^i'i HI 1 ill III ill 111 I J I III 'liPiiilliPliii^' :ii||||i|||pi!}||i||jiigj|i Jliiiiiii:, ,. "iiSi: Glass U 03 Book_i^l3___ THE STORY OF OLD EUROPE AND YOUNG AMERICA By WILLIAM H. MACE Professor of History in Syracuse University. Author of "A School History of the United States," "A Primary History," "A Beginner's History," "Method in History" and EDWIN P. TANNER Associate Professor of History in Syracuse University Ulustraled by HOMER W. COLBY, B. F. WILLL\MSON, and FRANK T. MERRILL RAND McNALLY & COMPANY CHICAGO NEW YORK Copyright. 1915, \ ^ ^ /^"^ By Rand McNally & Company n \ fefei" ^J 1^ THE TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE A List of the Maps vii The Preface ix Extracts from the Report of the Committee of Ei^ht x Introduction ^ Why Americans Should Know about Europe i How Europe Looks To-Day 2 America Unknown to the People of Ancient Times; Early Ideas of Geography 6 Why the First European Colonists Came to America .... 9 How America Receives European Immigrants To-day . . .11 What the Eastern Nations Gave How the Earliest Men in Europe Lived 13 Civilization Begins in Egypt 14 Asia, Too, Has Early Civilized Peoples 20 How the Hebrews and Phoenicians Helped Civilization ... 22 What the Greeks Gave in Stories and Myths What We Owe to the Greeks 24 Where the Greeks Lived 26 The Religion of the Greeks; Gods and Goddesses 29 The Deeds of the Heroes 31 The Siege of Troy 33 How the Greeks Taught Men to be Free How the Greeks Governed Themselves 37 Athenians and Spartans 39 Things Which Brought the Greeks Together 44 Greece Attacked by the Persians 46 The Battle of Marathon 47 How the Spartans Held the Pass at Thermopylae 50 How Greece Was Saved 53 Some Things the City of Athens Taught the World The Age of Pericles Begins 56 How Athens Looked in the Age of Pericles 56 Socrates, the Philosopher 61 How the Greeks Failed The Decline of Greece 63 How Philip of IVlacedon Gained Power 64 The Youth of Alexander the Great 65 Huw Alexander Carried Greek Ideas into Asia 67 The End of Alexander's Empire 69 The Spread of Hellenistic Civilization ; Wonders of Alexandria . 70 The Beginnings of Rome The Early Days of Rome 74 What the Roman Myths Tell 77 The Plebeians Struggle for Their Rights 80 The Gauls Take Rome 82 (iii) iv The Table oj Contents PAGE What Rome Gained by Conquest Hannibal Threatens Rome 85 Romans Conquer All Nations '. 89 Conquest Does Not Make Rome Better 90 How THE Roman Republic Became the Roman Empire Caesar Appears 94 Caesar Conquers Gaul and Quarrels with Pompey 95 Caesar Makes Himself Master of Rome 99 The Death of Caesar 99 Caesar Augustus Rules loi What the Roman Empire Was 102 How THE Romans Lived How the City of Rome Looked 105 What a Roman Triumph Meant 109 Amusements of the Romans no The Destruction of Pompeii 112 Roman Houses 114 How the Romans Lived 116 New Thoughts in Rome Great Roman Writers 120 The Coming of Christianity 124 How the Early Christians Were Treated 125 Christianity Triumphs 126 The Downfall of Rome The Decline of the Roman Empire 130 The Downfall of Rome 132 The Coming of the Teutons What Kind of People the Early Germans Were 135 Conquests of the German Tribes 139 Britain Conquered by the Angles and Saxons 141 How the Teutons Learned from Rome The Germans Become Christians 145 How Missionaries Taught the Germans 147 Who the Monks Were 149 Charles the Great Revives Civilization 154 The Coming of the Northmen 158 How England Was Made Alfred the Great Withstands the Danes 162 Alfred's Works of Peace 166 The Normans Conquer England 167 How Henry H Kept Order in England 172 King John and Magna Carta 176 How Parliament Grew 180 The Nobles of the Middle Ages Classes of People in the Middle Ages ■ . .185 How the Nobles Lived 186 Warfare in the Middle Ages 188 Warlike Games of the Nobles; the Tournament 189 What Feudalism Was 190 Chivalry and Knighthood 194 The Table of Contents v PAGE The People in the Middle Ages How the People Lived - 197 Plow the Towns Grew 202 Industry in the Towns 204 The Beginnings of Commerce 208 The Church in the Middle Ages The Churches of the Middle Ages 215 The Clergy and the Pope 218 The Pilgrims and the Crusaders People Who Were Called Pilgrims 221 The Cultured Arabs and the Fierce Turks 225 How the Crusades Began 226 The First Trained Army 229 The Wonderful Spear 230 How the Crusaders Acted 232 The Second Crusade 234 The Third Crusade 234 Richard and Saladin Good Friends 237 The Story of the King's Friend 238 Later Crusades 239 What the Crusades Did 240 Marco Polo's Great Journey and His Book The Polos' Visit to China 244 Inventions of the Fifteenth Century Early Inventions 247 Invention of Printing 248 The Compass 249 Discovery of Gunpowder and Invention of Cannon .... 250 The Race for India Begins between Portugal and Spain Prince Henry, the Navigator, Seeks an All- Water Route to India 252 Christopher Columbus, Seeking India, Finds America . . . 254 Columbus Seeks Aid 255 The Discovery of America 257 The Return to Spain 261 Other Voyages to America 262 Voyage of the Northmen 262 Spanish Explorers of the New World Why America Was Named for Americus Vespucius .... 265 Balboa Discovers the Pacific 266 Magellan Begins His Great Voyage 267 Cortes Invades Mexico 269 A Wonderful Indian City 270 The Conquest of the Aztecs 271 The Richest City in the World 271 Pizarro Captures the Inca 272 The Spaniards Find Untold -Wealth 273 De Soto's Expedition 273 Discovery of the Mississippi 274 Coronado and the Seven Cities of Cibolo 275 Discovery of the Grand Canon 276 vi The Table of Contents PAGE Discover Great Herds of Crooked-Back Oxen 277 Meaning of Coronado's Expedition 277 Opposition to Slavery; the Founding of Missions Las Casas, the Enemy ot Human Slavery 277 Missions from Peru to California 279 France against Spain in Europe and America French Explorations 282 The Story of Chevalier Bayard 283 The French Claim to North America 284 Huguenot Colony in Florida 285 Champlain Founds New France 287 New France Solidly Built 289 England the Rival of Spain in Europe and America John Cabot Seeks a Shorter Route to India and Finds North America 290 The Quarrel between the King of England and the King of Spain 291 The Great Leaders in the Conflict . . . . ■ 292 Henry VHI Becomes Head of the English Church .... 293 Elizabeth's Plans, and the Puritans 294 Elizabeth and Mary, Queen of Scots 296 The Revolt of the Netherlands 297 William the Silent 299 Close of the Thirty Years' War 303 How the English Sea Dogs Fought the Spanish Sailors and Robbed the Spanish Treasure Ships The Beginnings of Trouble 305 Sir Francis Drake 305 The First Englishman to Circumnavigate the Globe .... 306 "Singeing the Spanish King's Beard" 307 The Coming of the Great Armada 308 A Great Sea Fight 309 A Crushing Defeat . . . 309 How Sir Walter Raleigh Won the Queen's Favor 310 Raleigh Tries to Plant Colonies in America 311 The Meaning of the Battle with Spain 313 France and England Fight for Control 313 A Pronouncing Index xiii Thr Index xvii A LIST OF THE MAPS PAGE Modern Europe between 4 and 5 The Mediterranean in Ancient Times 6 Map of the Ancient World (about 50 a.d.) 8 Greater Greece and the Phoenician Colonies . . between 26 and 27 The Greek Peninsula 38 The City of Athens and its Harbor of Piraeus 58 The Empire of Alexander the Great 71 A Physical Map of Italy 75 The Roman Empire at Its Greatest Extent . . . between 102 and 103 Europe in the time of Charles the Great . . . .between 156 and 157 England under the Heptarchy 163 The Danelagh (or Danelaw) 165 Medieval Trade Routes to the North from the Mediterranean . facing 212 The Routes of the Crusaders 233 Ancient and Medieval Trade Routes to the Orient .... facing 242 Map Showing the Route of Marco Polo's Journey 244 The Race for India 253 The Discoveries of the Northmen 262 Spanish Voyages of Discovery to North America ...... 265 Routes of French and English Voyagers to America 288 (vii) THE PREFACE THIS little book is an attempt to provide for the sixth grade a suitable text on the European background of American history. The subject matter is of course suggested very largely by the Report of the Committee of Eight of the American Historical Association on the Study of History in Elementary Schools, In endeavoring to work out a plan based on the suggestions of this report, however, the authors have felt very keenly that while the "letter killeth, the spirit giveth Hfe." Our object has been to provide a narrative which will make the past live and, while omitting nothing essential, hold the interest of children of from ten to twelve years. We must rest our case largely on our ability to "spin a good yarn." As the limitations of the present curriculum are such that no other opportunity is offered in the elementary school for the study of the development of Europe, we have tried, in this little volume, to trace the chain of circumstances leading to the colonization of America, and further, to give some notion of a few of the chief landmarks in the development of world- civilization. Because our book is for children the picture presented is necessarily in very broad outline. We have endeavored not to fail in the matter of accuracy. Yet we feel that many details of interest to mature students can have no place here. The consideration of such things as the tactics of the Persians at Marathon or the question as to how far Simon de Montfort was actually the founder of the House of Commons must be deferred for the student's later investigation. We hope that our young readers will some day wish to know all about these matters. (ix) X The Preface In adding a brief chapter on Egypt and the Oriental nations we have kept within the spirit of the report of the Committee of Eight. This supplementary material is not specifically required by that report, and it may be omitted without great detriment to the rest of the book. Its insertion, however, will give a glimpse at those earlier civilizations which fonn a background for much that follows. The authors' close association during many years has, we trust, enabled them to work for a common object and to avoid some of the evils of mixed workmanship. It should be stated that Mr. Mace is author of that part of the book treating of the rise of the inodern nations, and the discoverers; and Mr. Tanner of the account of the ancient and the medieval world. Our thanks are due to our colleagues. Doctors H. L. Cleasby and A. W. Lauber, for reading the first part of the manuscript and giving valuable advice. We have also obtained most important suggestions from a study of earlier textbooks in our field. Whether or not we have succeeded in a task calHng for a high degree of pedagogical skill, only the actual use of our little book can determine. W.H.M. E.P.T. EXTRACTS FROM THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF EIGHT The following extracts from the "Report of the American Historical Association, by the Committee of Eight" clearly indicate the principal ideas of the Committee's report and form the basis of the sixth-grade work provided by this book. "The history-teaching in the elementary schools should be focused upon American History. But we do not mean to imply that American History signifies an account only of those events which have occurred in America. Our aim is to explain Extracts from the Report of the Committee of Eight xi the America of to-day; its civilization, its institutions, and its traditions. America cannot be understood without taking into account the history of its peoples before they crossed the Atlantic. "In the list of topics submitted for the sixth grade, those features of ancient and of medieval life have been illustrated which explain other important elements of our civiHzation or which show how the movement for discovery and coloni- zation originated, A few great incidents and typical char- acters of the ancient and the medieval world have been added because their stories are a part of the universal heritage of mankind. In medieval history special emphasis is laid upon England. It is not at all the intention to teach Greek, Roman, or medieval history, though some of the topics are selected from these fields. "In outlining the work suitable for this grade, we were governed by the following considerations: first, the desire to emphasize geographical facts, not only those which form a part of the history of the discoveries of the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries, but also the simpler incidents of previous geographical discovery; second, the effort to put the facts connected with the emigration to America in their relation to earHer movements of peoples; third, the aim to show, in a very simple way, the civilizations which were the heritage of those who came to America, — that is, to explain what America started with; fourth, to associate the three or four peoples of Europe that were to have a share in American colonization, with enough of the characteristic incidents of their history to give the child some feeling for the names 'England,' 'Spain,' 'Holland,' and 'France.' " If the unity of the general theme, particularly in the sixth grade, can be reaHzed by some other treatment in individual instances, by omission or by more detailed work, this will not interfere with the aim of the plan." THE STORY OF OLD EUROPE AND YOUNG AMERICA INTRODUCTION I. Why Americans Should Know about Europe. Across the Atlantic Ocean, with its three thousand miles of tossing green waves, lie the old homes of the people who now inhabit America. The emigrants who came yesterday in the mighty steamships which now rush across the ocean in a few days, and the early settlers who reached this continent three hundred years ago in their frail, old-fashioned sailing vessels, came alike from Europe, where their forefathers had lived for many hundreds, perhaps thousands, of years. In the gray wilderness which once covered America the early colonists and their children have built up a new and great nation of whose splendid history and noble men and women all Americans are justly proud. Beneath its starry flag the newcomers to this country, if they are earnest and intelligent, find a welcome to many things which crowded Europe cannot give. Yet we cannot rightly understand or appreciate how the people who came to these shores felt, what they tried to do, and how they worked to bring it about, unless we know at least a little of the story of the old home they (1) The Story of Old Europe and Young America left behind. Even three hundred years ago the men and women who reached America knew and beHeved many things which can be ex- plained only by their life in Europe. The new arrivals of the present day, soon to be our fel- low citizens, also bring many strange ideas and customs which are the result of their life across the water. Americans may well look with love and re- spect to their old home, for Europe is filled with interesting and beautiful things, some natural, some the work of men of olden time, — objects made famous by song and story, — which help to explain the history of our own forefathers. 2. How Europe Looks To-Day. Here are the brave little British Isles with their great smoky manufacturing cities set amid green country, a land proud of its free government, which the sturdy men who dwell there have upheld for centuries against every attack. To their seaports come great fleets from all parts of the vast British Empire across the seas, for men of British race have conquered or colonized many wide regions in Asia, Africa, America, and Australia. The American may be proud that the first colonists of his country came from this sturdy little land, and that we speak the English tongue. From a photograph LOADING A STEAMSHIP BOUND FOR BRITISH COLONIES Introduction Across the British Channel Hes "fair France," the home of everything beautiful. Here rise the roofs and spires of Paris, most famous of modern cities, for centuries the very center of refinement and culture. On every side stretch smiling fields, small to the eyes of an American, but fertile and well tilled, showing the industry and care of an intelligent people. Yet now and again the observant traveler may still see remains of walls and towers, grim even in decay, which tell of a time when war reigned and when fierce lords tyrannized over unfortunate peasants. Eastward over the Rhine stretches the mighty Ger- man Empire, the dear "Fatherland" of thousands who are now Americans. No wonder her people love her, for Germany is the land of great scholars, of splendid music, of harmless gayety, and beautiful indeed she is with her quaint old towns and her bold, wooded hills. From the bustle of her cities and the smoke of her factories it is easy to see that ^ Germany has a.'f- great future. But the ruined castles which crown her hills, the crumb- ling walls which still surround some of her older towns, even the thousands of well- drilled soldiers whom one sees on every hand, show that she has had hard struggles in the past. From a photograph RUINS OF CHATEAU DE BOUAGUIL. A CASTLE IN FRANCE The Story of Old Europe and Young America To the south, over the snow-capped Alps, is "sunny- Italy" with her blue sky, her green vineyards, and her t " •<*> '^ « ^ '"> A ? ^ t- S}^ e D D ^ y^ E ^H EH H ■% K K I U H vv\ n M M N N 9 9 9Q q PR R w ^2 ^S r T T TYPES OF EARLY ALPHABETS SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts. /. The earliest men who lived in Europe were rough savages. 2. These people gradually improved their condition and made many simple but useful inventions, j. The first really civilized people were the Egyptians. 4. We are now able to read their writings and know many facts of their history. 5. The Egyptians had much useful knowledge and excelled in building huge temples, sphinxes, and pyramids. 6. In the valley of the Tigris and Eviphrates rivers in Asia civilized people also lived at a very 24 The Story of Old Europe and Young America early time. 7. They built temples and cities of brick which have crumbled into great mounds. 8. The Hebrews were the first people to worship one God. Q. Their kinsmen, the Phoenicians, were great traders, and taught the people of Europe the alphabet. Study Questions, i. Why does no one know how long men have lived in Europe? 2. How can we tell something of the way early men in Europe Hved? j. What were some of the useful inventions and discoveries made by these people? 4. What things helped the people of Egypt to become civiHzed? 5. What discovery helped scholars to read the Egyptian writing? 6. What are "mummies," and why did the Egyp- tians pay so much attention to preserving them? 7. Make a list of useful things which the Egyptians knew\ 8. How do we get our knowledge about the ancient people of the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates? g. Why did they use brick for building instead of stone? 10. Why does the world care about the ancient Hebrews? 11. Why did the voyages of the Phoe- nicians seem long and dangerous? 12. Why is "sound writing" better than "picture writing"? Suggested Readings. Mclntyre, The Cave Boy of the Stone Age; Holbrook, Cave, Mound, and Lake Dwellers, and Other Primitive Peoples; Arnold, Stories of Ancient Peoples; Ragozin, A History of the World: Vol. I, Earliest Peoples; Retold from "St. Nicholas" : Stories of the Ancient World, 3-52, 69-77, 92-124. WHAT THE GREEKS GAVE IN STORIES AND MYTHS 10. What We Owe to the Greeks. The first civilized people in Europe were the Greeks, or Hellenes as they called themselves. Undoubtedly they themselves learned much from Egypt and from Asia, but as the Greeks learned they also invented and improved, so that all that they did seems new and wonderful. In some ways they did so well that no nation has ever equaled them, and even the wisest men of to-day are proud to follow their example. Of many things which we now have the men of ancient What the Greeks Gave in Stories and Myths 25 Greece of course knew nothing. No screaming railway trains rushed across their land; no factories with their great machines were found in their cities; they did not dream of the telegraph or of electric light. As compared with ours, their lives were very simple. But the Hellenes loved most, all that is beautiful. Their temples were small and simple, but so graceful and so perfect that we still imitate them in our public build- ings. They carved statues of such beauty that artists TEMPLE OF POSEIDON (NEPTUNE) AT PAESTUM This building, erected in honor of Poseidon, god of the sea, shows the beauty and harmony of ancient Creek temples still travel thousands of miles to see even broken pieces of them. They made stories and poems of such wonder- ful power that our best writers study them to learn how to improve their own work. Yet the Greeks were not artists alone. Their wise men, or philosophers as they were called, thought deeply about many practical things, too. Sometimes, indeed, they made strange mistakes, yet they left to later peoples the beginnings of nearly all the subjects now taught in 26 The Story of Old Europe and I'ozmg America schools and colleges. They had noble thoughts, also, about how men should live. First of all civilized peoples, they learned to govern themselves without kings and princes. To them it seemed the duty of every man to benefit his country and even to lay down his life, if necessary, to save her from slavery. II. Where the Greeks Lived. Greece itself is a penin- sula indented by deep gulfs and bays which make it look on the map something hke a man's hand. It is only a small country, not so large as our state of New York or Virginia, and is all cut up by rug- ged mountains into narrow valleys and high plateaus. Even to-day the traveler journeys across the country with difficulty. Yet Greece is a beautiful land. Against a deep blue sky, its bold hills and mountains, often powdered with snow, stand out in clear outline, and its fertile valleys please the eye with their green vineyards and groves of silver-gray olive trees. Above all, one can never get far from the sea, that same wonderful blue sea which seemed to call the ancient Greeks to voyages of adventure and trade. Greece has the warm, balmy climate of all Mediterranean lands. Yet it knows the frosts of winter, which, however, is much shorter than with us. But in ancient times "Greece" was really very much Statue in the Louvre, Paris VENUS DI MILO Generally considered the most beaiiHful single piece of ancient Creek statuary Zacyntlius -,,, Sardinia^ M E D GREATER GREECE AND THE PHOENICIAN COLON; »\C A P > ^=51 /Syracuse 4^ .artii? 4' o^t GREEK COLONIES. PHOENICIAN COLONIES Copyrishi, igrs, by Rand McNally "^ Company What the Greeks Gave in Stories and Myths 27 wider than the peninsula of the name. Scattered thickly in the sea on both sides of the mainland are many islands, both large and small, while to the south lies the large, mountainous island of Crete. In all of these lived Hellenes who took an active part in whatever went on, for to the Greek the sea, instead of being a barrier, was a natural road of communication. But this was not all. As Greece was but a small land, the flourishing Greek cities very early began to send out colonies to neighboring coasts. Gathering about some strong leader, bands of citizens would sail forth in their long vessels perhaps to some neighboring island, perhaps to some distant and Httle known shore. Here, where some curving harbor gave advantage for commerce, they would build a new city. In course of time many of these colonies grew into powerful states, often stronger and finer than the mother-city itself. Thus the Greeks in very ancient days made many settlements along the coast of Asia Minor. Becoming still more daring, they voyaged through the straits into the Black Sea, on the shores of which they built many towns. Because this body of water took their ships to such pleasant coasts, the Greeks called it the Euxine Sea, a name which means "the sea friendly to strangers." They settled also along the northern coast of Africa, and especially in southern Italy and on the island of Sicily. Here was built Syracuse, the greatest of all Greek cities outside of Greece itself. The large peninsula of Italy was so filled with Greek towns that men often called it "Greater Greece." Still farther west, in what is now southern France and Spain, this race of seafarers had a foothold also. 2 8 The Story of Old Europe and Young America When an ancient Greek spoke of Greece he meant not merely the small mountainous land which was the mother country of his people, but rather all places everywhere where Greeks lived. The true Greece of ancient times was scattered all about the Mediterranean Sea. Many cities founded by these ancient people still exist and are even yet among the world's great centers MOUNT OLYMPUS, ON THE NORTHERN BORDERS OF GREECE According to Greek mythology, it was the home of the gods, and here Homer wrote his earliest hymns of commerce. Not only Athens in Greece itself, but Alexandria in Egypt, Constantinople in Turkey, and Marseilles in southern France were once Greek towns, and all but Constantinople still bear names very much like those which the Greeks gave. Few peoples, indeed, have known how to choose the places for their cities with such great foresight. What the Greeks Gave in Stories and Myths 12. The Religion of the Greeks; Gods and Goddesses. Like most early peoples the Greeks once thought that the great powers of nature, — the sky, the sun, the sea, — were gods whose favor men must win if they were to suc- ceed in what they undertook. But as time went on they gave names to these forces and spoke of them as persons — gods and goddesses who felt and acted, loved and hated, much as do human beings. Upon Mount Olympus, a huge, snowy mountain in northern Greece, these mighty beings held their court. The Greeks thought that the gods often interfered in human affairs, aiding those who pleased them but heaping ruin upon their enemies. Sometimes the gods and god- desses even appeared in human shape and mingled with men. They might be wounded, but never died, and ill in- deed fared those who injured them, even unintentionally. The chief of all the gods was Zeus, or Jupiter, whose strong hand held the thunderbolts which none might resist. With him ruled his wife, the proud' queen Juno, a jealous enemy to those who opposed her. But Zeus shared his power with his two brothers, — Neptune, the rough old god of the sea, and dark Pluto, king of "Hades," or the underworld, whither must go the souls of all the dead. Bust iu Vatican Museum, Romo HEAD OF ZEUS Chief god in Greek mythology, ruler over gods and men 30 The Story of Old Europe and Young America The court of Olympus was graced by Venus, the beautiful goddess of love ; Diana, the moon, wild goddess of the chase; and the calm and brave Athena, daughter of Zeus and goddess of wisdom. High among the gods stood Vulcan, the strong but lame blacksmith, whose workshops were the volcanoes; the graceful Apollo, god of manly beauty, and the swift Mercury, with his winged sandals, who watched over merchants and thieves. Nor must we forget Mars, the fierce god of war, delighting in the clang of weapons and the blood of the slain. Besides these greater gods and god- desses the ancient Greeks believed also in a host of lesser beings, such as un- ruly giants, beautiful nymphs delight- ing in the dance, and clumsy satyrs who had human bodies but the hoofs and horns of goats. Every hill, every stream, every waterfall, held within it a spirit which thought and felt. Regarding these divinities and their doings many stories or ' ' myths ' ' were told among the Greeks. Many of these tales are indeed so fanciful that only a very simple people could believe them. Yet the stories and the poems in w^hich they were put are so beauti- ful and interesting that the world can never forget them. Absurd as a belief in such gods may seem to us, their religion was very real to the early Greeks, who began almost every act of life with a religious ceremony. To their gods and After the statue by Phidias ATHENA PARTHENOS Goddess of wisdom and war What the Greeks Gave in Stories and Myths 31 goddesses they not only erected splendid temples and noble statues, but in their honor they held great festivals FRAGMENT OF PARTHENON FRIEZE BY PHIDIAS Picturing Athenian youths riding in the Pan-Athenaic festival and made frequent sacrifices. Every city and town had its special protecting god or goddess, upon whose power it reHed for safety. Each household had its gods, to whom, as well as to the souls of their ancestors, parents and children paid religious veneration. 13. The Deeds of the Heroes. The Greeks had myths not merely about the gods but also concerning heroes of olden times. These heroes, they thought, were men like themselves, who had lived and died, but men who possessed wonderful strength and courage and who had done marvelous deeds. In these feats the gods, who loved heroes, had often aided them. One of their chief heroes was Hercules, the strongest of all men. Unfortunately for him the goddess Juno was his bitter enemy and by her power he was forced to perform twelve gigantic labors, each one of which would have crushed an ordinary man. The labors of Hercules included slaying a huge lion with his hands and destroying a terrible nine-headed water serpent called the Hydra. This monster was difficult to. over- come, for every time the hero struck off one of its heads with his club two more heads grew in its place. The Story of Old Europe and Young America From a wall paintii HERCULES STRANGLING THE NEMEAN LION The first of the "twelve labors" demanded of Hercules by Juno Another hero was Theseus. In his day, it was said, the people of Athens were obliged to send every year -J-, seven youths and seven maidens to be devoured by a terrible monster living in a place called a "laby- rinth." This laby- rinth was so craftily built that no one who entered could ever find his way out unaided. But Theseus was beloved by the daughter of the king of that country, and she gave him a sword and a ball of thread which he could unwind as he went along. Thus he slew the monster, escaped from the labyrinth, and returned home to become King of Athens. Sometimes, it was be- lieved, a whole band of heroes undertook an adven- ture together. Such an expedition was that of Jason and his companions, who sailed in the stout ship Argo to bring home the "golden JASON TAKING THE GOLDEN FLEECE fleece." This wonderful WhUe the dragon is put to sleep by enchantment What the Greeks Gave in Stories and Myths 33 trophy was nailed upon a tree in a far-distant land, and there guarded by a sleepless dragon. Frightful indeed From a vase paintiog CONTEST OF ACHILLES AND HECTOR Serving the warriors are Athena (at the left) and Apollo (at the right) were the perils the brave Argonauts underwent before they at length returned in triumph. 14. The Siege of Troy. But the favorite story of the Hellenes was that told in a wonderful poem, composed, they said, by a blind poet named Homer, If such a man ever lived, surely he was one of the world's greatest poets, for men have never ceased admiring these beautiful verses. He sang how Paris, the son of Priam, King of Troy, a great city in Asia Minor, stole away the fair Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of the Greek city of Sparta. Then Menelaus called upon all the Greeks to help him win Helen back. Nobly they responded, every city in Greece sending its heroes in their long black ships to share in the war. Foremost among them were the strong Ajax, the clever Ulysses, and the swift Achilles, best warrior of Greece. The commander was Agamemnon, brother of the wronged Menelaus. But the Trojans were great fighters. Paris, who had caused all the trouble, proved cowardly, but his brother Hector led them with great courage. For nine years the war went on beneath the walls of Troy. But though 34 The Story of Old Europe and Young America the heroes on both sides performed wonderful deeds, neither side prevailed. The gods themselves took part in the struggle by aiding their favorites, some help- ing the Greeks, others helping Hector and his Trojans. At length Agamem- non, leader of the Greeks, quarreled with Achilles and this brave warrior, retiring to his tent, would Fro., an ancient .em ^O longCr fight. Wlth- THE WOODEN HORSE OF THE GREEKS QUt him thC GrCCkS WCrC defeated, and pursued by the Trojans to their ships. Even these Hector and his stout warriors tried to burn. Seeing his old comrades in such danger, Achilles' best friend, Patroclus, begged that sulky hero to lend him his armor and his followers that he might save the Greeks from destruction. This request Achilles granted, and his friend drove back the Trojans, but was soon afterwards slain by Hector. Driven by rage at the death of his dear friend, Achilles now rushed forth and, clad in new and wonderful armor made for him by the god Vulcan, carried all before him. At last he and Hector met in single combat beneath the walls of Troy, and the Trojan chief fell before his terrible spear. With the revenge of Achilles, Homer's great poem ends. Other stories, however, told how Achilles, too, was slain and how at length Troy was taken by a clever trick of Ulysses. The Greeks pretended to sail home, but left What iJic Greeks Gave in Stories and Myths 35 behind a great wooden horse which the fooHsh Trojans dragged inside their city. It proved to be filled with Greek warriors, who at dead of night opened the gates and let in their countrymen, who had now returned. Troy was given over to fire and sword, and Menelaus and the Greeks sailed for home in triumph, bearing Helen with them to be once more Queen of Sparta. The Greeks never tired of reciting this thrilling story, in which they believed the deeds of their forefathers were set forth. Almost equal pleasure did they find in another tale which Homer sang, — that of the wanderings of Ulysses. This famous chief had offended the god Neptune and therefore, when he sailed from Troy, his ship was beaten by storms and for twenty years he strove in vain to reach his home, the island of Ithaca. Aw- ful perils beset him; his ship and his comrades were lost, but Ulysses, cunning and brave, escaped all danger. In the end he reached Ithaca ^^ to find his faithful wife Penelope still waiting his return, and to take ven- geance upon those who had tried to win her hand and possess his kingdom. Among all their heroes the Greeks especially loved Ulysses because of his ULYSSES RETURNING TO HIS HOME AS A BEGGAR Entrance lo court of ancient Greek house 36 The Story of Old Europe and Young America cleverness, a quality which they greatly admired and strove to cultivate in themselves. SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts, i. The first civilized people of Europe were the Greeks. 2. The Greeks have taught all the world to admire beautiful things, j. They gave us also the begin- nings of most of the subjects now taught in schools and colleges. 4. Greece is a small, mountainous country, every part of which is near the sea. 5. In ancient times the Greeks were brave sailors, and planted colonies on all the neighboring coasts. 6. The Greeks worshiped many gods and goddesses, about whom they told beautiful but curious stories. 7. They had also many stories regarding heroes such as Hercules, Theseus, and Jason. 8. The most famous stories are about the siege of Troy and the wanderings of Ulysses, g. These are told in two wonderful poems said to have been composed by a blind poet named Homer. Study Questions, i. What are some of the things we know which the Greeks did not know? 2. State some things which the Greeks understood better, or cared more for, than we do. 3. Describe Greece. 4. Why do you think the ancient Greeks became sailors? 5. In what places did they plant colonies? 6. Name the chief gods and goddesses of Olympus. 7. How did the Greeks show that their belief in these deities was real? 8. Tell an incident connected with Hercules; Theseus; Jason. Q. Name some of the heroes of the Trojan War. 10. Tell the story of the revenge of Achilles. 11. How was Troy finally taken? 