Class. Book AN ABRIDGED HISTORY OF ENGLAND USE OF SCHOOLS; TO WHICH IS ADDED AN ABSTRACT OF THE CONSTITUTION; A GEOGRAPHICAL TREATISE, ACCORDING TO THE ROMAN, SAXON, AND MODERN DIVISIONS. TO THE ESO. OF THE BEIGN OP GEORGE IV. By W. F. MYLIUS. BALTIMORE; PUBLISHED BY FIELDING LUCAS, Jb. No, 138 MARKET STREET, * ~jr~ l .1M w GEOGRAPHY GREAT BRITAIN. Great Britain, the largest of all the European isles, ids from the Lizaid' s Point, latitude 50° north, to Duns- bay Head, 58° 40' north, about six hundred miles, and from Dover Head east to Land's End west, about three hundred miles. Ancient Geography. Great Britain was divided by the Romans into, 1. Britannia Romana ; and % Britannia Barbara. Britannia Romana was subdivided into Britannia Prima, Secunda, Valentia, Maxima Csesariensis, and Flavia Csesari- ensis, the limits of which are not known. Britannia Bar- bara, or Caledonia, was never subdued by the Romans, who penetrated no further than the Montes Grampii. It was inhabited by the Caledonians and Picts, and at a later time by the Scoti or Scots, who were supposed by some to have been of Irish origin. At the invasion by the Romans, England including Wales was divided into seventeen petty states, called by them: 1. Dunmonii or Danmonii, inhabiting Cornwall and Dev- onshire. 2. Durotrfges — Dorsetshire. 3. Belgae — Somersetshire, Wiltshire, and the greater part of Hampshire. 4. Attrebati — Berkshire. 5. Regni — Surrey, Sussex, and the remaining part of Hampshire. 6. Cantii — Kent. 7. Dobuni, placed by Ptolemy on the north side of the Thames, near its source in Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire. 8. Catteuchlani or Cathicludani — Bucks. Bedfordshire, and Hertfordshire. IV GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 9. Trinobantes — Essex and Middlesex. 10. Iceni, Simeni, Tigeni — Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and Huntingdon. 11. Coritani — Northampton, Leicester, Rutland, Lincoln, Nottingham, and Derbyshire. 12. Cornavii — Warwick, Worcester, Stafford, Shropshire, and Cheshire. 13. Silures — Radnor, Brecon, Glamorgan, Monmouth, and Hereford. 14. Demetx — Pembroke, Cardigan, and Carmarthen. 15. Ordovices — Montgomery, Merioneth, Carnarvon, Flint, and Denbigh. 16. Brigantes — York, Durham, Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Cumberland. 17. Ottadeni — Northumberland to the Tweed, or accord i to some to the Tyne. Principal Rivers. Tamesis,' the Thames. Sabrina, the Severn. Abus. the Humber, composed of the Ouse, Trent, and other branches. Tina, the Tyne. Vedra, the Were. Ituna, the Eden. Tuasis or Tuesis, the Tweed. Bodotria, the Forth. Glota, the Clyde. Taus, the Tay. Devana, the Dee. Principal Towns. Londinum — London ; Camelodunum, Maiden, or Colches- ter, in Essex ; Rutupice, Richborough, and Portus Dubris ; Dovor, in Kent. Lemanis — Lyme, near which Caesar is supposed by some to have landed. Durovernum — Canterbury, in Kent. Durobrivis — Rochester, in Kent. Venta Belgarum — Winchester, in Hants. Durnium or Durnovaiia — Dorchester, in Dorsetshire. Tsca — Exeter, in Devonshire. Verulamium or Verulam — near St. Alban's, in Hertford- shire. Aquse Solis, or Calidse — Bath, Somersetshire. Clanum, Gloucester — Deva, Chester. Lindum Colonia, Lincoln — -Eboracum, York; Luguvallum, Carlisle. '; Alata Castra or Edinodunum— Edinburgh. GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. T" Islands. The chief islands round Britain as denominated by the Romans are : Vectis — Isle of Wight. Cassiterides — supposed to be the Scilly Islands. Mona — Anglesea* Moneedea or Mona — Isle of Man. Ebudae or Hebrides — the Scotch Western Isles. Orcades — the Orkneys. Ultima Thule — supposed to be the Shetland Isles. Modern Gc -graphy of Great Britain. The island of Great Britain contains England, Scotland, and Wales. Since the Norman Conquest, England has been divided into six circuits, each containing a certain number of coun- ties, which are subdivided into Wapentakes, or hundreds and parishes. These circuits and counties are as follow : 1. The Home Circuit, containing the following counties : Essex. — Chief Towns : Chelmsford, Colchester, Harwich, Maiden, Coggeshall, Witham, Brentwood. Hertford or Herts. — Hertford, Royston, Hitchen, Ware, St. Alban's, Stevenage. Kent. — Maidstone, Canterbury, Dovor, Deal, Rochester, Chatham, Tonbridge, Margate, Gravesend, Woolwich, Green- wich. Surrey. — Kingston, Croydon, Guildford, Farnham. Sussex. — Chichester, Lewes, Horsham, Brighton, Hast- ings, Arundel. 2. The Norfolk Circuit, containing the following counties : Buckingham or Bucks. — Chief Towns: Buckingham, Aylesbury, Newport Pagnell, Eton, Wycombe. Bedford or Beds. — Bedford, Woburn, Dunstable. Huntingdon. — Huntingdon, St. Ive's, St. Neot's, Kim- bolton. Cambridge. — Cambridge, Ely, Newmarket, Wisbeacb... Suffolk. — Ipswich, Lowestoft, Bury St. Edmund's. Norfolk. — Norwich, Yarmouth, Lynn, Thetford. 3. The Oxford Circuit, containing the following counties : Oxford or Oxon. — Chief Towns : Oxford, Witney, Wood- stock, Banbury, Henley on Thames. Berkshire or Berks. — Reading, Newbury, Windsor, Abingdon. 1* Vi GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. Gloucester. — Gloucester, Tewkesbury, Stroud, Chelten- ham, Cirencester, and part of Bristol, a county in itself. Worcester.— Worcester, Dudley, Stourbridge, Kidder- minster, Evesham. Monmouth. — Monmouth, Chepstow, Abergavenny. Herefordshire. — Hereford, Ross, Leominster, Ledbury. Shropshire. — Shrewsbury, Bridgenorth, Oswestry, New- port, Ellesmere, and Ludlow. Staffordshire. — Stafford, Lichfield, Burton, Newcastle- under-line, Wolverhampton. 4. The Midland Circuit, containing the following counties : Warwick.-— Warwick, Coventry, Birmingham, Leaming- ton, Stratford. Leicester. — Leicester, Hinckley, Loughborough, Lut- terworth, Melton Mowbray, Harborough. Derby. — Derby, Chesterfield, Buxton, Matlock, Ashborn. Nottingham or Notts. — Nottingham, Mansfield, New- ark, Worksop. Lincoln. — Lincoln, Boston, Gainsborough, Stamford, Louth. Rutland. — Oakham, Uppingham. Northampton. — Northampton. Daventry, Peterborough. 5. Western Circuit, containing the following counties : Hampshire or Hants. — Chief Towns: Winchester, Portsmouth, Portsea, Gosport, Southampton, Lymington, Basingstoke, Ringwood, and Newport, Ryde, and Cowes, in the Isle of Wight. Wiltshire. — Salisbury, Wilton, Devizes, Bradford, Trow- bridge, Marlborough. Dorsetshire. — Dorchester, Poole, Weymouth, Lyme Regis, Blandford, Shaftesbury. Somersetshire. — Bath, Bristol in part, Wells, Frome, Taunton, Bridgewater. Devonshire. — Exeter, Plymouth, Devonport, Sidmouth, Teignmouth, Dartmouth, Barnstable. Cornwall. — Launceston, St. Ive's, Penzance, Falmouth. Truro, Penryn. 6. Northern Circuit, containing the following counties : Yorkshire. — Chief Towns: York, Leeds, Hull, Shef- field, Whitby, Scarborough, Rippon, Halifax, Bradford, Wake- field, Huddersfield, Pontefract, Harrowgate. Durham. — Durham, Bishops-Auckland, South Shields, \ Sunderland, Hartlepool, Stockton, Darlington. Northumberland.— Newcastle, Morpeth. Alnwick, North Shields, Hexham* GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. vii Cumberland. — Carlisle, Whitehaven, Workington, Cock- ermouth, Penrith. Westmoreland. — Appleby, Kendal. Lancashire. — Lancaster, Liverpool, Manchester, Preston, Wigan, Bolton, Rochdale, Warrington, Prescot, Blackburn. Cheshire has its own jurisdiction, and forms a county palatine, containing Chester, Cholmondeley, Namptwich, Middlewich, Northwich. Middlesex has also its own jurisdiction. — Chief Towns : London, Westminster, and Brentford. Besides these forty counties, there are others to which the liberties and jurisdiction of counties have been granted by royal charter, as the cities of London, York, Chester, Bris- tol, Norwick, Worcester, the town of Newcastle upon Tyne, Kingston upon Hull, and Berwick upon Tweed, with a terri- tory of about two miles on the north side of the river, which although it lies in Scotland, is considered in law as distinct from both kingdoms. Rivers. 3 Avon, viz. one in Wiltshire, one in Gloucestershire, and one in Leicestershire. 1 Cam, in Cambridgeshire. 3 Derwent, 1 in Derby, 1 in Durham, and 1 in Cumberland. 1 Eden, in Cumberland. 1 Exe, in Somersetshire. ,1 Frome, in ditto. 1 Hull, in Yorkshire. 1 Humber, between York and Lincolnshire.. 1 Kennet, in Wilts. 1 Lea, in Hertfordshire. 1 New River, in ditto, 1 Lon, in Lancashire. 1 Medway, in Kent. 1 Mersey, in Cheshire. 4 Ouse ; one in Sussex, one in Northamptonshire, one irt Norfolk, and one in Yorkshire. 1 Ribble, Lancashire. 1 Severn, Bristol. 3 Stour, one in Dorsetshire, one in Kent, and one in Essex* 1 Tamar, Devonshire. 1 Tees, Cumberland. 1 Thames, Oxford and Middlesex. 1 Trent, Nottinghamshire. 1 Tweed, Berwick. 1 Witham, Lincolnshire. Viii GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. Principal Lakes. Windermere, in Westmoreland. Ullswater, in ditto. Coniston, in Lancashire. Principal Mountains. Cheviot, between England and Scotland,. Endle, Lancashire. Fells, Cumberland and Yorkshire. Malvern, Worcestershire. Mendip, Somersetshire. Peak, Derbyshire. Wrekin, Shropshire.. Islands. Thanet and Sheppey, on the Kentish coast. Wight, on the Hampshire ditto. Man, Irish Sea. Scilly Isles, off Cornwall. Holy, Farn, and Coquet, Northumberland. WALES is bounded on the east by Cheshire, Shropshire, and Here- ford ; on the south by Monmouthshire and the British Chan- nel ; on the west by St. George's Channel, and on the north by the Irish Sea.- —It contains twelve counties, viz. six northern and six southern. The Northern are : Counties. Chief Towns. Flint, Flint. Denbigh, Denbigh. Caernarvon, Caernarvon. Anglesea, Beaumaris. Merioneth, Harlech. Montgomery, Montgomery. The Southern are : Cardigan, Cardigan Radnor, Radnor. Pembroke, Pembroke . Caermarthen. Caermarthen.. Brecknock, Brecknock. Glamorgan, Cardiff V SCOTLAND. \ Scotland is divided into thirty-three counties, and is bound- ed on the south by England, on the north-east and west by the Deucladonian, German and Irish Seas. GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. IX The Northern are ten, viz. Counties. Chief Towns. Orkney, Kirkwall. Caithness, Wick. Sutherland, Strathy, Darnock. Ross, Ross, Tarne. Cromartie, Cromartie. Nairne, Nairne. Murray or Elgin, Elgin. Bamff, Bamff. Aberdeen, Aberdeen. Inverness, Inverness. The Middle counties are nine : Perth, Perth. Angus, Forfar, Montrose. Kincardine, Bervie. Argyle, Inverary. Dunbarton, Dunbarton. Stirling, Stirling. Clackmannan, Clackmannan. Kinross. Kinross.. Fife, Fife. Fourteen Southern : Bute, Rothsay. Renfrew, Renfrew, Greenock. Lanark, Glasgow, Lanark. Linlithgow, Linlithgow. Edinburgh, Edinburgh* Haddington, Haddington, Dunbar. Peebles, Peebles. Berwick, Dunse, Berwick* Ayr, Ayr. Wigtown, Wigtown. Kirkudbright, Kirkudbright. Dumfries, Dumfries. Selkirk, Selkirk. Roxburgh, Roxburgh. Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrew's, are celebrated seats of Teaming. Glasgow is much noted for its great commerce. Islands. The islands are very numerous. The principal are, the Eubudae: Hebrides, or Western isles; the Orkney, the Shet- land, or Zetland ides ; the isles of Skye, Arran, Bute, Kilda, and Mull. x GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. Lakes. Broom, Carron, Leven, Lomond, Ness, and Tay. Rivers. Tweed, Forth, Clyde, Tay, Spey, Dee, Don, Esk, Annan, and Nith. Mountains. The Grampian, East to West. The Pentland, Lothian. Lammermuir, Merse. The highest are Lomond and Nevis. IRELAND Is situated between 5° and 10° west longitude, and 51° and 56° north latitude, extending in length about 300 miles, and in breadth 150 miles. It is divided into four provinces, viz. Ulster, north ; Lein- ster, east; Munster, south; and Connaught, west; and con- tains about eight millions of inhabitants. Ulster contains nine counties, viz. Counties. Chief Towns. Antrim, Carrickfergus. Armagh, Armagh. Cavan, Cavan. Down, Downpatrick. Donegal, LirTord. Fermanagh, Enniskillen. Londonderry, Deny. Monaghan, Monaghan. Tyrone, Omagh. Leinster contains twelve counties, viz. Carlow, Carlow. Dublin, Dublin. Kildare, Naas and A thy. Kilkenny, Kilkenny. King's County Philipstown. Longford, Longford. Lowth, Drogheda. East Mealh, Trim. Queen's County, Maryborough. Westmeath, Mullingar. Wexford, Wexford. Wicklow Wicklow. BRITISH CONSTITUTION. Munster contains six counties : Counties. Chief Towns. Clare, Ennis. Cork, Cork. Kerry, Tralee. Limerick, Limerick. Tipperary, Clonmel. Waterford, Waterford. Connaught contains five counties Galway, Galway. Leitrim, Leitrim. Mayo, Newport. Roscommon. , Roscommon. Sligo, SJigo. Dublin is the chief city, and has a university Principal Rivers. The Shannon, Foyle, Barm, LifFey, Boyne, Slaney, Suir, Barrow, Erne, May, Noir, Sark, and Gyll. Lakes. Neagh, Lean, Erine, Cori, and Killarney. Mountains. Knock Patrick, Sliew, Bloomy, and Curlieu. BRITISH CONSTITUTION. The British Constitution is a limited monarchy, consisting of the united powers of King, Lords, and Commons. It originated among the Anglo-Saxons, and was brought to a considerable degree of perfection under Alfred the Great. It was afterwards greatly infringed upon by William the Conqueror, and some of his successors ; but was restored by the Magna Charta signed by King John. The executive power is vested in the King and his Minis- ters, Judges, and Juries. The legislative authority is in the two Houses of Parliament. The throne is hereditary, and may be occupied by a female with the title of Queen, if nearest in lineal descent. The King possesses the sole power of declaring war or making peace, of assembling or dissolving Parliament, of bestowing titles of honour, of giving or withholding his assent to proposed laws. He is the supreme head of the church as established by law, and supreme judge in every court of law ; but he is equally bound to pay obedience to the law r s as is the meanest of his subjects. His Ministers are responsible for every act done in his name. He caa x ii BRITISH CONSTITUTION. pardon any criminal ; but neither he nor his judges can con- demn any one till he is 'found guilty by a jury of twelve men the equals of the criminal. The judges have their salaries for life, and are not remov- able at the pleasure of the King. The King is not allowed to marry a subject. The eldest son of the King is styled Prince of Wales and Duke of Cornwall. The eldest daughter is styled Princess Royal. The Peers or Lords are privileged from arrest except for treason, felony, or other high crimes. The sheriff cannot search their houses except by warrant from the King signed by six privy councillors. They can sit on any bench of judicature, and are exempt from all offices of service. The House of Lords consists of the Lords of the realm, spirit- ual, comprising the two Archbishops and twenty-four Bishops ; of the temporal Peers, comprising the Peers of the Blood Royal, the whole of the hereditary English nobility bearing the titles of Dukes, Marquesses, Earls, Viscounts, and Barons ; also of ten Scotch Peers, and twenty-eight Irish Peers. The House of Commons consists of Representatives sent from counties, cities, and boroughs, elected by the people. They have the power to examine into the conduct of any Peer, and to impeach any minister of the King. They can call the judges to account. They have the sole right of originating bills for granting supplies of money for the ser- vice of Government, and of enquiring into any national grievance. It consists of 653 members, viz. eighty for the forty counties of England, fifty for the cities, 3-39 for the boroughs, two for each university, sixteen for the Cinque Ports, twenty for Wales, forty-five for Scotland, and 101) for Ireland. The counties are represented by knights of the shire, who must possess an estate in freehold or copyhold of £5\)\) per annum, and must be elected by persons possessing freehold land situate within the county of forty shillings per annum. The cities are represented by citizens possessing a clear estate of £i'M) per annum. The boroughs are represented by burgesses possessed of the same amount.* * By the Bill called the Reform Bill, passed in isri. in the reisjn of his present M ijesty William IV., many of the above articles are altered ; m my boroughs ceas? to Bend members; son? only s.;nd ot>; many vns formerly unrepresented now send members; the time of the elections is shortened ; ani a great mass of the people iu.\\: at the privilege of electors. AN ABRIDGED HISTORY OF ENGLAND. BOOK I. Sovereigns of Britain from the introduction Ante Christum (Before Christ.) Cassibelanus S3 Theomantius 50 Cymbeline 24 Anno Domini (In the year of our Lord.) Guiderius 45 Arviragus 73 Marius 125 Coilus 179 Lucius 207 Severus (Emperor) 211 Bassianus 218 invasion of Julius Casar to the of the Saxons. Anno Domini (In the year of our Lord.) Carausius 225 Alectus 232 Asclepiodorus 26% Coilus II 289 Constantius (Emperor) .... 310 Constantine (Emperor) .... 329 Octavius 383 Maxiraianus 391 Gratian 431 Constantine 446 Constantius 448 Vortigern 450 CHAPTER I. Origin and Military History of the Britons. The learning and ingenuity of the historian have been frequently exercised, in attempts to ascertain the name and origin of the Britons. Researches, however, which regard the aborigines of a country, must generally end in unsatis- factory conclusions and mere conjecture. One of the most probable opinions is, that the inhabitants originally came from Gaul, and derived their name from a Celtic word, signifying separation, an idea natural enough to the natives of the continent when speaking of our island. Virgil, in his first eclogue, calls our ancestors, "Et penitus toto divisos 2 14 ORIGIN AND MILITARY orbe Britannos:" "The Britons quite separated from the whole world." The Britons, a fierce and warlike nation, had frequent encounters among themselves ; and as Tacitus justly observes, " Nothing contributed so much to the advantage gained over them by the Romans, as their want of union and concert for their common interest." In their battles they used chariots, with short scythes fastened to each end of the axletrees ; which inflicted dreadful wounds, and caused great terror in the ranks of the enemy. So expert were they in the man- agement of these chariots, that they could stop their horses on the side of a steep hill when at full speed, turn them short round, run along upon the beam, rest upon the yoke, and in an instant recover their seats. Their arms were small shields, short daggers and spears ; helmets and breastplates they considered an incumbrance. They could endure hunger, cold, and all kinds of fatigue, with admirable patience ; and continue for several days together in bogs, and live in woods upon the bark and roots of trees. The Britons had long remained in this rude but inde- pendent state, when Csesar, having overrun Gaul, and being ambitious to extend his fame beyond that of all his prede- cessors, determined upon the conquest of a country that seemed to promise an easy triumph. The natives, informed of his intention, and sensible of the unequal contest, endea- voured to avert it by offers of submission. He received their ambassador with a treacherous complacency, and at the same time that he exhorted them to continue steadfast in their peaceful sentiments, made preparations for the execution of his design. His forces consisted of two legions, embarked in eighty transports ; and eighteen more were appointed to convey the cavalry. He set sail about mid- night, and the next morning arrived on the coast near Dover, where he beheld the rocks and cliffs covered with armed men to oppose his landing. What chiefly embarrassed the Romans in their attempt to disembark was the size of their ships, which required great depth of water ; Caesar, per- ceiving this disadvantage, ordered the large vessels to retire, and his galleys to advance their broadsides towards the shore, with directions to let fly their arrows and slings. The Bri- tons, surprised at the galleys, a sort of shipping they had never seen before, began to retire. Still, however, they kept up the fight with great courage and fury, till Csesar, observing the slaughter of his troops, caused several of his HISTORY OF THE BRITONS. 15 boats to be manned, and sent them to the assistance of those who were most exposed. After a brave and obstinate defence, the naked and ill-armed Britons were obliged to submit to the superior discipline of the Romans, and sue for peace. Giesar, whose ships had been much damaged by a storm, very gladly granted their request on condition of receiving a certain number of hostages ; after which he set sail for Gaul to repair his shattered fleet. The Britons, informed of his departure, broke their treaty, and fell suddenly upon the seventh legion, which after a bloody battle defeated them, and once more obliged them to sue for peace. Csesar, in the mean time, having collected six hundred ships and twenty-eight galleys, again arrived off the coast. The Britons had made the best use of the respite : they were this time headed by Cassibelanus, king of the Trinobantes. He did not oppose the landing of the troops, but attacked them with his chariots and cavalry on their march ; they were, however, repulsed with loss, and driven into the woods, where the Romans pursuing them too eagerly, lost many of their men. This encouraged the Britons to make another fierce attack, in which they were again unsuccessful, and obliged to retreat. Ca?sar pursuing his victory, marched towards the country af the Trinobantes. On his arrival on the banks of the river Thames, he found it fordable only at one place ; the forces of Cassibelanus were drawn up on the opposite bank, which he had strongly fortified with large oaken staves driven into the bed of the river, some of which are still visible at Walton in Surrey. The Roman soldiers, however, advanced with such resolution, that the Britons, quite dispirited, aban- doned the banks and fled. By Polyxenus the panic of the Britons is attributed to the appearance of an elephant in front of the Romans. At the sight of so enormous an animal, to them unknown, the Britons abandoned the banks, and fled into the woods. Coesar crossing the river, marched to Veru- lam, the capital of Cassibelanus, which was soon taken. Cassibelanus, with courage unsubdued, although abandoned by the Trinobantes and several other tribes, as a last resource 1 , drew into a confederacy four kings, chiefs of the Cantii, and proceeded to attack the camp which guarded the ships ; but the Romans in a sally repulsed them with so great a slaughter, that Cassibelanus, seeing it in vain to contend any longer, concluded a peace with the Romans, stipulating to pay them an annual tribute, and delivering hostages tor the faithful performance of the treaty. Caesai: 1G ORIGIN AND MILITARY then set sail with his whole fleet from Britain, to which place he never returned. Such is the account given by Caesar of his two expedi- tions into Britain ; but Dio Cassius tells us that the Britons entirely defeated the Roman infantry, though they were at last put into disorder by the cavalry. Horace and Tibul- lus speak of the Britons in many parts of their works, as of a people yet unconquered. Tacitus says, that Caesar rather shewed the Romans the way to Britain than put them in possession of it; and Lucan plainly tells us, that Caesar turned his back to the Britons and fled. This, however, considering the discipline and valour of his troops, is not very propable ; that Cresar left Britain during the winter is certain, but it was rather to quell the insurrection of the Gauls ; and cer- tainly his ambition was more likely to be gratified by becoming emperor of Rome, than conqueror of Britain. The departure of Caesar, which happened about fifty-three years before the birth of Christ, left the Britons without fear of a foreign enemy. Augustus formed twice the design of invading Britain, and forcing the pa} r ment of the tribute promised to Julius Caesar, which, probably, had not for many years been even demanded. Both times, however, he was prevented by revolts in different provinces, and it was not till the reign of Claudius that the Romans in good earnest set about reducing them under subjection. An army under Plautius. was ordered to Britain ; the soldiers at first refused to embark, from a notion that they were going beyond the compass of the world, and this mutiny being reported to the Britons, made them neglect their means of defence. Plau- tius, therefore, landed his men without opposition ; the Bri- tons, on their approach, retiring to the woods and marshes, whither the Romans following them, engaged first Carac- tacus, then Togodumnes, and defeated them both. The Britons, no way discouraged, continued the most determined resistance, and so weakened the army of Plautius by many bloody battles, that he did not think proper to pursue them any farther at that time, but putting garrisons into the con- quered places, wrote to Claudius for supplies, who himself came over and joined Plautius on the banks of the Thames. The Romans, emboldened by the presence of the Emperor, crossed the river and totally defeated the Britons. The successes of Plautius were thought so important, that on his return to Rome he was met without the gates by the Empe- ror, who at his solemn entry gave him the right hand. HISTORY OF THE BRITONS. 17 Vespasian now succeeded to the command, and fought no fewer than thirty battles against the Britons. Caractacus, on the other hand, king of the Silures, the greatest general among the Britons, still endeavoured by the most vigorous efforts to rescue his country, and repel its insulting and rapacious invaders. With undisciplined forces, inferior in number, he continued during nine years to oppose and harass the Romans. By his conduct and policy he removed the seat of war to the territories of the Odovices, a country full of high mountains and craggy rocks, where he strongly entrenched his army, determined to await the attack of the Romans. At their approach he harangued his soldiers, declaring that from that day and that battle they must date their liberty rescued, or their slavery for ever established. He then invoked the shades of those heroes who had expelled Julius Ccesar : those brave men, by whom they still enjoyed their homes and families unpolluted, and freedom from tribute and taxes. The whole army, animated to the highest pitch, took a solemn oath to conquer or die, and pre- pared for the charge with terrible shouts. But what could undisciplined bravery do against an army skilled in all the arts of war, and emboldened by the conquest of the world ! The Britons, after a bloody battle, were totally routed, and Caractacus, who had fled for refuge to Cartismonda, queen of the Brigantes, was basely delivered to the enemy. The capture of this general was received with such joy at Rome, that he was ordered to be sent thither, and exhibited as a spectacle to the Romans. Caractacus, while passing through Rome, casting his eyes upon the splendour that surrounded him, could not help exclaiming, " How is it possible that a people possessed of such magnificence at home, should envy me a humble cot- tage in Britain !" He bore his misfortune with undaunted firmness, and when led before the emperor, addressed him in the following manner: "If my moderation in prosperity, Claudius, had been as conspicuous as my birth or fortune, 1 should now have entered your city as a friend, and not as a prisoner ; but my misfortune redounds to your glory in proportion to the greatness of my opposition : I was lately possessed of subjects, horses, arms, and riches ; can you be surprised if I endeavoured to preserve them ? If you, Romans, wish to conquer all the world, must all nations tamely submit to servitude ? And now, if you resolve to put me to death, my story and your fame will be buried in oblivion ; but if 2* 18 ORIGIN AND MILITARY you think proper to preserve my life, I shall remain a lasting monument of your clemency." This speech had such an effect upon Claudius, that he immediately pardoned Carac- tacus, and ordered him and his family to be set at liberty. The Britons, though conquered, still panted after their freedom, and this spirit was not a little heightened by the insolence and oppression of the Roman soldiers : their yoke became every day more intolerable, and at last kindled those discontents, which shortly after broke out into an open flame. Practagus, king of the Iceni, at his death had bequeathed half his dominions to Nero, hoping by the sacrifice of a part, to secure the remainder to his daughters ; but the Roman procurator immediately took possession of the whole ; and when Boadicea, the widow of the deceased monarch, attempted to remonstrate, he ordered her to be cruelly scourged like a slave, and infamously ill-treated her daugh- ters. The Iceni quickly flew to arms, and were immediately followed by all the other states : Boadicea, a woman of mas- culine courage, was appointed to head the common forces, which amounted to upwards of 200,000 men. She attacked the Roman colonies with great fury, and after cutting to pieces the whole infantry of the ninth legion, marched to London, which was already a flourishing city. The Romans abandoning it at their approach, it was taken and pillaged by the Britons, who massacred the Romans and their allies, without distinction of age or sex, to the number of 70,000. Flushed with success, they boldly attacked the Roman in- trenchments ; the battle was obstinate and bloody ; Boadicea herself appeared in her chariot, with her two daughters, and harangued her army with undaunted firmness; but the undisciplined and fiery bravery of the troops was unable to withstand the cool intrepidity of the Romans ; they were entirely routed, and the victors granting no quarter, 80,000 were left dead on the field of battle : Boadicea, resolving not to survive, first killed her daughters, and then poisoned herself. By this signal overthrow, the Britons, who had been sub- dued, were prevented from forming any more revolts, and those who had not yet submitted, were afraid to make inroads into the conquered countries. The Romans, however, wore now firmly established in the island till the time of Julius Agricola, who not only subdued the seventeen nations of the Britons, but carried the Roman arms almost to the extremity of Scotland, sending a fleet round the island, which HISTORY OF TilK BRITONS. ]9 discovered the Orcades or Orkney isles, unknown till then by the rest of the world. In fine, he governed with such mildness and wisdom during the reigns of Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, that the Britons began to prefer a life of peace and security to that rude independence which they had formerly enjoyed. For several years after the time of Agri- cola, little mention is made of the affairs of the Britons, who appear to have enjoyed a profound peace. In the year 121, Adrian, in order to stop the incursions of the North Britons, built an immense wall of wood and earth, extending eighty miles in length, from the river Edin, in Cumberland, to the Tyne, in Northumberland. This wall proving insufficient to stop the incursions of the Caledonians, was afterwards rebuilt in a more solid manner by Severus, and its remains are still viewed by the antiquarian with delight and aston- ishment. Thus, after two-and-forty years' struggle of an uncivilized and disunited people, against the most powerful nation in the Universe, the greater part of Britain became a province of the Roman empire in the fourth year of Domitian, one hundred and thirty-eight years after the first entrance of Julius Caesar, and the eighty-fourth year of the Christian era. During three hundred years from this period, the Ro- mans drew great riches from the country, and levied heavy tributes upon the inhabitants ; but at the same time they intro- duced humanity and civilization, which daily made way, and fitted the Britons for the light of the Gospel. At length Rome, the mistress of so many nations, began to sink under the weight of her own grandeur, and mankind, as if by gen- eral consent, rose up to vindicate their natural freedom. They were obliged, therefore, to withdraw their troops from this island, to defend themselves at home, carrying with them to Gaul all the British youth capable of bearing arms. The Scots and Picts, taking advantage of their absence, made incursions into the northern parts, and filled the coun- try with slaughter and consternation. Vortigern, king of the Danmonii, a haughty and insolent prince, who possessed neither wisdom in council nor experience in war, now governed the country. By his advice they agreed to call in the Saxons, a powerful nation of Northern Germany, to their assistance. The Saxons, who were then masters of what is now called the English channel, readily accepted the invi- tation, and sent over Hengist and Horsa, two brothers, who, with their followers, %oon checked the progress of the Scots I 1 •■ 00 RELIGION OF THE BRITONS. and Picts, and had the isle of Thanet assigned for their abode. Finding the lands of Britain so fertile, they began to medi- tate the conquest of the island ; and fresh supplies continually arriving, they at last drove the Britons into Wales, where their language and descendants still remain. CHAPTER II. Religion of the Britons. The religion of the Pagan Britons was superstitious and" horrible. They proceeded so far as to offer human bodies in sacrifice. Their priests, called Druids, enjoyed the highest honours and privileges ; so great was the veneration in which they were held, that, as Pliny informs us, " When two hostile armies, inflamed by warlike rage, with swords drawn and spears extended, were on the point of engaging in battle, at their intervention they sheathed their swords and became calm and peaceful." Among these Druids was one who had supreme authority over the rest, and presided at the general assembly, which was held once a year in Gaul. They were exempted from all military duties, imposts and taxes ; which privileges caused many to become their disciples. These disciples, who were principally of the best families, were taught a great number of verses by heart, not being allowed to commit their learning to writing. They taught the immortality and transmigration of the soul ; the plurality of gods, and the necessity of sacrifices to them, whom they believed had the government of the world, and the direction of future events. They also made discourses to their scholars concerning the heavenly bodies, their motions and magnitudes. This gave rise to astrology, augury, divination, and a multitude of abominable rites and ceremonies. One of the absurd articles of the Druidical creed was, that to build temples to the gods, or to worship them within walls, and under roofs, was unlawful ; all their places of worship were, therefore, in the open air, and in groves. In the centre of the grove was a circular space, enclosed with one or two rows of large stones, set perpendicularly in the earth, of which some vestiges remain to this day. HISTORY OF THE BRITONS. 21 History is silent as to the exact time of the introduction of Christianity into this island ; yet it is highly probable, from the concurring testimony of several writers, that it was favoured with the rays of the Gospel before the end of the first century. Eusebius, the pious and learned bishop of Caesarea, who flourished at the beginning of the fourth century, and was highly favoured by Constantine the Great, positively asserts, that the Christian religion was first preached in the south of Britain by the apostles, or their immediate disciples ; and it is reasonable to suppose that the successes of the Romans, which, by divine appointment, were the means of propagating the true religion, paved the way to such an event in Britain. Many also of the soldiers and officers in the Roman army were Christians : and as their legions were repeatedly sent over to Britain, Christianity doubtlessly was embraced by some portion of the natives. Be this as it may, it appears certain that Lucius, sur- named Pius, the son of Coitus, who reigned during the time of the emperor Trajan, and his successor Adrian in the second century, by conversing with some Christians who frequented his court, became so convinced of the truths of their religion, as to send two Britons to Pope Eleutherius to request that he and his subjects might be made Christians. Tryatius and Damianus, two pious and learned Romans, immediately repaired to the royal palace, where they in- structed and solemnly baptized the king and queen. The nobility, the Druids, and people, eager to follow the example of a king they revered, flocked in crowds to the holy men : their idols were thrown down, their altars overturned, and their temples consecrated to the God of the Christians ; and Britain had thus the honour of having the first European king who professed the Catholic faith. After the suppression of the revolt of Boadicea, Britain enjoyed for many years great tranquillity, and presented a desirable asylum to those Christians who were cruelly per- secuted in other places, particularly at Rome, the greater part of which city having been reduced to ashes, Nero, that cruel tyrant and persecutor of the church, in order to divert the suspicion of his having been the incendiary, laid the blame upon the Christians, and on that false pretence put some of them to the most cruel deaths. From these dread- ful sufferings great multitudes fled to other countries, and particularly to this islanW, as to a place of greater safety. The persecution of Dioclesian, however, spread even to Britain, 22 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c, OF THE BRITONS. where many bravely withstood the fury of their tormentors, and merited the glorious title of martyrs ; amongst whom may be mentioned St. Alban, the protomartyr of Britain, with Julius and Aaron, citizens of Caerleon. Persecution was not, however, the only obstacle raised by the enemy of mankind to obstruct the propagation of the gospel. Pelagius, a native of this island, a monk, and after- wards abbot of Bangor, in Wales, promulgated opinions con- trary to the doctrine of the church, which, though they could not pervert the faith of the people, confounded by their sophistry the simplicity of their pastors, unaccustomed as they were to the subtleties of controversy. To put a stop to the progress of error, and support the doctrine of the church, St. Germanus of Auxerre, with the concurrence of Pope Celestine, twice visited Britain; the first time with St. Lupus of Troyes, and again with St. Sev- erus of Treves. They met the disciples of Pelagius in the synod of Verulam, and after many arguments converted them to the true faith. But now arose a more formidable enemy : the Saxons invaded the island, and after a dreadful struggle, the religion and government of the Britons sunk under their powerful and persevering efforts .. CHAPTER III. Laws, Government, Sfc. of the Britons. The civil government of the Britons was, like that of the Gauls, composed of several nations, under as many petty princes. Whether these principalities descended by suc- cession or election is uncertain ; but upon all great and imminent dangers, a chief was usually chosen by common consent, as was Cassibelanus against the Romans. In com- mon cases, each principality owed allegiance to its particu- lar prince alone. As agriculture and commerce were but very imperfectly known, and extensive tracks were covered with woods and marshes at the time of the Roman invasion, it is probable that the country was not very populous. If we allow about 800,000 persons of both sexes, it wi^most likely be pretty near the truth. The power of the British chieftains u is circumscribed COMMERCE, SHIPPING, kc. 23 within very narrow bounds. A fierce and martial people, with Druids who had so much influence, were not likely to submit to the will of the sovereign as a supreme law. "None," says Tacitus, speaking of the Britons, "can inflict stripes or correction but their priests ; and they do it, not at the command of their general, but in obedience to their gods, who they pretend are peculiarly with their armies in war." Their laws were couched in verse. Murderers and robbers were burnt to death. Those who betrayed or deserted the cause of their country, were hanged on trees ; and cowards, sluggards, and habitual drunkards, were suf- focated in mires and bogs. Flocks and herds were the most valuable possession of almost all nations, in the earlier period of their history. A high price was therefore set, not only upon the life, but even the limbs of each useful animal. By the ancient laws of Wales, it was forbidden under a pen- alty to throw a stone at an ox in the plough, to tie the yoke too tight about his neck, or urge him to too great an effort in drawing. By the laws of succession, a man's lands, at his death, were equally divided among all his sons, and when any dispute arose it was determined by the Druids. The youngest, it appears, was more favoured than the eldest, or any of his brothers. {: When the brothers have divided their father's estate, the youngest shall have the best house, with the implements of husbandry, his father's axe, his kettle and knife." These three last things the father cannot take away by gift, nor leave by his will, to any but his youngest son : and if they are pledged they shall be redeemed. To account for this law is not difficult : the elder brothers of a family were supposed to have left their father's house before his death, and to have obtained houses of their own ; but the youngest was considered, by reason of his age, more help- less, or not so well provided. CHAPTER IV. Commerce, Shipping, cS*c. For a considerable period before the invasion of the island by Julius Cresar, the commerce of Britain was very flourishing, particularly; among the southern and eastern tribes, whose vicinity t?*), in the eighteenth year of his age, and fourth of his reign. His body was plunged into MILITARY HISTORY OF THE SAXONS. 39 a deep marsh : but it was taken out and interred in the church of Our Lady of Wareham : three years afterwards it was found entire, and translated to the monastery of Shafts- bury. The wicked Elfrida, at last awakened to a just sense of her crimes, retired from the world, and built the monas- teries of Wherebul and Amblesbury, in the first of which she died in the practice of penance. 979. — Ethelred. — By the death of Edward there was loft only one prince of the royal blood, which obliged the prelates and nobles, though with great reluctance, to place the crown on the head of Ethelred, the son of the mur- deress : Archbishop Dunstan, who performed the ceremony, declaring in a prophetic manner, as he put the crown upon his head, that his sins, and those of his ignominious mother, should not be expiated but by great bloodshed of his misera- ble people ; for such calamities should fall upon England as it never sustained since it had that name. AH which came shortly to pass ; for in addition to various internal calamities, the Danes again infested England, plundering, defacing, and destroying every thing that came in their way. Ethel- red, too slothful and cowardly to make head against them, agreed to give them £10.090, on condition that they should quit the country and no more infest the coast. " An infamous example," says Malmesbury, "and unworthy of men, to redeem their liberty with money, which no violence can force from a brave and unconquered mind." This sum of money, far from quieting the Danes, only made them the more eager ; and landing the next year, they exceeded, if possible, their former cruelties. They burnt Oxford and Cambridge, and laid waste the counties. Ethel- red had recourse to the same unworthy means, and a second and a third time procured a temporary respite, by increased sums of money. On now enjoying some repose, he listened to the evil counsel of some of his favourites, who advised him to destroy all the Danes at one blow. With the utmost secrecy, letters were sent to every part of his dominions, commanding all his subjects, at a certain day and hour, to" set upon the Danes wherever they found them, and destroy them without mercy. This command was strictly executed ; and the Danes, who by a solemn treaty had been permitted to inhabit England, were shamefully and barbarously mur- dered. This treachery did not long remain unpunished. Sweyn, king of Denmark, suddenly appeared off the coast with a numerous armv, breathing revenge ; and though he '40 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS OF THE SAXONS. was at first obliged, by the bravery of some English troops, and a horrible famine which infested the whole land, to withdraw to his ships, he soon received fresh reinforcements, and constrained Ethelred to flee into Normandy. Sweyn, who had been acknowledged king, died about a month after ; and Ethelred regained possession of the throne, which, at his death, he left to his son Edmund, suinamed Ironside, on account of his great bodily strength. 1016. — Edmund Ironside. — Edmund fought many bloody battles with Canute, son of Sweyn, and gained seve- ral great victories ; but the Danish and English nobility, equally harassed by these convulsions, obliged their kings to come to a compromise, and divide the kingdom between them. Edmund was murdered about a month after, by a perfidious traitor, Edric, Earl of Wiltshire, who had long been in secret league with the Danes, and Canute was left in peaceable possession of the kingdom. CHAPTER IL Ecclesiastical Jiffairs of the Saxons. Religion suffered great persecutions in Britain from the barbarity of the Pagan Saxons. They burnt the churches, stained the altars with the blood of the clergy, and massacred all whom they found professing Christianity. Scarcely, however, had the Saxons obtained the undisputed possession of the kingdom, when a private monk conceived the exalted design of reducing these savage warriors under the obedience of the Gospel. Gregory, afterwards surnamed the Great, happening to pass through the public market at Rome, where some Saxon youths were exposed to sale, their beauty caught his eye, and demanding from what country they came, was informed they were Angles ; upon which, with a pious zeal he exclaimed, " Non Angli, sed Angeli forent, si essent Christiani:" — They would not be Angles, but Angels, if they were Christians. He immediately repaired to Pope Benedict, and obtaining a license from him, began his jour- ney towards Britain. But the Roman people would not suffer the absence of a man they so much venerated, and 1 caused him to return. His elevation soon after to the papal throne obliged him to abandon the design: moved, how- ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS OF THE SAXONS. 41 ever, as Bede says, by a divine impulse, in the fourth year of his pontificate he sent over Augustine, with some zealous monks, to preach the Gospel in Britain. But being discour- aged while on their journey by unfavourable reports, they dispatched Augustine, their superior, to Gregory, to beseech him that they might return home, and not be sent to a fierce and infidel nation, of whose language they were ignorant, and whom they had such slender hopes of converting. The Pope, however, sent back their messengers, exhorting them not to be discouraged by vain reports, but to pursue vigorously the great work they had so nobly undertaken, since their labours would be crowned with perpetual glory ; and to obey Augustine, whom he appointed their abbot. Of the Saxon kingdoms, the most ancient, and at the same time the best disposed to listen to the truths of Chris- tianity, was that of Kent. Bertha, daughter of Charibert. king of Paris, was married to Ethelbert the sovereign ; but before he was admitted to this alliance, he was obliged to stipulate that his princess should enjoy the free exercise of her religion. This, and the saintly life of Luidhard, the prelate who attended her, made very strong impressions upon the king, as well as his subjects, in favour of Christi- anity. It was at this favourable conjuncture that Augustine landed in the isle of Thanet, and sent one of his interpreters to the king, declaring he was come to conduct him to the gates of eternal felicity. The king consented to receive them ; but, according to the superstition of the times, fearful of their resorting to the influence of magic, he gave them audience in the open air. They were received by Ethel- bert most favourably, and though he did not immediately declare himself a Christian, the solemnity of the public ser- vice, the zeal, austerity, and virtue of St. Augustine and his followers had such a powerful effect upon him and his people, that he was soon after baptized with upwards of 10,000 of his subjects. From Kent the faith spread to Essex and Northumber- land. Edwin, king of Northumbria, was married to Ethel- burgh, daughter of Ethelbert. This princess took with her the pious and learned bishop Paulinus into Northumbria. Edwin, solicited by his queen, held several conferences with Paulinus, disputed w r ith his counsellors, or meditated alone ; and after serious discussion-, determined to declare himself a Christian. Attended by Paulinus, he entered the great council, and exposed his reasons for embracing Chris* 4* 42 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS OF THE SAXONS. tianity. Coiffi, the high priest of the Druids, replied that he was ready and willing to listen to the reasons and examine the doctrine of Paulinus. He was followed by an ancient Thane, who, in the simple style of those times, spoke thus : " When, king, you are seated at your table in the depth of winter, and the cheerful fire blazes on the hearth, a sparrow, perchance chased by the wind and snow, enters at one door of the hall and escapes by the other. During its momentary passage, it enjoys the warmth ; but immedi- ately it departs to be seen no more. Such is the nature of man. For a few short years his existence is visible ; but what preceded it, or will follow it, is hidden from our view. If this new religion can give us any information on these important subjects, it merits our attention." To these reasons all assented, and Paulinus having explained the articles of the faith, the king expressed his determination to embrace it. When it was asked, who would dare to profane the altars of Woden, Coiffi boldly stept forward. Laying aside his priestly emblems, he put on the dress of a warrior, and mounted the favourite charger of Edwin ; then bidding defiance to the gods of his forefathers, he hurled his spear at the sacred edifice. It stuck in the wall, and to the astonish- ment of the superstitious and trembling spectators, the hea- vens remained silent, and the fancied sacrilege unpunished. Then recovering from their surprise, and encouraged by the exhortation of Coiffi, they burnt to the ground the temple and surrounding grove. So favourable a beginning inspired hopes of the entire conversion of the nation. But who can fathom the unsearch- able ways of Providence ! Edwin was slain, fighting bravely against Penda, king of Mercia, and Crechvalla, king of the Britons. The victors plundered the kingdom. Edilburga, her children, and Paulinus were compelled to seek an asylum in Kent, and the converts, deprived of instruction, relapsed into their former idolatry. Oswald, son of Adelfrid, the predecessor of Edwin, determined to revenge the cause of his country, and the death of his brother, whom Osedwalia had treacherously murdered. With a small but coura band of followers he met the enemy. Before the battle he ordered a cross to be erected, and the Saxons, prostrate before it, besought the protection of the God of the Chris- tians. From prayers tli i to victory \ Csed walla was slain, the enemy routed, md 6iwald ascended the throne of his ancestors. Piously attributing this sucess to the protection ECCLESIASTICAL ALVA IRS OF THE SAXONS. 43 of heaven, he immediately turned his attention to religion, and besought a supply of missionaries from his former instructors. Aidan, a private monk, was selected to be the apostle of the Northumbrians. He was consecrated bishop, and by his ardent zeal, prudence, and piety, the church of Northumberland was fixed upon a solid and permanent foundation. In the kingdom of Essex, Seberet, nephew to Ethelbert, king of Kent, also embraced Christianity, and invited the abbot Melitus to reside in his metropolis. But after his death, his three sons, who were still attached to the worship of Woden, bursting into the church during the time of mass, demanded a portion of the consecrated bread. Melitus, who had latety been consecrated bishop, dared to refuse, and was in consequence banished. The merit of the conversion of the East Angles is princi- pally owing to the good Sigebert. No sooner had he ascended the throne, than Felix, a Burgundian prelate, com- missioned by Honorius of Canterbury, requested permission to instruct his subjects. By their united efforts Christianity was rapidly diffused, and a school after the model of one at Canterbury was established. In the south, Berinus, animated by a holy zeal, obtained a commission from Pope Honorius. Scarcely had he opened his mission, when, by a providential concurrence of cir- cumstances, Oswi, son of Oswald of Northumbria, arrived at the court of Cynegils, to demand his daughter in marriage. He powerfully seconded the arguments of Berinus ; the prince and his daughter embraced the Christian faith, and their example was followed by his subjects. Mercia, the most powerful kingdom of the heptarchy, owed its conversion also to a woman. Peada, son of Penda, had offered his hand to the daughter of Oswin, successor of Oswald: but she rejected the addresses of a Pagan. The passion of the prince induced him to study her religion. His conversion was rewarded with the object of his affections ; and to those who doubted his sincerity he replied, that not even the refusal of Alcfleda should ever induce him to return to the worship of Woden. To give a proof of his sincerity, he procured four priests to instruct the Middle Angles, whom he governed during the life of his father. The kingdom of Sussex was the last to embrace Christian- ity ; but their blindness and prejudices gave way to the piety, zeal, and address of St. Wilfrid. His first converts 44 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS OF THE SAXONS. were two hundred and fifty slaves, who, together with the isle of Selsea, he had received from their king Edilwalch. On the clay of their baptism their benevolent instructor set them at liberty, declaring that they ceased to be his bonds- men from the moment they became children of Christ. This liberality of St. Wilfrid was greatly felt ; many crowded to his sermons, and in the space of five years the Christian religion was firmly established. Thus, in about the space of eighty years, the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons was completed ; an enterprise begun by Gregory the Great, and continued with unremitting zeal by his disciples. Its benign effects upon the body of the nation were quickly felt ; for, from the date of their conver- sion, the Saxons, who had been accounted the most ferocious and barbarous of all the nations that had invaded the Roman empire, became mild, humane, and pious. Even in victory they learned to respect humanity ; and the lives and proper- ties of the vanquished were protected by their Christian con- querors. Religious knowledge, and the presence of the bishops and clergy, improved the wisdom of the national councils ; and the humane idea, that by baptism all men became brethren, meliorated the condition of the slave, and at length abolished so odious an institution. The conviction of a future state expanded their ideas, and, teaching them to despise all earthly grandeur, caused even many of their kings to descend from their thrones, and pass the remainder of their lives in monasteries. St. Austin divided the country into two archbishoprics, viz. London, which was afterwards transferred to Canterbury, and York, with twelve suffragan bishops to each ; after which, he turned his solicitude towards the Britons, whose religion and morals had been much weakened by the long and unsuccessful wars they had waged against their fierce inva- ders. Many also of the clergy, during these unhappy times, were more anxious to enjoy the emoluments, than discharge the duties of their calling. St. Gregory lamented, and endeavoured to remedy these disorders. He invested St. Austin with an extensive juris- diction over all the bishops of the Britons. At a conference held with seven of them, he demanded their conformity on three points, viz. the observation of the orthodox time of Easter ; conformity with the Roman rite, in the administra- tion of baptism ; and concert with him in preaching the gos- pel to the Saxons. These requests were how r ever refused, ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS OF THE SAXON'S. 45 and his metropolitan authority rejected : upon which the archbishop, rising up, exclaimed, " Know then, that if you will not assist me in pointing out to the Saxons the way of life, they, by the just judgments of God, will prove to you the ministers of death." Augustine did not long survive this unsuccessful attempt ; and his prediction was verified a few years after by Edilfrid, the Pagan king of Northumberland, who in the year 013 entered the British territories, and destroyed nearly I ,200 monks from the monastery of Bangor, who were assembled on a neighbouring mountain, to pray for the success of the Britons in the battle. The choice of bishops was at first reserved to the national synods, in which the primate presided ; it afterwards devolved to the clergy of each church, whose choice was corroborated by the presence and acclamations of the more respectable among the laity. But feudal jealousy forbad the consecra- tion of the elected bishop till the royal consent was obtained ; and at the same time the monarch claimed the right of investing the new prelate with the temporalities of his bish- oprick. These encroachments were progressive, till in the end the rights of the chapter were openly invaded, and bishops were appointed, without waiting for the choice of the clergy. At last the Pontiff interfered, and reclaimed the ancient freedom of canonical election, which gave rise to those frequent disputes concerning investitures, so much to the scandal and disorder of the nation. In the infancy of the Saxon church, the scanty supply of missionaries was unequal to the increasing demands of the people. The bishop either followed the court, and preached according to his leisure ; or fixed his residence in some par- ticular spot, whence, attended by his clergy, he visited the remote parts of his diocese, which was then of an enormous extent, equal to that of the kingdom in which it was estab- lished. Churches were not erected, except, in monasteries, or the more populous cities : and the inhabitants of the country depended for instruction on the casual arrival of priests, whose charity, or the orders of their superiors,, induced them to undertake those laborious duties. This was soon found be} r ond the powers of the most zealous to fulfil. St. Theodore, the primate, distributed each diocese into a number of parishes, exhorting the Thanes or nobles to erect and endow, with the permission of the sovereign, a competent number of churches ; and to stimulate their devotion, he secured to them and their heirs a right of 46 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS OF THE SAXONS. patronage, reserving at the same time that authority which was necessary for the government of his clergy. As to the revenues of the church, they consisted princi- pally of donations of lands which were from time to time bestowed by the pious liberality of our ancestors ; and their value was greatly augmented by the privileges and immu- nities annexed to them. This spirit of munificence, which distinguished the first converts, was inherited by many of their descendants. In every age of the Saxon dynasty, we may observe numerous additions to the original donations. Of many, the great object was to support the ministers of reli- gion, and, by supporting them, to contribute to the service of the Almighty. Others were desirous to relieve their indigent brethren ; and with this view they confided their charities to the distribution of the clergy, the legitimate guardians of the patrimony of the poor. A third class was composed of thanes, who, having acquired riches by suc- cessful crimes, and deferred restitution till the victims of their injustice had disappeared, were induced to confer, as a tardy atonement, some part of their property on the church. The principal resource, however, of the parochial clergy, was the institution of tithes, after the example of the law of Moses. These, till about the seventh century, had been voluntary ; but mankind are not always prompted to make pecuniary sacrifices from a sense of duty alone, and the institution of parochial churches imperiously required an augmentation of the number of pastors. To provide, there- fore, for their support, the payment of tithes was strictly commanded by civil, and ecclesiastical authority. These revenues, from whatever source, were divided into four equal parts : one to the bishop, for the support of his dignity ; a second for the maintenance of the clergy ; a third furnished the repairs of the church, and the religious ornaments; and the last was devoted to charitable purposes. Each Sunday the priest explained in English that portion of the Bible which was read during mass, and devoted a part of his time to the instruction of his parishioners. Every dissipating and indecorous employment was forbidden to the clergy ; they could neither accept of civil offices, nor engage in commercial speculations. Public diversions they were exhorted to despise, and to employ their leisure hours in the study of the scriptures, and the exercise of manual labour. Their dress was to be plain and decent, conforma- ble to the severity of the canons. The celibacy of the LEARNING, &c. OF THE SAXONS. 47 clergy was strictly enjoined, and for more than two hundred and fifty years from the death of St. Austin, was strictly enforced. But during the devastations of the Danes, and the consequent disorders, some of the clergy did not scruple to violate the chastity they had sworn to observe. Yet, even in those unhappy times, these marriages were never approved ; and as often as a transient gleam of tranquillity invited the prelates to turn their attention to the restora- tion of discipline, the prohibitions of former synods were renewed. * Learning and Learned Men. When the Romans invaded Britain, they instructed and improved those whom they subdued. The Saxons, on the contrary, a fierce and illiterate people, marked their progress by destruction. All the libraries left by the Romans, were destroyed by their ravages ; and if science was not totally extirpated, it is to religion alone they owed the blessing. The duties of the priesthood necessarily required a daily study of the Scriptures, and a familiarity with the ancient fathers. The study of the Latin was necessary to the knowledge of the church service ; and for this purpose schools were estab- lished in the monastic and clerical communities. The study of this language produced an acquaintance with the works of the poets and philosophers of Greece and Rome ; and in these studies the Saxon clergy and monks acquired a distin- guished superiority over the other nations of Europe. It was to Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Adrian, Abbot of St. Peter's, that the Saxons were indebted for this advan- tage. Compassionating the ignorance of their converts, these holy men dedicated their leisure hours to their instruc- tion ; and masters, formed under their inspection, were dis- persed among the principal monasteries. To discover and collect the remains of ancient knowledge, was among the principal objects which prompted the Anglo-Saxons to visit distant countries ; and in the monasteries these manuscripts were soon found multiplied by innumerable copies, a con- siderable portion of time being allotted to the transcription. The most ancient of these libraries was that of Canterbury, which owed its establishment to Gregory the Great, but was much increased by Archbishop Theodore. Another collec- tion was possessed by the monastery at Weremouth, the fruit of the labours of St. Bennet Biscop ; but the most 48 LEARNING, &c. OF THE SAXONS. extensive appears to have been that of York, in the cata- logue of which, given by Alcuin, we find the name of almost every distinguished Latin author. In their system of education, religious knowledge and morality were their principal studies ; but other departments were not neglected. It is true, these sciences were mixed with many errors, which must be attributed to the igno- rance of the times, more than to their want of industry or penetration. A catalogue of their authors has been collected, among whom the most worthy of notice are St. Bennet Biscop, Aldhelm, Bede, and Alcuin. St. Bennet Biscop, or Benedict, was nobly descended, and one of the great officers of the court of Oswy, the pious king of Northumberland; but seeing nothing but dangers in the allurements of a court, he bade adieu to the world at the age of twenty-five, and went on a pilgrimage to Rome. Five or six years after he made another journey, and before his return became a monk, and was afterwards chosen abbot of St. Peter's, in Canterbury. In three other journeys which he took, he exceedingly enriched that library. He brought from Germany and Gaul, masons to build his monastery of Weremouth ; stone buildings before that time being very rare in England. He also founded the abbey of Jarrow, on the banks of the Tyne. He died in 690. St. Aldhelm, abbot of Malmesbury, and afterwards bishop of Sherbum, was a West Saxon, a near relation to king Ina, and received his education under St. Adrian of Canter- bury. His Saxon compositions obtained him the applause of his countrymen. Emboldened by their approbation, he aspired to higher excellence, and became the first English- man, as he himself informs us, who cultivated the Latin poetry. His reputation became so great, that even foreigners submitted their writings to his judgment. After having been abbot of Malmesbury for thirty years, he was obliged to quit his cell, and take upon him the bishopric of Sher- burn. He died in the visitation of his diocese, in the year 709. Bede, who has been honoured by posterity with the title of " Venerable," was born in a village between the Tyne and the Were. Endowed with great natural talents, and anxious to improve thorn, he applied without intermission to the study of the sciences. With little other help than what the library of his monastery afforded him, and amidst the LEARNING, &C. OF THE SAXONS. 4§ numerous duties of the monastic institute, his ardent and comprehensive mind embraced every science then studied, and raised him to a high pre-eminence above all his con- temporaries. At the time of his writing the Ecclesiastical History of the Anglo Saxons, he informs us that he had devoted fifty-two years to what he considered the most delightful of all pursuits, his own improvement, and the instruction of his pupils. In the catalogue of the books which he had composed, and which for the most part are still extant, we find elementary introductions to the different sciences, treatises on physic, astronomy, and geography ; with sermons and commentaries on the Holy Scriptures. But of all his works, his Ecclesiastical History is the most celebrated ; it was received with universal approbation, and translated into the Saxon, by Alfred the Great, for the instruction of his countrymen. That it contains a faithful record of the times is allowed by all ; and if to those who wish to doubt of the truth of every miracle, the credulity of Bede may appear a blemish, yet his candour, sincerity, and piety, must please and edify every reader. Bede died a3 he had lived, in the practice of devotion, and the prosecu- tion of his studies. During his last illness, he had under- taken an Anglo Saxon translation of the Gospel of St. John, and had reached the sixth chapter the evening of his death. One of his scholars, to whom he was dictating it, said to him, " Dear master, one sentence is not yet finished." "Then write it quickly," replied Bede. The young man soon after said : "It is finished." " Truly," exclaimed the dying saint, "it is finished. Hold my head in thy hands, for it is a pleasure to me to sit opposite my little oratory where I used to pray ; there let me invoke my Heavenly Father." He was placed upon the pavement of his celt, repeated the Gloria Patri, and expired in the sixty-second year of his age, 735. Alcuin was born at York, and educated in the famous school of that city, under Archbishop Egbert, brother of the king of North umbria, who had himself been a disciple of Bede. The virtue, docility, and talents of Alcuin soon attracted the notice, and secured the affection of his noble master Egbert, at his death, bequeathed to him his library, and chose him to succeed to the important office of teacher. The abilities and reputation of Alcuin added to the ancient reputation of the school, and students from Gaul and Ger- many crowded to the lectures of so renowned a master, 5 50 GOVERNMENT, LAWS, COMMERCE. He wrote for the use of his pupils treatises on most of the sciences; compiled the lives of several eminent persons; and composed several poems. He also wrote comments on the Holy Scriptures, from the works of the fathers. His last labours were employed on a subject of the highest importance to religion, viz. a revision of the Latin vulgate. He died at the abbey of St. Martin, at Tours, about the year 810. Among the learned of this time, we must not omit Alfred the Great, who was not only a scholar himself, but a great encourager of learned men. He founded schools on a very extensive plan ; and though Oxford had been a seat of learn- ing in more ancient times, yet that university appears to have been so entirely ruined in the beginning of his reign, that he may be justly called its father and founder. He usually divided his time into three portions ; one was given to devotion and study, another to the despatch of business, and a third to diet, exercise, and sleep. He made a considerable progress in the different studies of grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, architecture, and geometry; he was an excellent historian, understood music, and was one of the best Saxon poets of his time. Indeed, if we consider his whole life, we shall seldom find any one that has so admira- bly discharged all the offices of a Christian and a king. By his example we may learn, that no infirmity of body, no labour of mind, no disquietude nor dangers, can exempt us from per- forming our duty towards God and man. Alfred was con- stantly present at the divine service, and in the night, when others were at rest, he would repair alone to the church, to perform his devotions ; he superintended himself the distri- bution of alms, and in all these offices, behaved with such affability, meekness, and humility, as gained him the hearts of all that approached him. CHAPTER IV. Government, Laws, Commerce. The Saxon annals are too imperfect to delineate, with any precision, the prerogatives of the crown, or the privi- leges of the people. We know that there was a national assembly called Wittenagamot, viz. the Assembly of the Wise, whose consent was necessary to the enacting of laws. They generally met at the festivals of Christmas, Easter, and GOVERNMENT, LAWS, COMMERCE. 51 Whitsuntide ; and if unforeseen circumstances required it, at other times. The constituent members were, the dignified clergy, the nobility, and freeholders possessed of certain lands. In their legislative capacity, they provided for the defence of the realm, the punishment or prevention of crimes, and the due administration of justice : as judges they summoned before them state criminals, decided civil contro- versies, and pronounced sentence of outlawry or forfeiture. In civil cases, the judges, after hearing the testimony of the witnesses, frequently decided the cause ; but if asser- tions were made which could not be proved by evidence, the party was put on his oath, and obliged to bring forward a certain number of freeholders, acquainted with his char- acter, to swear to the truth of the assertion. The value of an oath was according to the rank of the person. The king and archbishop, whose words were deemed sacred, were exempt from the obligation of swearing. The oath of a king's thane was equal to the oaths of six eaorls, the oath of an earldoman to those of six thanes. In criminal affairs, the process was somewhat different ; the reeve or sheriff, with the twelve oldest thanes, were sworn not to conceal the guilty, nor sentence the innocent. If the accused pleaded not guilty, he had two methods by which he might prove his innocence, the purgation of swearing, and the ordeal or judgment of God ; but, to pre- vent unnecessary appeals, it was provided, that if the cul- prit failed, he should undergo a more severe punishment for his impiety. In the purgation by oath, after calling God to witness his innocence, he produced his compurgators, who were from four to seventy-two, according to the custom of the place and greatness of the crime. If they all corrobo- rated his oath, he was acquitted. If he had recourse to the ordeal, the time was fixed by the court, and the accused spent three days in fasting and praying, at the end of which time the ordeal was prepared. In the ordeal by fire, which was generally used for persons of high birth, the process was either by walking barefooted and blindfold over nine red hot ploughshares, laid at unequal distances, or by holding in the hands a red hot iron. In the latter case, the accuser and the accused, each accompanied by twelve of their friends, were ranged in two lines opposite each other, near the fire ; a space equal to nine of the prisoners feet was divided into three parts ; near the first space was erected a stone column, or which was laid an iron bar, of two or three pounds,. 52 GOVERNMENT, LAWS, COMMERCE. according to the enormity of the offence. Mass then begau, and the bar was put into the fire ; at the last collect it was taken out and put on the column ; the prisoner then imme- diately took it in his hand, stept on each of the three lines, and then cast it away. The priest immediately wrapped up the hand in a linen cloth, upon which he fixed the seal of the church, and opened it again in three days ; if the hand was perfectly healed, he was pronounced innocent ; if not, he underwent the punishment of his crime. For the pur- gation by water, a lire was kindled under a boiler in a cer- tain part of the church. In the boiling water was put a stone, or piece of iron ; then the accused advanced, and plunging his arm into the boiling water, took out the stone ; a cloth, as before, was wrapped round the arm by the cler- gyman, and the examination, as in the ordeal by fire, was resorted to.. With regard to the Saxon titles of rank, the first of course was that of Cyning, or king. The reader must have observed, in the succession to the throne, that respect was not always had to hereditary right, but in all cases, whether by descent or election, the approval of the wittan was necessary. lie had the supreme command of all the forces by sea and land. Appeals from every court of justice might be made to him, and the chief portion of the fines levied on offenders was paid to him \ he had also the power of pardoning and com- muting the punishment of death. The earldoman, sheriffs and judges, were appointed by him, and removable at his pleasure. The next title was Etheling, or son of the noble, which was reserved for the princes of the blood royal. After these, earldoman, governor or viceroy of provinces or shires, and sometimes styled prince aud satrap ; his duty was to determine law-suits, and judge criminals. This office gave place to the title of Rorle, or Earl,, which was Danish, and established by Canute. Sheriff was the deputy of the Earl- doman,. chosen by him, sat as judge for him, and saw sen- tences executed.. Thanes, viz. servants, were officers of the crown, whom the king recompensed with lands. The Thanes were succeeded by the Barons, a title brought in by the Normans. Ceorle (whence our word Churl) was a freeholder and husbandman. As such he could not be put in bonds, nor be liable to the ignominious punishment of whipping, to which slaves alone could be subjected. Slavery continued in England for a considerable time after the conversion of the Saxons. They were by far the rn^st ARTS, MANNERS, CUSTOMS. 5$ numerous class of the community, and consisted of two kinds, viz. household slaves, and rustic slaves, called Villani, or Villains, because they dwelt in the country, and performed the labours of cultivation. The criminal laws were uncommonly mild. Murder was compensated by money, not excepting the king's life. The fine for all kinds of wounds was also settled : the price of a limb was not the same in all parts of England ; in one county it might be three pounds, in another only forty shillings. In ancient times, our kings received neither gold nor silver from their tenants, but only provisions ; and this custom- was continued even after the Conquest. By the laws of Ina, the following rent was paid for ten hides of land, viz. ten casks of honey, three hundred loaves of bread, twelve casks of strong ale, thirty casks of small ale, two oxen, ten weathers, ten geese, twenty hens, ten cheeses, one cask of butter, five salmon, one hundred eels. In some places these rents were paid in wheat, rye, oats, malt, flour, hogs, sheep, &c, accord- ing to the nature of the farm, or the custom of the country. But although this was the general mode, money rents were not altogether unknown. The principal exports were tin, lead, wood, hides, horses, and, until their entire conversion, slaves. Their great trading towns were London, York, Bristol, Exeter, Norwich. At one time, their shipping amounted to nearly three thou- sand. The principal coins were the silver penny, which contained the two hundred and fortieth part of a pound of silver : this was divided into the halfling, or halfpenny, and farthling, or farthing. The mancus contained thirty pen- nies, the mark one hundred and sixty, the ora sixteen, the- great shilling twelve, the common one five. CHAPTER V. Arts, Manners, Customs. Few improvements in the arts were made by the Saxons in England, after the first invasion of the Danes. The Saxon husbandmen ploughed, sowed, and harrowed their land ; but their ploughs were very slight, and had but one handle. They were unacquainted with water-mills, and had no better way of grinding their corn than with hand?- 5* 54 ARTS, MANNERS, CUSTOM'S; mills, which were usually turned by women. Masonry was restored ; and some arts connected with it introduced by St. Wilfrid and St. Bennet Biscop. St. Bennet brought with him from Gaul masons and glass-makers, who instructed the English in the art of making glass, which, although it had' been practised by the ancient Britons, had been, during the Saxon invasion, entirely laid aside, They were not unac- quainted with, the art of working in gold, silver, iron, lead, and jewels. A beautiful jewel of exquisite workmanship, was found*' at Ethelingley, in Somersetshire, where Alfred the Great concealed himself in his distress, and where he some- times resided in his prosperity ; which was certainly worn by that prince, and bears this inscription :. " Alfred ordered me to be made." Artificers in iron were highly regarded in those warlike times;, because they fabricated swords and other offensive arms, as well as armour. The chief smith was an officer of considerable dignity in the courts of the Anglo-Saxons and Welch kings. He sat next the domestic chaplain, and was entitled to a draught of every liquor brought into the hall. The Anglo-Saxons were in general tall, robust, active, and handsome ; inured to fatigue, and intrepid in danger ; extremely hospitable, but addicted to gluttony and intem- perance, and so attached to the detestable vice of gaming, that after losing their estates and effects, they often played away their persons and liberties. When a young noble- man, applied- to a father for permission to pay his addresses to his daughter, the parent generally made trial of his temper, by playing- with him at dice and chess, before he gave him an answer. The game of backgammon was invented in Wales during this period, and derives its name from two Welch words, back and cammon, signifying a little battle. Their childhood and: youth were spent in running, leap- ing, climbing, swimming, wrestling, boxing, and such exer- cises as hardened both soul and body, fitting them for the toils and dangers of war; but at the same time making them rude and unpolished in their address, and haughty in their deportment. Admirers of valour and intrepidity, above all other quali- ties, they were very anxious to discover whether their sons would be possessed of them, and had various methods of putting their courage to the trial, even in their infancy. Of. ARTS, MANNERS, CUSTOMS. 55 these the following were the most common : upon a certain day, the family and friends being assembled, the father placed his infant son on the slanting side of the roof of his house, and there left him. If the child began to cry, the spectators were dejected, and prognosticated that he would be a coward ; but if he clung boldly to the thatch, and discovered no marks of fear, they were trans- ported with joy, and pronounced that he would prove a great warrior. As to their burials, it was so much the custom to lay the bodies on the surface of the ground, that a law was passed to oblige them to deposite them in graves of a proper depth. The house in which a dead body lay was a scene of con- tinued festivity, singing, dancing, and all kinds of diversion. This custom had prevailed in Pagan times, and though dis- couraged by the ministers of religion, was too agreeable to their fondness for feasting and riot to be speedily laid aside. The Teutonic or Anglo-Saxon language is so ancient, that it is impossible to trace its origin. Some of the learned have discovered much affinity between it and the Greek, both in its radical words and general structure. With this view they have collected a number of words, the names of the most necessary things, and of similar sound and meaning in both languages. The resemblance of the Anglo-Saxon and modern English is great, and many words of the former are still in use, though changed in their meaning or spelling. BOOK III. Contemporary Sovereigns during the reigns of the Danes and Saxon* restored. Benedict VIII 1012 John XVIII 1024 Benedict IX 1033 Gregory VI 1-044 Clement II 1046 Damascus II. . . 1048 Leo IX 1049 Victor II 1055 Stephen X 1057 Nicholas II 1059 Alexander II. . ....... 1061 EMPERORS OF THE WEST. Henry II 1002 (Henry III 1039 Conrad II 1024 1 Henry IV 1056 EMPERORS OF THE EAST. Constantine X 1025 Romanus III 1028 Michael IV 1034 Michael V 1041 Constantine XI 1042 Theodora, Empress 1054 Michael VI 1056 Isaac Comnenus 1057 Constantine XIL 1059 KINGS OF FRANCE. Robert II 997 Henry 1031 Philip 1060 KINGS OF SCOTLAND. Malcolm II. 1014 [Macbeth 1040 Duncan 1031 1 Malcolm III 1057 CHAPTER I. Military History of the Danes. ' 1017. — Canute, although in possession of the English crown, found himself obliged at first to make many conces- sions ; but as his power grew stronger, and his title became more secure, he gradually resumed the grants he had made. He put to death several English noblemen, among whom was the infamous Eric, who met a deserved fate for his treachery and other crimes ; nor was he less severe upon the subordi- nate ranks, levying at one time .£7*2, 000, and at another £15,000 upon the city of London alone, for the support of his army. His power being now strengthened by the weak- MILITARY HISTORY OF THE DANES. 57 ness of all who had formerly possessed wealth or authority, be began to shew the merciful side of his character. His first step to reconcile the English was to send back as many of his followers as he could spare. He made no distinction in the administration of justice between his English and Danish subjects; and in order to unite the two nations still more closely, he married Emma, widow of Ethelred, and; sister to Richard, Duke of Normandy. Canute then made a voyage to Denmark, which was attacked by the King of Sweden. In this expedition, God- win, an English earl, was distinguished by his valour. In another voyage he attacked Norway, and annexed that king- dom to his dominions, and thus became the most warlike, and potent prince in Europe, being at once King of Eng- land, Denmark, and Norway. His last military preparations were made against Duncan, king of Scotland, who was in possession of Cumberland, and refused to hold it as vassal of Canute, alleging that that prince had not obtained it by hereditary descent ; but before the armies met, Duncan and Canute were reconciled, and the ancient conditions per- formed. The valour of the former part of his life, and the piety of the latter, were topics that filled the mouths of his courtiers with praise and flattery : they even pretended to believe his power uncontrollable, and that all things would obey him. Canute, sensible of their adulation, is said to have reproved them in the following manner. He ordered his chair to be put on the sea-shore while the tide was coming* in, and commanded it to retire ; he feigned to sit for some time in expectation of submission, till the waves began to surround him, when, turning to his. adulators, he observed that the title of Lord and Master of the Universe belonged only to him whom both earth and sea obeyed. Canute died at Shaftsbury, in the nineteenth year of his reign, leaving three sons, Sweyn, Harold, and Hardicanute. Sweyn was crowned king of Norway, Hardicanute of Den- mark, and Harold succeeded to the throne of England. 1036. — Harold, surname d Harefoot, from his swiftness in running, met with no small opposition from his brother Hardicanute ; but by the intervention of the nobles, a wit- tenagamot was held at Oxford, in which it was agreed, that Harold should have London, and all the provinces north of the Thames, while the possession of the southern should be given to Hardicanute ; and until that prince should appear in person, Emma, his mother, was to govern in his stead. 58 THE SAXON LINE RESTORED. But this agreement was of short duration ; for Emma hav- ing, at the request of Harold, brought over her two sons, Edward and Alfred, sent the latter towards London, on the road to which he was treacherously attacked : six hundred of his followers were slain, and he himself was taken prisoner, hurried away to Harold, and thence to the isle of Ely, where his eyes were put out. The unhappy prince lingered some days, and then expired, either by the hand of an assassin, or the violence of his sufferings. Emma and Edward, apprised of his fate, fled to the Continent, and Harold took possession of the whole kingdom ; but when he ordered Egelnorth, archbishop of Canterbury, to perform the ceremony of his coronation, that prelate, piicing the insignia of royalty upon the altar, boldly replied, "there are the crown and sceptre which Canute entrusted to my care ; to you I neither give nor refuse them ; you may take them if you please, but I strictly forbid any of my brethren to usurp an office which is the prerogative of my see." He appears, however, subsequently to have removed the pri- mate's objections, and to have been crowned with the usual solemnities. Harold died in 1040, little regretted by his subjects, leaving the crown to his brother Hardicanute. 1040, — The ceremony of the coronation of Hardicanute was scarcely over, when he gave the first specimen of the badness of his disposition, in his impotent insults upon the body of his brother, which he ordered to be dug up, and thrown into the Thames. His next act was the imposition of a grievous tax for the payment of his navy ; which was the more intolerable, as the nation was then threatened with a famine. The evils of his reign, however, soon closed with his death, which was occasioned by excess, committed at the marriage of a Danish lord, celebrated at Lambeth. His body was interred near that of his father at Winchester. 