speech, which only added fuel to the fire of popular frenzy, and when M. Rollin who followed in a milder strain, com- mendatory of the justice of their demands for aid to Poland, and the " admirable good sense of the people of Paris," pro- posed that the mob should withdraw, for the purpose of allowing the Assembly free scope for the discussion of the subject, immediately there arose cries of " Let the vote be taken at once," " The matter has been sufficiently debated," " We have enlightened the Assembly." M. Barbes then appeared in the tribune, and proposed the levy of a fixed tax of one milliard on the rich to carry on the war for Poland. This was greeted with the most deafening cheers, followed by appalling confusion, amid which M. Hubert, who had been a political prisoner under the former government, ascended the ti'ibune, and cried, " Citizens, I proclaim in the name of the sovereign people of France that the National Assembly is dissolved." The mob, mad with ecstacy, at once levied a contribution of 1000,000,000 francs upon the rich for the benefit of the poor, and appointed an executive government, composed or Barbes, Albert, Louis Blanc, Flocon, Blanqui, Baspail, and Cabet. One of the newly- Bppointed government, M. Barbes, went so far as to demand the re-establishment of the guillotine. 3. When it became known throughout Paris that the National Assembly had been attacked, the National Guard 440 HISTORY OF FRANCE. rallied to its support, declaring that they had been betrayed by their general. Two legions marched toward the legislative halls, while the remaining legions, accompanied by detach- ments of the " garde mobile," bodies of infantry and cavalry, and a battery of artillery, proceeded to the Hotel de Ville, to capture the several embryo provisional governments therein located. With the second legion rode, on horseback, side by side, Lamartine and Ledru Rollin. They were hailed enthu- siastically by the people, who shouted for the Assembly, and pressed forward to shake hands with the two distinguished members, who thanked them warmly for their devotion to liberty. About one hundred persons were captured at the Hotel de Ville, after which the force joined their brethren in arms sent to the representative hall. Between six and seven o'clock, the legions outside of Paris entered it by all the barriers, in order to offer their support to the National Assembly, and in a short time the mob was not only routed and dispersed, but their most prominent leaders, as Barb^s, Albert, Blanqui, Raspail, and Sobrier, were arrested and thrown into prison. 4. Order had scarcely been restored, when the government Bupamoned the citizens of Paris to participate in the great national festival of " Concord,^' given in honor of the estab- lishment of the republic. Sunday, May 21, was the day set apart for the purpose, and the procession moved from the Place de la Concord to the Champ de Mars, headed by the members of the provisional government, followed by the mayor of Paris, the municipalities, the delegates of the different departments, &c. All professions and trades were fully represented, and a colossal statue, emblematic of the republic, was drawn by four horses, and followed by bands of choristers, chanting national or patriotic hymns. Among the choristers was a party of five hundred young females, dressed in white muslin robes, with tri-colored ribbons on their shoulders, and wreaths of flowers on their heads. In the evening Paris was brilliantly illuminated, and the Champ de Mars, Champs Elysees, and Tuilleries, were lighted with half a million colored, and ten thousand Chinese lanterns, at a cost of 200,000 francs. 5. Serious disturbances with the workmen employed by the government followed the festival; for, with characteri>tic short-sightedness, the authorities employed so many persons that they were soon embarrassed for money, and thousands were, in consequence, suddenly discharged. The unemployed REBELLION OF JUNE, 1848. 441 fomented dissension, and it was found necessary to call out large bodies of the National Guard to restore order, which was eflFected without bloodshed, after many arrests had been made. 6. On the occasion of the election of Prince Louis Bona- parte, nephew of the great Napoleon, by some of the districts which had returned two persons at the original election, a more serious demonstration took place. From comparative obscurity, he became, in a single day, one of the most im- portant men in France ; on Sunday he was the theme of gen- eral conversation in the holiday gatherings of the lower classes, who knew not the man, but venerated the namej and on Monday a journal appeared, entitled " The Napoleon," which was devoted to the advancement of his cause. As Louis Bo- naparte was expected to take his seat in the Assembly on this day, a great crowd filled all the streets leading to the legis- lative hall, and many carried on their hats a paper, on which was inscribed, in large letters, " Louis Napoleon ! long live the emperor ! down with the republic !" The apprehensions of the government being aroused, about five o'clock in the evening, orders were given to clear the streets, and, at the point of the bayonet, the mob was driven from the Place de la Revolution, still, however, shouting defiantly, "Long live the emperor I" Lamartine, taking advantage of this out- break, proposed the enforcement of the laws of 1816 and 1832, prohibiting the entrance into France of any of the Bonaparte family. Adopted by acclamation, this motion was, at a subsequent sitting, repealed with equal precipitation. 7. Many causes had contributed to the success of the lower orders in the struggle of February, among which were the co-operation of the military, and the apathy of the middle classes; but, after the monarchy had been overthrown, dis- sensions arose between the operative and middle classes, which were productive of wide-spread disorder and social convulsions. The working people demanded an entire re- construction of the social fabric, which would secure them full employment and adequate pay; and the provisional go- vernment evinced its own weakness by acceding to the popu- lar demand for the establishment of national workshops, which the tax-payers, already overburdened, were still farther taxed to support. Notwithstanding trade was completely prostrated, and the middle classes daily losing their sub- stance, yet the lower classes received high wages from the government, whether employed or idle. Flushed with sue- 442 HISTORY OF FRANCE. cess, ilattered by all parties, and amused by gorgeous fetes and festivals, the workmen enthusiastically defended the new order of things ; while those engaged in trade and commerce were loud in denunciation of a system which allowed those who possessed nothing to live upon the earnings of others. The financial crisis which ensued, caused the discharge of thousands of workmen by the tottering government — when a reaction immediately took place in the sentiment of the masses, who then became convinced that their rulers were either unable or unwilling to revolutionize society. The election of an anti-Communist National Assembly impressed upon their minds the idea that henceforth they could expect little sympathy from .the members of the legislative body, and the first fruits of their disappointed hopes, was the ill- considered attempt at revolution originated on the 15th of May, under the guise of sympathy for the Poles. 8. The flame of dissension, although checked for a time by the vigorous action of the authorities, again began to spread with fearful rapidity; and the crisis was precipitated by the necessity for disbanding the large army of workmen still employed — amounting to more than 100,000 men, com- posed, not only of Parisians, but also of idle and dissolute adventurers, galley-slaves, and robbers, who, flocking into Paris from all parts of the country, were consuming the small remnant of vitality still left in the nation. The more respectable, but yet infatuated operatives, entered into a close organization with their villanous companions, appointed resolute commanders, and prepared secretly, but most effec- tually, for a final struggle. The party of order, which now controlled the Assembly, had, on the other hand, vigorously prepared themselves for a stern resistance, being fully re- solved, if again called to arms by the Communistic faction, to crush it at once and for ever. 9. On Thursday luorning, June 22, a large body of work- men appeared before the Luxembourg Palace, and demanded an interview with the members of the executive government. M. Marie consented to receive a deputation of five delegates, who, after a conference, returned to their companions with the assurance that they had nothing to expect. This was the signal for an outbreak, and the mob moved through the streets, venting their displeasure by various cries, and their revolutionary views by shouts of " Long live Napoleon I" "Long live the emperor!" About half-past eight in the evening, 5000 persons proceeded toward the Hotel de Villo, REBELLION OF JUNE, 1848. 443 and thence to the Faubourg du Temple, for the purpose of joining the first party, which was assembled in the Place da Bastile. So much alarm was created by this movement, that an additional military force was called out, and kept under arms during the night. 10. The following morning, June 23, Paris was filled with alarming reports of the progress of the rioters, and it was soon ascertained that they had thrown up barricades in va- rious parts of the city, with the view of strengthening their forces for a desperate struggle. The principal fortifications were, one on the Boulevard, close to the Porte St. Denis; a second, full as formidable as the first, placed a short distance beyond the Rue St. Denis ; another, still farther on, toward Women at the barricades near tbe Porte St. Denis. the Porte St. Martin; while the end of the Rue du Faubourg St. Denis was also closed up with a huge barricade, which prevented the approach of troops from the outside. The Rue St. Denis, the Rue Villeneuve Bourbon, the Rue de Clery, and the other streets debouching on the point in pes- 444 HISTORY OF FRANCE. session of the conspirators, were similarly defended; and thousands of armed youth were industriously at work, with pikes and spades, tearing up the streets, and adding to the defences, upon which were stuck a great number of tri-colored flags, bearing diflerent mottoes. The Porte St. Denis, which was in possession of the conspirators, was decorated with a black flag. 11. The sun had not yet risen above the horizon, when dense columns of infantry were seen defiling through the streets leading to the Porte St. Denis, while a strong body of troops of the line, accompanied by the second legion of the National Guard, approached the barricades from the op- posite side, thus surrounding the insurgents, and cutting off" their retreat. A sharp conflict commenced, in which several were killed and wounded on each side, but the troops finally succeeded in carrying the barricades at the point of the bay- onet. Boys, and even females, aided the insurgents, and frequently made their appearance on the barricades, waving flags and other emblems, on which were inscribed significant mottoes. Among the prisoners taken were several women, and one or two were killed. 12. The executive committee met at the ^alace de Lux- embourg, where, at 10 A. M., they were joined by the presi- dent of the National Assembly. General Cavaignac, then minister of war, was appointed commander-in-chief of all the troops of the line, and other military forces in the depart- ment of the Seine. On Saturday, the insurgents still con- tinuing their operations at several different points, the Assem- bly declared Paris in a state of siege, and appointed General Cavaignac dictator. Before evening, he had suppressed the insurrection on the left bank of the Seine ; but a most terri- ble struggle took place at the Clos St. Lazarre, on the right bank. As an instance of the dreadful slaughter which took place, and of the* desperation with which the mob fought, only nine or ten men of the seventh battalion of the Garde Mobile, numbering 800 men, escaped unhurt. On Sunday, at the barricade La Bochechouart, M. La lioche, the editor of Le Pere Duchesne, was killed while aiding the insurgents. 13. The appearance of Paris was dreary in the extreme, one-fourth of the city having either been ruined, to build defences, or so barricaded and guarded as to be utterly im- passable. Against 120,000 insurgents were opposed 300,000 troops, and at night all the streets were guarded. General Cavaignac, understanding that several of the public papers REBELLION OF JUNE, 1848. 445 wevfi publishing articles calculated to still further inflame the passions of the mob, immediately ordered their suppres- gion, and the arrest of M. Girardin, editor of "■La Fref.se.." 14. The contest at the Pantheon during Sunday was of the most determined character; for fifteen hours no cessation being perceptible in the firing. It was not until one o'clock, when the troops of the line arrived, that the combined forces succeeded in breaking through the railings of the Pantheon, Death of M. La Koche. and gaining the interior. This, however, was but a small part of the task, several of the strongest barricades remaining to be attacked ; but the coolness of military discipline finally prevailed, and at four o'clock the streets were so far free, that M. Payer, representative from Ardennes, whose house had been invaded by the insurgents, succeeded in getting tc the Assembly. 15. On Sunday evening, Monseigneur Afi"re, Archbishop of Paris, waited on G-eneral Cavaignac, and tendered his services as a pacificator, which were gladly accepted by the general, and orders immediately issued that every facility should be extended to the venerable prelate. On the appearance of the prelate at the Place de Bastille, bearing with him a copy of Gen. Cavaignac's proclamation for tha 446 HISTORY OF FRANCE. cessation of hostilities, the firing on both sides was suspended, and almost alone, he fearlessly ascended the barricade, where he explained the purpose of his laudable mission During this cessation of hostilities the combatants unwittingly came within reach of each other, and began mutual accusations, which were followed by personal scuffles, when suddenly the firing recommenced. The prelate being thus placed between the two parties, was wounded in the groin by a shot from an adjoining window, and his servant, in endeavoring to &ave him from falling, was also shot in the side. The archbiahop was borne away by the soldiers, and expired on Tuesday morning at eleven o'clock. Monseigneur Affre, Archbishop of Paris. 16. The calmness and serenity which had attended the archbishop before the barricade, did not leave him after he was wounded; for, on being informed by M. Jacquenet that bis wound was serious, he asked — "Is my life in danger?" " It is," was the reply. " Well, then," said the archbishop, " let Grod be praised, and may He accept the sacrifice which I again oflfer him for the salvation of this misguided people. May my death expiate the sins which I have committed 448 HISTORY OF FRANCE. REBELLION OF JUNE, 1848. 449 during my episcopacy." He afterwards confessed, and -ecelved the sacrament of extreme unction, preserving ad- mirable presence of mind throughout his sufferings, and expressing his satisfaction at accomplishing what he called his duty. 17. No single event of this unhappy rebellion caused so much regret among all classes as the fate of this noble ser- vant of Heaven. The insurgents positively denied all inten- tion of doing him injury, and it seems almost certain thm the fatal shot was fired by some careless person, who aimed at random. All the insurgents present signed a declaration that he had not been shot by those on the barricade with him ; a point which they appeared very anxious to establish. There is reason to believe that the occurrence, although much to be deplored as an individual sacrifice, hastened the restitution of order. 18. On Monday morning the conflict was renewed with desperate valor on both sides; the principal scenes of action being the Faubourg St. Antoine, the Place Maubert, and the neighborhood of the Pantheon. The former surrendered at discretion at eleven o'clock ; but the other places were Btormed, and the garrison of each killed or captured. The last barricade attacked was at the corner of the Rue de la Roquette. Gen. Lamoriciere, after having carried all the barricades in the Faubourg du Temple, arrived at the Place de la Bastille, from which he attacked the enemy's works with cannon and shells, when some of the latter falling on one of the adjoining houses, set it on fire, which so frightened the insurgents that they immediately fled. From that mo- ment all the efforts of the leaders to rally the mob were ineffectual; they fled to the Barriere de Menilmontant, and thence into the country. 19. The loss on both sides was almost incredible — 20,000 killed and.wounded being but a small estimate, since thou- sands of victims were, no doubt, concealed from the autho- rities. Amid all her revolutions, Paris never witnessed so much slaughter among her own citizens, as was perpetrated during those four days. Thousands of prisoners were taken by the military, and the government seemed to be as much embarrassed in the disposal of their cases, as it had been in suppressing the insurrection. The remaining days of tlie week were occupied in burying the dead, repairing daniagea done to the city, and re-establishing order. On the 29th Gen Cavaignac resigned his absolute authority to the Asseui- 3S * 2d 450 HISTORY OF FRANCE. bly, whieh act was hailed witli most enthusiastic demonstra- tions of feeling. He was immediately created president of state, with authority to name his officers. Gen. Changarnicr was appointed by the president commander-in-chief of the National Guard ; and for the further security of society, the Assembly passed a resolution establishing an army of at least 50,000 men around Paris, exclusive of the Garde Mobile, the republican guards, the gens d'armes, and several thousand artillerymen. 20. On the night of July 11, Gen. Cavaignac received notice of another contemplated rising among the disaifected, and, immediately despatching a sufficient force, succeeded in capturing some of their leaders. Guards were posted through the streets, to prevent the assassination of citizens; but at the same time every liberty was given consistent with the security of society from violence and pillage. Yet, strange as it may seem, many were still anxious to renew the late struggle, and sought every opportunity to elude the presi- dent's vigilance, while prosecuting their seditious schemes. Monarchists and anarchists, foreign agents and the disaffected at home, united their sympathies with the rioters, and em- ployed assassins, convicts, and maniacs to carry out their views ; but to each and every emergency Gen. Cavaignac proved himself fully equal. 21. In a great speech made on the 15th of July before the committee of foreign affairs of the National Assembly, Lamartine triumphantly vindicated the foreign policy of the provisional government, and refuted the slanders which had been heaped upon him since the revolution. Reviewing the condition of the national relations with Spain, he deprecated any interference with the internal polity of that government, spoke disparagingly of the legislative knowledge and diplo- macy of Napoleon I., and concluded by saying — "The republic of February 24 boasts of another diplomacy than that of the convention and empire — than that of despair or conquest. The influence acquired in four months by Franco. the impossibility of seeing again formed against her a coali- tion, unless she herself renew it with her own hands, attests, whatever M. Napoleon Bonaparte may say, that there is a policy as democratic as national ; a policy as firm as moderate. it is this policy that the government of February has inau- gurated, and of which I have no doubt the present govern- ment will follow the great outlines and the auspicious traditions." EEBELLION OF JUNE, 184S. 451 22. A great banquet had been appointed for the 14th of July, at which 200,000 workmen were to participate; but its occurrence was prevented by disclosures of the most fearful nature, which, though perhaps exaggerated, display in a forcible manner the condition of the French community at that time. It had been arranged that, at a given signal, the members of the National Assembly, and the heads of the government were to be massacred, and the whole city to be seized by the insurgents. Such was the terror inspired among all classes by the rumors of these designs, that Gen. Cavaignac experienced the utmost difficulty in convincing the inhabitants that the means of government were sufficient to protect them. Soldiers were stationed throughout Paris, spending the day on guard, and sleeping in the streets at night, with guns loaded, and bayonets fixed. 23. Immediately after this occurrence, stringent laws were passed against the numerous clubs of Paris, which had latterly assumed an attitude dangerous to the existence of society; the members either carrying arms themselves, or exciting an armed resistance against every measure not in accordance with their views. Ey the new act all clubs were required to make known their existence to the government (and in case of the formation of new ones, notice to be given forty-eight hours before the time of organization), with their times and places of meeting ; to keep an open record of their proceedings ; to reserve one-fourth of their seats for stran- gers ; to have always present a government official, dressed in uniform ; and that all intercommunication between dif- ferent clubs should absolutely cease. The desired efi"ect was produced by these regulations ; and the efforts of the presi- d*>.nt, cordially aided by those of the National Assembly, r(*Qdered the city more tranquil than it had yet been since the days of Napoleon I. 24. Among other lamented victims of the rebellion was Gen. Negrier, a gallant and dignified officer, whose honorable character, urbanity of manners, and great personal bravery, irindered him a favorite, not only among the large circle of his immediate acquaintances, but also in the National Assem- bly, of which he was a member, and in which, at the time of his death, he filled the office of questor. He was born in Portugal, of French parents, and during the occupation of the peninsula by the French, under the empire. Marshal Lannes, who took a strong interest in him, sent him to France !inder the care of his aid-de-camp. Gen. Soubervie. Having 452 HISTORY OF FRANCE. entered the array, he rose through the several subordinate ranks to that of G-eneral of Division, a promotion well earned by active service in the field. During the sanguinary conflict ho fought at several points, with most signal success. On General Negrier. Sunday evening, June 25, while advancing at the head of his men toward a barricade, he was struck by a ball and fell to the ground a corpse. At the same time another member of the Assembly, Gren. Charbonnel, was mortally wounded by his side. 25. An account of the rebellion in June could not be closed better than by the following extract from a lucid description of one of the positions held by the insurgents. " When those who have been at Waterloo learn that for more than a mile the wall of the city of Paris was as pro- fusely furnished with loop-holes as was the garden wall of Houguemont, they will easily imagine how formidable was the obstacle it presented. The barricades in advance were composed of paving stones of a hundred weight each, or of the cut stones for a hospital in progress of erection, and they were protected by houses adjoining to or commanding them, REBELLION OF JUNE, 1848. 453 and as occasion presented itself throughout Saturday and Sunday, a constant, unerring and deadly fire was kept up on the assailants by an almost invisible garrison. What will be the feeling of all military men when they are told that the whole of these works were defended by between eighty and one hundred and fifty insurgents!* How many of the in- surgents were killed on Sunday at the Barriere Rochechouart, think you, while the loss of the armed force was more than one thousand? Two — one of them shot through the brain while firing through a loop-hole not six inches in diameter. Five were wounded. They ran from loop-hole to loop-hole with the greatest agility, leaving the cover of the high wall only to seek ammunition. I was shown the mark of the crucible under the wall, in which they melted lead for bul- 'iets, during the fight. They even attempted to fabricate gunpowder. 26. "Against these men were brought as fine an army and as serviceable a park of artillery as the world could produce, and nothing less would have sufficed to dislodge them, unless their position had been turned, and they were attacked in the rear. Let us recollect, also, that on eight hundred other points of Paris, the troops were occupied in contending with the rebels, at the same moment, and how this must have embarrassed the general; that the usual means of obtaining information were not available, nor when information was obtained could it be relied on. When these facts are taken into consideration, there will not be so much surprise at the ofi"ensive and defensive efi"orts of the rebels, who, though comparatively few in number, were intimately acquainted with the ground, strongly fortified, and above all, supported by the sympathies and the positive co-operation of the whole population of the continuous line of town that borders the outer boulevard." Questions for Examination. 1. What state of affairs was induced by a change from the pro- yisional to a permanent government ? 1. Describe the occurrences of May 15, 1848. 3. What was the result of the conflict between the mob and tha Assembly ? * Doubtless a mistake. The author had either underrated the actual force, or been deceived as to the numbers. Few barricades were destitute of several thousand defenders. 454 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 4. What great national festival was celebrated May 21, 1848 ? 6. What events happened immediately after the festival ? 6. Describe the scene which took place when Louis Napoleoa entered the chamber of the Assembly as a member. 7. State the respective relative positions of the working and middle classes. 8. What followed the discharge of the workmen employed by the government? 9. Give an account of what took place on the 22d of June, 1848. 10. Detail the events which happened June 23. 11. What was the result of the insurrection? 12. Who was appointed commander-in-chief and dictator? 13. Describe the condition of Paris during the insurrection. 14. State what occurred at the Pantheon. 15. How did the Archbishop of Paris meet his death? 16. Describe the last moments of the martyred prelate. 17. What effect was produced on the insurgents by his death 18. Which was the last barricade stormed by the troops? 19. What was the number of killed and wounded during the four days which the insurrection lasted ? 20. State the occurrences of the night of July 11, 1848. 21. Give the substance of Lamartine's speech before the com- mittee on foreign affairs, July 15. 22. What plot had been arranged for consummation on the 14th of July ? 23. State the nature of the laws made for the regulation of th€ Parisian clubs. 24. Who was General Negrier,. and how was he killed ? 25. 26. Give a description of the positions held by the insurgenta during the rebellion in June, 1848. RISE OF LOUIS NAPOLEON. 455 LouiB NapoleoHi CHAPTER XLVl. THE RISE OF LOUIS NAPOLEON. From germs like these have mighty statesmen sprung. Of prudent counsel and persuasive tongue; Unblenching minds, vpho rul'd the willing throng, Their well-braced nerves by early labor strung. Mrs. Sigoxjknet. i. When the insurrections of June had been suppressed, the Assembly resumed its sittings., Cavaignac, as President of the Council, being the real and efficient head of the government. The republic, which had but so recently bcoa established at the expense of many valuable lives, degene- rated into a mere military despotism, and furnished a sad com- mentary on the effects of political rivalry, which imperilled the great interests of the nation in an attempt to compass schemes of private aggrandizement Notwithstanding hia formal resignation, Cavaignac still exercised dictatorial powers, but with such firmness and moderation as to command respect from the different parties which were quietly stnig- 456 HISTORY OF FRANCE. gling for the supremacy. Paris was the field of action whereon the opposing factions deployed their forces — the National Legislature and an unliceased pre-ss the instruments with which they operated. 