12. Why did the Greeks especially ad- mire Ulysses? Suggested Readings. Guerber, The Story of the Greeks, 11-62; Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men; Lang. Tales of Troy and Greece, 9-61, 111-129, 159-188; Gale, Achilles and Hector, 13-143; Kingsley, The Heroes, or, Greek Fairy Tales for My Children, "The Argonauts," 87-253; Church, The Story of the Iliad, 1-16, 109-155; The Story of the Odyssey, 13-204, 261-307; DeGarmo, Tales of Troy for Boys and Girls; Retold from "St. Nicholas": Stories of Classic Myths, 3-68; Bulfinch, Age of Fable, or Stories of Gods and Heroes, 1-12, 161-170, 178- 188, 190-191. How the Greeks Taught Men to he Free 37 HOW THE GREEKS TAUGHT MEN TO BE FREE 15. How the Greeks Governed Themselves. Though the Greeks hved in a small land and all spoke the same language, they had no single king or common government. They did, indeed, regard each other as brothers and called all who did not speak their tongue "barbarians." Yet their cities could seldom agree, and often fought against each other in savage wars. Since the people of each little plain were shut off from their neighbors by mountains they loved to rule them- selves in their own way. On some central hill, easy of defense, they built shining temples to their protecting gods, and close under these clustered the white dwellings of the townsfolk. Round about, strong walls were set up to shield them from their enemies. Those who preferred to live on their little farms in the country, however, had also a share in the common life and might take refuge behind the fortifications when invaders appeared. Such a little state the Greeks called a "city." And to the Greek his city was his fatherland. In it he usually spent all his life. He knew all his fellow citizens well, and for his city and its gods he thought he ought to lay down his life if need came. Greece had many such cities, but the most famous are Athens and Sparta. In early times the Greek cities had kings. But later most of them got rid of their kings and became little republics. All the citizens met from time to time in public assemblies, where they chose their officers from year to year and where any one who wished could speak about public matters. But the Greeks always had trouble to keep their How the Greeks Taught Men to he Free 39 liberty. Often some rich or clever man would seize the power and compel his fellow citizens to obey him. The Greeks called such a man a "tyrant." By this word they did not mean a bad ruler, but one who had taken the government without proper authority. Some tyrants were wise and ruled well. Yet most of the Greeks did not like tyrants, and they tried hard to get rid of them. 16. Athenians and Spartans. The two greatest cities of Greece were not at all alike, and could seldom agree. The people of Athens loved new things; the people of Sparta loved old things. The Athenians loved what was beautiful ; the Spartans only what had practical use. The Athenians excelled in music, in art, in learning; the Spar- tans excelled in war, and thought everything else fooHsh. Athens always loved liberty. She was the first great repubHc in the world. In her assemblies all her citizens took part in making the laws. They met on a hill called the Pnyx near the center of the city and, sitting on the stone seats which rose one above the other in the form of a semicircle, listened eagerly to speeches on public ques- tions. Any citizen could speak who wished, but before doing so he must put a wreath on his head and take his stand, facing the people, beside an altar. If he spoke well the Athenians gave him loud applause and were often per- suaded to vote what he wished. Exciting indeed was the contest when great speakers took different sides of a ques- tion, and the feelings of the people were swayed by their stirring words now on this side, now on that. Because the laws of Athens were made by the Assem- bly, the Athenians greatly prized the power of speaking well. Every citizen was taught to speak in public and to take his share in the business of the city. But the 40 The Story of Old Europe and Young America best orators naturally had great influence. Carried away by their powerful appeals, the Athenians were often led to decide great questions rather suddenly. So it always meant much for Athens whether her most skillful speakers were wise statesmen or persons who tried to win applause by urging the people to do what was popular instead of what was best for the state. The Athenian must serve his city not only in the Assem- bly but also, if need came, on the field of battle, so he was trained to handle spear and shield and to be a soldier. In war the Athenians were always brave and quick. The little Athenian boy went to two schools, — the music school and the ^^ wrestling school. About daylight he set out from home under the care of a faithful old slave, and meeting other boys of the neigh- borhood at some appointed place, marched with them to his task. Squat- ting on the floor or seated on low benches, the little Athenians were soon learning from the master of the music school how to read and write and to do very simple examples in arithmetic by means of a counting machine. But the master wanted most of AN ATHENIAN ORATOR OR LEADER OF THE PEOPLE ADDRESSING THE ASSEMBLY How the Greeks Taught Men to be Free 41 AN ATHENIAN SCHOOLBOY LEARNING TO PLAY ON THE LYRE From an Athenian painted vase now in the Berlin Museum all to have them learn the stirring poems of Homer and of the other famous poets, to play well on musical instru- ments, and to sing. The Athenians always felt it made people nobler to love music. In the wrestling school the youths learned to climb, to run, to jump, to dance, and to throw the javelin. When the boys were fifteen they went to a higher kind of school for physical training called the gymnasium. Here they were taught to be ath- letes and to compete in the games. At eighteen the young Athenian was ready to become a citizen. Now came a great ceremony, when all the youth were brought to the-public assembly and, before all the grown men of the city, given spear and shield. Raising their hands, they swore that they would never disgrace their arms or desert a companion in the ranks, that they would obey the laws of Athens and the religion of the city, and that when the time came they would give over Athens to their children greater than they had received it. The boys then marched away to be trained in arms and to serve as soldiers for two years. When they returned they were free to live as they pleased and to share in all the advantages and pleasures of their beautiful city. But though every citizen was thus ready to fight as a soldier, the Athenians cared for many other things besides war. 42 The Story of Old Europe and Young America From a vase painting SPARTAN BOYS AT GYMNASTIC EXERCISES As Athens was near the sea, many of her people became merchants and grew rich. Athenian sailors were bold and skill- ful, and Athens had more ships than any other city of Greece. Her people loved objects of beauty, and spared no ex- pense in erect- ing public buildings and statues of the gods. But most of all, Athenians loved to talk and debate with each other and to learn what was new. Eagerly did they listen to the philosophers or wise men, like Socrates and Plato, who taught new ideas about life and the world. From all Greece wise men came to Athens, where they knew they would be heard. But the Athenians had their faults. Too often they changed their minds. Then also, though they believed in liberty for themselves, their city was filled with slaves who had to do nearly all the hard work and had few rights. In this respect, however, the Athenians were only like all the other Greeks, and indeed like all other ancient peoples. Unlike the Athenians, the Spartans lived as if always at war. When the Spartan boy was only seven he was taken from home altogether and made to live in barracks. He was trained to run, to jump, to wrestle, but especially to carry arms and to use the spear and shield. Above all he was taught to endure fatigue, pain, and hunger, Hoiv the Greeks Taught Men to he Free 43 and never to cry out if hurt. The Spartan soldier must never run from the enemy, and if he lost his shield in battle he was disgraced for life. Of learning the Spartan youth was taught little. The Spartans despised useless talk, and trained their boys to say everything as directly as possible in the fewest words. The Spartan girls, too, were given an education much like that of the boys. They also were taught to run, to wrestle, to box, and to be strong and vigorous. When the Spartan boy grew up he still gave all his time to warlike exercise. He must live with his mess- mates, and could not return home to stay until he was thirty. Even then he must not be a merchant or a work- man. These pursuits were held unworthy of a Spartan. Perhaps this warlike life of the Spartans was neces- sary, for they lived amid a numerous race of people whom they had conquered and made slaves. These "Helots" the Spartans treated very cru- elly, so they al- ways feared that they would rise against them. In many other ways Sparta was the -walls- of sparta just the opposite of Athens. Because the Spartans loved old things they still had kings. Queerly enough, 44 The Story of Old Europe and Young America From a vase painting THE OL\TVrPIC GAMES dose finish in the 210-yard dash at the. stadium they always had two at the same time. Unlike Athens, Sparta had no great temples, buildings, or adornments. /iCef n^ ^^^ ^^"^ ^°^ even ^mm- ^^B- J^ have walls, "except the shields of her sons." The Spartans were the best sol- diers and athletes in Greece, but they did little to make the world wiser or happier. Yet they gave us a wonderful example of courage and devotion to duty. When a man gladly sacrifices himself for his country we still say, "He died like a Spartan." 17. Things Which Brought the Greeks Together. Though their cities often fought each other, the Greeks had many things to draw them together. They spoke the same language, and had the same gods, and the same poems and books. They also believed in and used the same "oracles." In early times, men always believed they could communicate with the gods. The Greeks thought this could be done through oracles. These were sacred places where a priest or priestess, on being asked a question, would go into a trance and give an answer which was supposed to come from a god. The most famous oracle was that of the god Apollo at Delphi, and thither the Greeks usually went when about to undertake some important work or adventure. The answer given by the Delphic priestess was often so worded that it might mean one of two things. So if the undertaking How the Greeks Taught Men to be Free 45 failed when the answer had seemed favorable, the Greeks thought that they had not rightly understood Apollo. Besides the oracles the Greeks had in common great athletic contests in honor of the gods. The Greeks always loved athletics, and eagerly indeed did the picked youth of the various cities contend for the prizes. These, however, were never money, but some simple thing like a crown of laurel, which, however, meant more to them than gold. No man who had done a mean thing could contend, and to commit a foul in the games was eternal disgrace. The most famous contest was the great Olympic games held once every four years in honor of Zeus. During the games all wars were sus- pended and people journeyed from all parts of Greece to Olympia. Splendid indeed was the scene, when amid the applause of the throng in the stadium the well-trained athletes struggled for victory in sprinting, in running, in wrestling, in throwing the discus, and in the all-round contest. Whoever won an Olympic crown was hailed as a man who had brought the highest honor to his native city. When he returned home he was received with music and shouts. Sometimes a hole was even broken through the walls that he might pass through in triumph. The statue of the victor in the Olympic games was set up in some public place, and he THE SPEAR BEARER A famous statue by Poly- del us, a cekhraled Grcik sculptor. The original is in the Naples Museum 46 The Story of Old Europe and Young America THE DISCUS THROWER was treated with the greatest respect all the rest of his life. i8. Greece Attacked by the Persians. In early times a great danger threatened Greece. The Persians, a people of western Asia, were rapidly conquering all the surrounding nations. Babylon, Palestine, Phoenicia, and even Egypt were over- come by their arms. It seemed that the Great King of Persia would soon rule the world. In some ways the Persians were a great people, but they took away from the nations which they conquered all right to think and act for themselves. How could the world make progress if everything were decided by the will of one king ? Finally the armies of the Great King conquered Asia Minor. In this region there were many Greek cities, for bands of Greeks often sailed forth from home and founded new cities on coasts and islands, sometimes far away from their native shores. Naturally the Athenians sent soldiers and ships to aid the Greeks of Asia Minor when they rebelled against Per- sia. But this act so enraged the Persian king Darius that he determined to conquer Greece itself. He could not endure that those people of Europe should dare to defy him when the greatest nations of Asia trembled as his slaves. So set was he upon revenge that he ordered a slave to THE WRESTLERS How the Greeks Taught Men to be Free 47 From frioze at Giua, A PERSL4N SOLDIER stand behind his throne whenever he dined and say, lest he should forget, "Master, remember the Athenians." The Great King sent messengers to Greece to order her people to submit and to send to him earth and water as a sign that he owned their land. How could the Greek cities, which did not even have a common government, refuse? Many of the cities were terrified, and surrendered. But Sparta and Athens defied Darius. They even threw his messengers into a well and told them to take as much earth and water as they wanted. Then all the cities that stood firm formed a league to resist Persia. The Spartans were chosen leaders because they were the best soldiers. 19. The Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.) Soon the great Persian army came. Sailing across the sea from Asia Minor, they captured all the islands and finally landed on the plain of Mar- athon near Athens. There were at least one hundred thousand men, and their white tents covered all the shore. On the hills overlooking the plain were the Athenians, only about ten thousand in all. In haste they had sent to Sparta for help, but the Spar- tans made excuses and delayed coming. The only aid the Athenians had was from a little town called Plataea, not far away. In days past the Athenians had protected the Platacans, and they were grateful. When the news came From a vase painting A GREEK HEAVILY ARMED SOLDIER 48 The Story of Old Europe and Young America that Athens was in danger, every man and boy in Plataea who could carry spear and shield marched at once to join their friends. But of these brave soldiers there were only one thousand. It seemed imi^ossible that the Athenians should have any chance against the great Persian host. But some things not to be seen at first glance favored them. They were free men, defending their wives and little ones, while the soldiers of the Great King fought only because they were ordered to do so. It is even said that some of them had to be driven into battle with whips. The Greeks also had better weapons. They wore bronze breastplates, and helmets with horsehair crests, while their legs were protected by bronze pieces called greaves. They bore thick, round shields, and carried long //J//////,,^^ spears. Since boyhood they had exercised Jrlk bAill H Oi- M kPATHON in gymnastics, and were strong and skillful. The wea- pons of the Persians were much Hghter, and some of How the Greeks Taught Men to he Free 49 THE MARATHON RUNNER them had only armor made of wickerwork. Athens, too, had the advantage of a brave general, Miltiades, in whom all had confidence. Though his countrymen were so few in numbers, Miltiades thought their best chance was to attack. So he drew up his warriors in a line as long as the whole front of the Persian host, but only a few ranks deep, while the masses of the Persians seemed to fill the whole plain. Yet when he gave the signal the Greeks charged boldly down the hill. On they came, with their long Hne of gleaming shields, eacTi warrior shouting the war cry, and running bravely forward. Now with a crash the men of Asia and the men of Europe met. But in spite of their numbers both wings of the Persian army were broken, and fled. For a time their center, where the best Persian troops were sta- tioned, stood firm, but the Athenians closed in from both sides, and soon the whole great Persian army was running to its ships. At home in Athens, as a famous story tells, the old men and the women and children waited anxiously to hear the news. How long the time seemed! But at last they saw a runner covered with dust. He had fought that day at Marathon, and then sped over the twenty- four miles to Athens to bear the news. Exhausted, he struggled into the eager crowd. "Victory!" he gasped, and fell dead. so The Story of Old Europe and Young America 20. How the Spartans Held the Pass at Thermopylae. The Athenians were overjoyed with their success. But their leaders knew well that the Persians would come again. The wisest statesman among them, Themistocles, told them that they must be ready to fight on sea as well as on land. On his advice they built many more ships. In spite of his rage over the defeat of his army at THE MARCH OF XERXES GREAT ARMY Marathon, King Darius was so busy with other things that he could not attack Greece again. But after his death the new king, Xerxes, took up the quarrel. From all parts of his vast empire he collected soldiers. How many men there were in his huge army we cannot tell exactly. The Greeks thought there were over five million, and stories were told of how, wherever the multi- tude marched, they drank up all the pools and streams How the Greeks Taught Men to he Free 51 and devoured all the food, so that when they had passed the inhabitants starved to death. There Vv^ere among them soldiers from forty-six nations, clad in all sorts of garments and armed with all sorts of weapons. Xerxes assembled a great fleet, too, much larger than that of all Greece. But lest storms should hinder, he determined to lead his army by land. A great bridge of boats was therefore built across the narrow strait between Asia Minor and Europe, and over this the long procession marched while the Great King watched from a marble throne. Then they journeyed southward to assail Greece, while the fleet, sailing along the coast, kept as nearly even with them as possible. All Greece was terrified, and some of the cities sent messengers to Xerxes, begging to be spared from destruction. But there were still brave hearts in Sparta and Athens. In northern Greece, between steep mountains and the sea, is a narrow pass called Thermopylae, the "Hot Gates," because here was a spring of warm water. Through this the Persian host must march. But in this pass were three hundred Spartans led b}^ one of their kings, Leonidas, with a number of allies from other cities. The Spartans seemed a mere handful of men against so many Persian soldiers, and Xerxes contemptuously ordered the Greeks to give up their arms. "Come and take them," replied Leonidas. Only a few Persians could enter the 'pass at one time ; again and again they tried, but were always hurled back by the brave Spartans. Even Xerxes' best troops were beaten. For two days Leonidas held the pass. Finally a traitor Greek told the Persians of a path over the hills by which they might fall upon the Spartans 52 The Story oj Old Europe and Young America from the rear. For the Greeks to stay in the pass longer was certain death. But by a law of Sparta her warriors must never flee. Leonidas and his three hundred felt they could not desert their post. Struck by their brave example, many of the allies said they would stay, too. So Leonidas and his men held their ground and fought till every man perished. But heaps upon heaps of slain Persians proved how bravely they had struggled. The pass of Ther- mopylae was lost, but the world can never forget the example of Leoni- das and his three hundred. Of such stuff were Spar- tans made. In later days a monument was built to mark the place where the heroes died. Upon it were carved no high-sounding words of praise, but a simple verse which meant a great deal more : " Go, passer-by, to Sparta tell Obedient to her law we fell." LEONIDAS ATSID HIS MEN HOLDING THE P.\SS OF THERMOPYLAE How the Greeks Taught Men to be Free 53 21. How Greece Was Saved. The Persians now marched on and overran northern Greece. Even Athens From a wall painting AN ATHENIAN WAR GALLEY could not be defended. But her people were still uncon- quered. Led by the clever Themistocles, they embarked upon the ships which they had so wisely built. The women and children were taken to a place of safety, but the men again put to sea. Though the Persians cap- tured the city and ruthlessly destroyed the buildings, they had not destroyed the real Athens. Athens was in the fleet, still eager to strike a blow for freedom. The other Greeks now wanted to sail away to defend their own homes, but Themistocles felt it was better to fight the fleet of Xerxes at once. So, pretending to be a secret friend to the Persians, he sent a message to their king telHng him that the Greeks were quarreling among themselves and that if he would send vessels to close up the entrance to the bay where their ships lay, he could easily destroy them. Xerxes did so, and the next day he had a lofty throne set up on a hill overlooking the sea that he might watch his ships overcome the Greeks. Since he had three times as many vessels, he felt sure that he would win. In the blue Bay of Salamis the great battle took place. 54 The Story of Old Europe and Young America Driven by their long oars, ship dashed against ship, each striving to crash into the other with her sharp beak. The air was filled with arrows and darts, and above the din rose the fierce shouts of the warriors. Sometimes the ships came side by side, and the men swarmed over the rails to fight it out hand to hand. But the Greeks were the better sailors, and, moreover, were thinking of their wives and httle ones, whom they must save from the enemy. When the battle was over the vast ^^ ^^r!> From a paiutiug by Cormon THE TRIUMPHAL RETURN OF THE GREEKS Al'TER THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS Persian fleet had been beaten and many of its vessels sunk. Xerxes had still a large army and many ships left. But his heart failed him. He knew now what manner of men the Greeks were. So he returned to Asia, leaving behind merely a part of his army to carry on the war. These soldiers the Greeks overcame the next year in an- other great land battle. Thus Greece was saved. The Persian king might still tyrannize over the people of Asia, but Europe was to be free. Had the Greeks been frightened by mere numbers, all would have been lost. How the Greeks Taught Men to be Free 55 But Marathon and Salamis showed the world what a few brave men, who prefer death to slavery, can do. SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts. /. In ancient Greece each city governed itself in its own way. 2. The two greatest cities, Athens and Sparta, were rivals, j. Athens was a republic, and her people were all trained to take part in public affairs. 4. The Athenians were famous for their love of learning and of beauty. 5. Sparta was ruled by kings, and her people were taught to love nothing but war. 6. Some things, such as the oracles and the great athletic games, drew the people of different Greek cities together. 7. Because the Persians were conquering all the nations of the world, they attacked Greece. 8. The Athenians won a glorious victory at Marathon, g. Then the Persian king, Xerxes, collected a gigantic army to crush Greece. 10. At Thermopylae three hundred Spartans gave their lives to save their country. 11. Greece was finally saved by a victory in a great sea fight at Salamis. 12. The defeat of the Persians meant that the people of Europe were to rule themselves. Study Questions, i. Tell the way in which a Greek city was built. 2. What different kinds of government did Greek cities have? j. Make a list of differences between Athens and Sparta. 4. Tell what the Athenians did in their Assembly. 5. If you had been an Athenian boy, what would you have studied? 6. What did the Spartan boys and girls learn? 7. Explain what oracles were. 8. What would you have seen had you been present at the Olympic games? q. What would have happened had you won an Olympic crown? 10. Why did the Persian king think it would be easy to conquer Greece? 11. Why did the Greeks not submit to the Persians? 12. Tell the story of Marathon as if you yourself had fought on the Greek side. 13. Why was the advice which Themistocles gave the Athenians after Marathon very wise? 14. Why were many Greeks terrified at the approach of Xerxes' anny? 15. Tell the story of Thermopylae. 16. Should not the Spartans have retreated when the Persians found the path over the mountains? 17. Why did not the capture of Athens by Xerxes end the war? 18. Picture to yourself the battle of Salamis, 56 The Story of Old Europe and Young America and tell what you see. ig. Why did Xerxes give up trying to conquer Greece when he had so many men and ships left ? Suggested Readings. Guerber, The Story of the Greeks, 62- 136; Hall, Life in Ancient Greece, 11 -166; Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men; Tappan, The Story of the Greek People; Yonge, Young Folks' History of Greece; Havell, Tales from Herodotus. SOME THINGS THE CITY OF ATHENS TAUGHT THE WORLD 22. The Age of Pericles Begins. All the Greeks rejoiced in the defeat of the Persians. Nearly all had had a share in the glory, but the Athenians had won the most praise. When her citizens returned home after the battle of Salamis they found Athens in ruins. But they were now so filled with hope and courage that they eagerly set to work to repair the damage. Soon the city rose, new and more beautiful than before. More than ever Athens became the first city in Greece, and for about fifty years flourished to a degree hitherto unknown. During a part of this time her affairs w^ere directed by a great statesman named Pericles. His ideas were so wise, and his fellow citizens had such confidence in him, they followed his advice in nearly everything. So people have called this golden period in the life of Athens the "Age of Pericles." (461-429 B.C.) 23. How Athens Looked in the Age of Pericles. In the very center of the city stood a rocky hill with steep HEAD OF PERICLES After original in the British Aluseum 58 The Story of Old Europe and Young America sides called the Acropolis. In early times this had been the central fort, or "citadel," but its use was now very different. To the Athenian it seemed the most wonder- ful spot in the whole world, for upon it were the temples of his gods, the bright colors of which, shining in the clear Greek sunlight, could be seen for a long distance. A great flight of marble steps, crowned by an imposing entrance adorned with columns, led to the summit of the Acropolis. As he passed through this, the visitor to the city might well pause in astonishment, for before him stood a gigantic bronze statue of the goddess Athena, the special protector of the city. Seventy feet high it towered. Yet it was even more notable for beauty than for size, PIRAEUS - PHALERUM SARONIC GULF I'HE CITY OF ATHENS AND ITS HARBOR OF PIRAEUS Some Things the City of Athens Taught the World 59 since it was the work of the famous Athenian, Phidias, probably the greatest sculptor that ever drove chisel. THE PARTHENON, RESTORED This temple, erected in honor of the goddess Athena, was the most beautiful building of the Greeks Behind it, however, stood a much greater marvel. This was the temple of Athena, the far-famed Parthenon, the most celebrated building that the world has ever seen. Though not especially large, it was so perfect in its harmony and grace that it has never been equaled. Like so many Greek buildings it was adorned by rows of simple but beautiful columns, while the spaces on its front and sides were filled by carvings designed by the matchless Phidias and executed by himself and his pupils. These carvings represented scenes from the Greek myths, and were colored so that they seemed almost alive. Behind the columns on the temple wall ran another series of carvings representing the Athenians holding a great procession in honor of Athena, while inside the building stood a second statue of the goddess. This was made of ivory and gold, and the skill of Phidias had succeeded in making it even more imposing than the great bronze figure. 6o The Story of Old Europe and Young America Other notable buildings also stood on the Acropolis. One of the most interesting had a splendid porch, the roof of which was supported by col- umns carved to represent graceful maidens. Under one side of the hill was erected the spacious open-air theater. Here all the people of the city often came together to see plays, for the Athenians were almost as skillful in writing and acting these as in carving statues and erecting buildings. Though the Acropolis was the center of Athens, many striking objects were to be seen in other parts of the city. Among them was a huge unfinished temple of Zeus and another fine building, often called a temple of Theseus, though this is not its right name. In the outskirts of the city were several places where there were beautiful groves of trees, attractive walks, and exercise grounds for athletes — parks, we might now call thera. Here the youth of Athens trained for the games or practiced in the use of arms. But older men came to listen to the wise sayings of the philosophers. In such places Socrates or Plato might have been seen seated upon a bench or PORCH OF THE CARYATIDES The graceful figures upholding the roof of the porch typify the enslavement of the women of Caryae by the Greeks after the Persian invasion Some Things the City of Athens Taught the World 6i walking to and fro in earnest conversation with friends and pupils. Athens was not situated directly on the sea, but it had a good harbor five miles away. In ancient times this would have been seen filled with the white sails of the Athenian fleet. The port was connected with the city by the famous "Long Walls," so that no enemy could ever cut off Athens from supplies. 24. Socrates, the Philosopher. Many visitors to Athens would have been more eager to see the great men of the city than even its most splendid buildings. Among such notable citizens were Pericles the statesman, and Phidias the artist. Especially famous were the philosophers, as the wise men were called, who in the groves and other public places used to teach such citizens as cared to listen to them. Most of the Athenians were very fond of hearing their debates. Wisest among the philosophers was Socrates, who lived a little later than the time of Pericles. Though a man of great strength who had been a brave soldier, Socrates was a very ugly person to look at. Moreover, because he was really wise, he knew that the learning of even the greatest man is after all very little. So he put on no great airs, as some philosophers did, but mingled in a quiet way with the other Athenians, and asked questions. But the questions Socrates asked made everybody think, and thus many became wiser and better. This great man knew that people learn far more by puzzling their brains about matters than by listening to lengthy speeches from others. Many loved him, and some of 62 The Story of Old Europe and Young America his pupils, like Plato, also became great philosophers. Yet there were Athenians who were annoyed by Socrates' questions. They thought they knew a great deal, and then became angry when he put questions to them in such a way as to show that they had made mistakes. Finally his enemies accused him of not paying proper From engraving after paintins t'y Monsiaa SOCRATES TALKING WITH HIS FRIENDS respect to the gods of the city. Since he would not defend himself, he was condemned to drink a cup of poison. His friends made a plan for his escape, but the brave old man said that it was his duty as an Athenian to obey the laws even if they were unjust. Teaching his pupils in his last conversation that there is another life beyond the grave, the wisest Athenian died just as bravely as the sternest Spartan of them all. How the Greeks Failed 63 SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts, i. Under the lead of Pericles Athens became the greatest city of Greece. 2. During the "Age of Pericles" Athens was adorned by wonderful buildings and statues. 3. On the Acropolis stood the famous Parthenon, a temple to the goddess Athena. 4. Other notable objects in Athens were the entrance to the Acropolis, the bronze figure of Athena, the porch of the maidens, the theater, the so-called temple of Theseus, and the "Long Walls." 5. Socrates the philosopher was one of the greatest men of Athens. 6. He taught by asking questions. 7. When unjustly condemned to death he thought it better to die than to break the laws. Study Questions. 7. Who was Pericles? 2. Why has the world remembered how Athens looked in the "Age of Pericles" ? 3. Make an imaginary visit to Athens, and tell what you see. 4. Where might the notable men of Athens have been seen? 5. How did Socrates show that he was really wise? 6. Why was his way of teaching a good one ? 7. Why did some Athe- nians wish to put him to death ? 8. Why did Socrates obey an unjust law? Suggested Readings. Guerber, The Story of the Greeks, 136-152, 157-164, 173-179; Hall, Life in Ancient Greece, 167- 253; White, Phitarch for Boys and Girls, 136-167; Tapp'an, The Story of the Greek People; Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men; Yonge, yo^^ng Folks' History of Greece; Creighton, Heroes of European History. HOW THE GREEKS FAILED 25. The Decline of Greece. The Greeks were brave and wise in many ways, but they had great faults also. They could seldom agree, and their cities were continually fighting with each other. They did not see until it was too late that all Greece was more important than any one city. When Athens was so powerful, she selfishly began to bring other cities into subjection to herself, and treated 64 The Story of Old Europe and Young America them rather harshly. Other cities, led by Sparta, became jealous. So a great war broke out between Sparta and Athens in which nearly all Greece took part. For almost thirty years it went on. Many men were slain in the battles and terrible damage was done. Finally Athens was defeated, and though she was not destroyed she lost much of her importance. But though the Spartans could fight successfully they could not lead Greece even so well as Athens. Their rule was so stern that their allies too rebelled, and finally Sparta was defeated by another city named Thebes. Thus Greece became weak and unable to defend herself. 26. How Philip of Macedon Gained Power. To the north of Greece lies a region which in ancient times was called Macedon, or Macedonia. The people of this country were much like the Greeks, though more rough and barbarous. But they were good soldiers, and their kings were wise and crafty. Their first great king was Philip, who came to the throne just when Greece was growing weak. He saw his chance and determined to bring all Greece under his power. First Philip im- " " proved his army. - He armed his men ^^-> with very long spears and taught them to form them- selves in bodies six- teen ranks deep. When the Macedonians leveled their long spears and advanced upon the enemy with steady gflfp^ THE MACEDONIAN PHALANX IN BATTLh, ARRAY With its fourteen-foot lances, the phalanx was powerful in attack. Its weaknesses were its inability to change front rapidly and its unsuitabil- ity Jar hand-to-hand fighting How the Greeks Failed 65 step they bore down all before 'them, for none could break through the bristling line of spear points. Philip encour- aged the Greek cities to fight each other, and, when he saw a chance, crushed first one city and then another. Fi- nally, when he was ready, he overthrew Athens and Thebes together in a great battle, and thus became really the master of the whole From a gold medallioQ struck by Alexander PHILIP II, FATHER OF ALEXANDER country. Yet he did not rule very harshly, for his purpose was to win the support of the Greeks for a great plan he had formed. In olden times Greece had nearly been conquered by the Persians. Philip dreamed that with himself as leader little Greece should conquer the great Persian Empire. But such glory was not for Philip. While celebrating in great splendor the marriage of his daughter, he was treacher- ously stabbed by a man whom he had offended. 27. The Youth of Alexander the Great. When Philip was thus slain many Greeks rejoiced, for they thought Greece would again be free. But never were men more mistaken. Alexander, the son of Philip, was one of the most remarkable men the world has ever known. Though only twenty years old when his father died (336 B.C.), he 66 The Story of Old Europe and Yovmg America was already able to do great things. Quickly he taught the Greek cities that they must obey him, and then he eagerly carried on the prepara- tions which his father had begun for the invasion of Persia. Alexander was remarkably quick and impetuous. Even as a boy he had shown that he feared nothing and could achieve where others failed. When no one could ride a fierce but wonderfully swift horse which had been brought to his father's court, Alexander sprang upon his back and easily tamed him. He had seen that the steed was frightened chiefly by his own shadow, and that when his head was turned to the sun he became docile. Among all his horses Alexander always loved Bucephalus best, and that brave steed carried him safely through many a battle. But Alexander was fond of books, too. His father had en- gaged as his teacher the great philosopher, Aristotle, and the prince paid careful attention to his lessons. He liked best, how- ever, to study about exciting deeds of ancient heroes. So much did Alexander love the poems of Homer that it is said he could recite them bv heart. He believed that Achilles was his own In the Munich Glyptothek ALEXANDER AT THE AGE OF TVv'ENTY He was possessed of high physical courage, impulsive energy, and a lofiy inteUecl ALEXANDER TAMING BUCEPHALUS How the Greeks Failed 67 ancestor, and was determined that he, too, would be a hero and conquer cities greater than Troy. 28. How Alexander Carried Greek Ideas into Asia. When all was ready Alexander crossed with his army into ARISTOTLE TEACHING ALEXANDER Under ArislolU, the greatest of Greek thinkers and teachers, Alexander learned to know and love all that was best in Greek art and science Asia. He did not take a great number of soldiers, but those he selected were brave and well disciplined. How impossible it seemed that he should destroy the great Persian Empire which stretched thousands of miles on every side, and had millions of inhabitants! Yet he and other wise Greeks knew that Persia was not really so strong as it appeared. Only the Persian king and a 68 The Story of Old Europe and Young America few of his nobles had any real power. The nations which they ruled had nothing to say in their own affairs, and cared Httle whether they were governed by Persia or by some other nation. Wonderful were the achievements of the young Macedonian king. The Persian armies went down like paper before the long spears of his well-drilled soldiers. Odds of ten to one made no dift^erence. With great daring After a mosaic from Pompeii, in Naples Museum THE BATTLE OF ISSUS (333 B.C.) Leading his men in person, Alexander p!:inscd into the thickest of the fray, while the Persian king was so timid that, as soon as lie saw his troops g!''ing 'li'ay, he dismounted from his chariot and jled from the field on a swift steed Alexander marched into the very heart of the Persian Empire, crossing rivers, climbing mountains, and over- coming all obstacles. Finally all the great Persian cities fell into his hands, and their king, who bore the old Persian name of Darius, was slain at the battle of Issus. Alex- ander marched even to distant India, where likewise he was victorious. Before he was thirty years old he was master of all southwestern Asia as well as of Egypt and Greece. But Alexander could do more than win battles. He had great plans for improving the condition of the people How the Greeks Failed 69 whom he conquered. Wherever he went he founded new cities and introduced the Greek language and Greek learning. Greek ideas spread everywhere. Many of these cities long remained important, but of them all the greatest was Alexandria, founded at the mouth of the Nile in Egypt. 