1042. — The Saxon Line restored. Edward the Confessor. — Edward the Confessor, son of king Ethelred, by his second wife, Emma, ascended the throne, to which he seemed called by his virtues. The English were so overjoyed at finding the ancient race of their kings restored, that the warmth of their raptures was at first attended with some violence against the Danes ; but Edward, by the mildness of his manners, soon composed these differences, and the distinction between the two nations THE SAXON LINE RESTORED. 59 gradually disappeared. At his accession he found three chieftains, Godwin, Siward, and Leofrick, so powerful, that his only security lay in their mutual jealousies, and discord- ant interests ; and it was to this mistrust of each other he was principally indebted for the zeal they showed for his advancement to the throne. By their aid the Danish fami- lies, whose former tyranny deserved punishment, or whose power was to be dreaded, were expelled the kingdom Among these may be reckoned Gelinda, niece of Canute, i who was sent to Denmark, that she might not favour the invasion threatened by the king of Norway. The queen- mother, who had many crimes laid to her charge, and who had always shewn her predilection for the Danes, and dis- i like to the king, was stript of her treasures and confined to i the city of Winchester, where she died. In the mean time the king of Denmark made an irruption into Norway, which obliged Sweyn to lay aside his expedition against Edward. In 1044 some Danish pirates landed at Sandwich, but the vigilance of Godwin, Leofrick, and Siward, obliged them to leave the island, and they never afterwards returned. As the kingdom now enjoyed a profound peace, his nobles and subjects importuned Edward to take a royal consort, and he fixed upon Edgitha, daughter of Earl Godwin, to whose assistance he in a great measure owed his throne. Edgitha was a lady of mild and virtuous manners, highly | accomplished, and of great beauty. Edward made choice I of her in the hope that he could easily engage her to become (his wife, upon the condition of living together in a state of virginity, as he had long before consecrated himself to God by a vow of perpetual chastity. She readily consented to his pious desire ; and though married, they lived together as brother and sister. The year 1053 is remarkable for the death of the powerful Earl of Godwin. It is related, that while he was with the king at a feast, observing a domestic who had slipped with one foot support himself with the other, he said, "See how one brother assists another!" Yes," replied the king, regarding Godwin with a severe countenance, " and if Alfred were now alive, he might also assist me." Godwin, who felt that he was suspected of con- triving the death of Alfred, protested his innocence, and wished that if he were guilty, he might not swallow the morsel of meat which he was putting into his mouth. No sooner did he attempt it than, sticking in his throat, it suffo- cated him, and he fell down dead. (fa ThLE SAXON LINE RESTORED. In 1054 Edward sent Siward against Macbeth, who had usurped the throne of Scotland. Siward entirely defeated him, and restored Malcolm to his kingdom ; not, however, without the loss of many brave men, among whom was his own son. Upon being informed of his death, he inquired whether he had received his wound before or behind, and upon being told he fell fighting valiantly, and was wounded before, he exclaimed, " I could not wish a more glorious death for myself or my son !" The Welsh had made inroads into England, under thei king Griffin, and had plundered Hereford. Harold, son of Godwin, was sent against them, defeated them, and havim burned their ships, and reduced their army to the utmos extremity, he compelled them to surrender, pay tribute, an( entirely renounce their king. Edward had now reigned twenty-four years, when he was seized with a fatal sickness, during the dedication of the church of Westminster. In his last moments, seeing his nobles all bathed in tears around his bed, and his queei weeping and sobbing vehemently, he said to her tenderly " Weep not, my dear daughter, I shall not die, but live." Then commending her to her brother Harold, he calmly expired on the fifth of January, 1066, in the 64th year of his age. The title of Confessor was bestowed upon him about a century after his death, by a bull of canonization, issued by Pope Alexander the third. 1066. Harold. — As Edward died without issue, the crown was claimed by three competitors : Edgar Etheling asserted his right, as being grandson to Edmund Ironside ; William Duke of Normandy claimed the throne on the ground of an alleged promise from king Edward, and his affinity by his mother Emma ; and Harold, son of Earl God- win, who could show no right of descent, alleged the inten- tion of the late king in his favour. The citizens of London, who were fund of an elective monarchy, seconded his claims ; many of the clergy also adopted his cause ; and the body of the people, whose favourite he was, eagerly sup- ported his pretensions. Taking, therefore, advantage of his power, he caused himself to be proclaimed king. The first acts of his reign shewed him not unworthy of their esteem; he administered justice with impartiality, and the disturbers of the public peace, whom the lenity of Edward had suffered to exist, were sought out and pun- ished. But neither his valour nor his justice could secure THE SAXON LINE RESTORED. 61 him from the effects of an ill-grounded title. His first enemy was his own brother Tosti, who had long borne an implacable hatred to him for the part he took in his punish- ment, when governor of Northumbria. Encouraged and assisted by William of Normandy, Tosti made a descent upon the coast. Having failed here, he sailed to Norway, -and procuring reinforcements, landed at the mouth of the Humber, defeated the earls of Mercia and Northumberland, and took the city of York. Harold lost no time ; he over- took the enemy at Stamford, and immediately gave him battle, notwithstanding his advantageous position, and after a bloody conflict entirely defeated him. Tosti and Harfar- gor, king of Norw T ay, were among the slain. Those that escaped owed their safety to the personal prowess of a brave Norwegian, who is said to have defended a bridge over the Derwent for three hours, against the whole English army, during which time he slew forty of their best men with his battle-axe, till at length he was slain by an arrow. Harold had not long enjoyed this triumph, when news arrived of a fresh invasion by William Duke of Normandy, who landed at Hastings in 1066, with an army of 60,000 veteran troops. William as he came on shore, happening to stumble and fall, cried out, with great presence of mind, " England is mine : I take possession of it with both hands." William's arrival was accompanied with some of those fortunate cir- cumstances which usually attend conquest. Harold who had expected him all the summer, was then absent in the north, where he had not only weakened his forces by the bloody encounters just mentioned, but also disgusted his army by retaining the Norwegian spoils. Without allowing time to assemble his troops, or consult in so momentous an affair, with a slender force he hastened to meet the Nor- mans. The day before the battle. William sent a challenge to Harold, to decide the quarrel between them by single combat ; but Harold refused, saying he would leave it to the God of armies to determine. The next day both parties pre- pared for battle. The English are said to have passed the night in singing and drinking; the Normans, in confessing their sins and receiving the holy communion. The day being come which was to decide the fate of the nation, the English were drawn up in a close body, armed with their battle-axes and shields. Near the standard stood the king with his two brothers, that the soldiers, seeing the share he took in the common danger, might be emboldened by 6 62 THE SAXON LINE RESTORED. his example. The centre of the Normans was composed of infantry, flanked on each side by their cavalry. The fight began by a shower of arrows from the Norman cross-bows, a weapon unknown to the English, and which, acting at a great distance, surprised and galled them exceedingly. But soon coming to close fight, the English with their bills hewed down the enemy with dreadful slaughter ; while their own ranks were so close and firm, that no charges of the Norman horse could break them, though led by the Duke in person, who had three horses killed under him in the attempt. Per- ceiving their impenetrable bravery, he had recourse to stratagem ; he pretended to give way, upon which the English, led on by their impetuous courage, began a pursuit, which disordered their ranks. Then the Normans, returning to the charge with increased fury, broke their ranks, and drove them to a rising ground. In this extremity Harold was seen flying from rank to rank, rallying and inspiring his men with fresh vigour ; and though he had toiled all day on foot in front of his Kentish men, he still showed unabated force and courage. Again, therefore, victory seemed to declare against the Normans, and they fell in great numbers. Thus raged the battle with alternate success, from nine in the morning till dark, when Harold, making a furious onset at the head of his troops, was shot in the brain by an arrow, and his two brothers, fighting valiantly by his side, shared his fate. He fell, sword in hand, among heaps of slain, and, after the battle, could scarcely be distinguished among the dead. The English no sooner saw the king fall, than, loos- ing all courage, they fled on every side, and were pursued, with great slaughter, by the Normans. About 15,000 Nor- mans were slain, but a much greater number of the English fell on that fatal day. Thus ended the empire of the Sax- ons in this nation, after it had continued more than six hun- dred years. And here we may pause to observe, that the English were, in fact, the cause of their own disgrace and miseries ; for besides the late mismanagement of Harold, the nobility were split into factions, addicted to gluttony and a dissolute life, and neglectful of the duties of religion ; whilst the lower classes of society spent their time in rioting and drunkenness, and all those vices which enervate both body and mind. . Even among the clergy and religious were some who, neglecting the duties of their calling, and the rules of their order, increased the evil by the scandal they gave. ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, LAWS, &c. 63 CHAPTER II. Ecclesiastical Affairs, Laws, Sfc. Canute was most munificent to the clergy and religi- ous. He founded many noble monasteries, and, in order to fulfil a vow he had made, he went on a pilgrimage to Rome, where he was kindly received by Pope John, who remitted in favour of the English and Danes the taxes usually paid by strangers that travelled to Rome. He also procured sev- eral grievances to be redressed concerning the pall, that was usually sent to the archbishops ; the officers of the Pope hav- ing been very exorbitant in their fees upon such occasions. The reign of Edward the Confessor was highly favourable to the cause of religion. He delighted much in religious foundations ; but never, under pretence of raising those structures, exacted taxes from his people : the expenses were defrayed from his own patrimony ; and his great alms and pious liberality shewed what could be done by economy and the retrenchment of superfluities. During his exile in Normandy, he had made a vow, that if Providence should free him from his troubles, he would go on a pilgrimage to Rome : this vow he now was anxious to perform ; but upon stating his intention to his council, they were unanimously of opinion that his absence would be attended with fatal effects to the peace and welfare of his kingdom. The mat- ter was referred to Pope Leo the eleventh, Who, judging it would be highly imprudent in the king to leave England, freed him from his vow, on condition that he should distri- bute in alms a sum equivalent to the expenses of the jour- ney, and also that he should build a monastery or church in honour of St. Peter. Immediately on receiving the Pope's brief, the hoty king commenced the work, and, fixing upon a spot to the west of London, erected that noble structure Westminster Abbey, which, when finished, was solemnly dedicated to St. Peter, on the feast of St. John the Evangelist, in 1065, a few days before his death. The laws of Edward the Confessor have long had a great and a deserved reputation. They were the fruit of his wisdom and anxious wishes for the good of his people. Under the Saxon heptarchy, Ethelbert, the first Christian king of Kent, published laws for his kingdom in 602. Ina, Si CHARACTER, &c. OF THE DANES. in 693, did the same for Wessex ; and Offa, about 790, to* the Mercians. From these laws, Alfred formed a new and short code in 877. Athelstan, Edmund, Edgar, and Ethelred also made laws, and Canute added others ; but to Edward the Confessor we are chiefly indebted for reducing the whole of these laws into one body, with amendments and additions, which code from this time became common to all England, under the title of Edward the Confessor's laws, to distinguish them from those of William the Con- queror. They are still in force as part of the common law of England, unless where altered by later statutes. They consisted of short positive precepts, in which the judges kept to the letter, and sufFered them not to be reasoned away by advocates or pleaders. Punishments were mild, few crimes were capital, and fines and penalties certain, and not left to the will and pleasure of the judge. The public peace and tranquillity were maintained, and private property respected, not by the rigour of the laws, but by the diligence and impartiality with which they were administered. The trials by ordeal still continued in force, though seldom resorted to : instead of plunging the arm into boiling w T ater, the person accused was sometimes thrown into a pond or river; if he floated without any action of swimming he was adjudged guilty. These methods of trial, the relics of heathenish superstition, were frequently condemned by the Church as tempting God's providence, and contrary to his law and the precept of charity. The first legal prohibition of them in England was in the third year of Henry III., by act of parliament, or order in council. Character, 8fc. of the Danes. The Danes, who during this period constituted so great a portion of the inhabitants, were as bold and intrepid as the Saxons, and even surpassed them in fierceness and cruelty. In those ages the people of Scandinavia, comprehending Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, breathed nothing but war, and were instigated by a most astonishing spirit of enter- prise and adventure. By their numerous fleets, they rode triumphant in all the European seas ; carrying terror and desolation along the coasts of Germany, France, Spain, Italy, England, Scotland, and Ireland. The inhabitants of these countries, especially of the sea coasts, lived in continual apprehension of these dreadful enemies, and made it their daily prayer to be preserved from their destructive visits. THE NORMAN LINE. 65 Born In fleets or camps, the first objects on which they fixed their eyes were storms, arms, battles, blood, and plunder. Amidst these they were brought up, till, by degrees, the most dreadful objects became familiar to them. As soon as they could lisp, they were taught to sing the plundering exploits and victories of their ancestors. Their memories were stored with nothing but tales of warlike and piratical expeditions, of cities reduced to ashes, and provinces deso- lated. It was one of their martial, though boasted proverbs, that a Dane who wished to be accounted brave, should attack two enemies, stand firm against three, retire only one pace from four, and flee from no fewer than five. BOOK IY. Cotemporary Sovereigns* POPES. Alexander II 10611 Victor III 1086: Gregory VII 1073 J EMPERORS OF THE EAST. Nicephorus 1078 Alexis 1081 Constantine XII 1059 Romanus IV 1068 Michael VII 1071 EMPEROR OF THE WEST. Henry IV 105& KING OF FRANCE. Philip 1060 KINGS OF SPAIN. Alphonso VI. of Leon .... 1065 | Sancho II. of Castile .... 1065 KINGS OF SCOTLAND. Malcolm III 1059 | Donald VIII 1680 CHAPTER I. THE NORMAN LINE. Military History, from William the Conqueror to the resto- ration of the Saxon Line by Henry II. , including a period of about eighty-eight years- Nothing could exceed the astonishment of the English when made acquainted with the battle of Hastings. William.'* 6* 60 THE NORMAN LIKE. approach to the capital increased the alarm, and the divi- sions which began to appear in their councils. The superior- clergy inclined to his side, and the bull of the Pope, from whom he had received a consecrated banner, was now openly offered as a reason for general submission. Other causes rendered it difficult for the people to defend their liberties in this critical emergency. The body of the nation had lost its ancient pride* and independent spirit by their recent subjection to the Danes, and deemed the disgrace and humiliation of admitting the pretension of William less to be dreaded than the bloodshed and rapine of war. A repulse which a party of Londoners received from five hun- dred Norman horse, renewed the terror of the great defeat at Hastings ; the easy submission of Kent was an additional discouragement, and the burning of Southwark made the citizens of London dread a like fate for their capital. The attention, therefore, of all, was now turned to their own preservation. The bishops, the nobles, with Edgar Atheling, the natural heir to the crown, waited upon the Conqueror, and declared their intention of yielding to his authority. William, was accordingly crowned in Westminster Abbey, by Eldred, Archbishop of York; Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury, being equally in disgrace with the Pope and the monarch. The coronation oath was much the same as that taken by the Saxon kings, viz. that he would protect the holy Church and its governors; that he would rule the peo- ple subject to him prudently and justly, would ordain and keep just laws, and wholly forbid all rapines and unjust judg- ments. 5 ' William had till now been called " the Bastard ;" from this period he took the name of " Conqueror," a term which, in the language of those times, did not necessarily include the idea of conquest, but was employed indifferently to designate any one who had asserted and obtained his light. His first measures were wisely adapted to allay the animosity and acquire the esteem of the English : he con- firmed the liberties and immunities of London, and of all the other cities of the empire. In his whole administration, he bore the resemblance of the lawful prince, and not of the conqueror ; so that the English began to flatter themselves that they had only changed the succession of their sovereign, without injury to their former government. But William, not- withstanding this seeming confidence and friendship which. \& expressed for his English subjects, took care to place all TUR NORMAN LINE. 67 real power in the hands of the Normans. He every where disarmed the inhabitants ; built fortresses in all the principal cities, where he quartered Norman soldiers, and bestowed the forfeited estates upon his captains. To one of his favourites he gave the county of Chester, which he erected into a palatinate, and rendered by his grant almost independent of the crown. Having thus firmly estab- lished his power, he ventured to visit his native country, within six months after he had left it. He was careful, how- ever, to take with him the most powerful among the clergy and nobles, as well to secure himself from any attempts, which might be made during his absence, as to show, by the quality and magnificence of his attendants, the greatness and importance of the conquest he had achieved. Pictaviensis the historian, speaking of the riches brought from England, says, "that country greatly exceeds the Gauls in the abun- dance of its precious metals. If it be termed for its fertility the granary of Ceres, it may be called the treasury of Arabia for its riches. The English women excel all others in the use of the needle, and embroidery of gold and silver : the men in all sorts of elegant workmanship. Merchants import among them the most noble productions of foreign manufactures, and the best artists of Germany reside there." Indeed, the superiority of English manufactures was so gen- erally acknowledged, that delicate articles in embroidery, or the precious metals, were called by the continental nations " English work." In the mean time the English were so grievously oppress- ed by the Norman barons, that, concerting with the Earl of Boulogne, they attacked Dover Castle ; but a panic seized the soldiers, the Earl of Boulogne was obliged to seek his safety in flight, most of his men were taken, and the English only escaped through their more perfect knowledge of the roads. About the same time Edric, surnamed the Outlaw, with the assistance of the Welch, ravaged several parts of Herefordshire. These transactions hastened the return of the king, and he came with the secret determination to crush by severity a people he could not gain by lenity. Several noble- men, foreseeing the storm, withdrew with Edgar Atheling and his sister into Scotland, to the court of Malcolm, who shortly after married that princess. By her offspring the Saxon line was restored to the throne of England in the person of Henry the Second. Insurrections now appeared in every part of the country. 68 THE NORMAN LINE". which answered no other purpose but to rivet more firmly the chains of the English. Acquainted with the restless spirit of the Northumbrians, who had begun the revolt, and deter- mined to incapacitate them from ever more molesting him, William issued orders for laying waste that fertile country. Their houses were reduced to ashes, the cattle seized and driven away, the implements of husbandry were destroyed, and the inhabitants compelled either to seek subsistence in the northern parts of Scotland, or to perish miserably in the woods from cold and hunger. The lives of a hundred thousand persons are computed to have been sacrificed to this barbarous policy. But William was now determined to proceed to ex- tremities with the English, and to reduce them to a condition in which they should no longer be formidable to him. Ancient and honourable families were reduced to beggary ; the nobles were treated with contempt, and their estates divided among the new comers. He even entertained the difficult project of totally abolishing the language of the country. He ordered the English youth to be instructed in the Norman language : the pleadings in the supreme courts of judicature, deeds and laws, were in the same language. No other was used at court, and it became the language of all fashionable societies. To this attempt of the conqueror, and to the foreign domin- ions annexed for so long a time to the crown of England, we owe the predominant mixture of French in our language. In short, nothing was left untried that had a tendency to oblit- erate every trace of the Anglo-Saxon constitution. Having crushed different conspiracies, and, by punishing severely the malcontents, secured his dominions, William now expected to reap the fruits of his toils, and hoped that the re- mainder of his reign would be crowned with peace and pros- perity. But how vain is all human wisdom! he found ene- mies where he least expected them, and such as embittered all the latter part of his life. He had three sons, l*obert,. William, and Henry. Robert, the eldest, was a prince of great bravery, but imprudent. William and Henry, more insinuating in their manners, had gained the affection of their father, of which Robert had been heard to express his jealousy. A mind so prepared for resentment, soon found or made a cause for an open rupture. The two princes were one day in sport together, and wantonly threw water over their elder brother, as he passed. Robert, all alive to sus- picion, immediately construed this into a studied indignity, and drawing his sword, ran up stairs to take revenge. The THE NORMAN LINE. 69 whole castle was quickly in a tumult ; and it was with some difficulty that the king himself could appease it ; but he could not extinguish the animosity which ever after prevailed in his family. Robert, that very night, withdrew to Rouen, hoping to surprise the castle ; but he was defeated in his design by the governor. The popular character of the prince, how- ever, and a sympathy of manners, engaged all the young nobility in his favour, and this unnatural contest continued for several years, during which several battles were fought. In one of these Robert encountered his father, without know- ing him, and not only wounded him in the arm, but dismount- ed him. William immediately called for a horse, when Robert, hearing his father's voice, instantly alighted, and fall- ing at his feet, begged pardon for what he had done : then, mounting him upon his own horse, he led him in safety out of the throng. This uncommon occurrence brought both par- ties to an accommodation; and peace being concluded, Robert returned to England with his father, but could never entirely regain his favour. William had scarcely put an end to these disturbances, when he felt a very severe blow in the death of Matilda his queen ; and soon after he received intelligence of a general insurrection in Maine. Upon his arrival on the continent, he found the insurgents had been secretly assisted by the king of France, and his displeasure was not a little increased by the account of the sarcasm which that monarch had thrown out against him. William, who was become very corpulent, had been detained in bed some days by sickness ; and Philip was heard to say, "That his brother of England was gone to lie in of his great belly, and he feared he should be obliged to put up lights at his uprising;" alluding to the custom of France in those days. This so provoked William, that he sent him word, " That as soon as he was risen, he would save the charge of lights, by going himself, to light a thousand fires in the very bowels of France." In order to perform his promise he levied a strong army, and entering the isle of France, destroyed and burned villages and houses without opposition, not even sparing the churches and monasteries. But. as a visible punishment for his ungovernable revenge and cruelty, his horse chancing to place his foot upon some hot ashes, plunged so violently, that his rider was thrown with his belly upon the pommel of the saddle, and bruised to such a degree, that he suffered a relapse, of which he shortly died, near Rouen, on the 9th of September 1087. 70 THE NORMAN LINE. William must certainly be reckoned among the greatest captains of his age. Impetuous and quick in his enter- prises, he was cool, deliberate, and indefatigable in times of danger. His height of body and strength were, accord- ing to the Norman writers, most astonishing : it is said that, sitting on horseback, he could draw the string of a bow that no other man could bend on foot. He was extremely fond of hunting ; and though possessed of no fewer than sixty- eight forests and chases, he scrupled not to expel the unfor- tunate inhabitants of a large track of more than thirty square miles, which he converted into a wilderness for his deer, burning houses, churches, and monasteries. In his conversation he w r as seldom aiFablc, except to Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury, with whom he was ever gentle and mild. In fine, he rendered himself odious to many, formidable to all ; but by his policy he transmitted his power to his posterity, who still occupy the throne. Cotemporary Sovereigns. POPES. Victor III 1086 1 Pascal II 1099 Urban II 1088 I EMPEROR OF THE EAST. Alexis 1081 EMPEROR OF THE WEST. Henry IV 1056 XIXG OF FRAXCE. Philip 1060 K1XG OF SCOTLAXn. Donald VIII 1068 KING OF SPAIX. Alphonso VI 1065 William II. William, surnamed Rufus, or Red, from the colour of his hair, was appointed by the king's will his successor, whilst the eldest son, Robert, was to have Normandy. The Norman barons, however, were by no means pleased with THE NORMAN LINE. 7l this arrangement ; they wished for a union of the whole, and regarded Robert as the rightful heir. A powerful con- spiracy was formed, at the head of which was Otho, the late king's brother. Otho wrote to Robert, urging him to use the utmost despatch. Robert gave the most positive assurances of a speedy arrival ; but his indolence and love of pleasure were greater than his ambition. Instead of employing the money sent him in levies to support his friends, he lavished it upon unworthy favourites, procrasti- nating his departure till the opportunity was lost. William, on the other side, exerted himself with amazing activity, so that the conspirators, despairing of any assistance from Robert, threw themselves upon the king's mercy, who spared their lives, but confiscated their property and banished them the kingdom. Normandy at this period presented nothing but a scene of confusion. The barons had expelled the troops which William the Conqueror had put into their castles, and levying men, made war on each other, which the feeble govern- ment of Robert, who was immersed in his pleasures, was unable to resist. William, who never lost sight of the pos- session of Normandy, seized the opportunity, and by bribes, judiciously distributed, obtained possession of almost every fortress on the right bank of the Seine. He then crossed with a numerous army into Normandy ; but the barons effected a reconciliation, and a treaty of peace between the two brothers was concluded ; one of the articles of which was, that if either of the brothers should die without issue, the survivor should inherit all his dominions. It was in vain that Henry remonstrated against this act of injustice, and even took up arms to defend a small fortress on the coast of Normandy against their united assaults ; he was obliged to surrender, and wandered about for some years in the greatest distress. At the siege of this fortress, two circumstances took place that mark the character of the brothers. As William was riding out at some distance from the camp, he perceived two horsemen from the castle coining to attack him. At the first encounter the king's horse was killed, and overthrew its rider. His antagonist with uplifted arm immediatley ran to despatch him, when William cried out, " Hold, villain, I am the King of England." The two soldiers, seized with awe, assisted him to rise, and presented one of their horses. The king, springing upon the saddle, asked who was the man 7-2 THE NORMAN LINE. that dismounted him ? upon which the soldier boldly shewed himself; when the king ordered him to follow, and took him into his service. In the mean time, Henry, being much distressed for want of water, sent a messenger to Robert, desiring that they would endeavour to subdue him by force of arms, rather than by thirst. Robert immediately gave him liberty to supply himself; and when William blamed his generosity, he replied, "What! shall I suffer my brother to die of thirst ? where shall we find another, when he is gone?" In the mean time, Malcolm of Scotland, taking advantage of William's absence, crossed the borders, and laid waste the northern counties. William, immediately after his reconciliation with Robert, was determined to revenge the aggression. He assembled an army, with which he pene- trated into Scotland ; but on Malcolm's submitting to do homage for his kingdom, peace was concluded. But a new quarrel arose between the two kings : Malcolm again with his troops burst into Northumberland, where he was totally defeated, himself and his son being left dead on the field of battle. What pretexts William made for not observing the treaty with Robert we are not informed ; but war again being renewed, William had recourse to his usual method of bribery, and his mode of raising the money strongly marks his character. When the men he had demanded from Eng- land were drawn up on the shore, ready to embark, each soldier was ordered to pay ten shillings to the king, and return to his home. But these petty broils were now to be eclipsed by the commencement of the most extraordinary enterprise recorded in the annals of nations, — the crusades. Peter the hermit, a native of Amiens, of a most enterprising mind and warm imagination, had made a pilgrimage to the holy sepulchre at Jerusalem. He could not behold without indignation the cruel manner in which the Christians were treated by the Turks ; and, upon his return, formed the bold design of freeing the Holy Land from the Mahometan yoke. He pro- posed his views to the Pope, who permitted, rather than assisted, the design. Peter now resolved to preach the crusade ; he travelled through all Christendom, exciting the princes and people to the recovery of the Holy Land ; and such was the efFect of the enthusiasm, that men of all ranks flew to arms. Robert, eager for glory, and prone to change, THE NORMAN LINE. 73 I was one of the foremost in the undertaking ; and in order to supply money to defray the neccessary expenses, mort- , gaged his dukedom to William. The sum, which amounted ; to no more than 10,000 marks, was readily promised by I William ; and the means he took to provide it were, by lay- ing a heavy contribution upon the bishops, abbots, &c, who were even obliged to break in pieces their gold and silver I plate and the ornaments of their churches to furnish the I sum required. In this manner was Normandy again united to England ; and from this union arose those numerous [wars with France, which for centuries depopulated both < countries. The Normans received William without opposition ; but the people of Le Maine chose Helie, the nephew of their j late earl, and by their aid Helie surprised the city of Mons. t Upon this news being brought to William, while hunting in the New Forest, he could hardly restrain his rage; but j exclaiming, " Let those who love me, follow," he rode t immediately to the sea shore, and entered the first vessel j he found. The weather being extremely boisterous, the master remonstrated upon the danger of the passage ; but i William cried out, "Be silent and obey: Kings are never l drowned." Upon his landing, he advanced with such rapidity, that Helie with difficulty saved himself by flight. The king ravaged the country, and then returned to England. An accident, however, now put an end to all William's i ambitious projects : while hunting in the New Forest, Hampshire, to form which so many towns and villages had been depopulated, he was killed by an arrow, discharged, as it was said, by Sir Walter Tyrrel at a deer, which glanc- ing from a tree, struck the monarch to the heart. Sir Walter, terrified at the accident, clapped spurs to his horse, embarked for France, and joined the crusade. As Sir Walter, however, denied the charge, and on his return made oath that he had not on that day entered the forest, it is more probable the king met his death by treason. The body was conveyed in a cart to Winchester, and privately interred the next morning in the cathedral. William in his person was short and corpulent, light hair, and florid com- plexion. In public he assumed a haughty and fierce demeanour ; in private he was gay, witty, and licentious, seeking to lessen the odium of his impiety, rapacity, and tyranny, by making them subjects of laughter. 7 74 THE NORMAN LINE. Cotemporary Sovereigns. POPES. Pascal II 1099|Honorius II 1124 Galatius II 1118 Innocent II 1130 Calixtus n 1119lCelestine II 1134 EMPERORS OF THE EAST. Alexis 1081 |John Comnenus 1118 EMPERORS OF THE WEST. Henry IV 1056 I Lotharius 1125 Henry V 11081 KINGS OF FRANCE. Philip 1060| Lewis VI 1108 KINGS OF SCOTLAND. Donald VIII 10681 Alexander 1117 Edgar 1108 1 David 1124 KINGS OF SPAIN. Alphonso VI 1065 I Alphonso VIII 1126 Alphonso VII 11091 1100. Henry I. Upon the sudden death of William Rufus, Henry, sur- named Beauclerc, his younger brother, found an easy access to the throne in consequence of Robert's absence with the crusaders. Hastening to Winchester, he secured the royal treasures, and the barons and people immediately submitted to a claim they were unable to resist. Henry was no sooner seated on the throne, than he expelled from court all the ministers of his brother's debauchery ; and reflecting that the English still preserved the memory of their Saxon kings with gratitude, he determined to strengthen his power by marrying Matilda, niece of Edgar Atheling. This prin- cess had been bred up in a convent, and wore the veil, which was not unusual with ladies in those times, to preserve themselves from the brutal ferocity of the Normans. TImF marriage was solemnized, to the great joy of the whole i nation, on the feast of St. Michael. At this juncture Robert returned from the crusade, and after taking possession of his mortgaged estates, laid claim to the crown of England. Solely bent, however, upon his g THE NORMAN LINE. 75 pleasure, and averse from business, he was easily induced to resign all his pretensions, upon payment of a stipulated sum of money. This disposition soon brought upon him fresh troubles ; he suffered himself to be continually pillaged by his servants, whilst his subjects, under the command of petty and rapacious tyrants, were plundered without mercy, till the whole country became a scene of violence and dep- redation. In this miserable exigence the Normans had recourse to Henry, who very readily promised to redress their grievances. Accordingly he landed in Normandy with a strong army, and, in a battle which ensued, overthrew Robert's forces, and took him prisoner. Normandy was quickly reduced, and Robert never after recovered his liberty. He died twenty years after his capture, at CardifTe Castle, Glamorganshire. Henry was next engaged in a bloody, though successful, war with France. During one of the bat- tles the king was engaged, hand to hand, with one Crispin, who wounded him through his helmet : this so added to his fury, that summoning all his strength, he with one blow over- threw both horse and rider ; on this his soldiers renewed the fight with redoubled vigour, and gained a complete victory. Fortune now appeared to promise Henry a happy reign ; he was in peaceable possession of two powerful states, had a son acknowledged undisputed heir to the throne, and a daughter, named Matilda, married to the Emperor, Henry V. of Ger- many. All his prospects were, however, clouded by unfore- seen misfortunes, which deeply tinged his remaining years with misery. On his return from Normandy, where he had taken his son to receive the homage of the barons, the cap- tain and crew of the vessel which carried the prince became so intoxicated that they ran the ship upon a rock, where it was dashed to pieces. The prince was put into a boat, and might have escaped had he not been called back by the cries of Alaude, his natural sister. Unable to leave in distress one so dear to him, he ordered the sailors to row him back; but on the approach of the boat, numbers who had been left on the wreck leaped into it, and the whole went to the bottom. Above one hundred noblemen were lost. A butcher of (Rouen alone escaped; he clung to the mast, and was taken up next morning by some fishermen. Fitzstephen, the cap- tain, seeing the butcher struggling with the waves, swam up to him, and inquired whether the prince was yet living; hen learning that he had perished, he cried out, " I will 76 TH E NORMAN LINE. not survive him," and immediately sunk to rise no more. The shrieks of these unfortunate people reached the shore, and were even heard in the king's ship ; but the cause was then unknown. During three days Henry cherished the hope that his son had put into some distant port of England : but when certain intelligence of the disaster reached him he fainted away, and from that moment he was never seen to smile. He died some time after of a surfeit, by eating too freely of lampreys, a dish he was extremely fond of. He was interred in the abbey of Reading, on Christmas day, 1135, leaving the succession to his daughter Matilda. Cotemporary Sovereigns. Anastatius IV 1153 Adrian IV 1154 Celestine II 1143 Lucius II 1144 Eugenius III 1145 EMPERORS OF THE EAST. John Comnenus 1 1 18 1 Emanuel Comnenus 1143 EMPERORS OF THE WEST. Lothaire II 1125 (Frederick 1152 Conrad III 11281 KIXGS OF FRANCE. Lewis VI 1108 1 Lewis VII 1137 KINO OF SCOTLANn. David 1124 KINO OF SPAIX. Alphonso VIII 1126 1135. Stephen. No sooner was the king's death known to Stephen, son of Adela, Henry's sister, than he hastened from Normandy, and was immediately saluted king by the populace. His next step was to gain the clergy and nobility ; and for that purpose his brother, the bishop of Winchester, exerted all his influence, and with no little success. Stephen, in the mean time, seizing the vast treasures of his uncle, to the 9Ut TirE NORMAN LINE. 77 amount of 100,000 marks and upwards, besides plate and jewels, prepared to meet Matilda, who had landed upon the coast of Sussex. Upon his approach she shut herself up in Arundel Castle, where she was protected by the Queen Dow- ager, who secretly favoured her pretensions. This fortress would soon have fallen, had it not been represented to the king, that to take a castle by force which belonged to the Queen Dowager would be an infringement of the respect due to her dignity. Stephen, w T ith a generosity which occasion- ally mixed itself with the rudeness of those times, suffered her to depart in safety. He, however, had soon reason to re- pent of his gallantry, for in a battle fought soon after, Stephen was taken prisoner, after giving most amazing proofs of per- sonal bravery. Matilda, upon this success, was crowned at Winchester, with all imaginable solemnity. She was, how- ever, no ways fit for governing the kingdom. She treated the barons with a haughtiness and disdain to which they had not been accustomed, so that they began to pity the deposed monarch, and repent of the steps they had taken in the Queen's favour. The Bishop of Winchester, who had gone over to the party of the Queen, now turned against her, and was soon sufficiently strong to besiege her in Winchester whence, pressed by famine, she was obliged to escajjflH whilst her brother, the Earl of Gloucester, was taBH? prisoner in making good her retreat, and was exchan^d for Stephen. Thus another sudden revolution took place ; Matilda was deposed, and Stephen again recognised as king. But he was soon to enter the lists with a new adversary, in the person of Henry, son of Matilda, who now resolved to assert his right to the kingdom. Assured of the favoura- ble disposition of the people, ever fond of change, and of the barons, who were disgusted with Stephen's attempt to get their castles into his hands, he made a descent on England, and was immediately joined by most of the barons. Ste- phen marched with all possible diligence to oppose him, and arriving within sight of the enemy, prepared for battle. In this situation the two armies remained for some time, expect- ing a bloody engagement. While they continued thus in anxious expectation, a treaty was set on foot by the Earl of Arundel, in order to terminate the dispute without blood- shed. The death of Stephen's son, Eustace, which happened during the course of the treat}', favoured its conclusion.. 7 # 78 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. It was therefore agreed that Stephen should reign during his life, and that Hemy, after his death, should succeed to the throne. Stephen did not long survive, dying a year after this treaty at Canterbury, where he was interred, October 25, 1154. . CHAPTER II. Ecclesiastical Jljfairs. As William was now undisputed master of England, he no longer found it necessary to court popularity, and he there- fore made it his principal object to dismiss the natives from every dignity of the church, and replace them by foreigners. For this purpose he requested Pope Alexander to send a commission for the reformation of abuses. Stigand, the arch- bishop, was deposed, and one or two for the irregularity of their lives, justly merited their punishment ; but the greater part were deposed for no other crime than that of being English- men. St. Wulston, the celebrated bishop of Worcester, wa> -suffered, from the mildness of his character, to retain his see ; and he was almost the only Englishman who, after the lapse of two or three years, enjoyed any dignity in the church. Upon the whole this change, although accompanied by much injustice, was ultimately of benefit to the English church. The new bishops introduced a stricter discipline, excited a thirst for learning, and distributed their wealth in works of piety and public magnificence. During the reign of the Conqueror, a controversy arose respecting the jurisdiction of the see of Canterbury over that of York, which was car- ried to Rome. The Pope referred the matter to the king and the English bishops, by whose decision the Archbishop of York was obliged to submit. The dispute, however, was sometimes revived by their successors. William, although of an impetuous temper, had kept up a good understanding with the see of Rome, but he was not always so complaisant. In one of his angry moods, he pub- lished an order that no papal constitution should be received, unless first inspected and approved of by him. Also that no national synod called by the Archbishop of Canterbury should have any force, unless he allowed of it ; that no baron It ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 79 or officer of the king's court should be excommunicated, or obliged to undergo public penance, without his consent. These orders, it must be observed, did not regard matters of faith, but of discipline, by which the king apprehended that the government of the realm might be affected ; but in the essential rights of the supremacy he certainly paid due respect to the Holy See, and was anxious for the propagation of reli- gion. He founded many noble abbeys and monasteries, and particularly that of Battle, where he obtained the victory over Harold. Among the foreign ecclesiastics introduced by William, Lanfranc was the most illustrious, both by his abilities and piety. He was always respected and listened to by the king, over whom he had great influence, which he employed in the support of justice and the protection of the natives. To his perseverance and firmness the church of Canter- bury owed a great part of its possessions, which he rescued from the hands of the Conqueror and his successor. During the life of this prelate, William II. shewed some veneration for religion, but after his death the king, who had been restrained by his wise counsels, became exceedingly rapacious, seizing many of the revenues of the monasteries and cathedrals, and exposing the dignities of the church to open sale. When any bishopric or abbey became vacant, some unprincipled person was found pliant to every measure of the court, who suffered the church to be pillaged, and benefices to be kept vacant for a long time, that the crown might enjoy the revenues. In the year 1193, William II. being attacked by a dan- gerous illness, sent for the celebrated St. Anselm, abbot of Bee, in Normandy, to whom he made his confession, and by whose exhortations he appeared so touched with com- punction, that he promised to become a new man, and signed a declaration which he ordered to be published. It imported, that all state prisoners should be set at liberty, and satisfac- tion made for the injustices he had done them ; that whereas he had kept the see of Canterbury five years in his hands, and appropriated the revenues, he now made a tender of it to Anselm ; this, however, the holy man declined. William, shortly after recovering, quickly forgot his good resolutions, though he still continued to press St. Anselm to accept the see of Canterbury. Anselm at last consented, upon the fol- lowing conditions : " That the king should restore the lands gO ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. he had taken from that see, and submit to the bishops in matters in which he had manifestly encroached upon their authority." These conditions were accepted, and Anselm was consecrated. Scarcely, however, was the ceremony per- formed, when the king renewed his rapacity ; for several months he obliged the tenants of the archbishop to pay their rents into his treasury, and after having reduced him to such a state of poverty that the expenses of his household were defrayed by the Abbot of St. Albans, he insisted upon a great present in return for his promotion to the archbishopric. Upon the refusal of Anselm to comply with his sacrilegious- demands, he was filled with rage and bitter resentment against the prelate, and so harassed him on every oppor- tunity, that the archbishop was obliged to quit the kingdom and retire to Rome. William, after his departure, continued in the same course, till he was suddenly arrested. in the midst of his career by his death in the New Forest. In the reign of Henry I., religious affairs bore, for a short time, a better aspect ; he recalled St. Anselm, imprisoned Ranulphus, the chief contriver of the oppressions in the former reign, and banished libertines and scandalous char- acters from his court ; but the disputes concerning investitures and the vacant benefices were once more renewed, and rose to a great pitch. In the end, however, the king agreed to surrender them to the Holy See. Some abuses having crept into the church by the non- observance of celibacy among the clergy, St. Anselm sum- moned a synod at Westminster, in which it was enacted, ''That all priests, deacons, and subdeacons should be obliged by their vow made at their ordination." Henry took advan- tage of this, and endeavoured to convert it into a source of profit. He imposed heavy fines upon every one found to have transgressed ; but as the number was so small as to dis- appoint his expectations, he levied a certain fine upon every clergyman, guilty or not, and imprisoned or tortured those who were unable to pay. Stephen, upon his accession to the throne, took an oath in presence of the bishops, and the Pope's legate, to preserve the liberty of the Church ; and, in particular, not to seize or embezzle the profits of vacant benefices, which should be preserved for the Church and the next incumbent. But no sooner was he in possession of the crown, than, disregard- ing his oath he seized at pleasure the treasures of the LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. 81 Church, bestowed the revenues upon laymen, or sold them to strangers, imprisoned the bishops, and obliged them to surrender their lands. CHAPTER III. Laws, Government, Commerce. The feudal law was the chief foundation both of the gov- ernment and jurisprudence established by the Normans in England. According to the principles of this law, the king was the supreme lord of the landed property ; for the word feudal signifies a possession held under another. The land was considered to be a species of gift, for which the vassal owed certain service to his lord, as the lord did to the crown. The vassal was obliged to defend his lord in time of war ; and the baron, at the head of his vassals, was bound to defend the king and kingdom. As William the Conqueror, by taking the usual oath administered to the Anglo-Saxon kings at their coronation, had solemnly engaged to main- tain the constitution, the English nation had reason to believe that they had only changed their native prince for one of foreign extraction. But though William for some time affected moderation, and even adopted some of the laws of Edward the Confessor, he soon utterly subverted the form of government, and in its stead substituted a rigid feudal monarchy, or military aristocracy. This was attended with a grievous depression of the body of the people, who were daily exposed to the insults and extortions of the barons, whose vassals they were, and from whose jurisdiction it was difficult and dangerous for them to appeal. This depres- sion, as might be expected, was more complete under the first Norman kings than in any other feudal government. Wil- liam, by his artful and tyrannical policy, had become in the course of his reign proprietor of almost all the lands of the kingdom. These he bestowed upon his Norman captains ; but those grants he clogged with heavy feudal services, which the receiver could not refuse. In order to remove all uncertainty, and prevent the rev- enues of the crown from being exposed to fraud, William the Conqueror ordered a general survey to be made of every 62 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. hide of land throughout the kingdom. For this purpose commissioners were appointed, with orders to ascertain the boundaries of each estate, the names of the owners and tenants, their number and condition, their estimated value, the nature of their tenures, and the amount of the land tax. The fruit of their labours was the compilation of two vol- umes, which were deposited in the exchequer, and have been transmitted to the present time, under the title of the Domesday, or book of judgment. The prerogative of buying, in preference to all others, things necessary for their courts and castles, commonly called purveyances, which belonged to the kings of England in this period, was a source of infinite vexations and injuries to the people. "The purveyors who attended the court," says a respectable historian, " plundered and destroyed the whole country through which the king passed, without control. Some of them were so intoxicated with malice, that when they could not consume all the provisions in the houses, they either sold or burnt them." The Saxon courts of justice were suffered to decline; the county court in particular, the dignity of which for several years survived the Norman invasion, fell by a blow equally unjust and impolitic : for about the year 1085 the bishops and priests were prohibited from sitting there. On this the lay barons thought it beneath their dignity to attend ; and that hall of justice, whose bench used to be crowded with prelates and peers, was gradually deserted. The king's court, after the conquest, was very splendid. There sat the great officers of the crown, the justices, and the barons. In the monarch's absence, the first justiciary presided; the ceremonies were magnificent, and the habits brilliant and costly. Could pomp and parade have compen- sated for the want of equity, the Saxon jurisprudence might have been forgotten. Courts were held by the barons, at the halls of their castles, where trivial causes were decided. Fines were a considerable branch of the royal revenue ; the supreme court of judicature was open to none who did not bring presents. The barons of the exchequer were not ashamed to insert in their records, that the county of Nor- folk gave money that it might be fairly dealt with. Enor- mous sums were paid by females, for permission not to be- forced to marry against their wills. Even ladies of high rank were not exempted: for we find Lucia, Countess of Cues*. LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. 83 ter, paying five marks not to be compelled to marry in five years. Those who had not money to compound for capital offences, were executed commonly at Smithlield. But the rigour of the Norman government, and the licentiousness of part of the nobles, proved ultimately favourable to general liberty. The defect of the Norman title induced their kings to listen to the complaints of the people, and to redress many of their grievances. The people thus became sensible of their own importance ; while the barons, finding themselves in secure possession of their estates, apprehending no fur- ther disturbances, bore with impatience the burthens imposed upon them by William. They saw the necessity of con- ciliating their vassals, in order to obtain sufficient force to enable them to retrench the prerogatives of the crown. Thus restored to a share in the legislature, the English commonalty, by a long and vigorous struggle maintained with unexampled perseverance, wrested from both king and nobles all the other rights of a free people, of which their ancestors had been robbed by the invasion and cruel policy of William. The commerce of England, which had not been con- temptible even during the ravages of her various spoilers, began at this period to increase rapidly. Besides London, whose opulent traders were styled barons ; York, Bristol, Canterbury, Exeter, and many other cities, grew rich by their trade and navigation. The exports were horses, wool, leather, cloth, corn, lead, and tin. The imports, gold, pre- cious stones, silk, tapestry, furs, wines, and spices. Little alteration was made by the Norman kings in the coins used by the Saxons. The silver penny is sometimes called ester- ling or sterling, about the derivation of which words anti- quaries are much divided. The conquest of England by the Normans contributed much to the improvement of agriculture in Britain, by the many thousand husbandmen who settled in this island. Architecture received as great improvements as agriculture : indeed the twelfth age may very properly be called the age of Gothic architecture. The religious of every order dis- played the most astonishing ardour in every thing tending to the splendour of divine worship. The ancient edifices built in the days of Edgar and Edward the Confessor, were demolished, and others more magnificent erected in their place. 84 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. As William the Conqueror was sensible that the want of fortified places in England had greatly hastened his con- quest, and might facilitate his expulsion, he built strong cas- tles in all the towns within the royal domains. All his earls, barons, and prelates, imitated his example. William Rufus was a still greater builder than his father, as the castles of Dover, Windsor, Norwich, Exeter, the palace of West- minster, and many others, testify. Under the patronage of the clergy, sculpture and painting also flourished. The illu- mination of missals and other books chiefly done by the monks, continues to be the admiration even of the present time. The very singular spirit of chivalry which began to dis- play itself about this period, gave a new turn to the educa- tion of the nobility and gentry. Their first entrance was usually into the family of some baron, where they acted in the capacity of pages or valets, which names, though now used to designate domestic servants, were then given even to the sons or brothers of kings. In this station they were instruct- ed in the laws of courtesy and politeness, and in martial exercises. After a competent time spent in the station of pages, they were advanced to the rank of esquires, and per- fected in dancing, riding, hawking, hunting, tilting, and other accomplishments. The Normans were brave and generous; but haughty, passionate, and licentious. They had only two meals a day, dinner and supper : the time of dinner was, even at court, at nine o'clock in the morning, and the time of supper at five in the afternoon. THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 65 BOOK V. Cotemporary Sovereigns. POPES. Adrian IV 11541 Urban III 1185 Alexander II 1159 Gregory VIII 1187 Lucius III 1181 1 Clement III 1188 EMPEROR OF THE WEST. Frederic 1152 EMPERORS OF THE EAST. Emanuel Comnenus 1143 I Andronicus 1183 Alexis II llSO|lsaac II 1185 KINGS OF FRANCE. Lewis VII. . 1137J Philip II 1180 KINGS OF PORTUGAL. Alphonsus 1102| Sancho 1185 KING OF DENMARK. Waldeman 1157 KINGS OF SCOTLAND. David 1134| William 1165 Malcolm IV 1163 1 KING OF SPAIN. Alphonso VIII 1154 MILITARY AFFAIRS. THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. From the Death of Stephen to the Deposition of Richard II. , including a period of 245 Years. CHAPTER I. The Reign of Henry IL, 34 Years, 8 Months, 12 Days. 1154.— The first acts of Henry's reign confirmed the people in their high esteem for him. He began by driv- ing from the kingdom those swarms of mercenaries, whose whole trade was war, and who were ever ready to create disturbances ; he razed a great number of the fortresses : which had been built in the former reigns bv individuals, 8 ' 86 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. and which served only to keep up revolts and feuds, by the shelter they afforded. He granted charters to several towns, by which the citizens claimed their freedom, independ- ently of any superior but himself. These charters were the groundwork of English liberty. After this he passed into France, where he dispossessed his brother Geoffrey of the earldom of Anjou, obliging him to accept of an annuity instead. He was, however, hastily recalled by a general rising of the Welch. In order to chastise them, he entered Flintshire ; but being ignorant of the country, he was drawn into a defile, where he with great difficulty preserved his army from being cut to pieces : he, however, forced the pass, and, after ravaging the country, obliged the Welch chiefs to sue for peace, which was granted on the homage of their princes, and giving hostages for their fidelity. Returning to France, he obliged Lewis, who had again begun the war, to quit Chamont, which he had fortified, and to retire in disorder. The armies were afterwards on the point of joining battle, when the monarchs were reconciled by Pope Alexander, who was so honoured by them, that they walked on foot on each side of his horse, and performed the office of yeomen. A peace was finally concluded between the two monarchs, by Henry's agreeing to give up Maine and Anjou ; which condition, however, he never performed. Henry now turned his thoughts to Ireland, the proximity of which made it a desirable appendage of the crown, and where the inferiority of the natives in the arts of war, together with the distracted state of the country, promised an easy conquest. To justify this invasion, he asserted that his only desire was the reformation of their clergy, and the civiliza- tion of the inhabitants. For this purpose he sent an envoy to Pope. Adrian, to assure him of his good intentions, and to obtain his consent. The project, however, owing to the opposition of the barons, and some further schemes of Henry, was at that time laid aside. In the mean time the dissen- sions of the Irish among themselves increased. Dermot, King of Leinster, had carried away by force the wife of O'Rourke, King of Leitrim. O'Rourke, to avenge the insult, claimed the aid of O'Connor, monarch of Ireland, who obliged the adulterer to restore the fugitive. O'Rourke and Dermot from that time became bitter enemies, and in the end Dermot was driven out of the kingdom. Crossing over to England, he solicited assistance from Henry, an< did homage to him for his dominions. Henry immediate!] THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 87 granted his request, and permitted Strongbow, Earl of Pem- broke, and two brothers, Fitzstephen and Fitzgerald, to cross over to Ireland, with their followers. Success followed their efforts : the undisciplined bravery of the natives was vain ; city after city was taken, and at last Dublin fell into the hands of the rapacious invaders. Henry now found his jealousy of Strongbow awakened ; he forbad any more of his subjects from crossing into Ireland, and ordered all who had joined him to return. Strongbow, alarmed, hastened to England, and v renewing his homage and fealty, surrendered to Henry the city of Dublin, together with all the castles in his possession. The king was pacified : he embarked with Strongbow at Milford Haven, and landed at Waterford, receiving, as he passed to Dublin, the homage of various chiefs. Henry was, however, obliged soon to quit Ireland and go over to Normandy, where the rebellion of his sons, aided by the kings of France and Scotland, and the earl of Flanders, whose armies were ready to fall upon him, demanded his presence. His first care was to make head against the Scots, who were completely routed by a small body of his forces and their king made prisoner, whilst he broke through the French camp before Rouen, which city he relieved. Peace followed this success, and he was recon- ciled to his sons. Henry, the eldest, died soon after, with the deepest contrition for his undutiful conduct to his father, and three years after Geoffrey was killed by a fall from his horse. There remained now of the king's sons Richard and John, who, far from amity or brotherly affection, conceived nothing but jealousy of each other's ambitious pretensions. Richard again left his father, and went over to the king of France, whose daughter he had betrothed, but who was kept con- fined by Henry, as it was said, to make her his mistress. Hostilities, therefore, recommenced, and Richard, with most of the continental barons, joined the French king. Henry, unable to resist their numbers, was obliged to abandon many of his strong places. By the persuasion of the bishops, how- ever, a conference was held, and Henry, overcome by sick- ness and broken by his grief, agreed to all their demands ; but when, upon requiring a list of the barons whom he had stipulated to pardon, he found John, his favourite child, among the number, he could no longer contain himself. He had borne' an infirm state of body with calm resignation ; but, overpowered by the black ingratitude of a child, whose. 88 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. interest lay next his heart, he broke out into expressions of the utmost despair, cursed the day of his birth, and laid on his wicked child a malediction, which he could never after- wards be prevailed upon to retract. A lingering fever ensued, caused by a broken heart, which soon after termi- nated his life at the castle of Chinon, near Saumur, in the fifty-eighth year of his age. Cotemporary Princes, POPES. Clement III 1188|Innocent III 1198 Celestinlll 11911 EMPERORS OF THE WEST. Frederic 11521 Philip 1197 Henry VI 1190 1 KING OF FRANCE. Philip II 1180 KINO OF SPAIN. Alphonso IX 1158 KINO OF SCOTLAND. William 1165 Richard L, surnamed Cceur de Lion, reigned 10 Years* 1189. — Richard I., Henry's eldest surviving son, suc- ceeded to the crown, and immediately began his preparations for a crusade to the Holy Land. After having raised very considerable sums in England, he sailed to Normandy for the like purpose. He then assembled his troops, and joined the king of France, whom he met on the plains of Vezelai ; their united armies amounted to 100,000 men. With these they set sail, but were obliged by a tempest to land in Sicily, where they remained during the winter. Here mutual jeal- ousies arose between Richard and Philip. The Sicilians, instigated by Philip, and irritated at the insolence of the English soldiers, attacked them in the streets of Messina. Richard immediately flew to arms, took the city, and gave it up for some time to the fury of his men. Peace, however, was made, and the monarchs again set sail for the Holy Land. Upon their arrival in Palestine, they began the attack of Acre, which had hitherto resisted all the efforts of the cru- j THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 69 saders ; but the impetuous valour of Richard soon obliged the garrison to capitulate, and the place was taken. Philip shortly after, disgusted with the haughtiness of Richard, and jealous of his superior abilities and popularity, retired to France, while Richard, left to himself, proceeded from victory to victory. In order to pave the way for the reduction of Jerusalem, Richard determined to besiege Ascalon, a place of surprising strength. Saladin, the Saracen monarch, on the other hand, determined to dispute his march, and with 800,000 men offered Richard battle. The English accepted it, and were victorious: the king performed prodigies of valour ; the Saracens fled in confusion, after the loss of 40,000 of their best troops. Ascalon surrendered : other cities fol- lowed the example, and Richard advanced within sight of Jerusalem ; but here was an end of all his glorious prospects. Upon reviewing his army, he found it so wasted by sick- ness, fatigue, and even victory, that it became absolutely necessary to make a truce with Saladin, which was accord- ingly agreed upon for three years, and in which it was settled that the seaport towns of Palestine should remain in the hands of the crusaders, and pilgrims be permitted to visit the holy sepulchre in security. Richard on his return had the misfortune to be shipwrecked near Aquileia, whence he proceeded in disguise to Vienna. Here he was discovered by Leopold, Duke of Austria, who had served under him at the siege of Acre. His revenge for some affront received there, joined to his avarice, instigated him to seize upon Richard, and send him prisoner to the emperor, who was sordid enough to demand a heavy ransom, and even refused him his liberty till the sum was raised in England and sent over to Germany. While Richard was confined in Germany, the internal affairs of his kingdom were in a very unprosperous situation ; harassed by his brother John, and impoverished by the rapac- ity of the Chancellor Longchamp. John, wishing to secure the throne for himself, determined to remove the Chancellor, who was inimical to him, out of the way; and after several attempts, succeeded in driving him out of the kingdom. Upon hearing of Richard's return from the Holy Land, John entered into a league with the French king, and assembled an army to contend for the crown. In the mean time the Chancellor, having discovered the confinement of his master, was sent by him to collect money for his ransom. After various shameful subterfuges of the emperor, Richard was 8* 90 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. set at liberty, and disembarked at Sandwich, amidst the acclamations of his subjects. Richard immediately determined to punish the perfidy of the French king. He landed in Normandy, where he was met by his brother John, who implored forgiveness on his knees. By the intercession of the queen mother, Richard forgave him, though he would not consent to restore his cas- tles or lands. After various desultory actions, Richard laid siege to Cour- celles, and Philip marched to relieve it. The place however was taken, and Richard met the king near Gisors. The French lost the battle, and fled in confusion to Gisors, where the bridge breaking under them, the king of France and twenty men, all in armour, were precipitated into the river: all perished but Philip. A still more agreeable success awaited Richard by the capture of the Count, Bishop of Beauvais, who had fought at the head of his retainers. As Kichard attributed much of the hardships he had endured, when in confinement, to the instigation of this prelate, he loaded him with fetters and threw him into a dungeon. The Bishop had recourse to the Pope : who severely reproved him for neglecting the duties of his station, by putting on the helmet instead of the mitre. He however consented to inter- cede for him, and for that purpose sent a letter to Richard, wherein he begs him to pity "his dear son the bishop." Richard, in answer, sent the bishop's coat of mail, with these words, "Look if this be the coat of thy son." " No," said the Pope, smiling, "it is the coat of Mars; let Mars deliver him if he can." Soon after, Richard, while besieging the castle of Chalus, belonging to one of his refractory barons, was pierced in the- shoulder by an archer, who had taken deliberate aim at him.. He immediately gave orders for the assault ; took the place, and hanged the whole garrison, except Gourdon the archer, whom he reserved for a more cruel death. The wound itself was not dangerous ; but the unskilful surgeon, in extracting the arrow, so rankled the part, that a gangrene ensued, which proved mortal. When Richard found hrs end approaching, he sent for Gourdon, and asked him why he had sought his life. "My father and my brothers fell by your sword," replied the undaunted soldier, " and you intended to execute me. I am in your power ; but I shall endure the most severe torments with pleasure, since Heaven has afforded me the means of avenging my family." Struck with the boldness. THE PLANrAGHNKiS UNDIVIDED. 91 of the reply, and humbled by his approaching dissolution, he ordered the prisoner to be set at liberty, and presented with one hundred shillings. But Marchadee his general, a stran- ger to such generosity, ordered him to be flayed alive, and then hanged. Richard died in the forty-second year of his age, and was buried at Fontevraud, at the feet of his father. Richard added to an astonishing degree of muscular strength, a soul incapable of fear. As a warrior, he towers above all his contemporaries ; such was the dread of his prow- ess, even among the Saracens, that for a century after his death the Saracen mothers used to terrify their children with his name ; but his fame was purchased by the impoverishment of his subjects ; and though sometimes magnanimous, he was cruel, proud, and resentful. Cotemporary Princes. POPES. Innocent III 1198 J Honorius III. ........ 1216 EMPERORS OF THE WEST. Philip 1197 1 Frederic II 121* Gtho IV 12081 KING OF FRANCE. Philip II 1180 KINGS OF SPAIN. Alphonso IX . 1158 1 Ferdinand III 1216 Henry 12141 KINGS OF SCOTLAND William 1165 1 Alexander II 1214 1199. — John, reigned 17 Years, 7 Months, 13 Days. Although Arthur, son of Geoffrey, the elder brother of Richard and John, was next in blood, as he was out of England upon the decease of the late king, John was pro- claimed and crowned with the general consent of the bishops and barons. Arthur his nephew, whom he had made prisoner during a contest with the French king, under whose banners he fought, died shortly after, but whether naturally or by violence cannot be absolutely known, though it was generally believed that John had him dispatched privately 92 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. in the castle of Rouen, in which place he had confined him. By a subsequent war with France, John lost all Normandy, Maine, Touraine, Anjou, and Poictiers. This disastrous conflict with France was followed by another with the Pope, equally disgraceful in its result. Hubert, Archbishop of Canterbury, being dead, the king insisted upon the election of John, Bishop of Norwich, to that dignity. The Bishop had long been the confidential adviser of the King, and more employed in affairs of the state than the government of his diocese. Stephen Langton, an Englishman of great piety and eminent abilities, was therefore proposed by the Pope, and elected by the monks then at Rome. John, highly enraged, drove the monks from their convents, and seized their possessions. In vain were remonstrances and threats : John remained obstinate, and the kingdom was put under an interdict by the Pope, who shortly after pronounced the sentence of excommuni- cation against him. Finding now the hearts of all men turned from him. and being no longer able to trust any one, he reluctantly consented to subscribe to an instrument, by which he agreed to restore both clergy and laity to their offices and estates ; to admit Langton to be archbishop of Canterbury ; and to liberate all persons imprisoned upon account of the late quarrel. On the following morning, in presence of Pandulf. the Pope's legate, he swore fealty to the holy see ; and at the same time basely signed a char- ter, granting to the Pope the kingdoms of England and Ire- land, which John agreed to hold under him, at the annual rent of 1,000 marks. In consequence of these disgraces, joined to his repeated acts of cruelty and meanness, John became the object of contempt and detestation of his subjects and neighbours. The Barons had long been forming a confederacy against him ; but their union was broken, or their aims disappointed, by various and unforeseen accidents. At length they assem- bled a large body of men at Stamford, and marched to. Brackley, about fifteen miles from Oxford, where the court then resided. John, hearing of their approach, sent to know what were their designs. The barons delivered a schedule containing the chief articles, of which the laws of Edward the Confes- sor were the ground-work. No sooner were these shewn to the King, than he grew furious, and asked why the Barons had not demanded his kingdom ; swearing that he would THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. $3 never comply with such exorbitant proposals. But the con- federacy was now too strong to fear much from the conse- quences of his resentment. They chose Robert Fitzwalter for their general, and proceeded to make war against the king. John, struck with terror, first offered to refer all differences to the Pope, or to eight barons, four of whom were to be chosen by himself, and four by the confederates. This the Barons scornfully rejected. He at length assured them it was his royal will to grant all their demands, and a conference was appointed to adjust ill things for this most important treaty. The ground where the King's commis- sioners met the Barons, was between Staines and Windsor, at a place called Runnimede, still held in reverence by pos- terity, as the spot where the standard of freedom was first erected in England. Few debates ensued ; and the King, with a facility that was somewhat suspicious, signed and sealed the Magna Charta, which is in force to this day, and is the firmest bulwark of English liberty. John, however, could not long brook concessions that were extorted from his fears, and therefore took the first opportunity to declare that he would not be governed by them. This produced a second civil war, in which the Barons had recourse to the king of France for assistance. Thus England had the gloomy prospect of being every way undone. If John succeeded, a tyrannical and implacable monarch was to be their tormentor; and should the French king prevail, the country was ever after to submit to be governed by France. What neither human prudence could foresee, nor policy sug- gest, was brought about by a happy and unexpected event. John had assembled a considerable army, with the view of making one great effort k crush the Barons. With this inten- tion he departed from Lynn, and directed his route towards Lincolnshire. His road lay along the shore, which was overflowed at high water ; but not being apprised of this, or ignorant of the tide of the place, he lost all his carriages, treasure, and baggage, by its sudden influx. He himself escaped with the greatest difficulty, and reached the abbey of Sewingstead, where grief for the loss he had sustained threw him into a fever, which soon shewed fatal symptoms. The next day, being unable to ride on horseback, he was carried in a litter to the castle of Seaford, and thence to Newark, where, having made his will, he sent for his con- fessor, and died three days after, in the forty-ninth year of his age, bequeiting the crown to his son Henry. 94 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. Cotemporary Princes. Urban IV 1261 Clement IV 1264 Gregory X 126* Honorius III 1216 Gregory IX 1227 Innocent IV 1241 Alexander IV 1254 EMPEHOns OF THE WEST. Frederic II 12181 William or Conrad IV. . . . 1250 Interregnum 12401 KINGS OF FRANCE. Philip II 1180 I Lewis IX 1226 Lewis VIII 1223 I Philip III 1271 KINGS OF SPAIN. Ferdinand III 1216! Alphonsus X 1252 KINGS OF SCOTLAND. Alexander II 12141 Alexander III 1249 1216. — Henry III., reigned 56 Years, one Month, four Days, The intestine commotions under which the Barons had called in the aid of the French, commanded by the Dau- phin Lewis, ceased by the death of John ; and as the inso- lence and rapacity of the French army had caused great misery and discontent among the people, Henry was pro- claimed and crowned at Gloster, in the tenth year of his age, in the presence of Wallo the Pope's legate, of the bishops, earls, and barons; and the Earl of Pembroke, a nobleman of great valour, who had remained faithful to John in all his adversities, was chosen guardian to the young king. The Dauphin, however, still held London, and had many of the barons on his side. The Earl of Pembroke, determining to crush this danger in the beginning, went to^ Newark, where he assembled his troops, who were resolved to conquer or die in defence of their country, their sov< ereign, and their liberties. To increase their confidence Wallo with great solemnity excommunicated Lewis and all his abettors. Marching to Lincoln, they gave battle to the Earl of Perche, and gained a complete victory. The Ear was killed, and Lincoln taken and plundered. Soon after the French, who were coming to the assistance of the Dau- phin with a very superior fleet, were defeated, and most of their ships taken. Lewis, now finding his affairs desperate, entered into a treaty, and quitted the kingdom. THE PIANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 95 The young king, who was gentle, religious, humane, and unsuspicious, but weak, suffered himself to be too easily led by artful and designing favourites ; which, together with the preference given to foreigners, so disgusted the Barons, that they formed a powerful confederacy against him, placing at their head Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester. This con- federacy first manifested itself in the chamber of Parliament, where the Barons appeared in complete armour. The king, upon their entry, asked what was their intention? They submissively replied, to make him their sovereign, by con- firming his power, and to have their grievances redressed. Henry instantly summoned a parliament at Oxford, to digest a new plan of government, and to elect proper persons, who were to be intrusted with the chief authority. This parlia- ment, afterwards called the Mad Parliament, went expedi- tiously to work upon the business of reform. The whole state, in their hands, underwent a complete alteration ; all its former officers were dismissed, and creatures of their own put in their places. They not only abridged the authority of the King, but the efficacy of Parliament, giving to twelve persons all parliamentary power between each session. Thus these insolent nobles, after trampling upon the crown, threw prostrate all the rights of the people, and a vile oligarchy was on the point of being established for ever. The first opposition to these usurpations was made by a power, which had lately acquired some influence in the constitution. The knights of the shire had for some time been regularly assembled in a separate house. These soon perceived the grievances, and complained loudly against them. They even called upon the King's eldest son, Ed- ward, to interpose his authority, and save the sinking nation. Edward, who from a very early age had given the strongest proofs of courage, wisdom, and constancy, was at first unwil- ling to interfere, but he at last consented, and a parliament was called, in which the King assumed his former authority. This was considered as a breach of the late convention, and a civil war ensued, in which Leicester was victorious, and the King made prisoner : but soon after exchanged for Ed- ward, who was to remain as a hostage. The Parliament, however, notwithstanding Leicester's success, was not so complying as he expected, and finding himself unable to oppose the general wish of the people, he made a merit of necessity, and set Edward at liberty, taking care at the same 96 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. time to employ emissaries to watch all his motions, and frus- trate his aims. But the prince found means to escape, and put himself at the head of his party. A battle ensued, in which Leicester's army, wasted by famine, was unable to withstand the impetuosity of Edward's attack, who bore down on them with incredible fury. During this terrible day, Leicester behaved with astonishing intrepidity, and kept up the spirit of the action from two in the afternoon till nine at night. At last, having had his horse killed under him, he was compelled to fight on foot : and though he demanded quarter, his adversary refused it. The old king, who was placed in front of the battle, was wounded in the shoulder ; and as he was not known by his friends, he was on the point of being killed by a soldier, when he cried out, " I am Henry of Winchester, the king," and he was saved by a knight of the royal army. Prince Edward, on hearing his father's voice, instantly ran to the spot where he lay, and had him removed to a place of safety. This victory proved decisive, and the prince, having restored peace to the nation, resolved to take the cross. In pursuance of this design, he sailed from England with a large army ; but was scarcely departed, when the King found his health in so declining a state, that he ordered him to return without delay ; but Henry died before his arrival, in the sixty-sixth year of his age. Cotemporary Sovereigns. POPES. Gregory X 1268 Innocent V 1276 Adrian V 1276 John XXI 1276 Nicholas III 1277 Martin IV 1280 Honorius IV 1285 Nicholas IV 1287 Celestin V 1292 Boniface VIII 1294 Benedict XI 1303 Clement V 1304 EMPERORS OF THE WEST. William or Conrad 1250 I Adolphus 1291 Rodolphus 1273 1 Albeit 1298 KINGS OF FRANCE. Philip III 1271 1 Philip IV 1285 KINGS OF SPAIN. Alphonsus X 1252 1 Ferdinand IV 1295 Sancho IV 1284 1 KINGS OF SCOTLAND. Alexander III 1249 1 Baliol 1292 Margaret 1286 I Interregnum 1296 Interregnum 1290 I Robert 1306 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 97 Edward /., reigned 34 Years, 7 Months, 21 Days. 1*27$; — Though the death of the late king happened whilst Edward was in the Holy Land, measures had been so well taken, that the crown was transferred with perfect tran- quillity ; and Edward, on his return, was crowned with great, pomp. Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, alone refused to attend to do homage for his principality, and Edward thought this a proper opportunity to reduce the Welsh to subjection, and unite their country to England. The Welsh had, for many ages, enjoyed their own laws, language, and customs. They were descended from the ancient Britons, who had escaped the Roman and Saxon invaders, and still preserved their freedom, and their country uncontaminated by the admission of foreign conquerors. Whenever England was distressed by faction at home, or its forces called off to wars abroad, the Welsh made it a constant practice to pour in their irregular troops, and lay waste the open country. Edward now levied an army against Llewellyn, and marched into his country. The Welsh prince, upon his approach, took refuge among the inaccessible mountains of Snowdon, the steep retreat that had, for many ages, defended his ancestors against all the attempts of the Roman and Saxon conquerors. But Edward, equally vigilant and cautious, pierced into the very centre of Llewellyn's territories, and approached the Welsh in their last retreats. There Llewellyn made his submission, and the King retired. But an idle prophecy of Merlin, that Llewellyn was to be the restorer of Brutus' empire in Britain, was sufficient to induce this superstitious prince to revolt once more, and hazard a decisive battle with the English. With this view he marched into Radnorshire, and on passing the Wey, his troops were surprised and defeated by Edward Mortimer, while he himself was absent from his army. Upon his return, seeing the dreadful situation of his affairs, he ran desperately into the midst of the enemy, and quickly found that death he sought. David, the brother of this unfortunate prince, soon after fell in the same cause, and with him expired the gov- ernment and distinction of the Welsh nation. It. was united to England, made a principality, and given to the eldest son of the crown. Foreign conquest might add to the glory of the kingdom ; this added to its strength and felicity. The Welsh became blended with their conquerors, and in 9 98 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. the lapse of a few ages all national animosity was for- gotten. Shortly after the subjugation of Wales, the affairs of Scot- land engaged Edward's attention, and gave him hopes of adding that kingdom also to his dominions. Margaret, Edward's sister, had been married to the king of Scotland. She bore him two sons and a daughter. The two sons died young: the daughter married the king of Norway. Mar- garet died shortly after the birth of the second son ; and the King being accidentally killed by a fall from his horse, the crown devolved on his grandchild, daughter of Erick, king of Norway. Erick solicited for his daughter the protection of Edward : who readily undertook the charge, intending to marry her to his own son. To this proposal the father readily consented. Edward's plans were, however, frustrat- ed by the untimely death of the princess, upon which three competitors, descendants of the Earl of Huntingdon, by three daughters, claimed the throne. John Hastings, in right of his mother, as one of the co-heiresses of the crown ; John Baliol, as descending from the eldest daughter, who was his grandmother ; and Robert Bruce, as the actual son of the second daughter. Edward, to whom this dispute was referred, immediately claimed the crown in his own right, and offered it to Bruce to be held under himself; but Bruce nobly refusing it upon such conditions, Baliol accepted the offer, and did homage for the crown. Baliol thus placed upon the Scottish throne, more as a vassal than a king, soon felt the disgrace of his situation, and prepared to assert his independence ; but no power the Scots could bring into the field was able to withstand the victorious army of Edward. He overthrew their forces in many en- gagements, and carried Baliol prisoner to London, destroying at the same time all records and monuments of antiquity that inspired the Scots with a spirit of national pride. Wil- liam Wallace, however, so celebrated in Scottish story, at- tempted to rescue his country from the English yoke. His first exploits were confined to petty ravages and occasional attacks upon the English ; but he at length overthrew their armies, and slew their generals. Edward, who was in Flanders during these reverses, hastened back, impatient to restore his authority and secure his former conquest. He met the Scottish army at Falkeith. where a battle was fought, which ended in the total rout of the Scots, of whom 12,000 were left dead upon the field, while not above one hundred of THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 9D the English were slain. Wallace still, however, continued to assert his independence, wandering with a few followers from mountain to mountain, until at last he was betrayed by Sir John Monteith, his pretended friend. The King, wishing to strike the Scots with an example of severity, ordered him to be conducted to London in chains, where he was hanged, drawn, and quartered with brutal ferocity. Bruce, who had been long kept a prisoner in London, at length escaped, and was crowned king by the Bishop of St. Andrews, in the abbey of Scone, where numbers flocked to his standard, resolved to support his pretensions. Edward, finding that after thrice conquering the Scots all his work was to be begun afresh, vowed revenge against the whole nation. Summoning his prelates, nobility, and all who held knight's service, to meet him at Carlisle, he in the mean time detached a body of forces, under Aylmer de Valence, who gained a complete victory over Bruce in Perthshire. Immediately after this dreadful blow, Edward entered Scot- land in person, with his army divided into two parts, expect- ing to find in the opposition of the Scots a pretext to punish them. But this brave prince, cruel only from motives of policy, could not strike the poor natives, who made no resist- ance. His anger was disappointed in their humiliation, and he was ashamed to extirpate those who only opposed patience to his indignation. His death put an end to the apprehensions of the Scots : he sickened and died at Carlisle of a dysentery, July 7th, 1307, in the sixt} r -ninth year of his age> Edward was tall, of regular features, majestic aspect, and of a robust constitution ; from the great length of his legs, he got the surname of Longshanks. He is by some taxed witli severity, but at least he distributed justice without regard to persons. By his queen, Eleanor, he had four sons and eleven daughters, most of whom died young ; and of his sons, Edward II. alone survived him. Cotemporary Princes. POPES. Clement V 1304 I Benedict XII 1324 John XXII. . 1314 1 EMPERORS OF THE WEST. Albert . 1208 | Lewis V 1314 FJ.enijrV.il, . . . .... . . 1 309 I John and Philip V 1317 100 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. KINGS OF FIIANCE. Philip IV 1285 | Philip V 1316 Lewis X 1314 I Charles IV 1322 John 13161 KINDS OF SPAIN. Ferdinand IV. ........ 1295 1 Alphonsus XI 1312 KING OF SCOTLAND. Robert 1306 1307. — Edward II, reigned 19 Years, 6 Months, 15 Bays. Edward was in the twenty-third year of his age when he succeeded his father. From his early childhood he had lived in the closest intimacy with Piers de Gavestone, son of a gentleman of Guienne ; and being of a mild and gentle nature, had allowed his companion to have an entire ascend- ancy over him. Gavestone was a young man of many personal accomplishments, but utterly destitute of those qualities of the heart which deserve esteem. Intoxicated with his power over Edward, he treated the English nobility with contempt and derision. Edward had married Isabella, >daughter of the French king, reckoned the most beautiful woman of the age, but of violent and uncontrolled pas- sions. She could not see, without indignation, the friend- ship of the King for Gavestone. She placed herself, there- fore, at the head of a conspiracy of the Barons to ruin him. They met at Westminster, and demanded his immediate banishment. The King, timid and wavering, granted their request : but soon after recalled him ; upon which the whole kingdom was in a ferment. The barons flew to arms, and Lancaster put himself at their head. Edward, instead of attempting to make resistance, sought only for safety. He embarked with his favourite at Tinmouth, and sailed with him to Scarborough, where he left him as in a place of secu- rity, and then went to York, either to raise an army, or by his presence to allay the general animosity. In the mean time Gavestone was besieged in Scarborough by the Earl of Pembroke. Sensible of the bad condition of the place, he offered terms, stipulating that he should remain a prisoner in Pembroke's hands for two months, and that endeavours should be used in the mean time for a general accommo- dation. But Pembroke, who had no intention to let him off SQ easily, ordered him to be conducted to the castle of THE PEANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 101 Dedington, near Banbury, where, on pretence of other business, he left him with a feeble guard. The Earl of Warwick, informed of this, attacked the castle, and quickly made himself master of it and the unfortunate Gavestone. A consultation was immediately held by some of the Barons ; and it was resolved unanimously to put him to death, as an enemy to the kingdom. They had him conveyed to a place called Blacklow Hill, where his head was severed from his body. To add to Edward's grief, he soon after met with a signal defeat from the Scots, under Bruce, and this drove him once more to seek relief in the company of favourites. For these he chose the two Despencers, father and son ; and' so great was his partiality for them, that he dispossessed sev- eral nobles of their estates to bestow them upon these cour- tiers. The Barons upon this once more had recourse to arms : sentence of perpetual exile was pronounced against the two Spencers by parliament, and their estates were for- feited. But the King, now roused from his lethargy, took the field in defence of his beloved Spencer ; and at the head of 30,000 men, pressed the Earl of Lancaster so closely, that he was obliged to fly from place to place, and was at last made prisoner. As he had formerly shewn little mercy to Gavestone, there was but little extended to him ; he was, condemned by a court-martial, and beheaded on an eminence- near Pomfret. The Queen, however, returning into Eng- land from France, whither she had withdrawn, joined the discontented nobles, and entirely changed the fortunes of Edward. His friends forsook him ; the strong places were given up; and the Barons, assembled at Hertford, proclaimed Prince Edward guardian of the kingdom. The King was soon after taken, as was Hugh Despencer, who was immedi- ately beheaded. The elder Despencer was taken in Bristol, and hanged in his armour ; his head was sent to Winchester, and exposed to the insults of the populace. Several other lords also suffered death. The Queen and prince made their entry into London, where they were received with great joy. In an assembly of the Barons, it was declared that the King was unfit to reign ; that he should be deposed, and his son placed upon the throne. The unfortunate King, unable to oppose their proceedings, quietly resigned the crown to his son. He was, notwithstanding, kept a prisoner in Berkley castle, where the endeavours of his party to re- lease him hastened his unfortunate end ; which it is said was occasioned by a red hot spit run up his body. It is thought 9* 102 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. this could not have been done without the privacy of the two noblemen who had the charge of him. Some even think the Queen was a party to the cruelty ; though Wal- singham and other historians are willing to release her from the imputation. Edward died in the forty-third year of his age, and was buried privately in the abbey of Glou- cester. Cotemporary Princes. POPES. Benedict XII 1324 | Urban V 1362 Clement VI 1342 [Gregory XI 1370 Innocent VI 13521 EMPERORS OF GERMANY, OR OF THE WEST. John and Philip V 1317 j Charles IV 1322- KINGS OF FRANCE. Charles IV . 13221 John II 1350 Philip V 1328lCharles V 1364 KINGS OF SPAIN. Alphousus XI 1312|Henry II 1368 Pedro 13501 KINGS OF SCOTEANO. Robert 13061 Robert II. 1370' David II 13291 1327. — Edward III., reigned 50 Years, 4 Months, 15 Days* The parliament, by which Edward III., at the age of fifteen years, was raised to the throne, had, during the life of his father, appointed twelve persons as his privy council.. On his assuming the reins of government, at the age of , eighteen, Mortimer, the queen-mother's favourite, who had rendered himself odious to the Barons and the people, was hanged at Tyburn, and the Queen herself, as a just retribu- tion for her infamous conduct towards her unfortunate hus- band, was confined for life. Edward soon after engaged in a war with the Scots, and after defeating them with immense, slaughter, he overran all Scotland, obliging their king to fleei to France, and setting up Baliol II. as king of Scotland! who did homage for his kingdom. He next turned his vic- torious arms against France, asserting his right to that king- THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 103 dom against Philip of Valois. in virtue of his mother Isabella, sister to the deceased king. The first great advantage gained by the English, was in a naval engagement off the coast of Flanders, in which the French lost 2.J0 ships, and had 30,000 of their seamen and two admirals slain. Edward's invasion, and the devastation of his troops, spread terror through all France. Caen was taken and plundered ; the villages and towns to the very gates of Paris shared the same fate. Philip, the French king, was not idle in making his dispositions to repel the enemy. He stationed one of his generals with an army on the opposite side of the Somme, over which Edward was to pass, while at the head of 100,000 men he advanced to give the enemy battle. Both armies were now in sight of each other, and though the forces of the English were greatly inferior to the French, Edward was resolved to indulge the impetuosity of his troops, and put all to the hazard of a battle. He chose his ground with advantage, near the village of Cressy, and there deter- mined to resist the shock of the enemy. He drew up his men in three lines ; the first was commanded by the young Prince of Wales, the second by the Earls of Northampton and Arundel, and the third, as a reserve, was headed by himself in person. Philip, on the other side, impelled by resentment, and confident in his numbers, was more eager to bring the English to an engagement, than prudent in taking measures for its success. He led on his army in three bodies opposite to those of the English : the first consisted of 15,000 Genoese cross-bowmen ; the second was led by the King's brother; and Philip was at the head of the third. About three in the afternoon the famous battle of Cressy began, by the King's ordering the Genoese archers to charge : but they were so fatigued with their march, that they called out for a little rest before they engaged. The Count D' Alen- j amidst all the horrors of famine, was taken. Whilst Edward was pursuing his victories in France, the Scots, taking advantage of his absence, invaded the frontiers-'' Philippa, Edward's queen, prepared to repulse the enemy- 1 At Neville's Cross the armies encountered each other. The Scots were entirely routed, with the loss of 15,000 men killed on the field of battle ; and David Bruce, their king, was made prisoner, with a great number of his nobles and knights. The truce which had been made between Edward and, Philip being ended by the death of the latter, who was sue-' ceeded by his son John, both parties prepared for a renewal; THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 105 of the war. The battle of Poictiers followed soon after, in which Edward the Black Prince took John prisoner, and led him in triumph to London. Two kings, prisoners at the same time, was considered a very glorious event; but glory was all that England gained by it. Whatever was won in Franco, at the expense of so much danger, blood, and trea- sure, was, from the impossibility of continuing such enormous supplies, successively lost, even without the mortification of a defeat; But what most sensibly affected the King, and cast a sfloom upon the whole nation, was the death of the Black Prince, who had been wasting away for a considerable time under a cruel consumptive disorder, which carried him off in the forty-sixth year of his age, leaving behind him a character without blemish, and a regret among the people that time could not easily efface. The King did not long survive, dying about a year after, at Sheene, in Surrey, in the sixty-fifth year of his age. Cotemporary Princes. POPES. Gregory II 1370 I Boniface IX 1389 Urban VI 1378 I EMPERORS OF GERMANY. Charles IV 1322 j Winceslaus 1378 KINGS OF FRANCE. Charles V 1364 1 Charles VI 1380 KINGS OF SPAIN. | Henry II 13681 Henry III 1390 John 1 13791 KINGS OF SCOTLAND. Robert II 1370 i Robert III 1390 1377. — Richard II. , reigned 22 Years, 2 Months, 2 Days. Richard II., son of the Black Prince, was but eleven years old when he began to reign. The government of the kingdom was entrusted to a council of nine persons, who were, however, secretly directed by the three uncles of the King, the Dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloster, but particu- larly by the first. War had been carried on between France 106 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. and England after the death of Edward III., but in so lan- guishing a manner, as served only to exhaust the finances of both kingdoms. In order to repair the expenses of these fruitless expeditions, the English Parliament imposed a poll- tax of three groats on each person, male or female, above the age of fifteen. The inequality and injustice of this tax were obvious to the meanest capacity, while the inexorable man- ner in which it was levied, made it yet more grievous. Tiie discontents of the populace were at the highest pitch, when the following incident kindled them into a flame. The tax- gatherers went to the house of one Wat Tyler, a blacksmith, in Essex, and demanded payment for his daughter : which he refused, alleging that she was under the age mentioned in the act. The brutal collector attempting a very villainous proof of the contrary, the father knocked out the ruffian's brains with his hammer : the by-standers applauded the action, and exclaiming, that it was full time for the people to take vengeance on their tyrants, immediately flew to arms The flame in an instant spread over that and the adjacen counties ; and the populance, headed by Wat Tyler, com- mitted the most outrageous violence upon such of the nobility and gentry as fell into their hands. At length 100,000 of them assembled on Blackheath, whence they proceeded to London. The King, passing along Smithfield with a small guard, met with Wat Tyler at the head of the insurgents, and entered into a conference with him. Tyler, ordering his companions to halt, ventured into the midst of the royal retinue, where he behaved with such insolence, often putting his hand to his dagger, that Walworth, Mayor of London, struck him to the ground, where he was instantly dispatche by one of the King's attendants. The mutineers, seeing thei leader fall, prepared for revenge, and the King with the whole company would certainly have been victims to their fury, had not Richard discovered an extraordinary presence of mind on the occasion. Accosting the enraged multitude- with an affable and intrepid countenance, he said, " Are you angiy, my good people, because you have lost your leader! I, your king, will be your leader, follow me." The popu-' lace, confused and overawed by his presence, implicitly fo! lowed him into the fields, where, on the appearance 0/ a bod of well-armed veterans, who had been secretly drawn togethe they peaceably separated, upon the King's granting them a charter of redress for their grievances, which, however, was disannulled soon after by Parliament. I ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 107 Had Richard been a prince of real abilities, he might now have established the tranquillity of his dominions on a sure foundation : but he delivered himself up to worthless favour- ites, which soon produced animosity between him and the princes of the blood and the barons. The Duke of Gloster, perceiving the mischief which the conduct of his nephew might occasion, formed a party against the favourite. Richard, however, had the Duke seized and conveyed to Calais, where he was privately strangled. He was now upon the point of becoming more despotic than ever, when he lost his crown and his life by a sudden catastrophe. A quarrel had arisen between the Earl of Derby, son of John of Gaunt, lately created Duke of Hereford, and the Duke of Norfolk : Richard banished them both, with particular marks of injus- tice to the former, who soon became Duke of Lancaster by his father's death. While the King was quelling an insur- rection in Ireland, the wishes of the nation were gratified by the appearance of his exiled cousin, who landed at Ravenspur, in Yorkshire, and w T as soon at the head of 60,000 men. Richard hastened back to England, where his troops refusing to fight, and his subjects whom he had affected to despise deserting him, he was made prisoner with twenty of his at- tendants. He was immediately conducted to London, de- posed in full Parliament, and the Duke of Lancaster proclaimed in his stead, by the name of Henry IV. As to Richard, it was long the prevailing opinion that Sir Piers Exton and others of his guards fell upon him in the castle of Pomfret, in wmich he was confined, and where, after bravely killing four of his assailants, he was murdered by Sir Piers, who getting behind him, struck him down with a poleaxe. It is more probable, however, that he was starved to death. He died in the thirty-fourth year of his age, 1399. CHAPTER II. Ecclesiastical Affairs, Sfc. Among the many controversies which arose with regard to the ecclesiastical government during the reign of Henry II., ( the most important was that for which St. Thomas a Becket lost his life. Thomas a Becket was the son of Gilbert, one of the principal citizens of London, and a particular friend 108 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. of Archbishop Theobald. Gilbert at an early age made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and falling into the hands of the Saracens, became a slave to one of their emirs. An only daughter of this emir hearing him one day explain the Chris- tian faith, and declare his readiness to die for it, was so moved as to form upon the spot the resolution to become a Christian. Gilbert and his companions soon after made their escape during the night, and returned in safety to London. The young Syrian lady privately left her father's house, and followed him thither. She was instructed in the faith, bap- tised by the name of Maud, and married to him in St. Paul's church, by the Bishop of London. Thomas was born a year after this marriage, and when arrived at man's estate was taken into the household of Archbishop Theobald. Receiv- ing holy orders, he rose to the office of Archdeacon of Can- terbur) T . The Archbishop committed to his care the most intricate affairs, and never had reason to repent the confi- dence he reposed in him. The office of Chancellor becom- ing vacant, Theobald recommended Becket to the King, who readily exalted him to that dignity, and was so highly pleased with his abilities, that he committed to him the edu- cation of his son Henry. Amidst all these honours, he lived humble, mortified, recollected, and chaste, and triumph- ed over all the snares which wicked courtiers, and even the King himself, laid for his virtue. Theobald, the Archbishop, dying in 1160, King Henry resolved to raise Becket to that dignity, who, after various excuses, thus plainly addressed his majesty: " Should God permit me to be Archbishop of Canterbury, I should soon lose your majesty's favour ; for your majesty will be pleased to suffer me to tell you, that your infringement of the rights of the church make me fear you would require of me more than I could conscientiously concede." Trie King, however, paid no regard to his remon- strances, and he was elected in 1162. The storm which Becket had foreseen, now began to gather and burst upon him. His first offence was, the resignation of the office of chancellor. He next incurred the royal displeasure by re- sisting the King's usurpation of the revenues of the vacant sees and other benefices, that he might enjoy the temporali- ties as several of his predecessors had done. A third cause of offence was, his refusing to allow lay judges to summon ecclesiastical persons before their tribunal. The King, highly enraged at this opposition, summoned an assembly of the bishops and barons at Northampton, where sentence was ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &«. 109 pronounced against him, and all his property confiscated to the King. Becket referred his cause to the Pope, who was then in France, whither he accordingly repaired, and in an audience fully justified himself against the ambassadors sent by Henry to accuse him. Upon this, Henry vented his pas- sion against the Pope and the Archbishop, and confiscated the goods of all the friends, relatives, and domestics of the obnoxious prelate. At last, however, a reconciliation was brought about, and St. Thomas returned to England. As he approached- Southampton, the clergy, the laity, men of all ranks and ages, went forth to meet him, and celebrated his entry with hymns of exultation. But it was not long before the enemies of Becket began again to alienate the King from him, by rousing his former jealousies. On his arrival in England, the Archbishop of York in a threatening manner demanded absolution from the censures passed upon him and his associates ; and upon Becket' s refusal, carried his complaints to the King. Henry in a transport of fury cried out that he had no friends near him, or he could not have been so long exposed to the insults of an ungrateful hypocrite. These words, which were heard by the whole court, induced four of the King's attendants to rid him of the prelate. On Christmas day the Archbishop preached to his flock, and ended with declaring that he should shortly leave them, for the time of his death was at hand. All wept bitterly at these words, and St. Thomas himself could not refrain from tears. The four assassins at length arrived at Canterbury, and entering the cathedral whilst the Archbishop was at vespers, called out, " Where is the trai- tor?" As no answer was returned, another exclaimed, " Where is the Archbishop?" when the Prelate advancing, replied, " Here is the Archbishop, but no traitor." Upon this one of the assassins, named Tracy, struck at his head with a sword : but an ecclesiastic named Edward Gwin, warded off the blow with his arm, which was almost cut off. Two others immediately fell upon him with their weapons, and he was now expiring from his wounds, when the fourth, Richard Barton, cut off the top of his skull, and scattered his brains on the pavement. Nothing could exceed the King's consternation, when the tidings of this melancholy event arrived ; he shut himself up for three days, taking scarcely any nourishment, and for forty days he never went abroad ; he sent deputies to the Pope, to assure him that he had neither ordered nor intended the execrable murder ; he 10 110 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, fee. swore to abolish the laws on which he had grounded hid usurpations, and restore all the lands and revenues of the church ; and, to procure peace to his mind, and make what atonement he could for the scandal he had given, he resolved to make a pilgrimage to St. Thomas's shrine at Canterbury. When he came within a league of the city, he dismounted from his horse, and putting on a coarse woollen garment, walked barefooted the remainder of the way. When he reached the tomb, he threw himself upon the ground, shed- ding a flood of tears ; and, to render his humiliation still more remarkable, he ordered the monks and clergy to scourge him with whips. Having spent the remainder of the night in prayer, and in the morning attended at the sacrifice of the mass, he bestowed very rich presents and lands upon the church of Canterbury, and returned to London. In the reign of John, a dispute arose with Pope Innocent III., who had nominated to the see of Canterbury Stephen Langton, a prelate thoroughly qualified for that dignity, but not approved of by the King. This quarrel came to such a height, that several bishops were banished, and their reve- nues confiscated to the crown. Not only the bishops, but also the whole body of the clergy and religious, were greatly oppressed. When the Pope found that John was deaf to all his intreaties on the subject, he excommunicated him, and put the whole kingdom under an interdict. The King, find- ing himself in very critical circumstances, recalled the bishops by the persuasion of Pandulphus, the Pope's legate, and re- instated them in their possessions. But he now ran into the other extreme ; and, whether with a view to bind the Pope more closely to his interests in case of an attack from France, or to provide against any insurrection of his people at home, by an unparalleled instance of folly and injustice he executed a public instrument, by which he made his kingdoms of Eng- land and Ireland tributary to the Pope and his successors : thus violating the oath he had taken at his coronation, to maintain the liberties both of church and state. Neither the bishops, the clergy, nor the nation in general, would, however, brook this subjection to the see of Rome. The bishops, in particular, complained loudly of the abuses to which this dependance gave birth. These grievances had arisen to so high a pitch in the reign of Henry III., that the people became greatly exasperated, and it was determined to send a representation to the Pope, wherein it was stated, that the church of England was so ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. HI overawed by foreigners, who stept into the best preferments by papal provisions, that patrons were deprived of their right of presenting, the revenues were spent abroad, the cure of souls was neglected, and studies languished, because the English youth had no encouragement to qualify themselves for the dignities of the church. It concluded with intimat- ing the authority the King might claim, if he were not dis- posed to be complaisant to the holy see. Among the many bishops eminent for sanctity, who op- posed the court of Rome in this great contest concerning papal provisions, may be reckoned Richard Withershed, Archbishop of Canterbury, who expressed himself with great force on the King admitting such a number of Italians into the best benefices. St. Edmond, also Archbishop of Canterbury, who possessed the talents of a scholar and the virtues of the most pious, was so zealous in the cause, that it gave him great anxiety, and ultimately obliged him to retire and end his days in a kind of banishment. Robert Greathead, Bishop of Lincoln, though he ever professed great veneration for the successors of St. Peter, yet boldly refused institution to foreign clergymen presented to benefices in his diocese. He even took a journey to Rome, to remon- strate against these abuses ; which produced such effect upon the mind of the pontiff, as to make him seriously set about remedying the defect. About this time the mendicant orders began to make their appearance in England. The first convent of grey friars was at Canterbury, and another was soon after established in London. Nearly at the same time was suppressed the famous religious order of Knights Templars, and their lands were bestowed upon the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. The statute made for this purpose is worthy of remark, and runs thus : " It is agreed, ordained, and established by law for ever, that neither our lord the king, nor any other lord, nor an\ r other person, hath title or right to retain the aforesaid lands." And the reasons alleged for not alienating them were, "because such a conveyance would not discharge the obligations which lay upon them, which were, to defend Christianity, provide largely for the poor, and pray for souls departed." Had Henry VIII. at the dissolution of the mon- asteries attended to this, it might perhaps have raised a scruple in his mind. During the wars of Edward I. with the Scots, Pope Boni- face interfered, and dem.gji.ded that the bishops, abbots, and 112 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. nobles, who had been made prisoners by Edward, should be released. The letters of Edward in answer, seconded by those from the Barons, clearly shew what were the senti- ments of our ancestors with regard to the interference of the see of Rome in temporal matters. In them they informed the Pope, that Edward owed no submission to him in such eases ; that the Kings of England never were nor ever would be subject to any foreign power, either spiritual or temporal, in matters purely civil ; but as to obedience in things spiritual, they acknowledged themselves devoted to the see of Rome. The papal revenues, which were the source of mutual complaints and recriminations, still continued. They may be classed under three heads ; first, Peter Pence, a tax established under the Saxons, of one penny on every householder pos- sessed of thirty-pence in chattels, intended for the relief of English pilgrims; second, the grant made by John of 1,000 marks, as an acknowledgment of vassalage, and therefore odious to the nation. This not having been regularly paid by John's successors, had considerably accumulated, till at last Pope Urban V. signified, that if the arrears were not paid, he would enter a process in his court for recovery of the penalties. Edward upon this called a Parliament, and communicated the papal demand. The prelates consulted together, and returned for answer, that neither John, nor any other person, could subject the kingdom to another power without the consent of the nation. In this the Barons and Commons unanimously agreed, and it was resolved, that if the Pope attempted to put his threat in execution, they would resist them to the utmost of their power. Upon this determination the question was abandoned by the Pope for ever. First-fruits was the third grievance ; this was a gift made by the bishop upon his consecration, and the priest at his or- dination, to the officiating prelates and attendants. In some dioceses it was exacted from even the inferior clergy, in the court of Rome, at every promotion obtained by papal provi- sions, and the amount at last arose to two, and even three years' income. These claims became from time to time the subject of parliamentary investigation ; various statutes were enacted, which in the end entirely put a stop to the influence of the see of Rome. About the year 1375, John Wycliffe first, began to broach his new doctrines. He had received his education at Oxford. LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. 113 and was a man of considerable learning, but of much greater pride and ambition. He had been disappointed in not getting the bishopric of Worcester, to which he aspired. His pride was hurt, and his temper soured ; he therefore commenced reformer, and promulgated his novelties, some of which were, that in the Blessed Eucharist, the substance of the bread and wine remains after consecration ; that a bishop in mortal sin cannot ordain ; that the Pope, if wicked, has no authority over the faithful; that auricular confessions are unnecessary ; that the clergy ought to have no temporal pos- sessions. These doctrines soon attracted the notice of the bishops : they assembled in synod, and cited him before them. In his answer, he acknowledged that his expressions were incorrect, and pretended that they must be understood in an orthodox sense. He promised in future not to disturb the public peace, and being strongly countenanced by John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, the mortal enemy of the clergy, he was suffered to depart without further censure ; but ceased not to disseminate his heresy till a paralytic attack suddenly hurried him out of life. His followers were called Lollards. CHAPTER III. Laws, Government, Commerce. During the reign of Henry II. several wise laws were enacted. The kingdom was divided into six circuits, and to each circuit were appointed three itinerant judges, who were sworn to administer justice. These circuits were nearly the same as at the present day. In the reign of his son and succes- sor, Richard I., the city of London received many important privileges, and was first divided into companies and corpora- tions. Under the government of Henry III., the difference which arose between the king and the nobles made England a scene of confusion. The people, however, obtained a confirmation of the great charter with the addition of new privileges. But the liberty of the subject made the greatest progress during the reign of Edward I., a prince who, on account of his numerous and prudent laws, has been called the English Justinian. But what renders this era particular- ly interesting, is the admission of the deputies of boroughs 10* 114 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. into Parliament. In order to raise subsidies to support the wars in which Edward was engaged, he found himself obliged to resort to new resources, and endeavoured to obtain by the consent of the people what his predecessors had expected from their own power. The sheriffs were ordered to invite the towns and boroughs of the different counties to send deputies to Parliament, and from this period we may date the origin of the House of Commons. The great charter was confirmed by King Edward eleven times in the course of his reign; and at length, he converted into an established law, a privilege, which the nation had hitherto only precari- ously enjoyed, by decreeing, that no tax should be laid on, nor impost levied, without the joint consent of Lords and Commons. This most important statute, in conjunction with Magna Charta, forms the basis of the English constitution. The statute of mortmain was also enacted in this reign, for the purpose of prescribing some bounds to the zeal of our ancestors in alienating their lands to pious uses. It had been found that this custom was liable to several abuses, and that many worthy families had been wholly impoverished in con- sequence. It was, therefore, enacted, that for the future no lands should be settled upon any community without the ex- press license of the king and parliament. This statute was not very agreeable to the see of Rome, and was even disap- proved of by many learned and pious doctors of the church, though by many others equally eminent for their zeal, piety and learning, it was looked upon as a wise and prudent pro- vision. Under Edward II. the Commons began to annex petitions to the bills in which they granted subsidies. This was the dawn of their legislative authority. In the reign of Edward III., they declared they would not in future acknowledge any law to which they had not expressly consented. Soon after they asserted a privilege, which forms at this time one of the greatest balances of the constitution. They impeached, and procured to be condemned, some of the chief ministers of the state. The principal manufacture of England, in the era of which we now treat, was that of wool. This she owed to the fos- tering hand of Edward III., who gave great encouragement to foreign weavers, and enacted a law which prohibited every one from wearing cloth but of English fabric. The manu- factures of leather and lead were also considerable. The greater part of our domestic trade was still transacted ARTS, &e. 115 at fairs, of which some were of long duration. That of St, Giles, near Winchester, continued sixteen days, during which all trade was prohibited within seven miles of the fair, which very much resembled a great city. In the beginning of the reign of Richard II., the Parliament complained of the decay of foreign commerce during the preceding reign, and assert- ed, that one seaport formerly contained more vessels than were then to be found in the whole kingdom. This calami- ty they ascribed to the arbitrary seizure of ships by Edward, for the service of his frequent expeditions. With regard to coin, the third Edward in 1344 struck florins of gold, which were ordered to pass for 6s., and the halves and quarters in proportion. Finding, however, that he had rated these pieces too highly, he coined the gold noble of 6s. 8d., and recalled the florins. The police of the kingdom was certainly much improved during this period, particularly in the third Edward's reign; yet were there several defects in the constitution, the bad consequences of which not all the power and vigilance of the King could prevent. The Barons, by their confederacies with those of their own order, and by supporting their retain- ers in all their iniquity, were the chief abettors of robbers and ruffians of all kinds, and no law could reach them. The Commons made frequent complaints of these robberies, mur- ders, and disorders, in every part of the kingdom, which they always ascribed to the protection the criminals received from the Barons. The king of Cyprus, who paid a visit to Eng- land in the reign of Edward III., was robbed and stript on the highway with the whole of his retinue. The King him- self contributed to this dissolution of the laws, by the facility with which he granted pardons to felons at the solicitation of his courtiers. Arts, 8rc. In the period we are now examining, if we except the possessions of the clergy, very little progress was made in agriculture. The country was almost always involved in wars, which diverted the attention of the people, and particu- larly of the nobility, from the improvement of their lands. The wretched tenure also by which the inferior farmers held their lands, was an effectual bar to every amendment of the soil. Gardening, under the immediate protection of the great, had better success ; every large castle, and every monastery, 116 MANNERS. had its garden, orchard, and frequently its vineyard ; so that the English had a considerable quantity of wine of their own growth, not much inferior to foreign wine. With regard to architecture, many of the most admired cathedrals in England, viz. those of York, Salisbury, and Winchester, owe their existence to this period, which is gen- erally allowed to have produced the truest and fairest models of what is called the lighter gothic. The steeples with spires and pinnacles, the pillars formed of an assemblage of columns, the lofty windows divided into several lights by stone mul- lions, and always filled with glass stained with lively colours, stamp the sacred edifices of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. This rapid progress in architectural elegance was greatly assisted by a band of ingenious workmen of various countries, who forming themselves into societies under the title of "free-masons," offered their services to opulent princes. So great and general was the taste for paintings at this period, that not only churches and chapels and the apartments of the great, but also those of private persons, were orna- mented with historical pictures. Of sculpture, although it no doubt kept pace with its sister art, we have but few models, owing to the party zeal of the civil wars and the gothic bar- barity of the first-styled reformers. Though the poets of this age were as much admired by their contemporaries as those who flourished in later times, their works are generally neglected ; which is perhaps owing as much to the antiquated style in which they wrote as to the mediocrity of their talents. Manners. Of the age we are now delineating, one of the prominent features was unlimited hospitality. The courts of some of our kings were magnificent and numerous to a degree hardly credible. Stowe thus describes that of Richard II.: "His royalty was such, that wheresoever he lay, his person was guarded by 200 Cheshire men ; he had about him thirteen bishops, besides barons, knights, esquires and others; inso- much, that 10,000 people came to the household for meat every day, as appeared by the messes told out to 200 servi- tors." Some idea may be formed of the hospitality of the opulent barons from an account of the household expenses of the Earl of Lancaster in 1213, from which it appears that MANNERS. 117 this nobleman expended in housekeeping during that year no less a sum than £7,300, equal to £100,000 of our present money. The nobility in general spent almost the whole of their revenues in this manner, at their castles in the country, -which were constantly open to strangers of condition, as well as to their own vassals and followers. This prodigality began to decline a little towards the end of this period ; some barons, instead of dining in their great hall with their numerous re- tainers according to ancient custom, chose to dine in private parlours with their families and friends; though this innova- tion was very unpopular, and subjected them who adopted it to much ill-will and reproach. The revival of chivalry by the Edwards, contributed not a little to promote valour and munificence among persons of condition. The candidate for knighthood, after giving suffi- cient proofs of his prowess and other virtues, prepared him- self by fasting, going to confession and communion, with other acts of devotion. He then took an oath of no fewer than twenty-six articles, in which, among other things, he swore that he would be a good, brave, loyal, just and gener- ous knight, a champion of the church, a protector of distressed females, and a redresser of the wrongs of widows and orphans. Chivalry declined in England during the inglorious reigns of King John and Henry III., but revived in the succeeding one, particularly in that of Edward III., who in this was in- fluenced by policy no less than by inclination. Having formed the design of asserting his claim to the crown of France, he endeavoured to inspire into his own subjects an enterprising spirit, and to entice as many valiant foreigners into his service as possible. With this view he celebrated several magnificent tournaments, to which he invited all strangers who delighted in feats of arms, entertained them with the greatest hospitality, and loaded such of them as excelled in these martial sports with honours and rewards, in order to attach them to his service : with the like view, and about the same time, he founded the order of the Garter, of which his heroic son the Black Prince was the first knight, and all the first companions were persons famous for their feats at tourna- ments, or in real war. In a word, chivalry, which is now an object of ridicule, was in those times an affair of the greatest moment, and had no small influence on the manners of the age and the fate of nations. 118 MANNERS. The ridiculous and motley dress of this period was very justly a subject of bitter reprehension from the satirists of the time. What could exhibit a more fantastical appearance than an English beau of the fourteenth century ? He wore long pointed shoes, fastened to his knees by gold or silver chains, a stocking of one colour on one leg and one of another colour on the other ; short breeches which did not reach to the middle of his thighs ; a coat, one half black, the other half white or blue ; a long beard ; a silk hood, buttoned under his chin, embroidered with grotesque figures of animals, and ornamented with gold, silver, or precious stones. This dress was the height of the fashion in the reign of Edward HI. The dress of the ladies is thus described by Knyghton : "The tournaments are attended by many ladies of the first rank and greatest beauty dressed in party-coloured tunics. Their tippets are very short, their caps remarkably small and wrapt about their heads with cords. Their girdles are ornamented with gold and silver, and they wear short swords, like dag- gers, before them, which hang across their stomachs. They are mounted on the finest horses with the richest furniture, and thus equipped they ride from place to place, in quest of tournaments, by which they dissipate their fortunes, and often ruin their reputations." In the course of the fourteenth century, the Anglo-Saxon gradually changed into what may be called the English lan- guage. That animosity which had long subsisted between the posterity of the Normans and that of the Anglo-Saxons was now extinguished, and they were in a great measure consolidated into one people. Many of the Normans who were engaged in trade, agriculture, or manufactures, found it necessary to speak the language of the multitude, into which they introduced many French words and idioms. Besides this, Chaucer, Gower, and several others, composed a number of volumes in English ; and being men of learning, borrowed many expressions from the Greek and Latin, Italian and French languages, with which they enriched their own. But the mode of spelling was unsettled, and very different from the modern. Many words were then in common use which are now become obsolete, and the meaning of other very different from what it is at present. A knave for exam- ple signified a servant in opposition to a freeman ; and some- times a male in opposition to a female ; its modem meaning is well known. ( 119) Incidents and curious Particulars. In 1246, Cheapside was a void space called Crown Field, from the Crown-Inn adjoining. The city lay more to the eastward. In 1327, Southwark having long been an asylum for rogues and vagabonds, was united to London, and placed under the power of the Lord Mayor and Aldermen. In 1283, say the annals of Dunstable, "we sold our slave by birth, William Pike, with all his family, and received one mark from the buyer." In 1302, the mariner's compass was invented. In 1316, on account of the great famine, the Parliament limited the price of provisions. An ox cost £2 8s. ; a fat hog, 105. ; a sheep, 3s. 6d. ; a fat goose, I7%d. ; a fat capon, 6d. ; a fat hen, 3d. ; two dozen eggs, 3d. In 1340, guns were invented by Shwartz, a monk of Co- logne, as gunpowder had been some time before by our famous countryman Roger Bacon. In 1346, Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which contributed to gain the famous battle of Cressy. Bombs and mortars were invented about the same time. In 1386, was built the magnificent castle of Windsor, by Edward III., and his method of conducting the work may serve as a specimen of the condition of the people in that age. Instead of engaging workmen by contracts and wages, he assessed every country in England to send him a certain number of masons, tilers, carpenters, &c. 120 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. BOOK VI. Cotemporary Sovereigns. POPES. Boniface IX 1389 1 Alexander V 1409 Innnocent VII 14041 John XXIII 1410 Gregory XII 1406 I EMPERORS OF GERMAXT. Winceslaus 13781 Sigismund 1410 Robert 1400 1 EMPEROR OF THE EAST. Emanuel II 1331 KINO OF FRANCE. Charles VI 1380 KINGS OF SPAIN. Henry III 1390 1 John II 1406 KING OF PORTUGAL. John 1385 SOVEREIGNS OF DENMARK. Margaret 1385 1 Eric XIII 1411 KINGS OF SCOTLAND Robert III 1390! James 1 1405 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. From the Deposition of Richard II. to that of Henry VI., including a period of about 86 Years. CHAPTER I. Henry IV., reigned 13 Years, 5 Months, 21 Bays. 1399. — Henry, in possession of the great object of his ambition in prejudice to the elder branches of his family, soon found it was more easy to win a crown than to preserve it. For several years he was continually harassed, either by the hostility of foreign powers, who looked upon him as a usurper, or by the secret plots of his own subjects, some THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 12l of whom longed to avenge the fate of Richard ; others who had aided him in the acquisition of his throne, and thought themselves neglected. In Wales, Owen Glendower, de- scended from the ancient princes of that country, had become obnoxious on account of his attachment to the late king, and Lord de Grey, who had a great fortune in the marches of Wales, availed himself of that circumstance to seize upon his neighbour's estate. Glendower recovered possession by the sword. Henry sent assistance to Lord de Grey, while the Welsh took part with Glendower, and a tedious war was kindled, in which the Welsh chieftain gave remarkable proofs of his bravery and activity. The Scots, taking advantage of these discontents, renewed their excursions. Archibald, Earl of Douglass, on his re- turn from one of these border inroads, was overtaken by the Percies. A bloody battle ensued; the Scots were totally routed, and Douglass himself, with many of the nobility and gentry, were taken prisoners. When Henry received intel- ligence of this victory, he sent a message to the Earl, not to receive ransom for his prisoners, intending to detain them, in order to conclude an advantageous peace with Scotland. But the Earl, according to the laws of war in that age, re- garding them as his right, was greatly disgusted at the mes- sage, and the more so, as he considered himself the principal person to whom Henry was indebted for the crown. The impatient spirit of his son Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, and the factious disposition of the Earl of Worcester, inflam- ed still more the resentment of the Earl. He immediately entered into a conspiracy with Glendower, gave liberty to Earl Douglass, with whom he had made an alliance, and roused all his friends to arms. But on account of the Earl's real or political illness, young Percy took the command of the troops, and marched towards Shrewsbury, in order to join his forces to those of Glendower. The King with a few chosen troops met Percy near Shrewsbury, before his intended junction with Glendower. The policy of the one leader and the impetuosity of the other, immediately brought on a battle. On the preceding evening, Percy published a manifesto, in which, after renouncing his allegiance, he enu- merated all the grievances of the nation. Among these, he charged him with usurpation on the house of Mortimer, who had a prior right to the throne, being the immediate descend- ants of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, the elder brother of the late Duke of Lancaster. 11 122 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. The armies were nearly equal in number, consisting of about 12,000 men each, and we scarcely find any battle in those ages, where the shock was more terrible, or the con- flict more obstinate. Henry exposed his person in the thick- est of the fight. His gallant son the Prince of Wales, whose military achievements were afterwards so renowned, and who here performed his noviciate in arms, signalized himself greatly, and though wounded in the face by an arrow, would not quit the field. On the other side, Percy well supported that fame which he had acquired in many a bloody combat, and was nobly seconded by Douglass amidst the horror and confusion of the day. But while the armies were contend- ing in this furious and equal contest, the death of Percy, by an arrow from an unknown hand, decided the victory in favour of the royalists. The Earl of Northumberland was on his march to join his son, when he heard of his defeat. He immediately dis- missed his forces, and with a small retinue went to the King at York, pretending that his sole intention in arming was to mediate between the parties. Henry appeared satisfied with this excuse, and granted him pardon. Unable, how- ever, to repress his enmity to the King, the Earl afterwards joined in a fresh rebellion, and at length lost his life in the cause. Henry, thus freed, by the death of Northumberland and that of Glendower, which happened soon after, from all his domestic enemies, endeavoured to regain the popularity he had lost by his severe measures. The House of Commons upon this occasion became sensible of their own importance, and began to assume powers which had not usually been exercised by their predecessors. Among other advances of this kind, in the sixth year of Henry's reign, when they voted him supplies, they appointed treasurers of their own, to see that the money was disbursed for the purpose intend- ed. Henry died at Westminster, in the forty-sixth year of his age, leaving behind him the reputation of a prudent and political prince, but of a suspicious and unfeeling character. He had by his first wife, Mary de Bohun, daughter of the Earl of Hereford, four sons, viz. Henry, his successor; Thomas, Duke of Clarence ; John, Duke of Bedford ; Hum- phrey, Duke of Gloucester ; and two daughters. His second wife, Jane, daughter of the king of Navarre, had no issue THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. Cotemporary Princes. POPES. John XXIII 1410 1 Martin V 1417 EMPEROR OF GERMANY. Sigismund 1410 EMPEROR OF THE EAST. Emanuel II 1391 KING OF FRANCE. Charles VI 1380 KING OF SPAIN. John II 1406 KING OF PORTUGAL. John 1386 KING OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN. Eric XIII 1418 KING OF SCOTLAND. James 1 1405 Henry V., reigned 9 Years, 4 Months, 11 Days. 1413. — Henry V. succeeded to the throne. He had for a considerable time been the object of his father's unreasonable suspicions, arising from his own dissolute life, and the jeal- ous disposition of Henry- His active spirit, unemployed in I affairs of state, broke out into the wildest extravagance of riot and debauchery, which threw him among companions totally unworthy of his rank and station. One of these associates had been indicted before Sir Wm. Gascoigne, the Chief Justice, for disorderly conduct ; and Henry was not ashamed to appear at the bar with the criminal, to give him countenance and protection. Finding that his presence did not overawe the judge, he proceeded to insult him on his tribunal. But Gascoigne, mindful of his dignity, ordered the prince to be immediately committed, and Henry had the magnanimity at once to submit peaceably to the sentence. All this time the nation in general had considered the young prince with more indulgence than his father, and had observ- ed so many gleams of generosity and spirit, breaking through his misconduct, that they never lost hopes of his ultimate reformation. The first step taken by the young king, confirmed those prepossessions in his favour. He immediately dismissed the companions of his dissolute courses, and received the wise 124 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. ministers of his father, who had checked his riots, with all the marks of favour and confidence. As it was the dying request of the late King not to allow the English to remain long at peace, which was apt to breed internal commotion, Henry determined to take advantage of the confusion which reigned in France through the contentions of the Dukes of Orleans and Burgundy, each of whom aspired to the ad- ministration of affairs. He accordingly assembled a large fleet and army at Southampton, in order to invade that kingdom, and landed near Harfleur, at the head of 6,000 men at arms, and 24,000 foot, mostly archers. Harfleur was immediately besieged, and taken, after a vigorous resistance ; but the unusual heat of the weather and the fatigues of the siege, had so wasted the English army, that Henry could enter on no further enterprise, and was obliged to thank of returning to England. As he had dismissed his transports, he lay under the necessity of march- ing to Calais ; and while he was pursuing this route, contin- ually harassed by the enemy, his provisions cut off and his soldiers languishing with sickness and fatigue, he was over- taken by the whole French army, consisting of ten times the number of his diminished force, under the command of the Constable D' Albert, drawn up on the plains of Agincourt. Henry's situation was now exactly similar to that of Edward at Cressy, and of the Black Prince at Poictiers. The mem- ory of those great events inspired the English with courage, in the hope of a like deliverance from their present difficul- ties. As the enemy was so superior in number, Henry drew up his army on a narrow ground between two woods to cover each flank, and patiently awaited in that position the fury of the attack. Had the French general declined the combat, the English must have relinquished the advantages of their situation. But the impetuous valour of their nobil- ity, and a vain confidence in their superior numbers, brought on an action, which proved glorious to the English arms. The battle began by a shower of arrows from the English archers, which did great execution. The French cavalry advancing to repel them, two hundred bowmen, who lay till then concealed, rising on a sudden, let fly among them, and produced such confusion, that the archers threw by their arrows, and rushing in among them sword in hand, obliged them immediately to give way. In every part of the field they were overthrown, and their numbers becoming crowded together in a narrow space, they were incapable of re.>isN. I T HE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 125 ance or flight, so that the ground was covered with heaps of slain. After all appearance of opposition was over, an alarm was heard in the camp, which proceeded from a number of peasants who had fallen upon the English baggage, and were putting the unarmed followers of the camp to the sword. Henry, seeing the enemy on all sides, began to entertain ap- prehensions from his prisoners, the number of whom exceed- ed that of his whole army, He thought it necessary to issue orders for putting them to death. But on discovering the certainty of his victory, he stopped the slaughter, and was still able to save a great number. In this battle, celebrated by the name of the battle of Agincourt, the killed amounted to 10,000 men, and 14,000 were made prisoners, while the loss of the English did not amount to more than forty-six. Henry, without discontinuing his march a moment, carried his prisoners to Calais, and thence to England. France was at this period in a wretched situation ; the whole kingdom appeared as one vast theatre of crimes, mur- ders, injustice and devastation. The Duke of Orleans was assassinated by the Duke of Burgundy, and the Duke of Burgundy, in his turn, by the treachery of the Dauphin. Upon the death of the Dauphin, the Count Armagnac, a nobleman of great talents, succeeded to the administration of affairs. Anxious to recover Harfleur, he would not listen to any proposals of peace which was attempted to be medi- ated by the Emperor Sigismund, of Austria, and other princes, but with a fleet of French and Genoese vessels he blockaded the harbour of that town, and closely invested it on the land side. The Duke of Bedford was sent with a fleet of English vessels to relieve the place. He bore down on the enemy ; but finding his vessels greatly inferior in size to those of the Genoese, he gave orders to board. The Eng- lish instantly climbing the lofty sides of the enemy's ships, soon drove them from the deck, and made themselves masters of their vessels. Most of the French ships had already struck, a few escaped up the river, and the town was relieved. Such was the state of affairs in France when Henry land- ed in Normandy, at the head of 25,000 men, and after re- ducing several places, threatened Paris, whence the terror of his arms had obliged the French court to remove to Troyes. The imbecility into which Charles had fallen, rendering him passive in every transaction, a treaty was entered into, wherein it was agreed, that Henry should espouse the Princess Cathe- 11* 126 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. rine, daughter of the King of France; that Charles, during his life, should enjoy the title of king ; that Henry should be acknowledged heir of the monarchy, and be intrusted with the present administration of the government, and that the kingdom should pass to his heirs general. In a few days after Henry espoused Catherine, and carrying his fa- ther-in-law to Paris, took possession of that capital. He then turned his arms against the Dauphin, who had assumed the style and title of Regent, and to crown his good fortune, his queen was delivered of a son, whose birth was celebrated at Paris by rejoicings no less pompous than at London. The infant king seemed to be universally regarded as the future heir of both monarchies. But the glory of Henry, when it had nearly reached its summit, was stopt short by the hand of Providence. He was seized by a disorder which the surgeons of that time had not skill enough to cure, and died in the thirty-fourth year of his age. This prince possessed many eminent virtues. His abili- ties appeared equally in the field and in the cabinet. He had the talent of attaching his friends by affability, and of gaining his enemies by address and clemency. The English, dazzled by the lustre of his character, were reconciled to the defects in his title ; and the French, by his marriage with Catherine the daughter of their king, almost forgot that he had been their enemy. He left by his Queen only one son, not quite nine months old, who succeeded to the throne. Catherine soon after his death married Sir Owen Tudor, a Welch gentleman, by whom she had two sons ; the elder was created Earl of Richmond, and the second Earl of Pem- broke. The family of Tudor, first raised to distinction by this alliance, afterwards mounted the throne of England. Cotemporary Princes. Calistus III 1455 Pius II 1458 Martin V. , 1417 Eugenius IV 1431 Nicholas V 1447 EMPERORS OF GF.RMAXT. Sigismund 1410 I Frederic III 1440 Albert II 14381 EMPERORS OF THE EAST. Emanuel II 1391 1 Constantino III., the last Chris- John VII 14291 tian emperor 1453 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 127 KINGS OF FRANCE. Charles VI 13801 Charles VII 1422 KINGS OF SPAIN. John II 1406 | Henry IV 1454 KINGS OF PORTUGAL. John 1385|Alphonsus V 1438 Edward 14331 KINGS OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN. Eric 1411 [Christian 1448 Christopher III 1439 I KINGS OF SCOTLAND. James 14051 James III 1460 James II v. 14371 Henry VI., reigned 38 Years, 6 Months, 4 Days, 14*2*2. — Henry VI., surnamed of Windsor, being a minor, the affairs of the government were conducted by his two uncles, the Dukes of Bedford and Gloucester, men of great courage, integrity, and accomplishments, but unable to pre- serve their brother's conquests. Upon the death of Charles VI. the affections of the French for his family revived in I the person of his son and successor Charles VII., who was : crowned at Chartres, Rheims being in possession of the i English. The war was immediately recommenced with fresh vigour; many battles were fought, generally to the advantage of the English, who at last laid siege to Orleans, the capture of which would have completed the conquest of France ; but a sudden revolution was produced in that kingdom, by means apparently the least likely to be attended with success. In a village on the borders of Lorraine lived a country girl called Joan. This girl had been a servant at a small inn, and in that service had submitted to those hardy employ- ments which fit the body for the fatigues of war. She was of an irreproachable character, and had hitherto testified none of those enterprising qualities which displayed them- selves soon after. Whether, however, she really believed that she was inspired from above, or made herself the instru- ment of some political genius, who took in this manner advantage of the age, she felt or pretended to feel the impulses which she related to the governor of Vancouleur, informing him of her destination by heaven to free her 128 TIIR nous:; or Lancaster. native country from its fierce invaders. Baudricou'-t the- governor treated her, or appeared to do so at first, with neg- lect, but her importunities at length prevailed : he gave her" some attendants, who conducted her to the French court. Here it was given out that Joan was actually inspired ; that she was able to discover the king among his courtiers, though he had laid aside all the distinctions of royalty ; that she had told him some secrets known only to himself, and that she had demanded and minutely described a sword in the church of St. Catherine, which she had never seen. In this manner the minds of the soldiers and the people being prepared for her appearance, she was armed cap-a-pie, mounted on a charger, and shewn in that martial dress to the populace and soldiers. She was then taken before the doc- tors of the university, who declared she had actually received her mission from heaven. Joan now undertook to raise the siege of Orleans, and ordering all the soldiers to confess themselves, displayed in her hand a consecrated banner, and assured the troops of certain victory. Her confidence raised the spirits of the French soldiers to enthusiasm, and at the same time infused trepidation into the English. The siege of Orleans was immediately raised, and one victory followed another, till at length the French king was solemnly crowned at Rheims, as Joan had predicted. A tide of success fol- lowed the performance of this solemnity ; but Joan, who had thrown herself into Compeigne with a body of troops, was taken prisoner in a sally by the Duke of Burgundy, who was besieging that city. The Duke of Bedford was no sooner informed of her cap- ture, than he purchased her of the Count Vendome, and ordered her to be immediately tried by the ecclesiastical court: who found her guilty of heresy and witchcraft, and sentenced her to be burnt. After her condemnation, several attempts were made to induce her to acknowledge her imposture : but she remained firm till the fatal day arrived ; then, however, yielding to her terrors, she acknowledged with tears her delusion , and was remanded to prison. She, however, relapsed into her former errors, and was, according to the laws of those cre- dulous times, delivered to the executioners, and burnt at the stake. Here she continued obstinate till she saw the fire kindled at her feet: then she burst into loud screams and exclamations, and was seen in the midst of the flames embracing a crucifix, foretelling, as some French writers THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 129 mention, the total discomfiture of the English. Be this as it may, the affairs of the English in France became from that time totally irretrievable, till at length they had nothing left of all their conquests but Calais. In proportion as Henry advanced in years, his character more fully displayed itself. Of the most inoffensive and simple manners, but of very slender capacity, he was fitted to be governed by those who surrounded him, and it was easy to foresee that his reign would prove a perpetual minor- ity. As he had now reached the age of manhood, it was necessary to think of choosing him a queen, and each party endeavoured to make him receive one at their hands ; it being probable that, this point gained, their influence would be established for ever. The Cardinal of Winchester proved successful, and Hemy was married to Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Regnier, titular king of Sicily, Naples, and Jerusalem, descended from a Count of Anjou, who had left these magnificent titles to his posterity, without any real power or possessions. She immediately entered into close union with the Cardinal and his party, who, thus fortified by her powerful interest, resolved upon the downfal of the Duke of Gloucester, who was obnoxious to the Queen, upon account of his opposing her marriage. The Duke had already received a cruel mortification from his rivals. His Duchess was accused of witchcraft, and condemned to do public penance, after which she was ordered into perpetual impri- sonment. The people, however, acquitted the unhappy suf- ferer, and attributed the whole to the malice of the Duke's enemies. The Queen and her party, therefore, became sensible, that it was necessary to destroy a man whose popu- larity made him dangerous, and whose resentment they hacf so much cause to dread. They contrived to bring an accur sation of treason against him, upon which he was arrested, thrown into prison, and the next day found dead in his bed'. His body, which bore no outward marks of violence, was publicly exposed ; but no one doubted that he had fallen a victim to the vengeance of his enemies. His murder excited general abhorrence, and laid a foundation for the troubles which ensued. Various commotions, arising from the discontents of the people, broke out, that were soon suppressed ; but one took place in Kent which was attended with more serious conse- quences. Jack Cade, a native of Ireland, a man of low condition, who had been obliged, for his crimes, to flee into 130 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. France, observing, on his return, this disposition in the peo- ple, assumed the name of Mortimer, and, at the head of 20,000 Kentish men, encamped on Blackheath, in his way to the capital, in order, as he gave out, to obtain a redress of grievances. The city opened its gates to him, and for some time he maintained great order and discipline among his followers. But at length, not being able to restrain them from plunder, the citizens, assisted by a detachment from the Tower, repulsed the rebels with great slaughter. The Kent- ish men were so discouraged by this blow, that, upon receiving a general pardon, they retreated towards Roches- ter, and there dispersed. Cade fled into the woods ; but a price being set upon his head by proclamation, he was dis- covered by a gentleman in Sussex, and slain. Some of his followers were also capitally punished for their rebellion. It was imagined that the Duke of York had been the secret instigator in this attempt, and his partisans, in all conversa- tions, took occasion to assert his title to the crown ; but the Duke conducted himself with great prudence, and even when no apparent obstacle lay between him and the throne, he was prevented, by scruples or his fears, from mounting it. In the mean while, the king was seized with a distem- per which so far increased his natural imbecility, as to ren- der him incapable of maintaining even the appearance of royalty ; upon which the Duke of York got himself appointed lieutenant of the kingdom, with powers to open and hold a parliament. No sooner, however, was Henry so far recov- ered as to carry the appearance of exercising the royal power, than his queen, a woman of a bold spirit and mascu- line understanding, advised him to disannul the protector- ship of the Duke, and place the administration in the hands of the Earl of Somerset. Richard immediately had recourse to arms, and a battle was fought near St. Alban's, in which the Yorkists proved victorious, and the king himself fell into the hands of the conquerors. This was the first blood spilt in that fatal quarrel between the house of York, designated by the emblem of a white rose, and that of Lancaster by a red one. This fatal contest lasted thirty years, was signal- ized by twelve pitched battles, cost the lives of eighty princes of the blood, more than 100,000 men, and almost entirely annihilated the ancient nobility of England. Various were the turns of success during this contest. A battle was fought at Bloreheath, which terminated in favour of the Duke ; but Henry, under the direction of Marga- THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 131 ret, coming within sight of his foes, who were strongly intrenched before Ludlow, made proclamation that " who- ever would abandon the Duke of York should be pardoned." Upon which Sir Andrew Trollope deserted, and discovered all the Duke's plans. This so disconcerted the Yorkists, that they separated without striking a blow. In a third battle, fought at Northampton, the Yorkists, under the command of the famous Earl of Warwick, and the Earl of March, the Duke's son, gained a complete victory, and the King a second time fell into the hands of the victors. The Duke of York, who was then in Ireland, receiving the news of this victory, immediately embarked for England, and throwing off the mask, claimed the crown. After long debates in Parliament, it was finally agreed, that Henry should continue in possession of the throne till his death, and that on his demise it should devolve to Richard and his heirs. The Queen, who was in the north at this juncture, refused to submit to a determination so injurious to her son. The Duke of York, therefore, immediately marched to give her .battle ; but engaging her army with too small a body of men, his army was entirely routed, and he himself slain, with many of his bravest followers. The Duke's chaplain, who was likewise tutor to his son, seeing the ill success of the day, attempted to escape with his pupil, a child of twelve years old ; but Lord Clifford discovering the lad, inhumanly stabbed him to the heart with his dagger. Upon the death of the Duke of York, Warwick took the command of the forces belonging to that party, and came up with the Queen at St. Alban's. Another battle ensued, in which the Earl was defeated, and the King once more fell into the hands of his own party. Edward, the young Duke of York, now appeared at the head of the cause. This prince was remarkable for his bravery, activity, and affability. He soon found himself so much in the public favour, that he immediately asserted his claim, and assumed the title and dignity of king. Having expelled Margaret from London, he assembled the people, and haranguing them, was proclaimed king by the surround- ing multitude ; and the proclamation was ratified by a great number of bishops and lords, under the title of Edward IV. Here, according to most writers, ends the inglorious reign of the weak but pious Henry. A prince of much sweetness of disposition ; so chaste, that, when at a public mask, some 13*2 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. ladies presented themselves before him with their bosoms uncovered, he immediately rose up, and exclaimed against their behaviour ; so merciful, that when he saw the quarters of a traitor over Cripplegate, he caused them to be taken down, declaring " he would have no Christian so cruelly used for his sake ;" and so resigned to the will of God, and patient under affronts, that to one who struck him when he was taken prisoner, he meekly replied : " You wrong your- self more than me, to strike the Lord's anointed." Edward, soon after his coronation, became enamoured of Elizabeth, widow of Sir John Grey, and privately espoused her, although he had sent the Earl of Warwick to demand the sister of the French king in marriage. In this embassy the Earl was successful, and nothing remained but to bring the princess to England. Edward was now obliged to declare his marriage, which so inflamed the indignation of Warwick, that from his best friend and supporter, he became his bitterest enemy. To compass his revenge, he espoused the cause of Henry ; and by the assistance of Lewis VI. of France, Henry was again replaced on the throne, whilst Edward narrowly escaped to Holland. Nine months after he returned, was received in the capital, and king Henry was once more made prisoner. Edward now finding him- self sufficiently supported to face Warwick, who had taken post at Barnet, marched from London to attack him ; and being joined the night before the battle by his brother Cla- rence, who upon this occasion deserted his father-in-law, victory declared itself in his favour. The Earl, after per- forming prodigies of valour, lost his life in the engagement, as did a great many of his adherents. The same day on which this decisive battle was fought, Queen Margaret and her son, a young prince of great hopes, now about eighteen, landed at Weymouth, supported by a small body of French troops. She was greatly discouraged at the unhappy tidings ; but resuming her former spirit, she determined to defend to the utmost her fallen fortunes. For this purpose she advanced through the counties of Devon, Somerset, and Gloucester, towards the north : but at Tewkesbury she was overtaken, and a battle ensued, in which she was entirely defeated and taken prisoner, together with her son. The young prince, being brought before Edward, was asked by him how he dared to invade his dominions ; he replied, with much intrepidity, that he came to claim his just inheritance. Edward, enraged at Ins answer, brutally ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 133 struck him on the face with his gauntlet. This was a signal for further violence, and the Dukes of Clarence and Glou- cester, with some other noblemen, hurrying him into the next apartment, there dispatched him with their daggers. Margaret was thrown into the Tower, and the meek Henry, as is generally reported, was murdered by the Duke of Gloucester. Thus all the hopes of the house of Lancaster seemed utterly extinguished. As to Margaret, after having sustained the cause of her husband with a masculine cou- rage in twelve battles, and survived her friends, her fortune, and her children, she was ransomed for 50,000 crowns, and died a few years after in France. CHAPTER II. Ecclesiastical Affairs, 8fc. The reign of Henry IV. affords the first example of a capital execution for the crime of heresy. For a long period the clergy had been assailed with every opprobrious epithet by the followers of WyclifFe, which they had borne with exemplary charity. These deluded men now no longer confined themselves to abusive words, but proceeded to instigate the people not to pay their tithes ; and endea- voured, by artful contrivances, to procure the confiscation of all ecclesiastical property. Henry, therefore, found it necessary to call a convocation, iri which his commissioners exhorted the bishops to take measures for the suppression of the errors disseminated by the itinerant preachers : an act was accordingly passed for the suppression of the new sect, and the protection of the church. The act recites, that if any person convicted shall refuse to abjure such doctrines, or relapse after having abjured, he shall be burnt on a high place before the people. Almost immediately after passing this act, a petition was presented by one William Sawtree, begging to be allowed to dispute on the subject of religion before them. Sawtree had, two years before, been convicted of heresy, and deprived of his 'living; but, on his recantation had been admitted a chaplain at St. Osyth's, in London. His request was granted, and he became a victim to his senseless enthusiasm. He 12 134 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, kc. was delivered to the sheriff, and burnt as a malefactor, in the presence of an immense multitude of the people. This severity, however, had not the desired effect. Their doctrines spread the more widely, and their animosity was redoubled. At their head was Lord Cobham, generally known by the name of Sir John Oldcastle, who had distin- guished himself by his valour and military talents, virtues which, at all times, gain greatly on the affections of the peo- ple. Emboldened by their numbers, they threatened that, if any opposition should be employed by the government to their doctrine, they would assemble 100,000 men in its defence. The author of this menace was found to be Old- castle. He fled, but was taken by a military force, and conveyed to the Tower, whence he found means to escape, determined on revenge. To effect this, he appointed a gen- eral rendezvous, intending to seize the king, and put their opponents to the sword. But their design was discovered ; they were dispersed, and the ringleaders executed. Sir John Oldcastle escaped, and for some time eluded the pur- suit of his enemies ; but he was at length taken. Being arraigned, and asked what he had to say, he declared that he did not acknowledge the jurisdiction of that court, whilst his lawful king, Richard II., was alive. He was instantly sentenced to be hanged as a traitor, and afterwards to be burnt as a heretic ; which sentence was accordingly executed in St. Giles's Fields, having at the gallows prophesied that he would rise from the grave the third day, the non-accom- plishment of which very much staggered the faith of his Credulous followers. Henry V., who had discarded all his former dissolute companions, and become an example of modesty, piety, and regularity, shewed no less zeal in inquiring into various abuses which his predecessors had fallen into ; who, when they seized alien benefices, had often bestowed part of the revenues upon the laity. These he rectified to the best of his power, ordering the religious houses to be repaired, or trans- ferring the vacancies to other communities. LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. 135 CHAPTER III. Laws, Government, Commerce. Although the constitution, government, and laws of England had not yet arrived at that excellence to which the} r have since attained, they were continually improved in the course of this period, and much exceeded those of any other state in Europe. Philip de Comines, after describing the disorders that reigned in the governments of France, Germany, and Italy, and the cruel oppressions under which the people of those countries groaned, concludes in this manner: " In my opinion, of all the states m the world that I know, England is the country where the commonwealth is best governed, and the people least oppressed." This arose, principally, from the increasing importance and authority of the House of Commons, occasioned partly by the pecuniary wants of the kings, the defective title of Henry IV., and the civil wars, which obliged the adverse parties to court the affections of the people, and exert themselves to procure the election of their respective friends. The partiality, how- ever, of the sheriffs, who being chosen by those in power often made undue returns, provoked the remonstrance of the Commons, and, as a remedy, two statutes were enacted. The first provided, that in the next county court held after the delivery of the writ, the election should be immediately commenced, and that the names of the chosen candidates should be - certified by an indenture, under the seal of all those who had voted in their favour. By the second, a she- riff making a false return was fined £100. Freedom from arrest was a privilege long enjoyed by the members of the Commons equally With the Lords, and now most strictly enforced. Freedom of debate, a privilege still more impor- tant, which had been considerably impaired during the reign of Richard II., recovered its former stability. Under the protection of this privilege, the Commons introduced the practice of addressing the King by word of mouth, instead of committing their petitions to writing. They also firmly established, in the various applications of the king for sup- plies, the right to vote the money of the nation, to appro- priate it to particular services, to enquire into the disposal of 136 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. it, and all grievances tending to increase the burthens of the people. During the reign of Henry V. the Commons obtained a confirmation of their claim, that no statute should be valid unless it were enacted with their assent ; and to their often renewed complaint, that their petitions were so altered by omissions and additions, that, when published, the law was often quite contrary to its original intention, the King replied, that henceforth nothing should be enacted contrary to their petitions. Under Henry VI. the Commons continued to grow in importance : several statutes were enacted for the entire security of the members, and for the regulation of elec- tions. They, moreover, exercised the right of impeaching those ministers who had forfeited the confidence of the nation. During this period the number of judges in the courts of Westminster were not fixed, there being sometimes six, seven, or eight in the court of Common Pleas. Their sala- ries were very small. The Chief Justice had only £ 10 per year, and the others only £30, till Henry VI., by letters- patent, granted to the former £160, and to the latter £100. But besides his salary, every judge had a certain quantity of silk, linen, and furs for his robes out of the royal ward- robe. The annual salary of the Attorney-General was only £10, about £150 of the present money. When a judge was admitted into his office, he took a solemn oath that he would not receive any fees, pension, gift, reward, or bribe of any man having a suit or plea before him, except meat and drink, which should be of no great value. Some excellent laws for the regulation and encouragement of trade were made in the reign of Edward IV., who, though so much engaged in war, paid great attention to commerce, j Foreign trade was not then conducted as it is at present. Merchants did not usually carry their goods to the ports where they were to be finally disposed of, but to certain emporia, called staple cities, in which they met with cus- tomers from the countries where their goods were wanted. This appears to have been in part caused by the imperfect state of navigation, which made long voyages tedious, as likewise to the number of pirates that infested the seas. t Merchants, therefore, of distant countries divided the fatigue and danger, by meeting each other halfway. Bruges in Flanders was the emporium of Europe in those days ; and ARTS, MANNERS, &c. 137 so great was the resort to it from the Mediterranean and the Baltic, that 150 ships were seen to arrive at its harbour of Sluys in one day. Henry V. was as victorious by sea as by land. In his reign the fleets of England rode triumphant on the narrow seas. At his first invasion of prance, he had two large and beautiful ships, in imitation of the Venetian carracks, which, with those of Genoa, were often seen in the British har- bours. The one was called the King's Chamber, and the other his Hall. The new coins of this period were nobles and angels, worth 10*. and 14s. of our present money. They were much admired both at home and abroad for their purity and beauty. CHAPTER IV. Arts, Maimers, fyc. The style of architecture commonly called Gothic, was, at this period, carried to the highest perfection. Of this lofty and bold style of building, several specimens remain entire. Of this kind are the chapel of King's College, Cam- bridge, that of St. George at Windsor, the Divinity School at Oxford, and the College Church at Edinburgh-. The changes introduced into the art of war, by the inven- tion of gunpowder, were slow. The martial adventurers of those times were too much attached to the arms they had. been accustomed to, and they could not at once find machines fit to manage an agent so violent in its effects as gunpowder was. Some of their cannon were enormously large, dis- charging balls of 500 pounds weight, and required fifty horses to draw them. The balls were chiefly made of stone. About the end of the fourteenth century, playing cards were introduced into France by a painter of Paris, for the amusement of the unhappy prince, Charles VI., in his lucid intervals. They were gilded and illuminated with, no little skill and labour, which greatly augmented their value, the price of a pack being no less than 18s. &d., a very consider- able sum in those days. It was during this period that the art of printing was invented on the Continent, and introduced into this island.. One Corsellis began to print at Oxford in 1468 ; but it was. 12* 138 ARTS, MANNERS, &c. William Caxton, a mercer of London, who claimed the honour of first introducing into England the art of printing with fusile types in 1474. Chivalry, one of the most remarkable peculiarities in the manners of the middle ages, began to decline in the fifteenth century. The country was too much engaged in real bat- tles, to attend to the representation of them. The hospitality of all ranks, but particularly of the great and opulent, was very remarkable. " Neville, Earl of War- wick/' says Stowe, " was ever held in great favour by the commons of the land, on account of his hospitality, in all places wherever he went ; and when he came to London he kept such a house, that six oxen were eaten at a breakfast, and every tavern was full of his meat." The entertainments of the Barons were kept with great state and ceremony, but not with equal neatness or delicacy. The lord sat in state in his great hall, at the head of a long clumsy oaken board, and his guests were seated on each side on long benches, according to their rank. The table was loaded with large pewter dishes filled with meat, venison, poultry, sea-fowls, wild-fowls, game, and fish. The sideboards were well fur- nished with ale and wine, which were given to the company in pewter or wooden cups, by the grooms, yeomen, and waiters, all ranged in order. They made generally four meals a day, viz. their breakfast about seven, dinner at ten, supper at four, and their liveries at eight or nine. The English were remarkable, at this period, for the dis- graceful and profane practice of swearing. When the Earls of Warwick and Stafford visited the Maid of Orleans, in prison, to induce her to acknowledge her delusion, she said, "I know that you English are determined to put me to death, vainly imagining that then you will conquer all France ; but I tell you, that although there were 100,000 of your swearing countrymen in France, they will never con- quer it." It is mentioned as a praiseworthy singularity, that Henry VI. did not swear in conversation, but often reproved his officers of state for so odious a habit, now almost univer- sally exploded from every polite company. TIIE HOUSE OF YORK. 139 BOOKVII. Cotemporary Princes. POPES. Pius II 1458 1 Sextus IV 1471 Paul II 1464 1 EMPEROR OF GERMANY. Frederic III 1440 EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. Mahomet II 1453iBajazet II 1481 KING OF FRANCE. Louis XI 1461 KINGS OF SPAIN. Henry IV 1454 [Isabella and Ferdinand . . . 