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ClILTDRE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 /: 
 
 BY 
 
 Wt-^ C. STRONG. 
 
 /^ BOSTON: 
 J. E. TILTON AND COMPANY. 
 1866. 
 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, 
 
 By W. C. strong, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 
 
 Stereotyped by C. J. Peters & Son. 
 
 Press of Geo. C. Rand & Avery. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 WITHIN a few years, the cultivation of the 
 Grape has become a subject of extraordinary 
 interest in the United States. New varieties have 
 been so multiphed, and the expectation is so strong 
 that some of these will prove to be of superior value, 
 that almost every landholder is induced to grow this 
 favorite fruit. The success of its culture has indeed 
 proved so encouraging, that multitudes are planting 
 extensive vineyards in all parts of the country, both 
 for the purpose of supplying our markets with an 
 abundance of this fruit, unequalled in its health- 
 giving qualities, and also for the more questionable 
 purpose of wine-making. 
 
 Grape-growing is destined to become a vast inter- 
 est in our land. Our soil and climate, though not 
 
6 PREFACE. 
 
 adapted for the open-air culture of European varie- 
 ties, yet encourage the most luxuriant growth of 
 native kinds almost throughout the length and 
 breadth of our vast domain. Bountiful Nature has 
 done for us all that we can reasonably ask. The 
 work left for us is to seek for good varieties, and 
 give them generous culture. Difficulties there are 
 and will be ; yet these are such as ought to stimulate 
 rather than discourage. 
 
 The general principles of grape-culture are well 
 understood ; and yet there are differences of opin- 
 ion, different modes of pruning and training, which, 
 however slight they may seem to be in themselves, 
 become of great importance when applied to so vast 
 an interest. It is with a desire to contribute my 
 mite from my own experience that I have prepared 
 this treatise. In order that the work may embrace 
 the combined experience of practical and scientific 
 minds, I have availed payself of such helps as were 
 at hand, especially relying upon Prof Harris for de- 
 scriptions of injurious insects, and upon numerous 
 writers in our horticultural Monthlies for practical 
 suggestions. 
 
 In order that it may be a guide to the inexperi- 
 enced, it has been my aim to give plain, simple, con- 
 cise rules, not novel, but practical and approved. 
 
PREFACE. 7 
 
 Recent authors have done good service in this direc- 
 tion ; yet it has appeared that further suggestions 
 might be made. Especially is it hoped that the col- 
 lected experience in regard to rot and mildew, and 
 the modified methods of training, may prove to be 
 of general value. In this hope, I submit the book to 
 
 the public. 
 
 W. C. STRONG. 
 
 NoNANTUM Hill, Brighton, Mass., 
 January, 1866. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 HISTORY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VINE. 
 
 Page. 
 
 The Vine indigenous to Asia 11 
 
 Large size of the Vine and Fruit 12 
 
 Cultivated in the earliest ages 13 
 
 Hampton-Court Vine 14 
 
 Largest American Vines 15 
 
 Longevity of the Vine 16 
 
 Variety of forms and conditions 16 
 
 Value of the Wine Interest 17 
 
 Table of European Wine Product 17 
 
 Price of Wines 18 
 
 Price of Vineyards 19 
 
 First attempts at culture in the United States 21 
 
 Culture in Ohio 23 
 
 Culture in California 24 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 BOTANY AND HYBRIDIZATION. 
 
 Botanic Name 26 
 
 European and American Species 27 
 
 Subdivision of Species 29 
 
 Inflorescence 30 
 
 Hybridization 31 
 
 Letter from E.S. Rogers 32 
 
 Rules for hybridizing 33 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 PROPAGATION OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 By Seed • 37 
 
 Sowing the Seed 39 
 
 Treatment of the Seedlings 40 
 
 Propagation by Single Eyes 41 
 
 IX 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 Preparing the Eyes 42 
 
 Pruning-knife 43 
 
 Form of Eyes 44 
 
 Hot-beds 46 
 
 Cuttings in Hot-beds 48 
 
 Propagating-house 49 
 
 Water-tanks 50 
 
 Slate-tanks 51 
 
 Plan of Propagating-house 53 
 
 Succession-houses 55 
 
 Ridge and Furrow Houses 57 
 
 Eyes for the Propagating-house 58 
 
 Potting the Eyes 59 
 
 Planting in Inside Borders 60 
 
 Planting in Frames 62 
 
 Growth in Frames 64 
 
 Winter Protection 64 
 
 Soft-wood Cuttings 65 
 
 Cuttings in the Open Air 68 
 
 The Mallet Form 68 
 
 A Primitive Method 69 
 
 Cutting with several joints 70 
 
 Soil ofthe Cutting bed 72 
 
 Planting the Cuttings in the Bed 73 
 
 Other Forms of Cuttings 74 
 
 Fall Planting of Cuttings 75 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 LAYERING AND GRAFTING. 
 
 Form of Layer 76 
 
 Layering Stool 17 
 
 Fruiting Layers 79 * 
 
 Grafting, an ancient art 80 
 
 Rapid growth of Grafts 80 
 
 Bleeding of the Vine 81 
 
 Directions by Chaptal 81 
 
 Form of Scion 83 
 
 Grafting after growth has started 84 
 
 Grafting in the Fall 85 
 
 Winter protection 87 
 
 Whip-grafting 88 
 
 Grafting-wax 90 
 
 Root-grafting 90 
 
 Inarching 90 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 SOIL AND SITUATION. 
 
 Price of Choice Lands 92 
 
 Characteristics of European Soils 93 
 
 Characteristics of Hungarian Soils 95 
 
 Hill and Plain Lands 96 
 
 Analysis of Chateau Margaux 96 
 
 Different conditions for Table-fruit or for Wine 97 
 
 Advantage of deep valleys 98 
 
 Aspect of hill-slopes 99 
 
 Arid exposures • 100 
 
 Effect of the removal of Forests 100 
 
 Uniformity of Temperature and Humidity 101 
 
 Mechanical texture of the soil 102 
 
 Preparation of the soil 102 
 
 Drainage 103 
 
 Compost manures 103 
 
 Trenching and ploughing , 104 
 
 Terracing 105 
 
 Vine-borders 106 
 
 Carcasses and slaughter-offal 108 
 
 Bones of large size 109 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 Comparative value of Large and Small Vines Ill 
 
 Tender Fibres of little value 112 
 
 Extra No, 1 Vines 112 
 
 Management of No. 2 Vines 113 
 
 Fall and Spring Planting 114 
 
 Rules for Planting 114 
 
 Training the young shoot 117 
 
 CHAPTER VH. 
 
 MODES OF TRAINING. 
 
 Habit of wild Vines 118 
 
 Vines in tree-tops 119 
 
 Advantage of the Horizontal Position 119 
 
 Advantage of nearness to the ground 120 
 
 Form under Glass 120 
 
Xn CONTENTS. 
 
 Ohio Bow System 121 
 
 Tree Form of Trainmg 125> 
 
 Spiral or Cork-screw Form 122 
 
 The Thomery Form 124 
 
 The Thomery Form for High Walls 125 
 
 Advantages of the Thomery Form . . 126 
 
 Disadvantages of the Thomery Form 128 
 
 The Single-arm Form 130 
 
 The Horizontal-branch System 132 
 
 Prof. Lindley's Opinion 134 
 
 Advantages of the Horizontal Form 136 
 
 Modified Forms of the Horizontal System 138 
 
 Comparative Value of Various Forms 139 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 DISTANCES AND TRELLISES. 
 
 Distances for the Spiral Form 141 
 
 Laying out the Vineyard 142 
 
 Distances for Trellises 143 
 
 Form of Trellis 144 
 
 Material for the Trellis 145 
 
 Construction and Painting 146 
 
 The Horizontal Trellis 147 
 
 Points of Compass for the Rows 148 
 
 Training for Family Use 150 
 
 Form for Double Cordons 151 
 
 Form for vacant spots in the Garden 152 
 
 Training upon Arbors 153 
 
 High Trellises 154 
 
 Horizontal Training in Front of Buildings 155 
 
 Cheap Trellises 156 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SUBSEQUENT MANAGEMENT AND PRUNING. 
 
 Description of the different parts of the Vine 157 
 
 Second Year of the Vineyard 159 
 
 Growth of Cane 16o 
 
 Checking the Growth 161 
 
 Formation of Arms 162 
 
 Fall Pruning and Covering 163 
 
 Third Year 164 
 
 Tying the Branches _, 165 
 
CONTENTS. XIII 
 
 Summer checking 166 
 
 Nature's Method of checking growth 166 
 
 Severe checking at Thomery 170 
 
 Undue vigor at the top of upright shoots 171 
 
 Uniform development of the horizontal branch 172 
 
 Short-spur Pruning 173 
 
 Annual Renewal 174 
 
 The Alternate or Long Spur 176 
 
 Objection to the Alternate Spur 177 
 
 Its occasional use 178 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 METHODS OF HASTENING MATURITY. 
 