29. The End of Alexander's Empire. But though Alexander could conquer the world he could not conquer himself. Always high spirited, he became more and more vain, and gave way to fits of anger when any one differed with him. Flattered by the servility of the people of Asia, he began to adopt all the pomp of a Per- sian king and even let himself be worshiped as a god. Worst of all, he imitated the Persians in carousing and drinking deeply of wine. No wonder that his hfe came to an early end. When only thirty-two he was carried off by a sudden fever. When Alexander was gone there was no one who could rule his vast empire. His generals divided his dominions among themselves, but they were not wise statesmen and soon began to fight with each other. All Asia fell into confusion. Though the descendants of some of these generals ruled parts of the empire for a long time, it could never be united again. If the cities of Greece itself had been brave and strong as of old, they might now have regained their indepen- dence. But the old spirit was not there. Instead of joining to resist Macedon, they began again to contend against each other in long and useless wars. Thus they were once more helpless when a new power, far greater even than Macedon, appeared to interfere with their affairs. 6 70 The Story of Old Evirope and Young America But though the Greeks thus failed in the end, the}^ had already done a wonderful work for the world. No people could see their buildings, their statues, their paintings, without trying to imitate them. No nation could read their poems, their books, their philosophy, without being moved to higher thoughts. Even when Greece was conquered she became the teacher of the ruder people who enslaved her. 30. The Spread of Hellenistic Civilization; Wonders of Alexandria. Since the conquests of Alexander had spread Greek ideas so widely, however, Athens no longer remained the all-important center from which Greek civilization reached other peoples. Among the cities outside of Greece famous for learning and art Alexandria in Egypt became the chief. Built as she was near the meeting place of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and favored by a splendid harbor, this new city soon became the seat of a rich commerce. When the empire of Alexander the Great went to pieces Egypt fell to the share of one of his generals named Ptolemy. He was follov\^ed in power by a long line of rulers, all of whom had the same name. Nearly all the Ptolemies were interested in Greek learning, and imder their fostering care Alexandria grew in time to rival and even surpass Athens itself in objects of interest and beauty. At the mouth of the harbor of Alexandria was built the famous Pharos, or lighthouse, which was counted one of the seven wonders of the world. In the city itself stood a group of magnificent buildings called the "Mu- seum." In this was kept the celebrated Alexandrine Library, which contained copies of the writings of all the 72 The Story of Old Europe and Young America ancient authors. Though its books would look queer to us, because they were only rolls of paper made from an Egyptian plant called papyrus, skillfully written by hand instead of being printed, it was the first large library- of which history tells. The museum contained also halls for lec- tures, and gardens filled with curious plants. It had even a menagerie of wild beasts brought from dis- tant lands. Alexandria had not merely light- houses and fine buildings but also great philosopners and other scholars who vied with those of Athens. Among them was Euclid, the great mathematician. The scholars of this later time were especially inter- ested in some things about which the earlier Greeks had not known a great deal. Among these were astronomy and geography. Regarding seas, rivers, and distant lands the Greeks had of course learned much from the conquests and marches of Alexander the Great. The geographers of Alexandria knew perfectly well that the CLAUDIUS PTOLEMY Aft;r a woodcut in Winsor's "History of America, facsimile of an engraving printed in 1 5S7 How the Greeks Failed 73 world was round. A scholar of this period even figured out what the distance around it must be, and came very near to the correct figures. Another guessed that the earth revolved about the sun. The most celebrated geographer was Claudius Ptol- emy, who lived in Alexandria in Roman times. He studied the writings of all the earlier scholars and put the things which he thought most worthy of belief into a famous book. For centuries afterward this book was regarded as the best account of the world. But Ptolemy thought that the earth was the center of all things, and that the sun, stars, and planets all revolved about it. Because it was taught by Ptolemy, this false notion that the earth is the center of the universe is usually called the "Ptolemaic system." How much the men of later times relied on what the geographers of Alexandria taught is clearly shown by the fact that it was from them, and especially from Ptolemy, that Christopher Columbus and his friends took many of their ideas. In many other ways also the Greek learning and art of later days after Greece had been conquered influenced the Romans and nations of more recent times. So this "Hellenistic civilization," though in some respects not equal to the best ideas that Greece had once had, acted as a sort of bridge to carry Greek learning and refine- ment over to later centuries and peoples. SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts, i. The Greeks wasted their strength in fighting each other. 2. After a long war Athens was beaten by Sparta, and then Sparta by Thebes, j. Philip, the crafty king of Macedonia, took advantage of the quarrels of the 74 The Story of Old Europe and Young America Greeks and brought all Greece under his control. 4. He then planned a great expedition against Persia, but was slain before he could carry it out. 5. Philip's son, Alexander the Great, was a man of remarkable bravery and ability. 6. With a Greek army he marched into the Persian Empire. 7. After winning many battles, Alexander conquered all southwestern Asia. 8. Into this vast territory he introduced Greek ideas. g. Alexander's work was cut of! by his early death. ^ 10. Alexander's empire soon fell to pieces, but the Greek cities could not regain their power. 11. Though Greece thus lost her independence, she gave to the world many great ideas. Study Questions, i. Why did the power of Greece decline ? 2. What cities held the leadership in Greece? j. Locate Macedonia. 4. How did Philip show that he was a crafty statesman? 5. Why was his army hard to defeat? 6. Why did he think that the Greeks, united, could conquer Persia? 7. Give an account of the youth of Alexander the Great. 8. What countries now occupy the region he marched through and conquered? g. Why did many of the peoples of Asia not fight very hard against him? 10. What did Asia gain by being conquered by Alexander? //. What were Alexander's chief faults? 12. What were the results of his death? 13. Why could the Greeks not regain their liberty? 14. If Greece was thus conquered by other countries, why was her history not a failure? 15. What were the chief wonders of Alexandria? 16. Tell something about the geographers of Alexandria. Suggested Readings. Guerber, The Story of the Greeks, 152-157, 163-173, 190-201, 217-282; White, flutarch for Boys and Girls, 420-444; Tappan, The Story of the Greek People; Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men; Yonge, Young Folks' History of Greece. THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME 31. The Early Days of Rome. While the Greeks were thus wasting their powers, a city was growing strong in Italy which was one day to rule over the civilized world. Like Greece, Italy is a peninsula. On the map it looks much like a boot, with the large island of Sicily The Beginnings of Rome 75 'ir-^ M E D ^ A F/R I C A f 'S ^ ^ A PHYSICAL MAP OF ITALY lying just opposite the toe, as if it were a football being kicked off into space. But unlike Greece, Italy has only a few good harbors, and so, although the blue Mediterranean lies on one side and the narrow Adriatic Sea on the other, 76 The Story of Old Europe and Young America her people in ancient times were not a race of sailors. Few countries in the whole world are more beautiful than "sunny Italy." On the north rise, like a gigantic wall, the snow-capped Alps, a natural barrier against fierce nations. At their foot stretches the great plain of the river Po. This plain has always been famous for its fertility, and to-day, with mile upon mile of vineyards and fruit trees, it is one of the world's garden spots. Down through the peninsula, like a sharp backbone, rise the steep summits of the Apennines, mountains wild and picturesque. But on either side along the coast are small yet wonderfully green plains and valleys through which, shining beneath the clear Italian sun, roll streams like the Arno and the Tiber. In the plain of the Tiber lived in ancient days a people called Latins, and the region itself was called Latium. The Latins were only a simple country people who knew little save how to till the soil and to fight bravely when attacked by their neighbors, who were often hostile. Among their numerous little towns one was built upon a hill beside the Tiber. Close at hand were six other low hills. At first only a country village, Rome was destined to outstrip all her neighbors and rivals and to grow into that mighty "Eternal City" which even yet stands majestically upon her "hilltops seven." In some things the early Romans were like the Greeks, Their language, called Latin, resembled Greek in many ways. They also worshiped gods and goddesses, some of whom were very similar to those of Greece. These indeed were called by different names, but later, when the two nations came together, it was generally agreed that they were the very same deities. I The Beginnings of Rome 77 ROMULUS AND REMUS After being protected by the she-wolf, the children were found by a herdsman, who took them home and brought them up as his own sons In other ways, however, the Romans turned out to be of entirely different stuff. As they rose to power they proved to be a stern, practical people who ex- celled in war and in government. For music, po- etry, and learn- ing they cared little until Greek fashions became popular among them. 32. What the Roman Myths Tell. Yet the Romans also had their stories and myths of heroes. These could not indeed equal the beautiful fancies of the Greeks, but a great many of them told of the courage in war and virtue in peace of their ancestors. These stern but inspiring tales show clearly what kind of people the early Romans were. The Romans thought that their city had been founded by a hero named Romulus, after whom it was named. They loved to tell how he and his twin brother, Remus, were seized in infancy by their wicked uncle and set adrift in their cradle on the river Tiber. But the twins were found by a she-wolf who protected them as her own cubs. Thus they became fierce and strong beyond all men. Later, with the aid of brave comrades whom they gathered around them, they were able to punish their cruel uncle, and Romulus built upon one of the seven famous hills a village which men said was the beginning of the "Eternal City." 78 The Story of Old Europe and Young America According to the myths, Romulus was the first king of Rome. Six others followed, but the last, Tarquin the Proud, was so haughty and cruel that the Romans drove him out and vowed they would have no more kings. Every year after that time the people came together in their assembly and elected two officers, called "consuls," HORATIUS DEFENDS THE BRIDGE From an old print It is recorded that the state raised a statue to Horaliiis and gave him, as a reward for his heroism, as much land as he could plow around in a day who ruled them with the advice of a body of wise and honorable men called the "senate." Thus Rome became a "republic," as we say, but in times of great danger those officers were set aside and all power given to some strong soldier, called a "dictator." He might rule for six months, but never longer, lest he should wish to become a true king like Tarquin. I The Beginnings of Rome 79 The Roman myths told how the wicked Tarquin family had tried to reconquer Rome. They fled to powerful neighboring cities and persuaded their rulers to send strong armies to make the Romans take them back as kings. But against great odds the Romans bravely defended their liberty. Once it was said the invaders almost took the city by surprise. But a sturdy captain named Horatius took his stand on the narrow bridge which crossed the Tiber, and with his good sword held it against the whole army while the Romans broke it down behind him. Then he plunged into the swift stream and, though wounded, swam safely across. Another famous story tells how once, when the Roman army had been defeated and surrounded by its enemies, all seemed lost. In despair the people turned to a brave but poor old soldier named Cincinnatus as the one man who might save the state. It was voted that he should be dictator. When the messengers of the senate went to inform him they found him plowing on his little farm across the Tiber. At their command he left the plow and became ruler of Rome. Ordering every man who was able to bear arms to follow him, he marched forth and by a skill- fully planned night attack not only freed the Roman army but overthrew and subdued the enemy. Then he returned, laid down his power, and went back to his plow as if nothing had happened. Still a third tale is that of Coriolanus, a brave Roman general who had been exiled because he tried to oppress the poor. In anger he went over to the enemies of Rome, and at the head of one of their armies soon had the city at his mercy. Though the foremost men of Rome begged 8o The Story of Old Europe and Young America Coriolanus to spare his own fatherland, he sternly refused. But when his mother, his wife, and his children entreated him with tears he could not withstand their prayer. Knowing that he must pay for his tenderness with his life, he led his army back to their own country. Though these and other similar tales are of course not entirely true, they do help us to see how it was that the Romans gradually conquered their neighbors and made Rome the strongest city in Italy. 33. The Plebeians Struggle for Their Rights. But before Rome could conquer other nations she had to learn how to rule herself. A fierce struggle began between the rich and noble citizens, the "patricians" as they were called, and the poor "plebeians" or "plebs." The patri- cians thought that they alone should have all the power. The poor who could not pay their debts were often sold into slavery. At first the plebeians were not allowed to vote or to hold office. Again and again the Forum, as the central square of the city was called, was the scene of angry disturbance by the plebs. But though the patricians sometimes pretended to give in, yet the people could not obtain their full rights. At last the poor plebeians could stand it no longer. So one day, when they had been summoned to join the army, they all marched away to a hill, about three miles from Rome, called the "Sacred Mount." They declared that if they could not have justice they never would return, but would found there a city of their own. The patricians could see their white tents on the hill- side and knew that they meant what they said. So they agreed that if the plebs would return they might choose The Beginnings of Rome 8i officers from among themselves, called "tribunes," who should have the power to protect them from wrong. Thinking that now at last all would be well, the plebs yielded and trudged back to Rome. Thereafter the plebs every year chose their tribunes. If any unjust law was proposed, or any officer undertook to do anything wrong to plebeians, a tribune stepped forward and, raising his hand, said solemnly in Latin, "Veto," which means, "I forbid." Then the action had to be given up. The right of the people to have tribunes or protectors was a great gain, but still things did not go well. One trouble was that the laws of Rome had not been put in writing, and the people seldom knew what they were. Since all the officers of the city were patricians, they always decided that the laws were in favor of their class, and no one could gainsay them. After a long struggle it was finally agreed that ten men should be named to write down the laws. Mean- while, the ten men were to have full power over the city, and all the regular officers, including the consuls and tribunes, were to be suspended. After many months the laws were at last agreed upon. Engraved upon twelve tablets, they were set up in the Forum so that all men might see them. Stern and cruel old laws they were, as we should think, but it was at least a great advantage that everybody might learn them. But when "the Ten " had written down the laws they would not give up their power. Instead, they began to rule cruelly, and one of them especially, a proud patrician named Appius Claudius, hired rough soldiers to frighten people, and acted like a tyrant. Finally, after a wicked 82 The Story of Old Europe and Young America deed by Appius Claudius, there was a terrible riot in the Forum. The people rose in fury and with loud calls for their tribunes threw stones and mud at the cruel ruler. Then the plebeians again marched away to the Sacred Hill, vowing never to return. Only after "the Ten" had been put to death and their tribunes given back were the people willing again to be Romans. 34. The Gauls Take Rome. A people who are thus quarreling among themselves can scarcely hope to be successful against outside enemies. While all this was going on, the Romans had hardly been able to hold their own in their continual wars with their neighbors. At last came a terrible disaster. A fierce, wild people from the north, called the Gauls, suddenly attacked Rome. Outlandish in speech and dress and huge in stature, these savage warriors spread terror throughout Italy. They defeated the Roman army, destroyed the city, and massacred all who could not escape. According to stories later told in Rome, however, the Gauls could not capture the Capitol, which was held by some brave Roman soldiers. Once they nearly succeeded. A daring messenger had managed to climb up the steep side of the Capitoline Hill to bring news to the garrison. SAVAGE GAULS AND THEIR WEAPONS To give themselves a more frightful appear- ance the Cauls dyed their blond hair a flaming red The Beginnings of Rome 83 The Gauls saw his footprints and planned to take the garrison by surprise. At dead of night they stealthily made their way up the steep path, each man, by means of his weapons, helping to draw up the one following. No one saw them. But just as they were near the top, the sacred geese which were kept in the temple of Juno cackled. A strong Roman captain, named Marcus Manlius, was awakened just in time. He rushed to the head of the path, slew a huge Gaul who was scrambling up, and hurled another down headlong upon his com- rades. Other Romans sprang to his aid, and thus "the geese saved Rome." Finally the Gauls, who, though fierce and impetuous in attack, lacked patience, grew tired of the siege. In return for a large sum of gold they agreed to go home. But it is said that when the Romans objected to the way in which the tribute was being weighed, the chief of the Gauls roughly threw his sword into the scales, exclaiming, "Woe to the conquered!" So the Romans had to pay down still more gold to counterbalance the heavy Gallic sword. Thus the Romans got back the ruins of their city. A people less stout-hearted might have been so discouraged that they could not recover. These brave Italians, how- ever, soon rebuilt their homes. Yet the old quarrel between patricians and plebeians immediately broke out again. Once more there were bitter struggles, and for a time almost all government came to an end. Finally, however, it was decided that all Romans should be practically equal. Henceforth there was no difference between patricians and ple- beians save in name. 84 The Story of Old Europe and Young America Thus united, Rome once more became strong, and as a result of many hard battles conquered the rest of Italy. SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts, i. Like Greece, Italy is a peninsula, but without many good harbors. 2. At first Rome was only a little village on the river Tiber in the district called Latium. 3. The early Romans resembled the Greeks in many ways, but were much more stern and practical. 4. Their myths were nearly all about war and about brave deeds, like those of Horatius and Cincinnatus. 5. The myths tell how the Romans drove out their kings and set up a republic. 6. In early Rome there were fierce quarrels between the noble patricians and the poor plebeians. 7. The plebeians finally forced the patricians to give them full rights. 8. While the quarrels were going on, the savage Gauls captured and de- stroyed Rome. p. After they withdrew, Rome became stronger than ever. Study Questions, i. How does Italy resemble Greece? 2. What differences do you see between Italy and Greece? J. Locate Latium. 4. In what ways did the early Romans resemble the Greeks? 5. What do the myths and stories of the Romans show about their character? 6. Tell the story of Romulus and Remus ; of Horatius ; of Cincinnatus ; of Coriolanus. 7. How was Rome governed? 8. Why did the patricians and the plebeians quarrel? g. How did the plebeians compel the patricians to grant them their rights? 10. What concessions did the patricians make? 11. Who were the Gauls? 12. How was it that they could capture Rome? ij. Tell the story of their attack on the Capitol as if you were a Gaul who took part. 14. Why were the Gauls willing to leave Rome? 15. Why was Rome stronger than ever after the departure of the Gauls? Suggested Readings. Tappan, The Story of the Roman People, 1-72; Yonge, Young Folks' History of Rome, 13- 150; Harding, The City of the Seven Hills, 7-124; Guerber, The Story of the Romans; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Rome. What Rome Gained by Conquest 85 WHAT ROME GAINED BY CONQUEST 35. Hannibal Threatens Rome. Rome, like Greece, had a great enemy. While she was growing strong in Italy, a rival city, Carthage, was prospering in northern Africa. Carthage stood only a few miles from the modern city of Tunis. We sometimes think of northern Africa to-day as a land of desert and mountains, inhabited only by ferocious Moors, but in ancient times it contained many splendid cities which had been founded by the Phoenicians and the Greeks. Of these Carthage was the chief. Her first settlers had been Phoenicians, who brought with them their love of trade and of the sea. The white sails of Car- thaginian merchant ships were seen everywhere on the Mediterranean, and her numerous colonies brought her a great commerce. Carthage is said to have had a million inhabitants, and was famous for her wealth and luxury. Between Carthage and Rome rolled the blue waves of the Mediterranean. But midway lay the valuable island of Sicily, and over this the two cities were drawn into conflict. Was the leader of the world to be a city of Europe or of Africa? The wealth of Carthage, and her great fleet of ships, gave her an advantage over Rome. She had also very skillful generals and statesmen. But her people were not such good soldiers as the stern Romans. For her armies she had to rely largely on hired troops and the forces of subject peoples, while in those days every Roman citizen was a stout soldier, willing, if need be, to pour out his blood for his fatherland. 7 86 The Story of Old Europe and Young America In the first war the Romans were successful and drove the Carthaginians out of Sicily. But the latter went ^ only to Spain, and began to take possession of that country. Soon war broke out again. The leader of the Carthaginian forces was then the great general Hannibal. This famous man was one of Rome's most bitter enemies, for when still a small boy his father had made him swear a solemn oath that he would wage unceasing war upon the Italian city, the great foe of his ^ '■ country. Throughout his long life HANNIBAL TT -U 1 £ After original buslin National ^^^^'^'^^^ nCVCr lOrgOt. Museurn. Naples j^ g^^-^^ ^^ gathered an army made up of all the various peoples over whom Carthage ruled. Spaniards, Gauls, and Africans filled his ranks, and there was a body of splendid African cavalry, the best horsemen in the world. But most curious of all was the long line of war elephants which he took with him, for the Carthaginians employed these huge beasts to trample down their foes. From Spain across Gaul, as France was then called, and over the mountains into Italy Hannibal's army made its way. It was a wonderful march, for there were no roads, and the country was almost a wilderness. Great rivers had to be crossed, savage tribes encountered, and finally the mighty snow-crowned Alps towered before them. But inspired by their great leader they struggled on. As they climbed the steep mountain passes, urging along the unwieldy elephants, they were beaten by fierce What Rome Gained by Conquest 87 tempests and the savage mountaineers rolled great rocks down the steep slopes upon them. It seemed that they must retreat or perish. At last, however, although suffer- ing great losses, the Carthaginians reached the summit and looked down upon Italy, with its rich fields and great cities. Rome gathered her armies to meet them, but though her soldiers were brave, she had no general to match Hannibal. He planned so clev- erly that in every encounter the Romans had lit- tle or no chance of success. His greatest victory was at the battle of Cannae. To avenge former terrible defeats the Romans gathered an im- mense army of eighty-six thou- sand men and ad- vanced to crush the invader. Hannibal had only fifty thousand, but he trusted to his skill. He chose for the battlefield a plain where his magnificent horsemen '^.1^^ Hannibal's army crossing the alps The march from Spahi to Italy, across rivers and through unknown mountain passes, took Jive tnonths 88 The Story oj Old Europe and Young America could be used to advantage. Then he drew up his foot- men somewhat in the form of a crescent. In the center Hannibal's line was rather thin, but on each flank he formed his best infantry in heavy masses. The brave Romans advanced impetuously and easily drove back the center of the Carthaginian line. But sud- denly they were attacked from both sides by Hannibal's veterans, and at the same time his horsemen, scattering the Roman cavalry, swooped around and fell upon their rear. Seventy thousand Romans were left dead or wounded on the field. It is said Hannibal sent to Carthage a peck of rings of the Roman nobles slain in the battle. But to capture the city of Rome was too great a task even for Hannibal, unless he should receive reenforce- ments. Carthage, therefore, sent another army, under Hannibal's brother, to aid him, but the Romans fell upon it and destroyed it before it could reach him. The first news Hannibal had of the defeat was when his brother's head was hurled into his camp by a Roman soldier. Encouraged by this success, the Romans continued the struggle and finally "carried the war into Africa" by sending a Roman army directly against Carthage. In spite of all his victories, Hannibal must now return to protect his own city. In the battle of Zama he was at last beaten, and Carthage surrendered. (202 b.c.) Hard indeed were the terms Rome imposed- Carthage must give up her fleet, pay a great sum of money, and give annual tribute to Rome. But even this did not sat- isfy the Romans. When later the prosperity of Carthage began to revive they attacked her again, and destroyed her absolutely. Even the place where Carthage had stood was sown with salt so that nothing might grow there. What Rome Gained by Conquest 89 It was a terrible fate for one of the most splendid cities of the world, but mighty Rome would not endure a rival. 36. Romans Conquer All Na- tions. When Car- thage had been beaten, no other nation could suc- cessfully resist Rome. She soon sent her armies against Macedonia, against the Greek cities, and against the kingdoms of Asia which had grown out of the empire of Alexander the Great. There were many wars, but no armies were a match for those of Rome. The stout Roman soldiers were always victorious, and one after another all the peoples around the Mediterranean Sea fell under Roman rule. The Roman method of fighting was different from the Greek. The Romans used horsemen and light-armed soldiers with arrows and slings, but their main reliance was upon bodies of foot soldiers called "legions." Each soldier of a legion was armed with a heavy javelin or spear intended to be thrown, and a short but keen-edged sword. He had a helmet, breastplate, and shield. The legions were not drawn up in heavy masses like the Greeks, but the soldiers took their stand in separate ranks with open spaces between. Thus the men could AFTER THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE Romans plowing the ground where the city had stood 90 The Story of Old Europe and Young America From Trajan's Column TYPES OF ROMAN SOLDIERS (/) A legionary, (2) a slinger, (^) a light-armed soldier move backward and forward easily, and so well drilled were the Roman soldiers that even in the heat of battle each man knew just what to do. Every legion car- ried as a standard a bronze figure of an eagle, and if in battle the ranks were broken the soldiers rallied about this sym- bol. Seldom indeed could the enemy succeed in capturing an eagle. When the legions approached the enemy the soldiers in the first line threw their javelins and then, drawing their swords, charged. If the foe was not then broken, the other ranks charged after the first. The Romans owed success also to their good generals. In fighting the Macedonians, with their close ranks and long spears, the Roman commanders planned matters so skillfully that the battles took place in woods or on rough ground. Thus the enemy was thrown into disorder and easily defeated. 37. Conquest Does Not Make Rome Better. Nations that conquer their enemies in war are not always the happiest. The Romans had been a simple country people. Each man had had his little farm. Here he raised his own crops and lived in humble contentment with his wife and children. Few were rich and none were very poor. But as they subjugated other people the Romans became proud and cruel. Many among them gained great wealth What Rome Gained by Conquest 91 •-^ A ROMAN LEGION ON THE MARCH In each legion were the younger men forming the first line oj battle, then the older men, and lastly the veterans. Besides these were the light-armed troops and horsemen and established huge estates or plantations where all the work was done by slaves, often captives taken in war. There came to be thousands up- on thousands of these slaves in Italy. Many of them were indeed rough barbarians, only useful to till the fields, but others were cul- tured Greeks, or people from Asia who knew more than their Roman masters. The field slaves had little to eat or wear, and were very harshly treated. So it is no wonder that there was always danger of a dreadful outbreak of those poor creatures. But many of the slaves lived in the houses of the rich Romans and were regarded more like the servants of our own time. A rich Roman generally had not merely a splendid house or palace in the city, but From an olcTprint a bcaUtiful rCSl- A ROMAN FEAST IN THE LATER DAYS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE ^ p-r-i pp on hi $ mistake of inviting a band of these fierce warriors, led by two roman remains in great Britain tall chiefs called Hengist and The Limouse. Dover CasUe Horsa, to land and help them against the Picts. For the Anglo-Saxons it was a pleasant task. They came on shore, drove back the Picts, and then, since they saw how green and fertile the land was, decided to stay. When the Britons objected they fell upon them and overthrew them with great slaughter. Soon other parties of Anglo-Saxons came, landing here and there upon the coast, and seizing the land. The Britons saw themselves despoiled of their country. But the Britons were naturally a brave people and soon plucked up courage. For one hundred and fifty years they struggled foot by foot and inch by inch with the Angles, who kept coming in ever increasing numbers. Sometimes the Britons were victorious, especially under the lead of a great prince whom in their stories they called King Arthur. But in the long run they could not resist the strong and sturdy Anglo-Saxons. So in the 144 The Story of Old Europe and Young America end the whole country became Angle-Land, or, as we say, England. The tall, blue-eyed Teutonic invaders were the forefathers of the mod- ern English and, therefore, of many of us Americans. But how England was now changed ! The splendid Roman cities were ruined; villas and baths were gone. The Anglo-Saxons knew only how to live as they had done in their native Ger- man forests. No one could then foresee that these fierce people, in the course of centuries, were to become one of the leading civilized races of Europe. As for the Britons, those who were not slain or made slaves took refuge in the rough mountains along the west coast. Here their descendants still live. Since they could not understand their speech the Angles had called them Welsh, or "strangers," and we still name their country Wales. The Welsh have never entirely adopted English ways, nor have they ever quite forgotten the time when all Britain was theirs. SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts, i. The ancient Teutons were tall, fair- haired barbarians. 2. They loved freedom so much that they would submit only to chiefs whom they themselves chose, j. All important matters among them were decided by popular TYPICAL WELSH PEOPLE How the Teutons Learned from Rome 145 meetings. 4. They held women in great respect. 5. Among the gods whom they worshiped, Woden and Thor were the most important. 6. When the Teutons first came into the Roman Empire they wrought great destruction. 7. Later they settled down and intermarried with the people whom they conquered. 8. Their coming nearly destroyed civiliza- tion, and brought the dark period called the Middle Ages. g. One of the most important of the Teutonic peoples were the Anglo-Saxons, who occupied England. Study Questions, i. What kind of people were the early Teutons? 2. Name some of the Teutonic tribes, j. How did the Teutons show their love for freedom? 4. Why did they dislike the Roman way of living? 5. Describe the religion of the early Germans. 6. How was it like that of the Greeks and Romans? y. What did the Teutons do when they first came into Roman territory? 8. How did their conduct afterward change? g. Where did the Goths settle? the Franks? the Lombards? 10. Why did not the Teutons carry on the Roman civilization? 11. What was the character of the Mid- dle Ages? 12. How did the island of Britain appear when it was ruled by the Romans? ij. Why did the Romans leave Britain? 14. W^hat troubles came upon the Britons after the Romans went? 15. Who were the Anglo-Saxons? 16. Why did they decide to stay in Britain? ly. Tell how Britain became England. 