1474 KINGS OF PORTUGAL. Alphonsus V. 1438 1 John II 1481 KINGS OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN. Christian 1440lJohn 1481 KING OF SCOTLAND. James III 1460 CHAPTER I. MILITARY HISTORY. THE HOUSE OF YORfe. Including a Space of 24 Years. Edward IV., reigned 22 Years, 1 Month, 5 Days. 1461. — As peace was now restored to the nation, Edward convoked a parliament, which ratified, as usual, the acts of the conqueror, and recognised his legal authority. But this prince, who had been so active, firm, and intrepid in danger, was unable to resist the allurements of pleasure, the intoxication of success, or the gratification of revenge. Among his other cruelties, his conduct to his brother Cla- rence is the most atrocious. Though the Duke had rendered him a signal service, by deserting Warwick just before the battle near Barnet, he could never regain his affection or confidence, and a trivial incident gave Edward an opportu- 140 THE HOUSE OF YOTiK. nity to wreak his vengeance upon him, which was also- excited by the insinuations of the Duke of Gloucester. The King hunting one day, in the park of Thomas Burdett, killed a white buck, which was a great favourite with the owner. Burdett, vexed at the loss, in the heat of his pas- sion wished the horns of the deer in the body of the person who had advised the insult. As he was a dependent of the Duke of Clarence, this hasty expression was considered unpardonable by the vindictive Edward, and he caused the unfortunate complainant to be tried and executed. The Duke, unable to contain himself, exclaimed publicly against the iniquity of the sentence. For this he was committed to the Tower, and being summoned before the House of Lords, where the King himself appeared against him as his accuser, he was condemned to die. He was then closely confined in the Tower, and soon after found drowned in a butt of malm- sey ; a manner of death of which, it is said, he had himself made choice. Whilst the King was thus indulging his cruelty and dissi- pation, he was somewhat roused by a prospect of foreign conquest. Having formed a league with the Duke of Bur- gundy, he crossed the seas at the head of 10,000 men, to invade the French dominions. He did not, however, meet with the assistance he expected from the Duke, and with- drew after obliging the French king to pay him down 75,000 crowns, and agree to send him annually 50,000 more during their joint lives. Some time after, whilst preparing for another attack on the French monarchy, he was seized with a distemper, of which he expired, in the forty-second year of his age, leaving two sons : Edward, Prince of Wales, in his thirteenth year; and Richard, Duke of York, in his ninth. He had also five daughters. Cotemporary Princes. POPES. SextusIV 1471 EMPEROR OF GERMANY. Frederic III 1440 EMPEROR OF THE TURKS. Bajazet II 1481 KINGS OF FRANCE. Uuis XI 1461 i Charles VIII 14S3 THE HOUSE OF YORK. ]41 KING OF SPAIN. Isabella and Ferdinand 1474 KINO OF FOJITUGAL. John II 1481 KINO OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN. John 1481 KING OF SCOTLAND. James III 1460 Edward V., reigned 2 Months, 12 Days. 1 183. — Edward V., on his accession, received the oaths of the principal nobles, and his uncle the Duke of Glouces- ter was made protector of the kingdom. No sooner w r as he invested with this dignity by the council, than, under pre- tence of guarding the young king and his brother, he sent them both to the Tower. He had, hitherto, concealed the villainy of his character by the deepest dissimulation ; but having now the power in his hands, he no longer hesitated to remove all obstruction between him and the throne. For this purpose, he first secured to his interest the Duke of Buckingham, a man of talents and power, by bribes, and promises of future favour. He then attempted to attach Lord Hastings tQ his party; but finding him determined in his fidelity to Edward's children, he resolved to cut him off. Having summoned a council in the Tower, he entered, with an angry countenance, and asked, what those deserved who had plotted against his life ? Hastings immediately answered, that they merited the punishment of traitors. " These trai- tors," cried Richard, " are that sorceress my brother's wife, and Jane Shore, his mistress. See to what a condition I am reduced by their spells." Upon this, he laid bare his arm, all shrivelled and decayed. The councillors, who knew that this infirmity had attended him from his youth, looked at each other in silent amaze: but Hastings cried out, "If they have committed this crime, they deserve the severest punishment." "If!" cried the protector: " Dost thou answer me with ifs ? I tell thee they have conspired my death, and thou, traitor, art accomplice in the crime." He then struck the table twice with his hand, and the room was instantly filled with armed men. " I arrest thee," continued be to Hastings, " for high treason ;" and at the same moment 142 THE HOUSE OF YORK. the soldiers hurried him to the court-yard of the Tower, where he was beheaded on a log of wood ; Gloucester cry- ing out, "Bv St. Paul, he would not dine till he saw his head off." Jane Shore, the late King's mistress, was the next victim. This unfortunate woman was an enemy too humble to excite his jealousy; but having accused her of witchcraft, of which all the world knew her to be innocent, he thought fit to make her an example for the faults of which she was really guilty. The charge of adultery was too notorious to be denied; she acknowledged her guilt, and was condemned to walk barefooted through the city, and do public penance at St. Paul's in a white sheet, with a wax taper in her hand. She lived about forty years after this sentence, and was reduced to the most extreme indigence ; a standing memo- rial of the punishment and disgrace which usually attend the commission of such enormities. The violence exercised against the nearest connexions of the late king, prognosticated the severest fate to his defence- less children ; as, after the murder of Hastings, the Protector no longer concealed his intention of aspiring to the crown. He first endeavoured to prove the illegitimacy of Edward's children. He next ordered the Mayor of London, whom he had gained to his interest, to call an assembly of the citizens ; but though the Duke of Buckingham, a man of great elo- quence, harangued them on Richard's title, and talked much of his virtues, no mark of approbation followed. A few only of the meanest of the people, and the servants of the Duke, raised a feeble cry of " God save King Richard." As this was interpreted by the Mayor into the voice of the nation, they repaired immediately "to Richard and offered him the crown, which with apparent reluctance he accepted. Cotemporary Sovereigns. POPKS. Sextus IV 1471 [Innocent VIII 1434 KMPKItOK OF GKHMA.W. Frederic III 1440 EMPEROR OF THE TL'HKS. Bajazet II 14SI KlVn OF FTliNCK. Paries VIII 1483 THE HOUSE OF YORK'. ]43 KIMi OF SPAIN. Isabella and Ferdinand 1474 KINO OF 1'onTUOA.E. John II 1481 KINO OF SCOTLAND. James III 1460 KING OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN. John 1481 Richard III., reigned 2 Years, 2 Months. 1483. — Richard was no sooner seated on the throne than, sending for the governor of the Tower, he ordered him to put the two young princes to death. But that brave man, Sir Robert Brackenbury, nobly refused to imbrue his hands in innocent blood ; a fit instrument was, however, soon found. Sir James Tyrrell readily undertook the office, and Bracken- bury was ordered to resign the keys for one night. By that wretch and his associates, the young princes were suffocated as they lay asleep, and their bodies buried under a heap of stones at the foot of the stairs. But while Richard thus endeavoured to secure his usurped power, he found it menaced in a quarter whence he least expected opposition. The Duke of Buckingham, who had been so instrumental in placing him on the throne, was become disgusted at the refusal of some confiscated lands which he had solicited. He therefore cast his eyes towards Henry, the young Earl of Richmond, who was descended from John of Gaunt. A match was agreed upon between Richmond and the eldest daughter of Edward IV. The Queen-dowager sent over to the Earl a sum of money, promising to join him, on his landing, with all the friends and partizans of her family. Matters being thus arranged, the Duke of Buckingham withdrew into Wales, to raise an army ; but at that very time the Severn became so swoln, that it was impassable. The Welch, affrighted at this unforeseen event, and in great want of provisions, separated immediately, notwithstanding all his solicitations. Buckingham, finding himself deserted, put on a disguise, and sought refuge with an old servant of his house, who basely betrayed him to Richard. He was taken to Salis- bury, and instantly beheaded. In the mean time, the Earl of Richmond had collected a small body of troops, with which he set sail from Harfleur, |44 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILI and landed at Milford Haven without opposition. The King, who was at Nottingham, hastened to meet him with 12,000 men, while Henry's army had not increased to half that number. The battle began at Bosworth near Leicester. Soon after the commencement of the attack, Lord Stanley, who had posted himself at Atherston, appeared in the field and joined the Earl of Richmond. This unexpected move- ment caused great consternation in Richard's army, and in- spired a proportional courage in that of Henry. The tyrant, sensible of his desperate situation, fought with unexampled fury to the last moment, till borne down by numbers, he met a death too honourable for his multiplied crimes and horrid cruelties. The crown which Richard wore during the battle wa.s brought to Henry, and placed on his head by Lord Stanley, who immediately saluted him king, amidst the repeated acclamations of the whole army. * Thus ended the contentions of the Plantagenets, and with them, the wars which had desolated England during thirty years. Cotemporary Princes. POPES. Innocent VIII 14841 Pius III 1503 Alexander VI 1492 I Julius II 1503 EMPERORS OF GERMANY. Frederic III i . . . . 1440 J Maximilian 1493 KINGS OF FRANCE. Charles VIII 1483 1 Louis XII 1498' KING OF SPAIN. Isabella and Ferdinand 1474 KING OF PORTUGAL. John II 1481 KING OF SCOTLANO. James III 1460 1 James IV 1487 J The Union of the Two Families in the House of Tudor. Henry VI L, reigned 23 Years, 8 Months. 1485. — Henry's title was immediately confirmed by the Parliament, and his prudent marriage with the Princess Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Edward IV., united the claims, of both families, and caused universal joy to the nation, which THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 145 now looked forward to peace and security. But Henry, with all his prudence and policy, could not overcome his antipathy to the adherents of the House of York. The joy which the people evinced, on his union with the Queen, arising from the prospect of a happy termination of the wars which had desolated the country, was interpreted, by his suspicious temper, into a predilection of the people for the House of York. This not only disturbed the public tranquillity during his reign, but was the cause of much uneasiness to his con- sort, and embittered all his domestic happiness. He confined in the Tower Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick, son of the late Duke of Clarence. This unhappy young prince had been formerly detained in a like confine- ment at Sheriff-Hutton, Yorkshire, by the jealousy of his uncle Richard. A comparison was now drawn between Henry and that tyrant, and as the Tower was the place where the children of Edward had been murdered, a similar fate was feared for Warwick. While compassion was thus excited for youth and innocence exposed to oppression, a report was spread that Warwick had made his escape. A general joy shewed itself on every countenance, and many seemed will- ing to join him. So favourable an opportunity was not neg- lected by the king's enemies. Richard Simon, a priest of Oxford, and a zealous partizan of the House of York, attempt- ed to take advantage of the popular rumours, by holding up an impostor to the nation. For this purpose he cast his eyes upon Lambert Simnel, a baker's son. This youth, who was endowed with an understanding beyond his years, and an address above his condition, was instructed to assume the name and character of the Earl of Warwick. He soon appeared so perfect in many particulars, that the Queen-dowager was supposed to be his chief instructress. As the imposture, however, could not bear too close an inspection, it was agreed to make the first attempt in Ireland, which was zealously attached to the House of York. No sooner was this intelli- gence conveyed to the king, than he ordered Warwick to be taken from the Tower, and led in procession through the streets of London. But this expedient proved effectual only in England, for Simnel was strongly supported in Ireland ; and being joined by Lord Lovel and the Earl of Lincoln, together with a body of German troops, furnished by Margaret of Burgundy, sister to Edward IV., he landed at Foudrey, in Lancashire, and advanced towards Coventry. Henry, well informed of all these movements, assembled his troops, under 13 146 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. the command of the Duke of Bedford. A bloody battle was fought near Stoke, in Nottinghamshire, in which the Earl of Lincoln lost his life. Lord Lovel disappeared after the battle, and was never heard of afterwards. Simnel, and his tutor Simon, were taken prisoners. Simon was committed to close confinement, and Simnel, being too contemptible to be a cause of further apprehension, was made a scullion in the king's kitchen, and subsequently advanced to the rank of falconer. The Duchess of Burgundy, not discouraged by the ill suc- cess of Simnel's enterprise, and full of resentment for the depression of her family, propagated a report that her nephew, Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, had escaped from the Tower when his brother was murdered, and still lay some- where concealed. She then got one Perkin Warbeck to per- sonate him. The resemblance he bore to Edward IV., and the sagacity of his genius, rendered him a proper subject for the purpose. Ireland, which still retained its attachment to the House of York, was again chosen as the proper theatre for Perkin's appearance ; he accordingly landed at Cork, and assuming the name of Richard Plantagenet, drew to him many parti- zans. The King of France, glad of any opportunity to de- press his rival, sent for him, and received him with all the marks of regard due to a'Royal House. Thence he went to the court of the Duchess of Burgundy, who after a pretended scrutiny into his claims, embraced him as her nephew, and on all occasions honoured him with the appellation of "the White Rose of England." The king, by means of his spies, soon discovered the whole plan of the confederacy, together with the pedigree of the pretended Duke of York, which he published for the satisfaction of the nation. Perkin, finding that the king's authority continued firmly fixed, and that his own pretensions were becoming obsolete, resolved to attempt something to revive the hopes of his party. He, accordingly, endeavoured to land in Kent : but was repulsed. Some time after, he repaired to Scotland, where King James, believing the story of his birth, gave him in marriage his own relation, Catharine Gordon, daughter of the Earl of Huntley, eminent for her virtue and beauty. As there subsisted at this time,; a considerable degree of jealousy between the courts of Eng- land and Scotland, James determined to support the claims of Perkin ; and, accordingly, entered England with a con- siderable force. Finding, however, that the pretensions of THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 147 Perkln were but little credited, and that a formidable army- was marching to oppose him, he withdrew into Scotland. Henry thought this a fit pretence to levy impositions on his own subjects. He summoned a parliament, which granted him a large subsidy ; but he found it more difficult to col- lect it from his subjects, who were well acquainted with the great treasures he had amassed ; and could, therefore, ill brook new impositions raised upon every slight occasion. The people of Cornwall, headed by one Michael Joseph, a farmer of Bodmin, and Thomas Flammoc, a lawyer, armed themselves with what weapons they could procure, and marched towards London, to deliver a petition, as they said, to the king, for redress. When they reached Wells, they were joined by Lord Audley, and, emboldened by the coun- tenace of so considerable a person, they marched to Eltham, near London. But not having met with any reinforcements on the road, they were very easily overcome by a body of forces sent against them under the command of Lord Oxford, and their leaders were executed. Perkin, after various unfortunate adventures, fell into the hands of the King, and was confined in the Tower; whence endeavouring to escape, with the real Earl of Warwick, they were dis- covered and executed. Perkin was hanged, and the Earl beheaded. In 1499, the King married his eldest son, Arthur, to Catha- rine of Spain. The young prince, however, died in the course of a few months, much regretted by the nation. Henry, desirous of continuing the alliance, and unwilling to restore Catharine's large dowry, caused his second son, Henry, to be contracted to her. Margaret, his eldest daugh- ter, was soon after sent with a magnificent train to Scotland, where she was married to James IV. In the latter part of the King's reign his economy degen- erated into avarice, and he oppressed the people in a very arbitrary manner. He had two ministers, Empson and Dudley, perfectly qualified to second his avaricious designs. They were both lawyers, and usually committed to prison, by indictment, the unfortunate objects of their extortion, seldom releasing them but on the payment of heavy fines. By degrees they omitted the very forms of law, and confis- cated, in a summary way, the properties of the people to the royal treasury. The decline of Henry's health, however, made him enter seriously into himself, and he endeavoured to make atonement for his rapacity by distributing alms an3 148 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. founding religious houses. He died of the gout in his stomach, at his favourite palace of Richmond, in the 52d year of his age. Cotemporary Sovereigns. Clement VII 1523 Paul III 1534 Julius II. 1503 Leo X 1513 Adrian VI 1521 EMPERORS OF GERMANY. Maximilian 1493 I Charles V 1519 EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. Bajazet II 1481 I Solomon II 1520 Selim 1512 I KINGS OF FRANCE. Louis XII 1498 1 Francis 1515 KINGS OF SPAIN. Isabella and Ferdinand . . . 1474 1 Charles V 1516 KINGS OF PORTUGAL. Emanuel 1495 1 John III 1512 KINGS OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN. John 1481 1 Christian II 1513 DENMARK ALONE. Frederic ........... 1524 f Christian III. ........ 1533 SWEEDEN ALONE. Gustavus Vasa 1522 KINGS OF SCOTLAND. James IV 1487 1 Mary 1542 James V. 15131 1509. — Henry VIII. , reigned 37 Years, 9 Months, 15 Days. The accession of Henry VIII., in the 18th year of his age, gave universal joy to the people. The beauty and vigour of his person, accompanied by dexterity in eveiy manly exercise, added to a knowledge of literature far be- yond his age, gave promising hopes of his becoming the idol of the people. As the contending titles of York and Lan- caster were now, at last, fully united in his person, men justly expected, from a prince obnoxious to no party, that peace and impartiality of administration which had long been unknown in England. To increase the hopes of the nation, jnany of the informers who had been the instruments of THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 149 extortion in his father's reign were thrown into prison ; others put in the pillory, where some, by the violence of the populace, lost their lives. Empson and Dudley, who were the most obnoxious to the popular hatred, were sent to the Tower, and soon after executed. But the young king, naturally lavish and fond of magnificent sports, soon dissipated his father's treasures : and this led him to seek for a minister who would enable him to gratify his extrava- gant disposition. He was not long in finding one to com- ply with all his inclinations, and flatter him in all the schemes to which his impetuous temper impelled him. This was Thomas Wolsey, Dean of Lincoln, and Almoner to the King. He was the son of an obscure person at Ipswich, but having received a learned education, and being endowed with an excellent capacity, he was employed by Henry in some secret negotiations, which he dispatched so much to the satisfaction of the King, that he rose high in his favour. Admitted into his parties of pleasure, he took the lead in every gaiety ; nor were his years, which were about forty, nor his character as a clergyman, any restraint upon his con- duct. He became daily more necessary to Henry, who ad- vanced him to be a member of the council, and, shortly after, sole and absolute minister. Encouraged by Wolsey, and impelled by his natural tem- per, Henry made the most expensive preparations, by sea and land, to invade France. Attended by an immense train of nobles, he set sail for Calais, whence he marched to lay siege to Teroiianne, on the frontier of Picardy, into which the French endeavoured to throw succours. As soon as he had received intelligence of the approach of the French cavalry, he sent some troops to oppose them ; when, not- withstanding they consisted chiefly of gentlemen who had behaved with great gallantry, they precipitately fled at the sight of the English. They were pursued, and many officers of distinction made prisoners, among whom was the famous Chevalier Bayard. From this hasty flight of the French, the action was called "the battle of spurs." After this ad- vantage, the intimidation among the enemy was so great, that Henry, who was at the head of 50,000 men, might have made incursions to the gates of Paris. Never was the French monarchy in greater danger, or less in a condition to defend itself against the powerful armies which assailed it on every side. But Lewis was extricated from his present difficulties by the blunders of his enemies ; and Henry, 13* 150 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. after taking Tournay, returned to England, much elated with a success, which, in reality, no ways compensated for the ruinous expense it had occasioned. During Henry's absence from his kingdom, the Scots, instigated by Lewis of France, had made an irruption into England. The Earl of Surry immediately marched to op- pose them, and meeting them at Flodden Field, gave them battle. The conflict proved most disastrous to the Scots ; ten thousand of their troops were slain, among which number were many nobles, and the king himself, whose body was recognised, after the battle, by Lord Dacre, and conveyed by him to Berwick, whence it was sent to London, and inter- red with suitable honours. A peace was shortly after con- eluded with the King of France, who married Mary, sister of Henry. Henry, upon the death of Maximilian, became a candidate for the German empire : but soon resigned his pretensions to the two great rivals, Francis I. of France, and Charles of Austria, king of Spain, who was elected in 1519. The conduct of Henry, in the long and bloody wars between those two potentates, was chiefly directed by Wolsey's views upon the Popedom, which he hoped to gain by Charles's interest; but finding himself twice deceived, he revenged himself by persuading his master to declare for Francis, who had been taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia. Henry, however, continued to be the dupe of both parties, and to- pay great part of their expenses, until, the treasures which his father had amassed being exhausted, he was obliged to impose heavy fines upon his subjects. Henry had now been married nearly eighteen years to Catharine of Arragon, when an event happened, that in its consequences proved most disastrous to the kingdom. This was his unlawful passion for Anna Boleyn, a lady of great beauty, but of a very irregular and loose character. Finding, after various attempts, that he could not satisfy his inordinate desires without espousing her, he determined to divorce the Queen. To effect this, he pretended to be very uneasy ii his conscience concerning the legitimacy of his marriage with Catharine, and his scruples were encouraged by Wol- sey, who took this method to revenge himself on the Empe- ror Charles, whose maternal aunt she was. Henry, there- fore, applied to the Court of Rome for the repeal of the bull of Pope Julius, by which he had been allowed to marry Catharine. The Pope, unwilling to exasperate Henry, yet Gfeterniuied not to consent to so unjust an act, permitted the THE USMQSi OF THE TWO FAMILIES 151 cause to be tried m England by a legating court, where Car- dinals Wolsey and Campcggio, both subjects of his Majesty,. were to sit as judges ; his Holiness, at the same time, con- senting to give a bull of divorce conditionally, should the sentence be given in court. The Queen, however, as was foreseen by the Court of Rome, refused to acknowledge their jurisdiction, and appealed to the Pope. Upon this the two Cardinals received orders to put an end to the sessions in England, and adjourn them to the consistorial court of Rome. Wolsey w r as now in as great a dilemma as his master. On the one hand, he wished to please the King ; on the other, he feared to disoblige the Pope, whose legate he was, and who, moreover, could punish him for his disobedience. He resolved, therefore, to remain neuter ; but this temporising scheme highly irritated the King, although he stifled his resentment until he could act with more fa tal certainty. For this end, he sought out a man of equal abilities and greater boldness. Nor was it long before accident threw in his way Thomas Cranmer, a doctor of divinity. He had been fellow of Jesus' College, and had kept his preferment, till his mar- riage with an innkeeper's daughter was discovered, when he was obliged to part with it. Having thrown out some hints relative to the King's divorce, he was admitted chaplain into the family of Sir Thomas Boleyn, and by him introduced ta the King, who immediately employed him abroad in forward- ing the divorce. Tn the mean time Wolsey, at the instigation of Anne Boleyn and her friends, who mortally hated him, had been deprived of all his places and emoluments, and at last was arrested on a charge of high treason. Broken down by his disgraces, he was obliged to travel slowly, and at length, finding his strength rapidly decline, he reached the monas- tery at Leicester, w T here, as he entered the gate, he said to the abbot, " Father, I am come to lay my bones among you." He was immediately conveyed to bed, and on the second day, seeing the lieutenant of the Tower, who had come to conduct him, he said, "Master Kyngston, had I but served God as diligently as I have served my king, he would not have given me up in my grey hairs. But this is my just reward for all my pains and study, not regarding my service to God, but only my duty to the prince." He expired the next morning, in the 60th year of his age. The death of William Wareham made room for Cranmer, who was immediately promoted to the see of Canterbury, 15-2 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. notwithstanding he had, after the death of his first wife, mar- ried another privately, whilst he was in Germany. Soon after his elevation the King, who had already got himself declared head of the English church, appointed Cranmer to call an assembly, where Cranmer sat as judge, and pronounced the sentence of divorce. Henry had caused the marriage ceremony to be privately performed between himself and Anne Boleyn, some months before ; Cranmer now ratified it, and it was afterwards confirmed by Act of Parliament in 1534. The King's passion, however, for Anne Boleyn was soon palled by satiety. He now became enamoured of Jane Sey- mour, who had for some time been maid of honour to the Queen. Ann Boleyn was, therefore, to be disposed of. She was accordingly accused of adultery, tried, and behead- ed. The very next day Henry married Jane Seymour ; his cruel heart being no ways softened by the wretched fate of one who had so lately been the object of his warmest affection. He, moreover, ordered his parliament to pro- nounce a divorce between the time of her sentence and execution ; thus endeavouring to illegitimise Elizabeth, whom he had by her; as he had formerly done by Mary, his only child by Queen Catharine. Jane Seymour died in childbed of Edward, who afterwards succeeded to the throne ; when Henry, to connect himself with the Lutheran Princes of Germany, and by that means to mortify the Pope and the Emperor, contracted a marriage with Ann of Cleves. His aversion from her, however, increased from the first day of their marriage ; till at length he resolved to get rid of her, and his prime minister, Cromwell, who had been the chief contriver of the marriage. He had, moreover, become ena- moured of Catherine Howard, niece to the Duke of Nor- folk, and to gratify his new passion, he once more discarded his present queen to make room for a new one. As for Cromwell, he was tried and condemned for heresy and high treason, and was beheaded, deeply regretting his past mis- conduct, and declaring, that though he had been often led astray, he died in the catholic apostolic faith. Henry was now so captivated with his new queen, that he ordered pub- lic thanks for the happy event. But his joy was of short duration : he soon received information of her incontinence, and she was tried and condemned by the same servile Par- liament, with an additional petition to the King, that the punishment of death should be inflicted not only on the THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 153 Queen, but also on her grandmother the Duchess-dowager of Norfolk, together with her father, mother, the Lady Roch- ford, and nine others. The petition the King was graciously pleased to grant, and the Queen and Lady Rochford suffered death soon alter. To forward his plans against the see of Rome, and detach the Scots from their alliance with France, Henry proposed to James, his nephew, the king of Scotland, to meet him at York ; but the Queen and his friends, alarmed at the conse- quences which might result from such an interview, prevail- ed on James to decline it. Enraged at this neglect, Henry vowed revenge, and sent the Duke of Norfolk with an army to ravage his territories ; but, on observing that James had a superior force, the Duke withdrew, and the Scottish army refused to follow them. Shortly after, Maxwell, the Scots general, w r as ordered to invade Cumberland : but James gave private orders that upon the army's entering England, the supreme command should devolve on his favourite, Oliver Sinclair, which so disgusted the troops that they fled without striking a blow. This disgrace so affected James, that he was seized with a fever which caused his death. He left a daughter, the celebrated Mary Queen of Scots. Upon the news of this success, Henry projected the union of Scotland with England, by the marriage of his son Edward to the heiress of that kingdom. But in the mean time, jealous of the connexion between Scotland and France, he entered into a league with the emperor. The campaign which followed was not productive of any affair of importance. About a year after the death of his late queen, Henry once more changed his condition by marrying his sixth and last wife, Catharine Parr, widow of the late Lord Latimer. She had the good fortune to survive him, although she nar- rowly escaped, as she was suspected, by the King, of favour- ing the doctrines of Luther. Henry's cruelty increased with his years, and he exercised it promiscuously on Protestant and Catholic : on the former, for adhering to the new doctrine ; on the latter, for acknow- ledging the Pope's supremacy. He put to death the brave Earl of Surry; and his father, the Duke of Norfolk, must have suffered the same fate had not the King's death timely intervened. His health had long been in a declining state; but, though for several days all near him plainly saw his end approaching, he had become so violent that no one durst 154 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. declare it to him ; till at last Sir Anthony Denny under- took the ungrateful task. The King received the intelligence with more composure than was expected, and gave orders that Cranmer should be sent for ; but when he arrived the King was speechless. Cranmer asked him to give some sign of his belief in Jesus Christ : when the King gently shook his hand, and expired shortly after, in the 56th year of his age. Thus died the wretched Henry, without the consolations of that religion he had so greatly outraged. A few weeks before his death he made his will, by which he left his crown, first to prince Edward, then to the Lady Mary, and lastly to the Lady Elizabeth. Cotemporary Princes. POPES. Paul III 1534! Julius III 1550 EMPEROR OF GERMANT AND KING OF SPAIN. Charles V 1519 EMPEROR OF THE TURKS. Solomon II 1520 KINGS OF FRANCE. Francis 1515 j Henry II 1547 KING OF PORTUGAL. John III 1521 KING OF DENMARK. Christian II 1534 KING OF SWEDEN. Gustavas Vasa 1522 aUEEN OF SCOTLAND. Mary 1542 Edward VI. , reigned 6 Years, 5 Months, 9 Days. 1547. — Edward VI. was only in the ninth year of his age when he succeeded to the throne. The late king had appointed sixteen executors of his will, to whom, during the minority of his son, which he had fixed till the age of eigh- teen, he entrusted the care of the minor and the government of the realm. Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, the young king's maternal uncle, now created Duke of Somerset, and a great promoter of the Reformation, by his influence and that of his party was appointed Protector, and for some time THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 155 governed the kingdom with uncontrolled authority ; but his rapacity, tyranny, and cruel disposition soon brought on his downfal. He was arrested by the Duke of Norfolk, his mortal enemy, and, together with his wife and some others of his party, thrown into prison. The heads of his accusa- tion were, that he had endeavoured to excite a rebellion in London, to raise an insurrection in the North, to secure the Tower, and to attack the train bands on a muster day. The charges he firmly denied, but confessed that he had intended to murder Northumberland, Northampton, and Pembroke, at a banquet. He was soon after tried, found guilty, and beheaded on Tower-hill. Northumberland, who had long aimed at the chief authority, having thus got rid of his rival, saw still more alluring prospects for his ambition. He represented to Edward, that Mary and Elizabeth had been declared illegitimate by the Parliament ; that the Queen of Scots was excluded by the king's will, and that the succes- sion, therefore, devolved to the Lady Jane Grey. The King, entirely governed by this designing minister, agreed to have the succession submitted to council, and as Northumberland had a complete control over its members, their concurrence was easily obtained. The young King's health now visibly declined, and the artful minister, to strengthen his interest, procured for the Marquess of Dorset, father to Lady Jane, the title of Duke of Suffolk, and then proposed a marriage between his fourth son. Lord Guildford Dudley, and the Lady Jane. Edward, languish- ing under the fatal symptoms of his disorder, consented to all the suggestions of Dudley, and a new entail of the crown was made under Edward's own hand in favour of the Lady Jane. The judges were then summoned, and Edward informed them, that on account of the dangers to which the religion of the country would be exposed by the succession of the Princess Mary, he had resolved to alter the succession. The judges represented that the succession had been enacted by an act of Parliament, and could only be altered in the same manner. They, however, at last had the weakness to yield ; the fear of being obliged, by the Princess Mary, to restore the goods of the church,, and the threats and promises of Dudley, prevailed, and they signed the deed. Among them was Cranmer, the Archbishop. From the moment the Dudleys had been about the person of the young king, his health had been observed to decline, and now he was put under the hands of an ignorant woman, 156 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. who very confidently undertook his cure. After the use of her medicines, all the bad symptoms increased in a violent degree, and prognosticated his approaching dissolution, which took place in the sixteenth year of his age, 1553. Cotemporary Sovereigns. POPES. Julius III 1550 I Paul IV . 1655 Marcellus II 1555 1 EMPEROR OF GERMANY. Charles V 1519 EMPEROR OF THE TURKS. Soliman II 1520 KING OF FRANCE. Henry II 1547 KINGS OF SPAIN. Philip II 1555 1 Ferdinand 1558 KING OF PORTUGAL. John III 1521 KING OF DENMARK. Frederic II 1559 KINGS OF SWEDEN. Gustavus Vasa 1552 1 Eric X 1556 aUEEN OF SCOTLAND. Mary 1542 Mary, reigned 5 Years, 4 Months, 11 Days. 1553. — Mary was near London when she heard of the death of her brother, and of Dudley's attempts to set the crown on the head of his daughter-in-law. Aware of her danger, she retired to Norfolk, where she found a number of persons ready to support her claim. Many noblemen soon joining her party, she was proclaimed at Norwich. Northumberland lost no time : assembling a body of troops, he marched towards Cambridge; but no sooner had he quitted London, than the people with one accord declared for Mary, and summoned the Duke of Suffolk to surrender the Tower, of which he had taken possession, and the Lady Jane to abdicate the royal dignity. The news of this rising of the people was no sooner conveyed to Northumberland's THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 157 army, than the greater part deserted him ; and in this des* perate state of his affairs he was constrained to cry out like the rest, " Long live Queen Mary." The Queen proceeded immediately to London, which she entered amidst the accla- mations of the people, and was peaceably settled upon the throne. Northumberland, in the mean time, attempted to quit the kingdom : but was prevented by the band of pen- sioner guards, who detained him, in order to justify their own conduct in bearing arms against their sovereign. Thus baffled on all sides, he was sent to prison, tried, and shortly after suffered the punishment due to his ambition. Sentence at the same time was passed against Lady Jane Grey and her husband, but without any intention on the part of Mary of carrying it into execution. The Duke, when brought to the scaffold, professed himself a Roman Catholic, expressed his contrition for having sacrificed his religion and conscience to his ambition, and declared to the multitude present, that they never would enjoy peace and tranquillity till the) 7 ' had returned to the religion of their forefathers. The Queen's ministers soon saw the necessity of strength- ening their power for the re-establishment of the ancient religion, and for this purpose sought for a proper consort for their mistress. They at length fixed upon Philip of Spain, son to the celebrated Charles V., judging that a powerful alliance with the Catholic princes would put a stop to any effectual attempt in favour of the Reformation. The Reform- ers, on their side, were far from being idle. They formed secret cabals in different parts of the kingdom, and spread various alarms among the people to prepossess them against the match. They represented it as a deep design to bring the nation under the dominion of a foreign power ; and it was observed, that those who had been lately pardoned for abetting Lady Jane, were the most active in exciting the people. Their first plan was to await the moment of King Philip's landing for a signal of insurrection, but the violence of their zeal admitted of no delay. Sir Thomas Wyatt, and many of the Kentish gentlemen flew to arms ; and about the same time Sir Peter Carew appeared at the head of a party in Devonshire ; whilst Sir James Croft, a person of great influence in Wales, was dispatched to excite revolt in those parts. The Duke of Suffolk, father of Lady Jane, although he had lately been pardoned for his treasonable attempts to alter the succession, took the field with his two brothers and other persons of distinction. The rebels were, 14 158 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. however, with the exception of Sir Thomas Wyatt, dispersed in a few days, by the vigilance of the Lord Lieutenant. Sir Thomas marched to Rochester, where a body of men, com- manded by the Duke of Norfolk, were sent to attack him ; but a regiment going over to the rebels, the Duke retired towards London. The rebels immediately proceeded towards the capital, but were stopped at London Bridge. They remained two days at Southwark ; but when the Lieutenant of the Tower threatened to fire the Borough about their ears, they withdrew to Kingston, and thence, crossing the bridge which they had previously repaired, they advanced to Brentford ; but upon the publication of a general amnesty, most of the rebels, with the exception of Sir Thomas Wyatt and four or five of the other principals, returned to their homes. Sir Thomas, with the remainder, proceeded towards London, where he was met by some of the Queen's troops, and, after a slight skirmish, surrendered himself and was executed, having some time before his death implicated the Princess Elizabeth in the conspiracy. In this rebellion about a hundred lost their lives ; the rest were all pardoned. The persons most pitied were Lady Jane and her husband, who had been for some time under sentence of death. After this second attempt, it was thought necessary to cut off entirely the hopes of the reforming party, and they were accordingly beheaded, as were also the Duke of Suffolk and Lord Thomas Grey. As all was now quiet, Philip came over and was married to the Queen at Winchester, Bishop Gardiner performing the ceremony. In the marriage contract particular anxiety was shewn by her ministry to preserve entire the liberty, privileges, and customs of the nation. In the last year of the Queen's reign a war broke out between France and Spain, which involved England in the quarrel. As Philip was called to the scene of action, he prevailed upon Mary to permit some choice regiments of English to accompany him, who behaved with great bravery, and greatly contributed to the victory of St. Quintin's. Informed of an attempt to be made by the French to sur- prise Calais, Philip sent timely notice to the Queen and her ministry, offering at the same time to reinforce the garrison by a detachment of his own army. But as the measure was either refused or neglected, Calais, which had cost Edward III. eleven months to capture, was given up to the Duke of Guise, after six days' siege. Thus was Calais lost, after THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 159 having been in the possession of the English nearly 300 years. This loss, undoubtedly the effect of treachery, filled the whole nation with discontent, and the Queen with the deepest anguish. She was heard to say, that, when dead, the name of Calais would be found engraven on her heart. This complication of evils, a discontented people, an increas- ing heresy, a disdainful husband, and an unsuccessful war, made dreadful inroads on her constitution; she became consumptive, and as she was improperly treated by her phy- sicians, her disorder increased. She died of a slow fever, on the 17th of November 1558, in the 43d year of her age. Though the memory of Mary has been loaded with calumny and abuse by the ignorant or prejudiced, she has n#t wanted even Protestant writers to do justice to her cha- racter. C©llier says: " It may be affirmed, without contra- diction or panegyric, that the Queen's private life was all a!*ng strict and unblemished. Religion was uppermost with her, and she valued her conscience above her crown." That she was not of a vindictive, implacable spirit, may be infer- red from her pardoning most of the great men in Northum- berland's rebellion. "A princess never to be sufficiently commended of all men for her pious demeanour, and her commiseration towards the poor," says Camden. Echard says : " She was a woman of a strict and severe life, who allowed herself few of those diversions belonging to courts ; was constant at her devotions," &c. ; and Culler says, " she hated to equivocate in her own religion, and always was, what she was; without dissembling her judgment or prac- tice, for fear or flattery." In a word, all was done openly, and by the advice and direction of the legislative power, without any undue interference. She gave no ambiguous answers, when questioned about her religion before she ascended the throne ; never fomented nor encouraged rebel- lion*, did not amuse the neighbouring princes with sham treaties of marriage ; never assisted rebels abroad to rise against their lawful sovereigns ; entertained no favourites at court, to the prejudice of her reputation; did not keep the dignities of the church in her hands for her own conveni- ence, nor invade the revenues of its clergy, by diminishing their sees, or exchanging their manors for others of inferior value. That she possessed great fortitude is evident, from the many attempts that were made to shake her constancy in her faith, both in her father's life and that of her brother. To her father, as far as her conscience permitted, she was 160 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. ever dutiful and respectful ; to "Edward she represented, that he had neither years, experience, nor as yet authority, to alter the religion of his ancestors. To the bishops and clergy, who were sent to her, she answered, that a year or two before they were of a different opinion as to religion, and she did not know what new lights they had received since, or by what authority they preached their innovations. In a word, with the exception of punishing some few on religious grounds, according to former statutes, who might have been convicted for conspiring against her crown, she was a prin- cess every way worthy of the eminent dignity to which, after many trials and hardships, Providence was pleased to raise her. Cotemporary Sovereigns. Urban VII 1590 Gregory XIV 1590 Innocent IX. . 1591 Clement VIII 1592 Paul IV 1555 Pius IV 1559 Pius V 1565 Gregory XIII 1572 Sixtus V 1585 EMPEROIIS OF GERMANY. Ferdinand 1558|Rodolphus II 1576 Maximilian II 1564 | EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. Soliman II 1520 I Amurath III 1574 Selimll 1566 I Mahomet III 1595 KINGS OF FRANCE. Henry II 1547 I Henry III 1574 Francis II 1559 j Henry IV 1589 Charles IX 1560 I KINGS OF SPAIN. Philip II 1555 1 Philip III 1591 KINGS OF PORTUGAL. John 1521 1 Sebastian 1557 KINGS OF DENMARK. Frederic II 1559 1 Christian IV 1568 KINGS OF SWEDEN. Eric X 1556 1 Sigismund 1592 John III 1569 1 KING AND Q.UEEN OF SCOTLAND. Mary 1542 'James VI 1567 (Scotland united to England.] THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 161 Elizabeth, reigned 44 Years, 4 Months, 7 Days. 1558. — Upon the death of Mary, Elizabeth, who was at Hatfield, hastened immediately to London, where she was received with great demonstrations of joy. Her first care was to assemble parliament, which shewed itself entirely devoted to her will, and unanimously sanctioned her title to the throne. But Elizabeth was not without her fears : and the first and principal person that excited them was Mary, Queen of Scots. At a very early age that princess, pos-. sessed of every accomplishment of person and mind, had been married to the Dauphin of France, who dying, left her a widow at the age of nineteen. Finding herself exposed to the persecution of the Queen-dowager, who then began to take the lead in France, she returned home to Scot- land, where she found the people strongly agitated by the fanatics of the reformed doctrine. To strengthen herself,, and secure the right of succession in her family, she mar- ried Lord Darnley, who after her was the next in succession. On the 19th of June 1566, she had a son, who was James VI. of Scotland, and subsequently succeeded to the English crown by the title of James I. He was baptized in the Catholic church, Charles of France and Philibert of Savoy being his godfathers, and Elizabeth his godmother. But the Scottish nobility, who encouraged the reformation, were in the mean time secretly contriving her ruin, assisted by the. machinations of the Earl of Murray. The first project was, to cause a misunderstanding between Mary and her husband, by insinuating that she was too familiar with David Rizzio, her secretary. Taking his opportunity, he proceeded with some of his party to the Queen's apartment, where Rizzio then was, and dragging him into the antichamber, they dis- patched him with fifty-six wounds, while the unhappy prin- cess continued her lamentations during the perpetration of their horrid crime. This was a prelude to the tragedy that followed. Her husband, Lord Darnley, was strangled in his bed, his body thrown out of the window, and the apartment set on fire. People were left to guess at the authors of this barbarous murder; those who were acquainted with the inclinations of the persons about the court, conceived it to be, as it really was, a contrivance of Murray, Morton, and their party, to bring the queen under suspicion, and get the voung king and the reins of government into their owa w 162 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. hands. The queen, left alone among her enemies, was easily persuaded to marry some person who might assist her against their violence. She made choice of the Earl of Buchan, a nobleman in great favour with the nation for his prowess and valour, though in reality one of the murderers of Darnley. As reports to that effect were circulated, she insisted he should first clear himself from that imputation by a legal trial, and, moreover, be discharged from the obliga- tion of his former marriage. It was, therefore, contrived by his party, to call him to the bar; and as Morton was his advocate, and Lenox his accuser dared not appear, he was fully acquitted, and immediately married the queen : a cir- cumstance that served to increase the suspicion that she was privy to the murder of her former husband. The plan suc- ceeding according to their wishes, Murray withdrew to France, and the confederates took up arms, giving Bothwell secret notice to take care of himself, in order to prevent the discovery of the plot, if once he were taken ; and also to avail themselves of his flight, for the purpose of charging the queen with the murder of her husband. They immedi- ately seized the queen, and imprisoned her in Lochlevin Castle. From this confinement, however, she made her escape, and in a few days was joined by more than 6,000 men. With these a battle was fought against the rebels, commanded by Murray, who had returned from Fiance, and been made regent. The victory declared for Murray, and the queen fled towards the coast, where she embarked, and landed at Workington, in Cumberland, hoping to obtain pro- tection from Elizabeth. In this she was unfortunately dis- appointed. She was ordered to Tutbury Castle, in Stafford- shire, and put under the custody of the Earl of Shrewsbury. Soon after, the Duke of Norfolk, a nobleman distinguished for his generosity, affability, and beneficence, fell a sacrifice to the jealousy of Elizabeth, and the intrigues of the Earl of Leicester, his mortal enemy. That crafty courtier had instigated him to make an offer of his hand to the Queen of Scots, and promised at the same time to manage the affair with Elizabeth, a condition which Mary affixed to her consent. Instead of performing his promise, he took particular care to keep Elizabeth ignorant of the business, till being informed of it by other hands, she was so provoked at the duke's pro- ceedings, that he was sent to the Tower, and being again accused of renewing the treaty of marriage, and of other pretended misdemeanors, he was impeached and beheaded. THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 163 Mary was now more strictly confined than ever. The tyrannical manner in which she was treated, inspired many with pity for her sufferings, and among others a Mr. Babing- ton, with about fourteen of his youthful companions, entered into a combination to deliver her. The attempt failed, and Babington and his associates were executed. At their trials it appeared, that although the Queen of Scots had held some correspondence with Babington, it was only relative to her escape from prison. Her enemies, however, did not fail to allege treasonable attempts against Elizabeth, and the desire of Mary to liberate herself from an unjust imprison- ment, was construed into an encouragement of traitors. After various preparatory contrivances, she was at length brought to trial. At first she protested against the compe- tency of her judges, but afterwards consented to a hearing of her cause. She demanded to be put in possession of such notes as she had taken preparative to her trial. Her demand was refused, as was also her request for a copy of her pro- test. Even her wish to have an advocate to plead her cause against so many learned lawyers who had undertaken to urge the accusations was rejected, and after an adjournment of some days, sentence of death was pronounced against her. No sooner was this result made public, than severe reflections were thrown out by the people against the con- duct of the commissioners, and the injustice of the sentence. Much art was, therefore, used by Elizabeth, to make it appear how reluctant she was to confirm the sentence : but the Commons, who were entirely under the control of her ministers, in their address insisted upon the execution of the sentence, as the only way to secure her crown and the cause of the reformation. The fatal time now drew near. Elizabeth gave orders in writing to her secretary, Davison, to expedite the mandate for the execution, and then after some days sent him an order to defer it ; but it was too late, it had already passed the great seal. By some, this conduct was attributed to remorse ; but Davison, in the apology he afterwards wrote, clearly proves that the queen willingly and without any reluctance gave the order, and at the same time jocosely bade him go and acquaint Walsingham, who lay sick, that she was afraid he would die of grief at the news. He, more- over, asserts that she knew full well that it was too late to stop the execution when she sent to him : that three days after she had given him the order, she expressly told him 164 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. she had not altered her mind, but wished the thing had been done some other way, and that her chief concern seemed to be to save her honour. In fine, he declares that on the very day of the execution he spoke with the queen, who severely checked him because the thing was not done. No sooner was the sentence known abroad, than much interest was made to have it reversed. The king of France sent over an ambassador in behalf of Mary: but he was plainly told, there could be no security for Elizabeth while she lived. King James dispatched Sir Robert Melville to peti- tion for his mother's life : but even his request of a respite for eight days was denied, and Elizabeth replied, " not an hour." When the sentence was delivered to Mary, and she was told, that as long as she lived, the religion adopted in England could not be secure, she gave God thanks, and seemed exceedingly rejoiced. That this was really the cause of her death, she herself observed at the time of her execution. " They say," said she, V that I must die, because I have plotted against the Queen's life ; yet, the Earl of Kent tells me, there is no other cause of my death, but that they are afraid of their religion, because of me." The order for her execution being now made out, and delivered to the Earls of Shrewsbury, Derby, and Kent, they immediately repaired to Fotheringhay Castle, where Mary was confined, and ordered her to prepare for death the next morning. She received the news with a composed and undaunted demeanour, and desired that her confessor might be sent to her. This request was cruelly denied, and the Bishop and Dean of Peterborough were recommended to her. Upon her refusal to receive them, the Earl of Kent in a rage exclaimed, "your life will be the death of our reli- gion, and your death will be its life." The fatal moment arrived : she dressed herself in a rich habit of silk and vel- vet, the only one she had reseryed for this solemn occasion. At eight o'clock the sheriff entered her room, and informed her that all was ready. "I am so likewise," she replied, and immediately, with a composed and cheerful counte- nance, a veil over her head, her beads at her girdle, and a crucifix in her hand, she left her chamber, and proceeded to the hall, in which a scaffold was erected. The Dean of Peterborough then began an exhortation: but she begged him to forbear, as she was firmly resolved to die in the Holy Catholic Faith. The room was crowded with spectators, who all beheld her with pity and admiration, while her THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 165 beauty, though dimmed by age and affliction, gleamed through her sufferings, and was still remarkable at this fatal moment. When she began to disrobe herself, the execu- tioners offered their help: but she put them back, saying she was not accustomed to be served by such grooms. While her women with melting eyes were performing that office, she affectionately kissed them, signing them with the cross, and with a pleasant countenance bade them forbear their womanish lamentations, for now she should rest from her sorrows. The two executioners then kneeling, asked her pardon ; she said she forgave them, and all the authors of her death, as freely as she hoped for forgiveness from God, and once more made a solemn protestation of her innocence. Her eyes were then covered, and she laid her head on the block without fear or trepidation, and recited the Psalm, "In thee, Lord, have I put my trust." Then stretching forth her body, she repeated several times, " In manus tuos, #()0 THE COMMONWEALTH. Charles to maintain his army : but observing that his way was open to England, he immediately directed his march thither, hoping to be joined by the Royalists. In this, how- ever, he was disappointed ; terrified at the approach of Cromwell, they dreaded to shew themselves. Scarcely was the news arrived of Cromwell's march than he was himself with his army before Worcester, then occupied by the King's troops. He immediately fell upon the city on all sides : the whole army of the Scots were either killed or taken pri- soners ; and the King himself, after giving many proofs of valour, was obliged to seek his safety in flight. Charles now entered upon a scene of the most romantic adventures. Attended by a few friends, among whom was Colonel GifFord, a Catholic gentleman, well acquainted both with the roads and Catholic families, and favoured by the darkness of the night, he arrived at White Ladies the next morning. Here, cutting off his hair, colouring his face with walnut leaves, and dressed like a peasant, he committed himself to the fidelity of the Pendrels, three Catholics, poor men, and brothers, who with their family and other Catho- lics, to the amount of fifty-two, were greatly instrumental in concealing him and favouring his escape, notwithstanding the danger they incurred and the price set upon his head. After various attempts, and almost miraculous escapes from his pursuers, and having passed a whole day in an oak-tree, whence he saw the soldiers in pursuit of him, he reached Shoreham in Sussex, embarked, and arrived in safety in Normandy. Cromwell, in the mean time, returned in tri- umph, and his first care was to punish the Scots, who had, as he said, "withstood the work of the Gospel." An act was made for abolishing royalty in that kingdom, and annex- ing it to the commonwealth as a conquered countiy. In this manner the English Parliament, by the exertions of Cromwell, spread their undisputed authority over the whole British empire. Ireland was totally subdued by Ire- ton and Ludlow. The settlements in America were obliged to submit ; and Jersey, Guernsey, Scilly, and Man, were easily brought under subjection. And thus, under a Parlia- ment of sixty or seventy obscure persons, mankind beheld a great empire governed with vigour and success. The Parliament next resolved to chastise the Dutch, who had indeed given but slight cause of complaint. Their chief dependence lay in the active valour of their admiral, Blake, •who* although he had not embarked in the naval command THE COMMONWEALTH. 201 till late in life, surpassed all that had gone before him. Many- dreadful engagements ensued between him and Van Tromp, the greatest admiral the Dutch ever possessed. These actions were far from decisive : but the Dutch, finding themselves crippled, their fisheries suspended, and their trade ruined, sued for peace ; to which, however, the Parliament gave but an unfavourable ear, rightly judging that while the force of the nation was exerted at sea it would diminish the power of Cromwell by land, which now was become very formida- ble to them. This aspiring man soon perceived their designs ; but, secure in the attachment of the army, he resolved to seize the sovereign power. For this purpose, he persuaded the officers to petition for payment of arrears and redress of grievances. The House was highly exasperated, and pre- pared an act, ordaining that all persons who presented such petitions in future should be deemed guilty of high treason* To this the army remonstrated ; the Parliament replied, and the breach grew wider every moment. This Cromwell had foreseen. Upon being informed how matters were pro- ceeding, he rose up in a seeming fury, crying out, that he was compelled to do a thing that made his hair stand on end. Hastening to the house with 300 soldiers, he entered, and stamping his foot, in an instant the chamber was filled with armed men. Then addressing himself to the members : "For shame," said he; "get you gone, give place to honester men. You are no longer a Parliament. I tell you, you are no longer a Parliament. The Lord has done with you." On Sir Harry Vane's exclaiming against this con- duct, "Sir Hany," cried Cromwell with a loud voice, "0 Sir Harry Vane, the Lord deliver me from Sir Harry Vane !" Then taking one by the cloak, " Thou art an adulterer ;" to another, " Thou art a drunkard ;" to another, " Thou art a glutton." " You," continued he, " have forced me to this. 1 have besought the Lord night and day, that he would slay me, rather than put me upon this work." Then pointing to the mace, he cried, " Take away that bauble." After which, turning out all the members, he ordered the doors to be locked, and putting the key in his pocket, returned to Whitehall." The persons he chose for the next Parliament were the very lowest, and the most ignorant and fanatic of the rabble, well assured that such characters could not hold the reins of government. Their very names, borrowed from Scripture, 202 THE COMMONWEALTH. served to shew the excess of their folly. One of them called himself " Praise-God Barebones;" and from this ludi- crous circumstance, their odd assembly was named "Bare- bones' Parliament." At last they themselves appeared sensible of the ridicule thrown out against them. Some of them, by agreement with Cromwell, meeting earlier than the rest, declared that this Parliament had sat long enough, and accordingly resigned the power into his hands. Some of the members, however, proving refractory, Cromwell sent Colonel White to clear the house. They had placed one Mayer in the chair, who being asked by the colonel what they did there, was answered by Mayer very gravely, that they were seeking the Lord! "Then you must go elsewhere," cried White, "for to my certain knowledge the Lord has not been here these many years." This shadow of a Parliament being now dissolved, the officers chose Cromwell Protector of the Commonwealth, and his power was proclaimed in all parts of the kingdom ; and, without the name of King, he governed as absolutely as the most despotic prince in Europe. As he was feared at home, so he made himself respected abroad. The Dutch were humbled, after repeated defeats, and obliged to pay deference to the British flag. They were compelled to abandon Charles, to pay .£85,000 as an indemnification, and restore to the English East-India Company a part of those dominions of which they had been dispossessed in a former reign. The ministry of France paid the utmost deference to the Protector; and the Spaniards w^ere no less assiduous to gain his friendship, though they did not prove equally successful. Cromwell, who understood little of foreign poli- tics, regarded Spain with an eye of jealousy, and therefore lent the French court a body of 6,000 men, to attack the Spanish dominions in the Netherlands. By their assistance the French gained a signal victory ; and, as a reward for the service, Dunkirk, which had just surrendered, was put into Cromwell's hands. But it was at sea the Spaniards were the most effectually humbled. Blake, whose fame had spread through Europe, became a dreadful scourge to the Spaniards. He sailed into the Mediterranean, whither no 'English fleet since the Crusades had attempted to advance, and there conquered all that opposed him. He then ben*: his course to Africa, and compelled the Dey of Algiers to make peace, and restrain his piratical subjects from commit- THE COMMONWEALTH. 203 ting any further depredations on the English flag. He next went to Tunis, and made the same demand : but the Dey desired him to look at his two castles, and then do his utmost. Blake immediately forced his way into the harbour, burnt all the shipping, and sailed out triumphantly towards Cadiz, where he took two galleons, valued at nearly 2,000,000 pieces of eight. At the Canaries he burned a Spanish fleet of sixteen ships, and returning to England, died within sight of his native shore. But with all this tide of success, and all this despotic power, the situation of the usurper was truly miserable. He had rendered himself at last hateful to every party, and only owed his safety to their mutual distrust of each other. To increase his wretchedness, his own family detested his usur- pation ; his favourite daughter, on her death-bed, upbraided him with his hypocrisy and crimes. Conspiracies were formed against him ; and, to add to his calamities, a pam- phlet, entitled " Killing no Murder," was published : the most eloquent and masterly of any that came forth. " Shall we," says this popular declaimer, " who would not suffer the lion to invade us, tamely stand to be devoured by the wolf?" It is said, that after Cromwell had read this treatise, he was never seen to laugh, and was haunted with perpetual fears of assassination. He wore armour under his clothes, was attended by a numerous guard, and never slept above three nights together in the same chamber. At last a tertian ague put an end to a life of anxiety and horror, after an usurpa- tion of nine years, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. He was succeeded in his office of Protector by his son Richard, who immediately assembled a parliament : but the officers surrounding his house, forced him to dissolve it. Soon after he signed his abdication, and lived in tranquillity upon his private fortune. His younger brother Henry, who had the command in Ireland, where he governed with great lenity, and had acquired considerable popularity, followed his example, and resigned without an effort. The officers, now left to themselves, restored the Rump Parliament ; but again dissolved it, and elected a committee of twenty-three persons, seven of whom were officers, and thus established a military government. During these transactions, General Monk was in Scotland, with a body of 8,000 veteran troops. He had secretly cor- responded with Charles, and finding himself eagerly looked up to by all parties, he immediately published a protest 204 TnE COMMONWEALTH. against the measures of the military government, and put his army in motion. He proceeded with the utmost caution, covering his intentions with the greatest secrecy and reserve. Even his brother, who came to him with a message from the King, was refused an audience upon the subject, because he had told his errand to Mr. Price, the general's own chaplain, and a man of known honour and probity. At last he reached St. Alban's, and sending a message to the Rump Parliament, who had ventured to resume their seats, desired them to remove their forces to country quarters. Some of the regi- ments willingly obeyed, and such as did not Monk turned out by force, after which he took up his quarters at West- minster. The House voted him thanks for his services, when he desired them to call a free parliament. The expelled members were now restored ; and, having a major- ity over the Rump faction, they repealed all the orders by which they had been expelled. They then dissolved them- selves, and gave orders for the immediate assembling of a new parliament. At length the long-expected time for the sitting of a free parliament arrived ; but although the affections of all were evidently turned towards Charles, such were their fears, and so much danger had attended a freedom of speech, that no one, for some time, durst mention the King's name. At length Monk gave directions to the President of the Council to inform them, that one Sir John Granville, a servant to the King, had been sent over- by his Majesty, and was at the door with a letter to the Commons. This message was re- ceived with transports of joy ; Granville was called in, the letter read, and the King's propositions were immediately accepted. He offered a general amnesty, without any ex- ceptions but what should be made by Parliament ; promised liberty of conscience in matters of religion ; engaged to leave to Parliament the claims of contested titles, and to confirm all these concessions by act of Parliament. In consequence of this agreement between the King and Parliament, Montague, the English admiral, waited on King Charles to inform him that the fleet expected his orders at Scheveling. The Duke of York immediately went on board, and took the command as Lord High Admiral. The King embarked, and landing at Dover, was received by General Monk, whom he tenderly embraced. He entered London on the 29th May 1(560, which was his birth-day, attended by an innumerable multitude of people, who, long rent by THE RESTORATION. 205 factions, and oppressed by a succession of tyrants, could not restrain their emotions of delight at beholding once more their constitution, with all its train of security, freedom, and peace, restored to them. Cotemporary Princes. POPES. Alexander VII 1655 I Clement X 1669 Clement IX 1667 | Innocent XI 1676 EMPEROR OF GERMANY. Leopold 1658 EMPEROR OP RUSSIA. Peter the Great 1682 EMPEROR OF THE TURKS. Mahomet IV. 1649 KING OF FRANCE. Louis XIV 1643 KINGS OF SPAIN. Philip IV 1621 1 Charles II 1665 KINGS OF PORTUGAL. AlphonsoVI 1656 1 Pedro II 1683 KINGS OF DENMARK. Frederic III 1648 J Christian VI 1678 KING OF SWEDEN. Charles XI 1660 The Restoration. 1660. — Charles II. , reigned %A Years, 9 Months. The first measures of Charles gave universal satisfaction. Without regarding former distinctions, he admitted into his councils the most eminent men of the nation. As the Par- liament had been summoned without the King's consent, it received at first only the title of V Convention," and it was not till after an act passed for that purpose that it received the name of Parliament. A proclamation was then issued, declaring, that such of the late King's judges as did not sur- render within forty-one days, should not receive the benefit of the indemnity. Nineteen of these regicides surrendered : 18 206 THE RESTORATION. some were taken, and others escaped beyond the sea. The* Peers seemed inclined to great severity ; but were restrained by the King, who, in the most earnest terms, pressed the act of general indemnity, which at length passed both Houses, with the exception of those who had an immediate hand in the King's death. Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw, though dead, were considered proper objects of resentment ; their bodies were dug from their graves, hanged, and then buried under the gallows. Of the rest who sat in judgment on the late monarch's trial, some were dead and others were pardon- ed : ten only were executed, and these met their death with a fortitude worthy of a better cause. This was all the blood that was spilt upon the restoration. But these happy begin- nings were not of long duration : Charles's indolence and love of pleasure made him averse from all business ; he be- stowed his favours upon the worst as well as the best of his subjects, and took as little care to reward his friends as he did to punish his enemies. His continual exigencies drove him into measures no ways suited to his inclinations, and, probably with a view to procure a supply for his pleasures, he was induced to declare war against the Dutch. In this was, the English fleet, under the command of the Duke of York, the King's brother, met the Dutch, under Opdam their admiral, when a blood)' - engagement commenced. The Duke was in the hottest part of the fight, and behaved with great spirit. In the heat of the action the Dutch admiral's ship blew up, upon which the remainder immediately fled. Thirty ships were captured or sunk, while the victors lost but one. After various other battles, in which much blood was spilt and great treasures exhausted, a treaty was con- cluded at Breda, by which the Colony of Nova Belgia, now New York, was ceded to the English, and remained in their possession till the American war. During these transactions a dreadful pestilence happened in London, vvhich destroyed nearly 100,000 of its inhabitants. This was, the next year, succeeded by another calamity al- most as terrible, viz. a great fire, which broke out at a baker's, the corner of Pudding Lane, near London Bridge, and spread with such rapidity, that no effort could stop it till it had laid in ashes the greater part of the city This calamity, although it reduced thousands to great distress, proved beneficial to the city, which arose from its ruins in greater beauty than ever. The streets were widened ; and the houses being built of brick instead of wood, became more secure and THE RESTORATION. 207 healthy. Notwithstanding the violence of the fire, it ia very remarkable that there are no accounts of any life being lost. The King now began to act in a very arbitrary manner. He had long wished to extend his prerogative, and to furnish himself with whatever sums he might want for his pleasures. He quickly found in Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arling- ton, and Lauderdale, the ministers he wanted. This junto, distinguished by the name of Cabal from the initials of their names, were notorious both for their public and private con- duct. The first result of their advice was a secret alliance with France, and a war with the Dutch. A dreadful naval engagement followed ; night parted the combatants : the Dutch retired, and the English were too much crippled to pursue them. The French suffered very little, and it was supposed that they had orders to spare their own ships, while the Dutch and English should weaken each other by their mutual exertions. The murmurs of the people, at this impolitic waste of their blood and treasure, at last obliged Charles to make peace on terms proposed by the Spanish ambassador, who acted as mediator. For form's sake, Charles asked the advice of his Parliament, and a peace was con- cluded. Scotland now became a scene of discontent : Charles was not ignorant of the republican spirit of the Presbyterians, and therefore endeavoured with all his power to establish episcopacy in that kingdom. Guards, commanded by Sir James Turner, a man of a very abandoned life and unre- lenting character, w r ere quartered through the country. An insurrection in consequence of his severity was dreaded : fresh troops were sent, under two officers of similar dispositions, who behaved with such violence that the Scots rose in arms, but were totally routed by the King's troops, at the battle of Pentland Hills. Ten of these misguided insurgents were executed upon one gibbet, and thirty-five before their own doors. These executions were going on when the King wrote a letter to the Council, ordering that such of the prisoners who would simply promise to obey the laws in future, should be set at liberty; but Sharp, Archbishop of St. Andrews, purposely delayed giving it to the Council : at which the Covenanters were so enraged, that they waylaid and murdered him. They then once more proceeded to take up arms and make themselves masters of Glasgow : but they were attacked by 208 THE RESTORATION. the Duke of Monmouth, at Bothwell Bridge, and totally- routed. The prisoners were treated with humanity : such as promised to live peaceably were dismissed, and about 300 who refused this condition were shipped for Barbadoes, but perished by the way. The nation still continued to be disturbed by pretended plots against the King and the Government. These were principally the invention of that unprincipled minister Shaftes- bury, who secretly hated both Charles and the Catholics. Under his auspices was brought into Parliament the bill for excluding the Duke of York from the throne. He was sup- ported by the friends of the Duke of Monmouth, the King's natural son, who hoped by these means to secure the throne for their patron. The debates on the bill were carried on with great violence on both sides : it passed the House of Commons, but was thrown out by the Peers. All the Bish- ops except three voted against it, rightly judging that they were in much greater danger from the prevalence of Pres- byterianism than from Catholicity. The King was present during the whole debate, and had the pleasure to see the bill thrown out by a large majority. Charles now determined to humble the Presbyterians. They were divested of their places, and their offices given to such as held with the Court. The City of London, which had long been foremost in the popular party, was deprived of its charter, which was only restored upon the most hum- ble submission, and on the degrading condition of subjecting the election of the Magistrates to the King's immediate au- thority. The whole gang of spies, witnesses, informers, and suborners, who had been long employed by the leading pre- tended patriots, finding the King entirely master, now turned upon their ancient supporters, offered their evidence against those who had first put them in motion ; and made the Pres- byterians feel in their turn the cruelties they had inflicted upon the Catholics. Shaftesbury, in conjunction with Monmouth, Russel, Al- gernon Sydney, and John Hampden, grandson to the famous one of that name, now formed a conspiracy to dethrone the King : but this scheme, like the rest of Shaftesbury's plots, only ended in his disappointment; upon which he fled out of the kingdom to Amsterdam, where he ended his tur- bulent life, unpitied by his friends, and despised by his enemies. THE RESTORATION. 209 Shortly after another plot was discovered, which had for its object the murder of the King, in his way from New- market. Rumbolt, one of the conspirators, possessed a farm upon that road, called the Rye-house, and thence this con- spiracy was called " the Rye-house Plot." The house, however, in which the King resided, accidentally taking fire, he was obliged to leave Newmarket eight days sooner than was expected, and this probably saved his life. Soon after this conspiracy was discovered, Russel, Sydney, and Walcot were executed. Essex cut his throat in prison. Hampden was fined i£40,000, and scarcely one who had a hand in this plot escaped, except the Duke of Monmouth, who was the most guilty of all. This was the last blood spilt on account of these plots, real and pretended, which had continued to disturb the na- tion during the greater part of this reign. Severe punish- ments were, however, inflicted on some for treating the Duke of York disrespectfully. The infamous Titus Oates, the principal agent in Shaftesbury's plots, was fined £ 100, 000 for calling the Duke a popish traitor, and to be imprisoned till he could pay it, v which he was never able to do. The government of Charles was now as despotic as thaf of any prince in Europe ; but, to please his subjects by an act of popularity, he married his niece, the Princess Anne, to Prince George, brother to the King of Denmark. This was the last remarkable act of his reign. On the 2d of Feb- ruary, 1685, he was seized with an apoplexy : upon being let blood, he recovered his senses, but continued in a lan- guishing state till the 5th, when Mr. Huddlestone, a Catho- lic Priest, who had been so instrumental in saving his life after the battle of Worcester, was sent for to attend him. The King declared his desire to die in the Catholic faith, and naving been admitted to the sacrament of penance, was asked f he desired to have the other sacraments of the church administered to him : he replied, " By all means : I desire to be partaker in all the helps and succours necessary for a Catholic Christian in my condition." He then received the holy communion with great devotion and humility, begging pardon fervently of God for his manifold sins ; and thus pre- pared, he died the next day, February 6th, aged 54 years and 8 months. 210 THE RESTORATION. Cotemporary Sovereigns. POPE. Innocent XI 1676 EMPEROR OF GERMANY. Leopold 1658 EMPEROR OF RUSSIA. Peter the Great 1682 EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. Mahomet IV l649!Solyman III 1687 KING OF FRANCE. Louis XIV 1643 KING OF SPAIN. Charles II 1665 KING OF PORTUGAL. Pedro II 168J KING OF DENMARK. Christian V 1678 KINS OF SWEDEN. Charles II 1660 1685. — James II, reigned 4 Years, 7 Days. Upon the death of Charles, his brother James entered into peaceable possession of the throne ; and on the first Sunday after his accession, openly appeared at Mass in the Royal Chapel. This inspired the Catholics with great confi- dence, and proportionably depressed the Independents, whose plots had been entirely laid open. Oates. that notorious im- postor, was sentenced to imprisonment for life ; to pay 1,000 marks on each indictment, and stand in the pillory five times, annually. Prance pleaded guilty, and made afterwards a voluntary confession. Dangerfield, another of the impostors, was also sentenced to the pillory, to be whipped, and fined 500 marks. Whilst the law was thus taking its course, the Government was threatened with an invasion, by the Duke of Monmouth and the Earl of Argyle. Monmouth, since the last conspi- racy, had resided in Holland, where he was treated with great attention by the Prince of Orange. Argyle landed in Scotland, whilst Monmouth attempted a rising in the West. Upon the appearance of a considerable body of the King's THE RESTORATION. 