2. The time having arrived for the election of a new rep- resentative in the departments which had once selected Louia Napoleon Bonaparte, and the latter having formally an- nounced his intention of serving his constituents, if elected, the people of five departments returned him to the Assembly by increased majorities. Immediately on being informed of the result, he set out for Paris, where he arrived Sept. 24, and fixed his residence in the Hotel de Rliine, on the Place Vendome. On the 26th of the same month he first pre- sented himself in the Assembly, where he attracted consi- derable notice. After the clerk, whose duty it was to read the returns of the elections in the five departments, had pei'formed his office, and the president of the Assembly had announced Louis Napoleon as a representative of the people, the prince ascended the tribune, and in an impressive man- ner read a declaration of his sentiments and purposes, which, by the great body of the Assembly, was received with silence, though the enthusiastic admirers of Napoleon ap- plauded it vehemently. 3. The question of the mode of selecting the future President of the Republic was decided in the Assembly, after some discussion of three diflferent propositions, by the passage of a resolution, declaring that the President should be elected by universal suffrage, and the time fixed for the first election, December 10, 1848. A few days subsequently the laws of 1816 and 1832, exiling and proscribing the Bonaparte family, were formally repealed; thus removing the obstructions from the path of the aspiring prince. On the 4th of November the new constitution was adopted by an almost unanimous vote; and on Sunday, November 12, it was proclaimed in the Place de la Concorde, amid most solemn religious ceremonies, in presence of deputations from all the departments, the clergy of Paris, the National As- sembly, the municipal authorities, the National Guards in full uniform, and a vast assemblage of people. 4. The candidates named for the Presidency were Lamar- tine, Changarnier, Ledru Kollin, Raspail, Cavaignac, and Louis Napoleon. The communistic faction of the Socialists supported Raspail, then a prisoner in the dungeons of Ver- sailles , the democratic portion favored Ledru RoUin ; whila RISE OF LOUIS NAPOLEON. 457 a third party, comprising the remnants of the "Working- men's Corporations," were loud in the advocacy of the claims of Eouis Blanc. The moderate party was likewise divided into three sections, represented respectively by Lamartine, General Changarnier. Cxvaignac, and Louis Napoleon — the latter being supportco by the four journals having the largest oirculation in France. Louis Napoleon was elected President by a majority of 3,.556,400 votes over all his competitors- — his vote being 39 458 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 5,434,226, against 1,877,826 polled by all his opponents combined. 5. The President was sworn into office on the the 2Cth of .December, in presence of the Assembly, after the chairman of the committee appointed to examine the returns had made his report. Previous to the ceremony of administering the oath, Gen. Cavaignac ascended the tribune, and stated that all the ministers of the late cabinet had tendered their resignations. At five o'clock in the afternoon, Louis Napo- leon entered the hall, and ascended the tribune, where the official oath was administered to him by M. Marrast, Presi- dent of the Assembly, after which he delivered his inaugural address, in substance the same as the views expressed in his proclamation anterior to his election. Long-protracted and loud applause greeted the conclusion of his speech. From the legislative halls he proceeded to the Elysee Palace under escort of a committee of the Assembly, and at once set about the formation of a cabinet, by appointing Odillon Barrot its President and Minister of Justice, Gen. Changarnier com- mander of the army in Paris, and M. de Maleville Minister of the Interior. The latter was, however, soon succeeded by M. Leon Fouchet. 6. A bill brought forward in the Assembly by M. Fouchet, for the suppression of political clubs, was violently opposed by Ledru Rollin, and defeated by a majority of 76. Paris and the provinces were soon after disturbed by seditious movements, and on the 27th of January, 1849, a riot took place in the capital which threatened to be formidable. Mounted on his horse, and attended by only a few cuirassiers, the President rode up and down the boulevards, to note in person the progress of the disturbance. His boldness had the effect of restoring confidence to the public mind ; he was greeted everywhere with enthusiastic shouts of applause; and the Ked Republicans, perceiving their helplessness, for a time ceased their demonstrations of disaffection. These were not, however, the only conspirators in Paris ; the Bour- bonists, who hated the Republicans as much as they did the Bonapartists, wished to crush the first as preliminary to th'* destruction of the latter, and the elevation of either the Count de Chambord or the Count of Paris to the throne. These antagonistic parties caused great annoyance to the President in the Assembly, where his measures were so vio- lently opposed, that it was with difficulty he could procuro RISE OF LOUIS NAPOLEON. 459 the legislative sanction to the most necessary and salutary propositions. Plus IX. 7. Pope Pius IX., who ascended the papal throne on the 16th of June, 1846, inaugurated reform measures, with the view of establishing in the Roman States a representative form of government; but, while they failed to satisfy the liberals, they greatly offended the conservatives. The mis- taken clemency of the Pope caused the city of Rome, to become' the refuge of Red Republican agitators, French, German, and Italian, who so excited popular disturbances and poisoned the public mind, that at length Rossi, the vlinister of Foreign Affairs, was assassinated in open day. Surrounded and besieged in his residence by the mob, the Pope was compelled to accept a ministry of their appoint- ment; but at length he fled to Grseta, in the Austrian d'-minions. A provisional government was then formed by Vazzini and the Prince of Canino, son of Lucien Bonaparte, a republic proclaimed in Rome, and the downfall of the tem- poral power of the Pope announced. At this juncture the French government determined to interfere, and Gen. Oudi- 460 HISTORY OF FRANCE. not was sent, with four thousand troops, to invest the city of Rome ; but, being attacked by the revolutionists, the French were routed. Gren. Oudinot subsequently received adequate reinforcements, and orders from the President to attack the city; which he did on the 18th of May, obtaining complete possession of it. He re-established the Papal authority, and Mazzini, as also G-aribaldi, were obliged to fly for safety to England. 8. On the 13th of May representatives in the National Assembly were elected throughout France, and the Red Republicans had so much increased in strength as to number 200 members in that body. Ledru Rollin, returned by five departments, was so much elated as to exclaim repeatedly, " In one month I shall either be dictator, or be shot !" Violence and fury characterized the debates, and the Mes- sage of the President, sent in on the 7th of June, was furi- ously attacked by the Mountain, headed by Ledru Rollin, although it produced a favorable impression throughout France. Rollin accused the President and his ministers with a violation of the fifth article of the Constitution in sending the expedition against Rome. A popular tumult in the streets was the natural result of the excitement in the Assembly, and on the 18th the Red Republican journals announced that the people would on that day rise and over- turn the government. The streets were again filled with vast crowds bearing flags covered with revolutionary devices and mottoes ; but, before their violence had resulted in harm, they were attacked by several battalions of troops under command of General Changarnier, and immediately dis- persed. Ledi'u Rollin, M. Gonsiderant, and the other leaders of the insurrection, who had assembled in the Observatory to form a provisional government, were compelled to take sudden flight through a window, and make their way to England as fast as possible. Their confederates being dis- persed and defeated, by four o'clock in the afternoon the capital was again in a tranquil condition. This victory was achieved on the same day that Gren. Oudinot obtained com- plete possession of Rome. 9. After the election, the first question presented for the consideration of the Assembly, was the abrogation of the law of universal suftVage ; and, after a very lengthy debate^ it was decided that the qualification of a voter should be a residence of three years in the commune in which he claimed the ri"ht of sufl'raae, and the evidence of such residence tho RISE OF LOUIS NAPOLEON. 461 RISE OF LOUIS NAPOLEON. 463 regular in&ertijn of the name of the voter in the register of tax-payers during the specified period. The law received the sanction of the Assembly by a majority of two hundred and fifty, and the President signed the bill, at the same time remarking : " I am willing that there should be a temporary suspension of the right of universal suffrage. In an urgent crisis, the law can suspend a right; but it can never abrogate or annul it. Universal sufi"rage must be restored as soon as circumstances permit." Although this measure was intended by the order party as a preventive to the re-election of Louis Napoleon to the presidency, as well as a blow at the Socialist organization, yet the President did not hesitate a moment in signing the decree ; as he well knew that the moment for action on his part had not yet come, and that the constant change in public sentiment throughout France was likely to cause the repeal, in a very short time, of a law which must naturally prove obnoxious to the masses. 10. A proposition to increase the President's salary was introduced into the Assembly in June of this year, and, although strenuously opposed, was carried by a small ma- jority. When about to adjourn in the autumn of 1850, a Committee of Permanence was appointed, in which Odillon Barrot was the only person favorably disposed toward the President; the others being either openly or secretly opposed to himself and his administration. 11. In August and September of the same year, Louis Napoleon made a tour through the kingdom, being every- where greeted with the most enthusiastic demonstrations of afi"ection, and speaking at many public banquets which were tendered him; but on his return to Paris, he found arrayed against him a foe of no inconsiderable consequence. G-en.. Changarnler, commander-in-chief of the National Guards and of the army of Paris, a man of ability, but ambitious and unscrupulous, was using his utmost endeavors to with- draw from the President the support of the army. The first public difi"erence between the President and the General was in relation to the supreme control of the army, which was claimed by the Minister of War, but disputed by Chan- garnier. The President very naturally supported his minis- ter, and Changarnier immediately set about the organization of a conspiracy for the impeachment and deposition of the Executive. 12. The Assembly being likewise hostile to the President, attempted to aid Changarnier in his movements by passing a 464 HISTORY OF FRANCE. decree asserting the supreme control of the army to be vested ;n the legislative body. The Minister of War, conceiving that the passage of such a decree divested him of all juris- diction, immediately tendered his resignation to the Presi- dent, who not only accepted it, but at the same moment dis- missed Changarnier from his post as chief commander, and appointed Gens. Perrot and d'Hilliers in his place. Unpre- pared for such a step, the plotting General and his colleagues were so thoroughly astounded that they knew not what to do ; but the Assembly revenged itself by passing a vote of confidence in Changarnier and of distrust of the ministry, whereupon the latter instantly resigned. The President at once selected a new cabinet, from men occupying a neutral position, and unconnected with the Assembly; but, as may be supposed, this evidence of self-reliance and independence of character, tended to increase rather than abate, the oppo- sition of the Assembly, and to give a fresh vigor to the action of conspirators, who had now an additional reason for desiring to remove from their path to power, such a formi- dable and fearless foe. 13. The attention of the nation was absorbed during May, 1851, by the revision of the Constitution by a committee of the Assembly. This document was so loosely drawn up, as not to clearly define the duties and powers of the several departments of the government, and it had led to much con- fusion, as well as opened a door for the ingress of many flagrant abuses of power. The people universally desired its alteration, and watched with much interest the progress made in this work by their representatives. 14. On the occasion of the opening of the railroad at Dijon in June, 1851, Louis Napoleon made a speech, in which he vindicated his policy, explained his purposes, and intimated that he should at the proper time appeal to tho nation for support against the factions which were endeavor- ing to crush him. In effect, he intimated that there was but one way to save the nation from impending ruin, and that was by the re-establishment of the Empire. This speech was the theme of a denunciatory discussion in the Assembly, and was loudly condemned by the various factions, but it met the views of the nation at large, who more than ever appre- ciated the talents and courage of their President. 15. A large number of petitions having been sent in to the Assembly praying for an extension of the term of the presidency to ten years, by an alteration of the ConstitutioD RISE OF LOUIS NAPOLEON. 465 to that eiFect, the discussion on the revision b'^gan in the Assembly on the 14th of July. The Socialists were opposed to any revision, while the Bourbonists and Orleanists favored an entire change. On the other hand, the Bonapartista desired nothing altered but the forty-fifth article, which pro- hibited the re-election of Louis Napoleon. The Constitution containing a provision, that five hundred votes must be registered in favor of a revision, otherwise no alteration could be made, when the final vote was taken, the afiirmative vote being 446 against 278 negative, the Constitution remained unaltered. All the factions opposed to the extension of the term of Louis Napoleon beyond four years, united together to produce this result. 16. When the Assembly again convened after the usual summer recess, one of the first measures proposed was the repeal of the law limiting the elective franchise. The min- istry desired to give the right of voting to each native-born citizen who was twenty-one years of age, and six months a resident of a particular commune ; but, after a long and vio- lent debate, the measure was defeated by a majority of but three votes. Disappointed, but not disconcerted, Louis Napoleon changed his tactics ; and, determined to secure the imperial diadem, he immediately turned his attention to another method of accomplishing his cherished purpose. 17. The ministry having resigned after their defeat, the President named Gen. Leroy St. Arnaud, Minister of War ; M. de Maupas, Minister of Police; and M. Thorigny, Min- ister of the Interior. Perceiving that the crisis which he had long foreseen, was approaching, the President took counsel in secret with De Morny, Magnan, and Persigny, three men whose fame and fortunes have been inseparably connected with his own. At this time his enemies were preparing to consummate their plots against his authority and life ; and they had even progressed so far as to discuss the nomination of his successor. In some departments of the nation a desperate populace were marching from point to point, threatening conflagration and pillage to the orderly and industrious; and the security, as well as the prosperity of the French people, seemed to demand that a decisive stop should be taken by the President without delay, to rescue them from the horrors of anarchy, and himself from destruc- tion. Fully realizing all the dangers which surrounded him, he made his preparations with coolness, energy, and sagacity; and when all was ready for the performance of the great deed 30 466 HISTORY OF FRANCE. on which depended his future fate and that of millions, the blow was struck with such precision and force as to paralyze all opposition and elicit admiration even from his most bitter enemies. Questions for Examination. 1. How did Gen. Cavaignac acquit himself of his duties as Presi- dent of the Council ? 2. How was Napoleon received by the Assembly after his re- election to a seat in that body ? 8. What was the decision of the Assembly in relation to the presidential election, and the laws exiling and proscribing the Bonapartes ? 4 Name the candidates for the Presidency, state who was suc- cessful, and give the majority. 5. When and how was the oath of office administered to the President? 6. What took place on the 27th of January, 1849? 7. Describe the occurrences in Rome, and their result. 8. State the events of May 18, 1849, and what is said of Ledrn Rollin, M. Considerant, and their colleagues. 9. Why was the law granting universal suffrage repealed ? 10. Who was the only person in the Committee of Permanence favorable to Napoleon ? 11. What was the cause of the first quarrel between the President and Gen. Changarnier? 12. How did the President meet the opposition of the Assembly? 13. What attracted public attention during May, 1851? 14. What was the purport of Louis Napoleon's speech at Dijon ? 15. What was the decision of the Assembly regarding the revision of the Constitution ? 16. By what majority was the law repealing the limitation of suf- frage defeated ? 17. Whom did the President appoint to the positions in his cabinet vacated by the resignation of the former ministry ? 2B THE COUP D'ETAT. 467 CHAPTER XL VII. THE COUP D'ETAT. I find my zenith doth depend upon A most suspicious star; whose influence If now I court not, but omit, my fortunes Will ever after droop. Shakspeare's Tempest. 1. Louis Napoleon's usurpation of absolute power closely resembled in many of its details the acts by which Cromwell and the first Napoleon elevated themselves to the pinnacle of authority, and crushed out the legislalsve bodies, which presented the only obstacle to the consummation of their ambitious views. The night of December 2, 1851, waa selected by the President for the final blow; and during the night of Monday, the 1st, he made the necessary preparations for the destruction of the opposing authority. He then in- formed his ministers in writing that, as he was about to resist the eff'orts of his enemies to sacrifice him, if they did not wish to be compromised by his acts, they would do well to resign their jjlaces ; which hint was sufficient, and each one sent in a letter tendering his resignation. 2. About five o'clock on the morning of Tuesday all the principal streets of the capital were occupied by strong bodies ?f troops, and before that hour those military leaders and 468 HISTORY OF FRANCE. prominent men among the representatives, whom Louis Napoleon knew were opposed to his designs, were arrested and imprisoned. Grenerals Cavaignac, Changarnier, De La- moriciere, Bedeau, and Leflo, Colonel Charras, MM. Thiers, Lagrange, Valentine, Panat, Michel (de Bourgcs), Beaune, Greppo, Miot, Nadaud, Roger (du Nord), and Baze, were arrested in their houses by detachments of police, assisted by parties of tlie guard, and immediately conveyed to the Chateau of Vincennes. With the exception of M. Thiers, who was transferred to the prison of Mazas, the prisoners were all subsequently removed to Ham. Contemporaneously with the above mentioned arrests, commissaries of the police visited the publication offices of the different journals, and directed the course to be pursued by some, while others were suspended. 3. When day dawned the populace were somewhat sur- prised to find the walls of the city covered with placards, containing the following decree : " In the name of the French people, the President of the Republic decrees : 1. The Na- tional Assembly is dissolved. 2. Universal suffrage is re- established; the law of the 31st May is repealed. 3. The French people are convoked in their communes from the 14th to the 21st December. 4. The state of siege is decreed in the whole of the first military division. 5. The Council of State is dissolved. 6. The Minister of the Interior is charged with the execution of this decree. — Louis Napoleon Bona- parte." 4. An appeal to the people by the President was issued at a later hour, and posted on the walls. He declared that he had faithfully observed the Constitution, but that he felt it to be his duty to dissolve the Assembly, which was attacking his power, and compromising the peace of France, and to baffle the schemes of those who were seeking to overthrow the Republic. He professed an unwillingness longer to retain a power of a negative character, and desired the peo- ple, if they wished him to continue at his post, to give him the means of fulfilling his mission, which he said was to close the era of revolutions. For this purpose he submitted to them the basis of a Constitution, providing for the election of a responsible head for ten years; a ministry dependent on the Executive ; a Council of State to originate and discuss laws ; a legislative body, chosen by universal suffrage, with power to discuss and enact laws; a second assembly, made up from the most talented men of the nation. On the basi» THE COUP D'ETAT. 469 of these propositiong he asked the people to vote for or against him, declaring that, if he did not obtain the sanction of a niajority, he would surrender his power. A proclama- tion was likewise issued to the army, in which Louis Xapo- leon informed the soldiery that he relied on them to suppon the sovereignty of the nation, of which he was the legitimate representative, and reminding them of the insults formerly heaped upon them, requested them to vote as citizens, but to obey as soldiers. 5. A portion of the Assembly, to the number of two hun- dred members, assembled at the house of M. Daru, one of the Vice Presidents of the Assembly, and decided to proceed to the usual place of meeting; but, on arriving there, an armed guard refused them admission. They then returned to the residence of M. Daru, where they were about to organize, when a message was received from Gen. Lauriston, tendering them the use of the Mairie of the tenth arron- dissement, and guaranteeing to defend them against violence. Repairing thither, they entered into session, and after some deliberation, declared Louis Napoleon's conduct to be illegal, and decreed his deposition, in accordance with Article 68 of the Constitution. They also issued a decree, which was signed by all the members of the Assembly there present, freeing the officers of the army and navy, as well as all civil public functionaries, from their oaths of obedience to the President, and convoking the High Court of judges to try him and his ministers. This Court attempted to meet during the day, but was dispersed by the soldiery. Scarcely had this fragment of the Assembly decided upon a course of action, when the building was surrounded by troops, and the members dispersed by force. For an attempt to meet else- where, about L50 of the members were arrested aud com- mitted to prison j but they were released after being confined for one day. 6. Throughout the city of Paris no attempt at resistance was made by the people, who read and commented on the decrees with seeming indifference; and from the different departments full assurances of assent to the new order of things were received. But on Wednesday mornincr, the 3d of December, when a list was published, containing the names of 120 persons appointed by the President as a Con- sultative Commission, of whom over eighty subsequently refused to serve, symptoms of discontent began to appear. A-bout 10 o'clock M. Baudin, a representative, followed by 40 470 HISTORY OF FRANCE. several persons, appeared on horseback in the Rue St. An- toine, and flourishing a drawn sword, so aroused the feelings of the mob which collected around him, that a slight barri- cade was erected ; but the arrival of troops from an opposite quarter hemmed in the rioters, who were speedily dispered, and M. Baudin, with two other representatives, paid the forfeit of their temerity with their lives. 7. Insurrection began to assume a bold front on Thursday morning, and barricades were thrown up in many of the streets ; but at noon the boulevards were swept by large bodies of troops, who brought a park of artillery to bear upon the populace, battering the buildings in a shameful manner, and killing many respectable people who had been attracted to their windows merely as spectators. The object of the government being to strike terror into the people, the troops were instructed to spare none who made a show of resistance j and in obeying these orders more than 2000 persons were killed, many of whom were innocent of any overt act. In this manner was the rebellion crushed, and by nightfall the city was again quiet. 8. In the departments, however, more particularly in the frontier districts of the south-east, the insurrectionary move- ments began to give trouble. The rural population of the valley of the Rhine, and, in fact, that of the entire country between Joigny and Lyons, rose in opposition to the usurpa- tion. In the frontier districts of the Sardinian and Swiss Alps, as also in the Herault, and the Nievre, there was a sanguinary struggle between the populace and the soldiery, distinguished in many localities by most revolting acts and scenes; but after two or three days' hard fighting all resist- ance ceased, and things were allowed to take their course. 9. Meantime preparations were made for the election, which took place on Saturday and Sunday, the 20th and 21st of December, a^Jd the question submitted to the people was, whether or not Louis Napoleon should hold his office for ten Years. No other candidate was allowed to be named, and the election was conducted quietly — the government discouraging the printing and distribution of negative ballots. The army voted first, and, as was to be expected, with but few excep- tions, cast their ballots in favor of the prolonged term; while the result of the popular and military election was a majority of 6,761,659 votes in support of the Presidential policy — the entire vote polled having been, 7,439,216 affirmative, against but 677,557 negative. THE COUP D'ETAT. 471 10. On the Ist day of January, 1851, the result of the election was celebrated by a salute of seventy rounds of artil- lery, fired at the Invalides at 10 o'clock, A. M. ; by the singing of the Te Deum at noon in the church of Notre Dame ; the President being in attendance, and the ceremo- nies conducted with all possible pomp and magnificence ; and by a grand banquet at the Tuilleries, at which 400 per- sons participated. Previous to the banquet Louis Napoleon received the congratulations of the authorities, the Consulta- tive Commission having, the day before, formally notified him of the result of the election, when he took occasion to say, that France, by justifying him in an act which had for its object the rescue of France, and perhaps Europe, from years of trouble and anarchy, evinced its comprehension of the fact, that he had departed from legality only to return to right; that he fully understood all the grandeur as well as the diflaculties of his new mission, and hoped to found such institutions as would preserve the democratic sentiment of the nation, while contributing to the support of a government which would command respect. By a decree, issued soon after, the French eagle was reinstated on the national ensigns and on the Cross of the Legion of Honor. 