 Nearness to the ground an advantage . 179 
 
 The Ringing Process 180 
 
 Its Discovery 180 
 
 Its introduction into England 181 
 
 Effect upon the Fruit and Vine 182 
 
 Time and mode of performing it 183 
 
 Best suited for the Long Spur 185 
 
 Partial protection by Glass 186 
 
 Sashes for the Vineyard 187 
 
 Colored Walls 190 
 
 Close board-fences 193 
 
 CHAPTER. XI. 
 
 MANURES. 
 
 Analysis of the Ashes of the Vine 196 
 
 Wood and Coal Ashes 198 
 
 Value of Bones 199 
 
 Quantity per Acre 200 
 
 Action of Lime . . 201 
 
 Sulphur 202 
 
 Gypsum, or Plaster of Paris 203 
 
 Coal-ashes contain Sulphate of Lime 204 
 
 Specific food for each stage of growth , 205 
 
 Various kinds of fertilizing matter 207 
 
 Fertilizing effect of Rain 208 
 
 Analysis of Rain-water 209 
 
 Rain-fall of various Grape-districts 210 
 
 Effect of excessive Rain 212 
 
 Time of applying top-dressings 214 
 
 Mulching 215 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER Xn. 
 
 DISEASES. 
 
 Mildew in the earliest Ages 217 
 
 Discovery of its nature 218 
 
 Dififerent species 219 
 
 Dampness favorable to its growth 222 
 
 Three ways to resist Mildew 223 
 
 Guarding against attack 223 
 
 Deficiency of Potash a cause 224 
 
 Sudden Changes 225 
 
 Microscopic appearance of Mildew 226 
 
 Mildew cannot exist upon healthy foliage 228 
 
 Protection of Overhanging Cornice 230 
 
 Effect of Dew and Rain 232 
 
 Uniform Temperature of Kelly's Island 233 
 
 Copings and Projecting Cornices 234 
 
 Free Circulation of Air 2.35 
 
 Destroying the Fungus 236 
 
 Salt as a remedy 237 
 
 Sulphur more certain 238 
 
 Modes of application 2-39 
 
 M. Newbert's remedy 240 
 
 Effect of Sulphurous Gas 241 
 
 A Direct Poison to the Fungus 242 
 
 Sulphur in solution more powerful 243 
 
 Strength of the solution 244 
 
 Sulphur, Preventive of Black Rot 245 
 
 CHAPTER Xm. 
 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 
 
 Importance of guarding against 247 
 
 The Rose-chafer 248 
 
 The Flee-beetle 251 
 
 Spotted Pelindota 253 
 
 Anomala Varians 253 
 
 Thrip or Vine-hopper 254 
 
 Remedies for the Thrip . 256 
 
 Vine-scale 257 
 
 Mealy-bug 258 
 
 Galls 259 
 
 Red Spider 260 
 
 Sphinx Caterpillars 261 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 . 262 
 Achemon Sphinx 
 
 Hog Caterpillar ^53 
 
 Blue Caterpillar ■ 
 
 Procris Americana 
 
 265 
 
 \ \ , , . S66 
 
 266 
 
 267 
 
 False Caterpillar 
 Leaf-rollers . . • 
 Sun-scald . . . . 
 Birds 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 VARIOUS ITEMS. 
 
 Thinning the Fruit 
 
 Thinning the Foliage 
 
 Gathering the Fruit 
 
 Yield of Fruit per Acre 
 
 Yield of Wine 
 
 Average Product on Kelly's Island . 
 
 Preserving the Fruit 
 
 t'lan for a Fruit-house 
 
 Chloride of Calcium as an absorbent 
 
 Suspension of the clusters 
 
 Packing in Boxes 
 
 Packing in Earthen Jars 
 
 Branches inserted in Bottles . . . . . 
 
 Wine-making . . 
 
 Sparkling Wines ■ 
 
 Still Wines 
 
 Rackings ■ 
 
 Addition of Sugar • • ■ 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 CULTURE UNDER GLASS. 
 
 Effect of a slight protection . . 
 
 The Cold Grapery 
 
 Its Construction ,* ' * 
 
 Mode of Training 
 
 Ventilation 
 
 Plan for raising the Ventilators 
 
 Water-tank 
 
 Forcing-grapery 
 
 Polmaise-heating 
 
 ,Hot- water System 
 
 270 
 ,271 
 
 273 
 .274 
 .275 
 .276 
 .277 
 .279 
 . 282 
 . 283 
 .284 
 .285 
 .285 
 .286 
 .287 
 .288 
 .289 
 .290 
 
 293 
 294 
 294 
 295 
 ,296 
 ,297 
 .297 
 .298 
 . 299 
 .299 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 Retarding-house 300 
 
 Borders 300 
 
 Inside and Outside Borders 302 
 
 The First Year 303 
 
 Tlie Second Year 304 
 
 Summer Checking 305 
 
 Pruning and starting the Vines 306 
 
 Pot Culture . 307 
 
 Diseases under Glass 310 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 
 
 Their Number and Character 312 
 
 Exotic Kinds 313 
 
 Select List of Exotic Kinds 357 
 
 Native Kinds 328 
 
 A Select List of the most prominent 330 
 
 Recent Varieties promising well 342 
 
 A General List 340 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 HISTORY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VINE. 
 
 rilHE apple tempted our first parents to their fall. 
 
 -*- So also Noah's vineyard brought shame to himself, 
 
 and a curse upon Ham; and untold evil has followed 
 
 in the train. Yet we cherish these best gifts of Mother 
 
 Earth, and acquit them of all complicity in guilt. The 
 
 vine is indigenous to Asia, and, as we see in the case of 
 
 Noah, was cultivated in the very infancy of our race. 
 
 Mention of the vine is constantly made in the Bible. 
 
 Canaan is called " a land of wheat and barley and vines." 
 
 It is a well-authenticated fact, that the vines and the 
 
 bunches of grai3es in Palestine were of an almost in- 
 
 11 
 
12 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 credible size; so that the description of the cluster cut 
 at the Brook Eshcol, and borne "betwesn two upon 
 a staff," by the spies, is not at all improbable. Stej^hen 
 Schultz relates, "At Beitdjin, a village near Ptolemais, 
 we took our supper under a large vine, the stem of which 
 was nearly a foot and a half in diameter, the height 
 about thirty feet, and covered with its branches a hut 
 more than fifty feet long and broad. The bunches of these 
 grapes are so lar/yoj ;that they weigh from ten to twelve 
 pounds ; and the git^jaws may be compared to our plums." 
 Foster, in his Hebrew Dictionary, under the word 
 "Eshcol," says, "I knew at Nurnburg a monk of the 
 name of Acacius, who had resided eight years in Pal- 
 estine, and had also preached at Hebron, where he 
 had seen bunches of grapes which were as much as 
 two men could conveniently carry." Christopher Neitz- 
 schutz, who travelled through Palestine in the year 
 1634, speaking of his excursions on the Jewish moun- 
 tains, says, " I can say with truth that I saw and ate of 
 bunches of grapes which were each half an ell long, and 
 the grapes two joints of a finger in length." These 
 accounts ' are worthy of entire credence, and are indeed 
 surpassed by the grapes of Damascus at the present day, 
 which are often found to weigh twenty-five pounds to the 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 13 
 
 bunch. According to Heutius, the vines in Crete and 
 Chios afforded clusters of from ten to forty pounds weight 
 each. A bunch of Syrian grapes, 23roduced in a vinery at 
 Welbeck in England, weighed nineteen pounds. It was 
 sent as a present from the Duke of Portland to the Mar- 
 quis of Rockingham, and conveyed a distance of twenty 
 miles on a staff by four laborers, two of whom bore it in 
 rotation. 
 
 That great attention was given t( "^he culture of the vine 
 in tlie earliest ages is evident frc:_ clie fact that Homer and 
 Herodotus make frequent mention of it, and that Theo- 
 phrastus and Dioscorides treat of it in several chapters. 
 ■ Yet it was known to the Egyptians long before these times; 
 representations of the careful culture of the vine, of the 
 treading-out of the juice, and of the storing of the wine 
 in jars, being all discovered in the jDaintings v/ithin their 
 tombs. A still stronger implication is found in the dream 
 of the chief butler, in Gen. xl. 9: "In my dream, behold, a 
 vine was before me, and in the vine were three branches ; 
 and it was as though it budded, and her blossoms shot' 
 forth ; and the clusters thereof brought forth ripe gi'apes. 
 And Pharaoh's cup was in my hand ; and I took the grapes 
 and pressed them into Pharaoh's cup, and I gave the cup 
 into Pharaoh's hand." Probably, however, the vine was 
 
14 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 not native to Egypt. The most ancient writers mention 
 it as a native of the hilly region on the southern shore of 
 the Caspian, in the Persian province of Ghilan. Strabo 
 says, that " in the Margiana, a country south-west of the 
 
 Caspian Sea, now called Ghilan, there are vines which two 
 
 • 
 
 men can scarcely span, the bunches of which are of ex- 
 traordinary length." Speechly, in his treatise on the vine, 
 page 182, says, " Such another in Margina is spoken of by 
 Strabo, that was twelve feet in circumference." Probably 
 this is the estimated distance, by Speechly, which two 
 men would be able to span. But it must be regarded as 
 an over-estimate, as it is scarcely credible that a vine could 
 be twelve feet in circumference. We know, however, that 
 columns in Juno's temple at Metapont, and also a statue 
 of Jupiter for the city of Apollonium, were made from the 
 wood of the vine. The great doors of the cathedral at 
 Ravenna are made of vine-planks, some of which are 
 twelve feet long and fifteen inches broad. 
 