21L forces, Argyle's men were immediately dispersed ; he him- self was wounded, taken prisoner, and executed at Edinburgh, in pursuance of a former sentence against him. Monmouth advanced to Taunton in Somersetshire, where he was pro- claimed King, much to the surprise of his republican friends. Near Sedgmoor they were overtaken by the King's troops, when an engagement ensued, in which the rebels were defeated ; 300 were killed on the field of battle, 1,000 fell in the pursuit, and the rest were taken prisoners or dispersed. Monmouth was found in a ditch, in the disguise of a shep- herd, exhausted by hunger and fatigue ; and being conveyed to the Tower, was tried, condemned, and executed. This conspiracy was no sooner suppressed, than misunder- standings arose betwixt the King and Parliament. During the urgency of the occasion, James had employed several Catholics in the army without the qualification of the test. This greatly displeased the Commons, who presented an ad- dress to him on the occasion. But James, considering the power to dispense with these inabilities and penalties as a right invested in the crown, and which had undoubtedly been often exercised by his predecessors, would by no means give it up. Unfortunately, the King was surrounded by hypocrites and traitors, among which was particularly the Earl of Sun- derland, who, pretending a conformity in religion with the King, urged him to a refusal, that they might push him on to his ruin. By their advice, several Protestants were dis- placed, and Catholics put in their room. Earls Powis and Arundel, Lords Bellasyse and Down, all Catholics, were made members of the Privy Council ; and Sir Edward Hales had a regiment given to him, and was made one of the Lords of the Admiralty. Sir Edward, however, was informed against by one Godden, in order to try how far the lawyers stood affected with regard to the dispensing power. All the judges except one were in favour of the King's prerogative, and Sir Edward was accordingly acquitted, to the great joy of the Catholics. The King now published a proclamation, granting entire liberty of conscience and a freedom of reli- gious worship to every British subject ; to which was sub- joined an order, that it should be read in every church and chapel throughout the kingdom. This occasioned a great ferment among the Clergy: seven of the Bishops refused to obey the mandate, and were committed to the Tower. Their cause was brought before the Judges in the Court of King's Bench, where they were acquitted. This hasty and 212 THE RESTORATION. imprudent proceeding completed the King's unpopularity, and hastened the catastrophe which his perfidious enemies had been long preparing. The Prince of Orange, who had kept up a secret corres- pondence with the traitors round the King, and was regu- larly informed by them of all the affairs in England, embraced the moment to put to sea with a fleet of fifty-two ships of war, five hundred fly-boats, sixty punts, ten fire-ships, and land forces consisting of 14,000 men. On the 4th of No- vember he reached Torbay, and the next day landed his army without opposition. The Earl of Dartmouth, who commanded the English fleet, pretended that the unfavour- able winds prevented his disputing the passage, or landing the troops. As soon as the Prince of Orange had completed his arrangements, he marched to Exeter : which, however, shut its gates against him. He remained there several days with- out being joined by any English of note, and at last, almost despairing of success, Was preparing to retrace his steps, when he was joined by several persons of distinction ; among others by Lord Churchill, who, though he had been raised from the rank of page, and owed his whole fortune to the bounty of the King, deserted from him, taking with him the Duke of Grafton, a natural son of the late King. Almost every hour now brought to James the news of fresh desertions ; he could no longer depend upon those who had appeared his most zealous friends. Even his beloved daughter Anne now resolved to leave him, and take part with the prevailing side. Upon hearing that the Princess had followed the rest of his favourites, he was stung with the most bitter anguish, and could not forbear crying out in the extremity of his agony, " God help me, my own children forsake me!" Alarmed more and more every day with the prospect of a general defection, he resolved to follow the advice of those who counselled him to quit the kingdom. To prepare for this, he first sent away his Queen and her infant son, the Prince of Wales, to Calais, and immediately afterwards disappeared in the night, attended only by Sir Edward Hales, Mr. Sheldon, and Mr. Labadie. Upon the news of the King's departure, a number of the Peers and others met, and agreed upon an address to the Prince of Orange, praying him to take upon himself the administration of affairs, and to send writs to all the boroughs, &c. for the election of members to meet in a national con- vention . ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 213 They met accordingly, and came to the following resolu- tion, that "James II., having endeavoured to subvert the fundamental laws of the realm, and withdrawn himself from the kingdom, had abdicated, and the throne thereby was vacant." This being agreed to, it only remained to settle how it was to be filled. Some were for declaring the Prince of Orange regent ; others wishing him to be crowned king : a third part were for placing the crown upon the Princess of Orange. In the end it was agreed, that the Prince and Princess should be King and Queen, and should reign con- jointly : but that the administration of affairs should be in the hands of the Prince alone. James died at St. Germains. 1701, aged 68, in the practice of mortification, penance, and resignation. Even his greatest enemies allow him to have- been a kind husband, a tender parent ; in a w ? ord, a virtuous man. His misfortune was to have been beset b) r traitors; and his faults, a zeal without prudence ; too indiscriminate a choice of his confidants ; and an idea of his prerogatives beyond their due bounds. CHAPTER II. Ecclesiastical Jlffairs, 8fc. Upon the accession of James I., the Catholics entertained great hopes, from the avowed disposition he manifested towards them, that now they might be relieved from their grievances, and enjoy the free exercise of their religion. This disposition of the King alarmed his ministers, who were therefore determined to infuse into his mind a distrust of the loyalty of the Catholics, and raise a ferment among the peo- ple, which might effectually prevent the King's inten- tions, and ruin their expectations. The nation, accordingly, resounded with the speeches of violent declaimers against the danger of Popery, and the secret machinations of the Jesuits ; the passions of the people became inflamed, and the feeble-minded James was forced to publish a proc- lamation, commanding all priests and Jesuits to leave the kingdom. In the mean time, disputes ran high between the Estab- lished Church and the Puritans, who had, notwithstanding the act of conformity, greatly increased. This induced the £14 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. King to call a conference at Hampton Court, where several warm debates arose between the parties in the presence of the King and Privy Council. The Puritans complained of an unfair and partial management of the dispute, and there is no doubt that the King shewed a propensity to Episcopacy, frequently inculcating the maxim, " No Episcopacy, no King." He was not, however, so much attached to the Established Church as entirely to disregard the interest of the other party, who obtained so far as to have an alteration made in the Common Prayer. The Gunpowder Plot, in which, as we formerly men- tioned, it was suspected, even by many Protectant writers, that Cecil had a considerable share by secretly urging a few desperate wretches, came very opportunely to increase the animosity of the nation against the whole body of the Catho- lics. The Puritans, especially, did not fail to profit of the occasion, alleging, that the very principles of the Catholic faith engage them to such crimes. This absurd and malig- nant calumny, although disbelieved by thinking and sensible people, and by James himself, raised such a spirit of rancour and persecution, that the King was in a manner compelled to let loose the penal laws against his Catholic subjects. To effect their purpose, under pretence of affording the Catholics an opportunity to prove their loyalty, the Ministers employed one Perkins, a renegado Jesuit, to draw up an oath, under the inspection of Archbishop Bancroft, which was well calculated, by its ambiguity, to divide and disunite the Catholics as to the lawfulness of taking it; that in case of refusal, they might expose themselves to the penalties of the law, and nourish in the people an opinion of their enmity to the Government. Unfortunately for the Catholics, amidst their disagreement and uncertainty with regard to this oath, they had no ecclesiastical tribunal in the kingdom to which they could recur for the direction of their conduct. The last of their national bishops, Dr. Thomas Watson, of Lincoln, died in 1584, in prison. By his death England was reduced to the situation of a foreign mission, under the immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See, who placed the secular clergy under the direction of an Archpriest, the Rev. George Black well, with episcopal jurisdiction. The regular clergy were left under the superintendence of their own superiors. The Archpriest was one of those who main- tained the lawfulness of taking the oath, as did Father Pres- ton, superior of the Benedictines; their example drew many Ecclesiastical affairs, &c. 215 to the same opinion, whilst others as strongly maintained the contrary. A copy of the oath was sent to Rome for the Pope's decision : who pronounced that it could not be taken. The Archpriest persisted in his approval of it, and was in consequence deprived of his ecclesiastical dignity, jn which he was succeeded by the Rev. George Birket. The English mission continued under the government of an Archpriest till 1623, when Dr. Bishop was consecrated bishop of Chal- cedon, and placed at the head of the Catholic Church of England. He chose a dean and eighteen canons as his chap- ter, and appointed five vicar-generals and twenty archdea- cons as assistants for the distant counties. Dr. Bishop died in 1625, the year of the demise of King James, and was succeeded in his dignity by Dr. Smith. This was the situation of affairs at the accession of Charles I. He had married a Catholic Queen, which afforded fresh cause of suspicion and jealousy. Rumours of plots were continually spread abroad, and the nation thus prepared, by repeated ferments and alarms, for the awful catastrophe of the Revolution, and its accompanying crimes. The English seminaries abroad, which owed their estab- lishment principally to Dr. William Allen, during the perse- cutions of Elizabeth, when no Catholic was allowed to open a school, had been long an object of alarm. In the second year of Charles I., after various proclamations had been issued, an act passed, which adopted and increased one pass- ed, in the first of James, against foreign education. It was carried into unrelenting severity : twenty-three Clergymen suffered death; many others were condemned. In addition to these sufferings, a new form of persecution was devised, which continued through the whole of this reign. A number of officers, under the name of Pursuivants, were authorized to apprehend Catholics, to enter and search their houses whenever they thought proper, to seize their books, and every other article which they might imagine to be used for any kind of devotion. Every rank in life was equally sub- ject to these domiciliary visits, and to the insolence and bar- barity with which they were often executed. Cromwell, at the head of the Puritans and Independents, had no sooner assumed the reins of government, than he published an order for unbounded liberty of conscience, but excepted Catholics and Episcopalians. To the Millenarians, who had a leading interest in the army, and whose fanaticism afforded full scope to his pious deceptions, he paid great atten* 216 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. tion. These men, who anxiously expected the second com ing of our Saviour, believed that the saints, among whom they considered themselves to stand in the first class, were alone entitled to govern in the mean time. The candidates for holy orders were no more perplexed with Greek or Latin erudition ; the principal object of scrutiny regarded their advance in grace, and fixing the critical moment of their conversion. With these pretended saints of all denomina- tions, who put on the appearance of great humility, he dis- coursed, he sighed, he wept, and prayed. But to the Cath- olics, whose fidelity to Charles in his misfortunes, was so eminently conspicuous, he shewed no mercy. Ordinances were passed in 1643. by which two-thirds of the real and per- sonal estates of Catholics were sequestered ; they were in- terrogated on oath as to their effects, and to make informers more eager, a shilling in the pound w r as given them upon all the property discovered. At the Restoration, the beneficed clergy, as Echard informs us, were a medley of Presbyterians, Independents, Millenari- ans, and Anabaptists, who hated each other, and only agreed in their animosity to the Catholics. Frequent attempts were made by them to change their liturgy, some alleging, that many parts were inexpedient ; others, that it was sinful. Upon this, the act of uniformity was again enforced, and the King accompanied it with a declaration, that it was intended to be acted upon with vigour. The Commons thought they perceived in this measure an intention to favour the Catho- lics, and therefore lost no time in petitioning the King to recal his declaration, and put the laws in force to stop the growth of Popery. Still they suspected Charles of a secret inclination to favour the Catholics, and therefore began, as had been the custom in former reigns, to represent them as abettors in every public calamity, and the contrivers of every plot against the Govern- ment. The great fire afforded them an opportunity to display their ingenuity in this way. The calumnies they circulated upon this dreadful catastrophe were but a prelude to many other nefarious measures. One of these is usually called "Oates's Plot," although Oates was but the instrument, the unprincipled Shaftsbury having the honour of the contriv- ance. On the 12th of August, 1678, one Thirley, a chemist, Dr. Tongue, and Dr. Oates, two protestant clergymen, of the most notoriously abandoned characters, gave in to the King the account of this pretended plot. Its object was to ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. &17 kill the King, to set fire to the city, and massacre all the Protestants, without exception of age or condition. The circumstances attending this pretended discovery were so entirely devoid of credibility, that it is amazing how any, even the meanest, could give ear to them ; and, as the late Mr. Fox, in his history of James the Second, justly observes, have put "an indelible, disgrace upon the English nation, in which the King, Parliament, judges, juries, witnesses, prose- cutors, have all their respective, but certainly not their equal shares." So much, indeed, was done to inflame the minds of the people against the Catholics, that it produced a popu- lar delirium, and not only caused the destruction of many innocent persons, with loss of property and imprisonment to others, but every penal law was let loose, and even a general massacre of the Catholics was apprehended. The Parliament, which ought to have repressed these falsehoods, and brought back the people to calm inquiry ; were even more violent than the people themselves ; and the prime minister entered furiously into the plot, and persisted in his inquiries, notwithstanding all the King's advice to the contrary. Charles, the person most concerned in the affair, was the only one that treated it with contempt; but nothing could stop the public fury, and the King, not having resolu- tion and fortitude enough, found himself obliged to give way. Titus Oates, the grand accuser, was now produced, and, with seeming reluctance, gave his evidence. This man had formerly been indicted for perjury, and dismissed from his situation for the most shocking practices ; and although, on the present occasion, in his examination before the council, he contradicted himself at every step of his narrative, he became the favourite of the people, and was styled "The saviour of the nation." In this state of the public feeling, an accident happened which seemed to confirm the prejudices of the people, and make the narrative of Oates, which now began to lose its effect, be implicitly credited. Sir Edmondbury Godfrey, a magistrate, who had twice examined Oates upon oath, was found dead in a ditch near Primrose Hill, in the road to Hamp- stead, after having been missed for four days, with his sword through his body, his money in his pockets, and rings on his fingers. His body was carried through the streets in proces- sion, preceded by seventy clergymen. The populace did not hesitate to ascribe his death to the Papists ; and such 19 218 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, fee. was the general infatuation, that no person, who had any regard for his own safety, durst express the least doubt con- cerning the information of Oates, or of the authors of God- frey's murder. To propagate still further the alarm, an address was voted by Parliament for a solemn fast. It was requested that all Papists should be removed from London, and access denied to all unknown and suspicious persons. Oates was lodged at Whitehall, and encouraged, by a pension of £1,200 a year, to proceed in forging new informations. The plot, however, beginning to grow stale, one Bedloe was brought upon the stage. He was, like Oates, a man of very low birth, and had been noted for several cheats and robberies. This man de- posed that he had seen the body of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey at Somerset House, where the Queen resided, and that a servant of Lord Bellasyse had offered him £4,000 if he would carry it off. Finding all this greedily received, the two wit- nesses now determined to go still farther, and had the audacity to accuse the Queen. The Commons, in an address to the King, gave countenance to this scandalous accusation ; but the Lords rejected it with becoming disdain. As the main design of all these plotters was to exclude the Duke of York, a professed Catholic, from the throne, his secretary was the first who was brought to trial. Bedloe swore that he had received a commission, signed by the su- perior of the Jesuits, appointing him papal secretary of state, and that he had consented to the assassination of the King. After his condemnation, many members of both houses offered to interpose in his behalf, if he would make an ample confession : but as he was in reality possessed of no treasonable secret, he would not save his life by falsehood and imposture. He suffered with calmness and constancy, affirming his in- nocence to the last. This trial was succeeded by those of Fathers Ireland, Pickering, and Grove, who went to execu- tion with great resignation, protesting their innocence : but this made no impression on the spectators ; they were Jesuits, and therefore pity was banished from the breasts of their countrymen. Hill, Green, and Berry, were tried upon the evidence of one Prance ; and although Bedloe's narrative and Prance's information were entirely contradictory, and their testimony was invalidated by contrary evidence, all was vain. The prisoners were condemned and executed, deny- ing their guilt to the last ; but as Berry died a Protestant, this circumstance seemed to make some impression. White- ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 219 bread, Fenwick, Govan, Turner, and Harcourt, five Jesuits, were next brought to trial, and soon after Counsellor Lang- horn. In this trial a new witness appeared against the pris- oners, named Dugdale. This man spread the alarm still further, by asserting that there were 200,000 Papists in England ready to rise in arms. It was proved that Oates was at St. Omer's at the time he swore he was in Lon- don; but all availed nothing; they were condemned and executed. They were not, however, so successful on the trial of Sir George Wakeman, the Queen's Physician. They forswore themselves in so palpable a manner, that the jury could not avoid observing it, and the prisoner was in consequence acquitted. The Earl of Stafford was the last man that fell a sacrifice to wretches, who lived by perjury and blood. He was con- demned, and executed on Tower-hill, where even his perse- cutors could not help shedding tears at that serene fortitude, which shone in every feature, motion, and accent of this aged nobleman. The Meal-tub plot was the next contrivance. One Dan- gerfield, more infamous if possible than Oates or Bedloe ; a wretch who had stood in the pillory ; had been whipped, branded, and transported for coining, was admitted as evi- dence of a design to remove the King and new-model the government. The pretended conspirators were brought to trial, but were all acquitted, as it was now clearly discovered that nothing but bribes and revenge had prompted the whole gang of informers, and that their secret supporters were a faction who really designed to subvert the government and murder the King, as it afterwards clearly appeared by the discovery of the Rye-house Plot. Oates was subsequently deprived of his pension, and afterwards fined and im- prisoned. To aggravate still more the persecutions which the Catho- lics endured during this reign, three acts were passed : first, the Corporation Act, which enacted that no person should hold any office in the government of any city or corporation, unless within a twelvemonth before he had received the sacrament, according to the rites and ceremonies of the Church of England, and taken the oaths of allegiance and supremacy. Second, the Test Act, which obliged all officers civil and military to take the oaths of allegiance and supre- macy ; to make the declaration against the doctrine of tran* 220 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. substantiation ; and receive the sacrament according to the usage of the Church of England. Third, another act, by which a declaration was also to be made against Popery, in- vocation of the Virgin Mary, and the Mass. It enacted also, that no Peer should vote in the Lords, nor any member in the Commons, till he had taken the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and subscribed the above declaration. By very great efforts, the Duke of York was exempted from this act. The first step taken by James II. was in his speech in Parliament to claim the dispensing power: but the House of Commons voted an address against it. Foiled in his hopes of intimidating the Parliament into acquiescence, he endea- voured to gain his point through the medium of the courts of justice. He gave Sir Edward Hales a colonelcy, and dispensed with the provisions of the Test Act. Upon prose- cution, Sir Edward pleaded the dispensation, and James having previously displaced four of the judges, and sub- stituted others in their place, Sir Edward gained his cause. This success encouraged James to bolder measures; he brought five Catholic Lords, and Father Petre, a Jesuit, into the Privy Council ; made Arundel privy seal ; put Lord Bel- lasyse at the head of the Treasury, and advanced several Catholics in the army and navy. His next step was to send an ambassador to Rome. The Pope, who saw the hasty and imprudent measures of James, received him coolly, but sent a Nuncio to England. James gave him a public reception at Windsor ; four Catholic Bishops were consecrated by the Nuncio in public ; and several of the Clergy were permitted to appear publicly in the habits of their order. James now ventured upon a step which caused a very great sensation among all the members of the Established Church : he ordered the Bishop of London to suspend one Dr. Sharp, for mentioning in his sermon the conversion of some Protestants to the Catholic faith in terms of reproach. The Bishop refused to comply; upon which James issued a commission, by which seven persons were appointed with unlimited powers, as in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Eliza- beth, over the Church of England. They immediately proceeded against the Bishop and the Doctor, who were suspended from their functions. He then attempted to nominate a Catholic president to Magdalen College, Oxford, and procured seven of the LAWS, GOVERNMENT, AND COMMERCE. 221 Bishops who had petitioned against it to be committed to the Tower: which completed the popular discontent, and prepared the nation for the revolution which shortly fol- lowed. CHAPTER III. Lxws, Government, and Commerce. Under the reign of the Stewarts, the nation, by a natural concurrence of events, began to shew the same spirit of innovation, and resistance to the government, in matters of liberty, as had been infused into them in the matters of religion, and a spirit of opposition displayed itself, to which the British monarchs had not for a long time been accustom- ed. But the storm which was only gathering during the reign of James I., burst with all its fury on Charles I., who had to cope with a whole nation, put in motion by the crafty wiles of an unprincipled ministry. The high notions of prerogative which the Stuarts entertained, their indolence, irresolution, and fondness for favourites, did not a little con- tribute to their misfortunes. Compulsory wars, arbitrary im- prisonment, martial law, the high commission court, the star chamber, which had been the apparatus of the Tudors, being again attempted by the Stuarts, when liberty was carried to licentiousness, the constitution was rent asunder, and the unfortunate Charles fell, an awful example to the universe. The royal authority thus annihilated, fruitless attempts were made to substitute a republican form of government in its stead. Subjected at first to the power of the principal leaders in the Long Parliament, they saw that power expire, only to pass without bounds into the hands of the Protector. Charles II. was then called over : but the spirit of rebel- lion and caballing was not extinguished, and the desire of once more causing a revolution still filled the breasts of some unprincipled wretches, who, to gain their ends, had recourse to all sorts of calumnies and inventions against Catholics, to whom it was known Charles was secretly attached, and whose religion his brother, afterwards James II., professed. In this reign, however, that barrier of per- sonal safety the Habeas Corpus act was established, and tri- ennial parliaments enacted. In the reign of James I., 22-2 LEARNING, ARTS, &c. colonies were planted along the coast of North America, which now form that flourishing kingdom, the United States. These greatly contributed to promote that spirit of industry and commerce, which has raised Britons to so pre-eminent a station among the powers of Europe. The East- India Company having received a new patent from James, increased their stock to a million and a half. In 1609, they built a vessel of 1,200 tons burden, the largest merchant ship Eng- land had ever known. From the restoration to the revolution, commerce and riches rapidly increased. The two Dutch wars, by disturb- ing the trade of that republic, promoted the navigation of England. In the reign of James I. copper half-pence and farthings were coined. Most of the silver pennies having disappeared, retail business was till then chiefly carried on by means of leaden tokens. The coins of Cromwell exceed in execution any of that age. James II. coined gold pieces of the value of five pounds. CHAPTER IV. Learning, Arts, #c. Although the authors in the reign of James I. were many, both in prose and verse, they wrote mostly in a bad taste. Puns and quibbles were even propagated from the throne. The great glory of literature in this age was Lord Bacon, whose variety of talent as an author, a wit, a philosopher, a man of business, and a public speaker, justly claims the tri- bute of admiration. In the turbulent reign of Charles L, men of great abilities made their appearance. Then it was that the force and compass of our language were first fully tried, in the bold eloquence of the two parties, and the pub- lic papers of the King and Parliament. Amidst the thick cloud of fanaticism which overspread the nation during the Commonwealth, the celebrated Boyle promoted his philoso- phical researches. After the restoration, he, in conjunction with Wilkins, who had married Cromwell's sister, procured a patent, and having enlarged their number, were denomi- nated the Royal Society. But the patent was all they obtained from Charles : his craving courtiers and unlawful pleasures engrossed all his means, and left him neither money nor attention for literary merit. MANNERS, CUSTOMS, &c. 223 Agriculture had been for centuries very imperfectly under- stood in Britain : but at this period considerable improvements were made in that beneficial art. The nation, however, was still dependant on foreign supply for their daily bread. Two millions sterling went out at one time for corn. It was not till the fifth of Elizabeth that the exportation of corn was allowed in England : and Camden observes, that agriculture from that moment received new life and vigour. Before the civil wars, architecture and the fine arts were favoured at court, and a good taste began to prevail in the nation under Charles I., who employed Inigo Jones as mas- ter of his buildings. This monarch notwithstanding his scanty revenue, lived in such magnificence, that he possess- ed twenty-four elegantly furnished palaces. He greatly delighted in pictures, sometimes handled the pencil himself, and was a connoisseur in the art.>. The pieces of foreign masters were bought up at a great expense. Vandyke was caressed and enriched at court. Laws, who had not been surpassed by any musician before him, was also much taken notice of by the King, who called him the father of music. In poetry, Waller, N whose taste was formed under the first Charles, and who wrote during the brightest days of the second, is one of the chief refiners of our versification as well as language. But though the reign of Charles II. was crowded with writers and men of genius, it cannot be called the era of delicate or modest sentiments, and consequently good taste. CHAPTER V. Manners, Customs, Sfc. During the reign of James I. the pride of birth greatly prevailed. The gentry and nobility distinguished themselves by a stiff dignity and stateliness of behaviour. Great wealth acquired by commerce was rare, and had not then succeeded in mixing all ranks of men, and rendering money the chief distinction. The expenses of the higher rank consisted in pomp and show, and a numerous retinue, rather than con- venience and true pleasure. The earl of Nottingham, in his embassy to Spain, was attended by 500 persons. The fury of duelling prevailed more at this time than at any period before or since. 224 MANNERS, CUSTOMS, &c. The condition of the English gentry, under so mild a prince as James, was peculiarly happy. No taxes were levied, no wars waged, no attendance at court required. The King did not effect splendid equipages, nor costly furniture, nor a luxurious table, nor had he prodigal courtezans. Hunt- ing was his chief amusement, the cheapest pleasure in which a king can indulge. His expenses were the result of liberality, rather than extravagance. One day, while he was with some of his courtiers, a porter passed by, loaded with money, which he was carrying to the royal treasury. The King observed that Rich, who was afterwards Earl Holland, whispered something to one standing near him. Upon inquiring. James found that Rich had said, " How happy would that money make me !" The King instantly bestowed it upon him, to the mount of £3,000, saying, "I think myself happy in obliging a worthy man whom I love." Charles II. was a man of easy and lively manners, and his courtiers affected the same character. They were chiefly men of the world ; and, having experienced the effect of Puritanical hypocrisy, which formed the leading feature in the manners of the Republicans during the usurpations of the Long Parliament and Oliver Cromwell, they fell into the other extreme, and, without shame or disguise, violated the laws of religion, decency, and decorum, and a general relaxation of manners took place till the reign of James II., who was a prince of religious and moral habits, and there- fore discountenanced the general licentiousness that pre- vailed. Curious Particulars. In the year 1626, the barometer was invented by Torri- celli, a famous Italian mathematician : and, about the same time, Dabelling, a celebrated Dutch philosopher, invented the thermometer and microscope. Logarithms were first invented by Lord Napier in Scotland. In 1635, a General Post-Office was established ; as was the Bank of England in 1646. Coffee was first introduced into England in 1652; and tea about six years after, when it cost £3 per lb. In 1662, pendulum clocks were made by Fromentel, a Dutchman. During the same year fire engines were first used. In 1668, St. James's Park was planted, and made a tho- roughfare for the public by Charles II. MILITARY HISTORY, &c. £25 BOOK IX. Cotemporary Princes. POPES. Alexandti VIII 1689 I Clement XI 1700 Innocent XII 1691 I < EMPEROR OF GERMANY. Leopold 1658 EMPEROR OP RUSSIA. Peter the Great 1682 EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. Solymanlll 1687 iMustapha II 1695 Achmet II 1691 I KING OF FRANCE. Louis XIV 1643 KINGS OF SPAIN. Charles II 1665 1 Philip V 1700 KING OF PORTUGAL. Pedro II 1683 KING OF DENMARK. Christian V 1670 KINGS OF SWEDEN. Charles XL 1660 1 Charles XII 1697 KING OF PRUSSIA. Frederic 1 1701 Military History, from the Revolution, in 1688, to the end of the reign of George III., containing a space of 131 Yeats* 16S9. — William III. and Mary II., reigned 13 Years. After William's accession to the throne, James sought an asylum in France, where he was received with the most cordial hospitality by the French King, who offered him a body of 15,000 French troops, to assist in regaining his 226 MILITARY HISTORY, &c. kingdom ; but James replied, that he would succeed by his own subjects alone, or perish in the attempt. He contented himself with about 1,200 British troops ; and, embarking at Brest, arrived at Kinsale in Ireland, on the 22d of May 1689. He soon after entered Dublin, amidst the acclama- tions of the inhabitants. He found the Lord Lieutenant, Tyrconnel, devoted to his interest, his old army steady, and a new one raised, amounting together to 40,000 men. As soon as the season would permit, he marched to Cole- raine, of which he possessed himself, and laid siege to Lon- donderry; which, though of no great importance in itself, is rendered famous by the perseverance with which it opposed all the attacks of the besiegers. The inhabitants endured the utmost fatigue and distress, being reduced to subsist on the most loathsome food, till they were at last relieved by a store-ship, which broke the boom laid across the river to pre- vent a supply, and arrived in safety, to the inexpressible joy of the besieged, and the disappointment of James's army, who were so dispirited, that they abandoned the siege, after having lost above 9,000 men before the place. The Duke of Schomberg, William's general, soon after landed without opposition, and invested Carrickfergus, into which he threw above 1,000 bombs, which laid the town in ashes. The brave garrison, having spent their last barrel of powder, were obliged to capitulate, and marched out with all the honours of war ; but Schomberg's soldiers, disregard- ing the capitulation, under pretence of cruelties committed by the Catholics, plundered and stripped the unfortunate inhabitants, without regard to sex or quality, and even pub- licly whipped some of the women between the lines. William now took the command, and coming within sight of James at the Boyne, resolved to give him battle. Pre- vious to the attack, William proceeded to review his troops ; and riding along the lines for that purpose, was perceived by the enemy, who levelled a gun at him, which killed several of his attendants, and wounded him in the shoulder. It was immediately reported that the King was slain ; but as soon as his wound was dressed, he rode through the ranks, and quickly undeceived them. The next morning, June 30th, the battle began. James's forces behaved with great gallantry ; but, unable to stand against the superior discipline and coolness of the English, *hey were broken and dispersed, with the loss of 1,500 men. William lost about a third of that number ; but among these MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 227 was the Duke of Schomberg, who was accidentally killed by a discharge of his own troops, while he was in the midst of a body of the enemy. During the action, James stood on the hill of Dunmore, surrounded with some squadrons of horse : and, at intervals, was heard to exclaim, when he saw his own troops repulsing their enemies, " O, spare my Eng- lish subjects !" an exclamation which, though it does not add to his fame as a general, at least proves the goodness of his heart. He seems, however, to have lost all his resolution at this time, and even while his troops were yet fighting, he quitted his station, and fled to Waterford, where he embarked for France. When he first deserted his troops at the Boyne, O'Regan, an old Irish captain, was heard to say, that if the English would exchange generals, the conquered army would fight them over again. The victory of the Boyne was by no means decisive ; and the friends of James, notwithstanding his flight, still opposed William. Saarsfield, a popular and experienced general, put himself at the head of the routed army, and marched to defend the Shannon. As James, however, had appointed St. Ruth to command over him, the Irish were universally discontented. On the other side, Ginkell, who had been appointed to the command of the English army, marched to meet him. The only fordable place was at Athlone, a strong town, built on both sides of the river. The English soon made themselves masters of the one part, while the other, being defended with great obstinacy, was considered impreg- nable ; but a body of English advancing through the stream, and performing this desperate attempt with determined reso- lution, drove the enemy from their works, and forced them to surrender at discretion. St. Ruth, who was hastening to its relief, arrived only to have his own guns turned against him. Marching off, he took post at Aughrim, where he determined to await the enemy. The English were 18,000 strong, the Irish 25,000. A desperate engagement ensued, till St. Ruth being killed, his troops gave way, after a loss of 5,000 men, and retreated to Limerick, into which place Gin- kell suffered as many as chose to retire, wishing to put an end to the war at once. The siege of Limerick commenced August 25, 1091. Six weeks passed without any thing decisive. The garrison was well supplied with provisions, and every means of defence. Winter approached, and Ginkell had orders to 228 MILITARY HISTORY, &c. finish the war upon any terms : he therefore offered such conditions that, even if the Irish had been victors, they could scarcely have refused them with prudence. It was agreed that the attainders should be annulled, the forfeited estates be restored, and that the Catholics should enjoy the same toleration in religion as in the reign of Charles II., and that no oath but that of allegiance should be required of any one. In consequence of this treaty, the hopes of James were entirely at an end in Ireland, which quietly submitted to the English government. During the war in Ireland, many wanton acts of barbarity had been committed ; but in Scotland, in 1692, one far more atrocious took place, where Macdonald and all his clan, hav- ing neglected to take the oaths, were massacred in cold blood, under very enormous breaches of hospitality and friendship. All the houses were burnt to the ground, and the cattle and spoil divided among the soldiers. The total reduction of Ireland, and the extermination or dispersion of the Highland chiefs who favoured his cause, did not entirely put an end to the hopes of James's party. Several of the Whigs joined themselves to the Tories, and made advances to the adherents of James : but their plan was betrayed, and Lord Preston and Mr. Ash ton, whom they had deputed, w r ere both seized and condemned. Ashton died without making any disclosures ; but Lord Preston, upon promise of a pardon, revealed the whole plot. The French at last became sensible of their bad policy, in not having more effectually supported James, and now resolv- ed to make a descent on England. In pursuance of this design, James was furnished with an army, consisting of a considerable body of French troops, some Scotch and English refugees, and the Irish regiments who had left Limerick at the capitulation, and had now necome excellent soldiers. This army assembled under James in person near La Houge, while Tourville, the French admiral, w r ith sixty-three ships of the line, was to favour the descent. These preparations and all the plans were soon made known to the English ministry by their spies. Admiral Russel w^as ordered to sea with all possible expedition, and discovering the French fleet off La Hogue, he prepared with ninety-nine sail of the line to give them battle. The engage- ment began with great fury, and lasted for ten hours, when victory declared for the English. The French fled with the loss of four ships, and were pursued during the two following MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 229 days. On the first day of the pursuit, three French ships were destroyed, and eighteen more were burnt in the bay of La Hogue. During the battle, James, who with his army viewed the engagement, was heard to exclaim, notwithstand- ing the extinction of his hopes, " See my brave English!" So decisive was this blow, that from that time France en- tirely lost her pretensions to equality upon the ocean. James from this time resigned himself quietly to his fate : no fur- ther attempts were made in his favour, though some plots, it was said, were laid to assassinate William : but James, so far from countenancing any of these, as some of his enemies have advanced, always expressed his utmost abhorrence of them ; and the exemplary life he led in his retirement, his resignation ; his austerities and his piety, are alone a sufficient refutation of any such calumnies. He lived about seven years after this, and in his last illness, calling for his son, after much salutary advice, he conjured him to prefer his religion to any worldly advantage: a counsel which that prince strictly observed. The war with France continued during the greater part of William's reign ; but at length an end was put to it by the treaty of Ryswick. In the general pacification the interests of England seem to have been entirely neglected ; and the only equivalent she received for all the blood she had shed, and all the treasure she had spent, was an acknowledgment of King William's title from the King of France. Peace being thus established, there was now no reason for keeping up a large army ; but William, who hardly thought himself king without military command, was unwilling to lessen those forces which had been granted during a period of danger. The Commons, however, to his great mortifica- tion, passed a vote, that all forces in the English pay, except- ing a body of 7,000 men, should be immediately disbanded, and that those retained should be natural-born subjects. With this vote the King was so displeased, that he is said to have formed a design of quitting the nation : but he was per- suaded by his ministry to abandon the measure, and consent to the passing of the bill. William, however, could not live with- out being at variance with his great political rival, the French king ; and was busily employed in forming a powerful con- federacy against him, when death put an end to all his pro- jects. He expired March 8th, 1702, leaving behind him the character of a great politician and a formidable general. 20 230 MILITARY HISTORY, Stc. Cotemporary Princes. POPE. Clement XI 1700 EMPERORS OF GERMANY. Leopold 1658 1 Charles VI 1711 Joseph 1 1705 I EMPEROR OF RUSSIA. Peter the Great 1682 EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. Mustapha II 1695|Achmet III 1703 KING OF FRANCE. Louis XIV 1643 KING OF SPAIN. Philip V 1700 KINGS OF PORTUGAL. Pedro II 1683J John V 1707 KING OF DENMARK. Frederic IV 1669 KING OF SWEDEN. Charles XII 1697 KINGS OF PRUSSIA. Frederic I. 1701 |Frederic II 1713 1702.— Anne. Anne, the second daughter of James by his first wife, ascended the throne at the age of thirty-eight ; and pursuing the same system of politics as her predecessor William, war was immediately declared against France by England, Ger- many, and Holland, on the same day. Lewis, who had not been able to suppress his joy at the news of William's death, was filled with indignation on the intelligence of such a combination. The Duke of Marlborough was appointed to command the British foices, and made generalissimo of the allied armies. In his first campaign, after forcing the French under Marshal Boufflers to retire before him, he took the city of Liege, in which he found an immense sum of money ; and made a vast number of prisoners, which consoled the nation for some unsuccessful expeditions by sea. The next year Marlborough opened the campaign with the siege of Bonn, which held out but a few days. Thuin was retaken after a vigorous defence : Limburgh surrendered in two days; MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 231 and thus ended the second campaign, which secured to the allies the country of Liege and the electorate of Cologne. In the campaign of 1704, the French king, finding Bouf- flers unable to oppose Marlborough, appointed Marshal Villeroy in his place : but Marlborough, who like Hannibal was remarkable for studying the dispositions of his antagonists, having no great fears of Villeroy, immediately flew to the assistance of the Emperor : taking with him a body of 13,000 British troops, he advanced with great rapidity to the Danube, where he defeated at Donawert a body of French and Bava- rians, and laid the dukedom of Bavaria under contribution. Marshal Tallard in the mean time had marched with 30,000 men to oppose his return, and was joined by the Duke of Bavaria. Their united army amounted to 60,000 men, com- manded by the two best generals of France. To oppose them, Marlborough was joined by 30,000 men under the celebrated Prince Eugene. Their united forces consisted of 52,000 men. After various marches and counter-marches, the two armies met at Blenheim. Here a terrible engage- ment ensued, in which the French were entirely defeated, with the loss of 12,000 killed on the field of battle, or drown- ed in the Danube, and upwards of 20,000 prisoners ; and a country of 100 leagues in extent fell into the hands of the victors. The British were equally fortunate at sea : Gibral- tar was taken by Sir George Rooke and the Prince of Hesse. The British fleet soon after came up with that of France, and a battle was fought with great fury during six hours, when the van of the French giving way, the whole fleet followed their example ; nor could it afterwards be brought to renew the action. The Spaniards in the mean time made an attempt upon Gibraltar, but their fleet was dispersed or taken, and their army gave up the enterprise. In Spain, the Earl of Peterborough with 9,000 men took the city of Barcelona, and successively became master of the kingdoms of Arragon and Granada; of the strong city of Carthagena, and at last of Madrid the capital, which he en- tered in triumph, and proclaimed Charles III. King of Spain without opposition. These were, however, considered as minor conquests ; the victories of Marlborough alone en- giossecl the attention of the nation. In 1706, the Duke met the French under Villeroy, near the village of Ramillies : an engagement ensued, in which the English gained a vic- tory almost as complete as that of Blenheim, and the whole pountry became the prize of the conquerors, 232 MILITARY HISTORY, &c. The French troops were now dispirited : Paris itself trem- bled ; and Lewis, who had long flattered himself with the hopes of conquest, was humbled to such a degree as to in- treat, and even beg for peace : but the allies were too much flushed with their success to grant it : they continued to carry all before them ; and the capital of the French mon- arch began to dread the approach of the conquerors. But what neither the armies nor the politics of Lewis could effect, was brought about by a party in England. The dissensions between the Whigs and the Tories saved France, which now seemed tottering to its ruin. The councils of the Queen had been hitherto governed by a Whig ministry ; but in the nation a general spirit of Toiyism prevailed. They began to form plans in opposition to Marlborough : they considered him as a self-interested man, who sacrificed the real interest of the nation, in protracting an expensive war, for his own private glory and emolument, as he had formerly done in regard of his king and master James II. They saw their country oppressed by the continuance of the war ;^ Spain had been lost ; a part of the fleet under Sir Cloudesley Shovel had been sunk in a storm ; reverses had been expe- rienced in Germany, and their hopes had been disappointed in the Duke of Marlborough, who passed this campaign in marches and counter-marches for want of supplies from home. These causes of general murmur and discontent soon brought about the dissolution of the Whig ministry. Pre- vious, however, to their disgrace, they effected a measure of the greatest importance, viz. the union of the two king- doms of England and Scotland. This had been attempted at the commencement of Queen Anne's reign, but some dis- putes arising relative to trade, the conference was broken up. Commissioners were now appointed : the articles were soon agreed on, and laid before both Parliaments. Consid- erable opposition was at first made in both countries, par- ticularly in Scotland, where the thoughts of losing their independent government overbalanced all idea of interest, and fired the Scotch with resentment. But at length, not- withstanding all opposition, every article was approved by both Parliaments, and thus all were obliged to acquiesce in a union, of which, at first, they had not sufficient sagacity to distinguish the advantages. The Duke of Marlborough in the mean time had passed over to Flanders, and the two armies met at Oudenade, where the French were once mon MILITARY HISTORY, fee. 233 defeated, and lost Lisle, Ghent, Bruges, and every town in Flanders. In the campaign of 1709, Tournay, an exceed- ingly strong town, garrisoned by 12,000 men, was taken after a terrible siege of twenty-one days. Next followed the bloody battle of Malplaquet, where the French, 120,000 strong, were fortified in a position that seemed inaccessible. Nothing, however, was able to stand before the allied army; the French were driven from their fortifications, though with the great loss of 20,000 men on the side of the allies. The last campaign of the Duke of Marlborough, in 1711, is said to have excelled all his former exploits : he so con- trived his measures, that by marching and counter-marching, he induced Villars to quit a strong line of intrenchments without striking a blow. By such a continuance of success, he had gained to the allies a prodigious extent of country. From the beginning of the war till the expiration of his command he had perpetually advanced, and never lost any advantage which he had obtained. He frequently gained the enemy's posts without fighting; but where he was obliged to attack, no fortifications were able to resist him. He had never besieged a city which he did not take, nor engaged in a battle in which he did not come off victorious. Upon his return to England, however, after this campaign, the Queen, who now acted by the advice of the Tories, being resolved to make peace with France, dismissed the Duke of Marl- borough, and gave the command to the Duke of Ormond, who had orders only to act on the defensive. Hence the operations languished, till at last peace was concluded be- tween England and France, in 1713. In it was stipulated that Philip, now acknowledged King of Spain, should re- nounce all right to the throne of France ; that the Duke of Berri, Philip's brother, should also renounce his right to the crown of Spain in case he became king of France ; and that the Duke of Savoy should possess the Island of Sicily with the title of King. The Dutch had the barrier granted them which they so much desired. The fortifications of Dunkirk were destroyed. Spain ceded Gibraltar and the island of Minorca, and France resigned her pretensions to Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, and Nova Scotia. The Kin^ of Prussia had Upper Guelderland ; and the Emperor, in case of acceding to the treaty, was to have the kingdom of Naples, the duchy of Milan, and the Spanish Netherlands!.. This famous treaty was signed at Utrecht, on the 31st of May 1713. 20* 234 MILITARY HISTORY, &c. The latter part of Queen Anne's reign was a scene of in- trigues between the Whigs and the Tories. The violence of these two parties, their cabals and tumults, made the sit- uation of the Queen, who had not abilities nor vigour enough to repress them, very uncomfortable : her health declined ; she fell into a lethargic slumber, and her distemper gained ground so fast, that the next day all her physicians despaired of her life. The members of the Privy Council were now summoned, and a letter was sent to the Elector of Hanover, requesting him immediately to repair to England. Precau- tions were at the same time taken to secure the seaports ; and the command of the fleet was given to Earl Berkley, a pro- fessed Whig. These measures answered a double purpose : they shewed the alacrity of the Whigs in the cause of their new Sovereign, and implied that the state was in danger from the opposite party. Queen Anne died on the 1st of August 1714, in the fiftieth year of her age, and thirteenth of her reign. Cotemporary Sovereigns. POPES. Clement XI 1700 I Benedict XIII 1724 Innocent XIII . 1721 | EMPEROR OF GERMANY. Charles IV 1711 EMPEROR AND EMPRESS OF RUSSIA. Peter the Great 1682 1 Catharine 1 1725 EMPEROR OF THE TURKS. Achmet III 1703 KINGS OF FRANCE. Louis XIV 1643J Louis XV 1715 KING OF SPAIN. Philip V 1700 KING OF PORTUGAL. John V. . . 1707 KING OF DENMARK. Frederic IV 1699 KING AND Q.UEEN OF SWEDEN. Charles XII 1697 [Ulrica Leonora 171& KING OF PRUSSIA. Frederic II 1713 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 235 The House of Brunswick. -1714. — George L, reigned 12 Years, 9 Months. According to the act of succession, George, son of Ernest Augustus, Elector of Brunswick, and the Princess Sophia, grand-daughter of James I., ascended the British throne. An instantaneous and total change was soon efFected in every office of honour and advantage. The Tories, who were now styled Jacobites, and against whom George had been led into strong prepossessions, were excluded from all share in the royal favour, which was wholly engrossed by the Whigs, who were also called Hanoverians. These early marks of aversion, which the King took no pains to conceal, alienated the minds of many from his person and government, who might otherwise have served him with fidelity and affection. Among the principal changes, the Duke of Ormond was in his turn dismissed from the command of the army, which was restored to the Duke of Marlborough. Mr. Pulteney became Secretary at War ; and Mr. Walpole, who had already undertaken to manage the House of Commons, was gratified with the double place of Paymaster to the Army and to Chelsea Hospital. These partialities excited much discon- tent ; tumults became frequent, and every tumult served to increase the severity of the Legislature. An act was passed, declaring that if any persons to the number of twelve unlaw- fully assembled, should not within one hour disperse after being required to do so by a j ustice of the peace, and after hearing the riot act read, they should be deemed guilty of felony without benefit of clergy. This was certainly a severe act, and a great restriction to the liberty of the subject, as by it all meetings of the people, either for amusement or redress, were rendered criminal, if a magistrate should please to con- sider them as such. These proceedings excited great indigna- tion, particularly in Scotland, where to these grievances were joined that of the Union, which they were taught to con- sider as oppressive. The malcontents among the Scotch kept up a secret correspondence with those of England, till, considering their plans ripe for execution, the Earl of Marr assembled his vassals, proclaimed James III., and being joined by about 10,000 men, well armed and provided, he made himself master of the whole province of Fife. Proceeding to Dumblain, he encountered the Duke of Argyle : a battle 236 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. was fought, in which both sides claimed the victory, though the advantage rested with the Duke, who thus interrupted the progress of his antagonist. In England, the Earl of Derwentwater and Mr. Foster took the field with a body of horse ; and being joined by some gentlemen from the borders of Scotland, they pro- claimed James III. in Worksworth, Morpeth, and Alnwick. They next attempted to seize Newcastle : but being unsuc- cessful, they retired towards Scotland, where they were reinforced by some of the Scottish insurgents. With these they again returned into England ; but their forces being without subordination, and their chiefs disunited, they were overpowered at Preston, in Lancashire, by the King's forces, under Generals Carpenter and Wills, and obliged to lay down their arms. James, now styled the Pretender, had flattered himself with the hope of seeing the whole kingdom of England rise in his behalf; but he was soon undeceived, by a fruitless voyage which the Duke of Ormond made to the western coast, to sound the dispositions of the people. Nothing now remained for him but to hazard his person among his friends in Scotland. He accordingly landed in that country, and was solemnly proclaimed at Scone, where he exercised some acts of royalty ; but on the approach of Argyle, with a rein- forcement of 6,000 Dutch troops, the chiefs of his party, finding themselves destitute of arms, money, and ammuni- tion, abandoned the enterprise, and withdrew to their homes. The unfortunate James, after some of the most romantic escapes and adventures, embarked on board a small French ship, and in five days arrived safely at Gravelines, attended by the Earl of Marr and a few Scottish noblemen. Such was the issue of a rebellion that proved fatal to many noble families. The Earls of Derwentwater, Nithisdale, Wintown, and Carnwath, together with Lords Widdrington, Kenmuir, and Nairn, were impeached and found guilty. Lord Nithisdale had the good fortune to escape by means ot his wife, who dressed him in her clothes. -Derwentwater and Kenmuir were beheaded on Tower Hill; twenty-two were executed at Preston and Manchester; four or five were hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn ; and about a thou- sand were transported to North America. The year 1718 was remarkable for the signing of the famous quadruple alliance at London, between the Empe- ror, Great Britain, France, and Holland, in which it was THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 237 agreed that the Emperor should renounce all pretensions to the crown of Spain, and exchange Sardinia for Sicily with the Duke of Savoy ; and that the succession of the duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and Placentia, should be settled on the Queen of Spain's eldest son, in case the present pos- sessors should die without male issue. This treaty was not, however, pleasing to the Spaniards, and proved the cause of a war between the two countries. Upon its commencement, a squadron of twenty-two ships, under Admiral Byng, was ordered to cruize in the Mediter- ranean. Upon turning Cape Faro, near Messina, two small Spanish vessels were perceived. Byng pursued them closely, and thus was led to their main fleet, which he discovered in line of battle. The Spaniards, notwithstanding a superiority of numbers, attempted to sail away; but finding this impos- sible, they kept up a running fight. They were all taken except three, which were preserved by the good conduct of their vice-admiral, a native of Ireland. This was thought a favourable juncture for the Pretender. Spain furnished the .Duke of Ormond with ten ships of war and transports having on board 6,000 troops, with arms for 12,000 more ; but fortune was still as unfavourable to him as ever. The expedition encountered a terrible storm, which disabled the fleet, and frustrated the expedition. This misfortune, with the bad success of the Spanish arms in Sicily and other parts of Europe, induced Philip to sign the quadruple alliance, and peace was once more restored to Europe. In 1721, the nation was thrown into a violent ferment, and a great shock was given to public credit, by a diabolical project, known by the name of the South Sea Scheme. It was planned by Sir John Blunt, a director of the South Sea Company, who possessed all the cunning, plausibility, and boldness requisite for such an undertaking. To explain this as succinctly as possible, it is to be observed, that ever since the Revolution under William, the government had been obliged to borrow money from different companies of mer- chants or others, the interest of which was secured by taxes on the people, and thus was entailed on the kingdom what is called the national debt. Among the rest of the creditors was the company which traded to the South Sea. This company and that of the Bank of England had offered pro- posals for reducing all these public funds or debts into one, and that of the South Sea was accepted, and an act passed 238 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. the Parliament and received the royal assent. No sooner was the bill passed than the most scandalous arts were prac- tised to enhance the value of the shares and decoy the unwary. The stock gradually rose to the amazing sum of .£1,000 for each share of .£100, and the whole nation became infected with the avaricious spirit of stock-jobbing. All other employ was neglected, and the attention of the people wholly engrossed by this and other chimerical schemes, which now started up every day, under the countenance of many of the principal nobility. The infatuation prevailed from February till September, when the Stocks began to fall; the panic now commenced, and by the 29th they had sunk to 150, when several emi- nent goldsmiths and bankers stopped payment, and were obliged to abscond. An infinite number of families were thus ruined, and nothing was heard but grief, disappoint- ment, and despair. A committee was now appointed b}' the Commons to inquire into the affair, when the whole scheme of villany was discovered. Some of the directors and prin- cipal officers were taken into custody ; others were expelled the Commons, their estates confiscated towards making good the public damages, and such prudent regulations were made as the case w r ould admit of. The discontents occasioned by these public calamities once more gave the disaffected party hopes of success. But their connsels were weak, divided, and wavering. Francis Atterbury, Bishop of Rochester, was the first person arrested. He had long been obnoxious to Government, and possessed abilities to render himself formidable to any party or minis- try which he opposed. His papers were seized, and he was committed to the Tower; soon after the Duke of Norfolk, the Earl of Orrery, Lords North and Grey, with some others of inferior rank, were imprisoned. Of all these, however, only the bishop, who was banished, and one M'Layer, who was hanged at Tyburn, felt the severity of Government, the proof against the rest amounting to no convictive evidence. It was now two years since the King had visited his elec- toral dominions of Hanover. Having appointed a regency, he embarked for Holland ; but on the road from thence he was suddenly seized with a paralytic disorder, which soon deprived him of his faculties. He was conveyed to Osna- burg, wmere he expired on the 11th of June, in the 68th year of his age, and thirteenth of his reign. THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 239 Cotemporary Princes. POPES. Benedict XIII 17241 Benedict XIV 1740 Clement XII 1738 | Clement XIII 1758 EMPERORS OF GERMANY. Charles VI 1711 I Francis 1745 Charles VII 1740 I EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES OF RUSSIA. Peter II. . , 17271 John 1740 Anne 1730 I Elizabeth 1741 EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. Achmet III 1703|Osman II 1754 Mahomet V 1730|Mustapha III 1757 KINO OF FRANCE. Louis XV. . 1715 KINGS OF SPAIN. Philip V 1724 1 Charles III 1759 Ferdinand VI 1745 I KINGS OF PORTUGAL. John V 1707 1 Joseph 1750 KINGS OF DENMARK. Frederic IV 1 699 1 Frederic V 1746 Christian VI 1730 1 KINGS OF SWEDEN. Frederic 1720 1 Adolphus 1750 KINGS OF PRUSSIA. Frederic II 1713 J Frederic III 1740 1727. — George II. , reigned 33 Years, 4 Months. From the accession of George II. till the year 1739, England was not disturbed by any foreign war ; but for a considerable period the Spaniards in America had much dis- tressed and insulted the commerce of Great Britain in those parts. As a right of cutting logwood in the Bay of Campeachy, claimed by the British, gave them frequent opportunities of pushing in contraband commodities upon the continent, the Spaniards resolved to put a stop to the evil, by refusing lib- erty to cut logwood in that place. The Spanish guarda-costas exercised great severities in the execution of this determina- tion, and some of the English seamen were even sent as slaves to the mines of Potosi. Remonstrances were made to the Spanish minister ; the only answers to which were pro- 240 ™ E HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. mises of inquiry, which produced no redress. The people became indignant, and called for war ; which was declared, and Admiral Vernon sent with a squadron of six ships against Portobello, which was destroyed with scarcely the loss of a man. Commodore Anson was next sent to distress th.e enemy in the South Sea ; but the mismanagement of the ministry frustrated the project. He, however, after encountering dreadful storms, which dispersed his fleet, took a rich galleon, worth £300,000, with other captures to nearly the same amount, with which he returned to England, after a three years' voyage. Another expedition, to which this was sub- ordinate, ended more unfortunatety. It consisted of twenty- nine ships of the line, with 15,000 seamen, and as many land forces ; but the ministers detained them without any visible cause till the season for action in America was almost over. At last they arrived before Carthagena, and soon became masters of the strong forts which commanded the harbour; but in the attack of the town by escalade, their guides were slain, and the forces, mistaking their way, attack- ed the strongest parts of the fortifications, where they were exposed to the whole fire of the place. The consequence was they were obliged to retreat, after sustaining, with great resolution, a destructive fire during more than two hours, leav- ing 600 dead on the spot. The climate now began to make more havoc than the enemy ; and, to add to the calamity, the naval and military commanders disagreed, blamed each other, and were at last obliged to reimbark the troops and withdraw as soon as possible. These miscarriages produced great discontents, and at last the storm burst upon Sir Robert Walpole, who, finding a majority formed against him in the Commons, resigned his office, and was created Earl of Orford. The new ministers, who had so loudly declared for the liberty of the people, had no sooner entered into office, than they adopted the very measures which they had formerly repro- bated. The nation had now become disgusted with naval expeditions, and wished for a renewal of their victories in Flanders, in which disposition the King ardently joined them ; an army, therefore, of 16,000 men was sent over, to take part in the quarrels that were then beginning on the Continent. To trace the origin of these quarrels, it is necessary to go back a few years. After the death of the Duke of Orleans, who had been regent of France, Cardinal Fleury undertook to settle the confusion in which that country was involved. THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 241 Under him the nation repaired her losses, and improved her commerce. During the long interval of peace, which his counsels had procured for Europe, two powers, till then unregarded, began to attract the notice and jealousy of the neighbouring nations ; these were Russia and Prussia. The empire of Germany remained under the government of Charles VI., who had been placed upon the throne by the treaty of Utrecht. Sweden still languished from the destruc- tive projects of Charles XII. Denmark was inclined to peace ; and part of Italy remained subject to those princes who had been imposed upon it by the treaty. All these states con- tinued to enjoy profound peace till the death of Augustus, king of Poland, by which Europe was once more involved in a flame. The emperor, assisted by Russia, declared for the Elector of Saxony ; while, on the other hand, Fiance supported Stanislaus, who had already been nominated by Charles XII. of Sweden. The views of France were seconded by Spain and Sardinia, who both hoped to share in the spoils of Austria. A French army soon overran the empire, while the Spaniards were equally fortunate in the kingdom of Naples. The Emperor was soon obliged to sue for peace ; but the French, in consideration of receiving Lorraine and some other valua- ble territories, agreed to abandon the interests of Stanislaus, who was obliged to renounce his title to Poland. The Emperor Charles VI. dying October 1740, the French court seized this opportunity as favourable to their plans of ambition. Regardless of the pragmatic treaty, by which the late Emperor's dominions were guaranteed to his daughter, Maria Teresa, they caused the Elector of Bavaria to be crowned Emperor. Thus the Queen of Hungary was strip- ped of her inheritance ; and at the same time she lost the province of Silesia, by an irruption of the King of Prussia, while France, Saxony, and Bavaria attacked her other domin- ions. Britain alone was willing to succour her ; in which, however, she was subsequently joined by Holland, Russia, and Sardinia. A body of British forces were sent into the Netherlands, where they were joined by 16,000 Hanoverians, to make a diversion upon the dominions of France. These quickly retrieved the desperate affairs of the Queen of Hun- gary, and turned the scale of victory. The French were driven out of Bohemia; and her rival, the Elector of Bavaria, expelled from his dominions, retired to Frankfort, where, forsaken by his allies, he lived in obscurity. The British 21 S42 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. now advanced to join Prince Charles, the Queen's general; To prevent them, the French opposed an army of 60,000 men. The British army were commanded by the Earl of Stair, who suffered his army to be surrounded and attacked by the French with great impetuosity. The enemy were, however, obliged to repass the Maine, with the lotfs of 5,000 men. In Italy the French gained some advantages : but their chief hopes were in a projected invasion of England. The troops destined for this expedition were commanded by the famous Count Saxe : but the whole project was defeated by the appearance of Sir John Norris, who obliged the French fleet to put back ; and their transports being damaged in a gale of wind, the intended descent was entirely frustrated. The national joy was, however, in some measure damped by the conduct of Admirals Matthews and Lestock, who, through a misunderstanding between themselves, suffered a French fleet of thirty-four sail to escape. In the Netherlands, Count Saxe, with 120,000 men, overran the whole country, and laid siege to Tournay. To save this important place was fought the bloody battle of Fontenoi, in which the Dutch behaved very badly, and the allies under the Duke of Cumberland lost 12,000 men. The French lost nearly the same number. In 1745, the son of the Pretender resolved to make an effort to recover what he thought his ancient right. Fur- nished with a small sum of money from France, he landed on the coast of Lochabar with 2,000 men. Proceeding towafds Edinburgh, on the road to which his forces contin- ually increased, he entered the capital without opposition, but was unable to reduce the castle. Near Preston Pans he was attacked by Sir John Cope with the King's forces, whom he defeated with the loss of 500 men. This victory inspired his men with great confidence, and it was determined in a council of war to proceed towards England, which they entered, and advanced as far as Manchester, where they were joined by Colonel Townley, with about 200 English. The young Pretender marched on till within 100 miles of London, and the capital began to be in great alarm. Had he continued boldly to march on with the same expedition, he might perhaps have made himself master of it ; but the Highland chiefs, who were under no subordination, would proceed no further, and Charles was obliged to retreat. This he effected without loss, and laid siege to Sterling Castle. THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 5543 General Hawley, who commanded a body of troops near Edinburgh, undertook to raise the siege: but was completely defeated, with the loss of all his baggage. This was Charles's last triumph : the Duke of Cumberland overtook him at Culloden : an engagement ensued, in which the rebels were defeated with great slaughter, and a final period put to the hopes of the Pretender. The conquerors behaved with great cruelty, refusing quarter to the wounded, and spreading desolation wherever they went. Charles, notwithstanding the great rewards offered to apprehend him, arrived safely in France, after a variety of surprising adventures and escapes. Soon after this battle the Duke of Cumberland returned to Flanders, to resume the command of the army, where the French carried all before them ; though their victories were counterbalanced by their ill success in Italy, and very considerable defeats at sea. At length, all parties being weary of the war, a congress was held at Aix-la-Chapelle, where a treaty of peace was concluded. In 1751 died Frederic Prince of Wales, the father of his late Majesty George III. He was much regretted by the nation ; his affability had made him popular, and those who opposed administration, had grounded all their hopes of redress upon his accession to the throne. In 1749, a plan had been formed to encourage those who had been dis- charged from the army and navy to settle in Nova Scotia. This cold and barren spot was the cause of the renewal of hostilities between the French and English, which soon spread devastation over every part of the globe. Negotia- tions, mutual accusations, and, at last, hostilities, took place. Four operations were undertaken at once by the English in America. Colonel Monkton had orders to drive the French from their encroachments upon Nova Scotia; General John- son was sent against Crown Point ; General Shirley against Niagara; and General Braddock against Fort du Quesne. In these expeditions Monkton was successful; Johnson was also victorious; Shirley lost the season of operation, and Braddockwas defeated and killed. But at sea the British were so successful, that the French navy was unable to recover itself during the continuance of the war. The French now threatened, as usual, an invasion : which, however, never took place: but they landed a numerous body of (roops at Minorca, and invested the citadel of St. Philip, reckoned the strongest in Europe ; but at this tim$ 244 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. the garrison had been neglected, and was no ways prepared for a vigorous defence. To raise the siege, Admiral Byng was dispatched with a squadron of ten men of war, with orders to relieve Minorca, or at any rate to throw in a body of troops. This last under- taking he deemed too hazardous. A French fleet soon after appeared nearly equal to his own : but Byng was resolved to act only upon the defensive. The French advanced : a slight engagement ensued, when ihey slowly sailed away, and no other opportunity occurred afterwards to bring them to action. It was then resolved, in a council of war, to sail to Gibraltar, in order to refit, as the relief of Minorca was deemed impracticable. Nothing could exceed the resentment of the nation at this conduct. Byng was brought home under arrest ; tried, and sentenced to be shot ; which sentence he suffered with great resolution, protesting his innocence as to any treasonable intent. It is thought by some that the ministry secretly encouraged the resentment of the nation, in order to screen themselves ; be this as it may, the severity of this execution certainly produced very beneficial effects to the nation soon after. The ministry had entered into a treaty with Russia, by which 50,000 Russians were to act in the British service, in case Hanover should be invaded by the French ; but as the King of Prussia declared that he would suffer no foreign troops to enter the empire, the ministers were obliged to drop their Russian connexion, and conclude a treaty with Prus- sia. From this alliance a new combination quite opposite to the former took place. Britain opposed France in America, Asia, and on the ocean ; France attacked Hanover, which the King of Prussia undertook to defend ; Austria had its views on Prussia, and was seconded by Saxony, France, Sweden, and Russia; which latter power had long had a wish for some settlement in the west of Europe. In the east, Clive was very successful ; he drove the enemy from the province of Arcot, took the French general prisoner, and reinstated the Nabob in his dominions. Surajah Dowlah, Nabob of Bengal, and the most powerful prince in that country, was, by the intrigues of the French, induced to declare war against the English ; and levying an immense army, laid siege to Calcutta, one of the chief forts in that part of the world belonging to the British, but which was not in a state of defence sufficient to withstand aa THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 245 attack. The fort was taken, and the garrison, of 146 men, were seized and thrust into a prison called the Black Hole : where, from the closeness of the dungeon, and the intense heat of the climate, these poor wretches, after enduring the most excruciating torments from thirst and suffocation, died, to the number of 123, so that only twenty-three survived the next day, and they in a high state of putrid fever. Cal- cutta was speedily retaken by Clive ; the victory of Plassey followed, and the inhuman Surajah Dowlah was defeated, deposed, and put to death. The conquests of the British in the Western world were even more splendid than those in the East ; which may be chiefly ascribed to the vigorous administration of Pitt, who about this time came into power. An expedition was set on- foot against Cape Breton, under General Amherst and Admi- ral Boscawen ; another under General Abercrombie, against Crown Point and Ticonderago ; and a third under Brigadier Forbes, against Fort du Quesne. The Fortress of Louis- burgh, which defended the island of Cape Breton, was very strong, both by nature and art : the garrison was numerous, the commander vigilant : but the activity of the British sur- mounted every obstacle ; the place surrendered, and its forts were demolished. The expedition against Fort du Quesne was equally successful ; but that against Crown Point mis- carried. In 1759 it was resolved to attack the French in several parts of their empire at once. General Amherst with 12,000 men was ordered to attack Crown Point once more', General Wolfe was to undertake the siege of Quebec, while General Prideaux and Sir William Johnson were to attempt a French fort near the Cataracts of Niagara. This was the first that succeeded ; a body of French troops that attempted to relieve the fort were defeated, and the garrison surrendered prisoners of war. Crown Point was, upon the arrival of Amherst, deserted and destroyed. There remained but one decisive blow to reduce all North America under the British dominion, and this was the taking of Quebec ; which, when we consider its situation on the side of the great river St. Lawrence, the fortifications with which it is secured, the natural strength of the country, the great number of vessels and floating batteries which the enemy had provided for the defence of the river, or the numerous body of savages hov- ering round the English army, offered a combination of difficulties which might perplex and discourage the most resolute commander. The general himself was fully aware 21* SMfl THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. of the difficulty of the undertaking. After stating, in a letter to the ministry, the dangers that presented themselves, lie adds : " I know that the affairs of Great Britain require the most vigorous measures ; but then the courage of a hand- ful of brave men should be exerted only where there is some hope of a favourable issue." The only prospect of attempting the place with success was by landing a body of troops hy night below the town, and possessing themselves of the ground at the back of the city. This attempt, how- ever, appeared peculiarly discouraging. The stream was rapid, the shore shelving, the bank above lined with centi- nels : the landing-place so narrow as to be easily missed in the dark ; and the steepness of the ground such as hardly to be surmounted even in the day-time. All these difficulties were, however, overcome by the conduct of the general and the bravery of the men. The precipices were ascended, and the enemy that defended the narrow pass was dislodged. Montcalm, the French commander, being informed that the English had gained the heights, hitherto deemed inaccessi- ble, resolved to hazard a battle. The onset was made with great fury : the French general was killed early in the action, and the second in command shared his fate. General Wolfe, who stood in front of the lines in the hottest part of the engagement, had been aimed at by the enemy's marksmen, and received a shot in his wrist ; but wrapping his handker- chief round his hand, he continued giving his orders without the least emotion, and advanced at the head of his grenadiers with their bayonets fixed : but a second ball more fatal pierced his breast, so that, unable to proceed, he leaned on the shoulder of a soldier that was next him. Struggling in the agonies of death, and just expiring, he heard a voice cry, " They run !" Upon which he seemed for a moment to revive, and asked who ran ; " The French !" was the answer : when, expressing his wonder that they ran so soon, he sunk on the soldier's breast, and .his last words were, " I die happy." The surrender of Quebec was the consequence of this victory; the whole of Canada soon followed, and has continued in the possession of the English ever since. The island of Gaudaloupe was reduced about the same time by Commodore More and General Hopson. In Germany, affairs at the commencement of the war wore an unfavourable aspect. The Hanoverians, commanded by the Duke of Cumberland, were greatly outnumbered by the French, who at last compelled him to sign the capitula- The house of Brunswick. £47 tion of Clostcr-seven, by which all the army stipulated to lay down their arms and" disperse, and Hanover was obliged to submit quietly to the enemy. But their oppressions were so great, that the army rose to vindicate the freedom of their country, and Ferdinand, Prince of Brunswick, put himself at their head. As soon as this was known in England, large supplies were granted to the King of Prussia ; and the Hano- verians, with a small body of British troops under the Duke of Marlborough, joined Prince Ferdinand. After some inconsiderable success the Duke died, and the command of the British forces devolved on Lord George Sackville ; but a misunderstanding arose between him and Prince Ferdi- nand, the unfortunate consequences of which appeared at the battle of Minden, fought shortly after. Lord George pretended that he did not understand the orders of the Prince, which were contradictory, and of consequence could not obey them. The allies, however, gained the victory, which, but for the British General, would have been a deci- sive one. Lord George was soon after recalled, tried by a court-martial, and declared incapable of serving in any military command. The British were now reinforced by a body of 30,000 men, and sanguine hopes of conquest were expected. These hopes, however, were not realized: the allies were defeated at Corbach ; and although they retrieved their honour at Exdorf, and gained a victory at Warburg and Ziernberg, they were again beaten at Campen, after which both sides retired to winter quarters. The efforts of England in every part of the globe at this time w r ere amazing, and the expense of her operations greater than had ever been disbursed by any nation before. The King of Prussia received a subsidy ; a large body of English forces commanded the extensive peninsula in India, while an army of c 20,000 men secured the conquests in North America ; 30,000 were employed in Germany, and several bodies distributed in numerous garrisons, in various parts of the world. But all this was nothing to the force maintained at sea, which commanded wherever it went, and had totally annihilated the French power on that element. The courage and conduct of the English admirals surpassed whatever had been achieved in history ; neither superior force, nor the terrors of the tempest, could intimidate them. Admiral Hawke gained a complete victory over the French fleet off the coast of Bretagne, in Quiberon Bay, in the £48 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. midst of a violent storm, during the darkness of the night, and, what a seaman fears more, upon a rocky shore. On the 25th of October 1760, died George II. He had risen at his usual hour, and observed to his attendants, that as the weather was fine, he would take a walk in the gardens of Kensington Palace, where he then resided. In a few minutes after his return he was heard to fall upon the floor. His attendants ran to his assistance, and lifted him into bed, when he desired, with a faint voice, that the Princess Amelia might be sent for ; but before she could reach his apartment he expired, in the seventy-seventh year of his age, and the thirty-third of his reign. Cotemporary Princes. POPES. Clement XIII 1758 I Pius VI 1775 Clement XIV 1769 I Pius VII 180O BMPERORS OF GERMANY. Francis 1745 Joseph II 1765 Leopold 1790 EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES OF RUSSIA. Francis II., who assumed the title of Emperor of Austria 1792 Paul 1 1797 Alexander 1S01 Elizabeth 1741 Peter III 1762 Catharine II 1763 EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. Mustaphalll 1757|Selim III 1789 Achmet IV 1774lMahmoud II 1808 KINGS OF FRANCE. Louis XV 1715 I Napoleon 1799 Louis XVI 1774 Louis XVIII 1814 Republic 1792 1 KINGS OF SPAIN. Charles III 17591 Ferdinand VII 1808 Charles IV 1788 1 KINGS AND Q.UEEN OF PORTUGAL. Joseph V 17501 John VI 1820 Maria 1777 I KINGS OF DENMARK. Frederick V 1746 I Frederic VI 1808 Christian VII 1756 I KINGS OF SWEDEN. Gustavus III 1771 (Charles XIII 1809 Gustavus IV 1792 1 Charles XIV 1818 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 249 KIXG OF POLAND. Stanislaus Augustus 1786 KINGS OF PRUSSIA. Frederic II 1740 1 Frederic IV 1797 Frederic III 17861 J7G0. — George III., reigned 59 Years, 3 Months. George III. succeeded his grandfather George II., and immediately assembled a Parliament. In his speech he spoke with much enthusiasm of his having been born and educated a Briton, and of his determination to prosecute the war with vigour. By this time, however, the people were weary of conquests, esp3cially with those in Germany, wdiich, without any solid advantage, was a great expense to the nation. In 1761, proposals of peace were made between the belligerent powers ; but the French only wished to gain time ; and Mr. Pitt, who had conducted the war with ability, and a spirit never excelled, if equalled, had, with his usual sagacity, dived into the designs of the enemy, and discovered a private treaty which had been entered into between France and Spain, called the family compact : he therefore proposed in council an immediate declaration of war against Spain. Foiled in his views, he declared he could no longer be of use in the cabinet, and the next day resigned his employ of Secretary of State, and was created Earl of Chatham. The new administration were soon, however, obliged to adopt the suggestion of Mr. Pitt, and war was declared against Spain ; but the opportunity of striking a sudden blow was lost. As Portugal had long been in alliance with Great Britain, the French and Spaniards sent the most haughty memorials, commanding Joseph, the Portuguese monarch, to accede to the confederacy. Joseph rejected their proposals, and con- cluded his answer by nobly declaring, that "it would affect him less to let the last tile of his palace fall, and to see his faithful subjects spill the last drop of their blood, than to sacrifice, together with the honour of his crown, all that Portugal held most dear, and to