18. What became of the Britons? Suggested Readings. Tappan, European Hero Stories, 1-30, 54-60 and England's Story, 1-17; Harding, The Story of the Middle Ages; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of the Middle Ages; Dutton, Little Stories of Germany; Blaisdell, Stories from. English History, 1-2 1; Yonge, Young Folks' History of England. HOW THE TEUTONS LEARNED FROM ROME 59. The Germans Become Christians. It took cen- turies for Europe to become once more as enlightened as it had been under the Romans. Only very gradually did the Teutonic conquerors lay aside their rough character 146 The Story of Old Europe and Young America and accept civilized life. That they ever did so was due mainly to the influence of Christianity. When the Roman Empire fell in ruin the Christian church did not fall with it. On the contrary, as the government became weak the wretched people looked more and more to their bishops and priests for help and guidance, and the in- fluence of the clergy increased. The Bishop of Rome, whom we call the pope, became more important than ever before. The simple-minded German war- riors, though often violent and From ao old print 4 . •% j11 r»ii-t 'jI ROMAN BISHOP AND PRIEST IN brutal, wcre nevertheless filled with THEXZMEOKST.AUCUSTINB ^^^^^^^ f^^ ^^^ knOwlcdgC Of thC Romans and were especially struck with awe by the ceremonies of the Christian worship and the venerable appearance of its ministers. Some of the Teutonic tribes had been converted to Christianity even before the invasions began. All of them were won to the religion of Christ not long after- ward. So easily did they give up their old pagan ideas about Woden and Thor that it does not seem that their belief in their gods could ever have been very deep. How strange a fact indeed was this, that at the very moment when Rome was losing her rule she should give her religion to her conquerors! Among those who accepted the new faith was Clovis, the famous king of the Franks, a leader known for his warlike ability. His wife, already a Christian, had often How the Teutons Learned from Rome 147 pleaded with him to accept Christ, but the fierce barbarian had always refused. At last, it is said, he engaged in a great battle with a strong tribe called the Alemanni. Before their onrush the warriors of Clovis gave way. It seemed that all was lost. Then at last Clovis called upon the name of Christ, promising that if the God of the Christians would give him victory he would become a Christian. Soon the Franks rallied, and the Alemanni were conquered. Thus, in fulfillment of his vow, Clovis was baptized a Christian and with him his whole army. 60. How Missionaries Taught the Germans. Won- derful indeed is the story of the brave Christian missionaries, who, counting their lives as nothing in the service of God, preached the gospel to the Germans. The labors of many of these were directed by the powerful pope, Gregory the Great, one of the most remark- able men of this whole period. Though burdened with innumer- able duties and cares, he threw his whole soul into the work of converting {he heathen. Having been struck by the beauty of some English slaves whom he saw exposed for sale in Rome, Gregory became especially eager to have Christianity preached to the Anglo-Saxons. Unable to go himself, he entrusted the mission to a brave man named Augustine, and forty companions. It was a perilous task. A PRANKISH WARRIOR [48 The Story of Old Europe and Young America GREGORY THE GREAT VIEWING EXPOSED FOR SALE IN THE SL Yet as it turned out, the Anglo-Saxon king, Ethelbert, in whose territory they landed, received them kindly, for his good wife Ber- tha, a Prankish princess, was a follower of the new faith. Bear- ing before them a silver cross and a picture of Christ, and chanting their beautiful service, ^G THE ANGLO-SAXON YOUTHS Augustlnc and his N THE SLAVE MARKET ^3 companions came before the king and explained to him their religion. So impressed was he that he allowed them to remain and permitted them to worship in an old church which the Romans had built when they ruled Britain. Finally Ethelbert and most of his people were baptized. Then Augustine and his followers preached the word of Christ in other parts of England, and in the end the whole island was w'on. Among all the missionaries one of the greatest was St. Boniface, himself an Englishman. Spurred on by zeal for Christ and encouraged by the pope, this fearless man penetrated into the dark forests of Germany and preached before the assemblies of fierce warriors. On one occasion he even hewed down a great oak which the people held sacred to' Woden, and from its timbers constructed a Christian chapel. Awed by his majestic and venerable appearance, they dared not lift hand against him. Through his efforts much of Germany How the Teutons Learned from Rome 149 became Christianized. The peaceful missionary had conquered where even the legions of Caesar Augustus had met defeat. It must not be supposed, however, that when the fierce barbarians were baptized they at once gave up their cruel ways and became^ gentle and peace loving. Too often they merely called themselves Christians without understanding what the new religion really meant. For centuries many of the people of Europe remained almost as cruel and bloodthirsty as when they were pagans. Yet a beginning had been made, and amid all the strife the Christian church and its clergy never ceased to work for peace and righteousness. 61. Who the Monks Were. Among the Chris- tian missionaries many belonged to the class of people called monks. We all know how hard it is to be good when there is so much in the world about us to make us think of evil. In the days when Christianity first came into the Roman Empire, life was much worse than it is 11 ST. AUGUSTINE PREACHING BEFORE KING ETHELBERT I50 The Story of Old Europe and Young America now. It seemed that everybody was cruel and faithless, and the whole world given over to wickedness. Many of the early Christians felt that the only way to be saved was to flee from all other men. Some took refuge in wild and lonely places, where they engaged in constant prayer. They lived on scanty food and wore the coarsest clothing that they might escape the sin of pride and vainglory. These men were hermits. But not many m^l^-^^- people could be her- mits. Others banded themselves together and thus went in little companies to dwell apart. With- drawing to some waste place, perhaps to a lonely island or to some wild moun- tain region, they con- structed with their own hands a building called a monastery. Here, clad in coarse robes and bound by their rules to constant fasting and prayer, they lived secure, as they hoped, from many of the world's temptations. Men who thus withdrew from the world were called monks, but women were known as nuns. From an old German print ST. BONIFACE HEWING DOWN THE OAK Through the efforts of St. Boniface the missionary movement, which had been largely independent of control, was brought under the direction of Rome How the Teutons Learned from Rome 151 All their lives were governed by the rule of their society or "order." The most famous rule was that made by St. Benedict. According to this all the monks must live in abso- lute poverty. Whatever they had, even their coarse robes, belonged not to each monk but to the whole order. Monks must obey absolutely the ' ' abbot , ' ' that is, the brother whom they chose to be head of the monastery. And they must never marry. Each brother must spend much time in his own little cell. At certain hours, however, all engaged together in worship in the chapel. Other kinds of service were also required. Some time must be spent each day in study or in copy- ing useful books. At other hours the brothers must labor tilling and improving the land. Thus when other men were thinking of little but war and bloodshed, the faithful monks and nuns prayed and studied and labored. These humble people, clad in sackcloth, thinking not of themselves but only of their Heavenly Father, were doing more good than most of the kings with their crowns and swords. And so the monks prospered. Often their first rude structures grew into great and beautiful stone buildings. In the center of such a large monastery were the From an old print BENEDICTINE OR BLACK MONKS From the beginning education has been one of the principal works of the Benedictines 152 The Story of Old Europe and Young America "cloisters," open yards or courts with fine covered walks where the brothers could stroll up and down without being disturbed. Each monastery had its church, its library stored with precious books, and its lofty "chapter hall" where the monks held their meetings. Then there were the rows of "cells," or little rooms where the monks slept or retired for meditation in private. Besides these there were mills, work- shops, and other neces- sary buildings for labor of various kinds. Indeed, many of the monasteries became more like villages than single buildings. Round about stretched the fertile fields which in the beginning the labor of the monks had won back from swamp or forest. By the end of the Middle Ages there was hardly a district in all Europe which could not point with pride to some monastery famous for learning and piety. Among the most celebrated of all are the mighty house of Cluny After an engraving in Green's History of Enoland MONK COPYING MANUSCRIPT, 1200 A.D. Often the monasteries were the only places of refuge, and here the wrilings of the Romans were copied and preserved MONKS TILLING THE SOIL As the monks were the teachers of the world, agriculture as well as learning became their care How the Teutons Learned from Rome 153 in France, where the great pope, Gregory VII, was once a monk, and the very ancient monastery of St. Albans in England. The monks cared for the sick; they sheltered the poor; they entertained weary travelers. But this was not all. When hardly anybody else could even read, the monks studied the writings of the past and recopied them After the restoration of Kirkatall Abbey A NORMAN MONASTERY lliis monastery, near Leeds, in Yorkshire, England, dales from 1132 and was built by the Cistercians, otherwise known as the Gray or White Monks that they might be the better kept. They were almost the only teachers of that dark and far-away time, and in the monasteries there were often famous schools. The monks kept records and wrote books, too, which tell us almost all we know about the Middle Ages. There were of course many bad monks who went to the monasteries because they were lazy or too cowardly to fight. But in the main the monks were the best and most intelligent men of that time. 154 ^^^ Story oj Old Europe and Young America No wonder that they were the bravest missionaries and that from them the church often chose its popes and bishops. Even kings and rulers sometimes named them as their chief advisers. Without them, Hfe in the Middle Ages could hardly have gone on. 62. Charles the Great Revives Civilization. Under the power of Christianity and its monks civilization in Europe began to revive somewhat. After three hundred years of barbarism and confusion, some signs of a desire for better things began to appear. This is shown espe- cially in the work of Charles the Great, or, as he is often called, Charlemagne. Among the Teutonic tribes which invaded the Roman Empire none were fiercer than the Franks. These people, whose early home was along the Rhine, had crossed that river and overrun Gaul, as France was then called. As they advanced all was ruin and destruction. But the Franks settled down to rule the country they had subdued and Clovis, their leader, had, as we have seen, accepted Christianity. Thus he became the friend and ally of the Pope of Rome. Nevertheless the Frankish kings so loved fighting that they engaged in constant wars with the rulers of other tribes. There were bloody civil wars, too, among the Franks themselves. It is tiresome, indeed, to read of all the bloodshed of their early history. But the Franks were good fighters and gradually got the better of the tribes about them. No doubt this was partly due to the fact that they were friends of the pope, and so the Romans, who often disliked other German peoples, preferred to be ruled by them. So strong did they become that when the terrible Arabs from Africa How the Teutons Learned from Rome 155 conquered Spain and invaded Gaul, the Franks, under their brave leader, Charles of the Hammer (Charles Martel), marched against them and defeated them. The grandson of this Charles Martel was Charles the Great. He was a tall and strongly-made man who like a true Frank loved riding, swimming, and all manly- exercises. Though rather stout, none could excel him in such sports. He seemed tireless, and during all his long reign was always making distant expeditions at the head of his armies. Each spring he gathered his forces and toiled off through the rough forests on some great campaign. Again and again he marched into Germany, and subdued the still unconquered tribes of that region. On other occasions he journeyed into Italy, and protected his friend the pope against his enemies. The Arabs of Spain, too, felt his power. Before his death he had brought all the region now included in France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, a part of Austria, northern Italy, and a little of Spain under his control. Since the days of Rome no such great power had been seen. It is not strange that a king of that warlike time should be a great conqueror. But it is strange that in his warlike and restless life Charles should find time for many other things besides war. Though he had little education, he was so fond of learning that during his meals he always had some one read to him. He could speak Latin and understand a little Greek. At great expense he invited scholars from all parts of Europe, like the Englishman Alcuin, to come to his court. 156 The Story of Old Europe and Young America He even had a school established in his own home, the famous School of the Palace, that his children and those of his great nobles might be properly taught. So fond of this school was Charles that whenever he was able he w^ent to it himself and asked all kinds of ques- tions of the teachers. Charles even tried to learn to write, and used to keep his writing materials under his pillow when he slept that he might practice writing if he were wakeful. But the huge hand of the great warrior had hard work to guide the pen, and he could never do much more than sign his name. Charles encouraged the clergy to study that they might teach correctly the word of God, and helped them to establish schools in many of the principal cities. So anxious was he that everybody should learn that he commanded every priest to call together the boys of his neigh- borhood and to teach them to read. It may seem odd to us that no ruler had thought of this before, but the warlike kings of that u au old ur CHARLES THE GREAT AT THE SCHOOL OF THE PALACE day had in mind only conquest and slaughter. ' The Christian religion, too, Charles loved, though his lARI.ES THE GREAT Copyright, /9/j, by Rand McNally S^ Company How the Teutons Learned from Rome 157 way of advancing it was a rough one. At the point of the sword he forced thousands of the barbarous warriors whom he conquered to wade into rivers and be baptized by his priests. What a ridiculous picture those old heathen must have made as they splashed unwillingly into the water before the wea- pons of Charles' soldiers! No wonder that the con- verts had a strange idea of the Religion of Peace! Yet Charles did more than this. He ordered conquered tribes to build churches, and sent priests and monks to live among them. Thus as years passed they were gradually taught the meaning of Christianit}^ As Charles' power grew it seemed more and more as if the good old days of the Roman EmjDire were coming back again. So when Charles chanced, on one Christmas Day, to be in the city of Rome, an inspiring thing happened. As Charles was kneeling before the altar of the great church, the pope, clad in the stately garments of his office, approached, bearing a crown. This he placed upon the head of the Prankish king and in solemn tones declared him Emperor of Rome. (800 a.d.) Then all the people shouted, ' ' Long life and victory to the mighty Charles, the great and pacific emperor WARRIORS OF THE CONQUERED TRIBES BEING BAPTIZED After a picture by A. de Neuville in Guizol's "History of France" 158 The Story of Old Europe and Young America of the Romans, crowned of God!" And outside the church the rugged soldiers of the king took up the cry. 63. The Coming of the Northmen. But the good order and peace of the Ro- man Empire had not come back to stay. While Charles the Great lived all went well, but only a mighty ruler could govern all the differ- ^=T^ ' ~ - -^t^i^y ent races and peoples THE POPE CROWNS CHARLEMAGNE "U Vi A ' A From the fresco (iQth cent.) in HdteldeVille.Aix-la- ^® naa COnquerCQ. Chapelle, designed by Relhel, executed by Kehren TTi'o con find PTand- sons were not equal to the task. The latter even divided the empire among themselves, and then fought fiercely with one another. They could not understand what Charles had tried to do. A few of Charles' schools remained; the monks still studied and labored; but Europe went back into confusion and bloodshed. To make things still worse, a new and terrible danger appeared. This was the Northmen. Not all the Teutonic tribes had yet been Christianized. Far to the north in Scandinavia, in the countries we now call Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, still lived thousands of tall, blond warriors who worshiped Odin and Thor and followed the fierce customs of their ancestors. Cut off by the sea from the rest of Europe, these Northmen had scarcely been heard of. How the Teutons Learned from Rome 159 But since they lived by the sea, those hardy people naturally became sailors, and launching forth in their swift black vessels they began to venture upon long voyages. The leaders of these expeditions were called "Vikings" because they were lords of the "Viks," or long, narrow bays of the rugged northern coast. Though the ships of the Vikings were only open boats driven by oar as well as by sail, they were such bold sailors and were so strong and hardy that they often dared to make voyages thousands of miles from home. The Vikings did not fear the fiercest tempests, and loved danger and adventure as be- fitting brave men. But the poor coast people of France and England were indeed terrified as they saw the Viking ships approach. Trembling, they looked upon the black raven painted upon their sails, the prows rudely hewn into the forms of dragons, the rows of glittering shields hung along the bulwarks, and the crowd of strong fighting men eager for booty. For the Northmen were pirates. Sailing up some stream or bay, they would land and, leaving a guard at the boats, scurry off across the country. Woe betide the region to which they came, for they left behind only smoking ruins. Everything of value they A NORSE VIKING i6o The Story of Old Ettrope and Young America carried off to their ships, and those who opposed them they slew. Particularly cruel were they to the monks, for they hated Christianity. Vainly did kings and rulers try to with- stand them. But be- fore they could gather their armies the North- men were gone, and if by any chance these pirates were cornered they were so strong and fought so fiercely that they often cut down many times their own numbers. Villages, churches, monasteries, and even cities disap- peared in flame and smoke. Whole districts were ruined. France suffered dreadfully. More and more Vikings came each year. Finally a great band led by a gigantic chief named Rollo forced a w^eak descendant of Charles the Great to give over to them a whole district of the finest part of northern France. This surrender seemed a terrible misfortune; but in the long run it did not prove so. These Northmen now settled down in the region they had conquered. Gradually they gave up their fierce customs. They married the women of the country and learned to speak French instead of their rude northern tongue. In the ROLLO AND HIS MEN PLUNDERING A TOWN How the Teutons Learned from Rome i6i end they became practically Frenchmen. Yet even among the French they were always noted for their courage in war, their energy, and their love of adventure. So Normandy, as their province was called, instead of being ruined forever became one of the most prosperous parts of all France. We shall see the Normans again, doing great things in England and elsewhere. But not all the Vikings sailed southward. Others went on plundering expeditions to Scotland and Ireland, and finally a hardy band, buffeting the great billows of the Atlantic in their small open boats, reached distant Iceland. Here many Northmen settled. In time these skillful sailors reached ice-bound Greenland also, and some of them dwelt there. SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts. /. Though the Middle Ages was a time of darkness and bloodshed, the Teutons gradually became civilized. 2. This result was due mainly to the Christian church. J. Among those who helped to win the barbarians to Christianity, especial credit belongs to Gregory the Great and to St. Boniface. 4. The world owes much to the monks of this period. 5. The monasteries were practically the only schools, libraries, hospitals, and inns. 6. Charles the Great, ruler of the Franks, revived learning and spread Christianity. 7. As a reward he was crowned Emperor of Rome by the pope. 8. When Charles died his empire was broken up and Europe fell back into confusion, p. Conditions were made much worse by the attacks of the Northmen. Study Questions, i. Why did the overthrow of the Roman government increase the power of the church? 2. How did the Teutons feel when they saw Christian priests and mission- aries? 3. Tell the story of the conversion of Clovis. 4. Tell the story of the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. 5. Who was St. Boniface? 6. Why is he called one of the bravest of Christian missionaries? 7. Who were the monks ? 8. Why did i62 The Story of Old Europe and Young America people wish to be monks? p. What did monks do? lo. Describe a flourishing monastery of the Middle Ages. ii. What have the monks left us that is valuable? 12. Tell some- thing of the early history of the Franks. 13. What kind of a man was Charles the Great? 14. What countries did he conquer? 15. How did Charles show his love for learning? 16. How did he help to spread Christianity? 17. Tell the story of Charles' coronation as emperor. 18. What were the results of Charles' death? 19. What kind of people were the Northmen? 20. Give an account of one of their raids as if you had seen it. 21. Why was it so hard to drive the Northmen away? 22. Tell the story of their settlement in Normandy. 2j. Tell the story of their voyages to the Atlantic. Suggested Readings. Tappan, European Hero Stories, 38- 53, 81-86, 94-98, and England's Story, 17-24; Harding, The Story of the Middle Ages; Yonge, Young Folks' History of England, and Young Folks' History of France, 61-106; Einhard, Life of Charlemagne; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of the Middle Ages; Hall, Viking Tales; Mabie, Norse Stories. HOW ENGLAND WAS MADE 64. Alfred the Great Withstands the Danes. The country of Europe which suffered most from the North- men was England. It was right in the path of these savage sea-rovers, and offered an easy prey. The Anglo- Saxons who had formerly conquered the country were not all at first subject to one ruler. On the contrary, they had founded numerous little kingdoms which en- gaged in constant warfare with each other and with the Britons. Because seven of these little states were especially important, this far-away time of bloodshed and confusion has sometimes been called the period of the Saxon "Heptarchy," or seven kingdoms. Not until after more than two centuries of savage conflict was the whole country brought under control How Ensland was Made 163 of one king. But finally Egbert, originally ruler only of the little state of Wessex, conquered all his rivals and made himself first king of all Eng- land. Before the new nation could grow really strong, however, the Northmen ap- peared with their long ships and shining weapons. Since most of the Vikings who attacked that country were from Denmark, the English usually called them "the Danes." That they did not de- stroy the English utterly was due partly to a wise and strong king named Alfred. To this day Englishmen love the stories which have come down regarding him, for he was good' and clever, as well as brave. Even when he was a little fair-haired prince Alfred loved learning, but to his great sorrow he could have no good teachers, for the Danes had destroyed nearly all the monasteries. Yet he learned all he could. ENGLAND UNDER THE HEPTARCHY The period of the Heptarchy was between the coming of the Anglo-Saxons in 44Q and the union of the kingdoms under Egbert in 828 164 The Story of Old Europe and Young America and when his mother offered a beautiful book of poems as a prize to the one of her children who could first recite them, Alfred, though he was the youngest prince, easily won. He learned also to play well on musical instru- ments, and, since all his life he loved to read and to think, he finally became an excellent scholar. When he grew up Alfred helped his elder brother, who had now become king, to fight the cruel Danes. Again and again they struggled bravely in battle, but they were often beaten. When the brother died and Alfred became king (871 a.d.), the Danes were masters of the whole country and Alfred '^^\'Wvt-~'y^l^ had to take refuge in the woods and swamps. Another man might have fled from the land, but Alfred, with true English pluck, would not give up the struggle. Some amusing stories are told of Alfred at this time. One tells how the king once took refuge in the hut of a poor peasant. The peasant woman, who of course did not know him, set him to watch the cakes she was cook- ing. But Alfred, busy repairing his trusty weapons, forgot all about the cakes and soon she smelled them burning. Whereupon the peasant's wife scolded ALFRED AND HIS MEN DEFEATING * THE DANES How England was Made 165 Angles I r .: f -. ■ ' . i Saxonsl l • ■• I Danes.. Britons ^^^ GERMAN' OCEAN OR NORTH SEA the great king soundly, telling him that though he would not mind the cakes he was ready to eat them fast enough. Another story tells how Alfred, disguised as a wandering musi- cian, went boldly into the camp of the Danes and amused them by playing on his harp, while he saw how their fortifi- cations were built. At last Alfred's time came. Rais- ing aloft the old banner of his people, with its figure of the white horse, he summoned all true Englishmen to his side. Over- joyed to see their king, whom many had thought dead, they eagerly rallied about him. Speedily they marched against the Vikings, and before the fury of their attack the hitherto unconquered Danes gave way. They fled to their fortified camp, but Alfred besieged it and starved them into surrender. The Danes had to acknowledge Alfred as their over- lord and be baptized Christians. He allowed them to 12 THE DANELAGH (OR DANELAW) i66 The Story of Old Europe and Young America settle peaceably in the northern part of England, but there was to be no more plundering or bloodshed. Be- cause it was occupied by the Danes this region was known at that time as the Danelagh, and many of its present people are descended from the Vikings. In spite of this victory England was not yet secure. Later other Viking armies came. But Alfred got the better of them all. This wise king saw that the proper thing to do was to fight the Danes on the sea, for if they once landed in England they would do great harm, even though beaten in the end. So he had war vessels built, and sometimes conquered them in naval battles. Even to this day, when England is so proud of her great fleet of battleships, Englishmen like to remember that it was Alfred who built their first navy. 65. Alfred's Works of Peace. Alfred is remembered for many other reasons than because he was a great soldier. When peace came he thought again of schools and education. Because he had had so much trouble himself to learn, he wanted to make things easier for others, so like Charles the Great he invited scholars to come to England and had schools established. He did even more. Up to that time men had thought that all books should be in Latin, since it was the language of Rome. But Alfred held that English, too, was a noble tongue, and he felt that even those who did not under- stand Latin should know as much as possible. So he encouraged the writing of books in English, and himself helped to translate writings from Latin into his own language. Alfred not only ruled kindly and justly but revised the laws of the kingdom and made them much better. How England was Made 167 He was interested in all that went on, and even sent two bold sea captains to make new discoveries in geography. But Alfred is remembered most of all because he was a good man. He never willingly injured even his meanest subject; he always thought of the good of his people before his own advantage ; he labored constantly that England might be happy. No wonder that even one thousand years after his death the grateful English people set up to his memory a beau- tiful statue. It stands in Winchester, his ancient capital city, and repre- sents the brave old king, sword in hand, just as he led his faithful people in their struggle for freedom. What George Washington is to us Ameri- cans, Alfred the Great is to our English cousins. After Alfred was gone, the Danes came again and brought new destruction. They even conquered England and ruled it for a short time. But in the end the English got back the power and reestablished their own kings. 66. The Normans Conquer England. Thus England had in turn been conquered by the Romans, the Anglo- Saxons, and the Danes. Each had brought with them many new things. Though the Romans were the most civilized, they had, owing to circumstances, left little to tell of their visit, — only here and there a crumbling wall, or a ruined STATUE OF ALFRED AT WINCHESTER i68 The Story of Old Europe and Young America From the Bayeux tapestry, Bayeus, France NORMAN KNIGHTS ON HORSEBACK building. The Anglo-Saxons had given England most. They had brought their race to people the country in place of the Britons, their language to be the beginning of our modern Eng- lish, and their free German no- tions about how people should choose their king and govern themselves. The Danes had not ruled long, yet many Danes settled in northern England. They intermarried with the Eng- lish and made the race still more sturdy and warlike. But before England could become the modern country which we know she had to be conquered yet again. We have seen how it was that the Normans came to live in northern France. Here they soon learned French civilization and French customs, but they remained a restless, energetic people, always looking for some new exploit. Normandy was just across the British Channel from England, and the Normans knew how weak the country still was. When one of the English kings died without a son, the leading men of England chose Harold, a powerful noble, to be their ruler. But William, Duke of Normandy, whom men have always called William the Conqueror, declared the late king had promised him the throne. He gathered an army of adventurous Normans, and sailing across the channel, just as Julius Caesar had done so long before, landed near Hastings (1066 a.d.). Here was fought a famous battle. The Normans How England was Made 169 had many advantages over the EngHsh. They understood how to fight on horseback and how to make skillful use of archery. Moreover, they had William to lead them. Yet all day long the English stood stubbornly together on a hilltop and beat back every attack with their swords and axes. At last William made use of a trick. He had his men pretend to retreat. Harold had been wounded, and there was no one to direct the English. They After picture by A. de Neuville in Guizot'a History of France THE LANDING OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR AT SENLAC, NEAR HASTINGS foolishly broke their ranks and rushed in wild disorder after their enemies. Then, at a signal from William, the Normans wheeled about and rode down their scattered foes. When night came the English army was destroyed, and Harold lay dead upon the field. All England speedily submitted to William. William richly rewarded his followers. He made many of them nobles, and gave them great estates in the con- quered country. Here they built castles and lorded it lyo The Story of Old Europe and Young America over the Anglo-Saxons. Though the latter often rose in rebellion, they could never get rid of William and his descendants. The Normans had come to England to stay and to rule. In spite of the cruelty which they sometimes practiced, the Norman conquest was really a good thing for England. The Normans knew more than the English. They brought with them from France architects and masons who knew how to build stone churches and castles to take the place of the old wooden buildings of the Anglo- Saxons. Their merchants traded back and forth with France and other parts of Europe. Moreover, the Normans were rnore lively and quick-witted than the slow, plodding English. Thus when, in the course of years, the two nations were merged into one, the new English people were a brighter and more clever race of people than the old Anglo-Saxons. The Normans also brought into England a new language, for they spoke a kind of French. This fact for a long while kept the two peoples apart. But gradually the descend- ants of the Normans learned to speak like the other people of the country, and the Anglo-Saxons began to use a great many THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. CUTHBERT AT DURHAM A fine example of the Norman style of architecture How England was Made ■ 171 Norman words. The new language made in this way is the English which we speak. It is very different from the old tongue spoken by Alfred the Great, or by Harold. The Normans were so restless thai;, even after the Con- quest they wanted to keep on fighting. But William was a stern man who knew 1 , , 1 . A NORMAN CASTLE now to Keep niS Un- t-;^-^ ^^ n^^ white Tower, the famous Keep or stronghold ruly pe6ple in order. °^ "' ^°"'^'' '^ ^°"''°"' *"'" '" '''' The Conqueror was of moderate height only, but very heavily built and so strong of arm that no man could draw his bow. He was dignified in manner, but his appearance was marred by his stoutness, for as he grew older he became fatter and fatter. William's countenance was fierce. Though to good men he was mild and just, his temper was so terrible that when he was aroused no one dared oppose him. Those who tried to withstand him, he punished with awful cruelty. In most respects William was a good king. He tried to rule justly, and in his time no man dared slay another or do him wrong. But the king had great faults. Money he loved so much that he sometimes did wicked things to gain it, and he was so fond of hunting that he laid waste a whole district of the country that his deer and other game might not be disturbed. A quaint old writer said of William, "As greatly did he love the tall deer as if he were their father." 172 The Story of Old Europe and Young America 67. How Henry II Kept Order in England. When William was gone, England had cause for sorrow. His sons could not keep order with the same firmness and strength. When they too died, terrible times came. While the Conqueror's grandson and granddaughter contended for the crown, the fierce Norman nobles did as they pleased. Riding forth frojn the strong castles which they had built, they robbed and murdered the people. It seemed almost as if the dreadful days of the Danes had come again. But when England was almost ruined, Henry II, great-grandson of the old Norman, became king. He was the right man for the times. Stockily built, with florid face, red hair, bull neck, and bow legs, Henry was not handsome. His eyes, always shifting from one thing to another, showed how restless and active was his mind. He cared little for dress, but loved work, never being happier than when actively carrying out some new plan. Though Henry could fight well he did not love war, but preferred to gain his purposes by other means. To have his way he would stoop to any trick. Yet if Henry was not noble in appearance and character, still he was one of England's greatest kings. Better than any one of his day he saw what England needed, and knew how to bring order and justice to his country. First he put down the Norman barons with a strong hand. He destroyed their castles and sent away the soldiers they had hired. Then England had peace. Among any people it is of great importance how wrongdoers are found out, brought to trial, and punished. To Henry it seemed that great improvements could be made in the methods employed in England. How England ivas Made 173 From a 15th cent. MS.; after Lac THE ORDE.