11. On the 28th of December, a decree was issued dis- Bolving and reorganizing the Municipal Council of the De- partment of the Seine — thirteen of the old members being superseded by more subservient instruments of the President. The Chamber of Commerce at Havre was dissolved, and the protest against the usurpation recorded in its journal erased therefrom. Another decree directed the words " liberty, equality, and fraternity" to be erased, as also all political inscriptions ; because, in the language of the ordinance, they furnished •' for the people a perpetual excitement to revolt."" For the same reason all "liberty trees" in Paris and tho departments were ordered to be destroyed. The military establishment was remodelled, and divided into twenty-one principal commands, all subject to the authority of the President, as commander-in-chief. A decree, dated January 9, expelled from France, Algeria, and the Colonies, sixty-six members of the late Legislative Assembly, among whom was Victor Hugo; and their return, except by special permission, was forbidden under pain of deportation. Another decree, dated the same day, consigned eighteen ex-representatives to temporary banishment. In this list were included all the Grenerals in prison at Ham, with the exception of Cavaignac, 472 HISTORY OF FKANCE. to whom permission was granted to go to Italy, which he refused to accept, and at his own request he was also plaped on the retired list. Sue, Thiers and Girardin were also in- cluded among the proscribed ; and 2500 political prisonars were transported to Cayenne. 12. On the opening of the sessions of the new Senate and Legislature, March 29, 1852, the President made a speech, briefly rehearsing his reasons for the usurpation of power, and alluding to the readiness with which the people had submitted to a temporary suspension of their liberties, he cited it as a proof of their conviction that they had been abused. Gen. Cavaignac refused to take his seat, as he could not take the required oath. A decree issued previous to the opening of the session, regulated the mode of doing business in the Senate, Council of State, and Legislative Corps, Another decree, issued about the same time, fixed the civil list at 12,000,000 francs; although it had been expected that this matter would have been left to the discretion of the Legislature. 13. The highest judicial authorities of the nation attended at the Elysee on the evening of April 4, to take the pre- scribed constitutional oaths in presence of Louis Napoleon and his ministry. In reply to a complimentary speech from one of the judges in behalf of his colleagues, the President said — " Since the day on which the doctrine of the hereditary sovereignty of the people replaced that of divine right, it may be affirmed with truth that no government has been as legitimate as mine. In 1804, 4,000,000 of votes, in pro- claiming the power to be hereditary in my family, designated me as heir to the empire. In 1848, nearly 6,000,000 called me to the head of the Republic. In 1851, nearly 8,000,000 maintained me there. Consequently, in taking the oath to me, it is not merely to a man that you swear to be faithful, but to a principle — to a cause — to the national will itself." This speech was generally considered to indicate pretensions to the possession of imperial authority, soon to be publicly asserted. Indeed, the 5th of May, which had been set apart for a grand military review, was rumored to be the day on which the empire would be formally proclaimed. 14. A circular letter was sent by the Mioistor of the Infe- rior to the Prefects of the departments, directing a "porgani- zation of the National Guard on a new basis ; the go>^<"<'nment limiting the number of citizens to be enrolled, a?suiwing to itself the right to say when they should be calied ou^t, and THE COUP D'ETAT. 473 directing the selection of members in each district by a special committee appointed by the executive. The ranks were to be filled with those citizens, between the ages of twenty-five and forty-five, who were distinguished for their devotion to the cause of order, which meant, in efiect, devo- tioE to the person of the President and his cause. Questions for Examination. 1. What did Louis Napoleon do on the night of December 1, 1850, and what course did he pursue with regard to his ministers ? 2. Detail the events which occurred on Tuesday, the 2d of De- cember. 3. Give the substance of the decree posted on the walls of Paris. 4. State the basis of the Constitution submitted to the people by Louis Napoleon. 5. "What action did the members of the Assembly take with respect to the usurpation of power by the President? 6. Give an account of what occurred on AYednesday, December 3. 7. What occurred on Thursday, what was the result, and how many persons were killed ? 8. How did the people of the departments conduct themselves at this period? 9. State the circumstances connected with the election, and the result. 10. What celebration took place January 1, 1851 ? 11. State the substance of the decrees issued on the 28th of De- cember, and subsequently. 12. What occurred on and before the opening of the sessions of the new Senate and Assembly ? 13. Repeat the speech made to the judicial authorities by Nap Let kings remember they are set on thrones As representatives, not substitutes Of nations, to implead with God and man. Bailey's Festds. I. In preparation of the public mind for his meditated attempt to restore the imperial throne established by his uncle, and which he conceived it to be his destiny to fill, Louis Napoleon, by means of newspaper agents and a hireling press, created in the minds of the middle classes a great dis- trust of the Socialists, who were charged with a design to seize upon and divide all the property in France, according to the broadest communistic principles. At the same time, oy restoring the Pantheon to its original use as a place of worship, and by promising an earnest support of the Church, he ingratiated himself with the clergy, and thereby secured their influence with the religiously-inclined portion of the populace. Having accomplished thus much, be made a THE CRIMEAN WAR, ETC. 475 tour through some of the provinces, and was generally re- ceived with enthusiasm; though at Marseilles he narrowly- escaped assassination by means of an infernal machine. On the whole, however, his. journey proved to be highly satis- factory, and very favorable to the accomplishment of his ambitious designs. 2. As a necessary precaution against the influence of the Orleans family, which they wielded through the immense property they still held in France, and to prevent its use at the ballot-bos in defeating a triumphant and unanimous declara- tion of the people in favor of the imperial aspirations of the President, the latter issued, on the 22d of January, 1852, a decree compelling them to sell all their property within one year. This step he justified by the necessities of the case, and by an appeal to the example of former rulers of the French nation. When all was ready for the grand denoue- ment, and the entire nation convinced either of the benefits likely to result from the re-establishment of the empire, or of the folly of opposing its restoration, a decree was promul- gated, directing the people to indicate their sentiments, favorable or otherwise, at the ballot-box. The election being conducted in the same manner as the one by which the Presidency had been extended to ten years, the result was necessarily the same — the vote officially returned being as follows : Affirmative, 7,864,180 ; negative, 253,145 ; scat- tering, 63,326. Thus was the Empire restored in the person of the son of Hortense, whose mother's connection with the great Napoleon seemed to have exercised a singular sway over his destinies; and by an apparently unanimous vote, the imperial crown was placed on the brow of a man, who, but a few years previously, had not the slightest prospect of attaining such an exalted position. 3. Napoleon's first step after securing the imperial throne, was to crush out and exterminate such of his active enemies as still remained in France ; and in the accomplishment of his purpose the sanctity of private life was invaded, the papers of suspected persons seized, and themselves sent to prison. In this way a great number of persons throughout France, who had been active in opposing the restoration of imperialism, were convicted of treason, and banished to Algeria or Cayenne. The next movement was the consiim« mation of a marriage, by which his family might be perpe- tuated; and with this view the ambassadors at the several iLuropcan courts were directed to make proposals for nego- 476 HISTORY OF FRANCE. tiating a match. For some unexplained reason, he was met with a refusal on every hand, which was not only disagreeable to his feelings, but actually dangerous to the permanence of his throne. Never at a loss, however, in any emergency, he immediately selected for his bride a Spanish lady, Mile, de Montijo, Countess de Teba, who was unconnected by ties of blood with any ruling power. The approaching nuptials were announced to the Senate on the 22d of January, 1853, and the civil marriage was celebrated at the Tuilleries on the 29th of the same month. On the following day, which was Sunday, the religious ceremonies were celebrated with great jnagnificence in the cathedral of Notre Dame. The Empe- ror, as an act of grace, granted an amnesty to 5000 persons who were suffering either imprisonment or banishment for political offences. 4. The joy which had been occasioned by the imperial nuptials had scarcely subsided, when the clouds in the j)oli- tical horizon of Eastern Europe began to exhibit unmis- takable symptoms of an approaching war. In the beginning of the year 1853, dissension arose between Russia and Turkey in relation to the guardianship of the " Holy Places" — the Porte justly considering the claim of the Czar to exercise a protectorate over the Greek Christians in the Turkish domi- nions, as an infi-ingement of her sovereign rights. By the advice of the British and French ministers, the demands of the Czar were rejected; though, by a " hatti-sheriff," the Sultan confirmed all the privileges of his Greek subjects. The Czar immediately occupied Moldavia and Wallachia with his troops, the evacuation of which was demanded by the Sultan within a specified period, on the alternative of a declaration of war. The French and English squadrons were dispatched to the Dardanelles, while England, France, Prussia, and Austria, alarmed for the balance of power in Europe, attempted to avert hostilities by negotiation. The Sultan's demand, which was made by the advice of the Western powers, having been rejected by Russia, the former prepared vigorously for hostilities, and required the co-opera- tion of the allied fleets. Even the Greek Christians in Turkey sided with their government against the attempted interference of the Czar. 5. Toward the close of October, 1858, the Turks crossed the Danube at four different points, their principal movement being at Oltenitza. They were successful in several battles j but, on the 13th of November, a Turkish fleet at Sinope, on THE CRIMEAN WAR, ETC. 477 the Black Sea, was completely destroyed by a Russian naval force, and the admiral taken prisoner. In Asia, however, the Turks were almost invariably successful. When too late to effect anything in that year's campaign, the Western powers aroused themselves from their state of masterly inac- tivity, and the French and English squadrons were ordered into the Black Sea, to protect the Turks, and operate as a check upon the Russian movements. 6. The Turks followed ud the advantages they had gained 478 HISTORY OF FRANCE. on the Danabe, by driving the Russians witb great loss from the positions they occupied. In April, 1854, as the Czar still rejected all proposals for an accommodation of the diflS- culty, France and England made extensive preparations for the war, though Austria and Prussia assumed a neutral alti- tude. The French people at once subscribed 25,000,000 francs to defray the expenses of the war, and 90,000 French and British troops set out for the Danube under the command of Marshal St. Arnaud and Lord Eaglan. The most pow- erful fleet ever equipped was dispatched to the Baltic under the commond of Sir Charles Napier. Anticipating the arrival of the allied armies, Prince (Jortschakoflf, the Russian commander-in-chief, passed the Danube, though strongly opposed by the Turks, and at the cost of a large number of men. The Turks, however, being animated with fresh cou- jage and enthusiasm by intelligence received of the joint declaration of war against Russia by France and England, fell back in good order upon Trajan's wall. 7. Russian intrigue created an insurrection during the summer in the Greek dependencies of the Sultan, which King Otho was suspected of secretly promoting. In most instances, however, the insurgents were defeated by the Turks, and the rebellion was finally crushed by a French force which was landed in the disaffected districts. Mussa Pacha defended Silistria against 90,000 Russians under Pas- kiewitch, with such good effect that the latter were totally defeated and driven out of the Principalities, which were then occupied by the Austrians under a treaty of neutrality with the Sultan. 8. A long period of total inaction was followed by an expedition, composed of the Anglo-French army and a small force of Turks, which, on the 14th September, landed at Eupatoria, in the Crimea, and on the 20th defeated the Rus- sians at Alma. Although suffering terribly from disease, Marshal St. Arnaud was in the saddle on that occasion for sixteen hours, which so prostrated him that he was compelled to resign his command to Gren. Canrobert ; and on the 30th of the same mouth, ten days after the battle, a vessel bearing his corpse entered the harbor of Constantinople. The allies executed a masterly flank march to Balaklava, on the south side of Sebastopol, the siege of which place was commenced on the 17th of October. 9. On the 25th of October, a krge body of Russians crossed the Tchernaya at Tchorgoum, and pushed forward to THE CRIMEAN WAR, ETC, 479 Kamara, where, in a few hours, they possessed themselveg of the redoubts occupied by the Turks, and turned the guns against the allies. Extending their forces thence over the heights of Kamara and south of Balaklava, the liussians made great exertions to keep their ground. In an endeavor to dislodge them by a cavalry attack, the greater part of the English Light Cavalry Brigade was destroyed. This succesa of the Russians brought them to the left bank of the Tcher- •naya, near the English head-quarters and their line of retreat, while the allies could not send a sufficient force to dislodge their dangerous neighbors without hazarding their own position before Sebastopol. 10. The battle of Inkermann, fought on the 5th of No- vember, was a bloody struggle, in which the bayonet was frequently the only weapon used. It raged from early morn- ing until noon with varying success, when the Russians began to retire ; but, taking advantage of the heavy fog, they again advanced, and opened a tremendous cannonade, only to be a second time repulsed. They then sullenly withdrew from the heights under the protection of their crushing artillery. The anticipations of MenschikoflF were not realized in this action. He had planned an attack on the right flank of the allies from Karabelusia and Inkermann, to be sup- ported by a simultaneous sortie of the garrison of Sebastopol against the left wing, when, the moment the allies began to give way, the corps at Kamara was directed to swoop down upon the line of retreat and accomplish their complete de- struction. The English commander was much censured for not occupying the heights of Inkermann, and thus prevent- ing what was in fact such a complete surprise, that it had weakened the allied armies so much as to compel them to assume a defensive rather than an offensive attitude until the arrival of reinforcements. 11. After a winter made memorable by the hardships en- dured by the troops, another bombardment of Sebastopol was commenced, and continued for several days without effecting anything toward the reduction of the fortress. In consequence Canrobert fell into disgrace, and was replaced by Gen. Pelissier, a man noted for his energy and daring character. On the 17th of February the Russians attacked Eupatoria, where the Turks, under Omar Pacha, were en- trenched ; but after some hours spent in hard fighting tl)e former retired, with considerable loss, while the weakness of the Turks prevented them from pursuing their enemies. 480 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 12. The Emperor Nicholas, of Russia, died on the 2d of March, 1855, from an attack of influenza, and was quietly succeeded by his eldest son, the Grrand Duke Alexander, who announced his intention of carrying out his father's policy. Meanwhile, a conference of the Four Powers had been eitting at Vienna, with the purpose of reconciling the esist- Omar Pacha. ing differences; but the demand of the allies that the vessels of war of all nations should be excluded from the Black Sea, was rejected by the Russian government, and this led to au immediate suspension of the conference. io. On the 22d of March a battle was fought between the Russians and French, with a loss of 2000 men by the former. 482 HISTORY OF FRANCE. THE CRIMEAN WAR, ETC. 483 in killed and wounded, and over 600 men by the latter. The towns of Kertch and Yenikale, on the Sea of Azof, wero taken by a detachment of the allies under Sir Greorge Brown, without opposition ; and subsequently several other towns were captured without a blow being struck. The attack upon Sebastopol was renewed on the 7th of June, and mainly directed against the Malakoff Tower, the Redan, and the Mamelon, works by which it was protected. After a can- nonade of more than twenty hours, on the evening of the 8th, a French column attacked the Mamelon, and at the same time the English proceeded to the parallel attack. The two detachments drove the Russians out of the Mamelon and Round Towers, after a hot engagement, and retained pos- session of them. On the 18th an attack was made on the Malakoff Tower, which resulted disastrously. Lord Raglan, the English commander, died on the 28th of June, and was succeeded by Gen. Simpson. In the Baltic, the allied fleets opened a fire upon Sweaborg on the 9th of August, which was not intermitted until the morning of the 11th; but beyond the destruction of a few buildings and the partial injury of the fortifications, but little was accomplished. 14. A most important action took place on the 16th of August, when the Russians, in number 50,000 or 60,000, aWacked the French and Sardinians at Tchernaya, who re- pulsed them, with the loss of several thousand men, after a hard fight of three hours' duration. On the 7th of Septem- ber the allies made a final attack on the Redan and Malakoff Towers, after having bombarded Sebastopol for two days. The latter being taken by the French, the Russians aban- doned the southern part of the place, and left the town as well as the harbor in the possession of the allies. Thus fell Sebastopol. Three great battles had been fought beneath its walls, and four bombardments of hitherto unknown fierce- ness had been directed against its walls and bastions. The siege occupied nearly twelve months, and more than 100,000 men perished by wounds and disease within and before il.s walls. In different attacks the besieging army had 800 guirj mounted, which fired more than 1,600,000 rounds, and the approaches, dug during 366 days, through rocky ground, and in extent 54 English miles, were made under a constant fire, and with incessant combats by day and night. 15. The French not having had any connection with the Turkish operations in Asia, we will not enter into a detail of them here, further than to state that the Russians were 484 HISTORY OF FRANCE. strongly opposed in the Caucasus by the hero-prophet Schamyl, who having received money, arms and instructions from the Turks as early as November, 1853, descended from his mountain fastnesses with 16,000 men, and attacked the Schamyl. army of Prince Woronzoff, in number 30,000, which he compelled to retire to Tiflis after a murderous engagement. A second army of 20,000 Russians was attacked, while marching ■^ om Tiflis to Dariel, by the Circassians under THE CRIMEAN WAR, ETC. 485 command of Naib Mehemet Emir, who defeato'l tliem -witli a los3 of 2000 nifin and three guns. The Turkish forces in Asia, under several difi'erent commanders, behaved witli remarkable spirit, and defeated the Russians in a few well- contested battles; but the latter returned these little com- ptiment? with interest, and captured some important positions held by the Turks, proniinent among which was the town of Kars. 16. The allies followed up the capture of Sebastopol by blowing up all the splendid docks, arsenals, and ship-yards of that city. After some time an expedition, composed of 15,000 French and 4000 English troops set sail from Bahik- lava, and njaking a feint of attacking Odessa, landed, Oct. 15, on the Spit of Kinburn, which fortress was captured, after a severe bonjbardment, and the garrison, 1500 strong, taken prisoners. The neighboring fortress of Oczakoff Point was de.-;troyed by the Russians to prevent its sharing a similar fate. Gen. Simpson having been superseded by Gen. Cod- rington, the latter announced his assumption of the chief command in a neat address. In tYie latter part of Xovember a brilliant victory was achieved by Omar Pacha, who forced a pas-sa^iG over the river Ingour, in the face of the Piussian batteries on the opposite bank, and obliged the Russians to evacuate their batteries, and retreat to Kutais. 17. Early in the year 1856, an armistice was proclaimed between the opposing armies, and a few weeks thereafter, the plenipotentiaries of France, Great Britain, Russia, Aus- tria, Sardinia and Turkey, assembled in Paris, and settled on the teriiis of a treaty of peace, which was signed on Sunday, March 30, 1856. The first point guaranteed the neutrali- zation of the Black Sea, all the Russian forts and arsenals on which were to be destroyed. By the second Russia gave up all pretension to interference with the internal adminis- tration of the Turkish government; and the Russian Em- peror renounced the traditional policy of his predecessors, which looked to the extension of the Russian sway in the East. The third point guaranteed the right of vessels of all nations to navigate the Danube. The fourth secured to the Christian subjects of the Sultan certain immunities and privileges. The fifth stipulated that Xieolaieff should be dismantled, and made certain regulations concerning the Aland Islands, Ismnil, and Bomarsund. 18. The treaty was sisned with an eagle's quill, elegantly mounted with gold and gems, which was then presented to 41* 4b6 HISTORY OF FRANCE. the Empress Eugenie, wlio had expressed a desire to preserve it as a memorial of the event. A discharge of 101 guns at the Invalides proclaimed the tidings of peace to the delighted inhabitants of the French capital, who recalled to mind the fact, that on that day forty-two years previously the battle of Paris was fought, and that on the following day the Russians dictated terms of peace in the place where now their ambas- sadors came to crave it. 19. The alliance between France and England had ren- dered Louis Napoleon so popular in the latter country that, in 1855, himself and the Empress Eugenie paid a visit to Queen Victoria in her own dominions, where he was received with great enthusiasm. The pleasure of the Emperor was somewhat damped shortly after his return home by an attempt to assassinate him, which took place on the 28th of April, while he was riding near the Barrier de I'Etoile. A few months subsequently the British Queen returned the visit of her imperial neighbor, when the great centre of modern civilization, luxury, art, science, and fashion, ex- hausted all her resources in endeavoring to delight the royal visitor. On the 14th of March, 1855, the Empress Eugenie gave birth to a son ; an event which was hailed throughout France with the most extravagant demonstrations of joy. 20. The general election for members of the Corps Legis- latif took place in June, 1857, when but half a dozen depu- ties were returned who were opposed to the government. Among these was Glen. Cavaignac, whose subsequent prema- ture deatli relieved the government of a dangerous opponent in the national legislature. In September of the same year, a formal interview took place at Stuttgart between the French and Russian Emperors, at which the Russian Empress and the Queen of Greece were present. The conference was held at the palace of the King of Wurtemberg, and con- tinued four days. It is understood that one of the points settled was a definition of the limits within which Russia and Great Britain will in future be permitted to extend their Eastern conquests. 21. In January, 1858, as the carriage containing the Em- peror and Empress of France was approaching the Italian opera house, three hollow projectiles, aimed at his person, burst beneath his feet, without injury to either Napoleon or Eugenie, but killing and wounding many persons who sur- rounded the imperial carriage. The parties who perpetrated f^hi? dastardly outrage were Italian refugees, named Orsini THE CRIMEAN WAR, ETC. 487 and Pierri, who, in order to gratify their malignant feelings toward a single individual, did not hesitate to sacrifice the lives of a large number of valuable citizens, against whom they could have entertained no resentment, as they had never done them any injury. These cowardly assassins suffered the well-merited penalty of death for their sanguinary but unsuc- cessful attempt at regicide. 22. In his address to the legislative body, delivered on the 10th of January, 1858, Louis Napoleon thus alludes to the attempt on his life : " I cannot close without mentioning that criminal attempt which has been recently made. I thank Heaven for the visible protection which it has granted to the Empress and myself; and I deeply deplore that a plan for destroying one life should have ended in the loss of so many. Yet this thwarted scheme can teach us some useful lessons. The recourse to such desperate means is but a proof of the feebleness and impotence of the conspirators. And again, there never was an assassination which served the interests of the men who armed the murderer. Neither the party that struck Caesar, nor that which slew Henry IV., profited by their overthrow. God sometimes permits the death of the just, but he never allows the triumph of the evil agent. Thus, these attempts neither disturb my security in the pre- sent, nor my trust in the future. If I live, the Empire lives with me; if I fall, the Empire will be strengthened by my death ; for the indignation of the people and of the army will be a new support for the throne of my son." Questions for Examination. 1. By what means did Louis Napoleon ingratiate himself with the people, and prepare their minds for the restoration of the Empire ? 2. State how the restoration was effected, and 4ie popular vote in favor of and opposed to it. 8. What were the first steps taken by Louis Napoleon after hia elevation to the throne ? 4. What Were the causes which led to the war with Russia? 5. State when and where a Turkish fleet was destroyed by the Russians. 6. How many French and British troops were sent to the Crimea ? 7. Detail the occurrences in Greece, and their result. 488 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 8. What action was fought on the 20th of September, 1854, in the Crimea? 9. In what action was the English Light Cavalry Brigade almost destroyed? 10. When was the battle of Inkermann fought, and with what result? 11. Who succeeded Gen. Canrobert in command of the French forces in the Crimea? 12. When, and by the operation of what disease, did the Emperor Nicholas die ? 13. What actions were fought on the 8th and 18th of June, and with what result ? 14. When was the final attack made on the Malakoff and Redan by the allies ? 15. Give some account of the Turkish operations in Asia. 16. What events succeeded the capture of Sebastopol by the allies? 17. When was the treaty of peace between the belligerent powera concluded ? 18. Describe the pen used in signing the treaty. 19. What exalted personages in France and England exchanged visits during the year 1855? 20. What interview took place at Stuttgart in September, 1857? 21. Describe the attempt to assassinate Louis Napoleon, made by Pierri and Orsini? 22. Give that portion of Louis Napoleon's address to the French Legislatare, in which he alludes to the attempt on bis life. THE ITALIAN WAR. 489 Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia. CHAPTER XLIX. THE ITALIAN WAR. How lias kind heaven adorn'd the happy land, Aad scattered blessings with a wasteful hand I But what avails her unexhausted stores, Her blooming mountains, and her sunny shores, . With all the gifts that heaven and earth impart The smiles of nature, and the charms of art, While proud oppression in her valley reigns, And tyranny usurps her happy plains. Addison's Italy. 