 The Hampton-Court vine is the most famous in England. 
 It was planted in 1769, and now covers over twenty-two 
 hundred square feet ; having a stem thirty inches in cir- 
 cumference at three feet from the ground, and bearing an 
 annual crop of about a ton of Black Hamburg grapes. It 
 has produced twenty-five hundred large bunches in a 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 15 
 
 sino-le season; but the crop is not as large as formerly. 
 The main cane is a liundred and twenty feet long, and 
 covers the entire roof of the houses, which is seventy feet 
 long and thirty feet wide. 
 
 In this country, until recently, the largest vine was sup- 
 posed to be .at Burlington, N.J. Two feet from the ground, 
 it measured, in 1858, six feet two and a half inches in girth : 
 four feet high, it is about six inches less. On pacing the 
 circumference covered by the branches, it was found to 
 exceed a hundred feet. It has never borne a grape in the 
 memory of a lady now ninety-eight years old, to whom it 
 was a wonder in her youth. In the " Horticulturist," vol. 
 i. p. 530, it is described as standing on a farm called West 
 Hill, two miles from Burlington, and measuring six feet 
 one inch round the trunk at three feet from the ground, 
 and at ten feet high it is three feet in circumference. " Its 
 giant folds run over and cover four trees, one of which is 
 a full-sized oak, and the others are quite large." But it 
 was reserved for our Golden State to eclipse the world in 
 natural products. The " Alta Californian " thus describes it : 
 "At Monticito, four miles from Santa Barbara, there is a 
 grape-vine, probably the largest in the world. Its dimen- 
 sions and yield would be incredible, were it not that my 
 informant is a man of veracity, and speaks from personal 
 
16 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 observation. It is a single vine, the main stock being ten 
 feet in circumferenqe. It is trained upon a trellis sixty 
 feet in diameter. My informant, with another person, 
 counted seven thousand bunches ; and the estimated yield 
 was eighteen thousand pounds of fruit. Can this be 
 beaten ? " 
 
 It is difficult to estimate the longevity of the vine, the 
 yearly growth not being distinctly marked, as is the case 
 with many trees. That it, however, attains a great age, 
 is beyond question. Pliny names a vine which was six 
 hundred years old. The vines of Italy bear fruit for 
 three hundi'ed years, and vines a hundred years of age 
 are accounted young. Professor Bosc states that there 
 are vines in Burgundy upwards of four hundred years old. 
 Doubtless there are vines of much greater age, were we 
 able to ascertain the fact. At least, it is evident that the 
 vine, under favorable circumstances, may be regarded as 
 " a permanent institution." 
 
 It is surprising under what variety of conditions the vine 
 exists. The instances of size which are cited above indi- 
 cate that the vine aspires to overtop the mightiest mon- 
 archs of the forest, and overspreads a surface of even two 
 hundred feet in circumference. In contrast, the vines in 
 the most famous vineyards of France and the Rhine are 
 
CULTURE OF T II E G RAPE. 17 
 
 the merest bushes, — only from two to three feet m height. 
 By natm'e, it is evident the vine is a great rambler. We 
 are to study this nature, and control it to our greatest 
 advantaixe. 
 
 The paramount object in the culture of the grape has 
 been the obtaining of wine. This has been, and will 
 continue to be, more especially true of some countries than 
 of others. The extent of this manufacture will be surpris- 
 ing, and almost incredible, to those who are unacquainted 
 with the statistics. The following table, extracted from a 
 recent work by Gustave Rawald, and reduced to Federal 
 currency by A. Haraszthy, gives soine idea of the immense 
 value of this interest : — 
 
 AVERAGE WINE PRODUCTION OF EUROPE. 
 
 Acres. Gallons. Gal. pr Acre. 
 
 Austria 2,685,950 714,000,000 2G5| 
 
 Greece and islands 41.781 8.100,000 105^% 
 
 Ionian Islands (for raisins over 
 
 42,000,000 lbs.) 35,812 1,224,000 341 
 
 Italy 2,887,970 1,275,000,000 4411 
 
 Switzerland and Belgium 76,490 2,550,000 33| 
 
 France 5,013,774 884,000,000 176f 
 
 Spain 955,004 144,500,000 \bl-^^ 
 
 Portugal.. : 238,751 25,500,000 106^% 
 
 Germany 350,338 52,105,000 148^^-^ 
 
 Total 12,285,780 3,107,039,000 250 
 
 2 
 
18 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 In round figures, the aggregate number of acres in culti- 
 vation in Europe for the production of wine is twelve mil- 
 lions. The number of gallons produced is three billions. 
 
 The value, at an average price to the producer of 
 twenty-five cents per gallon, would give the enormous 
 sum of 1776,759,750. But this estimate of twenty-five 
 cents per gallon is really applicable only to the common 
 wines, which, ^t is true, are produced in much larger 
 quantity than the choice brands. Though the table indi- 
 cates great inequality in the number of gallons produced 
 per acre, yet the actual profit on each acre may not be so 
 unequal. For example, Italy is put down in the table as 
 averaging four hundred and forty-one gallons per acre. 
 This must be very light w^ine, commanding a low price ; 
 probably less than twenty-five cents to the producer. 
 On the other hand, the Swiss wines of the Rhine, pro- 
 duced . at an average of thirty- three and three-eighths 
 gallons per acre, will probably yield a larger revenue 
 than the same amount of land in Italy. In the exami- 
 nation of a list of sales by auction at Eberach, of wine 
 in barrels, of the vintages of 1857-8 and 9, of which 
 Mumm and other celebrated dealers were purchasers, I 
 find that but little was sold under two dollars per gallon, 
 while the average was between three and four dollars ; 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 19 
 
 some lots running up to ten dollars, and one lot of a hun- 
 dred and twenty-five gallons being struck off to the King 
 of Hanover at twenty dollars jier gallon. It should be 
 borne in mind that this is the vintner's price before bot- 
 tling, and previous to any impost duty or trade profit. 
 
 As a general rule, the quality of the wine is found tfo be 
 in inverse ratio to the quantity produced. Hence, if we 
 take the average product of European vineyards to be 
 two hundred and fifty gallons per acre, and if we esti- 
 mate the average price to be twenty-five cents per gallon, 
 we have, as a result, a yield of sixty-two dollars and fifty 
 cents per acre. This is probably not lar from a correct 
 estimate. It will be seen that the Rhine acre, with its 
 low product of thirty-three and three-eighths gallons, con- 
 sidering the high price of its wines, will yield a much 
 larger result than the average.^ 
 
 In regard to the value of lands in Europe suitable for 
 wine-making, only a very general estimate can be made. 
 In the Burgundy wine-district, clear lands for planting 
 rent at the low rate of about ten dollars per acre per 
 annum for a term of twenty to thirty years. Planted 
 lands rent for about twice this sum. The fee of first-class 
 vineyards is held quite out of proportion to the rental, 
 varying from three to five thousand dollars per acre. 
 
20 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 Even common second-class vineyards are worth fifteen 
 hundred dollars per acre and upwards. This dispropor- 
 tion between the price of the fee and the rental seems 
 strange to an American, but is, to some extent, accounted 
 for by the hereditary dislike to sell real estate, and also 
 by the low rate of interest prevailing in Europe. The 
 following are the prices for which some of the celebrated 
 vineyards of the Bordeaux district have been sold, esti- 
 mating the franc at twenty cents : — 
 
 Chateau Margaux (200 acres) sold in 1804 for $130,200, 
 equal to $651 per acre. The same was resold in 1836 for 
 $260,000, or $1,300 per acre; an advance of 100 per cent 
 in thirty-two years. 
 
 Gruaud-Larosse (127 acres) ^Id in in 1814 for $70,000, 
 about $551 per acre. 
 
 Langon, St. Juhen (100 acres), sold in 1851 for $130,- 
 000, or $1,300 per acre. 
 
 Mouton (62 acres) sold to M. Rothschild in 1853 for 
 $225,000, or $3,629 per acre. 
 
 Chateau d'Issan (107 acres) was adjudged to the heirs 
 of the Blanchy estate in 1859 at $95,000, or $887.85 per 
 acre. 
 
 On the Rhine, the choicest sites are held by wealthy 
 proprietors, and are not for sale at any price. Most of 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 21 
 
 the lots are small, containing from a quarter of an acre 
 to an acre each : though the celebrated Steinberg, belong- 
 ing to the Duke of Nassau, contains about a hundred 
 acres ; and the Johannisberg, belonging to Prince Metter- 
 nich, contains about sixty acres. In this section of the 
 Rhine, there has been no instance of a sale for many 
 years. In case a division takes place among heirs, and 
 the vineyard is too small to divide, it is appraised at 
 eight thousand dollars the morgen, which is somewhat 
 less than an acre ; and the retainer pays a due proportion 
 to each of the heirs. It will be observed that the above 
 prices are for lands in the most famous districts. It 
 should also be remembered that the percentage of in- 
 come on these investments, though it may content a 
 European, would be far from satisfactory to an American. 
 Indeed, it will be found that the European methods and 
 estimates will all require essential modihcation vj/ien ap- 
 plied to this country. 
 