\L OF TRIAL BY COMBAT Very childish indeed were the methods men used in those rough days. If a man were accused of a crime, he must bring all the people' he could to swear he was innocent. If he could not bring enough to sat- isfy the court he must stand what was called the "ordeal." There were many kinds of ordeals. Some- times the accused man must plunge his arm into a kettle of boiling water and take out a ring. Then his arm was tied up and if, after three days, it was seen to be healing, he was declared innocent. If the wound was inflamed he was held guilty. Another ordeal was that of cold water. The accused person was bound hand and foot and cast into a pond. If he floated, his guilt was regarded as proved; if he sank, he was drawn out as innocent. Another form was to build two great fires and make the person on trial rim between them. He proved the charge false by escaping with his life. A very simple ordeal was sometimes used when it was said a person had told a falsehood. He was made to swallow a huge piece of bread and cheese. If it stuck in his throat the lie was proved. But the fierce Norman nobles loved best "trial by battle." Accuser and accused were given equal weapons and, while the judges stood by to see fair play, fought 174 The Story of Old Europe and Young America out their quarrel foot to foot and eye to eye. Priests, women, and others who could not fight were allowed to choose ' ' champions" to do battle for them. The defeated party was declared guilty, and if he was not slain in the combat, was punished. Men thought that God would protect the innocent and give them strength to conquer their adversaries. But we can see now that the ordeals were cruel and often unjust. Only very ignorant people could believe in them. Henry II improved methods greatly. He sent his royal judges to travel about England and hold court in all the chief cities. When the royal judge arrived, sixteen worthy men of the place were chosen, who gave him the names of any persons whom they believed had broken the law. These sixteen were called the "Grand Jury." Those whom they "indicted" were arrested and brought before the judge to be tried. The king did not indeed forbid ordeals, in which everybody believed, but he sometimes allowed another kind of trial. Twelve other men of the neighborhood were then chosen to examine into all the facts and decide whether the accused man had done wrong or not. Wise people soon found "trial by jury" much better than the old way. The courts in England and America now generally use trial by jury. We should think it very wicked to let some bad man escape punishment simply because he was strong and a good fighter. All thoughtful people are grateful to wise old Henry II because he did so much to give us better ways of securing justice. But not all the people of England liked so strong a How England was Made 175 king. The great officers of the church especially felt that they ought not to be tried, like other people, before the royal judges. Chief among them was the great Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket, the highest officer in all the Church of England. So angry did Henry become with him that one day he said in fury that he wished some one would rid him of that insolent "A '-^ S^- CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL This cathedral was begun in the twelfth century and completed in the two ollowing centuries. It stands near the site of the first Christian chiirch built in Saxon England man. Four of his soldiers, hearing his words, leaped upon their horses and galloped off in a cloud of dust to Canterbury. They found Becket before one of the altars of his church, and cut him down with their great swords. How bitterly did Henry regret what he had said in anger! To show his sorrow he went to Canterbury, knelt before the tomb of the archbishop, and had men 176 The Story of Old Europe and Young America beat him on the bare back. Too late he saw that even a great king, carried off by passion, can do a terrible wrong. 68. King John and Magna Carta. Though they sometimes made mistakes, William the Conqueror and Henry II were good kings and usually tried to be just. But England sometimes had wicked rulers. King John, a son of Henry II, was the worst. Though fierce, he was also cowardly, and he would never keep a promise. Worst of all, he was a tyrant who cared nothing for the good of his people. When a young man he fought against his father and helped to bring poor old Henry to a sorrowful death. Then he played traitor to his elder brother, the fa- mous King Richard of the Lion Heart. When John had at last become king he caused his own nephew to be shamefully slain. From the days of Wil- liam the Conqueror every king of England had also been ruler of Normandy in France. But John had a war with the King of France, was disgracefully defeated, and lost all his possessions in that country. When the pope named the wise and brave Stephen Langdon to be Archbishop of Canterbury, John, who /J'/j^-'^''^ 'y^f4w{^Wi?% KING JOHN RECEIVING FORMAL NOTICE OF HIS EXCOMMUNICATION FROM THE CHURCH How England was Made 177 wanted to rob the churches, swore in fury that he should never enter the country. In reply the pope closed every church in England. No bells rang to call the people to prayer or to service on the Sabbath. No priest could preach. The dead could not be buried ; the living might not marry. Every church stood silent, and grass grew about the doors. People cried out against the king, but John only laughed. Yet when the pope declared that John was no longer king, and called upon the ruler of France to take his place, John, terrified, gave in and weakly begged the pope for mercy. He agreed to be his subject, and to send him every year a large sum of money. Such con- duct was shameful. Most cruel was John to his own subjects. He let them be wrongfully imprisoned and took their money contrary to law. At last the barons and people could stand it no longer. They remembered that their fore- fathers had been free men and had had rights. So they demanded that John should not act against the old customs of England. When he paid no attention they gathered an army and marched against him. Their leader was the sturdy Stephen Langdon who, though an archbishop, felt that it was his duty to fight for the right. Few would take up arms for the king, and he was helpless. On a meadow called Runnymede beside the Thames River, "where the rushes grow green," John met his rebellious subjects. Here took place a remarkable scene. Round about on the green turf stood the barons, with the great arch- bishop at their head. Their faces were grim and deter- mined. Swords and spears were in their hands, and the KING JOHN SIGNING MAGNA CARTA Hoiv England was Made 179 light gleamed from their clanking armor. Above waved the banners which they had carried in many a battle. Before them was the cruel king, clad in his royal robes but trying hard to conceal his rage and fear. Sternly the barons told John that he must sign a great document or charter in which they had written down all the rights belonging to the people of England. There was no way out. John wrote his name at the bottom, and put on his royal seal. Then in turn the archbishop and all the great barons signed the charter and attached their seals. (12 15 a.d.) No wonder that Englishmen love "Magna Carta," the Great Charter. It proved that they were free. It says that no one shall be imprisoned without proper trial, and that no money shall be taken unless with. the consent of the Great Council of the kingdom. There in black and white are set down all the other liberties of the English people. The great nobles had forced the king to sign it, but they did not forget the other classes. The freedom of the towns and of the merchants was secured, as well as their own. Though kings have often tried to break this charter, Englishmen, and Americans who are their descendants, have never forgotten it. Wherever in the whole wide world Englishmen have gone, — in the United States, in the woods of Canada, in the bush of Australia, in the jungle of Africa, — it is still the law. John was furious over what had happened. When the barons were gone, it is said that in his terrible anger he frothed at the mouth, rolled on the floor, and with his teeth gnashed the rushes which in those days took the place of a carpet. But he could not undo what he had done. i8o The Story of Old Europe and Young America As soon as he had a chance this faithless king tried to break the Great Charter, but he could not make his subjects forget that he had signed it. The rest of his reign was of course filled with wicked- ness and confusion. And he came to a pitiful end. While he was crossing a river with his army the tide rose quickly and some of his men were drowned. That night he took a huge supper of peaches and new ale. In the morning John was found dead. 69. How Parliament Grew. Magna Carta did a great deal to keep the English king from acting unjustly to his subjects. But something more was neeaed before the peo- * pie themselves could have much share in making the laws. In England to-day the body of men who make the laws is called Parliament. Parliament is very old, but it was not always called by that name. When the forefathers of the English, the Anglo-Saxons, still lived in the forests of Germany, all the warriors of a tribe used to meet in council to talk over and decide matters. This "folk-moot" was really the beginning of Parliament, and the first Parliament House was no doubt only an open place in the forest where the tall warriors assembled and, amid the clashing of weapons, shouted out their consent or disapproval of the proposals of the chiefs. Later, when the Anglo-Saxons had conquered England, they still had such meetings. But now it was no longer possible for all the warriors to assemble in one place. So the king summoned only some of the most powerful and wise men. Thus the old "folk-moot" changed into the "Witan," or "Council of the Wise Men," and the king was not supposed to take any important step without asking their advice. How England was Made i8i Though William the Conqueror was a Norman and also a man who always liked to do as he pleased, he had still tried to keep as many of the old English customs as he could. He knew it would be easier to rule the conquered Anglo-Saxons if he did it in the ways to which they were accustomed. So when any great thing was to be done, he still summoned leading men to meet with him in council. Thither came the heads of the church, the great archbishops and bishops in their priestly robes, as well as the powerful nobles or barons to whom he had given great estates. The Normans called such meetings at first the "Great Council," and later "Parliament." Even the great barons did not as yet often venture to oppose the will of strong kings like the Conqueror and Henry H. But we have seen how they dared to withstand King John and how, clad in their suits of mail, and with their swords in their hands, they had met him at Runny- mede and forced him to grant the Great Charter. Among many other things the Charter said that the king must not take his subjects' money except by the consent of the Great Council. When he wanted to collect heavier taxes, he must call Parliament. This was an important gain for England. But Parliament was still made up only of the nobles and great officers of the church. Ordinary citizens had no share in it. A great change was at hand, however. The son of John, King Henry HI, proved to be not much better than his father. He was indeed not so fierce and cruel, but he wanted his own way and would not rule wisely. He spent money fooHshly, and liked foreigners better than EngHshmen. To some worthless foreign favorites 13 i82 The Story oj Old Europe and Young America he gave high offices and great estates. Worse than all, King Henry would not remember his promises or keep the Great Charter. But the English barons remembered how they had curbed King John. Led by a strong and brave man, Earl Simon de Montfort, they rebelled. Of this true hero we do not know much, save that he had been born in France and had come to England after his marriage with a rich English lady. But though England was only his adopted country, he was a true Englishman in spirit and was wise and good. Earl Simon and his barons overthrew and captured the king in a battle. Since King Henry was in his hands, the earl became for a time the real ruler. Soon Simon called a Parliament. But it was a Parliament of a new kind, for he summoned not merely the great lords but also men who were to speak and act for the, people. From each county in England, and from each city, two men were chosen to come to Parliament as repre- sentatives of the "commons," or persons who were not barons or bishops. To gain a voice in Parliament meant as much for the people of England as to gain Magna Carta itself. No wonder Earl Simon is counted among the great men of Eng- lish history. (1265 a.d.) But it was not yet certain that Parliament would remain as Simon had arranged it. King Henry was EARL SIMON DE MONTFORT From an engrnving aj'er the painting by C. Jacqiiand How England was Made 183 indeed too weak to struggle with the great earl, but his son, Prince Edward, was a brave soldier and a good general. When the war between the king and the barons began again, Prince Edward led the royal army with great skill. Many of de Montfort's men deserted him, and he was finally forced to give battle to the prince when certain to be beaten. Fighting to the last, "in a crashing forest of the foe," the brave old earl fell, and all his bravest friends fell around him. But though Simon de Montfort died his work lived. When Prince Edward became King Edward I he proved as good a ruler as he was soldier. Instead of driving the "commons" from Parliament, he saw that it was best to keep them there. He was wise enough to feel that he could rule England more easily with the approval of the people than against their wishes. So it came about that Parliament had two "houses," — the House of Lords, where the nobles sat, and the House of Commons, where met the representatives of the people. For a law to be passed both houses had to agree. Though many hard struggles still lay before England, she was happy indeed, compared with other nations, to have received so good a form of government. SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts, i. England was almost ruined by the Danes. 2. Alfred the Great defeated them and saved his country, j. He also encouraged learning and the establish- ment of schools. 4. Later England was conquered by the Normans, led by William the Conqueror. 5. Many Normans came to live in England and brought new ideas. 6. The Norman nobles were fierce fighters and often would not obey the king. 7. Henry H restored order. 8. He established better courts and methods of trial, q. King John was a tyrant 184 The Story of Old Europe and Young America and oppressed his people. 10. He was forced to sign Magna Carta. 11. Simon de Montfort and King Edward I estab- lished the House of Commons. 12. Thus the English people had a share in their own government. Study Questions, i. What was there about the position of England which caused the Northmen to go there? 2. Tell about the youth of Alfred the Great. 3. Why did the English fight bravely under his leadership ? 4. Why was it a bold thing to try to fight the Danes on the sea? 5. Make a list of the ways in w^hich Alfred tried to benefit England. 6. How did he resemble George Washington? 7. Name the conquests of England, and give at least one result of each. 8. Who were the Normans? p. Why did they invade England? 10. How did William the Conqueror show that he was a good general? II. How did the Normans improve England? 12. What was their chief fault? 13. What kind of man was King William the Conqueror? 14. Why did England regret his death? 15. In what way was Henry H Hke William, and how was he diiferent? 16. Why does it make a great difference in any country how trials are carried on? 77. Tell about the "ordeals." 18. Explain how Henry improved matters, ig. Why did Archbishop Becket oppose the king? 20. Tell the story of his death. 21. Make a Ust of tyrannical acts of King John, 22. Tell the story of Magna Carta as if you had been one of the barons. 23. What differences does the signing of Magna Carta make to Americans? 24. Explain how Parlia- ment grew in such a way as to show the different forms it took. 25. Why were Englishmen not satisfied with King Henry IH? 26. Who was Earl Simon de Montfort? 27. Tell what he did for England. 28. Why did Edward I keep the House of Commons? 29. What do we Americans call our Parliament? Suggested Readings. Mowry, First Steps in the History of England, 38-48, 49-70, 82-97; Tappan, England's Story, 24- 93; Blaisdell, Stories from English History, 27-77; Dickens, A Child's History of England (Scribners, N.Y., 1910), 18-24, 50- 63, 89-110, 122-168; Guerber, The Story of the English, 42-53, 73-84, 1 1 7-1 28; Church, Stories from English History, 114-142, 146-165, 187-202; Yonge, Young Folks' History of England. Also: Tappan, In the Days of Alfred the Great and In the Days of William the Conqueror. The Nobles of the Middle Ages i8s THE NOBLES OF THE MIDDLE AGES 70. Classes of People in the Middle Ages. In the Middle Ages people lived very different lives from those which we lead to-day. Now we have many different occupations, and a man may be a farmer, a merchant, a lawyer, or follow any one of countless trades or kinds of business just as he sees fit. One who does not like the quiet life of the country may mov6 to some town or bustling city and enter any trade he prefers. We think it scarcely honorable now for a person, even if he has a large fortune, not to engage in some useful work. But in the Middle Ages it was not so. During the earlier part of that time there were no towns or cities, and everybody lived in the country in much the same way. Later, towns and cities began to grow, but they were always small as compared with those we know to-day. All the people who lived in the country — that is to say, nearly everybody — belonged to one of three great social classes. There were the clergy, such as the bishops, priests, and monks who carried on the. work of the church; the peasants, who tilled the fields and did all the useful labor; and the nobles, whose business it was to fight and to rule over the peasants, but who often spent A YOUNG SQUIRE, AND A FRIAR ON A JOURNEY, (from the EUesmcre MS.) ; peas- ants BREAKING CLODS (from an early 14th-century psalter) i86 llie Story of Old Europe and Young America much of their time in doing nothing at all that was useful. Whether a man was peasant or noble depended on his birth, for though a peasant might possibly rise to a noble position, this hardly ever happened. A man of any class might, of course, join the clergy. A peasant could do so, however, only with the consent of the noble on whose land he lived. 71. How the Nobles Lived. The nobles of the Middle Ages were' fierce and proud people. They had high-sounding titles, such as Duke, Count, or Baron, which their ancestors had received from the king in return for services they had done on the battlefield or in council. All the land which did not belong to the church they owned, and they looked down on the poor laboring peasants who lived on their estates as hardly better than cattle. Not all of them indeed were cruel or wicked, but they believed that their "gentle blood" made them far superior to other people. The chief business of the nobles was war, and their amusements were warlike games and hunting. They lived in great fortified buildings called castles, generally set on some steep hill so that the enemy could not easily reach them. In early times the castles were only "stock- ades" of logs, but later they were made of stone and, as men learned more and more about building, they came to be great structures with massive walls, huge towers, and frowning battlements. A ditch filled with water which could be crossed only by a drawbridge gave still further protection. Since gunpowder was not known in the Middle Ages, it was very seldom that a castle could be captured by an enemy except after a long siege. Behind the walls of The Nobles of the Middle Ages 187 TROUBADOURS WITH HARP AND LUTE his strong castle a great noble sometimes defied even the king himself. So massive were these buildings, that after all these centuries their ruins are still to be seen everywhere in Europe. But though the castles were good forts they would seem to us dread- ful places in which to live. Since the, walls were so thick and the windows only slits for shooting arrows, the rooms were usually small and dark. Though in the "great hall" there might be a huge fireplace and a roaring fire of logs, most of the castle was cold and uncomfortable. There was little furniture, and the floors were strewn with rushes in place of carpets. Doubtless the family and "men-at- arms" spent much time in the courts, or "wards," as the open spaces inside the walls were called. Yet only strong men and women, used to cold and discomfort, could live in such places. Hard indeed must have been the lot of the ladies in these castles, for they could have little share in the exciting occupations of the men. For them there were no books in the Middle Ages, and nothing to learn save to play some musical instrument or to weave the quaint tapestry which sometimes adorned the grim stone walls of the cheerless rooms. What a bright dav it must have seemed The Story of Old Europe and Young America when some wandering minstrel visited the castle to play and sing, or when some juggler came to amuse them by his tricks! But though boys of noble birth were seldom taught even to read, they had much to learn, for every noble must be a soldier, and the trade of arms in the Middle Ages was hard to master, 72. Warfare in the Middle Ages. The noble always fought on horseback and clad in complete armor. At first this armor was made of small metal links, like those of chains, sewed close together on stout cloth. Later men learned how to make better armor of steel plates. This armor w^as so heavy that it took years of practice before one could bear it easily or fight in it well. Only the strongest horses could carry the armor-clad men, and sometimes when a warrior fell from his horse he could not rise from the ground, and so was easily captured by the enemy. The heads of the knights were protected by steel caps or hel- mets, and they carried shields on which were painted the coats of arms of their families. Their chief weapons were the lance, a long stout spear, and the sword, or battle ax. When the knights fought, ea,ch one leveled his lance and charged upon his adversary, seek- ing to overthrow him by the shock. Any other kind of warfare was difficult for men in such heavy armor. »«.w1\^ A KNIGHT ON HORSEBACK A surrival of the armor of the Middle Ages may be seen to-day in the helmets and cuirasses of cer- lain corps of cavalry The Nobles of the Middle Ages 189 From an old print ENGLISH ARCHERS AND THE "longbow" So well protected, however, were the knights that even in hard battles not many were slain. Indeed, it was thought a more noble deed of arms to capture another knight than to kill him. Then a ransom, that is, a large sum of money, might be asked for his release. Slings, bows, and other weapons were used in the Middle Ages by sol- diers who fought on foot, but they seem to have been of little value against men in armor. One knight on his great war horse was more than a match for many light-armed footmen. It was only toward the end of this time that the sturdy farmers of England learned to use a bow six feet long which shot with such force that with it they could mow down even "noble knights." 73. Warlike Games of the Nobles; the Tournament. So eager for war and adventure were the nobles that times of peace seemed dull. Even hunting, of which they were very fond, was not exciting enough. So they had "tournaments." These were simply play-wars in which knights contended, either in single combat or in opposing troops. A tournament in the Middle Ages was often a great occasion. Galleries were erected from which the ladies might view the combats and applaud their champions; and high nobles and even kings in splendid costume eagerly attended. The knights in their shining armor, with colored streamers fluttering from their lances, made a gallant picture. igo The Story of Old Europe and Yoiiug America Perhaps two renowned champions were to contend. Each, mounted on his strong war horse, took his stand A TOURNAMENT OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY at one end of the "lists," as the tournament ground was called. Then, when all was ready, the heralds sounded a blast on their long trumpets and the knights, spurring at each other, met with a mighty crash which often shivered spear and shield, and unhorsed one or perhaps both of the combatants. For the victor was great glory, and whoever held the lists successfully against all comers was crowned with a wreath by the Queen of Beauty, a noble lady w^hom he himself was allowed to choose. It was rough play indeed, and fatal accidents often occurred, especially as the knights sometimes fought with sharp weapons as in real war. But many thought life itself a little thing to risk for glory and renown. 74. What Feudalism Was. In the United States to-day all men alike are governed by the President and a Congress whom we ourselves" elect, but in the Middle Ages such an arrangement was unknown. Every country in Europe had a king or an emperor at its head, but he The Nobles of the Middle Ages 191 generally had little power. Each noble ruled like a Httle king over the peasants who lived about his castle, and the nobles themselves were joined to each other by an arrange- ment called "feudaHsm," which seems very queer to us. It was the rule that every noble must be the "vassal" of some ' ' lord. ' ' When by the death of his father a young man inherited his castle and estate he must visit this lord and go through an interesting ceremony called "homage." In the great hall of his strong castle the lord seated himself. Then the new vassal, in full armor, knelt before him and swore a solemn oath, with his hands between those of the lord, that he would be faithful in everything that was required of a vassal; that he would love whatever the lord cherished, and hate when he hated. Then the lord kissed the vassal and raised him to his feet. Finally there was put in the vassal's hands a twig or a piece of turf taken from his own estate, and perhaps a vessel of water from one of its streams. This was done to show that the lord now gave the estate to him. Thus the ceremony ended. It might seem to us a rather mean thing thus to kneel before another more powerful man. But in the Middle Ages homage was thought a ceremony honorable both to the vassal and to the lord. Under feudahsm most nobles were, of course, both lords and vassals at the same time, — lords over lesser men and vassals to some still more powerful noble, perhaps to the king himself. After the homage had been performed, when the lord rode forth to war it was the duty of the vassal to go with him and fight by his side. From time to time, too, he must attend the lord's council or court, and give him his best advice. He must entertain the lord when he 192 The Story of Old Europe and Young America came to visit his castle, and aid him by gifts of money on certain occasions, — as when his eldest daughter was married, when his eldest son became a knight, or when the lord himself was captured by his enemies and his ransom must be paid. Other duties the vassal often had also. Yet the lord could not ask him to do any- thing he pleased, but only those things which custom required. In return for this faithful service the lord was bound to protect his vassal from his enemies, to see that he had justice done him, and to look after the education of his children should he die when they were still young. So both the lord and the vassal were thought to profit by the agreement. Since all the nobles were thus bound by solemn oaths to love each other, one would think that they must have lived together in peace. But such was not the case. These people were fierce and loved war. Many would never do what they had agreed unless compelled by force. Moreover, feudalism often raised puzzling questions, for a powerful duke or count would have many vassals who usually quarreled with each other ; and a noble who owned more than one castle sometimes had a different lord for each one. So war raged nearly all the time. It was not like the wars we have to-day, when one nation fights against another, but rather like the quarrels of one man against his neighbors. Sometimes a vassal attacked his lord because he said he was unjust ; often a lord made war on his vassals because they would not do what was required. Powerful neighboring dukes or counts constantly attacked each other or joined to oppose the king. Everywhere The Nobles of the Middle Ages 193 From MS. of Froisaart SIEGE OF A FEUDAL CASTLE was heard the clash of arms and the clattering of hoofs as the knights rode forth on their expeditions. But the worst part of it all was that the chief loss usually fell on the helpless peas- ants. A noble, if he found his enemies tbo strong, fled to his strong castle, and defied them; but the poor peasants had their houses burned, their crops stolen or destroyed, and were fortunate if they did not starve to death. Is it any wonder, then, that for centuries people in Europe made little progress and had barely enough to eat? Good kings tried hard to make the restless nobles obey the laws and keep the peace. But the nobles were so strong that for many centuries little could be done except by very powerful rulers, such as Henry II of England, or the celebrated St. Louis, king of France. Only very gradually, and not until almost the end of the Middle Ages, did the power of the king become really supreme, and even then only in certain countries of Europe, not in all. The pope and the clergy also tried hard to stop the bloodshed w^hich feudalism brought. Though they did not succeed entirely, they often did more than the kings. For example, they made a rule that all wars must stop from Thursday night until Monday morning, as well as 194 ^^^ Story of Old Europe and Voting America PAGES WAITING ON THEIR LORD AND MISTRESS on the days held sacred to saints. Even most of the fierce feudal nobles were afraid to disobey entirely the orders of the church. 75. Chivalry and Knighthood. But fierce as they were, we must not think that the nobles of the Middle Ages did not have some lofty ideas. One of them was ' ' chivalry, ' ' which taught that every boy of noble birth should strive to be a true "knight" and every girl a "lady." A true knight was a brave warrior who feared nothing, who was always ready to fight for the poor or the unfor- tunate, and who would never do a mean or underhand thing. To perform a gallant feat of arms, or to help any one in distress, he would gladly risk any danger and never ask for pay. A true knight must be a good Christian and serve the church. But most of all he was to select some noble lady for whose sake he would win renown and whose smile would be his highest reward. Thus he might wear her glove on his helmet amid the clashing blows of the tournament, and, if he were successful, have the high honor of naming her the Queen of Beauty. Every noble lady was taught to honor bravery and self-sacrifice, to encourage her true champion to high deeds, and to be courtly and gracious to all. The Nobles of the Middle Ages 195 The ideas of chivalry marked out for each young noble what he was to learn. At about the age of seven his training began. Usually he was sent by his father to the castle of his lord or to that of some other famous knight. Here he became a "page." He waited constantly upon the lord and his wife, and by the ladies of the castle was taught courtly manners and perhaps how to play and sing. But when he grew strong enough for more active tasks, perhaps at fourteen or fifteen, he became a "squire." He now attended more especially upon the lord. He must care for his horses, keep his arms bright, and go with him on his campaigns. Meanwhile, un- der the direction of his lord, he practiced con- stantly in the use of arms, learning to ride, to wear the heavy armor, and to wield the lance. The older squires fought beside their lords in battle. Finally the time came when the squire was ready to be made a knight. The giving of "knighthood" was an impres- sive ceremony. After bathing and arraying himself in A LORD BESTOWING KNIGHTHOOD UPON A SQUIRE 196 The Story of Old Europe and Young America the required costume of red, white, and black, the young man was required to watch for a whole night before the altar of a church in which his weapons and armor had been placed. In the morning he attended mass and then, in the presence of all his family, friends, and vassals, advanced to his lord and knelt. The lord drew his sword and with the flat of the blade smote the young man on the shoulder, saying as he did so, "In the name of God, St. Michael, and St. George, I dub thee knight. Be brave and loyal." Then the newly made knight arose joyfully, and leaping upon his horse showed his skill in riding and in the use of his sword and lance. The ceremony ended with a great feast. The training in chivalry was high and noble, and the world has never forgotten the word or its meaning. We still read with admiration the beautiful stories of knights of old, like the mythical King Arthur and his companions of the Round Table, or the real St. Louis, the brave and blameless king of France. Even to-day, when life is so different, men applaud a knightly deed. Yet, it must be said sadly, in the Middle Ages there were few true knights. The men who so solemnly received knighthood only too often immediately forgot what it meant and were faithless and cruel. Perhaps even these reckless and quarrelsome barons were better, however, for having thought at least a little of the duty of being brave and loyal. SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts, i. In the early part of the Middle Ages all the people were divided into three great classes, — the nobles, the peasants, and the clergy. 2. The nobles ruled over the peasants, j. They spent their time in fighting and in The People in the Middle Ages ig'j war-like amusements. 4. Their dwellings were great castles. 5. These were built as forts and were cold and uncomfort- able. 6. The nobles delighted in the play-wars called tournaments. 7. All the nobles were joined together by an arrangement called "feudalism." 8. This did not give peace, but caused continual fighting. 9. The idea called "chivalry" did something to make the nobles better and less savage. Study Questions, i. Why was it that people during the Middle Ages could not easily change from one occupation to another? 2. Describe a castle. 3. Why would life in a castle seem very uncomfortable to us? 4. What did the ladies do in the castles? 5. What did the boys learn? 6. Tell about the ways of fighting used in the Middle Ages. 7. What were tournaments? 8. Describe a tournament as if you yourself had been one of the spectators, p. What was "feudalism"? 10. What is meant by "lord" and "vassal"? 11. Tell about the ceremony of homage. 12. Why was there so much fighting in the days of feudalism? 13. How were the wars different from those of our day? 14. What powers did something for peace? 15. What did "chivalry" teach? 16. Tell how a noble boy was trained in the days of chivalry. 17. Had you been a young noble, how would you have received knighthood? 