1. Great offence was given to the liberal party in England by the measures taken by the French government to guard against further attempts to assassinate the Emperor; and Lord Palmerston having been censured for overmuch sub- serviency to the dictation of Louis Napoleon in relation to these measures, his lordship resigned his position as Prime Minister to quell the storm of popular indignation. The good understanding between the two nations was not, how- ever, materially disturbed ; and Queen Victoria was present at the ceremonies consequent upon the opening of the great 490 HISTORY OF FRANCE. basin in the harbor of Cherbourg, France. On the 4th of August, 1858, the Queen of England and Prince Albert were entertained on board the French man-of-war Bretagne by the Emperor and Empress; afterward the royal party landed, and inspected the fortifications. Her Majesty and the Prince Consort departed on the 5th, under a triple salute; and the fStes, which were continued until the 8th, were closed by the inauguration of the statue of Napoleon. 2. On the 1st of January, 1859, during the usual recep- tion of foreign ministers and other dignitaries at the impe- rial palace, the Emperor, in speaking to the Austrian minister about the affairs of Italy, used some expressions which were construed by all who heard them into a menace of war; and it soon became apparent that France was arming on an ex- tensive scale. A marriage was negotiated between Prince Napoleon, a cousin of the Emperor, and the Princess Clotilda, daughter of the king of Sardinia, an avowed antagonist of Austria on the question of Italian independence; and the complaints of Austria, together with the warlike preparations making in that quarter, were indicative of an apprehension of coming difl&culties. 3. Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, espoused the cause of the revolted Lombards in the year 1848, and having occupied Milan, refused to make peace with Austria, unless Venice was rendered independent as well as Lombardy. Meanwhile Kadetzky, who had been driven from Milan, re- ceived reinforcements from the Tyrol, and other dependencies of Austria, with which he attacked and defeated the Sardi- nians, and recovered Milan, together with a large part of Lombardy. On the expiration of the armistice which fol- lowed, Kadetzky entered Sardinia, and, in a pitched battle at Novara, defeated the entire army of Charles Albert, who then abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, went to Portugal, and there died soon after of a broken heart. The young king sued for peace, which was granted, on con- dition that he should not intermeddle with the affairs of Austrian Italy, nor advance beyond a certain point for ten years, from 1849 to 1859. The stipulated time having elapsed, Victor Emmanuel was not only making active pre- parations for war, but had secured the aid of France. 4. The immediate cause of hostilities seems to have been the extensive armaments of Sardinia and France, which Russia proposed to stop by an adjustment of the difficulty through the medium of a Conference of the great powers of THE ITALIAN WAR. 491 Europe. The British government, with the concurrence of the French, presented to Austria four points as bases of negotiation, which the latter professed its willingness to accept, with certain modifications, but insisted upon the im- mediate disarming of Sardinia. This being unanimously objected to by the other Powers, Austria suggested, as a substitute, a general and immediate disarmament of all the Powers. The British cabinet proposed that the principle be admitted, and that its execution be regulated by a commis- sion, in which Sardinia should be represented; and also that the Italian States should be admitted to a participation in the Congress of the five Powers. To these propositions France, Russia, Prussia and Sardinia acceded, but Austria demurred, and insisted that Sardinia should disarm at once; to which the other Powers would not consent. Austria then sent to Sardinia her ultimatum, dated April 21, which contained a peremptory demand for the disbanding of her Italian volun- teers, and allowing but three days for a reply, which, if ad- verse, would be followed by the immediate commencement of hostilities. The King of Sardinia refused to comply, and convened the Chambers, who invested him with dictatorial powers. Simultaneously with the last demand, Austria des- patched 80,000 troops to Italy, in addition to those already there; and, on the 26th of April, three divisions of the Austrian army, 120,000 strong, crossed the Ticino, and in- vaded Sardinia. 5. A strong feeling in favor of Sardinia existed throughout Italy, and early in April, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, rather than embark in the war against Austria, to which he was urged by the Marquis of Lajatico and the officers of his army, left his dominions. When the tidings of the Austrian demand upon Sardinia were received in Paris, Count Wa lewski presented to the Corps Legislatif a manifest, drawL up by order of the Emperor, which, after giving an account of the proceedings that had taken place, concluded thus : " In presence of this state of things, if Sardinia is menaced ; if, as everything leads it to be presumed, her territory is in- vaded, France cannot hesitate to respond to the appeal of a nation, her ally, to which she is bound by common interests and traditional sympathies, regenerated by a recent confra- ternity in arms, and by the union contracted between the two reigning Houses." 6. By the rapidity of her movements, Austria evidently hoped to annihilate the army of the Sardinians before the 192 HISTORY OF FRANCE. arrival of the French troops ; but the latter were pushed forward with such dispatch, across the Alps by land, and by sea to G-enoa, that, in a few days the allies were fully aa strong as the Austrians. The latter, after advancing about forty miles into the Sardinian territory, spread themselves over the most fertile provinces of Piedmont, and levied ex- hausting contributions upon the inhabitants. The reason assigned for the failure of the Austrians to advance further, was, that sudden rains had caused such inundations as to render it impossible for an army to march through the flat, marshy country. On the 10th of May, the Emperor Napo- leon, confiding the regency to the Empress, set out for Italy, to take command of the army in person, and arrived at Genoa on the 12th, where he was welcomed with the utmost enthu- siasm. His first "order of the day" resembled in its style the addresses by which the great Napoleon was wont to excite the ardor, and arouse the enthusiasm of his soldiers. 7. The Emperor devoted his attention to the development of plans for the campaign, while the Austrians, after ex- hausting the country, retired slowly toward their own fron- tiers. The allies were prevented from advancing in force by the lack of full supplies, unfavorable weather, and inun- dations, so that, beyond unimportant skirmishes of advanced parties, no actual engagement took place until May 20, when a severe action was fought at Montebello, on the very spot where, June 9, 1800, the Austrians were defeated by Marshal Lannes. The French loss was reported at 600 to 700 men, killed and wounded, among whom was an unusual proportion of ofiicers. Gen. Beuret, who led the attacking column, was killed. The Austrian loss was estimated to be much greater, and 200 prisoners were taken. The fighting on both sides was of the most desperate description ; the fire of the Aus- trian riflemen was terribly efiective, while the new French artillery exceeded all expectations. On the following day an action took place between the Austrians and the left wing of the allies, under Gen. Cialdini, in which the loss on either side was inconsiderable. 8. Gen. Garibaldi, with a force consisting chiefly of Italian volunteers, was sent northward, to carry the war into Lom- feardy; and, crossing the frontier on the 24th of May, he took possession of Varese, where he was attacked on the 26th by an Austrian force, which he repulsed. After a severe fight on the 27th he entered Como, and the Austriana retreated to Camerlctta, where the combat was again renewed, THE ITALIAN WAR. 493 with tho result of compelling the Austrians again to retreat toward Milan. All the steamers on Lake Maggiore fell into the hands of the allies. 9. On the 29th of May the Emperor of Austria left Vienna for the scat of war, and arrived at Verona on the 31st. On the 29th the Piedmontese army crossed the river Sesia in face of the Austrians, who were fortified at Palestro, forced their works, and took two pieces of cannon, together with many small arms and prisoners. Two days subsequently 25,000 Austrians attempted to recover Palestro, but were Francia Joseph, Emperor of Austria. repulsed with great loss. On the 1st of June G-en. Niel entered Novara, and, after a slight contest, drove out the Austrians. The Emperor of France arrived there at 5 o'clock in the evening, and was enthusiastically received by tho people. 10. The great battle of Magenta was fought on the 4th of June, and about 100,000 of the allied troops were engaged in it. The Austrians lost 20,000 in killed and wounded, and 7000 prisoners; while the French loss was but 3000 killed and wounded. After their retreat from Magenta, the Austrian forces were concentrated in the neighborhood of Peschiera. Immediately after this battle the Emperor of France and the King of Sardinia entered Milan, which had been evacuated by the Austrians, and were most enthusias- tically received by the inhabitants. Napoleon issued a 42 494 HISTORF OF FRANCE. proclamation to the Italians, defining his position, and prcv mising them national independence; and Victor Emmanuel aiso published a proclamation to the people of Lombardy, announcing the union of that country with Sardinia. On the 8th of June was fought the battle of Melagnano, which lasted nine hours, and in which 30,000 Austrians were en- gaged. Their loss was 1500 killed and wounded, and 1700 prisoners. 11. On the 24th of June the terrible battle of Solferino took place, which raged from five o'clock in the morning until a late hour in the afternoon, when the Austrians began to retreat along their entire line, favored by a fearful storm, which lasted more than an hour. When the weather cleared up the enemy had disappeared, and in the distance could be seen the direction taken by their retreating columns. The Emperor of Austria, who was lodging at Cavriana, left the field of battle about four o'clock, and withdrew toward Goito. During the battle Louis Napoleon, insensible to surrounding danger, was to be seen riding from point to point, giving his orders with the greatest coolness imaginable. 12. On the 8th of July an armistice was concluded be- tween the belligerents, to continue until the 15th of August ; and on the 11th of the same month the Emperor Napoleon announced to his army that a treaty of peace had been signed between the Emperor of Austria and himself, on the follow- ing basis : 1. An Italian Confederation to be formed, under the honorary presidency of the Pope. 2. Lombardy ceded to France in trust for the King of Sardinia. 3. Venice to be retained by Austria, but yet to form an integral part of the Italian Confederation. The armistice was the result of a letter from Louis Napoleon, to which the Emperor Francis Joseph returned a courteous reply. The treaty was con- cluded at the time without reference to the other Powers of Europe, and created some dissatisfaction, particularly among the Sardinians, whose king, Victor Emmanuel, did not hesi- tate to express his regret. Count Cavour, the Sardinian prime minister, immediately resigned his ofiice. 13. Immediately after the conclusion of the treaty with his late antagonist, the French Emperor departed from the seat of war, and, arriving at Turin on the 14th of July, went thence to G-enoa, where he embarked on a steamer for Paris. On Sunday morning, the 17th of July, he again found him- self under the welcome roof of the Palace of St. Cloud, and immediately took the necessary steps for the conyention of THE ITALIAN WAR. 495 an European Congress at Zurich, to settle the minutiae of a permanent treaty of peace. The reasons which influenced the Emperor of France to such a speedy termination of a successful war, were explained by him on the evening of July 19, to the legislative bodies, which waited upon him, and, through their presidents, Count de Morny and M. Borocher, presented him with congratulatory addresses. The Emperor thanked them cordially for their devotion to himself and the interests of the Empire, briefly sketched the principal events of the campaign, and thus proceeded : 14. "Arrived beneath the walls of Verona, the struggle was inevitably about to change its nature as well in a military as a political aspact. Obliged to attack the enemy in front, who was intrenched behind great fortresses, and protected on his flank by the neutrality of the surrounding territory, and about to begin a long and barren war, I found myself in the face of Europe in arms, ready to dispute our successes or aggravate our reverses. Nevertheless, the difficulty of the enterprise would not have shaken my resolution, if the means had not been out of proportion to the results to be expected. It was necessary to crush boldly the obstacles opposed, and then to accept a conflict on the Rhine as well as on the Adige. It was necessary to fortify ourselves openly with the concurrence of revolution. It was necessary to go on shed- ding precious blood, and at last risk that which a sovereign should only stake for the independence of his country. If I have stopped, it was neither through weariness nor ex- haustion, nor through abandoning the noble cause which I desired to serve, but for the interests of France. 15. " I felt great reluctance to put reins upon the ardor of our soldiers, to retrench from my programme the territory from the Mincio to the Adriatic, and to see vanish from honest hearts noble delusions and patriotic hopes. In order to serve the independence of Italy, I made war against the mind of Europe, and as soon as the destiny of my country might be endangered, I made peace. Our eiforts and our Bacrifices, have they been merely losses ? No ; we have a tight to be proud of this campaign. We have vanquished &n army numerous, brave, and well organized. Piedmont has been delivered from invasion ; her frontiers have been extended to the Mincio. The idea of an Italian natiooality has been admitted by those who combatted it most. All the sovereigns of the Peninsula comprehend the want of ealutarj reforms. Thus, after having given a new proof of 496 HISTORY OF FRANCE. the military power of France, the peace concluded will be prolific of happy results. The future will every day reveal additional cause for the happiness of Italy, the influence of France, and the tranquillity of Europe." Questions for Examination. 1. When did the Queen of Great Britain and her consort visit Cherbourg? 2. What was the first intimation given of the approaching Italian war? 3. Give a summary of the remote causes of the Italian war. 4. State what were the immediate causes of hostilities between France, Sardinia, and Austria. 6. What was the general state of feeling throughout Italy in regard to Sardinia? 6. When did the Emperor Napoleon embark in person for Italy ? 7. On what celebrated spot was the battle of May 20 fought ? 8. Describe the movements of the celebrated General Garibaldi. 9. What great feat was performed by the Piedmontese army on the 29th May, 1859? 10. When were the battles of Magenta and Melegnano fought, and with what result ? 11. When was the great battle of Solferino fought, and how long did the action continue ? 12. How were the hostilities in Italy brought to a close ? 13. When did the Emperor of France return to his capital? 14. 15. What were the reasons assigned by th« French Emperor for his speedy termination of the war ? ANNEXATION OF NEW TERRITORIES. 497 CHAPTER L. PEACE CONCLUDED— ANNEXATION OF NEW TERRITORIES. Who genially his nature can outpour, Takes from the people's mood no irritation ; The wider circle he acquires, the more Securely works his inspiration, 1. On the 10th of November, 1859, the definitive treaty of peace was concluded at Zurich, and all the essential points of the conditions already agreed upon at Villa- franca were retained. 2. But the execution of the treaty was hindered by in- surmountable difficulties, since neither the inhabitants of the duchies in Central Italy, nor those of the " Legations," which had freed themselves during the war from the rule of the Pontifical States, were inclined to return to the government of their former princes, but desired to be- come annexed to Sardinia. Napoleon did not wish to vigorously oppose this demand. Although desirous of performing the duties assumed by him, he admonished the Sardinian government to conscientiously carry out the 42* 2G 498 HISTORY OF FRANCE. conditions agreed upon at Villafranca. But the solution of this question was not in the least furthered in this way, but the embarrassment rather enhanced. The Emperor therefore invited the powers of the treaty of 1815 to meet in Congress to adjust this affair. This proposition failed on account of the opposition of the Pope, who insisted upon the unconditional retrocession of the Legations; he also refused to institute the political reforms in the Pon- tifical States which had been recommended by Napoleon. The French clergy having resolved to stand firm in the support of the head of the Church, an irritating disagree- ment between the government and the church was the re- sult. But the Emperor Avas not inclined to yield, and, after having written a letter to the Pope, on the 31st of December, 1859, wherein he once more urgently set forth his views, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, on the 3d of January, 1860, announced the abandonment, for the present, of the projected Congress. The Minister, Count Walewsky, immediately thereafter resigned and left the cabinet, and was succeeded by M. Thouvenel, who rather supported the policy of Cavour instead of that of Villa- franca and Zurich, which had been abandoned after the failure of the proposed Congress. 3. The prize, however, demanded by France, for per- mitting the annexation of those provinces to Sardinia, was the ceding of Nice and Savoy to France. By a general election, held on the 15th and 22d of April, 1860, the population of those territories declared themselves, by a large majority, in favor of annexation to France. 4. The government of Switzerland, however, had pre- viously protested against the annexation of Chablais and Faucigny, because this portion of Savoy, by the treaty of 1815, was involved in the neutrality of Switzerland. At first the Emperor appeared as if he Avas not un- favorable to the cession of these districts to Switzerland, but afterward withdrew his promise, under the plea that the population of these districts had, by their vote, unan- imously resolved to become annexed to France. The protest of the Swiss Confederation proved entirely in- effectual, and was unheeded. These proceedings gave rise to much uneasy feeling in all the other States of Europe, especially in Germany, where it was feared that the doctrine of the " natural boundaries " thus made valid in Switzerland might be also applied to the Rhine. In ANNEXATION OF NEW TERRITORIES. 499 order to quiet this mistrust, the Emperor, on the 15th of June, 1860, paid a visit to the Prince Regent of Prussia, who was at that time sojourning at Baden-Baden, where also other monarehs of the German States had assembled. 5. But the political commotion in Italy continued ; France not taking a decided stand against the upheaval, although the French ambassador had been recalled from Turin, in consequence of the occupation of the Papal States by Sardinian troops. Russia, joined by Austria and Prussia, requested the Emperor to define his position with regard to the Italian question, in order to dispel all mis- trust. Napoleon replied that he would not support Pied- mont in case of an attack made upon Venetia, and he would neither work for the re-establishment of the former conditiim of affairs in Italy, nor would he permit the re-establishment of the exiled Italian princes. The war Avith China, meantime, having drawn to a close, it was lielieved the Emperor would now earnestly carry out his peace programme. A great deal was indeed attempted for the amelioration of the interior conditions of France during this time. Of especial importance was the com- mercial treaty concluded with England, the tariff being changed upon the basis of free trade. 6. By a decree dated November 24th, 1860, the Cham- ber had reconceded to them the important privilege of making reply to the speech of the crown. Thus the peo- ple had reobtained the possibility of giving expre&sion to their political opinion. As a consequence of this acces- sion, the Emperor, on the 14th of November, 1861, had to grant further concessions to the constantly increasing demands for liberal government, by renouncing his con- sntutional right, without assent of the Chamber, to allow extraordinary credits. 7. On the 15th of June, France had formally acknowl- edged the kingdom of Italy, and thus Napoleon made an end to all further trials to be forced to intervene for the interest of the reaction. 8. But just as decided as Napoleon had been to oppose such demands, he was equally firm in his attitude of re- pelling the endeavors of Italy for the possession of Rome. The French garrison remained in Rome, and the Empe- ror declared most emphatically that he would uphold the Pope's temporal reign and power under all circumstances. 9. While thus the prospect of maintaining the peace in 500 HISTORY OP FRANCE. Europe became more apparent, affairs in America became threatening, and had a tendency to entangle France with troubles of a serious nature. Concerning the civil war which at that time was waged in the United States of America, France had indeed declared she would remain entirely neutral ; but the obvious sympathy shown to the cause of the Confederates had caused certain dijDlomatic disagreements between the government of France and that of the United States, which was partly created by the interest of the French cotton industry. At one juncture Napoleon proposed to England to unite with France to break the blockade of the Southern ports by the American fleet. 10. Full of ominous forebodings was the turn of affairs which were wrought in Mexico at this juncture. It was the intention of the Emperor to introduce the monarchical form of government into Mexico, availing himself of the opportunity presented by the existence of the civil war in America to effectually, as he thought, intervene in Mexico. While the civil contest was at its height in America, France, England, and Spain became involved in a quarrel with Mexico concerning the non-payment of certain claims due citizens of those countries by the Mex- ican republic. Questions for Examination. 1. Where was the definitive treaty of peace between Italy and Austria concluded? 2. What were the causes that hindered the proper execution of this treaty ? 3. Name the provinces which were annexed to France in conse- quence of the Italian war. 4. Why did the Swiss Confederation oppose the annexation of certain territories to France? 5. What were the consequences of the occupation of the Papal States by Sardinian troops ? 6. What important privileges were reconceded to the legisla- tive body by Napoleon III. ? 7. What were the reasons for acknowledging the kingdom of Italy by the French government? 8. By what means did Napoleon repel the demands of Italy for the possession of Rome ? 9. What caused the diplomatic disagreements between France and the United States of America in 1861 ? 10. Why did Napoleon intervene in the political affairs of Mex- ico? ALLIANCE WITH SPAIN AND ENGLAND. 501 City aud Port of Vera Cruz. (After a storm.) CHAPTER LI. ALLIANCE WITH SPAIN AND ENGLAND AND THE WAR IN MEXICO— OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ. Mighty was the hope that led me; Faith, though dim, yet bade me cheer; Tow'rd the setting sun it sped me, Crying, On ! the path is clear. 1. At the incitation of Spain, a convention was con- cluded on the 31st of October, 1861, by that country, France, and England, for the purpose of protecting the interests of their respective citizens in Mexico. 2. By the terms of this convention it was, hoAvever, expressly stated that the contracting powers neither in- tended the acquirement of territory nor to injure the 502 HISTORY OF FRANCE. integrity of self-government of the Mexican people. 3. But quite contradictory to this agreement "was the note of November 11th, 1861, by M. Thouvenel to the French ambassador in Mexico, wherein it was pointed out that France was desirous of a change in the form of govern- ment in Mexico. 4. After the arrival of the French, Spanish, and English expedition at Vera Cruz, in Decem- ber, 1861, Mexico prepared for war against this invasion. 5. The alleged cause for this invasion was an act of the Mexican Congress suspending for two years the payment of certain foreign obligations of debt. That act, how- ever, was promptly repealed ; but the hostile forces re- mained, on the ground that Mexico provided no security for the fulfilment of her obligations. The troops of the expedition occupied the port of Vera Cruz without resist- ance, that place having been evacuated by the Mexican forces, according to a plan of defence previously adopted. While there and on the road leading to the city of Mexico, the troops of the expedition suffered greatly from the ex- cessive heat of the climate, and then negotiations were opened, ostensibly with a view to a settlement of the differences between the allied nations and Mexico, Avith- out further hostilities. Meanwhile it was asked by the allies, and consented to by Mexico, that the invading army should occupy more salubrious quarters in Cordova, Ori- zaba, and Tehuacan, with the understanding that, if hos- tilities should be renewed, the troops of the expedition should first retire to the positions occupied before the agreement. 6. Just previous to the opening of negotiations for a settlement, the representatives of the three allied nations had a meeting, for the purpose of agreeing upon the claims they were to present to the consideration of the Mexican government. It was at this meeting that the French ^linister disclosed the enormous Jecker claim. The English Minister and General Prim, the Spanish com- mander, were surprised, and this, with other disclosures made to them, leading to the belief that the French Em- peror intended to interfere in the domestic concerns of Mexico, caused them, on the 9th of April, 1862, to declare the Convention of London transgressed, and to withdraw the troops of their governments from the expedition. After that time the invasion was continued by the French alone. When hostilities were renewed, the French ALLIANCE WITH SPAIN AND ENGLAND. )03 did not retire to their original positions, according to their agreement with the Mexican authorities, but retained possession of Orizaba. The prominent events subsequent to the period in question were at first of a nature not at all encouraging to the extraordinary efforts made by the French arms. They made but slow progress. The peo- ple deeming the honor of France engaged in this broil, of course, supported the policy of the government, but a steadily growing discontent soon manifested itself, which found its expression in the election of a proportionately larger number of opposition candidates to the legislative body, and there was much acrimony manifested respecting 504 HISTORY OF FRANCE. the policy of the government, Avhich was attacked, on the occasion of debating the address in reply to the opening address of the Emperor in the Corjis Legislatif. 7. On the 22d of September, 1862, General Forey issued a proclamation, promising the Mexicans a new government after the defeat of the Constitutional Gov- ernment. On the 24th of February, 1863, the French troops marched from Orizaba toward Puebla, and on the 18th of March commenced the siege of the latter place. 8. After many repulses, on the 18th of May the city of Puebla was surrendered to the French. 9. Pi-esident Juarez, with the troops under his com- mand, having evacuated the city of Mexico on the 31st of May, 1863, Genei-al Bazaine, on the 5th of June, ALLIANCE WITH SPAIN AND ENGLAND. 505 with the advance of the French army, reached the city of Mexico, and on the 10th of that month General Forey, with the main body of the French, entered the city. 10. On the 16th of June, 1863, General Forey, by a decree, established a "Junta " of 35 members, whose first duty was to choose three Mexicans to exercise the Ex- ecutive power provisionally ; and, second, to choose 215 other citizens, who, with themselves, Avere to compose an Assembly of " Notables," charged with the duty of adopting the future form of government. 11. On the 10th of July, 1863, the " Notables" declared that the Mexican nation adopts as its form of government hereditary limited monarchy, with a Catholic prince for sovereign, to bear the title of emperor, and the crown to be offered, in the first place, to the Archduke Maximilian of Austria. 