 The first attempts to cultivate the vine in the United 
 States were confined to the European varieties. The 
 London Company planted vineyards in Virginia prior to 
 the year 1620, and with such encouraging prospects, that 
 they imported several vignerons from France in the year 
 1630. Many succeeding attempts were made by Penn, 
 
22 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 and by French, Swiss, and German settlers ; but, having 
 depended upon foreign varieties, their efforts have in- 
 variably proved unsuccessful. We are indebted to Mr. 
 John Adlum for the first really successful efforts, and for 
 laying a sure foundation for future success. In the early 
 part of this century, Major Adlura planted a vineyard 
 near Georgetown, D.C., consisting principally of native 
 kinds. We shall all agree with him that his obtaining 
 and introducing the Catawba variety into general culti- 
 vation was a new era in our grape history. Major Ad- 
 lum states that he procured it from Mrs. Schell, at Clarks- 
 burg, Md., and that it was called Catawba by Mr. Schell; 
 but the family knew not whence he procured it. It is 
 said that one exactly similar was found gi'owing wild in 
 Pennsylvania about this time. 
 
 Major Adlum soon discovered the merits of this va- 
 riety, and pronounced it "the very best wine-grape in the 
 United States;" which opinion has certainly been sus- 
 tained up to the time of the introduction of the Delaware 
 variety, and is still maintained by many vintners up to 
 this date. The Catawba has been planted far more ex- 
 tensively than all other varieties put together, for the 
 exclusive purpose of wine-making. In a letter subse- 
 quently Avi'itten by Major Adlum to N. Longworth, he 
 
C V L T U R E OF THE GRAPE. 23 
 
 remarks, "In bringing this grape into public notice, I 
 have rendered my country a greater service than I would 
 have done had I paid the national debt." 
 
 Since its first introduction, grape-culture has gi^adually 
 increased, both for the pui-poses of fruit and for wine- 
 making. In some States, the last has already become an 
 important interest. Dr. Mosher repons the number of 
 acres devoted to vineyards in the year 1852, withui a 
 circle of twenty miles diameter around Cincinnati, O., 
 to be twelve hundred. Of this, the late Nicholas Long- 
 worth owned a hundred and twenty-two and a half acres. 
 Tlie annual product of these twelve hundred acres is esti- 
 mated to be two hundred and forty thousand gaUons of 
 wine, or an average of two hundred gallons per acre. 
 Since that time, the interest in the grape has become 
 general throughout the country, and the extent of culture 
 has vastly increased. 
 
 But it seems to be reserved to our Golden State to 
 eclipse the world in the products of the vine, as well as 
 in other products of the field, the forest, and the mine. 
 In no country does the grape require so little care, and 
 have such entire exemption from disease, and at the same 
 time yield such large and certain returns. The peculiar 
 grape region is said to extend from the southern boundary 
 
24 CULTURE OF THE GRATE. 
 
 to a distance of six hundred miles north, with an average 
 breadth of about a hundi'ed miles. ' In this region, the 
 amount of rain-fall is surprisingl}^ small, — the annual 
 amount at Los Angeles being less than ten inches ; and, 
 of this, eight-tenths fall during the winter and spring 
 months. In a work upon " The Resources of California," 
 Ml'. Hittel, the author, says, — 
 
 " The soil of the vineyards at Los Angeles and Ana- 
 heim is a deep, Hght, warm sand. To the inexperienced 
 eye, it looks as though it were too poor to produce any 
 valuable vegetable growth. In Sonoma and Napa Valleys 
 the vineyards are planted in a red, gravelly clay, near the 
 foot of the mountains, or in a light, sandy loam, in the 
 centre of the valley. Of late, the vine-growers of these 
 valleys have done mthout inigation. In Santa Clara 
 Valley, most of the vines have been placed in a rich, black 
 loam ; but their vineyards are unhealthy. The Sacra- 
 mento vines are planted in sandy loam ; those of the 
 Sierra Nevada, in sandy loam or in gravelly clay." 
 
 It is worthy of consideration, as exhibiting the nature 
 of rot and mildew, that while California is remarkably 
 exempt fi-om these diseases on account of its dry climate, 
 yet "in Santa Clara, Sonoma, and Alameda Counties, 
 where the \dnes are planted in a wet, black loam, or stiff 
 clay," both of these diseases make their appearance. The 
 
OULTUBE OF THE GRAPE, 25 
 
 statistics of the enterprise of the vineyardists of that 
 State are unparalleled in the history of the grape. In 
 1861, we have an account, published in "The Horticultu- 
 rist," of the vineyai'd of William Wolfskill, containing 
 fifty-five acres, and ninety thousand vines in bearing, 
 yielding seven- hundred tliousand pounds of gi-apes an- 
 nually, and producing fifty thousand gallons of wine. In 
 "The United-States Agricultural Report" for 1862, the 
 estimated number of vines in California in 1861 is placed 
 at 10,592,688, of which Los Angeles County had 2,570,000, 
 and Sonoma 1,701,661. Subsequent to this time, the num- 
 ber has vastly increased. Mr. Speaker Colfax reports, that, 
 during his travels in this State in the summer of 1865, he 
 found one vineyard which alone had upwai'ds of a million 
 of vines. "With such rapid increase, the mhid staggers in 
 making estimates for the fatm'e. 
 
CHAPTER n. 
 
 BOTAI<fY AND HTIBRIDIZATION OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 npiHE old Latin noun vitis, meaning " vine," derived 
 from the verb vieo, " to bind with twigs," was adopt- 
 ed by Tounefort, and accepted by Linnaeus, as the botanic 
 name for the graj)e. Dr. Whittaker exj^resses the opinion 
 that it is derived from the noun vis, signifying "strengtli." 
 The grape belongs to the natural order Vitaceae, and to 
 the class Pentandria and order Monogynia of Linnaeus. 
 In the European species, the flowers are generally perfect ; 
 but in our native kinds the flowers are frequently imper- 
 fect, the stamens and pistils being separated in difierent 
 flowers. In common language, the graj^e is divided into 
 two classes, — the European and the American. These 
 two classes are decidedly distinct ; and yet there are va- 
 rieties of each family which have so few of these distinc- 
 tions, and approach so nearly to the characteristics of the 
 
 26 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 27 
 
 other family, that it is sometimes difficult to determine to 
 which class they belong. The European class, Vitis vini- 
 fera, is but a single species, fi'om which have sprung all 
 the different kinds which have been or now are cultivated 
 in Europe, — probably exceeding two thousand varieties. 
 While these varieties have their own individual habits, 
 more or less distinct, yet they give good evidence of be- 
 longing to the one sjoecies vinefera. Which one of these 
 varieties was the parent of all the rest, it is now impossi- 
 ble to determine. Doubtless the number of varieties Avill 
 go on increasing, the number of seedlings which are likely 
 to be brought forward exceeding the number which will 
 be rejected and lost. 
 
 Of American grapes. Professor Gray enumerates four 
 distinct species, as follows : 1. V. Labrusca ; 2. V. aesti- 
 valis ; 3. V. cordifolia ; 4. V. vulpina. 
 
 1. " Leaves woolly beneath; when lobed, having obtuse 
 or rounded sinuses. 
 
 " Vitis Labrusca^ L. (Northern Fox Grape.) Branchlets 
 and young leaver very woolly ; leaves continuing rusty 
 and woolly beneath ; fertile panicles compact ; berries 
 large (one-half to three-fourths inch in diameter) ; moist 
 thickets common ; June ; berries ripe in September, dark- 
 purple or amber-color, with a tough, musky pulp. Im- 
 
28 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 proved by cultivation. It has given rise to the Isabella 
 Grape, &c. 
 
 " Yitis CBStivalis, Michx. (summer grape.) Young leaves 
 downy, with loose, cobwebby hairs beneath, smoothish 
 when old, green above ; fertile ; panicles compound, long, 
 and slender; berries small (one-third or one-fourth inch 
 in diameter), black, with a bloom ; thickets common ; 
 climbing high ; May, June ; berries pleasant ; ripe in Octo- 
 ber." Tlie Delaware is thought by some to be an im- 
 proA^ed variety of this species. 
 
 2 "Leaves smooth, or nearly so, and green on both 
 sides; commonly pubescent on the veins beneath; either 
 incisely lobed or undivided. 
 
 " V. cordifoUa, Michx. (winter or frost grai3e.) 
 Leaves thin, not shining, heart-shaped, acuminate, sharply 
 and coarsely toothed, often obscurely, three-lobed ; jDani- 
 cles compound, large, and loose ; berries small (one-fourth 
 inch broad), blue or black, with a bloom; very acerb, 
 ripening after frost ; Var. Riparia, with the leaves 
 broader, and somewhat incisely toothed and cut-lobed. 
 Thickets and river-banks; common; May, June. Flow- 
 ers very sweet-scented." The Clinton is an example of 
 this species. 
 