18. How would you have acted afterward? Suggested Readings. Tappan, When Knights Were Bold, i-ioi, and European Hero Stories, 1 18-124; Harding, The Story of the Middle Ages; Retold from "St. Nicholas": Stories of the Middle Ages, 72-86. Also: Lanier, Boy's King Arthur (Scribners, N.Y., 191 1), 50-95; Stevens and Allen, King Arthur Stories; Warren, King Arthur and His Knights; Greene and Kirk, With Spurs of Gold, 7-85. THE PEOPLE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 76. How the People Lived. Very different from the life of the warlike nobles was that of the poor peasants. They spent their days in hard work and knew nothing of the fierce excitement of tournament or battlefield. In the Middle Ages the lands of a baron or knight were called a "manor." In the center of the estate, often on 14 1 98 7 he Story of Old Europe and Young. America some steep hill, towered the castle with its turrets and battlements, above which fluttered the lord's banner. But below it clustered the humble dwellings of the peas- ants. They were only huts, built of mud, with roofs of straw. They had no windows, and a hole in the roof took the place of a chimney. A rude bench or two, a rack for tools, and some straw for a bed often made lip all their furniture. A few among the people might be a little better off, such as the miller, the blacksmith, and the priest. Each peasant village had, of course, its church, which was, after the castle, the chief building of the manor. Then there was the mill, the smithy, and perhaps other work- shops, if the village were a large one. Except for a few persons who had special tasks like the smith and the miller, all the peasants worked in the fields. But they were not free to do as they pleased as are our farmers to-day. The peasant of the Middle Ages was a "serf." A serf was not exactly a slave, for his lord could not sell him or even take his land away from him, yet his lot was hard. He was bound to remain always on the manor on which he was born, and if the manor were sold to another noble the serf went with it, just as if he were a tree or a house. No matter how hard condi- tions might be, he could not leave the land without his lord's consent, unless indeed he ran away and took to the woods as a desperate outlaw or robber. Usually the serf must work for three days in each week on the lands of the lord. Only on the other days could he till his own little fields. Extra labor for the lord was required too at certain seasons of the year, and besides this the serf must present the lord with eggs, chickens. The People in the Middle Ages 199 or other gifts on occasions like Easter and Christmas. The serf must have his corn ground at the lord's mill, his bread baked Common Pasture th tenants' strips PLAN OF A TYPICAL MEDIEVAL MANOR demesne is the land the lord of the manor kepi for himself at the lord's oven, and obey all the other rules of the manor. He could not even marry without the lord's con- sent, or sell his horse unless he gave the lord a part of the price. Moreover, his wife and daughter must help with the household work of the castle and in spinning and weaving. Though all their time was given to agriculture, the poor serfs of that rude day knew little about how crops should be raised when compared with the skillful modern farmer. A visitor to a manor would have seen no neat fields, separated by fences or hedges, in which each man planted the crop he saw fit. Instead, there would have been three or six huge fields in different parts of the manbr, each divided into long, narrow strips which were separated only by little ridges of earth. In such a field each serf would have one or more strips. He usually possessed in all somewhere from ten to thirty acres. Much of the labor the serfs did by working together, for none of them owned all the oxen, plows, and other imple- ments required. Each must help the others with such tools as he had. 2 00 The Story of Old Europe and Young America From aa early 14th-century psalter SERFS OF THE MIDDLE AGES PLOWING Every year these poor people had to waste one third of their land, for they did not know how to treat it with fertiliz- ers so as to keep it producing. In . one of their great fields they planted wheat or rye, in the second barley or oats; the third they had to let rest or lie "fallow," while the ground renewed its power. The next year field number one would rest, number two would have the wheat or rye and number three the barley or oats. So a field had the same crop only once in three years. Such a change is called a rotation of crops, but it is very easy to see that the three-field rotation is very simple and wasteful. Many things which farmers raise to-day were then unknown in Europe. Potatoes, tomatoes, beets, and indeed most of the vegetables which we find so delicious had not yet appeared. Even a lord must live mostly on meat, fish, and bread. Tea and coffee had, of course, not yet come to Europe, and all must drink water, milk, and ale or wine. The serfs could, however, keep a few animals, such as sheep or hogs, for every manor had its stretch of green common pasture where they might feed. In the forest, too, the serfs were allowed to collect fallen branches for firewood or even to lop off limbs of trees, but the trees themselves they might not cut down. To us the life of the poor serfs seems miserable. Hud- dled in their wretched huts filled with the smoke which The People in the Middle Ages 20I would not go out of the hole in the roof, cold in winter and burned by the heat of summer, they seemed hardly better off than animals. Many indeed had only a single garment to wear, a sort of long shirt tied around the waist by a bit of rope for a girdle. Worst of all, they could not improve. There was no school where the children could learn even to read and write, and had it been possible for them to go to some neighboring monastery to be taught by the monks there would have been no books for them to use when they came away. As most manors were surrounded by dark forests where lurked bands of fierce outlaws, the serfs seldom saw people from outside. Nearly everything they used or had they must make on their own manor. Perhaps salt and iron were all they purchased from without. In many cases, however, a great fair was held once a year at some place not too far away. How wonderful it must have seemed to the poor serfs who were able to go to see the curious things offered by merchants who perhaps had come from across the sea, and to watch the jugglers, acrobats, and performing bears which were always features of these meetings. For them the fair was the great event of their whole lives. And yet the peasants were not always unhappy. If the lord of the manor were unjust and cruel their lot was terrible, but if he were kind and strong enough to pro- tect them they were usually contented. To thousands of them it never occurred that any other sort of life was possible. For hundreds of years the peasants of Europe lived in very much the same way. There could be little 202 l^he Story of Old Europe and Young America progress or new knowledge until things began to change. 77. How the Towns Grew. But things did change. As the years rolled by some of the villages increased in size. Those under the sheltering care of a monastery had especial advantages. Others were situated on some good harbor of the seacoast, or on some large river where men began to come for commerce. Even a crossroads gave some encouragement to growth. So some of the little clusters of peasants' cottages gradually grew into towns where markets were held, and these again into cities, — not indeed into such huge centers of population as New York and Chicago are to-day, but yet places of considerable importance. At first the townspeople were still the serfs of various lords, but they soon began to wish for more freedom than the rules of the manor permitted. Now they de- manded a charter, that is, a document signed by the lord, giving them the right to govern their own affairs, at least to some extent. And in the end the lord gave way and granted what they wished. Sometimes the people rose in fury, attacked the noble's castle, and compelled him to yield. But far more often the citizens of the town, who had now begun to grow rich, paid the lord a large sum of money for the charter. It often seemed to him a good bargain, for he could use the money to hire soldiers and fit out expeditions against other feudal lords whom he hated. Many of the stronger towns managed to get rid of their lords entirely. Thus they became "free cities," which ruled themselves and had no one above them but the king or emperor. In Germany, especially, there were many free cities. The People in the Middle Ages 203 The cities of the Middle Ages surely did not look very- much like those of the United States of to-day. Some of the old towns of Europe still stand much as they were in centuries gone by. The traveler who visits "Sleepy Chester" or York in England, or quaint Nuremberg in Germany, or Carcassonne on its sunny hilltop in southern France, may well feel that he has stepped back into the days of Simon de Montfort or St. Louis. Round such a city ran a high and massive stone wall, provided with From an old German print THE WALLED TOWN OF NABBURG (BAVARLA, GERMANY) DURING THE MIDDLE AGES battlements and towers. Outside it was a deep ditch filled with water. At only a few points were there gates with drawbridges, by which persons could enter the town, and each gate was fortified by an especially strong tower. Defended by its sturdy citizens, a city of this period could not easily be captured even by a strong army. Since the city had to be built inside of such a wall, it did not usually cover as much ground as cities of our time. The streets were generally narrow and crooked, and though there was nearly always an open market place near the center, it was not Hkely to be very large. The houses, however, were often several stories in height 204 The Story of Old Europe and Yoiing America and were so built that each story projected a Httle over the one beneath. Thus in some of the narrow streets the upper stories of the buildings were not very far apart. In some countries the houses had very high roofs and tall chimneys, which would make them look very quaint to us. Every rich city was sure to have several beautiful churches. But the crowning glory was often a huge "belfry," or bell tower which rose high above all the roofs of the town and where a guard was kept constantly to watch for fire or for the approach of an enemy. Through the narrow streets of such a city there rushed no stream of automobiles or heavily laden trucks like those we know. Occasionally might have been seen the clumsy cart of some peasant, or a string of packhorses brought by a rich merchant. But even if wagons and carriages were few, the city of the Middle Ages was often a busy place. Especially if it was market day, and the neighboring peasants had come to sell their produce and to purchase in return some of the fine things made in the town, the quaint, narrow streets bustled with life, and the wooden shoes of the peasants made a merry clatter on the cobblestones of the paving. 78. Industry in the Towns. How did the people in the towns make their living? By making things which other people wanted to use, and selling them. At first they sold to the peasants who lived round about, but soon they began to trade with other cities and even with distant countries. The way the people of the towns of the Middle Ages manufactured articles was very different indeed from that used to-day. In those old cities were seen The People in the Middle Ages 205 no great factories or mills with their tall chimneys and noisy machines. People then did not know how to use steam or electricity to turn wheels or drive engines. They made everything by hand, and understood only simple methods. Men worked in their own houses and themselves sold whatever they made. All the people who were making the same article had to belong to a society called a "guild." Thus there was the " weavers '-guild, " the "shoemakers' guild," the "goldsmiths' guild," and very many more. No town would let any one make or sell a thing who was not a member of the right guild. And it was not always easy to become a guild member, for these societies did not want very many to engage in their business. Those who were full members were called "masters." Each master owned one of the tall, quaint houses, where he lived with his family. In this was his shop, where he worked every day with his men. There was also a place where he kept the goods he had to sell, and some of those he hung out so that people passing could see how fine they were and be attracted to stop and buy. All the members of a guild lived on the same street, or at least in the same neighborhood, so if a man wanted to buy a candlestick, a piece of cloth, or a gold chain he knew just where to go. We think to-day that a man does right to put what- ever price on a thing other people are willing to pay. But in the Middle Ages people believed it was wicked to ask much more for anything than it cost to make it. Every guild had strict rules about the prices its members should charge. It had rules, too, about the way in which articles should be made. If any of its members charged 2o6 The Story of Old Europe and Young America From an old Germao woodcut A GUILD MASTER INSTRUCTING JOURNEY- MAN AND APPRENTICE higher prices, or worked in a hurry so that their products were not strong or good, they might be expelled. So in those old days a man who bought anything might be sure he was getting his "money's worth," but there were few "bargains." A boy who wanted to be a member of a guild must first become an apprentice of some master. He went to live in the master's house and was treated very much as a member of the family. While he learned the business he was subject to the master and might be harshly punished if he was lazy. But he ate at the master's table and talked and played with his master's sons and daughters. The length of the apprenticeship depended on whether the trade of that guild was hard or easy to learn. It was usually three years. Then the apprentice, now a 3^oung man, became a journeyman. He was paid wages and might live at his own home. But he still worked beside the master on the bench, and could not have a shop of his own. The journeyman was satisfied, how- ever, and worked hard and tried to become more skillful, for he now hoped soon to be admitted a master. Finally, if he was fortunate, he became a full member of the guild. But first he must prove that he was a satisfactory workman by making his "masterpiece," that is to say, the finest article his hands could construct. How hard the voung man must have labored to show The People in the Middle Ages 207 that he was worthy to rank with the best of them all! Once a master, he could have a shop and apprentices, and hire journeymen of his own. In time he might be- come rich. But he must always obey the rules of the guild and not try to find new and cheap ways of doing things. The guilds did other things besides making rules about work. They erected fine halls where their meetings were held. In wealthy old cities like London, Paris, or Bruges in Belgium these quaint and beautiful buildings are still regarded by the citizens with pride and admiration. The guilds were charitable societies also. If any member died poor, the guild provided for his widow and children. If any were sick or injured, their expenses were paid. They had festivals, too, in which all the members took part. Sometimes the whole society went to worship together in some great church. In some ways the guild was like a great family. When we see the great factories of our day, with their huge engines and furnaces, and thousands of toiling men and women, and then think of the old ways of the guild, we wonder sometimes whether, after all, the new way is better. In the Middle Ages the master worked beside his men and knew them all well. Though sometimes the journeymen and apprentices grumbled against the hard rules of the guild, and even "struck," they all knew that in time they also might be masters. The guild members were friends. Now the owner of a great factory seldom knows very many of his workmen, and they know that not one in ten thousand of them will ever own a mill. Many are the great struggles between capital and labor. Yet now we can all buy for a few cents things that in 2o8 The Story of Old Ettrope and Young America the Middle Ages only very wealthy people could own; and clever men are always trying to invent new machines A CARAVAN OF MEDIEVAL MERCHANTS and methods to make things cheaper still. Moreover, to-day any man or woman can work at any trade he wishes if he has the strength and the knowledge. But the guilds were only for a few. So the world has both gained and lost. 79. The Beginnings of Commerce. When the cities were still small their chief business was with the peasants, who brought as much of their produce as they did not need for their own use to sell or exchange for articles made in the town. Even now the market day is a busy time in European towns. But as the cities grew, the pack- horses of merchants trading with places farther distant became a sight more and more common. To carry on distant trade in those days was diffi- cult. Not only were there no railways, but even ordinary highroads were almost unknown. It is no wonder, The People in the Middle Ages 209 therefore, that carts and wagons were of little use, and that everything sent by land had to be strapped on the backs of horses. Wherever possible, trade was carried on by water. The rivers were great highways of commerce, and though the vessels of that day were not well fitted for long voyages on the ocean, land-locked seas like the Mediterranean and the Baltic were everywhere plowed by merchant ships. But there were many other dangers besides those of nature. Pirates swarmed the seas. Often, also, people who lived on the seashore displayed false lights and signals so that vessels would be wrecked and they might seize the cargoes. On land it was even worse. In the dark forests lived TOWNSMEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES MARCHING OUT TO ATTACK A ROBBER BARON fierce bands of outlaws. But the chief enemies of the merchants were the barons and knights whose castles 2IO I'he Story of Old Europe and Young America were perched upon crag and hilltop along their route. The feudal nobles always charged heavy toll upon the merchants who passed through their domains, and only too often they were real robbers. Swooping down from their castles, they seized both goods and horses, and the merchants were indeed lucky to escape with their lives. But the townsmen of the Middle Ages were a strong and sturdy people who did not tamely submit even to the nobles. Now and again the citizens would arm themselves and march forth against the castle of some robber knight who had plundered them. Too late the wrongdoer often repented amid the blazing rafters of his fortress. The towns also did their best to help the king in his efforts to bring the nobles to order and make them keep the peace. It was owing very largely to their aid that in France and England the rulers succeeded in over- coming feudalism. But since even a strong town could not do much alone, the cities soon began to form leagues. All the qities which joined agreed to protect each other and to unite against their enemies. Such leagues had laws and rules almost like those of a nation. Sometimes they raised armies and kept war vessels to guard their merchant ships. The greatest of all the leagues was formed by the cities of northern Germany. It was called the Hanseatic League, and at one time comprised nearly seventy towns. The three leading towns were Liibeck, Hamburg, and Bremen, the two latter of which are still among the greatest seaports of Germany. The merchants of the Hanseatic League traded every- where in northern Europe. In Norway, Sweden, and I'he People in the Middle Ages I even in distant Russia they had trading stations, or "factories" as they are often called. They also had a famous trading place in London. Belgium was then the greatest country for making all kinds of cloth. In its quaint cities, such as Bruges and Ghent, was heard on every hand the rattle of the looms. Here, too, the Hanseatic merchants came for peaceful commerce. Southward, up the beautiful river Rhine, the Han- seatic merchants carried on a great trade. This route led to the flourishing cities of Nuremberg arid Augsburg in southern Germany, with their high chimneys and peaked roofs showing far above their strong walls. Thence they journeyed to the foot of the Alps, which with their snowy peaks and gla- ciers cut them off from Italy. These they crossed by the steep mountain passes, the favorite way being the famous Brenner Pass, which led to Venice. Here they exchanged their northern goods for the wonderful things Italy had to give or which bold Italian seamen had brought home from the Far East. A BIT OF OLD NUREMBERG 2 12 The Story of Old Europe and Young America Northern Italy in those days was a great land of flourishing towns. First among them was Venice, which sent her ships to Egypt for rich trade with the East. This strange city was built on a group of small islands situated in the middle of a large, shallow bay. A great number of her streets were, therefore, canals, and the peo- ple of Venice to this day go from place to place in long, graceful boats called gondolas. Because she could not be easily attacked from the land, the city had prospered wonderfully, and many of the tall buildings which lined her watery streets were truly palaces, though owned by merchants instead of kings. On the other side of Italy was the strong rival city, Genoa, stretching back on the hills from her long, curving harbor. Genoa, too, carried on a mighty commerce with the East, and many were the fierce battles when her numerous fleets met those of the Venetians. To Ameri- cans this old city is especially dear because here was the birthplace of Christopher Columbus. Then there was Milan, famous for her wonderful cathedral, which rose amid the green plain of Lombardy, the most fertile land in all the world. Farther south was Florence, noted for her manufac- tures, her great wealth, and the turbulent character of her people. Especially prized w^as the beautiful jewelry made by Florentine goldsmiths. Besides these Italy had dozens of other great towns, all flourishing in trade and manufacture. Yet unlike the cities of the north, the Italian towns only too often engaged in war with their neighbors instead of joining interests for the common good. In England the ancient town of London grew to be a The People in the Middle Ages 213 flourishing city whose merchants vied with the nobiHty themselves in wealth and influence. More and more "London towne" became the center of everything that went on in England. Other important places were Bristol and Norwich. France, too, had growing cities, though, except for Paris, they are hardly as well known to us as the wonderful towns of neigh- boring lands. Thus a kind of life new to the Middle Ages came. Successful mer- chants grew rich and intelligent. The fierce nobles who delighted only in war now had rivals in the race for power and influence, and even the clergy began to find that they themselves no longer had all the learning of the world. When men meet every day in business and in talk, they soon make each other think. After the towns appeared, progress in every line was much more rapid than ever before. SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts, z. The peasants lived on great estates called manors. 2. They were serfs, bound to work a part of their time for the lord of the manor. 3. Their lives were hard and it was almost impossible for them to improve. 4. In the latter part of the Middle Ages towns and cities began to grow. A STREET SCENE IN VENICE 2 14 The Story of Old Europe and Yoitiig America 5. The cities got charters from the lords which gave more or less freedom. 6. The townspeople made their living by manufacturing articles and selling them. 7. All the people who made the same article belonged to a society called a "guild." 8. Only a few people were allowed to join a guild, and they must have a long course of training, g. In time, the cities began to carry on distant cominerce. 10. To overcome the great dangers to commerce, many of the cities foniied leagues like the great Hanseatic League of Germany. 11. Germany, Italy, and Belgium were especially noted for their flourishing cities. 12. The townspeople made great progress in learning and civilization. Study Questions, i. What sort of place was a peasant village in the Middle Ages? 2. How many different occupa- tions went on? J. What was a "serf "? 4. Tell how the serfs carried on their agriculture. 5. Why did not the peasants learn better methods? 6. What things which we have to eat and drink were unknown in the Middle Ages? 7. Why did the peasants look forward to attending the fair? 8. Why were not the peasants always unhappy? p. Why did towns and cities grow? 10. Why did the townspeople ask for charters? II. What were free cities? 12. Tell how the towns of the Middle Ages looked, ij. What kinds of people came to visit such towns? 14. How did the ways of making articles in these cities differ from those of our day? 13. Why did young men wish to be members of guilds? 16. Explain what a man must do to become a guild member. 77. Why were few new methods of manufacturing discovered in the Middle Ages? 18. What were some of the good things about the guilds? IQ. What were some of the bad things? 20. Tell some of the dangers to be met by merchants who carried on distant trade. 21. How did the towns try to overcome some of these? 22. What was the Hanseatic League? 2j. Name some of the chief towns of the Middle Ages in Germany; Belgium; Italy; England. 24. What strange things would you have seen had you visited Venice? 25. Why did the people of the towns become intelligent and make progress? Suggested Readings. Tappan, When Knights Were Bold, 102-121, 206-2 "J $, and European Hero Stories, 125-135; Harding, The Story of the Middle Ages. Also: Retold from "St, Nicholas": Stories of the Middle Ages, 107-13 1. The Church in the Middle Ages 215 THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 80. The Churches of the Middle Ages. In the Middle Ages every city and town was proud of its church or churches. In our cities to-day we have many pubHc buildings, — the city hall, the post office, the courthouse, and many more. The people now belong to different churches and worship in various places. But in the Middle Ages everybody in western Europe belonged to the great Roman Catholic church,, and all alike took interest in building the same stately and magnificent structures for the glory of God and of their native city. Each guild had a fine hall for its meetings, and in most cities there was at some corner of the walls a powerful castle for defense. But in beauty and expense all these were far surpassed by the central church, or "cathedral" as it was called, if it was the church of a bishop. The church in the Middle Ages was not merely a place for holding religious service. Great public meetings took place there. There, too, people came to visit with their friends, to hear news, and to see the fine and beauti- ful things which adorned the building. So all felt that the church belonged to them and was a part of their daily lives. To people who love what is old and what is beautiful, there is nothing more splendid in the whole world than the cathedrals of Europe. The older ones are great soHd buildings of stone, with heavy walls and massive towers. But later people learned how to construct churches in a new style, with lofty spires, graceful tapering ornaments, and long rows of buttresses which served to give strength and beauty at the same time. 2i6 The Story of Old Europe and Young America If the outside of the cathedrals seems wonderful, the interior fills the visitor with admiration and awe. The long rows of great columns, the lofty roof, and the huge windows filled with stained glass through which the sun- shine floods the building in a blaze of colored light, — all are parts of a wonderful picture never to be forgotten. But if the visitor begins to examine more carefull}^ his wonder will often become still stronger, for the artists and the workmen of the Middle Ages strove to adorn column and ceil- ing with the fin- est carving their hands could pro- duce. Even the kkiMdi^^i^<2H tapering spires and turrets with- out are frequently so beautifully carved that they seem like lacework to the eye. Yet ;f^^¥/r^m '^^ r^ t^^ graceful -^^ ^ ' A il, i i.kTi figures ot samts n and angels, the "'KMXj^ isT-KJ^^;^^ forms of flowers and fruits, the _- flowing scroll- FACADE FROM THE CATHEDRAL OF AMIENS, < .. .. NORTHERN FRANCE W O T K, " all a r C This church, built between 1220 and 1288, is said /-•a-r-xr/^rl frnm fVi<=> to be the finest example of Gothic CarVCQ irom LRC architecture in France SoHd StOnC. Sometimes, indeed, portions of the carving of the older time may seem rather rude and stiff as compared with The Church in the Middle Ages 217 the work of sculptors of our day, but taken all together it cannot now be equaled. One strange thing about the men who did this beau- tiful work was that they also loved what is grotesque and absurd. Often, right in the midst of the most beautiful carving, they put the figures of grinning imps and queer impossible beasts, or perhaps funny little figures of cats playing with mice, or naughty boys in trouble and howling with pain. But these whimsical things are never so placed as to spoil the general effect. How could the men of the Middle Ages, who knew nothing of steam and little about machinery, and who did all their work by hand, construct such great buildings and fill them with such ornament? The answer is that they had patience. These great cathedrals often took centuries to build. One of the largest, that at Cologne in Germany, begun in the Middle Ages, was not finished until 1880. A boy who wanted to be a stone cutter might learn his trade, become a clever artist, and work all his life on the same building. In those times men cared not alone for pay, but felt satisfied if after years of toil they had adorned a column or wrought out an ornament which was really beautiful. How impressive was the scene in one of these great cathedrals when the bishop in his flowing robes, ac- companied by a great body of other clergy, solemnly chanted the service in the presence of all the citizens of some old town. The music, the dimly burning candles on the altar, the multitude of people devoutly kneel- ing, — all told of the piety and faith of that simple old time when men had not yet begun to differ and to fight about questions of religion. 2i8 The Story of Old Europe and YoiDig America Si. The Clergy and the Pope. In those days, when hardly anybody had any learning and only the clergy could read and write, the officers of the church did many things which they would not think of undertaking now. Every church, either in town or country, had at least one priest to perform its services. To him the simple people went with all their troubles, and if he was a wise man he could do much good. People who were wicked he sometimes "excommunicated," — that is, he cut them off from coming to church. This usually so frightened them that they repented or pretended to repent. But since education was hard to get in the Middle Ages, the priest himself in the little peasant villages was often very ignorant. Some priests could hardly read the service. Far more important was the bishop, who usually lived in a city and had a beautiful cathedral. A bishop wore a pecuHar and impressive dress, with a tall hat called a miter, and carried a staff of a kind allowed to him alone. He was overseer or superintendent over all the priests and other clergy in the district, or "dio- cese" as it was called, which lay about his . " church. He traveled about to see that A TYPICAL VILLAGE CHURCH ^-^^^ ^^^^ ^^-^^g ^J^^-j. work well, and sometimes punished or dismissed those who were not faithful. The Church in the Middle Ages 219 The bishop dwelt in a castle or palace and had charge of all the vast lands which belonged to the church, for since many people were anxious to make gifts to the church it had become very rich. Frequently he was stronger and more powerful than many dukes or counts. In fact, in many parts of Europe a bishop was a count at the same time. Above the bishop was a still higher officer, called the archbishop, who lived in some very large city. Often a great archbishop, like the Archbishop of Canterbury in England, was the man next most important to the king of the country. But the ruler of the whole church was the pope at Rome. The pope Hved in the ancient palace called the Vatican, surrounded by the great court of officials and secretaries through whom he carried on his work. He made all the laws and rules of the church, decided all sorts of matters which were brought to his court from every part of Europe, and governed the city of Rome and the surrounding country. In early times the election of a pope often caused great trouble, but it was finally settled that when one pope died all the great officers of the church who held the rank of cardinal should assemble to choose another. These notable persons were distinguished by the red hats and red robes which they wore, and were the special advisers of the pope. They usually chose the new pope from among themselves. From his great seal THOMAS BECKET, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY 2 20 The Story of Old Europe and Yomig America During the Middle Ages the pope of Rome was for several centuries far more powerful than any king or other ruler. The popes claimed, and several times used, the power of deposing any king whom they found to be wicked or tyrannical, and of giving his throne to another. Many were the struggles between the popes and the haughty emperors or kings who tried to defy them; such, for example, as the wicked King John of England. But few rulers were able to hold out when the pope excommunicated them or ordered all the churches in their country closed. Among all the great popes of this period perhaps the strongest were Gregory VII, the man who rose from the position of a humble monk to be the ruler of all Europe, and the famous Innocent III, w^ho humbled King John. With such men as these at the head, the mighty Roman church was certain to set on foot great things. But among all the enterprises which it started, the most exciting and interesting were the Crusades. SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts, i. The chief building of a city in the Middle Ages was the cathedral or church. 2. Many of these are among the most beautiful and wonderful buildings ever erected. 3. The cathedrals often took centuries to build. 4. The clergy in the Middle Ages had great influence because they were almost the only educated people. 5. The head of the church was the pope at Rome. 6. The popes often had far more power than any king or emperor. 7. Among the greatest popes were Gregory VII and Innocent III. Study Questions, i. Why did the people of the Middle Ages care so much for cathedrals and churches? 2. Why do people visit these old churches now? 3. Picture in your mind a great old cathedral, and tell what you see. 4. Give at least one reason why the workmen of the Middle Ages did such I The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 221 beautiful work. 5. Why did the priest of a village church have so much influence among his people? 6. What was a bishop? 7. Tell some of his duties. 8. What was an archbishop? g. What archbishop about whom we have studied dared to oppose a king? 10. Tell something of the power of the pope. II. How was a pope chosen? 12. Name two great popes of the Middle Ages. Suggested Readings. Tappan, When Knights Were_ Bold, 338-366; Grierson, The Children s Book oj English Minsters, I -8 1, 260-337; Harding, The Story of the Middle Ages. THE PILGRIMS AND THE CRUSADERS 82. People Who Were Called Pilgrims. Pilgrims are men and women who make journeys to places held sacred because of some event connected with rehgion. Some of the most famous pilgrims were those who visited the Holy Land in the eleventh and following centuries, to see and worship at the places made sacred by the life and deeds of Jesus. In Rome the graves of St. Paul and St. Peter are still visited by great numbers of people. In England lies Thomas Becket. The stone in the path leading to his grave has been worn down by the thousands who have worshiped at his place of burial in Canterbury Cathedral. To Mecca, in Arabia, the birthplace of Mohammed, the founder of the Mohammedan rehgion, crowds of pilgrims travel annually, for every behever in that prophet is expected to make a pilgrimage to that holy city once in his life. But the greatest pilgrimages were made to places in the Holy Land trodden by the feet of Jesus. In that far-off age the churches taught, and men believed, that they might get rid of great sins and terrible diseases by making such journeys. From every land of Europe, 2 22 The Story of Old Europe and Young America therefore, pilgrims flocked to the Holy Land, singly and in crowds, to secure some great blessing. But the journey was long and hard. They did not know the way well ; the roads were bad and often danger- ous. They had to climb mountains, cross rivers, and go on board ships before they reached the sacred spot. There were robbers and murderers along the route. The pilgrims often found themselves among people speaking a language they had never heard. ^ Finally books were written to make easier this hard journey. These were probably the beginning of the modern guidebooks that are so full of useful and inter- esting information about men and events, buildings and places. These old books told the pilgrims how they should get ready for the journey, what they should do on the way, and what prices they should pay. In some guidebooks foreign words and phrases were given, which helped the pilgrim in securing food and lodging or in paying for the sea trip from Europe to the Holy Land. When the pilgrim had finished his pious visit, and was ready to go back to his native land, it was a wide- spread custom for him to make a gift of money or jewels to the saint whose tomb he had visited. By this means these hallowed places became very rich as the gifts piled up year after year. The pilgrim usually took back with him some token of his visit, just as people nowa- days like to carry home a souvenir of their trip. In the case of the pilgrim he generally carried back a medal on which the name of the saint or some pious words were written. To his admiring neighbors he could thus furnish proof of his pilgrimage. The people listened with wide-eyed wonder to his tales of adventure PILGRIMS ON THEIR WAY TO THE SHRINE OF THOMAS BECKET AT CANTERBURY 2 24 The Story of Old Europe and Young America and the stories of what he had seen. He became a man of renown in his native village after he had been to the Holy Land and seen the very places hallowed by the presence of Jesus. As time went on, pilgrimages to the Holy Land became more and more dangerous, and pilgrims went together in companies for protection. Although these crowds numbered several hundreds, and some of them were armed, not half of the people ever came back. Many died of starvation and sickness, or lost their lives by accident or in battle. 