12. The French forces continued to occupy Vera Cruz, the city of Mexico, and many places in the interior. 13. Despite all these victories to the French arms in Mexico, the members of the opposition in the Corps Legislatif, and their adherents, continued to censure the government, and viewed the successful operations in Mexico with suspicious eyes, fearing them to be of a transitory nature. During the month of April, 1865, the civil war in the United States having ceased, a friendly arrangement was made, at the urgent representation of the government of the United States of America, between the latter government and the Emperor of the French, for the withdrawal from Mexico of the French expedition- ary forces. The new attitude assumed by France towards Mexico gave occasion to more exciting debates in the Chambers. M. Jules Favre and M. Thiers, the leaders of the opposition, took occasion, while the budget was under discussion, to arraign the government for its dis- astrous financiering in Mexico. But the government justified itself before the country, where it was believed, that whatever may happen after having obtained full satisfaction through arms, that all was done for Mexico that it was possible to do, and that could be reconciled with the interest and honor of France. 14. The Emperor's policy in matters of international commerce continued to be that of free-trade. To the treaties of commerce concluded with England in 1860, and those with Belgium, Italy, and Switzerland, there 43 506 HISTORY OF FRANCE. was in 1862 added that with Prussia, which caused serious disturbances between that country and Austria, as well as other German States. 15. In June, 1866, the gradual steps which had now developed themselves towards one of the most eventful struggles in modern history, had come to a crisis. An alliance had been formed between Italy and Prussia against Austria, vvhich was disastrous to the latter power. Notwithstanding all efforts made by the Emperor Napo- leon to avert war, hostilities ensued on the 18th of June, 1866. 16. On the 3d of July, the Austrian army suffered a terrible defeat at Sadowa. Immediately thereafter the Emperor of Austria complied with the idea proposed by the Emperor Napoleon, and ceded Venetia to the latter, accepting his mediation to bring about peace between the belligerents. Prince Jerome Napoleon was now sent to Italy, charged by the Emperor to use his influence with that government to promote the interests of France. France had acquired great credit by her mediation, and the Emperor accepted, in a generous and disinterested manner, with a hojDB of a really just and impartial paci- fication, the mission given to him by Austria. 17. Na- poleon, on the 29th of July, declared that Venetia was placed at the disposition of the King of Italy, affirming and recognizing the reunion of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom with the kingdom of Italy. 18. The government of France and that of Prussia became involved in a dispute about Luxemburg, which the former purchased of the King of Holland ; but the Prussians occupied a strong fortress in that province, which they refused to relinquish. It was generally be- lieved that war was imminent; but the difficulty was settled by a European Convention, which met in London, in May, 1867, and decided that neither France nor Prus- sia should retain possession of Luxemburg, and insuring the King of Holland, Grand Duke of Luxemburg, an entire independence. M. Thiers, and other prominent opponents of the gov- ernment, continued to assail the Ministry in the Corps Legislatif. M. Thiers, in a remarkable speech in March, 1867, declared that the victory of Sadowa was the most dreadful blow given to the influence of France ; that its greatness was incompatible with the existence of other great States on its frontiers, and that now France m^st ALLIANCE WITH SPAIN AND ENGLAND. 507 arm herself to defend the lesser German power. Jules Favre, too, continued to attack the foreign policy of the government. And yet these two orators, Avho re- proached the government, maintained that they had constantly wished for peace. The country was made to believe that the day of Sadowa was for it a second Waterloo. The tardy policy of France, with regard to the political future of that country, was also the sub- ject of severe blame by M. Provost Paradol. 19. While these affairs were going on, meantime, it was fixed by the French government that the military occu- pation of Mexico by France should terminate at the close of the year 1867 ; but hardly had the French troops withdrawn, when the startling news of the capture of the Emperor Maximilian by the forces of the Mexican Nationals was announced. Queretaro had fallen on the 15th of May. The earnest exertions of France to have Maximilian spared by his captors, united with the urgent remonstrances of the United States government, were of no avail. 20. That unfortunate prince was tried by court-martial and shot at the city of Queretaro on the 19th of July, 1867. 21. The great Universal Exposition which was held in Paris, was opened by the Emperor in person on the 1st of April, 1867. Visitors were constantly arriving from all quarters of the globe, and Napoleon, in his opening address, expressed the hope that France was now enter- ing upon a new era of peace and civilization, and that the Universal Exposition would contribute to calm all passions and unite all interests. On the 6 th of June, the Emperor Alexander II., who had arrived in Paris to visit the Exposition, was shot at by Beregowski, a Pole, in the. Bois de Boulogne, while returning from a review of tooops given in his honor. 22. During the latter part of October, 1867, Garibaldi, an Italian leader of the Liberals, made an armed demon- stration against Eome. The movement attained dimen- sions so imposing that not only the French, but the Ital- ian, government despatched an armed force to resist and defeat the enterprise. The united forces of the Papal and French troops achieved a complete victory over Garibaldi, who, on the 3d of November, was defeated and repulsed at Mentana. 23. The withdrawal of the Italian army from the Pontifical States gave complete security for the future observance of the convention of September 15th, 1867. 508 HISTORY OF FEANCE. By the treaty of peace concluded at Prague between Prussia and Austria, it was stipulated that the reunion of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom to the kingdom of Italy should be guaranteed by concurrence of the Emperor of the French, with no other condition than the assump- tion by Italy of a proportionate part of the Austrian debt, conformable to the precedent established in the treaty of Zurich when Lombardy was ceded in 1859. 24. Exciting debates took place in the Corps Legislatif during the close of the year 1869, and a republican society was discovered to exist among the soldiers of the Paris garrison, many of whom were arrested. On the 28th of December the Cabinet resigned, and a new Ministry was formed at the beginning of the year 1870, with M. Emile Olivier as Prime Minister. The Anglo-French commercial treaty expired February 4th ; this gave rise to a stormy debate in the Corps Legis- latif, but on the 27th of the same month the treaty was renewed, despite the efforts of the opposition for its re- nunciation. 25. The Emperor's Prime Minister, while proceeding against the irreconcilable adversaries of the Empire with marked severity, continued to carry out the liberal policy upon which the government had recently entered to such an extent that he had now to meet the opposition of the extreme conservatives. The Emperor urged the adoption of all reforms proposed by M. Olivier, proclaiming " that he desired to restore constitutional government to France, in order to put an end to that immoderate desire for change which possessed certain spirits, Avho disturb the public mind by their belief in the instability of the present regime." Thus the Imperial government, by a series of gradual concessions, became a purely constitutional government, assuredly the most liberal that had ever existed in France. Deputies were elected by universal suffrage; a Corps Legislatif with full liberty of debate, all the rights of control of interpellation and of amendment ; the Senate transformed into a chamber of peers, responsible minis- ters, liberty of the press, and the right of public meet- ings. 26. The triumph of Prussia over Austria warned France that the success of her rival might be close at hand, but the Imperial government did not seem to dis- courage the growing power of her neighbor, while the ALLIANCE WITH SPAIN AND ENGLAND. 509 nation rang with complaints that the prestige of France was passing away. To the French mind there was nothing but danger to France in the formation of Prus- sia's new power ; and it became the duty of every patri- otic Frenchman to avert the danger from his country. The result of a train of causes at length brought events to a crisis. Questions for Examination. 1. What alliance was formed by France for the protection of her citizens in Mexico ? 2. What were the terms of the Convention between the allied nations respecting affairs in Mexico ? 3. Why was Napoleon desirous of a change of government in Mexico ? 4. When did the expeditionary troops land in Vera Cruz ? 6. What was the alleged cause for this invasion ? 6. What were the reasons of England's and Spain's withdrawal from the expedition ? 7. What was the purport of General Forey's proclamation, issued on the 22d of September, 1862? 8. When was the city of Puebla surrendered to the French ? 9. When did Marshal Bazaine enter the city of Mexico ? 10. What was the object of General Forey's decree for the estab- lishment of a Junta? 11. What was the result ofihe meeting of Mexican "Notables " on the 10th of July, 1863? 12. To whom was the Imperial crown of Mexico offered ? 13. What occasioned the withdrawal of the French troops from Mexico ? 14. What was the policy of the Emperor of the French in mat- ters of international commerce ? 15. What were the consequences to France caused by the battle of Sadowa? 16. By whom was the kingdom of Venetia ceded to France ? 17. To whom did Napoleon retrocede Venetia ? 18. What was the result of the Convention of the European pow- ers at London in May, 1866 ? 19. What was the result of the capture of the fortress of Quere- taro (Mexico) ? 20. On what date was the Emperor of Mexico executed ? 21. Give some of the incidents which transpired during the " Universal Exposition " held at Paris in 1867. 22. What were the reasons for the despatch of troops to Rome in October, 1867? 23. What was the result of the battle of Montana ? 24. What was the policy of the Emperor towards France after M. Olivier had formed a new Cabinet? 25. What were the concessions made by Napoleon in 1870 ? 26. What danger did France seek to avert in the spring of 1870? 43* 510 HISTORY OP FRANCE. CHAPTEE LII. THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. And do I ask, wherefore my heart. Falters, oppressed with unknown needs? Why some inexplicable smart All movements of my life impedes ? Faust. Thus wars now the nephew of his uncle renowned, Thus fights he to conquer the old Rhenish ground. So thunder his cannons, his bayonets shine — His soldiers are shouting : " To the Rhine, to the Rhine ! " Ego. 1. M. Olivier, the Prime Minister, on the 28th of March, 1870, read to the Senate a statement of the mo- tives for a new Senatus Consultum, which was essentially a new constitution for France, through which the Em- peror desired to establish his dynasty, and to effect liberal reforms. The reforms thus proposed were to be submit- ted to the vote of the people on the 8th of May, in the form of a plehiscitum. On the 23d of April the Imperial decree for this purpose Avas issued, couched in the follow- ing language : " The people approve of the liberal reforms, which have been carried out since 1860, by the Emperor, with the aid of the great body politic, and they accept the Senatus Considtum." In his proclamation, the Em- THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAJf WAR. 511 peror pronounced the result of this election to be the decision of the French people between order and anarchy — between a stable government and revolution. Frederick William, Emperor of Germany. 2. The vote resulted in a decisive victory for the Em- peror. The vote stood : Yeas, 7,336,434 ; Nays, 1,560,709. 3. B:xt even this result, however favorable to Napoleon III., did not discourage the strategies of the opposition. The remembrance of Sadowa and the reproach respecting 512 HISTORY OF FRANCE. the weak policy towards Germany, were added to the many other attacks which the opposition had constantly made against the government. The demands for the boundaries of the Rhine had never ceased since 1866. 4. While the opposition was in this frame of mind, it was announced, on the 6th of July, that Prince Leopold, of Hohenzollern, had formally accepted the Spanish crown. This startled like a thunderbolt the French people. Napoleon was compelled to accede to the general pressure brought to bear by the popular will. On the 15th the French government, sustained by the Corps Legislatif, declared war against Prussia. This declara- tion asserts that the Emperor of the French was obliged to consider the proposal to elevate a Prussian prince to the throne of Spain as an attack on the security of France ; that he desired that Prussia should disavow the scheme, which Prussia refused to do, reserving her right to be governed by circumstances ; and that the Emperor was forced to consider this determination as equally men- acing to France and the European equilibrium. The French government, therefore, is taking steps for the de- fence of its honor and injured interests, and, having adopt- ed all measures which the circumstances render neces- sary, considers itself at war with Prussia. This formal declaration was sent by the French government to Berlin on the 17th of July, and on the 19th French troops were sent to the frontier. 5. The Emperor, on the 23d, issued a proclamation to the people, declaring that " there are certain moments in the life of peoples when the national honorj fervently ex- cited, imposes itself with irresistible force, dominates all interests, and alone takes in hand the direction of the destinies of the country. One of those hours has now ar- rived for France." On the 28th the Emperor left St. Cloud for the field, taking with him the Prince Imperial, and leaving the Empress as Regent of France during his ab- sence. At that date the Prussian army was concentrating between Treves and Merzig, on the river Saar. The other European powers maintained a position of neutral- ity ; England, however, insisted from the beginning that the territory of Belgium must not be invaded. 6. On his arrival at Metz, the Emperor assumed the position of commander-in-chief of the French army ; he stationed his forces in such a manner as to leave no doubt THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 513 that his plan of campaign evidently contemplated an ad- vance across the Rhine. In his address to his soldiers, Napoleon said : " The war which now commences will be long and severe, for its theatre will be places hedged with General Von Moltke. obstacles and thick with fortresses ; but nothing is beyond the persevering efforts of the soldiers of Africa, Italy, and Mexico. You will prove once more what the French army is able to accomplish, animated by a sentiment of 2H 514 HISTORY OF FRANCE. duty, maintained by discipline, influenced by a love of country. Whatever road we may take across our fron- tiers, we will find upon it glorious traces of our fathers, and we will show ourselves worthy of them." 7. The Prussians were meanwhile concentrating their forces on the east of the Ehine, and it soon became evi- dent that they had it in their power to bring into the field immediately a much larger army than the French. The South German States promptly declared their adher- ence to the Prussian cause. The poj)ularwar enthusiasm in Germany was most intense. After the declaration of war, the King of Prussia left Ems for Berlin, and on July 31st, with General Moltke and Count von Bismarck, his Prime Minister, he set out for Mayence, the Prussian headquarters, where he arrived on the od of August. The Prussian forces were then concentrated in the triangle formed by the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Saar rivers. 8. The French army assumed the offensive. It crossed the frontier August 2d, and captured Saarbruck, a posi- tion of little importance, and held by a small Prussian force. This was on the French left. 9. The next day the Prussians, under the Crown Prince, Frederick Wil- liam, attacked the French centre at Weissenburg, which ■was held by General Douay's division of McMahon's corps. The position was carried, 800 French prisoners were taken, and General Abel Douay was killed. From that action the French were put on the defensive. The Crown Prince again attacked McMahon at Worth, on the 6th, and with marked success, capturing two eagles, six mi- trailleuses, thirty cannon, and 4000 prisoners. The same day the French left, under General Frossard, was attacked, and compelled to retire. This was the battle at Forbach. McMahon, on the right, had for a time been cut ofi" from the main army. The French centre remained firm at Metz, where were three corps that had not been under fire. 10. On the receipt of the Emperor's message, acknowl- edging a defeat, there was great consternation in Paris, and that city was declared in a state of siege. The Empress issued a proclamation appealing to the patriot- ism of the people. McMahon, after his defeat, fell back on Saverne, having reinforced the garrison at Stras- bourg, which by his retreat had been left uncovered. On the 8th of August the Prussians menaced Metz and oc- THE FEANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 515 cupied St. Avoid ; and McMahon's retreat was continued to Nancy, while the Emjjeror went to Chalons. The Prussians had thus compelled the French army to swing back its entire centre and right around Metz into the in- terior of* France. The Crown Prince, Frederick William. 11. On the 9th of August the Corps Legislatif assem- bled, and by a large majority carried on the order against the existing ministry, and on the following day 516 HISTORY OF FRANCE. (10th) a measure was carried conscripting all unmarried men from the age of twenty-five to thirty-five. The Olivier Cabinet having resigned, Comte de Palikao Avas ordered to form a new Ministry. Forced currency for notes of the Bank of France were authorized. 12. After McMahon's and Frossard's defeat, Marshal Bazaine was made commander-in-chief of the French army. The revulsion in Paris had given power to the Orleanist faction, which caused General Trochu soon to be created a Major-General of the army, taking the place of Lebceuf. 13. On the 10th, Strasbourg was invested by the Prus- sians, and the railways leading thence were occupied by them. They also advanced on this same day within ten miles of Metz. On the 14th the Prussians occupied Nancy, which had been evacuated by the French the day before. The united armies of Prince Frederick Charles and Gen- eral Steinmetz — the right and centre of the Prussian army — had their headquarters at Henry, on a direct line with Saarbruck, and within twenty miles of Metz. On the 14th the battle of Courcelles was fought. The French commenced to cross the left bank of the Moselle, where an obstinate battle ensued, both sides claiming the victory of the indecisive fight. The Emperor had left Metz with the Prince Imperial for Verdun and McMahon was at Toul. 14. The French government, on the 20th, had asked for a loan of one hundred million of francs. The pa- triotism of the nation was great. The books were opened on the 23d, and before night on that day 680,000,000 francs were subscribed. The French declared that peace is impossible as long as a Prussian soldier treads French soil. 15. On the 16th of August the besieged garrison of Strasbourg made a futile sortie, and w^ere defeated at Vionville. On the 18th the memorable battle of Grave- lotte was fought, and on the following day the bombard- ment of Strasbourg, from near Kehl, commenced, and communication between Metz and Chalons became very difficult. The Emperor and the Prince Imperial are at Chalons, and McMahon, on the 22d, having broken up the encampment at Chalons, was prepared to oppose an army of 170,000 against any force moving upon Paris. Severely contested battles followed each other day THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 517 after day from the 14th to the 21st. By the 23d Metz was completely isolated, the Prussians having cut the communications between Thionville, Montmedy, and Metz, and kept Bazaine shut up with his whole army in Metz. The attempt of Bazaine to accomplish the reopen- ing of communication with McMahon led to the battle of Rezonville, which lasted nine hours, and, after great loss on both sides, resulted in Bazaine's retreat upon Metz. By the 24th of August the Crown Prince, with the left wing of the German army, had advanced beyond Chalons. The next day King William's headquarters had been transferred to Bar-le-Duc, to reinibrce the Crown Prince in his march on Paris. The fortresses of Toul and Phalsbourg still held out against the Prussian forces in the west ; so likewise did Strasbourg on the Rhine, though the right side of the citadel and the arsenal had been destroyed. 16. McMahon's attempt to communicate with Bazaine resulted in the crowning disaster of the campaign. He left Rheims on the 22d, and on the 29th turned up at Vaux, near the Belgian frontier, and on the right bank of the Meuse, with an army of 100,000 men. De Failly's corps at the same time took a position between Beaumont and Storre, on the left bank of that river. Both these armies were attacked the next day by the Prussians, the force marching on Paris having suddenly turned north- ward to baffle McMahon's efforts to join Bazaine. A portion of the French was routed on the 30th of August, near Carignan and Mouzon, and the Prussians entered Carignan, On the following day, August 31st, the battle was renewed on the road from Montmedy to Sedan. The result of this action was a defeat of the French, with a loss of 7000 prisoners, 20 guns, and 11 mitrailleitses. McMahon's headquarters were at Sedan. Two impor- tant battles took place on the 1st of September — that of St. Barbe, near Metz, and that of Sedan. In the former, Marshal Bazaine, after an action lasting all day and through the night, was defeated. 17. The battle of Sedan began with the dawn of Sep- tember 1st. Two Prussian corps were in position west of Sedan to cut off the possible retreat of the French to Me- zieres. On all sides, indeed, were posted various corps of the Prussian army. De Failly held the French right and McMahon the left. The battle began on the Prussian U 518 HISTORY OF FRANCE. left, where the Bavarians were j)osted. At 8 A.M. a hot artillery action began at all points. The villages of Illy and Floing were taken, and the fiery circle drew gradually closer around Sedan. It was a grand sight from the position on a commanding height behind the great battery, beyond St. Tore5\ The desperate resist- ance of the brave French soldiers began to slacken by degrees. Their cavalry endeavored to attack several battalions of the Prussian Fifth Corps, but the latter resisted gallantly. The cavalry galloped through the interval between the battalions, and then returned over the same ground. This was repeated three times, so that the field was covered with corpses and horses. The town of Sedan was bombarded with the heavy battery of the Prussians, and twenty minutes later the town was burn- ing in several places, which, with the numerous burning villages in sight, produced a terrible impression. The King of Prussia, seeing the hopeless condition of the French, ordered the firing to cease, and sent Lieutenant- Colonel von Bronsart, of the staff", with a flag of truce, to de- mand the capitulation of the a.rmj and the fortress. Mar- shal McMahon had been Avounded, and his command had devolved upon General Wimpffen. In reply to King Wil- liam's demand, the Emperor personally capitulated at 5.15 P. M. His letter to the King opened with these words : "As I cannot die at the head of my army, I lay my sword at the feet of your majesty." The capitulation included General MacMahon, a mar- shal of France, several general officers, 4000 officers in all, 83,000 men, 400 field-guns, 70 mitrailleuses, 150 siege-guns, 10,000 horses, with a large quantity of war material. 18. On the 3d of September, King William assigned Wilhelmshohe as the future residence of the captured Emperor. Wilhelmshohe was formerly the summer residence of the Electors of Hesse-Cassel. It is a castle romantically situated, and about five miles distant from the capital city of Hessia. 19. The receipt of the news that the Emperor and Marshal MacMahon had capitulated at Sedan was re- ceived at Paris on the morning of September 3d. The nation moui*ned. The grief felt all over France was too deep for utterance. A wail of despair went up from the populace. A terrible foreboding that France was in mighty danger issued forth from everj'^ mouth. THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 519 General Ducrot, who refused to sign his parole, escaped from Sedan on the 8d of September. Napoleon III. was now a hapless prisoner, without throne, without sword, broken-hearted, because so few were his friends now in this hour of overwhelming disaster. Questions for Examination. 1. What were the motives of the new Senatus Consul/urn f 2. What was the result of the vote on the " Plebiscitum " ? 3. What were the reproaches made by the opponents of the government in May, 1870? 4. What were the alleged reasons for the declaration of war against Prussia ? 5. On what date did the Emperor leave Paris for the field? 6. What was the contents of the address to the army issued by the Emperor? 7. What strengthened Prussia's power before entering the field ? 8. At what place did France assume the offensive ? 9. Where was the first battle fought? 10. On receipt of the Emperor's message acknowledging a defeat, what took place at Paris? 11. What was the result of the meeting of the Corps Legislatif on August 9th ? 12. Who was made Commander-in-chief of the French army after McMahon's defeat? 13. When did the investment of Strasbourg by German troops take place ? 14. How did the French people respond to the call for a loan? 15. Why and when did Marshal McMahon break up the Camp of Chalons ? 16. Describe the causes that led to the battle of Sedan. 17. What was the result of the battle of Sedan? 18. What became of the Emperor Napoleon after the battle of Sedan ? 19. How was the news of the disastrous battles received at Paris ? 520 HISTORY OF FRANCE. CHAPTER LIII. DETHRONEMENT OF NAPOLEON.— ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC. Bliss grows apace, and then its course is jangled ; You're ravished quite, then comes a touch of woe, And there 's a neat romance, completed ere you know! Let us then such a drama give 1 1. The news of the defeat at Sedan was immediately announced in Paris by a proclamation of the Cabinet ministers. A great popular commotion was apparent on Saturday, the 3d of September, 1870. Count Palikao invoked the earnest aid of the French people, and de- clared Paris in a complete state of defence. The next day, September 4th, in the Chamber of Deputies, on mo- tion of Jules Favre, the Emperor and his dynasty Avere declared to have lost and forfeited all constitutional rights and privileges. 2. After the Empress had fled to England, the Repub- lic was proclaimed, and a new ministry announced, as follows: Leon Gambetta, Minister of the Interior ; Jules DETHRONEMENT OF NAPOLEON. 521 Favres, Minister of Foreign AiFairs ; Ernest Picard, Min- ister of Finance; Jules Simon, Minister of Public Instruction ; Isaac Cremieux, Minister of Justice ; Gen- eral Trochu, Minister of War, and President of the Council; Pierre Dorian, Superintendent of Public Works ; Joseph Magnin, Minister of Commerce ; Martin Fourichon, Minister of Marine. This revolution in the government met the acclamations of the populace. The Provisional Government ordered at once an election for a Constituent Assembly, to be held on the 16th of October. 