 " V. vidpina, L. (Muscadine or Southern Fox Grape.) 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 29 
 
 Leaves shining both sides, small, rounded, with a heaii;- 
 shaped base, very coarsely toothed, witli broad and blunt- 
 ish teeth, seldom lobed ; panicles small, densely flowered ; 
 berries large (one-half to three-fourths inch in diameter), 
 musky, purplish, without a bloom; ripe early in autumn. 
 River-banks, Maryland to Kentucky, and southward ; May. 
 Branchlets minutely warty; fruit with a thick and tough 
 skin. A variety yields the ScupjDernong Grape, &c." 
 
 Attempts have been made to subdivide into more spe- 
 cies; but it may well be doubted if it can be done with 
 any distinctness. Though we find many distinct varie- 
 ties, which, by careful observation, we can readily class 
 under one or another of these four species, yet there are 
 many others which are so indistinct, that it is extremely 
 difiicult to say to which they belong. This difficulty will 
 go on increasing, and will soon amount to an impossi- 
 bility, as the different species are hybridized, and the 
 seedlings, partaking of the blood of each parent, shall 
 mingle the characteristics of each. At the present time, 
 the great practical classification is the one first men- 
 tioned ; viz., European and American. Even these will 
 be likely to be thrown into confusion if success shall at- 
 tend the many efforts now being made to cross the two 
 classes. It has been doubted by some whether there are 
 
30 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 any instaDces of native and foreign hybridization. Cer- 
 tainly there is no inherent impossibiUty in thus crossing the 
 two species, they being closely allied in their nature and 
 characteristics ; so closely, indeed, that it is as difficult 
 even for experts to determine to which class some varie- 
 ties belong as it is in the case of the different native spe- 
 cies which have been mentioned. For exami^le, it is still 
 in dispute whether the Rebecca and the Delaware are 
 pure foreign or j^ure native varieties, or whether they 
 have a mixture of the blood of each. If, then, there is 
 such similarity in the two classes, it certainly seems en- 
 tirely reasonable to suppose they may be intermingled. It 
 would seem very easy to determine this problem by actual 
 test ; but the exj^eriment is more delicate than might at 
 first be suj)posed. In order that this subject of hybridi- 
 zation may be more distinctly understood, the following 
 description of the inflorescence of the gi'ape is quoted 
 from Gray's " Manual of Botany : " — 
 
 " Calyx very short, usually with a nearly entire border, 
 or none at all, filled with a fleshy disk which bears the 
 petals and stamens ; flowers in a compound thyrsus ; pedi- 
 cels mostly umbellate-clustered ; petals five, cohering at the 
 top ; and so the corolla usually falls off without expanding." 
 
 This compound thyrsus, or cluster of flowers, greatly 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 31 
 
 facilitates the natural impregnation of the pistil, which, 
 of course, must be prevented where a cross is intended. 
 Another and greater difficulty arises from the cohesion of 
 the petals at the top. Fig. 1 illustrates a single 
 flower from a cluster ; the corolla being raised by 
 the stamens, the petals remaining united until 
 they fall. It is frequently the case that this little 
 cap remains over the stamens, holding them over ^^s- 1- 
 the pistil, and letting in sufficient air to mature the 
 pollen for its work of impregnation; so that the work 
 is done before the flower is expanded. In many cases, 
 it would be difficult, if not impossible, to detennine 
 whether this impregnation had actually taken place 
 or not; and hence the uncertainty in determining 
 whether seedlings are natural, or are artificial hybrids. 
 The only practical and satisfactory test is in the char- 
 acter of the offspring. It is but reasonable to expect 
 that many attempts at crossing will prove to be fail- 
 ures ; but it is also as reasonable to hope for success in 
 some cases. Indeed, it would seem to be indisputable 
 that success has already been attained in some instances. 
 In answer to some inquiries, I have received a letter from 
 Mr. Edward S. Rogers, who is widely known as having 
 made careful experiments in hybridizing. From this let- 
 ter I make an extract : — 
 
32 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 " I have often noticed that the anthers have shed their 
 pollen before the corolla, or cap, comes off: this is not al- 
 ways the case. But, to make sure work, it should always 
 be removed, although some judgment must be used as to 
 the right time of doing it. My usual practice has been 
 to choose those clusters that are the farthest advanced, 
 and cut away all but four or five of the flower-buds, 
 and, when the buds are nearly ready to open, to remove 
 the corolla, or cap, and apply the pollen of the kind 
 we have chosen for the male parent, covering the cluster 
 at the same time with a small bag, and also enclosing a 
 cluster of the male parent in full bloom ; and usually I 
 retouch the pistil the next day, as it may not have been 
 in the state to receive the pollen at first. I have not the 
 least doubt now as to the certainty of raising new 
 grapes by this process." 
 
 Mr. Rogers has raised his numerous " first-class seed 
 lings" from hybridized seed of the Mammoth Fox. One 
 proof that they are true crosses is in the fact, that the 
 Mammoth has an imperfect flower, while the seedhngs have 
 perfect flowers, like their male parent. His " second-class 
 seedlings " are from seed of the first class, again hybridized 
 with foreign kinds. Some of these certainly show marked 
 foreign characteristics ; -too much so, in the opinion of Mr. 
 
C U LT U n E OF Til E G RA P E. 33 
 
 Rogers. Mr. Allen's White Hybrid is another example 
 where hybridization seems to be evident. 
 
 On the other hand, many seedlings which are heralded 
 as hybrids, can, in truth, neither lay claim to any foreign 
 blood or native merit. In the "Horticulturist," vol. i. 
 p. 343, a writer says, " I have a large number of seedling 
 grape-vines, hybrids between the different foreign kinds 
 and the Isabella and Catawba, which promise well, and 
 will be in bearing next year." If they had been genuine 
 hybrids, they would not have remained unknown to the 
 world for twenty years. 
 
 In performing this experiment of hybridizing, the fol- 
 lowing rules are to be observed : Select such varieties, 
 either native or foreign, as have some known excellence, 
 — such as vigor, good quality, earliness, size, &c. A Black 
 Hamburg and an early Creveling would be a good exam- 
 ple ; also the early and excellent Delaware with the large 
 and vigorous but late Union Village. But the Union Vil- 
 lage with the Isabella would not be a good example, 
 because they have a similarity of characteristics, and are 
 both late. 
 
 The object is to bring together different excellences. 
 Havino: determined the varieties beforehand, if there should 
 be a difference in the time of mflorescence, the later kind 
 
34 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 may be hastened by the protection of glass, or the pollen 
 of the earlier kind may be preserved in a closely corked 
 phial until the later kind is ready for impregnation. It 
 is said that pollen may be kept for a month, and sent 
 thousands of miles, without injuring its vitality. There 
 may also be a choice which of the kinds to constitute the 
 female parent, resulting from the imperfect organization 
 of some kinds ; e.g., the foreign Damascus and the native 
 Taylor, which have deformed stamens, and an insuffi- 
 cient supply of pollen. A careful observer will readily be 
 guided in his practice. I cannot think it is material to the 
 character of the seedling which variety is the mother. 
 In the analogous case of animal life, we find equally 
 marked paternal and maternal traits in the oifspring. The 
 choice being made, before inflorescence, with a long and 
 slender pair of scissors remove the larger part of the 
 flower-buds from the bunch that is to be impregnated, in 
 order that there may be ample room to operate upon the 
 remaining flowers. This rule will vary with difierent 
 varieties, the operator being easily guided by his judg- 
 ment. Watch the period of inflorescence with utmost 
 care ; and when the corolla is seen to lift, and part from 
 the calyx, then with the scissors carefully remove the cap. 
 Generally the cap will fall before you can get to it; but, in 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 35 
 
 order to make certain work, every moment is precious. 
 The flower is shown in fio:. 2. 
 
 The anthers of the five stamens are to be 
 immediately removed. The stamens will then 
 appear as in fig. 3. The air being dry, procure 
 your bunch which is to fructify, the pollen of 
 which should be dry, like dust. With a fine 
 camel's-hair pencil apply this pollen to the 
 stigma of the pistil. This work should be re- Fig. 3. 
 peated after an interval of a few hours, and again on the 
 two following days, in order to make sure of impreg- 
 nation. As the different flowers on the bunch will not 
 open at the same time, it will be necessary to watch and 
 operate upon it for several days. During this time, it will 
 be essential to protect the banch by a gauze bag to pre- 
 vent bees and other insects from carrying pollen from 
 other flowers, and spoiling your work. After all this skill, 
 care, and patience, there are liabilities either that the 
 stamen was impregnated before you got to your work, or 
 that an atom of the pollen fell upon the stigma when you 
 were removing the anthers, or, in an unguarded moment, 
 was afterwards deposited by a mischief-making insect. 
 You have no means of determining the fact but by the 
 slow process of ripening the seed, and, by years of after- 
 
36 CULTUBE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 watching, arriving at an oj^inion whether or not you have 
 obtained a true cross. Such a cross of well-selected varie- 
 ties would be almost certain to be a high jDrize, and would 
 well repay years of patient care. Until such methods 
 shall have developed the capacity for improvement of our 
 native species, we cannot expect to obtain the very highest 
 results. But by continued crossing and recrossing, com- 
 bining and refining, there would seem to be no limit to 
 this process of improvement. The field is wide, inviting, 
 and rewarding. It is to be hoped, and it can scarcely be 
 doubted, that many will enter it. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 PROPAGATION OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 THERE are four methods of propagating the grape ; 
 viz., by seed, by cuttings, by layers, and by grafts. 
 We will examine them in the above order. 
 