submit by such extraordinary means to become an unheard-of example to all pacific powers, who would no longer be able to enjoy the benefit of neutral- ity whenever a war should be kindled between powers, with 250 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. which the former were connected by defensive treaties." The Spaniards immediately prepared to invade Portugal, and with three different armies attempted to penetrate to Lisbon. Their first body proceeded as far as the Douro, but was there stopped by the peasantry, headed by some English officers, who seized a difficult pass, and drove the enemy back to Monte Corvo. The second and third were equally un- successful, and were obliged to fall back to the frontiers of Spain. No less propitious were the British arms in the East and West Indies. From the French were taken the islands of Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Granada : from the Spaniards the strong fortress of the Havannah, in the isle of Cuba. Nine of the enemy's ships of war were captured, with four frigates ; three of their capital vessels were sunk in the harbour, and two on the stocks destroyed. In money and valuable merchandise the plunder amounted to £3,000,000. To this may be added the capture of the Spanish register ship, in value a million sterling. In the East-Indies, Manilla was taken, and with it fourteen considerable islands fell into our hands, besides a rich galleon worth upwards of £500,000. By the acquisition of Manilla, joined to our former successes, we secured all the avenues of the Spanish trade, and inter- rupted all communication between the ports of their vast, but disjointed empire. The conquest of the Havannah had cut off, in a great measure, the intercourse of their wealthy continental colonies with Europe : the reduction of the Phil- ippines excluded them from Asia; and the plunder taken was more than sufficient to indemnify the charges of the expedition : a circumstance not very common in modern wars. All this time the war in Germany had continued with una- bated violence. The allies, under Prince Ferdinand, had given the highest proofs of valour, but no decisive advantage had been obtained. It was, however, no longer the interest of Britain to continue the contest. There had indeed seldom been a period so glorious to this island. In the course of the war an immense tract of land had been conquered. The American territory approached the borders of Asia, and came near the frontiers of the Russian and Chinese dominions. She had conquered twenty-five islands, all distinguishable for their riches and magnitude, or the importance of their situation. By sea and land she had gained twelve battles, reduced nine fortified cities, and nearly forty castles and THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 25l forts ; had taken or destroyed a hundred ships of war, and acquired at least ten millions of plunder. After such unex- ampled and widely extended conquests, the French and Spaniards became sincerely desirous of the termination of a war so unpropitious to them ; and peace was at length con- cluded at Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. Great Britain, by this treaty, received Florida in exchange for the Havannah; she retain- ed Canada, Cape Breton, Tobago, Dominica, St. Vincent, the Grenadas, and Senegal, on the coast of Africa, but re- stored all her other conquests. A peace was soon after con- cluded between the Empress Queen of Hungary and his Prussian Majesty; and thus the general tranquillity of Eu- rope was happily re-established. At the conclusion of this war the national debt amounted to about one hundred and forty-eight millions. The most momentous event to this country during the year 1765, was the passing of the American Stamp Act. This first kindled the sparks of that conflagration, which afterwards involved a great part of Europe, as well as America, in its destructive spread ; and, although a remote, was certainly a principal cause of the French Revolution. As this war is a most important event in the annals of Great Britain, no circumstance, however trivial, that serves to mark the progress of the growing animosity between the mother country and her colonies, ought to be passed over in silence. For this reason we shall observe, that an Act of Parliament had been lately made, enjoining the colonies to furnish his Majesty's troops with necessaries in their quarters. This act the colony of New York refused to obey ; and ano- ther act was therefore passed, restraining the assembly of that province from making any laws until they had complied with the former. At this the Americans expressed their indignation, and passed several resolutions against the im- portation of European, by which they no doubt meant British, commodities. Nor were the people in England much better satisfied with the posture of affairs. The vast sums owing to British, merchants by the Americans amounted to several millions. Their refusal to pay these until the obnoxious laws should be repealed, greatly distressed the trading part of the country. Administration was therefore under the ne- cessity of either immediately enforcing the stamp act by the sword, or of procuring its instant repeal. Pacific measures prevailed ; the act was repealed ; but at the same time another was made, declaring the right of Parliament not 252 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. only to tax the colonies, but to bind them in all cases what- soever. The repeal of the stamp act occasioned universal joy, both in England and America; though, as the opposite party denied the right of Parliament to tax them, matters were still as far from any real accommodation as ever. This dis- content of the Americans was soon after augmented by the duties laid on tea, glass, &c. imported into their country. The French and Spaniards, taking advantage of these dis- sensions, shewed an inclination to come to a rupture, and were believed secretly to have fomented the spirit of resist- ance which now spread through the colonies. The great subject of dispute between the mother country and her American colonies was the right of taxation. The colonies resisted this right, and seemed determined to en- counter every danger, rather than submit to any taxes im- posed without their own consent. In order to try their temper, and see whether they would put their threats into execution, some tea was sent out to America with the new duties an- nexed. This was not even permitted to be landed, but sent back to England with the utmost contempt and indignation. At Boston it met with a still worse reception ; it was taken out of the ships by the populace, and thrown into the sea. To punish the New Englanders for this violence, two bills were passed : one for shutting up the port of Boston ; and the other for taking the executive power out of the hands of the people, and vesting it in the crown. These acts of severity were levelled in appearance only at the town of Boston ; but most of the colonies took the alarm. They thought they saw in the fall of that town, the punishment that might soon be inflicted on themselves ; they, therefore, resolved to make common cause with them, and accordingly all the colonies, Nova-Scotia and Georgia except- ed, sent delegates to a General Assembly, which met at Phila- delphia, and assuming the name of Congress, presented a bold and spirited address to his Majesty for a redress of grievances. Georgia, the following year, acceded to the union, and thus completed the number of the thirteen provinces which soon after separated from the mother country, and ultimately ren- dered themselves sovereign and independent states. The fire, which had long been gaining ground, now broke out into an open flame. General Gage, governor of Massachu- setts Bay, hearing that the provinces had collected a quan- tity of military stores at a place called Concord, sent out a THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 253 detachment to destroy them. This detachment met a com- pany of militia at Lexington. The English commander order- ed them to disperse. The provincials did not obey; and the soldiers opened a general fire upon them : eight of the militia- men were killed, several wounded, and the stores were then destroyed without further interruption ; but on their return they were suddenly attacked by a very superior number of the provincials, and though they made good their retreat to Boston, they lost upwards of 200 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. The news of this engagement was no sooner carried to the different parts of the country, than the whole province was at once in arms, and Boston was invested by a body of militia amounting to 20,000 men. The Congress also passed a resolu- tion, declaring that the compact between the crown and Mas- sachusetts Bay was dissolved ; and the more effectually to mark their contempt for the, British Government, they erected a post-office, at the head of which they placed Dr. Franklin, who had been disgracefully removed from that situation in England ; and upon General Gage's publishing a proclama- tion, offering a pardon to all who should lay down their arms and return to their duty, excepting Messrs. Hancock and Adams, they immediately chose Mr. Hancock president of the Congress. In the mean time some skirmishes happened in the islands lying off Boston, in which the Americans had generally the advantage ; but nothing decisive took place till the 17th of June 1775, when the battle of Breed's Hill was fought. Breed's Hill is an eminence situated in the neighbour- hood of Boston, upon a narrow neck of land. Upon this hill the provincials threw up, in one of the short nights of that season, a strong redoubt, considerable intrench ments and a breastwork almost cannon- proof. In order to dislodge them from this post, which might have given much annoyance, a detachment of 3,000 men was sent out, under the com- mand of Generals Howe and Pigot. The attack began with a heavy cannonade, which, owing to the breastwork thrown up, did not much execution, and was borne by the provin- cials with the steadiness of veteran troops ; they did not return a shot till the King's forces had advanced almost to the works, when they began, and kept up for some time such a dreadful and continued fire, that many of our bravest men and officers were killed, and the rest thrown into con- fusion. The troops, however, instantly rallied, and returning to the charge with fixed bayonet and irresistible fury, forced 22 254 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. the works in every quarter, and compelled the provincials to abandon the post and retire to the continent. This, however, was a dear-bought advantage ; almost half the detachment were killed or wounded, and the number of officers who fell, compared to that of the private men, was greatly beyond the usual proportion ; this was owing to the training by the Ameri- cans of a certain description of soldiers called riflemen, who had guns of a peculiar make, and excelled all others in taking a sure and steady aim. The spirit displayed by the New Englanders on this occa- sion, encouraged the Congress to proceed with greater alacrity in their military preparations. They had some time before given orders for raising and paying an army, and they now published a declaration of the motives that compelled them to take up arms, and their determined resolution not to lay them down till all their grievances were redressed. They likewise appointed Mr. Washington, one of the delegates for Virginia, to be commander-in-chief of all the American forces. But to show that they had formed no design of separating themselves from the mother country, the}' - presented an address to the inhabitants of Great Britian, another to the peo- ple of Ireland, and a petition to the King, in which they dis- claimed all thoughts of independence, and declared that they wished for nothing more than a reconciliation on just and reasonable terms ; and, in the opinion of many, such terms might have been granted them at this time as would have at once gratified their ambition, without hurting the honour or the interest of Great Britain. But the fact is, that during the whole of this unhappy quarrel, our ministers seemed to entertain too mean an opinion of the spirit or resources of the Americans. Indeed, so strong was the delusion, that when Mr. Penn, who had brought over the last petition from the Americans, was examined by the House of Lords, and declared that if the petition were rejected, his countrymen would in all probability enter into alliances with foreign powers, no regard was paid to his information; and as to the petition, he was told by the ministry that no answer would be returned to it. It is easy to imagine what an impression such a mode of treatment must have upon the minds of the Americans, elated with the fame they had acquired in the battle of Bunker's Hill. Not satisfied with acting merely on the defensive, they now determined to make an effort to reduce Quebec, before the fleets and armies, which they were THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 255 well assured would sail from England, should arrive; the attempt had already been facilitated by the taking of Crown Point and Ticonderoga by surprise, which gave them an en- trance into Canada; and they now dispatched 3,000 men, under Generals Montgomery and Schuyler, to attack that province. They were opposed by General Carleton, a man of great experience and activity, who, with a very few troops, had been able to keep the disaffected in awe, and had now aug- mented his army by a considerable body of Indians. The provincials were at first successful ; they reduced the forts of Chambly and St. John ; they captured the whole of the British shipping between Montreal and Quebec, and took the town of Montreal itself. No further obstacles remained in the way of the Americans towards the capital than what arose from the nature of the country, and these indeed were considerable. Nothing, however, could damp their ardour : notwithstanding it was the month of Novem- ber, Colonel Arnold formed the design of penetrating through the woods, morasses, and the most frightful solitudes, from New' England to Canada, by a nearer way than that which Montgomery had chosen : and this he accomplished, to the astonishment of all who saw or heard of the attempt. The consternation, however, into which the town of Quebec was thrown, proved rather detrimental to the Americans than otherwise, as it redoubled the vigilance, and united all par- ties, who before were contending violently against each other. Without artillery, and in want of provisions, Arnold was obliged to content himself with merely blockading the place. The arrival of Montgomery did not much mend his situation : their united forces were too insignificant to attempt the reduction of a place so strongly fortified. No other resource was left but an attempt to take it by surprise. This was resorted to : but Montgomery was killed, Arnold had his leg shattered, and the enterprise was abandoned, after an immense slaughter of their troops ; so that, after the engagement, no more than 810 effective men could be mus- tered. Arnold did not, however, immediately abandon the province ; he removed about three miles from the city, and. finding the Indians fricndty, he was enabled to endure all the hardships of a winter campaign in that most severe cli- mate ; but upon the arrival of a body of troops from Eng- land, he was finally obliged to evacuate the province. In ti:e mean time, the armv at Boston was reduced to a 256 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. miserable condition. General Howe, who had succeeded General Gage in the command, though an officer of great spirit, fruitful in expedients and known military skill, found himself totally unequal to the difficulties of his situation. He was effectually cut off from all communication with the continent of America, whence he could not expect the least supply of provisions. The store-ships from England arrived slowly, and some of them were captured by the enemy : so that the army, as well as the inhabitants of Boston, were in danger of polishing by famine. To add to their distress, the Americans had erected strong batteries upon the adjacent hills, whence, in the spring, they began to play upon the town with incredible fury. For fourteen days this terrible attack continued, without intermission ; so that, finding the place no longer tenable, the army was obliged to evacuate it. taking with them such of the inhabitants as chose to follow their fortunes. From Boston they sailed to Halifax, leaving behind them immense stores of ammunition, cannon, &c, together with a great quantity of woollen and linen goods, of which the Americans stood much in need. General Washington imme- diately took possession of the town, which he fortified in such a manner as to render it almost impregnable. An expedition undertaken against Charleston, about the same time, shewed the ministry to be as little acquainted with the creeks and harbours on the American coast, as they soon after appeared to be with the interior geography of the country. The fleet for this enterprise was commanded by Sir Peter Parker, and the land forces by Generals Clinton and Cornwallis. The troops were disembarked upon a place called Long Island, separated from another, called Sullivan's Island, only by a strait, which was said to be no more than eighteen inches deep at low water. Upon this vague report the expedition was planned, and the result was such as might have been expected. The enemy had erected some strong batteries upon Sullivan's Island, in order to obstruct the passage of ships to the town. This post the admiral attacked with great gallantry ; but when the troops attempted to pass from one island to the other, they found the strait. instead of eighteen inches, not less than seven feet deep. The consequence was, that after losing some of his bravest men, and even a ship of war, which he was obliged to burn in order to prevent her falling into the enemy's hands, the THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 25T admiral was obliged to give up the enterprise as altogether, impracticable. The Americans now began to think that matters had been, carried too far between them and the mother country, ever to admit of any sincere or lasting reconciliation. They likewise reflected, that while they continued to acknowledge themselves subjects of the British empire, they were natu- rally regarded by the rest of the world as rebels fighting against their lawful sovereign. They therefore published, on the 4th of July 1776, their famous Declaration of Inde- pendence, by which they disclaimed all allegiance to the crown of Great Britain, and erected themselves into free and sovereign States-. General Howe did not long remain inactive at Halifax. Setting sail for New York, and being there joined by his brother, Lord Howe, with a large fleet, and considerable- reinforcements, he drove the Americans, first from Long- Island, then from the city of New York, and compelled them to abandon King's Bridge, at the extremity of New York Island, where they had thrown up very strong works.. Not being able, however, to force Washington to a general engagement, he returned to New York, where he established his head-quarters. Various other successes attended the British arms. The American flotilla, on Lake Champlain, was nearly destroyed by General Carleton, and Sir Henry Clinton made himself master of Rhode Island without the loss of a man. This conquest was of great importance, as it obliged the Ameri- can fleet to sail as far as possible up the Providence River, and thus remain entirely useless. The- same ill success attended the Americans in other parts : General Burgoyne succeeded, after incredible exertions, in constructing a fleet, with which he pursued General Arnold, who, after his expulsion from Canada, had crossed Lake Champlain, and taken up his quarters at Crown Point. Here he was attacked by the British, defeated, and obliged to burn his ships, a few only escaping to Lake George. The affairs of the Americans seemed now every where to= decline, and those who had been the most sanguine in t'ne cause began to waver. The time, also, for which the soldiers had enlisted was expired, and the misfortunes of the preced- ing campaign had so discouraged them, that few were willing to engage during the continuance of a war, the event of which seemed so doubtful. An exploit, however, of General Wash- 22* 258 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. ington, at this time, raised the drooping spirits of the Ameri- cans. Perceiving the imminent danger to which Philadelphia was exposed, he resolved to make some attempts upon the Hes- sians, who lay nearest the city ; and for that purpose, on the night of the 24th December, he silently crossed the Delaware, and attacking the Hessians, who had not perceived his approach, killed their colonel, seized their artillery, and took 1,000 prisoners. Emboldened by his success, he made an attempt on a division of the British forces, consisting of three regiments, under Colonel Mawhood. These troops were surprised on their march ; but although they were separately surrounded by a force vastly superior, they charged the enemy so resolutely with their bayonets, that they effected their retreat with the loss of 300 taken prisoners. France and Spain had hitherto professed to observe a strict neutrality, with regard to great Britain and her American colonies. A step which they now took, w r as sufficient to render their sincerity suspected. They opened their ports to the American privateers, and suffered them publicly to dispose of the prizes they had taken from the British mer- chants. They likewise privately supplied the Americans w r ith artillery and military stores ; and such numbers of French officers and engineers went over to the Americans, as added greatly to the skill and strength of their armies. At the same time both these powers continued to increase their marine with such unceasing activity, that it w r as plainly fore- seen by every thinking person that they would soon throw r off the mask, and openly declare in favour of the Americans. But the ministry treated these ideas as the visionary conceits of wrong-headed politicians. In the month of June 1777, General Howe opened the campaign with an attempt to bring General Washington to a general engagement in the northern colonies : but finding that impossible, he resolved to make an attempt on the south- ern ones. He accordingly embarked his army on board 200 transports, and set sail for Philadelphia; but when he arrived at the mouth of the Delaware, he found it so filled with chevaux-de-frize as rendered it absolutely impassable. He therefore landed his troops at Elk ferry, and at Brandywine river found himself opposed by General Washington, who, contrary to his usual caution, resolved to hazard a battle for the protection cf Philadelphia. The conflict was obstinately contested through the whole of the day, but the Americans were at last obliged to yield to the superior discipline of the THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 259 English troops, who entered Philadelphia immediately after. General Burgoyne, on his side, opened the campaign with about 10,000 men, by the siege of Ticonderoga. The place was strong, and garrisoned by 3,000 men. They had, how- ever, omitted to fortify a rugged eminence called Sugar-hill, which effectually commanded the works, vainly imagining that the difficulty of the ascent would deter the British from attempting it. A road was, however, soon made to its very top, which so much disheartened the Americans, that they abandoned the fort entirely, and in their retreat lost 200 boats, 130 pieces of cannon, with all their provisions and baggage. After experiencing various losses in their retreat, they arriv- ed at Saratoga, where they were strongly reinforced by troops from all quarters, and a considerable train of artillery under General Arnold. Congress directed General Gates to take the command. Here ended the success of the British. The roads, which had been made with incredible labour, were destroyed by the rains and the enemy, so that the army began to be greatly distressed for want of provisions, which caused the desertion of the Indian auxiliaries in great bodies. Sur- rounded by superior numbers, without being able to conve}' any intelligence of their situation, or send out their foraging parties, they were attacked by the Americans, and after two desperate engagements, were obliged to submit to a capitula- tion, by which it was agreed that they should be allowed to embark for Great Britain, upon condition of not serving again in America during the war. The news of this defeat, whilst it filled England with shame and despair, was the signal for France to throw off the mask and openly declare in favour of the Americans, whom they acknowledged as sovereign and independent states. As this amounted to a declaration of hostilities, both parties prepared for war. On the 27th of July, the fleets of the two powers came in sight of each other, when a running fight commenced, the English commanded by Keppel and Palliser, the French by D'Orvillers. The two English admirals unfortunately disagreed : Keppel was accused of not having done his duty, Palliser for disobedience of orders as second in command : Keppel was honourably acquitted, Palliser partly condemned. A bold adventurer, of the name of Paul Jones, this year kept the western coast of the island in constant alarm. He landed at Whitehaven, where he burnt a ship in the harbour, and even attempted to set fire to the town. He afterwards 260 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. landed in Scotland, and plundered the house of the Earl of Selkirk. He fought a bloody battle with Captain Pearson, of the Serapis, whom he compelled to strike. His own ship was so shattered in the engagement, that he had no sooner quitted her in order to take possession of his prize, than she went to the bottom. Captain Farmer, of the Quebec, fought a no less desperate battle with a French ship of very superior force, till his ship accidentally taking fire, he was blown into the air with most of his crew. The chief scene of action between the English and French was the West-Indies, where we reduced St. Lucia, but lost St. Vincent, Dominica, and Granada. In America, the war languished ; and except the reduction of Georgia by Commo- dore Parker and Colonel Campbell, and an attempt to recover it by the French Admiral D'Estaing, and the American General Lincoln, in which they were bravely repulsed by Major General Prevost, nothing of importance occurred this year. As the united arms of America were upon the whole un- successful, the independence of the Americans still seemed precarious ; but their courage was once more renewed by the accession of Spain to the confederacy, in September 1779. The difficulties and danger to which England was now reduced, were undoubtedly great ; but the spirit and magna- nimity displayed on this occasion did the highest honour to the nation, and fully justified the opinion generally entertain- ed of its opulence and valour. All seemed actuated by a noble zeal in the cause of their country : large sums were subscribed, companies raised, and regiments formed with such alacrity, as quickly banished any apprehensions that might be entertained of an invasion. The French, who thought themselves secure of victory by the accession of Spain, made an attempt on Jersey and Guern- sey, but with so little success that not a man could disembark ; and in a second attempt their squadron was driven ashore, and partly burnt, by a fleet under Sir James Wallace. Thus disappointed, they formed the project of invading Great Bri- tain. A junction was formed between the French and Spanish fleets, which now amounted to sixty sail of the line, besides a vast number of frigates and armed vessels. All this formidable apparatus, however, ended in nothing but the capture of a single ship. They had passed the British fleet ander Sir Charles Hardy, in the mouth of the Channel, with.- THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 261 out observing him, and sailing within sight of Plymouth, they took the Ardent of 64 guns ; after which, they returned without making any attempt to land. The British Admiral endeavoured to entice them up the Channel in pursuit of him, but this they did not think proper to attempt; indeed, their pusillanimity was such as to make the French them- selves ashamed of it. The Spaniards had begun their milita- ry operations by the siege of Gibraltar, but with very little success ; and the close of the year 1779 and beginning of .1780 were attended with considerable advantages to Britain In the West-Indies, Sir Hyde Parker and Admiral Rowley took several ships of war, and a number of merchantmen. Sir G. B. Rodney, who had been entrusted with a fleet for the relief of Gibraltar, fell in with, twenty-two sail of Spanish ships, and captured the whole in a few hours, and some days after he engaged the Spanish fleet of eleven sail of the line, and took four of their largest ships ; two others were driven on shore, one of which was afterwards got off; the other was lost, and one was blown up during the action. Having supplied the garrison of Gibraltar with provisions, &.c, he proceeded to the West-Indies, where he engaged a French fleet of superior force, under the Count de Guichen, and obliged it to retire to Guadaloupe ; a second and a third engagement ensued, but produced no decisive result. In June, the French were joined by a Spanish squadron, and their united fleets amounted to thirty-six sail of the line. But notwithstanding their vast superiority of force, they did not attempt to attack the British fleet, nor any of the islands. In July, a very important capture was made by the Span- iards, of five East-Indiamen, and fifty sail of merchantmen that had the misfortune to fall in with their fleet. This, however, was fully compensated by the taking of fort Omoa from the Spaniards, in which more than 3,000,000 of dollars were gained by the victors : and among other valuable com- modities, twenty-five quintals of quicksilver, without which the Spaniards could not extract the precious metals from their mines. As if Great Britain had not enemies enough to oppose, the Dutch, who had been so often assisted by her, joined her enemies ; and at the same time a most formidable con- federacy, under the title of the "armed neutrality." w T as formed against her, at the head of which was Catharine II. of Russia, who induced the kings of Sweden and Denmark 262 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. also to accede to their plans, which were evidently to crush the power of Great Britain entirely. But with almost all the powers of Europe arrayed against her, the nation was not to be dismayed ; and as the Dutch had acted with great perfidy and ingratitude, it was deter- mined to take signal vengeance on them. Lord North, in his communication to Parliament on the subject, after lamenting the necessity of war with Holland, and acknowledging the powerful confederacy against Great Britain', added, that when he considered the noble stand already made against the enemies of the country, and the spirited resources of the nation, he was fully convinced that it was equal to the contest. But to return to the events of the war. In February 1781, the Dutch island of St. Eustatia surrendered to Admi- ral Rodney and General Vaughan, and in August the Dutch fleet fell in with that under Admiral Parker; a bloody engagement ensued, though little advantage was gained on either side ; the Dutch bore away for the Texel, and the English were too disabled to follow them. In the East-Indies, the united powers of the French under General Lally, and the Indians under the famous Hyder Ali and his son Tippoo Saib, were beaten in repeated engage- ments by very inferior numbers, and. the Dutch settlements suffered very severely. In the West-Indies, owing to the vast superiority of the combined fleets of France and Spain, nothing of conse- quence could be achieved. An indecisive action took place between Admiral Hood Imd the Count de Grasse, the result of which was at least honourable to the British, the French having a superiority of six ships of the line. On the continent, Charleston had been reduced by Sir Henry Clinton, and Gates was defeated by Lord Cornwallis, who with an inferior force gained a very signal victory. Not long after, means were found to detach General Arnold, who had engaged so ardently in the cause of America, and had exhibited so much bravery in the support of it, from the interest of the Congress. Major Andre was a principal agent in this affair, but he was seized in disguise, and executed as a spy. These successes were, however, more than counterbal- anced by the unfortunate result of the expedition of Lord Corn wal lis, who, having overrun Carolina, had entered Vir- ginia, where, notwithstanding several partial victories, he found himself in a very critical situation. He had expected THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 203 considerable reinforcements from Sir Henry Clinton, who was prevented from sending them by his fears respecting New York, against which the Americans made a shew of a very formidable attack. But Washington, who in his manoeu- vres completely outgeneraled Sir Henry in this affair, sud- denly crossed the Delaware, and marched to attack Lord Cornwallis ; a large body of French troops assisted in this enterprise, and Washington now took measures to surround the British. This he did so completely, that Lord Corn- wallis, finding that neither skill nor courage could avail, was obliged to surrender his whole army prisoners of war. A considerable number of cannon, and a large quantity of ammunition, fell into the hands of the Americans on this occasion. As no rational expectation now appeared of the subjuga- tion of the colonies, the military operations that succeeded in America were of little consequence. The disaster of Cornwallis had produced a sincere desire of being at peace with the Americans, but that could not be accomplished without making peace with France also, whose pretensions were too much heightened by success. Minorca had fallen into the hands of the Spaniards ; the islands of Nevis and St. Christopher had surrendered to De Grasse, the French admiral. But an end to their exploits was now approach- ing : De Grasse, after a distant engagement, determined to close with his formidable antagonist, Rodney. This memo- rable action took place on the 12th of April 1782, off the island of Dominica. The British fleet consisted of thirty- seven sail of the line, the French of thirty-four. The battle began at seven in the morning, and continued till the same hour at night. Rodney was on board the Formidable, of ninety guns, and De Grasse in the Ville de Paris, of one hundred and ten. In the course of the action, the Formid- able fired no fewer than eighty broadsides. The van was led by Sir Samuel Hood, and the rear by Admiral Drake, who greatly distinguished themselves in this important vic- tory ; but the decisive turn on this memorable day was given by a bold manoeuvre of Rodney, who broke the French line, and threw them into disorder. The first French ship that struck was the Caesar, whose captain fought nobly, and was killed in the action ; unfortunately, after she was taken, she caught fire accidentally, and blew up, with 200 French and ten English seamen on board ; another was sunk during the action: and the Ville de Paris, and two seventy-fours were 264 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. taken. On board their fleet were 5,500 soldiers, so that the havoc among these was incredibly great, as well as among the seamen. On the 19th Sir Samuel Hood, who had been detached after the battle with a squadron in pursuit, captured two French sixty-fours with the Aim able of thirty-two and the Cerrs of eighteen guns ; and about the same time Admiral Barrington took the Pegase of seventy-four, and a sixty- four, with ten sail of vessels under convoy, off Ushant. The greatest disaster which befel the Spaniards was their failure before Gibraltar, in besieging which they had employ- ed upwards of 100,000 men, an incredible number of can- non, mortars, and howitzers, together with a fleet of fifty sail of the line, and ten floating batteries, which they boasted were proof against fire or water. So assured were they of success, that the Count D'Artois, the Duke de Bourbon, and military men from all parts of Europe, went to be witnesses of what passed at this celebrated siege, which was now com- pared to the most famous in history. On the 13th of September the floating batteries proceeded to take their station in line, about 1,000 yards from the shore, and began a heavy cannonade, in which they were seconded by all the guns and mortars in their lines and approaches. This was answered by hot and cold shot from all the batteries of the fort. A terrible fire was kept up on both sides with- out intermission till noon, when that of the Spaniards began to slacken, and the fire of the garrison to obtain a superiority. Soon after their floating batteries were observed to be on fire, and at midnight they were completely in flames. On their making signals of distress, a multitude of launches, boats, &c. went to their assistance. Captain Curtis, who lay ready with his gun-boats, advanced upon them at two in the morn- ing, forming a line on their flank. At this unexpected attack, they were so astonished that they fled to their boats, totally abandoning their floating batteries, and all that were in them, to perish in the flames. This would undoubtedly have been their fate, had not Captain Curtis, at the imminent risk of his own life and that of his men, extricated them from the fire. This terrible catastrophe, which happened within sight of the fleets of France and Spain, convinced the Spaniards that Gibraltar could not be taken by force, and the relief which Lord Howe introduced into the garrison in sight of the com- bined fleet, which did not venture to attack him, proved THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 265 so decisive, that although the blockade continued till the preliminaries were signed, no further attack was made. Thus all parties were taught that it was high time to put an end to the contest. The affair of Cornwallis made the reduction of the American colonies a very protracted affair, if at all possible. The defeat of De Grasse had rendered the conquest of the British possessions in the West-Indies impracticable to the French, and the final repulse before Gibraltar put an end to that favourite enterprise, in which the whole strength of Spain had been employed ; while the engagement with the Dutch by Admiral Parker convinced them that nothing could be gained by a naval contest with Great Britain. A negotiation was accordingly opened at Paris, which was protracted by the insidious conduct of the French Ministry with regard to concessions in America. But the Congress penetrating into the designs of France, which were to keep them dependant upon her, made a pro- visional treaty with Britain. Baffled in this attempt, France urged Spain to insist upon the cession of Gibraltar ; but Britain was inflexibly bent on keeping it, and her European enemies fearing to encounter her when disengaged from the Americans, gave up the point. On the 20th of January 1783, preliminaries were signed between Great Britain, France, and Spain, in which Holland soon after joined, and a definitive treaty was immediately concluded. Thus an end was put to the most dangerous war in which Great Britain had been hitherto engaged ; and in which, not- withstanding the powerful combination against her, she still maintained a state of superiority over all her enemies. Though for a number of years she had been deprived of most of her colonies, though attacked at the same time by three of the greatest among the continental powers of Europe, and looked upon with an invidious eye by all the rest, the wounds she inflicted on her enemies greatly exceeded those she had received. Their trade by sea was almost ruined, and on comparing the loss of ships of war on both sides, the balance in favour of Britain was twenty-eight ships of the line and thirty-seven frigates, carrying in all about 2,000 guns. Nothing of a military nature occured till the August of 1787, when dissensions in Holland arose to such a height, as to occasion the interference of Prussia in favour of the Stadt- liolder, and of France in favour of the insurgents, whom she 23 2Q6 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. secretly favoured. The British court in consequence ordered an augmentation of forces ; but on the defeat of the malcon- tents in Holland, the armaments of France and Britain were disbanded by mutual consent. In the spring of 1790, England was once more on the eve of a war with Spain, owing to a commercial speculation set on foot by a company of merchants, whose object was to obtain from the northwest coast of America very valuable furs. Towards the middle of 1789 this trade had become very flourishing, and a colony was formed at Nootka Sound as a factory for trade. This excited the jealousy of the Spaniards, who sent two ships of war under Admiral Marti- nez. Without giving the English the least reason to suspect the hostility of his design, he took the opportunity, while the traders were dispersed up the country, to seize on the English ships and take possession of the town, after which he sent the crews of two ships that entered the port in irons to Mexico. The news of this outrage raised a great sensation in Eng- land ; an armament was immediately voted, which by its magnitude astonished all Europe : but Spain complied with our demands, and the blessings of peace were happily pre- served to both countries. In the East-Indies, Tippoo Saib, excited by the court of France, made war upon our possessions, which continued for two years, when Lord Cornwallis, after defeating him in various encounters, invested Seringapatam, his capital, and forced him to submit to very ignominious terms. In the month of March 1791, an armament was prepared to act against Russia, then at war with the Turks : but upon mutual explanations the measure was given up, when the Chancellor of the Exchequer-expressed his belief that Britain was long to enjoy the blessings of peace. But how short is all human foresight! At that very time the internal discon- tents of France were advancing to a catastrophe, by which all Europe were involved in war. The principal causes of this horrid revolution were the general diffusion of immoral, irreligious, and blasphemous publications, from the pens of Voltaire, Rousseau, and other infidel writers; the oppression of the lower orders of the people ; and the state of the finances, w r hich had been long much embarrassed, but which, by the expensive war in sup- port of the American revolution, were now entirely ruined. The measures pursued to replenish the treasury led to publiG THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 267 discussion and private intrigue, to which Louis XVI. at last fell a victim, and monarchy was abolished in France. The principles now avowed by the democrats who bore the sway in France justly alarmed all the governments of Europe. The Emperor of Germany had already been attack- ed ; but the ostensible grounds of quarrel on the part of Great Britain were chiefly two, — the decree by which encourage- ment was held out to the subjects of every state to rebel against their lawful government; and the opening of the Scheldt, which Great Britain had bound herself to the Dutch to prevent. M. Chauvelin, the French ambassador, was ordered to quit England, upon which the Convention declared war against the King of England and the Stadtholder of Holland. This was an artful phraseology, by which they wished to intimate a separate interest between the prince and people. A confederacy had been entered into by Prussia and Germany, to which Great Britain now became a party. British troops, under the command of the Duke of York, joined the allied army, and the Duke besieged and took Valenciennes ; the united fleets of Great Britain and Spain took Toulon, which was however abandoned shortly after. On the 1st of June 1794, the British fleet, under Earl Howe, gained a most splendid victory over the French fleet, off Ushant. The French had purchased immense quantities of grain and other stores, which Lord Howe sailed to inter- cept, and the French to protect ; an engagement ensued, in which the enemy's line was broken, ten sail were taken, and two sunk, but their convoy of provisions got safe into port. Another naval victory was gained by Lord Bridport, close in with port L' Orient. In 1798, a revolution took place in Holland ; the Stadt^ holder fled to England, the government was vested in five directors, and the state became dependant on France. 1797. — As the Spaniards had also joined the French re- public, Sir John Jervis was despatched against them, gained a complete victory over their fleet off Cape St. Vincent, and was in consequence created Earl of St. Vincent. A victory over the Dutch was likewise gained by Admiral Duncan, off Camperdown, in which the Dutch admiral De Winter and the vice-admiral were made prisoners, and ten sail of the line and two frigates were taken. For this action Duncan was raised to the peerage, by the title of Viscount Camper- down. The French were now so occupied with their mill* 268 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. tary operations they scarcely made any efforts by sea, and consequently the English had few opportunities of adding to their laurels on that element. They took, however, De- marara from the Dutch, and reconquered the island of St. Lucia ; and a Dutch squadron of seven sail of the line, which was sent to recapture the Cape of Good Hope, was obliged to surrender to Admiral Elphinstone. In the middle of April of this year the uncommon occur- rence of a mutiny in the British fleet took place at the Nore. For several days the mutineers had the complete command of the ships, and appointed two delegates from each, to pre- sent their list of grievances, and petition for an increase of pay. The government agreed to their demands : but this only appeared to increase their audacity, and spread the ferment; some ships from Lord Duncan's fleet came and joined them, and the navigation of the Thames was com- pletely stopt. The ministers were now determined to reduce them to obedience by force ; they were declared in a state of rebellion ; furnaces for heating red-hot shot were constructed on the banks, and all communication cut off between them and the shore. At length they quarreled among each other; several ships left their mutinous comrades ; and the remain- der followed, and surrendered their delegates. Parker, their chief, and some few others, suffered death; and the rest received pardon, and soon wiped off their disgrace by the brilliant though bloody victory over the Dutch fleet. In December, a French squadron of eighteen ships of the line and thirteen frigates, having on board 25,000 men under General Hoche, sailed from Brest, to make a descent on Ireland, where they falsely supposed they should be joined by the greater part of that nation. At their outset several of their ships were lost, the remainder were separated in a violent gale of wind, and their admiral arrived at Ban try Bay with only a small number of ships, in a very shattered state. After waiting some days for Hoche, who alone was entrusted with the despatches, the admiral returned to France, after losing a ship of the line and two frigates, which foun- dered at sea. One ship of the line was driven on shore, and a frigate captured by the English. The French were indeed baffled by the elements : but from the reception which the well-tried bravery and unshaken loyalty of the Irish were preparing for them, there can be little doubt that the elements were their best friends. The invasion of England and Ireland being abandoned THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 269 by the French, General Buonaparte, who had shewn great military skill in Italy against the Austrians, proposed a plan •for seizing on the Turkish province of Egypt, with a view to invade and subvert the British empire in India. In May 1798, he set sail with thirteen ships of the line, seven frigates, and 200 transports. On the 9th of June this expedition appeared before Malta, which the Grand Master surrendered most disgracefully ; one of the conditions was that he should receive during his life, 300,000 livres per annum. Leaving a garrison in Malta, and being joined by sixty transports with troops from Italy, Buonaparte sailed for Alex- andria, which was taken by assault, and a great slaughter was made of the Arabs and Mamelukes who defended it. From Alexandria he marched to Rosetta, and proceeding to Grand Cairo, encountered one of the chiefs of the Mame- lukes, whose undisciplined army he almost annihilated, after which he entered Grand Cairo in triumph. But Buonaparte was now to meet with an enemy very different from the flying Arabs. Admiral Nelson, who had been despatched in pursuit of the enemy, after sailing twice across the Mediterranean, at last found the French fleet at anchor in Aboukir Bay, in line of battle, close to a shoal, flanked by gun-boats, and a battery of mortars erected on an island in their van. The French admiral, who had no con- ception that the British would attempt the hazardous enter- prise of running their ships between the shoal and his fleet, vainly deemed his position impregnable. But Nelson soon convinced him what British seamen could do, when led on by such a commander. After a battle, which began August 1st at sunset, and continued till daybreak of the 2d, nine sail of the line were taken, one was burnt by her own com- mander, and a frigate was also burnt, to prevent their falling into the hands of the victors. The admiral's ship L'Orient blew up about midnight, with a tremendous explosion, and nearly the whole of her crew, of 1,000 men, perished. Two French ships of the line and two frigates, which had fled, were afterwards captured. No naval engagement in modern times ever produced such important consequences. It gave fresh courage to the pow- ers of the continent to renew the contest in the cause of order and good government. The King of Naples attacked the enemy in Italy. The Turks proclaimed war against 23* 270 THE HOUSE CF BRUNSWICK. them, and a new coalition was formed with Germany and Russia, which had hitherto remained neutral. The French now no longer ventured to send any large fleets to sea, but wherever their small fleets appeared they were overpowered by the superior skill and courage of the British. The French Directory had long endeavoured to foment rebellion in Ireland, by promising aid to the disaffected party, who, by the oppressive measures of government, had now increased in a formidable manner. A regular correspondence had been kept up between them; but, weary of fruitless expectation, the United Irishmen, as they were called, broke out into actual warfare. While the rebellion was at its height, the French did not appear ; but after it was totally subdued, they attempted to elude the vigilance of the British, and to land in small parties. On the 22d of August, General Humbert landed with about 900 men ; but finding very few of the Irish, even of the meanest, join him, and that Lord Cornwallis was surrounding him, he surrendered himself prisoner with his army. The Directory still endeavoured to create alarm and keep up the spirit of disaffection, by sending small squadrons with troops towards Ireland. In October, Sir John Borlase Warren took La Hoche, of 120 guns, and four frigates, with 3,000 men on board. On the 20th another frigate was captured, bound to Ireland. The French, now finding the sea completely occupied by the British, desisted at last from their enter- prise. In 1799, the Duke of York invaded Holland, for the pur- pose of re-establishing the Stadtholder. After taking the fort of the Helder, and the island of the Texel, Admiral Mitchel summoned the Dutch fleet, of eight-sail of the line, seven smaller vessels, and four Indiamen, to surrender and hoist the Orange flag, which they did. Several partial en- gagements ensued, in which the Duke, who had been joined by a body of Russians, was successful ; but finding the winter set in, the French receiving great reinforcements, and a total want of co-operation on the part of the Dutch, a suspension of arms was agreed upon, the prisoners on each side were given up, and the British evacuated the country. In the West-Indies, the valuable Dutch colony of Surinam was reduced, and all the ships of war, together with the immense magazines belonging to their government, were given up by capitulation.. THE NICK. 271 ^ In the East-Indies, the arms of Great Britain were crowned with eminent success. Seringapatam wa;; taken by assault, by the army under General Harris, and Tippoo Saib found among the slain. Thus perished the most formidable enemy of Great Britain in India. His dominions were divided among the British and their allies, and a legal descendant of the Sultaun, whom Hyder Aly, the father of Tippoo, had dispossessed of his throne. Buonaparte, finding his army by the defeat of the French fleet entirely separated from France, did all in his power to gain a firm footing in Egypt. He professed himself a great admirer of Mahomet, and that he was come to restore their pristine grandeur. After various partial battles, in which he was uniformly successful, he commenced the siege of Acre, with 12,000 veteran troops. But here the hero of France was to meet with a disgraceful defeat from a handful of British sailors, under Sir Sidney Smith, who had previously taken a whole French flotilla, laden with heavy artillery and other articles for the siege. Under Sir Sidney's directions, Buonaparte was detained before this fortress sixty days, dur- ing which he was foiled in eleven different attempts to carry it by storm. One of these was made during a truce which he had requested to bury his dead; but like the others it failed, and he was obliged to retreat, leaving eight of his generals, eighty-five officers, and half his army behind him. This defeat, which effectually stopped his career, will be considered as very important, when it is known that by his intrigues he had prevailed on the numerous tribes of dervises to join him after the reduction of the fortress, to the amount of 60,000 men. Finding all his hopes frustrated in Egypt, Buonaparte secretly withdrew with General Berthier and a few others, and landed in safety in France, after narrowly escaping from an English ship that chased him into port. Having pre- viously, it is supposed, had information that the people of France were weary of their Directory, and ripe for a change, he with the assistance of his brother Lucien, seized the opportunity, and caused himself to be elected First Consul, under which title he obtained all the powers of an absolute monarch. After a pretended attempt to treat for peace with Great Britain, he succeeded in uniting Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, in an armed neutrality, hostile to the interests 272 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. of England ; while, at the same time, he commenced formid- able preparations for a descent. To break up this northern confederacy, which had for its professed object the affirmative of the famous question, " whether the navigation of the sea ought to be free, or sub- ject to certain restrictions," a strong armament was fitted out, consisting of seventeen sail of the line, three frigates, and twenty bomb-ketches, under Sir Hyde Parker. On the 2d of April 1801, Lord Nelson, who had offered his services for the conduct of the attack, made the signal ; and after one of the most tremendous conflicts ever known, the whole Danish line of seventeen sail were sunk, burnt, or taken. The carnage on board the Danish ships was dreadful. Three of our ships had in the meanwhile grounded, and lay exposed to a terrible fire from the shore. Mutual interest now seemed to require a cessation of hostilities, and Lord Nelson there- fore wrote to the Crown Prince, and a cessation accordingly took place. In the midst of the conference which ensued, the death of the Emperor of Russia, who was at the head of the confederacy, was announced ; and as his son and successor consented to abandon it, the inferior potentates followed his example. The French now made preparations for attacking Portu- gal, the only remaining ally of Great Britain, and at the same time collected an immense force along the coast for the express purpose of invading England. But the English Government, far from being alarmed, sent Sir Halph Aber- crombie with 18,000 men to attack the French in Egypt, whose army amounted to 30,000 men. On the 2d of March the British fleet arrived off Aboukir, but were unable for six days to effect a landing, during which interval they had the mortification to see the time employed by the French in manning the fort and erecting batteries. Under the direc- tion of Captain Cochrane, attended by Sir Sidney Smith, the division ordered to land, consisting of 6,000 men, moved towards the shore. The boats had a considerable distance to row, and were exposed to the fire of fifteen pieces of artil- lery besides musketry : but the bravery and cool intrepidity of the British overcame every obstacle, and they succeeded in stationing their advanced posts about four miles beyond Aboukir. On the 25th took place the general action, in which, after prodigies of valour, the British were victorious, although they lost their general, Sir Ralph Abercrombie, who was mortally wounded by a musket ball in the moment THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 273 of victory. Major General Hutchinson, on whom the com- mand devolved, advanced to Grand Cairo, which surren- dered, and at Alexandria the French agreed to a capitula- tion, by which they entirely evacuated the country. The war now became without an object, and a desire for the return of peace manifested itself between the belligerent powers. Mr. Pitt retired from office, and under the auspices of Mr. Addington, his successor, a negotiation was com- menced ; preliminaries were signed October 1st, and on the 27th of March 1802, Lord Cornwallis concluded at Amiens, with the ministers of France, Spain, and the Batavian Republic, a definitive treaty of peace, which was proclaimed at London on the 29th of April. By its conditions England gave up all conquests made during the war except the islands of Ceylon and Trinidad ; Portugal gave up a part of Guiana to France *, the Ionian republic was acknowledged ; and Malta, which was in possession of the English, was to be restored to the Knights within a certain time, and on certain conditions. This treaty was received with great joy by both French and English ; but it was soon found to be nothing more than an armed truce ; a peace with a revolutionary government, with an ambitious usurper, who could make a rupture when- ever his spleen, caprice, or temporary advantage prompted a violation of the contract, and consequently a peace which could never be considered permanent. Even before the signature of the definitive treaty the Chief Consul began his plans of ambition, by causing him- self to be chosen president of the Cisalpine Republic, which thus greatly increased the power of France. His Majesty's speech, at the opening of Parliament in November, alluded to these encroachments, and the aug- mentation of the army and navy was considered as a certain presage of the renewal of war. At the end of this year a conspiracy against the Govern- ment, at the head of which was a Colonel Despard, was dis- covered. He and six of his associates were executed according to their sentence. In 1803, a correspondence between the English and French Governments had for some time been kept up rela- tive to various subjects of complaint. On the part of France, the delay in the evacuation of Malta was the chief topic. On that of England, the conduct of France in destroying the independence of the Knights of Malta, and seizing the 274 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. funds destined for their support. This and some other grounds of complaint were the causes of the renewal of a war, which in its progress ruined almost all Europe. The First Consul, whose rage knew no bounds at having his ambitious schemes thwarted, wreaked his vengeance on all the English who, confiding in the faith of nations, had for business or pleasure entered the French territories, by arresting and detaining them and all their effects. At the commencement of the war a French army under Mortier invaded Hanover, of which they took possession. But the grand object of Buonaparte was the invasion of England, and for this purpose all the shipwrights and boat-builders were put in requisition, and an immense number was col- lected at Boulogne. The English Government, although convinced of the futilhvy of the attempt, did not neglect the means of defence, and the spirit of the people nobly seconded their views. Volunteers to the amount of 300,000 men, completely equipped, eveiy where appeared to defend their country ; the navy was put on a formidable footing ; and all the ports of Holland and France were closely blockaded. In the West Indies, the Islands of St. Lucia and Tobago were taken, in the month of June ; and in September, the Dutch settlements of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice were captured. In the east, Generals Lake and Wellesley greatly distin- guished themselves in a war against several Mahratta chiefs, aided by a French force. The Peishwah of Poonah, an ally of Great Britain, was re-established in his dominions, from which he had been expelled, and a complete victory was gained by General Wellesley, over an army six times the number of his own, with an immense train of artillery. General Lake also defeated an army near Delhi, commanded by a French officer, and reinstated the Mogul Emperor, who had been kept prisoner by the enemy. These defeats com- pletely humbled the Mahrattas, and peace was made, by which immense territorial possessions were annexed to our dominions, and the power of France completely annihi- lated. On the 1 4th of February 1804, the French Admiral Linois formed the design of capturing the whole East-India Company's ships of twenty-seven sail : but Captain Dance, who acted as Commodore, placing his ships in line of battle, without waiting to be attacked, bore down on the enemy, who declined the combat and lied. THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 2T5 Spain having joined France, Commodore Moore was sent to intercept the treasures which were on their way to Cadiz from America. On the 5th of October, four Spanish frigates were descried and overtaken : three of them were taken, with an immense booty of dollars and bullion ; the fourth blew up with all her crew. This year Buonaparte was constituted Emperor of the French, which dignity was made hereditary in his family ; and on the 19th of November he was crowned at Paris by the Pope, who had been obliged to take a journey from Rome for that purpose. Thus Republicanism, which had cost the lives of hundreds of thousands of Frenchmen, vanished, and in its place a monarchy more absolute and oppressive than that of the Bourbons was established. War once more broke out in India, and Holkar, the Mah- ratta chief, was again beaten, first by General Frazier, and then by Lord Lake. The year 1805 is remarkable for the magnitude of the preparations to" resist the increasing power of Buonaparte, who had now annexed Genoa to the French empire, and caused himself to be crowned King of Italy. He had writ- ten a letter to the King of England, offering to treat for peace separately. This was refused, and in consequence he made great preparations for his favourite threat, the invasion of Great Britain. England on her side made common cause with her Allies, and by articles agreed on between her and Austria and Russia, they were to bring into the field half a million of men, for which Great Britain was to allow £12 10.?. per man. The events of this campaign proved very disastrous to the Allies. The Austrian General Mack suffered himself to be surrounded by Buonaparte, at Ulm, and was obliged to capitulate with all his army. The French immediately marched to Vienna, which they entered, and then pursued the Russians into Moravia. In Italy, the Archduke Charles was beaten by Massena, and obliged to retreat towards Austria, where he was joined by 90,000 Russians. On the 2d December the fatal battle of Austerlitz began, and continued till night, when, after the most sanguinary attacks, victory declared for the French, and from this day the continent lay prostrate to the French for some years. On the 4th an armistice was agreed upon, and two days after the Russians retreated to their own coun- . 276 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. try, while Austria made peace on the terms dictated by Buonaparte. But while the French were thus successful against the Allies on land, their naval power received its final blow by the memorable battle of Trafalgar. Lord Nelson, who had searched every part of the Mediterranean' in pursuit of the enemy under Villeneuve the French admiral, having at last obtained intelligence of his destination immediately pro- ceeded to the West-Indies. Villeneuve hearing of his arri- val, set sail on his return to France without attempting any thing against our possessions, although he had 10,000 men on board. On his return towards Cadiz, he was met by Sir Robert Calder, who, notwithstanding his great inferiority of force, made the signal for attack, and after a severe action, captured two sail of the line. In the mean time Lord Nelson had returned to England, and being reinforced, sailed again towards Cadiz, into which the combined fleets of France and Spain had entered. On the 19th of October their fleet, to the amount of thirty-three sail of the line, left Cadiz for the straits of Gibraltar. The British fleet of twenty-seven sail of the line pursued, and on the 21st came up with them off Cape Trafalgar. On the approach of Nelson, the French drew up their line in form of a crescent, while Nelson, whose plan of attack was admi- rable, bore down on them in a double column, his last tele- graphic signal being : " England expects every man to do his duty." Nobly did the British seamen perform it on that day. In four hours the battle terminated in the total defeat of the French and Spaniards, w r ho lost nineteen sail of the line, and Villeneuve and two Spanish admirals were cap- tured. The loss of our men, although considerable, was greatly aggravated by that of Lord Nelson, who received a musket ball in his breast, and died at the moment of victory. On the 1st of July 1806, General Stuart, who had, since the invasion of Naples by the French, occupied Sicily, embarked a body of 4,800 men, and landed in Calabria. On the 4th he attacked General Regnier, who had 7,000 veteran French troops under his command. The armies, after some firing, rushed on each other with the bayonet, but at the moment of meeting, the French turned their backs, and a terrible slaughter was made of them, their regiment, called the Invincible, being nearly annihilated. Prussia was this year rash enough to engage singly against France and the Confederates of the Rhine, as the German THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 277 states subservient to France were called by Buonaparte. The consequence was, the battle of Jena, in which the Prussians were defeated with immense slaughter, the Duke of Bruns- wick their general was killed, and Prussia entirely subdued. This } r ear the Cape of Good Hope was taken by Sir David Baird and Sir Home Popham, who, without any orders from home, ventured to attack the Spanish dominions in South America. They succeeded under General Beresford in taking Buenos A} r res ; but the Spaniards having recovered from their panic, attacked the British with superior numbers, and obliged them to retreat to their ships. In 1807, after various bloody battles, the Russians and Prussians made peace with Buonaparte, on condition of their acceding to the Confederation of the Rhine, and shutting the ports of Prussia against the introduction of British manu- factures, called by Buonaparte the continental system. The Dutch island of Curaooa surrendered to a British squadron under Captain Brisbane, on the 1st of January of this year ; and on the 2d of February Monte-Video was taken by Sir Samuel Achmuty and Admiral Stirling. In the summer, the recapture of Buenos Ayres was attempted by General Whitelock : which proved very unfor- tunate ; no less than 2,500 intrepid men were killed, wounded, or made prisoners. Whitelock on his return was tried, and sentenced to be cashiered, and was declared unworthy of ever serving again in any military capacity. As it appeared evident that Denmark could not long retain her neutrality, it was determined to prevent the Danish fleet from falling into the hands of the French. A proposal was made to the Danish Court to deposit their fleet in the British ports, under a solemn guarantee to restore them at the con- clusion of the war : the Danes refused to listen to this, and an attack on Copenhagen was the consequence. After a dreadful conflagration and carnage a capitulation was signed, and their fleet given up. Russia was so indignant at this attack, that she issued a manifesto, declaring her determina- tion of breaking off all intercourse with Great Britain. Every port of the continent being thus closed against us except Sweden, an expedition was sent out against the island of Heligoland, which was taken, and afforded to the merchants a secure port and an entrance into all the rivers on that side of Germany, for the admission of their produce. This year a treaty was made between France and Spain, the object of which was the conquest of Portugal. For this 21 278 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. purpose a French aimy under General Junot traversed Spain, and entering Portugal, advanced towards Lisbon. The Prince Regent of Portugal, seeing no prospect of resist- ance, quitted his country, and sought for safety in his South American dominions, accompanied by a British squadron. 1808. — This year Murat with a large army of French entered Madrid as the friend and ally of Ferdinand, who had succeeded to the throne after the deposition of his father. By some mysterious intrigue Ferdinand, his father, and his two brothers, with a number of the nobles, were allured to Bayonne, where Buonaparte compelled them to sign a formal abdication of the throne of Spain. Napoleon then declared the throne vacant, and transferred it to his brother Joseph Buonaparte, who abdicated the throne of Naples in favour of Murat. These diabolical proceedings inflamed the Spaniards to the utmost: a general rising took place, and juntas were estab- lished to give order to the patriotic enthusiasm. At this crisis the Spaniards solicited the aid of England : peace between the two countries was proclaimed, and great quantities of arms and ammunition were sent over. Portugal followed the example of her neighbours: the French were expelled from Oporto, Coimbra, and other towns, and obliged to con- centrate their forces near Lisbon. The British Government being resolved to afford every possible aid to her ancient ally, Portugal, sent General Sir Arthur Wellesley with 10,000 men, who, after defeating a French corps at Roleia, advanced to Vimeira, where they were met by Junot with nearly the whole of his army from Lisbon. A battle was fought, which ended in the total defeat of the French, though greatly superior in number. The British troops immediately advanced upon Lisbon. At Cin- tra, however, a convention was signed between Junot and Sir Hugh Dalrymple, who had taken the command of the English army, by which it was agreed to convey the French troops to France, and the Russian ships in the Tagus to be sent to England, as a deposit till peace was made between Russia and Great Britain. General Sir John Moore, who now commanded the British troops, marched into Spain to the assistance of the Patriots, who had been unable to withstand the French armies, now directed by Buonaparte himself, with some of his ablest gen- erals. The British army, by the junction of Sir David Baird from THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 279 Corunna, amounted to 23,000 foot and 2000 cavahy, and with these, he continued to advance, intending to give battle to Mar- shal Soult ; but receiving intelligence of the plan of the French Emperor, with his numerous armies, to surround him and to cut off his retreat, he immediately began to retrograde through Gallicia, in the course of which the army experienced great distress from privation of food, and the rapidity of their march. On Hie 1 1 tli of January 1809 they reached Corunna. closely followed by the French, who took a position above the town to obstruct their embarkation. An obstinate engagement ensued : Sir John Moore was mortally wounded, but the English finally repulsed the enemy, and effected their retreat to the ships without further molestation. In April another British army, under the command of Sir Arthur Wellesley, landed at Lisbon, and immediately march- ed towards Oporto against Marshal Soult, who had again entered Portugal and taken possession of that city. On the approach of the English Soult retreated, pursued by Welles- ley, who having formed a junction with Cuesta, a Spanish general, their combined armies proceeded to Talavera, where they were attacked by a French army of 70,000 veterans, commanded by Joseph, the usurping King of Spain, who had under him Jourdan and Sebastiani. After a bloody battle, the French were repulsed with the loss of 10,000 men and many pieces of artillery. The loss of the English, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, w T as about half that number. For this brilliant victory Sir Arthur Wellesley was raised to the dignity of the peerage, with the title of Lord Wellington. Immediately after the. action, Lord Wellington, who had received news of the junction of the armies under Soult, Ney, and Victor, commenced his retreat towards Portugal, leaving the Spaniards to themselves. After repeated defeats, the latter were obliged to abandon all their positions, and retreat to Cadiz, where they were determined to hold out to the last extremity, and which city indeed was impregnable, as ong as they had the English for their allies. The determined resistance of the undisciplined Spaniards had infused fresh hopes into the powers of the Continent, and Austria now resolved to take advantage of it, and make a grand dibit to retrieve her former disgrace. In April the Austriaris entered Bavaria, but were defeated in two battles by Napoleon, aided by the Bavarians, Saxons, Wurtemburgs, and Poles, who now fought under his standard against their countrymen. Napoleon, with his usual rapidity, marched 280 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. towards Vienna, which a second time surrendered to the French. The Archduke Charles, who commanded the Aus- trians, was en the north bank of the Danube with 70,000 men, to prevent the French from crossing that river. Napo- leon, however, by means of some islands which lie in the river a few miles up, succeeded in establishing his army on the north side. The Archduke immediately resolved on a general attack, and after a sanguinary battle, obliged Buona- parte to retreat to the island of Lobau, with the loss of 30,000 of his best troops. Having received great reinforcements, and raised bridges from the island to the northern bank, the whole French army once more crossed the river ; and in July was fought the dreadful battle of Wagram, in which it is supposed 300,000 men were engaged. After the most heroic efforts on the part of the Austrians, who were inferior in number, they were totally defeated, and obliged to con- clude an armistice : and on the 15th of October peace was signed between the two countries. During this summer an expedition, upon a large scale, was planned by the British Ministry, to make a grand diversion in favour of the Austrians, by a descent on the islands of the Scheldt. The fleet sailed the 1st of August, and in a short time the whole of the islands of Walcheren and South Beve- land were conquered; but the insalubrity of that low, marshy country, made such dreadful havoc among the troops, that after remaining till the end of the year, it was resolved to abandon the country. Such was the end of this most expen- sive, most ill-advised, and unfortunate expedition, which pro- duced the deepest sensation of shame and regret, among the people, and was the subject of very strong debates in the House of Commons. The whole of Spain, with the exception of Cadiz, was, at the beginning of the year 1810^in the military occupation of the French, although the guerillas, a species of armed popu- lation, much harassed the enemy, by seizing their supplies, and cutting off all stragglers from the main armies. The great contest for the possession of Portugal now began, Massena having entered with 80,000 men. Ney had invest- ed Ciudad Rodrigo, which, with Almeida, was obliged to surrender. Lord Wellington concentrated his forces, and retreated towards Lisbon. Massena, who had closely pursued, came up with him at the strong position of Busaco, and com- menced an attack, which was bravely repulsed by the British $t the point of the bayonet; although so much inferior in THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 281 numbers to their enemy. Without pursuing the victory, Wellington continued his retreat towards the very strong lines of Torres Vedras, about twenty-five miles from Lisbon, which he had previously admirably fortified. Massena, finding these lines impregnable, contented him- self with fixing his head-quarters at Santorcm, a village on the Tagus, collecting provisions ; of which, however, owing to the policy of Wellington, who had taken every thing pos- sible away with him in his retreat, he could only make a scanty supply : his army, in consequence, underwent great privations, from which that of Lord Wellington, with the sea open, the capital behind him, and his camp well secured from the rains, was entirely exempt. Some important acquisitions were made by England this year in the West-Indies and other parts. Guadaloupe sur- rendered, and left the French without a single island in that quarter ; and shortly after, the islands of Bourbon and Mau- ritus were taken, together with five frigates, twenty-eight merchant-men, and two East-Indiamen. The French forts in the island of Madagascar were destroyed, which also stript them of every foot of territory in the East. Amboyna, and the isle of Banda, were also taken from the Dutch, and the captors shared an immense booty. In the beginning of March 1811, Massena, whose army had suffered greatly during the winter, commenced his re- treat from Portugal, closely followed by Lord Wellington, whose cavalry was unfortunately much too inferior in num- ber to impede the march of the enemy with effect. * v Almeida was now invested by Lord Wellington, whilst Marshal Beresford besieged Olivensa, which surrendered in April. In May, Massena crossed the Agueda, and made an attack on the British with a view to relieve Almeida. The French were repulsed at every point, obliged to retreat, and leave Almeida to its fate ; that place was evacuated in the night, and the garrison escaped after blowing up the works. To relieve Badajoz, Soult attacked Beresford, whose army had been reinforced by the Corps of Blake and Castanos. After a sanguinary action the French were repulsed ; but the want of cavalry again prevented the Allies from profiting of the victory. The loss of the British and Portuguese was nearly 5,000 men, while that of the French was upwards of 9,000, with five generals killed or wounded. In October, 24* 28-2 TEE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. General Hill defeated a French corps under General Girard, and took all his artillery and baggage. General Graham, who had sailed with 3,000 men to make an attack on the blockading army before Cadiz, performed a very brilliant action, in driving a French force of nearly three times his number from the steep heights of Barrosa, after a very sanguinary engagement, in which the loss of the French amounted to 3,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners, whilst that of the British was 1,240. This diminution of their numbers, however, obliged them to return to Cadiz, without interrupting, the blockade. As the French had now no fleet to oppose the British, few opportunities occurred of displaying the valour of British seamen : Captain Horte, however, with a small squadron, totally defeated a French one of nearly treble his force. During this summer, Buonaparte was very active with his preparations for the invasion of England, and conscripts from all parts were sent to learn the necessary manoeuvres, at Ant- werp and other places. Much angry feeling was excited in America at the non- repeal of our orders in council, and an incident occurred which seemed likely to fan this feeling into a flame. The United States frigate, the President, met an English sloop, and as neither captain chose to answer the first question " What ship ?" a firing commenced, which continued nearly three quarters of an hour, when a suspension took place, and they recognised each other. Much temporary exaspe- ration was the consequence of this affair : but the two gov- ernments disavowing any hostile orders, no other consequence resulted from it. In the East, the island of Java w r as taken, after a series of brilliant actions performed by the British advanced troops, under the command of Colonel Gillespie, who with a very inferior number stormed and took the very strongly intrench- ed camp of General Jansens, defended by 10,000 Dutch troops. This brilliant victory completed the conquest of the Dutch settlements in the East. In 1812, the war in the Peninsula was carried on with unabated activity. Marshal Victor, with 10,000 men, was obliged to retreat from before TariiFa, which was bravely defended by Colonel Skerret with a handful of English and Spaniards, amounting only to 1,800 men. On the 9th of January Lord Wellington invested Ciudad Rodrigo, and on the 19th it was carried by storm ; as was 9PIIE not . mac. 28'3 also Badajoz, after an obstinate defence, in which the I the English and Portuguese amounted to nearly 5,000 men in killed and wounded. In the latter place, which had been very strongly fortified, were taken an immense quantity of military stores. The capture of these two strong positions having left Lord Wellington secure in the rear, he advanced rapidly into Spain, and at Salamanca was encountered by Marshal Mar* mont. After a variety of marchings and counter-marchings, the French general having gained some positions on the heights, extended his left wing, and then moved his army under cover of a heavy cannonade to the attack. The ex- tension of the enemy's left afforded Lord Wellington, who had closely watched the intricate movements of Marmont, an opportunity of which he instantly took an advantage. The action became general, and lasted from three in the afternoon till night, when the French fled in all directions, leaving behind them 7,000 prisoners, among whom were one general, six colonels, and 130 officers of inferior rank. Four of their general officers were killed, and Marshal Marmont, their commander-in-chief, was severely wounded. The loss of the Allies, of which the far greater part was English, amounted to above 5,000 killed, wounded, and missing. This great battle had not at first all the advantages which might have been expected, owing to the unwillingness of the Spaniards to submit their operations to the control of a foreign general, which alone could produce that union of efforts, absolutely necessary for the success of the war. After hav- ing entered Madrid, Lord Wellington advanced to Burgos, a very strong fortification, which he endeavoured to take by storm, but failed in the attempt ; and found himself obliged, by the concentration of all the different corps of the French in those parts, and the advance of the armies of Soult and Victor, to retrograde once more towards Portugal. In this retreat Lord Wellington displayed the most consummate abili- ties, conducting his army before very superior numbers to Fre}mada, on the frontiers of Portugal, where he established his head-quarters. The victory of Salamanca had filled the Spaniards with exultation ; and the subsequent retreat of Lord Wellington convinced them that they must sacrifice all pride and jealousy to the general good, and they therefore appointed him com- mander-in-chief of all their armies. After various angry negotiations, the American Govern- 284 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. merit declared war against Great Britain on the 18th of June, and immediately directed their efforts to the conquest of Canada, which they had long wished to annex to their do- minions. For this purpose their General Hull entered that province, but suffered himself to lie shut up in Fort Detroit, where he was besieged by an inferior British force, and obliged to surrender his whole army, of '2, 500 men and thiity- six pieces of cannon. This disgrace was followed by another, in the surrender of General Wadsworth and 900 men, to a British corps under Major-General Sheaffe. These defeats were, however, in a certain degree compen- sated by some success at sea. The first action took place on the 19th of August, between the American frigate the Con- stitution and the English frigate Guerriere, in which the latter was obliged to strike to the very superior fire of the American. This was followed by the capture of the British frigate the Macedonian, after a dreadful engagement of more than two hours by the United States, Commodore Decatur, a frigate with the scantling of a seventy-four. These occur- rences, so uncommon in the British navy, were a subject of great mortification to England, and of comparative exultation to the Americans. In Europe, the gathering storm of the preceding year burst forth with all its fury, and produced effects unexpected by the most profound politicians, attended by a destruction of the human species unparalleled in modern warfare. Russia, whose principal trade was with England, having refused to concur with Buonaparte in his favourite plan of shutting every European port on the Continent against British com- merce, he resolved to force the Emperor of Russia into sub- mission ; and for this purpose assembled all the disposable force he could collect, both in France and every foreign State under his control. This immense mass of veteran troops, thus marshalled under his banners, in the finest state of equip- ment and discipline, amounted to upwards of 300,000 men, and with these he passed the Vistula, where he was joined by large bodies of the Poles, whom he entertained with pro- mises of freedom from Russian tyranny, and the re-establish- ment of their former independence. About the beginning of July, the whole French army, with their confederates, entered the Russian territory, with- out opposition from the Russians, whose armies were much inferior to the French, and who had in consequence adopted the plan of acting entirely on the defensive ; concentrating THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 285 their force, and making a stand only in favourable positions, destroying everything that could furnish subsistence as they advanced, and trusting to their immense desarts and pathless woods, joined to the inclemencies of a Russian winter, for the final destruction of their invaders. The first determined stand made by the Russians was at Smolensko. After a most sanguinary conflict, the Russians evacuated the city, and retreated towards Moscow. Smo- lensko, on the retreat of the Russians, was set on fire, whether accidentally or by the retreating army is not known. The Russians continued their retreat till they arrived at the village of Moscwa, where