3. The French republic was promptly recognized by the United States of America, Italy, and Switzerland. The Spanish Minister at Paris had also recognized the new government, and for this act was recalled to Madrid. The new government at once began vigorously to work on the defences of Paris, the Prussians marching fast to- wards that city, and on the 11th had advanced to within twenty-five miles of Paris. The town of Laon surrendered to the Prussians. The citadel at that place exploded, killing 200 French and 150 Prussians. On the 14th of September the scouts of the German army reached within five miles of Paris. The telegraph wires between Paris and London were cut by the Prussians, and the mails be- tween those cities stopped. In this sore distress the new government of France deemed it a wise measure to abandon the blockade of the German ports on the Baltic. 4. On the 15th the Prussian advance reached the Paris fortifications, and commenced to surround the city. The French Cabinet left Paris on this day and arrived at Tours. 5. On the 18th, Paris having been completely isolated by the German array, and Versailles occupied by them, the authorities in Paris resorted to the necessity of send- ing a mail by means of a balloon and carrier-pigeons with intelligence to the Cabinet at Tours. Reverses to the French arms continued rapidly now; on the 23d of September Toul capitulated, but this notwithstanding, the government still declined a Prussian proposal for peace, based on the surrender of Alsace and Lorraine. Skirmishing occurred frequently during the latter part of September on the outskirts of Paris, in which the Prussians were repulsed. 6. On the 28th of September General Uhrich, the 44* I 522 HISTORY OF FRANCE. commander of Strasbourg, surrendered that stronghold to the Germans, and on the same day Clermont was cap- tured, Soissons surrounded, and Verdun besieged by the Prussians. 7. On the 4th of October, the French, after a severe contest, compelled the Prussians to abandon Pithviers, south of Paris, and captured a provision train including 6000 cattle and sheep. On the 7th, troops under Gen- eral Bazaine made a sortie from Metz, but were driven back, the loss on both sides being heavy. On the 12th of October the Prussians stormed and captured Orleans, and on the 13th Epinal, in the Vosges Mountains. Another sortie made by the troops from Metz on the 14th was crowned with success ; they captured a Prussian supply- train of 193 wagons. Several other engagements took place during the month of October, and Chateaudun, St. Quentin, and Chartres were occupied by the Prussians, and Schlestadt, after a severe bombardment, capitulated to the Prussians. 8. Marshal Bazaine's attempts to break through the lines of the German army, under command of Prince Frederick Charles, proving futile, compelled the Mar- shal, on the 27th of October, 1870, to surrender Metz and 150,000 men, including 20,000 wounded, also 53 eagles, 1341 guns, 66 mitrailleuses, and 300,000 stand of arms. For this act the French ministry denounced Marshal Bazaine in severe terms. On the 31st of Oc- tober the German troops made their formal entry into the captured fortress of Metz. 9. On the 8th of September, M. Thiers had left Paris on a peace mission, but effected no result until the end of October. On the 30th of that month he had an inter- view with Count Bismarck before Paris, which resulted, on the 2d of November, in a proposition for an armistice of twenty-five days, to allow the French to hold elections for a Constituent Assembly ; but on the 5th of Novem- ber the French government sent instructions to M. Thiers to reject the proposed armistice, because the re- victualling of Paris was not included in its provisions. A vote having been taken on the 2d of November in the city of Paris on the question of indorsing the French Provisional Government, resulted in 557,996 ayes and 62,638 nays ; and on the 4th the government at Tours issued a decree calling out for military service all able-bodied men between the ages of twenty and forty. DETHRONEMENT OF NAPOLEON. 523 On the 10th of November New Breisach capitulated to the Prussians, and on the 25th Thionville, after sus- taining a heavy bombardment, the town having been set on fire, surrendered to the enemy. Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia. 10. On November 7th, 1870, a naval engagement took place off Havana, between the Prussian war-steamer Meteor, carrying three guns, and the French steamer Bouvet, carrying five guns. The Bouvet, after some firing and an attempt to board the Meteor, returned to Havana, followed by the Meteor into that neutral port. On the 28th the French Army of the Loire, under General 524 HISTORY OF FRANCE. de Paladines, was defeated, after a terrible battle, by the Prussians, under Prince Frederick Charles. On the 29th of November, General Ducrot, with 100,000 men, con- ducted a sortie at Villers, fighting his way to Epinal and Champigny, and driving the Prussians towards Brie and Marne. The intention of this movement was to open a communication with the Army of the Loire under General Paladines. On the 2d of December a battle between the Germans and the French under Ducrot en- sued. In the afternoon the French retreated from Brie, leaving the Prussians masters of the field, who also cap- tured and held Champigny. The losses on both sides were very heavy. Orleans was evacuated by the Army of the Loire on the 3d of December, and De Paladines retreated to Blois ; the St. Jean Railway Station and suburb of Orleans were captured by the Prussians, with 77 guns and 10,000 prisoners, also three gunboats. On the 6th of December the Germans formally sum- moned the city of Paris to surrender, under threats of immediate bombardment, but the French refused to com- ply. On the 7th, 8th, and 9th of December there was much fighting along the lines occupied by the French Army of the Loire. The principal battle was at Beau- gency, in which the French achieved a success. On the 9th of December the government left Tours and re- moved to Bordeaux. 11. On the 19th of December it was announced that all the German princes and the Hanse towns had con- curred in bestowing upon King William of Prussia the imperial crown as Frederick William I., Emperor of Germany. On the 20th of December Tours was occupied by the Prussians ; and on the 22d and 23d a series of battles was fought between the Germans, under General Man- teuiFel, and the French, under General Faidherbe, at Beaucart, Montigny, and Pont Novelle, when the French were worsted, and withdrew across the valley of the Som- me, at Ailly. On the 21st of December General Ducrot made a sortie from Paris, but, beyond the capture of several hundred Prussians, it had no substantial results. Subsequent sorties made on the 10th, 11th, 15th, and 19th of Janu- ary proved equally ineffective. In the meantime each of the French armies about Paris DETHRONEMENT OF NAPOLEON. 525 had, one after another, sustained defeat. General Chan- zy's army at Le Mans moved against the left flank of Prince Charles's army at Vendome. While making this movement he Avas attacked by Prince Charles and driven back, while the Duke of Mecklenburg, commanding the German right wing, advanced to Nogent-le-Retron to cut ofFthe French line of retreat northward towards Cherbourg. General Chanzy had then no alternative but to fight a pitched battle. He fell back upon the heights east of Le Mans, since he would thus present a more compact front to the enemy's attack. But on the 10th of Janu- ary, 1871, the Germans, under Prince Frederick Charles and the Duke of Mecklenburg, instead of making an attack all along the lines, massed on Chanzy's wings. After a sharply contested battle of two days, the French right was routed, and the left and centre compelled to make a rapid retreat. The German armies followed up the retreating columns with an effective pursuit. On the 19th of January the battle of St. Quentin took place, between the Germans, under General Goeben, and the French Army of the North, under General Faidherbe. The latter were beaten, with a heavy loss of 15,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners ; 9000 unwounded prison- ers were captured. The French retreated, pursued by the Prussians, who captured 7 guns. The French, on the 20th of January, made another sortie from Fort Mont Valerien, Paris, with 40 battalions, numbering 100,000 men, under command of General Ducrot. They were repulsed by the Germans, with a loss of 6000 killed and wounded. The German loss was 655 killed and 500 prisoners. While this engagement took place near Paris, on the same date (20th) a sea-fight occurred on the Pacific Ocean between the Prussian ship Medusa and the French gunboats Curieust, four guns, and Bruiost, two guns. The French vessels were sunk. 12. On the 21st of January General Trochu resigned the military command at Paris, after the unsuccessful sortie made on that day, but he retained the civil command, and General Vinoy was appointed Military Governor. On this day (20th) a mob in Paris attacked the prison of Mazae, broke open the doors, and released some polit- ical prisonei's. Paris began to revolt; on the 22d the Hotel de Ville was attacked by 300 National Guards, 526 HISTORY OF FRANCE. who were repulsed by the Garde Mobile. The inteution was to gain possession of the headquarters of the govern- ment and institute a revolution for the purpose of estab- lishing a new government. 13. By the defeats sustained by the French armies Count von Bismarck. about Paris, that city was nearly reduced to starvation, and, threatened with intestine commotion, was finally sur- rendered to the enemy after an investment of nearly five months. On the 28th of January, 1871, a treaty for the DETHRONEMENT OF NAPOLEON. 527 capitulation of Paris was signed at Versailles, by Count Bismarck and M. Jules Favre. It was agreed that the forts should be surrendered to the Germans, the French regulars and mobiles being retained in Paris as prisoners of war. An armistice of three weeks was agreed upon, all the armies in the field to retain their respective posi- tions, the ground between the opposing lines to be neutral, except that in the Departments of Doubs, Jura, Cote d' Or, and in the siege of Belfort hostilities were to con- tinue; the National Assembly to be summoned to appear at Bordeaux in a fortnight. 180,000 prisoners, 1500 cannon, and 400 field pieces were captured at Paris. The city of Paris was assessed 200,000,000 of francs, as a war contribution, to be paid by the 12th of February, 1871. 14. The French Army of the East, 80,000 strong, under General Bourbaki, being pressed by the German army under General Manteuifel, entered Switzerland on the 1st of February, and laid down their arms to the Swiss. On the 1st of February the government at Bordeaux issued a decree ordering elections for the National Assembly to be held on the 8th of February. It dis- qualified for the election to the Assembly the members of families reigning over France since 1789 ; all persons who had acted as Imperial or oflftcial candidates in past elections, or held office as Ministers, Senators, or Coun- cillors of State under the Empire, and prefects who had accepted office between the 2d of December, 1851, and the 4th of September, 1870. On January the 29th, before noon, the forts around Paris were occupied by forty-six German regiments, and the delivery of arms to the Germans was completed on the 12th of February. On the 3d of February Count von Bismarck sent a note to M. Gambetta, protesting against the decree issued by the latter, in which it was declared that functionaries under the Empire should not be eligible to the Assembly, and said that the Germans would only recognize an Assembly of freely elected dep- uties, but forthwith, on the day following (4th), Gam- betta at Bordeaux replied to Bismarck's note, defending the decree, saying that it frustrated the plans of Bis- marck for the fallen dynasty, and the insolent pretensions of the Prussian Minister to interfere with the constitution pf a French Assembly. These disqualifications, decreed by Gambetta, were 528 HISTORY OF FRANCE. ignored by the French people, especially in the North, and by the decrees issued by Jules Favre in Paris, and were annulled by all the other members of the govern- ment. This caused the removal of M. Gambetta, and the Paris government appointed M. Emanuel Arago Minister of the Interior. The elections were held February 8th, and resulted in a victory for the liberal monarchists and moderate repub- licans — the imperialists, radical republicans, and the clerical party being but feebly represented in the Assem- bly, which met at Bordeaux, February 15th, and was for- mally organized ; Alsace and Lorraine w^ere represented. 15. On the 16th, M. Jules Gr^vy was elected President of the Assembly, only 19 out of 538 members dissenting ; he was a firm and consistent opponent of the empire. On the 17th, M. Adolphe Thiers, who had been elected to the Assembly from eighteen departments, was almost unanimously chosen President of the Provisional Govern- ment of the Republic. He appointed the following min- isters for his cabinet : Justice, Du Faure ; Foreign Affairs, Jules Favre ; Interior, Picard ; Public Instruction, Jules Simon; Commerce, Lambrecht; War, Le Flo; Marine, Poethuan ; Finance, Buffet. The late Emperor Napoleon issued a proclamation, dated February 8th, from the palace at Wilhelmshohe, addressed to the electors of France. Breaking the " pro- found silence" which he had maintained, and which he called " misfortune's mourning," he attributed all the evils suffered by France since the capture of Sedan to the establishment of a republic by an unauthorized govern- ment. He concluded with the suggestive statement that " there is only one government in Avhich resides the national sovereignty, able to heal the wounds, to bring hope to the firesides, to reopen the profaned churches, for progress, and to restore industry, concord, and peace." 16. At Versailles, on the 26th of February, 1871, the preliminaries of a treaty of peace between the French and Prussians were signed, by which France ceded to Germany one-fifth of Lorraine and all of Alsace except Belfort, and agreed to pay an indemnity of five milliards of francs. On the 1st of March the Assembly of France voted for the ratification of the preliminary con- ditions of peace. On the same day the Assembly at Bordeaux, by unanimous vote, adopted a resolution de- DETHRONEMENT OF NAPOLEON. 529 creeing the fall of the Empire and stigmatizing Napoleon as the author of the misfortunes of France. On the 2d. of March the ratifications of the final treaty of peace between the French and Germans were exchanged. 17. The Prussian army entered Paris on the first day of March. The Eleventh Corps, under General von Bose, •entered in two columns, at Pont Neuilly and at Pont Du Jour, and advanced to the Arc de Triomphe. There were 30,000 men and 96 cannon. The French had cov- ered the statues with crape and shut up their houses. On the 3d of March the French army evacuated Paris. The National Assembly, early in March, by vote de- cided to remove to Versailles, and hold the first meeting there on the 20th of March. Meantime the wisdom of its avoidance of Paris was amply demonstrated. Questions for Examination.. 1. What resolution was passed by the Chamber of Deputies on the 4th of September, 1870? 2. What form of government was proclaimed on that day ? 3. What was the attitude of the American Union towards the Republic of France ? 4. To what place did the French government remove on the approach of the enemy towards Paris? 5. When did the investment of Paris and the occupation of Versailles by the German forces take place? 6. When did General Uhrich surrender the city of Strasbourg? 7. What was the result of the contest on the 4th of October near Pithviers ? 8. What compelled Marshal Bazaine to surrender the city of Metz ? 9. What were the results eflFected by M. Thiers by his inter- view with Count Bismarck ? 10. Give a description of the naval battles whiqh took place during the war with Prussia. 11. How was the Imperial crown of Germany bestowed on the King of Prussia ? 12. When and why did General Trochu resign the military command at Paris ? 13. Give the conditions of the treaty for the surrender of Paris. 14. What was the fate of General Bourbaki's army on Febru- ary 1st, 1871 ? 15. Who was chosen President of the "Provisional Govern- ment of the Republic," by the Assembly, op Feb. 15, 1871 ? 16. When and where were the preliminaries of peace between France and Germany signed, and what the conditions? 17. On what date did the German army enter Paris? 45 21 530 HISTORY OF FKANCE. CHAPTER LIV. THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY AT VERSAILLES, AND THE COMMUNE AT PARIS. Nought sacred is there more, for breaking Are all the bands of pious Awe, The good man's place the bad are taking. And all the vices mock at law. FURNESS. 1. After the evacuation of Paris by the Germans, the National Guards still retained their arms, and soon took possession of a large number of cannon, fortifying them- selves at Montmartre and Belleville. On the 10th of March, 1871, the insurgents took pos- session of the Hotel de Ville, Palais de Justice, Tuileries, and Place Vendome. The members of the Thiers gov- ernment and the foreign Ministers left the city and went to Versailles, and the Central Revolutionary Committee issued a proclamation, in which they said that the French people awaited calmly until an attempt was made to touch the life of the Republic, the only government that can close the era of invasions and civil war. Upon this soon the second proclamation followed, thus : " To the people of Paris. You have entrusted us with the defence THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY AT VERSAILLES. 531 of the rights of Paris. We have driven out the govern- ment which betrayed us ; our mission is fulfilled, and we report to you. Prepare for communal elections. Give us, as your only recompense, the establishment of a real republic." 2. On the 17th of March, M. Thiers, President of the French government, issued a proclamation against the insurgents. He declared that the government was really Republican, and no friend of the Republic should strike at it. On the same day six regiments and squadrons of horsemen, under the command of General Vinoy, ad- vanced against the insurgents, and took possession of their caunon. Proceeding further, the gens d' armes charged upon the people, but the latter fired into them, killed several, and compelled them to retreat. Shortly after- wards the insurgents surrounded the soldiers, who fra- ternized with them and refused to use their arms against them. There was some fighting, but in a short time the soldiers were fully identified with the insurgjents. Gen- erals Lecompte and Clement Thomas were shortly after- wards captured and shot, by order of a body calling itself the Central Revolutionary Committee. The Na- tional Guards placed themselves fully under the com- mand of this committee, and soon became masters of Paris. On the 3d of April, troops were sent by the Commune, the insurgent government of Paris, towards Versailles, which was occupied by the Thiers government. The guns of the fortress of Mont Valerien were opened upon the insurgents, and they were driven into Courbevoie, and then shelled out of that place. The fight between the troops of the Versailles government and the insur- gents was renewed on the 6th and 7th of April, and the Communists defeated at the Bridge of Neuiliy. While this reign of terror prevailed in Paris, the gov- ernment of France and all the Paris authorities were at Versailles, protected by an army 40,000 strong, under General Vinoy. 3. The insurrection in Paris proved itself sufficiently powerful to hold the city against the Versailles govern- ment, and to compel the latter to institute a siege. It was feared that a Communist rebellion would prevail in all the large cities of France, but nowhere outside of Paris did Such a movement succeed. The principal of- ficers of the imperial army, just after their return home, 632 HISTORY OF FRANCE. seemed indisposed to take any part in the conflict ; but early in April General McMahon accepted the command of the Versailles forces, which were largely reinforced from the ranks of the imperialist soldiers. On March 21st the Versailles Assembly unanimously adopted a res- olution " to reconstitute, in the shortest possible time, the municipal administration of Paris and the depart- ments, on the basis of councils, by election." 4. The Versailles army was now placed under com- mand of Marshal McMahon, who, on the 17th of April, succeeded in surrounding the insurgent troops at Asniere with a strong military force, and gave battle, which proved disastrous to the insurgent troops. Fighting con- tinued until the 20th of April, the insurgents were driven at all points, and forced within two hundred yards of the city ramparts. Their chief General, Cluseret, offered his resignation, which was not accepted. The last days of the Paris Commune were marked by violence and internal dissensions, which characterized that body from its organization. 5. On the 14th of May the Communists at Paris de- stroyed the house of M. Thiers, President of the Ver- sailles government, and on the following day (15th) they levelled the beautiilil column of Napoleon in the Place Venddme. On the 20th, heavy fighting between the Versailles and the Communist troops ensued at Mont- rouge, Vaugirard, Auteuil, St. Cloud, and Neuilly, ex- tending also from the Bois de Boulogne to the gate of Clichy, in which the Versaillists were generally success- M. On the evening of the 21st, the army under McMahon entered Paris, meeting at first but little resistance, at the gate of St. Cloud and the gate of Montrouge. The Communists fell back to such positions as were best fitted, in their opinion, for successful resistance. Barricades were erected, which extended from the Rue Rivoli to the centre of the Place de la Concorde. The next day (22d) the Versaillists carried the barricades of the Arc de Triomphe by assault. There was sharp fighting in the streets of Paris. 80,000 troops of the Versaillists were in Paris by noon, and the Communists fell back gradu- ally until their resistance was concentrated at the Palace of the Tuileries and the Hotel de Ville. The fighting continued furiously on the 23d. In the afternoon of THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY AT VERSAILLES. 533 this day, Archbishop Darbois, 10 hostages, and 50 priests were killed at Mazas prison, by order of the Communists. On the 24th, early in the morning, the fighting was con- tinued in and around Paris. The Communists set fire to a large number of private buildings and houses, also to the Hotel de Ville, the palace of the Tuileries, palace of the Legion of Honor, palace of the Ministers of France, and the Council of State. The Mont de Piete and the library of the Louvre were totally destroyed ; many other public buildings also set on fire Avere saved, although injured ; heavy fighting and great slaughter Avere continued in the streets throughout this day. On the 25th, the government's cannon bombarded Belleville, and Fort Bicetre Avas occupied by the government troops. The end of this day saw the Versaillists victorious at all l^oints, although the palace of Luxembourg Avas partially blown up, the Palais Royal burned, and also a part of the Louvre destroyed. On the 27th, the Versailles troops captured Les Buttes Chaumont, Menil Montant, and the cemetery Pere-la-Chaise, the latter being the last refuge of the insurgents. The remainder surrendered uncondi- tionally. Many houses were burned, and a large number of insurgents — men, women, and children — were killed. Several theatres and the gate of St. Martin AA^ere burned. During these disturbances, the Versailles troops lost 2112 officers and men killed, wounded, and missing, while the Communists lost over 11,000 killed, wounded, and missing, and 27,000 prisoners. 6. The Commune having been vanquished, the ring- leaders of the insurrection, Avho caused such wanton de- struction of life and property, were summarily punished. The principal Communists were arrested by the Thiers government and tried by court-martial. The testimony taken on this trial proved that the burning of Paris on the eve of the triumphant entrance of McMahon's army Avas ordered by the Communists. Many of them Avere convicted and executed, among them four " Petroleuses " (female Communists, convicted of firing public buildings by means of petroleum) Avere sentenced by court-martial to sufl^er death. 7. On the 8th of June, the National Assembly of France abolished the laAV of proscription against the Or- leans princes, and declared that the elections of the Duke d'Aumale and Prince de Joinville to the Assembly were 45* 584 HISTORY OF FRANCE. valid. On the 24th of August the Assembly provided by law for the disarmament of the National Guards. Near the close of July, Jules Favre resigned his position in the Cabinet under M. Thiers, and was suc- ceeded by Count Remusat. 8. On Sej)tember 17th, 1871, the Mount Cenis Railway, between France and Italy, was formally opened. This tunnel was commenced in the year 1857, and is one of the grandest achievements in railroad engineering that was ever accomplished. It cost $13,000,000. 9. The ex-Emperor Napoleon having been liberated by Germany, left Wilhelmshohe, and sought refuge in England, where he arrived on the 21st of March, 1871. 10. On the 11th of May of the same year, the defini- tive treaty between France and Germany was signed at Frankfort on the Main. 11. The Alsace and Lorraine customs treaty was signed October 13th, 1871, between France and Germany, where- by the former country ceded back to France a small strip of territory, and provision was made for the payment of the remainder of the war indemnity (being three mil- liards and a half of francs) in specie, eighty millions every fortnight, beginning January 15th, 1872. By this treaty six departments then occupied by German troops were to be immediately evacuated. Until the liquidation of the indemnity was effected, thirty thousand German troops were to remain in France. It was further pro- vided that the products of Alsace-Lorraine shall be per- mitted to enter France, and those of France enter Alsace-Lorraine, free of duty for the next twelve months. 12. A thorough reorganization of the French army was commenced by the government, with the beginning of the year 1872, consisting altogether of 350,000 men. 13. In January, 1872, the Assembly not being in har- mony with M. Thiers, concerning some matters of taxa- tion on raw material. President Thiers resigned his high office, but the resignation was not accepted. _ 14. On the 12th of January, 1872, the Duke de Per- siguy died at Nice, Italy, He was one of the strongest adherents of the first and second empires. 15. The Count de Chambord, on the 29th of January, issued a manifesto to the French people, in which he de- clared that he would never abdicate his right to the THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY AT VERSAILLES. 535 throne of France ; that he would ever uphold the flag of France, and aid in restoring the ancient prestige of her armies, but will never consent to become a revolutionist in a country where he is the legitimate king. 16. An attempt was made, on the 5th of February, 1872, to assassinate President Thiers. He was shot at, but the ball missed its aim, and the assassin escaped. 17. The new postal convention with Germany was signed February 13th. 18. The International Society caused a great deal of disturbance in France during the spring of 1872, so that the Assembly passed an act, on the 4th of March, forbid- ding the further meetings of that society, and imposing various fines and terms of imprisonment for holding office in, belonging to, or having connection with the society, in some cases depriving the offender of civil and domestic rights. 19. The government notified Great Britain, March 15th, of the abrogation of the commercial treaty. 20. In March, 1872, previous to the adjournment of the National Assembly, President Thiers addressed that body, saying that he guaranteed the maintenance of inter- nal order, declaring that the army was faithful, and that no interruption of peace was threatened from abroad, and that France was not entirely isolated ; she was not with- out alliances. President Thiers, in his address to a com- mittee of the Assembly, on the 3d of April, stated that official notice had been given Belgium of the termina- tion Avithin the stipulated time of the treaty of commerce. M. Thiers defined the attitude of France towards the Spanish crown, declaring that it was the interest of France to keep Amadeus on the throne, because his over- throw would lead to the revival of the candidature of Montpensier or the Hohenzollerns. 