 BY SEED. 
 
 This is the natural method, but desirable only for the 
 
 purpose of obtaining new kinds. The grape is so easily 
 
 multiplied by cuttings, that seedUngs are never raised for 
 
 stocks, as is the case with apples and pears. When stocks 
 
 are on hand, they may be used for the purpose of grafting 
 
 new varieties upon them ; but it cannot be regarded as 
 
 economical to raise them for this purpose. Many experi- 
 
 37 
 
38 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 ments are, however, now going forward with the hope of 
 obtaining improved kinds. As has been stated in the 
 previous chapter, a judiciously obtained hybrid, or cross 
 between two varieties of excellence, is almost certain to 
 give a seedling of good qualities. There is indeed a 
 probability, that, by combining known excellences, the 
 product may be a decided improvement upon either of 
 the parents. It is also reasonable to expect, that when 
 the seed of the best berries of the best varieties is selected, 
 even without hybridization, many of the seedlings will 
 show points of excellence. It is in this way, or, worse 
 than this, by mere chance seedlings, that most of our 
 present kinds have been obtained. And it would be 
 strange, if, by a careful selection of seed, we should not 
 arrive at much better results. This seems to be so rea- 
 sonable, that it has induced many within a few years to 
 plant seeds very extensively. In one instance within my 
 knowledge, a gentleman has thirty thousand seedUngs 
 at the present time which he will test by fruiting. 
 Smaller experiments in the same direction are being tried 
 by many in all parts of the land ; and it is a course to be 
 recommended to all who have the time and interest to 
 watch results. For, if a really good seed is selected, it is 
 not probable that the product will be much inferior ; and, 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 39 
 
 if it should so prove, I believe the process of grafting 
 will be made so certain, that it may readily be used as a 
 stock for a better kind. The chance that some lucky seed 
 may win the prize, — how amply it would compensate for 
 multiijlied failures ! 
 
 As it is a long experiment to test seedlings, it is extreme 
 folly to use any but the very best seed. Select thoroughly 
 rij^e and the largest berries of the best varieties. Sepa- 
 rate the seed from the pulp, and mix with double the 
 amount of sand, and set away for spring use. Freezing 
 the seed is not important to a speedy germination of the 
 seed. The only things to be guarded against are mice, 
 heat, and dryness. As early as is possible in the S23ring, 
 make a bed of light soil with a liberal quantity of thor- 
 oughly decomposed horse-manure, or other equally light 
 and enriching material, well incorporated to the depth of 
 two feet. Sow the seeds in drills one foot apart, and one 
 inch apart in the drill; cover to the depth of half an inch. 
 To one accustomed to the management of cold frames, 
 sashes will be of great advantage, giving the young plants 
 a little protection and warmth, thus securing an early and 
 vigorous start. Judgment must be used in watering, giv- 
 ing air, and partially shading the tender plant from the 
 fiercest rays of the sun. As the season advances, the 
 
40 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 sashes may be removed, but not uutil the weather is 
 warm. Let not this change be too sudden, or the result 
 will be that the tender growth will be destroyed by raw 
 winds, or will fall a jorey to mildew. Dust flour of sul- 
 phur over the plants at mid-day as a preventive ; also con- 
 tinue a partial shade during tlie heat of the day. A lat- 
 tice of lathes is the best shade. This may be dispensed 
 with as soon as the plants obtain vigor and substance. 
 When the vines begin to run, support each plant with a 
 slight stake two feet long above ground. If these direc- 
 tions are followed, the vines will attain an average growth 
 of three feet the first season. In the fall, the plants are 
 to be dug, and the weakest rejected. The rest are to be 
 completely buried in a dry soil, and sheltered from rain 
 by boards or shutters. As they are hereafter to be treated 
 precisely like vines from cuttings for vineyard planting, 
 it is unnecessary to "give further directions in this place. 
 It is sufficient to say, that it is neither true economy, nor 
 a fair test, to endeavor to fruit the vines in crowded beds. 
 Let them go into the usual vineyard rows when one year 
 old. If they prove to be valuable, they will want all the 
 space ; but, if worthless, the stocks are in the right position 
 to receive grafts. Of course, it is not understood that the 
 wide spaces for high trellises are recommended. For 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 41 
 
 extensive experiments, a distance of three feet by four 
 is sufficient. Generally, these seedlings do not produce 
 fruit as early as cuttings : not until the fourth season will 
 they give a fair indication of their quality. 
 
 The method of propagation by cuttings may be sub- 
 divided as follows, — by single eyes, by green wood, and 
 by cuttings in the open air. 
 
 PKOPAGATIOX BY SINGLE EYES. 
 
 This is the method most extensively in use, and in 
 most instances possessing manifest advantages. It is a 
 near approach to the natural method by seed, there being 
 but little of the old wood to separate the young roots 
 from the new growth. The different parts of the plant 
 are homogeneous, with the slight exception of about an 
 inch of wood. Vines started in this way require artificial 
 treatment under glass : but, as the amount of wood which 
 is used is so small, the space required is corresj^ondingly 
 small ; consequently, the expense of thus starting them is 
 not large. But a great advantage is thereby obtained, by 
 securing an early and vigorous start, and a season of 
 growth extended one or two months, resulting in large 
 and well-ripened vines in the fall. Thus we have an- 
 
42 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 swerecl the all-important conditions of perfectly healthy 
 plants, which is a sufficient reason why this method of 
 propagating should continue to have the preference. It 
 is also an imj^ortant consideration that every known kind 
 is readily increased in this way, and w^ith great rapidity, 
 inasmuch as every sound eye will make a plant. It has 
 been objected, that, by taking a portion of the old wood 
 of the parent plant, any tendency to disease in the parent 
 will be communicated to the offspring. It is undoubtedly 
 true that weak eyes and poorly-ripened wood will pro- 
 duce feeble plants, and that such are undesirable, and 
 should be rejected. The desire to increase the new va- 
 rieties as raj^idly as possible has induced propagators to 
 use every eye that could be made to grow; which is a 
 sufficient reason for the w^eak and spindhng growth which 
 is so often seen. But when a plump, well-ripened eye is 
 used, theory and practice both confirm the opinion, that, 
 under good management, perfectly healthy vines are pro- 
 duced. As this method of propagation is now, and in all 
 probability will continue to be, the most practised and the 
 best, a full description of the management will be given. 
 
 At the time of fall-pruning of the vineyard, the wood 
 for cuttings should be tied in bundles, marked dis- 
 tinctly, and stored away in a cold cellar. During the 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 43 
 
 leisure months of January and February, the work of 
 making up the cuttings may be 
 done. A vineyard pruning-knife, 
 as represented in fig. 4, is much 
 the best instrument for making 
 the cuttings. . The wood is cut 
 with almost the rapidity of strips 
 of paper cut with a pair of scissors. 
 A dexterous cutter will retain the 
 branch in his left hand, and with 
 two strokes of the knife the cut- 
 ting is made, and falls into a pan, 
 while the refuse wood falls on one 
 side. One man will make from 
 three to four thousand cuttings 
 per day. 
 
 The most convenient size for the knife is one, the 
 length of which is nine inches. The little bar seen on 
 the handle is intended to play between the first and 
 second fingers, and will be found to be a great assistance 
 in controlling the knife. See that the blade of the knife 
 is keen, in order that the cut may be clean, and free from 
 any bruising or tearing. Each cutting will require two 
 strokes of the knife, — the first about a third of an inch 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
44 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 above the eye, and sloping parallel with the eye ; and the 
 
 second cut about an inch and a 
 half below the eye, and at right 
 angles to the slope of the bud. 
 Fig. 5. The appearance of the cutting 
 
 is seen in fig. 5. , It has been recommended by some to 
 cut out the under side of the cutting, in order to give a 
 
 larger surface for the emission 
 of roots ; the cutting, when 
 finished, presenting the ap- 
 Fig. 6. pearance as in fig. 6. The 
 
 objections to this method are, first, that it is unnecessary, 
 roots being formed with the greatest freedom at the end 
 of the cutting, as in fig. 5, and also throwing out from 
 under the bark ; second, when so much surface of the cut- 
 ting is exposed for the absorption of moisture, as in fig. 6, 
 it is much more liable to become rotten. 
 
 Still another form has been 
 recommended, as seen in fig. 7. 
 pj^ ^ The advantage claimed for this 
 
 form is that the wood above the eye helps to keep the 
 eye from drying, whereas there is the least possible 
 amount of wood between the eye and future roots ; so 
 that the growth of the young plant will be more nearly 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 45 
 
 homogeneous, and the nearest approach to a seedling. 
 Roots are also known to form more readily, the nearer 
 we approach to an eye ; the deposit of cambium being 
 greater near the eye than in other parts of the plant. 
 The theory is correct ; but it is found in practice that the 
 eyes are much more liable to be displaced, and to suffer 
 from changes in heat and moisture, as the greater part of 
 the cutting necessarily lies nearer the surface. In my 
 opinion, the form in fig. 5 cannot be improved. 
 