they took up a strong position to cover their ancient capital, which they determined to defend to the last extremity. Here they were attacked by the whole French army ; and after a battle, the most bloody recorded in modern warfare, which lasted from morning till night, the Russians, though claiming the victory, w r ere obliged to aban- don Moscow, and Buonaparte entering the Kremlin, sat down in the seat of the Czars. But, however flattering the conquest of Moscow might be to his vanity, he suddenly found himself the master of noth- ing but smoking ruins. The Russians had determined to sacrifice this great capital in order to deprive the French of winter-quarters, and so well had they taken their measures, that an instantaneous conflagration burst forth in various parts of the city, which, from the greater part of the houses being built of wood, v;as irresistible, and consumed almost the whole of the buildings. So dreadful and unexpected a catastrophe alarmed the French, and convinced them that the Russians were determined to sacrifice every thing rather than submit. Buonaparte now made overtures of peace, which were rejected with disdain, and fresh bodies of Rus- sians arriving, all supplies were entirely cut off from the French army. Buonaparte however lingered some time, unwilling to abandon all hopes, and still trusting to negotia- tions with the Russian Court. At last he reluctantly com- menced his retreat on the 19th of October, harassed by almost incessant attacks of the Russians. To add to his dis- asters, as if by a just judgment of God for his former impious bulletins, the winter set in earlier, and with much greater rigour than usual ; whole corps of their troops, famished by hunger, and benumbed with cold, surrendered without resist- ance ; and the loss of horses was so great that almost the whole of their cavalry was dismounted, and their artillery 286 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. abandoned. The road was covered with the bodies of men and horses, dead through hunger, or frozen by the extreme cold. The loss of the French by capture, up to the 26th of December, was, according to the Russian bulletin, forty- one generals, 1,298 officers, and 167,000 privates, with 1, 131 pieces of artillery. Buonaparte, on his arrival at Wilna with the small remains of his army, suddenly quitted them, and proceeded in disguise to Paris. The disasters of the Russian campaign obliged Buonaparte to draw many of his troops from Spain, and in consequence Lord Wellington, in May 1813, found himself enabled to advance against King Joseph, who, after having abandoned Madrid, and destroyed the works at Burgos, had taken a position in front of Vittoria. On the 21st of June Lord Wellington, who had closely pursued the French, com- menced an attack, which was followed by one of the most complete victories gained during the war. All their artillery, baggage, and ammunition waggons, together with their mili- tary chest, fell into the hands of the conquerors. St. Sebas- tian, in the mean time, surrendered to Sir Thomas Graham, after a desperate resistance, in which the loss was very great on each side. On the 7th of October, Lord Wellington entered France, and attacked Marshal Soult, who had for some time succeeded to the command of the French army. The enemy was obliged to retreat, and withdraw to a fortified camp near Bayonne. In the mean time, the French continued to retire from before the Russians, who were now joined by Prussia and Austria. Buonaparte, who had made astonishing efforts to repair his losses, set out from Paris, to make head against the Allies. An action was fought on the 2d of May, near the plains of Lutzen, which ended in the retreat of the French to Dresden, where Buonaparte was joined by the Elector of Saxony. During these transactions England had made a treaty with Sweden, who, in consideration of a subsidy from England of one million sterling, engaged to furnish 30,000 men, to act under Bernadotte, who had been made Crown Prince. Buonaparte, sensible of his difficulties, ancj that the tide of success was turning against him, made overtures for an armistice, winch were accepted ; but led to no pacific result. Hostilities recommenced ; the French were compelled to withdraw' into Dresden, which for some months had employed THfc HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 287 their engineers in adding to its fortifications : and now, with ,the addition of 130,000 French, with Buonaparte at their head, seemed impregnable. The assault was made ; but though the Allies behaved with the greatest bravery, they were repulsed, and the next day Buonaparte marched out with an immense artillery to attack in his turn. After a tre- mendous conflict, the Allies were obliged to retreat, closely followed by Buonaparte, who, however, received a severe check in the defeat of the French General Vandamme, who surrendered with 10,000 men. The Allies now again advanced, and obliged Buonaparte to measure back his steps, after sustaining several severe losses, till he reached Leipsic, where he concentrated his forces to the amount of 180,000 men. On the 18th of October was fought the celebrated battle of Leipsic, in which the French lost the immense number of 40,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Leipsic was taken the next morning, together with the King of Saxon}' , the French garrison, and rear guard of 30,000 men, the sick and wounded reckoned at 22,000, with all the artil- lery, stores, and magazines. Buonaparte himself narrowly escaped, having fled from the city only two hours before its capture. In this battle an English rocket brigade greatly distinguished itself. As Buonaparte had made no provision for a retreat, the French troops scattered themselves in all directions, and were taken prisoners in great numbers. Large garrisons, which had been left in various fortified cities in Germany, were obliged to surrender, particularly at Dresden, where Marshal St. Cyr, with 40,000 of his men, worn down by fatigue and hunger, submitted to the Russians. These apparently irretrievable disasters animated the Dutch to throw off their subjection to Buonaparte: they arose in a body, dismissed the French authorities, and recalled the Prince of Orange from England. In America, the Congress still entertained hopes of the conquest of Canada, notwithstanding their former ill success. In January, they sent General Winchester with 1,000 troops to attack Fort Detroit: but he was defeated by Colonel Proctor, and taken prisoner with 500 of his men. York, in Upper Canada, was attacked by the Americans, supported by a flotilla, and evacuated by the English. The Canadian Lakes now became the chief theatre of war, and many spi- rited actions took place on their shores and waters ; but the %88 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. repeated successes of the American flotilla, obliged the. English ultirnately to abandon all their posts in Upper -Canada. A grand effort was now made by the Americans for the conquest of Canada. Two armies, under Generals Hampton and Wilkinson, the latter with 10,000 men, proceeded to the attack of Montreal. By the admirable conduct of Sir George Prevost and Sir R. Sheaffe, their plans were entirely defeated, and both the Canadas were again freed from their enemies. At sea, an action was fought between the Shannon, a British frigate, commanded by Captain Broke, and the United States frigate Chesapeake, of 44 guns. Captain Broke, perceiving her weight of metal, seized a favourable oppor- tunity of boarding, and after a short but severe action of ten minutes, carried her within sight of the people of Boston. The year 1814 opened with the advance of the allied troops towards Paris, in the course of which they sustained repeated attacks from Buonaparte, who disputed every inch of ground with consummate skill. Notwithstanding all his efforts, the Allies continued progressively to advance, till at last, after various attempts at negotiations by Buonaparte, in order to gain time to bring up his numerous garrisons, he, in a fit of desperation, threw himself into the rear of the Allies, hoping to cut off their communication, and stop their supplies. The Allies, however, seized the opportunity, joined their forces, and marched with 200,000 men directly to Paris. Whilst these transactions were going on in the North, Lord Wellington, amidst great obstacles, and in face of a large army commanded by Soult, continued to advance into France, and by a revolutionary movement in Bourdeaux, was enabled to occupy that large city with a detachment of his army, commanded by Marshal Beresford ; whilst he pro- ceeded to attack Soult, who had retreated to Thoulouse. The Allies had now arrived in the vicinity of Paris, into w T hich Marshals Mortier and Marmont had thrown them- selves. On the 30th of March, Joseph Buonaparte, who had been constituted Buonaparte's lieutenant-general during his absence, took a position on the heights around Paris, pro- tected by redoubts and artillery all along his line. The French were, however, driven from their position, and Paris capitulated. On the 1st of April, a Provisional Government Vas formed ; and the next day a decree was passed by the i THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 289 senate, declaring that Buonaparte had forfeited the throne, and that the hereditary right of his family was abolished. Buonaparte, on finding the Allies had marched toward Paris, made a rapid movement to defend the capital ; but finding it already occupied by the Allies, he withdrew to Fontainbleau, whence he sent to the senate, offering to abdi- cate in favour of his son. His proposal being rejected, he was obliged to submit, and signed a formal renunciation of the crowns of France and Italy, for himself and his heirs. On the 1 1th a treaty was made, by which he had the island of Elba in full sovereignty, with a pension of two millions of francs ; whilst Maria Louisa, his wife, daughter of the Emperor of Germany, had the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla. Pensions were also bestowed on the various branches of his family. The war in the South was not, how T ever, entirely finished, owing to the tardy arrival of the messengers sent from Paris to Soult, who is generally believed to have been himself the author of the delay. A sanguinary battle was the conse- quence, in which, though the Allies were completely victo- rious, they lost 4,000 men. At last advices arrived in all parts from Paris, and a stop was put to the further effusion of blood. On the 24th of April the King of France left England, under convoy of the Duke of Clarence, and landed at Calais. On the 3d of May he made his entry into Paris, and on the 30th peace was proclaimed between France and all the Allied Powers. By this treaty France was to retain her ancient boundaries, and receive some few augmentations on the side of the Netherlands, Germany, and Italy. Malta to remain in possession of England. All the colonies, &c. belonging to France, to be restored to her, with the excep- tion of the islands of Tobago, St. Lucia, Mauritius, and Bourbon. France not to erect any fortifications in that part of India restored to her. The German States and Switzer- land to remain independent. The dominions of the Pope and other Italian States to be restored. France to join with England in mutual efforts for the abolition of the Slave Trade. Holland was erected, subsequently, into a kingdom, with the Netherlands annexed, which formerly belonged to the House of Austria. Hanover also acquired the title of a kingdom. Murat was allowed to retain the kingdom of Naples, in consequence of having abandoned the interests of his brother-in-law, Buonaparte, and acted against the 25 £90 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. French in Italy, in co-operation with the Austrians. Eng- land, by an excess of generosity to Fiance, remitted the whole balance in her favour for the maintenance of the French prisoners, to an immense amount ; in consideration of which, France was to restore all the seizures of property, colleges, Sec. &c. belonging to British subjects in France; which article, however, she has not yet performed. Such are the principal articles of a treaty, which afforded ample proof of the extreme moderation of the Allies, whose armies soon after quitted Fiance. The war in America continued with unabated vigour ; nearly the whole coast was blockaded by British squadrons. A plan was formed for an attack on Washington, the capital of the United States. A strong body of forces, under Gene- ral Ross, disembarked on the 20th of August, and began their march. On the 24th they arrived within two leagues of that city, and found a body of 9,000 Americans strongly posted to defend it. They were immediately attacked and defeated, and the same evening the British entered Wash- ington, and burnt all the public buildings, with the dock- yard, and a frigate and sloop of war. Private property was respected, and on the 30th the army re-embarked. Fort Washington was taken in the same manner. A plan was next concerted between General Ross and Admiral Coch- rane against the city of Baltimore : but General Ross being mortally wounded in the advance, and the Americans greatly outnumbering the British troops, it was thought expedient to retreat, and they re-embarked without molestation. On the Canadian lakes and northern frontier of the Ame- rican States, success had varied : but at Plattsburg, a fortifi- cation on Lake Champlain, a desperate conflict ensued between the two fleets, which ended in the capture of the whole British flotilla : and, in consequence, General Prevost was obliged to withdraw from the American territories, leav- ing his sick and wounded in the hands of the Americans. The inutility of the war was now sufficiently apparent to the Americans ; who also perceived, that the pacification of Europe would leave the British ministry free to direct their entire force against them. Peace was therefore concluded; both nations agreeing also to continue their endeavours to abolish totally the Slave Trade. 1815. — In Europe, tranquillity" was far from being firmly established. The French soldiers, from the general to the private, had been too long accustomed to plunder and licen- THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 291 tiousness, to remain satisfied under a monarch, whose very existence in a manner depended on peace ; and who, more- over, had been forced upon them by the Allies. Buonaparte also, whose vicinity to the French territory in the Mediter- ranean gave him constant "opportunities of communication With the disaffected, failed not, by his partizans, to take advantage of the general feeling. Having sufficiently pre- pared their minds, and matured his plans, on the 1st of March he landed in Provence, with about 1,000 men, and at Grenoble was joined by the garrison of that city. Thence he marched to Lyons, where he was welcomed with general acclamations, and resumed his title of Emperor of the French. Immediately on the news of his landing, Louis ordered the army to assemble, which he put under the command of Marshal Ney, who had voluntarily offered himself, and solemnly promised to bring Buonaparte dead or alive to the capital. This promise he certainly fulfilled, but in a manner very different from what the King of France, by this deep hypocrisy of his general, had been induced to believe. No sooner had Buonaparte advanced to Auxerre, than Ney pub- lished a proclamation, declaring that Buonaparte was about to re-ascend the throne, and immediately joined him with all his army. Louis, finding the universal defection of the troops, immediatelv quitted Paris, and on the 20th Buona- parte entered in triumph, without having fired a musket from the time of his landing. This event caused the greatest sensation throughout' Europe. The Allied Powers immediately assembled in congress, and published a manifesto, declaring that Buona- parte, by breaking the convention, had put himself out of the pale of civilized nations, and engaging not to lay down their arms until he should be deprived of the power of ever again disturbing the world. Large reinforcements were immediately sent to the British army in the Netherlands, and the Duke of Wellington shortly after arrived to take the supreme command of the British and foreign troops in Belgium. At the same time a Prussian army, commanded by Marshal Blucher, assembled in the neighbourhood of Namur. In the mean time Buonaparte, fully sensible that upon the is-ue of this contest depended his throne, and perhaps I113 life, made astonishing efforts to complete his army, and in- spire them with confidence. Early in June he left Paris- X 29-2 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. determined to give battle to the English and Prussian armies before the arrival of the Russians and Austrians. On the 15th he attacked the Prussian posts on the Sambre, and car- ried them. He then continued his advance towards Brus- sels, driving a body of Belgians before him to Quatre Bras. Owing to some mistake in the conveyance of the intelligence, the Duke of Wellington did not receive it till late in the evening. He instantly ordered the advance of the troops to the scene of action. On the 10th Blucher was attacked, and, after an obstinate resistance, obliged to retreat, with the loss of 15,000 men ; and the Duke of Wellington, who was marching to his assistance, was in his turn attacked by Marshal Ney. All the efforts of the French here were, however, fruitless; their repeated charges were repelled, and the English remained masters of the field, though they lost the Duke of Brunswick, who was killed during the action. Blucher, after the battle of the 16th, had been obliged to fall back upon Wavre, and this movement made a corres- ponding one necessary on the part of the British ; who the next morning, took a strong position near Waterloo, on the road to Brussels, having in front the farm of La Haye Sainte and the castle of Houguemont, and on their left the defiles of St. Lambert, by which they kept up a distant communi- cation with the Prussians. On the 18th commenced the battle which was to hurl Buonaparte from his throne, and restore peace to the world. At ten o'clock the French commenced the action by a furi- ous attack on the British posted at Houguemont, which con- tinued at intervals through the whole of the day ; the Eng* lish constantly repelling their assailants, without attempting to pursue them. A tremendous cannonade at the same time was kept up by the French along the whole of their line, w T ith incessant charges of their infantry and cavalry. Towards evening the Prussians were descried defiling from the roads on the left of the British, which gave fresh animation to the troops, almost exhausted by the repeated and sanguinary at- tacks of the French, who when repulsed they had not been allowed to pursue. Buonaparte, upon being convinced that the Prussians were now upon the point of forming a junction with the British, made one last and desperate effort along the whole line. The English troops stood firm; the French were again repulsed, and Wellington seizing the moment, gave orders for a THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 293 general advance, amidst the cheers of the soldiers. In an instant the French were broken and dispersed, leaving on the field 150 pieces of cannon, and all their ammunition. The British, too much exhausted to pursue with vigour, gave up that task to the Prussians, who had just joined, and who performed it with unabated ardour. Such was the issue of the memorable battle of Waterloo, in which the British com- mander shewed consummate skill, and the troops the most unparalleled bravery. The loss of the British and Hanove- rians was about 13,000, but not more than 40,000 of the French survived the defeat and pursuit. Buonaparte fled to Paris, where finding his power entirely at an end, he signed his abdication and withdrew to Rochefort, in hopes of being able to escape to America. That port was, however, too closely blockaded by British cruisers, and finding all his attempts ineffectual, he determined to throw himself upon British protection. On the 15th of July, he went with his baggage and a few attendants, and gave himself up to Cap- tain Maitland, of the Bellerophon. It was immediately de- termined to send him to the island of St. Helena, as a place where he could be kept in perfect security, without too much confinement or restraint. Murat, his brother-in-law, the usurping king of Naples, had no sooner heard of the advance of Buonaparte to Paris, than, forgetting his promises to the Allies, he put himself at the head of his troops, declaring the cause of Buonaparte was his own. He was however soon overpowered, and Fer- dinand, the rightful king, reinstated in his dominions. Murat escaped to Corsica : but attempting a landing on the Neapolitan coast, he was surrounded by the armed peasantry, who killed or took his whole party. Murat himself was made prisoner, tried by a military commission, and sentenced to be shot : which sentence was carried into execution on the 15th of October. In the mean time, the British and Prussian troops had en- tered Paris by capitulation, and on the 8th of July, Loui3 XVIII. re-ascended the throne of France, and the Bourbon government was restored. The signature of peace between England and America could not be made known time enough to prevent a very sanguinary action which took place in an attack by the British upon New Orleans, in which they were defeated with great loss. An action at sea, in which the British frigate Endymion, in conjunction with several other vessels, cap~ 25* 294 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK^ tured the American ship the President, Commodore Decatur, closed the war, the news of the treaty of peace arriving immediately after. In India, a war had commenced against the states of Nepaul respecting their boundaries, which was finished by the surrender of the whole tract in dispute to the British. In Ceylon, a revolution took place in the dominions of the King of Candia, who had long carried on war against the English borders, and had exercised the most atrocious cruel- ties over his own subjects. Lieutenant-General Brownrigg marched to the assistance of the depressed natives, and being joined by almost all the principal men, proceeded to the capital, whence the king fled with a small number of his adherents, but was pursued and made prisoner by his own subjects. A convention of the nobles was called, who de- clared the king unworthy to reign, and offered the govern- ment to the English, by which the whole of that important island came into the possession of Great Britain. On the 20th of November, treaties were signed b} r the Allied Powers and France, in which it was agreed, that some cessions of territory should be made by France ; that about 30,000,000 pounds sterling should be paid to the Allies at different periods ; that, as a security against any further rev- olutionary movements on the part of the French, seventeen of their frontier towns should be occupied by the Allied troops for five years. 1816. — The' general tranquillity of Europe was now re-es- tablished ; but during a war, which had demanded the whole power of Europe, the ferocious depredations of the piratical states of Barbary had been permitted to exercise their cruel- ties, and plunder the weaker states with impunity. Great Britain now undertook to wipe away this disgrace, and pro- cure the abolition of Christian slavery. The result of the contest was no less glorious, than the principles with which she was actuated were noble. The States of Tripoli and Tunis were intimidated, and bound themselves never in future to make slaves of their prisoners of war ; but the Dey of Algiers refused all stipulations, imprisoned the English consul, and massacred the crews of some Italian vessels. Lord Exmouth, with a British fleet of five sail of the line, with five frigates and some smaller vessels, joined by a Dutch squad- ron of five frigates, sailed from Gibraltar to chastis3 the un- principled barbarian, who confided in the great strength of tus position and fortifications. The action was long and THE HOUSE OF BR< KSWICK. 295 obstinate : but nothing could withstand the heroism of British seamen ; the immense Algerine batteries were destroyed ; nearly the whole of their navy, together with their military stores and arsenal, were consumed by fire, and an immense slaughter made of their men. The next day the Dey accept- ed the conditions imposed upon him, which were to abolish Christian slavery for ever, to deliver up to the British admiral all slaves, of whatsoever nation, immediately, together with all the money received for the redemption of slaves, during that year, and pardon to be asked of the British consul by the Dey, in the presence of some British officers, for the insult offered him. The captives thus rescued, were conveyed at the expense of Britain to their respective countries, and the ransoms recov- ered transmitted to their governments untouched by the captors. Such was the result of the noble service performed by Great Britain to Christendom, without reimbursement, or any other advantage but the glory resulting from so benevo- lent an undertaking ; a glory, pure and unmixed, in which both religion and humanity may rejoice. In November 1818, the Plenipotentiaries of Austria, Great Britain, and Prussia, assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle, and ad- dressed to the French minister a notification, that as order and tranquillity appeared to be firmly established in France, they had ordered their respective troops to quit the French terri- tories : which notification was acted upon without delay, to the great joy of the French people. Such was the happy termination of the most tremendous conflict the world ever saw, achieved principally by the unconquerable spirit and unfailing resources of the British nation, during the reign of George III. ; a monarch who, although in the latter years of his life deeply secluded by an unfortunate malady from taking an active part in public affairs, still reigned not only in the hearts of his subjects, who greatly venerated his simplicity of manners, his probity, and other domestic virtues, but also, by directing through his ministers, who were originally of his appointment, the destinies of Europe, by the system of policy he had early adopted and resolutely persevered in, amidst the greatest difficulties and most trying occasions. In the evening of the 29th of January 1820, died this venerated monarch, in the eighty-second year of his age, and sixtieth of his reign. 296 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. Cotemporary Princes. POPES. Pius VII 1800 | Leo XII 1823 EMPEROR of r.KU.MAM. Francis II 1792 EMPERORS OF RUSSIA. Alexander 1801 1 Nicholas 1825 EMPEROR OF THE TUIIKS. Mahmoud II 1S08 KINGS OF FRANCE. Louis XVIII 1814J Charles X 1824 KING OF SPAIN. Ferdinand VII 1S08 KING AND Q.UEEN OF PORTUGAL. John VI 1820 I Donna Maria 182$ KING OF DENMARK. Frederic VI 1808 KING OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY. Charles XIV . 1818 KING OF PRUSSIA. Frederic IV 1797 KING OF BAVARIA. Louis Charles Augustus 1825 KING OF HANOTER. George IV 1820 KINO OF W1RTEMBURG. Frederic William 1S16 KING OF SAXONY. Anthony Clement 1827 KING OF SARDINIA. Charles Felix 1821 KING OF THE NETHERLANDS. William 1813 KINGS OF NAPLES AND SICILY. Ferdinand I. . 1S.M> Francis 1825 1S20. — George IK, reigned 10 Yea?s, 6 Mont /is. The date of the reign of George IV. is rather in name than in fact. He was publicly proclaimed on the 31st of January. England, exhausted by her late gigantic struggle, was enjoy- ing some repose, when news arrived from the African settle- ment of Sierra Leone, that grave of Englishmen, of an attack THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 29? made by the Ashantees upon the colony, and the defeat and massacre of Sir C. M'Carthy, the governor; but his death was subsequently avenged, and those savage warriors were reduced to submission. In the East, the Burmese, who inhabit an extensive empire east of the Ganges, had made an irruption into the territories of the East-India Company; but they were defeated with great slaughter in several brave actions, their strong fortifica- tions taken, and their own country completely placed at the mercy of their conquerors. Peace, however, was granted them upon terms which tended greatly to increase the security of our possessions in that quarter. In Europe, the sovereigns who had so bitterly felt the effects of Jacobinical principles, had entered into a. league called the Holy Alliance, to check the progress of re vol u- tionaiy opinions. A congress was held for that purpose at Verona, where a resolution was taken to overturn the recent- ly adopted constitution of Spain, and restore the ancient absolute monarchy. England was applied to, to sanction those proceedings; but the Duke of Wellington, who had been sent to the congress to treat of the destinies of Greece, upon being informed by the French ministry that the affairs of Spain would also come under discussion, received instruc- tions from Mr. Canning to refuse any acquiescence in the design, and to state the determination of the Government to remain neutral. Earl)' - in the year 1824, the Duke d'Angouleme, at the head of a powerful army, which had been some time collecting on the frontiers of Spain, under pretence of being a sanitory cordon against the yellow {evev, which then depopulated Spain, entered that country, and soon forced the Spaniards, unprepared for resistance, to an" unqualified submission. The feelings of many in England were greatly excited by this interference : but even had the ministry been inclined, the country was too much exhausted to attempt any effectual resistance. In 1826, the state of Portugal, our old ally, caused much anxiety to the government. John VI., who died on the l()th of March, had appointed his daughter, the Infanta Isabella. Regent of Portugal, in the name of his eldest son Don Pedro, Emperor of the Brazils. The constitution of the Brazils obliged him to make his election between the two crowns. Preferring that of Brazil. Don Pedro abdicated the throne of Portugal in 'favour of his daughter Donna Maria, having 298 THE MOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. previously framed a constitution for the Portuguese., which he transmitted by the hands of the British minister, together with the act of his abdication : and to prevent anj>- commo- tion in Portugal from the party of Don Miguel his brother, he directed that his daughter should marry Don Miguel. A strong party, however, aided b}' the secret influence of France and Spain, determined to make Don Miguel an absolute monarch, and prevailed upon some Portuguese regiments to desert into Spain, where they proclaimed and swore allegi- ance to Don Miguel, and were secretly supported by the Spanish authorities. Under these circumstances, application was made to England for assistance, on the faith of ancient treaties and alliances; and accordingly, in December, mes- sages were brought down to both Houses of Parliament, reciting the proceedings of the Spanish government, and calling upon Parliament to maintain the faith of treaties towards Portugal, its oldest ally. The address moved upon the occasion was carried on the l*2th of December with only four dissentient voices, and with a promptitude tha excited the admiration of Europe. The first detachment of British troops anchored in the Tagus on the 25th of the same month. This expedition speedily effected its object, and the independence and constitution of Portugal were for that time delivered. The European powders had long looked with an anxious eye towards Greece. The barbarian atrocities c-f the Turks in that unfortunate countiy shocked and scandalized christian Europe. The remonstrances of her ambassadors at Constan- tinople proving of no avail, Mr. Canning proposed a combined mediation by England, France, and Russia; and in July 1827, was signed at London a treaty for an armed mediation between the Greeks and Turks, by the English, French, and Russian ministers. In consequence of this, the allied squad- rons were sent to the Levant and Archipelago, in order to give effect to the treaty; but the Turkish Divan remained obstinately deaf to the representations of the allied powers, and Ibrahim, the Turkish admiral, continuing his atrocities "n the Morea, the allied fleets, under the command of Sir Edward Codrington, sailed into the harbour of Navarino, where they blocked up the combined fleets of Turkey and Egypt, in order to intimidate them into submission. A bat- tle seemed inevitable, yet each side professed to have no hostile intention. A shot fired by a Turkisli vessel, said to be accidental, was the signal for a general engagement. THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 299 and after four hours' fighting, with comparatively small loss to the allies, the bay was covered with the wrecks of the Turkish and Egyptian fleets. This brilliant action vir- tually achieved the independence of Greece, which was further secured by the arrival of a small military force from France. In Portugal affairs wore an aspect anything but favourable to the constitutionalists. It had been hoped that foreign travel and advice had changed entirely Don Miguel's sentiments, and he was accordingly named Regent instead of his sister; but immediately upon the departure of the English troops he seized the crown, in defiance of the claims of his niece, abrogated the constitution, and proclaimed himself absolute. In the mean time Don Pedro had sent his daughter the young Queen with a retinue to Europe, but on her touching at Gibraltar she became acquainted with the unfavourable oc- currences in Portugal, and she was advised to proceed to England, where she was received with royal honours; but finding no present prospect of overthrowing Don Miguel, she returned to her father's court at Rio de Janeiro. In the mean time death had been making great altc rations ;rin the government at home. On the 5th of January 1827, died his Royal Highness the Duke of York, the brother of his Majesty ; and on the 17th of February the Earl of Liverpool was seized by an apoplectic fit, from which he never recover- ed. He was succeeded by Mr. Canning, whose constitution, already enfeebled by disease, proved too weak for the fatigues, anxieties, and mortifications of office, to which he fell a vic- tim the 8th of Au rust of the same year. Nor did the inex- orable hand of death spare even royalty itself: the King during the two last years had had frequent attacks of gout tending to inflammation, oppressed breathing, and great de- pression. In the beginning of the year 1830 his illness became serious, though it was studiously concealed from the public : but about the middle of April his state was such that >ulletins of his health were periodically issued. These an- nouncements were any thing but clear or satisfactory. At one period he was declared convalescent, and by his own orders the bulletins were discontinued, contrary to the judg- ment of his physicians : such was the tenacity with which he clung to life. Bui his disease, an ossification of the heart, baffled all medical skill : he was seized with a fit of couching, burst a blood-vessel, and expired at three o'clock on the morn- ing of the 23th of June. His remains were deposited in the 300 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFA7RS. royal vault at Windsor, on the 16th of July, with the cus- tomary solemnities. CHAPTER II. Ecclesiastical Jljfairs. As the revolution of 1688 took place in consequence of the attempt of James II. to re-introduce the Catholic religion, it was impossible that its professors should not grieve at his ill success and consequent misfortunes, and have reason to apprehend much persecution from his successor. But Wil- liam was too good a politician to be inclined to violence. He had, moreover, been bred a Calvinist ; and finding the estab- lished clergy but little disposed towards him, he openly espoused the cause of the Dissenters. Catholics, among the rest, at first experienced the lenity of his government : for though the laws against them remained unrepealed, they were seldom executed with rigour. Subsequently, however, at the instigation of the Dissenters, whom he wished to please, a very severe act was passed, by which priests and Catholic schoolmasters were sentenced to banishment, and a reward of £100 offered for their apprehension. By another clause, Catholic? born after the 25th of March 1701), were prevent- ed from inheriting any estate or purchasing land. They were, moreover burthened with the payment of double taxes, and seizure of their horses. It is acknowledged by Bishop Burnet, who had a hand in passing this bill, that both the government and the opposition detested the measure, and that each party had loaded it with severe clauses, in hopes of its being rejected by the other, and thus losing their pop- ularity. Under Queen Anne, Catholics, although subject to the restraints of former laws, lived unmolested. They were too much depressed to cause any fear to her government, which now seemed weary of persecution; and their attachment to her family, in the person of her brother James, could not in reality be displeasing to her. At the commencement of the reign of George I. some attempts were made to introduce a more tolerant system: which were not successful, owing to the jealousy of the dif- ferent sects, and the disagreement of the Catholics amon^ themselves. ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 301 The rebellion in 1745 called up the former animosity of the nation : which, however, on the extinction of the hopes of the Pretender, gradually subsided, and Catholics lived in comparative tranquillity during the remainder of the reign of George II., notwithstanding they were sometimes molest- ed by informers, and continued subject to the constructive recusancy act, by which the oaths of supremacy, and abju- ration of the Stuarts, were allowed to be tendered at the mere will of two justices of the peace, without any previous notice or information. During the first part of the reign of his late majesty George III., attempts were made to carry into execution the penal laws against Catholics. Bishop Talbot, uncle to the late Earl of Shrewsbury, was tried for his life at the Old Bailey for saying mass, and only escaped conviction from want of evidence. Other priests were prosecuted and imprisoned, and, in some instances, the statutes which deprived Catholics of their landed property were enforced. The period at length arrived when, no longer in fear of any invasion in favour of the Stuarts, and convinced of the unshaken loyalty of the oppressed Catholics, the Govern- ment adopted more liberal and enlightened measures. For this purpose a bill was brought into Parliament in 1778, by Sir George Saville, for the repeal of certain penalties and disabilities, including the punishment of officiating priests as felons or traitors ; the forfeiture of Catholic heirs educated abroad ; the power given to a son or near relation, being a Protestant, to take possession of a father's or other relation's estate ; and the depriving them of the power of acquiring landed property by purchase. Although the liberality of the times had, in some measure, previously mitigated the rigour of these cruel provisions, yet it was justly observed, that the continuance of laws which encouraged an unnatural child to deprive his parent of his possessions was so disgrace- ful and oppressive, as to excite the detestation and astonish- ment of all Europe. The motion was received with universal approbation, and the bill was passed into a law without oppo- sition. The passing of this bill induced some persons in Scotland to form a design of proposing its extension to that country in the ensuing session of Parliament. To this they were more- over encouraged by the consideration, that in the General Assembly, sitting at the time the act was first in agitation, a motion for remonstrating against it was rejected by a major- 20 802 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. ity of upwards of a hundred voices. Notwithstanding this appearance of moderation, a spirit of intolerance and jeal- ousy was again rising, which, fostered by the circulation of virulent and calumnious pamphlets, soon displayed its effects in some of the provincial synods, where resolutions were passed expressing a determination to resist every attempt for the relief of Catholics. At the same time, some incendiary bigots, chiefly of the lowest class, in Edinburgh and Glasgow, formed an association for the like purpose, which assumed the appellation of " Friends of the Protestant Interest." These persons, by their activity in diffusing pamphlets, hand-bills, and letters in the newspapers, kindled such a flame through the country, that it was thought advisable to relinquish the intention of applying for the bill. Fanat- icism, however, was not thus to be appeased : letters were dropt in the streets of Edinburgh, calling upon the people to pull down *' a Pillar of Popery," lately erected. A mob, in consequence, assembling, attacked a building occupied by the Catholic Bishop, which they pillaged and set on fire. They next proceeded to the Catholic chapel, the inside of which and of the house, together with the furniture, was demolished, and a considerable library belonging to the bishop was either destroyed or stolen. The rioters, embold- ened by the absence of all energy and opposition on the part of the magistrates, attacked the houses of several Catho- lic tradesmen, whose property they served in like manner. These disorders, to the disgrace of the police, continued several days unchecked ; but when the rioters carried their designs further, and proceeded to attack the houses of Prin- cipal Robertson and Mr. Crosbie, an eminent advocate, whom they considered as promoters of the intended bill, some dragoons were called in to the protection of the city, and peace was at length restored, though not before a proc- lamation was issued by the Lord Provost, in which he took upon himself to assure the " well-meaning" people, that no repeal of the penal statutes against the Scotch Catholics should take place. Similar riots occurred at Glasgow, where the house and manufactory of an eminent potter, a Catholic, were destroyed; but the prompt exertions of the magistrates and principal inhabitants soon restored order. JJhese disturbances, however, were but a prelude to those that took place in 1780, in London, which became the scene ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIJEB. 303 of riots the most disgraceful to its police, and dangerous to its safety. At the head of the Scotch associations against any relaxa- tions of the penal laws respecting Catholics was Lord George Gordon, brother to the Duke of that name : a man whose character was compounded of enthusiasm, folly, and cun- ning. Chiefly through his proceedings, the same fanatical spirit was roused in London ; where, as early as January 1780, a deputation from a body calling themselves the Pro- testant Association, of which he was the patron, waited upon Lord North, to request he would present a petition to Par- liament against the law that had been passed in favour of the Catholics, which his Lordship positively refused to do. During the subsequent session of Parliament, Lord George Gordon, who was a member of the House of Commons, frequently interrupted the business by speeches on religion, and the dangers of popery, and by dividing the house on questions, on which he almost always stood alone. His manners ?nd dress were as singular as his language ; but he was rather a subject of amusement to the house than of serious apprehension. In the meanwhile, the association was secretly increasing its members, till on the 29th of May, at a meeting called by public advertisement, at Coachmaker's Hall, Lord George Gordon took the chair, and made a most inflammatory harangue, in which he asserted the dangers of the rapid increase of popery, and concluded with moving that the whole body of the Protestant Association should, on the next Friday, accompany him to the House of Commons, to present their petition, declaring at the same time that he would not deliver it if attended by fewer than 20,000 per- sons, wearing in their hats blue cockades. On the Sid of June the associators, marshalled in four divisions, proceeded in great order to the Houses of Parlia- ment; but they soon inflamed each other, and committed violent outrages on the persons of such members of both houses as came in their way, particularly those who were regarded as promoters of the obnoxious bill. Upon the motion of Lord George Gordon to have the petition admitted some debate ensued, during which he often went out to inform the mob of what was passing, and who were the principal opposers of their cause. His motion was rejected by 19;} to six. After much time spent in confusion and alarm, a party of soldiers arrived, with a magistrate at their 301 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. head, who assured the mob that if they would disperse the soldiers should be ordered away. Upon this they retired from the vicinity of the Parliament House; but it was for the purpose of destroying the Catholic chapel in Duke Street, Lincoln's-Inn Fields, belonging to the Sardinian ambas- sador, and the Bavarian chapel in Warwick Street, Golden Square, which they effected without opposition. The fol- lowing day the tumult appeared to have nearly subsided ; but this claim was but a prelude to a more furious storm. For the particulars of those widely extended scenes of destruction, caused by all the dregs of the metropolis, fired by a blind and indiscriminate rage for devastation and plun- der, the periodical publications of the time afford ample information : it will be sufficient here to relate, that several chapels belonging to Catholics, together with many of their houses, and those of persons supposed to be their friends, were burnt or pillaged. On the 7th these disorders were at their height : no fewer than thirty-six fires were seen blaz- ing at one time in different parts of the town, and two attempts were made to force the Bank. It was now high time to think of saving the capital itself from utter ruin, and even the whole frame of the Govern- ment from dissolution. Hitherto the magistrates of London and Westminster, and even the Government, had shewn great supineness and timidity ; but the King himself now began to act : troops w T ere ordered from all quarters, with directions that they should not wait for the civil magistrate, but use their arms wherever the rioters appeared. This order was effectually obeyed: for besides the numbers who were supposed to have perished in the ruins of the conflagration, the return of killed and wounded amounted to no fewer than 458. By this resolute conduct of the King, tranquillity was soon restored, and the author of the calamity, Lord G. Gordon, was apprehended, committed to the Tower, and subsequently tried for high treason, of which charge he was however acquitted. Some years after he was convicted of publishing a libel on the Queen of France, the French ambassador, and the Empress of Russia, sentenced to five years' imprisonment, and to find bail for his good behaviour in £10,000, which not being able to do, he continued in Newgate till his death. These disturbances appear to have made some impression upon the Commons, for a bill was proposed for " affording security to the Protestant religion from the encroachments ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 305 of Popery, by more effectually restraining Papists from taking upon themselves the education of Protestant children." This was rightly considered by the Lords as a concession to. that spirit which had produced so many lamentable effects, and therefore unworthy the dignity of Parliament ; it was accordingly rejected by a vote of their house for deferring the third reading of the bill to a day beyond the sitting of Parliament. Some time after the ferment occasioned by the riots had subsided, a meeting was held of some of the principal Catho- lic nobility and gentry ; five of whom were formed into a committee for a limited time, to promote and attend to the affairs of the Roman Catholic body in England. Among the objects which appear to have occupied their attention, was a plan to change the vicarial form of their ecclesiastical government into a regular hierarchy, by the appointment of bishops in ordinary, which they conceived was not only more conformable to the general practice of the church, but would moreover obviate the objection made by their adver- saries, of the absolute dependance of the Vicars Apostolic upon the See of Rome. The formation of a committee composed solely of laymen, appointed for the express purpose of new modelling the Catholic hierarchy in this kingdom, certainly appeared a mode of proceeding not likely to procure the concurrence of those who thought, and with reason, that in a business so immediately concerning the ecclesiastical body, not only should the bishops and clergy have been consulted, but that they should have had the principal direction of the whole affair. As might have been foreseen, discord, animosity, and reproaches, were the consequence ; the project was aban- doned ; and the time for which the committee had been appointed having expired, they were dissolved, and a new one appointed in 1787, consisting also of five members, to whom were added in the following year, Bishop Talbot, of the London district; Bishop Berrington, coadjutor of the Midland district ; and the Rev. Jh. Wilks, a Benedictine monk. Previous to the latter nomination, a memorial was delivered by the committee to Mr. Pitt, which, as it enume- rates the principal grievances to which Catholics were sub- ject, is summarily inserted. It begins by shewing that 11 they are prohibited under severe penalties from exercising their religion. 26* 306 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. " That they are subject to heavy punishments for keeping schools to educate their children at home, and to heavy fines for sending them to schools abroad. " That the}^ are rendered incapable of serving in his Majesty's armies and navies. " That thev are restrained from practising in the law. " That they are obliged to expose the most secret transac- tions of their families, by the obligation of enrolling their deeds. "That they are subject to the ignominious fine of the double land-tax. 11 That they are deprived of the right of freeholders to vote for county members, and not allowed to vote for any other members. "That they are excluded from all places, civil and mili- tary. "That they are disqualified from voting in either house of parliament. " That their clergy are exposed to heavy penalties, impri- sonment, and even death, for exercising their functions. "That, by the act passed in 1778, the law which most prevented their enjoying their landed property was repealed, and an oath prescribed to them, by which they most solemnly disclaim the belief falsely imputed to them, that there exists in any foreign prince, prelate, state, or potentate, either directly or indirectly, any civil jurisdiction, power, superio- rity, or pre-eminence whatsoever, within this realm. "That the English Catholics have universally taken this oath. "That their general conduct has been blameless. " That they hold no principle which can be construed to- extend to the subversion or disturbance of the civil or eccle- siastical government of this country. "That the British Government and the nation at large have long been sensible of this, and therefore, with a humanity for which the English Catholics are truly grateful, have not permitted the laws against them to be executed in their utmost extent. " That hence prosecutions against them have been dis- countenanced by the Government. Informers have been universal!)' despised : the nation is their friend ; the letter of the law chiefly their enemy. And, " That upon these grounds your memorialists hope for ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 307 your support, in their intended application for redress of grievances." To this memorial Mr. Pitt returned a favourable answer, requesting the Catholics to furnish him with evidence of the opinion of the Catholic Universities relative to the dispens- ing power of the Pope. In pursuance of the Minister's suggestions, three ques- tions were sent to the Universities of the Sorbonne, Lou- vaine, Douay, Alcala, and Salamanca, expressed in the fol- lowing terms : 11 1. Has the Pope or Cardinals, or any body of men, or any individual of the Church of Rome, any civil authority, power, jurisdiction, or pre-eminence whatsoever within the realm of England ? " 2. Can the Pope or Cardinals, or any body of men, or any individual of the Church of Rome, absolve or dispense with his Majesty's subjects from their oath of allegiance, upon any pretext whatsoever ? " 3. Is there any principle in the tenets of the Catholic faith, by which Catholics are justified in not keeping faith with heretics, or other persons differing from them in religious opinions, in any transaction of a public or private nature ?" To these questions all the Universities returned an abso- lute and unconditional negative : some of them expressing their astonishment that there could be found persons who would dare to impute to Catholics any thing so absurd and iniquitous. In the mean time, by order of the Catholic Committee, the draft of a bill was prepared by Mr. Charles Butler, their secretary, for the repeal of the laws against the English Catholics ; but upon the suggestion, it is said, of Lord Stan- hope, who warmly advocated their cause in Parliament, the bill was laid aside and another substituted in its stead, in which the Committee consented that the English Catholics should receive the appellation of " Protesting Catholic Dissenters. 1 ' This Protestation was subsequently communi- cated to the Bishops, Dr. James Talbot, Dr. Thomas Talbot, Dr. Walmesley, and Dr. Gibson, who, with their clergy, and indeed the great body of the Catholics, were by no means content with the appellation designed for them ; however, after various modifications in the bill, and explanations, it was signed by them and most of the clergy ; and at a gene- ral meeting in 1789, by a number of English laity, after which a copy of it was laid before Parliament. 308 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. Soon after, a fresh oath instead of the protestation was adopted by the Committee, and shewn by them to the Min- isters ; who made some alterations, to which the Committee assented, and in this state it was inserted, June 1789, in Woodfall's Register. Again, however, a new modelling of it took place, which protracted the time so much, that it was thought advisable not to introduce it to Parliament during that session, but to request Mr. Mitford (now Lord Redes- dale) to give notice of his intention to bring it in, in the next. This delay gave time to the Bishops to reflect maturely upon the whole tenor of the bill, in consequence of which a synod was convened at Hammersmith in October, at which were present Bishops Walmesley, James Talbot, Thomas Talbot, and Matthew Gibson, together with two coadjutors, Bishops William Sharrock and Charles Berring- ton, the Reverend Robert Bannister, and Reverend John Milner. The substance of their meeting is contained in an ency- clical letter, in which the oath is formally condemned, and their flocks enjoined not to take any oath, or subscribe to any instrument in which their religion was concerned, with- out the previous approbation of their respective Bishops. In consequence of this condemnation, the Committee waited upon Mr. Mitford, to request him to alter the oath to the words of the protestation, which was accordingly done ; but still it was pronounced objectionable by Bishop Douglas, who had, upon the death of Bishop James Talbot, become Vicar Apostolic of the London district ; by Bishop William Gibson, Vicar Apostolic of the Northern district on the death of Bishop Matthew Gibson ; and Bishop Walmesley, of the Midland district. The Committee, however, refusing to make any further alterations in the bill, it passed the House of Commons ; but in the House of Lords, at the suggestions of the Catholic Bishops, it was rejected, and what is called the Irish oath of 1778 substituted in its place. After depositing the protestation in the British Museum, the Committee dissolved itself, and thus ended this unfortu- nate controversy, in which, during upwards of two } r ears, much acrimony had been displayed, and great scandal given to both Catholics and Protestants. In Ireland, previous to the union in 1800, negotiations had been entered into by Lord Castlereagh, by which the Catho- lics were given to understand, that their support of the in- ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 309 tended union would be followed by their complete emancipa- tion from all their disabilities. The union took place ; but the scruples of the King at that time with regard to the cor- onation oath, and other impediments, prevented the fulfilment of the Minister's promises. After various plans for the accomplishment of so desirable an object, it was suggested by Ministers, that in return for so great a boon some securities on the part of the Irish Catho- lics, with regard to the appointment of their Bishops, and the intercourse of their clergy with the see of Rome, would be required by Government, and a veto or negative was in con- sequence proposed ; this at first appeared to meet with the approbation of some of their bishops, but was subsequently rejected by the whole episcopal body, and generally by ail the Catholics of Ireland. The bill, in consequence, which had been introduced into Parliament for their relief, was abandoned. In England, the Catholic Committee having been dissolved, no regular meeting of their body took place till 1808, when one was convened by public advertisement, at which sub- scriptions were entered into for the purpose of forwarding their claims in Parliament ; at the same time a select board was chosen, and in 1813 it was finally organised under the name of "the Catholic Board," with a standing committee, which continues to the present time. From this period scarcely a session of Parliament elapsed without the introduction of the question of Catholic eman- cipation. In some instances it passed the House of Com- mons, but was uniformly negatived in the House of Lords. An act, however, was introduced in 1817, by Government itself, which passed almost without observation. This act authorized the giving of commissions in the army and navy, without requiring previously the taking of the oaths, or sub- scribing to the declarations. This act does not, however, dis- pense with the obligation of taking or subscribing subsequently to their appointments, but from the consequences of this they are exempted by the act of indemnity, which passes annually. This was the last of the many public benefits, which the increasing liberality of the times enabled Government to be- stow during the reign of George III. on his Catholic subjects ; that they are not deficient in the grateful remembrance of them, their steady loyalty, and firm attachment to his 310 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. throne and family on many a trying occasion, afford ample proof. A considerable portion of the first session of the Parliament called by George IV. shortly after his accession to the throne, was chiefly occupied by debates on the claims of the Catho- lics, whose hopes, notwithstanding repeated disappointments, still continued unabated, particularly in Ireland, where a permanent association was formed for the furtherance of their object. In the session of 1822, Mr. Canning moved for leave to bring in a bill which should restore to the Catholic Peers their right of sitting and voting in the House of Lords. With all the powers of his wonderful genius, that accomplished orator, pressing into his service with admirable felicity, the ceremony of the coronation in the preceding summer, asked : "Did it occur to the ambassadors of Catholic Austria, of Catholic France, when contemplating this animating specta- cle, that the Duke of Norfolk would become disseised of the exercise of his privileges among his fellow-peers ; that his robes of ceremony were to be laid aside and hung up until the distant (be it a very distant) day. when the coronation of a successor to his present most gracious Sovereign might again call him forth to assist at a similar solemnization — that, after being thus exhibited to the eyes of the Peers and people of England, and to the representatives of the princes and nations of the world, the Duke of Norfolk, highest in rank among the Peers — the Lord Clifford, and others like him, representing a long line of illustrious ancestry, as if called forth and furnished for the occasion, like the lustres and banners that flamed and glittered in the scene., were to be, like them, thrown by as useless and trumpery formali- ties? — that they might bend the knee and kiss the hand — that they might bear the train and rear the canopy— might discharge the offices assigned by Roman pride to their bar- barous ancestors, < Purpurea tollant aulsa Britanni,' but that with the pageantry of the hour their importance faded away ; that as their distinction vanished, their humilia- tion returned ; and that he who headed the procession of Peers to-day, could not sit among them as their equal to-morrow." This bill passed the Commons by a small minority, but was thrown out of the House of Lords. On the 3d of February, 1P.25, the sixth session of the first ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 311 of ttv? existing Parliament was opened by commission. After references to foreign affairs and other incidents, the commis- | sioners added : " It is much to be regretted that associations % should exist in Ireland which have adopted proceedings irre- l.. concilable with the spirit of the constitution, and calculated, by exciting alarm, and by exasperating animosities, to en- danger the peace of society, and to retard the course of : national improvement. His Majesty relies upon your wis- dom to consider without delay the means of applying a remedy. Mr. Brougham, on the motion for an address, took occa- sion to comment upon this part of the speech. "The speech," said he, "talks of associations in the plural, and not without an object. I warn the House not to be en- trapped by the contrivance : that little letter ' s ' is one of the slyest introductions that ever Belial resorted to, when he would ' Make the worse appear The better reason, to perplex and dash Maturest counsels ; for his thoughts are low.' I am perfectly aware who added that c s ' ; I know the hand. I discern one of those ' subtle equities ' so familiar to the court over which a noble and learned lord presides. Let the proposed measures be carried, and the Catholic Associa- tion will be put down with one hand, whilst the Orange Societies will receive only a gentle tap with the other." A bill, however, was brought in by Mr. Goulbourn, the Irish Secretary, entitled " A Bill to amend the Acts relating to unlawful Societies in Ireland :" in other words, to put down the Catholic Association. An eloquent and warm debate ensued, which was protracted by adjournment through four ' nights, and the motion was at length carried by a majority of 278 to 1-23. A Catholic deputation in London, from the association, employed to watch and resist the measures taken for its sup- pression, presented a petition by Mr. Brougham, denying, and offering to disprove the allegations against it ; and Mr. Brougham moved that the petitioners should be heard by counsel at the bar of the house ; but his motion was not successful. The bill passed both houses, and received the royal assent on the 9th of March, previous to which the association dissolved itself, only to be resuscitated under another form. 312 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. Soon after this, a petition of the Irish Catholics was pre- sented by Sir Francis Burdett, who brought forward a motion in a new form, viz. including the repeal of disabilities, the enactment of a state provision for the clergy, and the raising of the forty-shilling freeholders to a ten pound franchise. The two latter measures, called in derision "the wings" of the Emancipation Bill, were intended, the one as a security for the state, the other as a protection for the Irish Protestants against the overwhelming majorities of the Catholics at elec- tions. This motion was carried by a small majority through the Commons. During the second and third readings of this bill in the Commons, the Duke of York, in presenting a petition from the canons of Windsor against the Catholics in the House of Lords, closed his speech with that memorable declaration, that he would, to the last moment of his life, whatever his situation or under whatever circumstances, resist the eman- cipation of the Catholics, "So help him God!" Such a speech, coming from the presumptive heir of the crown, is supposed to have had a great share in the rejection of the bill, as well as to stimulate that mass of brute ignorance and bigotry which is to be found even amongst the most enlight- ened people. The Catholic Question was embarrassed rather than aided by these "wings," and Mr. O'Connell, the popu- lar and indefatigable leader of the Irish Catholics, having consented to the provision for their clergy, as well as lent his aid to disfranchise their forty-shilling freeholders, under the hopes of carrying the Emancipation Bill, no sooner saw the motion lost, and the odium attending his support of "the wings," than he made a public recantation of his errors, and asked pardon of his God and his country. The Lords' committee on the general condition of Ireland was re-appointed at the beginning of this session, and the mass of evidence appended to the report surprised many, and shocked all, by the perusal of such a history of human wrongs and wretchedness in Ireland. The Catholic Associa- tion now appeared, after six months' suppression, under a new form, without constituent organization, without commit- tees, without officers, without collections of money, without adjourned meetings, and pursued its destination with more success than ever. The "rent" was received, as usual, under the name of "free gifts," and the Catholics began to shew a more daring sense of their numbers and their rights. The clergy joined with the laity, and the consequence was ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 313 t. most astonishing unanimity and singleness of purpose. This power decided the elections three out of the four prov- inces in favour of emancipation. It dispossessed the Beres- ford family of the county representation of Waterford. Never was popular retribution more just, or the victim better chosen. The next session of Parliament was opened on the 29th of January, and on the 26th of February Lord John Russell introduced, with an able speech, the consideration of the sacramental test and corporation acts, and moved that they should be referred to a committee of the whole House, with a view to their repeal. In spite of the whole force of Min- isters, the motion was carried by a majority of 237 to 193, and sent up to the Lords, where, supported by the Duke of Wellington, prime minister, it was approved by the bench of bishops, but opposed by Lord Eldon, who declared that, much as he had heard of " the march of intellect," he never had expected to see this bill march into their Lordships' house, with the Duke of Wellington and the bishops con- senting parties. " For my part," said his Lordship "I will not give up the church : let that be the work of others, whether within or without the church I care not." After several attempts to narrow the principle of the bill in the committee, it passed without opposition through its remaining stages, and became the law of the land, to the great satisfac- tion of the Catholics, who had used every exertion in favour of it, both from principle and policy. On the 8th of May, Sir Francis Burdett moved a commit- tee of the whole house on the Catholic claims. This motion was again carried by a majority of six, and as usual, lost in the House of Lords by a majority of forty-four, with no other novelty than that of an abortive conference on the subject between deputies on the part of each House in the Painted Chamber. In Ireland, the Catholic clergy continued to identify them- selves with the association, while on the other hand fanatical zeal and restless bigotry, which flourished so much in the United Kingdom, combined in a crusade against what they called Popish idolatry ; £0 sanguine in their hopes were the new crusaders, that they promised to subdue the Irish Cath- olics in a year or two to the Protestant faith. Lord Roden in the House of Lords, opposed emancipation as unnecessary, because the Catholics of Ireland would soon be Protestant." The ostensible means of "the second reformation," as it was 27 314 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. called, were educating the children of the C.itholic poor, and distributing the Bible without note or comment. But under this disguise were practised intrigue, bigotry, and base contrivances. The naked and starving Catholic poor were tempted, by a pretended charity, with food, clothes, and money, to prostitute their consciences, and dress their children in the livery of apostacy. These attempts could not, of course, be viewed by the Cath- olic clergy with indifference, and recantations of the so-called popish errors, were succeeded by remorse, and a return to their ancient faith. The first display of their power, to use the expression of Mr. Shiel, one of their most eloquent leaders, "made the Great Captain start." Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, who had vacat- ed his seat in Parliament for Clare, by becoming a Cabinet minister, re-appeared on the hustings of his native county with every advantage of personal character, local influence of family and fortune, and advocacy of the Catholic claims ; but he was a member of the Wellington ministry, and the Clergy and the Association, by their unbounded influence over the peasantry, drove him from the field the second day, and boldly chose Mr. O'Connell in his place. The Catholics have been reproached with ingratitude, for unseating one who had advocated their cause ; the reproach is unjust; they rejected him only because he belonged to the Wellington administration : his vote and speech were but a mockery, whilst the government to which he belonged was based upon the principle of exclusion. It was, however, well understood that Mr. O'Connell would not be admitted to sit and vote ; still it was such an appalling manifestation of Catholic determination and strength -as no anti-catholic min- ister would venture to encounter on a general election. The success in Clare gave an additional impulse to agitation, — a term which had been applied to the Catholic leaders as one of reproach, but which they now adopted as a title of distinc- tion and honour, — as a strong proof of the power of their party and an earnest of success. The act against the Asso- ciation which had been evaded by a change of form, expired at the close of the session, and the Association immediately resumed the whole machinery of its committees, adjourned meetings, and branch associations throughout Ireland. A plan was formed to sever the bond/which had existed between the forty-shilling freeholders and their landlords. Hitherto the landlords had made their forty-shilling freeholders repair ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 315 to the hustings and vote according to their commands ; they now exclaimed against the wickedness of the agitators in encouraging tenants '•' to rebel against their landlord ," and about the audacity of " popish priests" in meddling with elections. But the agitators and their clergy pursued their purpose; they told the forty-shilling freeholders that they had a country, a religion, a vote, and a special fund for their relief and deferree against the ..hreatened vengeance of their land- lords. They devised certain tests, the foremost of which was uncompromising opposition to the ministry so long as the Duke resisted emancipation, and without absolutely pledg- ing themselves to this, no candidate was to have their support. So entirely did the whole Catholic peasantry enter into this feeling that nocturnal outrage and lawless violence, even local disputes, ceased at their word. It is a paradox in terms, but not the less a fact, that Ireland was pacified by agitation. The Association had now shown itself a political engine of great power, directed with great skill and energy. What popular body, with only its moral and intellectual force, ever achieved so much? Two of its members. Mr. O'Connell and Mr. Shiel, particularly distinguished themselves. Mr. O'Connell had had long experience in Irish politics, a perfect knowledge of Irish temper in the peasantry, a ready, dexterous, bold eloquence, which could be humorous, rhetorical, or over- whelming with abusive epithets ; his power over aggregate meetings was unbounded. Mr. Shiel, more educated, dis- tinguished as a writer, taking a superior tone of declamation, had more influence with the higher classes of Irish Catholics, and, through the publication of his speeches in the English newspapers, with the English people. The following ener- getic and faithful description of the state of Ireland at this period produced a great sensation in England : — " Does not a tremendous organization extend over the whole island ? Have not all the natural bonds by which men are tied toge- ther, been broken and burst asunder? Are not all the rela- tions of society which exist elsewhere, gone ? Has not pro- perty lost its influence, — has not rank been stripped of the respect which should belong to it, — and has not an internal government sprung up which, gradually superseding the legit- imate authorities, has armed itself with a complete domina- tion ? Is it nothing that the whole body of the Catholic clergy are alienated from the state ; and that the Catholic gentry, and peasantry, and priesthood, are all combined in one vast confederacy? So much for Catholic indignation 316 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. while we are at peace ! and when England shall be involved in war — I pause ! It is not necessary that I should discuss that branch of the division, or point to the cloud which, charged with thunder, is hanging over our heads." Still the Ministry appeared unmoved. No provocation afforded the Irish executive a pretence to act; agitation was at the highest, but without infringing public order or the law. Lord Anglesea had succeeded a popular viceroy : he came with the odium of his appointment by the Wellington minis- try — of having used an ill-advised expression in the heat of debate — of having given an obnoxious vote — and his first appearance in Ireland was in consequence unpopular; but his generous character pointed out to him the course he ought to pursue, and he soon became the most popular viceroy. In the mean time, as the summer advanced, the state of Ireland assumed a more awful aspect. The Orangemen, joined by some who had hitherto remained neutral, forming themselves into rival and hostile associations, under the name of Brunswick Clubs, breathed nothing but defiance. Still the Government continued inactive ; but two incidents ex- cited the attention of the public: Mr. Dawson, secretary to the treasury and the brother-in-law of Mr. Peel, hitherto a zealous anti-emancipator, declared at a public dinner to his constituents of Deny, that he had come to the conclusion of the necessity of emancipation, as the only means of restoring the supremacy of the laws in Ireland. The Duke of Wellington had formerly had friendly inter- course in Spain with Dr. Curtis, the Catholic Primate of Ireland. In answer to a letter from that prelate on the alarm- ing state of Ireland, the Duke expressed his anxiety to wit- ness the settlement of the Catholic question, but confessed he saw no prospect of such a settlement. " If, however," gays he, "we could bury it in oblivion for a short time, I should not despair of seeing a satisfactory result." What- ever may have been the intention of the Duke, his letter was sufficiently obscure. Dr. Curtis communicated it to the Lord Lieutenant, who in reply said, " I differ from the Duke, first, because to bury it in oblivion is impossible : and next, if it were possible, it might be represented, that if the government at once and decidedly refused concession, the Catholics would cease to agitate, and then all the miseries of the last year would be to be acted over again. What I do recom- mend is, that the measure should not for a moment be lost ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 3J7 sight of; that all constitutional moans should be resorted to ; but that at the same time the most patient forbearance, the most submissive obedience to the laws, should be inculcated, that no personal or offensive language should be held towards those who oppose the claims. Let the Catholic trust to the justice of his cause.. — to the growing liberality of mankind. My warm anxiety to promote the general interests of this countiy is the motive that has induced me to give my opin- ion and offer my advice." Lord Anglesea's letter was dated the 25th of December, and on the 28th he was recalled : various motives besides the writing the above letter have been assigned for this step; among others his popularity with the Association, his dining with a popular Irish nobleman. Some, however, are of opinion that the Duke of Wellington, whose mind was made up to grant emancipation, was determined to have the whole glory to himself, and therefore forced a quarrel upon the Marquis. At the beginning of the year 1829, vague rumours on the subject of emancipation began to spread : the Catholics anticipated relief; their opponents, stronger measures of coercion. On the 5th of February, Parliament was opened by commission, with the following decisive recommendation from the throne : "The state of Ireland has been the object of his Majesty's continued solicitude. His Majesty laments that in that part of the united kingdom an association should still exist which is dangerous to the public peace, and incon- sistent with the spirit of the constitution ; which keeps alive discord and ill-will amongst his Majesty's subjects, and which must, if permilted to continue, effectually obstruct every effort to improve the condition of Ireland. His Majesty confidently relies on the wisdom and on the support of his Parliament; and his Majesty feels assured that you will commit to him such powers as may enable his Majesty to maintain his just authority. His Majesty recommends, that when this essential object shall have been accomplished, you should take into your deliberate consideration the whole condition of Ireland, and that you should review the laws which impose civil disabilities on his Majesty's Roman Catholic subjects. You will consider whether the removal of those disabilities can be effected consistently w r ith the full and permanent security of our establishments in church and state, with the maintenance of our religion as established by law, and of the rights and privileges of the Bishops and of 27* #18 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. the Clergy of this realm, and of the churches committed to their charge." The Catholics and the friends of religious liberty received this announcement with a temperate joy ; but the exclu- sionists set no bounds to their rage. They complained of treacherous desertion and surprise. " Had," said they, "the Duke of Wellington disclosed his intentions sooner, the petitions of the people would have fortified and secured the opposition of the King." The Duke, in his vindication, declared that he had not received the King's sanction until near the last moment. Mr. Peel, who came in for no small share of their indignation and reproach, entered into a cir- cumstantial defence of the course he had pursued : he declared that, to maintain his consistency, he had deter- mined to resign ; but that if he had done so, the Duke would have found it difficult to succeed ; and that judging the contemplated measure absolutely necessary, he thought it his duty to support the prime minister. A call of the house for the 5th of March was ordered : and on that da} r Mr. Peel rose to move, '•' a committee of the whole house, to consider of the laws imposing civil disabili- ties on his Majesty's Roman Catholic subjects." — " They could not," he said, " stand still ; they must re-enact or repeal." He then stated the nature of the measure, viz- the abolition of civil distinctions, and the equality of civil rights. This declaration was received with a burst of applause. A new oath was proposed to be taken by the Catholic members of parliament, the only material article of which was, that they would not employ their privileges against the Protestant church or state; and Catholics were to continue disqualified for the offices of Lord Lieutenant cf Ireland and Keeper of the Great Seal. The motion was car- ried by a majority of 348 to 188. Resolutions in the com- mittee proposed by Mr. Peel were agreed to ; a bill founded on these was introduced by him. and on the 30th of March it was read a third time and passed. The next day Mr. Peel, accompanied by an unusual num- ber of members, presented his bill at the bar of the House of Lords, where it was, the same evening, read a first time without opposition. On the 2d of April came on the second reading, when the Duke of Wellington made one of his best parliamentary speeches. One passage spoken by him, in a tone of deep feeling, made great impression on the house After recapitulating the dreadful state of society in Ireland. ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 319 he said, "It has been my fortune, , my lords, to have seen much of war — more than most men. I have been constantly engaged in the active duties of my profession from my boy- hood until I have grown grey. My life has been passed in scenes of death and human suffering. Circumstances have placed me in countries where the war was internal, between opposite parties of the same nation ; and rather than a country I loved should be visited with the calamities I have seen — with the unutterable horrors of civil war — my lords, I would run any risk — I would make any sacrifice — I would freely la)' down my life." The debate was continued by adjournment through four nights. The Archbishop of Canterbury opposed the motion, and moved as an amendment, that the bill should be read a second time that day six months ; the great body of the bishops, with few exceptions, supported the amendment, and amongst the lay lords, Lord Eldon shewed himself the most unbend- ing opponent of the bill. It was, however, carried on the 10th, and on the 13th it received the royal assent, and became an eternal monument of the determined, energetic, and adroit genius of the Duke of Wellington. The relief bill having now passed, Mr. O'Connell pre- sented himself to take his seat for Clare. The clerk pro- duced the old oath which the late bill had repealed. Mr. O'Connell proposed to take that prescribed to Catholics by the new act. The Speaker informed him, that being returned before the passing of the new act, he was excluded in express terms from its operation. Mr. O'Connell was heard \t the bar, and argued ingeniously and ably in support of nis right, which however was negatived by a majority of 190 to 116'. He next day was informed of the decision, and asked if he was ready to take the old oath. He requested leave to look at it, and having for a moment examined it, he said, " I see in this oath an assertion of fact, which I know to be false, and an assertion of opinion which I believe to be false." The provision of the new bill which had excluded Mr. O'Connell was expressly intended for that purpose, and had been insisted upon by the King. Mr. O'Connell returned to Ireland, and was re-elected for Clare without opposition. The whole interest of the session was absorbed in this single and all-important measure, and it was pro- rogued on the 24th of June. 320 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. CHAPTER HI. Laws, Government, S{c. In the reign of William III., the intrigues of the Whigs and Tories, their_perpetual opposition to each other, and the necessity of large supplies to support the continental war, gave rise to two evils of considerable magnitude : the cor- ruption of the House of Commons, and the national debt; the former by the sums they employed to bring over their political adversaries, and procure a majority in Parliament; and the latter, by the large loans they contracted to maintain their foreign connexions. To put a stop to this corruption as far as it affected the representation of the people, a bill was brought in for triennial parliaments : and William found himself obliged to pass it, or lose the vote of supply by which it was accompanied. The great increase, however, of the influence of the crown, by the speedy and fortunate suppression of the rebellion in 1715, enabled the Whig ministry to crush their political enemies the Tories, bj r repealing the triennial act, so lately thought essential by their own part}'. The repeal, though warmly opposed by the Tories, who now took the popular side of the debate, and by many independent members of both houses, was carried by a great majority. At the accession of George II. it was generally imagined that Sir Robert Walpole, then prime minister, would have been dismissed ; and could the King have found another equally capable of managing the House of Commons, that event might have happened*, but no minister understood better than Sir Robert, the temper of the people of England. During his long administration, he never lost a single ques- tion which he really wished to carry. The excise scheme was the first measure that gave a shock to his power ; and even that he could have carried, had he not been afraid of the spirit of the people. He was so far from checking the freedom of debate, that he bore with equanimity the most scurrilous abuse. In compliance with his friends, he gave way in a few instances to prosecutions for libels ; but it is certain, that the English press was never more free than dur- ing his administration. Peace was his darling object, and it undoubtedly more than repaid the nation all that was required LA.WS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 321 to support it, by the increase of trade and the improvement of manufactures. At the death of George II., William Pitt was prime min- ister, and wielded with extraordinary success the energies of the nation, engaged! at that time in a war with France carried on in the four quarters of the globe. No change was immediately made in the ministry by George III. at his accession. u One of the concluding acts of the Parliament, which, according to law, continued its sitting six months after the demise of the King, was to fix the civil list at £300,000 a-year, instead of the specific revenues settled on the late king. Another act which highly endeared the young mon- arch to the nation, was the bill recommended by him to Parliament, to render the judges irremovable, either at the demi>e or will of the sovereign. Mr. Pitt did not long continue in office ; thwarted in his design of declaring war against Spain, which he foresaw must take place, he declared that he could no longer remain in a situation which made him responsible for measures he was not allowed to guide : he therefore resigned the seals of secretary, and was made Earl of Chatham. In the year 1783 Mr. Wilkes, a member of the Commons, who for some time had written a periodical paper called the North Briton, in which Lord Bute and the other ministers w T ere violently attacked, was, upon the publication of his forty-fifth number, seized by three of the King's messengers, who entered his house in the night by virtue of a general warrant issued by one of the Secretaries of State. The obnoxious paper was voted by the House of Commons to be a seditious libel, and ordered to be burnt by the common hangman. Mr. Wilkes, however, brought an action against the Secretary for seizing his papers. The cause was tried before Lord Chief Justice Pratt and a special jury, who gave a verdict in his favour, with large damages, the Judge in his charge explicitly declaring the illegality of general warrants. The session of 1771 is distinguished by an occurrence high- ly interesting to public liberty, viz. the contest between the House of Commons and the printers of their debates, the publication of which, from that time, has met with no oppo- sition or impediment. In 177*2, in consequence of the two brothers of George III., the Dukes of Gloucester and Cumberland, having married .3-22 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. privately, the former the Countess Dowager of Waldegrave. the latter a widow lady of the name of Horton, a bill was brought into Parliament, for the express purpose of keeping the succession to the throne as clear and distinct as possible, which was thought essentially necessary for the peace of the nation. By this bill it was enacted, that all the descendants of his late Majesty George II., except the issue of such prin- cesses as have married, or may marry, into foreign families, shall be incapable of contracting marriage without the pre- vious consent of the King, or his successor to the throne, sig- nified under the great seal, and declared in council: and that every such marriage, without such consent, shall be null and void : limiting the prohibition, however, to twenty-five years of age ; after which, upon giving one year's notice of their intention to the Privy Council, they may marry without the consent of the Crown, if Parliament does not, in the mean time, disapprove of the contract; and further, all persons who shall knowingly presume to solemnize or assist at the celebration of such illicit marriage, shall be liable to all the pains and penalties of the statute of premunire. This bill was opposed by a great number of Peers, who signed a pro- test against it on the journals of the House of Lords. In the course of the same session a material alteration was likewise made in the criminal law of the kingdom. Form- erly, when a felon refused to plead, he was stretched upon his back at full length, and a heavy weight laid upon his breast, which was gradually increased till he expired, during which cruel operation he was fed with nothing but a crust pf bread and some dirty water. By a bill now brought in, this shameful practice was abolished, and all felons refusing to plead, are adjudged guilty of the crimes laid to their charge. In the year 1783 the famous coalition ministry, composed of Lord North and his friends on one side, and Mr. Fox and his friends on the other, was announced, but did not continue long to guide the reins of Government. Mr. Fox, in attempt- ing to perpetuate his power by the introduction of his famous East-India Bill, was the cause of their dismissal ; and to them succeeded Mr. W. Pitt, then only twenty-four years of age, son of the famous Earl of Chatham, as First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer; Lord Thurlow, High Chancellor; Lord Svdney and Marquis Car- marthen, Secretaries ; the Duke of Rutland, Privy Seal ; and LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 32$ Viscount Howe, Mr. W. Grenville, Lord Mulgrave, and Mr H. Dundas, to the^other departments. The ensuing Parliament presented the uncommon specta- cle of a House of Commons almost wholly composed of members in opposition to ministers, and at open variance with them. Every motion made by Mr. Pitt was negatived, and several addresses were presented to the King, by the majority, for the dismissal of his ministers ; to which his Majesty answered, "that he could see no satisfactory effect that would be produced by their dismission." The Parlia- ment, by advice of the ministers, was soon after dissolved, amidst the threats of Mr. Fox and his party. The succeed- ing elections fully justified the conduct of Mr. Pitt; up- wards of one hundred and sixty members, mostly friends of the opposition, were rejected, and replaced by those of the ministers. The session of 1786 is remarkable, in a financial point of view, for the establishment of what is called the sinking fund. By this plan Mr. Pitt proposed to set aside one mil- lion surplus revenue annually, at compound interest, to be applied to the gradual diminution of the national debt. The policy of the principle being universally admitted, the mo- tion was carried without a division, and the bill immedi- ately passed through both Houses, and received the royal assent. In 1787, an addition of £10,000 per annum was made to the income of the Prince of Wales, and £781,000 appropri- ated out of the civil list for the payment of the debts in which his highness had involved himself. In 1788, a subject deeply interesting to every friend of humanity, viz. the abolition of the Slave Trade, was for the first time introduced into Parliament, and, after very prolong- ed discussions, in that and various other subsequent sessions, was finally carried by very great majorities. In October the nation was cast into great apprehensions by the sudden indisposition of the King, and the uncertainty of his recovery. A regency was proposed in Parliament, Mr. Fox declaring that whenever the Sovereign became incapable of exercising his functions, the heir apparent had an undisputed claim to that office ; Mr. Pitt, on the contrary, maintaining, that the heir apparent had no more right in such a case than any other subject; and that it belonged to the two remaining branches of the Legislature, in behalf of the people, to make such a provision. Mr. Pitt, in conse- 324 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. quence, early in the next year moved for leave to bring in a regency bill : but happily it was stopped by the announce- ment of his Majesty's recovery. Congratulatory addresses were immediately and unanimously voted, a day of thanks- giving was appointed, and the national rejoicings on this happy event exceeded every thing of the kind ever before known in the kingdom. On the 6th of April 1795, the Prince of Wales was mar- ried to Caroline, daughter of the Duke of Brunswick, and niece of his Majesty. The annual revenue allowed by Par- liament on this occasion was very liberal, amounting to £135,001), exclusive of the income from the Duchy of Corn- wall, estimated at nearly £20,000 more. Out of v .his, how- ever, £73,000 was appropriated to the payment of the debts contracted by his Royal Highness since the last allowance by Parliament for that purpose. In the year 1707 an act was passed, prohib'ting for a limited period the payments of the Bank in specie. A secret committee, appointed to examine the affairs of that great national concern, reported that there was a surpJas of pro- perty to the amount of nearly four millions, exclusive of the debt owing by Government, of almost twelve millions. The measure appears to have been necessary from the high price of gold, owing to the immense sums sent out of the country for the supply of the army and navy, and subsidies to foreign powers, and the very great calls upon the Bank by Government. On the 1st of January 1801, that great political measure, the Union of Great Britain with Ireland, was accomplished. It is undoubtedly one which tends to consolidate more effec- tually the resources and power of the empire; allhough it has not } r et produced all the beneficial effects that were expected from it. This may, in a great measure, be attri- buted to the disappointed hopes of the Catholics of Ireland, who were made to believe that a complete emancipation from ail their political inabilities, deprivations, and penalties, would be the result of their concurrence in the measure. It was in consequence of this that Mr. Pitt, with thc.e who had sanctioned the stipulation, found it necessary, uj on the rejection of the claims of the Irish, to retire from tho min- istry, and accordingly he resigned the seals of office as- prime minister to Mr. Addington, Speaker of the House ot Com- mons : who was succeeded in the chair by Sir John JV itford. The year 1806 is rendered remarkable by the deaths of LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 325 those two eminent statesmen, Mr. Pitt, who died on the 23d of January ; and Mr. Fox, who succeeded him in the min- istry, and died the September following. No greater praise can be bestowed upon t e integrity of the former than the fact that, after having wielded for so long a time the whole power and revenues of the empire, he died so poor, that his country was obliged to defray the expenses of his funeral, and discharge his debts. The year 1807 is distinguished by the total abolition of the slave trade, after nineteen years of Parliamentary investiga- tion : a work of humanity by which Great Britain acquired more true glory than by the most splendid victories. In 1811, in consequence of the malady of his late Majesty George III., a conference was held between the two Houses of Parliament, and what is called the regency bill was passed, appointing the Prince of Wales Regent, and vesting the management of the King's household in the Queen. The administration was in the year 1812 deprived of its Premier, Mr. Percival, in a very tragical manner. At the moment of his entering the lobby of the House of Com- mons, one John Beliingham presented a pistol to his left breast, and shot him through the heart. This atrocious deed, it appears, was perpetrated for a supposed private injury. The assassin had sustained great losses in Russia, in some commercial transactions, for which he imagined the English Government ought to have procured him redress ; and the neglect of his representations working on a mind naturally gloomy, led him to the fatal act. He was tried, condemned, and paid with his life the forfeit of his horrid crime. Although, perhaps, it would not be easy to adduce any instance in which Mr. Percival had shewed himself favourable to reli- gious, or even civil liberty, or to discover any important benefit which the nation had derived from his abilities as a minister ; yet his private character had been so much esteemed, and the catastrophe was so dreadful, that even his political opponents testified their regret, by the ample provi- sions made for his widow and family. The new ministry, after various plans and attempts, con- sisted of Lord Liverpool as First Lord of the Treasury, Lord Castlerea^h as Minister for Foreign Affairs, Lord Sidmouth (Mr. Addington,) Secretary of State for the Home Depart- ment, the Earl of Harrowby, President of the Council, and Mr. Vansittart, Chancellor of the Exchequer. For some time past great disturbances had existed among 28 326 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. the weavers of Nottingham, which now extended to the manufacturing districts of Lancashire, Cheshire, and York- shire. A great number of outrages were committed, parti- cularly in the destruction of machinery, and attempts were even made upon the lives of some who had been active in suppressing the tumults. The rioters at last had adopted a system so completely organized, that it was thought neces- sary to resort to very vigorous measures, and in consequence a bill was introduced by Lord Castlereagh, and carried by a large majority, to prevent the rioters from obtaining arms, to guard against tumultuary meetings, and give more power to the magistrates of the disturbed districts. One of the clauses, that of the power granted to a single magistrate to search for arms upon bare suspicion, met with much opposi- tion : but its duration being limited to March 1813, it was passed into a law. In 1814, on account of the unfortunate differences which had long existed between the Prince Regent and the Prin- cess of Wales, her situation became a subject of animated discussion, and greatly agitated the minds of the people. A motion was made for augmenting her revenue to £50,000 per year, which was carried, but at her own request it was reduced to £35,000- She then immediately obtained per- mission to travel on the Continent. At the opening of the Minister's budget in the year 1815, when that campaign was commencing which was to be so happily terminated by (he memorable battle of Waterloo, no less than the enormous sum of eighty millions sterling was required for the expenditure of Great Britain, exclusive of about ten millions for Ireland. Such was the disturbed state of the country during a great part of the year 1817, that Ministers, after much opposition, procured the renewed suspension of the Habeas Corpus act, and various other restrictions upon the liberty of the subject. Towards the close of this year the Princess Charlotte, who had been married to the Prince of Saxe Coburg, gave birth to a dead male child, and sunk herself through exhaustion early the next morning, to the great grief of the whole nation, who had witnessed with delight her conjugal felicity. The following year was marked by the death of Her Majesty Queen Charlotte, in the seventy-fifth year of her age. Discontents, arising principally from the non-employ, and consequent distress of the manufacturing class, continued during the year 1819 to agitate the nation. Meetings were LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 327 held among the lower orders of the people, at Birmingham, Manchester, and other populous towns ; and so great was the excitation, that even females entered into what were called " Female Reform Societies." At Birmingham they proceeded to the election of what they termed u a Legislato- rial Attorney," to represent the town in the House of Com- mons. Sir' Charles Wolseley having previously declared, that if elected he was determined to claim his seat, he was unanimously chosen. Government now found it necessary' to interfere, and Sir Charles was taken into custody. At Manchester the reformers, who had placarded a notice of a meeting for the same purpose, were informed of its illegality, and the design was in consequence relinquished. But instead of this a notice was issued, and a meeting was announced for the avowedly legal purpose of petitioning Parliament. This meeting took place on the 16th of August, and the con- course of people who attended was immense, amounting to no fewer than 60,000 : and among them two clubs of female reformers made their appearance, carrying a white flag. Among the banners carried, some were of a menacing nature. At length their most celebrated orator, Mr. Hunt, made his appearance, and commenced his harangue : but his oration was soon interrupted by the appearance of the Manchester 3 r eomanry. Mr. Hunt called to the people to stand firm, fear nothing, and give the military three cheers, which was immediately done. The yeomanry, however, very intem- perately dashed into the crowd, trampling upon the people, and forced their way to the waggon upon which Mr. Hunt was haranguing. The commanding officer called out to Mr. Hunt to surrender, which he said he was ready to do to any civil officer who should produce his warrant: upon which the chief police officer took him into custody. A scene of confusion and carnage ensued, the cause of which it is diffi- cult to ascertain ; it appears however, upon the whole, that the regular troops conducted themselves with zeal, coolness, and humanity; but thatch e } r eomanry suffered themselves to be led away, by their zeal and fear, to unnecessary acts of violence. The consequence was, that several were killed, and nearly four hundred wounded by the sabres of the yeo- manry, or otherwise hurt. Mr. Hunt and some of his asso- ciates were imprisoned on charges of high-treason : which however were relinquished, and he was subsequently tried for a misdemeanor, and sentenced to imprisonment for two and a half years, which was considered by many as a very 328 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. harsh sentence, it being contended that the dispersion of the meeting was an illegal act. In consequence of these dis- turbances, and of the continued disaffection of the manufac- turing districts, Government procured, after warm debates in bouth Houses, the passing of what is called the Six Bills, by which system of coercion, though it considerably abridged the liberty of the subject, it effectually restored the public tran- quillity. Such were the final acts of the year 1819, and of the last Parliament of the reign of George III. In the evening of the 29th January 1820 that monarch expired, almost without a pang, having attained the 82d year of 'his age, and 60th of his reign, during which he had, by his upright conduct, pos- sessed the esteem and love of his subjects, and the confidence of his allies. The last Parliament called during the late reign was pro- rogued by commission on the 28th of February, and the public were very much astounded by the information with which the speech concluded, viz. a conspiracy to murder his Majesty's ministers. The conspiracy referred to was that of Thistlewood and his accomplices, a band of about a dozen desperadoes, who were captured by the police and military on the 23d of February, in an obscure street called Cato Street, near the Edgeware Road. Their plan was to assassinate the ministers of the crown whilst sitting at a cabinet dinner at the house of Lord Harrowby, then rush out, raise the stand- ard of rebellion, and constitute themselves the heads of a provisional government. The plot was disclosed to the min- isters, who made arrangements for surprising the wretches in their den at the moment when they were to issue from it for the perpetration of their bloody work. Thistlewood, whose conduct appeared that of a maniac ; Ings, a butcher; Tidd and Brunt, shoemakers ; Davidson, a man of colour ; and three persons of the lowest and poorest class, were convicted and executed, avowing and vindicating their design. " Preparations were now commenced for the coronation of his Majesty, when they were suddenly suspended by an event which excited more public interest than any that had occured for a long period. This was the return of Queen Caroline to England, and her subsequent trial in the House of Lords. After she had quitted England, as we have else- where mentioned, she spent her time in travelling, especial- ly in visiting the most celebrated places in the Mediterranean. She also went to Jerusalem, and several other towns of the LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 329 Holy Land, and afterwards took up her residence on the Lago de Como, in the Milanese states, subject to the Emperor of .Austria. Reports here began to be circulated very injurious to her character, and a secret commission was despatched to investigate their truth. This commission sat a long time, and collected a great mass of evidence. The Princess of Wales, upon learning that persons were thus employed, complained publicly by letters in the English and foreign newspapers, that she was beset by spies and calumniators; that attempts were made to suborn her servants against her; that her bureau was broken open and robbed of papers ; and that her life had been attempted by poison. On the King's accession to the throne, the evidence col- lected was made the pretext for omitting the Queen's name in the liturgy ; and at the same time the honours due to her rank were refused her by foreign pow r ers. Deeply irritated, she determined to return to England, and face her accusers. On the 5th of June she landed at Dover, and was received with the greatest enthusiasm by the populace. The same honours were paid to her along the road to the metropolis, where her reception was still more gratifying to her. On the day cf her arrival in London, a message was sent to both houses of Parliament, stating that "the Kiasj thinks it necessary, in consequence of the arrival of the Queen, to communicate to the House of Lords certain papers respecting the conduct of her Majesty since her departure from this kingdom, which he recommends to the immediate and serious attention of the house. " The King has felt the most anxious desire to avert the necessity of disclosures and discussions, which must be as painful to his people as they can be to himself; but the step now taken by the Queen leaves him no alternative. " The King has the fullest confidence that, in consequence of this communication, the House of Lords will adopt that course of proceeding which the justice of the case, and the honour and dignity of his Majesty's crown, may require." The papers referred to were laid on the table under seal. in a green bag. Some delay was occasioned by a useless effort of the Commons to effect a compromise : this failing, '•'a bill of pains and penalties" to deprive the Queen of her rights and dignities, and to divorce her from her husband, was brought into the House of Lords. This bill was read a first time, a copy ordered to be sent to the Queen, and the second reading fixed for the 17th of August. On the 1 i tlv^ 28* 330 LAWS, GOVaiyftEBNT, ke. Lord Erskine moved, that the Queen should be furnished with a list of the witnesses against her. This she would have had of right, in common with every other British subject, were the form of proceeding by indictment or impeachment for high treason. But the majority of the Lords, under the direction of Lord Eldon, took advantage of the legal techni- cality to withhold from her the great ®gis of the subject against perjured witnesses, and the power and passions of the crown. A specification of the charges, which she declar- ed was necessary for enabling her to produce defensive evi- dence, was also refused. After an adjournment of some days, the House of Lords met to discuss the second reading. The counsel in support of the bill were the King's attorney, Sir Robert Gifford, and the solicitor-general, Sir John Copley ; the King's advocates, Sir C. Robinson, Dr. Adams, and Mr. Parke; and against it, Mr. Brougham, the Queen's attorney- general ; Mr. JDenman, her solicitor-general ; Dr. Lushington ; and Messrs. Williams, Tindal, and Wilde. Mr. Brougham and Mr. Denman were heard against the bill. Their respec- tive arguments may be read with interest, as models of the first order in judiciary eloquence. The attorn ey-gencral's statement occupied two days. The close of it was drowned by the drums, trumpets, and tumultuous acclamations which announced the approach of the Queen, who came unexpect- edly to witness the proceedings. The examination of wit- nesses then began, and produced a remarkable incident. The Queen, upon hearing the clerk of the house call the name of Teodoro Majocchi, started from her seat, with a slight shriek, and immediately withdrew. He had been her servant, and her cry, when thus taken by surprise, was con- sidered rather as a movement of indignation and disgust at his treachery, than a symptom of conscious guilt. The records of this scandalous investigation are wholly unfit for these pages. On the 7th of September, the case against the Queen was closed, and on the 3d of October Mr. Brougham entered upon her defence, which he conduct- ed wi*h surpassing power. He was ably seconded by Mr. Williams. An Italian witness, named Rastelli, had been examined against the Queen: upon application to have him produced for cross-examination, it turned out that he had been sent back to Italy. His absence was looked upon as a piece of criminal contrivance. Colonel Brown was written to, to send him back, and the Colonel in answer stated, that Rastelli was ill, and moreover had an insuperable horror of LAWS, GOVE'RtfMENTj feel :j:}l the sea. The Queen's evidence bein£ finished, Mr. Denman, in a speech distinguished as much for fearless boldness as for eloquence, went over the case. lie was followed by Dr. Lushington on the same side. The second reading of the bill began on the :ld of November, and continued by adjourn- ment four days, when it was carried by 1&3 to 95; and on the l()th, the third reading was carried by a disheartening majority of 103 to 90; upon which Lord Liverpool de- clared, that with so small a majority, and in the actual state of the public mind, he and his colleagues abandoned the bill. The coronation was fixed for the 19th of July. The Queen demanded a participation in the ceremony, which was refused. On the morning of the 19th, the unhappy Queen, unmoved by the entreaties of her friends, proceeded to the door of Westminster Abbey, where she was refused admittance, and was obliged to retire through the populace, amidst mingled expressions of disapprobation and applause. The exclusion from the Abbey, and the signs of disapprobation, wounded her deeply; and although her proud and masculine energy enabled her to appear in public as usual, her health visibly declined. On the 30th of July, whilst at Drury-lane Thea- tre, she was taken dangerously ill, and on the 7th of August she closed her troubled life at Bradenburgh House, Hammer- smith, having directed in her will that the words, '-Here lies Caroline of Brunswick, the injured . Queen of England," should be her epitaph. On the morning of the 14th, after a disgusting contest between her executors and the government for the possession of her remains, they were removed towards Harwich, for the purpose of being interred at Brunswick. The ministers, either from a mistaken prudence or a worse motive, gave orders that the funeral should take a circuit, to avoid the manifestations of the people through London ; but at Ken- sington the procession found every road but that of London barricadoed by the mob, and was constrained to take the for- bidden route, with the intention of passing through Hyde Park into the northern road. The gate to the Park was closed and barricadoed, but was forced by the military, who pro- ceeded to the Cumberland gate, which had also been barri- cadoed. Here began a conflict betw r een the soldiers and the populace, and two of the mob were killed : the people, how- ever, triumphed, and the corpse was taken through the city. Six Robert Wilson, who had remonstrated with an officer on 332 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c duty, was dismissed from the army. The directing civil magistrate, who, to prevent the effusion of more blood, had given way to the wish of the people, was also deprived of his commission. Whilst the Queen was on her death-bed, the King was on his way to Ireland. The news of her deatli reached him on board the packet, and it was in consequence his wish to land privately; but he was recognised by some persons, who im- mediately proclaimed the news, and the whole population of Dublin pressed around him with the most enthusiastic shouts of welcome. After a short visit he re-embarked, in the pres- ence of an immense multitude, who rent the air with their acclamations and blessings on the first sovereign who had visited Ireland without hostile intentions. Immediately after his return he visited Hanover, and after a brief stay he came back to England. This year was signalized by an event, which a short time before would have agitated all Europe. This was the death of Napoleon Buonaparte, who expired at St. Helena on the 5th of May. To complete the miseries of unfortunate Ireland, a dread- ful famine, accompanied by its usual concomitant, disease, spread through the country, particularly in the provinces of Connaught and Munster. The famine was produced by the failure of the potatoe crop, which constitutes the precarious staple food of the Irish peasantry. The conduct of Govern- ment upon this affliction was prompt and humane. «£50,000 was placed at the disposal of the Marquis of Wellesley the Lord Lieutenant, and at the same time the British nation, with a spontaneous and munificent feeling subscribed large sums for the relief of their perishing fellow-subjects. The money thus procured mitigated the horrors of this visitation, until the change of season and the next harvest put an end to it. Vfter the termination of the session of 1822, the King paid a visit to Scotland, and was received in Edinburgh with the utmost enthusiasm. The festivities, however, were soon in- terrupted by the news of the melancholy death of the Mar- quis of Londonderry. After a short interval, Mr. Canning was appointed his successor, and received the seals of office as secretary for foreign affairs. In May 1823, Sir James Mackintosh moved some resolu- tions for the purpose of mitigating the severity of the crimi- nal laws, which were negatived; but Mr. Peel brought in COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, &c. 333 and carried four bills upon the same subject, which, although they did not go the length of Sir James's, were still import- ant steps in the progress of amelioration. On the 5th of January 1827, died the Duke of York, of dropsy, after an illness of some weeks, and much suffering. As presumptive heir to the throne, obstinately bent against all concession to the Catholics, serving as a ready and author- itative medium of intolerance to reach the royal ear, his death had a great influence upon the state of parties, and greatly contributed to the advancement of Mr. Canning. On the I2th of April, Mr. Canning was appointed first lord of the treasury, and the announcement was cheered by a great ma- jority of the House of Commons. But Mr. Canning's health had evidently been declining for some time. The ardour of his mind, and the clangor of debate, had animated and sus- tained him ; but Parliament, had no sooner risen, than his illness became decided. After some confinement at his own house, he retired to the Duke of Devonshire's house at Chis- wick, where he-breathed his last, having been only four months prime minister. Mr. T. Robinson, having been elevated to the peerage by the title of Lord Goderich, was next appoint- ed premier; but the cabinet he had formed soon fell to pieces, and the Duke of Wellington then became prime minister. CHAPTER IV. Commerce, Manufactures, fyc. The revocation of the edict of Nantz caused a great num- ber of French Protestants to seek protection in England, where they were much encouraged, and into which they not only introduced the fruits of their industry, to a very considerable amount, in gold and silver, but also greatly improved the manufacture of hats, silks, and linen. In consequence of this, the importation of those articles t from Fiance was soon prohibited; the culture of flax was encouraged ; raw or unmanufactured silk was imported from Italy and China: beaver skins were procured from Hudson's Bay ; where settlements had been established, and where furs were found in great plenty. Clock and watch-work was executed in England with the utmost elegance and 334 COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, &c. exactness, as well as all other kinds of machinery, cutlery, and jewellery. The cotton manufactory, now so highly per- fected, was introduced, and toys of all descriptions were at length finished with so much taste and facility, as to become an article of exportation, even to France itself, the birth- place of fashion, and the nursery of splendid trifles. The trade to the East-Indies, however, remained in a languishing state till after the revolution : but this disadvan- tage was amply compensated by the population, culture, and extension of the colonies in North America and the West- Indies, which began to consume a vast quantity of English manufactures. The rich produce of the islands being con- veyed in ships of the mother country, afforded employment to a great number of seamen ; and as the inhabitants, who did not even make their own wearing apparel, or the com- mon implements of husbandry, were supplied with clothing of all kinds, household furniture, tools, toys, and even luxu- ries, from the mother country, the intercourse became very active, and was productive of mutual prosperity and happi- ness. The English islands in the American Archipelago were, in a word, the prime mart for her manufactures, and furnished, in return, sugar, rum, cotton, coffee, cocoa, and other articles, — a more valuable exchange than that of gold. This commerce with our colonies, instead of diminishing since the separation of the American states from Great Britain, has continually increased. New markets have opened, the supplying of which has given a greater range to the inge- nuity of our artizans, whose productions have been adapted to the wants, not of rising colonies, but of wealthy and re- fined nations ; and our commercial system, no longer resting on the artificial basis of monopoly, has been rendered more solid as well as more liberal. The present trade of England to the East-Indies forms one of the most stupendous political, as well as commercial machines, that is to be found in history. The trade itself is lodged in a company, which has till lately enjoyed an entire monopoly of it. In addition to their set- tlements on the coast of India, the East-India Company, through the various internal revolutions which have happen- ed in Hindostan, and the ambition and avarice of their ser- vants and officers, have acquired such territorial possessions as render them the most formidable commercial body ever known in the world. The annual amount of their revenue is only known to the Directors of the Company, and even to them but very imperfectly. Their expenses are certainly COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, &c. 335 very great, in the maintaining of forts, fleets, and armies ; but, after all these are defrayed, the Company not only clear a vast sum, but were able to pay to Government £100, 000 yearly, for a certain time, partly to indemnify the nation for the expenses incurred in protecting them, and partly as a tacit tribute for those possessions that are territorial and not commercial. This Company exports to the East-Indies all kinds of woollen manufacture, and all sorts of hardware. Their import, consists of tea, china-ware, spices, gums, raw silks, gold, diamonds for home consumption; and of wrought silks, muslins, cottons, and all the woven manufactures of India, for exportation to other countries. The territorial acquisitions made by the English upon the coast of Guinea, particularly their settlement at Senegal, opened new sources of commerce with Africa. At present England sends to that coast, iron, brass, lead, shot, swords, knives, fire-arms, gunpowder, and glass manufacture. The returns are in gold dust, gums, dyeing and other drugs, red- wood, and ivory. With Italy, Turkey, Flanders, and Holland, Spain, and Portugal, the balance of trade is in favour of England ; with Russia and France against us. The goods exported to Poland, chiefly by way of Dantzic, are many, and the duties upon them low. A greater quantity of manufactured tobacco is sent there than to any other country. Inland trade has been greatly improved by the multiplica- tion of canals, which arose from the success of the Duke of Bridgewater. That nobleman having a great quantity of coal, which, on account of the great expense of land car- riage, he could not sell to advantage, caused a canal to be cut from Worsley to Manchester, under the direction of Brindley, an ingenious machinist, who had been bred a wheelwright. No locks were introduced in its progress, and it was conducted through uneven grounds, within vast mounds of earth, under hills, by means of tunnels, and over the river Irwell, by means of an aqueduct, which had been deemed till then an impracticable work. This canal was opened in 1761, and its advantages were soon perceived by its noble proprietor and the public. It "was afterwards con- tinued to Liverpool, and the example was soon followed by a subscription, for a similar one, from the Mersey to the Trent. In many other parts of the country canals are now con- structed, and new ones are in progress, which are carried on with a promptitude, and even eagerness, of which only the 336 COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, &c. public spirit and enterprising activity of the English nation can furnish an example. To facilitate the conveyance of coal, stones, and other heavy articles, from the pits or mines to the barges, iron railways are now formed, in preference to those of wood, which had been long in use. With regard to the general account of trade, the balance was in favour of England. When war arose between Great Britain and the revolutionary rulers of France, our imports were about twenty millions, and our exports, including foreign merchandise re-exported, approached the value of twenty- five millions; and during the course of the war they rose so high, as to amount in 1800 to thirty millions and a half imports, and forty-three millions of exports. This is to be understood of the official value, for the real marketable value was above fifty-five millions on the former head, and on the latter fifty-six. The greatest importation, in that year, except from the colonies, proceeded from Russia, and the most copious exportation was to Germany. In 1798 the prime minister calculated the profits on foreign trade to amount to twelve millions, and those of internal traffic and varied industry, to twenty-eight. The merchants' vessels belonging to the different ports of the British dominions, in 1792, amounted to somewhat more than sixteen thousand, the burthen of which was upwards of one million and a half of tons. In 1800, the number of vessels was nearly eighteen thousand, and the tons were estimated at nearly two millions. Of this number of vessels England fitted out two-thirds. The royal navy, which in 1761 did not exceed three hundred and seventy-two vessels of all descriptions, amounted at this period, viz. 1800, to nine hundred and six, whereof one hundred and ninety-five were of the line. The principal manufacture of England is the wool trade. In making fine cloth of this description, no nation can excel the English ; but for the perfection of the manufacture, a certain mixture of Spanish wool is necessary. It is computed that the woollen goods annually made by the artizans and workmen of Great Britain produce, upon the average, more than fifteen millions sterling. The leather manufacture may be valued at eleven millions ; that of silk at two millions ; that of hemp at nearly the same. Fourteen millions form the estimated value of articles in iron, lead, tin, &c, and COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, &c. 337 three and a half for those of copper and brass. In some of these branches of art the steam engine is employed, which machine was greatly improved by Messrs. Watts and Bolton, who added very considerably to its powers, and rendered it capable of turning mills, for a great variety of useful pur- poses. The demand for cotton goods becoming very great, various contrivances were devised for quickening the progress of spinning. Among the most successful, was one invented by Hargrave, a weaver in Lancashire, called a "Jenny," which, though rude in its original form, was soon greatly improved ; while its unfortunate contriver, harassed by per- secutions for having attempted to diminish the number of hands employed, died in poverty. Arkwright, who was at first merely a rustic barber, applied his mind to the subject, and procured a patent for spinning by means of rollers. His first mill was worked b}^ horses, his second by water. In consequence of his judicious contrivances, spinning and carding were performed with astonishing celerity. These discoveries occasioned the introduction of the calico and muslin manufactures ; and, from the extension of the trade (the result of the diminution of labour in each piece) a far greater number of hands are now employed than before the invention of those machines. The annual value of cotton goods, on an average, was computed in 1800 at nine millions and a half, since which time it has increased to upwards of thirty millions. For the improvement of porcelain and pottery we are indebted to Mr. Wedgewood, with whose well-manufactured ware not only Great Britain, but also several of the conti- nental nations are abundantly supplied. The manufacture of glass has been likewise much improved. Clocks and watches are constructed with greater neatness and precision. Astronomical instruments have received an accession of accuracy, and an extension of power, which render them superior to those of all other nations. In a word, every branch of mechanism connected with the arts and sciences are fabricated with increasing skill and elegance. During the reign of George IV. steps were taken for a more unshackled and liberal system in the trade of the country. The most important of these were, first, the repeal of what were called protecting duties between Britain and Ireland ; next, the alterations in the laws respecting the silk trade, which were introduced and carried by Mr. Huskisson, 29 338 COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, &c. although strenuously opposed by partial and short-sighted interest. Commercial treaties were also entered into with the Netherlands, Prussia, and Sweden. The joint-stock mania of the years 1824 and 1825, the general spirit of commercial speculations, an unfavourable turn in the exchanges, co-operated in producing great diffi- culties in the money market: a panic ensued, the failure of some London bankers produced a general crash among the country bankers, and an unprecedented crisis of ruin and distress ensued. Ministers, however, by giving permission to the Bank to make a temporary issue of bank-notes of one and two pounds, and an extraordinary number of sover- eigns from the Mint, relieved the trade and credit of the country. The distress, however, continued very great at the begin- ning of the year 1826. The workman was without employ, the tradesman without credit. Country banks and commer- cial failures continued. In the month of April a number of workmen assembled in various parts of Lancashire, partially armed, and committed dreadful havoc upon the power looms, but these excitements were, however, soon repressed. In order to restore credit, the Bank came to the resolution of lending three millions upon security, and sent commissioners into the chief trading towns for the purpose of arranging the advances. The knowledge that such loans were attain- able restored confidence, and the number applied for fell far short of the funds disposable for that purpose : so much is mercantile credit a creature of the imagination. Early in May, Mr. Canning introduced two measures into the House : the one for admitting bonded corn on paying a certain duty ; the other for giving to ministers the power of admitting foreign grain during the recess of Parliament. Both were carried after a strong opposition. This power was acted upon the ensuing September, on account of the unfa- vourable state of the harvest. In the following year Mr. Peel moved the appointment of the committee of finance, and introduced in his speech a comprehensive statement from which it appeared that a reduction of forty-eight millions and a half of the debt had been effected since 1815, and that the actual unredeemed debt was £777,476,000. The Duke of Wellington, now prime minister, introduced his measures upon the corn question. It differed materially LITERATURE AND ARTS. 33$ from Mr. Canning's bill. The medium price which Mr. Canning had taken at sixty, was raised by the Duke to between sixty-four and sixty-five. This bill was carried triumphantly through both Houses. CHAPTER V. Literature and Arts. As William III., the prime mover of the political machine of Europe, was too much embroiled during the whole of his reign to bestow much attention to polite literature, and as he was considered by nearly half the nation as only the head of a faction, many of the nobility and gentry kept at a dis- tance from court ; so that the advance of taste was very inconsiderable till the reign of Queen Anne, when the splendour of heroic actions induced all parties to celebrate the glory of their country. Then appeared a crowd of men of genius, — Newton, Swift, Addison, Congreve, Steele, Rowe, Cowley, Prior, Pope, Thomson, Cowper, Goldsmith, — most of whom not only enjoyed the friendship and familia- rity of the principal persons in power, but also obtained pensions and places in some of the less burthensome depart- ments of government ; which put it in their power to pass the remainder of their days in ease and independence. Since that period great progress has been made in useful science and polite literature. Black, Cavendish, Priestly, Nicholson, Kirwan, Thompson, and Davy, have thrown additional lustre over the study of chemistry, which has been enriched by their labours with innumerable discoveries. Astronomy has been cultivated with considerable ability, by Bradley, Mas- kelyne, Sir Henry Englefield, and particularly by Herschel, who extended the power of telescopes, discovered the Geor- gium Sidus, and added thousands of stars to the number previously known. The medical science and chiruBgical art are also in several respects better understood and practised than heretofore. One of the most beneficial discoveries of modern date in the healing art, is that of vaccination, or the applicability of the cow-pock to the gradual extermination of the small-pox, by Dr. Edward Jenner, who was rewarded by Parliament as tK benefactor of the whole human race. The vaccine; 340 LITERATURE AND ARTS. inoculation thus recommended, has been introduced into most of the countries of Europe, and other parts of the world. During the presidency of Sir Joshua Reynolds over the Academy of Arts, founded by George III., were produced some able painters, sculptors, and architects. Among these may be reckoned West, who executed various historical sub- jects of considerable merit : such as the departure of Regu- lus, and the death of Wolfe ; Wright, a good landscape painter ; Gainsborough and Morland, who delineated scenes of rural life with ability ; Opie, a self-taught genius, pro- duced some interesting pieces; Hamilton depicted the female figure with elegance ; Mortimer and Barry shewed a spirited pencil ; Lawrence and Westall excelled in portraits ; Smirke in scenes of humour ; De Louth erbourg in sea- pieces ; Flaxman, Bacon, Nollekens, Westmacott, have great merit as sculptors. • Engraving, of which painting may be said to be the pro- totype, made also considerable progress in England during the last century. Historical pictures can only become the property of the rich, and are moreover liable to be injured greatly by time or accident. Hence the utility of engraving on plates of copper : it multiplies copies at a moderate price. Music has been much encouraged during the present reign. The grand concerts in the capital give ample scope to the native composers ; whilst the Opera House calls forth all the talents of foreign masters, as well as all the powers of execution, both vocal and instrumental, by the most liberal rewards, for the entertainment of the nobility and gentry. As to public declamation and true eloquence, no nation in the world can produce so many noble examples as the Eng- lish nation. Witness the fine speeches made in both houses of Parliament in the reign of Charles I. ; and in modern times, Pitt, Burke, Fox, and a crowd of others, who were long the delight and admiration of their auditors. With regard to agriculture, little interest had been shewn in the cultivation of the soil till the reign of his late Majesty George III., who being himself much delighted with agri- cultural pursuits, brought this valuable science into fashionable repute, and under his immediate patronage was established that great national institution, "The Board of Agriculture.'' Thus countenanced, noblemen, gentlemen, and other men MANNERS. 341 of property and talent, made it their peculiar study, and spread their discoveries and inventions through the medium of the press. The consequence has been, that the soil has been improved, green crops rendered more abundant, and the fruits of the earth have acquired a superior degree of excellence, while the implements of husbandry have been increased and simplified. Botany also, by the patronage and attention of the late Princess Charlotte, as well as the Prin- cess Elizabeth, and other distinguished females, became fashionable, and was thus diffused more generally among other classes of the community. On the subject of education, the improvements in teaching the elementary principles deserve our admiration. When we reflect on the great advantages now possessed, particularly by the lower orders of society, in the amazing efforts that have been made to bestow upon them the benefit of a schol- astic education, the pleasing idea presents itself, that if ac- companied with well grounded religious principles, thousands of our fellow-beings, who, from their situations in life, would otherwise be exposed to the temptations of vice and idleness, will become patterns of virtue, and the ornament of their country. The art of poetry has, during this reign, been cultivated with great success. Among poets of pre-eminent rank may be classed Byron, Scott, Moore, Southey, Campbell, Words- worth. History also is not without its glory ; witness Lin- gard, Hallam, Turner, Mackintosh, and many others. CHAPTER VL Manners* During the course of the last century, the manners of the English underwent a considerable change. Many of their favourite diversions are now disused, and their ancient hos- pitality is neglected. Their present amusements are chiefly operas, concerts of music, dramatic exhibitions, and some- times masquerades in or near London ; but cards and danc- ing assemblies are common all over the kingdom. Their rural sports are stag and fox-hunting, coursing the hare, fishing, angling, and the athletic diversion of cricket. Horse-races are in high repute by persons of the highest rank. Ringing of bells is a species of music which the English boast of 29* 342 MANNERS. having carried to perfection. Tennis, bowls, billiards, skit- tles, quoits, are familiar to them. Goffis principally played by the Scotch; the diversion of hurling is also peculiar to the Scots. It is performed upon ice, with large flat stones, often from twenty to two hundred pounds each, which they hurl from a given place to a mark at a considerable distance ; and whoever is nearest to the mark wins the game. Two kinds of diversion, and those highly laudable, are peculiar to the English ; these are rowing and sailing. The latter was much patronized and encouraged by the father of George III., and may be considered as a national improve- ment. The game acts have taken from the common people a great fund of diversion, without answering the purpose of the great; for the farmers and country people destroy the game in nets, which they dare not kill with the gun. This monopoly of game, among so free a people as the Britons, has been often attacked, and as often defended. Music among the moderns was long only considered in our dramatic entertainments, as an occasional auxiliary. Our first successful musical piece, the celebrated Beggar's Opera of Gay, is said to have been written in ridicule of the Italian opera: though, if burlesque had been its chief object, he would have made Macheath, and all his gang, warble Italian airs, instead of adapting the words of his songs to native tunes. A new species of musical drama was brought on the English stage by the immortal Handel, to which he gave the name of Oratorio, and in which he exerted all his powers of combining harmony, to the delight and astonishment of the whole musical world. With regard to genius, the English are remarkable for their mechanical and philosophical inventions to shorten and facil- itate labour : by which means, notwithstanding the immense taxes they pay towards the support of the Government, and the consequent high price of every article of necessity or luxury, they are enabled to send manufactures of superior workmanship to all parts of the world. The amazing increase of territory, as well as commercial property, in the East- Indies, has introduced into this country a species of people, who have become rich without industry, and by diminishing the value of gold and silver, have created a new system of finance. This has occasioned a spirit of luxury and gaming,, attended with very fatal effects. The plain frugal manners of men of business, which pre- vailed even as lately as the accession of the present family to. aian.nk:- 343 the throne, are now disregarded for extravagancies in dress and equipage, and the most expensive amusements, not only in the capital, but in every part of the kingdom; although the generality of the English people still love rather to be neat than fine in their apparel ; and the appearance of an artisan or manufacturer on holidays is commonly an indication of his industry. The Highlanders of Scotland wear a plaid composed of woollen stuff called tartan. Above the shirt they wear a piece of the same, consisting of about twelve yards, which they throw over the shoulder, into nearly the form of a Roman toga. Sometimes it is fastened round the middle with a belt, so that part of the plaid hangs down before and behind, and supplies the want of breeches. This they call being dressed in a phelig, which the Lowlanders call a kilt, and which is probably the same word as Celt. Sometimes they wear a kind of petticoat of the same stuff buckled round the waist, and this they term philebeg. Their stockings are likewise of tartan, tied below the knees with tartan garters, formed into tassels. The poorer people wear upon their feet brogues made of undressed leather; for their heads they use a blue flat cap of a peculiar woollen manufacture. From the philibeg hung generally their knives, and a dagger, which they called a dirk, and an iron pistol, sometimes of fine work- manship, and inlaid with silver. A large leathern purse, richly adorned with silver, hanging before them, was always part of a Highland chieftain's dress. The attachment of the Highlanders to this dress rendered it a bond of union, which often proved dangerous to the Government ; and it was not till their overthrow at Culloden, that the Legislature succeed- ed in forcing them to a total change in their dress. Its con- veniency, however, for the purposes of the field is so great, that the Highland regiments still retain it. Even the common people have of late resumed it, and many of the Highland gentlemen wear it in the summer time. ( 345 ) QUESTIONS. BOOK I. Whence is the origin of the Britons ? What arms did they use in war ? Who first invaded them ? Relate their manner of fighting. Name the most renowned British warriors. Also, the Roman commanders who fought in Britain. What British Queen poisoned herself to avoid the insults of the Romans ? Relate the speech of Caractacus before the Emperor Clau- dius. , Who finally established the Roman power in this island, 'and at what time did it take place ? How long did the Romans remain ? Who were the Saxons ? What British king called them over, and for what reason ? What two Saxon chiefs landed in Britain ? What was the religion of the Britons ? Who were the Druids ? What did they teach ? What kind of temples had they ? Did they sacrifice human victims ? When was Christianity introduced into Britain, and by whom? Who was the first Christian king in Europe ? Under what Emperor was the first persecution of the Chris- tians in Britain ? Who was the first martyr in Britain ? Who was Pelagius ? Who were sent to oppose his errors ? What was the form of government ? What the population and features of the country? What does Tacitus say of the Britons ? What possessions had they ? Mention some of their laws. Relate the law of inheritance. 346 QUESTIONS. Had they any commerce, and with whom ? What did they export and import ? Relate the lines of Ossian upon the dogs of Britain. Was London built at this time ? How many vessels were then employed in the export of corn ? For what were the Britons remarkable ? What is the testimony of Julius Agricola concerning them ? What is the character given of them by Tacitus ? Relate the management of their children. Were they hospitable ? How did they exercise hospitality ? How did they behave towards their parents and superiors ? What was their dress? Of what was their meals composed, and how many had they in the day? In what manner did they conduct themselves during their repasts ? % Relate their mode of burial. BOOK II. Name the principal Saxon chiefs. Relate the massacre of the British nobles, and by whom it was perpetrated. What is said of King Arthur ? When was the kingdom of the East Angles founded ? When the kingdom of Mercia ? What was the Heptarchy ; who established it ? Who was Ina ? When did the Danes invade England ? Who was Egbert ? Who succeeded him ? What was the character Ethel wulf ? Name the Saxon kings from Egbert. Which was the greatest king among the Saxons ? Relate the most remarkable events in the reign of Alfred the Great. What remarkable event happened in the reign of Athel- stan? Against whom did Athelstan wage war ? Who succeeded him ? QUESTIONS. 347 What is the character of Edmund, and what catastrophe happened to him ? What is the character of Edred ? What is the character of Edwy ? Who was Ethelgiva, and what happened to her ? W T hat is the character of Edgar, and who was his chief adviser ? What is remarkable in his reign ? Who was Elfrida? Relate the character of Edward the Martyr, and his death. What is the character of Ethelred, and who invaded Eng- land in his reign ? What was his conduct upon their invasion ? When did Edmund Ironside begin his reign? — tell the cause of his death. Who first conceived the design of converting the English Saxons ? What was the remarkable speech of Pope Gregory, upon seeing the Saxon slaves at Rome ? Who was the Apostle of England, and where was the Gospel first preached in England ? Relate the history of Edwin's conversion. Who was Aiden, and what nation did he convert ? Who converted the Mercians ? Which was the last kingdom converted to Christianity? Into how many archbishoprics did St. Austin divide the kingdom, and which were they ? How many suffragan bishops were there ? By whom were the dioceses distributed into parishes ? By what title had the laity the right of Patronage ? Of what did the revenues of the Church consist ? How were they divided and applied ? Who were the learned men among the Saxons? Which were their principal studies ? What was the state of literature at the accession of Alfred the Great ? By whom were the remains of literature preserved ? Name their libraries, and by whom established. How did Alfred the Great divide his time and studies? Had the Saxons a national assembly ? what was it called ? Who were its constituents ? What titles of dignity had their nobles ? 348 QUESTIONS. Of what nature were their proceedings in civil cases ? What was the process in criminal affairs ? What was the purgation by swearing? What the ordeal ? Had the Saxons any slaves ? What were they called ? What was the value of land, and how were rents paid ? What were the exports, and which their trading towns ? What were their principal coins ? What was the state of agriculture ? By whom was masonry introduced into Britain ? What were the personal qualities of the Anglo-Saxons ? Relate some of their customs. How did they educate their children ? What was their peculiar custom to ascertain the courage of their offspring. How did they conduct their burials ? What is said of their language ? BOOK III. Who was the first Danish King of England ? How many sons had Canute, and which succeeded him ? Who was Emma ? What act of treachery did Harold commit ? Who succeeded Harold, and what is the character of his successor ? Who succeeded Hardicanute ? What is the character of Edward the Confessor? Who attempted the invasion of England during his reign ? Who were his chief generals ? Whom did he marry, and what is remarkable in their union ? Relate the remarkable death of Earl Godwin. Against whom did he wage war, and what was the success of it ? What was the speech of Siward upon the death of his son ? How long did Edward the Confessor reign ? Who succeeded him ? Who invaded England during the reign of Harold ? Relate the principal circumstances of the battle which decided the fate of the nation. To what may we trace the causes of the conquest? QUESTIONS. 349 What acts of piety did Canute perform ? Who rebuilt the cathedral of Westminster ? What kings published laws for the government of the nation, and in what did they chiefly consist ? When were trials by ordeal legally prohibited ? What is the character of the Danes ? BOOK IV. Where was William the Conqueror crowned ? What oath did he take at his coronation ? How did be conduct himself at the beginning of his reign? Did the English attempt to recover their independence ? Who was Edgar Atheling, and what became of him and his sister Margaret ? What acts of cruelty did William commit? What was the language used at court in his reign ? Did he pass the remainder of his life happily ? How many sons had he, and their names ? Relate their characters, and how they agreed ? Relate what happened in the battle between Robert and his father, and also the manner of William's death. Mention who succeeded him, and his conduct. What is the character of William the Conqueror ? What happened at the siege of the fortress defended by Henry ? Relate the speech of Robert, upon Henry's demand of water. What were the crusades, and what gave, rise to them ? Relate the circumstances of William the Second's death. Who succeeded him, and how did he commence his reign ? What lady did he marry? What became of Robert? What misfortune happened to Henry ? What was the immediate cause of his death? How long did he reign, and who succeeded him? Who was Matilda, and how did she govern ? How did the dispute of Stephen and Henry terminate ? When did Stephen die, and who succeeded him ? What was the policy of William the Conqueror with regard to ecclesiastical matters ? Who was Lanfranc, and what is his character ? 30 350 QUESTIONS. How did William II. behave in church matters ? What did he do when attacked by sickness ? Who was St. Anselm, and how did William treat him ? What was Henry I.'s conduct in religious affairs ? How did Stephen conduct himself? What was the foundation of the Norman laws? What were the principles of the feudal law ? What were the chief branches of the royal revenue? What is the book called Doomsday ? What was the commerce of England at this period ? Which were the principal trading cities ? What was the state of agriculture ? What was their architecture and other fine arts ? What was the mode of education among the nobles ? What was the character of the Normans ? How many daily meals did they take, and at what hours ? BOOK V. What were the first acts of Henry II.'s reign ? With whom did he make war ? Relate some particulars of the invasion of Ireland. How many sons had he ? Relate the manner of his death. Who succeeded him ? What wars did Richard undertake ? Relate his warlike actions in the crusade. What misfortune befel him on his return ? What wars did he undertake afterwards ? Relate the circumstances of his death. What is the character of Richard ? Who succeeded him ? And what wars did John engage in ? What particular charter did he grant ? What was the cause of his death, and who succeeded him ? How long did Henry III. reign, and what is his character ? At what age was he proclaimed King? What confederacy was formed in his reign ? Who opposed the proceedings of the Barons ? What battle ensued, and who were the principal com- manders ? What happened to King Henry in the battle ? QUESTIONS. 351 Who succeeded Henry III. ? Against whom did Edward I. make war ? Who was Llewellyn, and what happened to him ? Against what power did Edward next wage war? Who was Wallace, and what became of him? What is the character of Edward I., and who succeeded him? What is the character of Edward II. ? What favourites had he, and what became of them ? Relate the manner of Edward II. 's death. Who succeeded him, and at what age did he become king ? What were his first acts on ascending the throne ? What remarkable battles did he gain ? Relate the particulars of the battle of Cressy. Who was Philippa, and what remarkable actions did she perform ? What is the character of Edward the B'ack Prince ? Who succeeded Edward III. ? What insurrection happened in the reign of Richard ? Who was the leader of the rebels, and what became of him ? What was the King's conduct toward the mutineers ? What misfortune befel Richard, and what was the cause of his death ? Give some account of St. Thomas-a-Becket's family ; his character, dignities, and the causes of the persecutions he met with ; also the manner of his death. What was Henry's conduct upon the news of his death ? What disputes arose between John and the Pope ? What treaty did John make with the Pope ? What were the grievances of the English church at this period ? What bishops opposed the court of Rome in these pro- ceedings ? What religious order began to be established at this time ? What order was abolished, and w T hat statute made upon that occasion ? What is the substance of the letter addressed to the Pope by Edward I. ? Of what did the papal revenues in England consist ? What was the determination of the Parliament upon them ? Give some account of John WyclifFe and his doctrine. What were his followers called ? 352 QUESTIONS. What particular laws were made in the reign of Henry II. ? What king was called the English Justinian? What renders this period particularly interesting ? What was the statute of Mortmain ? What was the conduct of the House of Commons under Edward II. and Edward III. ? What was the principal manufacture at this time ? How was our domestic trade carried on at this period ? What was the coin in the reign of Edward III. ? What was the state of the police ? What progress was made in the arts at this time ? What was the style of architecture and painting ? Give some account of the pomp and hospitality of this period. What were the preparations before knighthood ? What were tournaments ? Who founded the Order of the Garter, and who was the first knight ? What was the dress of the ladies and gentlemen of this period ? What was the language of this era ? What poets flourished at this time ? Relate incidents and curious particulars. BOOK VI. Who succeeded Richard II. ? In what wars did Henry IV. engage ? What was the occasion of Hotspur's rebellion ? What was the event of the battle ? How did Northumberland act after the death of his son ? What is the character of Henry IV., and who succeeded him? What children did he leave ? What w r as the conduct of Henry V. when Prince of Wales ? What was his conduct after his accession ? What remarkable submission to the laws did he shew before his father's death ? Against whom did he make war, and with what success ? Whom did he marry, and what is his general character \ QUESTIONS. 353 Who was Sir Owen Tudor ? Who succeeded Henry V. ? What wars happened during his reign? Who was the maid of Orlearfs ? What victories did she gain, and what befel her? What is the character of Henry VI. ? To whom was he married ? What is the character of Margaret his queen ? What became of the king's uncle, Gloucester r Who was Jack Cade, and what happened to him ? What battles occurred between the Houses of York and Lancaster during this reign, and what was the final result ? What became of Margaret, and her son and husband ? What act was passed for the punishment of heretics under Henry IV. ? Who was the first victim ? Who was Sir John Oldcastle, and what happened to him ? How did Henry V. conduct himself in ecclesiastical affairs ? What was said of the constitution of England by Philip de Comines at this period ? Relate some particulars of the House of Commons at this period. How was the foreign trade conducted at this period? What were the coins of this period ? What was the style of architecture ? Who was the first English printer? What is remarkable in the manners of this time ? What were their number of meals, and the hours of taking them ? BOOK VII. How long did Edward IV. reign ? Who was the Duke of Clarence, and how did Edward act towards him ? Against whom did Edward make war, and with what success ? Who succeeded him, and how many children had he? Who was the Duke of Gloucester, and what was his con- duct towards his nephews ? 30* 354 QUESTIONS. What insurrections happened during the reign of Richard Relate the result of the battle between him and the Earl of Richmond. When did Henry VII. begin his reign, and how long did he sit on the throne ? What insurrections happened during his reign ? Who was Lambert Simnel, and what became of him ? Who was Perkin Warbeck, and whom did he marry ? What sons and daughters had Henry VII., and whom did they marry ? What was Henry the Eighth's character at his accession ? Against what powers did Henry make war? Relate the causes of Henry's divorce from his wife. How many wives had he, and what are their names ? Relate their deaths, and for what causes. What children did Henry leave, and who succeeded him ? Who were Cardinal Wolsey and Cranmer? How old was Edward VI. when he succeeded to the throne ? Who were the Duke of Somerset and Lady Jane Grey ? At what age did Edward die, and in what manner ? Who ascended the throne after Edward VI. ? What became of Northumberland, Lady Jane, and her husband? Relate Northumberland's speech at the place of execution. Whom did Mary marry, and what attempts were made against her crown, and by whom ? What remarkable city was lost in her reign, and what did the Queen say upon hearing the news ? What is the character of Mary, and when did she die ? Relate what Camden, Echard, and Fuller say of her. Who succeeded her, and in what year ? Relate some particulars of Mary Queen of Scots. Who put her to death, and on what pretence ? What was said by the Earl of Kent, upon her refusal to listen to the Dean of Peterborough ? How did Elizabeth receive the news of her death ? "Who made war upon Elizabeth, and what was the issue ? How did the Catholics behave during the war? How did the ministers of Elizabeth treat the Catholics of this kingdom ? Who were the favourites of Elizabeth? Relate the manner of the death of Essex. QUESTIOKS. 355 What says Camden of Mary Queen of Scots ? Relate the particulars of the death of Elizabeth. What were the ecclesiastical affairs during the reign of Henry VII.? What were the principal causes of the separation of the English Church from the See of Rome ? Who were the principal contrivers, and in what manner did they conduct themselves ? Upon what pretence did Henry VIII. seize upon the abbies and monasteries ? What was the consequence of the dissolution of the mon- asteries, &c. ? What passed during the minority and reign of Edward VI.? How did Mary act in ecclesiastical affairs ? Relate the circumstances of the death of Cranmer. Were there many discontented with her, and upon what grounds ? What were the arguments made use of by the Reformers to induce Elizabeth to establish the Reformation ? What title did she assume ? What were the principal alterations made in the Liturgy, and who made them ? What was the speech of the Bishop of Chichester upon the occasion ? Who among the Bishops took the oath of supremacy ? What punishments were inflicted upon those who refused to take it ? What were the treasurer left by Henry VII. ? How were the laws executed at this period ? What inquisitorial tribunals were there in the reign of Elizabeth ? How many Catholics suffered death for their religion only, during her reign ? What was the literature of this period? Who were the principal learned men of this time ? What w r as the state of agriculture and gardening ? What was the style of architecture, of painting, and poetry ? What remarkable geographical discovery was made in this period ? What was the state of the coin and manufactures ? i 356 QUESTIONS. Who built the Royal Exchange, and in whose reign was it built? What was the state of the navy ? In what year was the East-India Company established ? What are the manners and dress of this period ? When was tobacco introduced, and by whom ? Who succeeded Elizabeth, and at what period? What plot was carried on in the beginning of this reign ? Who were the principal persons concerned in it ? Relate some particulars of the gunpowder plot. By whom was this plot supposed to have been secretly fomented, and for what purpose ? Mention the names of some of the conspirators ? Had James any favourites ? — who were they ? Relate some particulars of Sir Walter Raleigh. What sons had James, and who did Charles marry ? What war did James undertake, and what was the result? How long did James reign, and of what did he die ? Who succeeded him, and in what year? Who was Buckingham, and what happened to him ? What was the state of the nation at Charles's accession ? Against whom did he make war ? How did the House of Commons proceed at this time? Who resisted the payment of ship-money? What caused the Scotch to have recourse to arms? Relate some particulars of the Earl of Strafford, and his death. Mention the immediate cause of the civil war. Where was the first battle fought, and what were the results ? What was the name given to the army of Charles, and why? Where was the next battle fought, and what its result ? What battle decided the fate of Charles ? What step did Charles take upon the loss of this battle ? What did the Scotch do in consequence ? Who was Cromwell, and what was the parliament called which he established, and how did it proceed ? Relate some particulars of Charles's trial, also his conduct after Ihe sentence had been passed upon him, and his death. What followed? What was Cromwell's conduct in Ireland ? How did Charles II. act? Relate some particulars of the battle of Worcester. QUESTIONS. 357 Against whom did the commonwealth make war? Relate the dissolution of the long Parliament How was the next Parliament constituted ? What title did Cromwell assume ? Against what powers did Cromwell make war ? Who was the principal person that procured the restora- tion of Charles II. ? How did he begin his reign, and what is his character ? In what war did he engage ? In what year was the plague, and how many died of it ' What calamity happened the year after, and to whom w the misfortune falsely attributed ? Relate some particulars of the Scotch rebellion. What pretended plots were charged upon the Catholics during Charles II. 's reign, and who was the chief contriver? What became of Titus Oates ? Of what did Charles II. die, and what clergyman did he send for on his death-bed ? Tell the result of Monmouth's rebellion, and w r ho he was who succeeded Charles II. What was the cause of the misunderstanding between James and his Parliament? Who invaded England, and how did James act? What took place upon the flight of James ? What is the character of James II., and when did he die ? How did the ministers of James I. act towards the Catho- lics ? What is the Gunpowder Plot ? What calumnies were invented against the Catholics ? What was the situation of the Catholics among them- selves? Who was the last national bishop, and who the first arch- priest ? Until what year did the English mission continue under the government of an archpriest ? Who was the first vicar apostolic ? What statutes against the Catholics, and their seminaries abroad, passed in the reign of James I. ? What was the condition of the Catholics under Cromwell ? At the restoration, what was the state of the beneficed clergy, as mentioned by Echard ? Relate some particulars of Oates' s plot. What was the main design of the plotters ? 358 QUESTIONS. What persons were executed for this pretended plot ? What penal acts passed during the reign of Charles II. ? What was James II.'s conduct in religious affairs ? In what reign were triennial Parliaments and the Habeas Corpus act established ? When were the North American colonies planted ? In what reign were copper halfpence and farthings coined ? Who were the learned men at this period? What was the state of agriculture ? Who were the most eminent painters, architects, and poets ? What was the state of manners during the reigns of James I., Charles I., and Charles II. ? When were barometers, thermometers, and microscopes invented, also logarithms, and by whom ? When was the General Post-office established ? BOOK IX. Upon William's accession, how did James act ? Where did he land, and what siege did he undertake ? How did William's troops act at Carrickfergus ? Where was the great battle fought between James and William ? Relate the events of the battle, and James's exclamation. Whose generals were the Duke of Schomberg and St. Ruth ? Who was Ginkle, and what battle did he gain ? What were the conditions granted at the surrender of Limerick ? What was the conduct of William's troops in Scotland ? Relate some particulars of the battle of La Hogue. What was James's exclamation during the battle ? Upon the conclusion of the war, how did the Commons act? When did William die, and who succeeded him ? Against what power did the Queen make war? Who was her general? Relate some of his military actions. What French Marshals opposed him? Was he ever defeated ? Relate some particulars of the battle of Blenheim. What caused peace to be made amidst these brilliant victories ? QUESTIONS. 359 What great event of internal policy took place in this reign ? What does the history of the latter part of Anne's reign chiefly contain, when did she die, and who succeeded her? What rebellion took place in the reign of George I. ; from what causes, and what were the results ? What epithet was given to the son of James II. ? What noblemen were executed for this rebellion ? What happened to Lord Nilhisdale ? Relate particulars of the Quadruple Alliance. What war ensued, and what its results ? Relate some particulars of the South Sea scheme. Of what disorder did George I. die, and who succeeded him ? What war was declared in this reign? Relate some particulars of its origin. Relate the attempt of the son of the Pretender, the battle that followed, and the behaviour of the conquerors. What became of the young Pretender? When did the Prince of Wales, son of George II. die ? Upon what account was Admiral Byng shot ? Mention some of the transactions in the East-Indies. How was the war carried on in America? Mention some particulars of the taking of Quebec ; also of the war in Germany. Describe some of the great efforts made by England. When did Geore II. die, and who succeeded him ? Give a summary account of the advantage gained by Eng- land in this war. At the conclusion of this war, what was the amount of the national debt ? What caused the separation of the American colonies ? Name the principal British commanders in the American war, and also the American. Mention some of the most remarkable battles. What was the conduct of France and Spain at this time ? How did the nation manifest itself upon the declaration of ' war with France and Spain ? Who were the French admirals and generals? What victories were gained over the French and Spaniards at sea ? Relate the action between Rodney and De Grasse'. What memorable siege was undertaken by the Spaniards ? Relate the principal events of that siege. 360 QUES110NS. How did the French behave at the Congress r Relate the state of the nation at the close of this war. Who was Tippoo Saib ? describe the war against him. What were the principal causes of the revolution which broke out in Fiance ? What were the ostensible grounds of quarrel between Great Britain and the revolutionists of France ? Give an account of the engagement on the 1st of June 1794; also the battles of Cape St. Vincent and Camperdown. State the result of the invasion of Ireland in 1797. Who gained the battle of the Nile ? Tell the result of the invasion of Holland by the Duke of York ; also the success of the British arms in the East and West-Indies. In what manner did Buonaparte act after the defeat of his fleet near the Nile ? Who defended Acre, and with what success ? What became of Buonaparte ? Why did the English attack Copenhagen, who command- ed the attack, and what were its consequences ? Who commanded the English at the battle of Alexandria, and what were its results ? When and where was the general peace signed ? What was the cause of its being so soon broken ? How did the war commence in the West- Indies ? Relate some particulars of the war in the East-Indies. Relate the events of the campaign of 1805. When was the memorable battle of Trafalgar fought ? Relate some particulars of it, and its effects. Mention particulars of the battle of Maida. Give an account of the success of the British troops in Portugal, and who commanded them. Mention particulars of the English troops in Spain. Relate the account of the battle of Talavera. What was the success in Germany? What expedition was sent to the Scheldt, and what were its results ? What were the general features of the campaigns of 1810 and 1811 in Portugal and Spain ? What brilliant affair took place in the East-Indies ? Mention some particulars of the campaign of 1812 in Port- ugal and Spain. With what power was war commenced in 1812? What were the general results of this war ? QUESTIONS. 361 Mention some particulars of the campaign in Russia in 1812, also of the advance of the Allies in Germany in 1813, and the battles of the English in Spain. Relate particulars of the battle of Leipsic. Give an account of the campaign in America. What action at sea way fought, and the names of the Cap- tains r Give, particulars of the .campaign of 1814, both in the north of France and in the south. When did Paris capitulate, what treaty was made with Buonaparte, and to what island did he retire ? Where was the last battle fought by the English in France ? When did the King of France quit England to ascend the throne, and what were the principal articles of the treaty of peace made with him ? Mention the particulars of the war in America. Did Buonaparte observe the treaty made with him ? Mention some of the principal events of the year 1815. When did the battle of Waterloo commence ? Mention some particulars of it. What was the loss of the Allies, and also of the French ? What consequences followed from it ? What became of Buonaparte, and also of Murat? What capture was made from the Americans? Mention the particulars of the war in India. When was the treaty of peace signed between the Allied Powers and France, and on what articles ? Against whom did England send a fleet, and what are the particulars of the engagement? When did George III. die, and how long did he reign ? How were Catholics treated in King William's reign ? What bill was enacted against them ? Mention some particulars during the reigns of Queen Anne, George I., and George II. What was their situation at the beginning of the reign of George III. ? What resulted from the bill passed in favour of the Catho- lics in 1778? Mention particulars of the riot in Scotland. What riots took place in 1780, and where? Who was at the head of the rioters ? Mention particulars of their conduct on 2d of June. What destruction did they cause ? 31 QUESTIONS. How did the Catholics proceed after the riots ? What memorial was delivered by them to Mr. Pitt ? State the substance of their grievances. What is the substance of the questions submitted to the foreign Catholic universities, by the direction of Mr. Pitt, and their answers ? What were the subsequent proceedings of the Committee ? How did the vicars apostolic proceed on this occasion ? What is the substance of their encyclical letter? Who were the Vicars Apostolic at this period? What was the success of the oath in the Parliament ? What were the proceedings in Ireland ? What were the proceedings in England in 1808 ? What act passed in 1817, in favour of the Catholics ? Who was Sir Robert Walpole, and who was prime minis- ter at the death of George II. ? What were the acts of Government at the commencement of the reign of George III. ? Mention some particulars of Mr. Wilkes. What is the substance of the Bill brought into Parliament in 1772, on the marriages of the King's brothers? What alteration was made in the criminal law in the session of 1772? In what year was the coalition ministry formed, and who were the principal leaders ? Who succeeded to the ministry on the dissolution of the above ? What remarkable financial measure took place in 1786? In what year was the act to abolish the Slave Trade passed? When was the Prince of Wales married, and to whom ? When did the union with Ireland take place ? What is remarkable in the year 1806 ? When was the Prince of Wales made Regent ? « When and in what manner was the administration deprived of Mr. Percival, and who was he ? Who constituted the principal members of the new min- istry ? What was the state of the internal affairs at this time, and what act passed to repress tumults ? Mention some particulars of the Princess of Wales in 1814 ? What was the expenditure of the kingdom in 1814? What happened to the Princess Charlotte ? When did Queen Charlotte, consort of George III., die ? QUESTIONS. 363 What internal commotions happened in 1819 ? Mention some particulars of the meeting at Manchester. What acts were passed in consequence of the disturbances ? Relate particulars of our trade with America. What are the exports and imports to and from India ? Also exports and imports of Africa? With what nation is the balance against us ? With what countries is it in our favour? What was the amount of our imports in the year 1800 ? j What were the exports, and the greatest number of mer- chant vessels employed in the years 1792 and 1800 ? What was the amount of the royal navy in 1800 ? Which are the principal manufactures of England ? What was the annual value of cotton goods in 1800 ? What are the present manners and pastimes of the English ? What is their character with regard to dress ? What peculiar dress do the Highlanders wear ? When did George IV. ascend the throne ? What occurred at Sierra Leone shortly after ? Where do the Burmese inhabit ? What happened there ? What was the conduct of England upon the invasion of Spain by the French ? Relate some particulars of the affairs of Portugal at this time. Relate the affairs of Greece. What battle was fought, and where ? Who commanded the allied squadrons ? When did the Duke of York die ? What was the immediate cause of George IV.'s death ? When did he die ? What affairs principally occupied parliament during its first session under George IV. ? Relate some of the passing events in Ireland as to the Association, and who was their leader. Who moved the consideration of the sacramental test, and what was the success of the motion ? What were the means taken to promote what was called the second reformation in Ireland ? Relate particulars of the election for Clare. 364 QUESTIONS. Who was elected ? — who thrown out ? jRelate the effect of agitation in Ireland. What members of the Association particularly distin- guished themselves? Relate Mr. Shiel's description of the state of Ireland. What passed relative to Emancipation in the year 1829? Relate the Duke of Wellington's speech in support of Emancipation. Who were the principal opposers in the House of Lords ? Describe what passed in the Commons when Mr. O'Con- nell attempted to take his seat for Clare. Mention some particulars of the conspiracy at the begin- ning of the reign of George IV. Relate some of the occurrences occasioned by the return of Queen Caroline. When did the Queen die, and what epitaph did she direct to be placed on her coffin ? Relate the particulars of her. funeral. How was the King received in Ireland ? What other country did the King visit ? What dreadful scourge afflicted Ireland, and how did the British nation behave on the occasion ? Where did the King go after the session of 1822? What event interrupted the festivities in Scotland r Who succeeded the Marquis of Londonderry ? Who became prime minister in 1827, and died. a few months after ? Who succeeded Mr. Canning ? Who succeeded Lord Goderich ? "What steps were taken to promote commerce and manu- factures during the reign of George IV. ? Relate some particulars of the joint-stock mania. What riot took place in consequence of commercial dis- tress ? What is the actual state of the public debt at this time ? What is the state of agriculture at present, and who intro- duced a taste for it among the nobility and gentry ? Mention some of the poets and historians of the present age. LRB" k