21. On the 12th of May, ex-Emperor Napoleon sent an address to the generals and commandants of the French army, in which he acknowledged that he was re- sponsible for the defeat of Sedan, saying that the army fought heroically, with an enemy double its strength. After 14,000 had been killed or wounded, and seeing that the contest was merely one of desperation, and the army's honor having been saved. Napoleon further stated, that he was constrained to exercise his sovereign right and unfurled the flag of truce, it being impossible that 536 HISTORY OP FEANCE. the immolation of 60,000 men could save France. The exiled Emperor closed his address assuring the country that he obeyed only a cruel, inexorable necessity — that his heart was broken but his conscience tranquil. 22. During the summer of 1872, permission was given by the French government that the remains of ex-King Louis Philippe be brought from England and be interred at Dreux, in the department of Eure-et-Loir, 23. M. De Remusat, Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Count von Arnim, the German ambassador to France, on June 29th signed the treaty providing for the evacuation of French territory by the German troops. On the 7th of July the ratifications of this treaty were exchanged by the respective powers. 24. On the 9th of August, 600 Communist prisoners were transported to New Caledonia, to serve out sen- tences imposed upon them for their participation in the nefarious crimes of the Communists during the winter of 1871. 25. The love for their native country was too strongly developed among the inhabitants of Alsace-Lorraine to forsake France in the dark days of adversity. The Prussian government had given to the inhabitants of her newly acquired provinces the option during a lim- ited period to emigrate or remain, subject to conscription for military service. By the time the option had expired but a bare remnant of the original population was left. Metz, which before the war had a population of 50,000, was reduced to 10,000. The populace set their faces towards France, whither their interests and sympathies led them. 26. Before the close of the year 1872, great dissen- sions manifested themselves among the various political factions of the National Assembly, and the government was censured by the conservatives for its laxity in deal- ing with the radicals. President Thiers demanded a vote of confidence, his alternative being his own resignation. M. Thiers was sustained, and when it became evident that he would not resign, the threatening situation in France disappeared. The National Assembly in Decem- ber, 1872, passed a bill showing the magnanimity of the French people. By this bill the confiscated property of the Orleans princes was restored to them. The value of this estate was over forty millions of francs, and was di- THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY AT VERSAILLES. 637 vided among the fifty-two heirs of King Louis Phil- ippe. 27. The census of France for the year 1872 showed the population to be 38,102,921, a decrease of 366,935 since 1866, which is attributed mainly to the late disas- trous war, and the many fatal visitations of epidemic. 28. On March 6th, 1873, President Thiers recognized the Carlist insurgents of Spain as belligerents ; and on the 28th of that month the Assembly adopted a bill exiling the Bonaparte family ; on the day following (29th), Je- rome Napoleon presented a petition to the Assembly, praying for his legal rights as a citizen, and remonstrating against his expulsion from France. 29. On the 9th of January, 1873, Charles Louis Na- poleon Bonaparte, ex-Emperor of the French, died at Chiselhurst, England, in exile, aged 64 years. Questions for Examination. 1. What course did the National Guards pursue after the evac- uation of Paris by the German troops ? 2. How did the soldiers demean themselves who were sent by the government to quell the insurrection? 3. What did the Versailles Assembly adopt on March 21st? 4. By what events were the last days of the reign of the Com- mune marked ? 5. On what day, and by whom, was the Commune vanquished ? 6. What was the fate of the principal ringleaders of the Com- mune ? 7. When was the law of proscription against the Orleans princes abolished? 8. When was the Mount Cenis Railway formally opened ? 9. The ex-Emperor Napoleon having been liberated, where did he seek refuge ? 10. When and where was the definitive treaty of peace_,between France and Germany signed ? 11. When was the Alsace and Lorraine customs treaty signed? 12. What took place in the French army in 1872? 13. The Assembly and M. Thiers not being in harmony, what took place ? 14. Who died at Nice, Italy, on January 12th, 1872 ? 15. What did the Count de Chambord declare in his manifesto? 16. What was attempted on President Thiers? 17. What took place on February 13th? 18. What did the Assembly do in regard to the International Society ? 19. Of what did the French government notify Great Britain? 638 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 20. What was the attitude of France towards the Spanish crown ? 21. What did ex-Emperor Napoleon acknowledge in his address to the generals and commandants of the French army ? 22. What permission was granted in regard to the remains of ex-King Louis Philippe?. 23. When was the treaty providing for the evacuation of the French territory by the German troops signed ? 24. What was done with the Communist prisoners ? 25. What option did the Prussian government give to the inhab- itants of her newly acquired provinces ? 26. How was the property of the Orleans princes restored to them? 27. What did the census of 1872 show ? 28. On March 28th and 29th what was done in regard to the Bonaparte family ? 29. When and where did the ex-Emperor Napoleon die ? THE PRESIDENCY OF MARSHAL McMAHON. 539 CHAPTER LV. FRANCE UNDER THE PRESIDENCY OF MARSHAL McMAHON— THE SEPTENATE. Of joyous days ye bring the blissful vision, The dear, familiar phantoms rise again, And like an old and half-extinct tradition, First Peace returns, with Friendship in his train. 1. The reorganization of the ministry of M. Adolphe Thiers, which took place in the middle of May, 1873, did not meet the views of the conservatives, who were in the majority in the Assembly, and a sharp division, involving a test of confidence in the Thiers administration, was the result. The Assembly, on the 24th of May, defeated a motion made by Minister Dufaure urging the establish- ment of the Republic on a permanent basis. The mem- bers of the cabinet now tendered their resignations to the President, and the latter tendered his resignation to the Assembly, which was accepted. 2. Immediately afterwards the Assembly elected Marie 540 HISTORY OF FRANCE. Elme Patrice Maurice de McMahon, Field-Marshal and the Duke of Magenta, President of France. On the 26th of May, the new President constituted his cabinet, in which the Bonapartists Avere in the majority. 3. During the month of August, movements were made by the Legitimists of restoring monarchy in France. The Count de Chambord, in a manifesto issued by him, denounced the Republic as promotive of social anarchy. But this agitation soon gave way to better counsel. The reign of Marshal McMahon began with a solid strength, and chances unknown to any of the preceding govern- ments since the fall of the Emj)ire. 4. On the 5th of September, 1873, the last instalment of the war-indemnity, inclusive of interest, was paid to Germany, and within three days immediately following this event, the last troops of the army of occupation were removed from French territory. Thus the grandest of all financial operations within the memory of man was ac- complished by the united patriotic efforts of the rank and file of the French people, and France had proved herself in such an incomparable state of solvency as no one ever deemed probable, heretofore. 5. In November, President McMahon urged the Na- tional Assembly to action towards the settlement of the character of the government in future, and on the 19th of that month the Assembly agreed that the term of President McMahon should be seven years. 6. At the close of the year 1873, political matters in France Avere still in a ferment. A conference of mon- archical delegates was held September 25th, at Versailles, and a plan for immediate operations agreed upon, as follows : The restoration of the monarchy, with a con- stitution and parliament, the division of France into electoral districts, the naming of a Lieutenant-general for the kingdom to be established, universal suffrage, the elligibility of all citizens to civil employment, and the tricolor as the national flag. But the republicans were equally diligent, and thus the machinations of the mon- archists were defeated. 7. Marshal Bazaine, Avho Avas accused of disobeying the commands of the Emperor and of the Empress-Regent, was tried by court-martial. This court opened October 6th. Bazaine was arraigned, besides other charges, of ren- dering the efforts of the nation unavailing, by his obsti- THE PRESIDENCY OF MAESHAL McMAHON. 541 nate refusal at Metz to assume active operations against the Germans. The trial lasted until December 10th, when the Marshal was found guilty, and sentenced to degradation and death. This sentence was commuted by President McMahon to twenty years' seclusion, without formal degradation. 8. On November 11th, 1873, Abd-el-Kader, the fa- mous Arab chieftain, who had caused the French so much trouble during the wars in Algiers, died in Paris. 9. The many attempts which were constantly made in the Assembly, to decide the future form of government, were promptly rejected by that body. The animus of these proceedings was generally of a monarchical ten- dency. The frequent and violeijl attacks on the Septenate were strenuously opposed by President McMahon, who declared, in a circular issued by the government, that his powers are incontestable. 10. On the night of August 9th to the 10th, 1874, Marshal Bazaine, assisted by his wife and others, escaped from his prison on the Isle of Sainte-Marguerite. 11. The conservative members of the National Assem- bly, during the autumn of 1874, became more reconciled with the future of France. Convinced by the follies of Chambord and the selfish attitude of the Orleans family, the establishment of royalty seems impossible, the Assem- bly continuing steadfast in their efforts to establish the permanent Republic, the only government which seems now possible for France. After a debate, in which only few speakers took part, the Assembly agreed to proclaim the Republic. 12. On the 13th of September, 1874, M. Guizot, the great statesman and author died, at the age of eighty- seven years. As a historian and man of letters, he will ever hold a high and honored place. 13. During the summer of 1874, the monarchists — royalists as well as imperialists — made great efforts to es- tablish a more permanent form of government, but the National Assembly defeated all motions made by the ex- tremists of either party. But it was shown by facts and figures that the Republicans have an absolute majority of nearly three millions of votes over all the other fac- tions of France. On the 24th of February, 1875, the Assembly passed a bill providing that the government shall consist of a Senate and Chamber of Representa- 46 542 HISTORY OF FEANCE. tives. The Senators are to be elected by colleges, com- posed of Deputies of the Assembly, Councillors-General, Councillors of Arrondissements, and delegates from mu- nicipalities. Senators representing departments and colo- nies are to sit nine years, one-third of their number being elected every three years. Those chosen by the Assembly are irremovable. The clause implying a recognition of the republic was adopted on the 25th of February, when the Public Powers Bill was passed. 14. In June, 1875, the country was visited by great floods in the Garonne and other rivers of Southern France. Whole villages were swept away, and in Toulouse alone 20,000 people were made homeless, over 3000 persons drowned, and sixty million dollars worth of property ruthlessly destroyed. President McMahon hastened to the scene of disaster, and the government appealed for succor for the suffering. Obverse of the Medal of the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1878. 15. On the 11th of November, the Assembly after a stormy debate, relating to the method of voting with re- gard to the Electoral Bill, passed that measure with the clause providing for elections by districts instead of on a general ticket. At the close of the year 1875, the Na- tional Assembly was prorogued, after having been in permanent session at Versailles since November, 1871. The elections for the new Chambers took place in Febru- ary, 1876, and they assembled in March of the same year. THE PRESIDENCY OF MAESHAL McMAHON. 543 16. On June 7tli, 1876, the Chamber of Deputies passed the University Education Bill, giving the State the exclusive right to confer degrees. By a vote of 144 to 139, the Senate, on July 21st, rejected the government bill restoring to the State the sole right of conferring university degrees. 17. On December 2d, 1876, owing to the defeat of the Amnesty Bill in the Senate, the Ministry resigned. Subsequently, M. Simon was appointed President of the Council and Minister of Interior, and M. Martel, Min- ister of Justice. MM. Dufaure and Marcere retired. Reverse of the Medal of the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1878. 18. Great interest was manifested in France by all classes of her population regarding the Centennial Exhi- bition of the Industries of all nations, which was held at Philadelphia during the summer and autumn of 1876. France having been the ally of the United States of America in the struggle for freedon and independence, continued to be on the most friendly terms of national affinity towards the great Republic in the western hemi- sphere. * 544 HISTORY OF PRANCE. Questions for Examination. 1. What caused the resignations of President Thiers and that of his cabiaet? 2. Who was elected President of France to succeed M. Thiers ? 3. Of what nature were the machinations of the Legitimists during the summer of 1873 ? 4. When was the last instalment of the war-indemnity to Ger- many paid ? 5. What was the term agreed on by the Assembly for the dura- tion of McMahon's Presidency? 6. What plan of operations was agreed upon by the monarchists at Versailles ? 7. On what charges was Marshal Bazaine tried and convicted by a court-martial ? 8. What famous Arab chieftain died on November 11th, 1873 ? 9. What was the animus of the attempts to decide the future form of government? 10. How and when did Marshal Bazaine make his escape ? 11. How did the establishment of royalty seem impossible ? 12. What great statesman and author died in September, 1874? 13. What was shown by facts and figures ? 14. State what happened on account of the great floods in the Garonne and other rivers in Southern France. 15. How long had the National Assembly been in permanent session ? 16. What was the result of the legislation on the University Education Bill ? 17. What led to the resignation of the Ministry on December 2d, 1876 ? 18. State the terms of aflBnity between France and the United States as manifested by all classes of her population regarding the Centennial Exhibition. THE PRESIDENCY OF JULES GREVY. 545 CHAPTER LVI. THE PRESIDENCY OF JULES GREVY. Thus doth the ever-changing course of things Run a perpetual circle, ever turning, And that same day, that highest glory brings, Brings us unto the point of back returning. His breast with wounds unnumbered riven, His back to earth, his face to heaven. Byron. 1. The French Chamber of Deputies, May 15th, 1877, voted to repeal the Press Law of 1875. During the afternoon of May 18th, a message from President Mc- Mahon was read in both Chambers, inviting them to suspend their sittings one month. The President ex- plained that, while scrupulously conforming to the policy of the constitutional Dufaure and Semoir Cabinets, he could not take a step flirther in that direction without making an appeal to the radical factions which desire modifications of French institutions. The triumph of these ideas could only result in disorder and in the humil- iation of France. He declared that he would repress any imprudent utterances by the press. The change in the French government was considered in Germany a triumph of the Ultramontane party, and that nation strengthened the defences of her western frontier. 2. The most important political event in France dur- ing the month of September was the death, on the 3d inst., of ex-President Thiers, aged eighty years. The 46* 2K 54:6 HISTORY OF FRANCE. government determined to give him a State funeral, but this purpose was abandoned, as Madame Thiers declined to place the entire management of afiairs in the hands of the official authorities. The funeral took place Septem- ber 8th, from M. Thier's late residence, in the Place St. George. The route of the procession to the church of Notre Dame de Lorrette was lined Avith an immense throng. M. Grevy, ex-President of the Chamber of Deputies, and M. Jules Simon delivered eulogies at the grave. There was no disturbance of order during the day. 3. In his manifesto to the French people, September 19 th, President McMahon claimed that he had for four years maintained peace and reorganized the army, and that the period of his administration had been one of commercial prosperity. " These great results," he says, " have been threatened with danger. The Chamber of Deputies, daily throwing off the leadership of moderate men, and more and more dominated by the avowed lead- ers of the radical party, at length forgot the share of authority which belonged to me, and which I could not allow to be diminished without involving the honor of my name before you and before history. Contesting at the same time my rightful influence in the Senate, the Chamber of Deputies arrived at nothing less than sub- stituting for the necessary equilibrium of public powers established by the Constitution the despotism of a new convention. Hesitation was no longer permissable. Ex- ercising my constitutional right, and in conformity with the opinion of the Senate, I dissolved the Chamber of Deputies. It is now for you to speak. They tell you I seek to overthrow the Republic, but you Avill not believe it. The Constitution is intrusted to my guardianship, and I will make it respected. What I look for from you is the election of a chamber which, raising itself above party rivalries, will occupy itself before all things with the country's affairs." 4. On October 14th, the elections for members of the new Chamber of Deputies were held. Prince Napoleon was defeated. The Senate, on March 18th, 1878, passed the third ar- ticle of the State of Siege Bill, which provides that the President can declare a state of siege only during a dis- solution of the Chambers in the event of a foreign war. On March 29th, the Press Amnesty Bill was adopted. THE PRESIDENCY OF JULES GEEVY. 547 On May 1st, the International Expositi(on was formally opened in Paris by President McMahon, The United States was fully represented, and shared liberally in the distribution of the decorations and awarding of medals. 5. President McMahon, on January 30th, 1879, re- signed his office, rather than subscribe to the measures proposed by the Ministry regarding military command- ers. M. Jules Grevy was elected by the Congress of the two Chambers to succeed McMahon as President of the Republic, by a vote of 536 to 99. On the following day, M. Gambetta was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies. The new Cabinet Vvas constituted as follows : M. Waddington, President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs; Senator Le Royer, Minister of Jus- tice ; M. De Marcere, Minister of the Interior, and also Minister of Public Worship, ad interim ; M. Jules Ferry, Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts ; M. Lepere, Minister of Agriculture ; Admiral Jauregniberny, Min- ister of Marine. 6. On February 28th, the Senate passed the Govern- ment Amnesty Bill, after rejecting M. Victor Hugo's proposition for a complete amnesty. Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was killed by the Zulus, June 1st, while reconnoitring with a small party of British soldiers. On June 19th, by a vote 549 to 262, the Congress of the French Senate and Chamber of Deputies resolved to restore the seat of government to Paris. The French Chamber of Deputies, July 20th, by a vote of 363 to 166, excluded the religious element from the Superior Council of Education. The bill would de- stroy the Jesuitical schools. 7. During this month the French Bonapartists accept- ed Prince Jerome as their leader. The publication of this act was soon followed by a manifesto from the Count de Chambord explaining his position. In reply to the charge of having voluntarily declined to embrace a former opportunity of ascending the throne, he says : " If, in the presence of attentive Europe, and on the morrow of indescribable disasters, I showed a greater care for my royal dignity and the grandeur of my mission, it was in order that I might remain faithful to my oath never to become king of a faction or a party. I will not submit to the guardianship of men of factions, but shall not cease 548 HISTORY OF FRANCE. tnappeul to all honest men for support. Armed with this force, and with the grace of God, I can save France. It is my duty and my desii-e to do so," 8. The statue of ex-President Thiers, at Nancy, France, Avas unveiled with impressive ceremonies, August od. Speeches were made by Jules Simon, M. Martel, and M. Marcere. The last-mentioned orator, the Minister of the Interior, declared in his address, that the government was resolved to remain true to the noble ideas of M. Thiers, namely, a conservative republic, guarding the national traditions and just influence of France in Europe and in the whole world. M. Jules Simon dAvelt upon the firm- ness of M. Thiers in resisting even his own party when his liberal, conservative convictions were touched. M. Simon concluded by saying, " France is saved. She pos- sesses a republican government, and liberty to think, teach, and write. She has issued from a combat. It is necessary for her either to vanquish her enemies or to re- assure them. The definite form of the revolution of 1870 is a conservative, liberal republic, such as M. Thiers created." 9. The Legislature met in Paris, November 27th, for the first time since 1870. M, Gambetta congratulated the House on the restoration to Paris of the legal title of the capital of France. The decrees of the French government against the vari- ous unauthorized religious orders were enforced through- out the country during the latter part of 1879. The police met with considerable resistance, and were obliged to force doors and demolish barricades before the work of ejectment could be accomplished. Arrests, were made in several instances, and some of the obstructionists were sentenced to imprisonment. 10. On November 19th, 1880, the Chambers refused to give priority to the Education Bill, and M. Ferry's min- istry resigned. Two days later, a vote of confidence was given (297 to 131), and the Ministers withdrew their resignations. In Paris, March 27th, 1881, Oscar Thomas Gilbert Motier de Lafayette, Senator of France and grandson of General Lafayette, died, aged sixty-five years. At Versailles, on April 18th, Prince Pierre Napoleon, third son of Lucieu Bonaparte, died, aged sixty-six years. THE PEESIDEISrCY OF JULES GREVY. 549 11. The difficulty which had arisen between France and Tunis led to an invasion of the latter territory by the French troops, for the purpose of chastising the Kroumirs for thdr recent raids across the border. The French em- phatically disclaimed any intention of annexing Tunis, taut asserted their determination to compel the Bey to respect their interests, and to put down foreign intrigue. 12. The French campaign against Tunis was short and decisive. Hostilities were commenced April 26th, 1881, by the bombardment and capture of a fort on the island of Tabarka. Five days later the French troops entered Tunisian territory and marched upon the town of Keff, which was soon occupied. On the 9th of May, the con- verging columns of the invading forces had so nearly hemmed in the Kroumirs that the latter evacuated their stronghold at Sidi Abdalla without a fight. This virtu- ally ended the campaign. On the 12th of May, the city of Tunis was surrounded, and the Bey, under compulsion, signed a treaty presented to him by General Breard, vir- tually giving to France the suzerainty of the country. 13. The French Senate, May 27th, 1881, ratified a treaty with Tunis. Lord Granville, in his dispatch of July 15th, stated to the French government that, in view of the unquestioned incorporation of Tripoli in the Turkish Empire, as well as its proximity to Egypt, her majesty's government could not regard interference of whatever description on the the part of France in Tripoli in the same manner as they viewed the occurrences in Tunis. To this the French Foreign Minister replied that France regarded Tripoli as indisputably a part of the Ottoman Empire, and that she had no intention Avhatever either of invading it or attempting to establish any exclusive or predominant in- fluence in that country. The remonstrances which had been addressed to the Porte, he said, had been mild and friendly, and had not been made until France had very good reason to believe that Turkish emissaries from Tri- poli had been stirring up disaflTection in Tunis. The Porte had been warned of the danger which must ensue if a fire were lighted in Tripoli which should spread to Tunis, and it had been assured that if, contrary to her hopes and wishes, France were driven to military measures, she would take defensive measures only, and French troops would not cross the frontier of Tripoli. The French Min- 550 HISTORY OF FRANCE. ister declared that it would be a real and great sorrow to him if anything should occur to weaken the close and cor- dial understanding between France and England in re- gard to Egypt. 14. The French elections, held in the fall of 1881, re- sulted in large Republican gains. The new Chamber, without counting the Colonial Deputies, comprised 457 Republicans, 47 Bonapartists, and 43 Monarchists. The Republicans comprised 39 of the Left Centre, 168 of the Left, 206 of the Republican Union, and 46 of the Ex- treme Left. Three battalions of troops and a battery of artillery occupied Susa, September 10th. The Arabs besieged the camp at Zaghonan for four days, but were repulsed. From April 6th to September 7th, France had sent 36,000 men to Algeria. General Logerat was placed in full command in Tunis. The French troops, October 10th, entered the city of Tunis, by virtue of an under- standing with the Bey. 15. On January 26th, 1882, the Chamber of Deputies rejected the government bill for the revival of the Con- stitution, including the provision for scrutin de liste. M. Gambetta and his colleagues resigned. On the 30th, a new Cabinet was formed. The French captured the city of Ha-Noi, in southeast- ern Asia, May 2d, after two hours' bombardment. General Ernest L. O. C. de Cissy died in Paris, June 16th, aged seventy years. The French Ministry resigned July 20th, because of an overwhelming defeat on the veto of credit for the protec- tion of the Suez Canal. 16. On November 11th, the Chamber of Deputies an- nounced its decision to oppose any proposition tending to the abrogation of the concordat. Bishop Freppel argued that the State was bound to maintain public worship as an indemnification to the clergy for the confiscation of their property at the time of the Revolution. The distinguished statesman, M. Gambetta, died on January 1st, 1883, aged forty-four years. 17. Affairs in France were greatly disturbed during the month of January, 1883. The arrest of Prince Napoleon for issuing his manifesto led to a crisis, and on January 28th the Ministry resigned. On the 29th a new Cabinet was foi-med, under M. Falliers, with M. THE PRESIDENCY OF JULES GREVY. 551 Thibaudin as Minister of War. On February 1st, the Chamber of Deputies, by a vote of 343 to 163, passed M. Fabre's compromise bill, prohibiting the princes from fill- ing any civil or military post. The Senate adopted a measure providing for the banishment of a prince found guilty of further pretensions endangering the State. As a consequence of this action of the Senate, the Ministry resigned. On February 15th, the Chamber accepted a compromise proposal of Senator Barbey's, rendering the princes liable to expulsion by the decree of the President of the Republic, with a modification placing the princes under half-pay, instead of depriving them of their mili- tary rank. 18. On February 17th, the Senate practically rejected the measure. The following day a new Ministry, under Jules Ferry, was announced. The indictment against Prince Napoleon was quashed February 9th, and he was released from custody. Soon afterwards he went to Lon- don. On March 6th, a proposal for the revision of the Con- stitution was rejected by the Chamber of Deputies, as also, on the 19th, a motion granting amnesty to press offenders. A vote of credit for the Tonquin expedition was granted by the Chamber on May 15th. 19. On June loth, Admiral Pierre bombarded and captured Tamatave, in Madagascar, and also destroyed Toule Point, Mohambo, and Tenerive. The French troops in Tonquin, on July 19th, made a sortie from Namdirih, killing one thousand natives and capturing seven guns. On August 25th, the French captured Hue, the capital of Anam, and a treaty of peace was soon afterwards signed. On September 1st, the French forces defeated the Black Flags, between Ha-lSToi and Sontay. The Count de Chambord died at Frohsdorf on August 24th, aged sixty-three years. 