 These cuttings, being made in winter, may be put away 
 in boxes of moderately dry loam, the loam being well 
 mixed amons: the cuttin2:s. Place the boxes in a cold 
 cellar, and let them rest until March or April. If the 
 right degree of heat (from thirty-five to forty-five de- 
 grees) and of moisture (very slight, but not too dry) are 
 maintained, the process of callousing and preparation will 
 go on slowly, but naturally and surely, and the time in 
 the propagating-house will be diminished one-half For 
 the ready and certain development of roots, it will now 
 be necessary that they be put in a condition to receive a 
 gentle and steady bottom -heat. There are two methods 
 of obtaining this, — first by hot-beds; and secondly by 
 fire-heat, generally in connection with water-pipes or 
 tanks. 
 
46 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 HOT-BEDS. 
 
 These are a simple and long-established method. Yet, 
 when we take into account the cost and considerable 
 waste of material of which the bed is composed, the 
 labor of making, the care and time in watching, and, in 
 addition, the considerable risk as to results, this cannot 
 be considered an economical way for extensive propaga- 
 tion. When a propagating-house would only be used for 
 this single purpose, or when only a moderate quantity of 
 vines is wanted, the hot-bed will be a good substitute for 
 the more perfect j^lan of tanks. 
 
 In order to secure a good bed, select a sheltered posi- 
 tion, the sub-soil of which is well drained ; dig a pit of 
 the length and width of the frame, and to a depth of 
 eighteen inches, the surface-soil being thrown out as a 
 bank for the sides of the bed. Fresh, well-moistened sta- 
 ble-manure should be drawn to the side of the frame, and 
 allowed to lie in a heap until the heat is well up, which 
 generally requires four or five days. Turn the heap from 
 end to end, thoroughly incorporating the coarse and the 
 line, the hot and the cold, the wet and the dry, and allow- 
 ing the excess of heat and moisture to pass off. On the 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 47 
 
 following clay, commence at one end of the pit, and build 
 up the bed in tiers of about a foot in width, shaking out 
 all clods in the manure, and spanking the bed very firmly 
 together with the back of the fork during the process of 
 building. The bed should be well compacted, of uniform 
 density; and hence it should never receive the impression 
 of a foot. If the manure is free from straw or other lit- 
 ter, a saving of manure is effected by. using from one-third 
 to one-half the bulk of oak or other firm leaves. To make 
 the bed sufficiently permanent, it should have a depth of 
 three feet ; the surface-earth which was thrown out being 
 drawn up at the sides to a level with the surface of the 
 bed. Cover the surface of the bed with fine, light soil, to 
 the depth of four inches, and then apply the frame, and 
 bank it with leaves or other material which will best pro- 
 tect the bed. After the application of the sashes, another 
 week will be consumed in drawing up the heat, and allow- 
 ing the excess of moisture to pass off. In the latitude of 
 Boston, if work upon the manure is commenced about the 
 middle of March, the beds will be found to be in good 
 condition for receiving the cuttings by April 1 ; which 
 is quite early enough for eyes prepared in the previous 
 winter, as before described. 
 
 These should now be taken from the boxes in the eel- 
 
48 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 lar, the light soil being so dry as readily to pass through 
 a coarse sieve. Owing to the liability to an excess of 
 moisture, and in order that they may readily be changed 
 if necessary, it is best to plant the cuttings in six-inch 
 pots. These are filled with pure, sharp, clean sand, and 
 the cuttings inserted at an angle of forty-five degrees. 
 The top of the eye should be just visible on the surfiice 
 of the sand after pressing down and watering. Planted 
 at equal distances, a pot six inches in diameter — measur- 
 ing from inside to inside at the top — will hold from 
 twenty to thirty cuttings, varying according to the size 
 of the wood. When prepared in the cellar, the pots are 
 brought out, and plunged in the bed to a level with the 
 rim. Admit air freely in mikl weather, keeping the earth 
 warm, but the air ten to twenty degrees lower, in order 
 to induce root-action at once. The most desirable heat 
 for the pots is from seventy to eighty degrees. If the 
 sun's rays are very fierce, give a partial shade as well 
 as ventilation, and prevent the atmosphere from rising 
 above a temperature of eighty degrees. It would be bet- 
 ter to keep it twenty degrees lower, if possible. Secure a 
 good foundation of roots, and " make haste slowly." If 
 the cuttings have been well managed, they will be well 
 rooted, and the shoots well started, within a month from 
 the time of potting them. As they are to be managed 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 49 
 
 precisely like vines coming from a propagating-house, we 
 will now go back to a description of this method. 
 
 THE PEOPAG A TING-HOUSE. 
 
 As has been said, this is by far the most economical and 
 best method, and is the one in use by all extensive culti- 
 vators. In commercial gardens, the house is in constant 
 use throughout a considerable portion of the year, one 
 crop of cuttings succeeding to another. Hence the ex- 
 pense of a crop of thousands, occupying but a small 
 space, and less than a month of time, is comparatively 
 trifling. Under strict conditions, the experiment of strik- 
 ing can scarcely be called such, being reduced almost to a 
 certainty. Mischances will happen ; but, if they can be 
 avoided, well-selected grape-eyes are sure to root. The 
 following rules are given for the construction of a house: 
 Grade to a level a piece of land ten feet wide, and run- 
 ning north and south a distance sufficient for the length 
 of the house. Next plant durable posts on each side of 
 the lot, running north and south; the posts being about 
 four feet apart in the lines, and the lines being nine feet 
 from centre to centre of the post. The posts are to be 
 cut to a level of one foot eight inches above the ground 
 
 4 
 
50 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 surfare. The walk in the centre of the house is then to 
 be cut down two feet nine inches below the surflice, 
 and is to be two and a half feet wide when boarded 
 or cemented. The next work in tlie order of construc- 
 tion is the building of a water-tank for the purpose of 
 generating bottom-heat, and also heating the house. 
 Wooden tanks have been often recommended, and they 
 are now generally in use; but they have always been 
 found to be more or less troublesome, and by no means a 
 perfect success in any case : they are apt to swell and 
 shrink with the changes in temperature. Wood being 
 porous, they give off more or less moisture, if they do net 
 do worse, and come to a positive leak. If the top of the 
 tank is covered with wood, it is a j^oor conductor, and 
 does not sufficiently heat the j^ropagating-bed, unless the 
 water is raised to a high temperature, when too mucli 
 steam is generated. If the wooden tank is covered with 
 slate, it is difficult to join the two materials with cement, 
 so as to endure the extremes of winter and summer, and 
 keep the work impervious to steam. It is not denied that 
 wooden tanks have done some good service, but they are 
 imperfect; and, as there is a better material and a cheaper, 
 they should never be used. Tanks have been made by a 
 thick coat of cement upon the level surface of the ground, 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 51 
 
 the sides being of brick. This simple method has been 
 recently brought more jDrominently into notice by Mr. 
 E. H. Hooker, of Rochester, N.Y. An objection to these 
 tanks has been made, that, in the changes of temperature 
 of the earth, the bottom of the tank will crack and leak ; 
 but this is disputed, and it seems reasonable, that provided 
 the preparation of the foundation is thorough, and the 
 cement is properly applied, the work may be made tight 
 and durable. An equally cheap, and I think a better 
 tank was first constructed and used by Mr. Asa Cum- 
 mings, of Reading, Mass. This appears, thus far, to be 
 perfect in all respects. It is simply a slate tank, top and 
 bottom (ordinary roofing slate), with sides of brick. In 
 comparison with iron water-pipes, the slate tank seems to 
 be as dry, and impervious to steam, gives off the heat with 
 equal facility, gives a better horizontal surface for bottom- 
 heat, and, chiefest of all, is far more economical. The 
 construction is extremely simple, and it can be done by 
 any one used to the trowel. For the propagating-house, 
 procure slate twelve by eighteen inches in size, the length 
 of the slate being the width of the tank. After the walk 
 is dug, make the surface on each side perfectly level and 
 solid. Then place rows of brick on each bank, at right 
 angles to the walk, for a foundation ; the length of the 
 
52 
 
 cultuhe of the grape. 
 
 rows being eighteen inches, the width of the tank, and the 
 rows being a foot apart; so that each joint of slate shall 
 
 have the support of brick under- 
 neath. Lay the slate upon the brick 
 piers, and cement the joints with ut- 
 most care, using the best New-Jer- 
 sey cement, mixed with an equal 
 quantity of pure sand. Fig. 8 shows 
 the appearance of the work at this 
 stage. The outer lines indicate the 
 sides of the house ; the lines in the 
 centre indicate the walk; and the 
 checked belt the course of slate, con- 
 stituting the bottom of the tank. 
 As the under surface is exposed to the air, except the 
 small part which rests upon the brick at the joints, heat 
 is given off at the bottom of the tank as well as at the 
 top ; which is a great advantage over Mr. Hooker's plan. 
 For the sides of the tank, lay a single brick edgewise. 
 This will give a depth of three inches for the water, 
 which is quite sufficient. Bed the brick carefully in 
 cement, and also cover the inside face. The top course 
 of slate should be laid and cemented with as much care 
 as the bottom, in order to prevent any escape of steam. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 63 
 