83. The Cultured Arabs and the Fierce Turks. Though the Christian religion began in the Holy Land, that region had long before this time been conquered by the Arabs. Led by the great prophet Mohammed, this remarkable people had left the deserts of Arabia and by a series of wonder- ful conquests over- run all southwestern Asia and northern Africa. They even crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and estab- lished their power in Spain. Though originally a very war-like race, the Arabs soon be- came highly civilized. They adopted much of the learning of the Greeks and Romans, and added other ideas which they got from the East. From them From glass in Canterbury Cathedral PILGRIMS AT THE SHRINE OF THOMAS BECKET The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 225 the people of Europe learned much about the move- ments of the heavenly bodies and got their first notions of chemistry and of other scientific subjects. The Arabs were best of all in mathematics. The Ara- bic figures, which we still use in arithmetic, are named after them. At a time when the rest of Europe was almost barbarous the Arabs, or ' ' Moors, ' ' of Spain had great universities and constructed beautiful buildings, such as the famous palace of the Alhambra, which are still viewed with delight. The cultured Arabs were tolerant of people of other religions, and permitted the Christian pilgrims to worship at the shrines they held so dear. But presently western Asia was overrun by a ruder and fiercer Mohammedan tribe called the Turks. These came with fire and sword from central Asia, and conquered everything in their path. They refused to allow the pilgrims to see the holy places, and killed them by hundreds. The returning pilgrims told of this cruel treatment. They not only told of their own hardships but spoke of the shame and disgrace to Europe of permitting the Turks to hold the sacred places of the Christian rehgion. The Greek emperor, a Christian prince whose capital was at Constantinople, became alarmed by the conquering A WARLIKE TURK OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY 2 26 The Story of Old Europe and Young America Turks. He tried to defeat them in battle, but the soldiers of Mohammed were too powerful for him. He then thought of his good friend, the pope, to whom many of the pilgrims had told their stories, and who was the religious ruler over the nations of Western Europe. The emperor begged the pope to come to his aid and help in driving back the Turks. 84. How the Crusades Began. Pope Urban replied to the emperor's plea by calling a great council at Cler- mont in France. In the presence of assembled thousands, of rich and poor alike, he told the story of the sufferings of the pilgrims, and appealed to the people of all Western Europe to arouse themselves, stop fighting each other, and go to rescue the Holy Land from the hands of the infidel Turk. He stirred the mighty crowd to the great- est excitement. Soldiers drew their swords and waved their banners, and the multitude sent up a mighty shout, crying: "God wills it! It is the will of God!" The pope then declared that "God Wills It" should be their battle cry, and that every soldier should wear a cross — upon his breast as he went forth to the Holy Land, and upon his back as he returned. PREACHING TO THE CRUSADERS Ati appeal was made not only to the spirit of religious enthusiasm but to the love of fighting and adventure The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 227 CRUSADERS ON THE MARCH Each Crusader undertook the expedition on his own account, and was under orders only so long as he pleased The excitement, beginning at Clermont, spread to all classes in the remotest comers of Western Europe. Many preachers, dur- ing the fall and winter of 1095 and 1096 still further stirred the people. Rich and poor, soldier and beg- gar, joined the forces bound for the Holy Land to destroy the Turks. The summer of 1096 was chosen as the time for the great army to start. But to those people who did not know how hard would be the battle or how far would be the march, the time seemed much too long in which to get ready. They were anxious to get at the Turks at once. Many wanted to be among the first to strike the blow that should drive the enemy from the sacred places. These impatient persons found their leaders. A great speaker, Peter the Hermit, and a poor knight called Walter the Penniless, put themselves at the head of these hosts and set out immediately for the conquest. Unfortunately, this curious army of knights and monks, of artisans and peasants, of beggars and criminals, of women and children, had made very little preparation. What was still more unfortunate, they truly believed that Christ and the various saints would come to their rescue in some such way as that in which the Lord pro- vided food for the Israelites in the wilderness. 2 28 The Story of Old Europe and Young America These thousands of Crusaders were Hke swarms of hungry locusts, eating people out of "house and home" in the regions through which they traveled. They journeyed up the Rhine for a time, but when they came to the "beautiful blue Dan- ube" they found the Hungarians maddened by their plundering. . The Hungarians set their armies on them, and the Crusaders hastened forward to Constantinople. But the emperor, instead of giving them a hearty welcome, was only too glad to get rid of them because they set fire to some of his buildings in the city and began robbing the churches. He hurried them across into Asia Minor, where they fell a prey to the well-drilled and well- fed soldiers of the Turks. Neither the prayers of the monks nor the swords of the knights could gain for them the hoped-for victory. The Turks were victorious in the battles around the old town of Nicaea, and the sacred places remained in the hands of the infidels. Only a very few of the great host that began the journey under the banners of Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penni- less ever saw their native land again; many were killed in battle, but thousands died of disease. WALTER THE PENNILESS Among all the Crusaders the knights in their suits of armor were the most noticeable The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 229 85. The First Trained Army. But Western Europe put more hope in the orderly troops that had been get- ting ready during that winter and summer. A great army was prepared, commanded by the best generals. The number of knights and their followers was very large indeed; three hundred thousand, some say, while others believe it was even larger. They came from several countries, but the French soldiers were the flower of the army. Each leader took his followers by a different route, but all agreed to meet at Constantinople. This was one of the richest and most beautiful places the Crusaders had ever seen. How overjoyed they were when the spires of that great city broke on their sight! They lifted up their voices in shouts of joy and praise. But the emperor was now sorry he had asked the pope to send him soldiers to conquer the Turks. For many of the Crusaders wanted to conquer them not for the eastern emperor but for the lands they would thus win and rule over. They quarreled, and came to hate each other almost as much as both hated the Turks. Therefore the emperor greatly rejoiced when the Crusaders had passed over into Asia Minor. The Turks were hardly ready for the knights of the West. They believed them to be another helpless crowd, half starved and poorly led. 16 PETER THE HERMIT Preaching with great earnest- ness, he roused his hearers to a high pitch of enthusiasm 230 The Story of Old Europe and Young America What a mistake! Here were some of the best and bravest soldiers of Europe, and the Turks proved no match for them. So the Crusaders captured the old Asiatic town of Nicaea, where the first band of Chris- tians had been defeated. After this first great victory the Christian soldiers hurried southeastward to the ancient city of Antioch, a walled town and well fortified. But the Turks were brave and fought well. They did not yield so quickly this time. Many of the Crusaders grew discouraged. Some became homesick and returned to their native land. Victory seemed far away. They had been fighting for over three months. 86. The Wonderful Spear. This has been called the "Age of Faith," for people in that far-off time beHeved many impossible things. About this time a pious monk had revealed to him in a dream- — so the story goes — a wondrous spear or lance. This spear had pierced the side of Jesus at the time of His crucifixion, and now lay buried in a church near by. If this lance were once found and carried at the head of the army nothing could stand in the way of victory. The monk told the Cru- saders that three times he had been assured of this in his dreams. But to find the Holy Lance much fasting and prayer by the Crusaders were necessary. Finally, after long searching, the spear was found. A wonderful zeal now seemed to seize the entire army. They rushed to battle, stormed the walls, broke through, and Antioch fell. But the advantage gained was lessened by quarrels among the leaders as to who should rule the city and the surrounding region. It was not until the spring of logg that the crusading The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 231 THE STORMING OF ANTIOCH The Crusaders were a year taking this rich city host, by this time much smaller in number, reached the city of Jerusalem. Here, too, they found a walled city, in a region where the springs or wells had all dried up. It was almost im- possible to get water, and there was great suffer- ing among the soldiers and their horses. But in spite of these hard- ships the Crusaders went bravely to work to capture the city. After many days of hard fighting there seemed little prospect of success. But again their faith was put to the test. The priests declared that, in a vision, they had been to4d that if the army should march around Jerusalem, barefooted, for nine days, the city would fall. That was indeed a strange procession which the Mohammedans saw — a barefooted army marching around their city, with bishops at their head, and every one chanting hymns. No wonder the infidel Turks mocked from their walls as they watched. Instead of fighting, these bold soldiers of the western world were singing songs and reciting prayers! So the Mohammedans thought. Suddenly these praying soldiers were turned into fighting demons. The city was stormed from two sides at once. Showers of stones were hurled at the Turks; 232 The Story of Old Europe and Young America huge battering rams pounded great holes in the walls, through which many of the Crusaders poured, and by- using great scaling ladders, hundreds climbed upon the walls. There was terrible hand-to-hand fighting, and the Christians overcame the Mohammedans. 87. How the Crusaders Acted. At last the city fell. But such a victory! Maddened by the long, brave fight of the Turkish defenders, the Christians put them to death by the most horrible cruelties. Moham- medans had their heads cut off, were shot through by arrows, or were driven to leap from high towers. Not satisfied, the Christians burned scores and scores of Turks. The bodies were piled so thick in the streets and public squares that people on foot or on horseback could hardly pass. This was all done in the name of the gentle Jesus who had taught His followers a very different lesson. The Crusaders had won, and Jerusalem was in their hands. They appointed one of their great soldiers to rule over it and the country around. The city and the near-by land were called the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Hundreds of the Crusaders returned home to greet their loved ones who had so long waited and prayed for them. But thousands did not return. They were filling unknown graves along the Danube, in the land of the Hungarians, or in the Holy Land. Yet the souls of those who died fighting the Turks were happy, accord- ing to the teaching of pope, bishop, and priests, and according to the belief of all the Crusaders. Many new bands of Crusaders were constantly arriving in Asia Minor, for the Holy Land had to be guarded. The Turks were brave, and refused to give 234 ^^'fc' Story oj Old Europe and Young America up easily. They kept on fighting much of the time, and fifty years (1144) after the pope called the brave sons of Western Europe to the First Crusade, news came that the Turks were again vic- torious and had captured one of the most important strongholds of the Christians. 88. The Second Crusade. The Second Crusade was preached by an eloquent man whose title was St. Bernard. Two kings, one of France and one of Germany, gathered their hosts. St. Bernard told the Crusaders that the Christian who slew an unbeliever >^f/kll jjj i\yq Holy War was sure of his reward, the more certain if he himself were slain. The Christian rejoiced in the death of the pagan because he thought Christ was thereby glorified. This was indeed a strange doc- J trine, but thousands accepted it. The Second FrZ^lT^ffily at Crusadc did but little to win back the places Foniervauu ^ieXd by the enemies of Christianity. 89. The Third Crusade. This was the crusade of Richard the Lion-Hearted. More than forty years had passed since St. Bernard called the men of the west to the' Second Crusade. Ne'-vs came to Western Europe of the rising power of a great man among the Mohamme- dans, — Saladin, one of the greatest soldiers and wisest statesmen among the followers of Mohammed. He was kind in his treatment of his enemies; he was a man of his word; what he promised, he did. Saladin 's army swept up from Egypt, carrying every- thing before it. Jerusalem was threatened. The Chris- tian soldiers marched out to meet Saladin in a great The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 235 battle. But the Mohammedans were victorious. The king of Jerusalem had been taken prisoner and many of the bravest Christians had been killed. Saladin in turn laid siege to Jerusalem, and the city fell within a short time. (1187.) Now the victorious Saladin taught the Christians a noble lesson in warfare. He did not kill a single prisoner, but set every one free. It was the news of the A MOVABLE TOWER These towers greatly aided the besiegins. army to gain an entrance to city or castle A MACHINE FOR HURLING STONES Slone-hurling machines were in use even in Old Testament times capture of Jerusalem that called forth the greatest of the Crusades. The Third Crusade numbered among its heroes Richard the Lion-Hearted, King of England, Frederick Barbarossa, emperor of the Germans, and Philip Augustus, King of France; but the most romantic of these was Richard. Frederick Barbarossa was also an interesting character. He was so named because of his great red beard. He was a man seventy years 236 The Story of Old Europe and Young America ,^/*- A BATTERING RAM Under the protecting cover, men worked the huge mounted beam, metal-covered, and beat down opposing walls old, full of energy and courage, a true son of Germany. His army was the first to get ready, but the great man lost his life in Asia Minor while swimming a river. His soldiers lost heart. Some re- turned home, but most of them fell in battle. Philip and Richard were wiser. They did not take the long routes by land, which caused so much suffering, but took ships from southern France and sailed in almost a straight line for the Holy Land. They found the Christians already besieging Acre, a seaport not far from Jerusalem. The siege had been long and hard. The Mohammedans were good fighters, since Saladin was their leader. But the fame of Richard the Lion-Hearted put new life into the besiegers. Richard was indeed a man to be admired. He was big, strong, and good looking. It was said that no man in England was strong enough to handle the king's battle ax. In battle no knight was able to keep his seat in the saddle when Richard gave him a thrust with a lance. Now when Richard and his soldiers came to Acre, the Crusaders took new heart. He showed them where to place their battering rams and "moving towers" so as to do the most good. The stone-hurling machines were The Pilgrims arid the Crusaders 237 again brought into frequent use, and in the end Acre fell. Men said that this result was largely due to the wisdom and courage of Richard the Lion-Hearted. Again quarrels broke out among the Christians. King Philip went home, but others kept old jealousy and hatred burning. This division among the Crusaders pre- vented them from winning back Jerusalem. It is said that before he left the Holy Land Richard mounted his war horse and rode up a high hill in sight of the Holy City, but he lifted his shield and held it so that he might not behold the city he could not rescue. 90. Richard and Saladin Good Friends. While in the Holy Land Richard fell ill of a fever. His enemy, the noble Saladin, sent him fruits fresh from Damascus to tempt his appetite, and snow from the mountains to cool his parched lips. They exchanged messages and became good friends. Richard made a treaty with Saladin by which the Chris- tians were allowed to visit the holy places in peace and comfort. Thus by his wisdom and by the generosity of Saladin more was accomplished for the pilgrims than by all the. Crusades both before and after. But though the Lion-Hearted and Saladin became friends, Richard's name was a terror to the common A QUARREL BETWEEN TWO LEADERS OF THE CRUSADERS 238 The Story of Old Europe and Yowig America people among the Mohammedans. After he was long dead, the fathers still told their children many stories of his deeds and of his great battle ax, which contained twenty pounds of iron in its mighty head. If a Moham- medan's horse shied at something at the roadside he would say, "How, now! Dost thou see Richard the king?" The mothers, too, frightened their crying children by saying, "Be quiet! The King of England will get you!" On his way home the great soldier was shipwrecked near Venice and found himself in the hands of the Duke of Austria, one of his enemies in the Holy Land. The duke put him in prison in a lonely castle, where his own people could not find him. 91. The Story of the King's Friend. Long afterward men told a beautiful story of how King Richard was rescued. In England he had a favorite minstrel, called Blondel. They had played the harp and sung together, particularly one song Richard himself had com- posed. Blondel set out to find his good master. He wandered from castle to castle, singing and playing under the windows the songs they used to sing. One evening, as the sun went down in the west, he sat himself down by a great castle among the hills, too tired and hun- gry to sing. From a window above came the strains of sweet music. He listened. It was Richard's voice, singing the song he knew so well. At blondel hears thi'; king's voice The Pilgrims and the Crusaders '■39 From an old engraving THE children's CRUSADE The hoys and girls of the Children's Crusade were either shipwrecked or made slaves the end of the first verse Blondel took up the second. The king heard it, and recognized the voice. Blondel had come, and now he would be free! But it was not an easy task to open the castle doors, for the duke demanded a great ransom. The people of England paid a vast sum in gold for the king's release, and when he reached his own country there was indeed great rejoicing. Richard the Lion-Hearted found so much to do in England he was never able to carry on another Crusade as he had hoped to do. 92. Later Crusades. The Crusades went on for nearly one hundred years after Richard's time. Among the saddest of them all was the Children's Crusade, in which thousands of boys and girls marched away never to come back. The later Crusades began to take on a different character. Instead of fighting the Mohammedans the Crusaders sought to gain trading places in the East by attacking the Christian city of Constantinople. The cities of Venice and Genoa, in what is now Italy, came into possession of this foreign trade. As it grew, it drew to itself the rich spices and silks of the most distant 240 The Story of Old Europe and Young America parts of Asia, The merchants of Venice and Genoa then carried this trade to their own cities, to distribute it to the west and north. 93. What the Crusades Did. The pilgrims and Crusaders told wonderful tales of what they had seen and of the adventures they had had. As a result of the Crusades travel became safer than ever before. Conse- quently more people sought the East, some still to make pilgrimages, but an increasing number to see and to learn. Travel makes men wiser, broader, and more just and generous in judging strangers. The more the people knew, the more they wanted to know. Before the Crusades people had to do most of their counting by using Roman figures, such as I, II, III, IV, and so on, but after the Crusades were over people had learned a much simpler way of counting by using the present system, which they called the Arabic, because obtained from the Arabs. But we now know that it probably came from far- away India. Again, people learned from com- ing in contact with the Moors, the Mohammedan in- vaders of Spain, how to ornament their houses more tastefully. The Alhambra, once one of the most beautiful buildings in After print in Winsor'a Narrative and Critical History of America A MERCHANT SHIP OF VENICE The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 241 the world, was built in Spain by the Mohammedans. We have seen the Crusaders under Philip and Richard, in the Third Crusade, take ship and sail directly for the Holy Land. The merchants who agreed to furnish the ships needed larger and stronger vessels, not only to carry the soldiers but to care for their horses and to carry the food suppHes demanded by the army, as well as the great machines for fighting. The Crusades, therefore, led to improvements in shipbuilding. These merchants were quick to seize an advantage, and did not propose to have their ships go back empty. They loaded them with those products of soil, mine, and loom which Europeans were beginning to demand. Then, too, the merchants pressed for admission to the cities won by the Christians, and had places set apart for their agents, in which to buy and sell. From these places they traded and trafficked for the rich carpets, rugs, and shawls that came by caravan from Egypt, Persia, or even from India. Damasks, satins, silks, and velvets were added to their store. They even bought drugs and spices, sugars and perfumes. All these articles were loaded on ships for Genoa or for Venice, to be sent from these cities to various towns of Europe. This trade gave these two towns great advantages. Venice became the richest and most beautiful of all the cities. In fact, it became a nation, ruled by a great man called the Doge. He was visited by the pope, the Emperor of Germany, and other rulers, so important a man was he. There were many wonderful things to see in Venice, and even in our day it is visited by thousands of people. It is a city built on a number of islands at the head of the Adriatic Sea. Many of its "streets" 242 TJic Story of Old Europe and Young America SCENE ON THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE are long, winding canals and, instead of having horses or street cars or automobiles, the people get from place to place by means of little boats called ' ' gondolas. ' ' These boats are long, narrow, and usually moved by one man standing at the stern with a long oar. The rulers of Venice strove to make their city a place of beauty. They employed the best artists to carve in marble the faces or figures of the most famous of their men, other artists to paint on canvas the wonderful events that had taken place, and others, still, to make their houses, halls, and churches stately, grand, and beautiful. Perhaps the place most widely known in our day is St. Mark's Piazza, a wide sort of square with St. Mark's Church at one side and on the other, shops or stores containing beautiful and costly ornaments. Genoa was the greatest rival Venice had for the trade with the East. She, too, had ships and soldiers, and for a time got possession of the trade with Constantinople and the Black Sea. Finally, in a great sea fight, the vessels of Genoa were completely overcome by those of her rival, Venice, and .from that time until the water route to India was discovered by the Portuguese, Venice The Pilgrims and the Crusaders 243 had most of the rich trade of the Orient. But after the Turks won Constantinople and broke up the old trade routes to the East, and the all-water route around Africa to India became established, there arose on the shores of the Atlantic those splendid trading ports of Cadiz, Lisbon, Antwerp, Amsterdam, and London. This ocean commerce was established first by the Portuguese, then the Dutch, and later still the English sent men to East Africa, India, and China to buy the products of these lands. SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts, i. Early pilgrimages to the Holy Land and other sacred places. 2. How the pilgrim was looked upon when he returned home. j. What the people of Europe learned from the Arabs. 4. The Turks robbed and killed the pilgrims in the Holy Land. 5. The Council of Cler- mont, and what came of it. 6. Two ways of conducting a Crusade. 7. How the eastern emperor received the Crusaders. 8. The siege of Antioch. p. How Jerusalem was finally cap- tured. 10. The Second Crusade. 11. The three great leaders of the Third Crusade, and what each did. 12. Richard the Lion-Hearted and Saladin. ij. The story of Richard and Blon- del. 14. The later Crusades, ij. Increase of knowledge, travel, shipbuilding, and trade. 16. Rise of Venice and Genoa. Study Questions, i. How do the purposes of pilgrimages differ now from those made long ago? 2. What obstacles did the early pilgrims encounter ? 3. Why did the eastern emperor ask the pope for aid? 4. Make a mental picture of the Coun- cil of Clermont. 5. What was the trouble with the Crusaders who followed Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless? 6. Draw a map of the great routes of the Crusaders. 7. Do you believe the story of the wonderful spear in the capture of Antioch? 8. Describe the miracle performed in the siege of Jerusalem, p. In what way did the victors show that they were not true followers of the Cross? 10. What was the cause of the Second Crusade? 11. What was the cause of the Third Crusade? 12. Who was the romantic hero of this crusade? I J. What did the Lion-Hearted do, besides fight, to promote 244 The Story of Old Europe and Young America the welfare of the Christians ? 14. How did the later Crusades differ from the others? 15. Eniimerate the good things ac- complished by the Crusades. Suggested Readings. Knights and Pilgrims: The Story of the Nations, 282-299; Colby, Selections from the Sources of English History, 41-44; Richard the Lion-He arted: Cheyney, Readings in English History drawn from the Original Sources, 68-70, 171-176; Robinson, Readings in European History, 321-329; Ogg, A Source Book of Medicsval History, 291-296. MARCO POLO'S GREAT JOURNEY AND HIS BOOK 94. The Polos* Visit to China. ' The voyages of the merchants of Genoa to the Black Sea, and of those of Venice to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, were even more important in making men acquainted with the marvels of the hidden regions of the Far East, China MAP SHOWING THE ROUTE OF MARCO POLO'S JOURNEY and Japan, than were the wonderful tales of the pilgrims. The caravan, making its slow way across desert and Marco Polo's Great Journey 245 over mountain, brought back something besides the products of that land of romance and wonder: the tales told probably lost nothing in being repeated from mouth to mouth. But more truthful and more real were the stories brought by those few merchants and travel- ers who had braved the dangers themselves and gone to the Far East. Two brothers named Polo who lived in Venice sought these strange lands. So charmed were they with their first visit, that after a few years at home they took with them, on a second journey, young Marco, son of one of the brothers. Over three years were spent in reaching the king of that far-distant country. His name was Kublai Khan, and his country was called Cathay or China. Young Marco became a favorite of the great king, and was sent to the most distant parts of China and to other countries in his service, while his father and uncle were busy gathering rich treasures of precious stones. 17 Eased on a mpdallion in Yule's Life of Marco Polo THE POLOS RETURN HOME '.^() The Story of Old Europe and Yomig America Twenty years passed, and the time came when the brothers longed to return home. The king did not wish to part with Marco, but finally gave his consent. It took nearly three years to reach Venice. The two brothers had gray hair and wrinkled faces, and Marco, only a boy when they set out, had long since grown to be a man. Not even their kinsfolk knew them when they reached home, and all refused to believe in them and their travels. To prove the truth of their stories the travelers decided to give a feast, to which they invited many old-time friends and neighbors. At it they tore open the seams of their travel-stained clothes, and out rolled stores of diamonds and emer- alds and rubies and sapphires. The people were convinced that these men were really the Polos come back from a far-off land. From being rivals for the trade with the East the people of Ven- ice and the people of Genoa became deadly enemies. They fought mainly on the Mediter- ranean Sea. Marco Polo was given command of the ships of Venice, and in a great sea fight seven thousand Venetians were captured. After a medallion in Yule's Life of Marco Polo MARCO POLO IN PRISON, DICTATING AN ACCOUNT OF HIS TRAVELS Inventions in the Fifteeidh Ceiiiurv A CROSSBOW 'J'he crossbow was mounled on n sloik and dischar^fd by means of a catch or trigger Among them was Marco Polo. The Genoese threw him into prison, where he spent most of his time in pre- paring an interest- ing story of his travels in the Far East. This famous old book was written in the very town in which later Co- lumbus was born. If Columbus did not read the wonderful tales of Marco Polo, he certainly heard them told, and saw the result of those journeys in the making of better maps and in the desire of the people for the products of far-off lands. INVENTIONS IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 95. Early Inventions. There were many things known to the people of the fifteenth century, but they had many more to learn. They had not uncovered the great secrets of nature, and did not know about several of the most wonderful inventions and discoveries of our day. But by the fifteenth century interesting inventions had been made. We have already seen that centuries and centuries ago man probably lived in caves and holes in the ground as a means of protection. Finally he learned to build some sort of a house or fort for safety. He early learned the art of making rude rafts and boats to carry his family and goods from place to place on the water. 248 The Story of Old Europe and Young America In those old days people invented the bow — the longbow and the crossbow — and also the great battle ax or hatchet to get their food or to drive off their enemies. Later they added to their stock of food and clothing by inventing the plow and the spinning wheel. Early in this book (p. 13), you read the story of how the Egyptians and Assyrians learned the art of writing, and how they left records of the mighty deeds of their kings. The Phoenicians invented the alphabet, so that men could more easily write the records of their lives. This was a great step forward, for the people of one age could thus learn about the success or failure of the people of past ages. 96. Invention of Printing. Before the invention of printing in the fifteenth century men made books very slowly and very labori- ously by copying page after page by hand. This was the sort of book that Marco Polo made. But in this century, in both Holland and Ger- many, men laid claim to the discovery of printing. So simple was this invention, that men wondered it had not been discovered long before. It consisted in cutting MAN WITH LONGBOW Longbows were often five or six feet long, the shorter being used by horsemen, the longer by fool archers TWO BATTLE AXES Upper, German horseman' s {in Dresden Museum); lower, Slavonic {after drawing by DUrer) Inventions in the Fifteenth Century 249 the different letters out of separate pieces of wood, and in so placing the letters as to spell words on a printed page. In this way whole books could be printed if enough let- ters were made. Finally Guten- berg, one of the inventors, made a printing press that turned out pamphlets and books, especi- ally the Bible, in large numbers for that age. The invention came at a happy time in the world's his- tory. The new learning was beginning to brighten the dark places of Europe. Stories of the wonders seen by great travelers like Marco Polo were eagerly sought. The Turks were break- ing down the old trade routes to the distant East, and even now the bold sailors of Western Europe were beginning to brave unknown seas in search of a water route to India, 97. The Compass. Among the inventions that en- couraged seamen to venture into the unknown was the mariner's compass. With its faithful "finger" always pointing toward the north pole, the sailor need not fear to venture forth. The compass was known to man centuries before the hardy sailors of Western Europe began to use it. In fact, it is said that Marco Polo brought with him from China a knowledge of this faithful little instrument. It is doubtful whether Columbus and the explorers after him would have ventured to cross GUTENBERG PRESS The Story of Old Europe and Young America the mighty ocean to America without its help. But while we know and trust the compass without question, the sailors of the fifteenth cen- tury many times doubted this "faithful friend" of the seamen. 98. Discovery of Gunpowder and Invention of Cannon. No one knows when gunpowder was first discovered. It is really a mixture of charcoal, sulphur, and saltpeter. Some have de- clared that it came from the" Far East, while others assert it was brought to Europe by the Mo- hammedans. Cannon, too, were an important invention, which of course would be of no value without gunpowder. These two inventions have pro- duced wonderful changes among men. After they came into use the walled town and the great castle were doomed, vsince they afforded poor pro- tection. The knight with his great load of armor could not stand against cannon, and the common man had a chance to win in battle. When the knights and the castles were gone, a ^ hard blow had been ,^^ ^ struck at feudalism. But how different were the cannon then from the mighty guns belching forth death now! At first they shot only stone balls, and not much farther than a good bowman EARLY COMP.\SS The points were designated by the usual (Italian) names of the winds, as Levanle, east: Sirocco, south- east, and so on ANCIENT CANNON Inventions in the Fifteenth Century 251 sent his arrow. Now the terrible sixteen-inch gun sends its ball plunging for a distance of several miles, spread- ing destruction in its path. SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts. I. Merchants and trav- elers brought news of the Far East. 2. For twenty years Marco Polo visited far eastern countries. 3. How the Polos convinced the people of Venice that they were telling the truth. 4. Marco wrote his great book while in prison. 5. What great inventions the people of the fifteenth century A PRESENT-DAY SIEGE GUiN These huge guns can carry a distance of 17 miles, sending projectiles with such force that few of the world's fortifications would be able to withstand them did not know about, and what they did know about. 6. The great inventions that helped toward the discovery of America. Study Questions, i. Which were the travelers that people loved most to hear? 2. Prove that Marco Polo was one of this kind. 3. Tell, in your own language, what the Polos did in Asia. 4. Why did they hold a great feast on their return home? 5. Explain how Marco wrote his book. 6. How did it probably help Columbus? 7. In what sort of "houses" did men probably Hve at first? 8. What things do you imagine they had in their holes in the ground ? p. What S9rt of clothes did they wear? 10. What difference is there between the way men make books now and the way they were made in Marco Polo 's time ? 11. What makes the compass always point to the north star? J2. How have gunpowder and cannon influenced war? 13. How did fighting with guns help to make a knight no better than a common soldier? 252 The Story of Old Europe and Young America Suggested Readings. Brooks, Story of Marco Polo, chaps. I, 2, 14, 20, and 21; Knox, The Travels of Marco Polo for Boys and Girls; Old South Leaflets, Vol. II, No. 32, Marco Polo's Account of Japan and China; Forman, Stories of Useful Inventions. THE RACE FOR INDIA BEGINS BETWEEN PORTUGAL AND SPAIN 99. Prince Henry, the Navigator, Seeks an All-Water Route to India. We have said that the Turks broke up the old Italian trade routes to India. Prince Henry of Portugal determined to find an all-water route to the Far East. He first opened a sort of school for sea captains and sailors, and here gathered many wise teachers of geography and of subjects bearing on the sea and the art of sailing ships. He gave his work a practical turn by sending sea captains down the west coast of Africa to find out about an all-water route to India. There had been stories, of the long ago, about men who had sailed around Africa, and into the Indian Ocean. Prince Henry was now determined to have his men find out if these stories were true. At last, after several trials, a great captain returned with the news that his vessel had succeeded in passing one of the most dangerous capes of that coast. Prince Henry rewarded him and urged his other great sea captains to push farther on. Other attempts carried the brave sailors around to the Gulf of Guinea, but they were dismayed at finding that the coast of Africa again turned southward. This seemed to prove what some geographers taught, that Africa extended so far south no man could sail around it. Stories of the "gold coast" aroused their 2 54 ^^^ Story of Old Europe and Young America greed, however, and finally Bartholomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope and looked out upon the Indian Ocean (i486). The old stories of men sailing around Africa were true, but Prince Henry had been long in his grave before they were proved. Vasco da Gama, a wise and brave sailor, set out from Portugal (1497) and reached the long-sought India by an all- water route around the Cape of Good Hope. Portugal was happy, but the way to the Far East was far longer than any one had imagined. 