20. The successes of the French troops led to a diffi- culty between France and China. The Chinese govern- ment stated that the French had imposed upon the government of Anam an unjust treaty, and had ignored the rights of China. France had invaded Anam, and had manifested an intention to take Bacninh, the key to the Chinese empire. In reply, France declared that she had no wish to annex Anam or Tonquui ; that the sole 552 HISTORY OP FRANCE. object of the Hue treaty Avas to define the terms of the treaty of 1874 ; that in order to consolidate the protec- torate of Tonquin France considered it expedient to oc- cupy Bacninh and Sontay. 21. On December 16th, the French troops captured Sontay and burned the citadel, with a loss of four ofiicers and seventy-seven men. General Emmanuel Felix de Wimpffen died in Paris, February 26th, 1884, aged seventy -three years. On March 12th, the French troops occupied Bacninh. 22. A statue of M. Gambetta was unveiled at Cohers, April 14th, 1884. Prime Minister Ferry, in his address, deeply regretted Gambetta's premature death, which had left a void no one was able to fill. The memory of the deceased would never perish. Love of France was his ruling passion. General Campenon, Minister of War, rendered homage to Gambetta in the name of the army, which, he said, would never forget the part Gambetta had played. Frenchmen would ever remember his words teaching them to love their country to death. 23. In the early part of May, 1884, a treaty of peace was ratified between France and China, by Avhich free- dom of trade was established between France, China, and Auam, thus bringing to an early termination the unpleas- antness existing between the two countries, without fur- ther bloodshed. Questions for Examination. 1. What message was sent to both Chambers by President Mc- Mahon ? 2. What prominent statesman and author died on September 3d, 1877? 3. What claims were put forth by President McMahon in his manifesto to the people ? 4. When and where was the International Exposition held? 5. When did President McMahon resign the presidency ? 6. What bill was passed by the Senate on February 28th, 1879? 7. What occurred during the month of July ? 8. Where and when was the statue of ex-President Thiers un- veiled ? 9. AVhat decrees were enforced during the latter part of 1879? 10. What two distinguished persons died during the year 1881? 11. Why did France invade Tunisian territoi'y ? THE PEESIDENCY OF JULES GEEVY. 553 12. What was the result of the French campaign against Tunis ? 13. What was the substance of Lord Granville's dispatch to the French government relative to Tripoli ? 14. What was the result of the fall elections ? 15. What government bill was rejected by the Chamber of Dep- uties ? 16. What distinguished statesman died on January 1st, 1883 ? 17. What measures were adopted during the month of February concerning the princes ? 18. When was the indictment against Prince Napoleon quashed ? 19. When was the capital of Anam captured ? 20. What was the origin of the difficulty between France and China ? 21. What two important places were occupied by the French troops ? 22. When and where was the statue of M. Gambetta unveiled ? 23. When was the treaty of peace ratified between France and China ? 47 GENEALOGY KINGS OF FRANCE. MEROVINGIAN LINE. Clotis, manled to Clotilda, daughter of the king of Burgundy; by ter he had three sons and one daughter: Clodomir, king of Orleans ; Childebert, king of Paris; Clotaire, king of Soissons; Clotilda, married to the king of the Spanish Visigoths. He had also a natural son, Thierry or Theodoric, king of Metz or Austrasia. These separate kingdoms were again united under, CtoTAiRE I.; by his first wife, Ingonda, he had three sons; Charibert, king of Paris ; Gontran, king of Orleans; Sigebert, king of Austrasia; And by his second wife, Haregonda, one son, Ckilperic, king of Soissons. Gontran was the survivor of his brothers. — Sigebert, by his wife Fredegonde, had Childebert II., king of Austrasia. — Chilperic, by hia wife Bruneliaut, had Clotaire II., king of Nuestria. — After the death of Go^itran the entire kingdom of the Franks was shared between these two princes, but it was again united under Clotaire II. C1.0TAIRE II. left two sons: Dagobert, king of Nuestria, Austria, and Burgundy; Charibert, king of part of Aquitaine. But, by the death of the latter, Dagobert became sole monarch of France. His descendants were called Les Rois Faineans, or the Sluggard Kings, and were entirely under the control of the Mayors of the palace. Daoobeut l^t his kingdom between his two sons: Sigebert, king of Austrasia ; (554) GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF FEANCE. 555 Clevis II., Iting of Nuestria. Aftei the death of Sigebert, Clovis became sole monarch of France. Clovis had three sons : Clotaire III., king of Nuestria and Burgundy; Childeric, king of Austrasia; Thierry, who succeeded Clotaire ; The latter was deposed, and thus the kingdom was again united under Childeric. CHiLDEnic was murdered in an insurrection, and the kingdom of France was again divided between Thierry, who had been deposed, and Dagobert II. the son of Sigebert, but the latter was soon slain in a civil war. Thiehht left two sons: Clovis III., king of France Childeberi, his successor. Childebert was succeeded by his son, Dagobert II, After his death, we find Chilperic II. king of Nuestria; Clotaire, king of Austrasia ; But it is not easy to trace their descent. Clotaire died after a short reign, and Chilperic inherited his domiriions. After the death of Chilperic, Charles Martel acted as king of France; but, finding the people averse to his usurpation, he gave the shadow of royalty to Thierry II., son of Dagobert II. After his death a simi- lar interregnum was caused by the ambition of Martel's sons, Pepin and Carloman. At length they raised to tho throne Childeric III., the brother of Thierry ; but Pepin having gained the consent of the Pope, soon deposed Childeric, and assumed the crown himself; thus terminated the Merovingian dynasty, so named from Merovee, a sup- posed ancestor of Clovis. It was succeeded by the Carlovingian dynasty, which was so called from Charles Martel, the great foundai of the family. CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY. Pepin, at his death, left two sons : Carloman, who died early, and Charlemagne, the first emperor of the west. Charlemagne was succeeded by LouiB I., who divided his dominions between his children, Lothaire, king of Italy; Louis, the Germanic king of Bavaria • Charles the Bald, king of France. Lothaire died without children. 556 GENEALOGY OF THE LoTTis shated his dominions between his three sons: Carloman, ^ Louis, > joint kings of Bavaria. Charles, J Charles the Bald had four sons: Louis succeeded his father; Charles, 7 • •. i • r u • LothaiJe, ^ joint kmgs of Bavaria; Carloman, died in exile. Louis IL had three sons : Louis IIL, king of Nuestria ; Carloman, king of Aquitaine ; Charles, born after his father's death. The two former died young, and, the latter being yet in his infancjr the kingdom of France was given to Charles, the only surviving son of Louis the German; after an inglorious reign, he was succeeded by Charles IV., the posthumous son of Louis II. Charles IV. was deposed, but, after some delay, the crown was given to his son. Lotris IV. had two sons : Lothaire, king of France ; Charles, duke of Lorraine. Lothaire was succeeded by his son, Louis V., the last of the Carlo vingian race : after his death, Hugh Capet was elected king of France. CAPETIAN DYNASTY. Httsh Capit married Adelaide, daughter of the duke of Aquitaine by her he had one son and three daughters : Robert, who succeeded his father ; Avoya, married to the count of Hainault ; Adelaide, married to the count of Nevers ; Gisella, married to the count of Ponthieu. Robert L was married three times; he had no children by his first two wives ; but, by the last, Constance of Provence, he had Hugh, who died before his father; Henry I, who succeeded to the crown; Eudes, bishop of Auxerre ; Robert, duke of Burgundy; Alice, married to the count of Flanders. Hbdtrt I. had no children by his first wife; by his second, Anne ot Russia, he had three sons; Philip, his successor ; KINGS OP FEANCE. 657 Robert, who died young ; Hugh, count of Vermandois. Philip I. ; by his first wife, Bertha, had Louis, his successor. Constance, married to the prince of Antioch. By his second wife, Bertrade, he bad Philip, count of Mantes ; Fleury ; Cecilia, married first to the princa of Antioch, afterwards to the count of Tripoly. Loris VI. had no children by his first wife; from his second, Ada. laide of Savoy, were born Philip, who died young ; Louis, his father's successor; Robert, count of Dreux; Hugh, of whom we only know the name ; Henry, bishop of Beauvais; Peter, married to the heiress of the Courtenays ; Philip, archdeacon of Paris; Constance, married, first to the count of Boulogne, and then t» the count of Toulouse. Locis VII. ; by his first wife, Eleanor of Guienne, had Mary, married to the count of Champagne ; Alice, married to the count of Blois. By his second wife, Constance of Castile, Margaret, married, first to the English prince Henry; after- wards to the king of Hungary. By his third wife, Alice of Champagne, Philip, his successor; jignes, married to the Grecian prince, Alexis; Mice, betrothed to Richard I. of England, married to the Goant of Ponthieu, Philip II. ; by his first wife, Isabella of Hainault, had Louis, his successor. By his second, Mary of Dalmatia, Philip, count of Boulogne ; Maria, married to the duke of Brabant. Louis VIII. was married to Blanche of Castile; their childrea were Louis, his father's successor; Robert, count of Artois ; Charles, count of Anjou ; Jilphonso, count of Poitou ; John, died young; Isabella, a nun. 47* 558 GENEALOGY OF THE hoTTis IX.; by his wife, Margaret of Provence, had Philip, his successor ; John Tristan, count of Nevers; Peter, count of Alen§on ; Robert, count of Clermont, the ancestor of the Bourbon branch of the royal family ; Isabella, married to the king of Navarre ; Blanche, married to the infant of Castile; Margaret, married to the duke of Brabant; Agnes, rriarried to the duke of Burgundy. Phiiip III. ; by his first wife, Isabella of Arragon, had Louis, who died young; Philip, ■who succeeded his father ; Charles, count of Valois. By his second wife, Maria of Brabant, he had Louis, count of Evreux; Margaret, married to Edward I. of England; Blanche, married to the duke of Austria. fHiiiP IV. married Jane, queen of Navarre, by whom he had „, .,. ■ f successively kings of France, but died without Philip V. > , . , ^r 7 TT7- i heirs male. Charles JK. 3 Margaret, married to Ferdinand of Castile ; Isabella, mai:ried to Edward II. of England. HOUSE OF VALOIS. Phixip VI., son of Charles, count of Valois, in obedience to the Salic law, obtained the crown, which to him proved a crown of thorns, in preference to the representatives in the female line of the former kings. He married Jane of Burgundy, by whom he had John, who succeeded his father ; Philip, duke of Orleans ; Mary, duchess of Brabant. By a second wife he had /awe, a posthumous child, married to the king of Navarre. JoHX, by his first wife. Bona of Bohemia, had Charles, his successor ; Louis, duke of Anjou ; John, dnke of Berri; Maria, duchess of Barr ; Jane, married to Charles, king of Navarre; Isabella, married to the first duke of Milan ; Margaret, a nun ; Philip, duke of Burgundy; from whom descended Charles of Burgundy, and Charles V., emperor of Germany. Chahles V. ; by his wife, Jano of Bourbon, left two sons* Charles, his successor ; Louis, duke of Orleans. KINGS OF FRANCE. 569 rHAiii.Es VI. married Isabella of Bavaria, by her he had Louis, > ^.gj before their father ; John, \ Charles, who succeeded to the throne; Isabella, married to Richard II. of England; Jane, married to the duke of Brittany; Michella, married to the duke of Burgundy; Catherine, married to Henry V. of England ; Mary, a nun. CHxatES VII. married Mary of Anjou, by her he had jLuuis, his successor ; Ckurles, duke of Berri ; Yoland, married to the duke of Savoy; Catherine, married to the count de Charolois; Magdelane, married to the count de Foix. Louis XI. had issue only by his second wife, Charlotte of Savoy, viz. Charles, his successor; jinne, married to the lord of Beaujou ; Joan, married to the duke of Or^ieans. The children of the next monarch, Chakles VIII. died in their infancy ; he was succeeded by his COO* sin, Louis XIL, grandson of Louis, duke of Orleans. Louis XII.; by his first wife, Anne of Brittany, had Claude, married to the count d'Angouleme; Renee, married to the duke of Ferrara ; By his second wife, Mary of England, he had no children. Francis I., count de Angouleme, descended from a second son of Louis, duke of Orleans, received the crown as next male heir ; b« was first married to Claude of France ; their children were Pkilip, who died before his father ; Henry, who succeeded to the throne ; Charles, duke of Orleans ; Magdelane, married to the king of Scotland ; Margaret, married to the duke of Savoy. He had no children by his second wife. IIbitht II. married Catherine de Medicis; by whom he had Francis IL 'I ^^^ reigned successively, but died without male Charles IX. > , . ,y. I hens; Henry III. ) ' Elizabeth, married to the king of Spain ; Claude, married to the duke of Lorraine ; Margaret,raa.TTied to Henry Bourbon, king of Navarre, descended from Robert, the fourth son of Louis IX. HOUSE OF BOURBON. On the death of Henry III., the direct line was extinct, and the inccession devolved on a remote collateral branch, of which Henry Bourbon, king of Navarre, was the representative. 660 GENEALOGY OF THE HsiTBT IV., after the death of his first wife, Margaret, married Mar) de Medicis, by whom he had Lffids, his successor ; Gaston, duke of Orleans ; Elizabeth, married to the king of Spain ; Christiana, married to the prince of Piedmont ; Henrietta Maria, married to Charles I. of England. Louis XIII. married Anne of Austria ; by whom he had Louis, his successor ; Philip, duke of Anjou, and afterwards duke of Orleans. Loris XIV. married Maria Theresa of Austria; by her he had Louis, the Dauphin^ who died before his father, leaving by hl» wife, Maria Anna Christina Victoria, princess of Bavaria, the following children: Louis, duke of Burgundy ; Philip, king of Spain ; Charles, duke of Berry. Louis, duke of Burgundy, married Adelaide of Savoy, and had on« son, Louis, who succeeded his great-grandfather. LoTJis XV. married Maria Leczinska, daughter of Stanislaus, ex-ldug of Poland ; by her he had Louis, the Dauphin, who died befoie his father ; Maria Louisa Elizabeth, married to the infant of Spain ; .Anne Henrietta; Maria Adelaide; Victoria ; Sophia ; Louisa Maria, a nun. Loris, the Dauphiw, had no children by his first wife ; the offspring of his second marriage with Maria Josepha, princess of Savoy were : Louis, duke of Burgundy, Xavier, duke of Aquitaine, Louis Augustus, succeeded his grandfather ; Louis Stanislaus Xavier, after long exile, king of France ; Charles Philip, the late king of France; Adelaide Clotilda, married the prince of Piedmont; Elizabeth Philippina, murdered during the revolution ; Maria Zepharina, died young. Louis XVI. was married to Marie Antoinette, archduchess of Ana tria: by her he had Louis Joseph, who died in infancy ; Louis Charles, called Louis XVIL, died in the Temple; Maria Theresa, married to the duke of Angoulemej Sophia Helena, died in infancy. Louis XVIII. died without issue. r ) ' > died young ; ne, ^ KINGS OF FBANCE. 661 Charles X. was married to Theresa of Savoy; she died in 1805 •nd left two sons: Louis Antoine, duke of Angouleme, late Dauphin ; Charles Ferdinand, duke of Berry, assassinated at the Tlj-satre, February 20, 1820, By his wife, Maria Caroline of Naples, the duke of Berry had a posthumous son, Charles Ferdinand, duke of Bordeaux, regarded by the Carlists as rightful heir to the throne of France. Louis Philippe, the last king of France, descended from the Orleans branch of the Bourbons, and had several children. For reasons, enfficiently obvious, their names and titles have been omitted. NAPOLEONIC DYNASTY. Napoleon Bonaparte I. ascended the Imperial throne in 1804, Ho was married to Josephine Beauharnais, by whom he had no issue, and from whom he was divorced in 1810. His second wife was Maria Louisa, archduchess of Austria, who bore him a son. Napoleon was driven from the throne in 1815, and died in banishment. Napoleon Bonaparte II, dying while a youth, and there being no other direct heirs, the family hopes centered on Louis Napoleon, Bon of Louis Bonaparte, and nephew of the great Emperor, who, after several unsuccessful attempts, finally succeeded in securing the imperial sway, in the year 1852, under the title of Napoleon III,, and married Eugenie de Montijo, Countess de Teba, on the 22d January, 1853, who bore him a son in 1855, After his dethronement in 1870, the ex-Emperor died in exile, in England, on January 9th, 1873, His son, and only child, Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, was killed by the Zulus, in Southern Africa, on June 1st, 1879. PRESIDENTS OF THE REPUBLIC. Adolphe Thiers was chosen President of the Provisional Gov- ernment on February 17th, 1871, He resigned his office. May 24th, 1873, and died, September 3d, 1877. Marshal McMahon was elected President, May 24th, 1873. He resigned his office, January 30th, 1879. Jules Grevy was elected President, January 30th, 1879. 2L CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. l.V. FACIB 486 Ciovis defeats the Romans near Soissons, and thus lays the foundation of the French monarchy 16 507 Alaric, king of the Visigoths, subdued near Poictiers, by Ciovis 20 511 Death of Ciovis, and division of the monarchy 21 613 Re-union of the French dominions under a single sove- reign ib. 750 Pepin dethrones the Merovingian race of kings 26 771 Accession of Charlemagne 28 800 Charlemagne crow^ned emperor by pope Leo III 32 814 Death of Charlemagne — w^eakness of his successor 33 820 The Normans first appear on the coast of France 39 830 The emperor Louis dethroned by his unnatural sons and rebellious clergy 38 841 Civil v^ar between the sons of Louis 39 845 The Normans advance to the gates of Paris 40 862 The divorce of Lothaire affords pope Nicholas an opportu- nity of asserting the supremacy of the Roman pontiffs. . 4C 877 Death of Charles the Bald — feudal system established . . 42 886 Siege of Paris by the Normans 44 912 The province of Neustria ceded to the Normans 46 987 The throne of France passes from the Carlovingian to the Capetian race 53 998 Robert I. excommunicated by the pope 68 1029 The Normans settle in Italy 70 1040 Truce of God published by the bishops 54 1053 The Normans vi'rest Sicily from the Saracens 70 1066 William the Conqueror invades England 69 1095 The first Crusade preached by Urban II , 61 (562) CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 563 &. D. PAOll 1124 First war between the Anglo-Normans and French . . 77 1146 Second Crusade preached by St. Bernard 81 1189 Third Crusade, in which Richard CcEur-de-Lion and Philip Augustus join 87 1204 Normandy wrested from the English 91 1 208 Crusade against the Albigenses i)5 1223 Death of Philip Augustus 99 1249 Crusade of St. Louis — he is taken prisoner in Egypt .... 105 1266 Charles of Anjou obtains the kingdom of the two Sicilies, having defeated and put to death Conradin, the rightful heir 109 1270 Death of St. Louis in Africa — end of the Crusades ib. 1282 Sicilian Vespers — all the French in Sicily massacred ... 114 1294 Pope Boniface VIIL quarrels with Philip the Fair U6 1302 States-General assembled in France, to which the Com- mons are summoned for the first time 117 1307 The Order of the Templars abolished 119 1308 The independence of Switzerl.and established 120 1328 Philip of Valois ascends the throne of France 127 1336 Edward IIL lays claim to the throne of France 130 1346 Battle of Cregy 133 1347 Siege of Calais 138 135b Battle of Poictiers — king John taken prisoner. 144 1358 The Jacquerie or insurrection of the peasantry 150 1368 The war in Castile between Peter the Cruel and Henry de Transtamara, proves of great service to France. . .. 155 1377 Death of the Black Prince — the English lose all their con- quests in France 158 1380 Joanna, queen of Naples, is dethroned by her cousin Du- razzo, and transfers her right to Charles of Anjou 163 1415 Henry V. of England invades France 172 1417 The council of Constance puts an end to the Schism of THE West, but disgraces itself by sentencing John Huss and Jerome of Prague to the stake 178 1429 Joan of Arc compels the English to raise the siege of Orleans 182 1453 The English are driven out of France 187 1461 Accession of Louis XI 190 1477 Death of Charles, duke of Burgundy 196 1492 Brittany loses its independence 201 1 494 Charles VHI. invades Italy 203 1495 Battle of Fornova; the French obtain unexpected victory 205 1499 Louis XII. invades Italy; succeeds at first, but eventually loses all his conquests 209 1508 The league of Cambray formed against the Venetians . . 211 1515 The Battle of the Spurs 212 1517 Martin Luther commences the Reformation 217 1525 Battle of Pavia — Francis I. taken prisoner 221 564 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. k. D. FABI 527 Rome taken and plundered by the army of the constable of Bourbon 226 1529 The followers of Luther take the title of Protestants 227 1552 Prince Maurice of Saxony forces Charles V. to concede tol eration 233 1558 Calais taken from the English by the duke of Guise .... 236 1560 Conspiracy of Amboise against the Guises — beginning of the religious troubles in France 237 1572 Treacherous Massacre of the Protestants on St. Bartholo- mew's Day (August 24th) 246 1576 The Alliance called The Holy League formed 253 1587 The duke of Guise assassinated by order of Henry HL. . 258 1589 Henry HL, the last of the house of Valois, assassinated by James Clement, a fanatical monk; the succession de volves to Henry IV., the first monarch of the house of Bourbon 2o 1590 Henry IV. compelled to raise the siege of Paris 267 1593 abjures Protestantism 268 1598 grants Religious Toleration by the edict of Nantes 270 1610 is assassinated by Ravaillac 274 1621 A new Religious War breaks out in France 279 1628 Rochelle, the strong-hold of the Protestants, surrenders to Richelieu 284 1631 Gustavus Adolphus, king of Swedep., is killed at the battle of Lutzen ., 286 1642 Death of cardinal Richelieu. 287 1648 Revolt of Massaniello at Naples 292 The Eighty Years' war terminated by the treaty of West- phalia 293 1649 The wars of the Fronde commence 294 1659 The treaty of the Pyrennees concluded between France and Spain 298 1661 Death of cardinal Mazarin ib. 1667 Peace of Breda between England and Holland 302 1672 Louis XIV. invades HoUand-^the Dutch reduced to the brink of ruin 304 1678 Peace of Nimeguen 306 1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes — the Protestants cruelly persecuted • 308 1686 The League of Augsburg, formed to check ine ambition of Louis XIV. The parties to the alliance were the Emperor of Germany, the kings of Spain and Sweden, the elector Palatine and of Bavaria, and the republic of the United Provinces ib 1688 Thb REvotUTioBT in England 30% 1697 The peace of Ryswick , ib Philip v., grandson of Louis XIV., ascend.s the throne of Spain, which has since remained in the possession of the Bourbon family 313 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 565 4. D. FASV 1701 Commencement of the war of the Spanish succfession ... . S14 17C2 Death of William III., king of Great Britain and stadt- holder of Holland ib. 1704 Battle of Blenheim 315 1706 The siege of Turin raised by prince Eugene 316 1710 Fruitless negociations for peace at Gertruydenberg 217 1712 Peace of Utreclit ". 318 1715 Death of Louis XIV 319 1717 France, England, and Holland unite against Spain 323 J 733 France, Spain, and Sardinia unite to place Stanislaus Leczinski on the throne of Poland 324 1738 Peace concluded between France and the empire ib 1740 Death of the emperor Charles VI. — the pragmatic sanc- tion violated 323 1741 Maria Theresa appeals to her Hungarian subjects, and is enabled to triumph over her enemies 326 1743 Battle of Dettingen 327 1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 328 1755 Commencement of the seven years' war 330 1757 Battle of Rosbach gained by the king of Prussia 331 1761 Spain, in consequence of the family compact, joins with France against England 332 1763 Peace concluded at Paris ib. 1768 The French acquire Corsica 333 1773 The order of the Jesuits suppressed ib. 1776 The British Colonies in America revolt — are aided by France in 1778 339 1783 The war terminated by the treaty of Paris 340 17S9 Assembly of the States-General at Versailles 341 They assume the title of the National Assembly 342 Insurrection at Paris — capture of the Bastille 343 1791 The king of France, attempting to escape, is arrested at Varennes 350 1792 France declares war against Austria ib. 1793 Louis XVI. tried and condemned by the national conven- tion 352 First appearance of Napoleon Buonaparte in public life — war in La Vendee 358 )795 Holland subdued by Pichegru 361 1796 Napoleon commands in Italy — Battle of Lodi 362 1797 Peace of Campo Formio between Austria and France. . 365 1798 The French invade Egypt— Battle of the Nile ib. 1799 Napoleon returns to France and overthrows the Directory 367 I80C Buonaparte leads his army over the Alps - ib Battle of Marengo 368 IfeOl Peace of Amiens 369 Revolt of the Negroes in St. Domingo ib. 1S03 Renewal of the war 370 1804 Murder of the duke d'Enghien - 37 J 48 566 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 1804 Napoleon Buonaparte proclaimed emperor of France. . . 371 1805 Coalition of Russia, Sweden, England, Austria, and Prus sia against France 374 Battle of Austerlitz 375 1806 Prussia engages in a ruinous war with France 377 Battles of Jena (1807), Eylau, and Friedland lb. 1807 The British take possession of the Danish fleet 378 1808 Charles IV., king of Spain, and his son Ferdinand seduced to Bayonne by Napoleon, and forced to abdicate in fa- vour of Joseph Buonaparte 380 1808 The English, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, defeat the French at Vimiera, and drive them from Portugal 381 1809 Battle of Corunna — death of Sir John Moore ib. Austria renews the war against France — totally over- thrown at Wagram 384 Battle of Talavera ib. Gustavus IV., king of Sweden, deposed 385 The Pope sent as a prisoner to France ib. 1810 Marriage of Napoleon with the arch-duchess Maria Luuisa ib. Charles John Bernadotte elected crown prince of Sweden 386 1812 Napoleon resolves to invade Russia 387 Battle of Borodino or Moskwa 389 Burning of Moscow ib. Disastrous retreat of the French from Russia 390 1813 Prussia declares war against France 39a Austria joins the Allies ib Battle of Vittoria ib. Battle of Leipsic 396 1814 The Allies enter France 397 Napoleon abdicates the crown and retires to Elba 398 1815 The return from Elba — Napoleon lands at Cannes, and becomes, without resistance, master of all France 401 Battle of Ligny 403 Battle of Waterloo ■ ib. Restoration of the Bourbons 390 1824 Death of Louis XVIII 411 1 83C Dethronement of Charles X 400 1833 Difficulties with the United States settled 422 1840 Attempted revolution of Louis Buonaparte 423 Napoleon's remains removed to France 424 842 Death of the Due dOrleans 425 War with Algiers ib. 1848 Revolution in Paris, February 22 428 Abdication and flight of Louis Philippe ib. Organization of the Provisional Government 431 Inauguration of the Republic 435 Rebellion of May 15 439 Rebellion of June 22 443 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 567 FA * THE ILIAD OF HOMER, WITH AH liNTERLINEAR TRANSLATION. For the Use of Schools and Private Learners, ON THE HAMILTONIAN SYSTEM. AS IHFBOTED BT THOMAS CLARK, ■nnoR or tbk liAmt akd greek interlihear clamhn. ik MM vdtume, royal 12mo, 368 pages, kaZf turkey-moroeeo binding Priee, |2.7b The fi'«• (fifued from tte press in this country or in England. 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