100. Christopher Columbus, Seeking India, Finds America. Already another man, Columbus, had thought he could find India and the East by a shorter way. He sailed to the westward to test his plan. The land he discovered was America, but he returned fully con- vinced that he had reached the land of his dreams. Da Gama's voyage to India was indeed a great event, but the discovery of America proved far greater. The Atlantic rose in importance above the Mediterranean. The eyes of all Europe gradually turned westward. The rich cities of Italy fell into decay, while the great ports on the Atlantic began a growth which has never ceased. The sailors of Genoa and Venice were already leaving for Portugal and Spain. We have already learned about the wonderful work of Genoa in the Crusades and in the wars with Venice. Now we see this old city as the birthplace of Christopher Columbus. He spent his boyhood in this old town of ships and sailors. Every day, as the boys played along the wharves, they listened to wonderful tales of adven- ture such as only the sailors of that old time could tell. Columbus was eager to go to sea. As he was growing The Race for India 255 to manhood a kinsman often took him on the Mediter- ranean, where they had to face storms and sea robbers. We have also seen how the breaking up of the trade routes to the East sent sailors flocking to Portugal and Spain, where great events were taking place. Bartholo- mew, a brother of Columbus, was already living in Lisbon, whence he went on the great voyage with Dias around the Cape of Good Hope. Columbus, too, hastened to Lisbon, and soon was in the midst of great happenings. Prince Henry, though long dead, had so aroused Portugal that she was doing her best to uncover the ancient route to India. Columbus had figured out that the world is round and that he could find India or Japan by sailing directly westward. From all the charts, maps, and books of travel he could obtain he reached the conclusion that the East Indies were where the West Indies really are. The blunder in geography proved useful. For what king would have granted aid to sail twelve thousand miles, even though Columbus had wanted to go? loi. Columbus Seeks Aid. Tradition tells us that, still loving the land of his birth, Columbus gave Genoa the first opportunity to be the discoverer of America, but she refused. Then, armed with all the proof he eould gather, he put his plans before the King of Portugal, only to have them rejected. He now made his way to Spain, where he hoped for better treatment. But Spain was busy fighting the Moors — Mohammedans who had come from Africa. Spain's king and queen did indeed give him a hearing before their wise men: some were for him and some were against what they called the wild scheme of a 256 The Story of Old Europe and Yoimg America COLUMBUS EXPLAINING HIS PLANS TO THE PRIOR AND TO PINZON madman. Columbus had to wait many years. He grew tired. His money was almost gone, and his clothes were shabby. He was a man of noble bear- ing, but the boys on the street tapped their heads when he passed by, as if to sa}^ ' ' He is a bit crazy." He resolved to go to France. On his way, near the harbor of Palos, he stopped at a con- vent to ask food and drink for his little son Diego. The old prior, the head of the convent, was struck by his dignified, and noble appearance. He asked questions, and the answers of Columbus led him to send for Pinzon, a great sea captain, and others from^ the port of Palos. There in the room of that little convent was told to eager ears the tale of Columbus' ambition, of the proofs he had gathered, and of the misfortunes he had met. No time was to be lost. The prior hastened to Queen Isabella and begged her, for her own sake and for the glory of Spain, not to allow Columbus to depart. She sent for him, and entered into an agreement by which she pledged her jewels, it is said, to the great work of discovery. Columbus was happy in the opportunity he now had to prove his point. He had waited and worked nearly twenty years for it. The Race for India 257 102. The Discovery of America. It was a sad time in the old town of Palos when the queen commanded its sailors to go with Columbus where man had never sailed before. Three vessels and ninety sailors set out on August 3, 1492. The Santa Maria, the largest ship, was ninety feet long by twenty broad. On this ship Columbus raised his banner as admiral. The Pinta was smaller, a faster sailer, and commanded by that great sea captain, Pinzon. The Nina, called "the baby" from its name, was the smallest and was intended for use in shallow waters, for running near the shore or up narrow rivers. They sailed directly southwest to the Canary Islands. After repairs they plunged westward into an unknown sea. As the Canaries faded from sight many of the sailors broke down and cried. They never expected to see COLUMBUS BEFORE THE WISE MEN OF SPAIN Afler painting by the Bohemian artist, Vaczlov Brozik, in Metropolitan Museum, New York Spain again. The imaginary terrors of the deep were too much for them. The trade winds caught them up, and 258 The Story of Old Europe and Young America wafted them along. "How shall we ever get back?" the men cried. Then came vast fields of seaweed, often stretching out farther than they could see. They feared sunken rocks, or that they might run aground. Even that faithful friend, the compass, began to vary from its first position. Finally they plotted to throw Columbus overboard, but he quieted their fears by pointing out the signs of land — the green branches they had seen upon the water, and the flocks of birds which now and then came flying by. One beautiful evening, after the sailors had sung their vesper hymn, Columbus made a speech, pointing out how God had favored them with clear skies and gentle w^inds, and telling them that they were so near THE COLUMBUS CARAVELS From the reconstructed vessels built by Spain and presented to the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893 land the ships must not sail any more after midnight. That very night, far across the darkening waters, a The Race for India 259 light was seen to rise and fall, as if carried on land. In a few hours the Pinta fired a joyful gun telling that land ^^^ryj^-4r i^-U^ THE LANDING OF COLUMBUS had been found. All was excitement on board, and not an eye was closed that night. Overcome with excite- ment, some of the sailors threw their arms around Colum- bus' neck and cried for very joy. Others fell upon their knees and begged pardon, and promised faithful obedi- ence to his every wish. On Friday morning, October 12, 1492, Columbus landed on the shores of the New World — on an island of the Bahama group. He was dressed in a robe of bright red and carried the royal flag of Spain. Around him were gathered his officers and sailors, dressed in their best clothes and carrying flags, banners, and crosses. They 2 6o The Story of Old Europe dnd Young America fell upon their knees and kissed the earth, and with tears of joy streaming down their cheeks they gave thanks. COLUMBUS ENTERING BARCELONA, SPAIN, ON THE RETURN FROM HIS FIRST VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY Columbus drew his sword and after the manner of that age declared the land belonged to Spain. The natives, frightened by the strange scene, were looking on from behind bush and tree. They imagined that the ships had come up out of the sea or down from the sky, and that Columbus and his men were gods. Columbus was almost as much mistaken as were the natives. He believed the people were "Indians," that is, people of India, and it was many years before the Euro- peans knew better. Columbus and his men were deeply disappointed, for instead of rich people wearing all sorts of fine clothes and The Race for India 261 ornaments of gold and silver, they saw only half-naked savages, with painted faces, living in rude huts. After a few days of exploration Columbus came upon Cuba, the largest island he had seen. He thought this was surely Japan. His ship was wrecked, and the Pinta had gone he knew not where. 103. The Return to Spain. Collecting gold and silver articles, plants and birds, animals and Indians, Columbus began his voyage home, January 4, 1493. After terrific storms he reached Palos in the spring, when nature is at its best in southern Spain. The joy in that old seaport! The people, who had given them up as lost, now ran shouting through the streets. The king and queen sent for Columbus. What a journey ! The villages and country roads swarmed with people anxious to get sight of the wonderful man and of the products he had brought. The Indians were the center of all eyes. Columbus entered the city a hero. The very house- tops, to say nothing of the streets and windows, were crowded with happy people. He went directly to the court of Isabella. As the king and queen arose, Co- lumbus fell upon his knees and kissed their hands. When he had finished telling his story, the people, shouting, followed him to his 18 THE MONUMENT TO COLUMBUS AT GENOA, ITALY 262 The Story of Old Europe and Young America THE DISCOVERIES OF THE NORTHMEN home. How like a dream it all appeared to the man, who, only a year before, was begging bread from those very people! 104. Other Voyages to Am- erica. All Spain was eager for a second voyage. Now every port was anxious to furnish ships and sailors. Fifteen hundred people sailed in seventeen fine ships to search out the rich cities of their imagination (1493). After four years of disappointment, they returned to Spain. They had not found the riches of India. On his third voyage Columbus sailed along the north- ern shores of South America, but did not know he had found a continent. When he reached the West Indies the officers put him in chains and sent him back, broken- hearted, to Spain. Isabella, his friend, set him free and started him on his last voyage to America (1502). He met with shipwreck and returned, deeply disappointed that he had not reached the Indies with their fabled wealth. He died soon after, never thinking that America lay between him and his dreams. Spain was so busy with exploration that she took little note of the passing of this great man, and it remained for America to do fitting honor to his memory in the great Columbian Exposition held in Chicago (1893). 105. Voyages of the Northmen. Columbus never knew that he had discovered a new continent. Had he The Race for India 263 known it, he probably would not have realized that it was a part of the same continent that had been discovered many years before (1000) by some of the bold sea-rovers from the North. In our study of England we have already learned about these hardy Danes and Norwe- gians, who were called Vikings. Some of the boldest of the Vikings settled in the snow-clad island of Iceland. One of them, named Eric the Red, sailed farther away to the still colder island which we now know as Green- land. Later, many Northmen went to that new land. Finally Leif Ericson, son of Eric the Red, and some companions sailed around to the south and discovered the coast of North America. He was af- terward called ' ' Leif the Lucky . ' ' The exact place where the North- men settled for a time is not known, but it is supposed to be some- where in New Eng- land. They were so delighted with the new land, where beautiful flowers grew and birds sang gayly among the trees, that they would gladly have made it their home. Finding vines with grapes, they called the new land Vinland. But there was one great obstacle to making it a permanent abode. Brave as THE LANDING OF LEIF ERICSON IN VINLAND 264 The Story of Old Europe and Young America they were in venturing out into an unknown sea, they were no match for the savage Indians in a land fight. For eight or ten years the Vikings continued their voyages to the new land, but the growing hostility of the Indians led them to abandon it. They sailed away never to return. SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts, i. The famous old "school" of navi- gation established by Prince Henry. 2. News from the Gulf of Guinea and from the "gold coast. " j. The voyages of Dias and Da Gama. 4. Columbus' dream and its consequences. 5. Genoa, and the boyhood of Columbus. 6. Columbus goes to Portugal and then to Spain. 7. Visits Palos on his way to France. 8. The queen's pledge, and the preparations for the voyage, p. The first voyage, and its events. 10. What the Indians thought, and what Columbus thought. 11. Colum- bus' reception at Palos and at the court. 12. His treatment by Spaniards, and his death, ij. The Northmen discover a new world but make no use of it. Study Questions, i. What caused Prince Henry to start his "school, " and what was his purpose ? 2. What was Colum- bus ' dream? j. Prove that Genoa was a good place for a sailor to be bom. 4. What causes sent Columbus to Portugal? to Spain? 5. Why was the convent near Palos a good place for Columbus to stop? 6. What were the motives leading Columbus to make his voyage? 7. Tell the imagined feelings of Cohnnbus and his men when landing. 8. Why was Colum- bus disappointed? g. W^hat effect did his discovery have in Spain ? in the rest of Europe ? 10. What did he not know when he died? 11, Who were the first to discover America ? 12. What name was given to the new land? ij. Why were Marco Polo's travels of more importance than those of the Vikings? Suggested Readings. Beazley, Prince Henry the Navigator. Columbus: Hart, Colonial Children, 4-6; Wright, Children's Stories in American History, 38-60; Higginson, Young Folks' Book of American Explorers, 19-52; Brooks, The True Story of Christopher Columbus, 1-103, 112-172. The Northmen: Glas- cock, Stories of Columbia, 7-9; Higginson, Young Folks' Book of American Explorers, 3-15. Spanish Explorers of the New World 265 SPANISH EXPLORERS OF THE NEW WORLD 106. Why America Was Named for Americus Ves- pucius. The New World should have been named for SPANISH VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY TO NORTH AMERICA Columbus, and it is, sometimes, called the "Land of Columbia." History, however, takes the name of this fair country from one who, probably, least deserved it — Americus Vespucius. 266 The Story of Old Europe and Young America It is not certain how many voyages he made to this country, when he made them, where he made them, or that he ever commanded an expedition. Why then should he be honored by having his name given to America? It is said that Vespucius coasted along South America as far south as Brazil. He wrote letters telling his friends very fully about what he had seen. He declared that the regions he saw went far beyond any parts of the Old World in animals, plants, and men, and that the climate of these regions was better than anything he had ever known. The printing press spread this story of Americus. One day a professor of geography in what is now France proposed that this new region, which Americus described so fully, be called "Amerige." The suggestion was taken up, and after a short time that name was applied to the whole of the New World. 107. Balboa Discovers the Pacific. Spaniards were ransacking every corner of the New World in search of adventure. One of them, Vasco Nufiez de Balboa, had gone on a trading expedition and settled in Santo Do- mingo, but he failed to make a success of his new venture. Burning to recover his lost fortune, he set out for the Isthmus of Panama. When he reached it the Indians pointed the way toward a mighty sea whose sands hid great stores of gold. The Indians had already learned how to get rid of Spaniards! In September, 15 13, Balboa and his men set out to cross the Isthmus to find this great body of water. Through forests so dense that the sun could not shine, they made their slow, toilsome way to the mountains. These they climbed amid great hardships. They reached Spanish Explorers of the New World 267 the top one day, and, far to the westward, Balboa saw the mighty sea. Stirred by the sight, he and his men climbed down the western slopes and in four days were standing on its shores. When the tide rose, Balboa drew his sword, rushed into its waters, and took possession in the name of the king and queen of Spain. He called it the South Sea, but afterwards it was named the Pacific. By this adventure Balboa helped to convince Europe that Columbus had discovered a new world. It remained for Magellan to prove that India, or the Far East, might indeed be reached by saiHng westward. . 108. Magellan Begins His Great Voyage (1519)- After an ent;ra\ iug by De Bry A VIEW OF LISBON HARBOR, WITH THE SHIPPING AS IT WAS IN THE DAYS OF MAGELLAN Though a Portuguese by birth, Magellan sailed under the flag of Spain. Five vessels composed his fleet. He 268 The Story of Old Europe and Young America made direct for South America, where he found winter just beginning, although it was only Easter time! Magellan's sailors wanted to return home, and rebelled openly, but he suppressed them. One ship was wrecked during the winter. When spring came in August, he sailed farther south along the coast of Pata- gonia and entered the strait now bearing his name. The crew of another ship rebelled, seized their captain, and sailed back to Spain. The other sailors begged Magellan to return also. ' ' I will go on if we have to eat the leather off the ships' yards," was his famous reply. He did sail on until he reached the quiet sea to which he gave the name Pacific. In November the three remaining ships boldly turned their prows toward India, across the trackless ocean, which no man had ever sailed before. After long weeks their food supply gave out, and then Magellan's statement literally came true. The sailors did eat the leather from the ships' yards like hungry dogs. Finally they reached the Philippine Islands, where Magel- lan lost his life in defending his sailors from the natives. Sadly the remainder, now reduced to twenty men in a single vessel, made their slow way FERDINAND MAGELLAN From the portrait designed and engraved by Ferdinand Selma in i^SH Spanish Explorers of the New World 269 across the Indian Ocean, around Africa, and home (1521). Five vessels full of enthusiastic sailors began the voyage. Now but twenty half-starved men in one vessel, their leader gone, were left to tell the tale of that wonderful first voyage around the world. This voyage proved that Columbus was right in thinking the world round, and that "India" could be reached by sailing west- ward. 109. Cortes Invades Mexico (1519). While Magellan was making his great voyage across the Pacific, Hernando Cortes had found one of the richest cities in the world — Mexico. He took twelve ships, landed on the coast of what is now Mexico, and sent every ship to the bottom of the sea in order to keep his men from deserting. Cortes, his men, and horses, too, were protected by great iron coats, and the men were armed with swords and guns. Besides, they had a few cannon, whose noise would strike terror to the hearts of the Indians, even if they did not kill many. Day after day Cortes and his men marched inland from the coast, fighting terrible battles v/ith the natives. The Indians in Mexico were called Aztecs. Being clad HERNANDO CORTES From the portrait painted by Charles Wilson Peale, now in Indepetidence Hall, Philadelphia 270 The Story of Old Europe and Young America in cotton clothes, with only bows and arrows for weapons and protected by leather shields, they were no match for the Spaniards, in their coats of mail. The Spaniards marched through the mountain passes, and a beautiful sight met their eyes. As far as human sight could carry, they beheld a charming valley filled with cities. These cities were built over lakes, where canals took the place of streets and canoes carried the people from place to place. no. A Wonderful Indian City. Cortes hastened for- ward, following a great road which led to a wonderful Indian city. Several roads ran to its center, where, in a great square, stood a wonderful temple, whose top could be reached by one hundred and fourteen steps running around outside. Sixty thousand people lived in this city. Many stone buildings with flat roofs fur- nished homes for them. Frequently there were flower gardens on the housetops. Cortes and his men were but a handful in this dense mass of people, who did not welcome them. They seized Montezuma, the Mexican king, and held him prisoner, hoping to keep the people quiet, but this act only made them angrier than ever. They fell upon Cortes' men After an old print in Gerolamo Barrzoni's HisloTU of the New World INDIAN SUN WORSHIPERS AND TEMPLE, PERU The Inca's followers were sun worshipers. Many of their temples were as large as those of ancient Babylon, and much like them in form Spanish Explorers of the New World 271 in such vast numbers that they killed half of them and their horses. Cortes commanded Montezuma to stand upon the roof of the Spanish fort and forbid his people to fight. But they showed their hostility by casting stones and shooting arrows until they struck down Montezuma, and he died in a few days, a broken- hearted man. 111. The Conquest of the Aztecs. Reenforced by soldiers from Cuba, Cortes went to battle again and finally, after two years, he was master of the city and of the Aztecs in the country around. But Cortes was more than a conqueror — he was a wise governor as well. He rebuilt the city and in many ways tried to make it better. He made the city of Mexico a center of Spanish civili- zation. For three hundred years the mines of Mexico poured a constant stream of gold and silver into the lap of Spain. Cortes spent a large part of the fortune which fell to his lot in trying to improve the country. But in spite of the renown and wealth he brought Spain, the king of that country permitted him to die neglected. 112. The Richest City in the World. Francisco Pizarro, another Spaniard, was ambitious to do in South America what Cortes had done in Mexico. He lived in the little town of Panama, and made an expedition along the western coast of South America until he reached a town of two thousand houses built mostly of sun-dried bricks with flat tops like the houses in Mexico. He returned, taking with him many valuable figures made of gold and vases of gold and silver. He crossed the ocean and told his story to the King of Spain, who made Pizarro governor of all the lands he might conquer, and gave his leading men high titles. 272 The Story of Old Europe and Young America Pizarro hastened home with the good news, fitted out his expedition, and with banners flying and hopes high in the hearts of his men, sailed for Peru. There they marched inland through beautiful fields of flowers and grain. The men finally reached the foothills of the Andes Mountains. Up and up they climbed until they reached the higher regions, — where it was much colder than anywhere they had yet been. Over they rushed and down the eastern slopes, where a charming scene opened to their view. In a valley lay a city of ten thousand houses like those Cortes had already found in Mexico. Across the valley was the Inca, the ruler of the country, with his army. 113. Pizarro Cap- tures the Inca. Her- nando de Soto, a brave captain, was sent with a troop of cavalry to invite the Inca to visit Pizarro. When told of the number of his soldiers, Pizarro was troubled, but laid his plans in secret. The next day the Inca came with his hosts. The nobles carried the Inca on a gold-bedecked throne. A cannon was fired. It was a signal. The Spaniards FRANCISCO PIZARRO After an engraving to be found in the works of the great Spanish historian, Herrera Spanish Explorers of the New World 273 rushed forth, and thousands of Indians fell, trying to save their king from the fury of the strangers. The Inca was a prisoner. To obtain his freedom, so the story runs, he promised to fill the room in which he was a prisoner as high as he could reach with gold. Pi- zarro accepted the offer, and when he had the gold cruelly put the ruler to death. 1 14. The Spaniards Find Untold Wealth. The little Spanish army now marched to Cuzco, the capital of Peru. After days of hard fighting they came to the richest city in the world. No man had ever before found so much gold and silver. ' ' Ten planks or bars of silver, each bar twenty feet in length, one foot in breadth and two inches thick," found in one place, showed the great riches to which Pizarro and his fol- lowers fell heir. It was too much for them. They grew jealous, and quarreled. A ringleader was put to death, and his friends broke into Pizarro 's palace and murdered him (1533). And in the end the millions which Spain took from the mines of Peru did her little good. 115. De Soto's Expedition. Before De Soto's time came Ponce de Leon in Florida. He came to the New World searching vainly for the fountain of youth, and found Florida — a land of flowers as he called it (15 13). HERNANDO DE SOTO After an engraving to be found in the works of the great Spanish historian, Herrera 2 74 j'^^^ Story of Old Europe and Yoimg America Hernando de Soto had already won fame in Peru. The King of Spain made him governor of Cuba and Florida. He was longing to repeat in Florida what Pizarro had done in Peru, and hundreds of Spanish noblemen wanted to enHst under his banner. In 1539 De Soto, with nine vessels carrying many soldiers, twelve priests, six hundred horses, and a herd of swine, landed in Florida from Cuba. De Soto spent his first winter on Apalachee Bay. In the spring he marched north to Georgia, hunting for a country that he had heard about, ruled by a woman. The mountains caused him to turn south as far as the village of Mavilla (Mobile) . Here he suffered great losses at the hands of the Indians, but he refused to turn back or send for supplies and men. 116. Discovery of the Mississippi. De Soto found camp for his second winter in northern Mississippi. Here the Indians attacked him again. In the spring the Spaniards moved westward for many days, finally coming upon a great rushing stream — the Mississippi, the Indians called it (1541). On barges, which their own hands had built, De Soto and his men crossed the broad bosom of the Mississippi. Through dense forests that almost hid the sun they marched for days and days together, but found no sign of great riches. They crossed what is now Arkansas, Oklahoma, and perhaps a part of Texas. The winter of 1642 was one of great hardship for all the men. In the following spring, when they reached Missis- sippi, De Soto was tired, and broken in health. A fever seized the great leader, and in a few days he died. His companions sadly buried him at dead of night Spanish Explorers of the New World 275 beneath the waters of the mighty river he had discovered. Once more the fearless leaders made a dash for the west in the hope of finding rich treasure. They were dis- appointed, and returned to spend another winter on the banks of the Mississippi. Only half the army was now alive. These men built boats, floated down the Missis- sippi to its mouth, and finally reached home. De Soto's expedition discouraged further search in North America for wealth such as South America pos- sessed, but it did extend Spanish claims to this great region. 117. Coronado and the Seven Cities of Cibolo. The Spaniards easily believed most of the stories the Indians told about wonderful cities and their riches. To the northward the Indians pointed to the Seven Cities of Cibolo. A missionary was sent with Indians to find these seven cities, supposed to contain great quantities of treasure. The missionary saw only one from a hill. He feared to go nearer, and returned with wonderful tales. The excitement was great when the missionary's tales were told. The governor of Mexico prepared a large army and sent it forth under Coronado to conquer the cities. The army contained about three hundred of the sons of Spanish nobility. They wore coats of shining armor, carried lances and swords, and were mounted on the finest horses Mexico could furnish. Many negroes and Indians were taken along as servants to these sons of the nobiHty. Others went as herders to drive the oxen and to care for the cows which were to be killed as food for the warriors. This army marched northward with high hopes. 276 The Story of Old Europe and Young America From a photograph AN INDIAN PUEBLO OF ADOBE, OR SUN-DRIED BRICK The men entered southeastern Arizona, crossing moun- tains and valleys. They marched into New Mexico and soon found the first one of the seven cities. It proved to be nothing but an Indian pueblo with its flat roofs. The houses were entered by lad- ders, and had very small windows, if any. The people were poorly dressed. They raised a poor sort of corn, beans, and melons. They also made pottery and wore blankets, as they do now. These Indians were probably the Zuiiis of New Mexico. 118. Discovery of the Grand Cafion. In their search the army had divided. Some had gone to explore the Gulf of Upper California and others had found that wonder of wonders, the Grand Canon. As they stood upon the plateau-like banks and looked far down into its mighty depths, a distance of over six thousand feet, or more than a mile, they saw the muddy Colorado rushing along. As they gazed upon this wonderful work of nature, they might have imagined they could see the gray walls of some giant castle, or the red stone of frowning forts built in that far-off time when the gods did battle. Coronado spent his first winter not far from the present city of Albuquerque. He forced the Indians to give their houses to his men, and to furnish them with a supply of blankets. opposition to Slavery; the Founding of Missions 277 119. Discover Great Herds of Crooked-Back Oxen. A fresh story told of a wonderful city took Coronado and his men hundreds of miles to the northeast. For many days they pushed onward, crossing New Mexico, the Pan Handle of Texas, and a portion of Oklahoma into Kansas. Here they found, not a wonderful city, but great prairies with their vast oceans of waving grass. Upon these grassy prairies fed countless herds of buffalo — crooked-back oxen, the Spaniards called them. They did see a new kind of Indian. He was more savage than those in the south, and lived in a kind of tent-like house made of skins fastened to poles. 120. Meaning of Coronado's Expedition. A year later, disappointed, with fortune gone, with many of his gay companions not returning, Coronado reported to the governor of Mexico and proved that those wonderful cities were not to be found. His report that this region was hardly fit for settlers we know to be false, and that there is little of gold or silver in it is not entirely true. They were there, but he did not find them. Coronado's and De Soto's expeditions convinced Spaniards that there was little hope of finding gold in the main parts of North America. OPPOSITION TO SLAVERY; THE FOUNDING OF MISSIONS 121. Las Casas, the Enemy of Human Slavery. The Spanish grandees who led expeditions generally thought themselves above work. Hence they early made slaves of the Indians. But the Indians were not used to working all day long, either in the mines or in the broiling sun. They were accustomed to a great 19 2/8 I'he Story of Old Europe and Young America LAS CASAS PRAYING FOR THE INDIANS deal more freedom than were even the Spaniards. The natural result was that the Indians, men and women, sickened and died. Among the Spaniards there was one man who set his face stern- ly against making slaves of the In- dians. His name was Las Casas. He devoted his whole life to the Indians, so that the Spanish monarchs called him their "Universal Pro- tector." From the writings of Las Casas we see how hard was the lot of the Indians. "The main care was to send the men to work in the gold mines, and to send the women to . . . till the ground. . . . The men perished in the gold mines with hunger and [from hard] labor, the women perished in the fields. ... As for the blows which they gave them with whips, cudgels, and their fists ... I could be hardly able to make . . . narrations of those things. ..." Las Casas was a monk, a just man who loved his neighbor as himself. He tried to influence the Spaniards to do away with Indian slavery, but all in vain. He went to Spain and appealed to the monarch in person, but the high Spanish officers were not in sympathy with his ideas. He continued his battle for the Indian slaves as long as he lived, and had the government officials backed him up, as they should have done, opposition to Slavery; the Founding of Missions 279 there would have been far less suffering among the red men. The Spaniard had to have help to do his work on the great plantations in the West Indies, in Mexico, and in Central America. After the Indians proved unfit he sought the negroes in Africa. Spain became, in the sixteenth century (i 500-1 600), the greatest slave trader among the nations of Europe. It was easy, therefore, for the Spaniards in America to get all the black men they wanted. 122. Missions from Peru to California. The great majority of the Spaniards who came to America were bent upon filling their pockets with gold and upon find- ing adventures that would test the cour- age of a true knight. But among them were some who came for religion's sake. These sought out the natives and went among them as fol- lowers of the lowly Jesus, tr3'ing tQ teach them the simpler truths about God and the worship of him as a Supreme Being. All this was hard to do. To aid the work, they set up a church and a school, called a "mission," among THE OLD SPANISH MISSION OF SANTA BARBARA 2 8o The Story of Old Europe and Young America the different tribes. They taught a few of the young people to read and write. To all of the Indians they sought to be examples of what a person should be and do. They taught, besides, that the tribes should live in peace with each other, and should engage in peaceful occupations instead of in war. These mission communities were established from Peru to California. Their people were mostly farmers, herdsmen, and w^orkers about the mission. In some villages of the more ambitious kind, the missionaries built schools. They taught the young Indian, or tried to teach him, habits of industry; how to work regularly and steadily at whatever he did. This was no easy task for the Indians, whose fathers and mothers, for genera- tions, had followed the "happy-go-lucky" mode of getting a living. Among the trades learned by the young Indians were the making of the clothes they wore, carpentry, so that they might construct their rude houses, preparing furni- ture for the home, shoemaking, herding cattle, and so on. Long years before the first college in the English colonies was established (1636) the Spaniards in Peru and in Mexico had built colleges. They also led the way in setting up printing presses. But neither college nor printing press grew in importance as compared with those in the English colonies. The natural result of mingling with the Indians was a closer friendship and fellowship. This closer friendship resulted in Spaniards and Indians marrying each other. In all South America and Mexico the great majority of the civilized people are of mixed Spanish and Indian blood. opposition to Slavery; the Founding of Missions 281 SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL The Leading Facts, i . Why the New World was not named after Columbus. 2. How the printing press helped defeat Columbus. J. Balboa, and the discovery of the Pacific. 4. Columbus thought the world round, and Magellan proved it. 5. Magellan sailed around South America into the Pacific Ocean, and across this new sea to the Phihppine Islands, where he was killed. 6. His ship reached Spain — the first to sail around the world. 7. Cortes marched against a rich city, afterward called Mexico, captured the ruler and the city, and ruled it for several years. 8. Pizarro invaded Peru, the richest country of all America, and captured and put to death the ruler, g. Pizarro died by the hand of a Spaniard. Study Questions, i. What are the reasons why the New World was named for Americus Vespucius? 2. Imagine you are Balboa trying to find the Pacific, j. What was the meaning of Balboa 's discovery ? 4. What part of the problem of Colum- bus did Magellan solve ? 5. Where is Patagonia, and how could there be signs of spring late in August? 6. What did Magel- lan's voyage prove, and what remained of Coltmibus ' plans yet to accomplish? 7. Why did Cortes sink his ships? 8. How were Spaniards armed, and how were Indians armed? g. De- scribe the city of Mexico. 10. Who began the war, and what does that show about the Spaniards? //. How did the people and king treat Cortes? 12. How did the king reward Pizarro for what he was going to do? i^. What did Pizarro see in passing up and down the Andes ? 14. Picture the Inca coming to visit Pizarro, and Pizarro 's reception of him. ij. What pledge did the Inca make? 16. Tell the story of Pizarro 's march to the capital. 77. Did Pizarro deserve his fate? 18. Why was De Soto's expedition so large at the beginning? ig. Was he wise or unwise in refusing to send for aid? 20. How often did he come back to the Mississippi? 21. Relate the story of Coronado. 22. What was Las Casas' occupation, and what did he do? 23. What was the purpose in establish- ing missions and schools? Suggested Readings. Magellan: McMurry, Pioneers on Land and Sea, 1 61-185; Butterworth, The Story of Magellan and the Discovery of the Philippines, 52-143; Ober, Ferdinand Magellan, 108-244. Cortes: McMurry, Pioneers on Land and Sea, 186-225; Hale, Stories of Adventure, 101-126; Ober, 2