 The further construction of the house will be obvious 
 upon examination of fig. 9, which is a view of the north 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 end ; fig. 8 being a ground-plan of the south end. The 
 posts being set for the sides, nine feet from the centre of 
 one side to the other, allowing three inches on each side 
 for the radius of the post, the house will be eight feet 
 six inches wide in the clear, inside. The rafters will be 
 four feet ten inches in length, having a perpendicular rise 
 of two feet two inches. As this house is to be perma- 
 nent, it is cheajDcr and warmer to have a fixed roof with 
 a few trap sashes for ventilation at the top. It will be 
 
54 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 noticed that the amonnt of space not wanted for gi'owth 
 is reduced to a minimum, — simply a walk, and room for 
 the head. In such a snug house, there is no lofty space 
 on which to expend heat. Of more importance still, the 
 conditions of success are under such easy conti'ol, and 
 the cuttings are so near to the glass, that there will be no 
 need whatever of bell-glasses, or a second set of sashes. 
 The house is close, genial, and humid enough for all ordi- 
 nary propagation. This is a great gain, saving in mate- 
 rial and in labor, and keeping the cuttings in clear sight, 
 so that their exact condition may always be obvious. 
 The letters a, a, indicate the tank resting upon brick 
 piers ; ^, ^, being the ground-line. The water flows in at 
 the pipe, b, and, flowing conf^)letely round the house, 
 enters the boiler through the return-pipe, c. The flue, /, 
 runs the length of the house, and back of the tank. The 
 tables, ^, g, are composed of slate for the sake of dura- 
 bility, and also because this material will secure a better 
 bottom-heat than boards, which are poor conductors of 
 heat. These tables are three feet wide, three inches 
 above the tank, and a foot below the lower edge of glass. 
 This gives room for a bed of sand three to four inches 
 deep, and sufficient working and growing space. On each 
 side of the walk, h, are sliding shutters, d, d, one of which 
 
 k 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 55 
 
 is represented as open, to let the heat pass from the tank 
 into the house. . This will be found necessary in cold 
 weather, but only to a moderate extent. The object is 
 to "keep the feet warm and the head cool." A glance 
 will show how perfectly this paramount condition is se- 
 cured. The boiler, e, may be of the smallest size, and 
 kept exclusively for this house, which should work inde- 
 pendently of all others. I have not thought it necessary 
 to give all the reasons determining the above construc- 
 tion, nor the many modifications and other forms which 
 are now in use. This would require too large a space in 
 a treatise for general use. Suffice it to say, that after 
 years of trial, and many disappointments, I have come to 
 the conclusion that the above simple and cheap plan is 
 nearly perfect. It only requires care, and the observance 
 of a few, the simplest rules, to propagate almost any 
 known plant. 
 
 For large establishments, should more space than a 
 distance of sixty feet would secure be desired, it will be 
 better, as a general rule, to begin a parallel house on the 
 ridge and furrow principle. Succession-houses are a ne- 
 cessity in commercial gardens ; and the conviction is now 
 general, that ridge and furrow houses are most economi- 
 cal. By this term is meant a succession of parallel houses, 
 
56 CULTURE OF THE a It A P E. ' 
 
 joined to each other by wide j)lank-gutters sufficiently 
 strong to bear a heavy weight of snow,. and also to form 
 a passage by which it may be thrown out. From houses 
 sixty feet in length, the difficulty of removing snow does 
 not prove to be serious; at least not on the seacoast, 
 where the fall is less than in the interior. The advan- 
 tages of this system are manifold and manifest, — such as 
 diminished cost of construction ; diminished exposure of 
 sides to the cold, the low stature of the houses making 
 them better for the plants, and less difficult to heat ; also 
 compactness, and economy of space, thereby saving thou- 
 sands of unnecessary steps in moving plants and work- 
 ing the houses. For the strict purpose of grape-culture, it 
 is the opinion of some that such houses are desirable as 
 reception-houses for the young plants when rooted, and 
 ready to be potted off, or planted in borders under glass. 
 These houses may be constructed of movable sashes, 
 which can be used to advantage later in the season, in 
 the vineyard, as we shall see hereafter. With this, or a 
 similar end in view, i.e. a double use of the sashes, I 
 would recommend, as a general I'ule, a uniform size of 
 sashes, — three feet wide and six feet long. This will 
 give inside borders, or tables, four feet wide on each side 
 of the walk; a width not difficult to manage. Fig. 10 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 57 
 
 illustrates a succession of such houses, the propagating- 
 house being the smallest, the other two or more being 
 
 Fiir. 10. 
 
 well adapted for growing young vines in the borders 
 during the summer. These houses may also be used to 
 advantage in winter for flowering plants, early straw- 
 berries, vegetables, or any forcing purpose, by intro- 
 ducing heating apparatus, hot-water pipes, slate tanks, 
 or, least desirable of either, a simple flue under the walk. 
 Iron pipes, being but four inches in diameter, might be 
 supported near the posts, under the gutters, as indicated 
 in fig. 10, in the house on the right-hand side. It should 
 be here stated, that, when rapid forcing is desired, I have 
 found that lean-to houses, facing southerly, and taking 
 the full force of the winter sun, are better for this pur- 
 pose. Yet, even in winter, the north and south ridge 
 and furrow houses are best for steady, moderate growth. 
 The morning and evening sun strikes the glass more 
 directly, while the mid-day sun is by no means so fierce. 
 From this digression, we return to the cuttings. 
 
58 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 EYES FOR THE PKOPAGATING-HOUSE. 
 
 These having been prepared in January or February, 
 ;incl kept in boxes, mixed with hght, dry, sandy loam, 
 by the 20th of March or 1st of April they will be found 
 to be somewhat calloused, and on the point of throwing 
 out roots. As the propagating-bed should now be cleared 
 of bedding-out and other winter cuttings, it is fi-ee for 
 the grapes. For economy of space, use no boxes or pots, 
 but insert the eyes in the bed of sand, which is three to 
 four inches in depth upon the slate table. The eyes 
 should slant at an angle of about forty-five degrees, and 
 be inserted to such depth, that the eye shall be barely 
 visible after the sand is watered and settled. The eyes 
 should be put in an inch apart in the I'ne, and the lines 
 two inches apart. Slender-growing kinds, or small wood, 
 may be put in thicker. Indeed, all kinds may be started 
 considerably thicker ; but they will require more care to 
 prevent damping, and also an earlier and more careful 
 removal. At this rate of planting, one foot of the width 
 of the table will take two hundred and sixteen cuttings ; 
 and a house sixty feet long will take 26,352 on the two 
 sides and one end. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 59 
 
 After planting, give a good watering, in order that the 
 sand may be thoroughly settled. After this, avoid ex- 
 tremes of moisture or dryness. Maintain a steady bot- 
 tom-heat of about seventy degrees, never allowing a 
 variation of more than ten de2:rees either above or be- 
 low this point. Keep the tem]3erature of the house below 
 sixty degrees at night, not allowing it to rise above sev- 
 enty degrees in the daytime if this can be done. A uni- 
 form observance of these simple conditions will command 
 certain success.. The tables will become an unbroken sheet 
 of green. The length of time they are to remain in the 
 beds will depend somewhat upon the after-treatment. It 
 is the custom of some jDropagators to pot all the cuttings, 
 and place them upon tables in succession-houses, giving 
 them heat, and securing an early start. Stronger vines 
 can be grown in this way, as they can be established in 
 pots in the genial atmosphere of a house with more vigor 
 than in any other way. A gain of weeks, or even months, 
 of time in the spring, may also be made by shifting into 
 larger pots, if desired, in the case of new and choice va- 
 rieties ; but this plan involves too much labor, expense, 
 and space of glass, to be practised on a large scale. 
 Should it be decided to pot the cuttings, they will be in 
 condition as soon as it is found that the roots are well 
 
60 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 started, which will be within three, or at most four weeks 
 from the time they were put in the bed. Light, floury 
 pasture-loam, with an addition of one-sixth of sand, 
 and a double quantity of thoroughly decomposed stable- 
 manure, will make a good compost. The young plants 
 will not require the richer addition of bone-dust at this 
 stage. Pots the inside diameter of which at the top is 
 three inches will be sufliciently large for the first potting. 
 When the vines are well established, the pots being well 
 filled with roots, with a top-growth of from six inches 
 to a foot, take out the temporary tables of the succes- 
 sion-houses, which are made of boards and are easily re- 
 moved, and plant the vines in the p.repared border below. 
 This border is two feet below the gutter, wliich will se- 
 cure sufficient head-room for the vines for at least a growth 
 of six weeks. The house being kept warm and humid, the 
 vines will soon become established, and will make rapid 
 growth. At mid-day, when the air is dry, dust flour of 
 sulphur over the plants to prevent the possibility of an 
 attack of mildew. An ounce for prevention is better than 
 pounds for cure. The borders are farther from the glass 
 than is desirable for so small plants ; but by careful man- 
 agement, and encouraging the warmth of the sun upon 
 the borders, no serious difficulty will attend the establish- 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 61 
 
 ment of the young vines. They are now in plain sight, 
 easy of access to water, to shower, and stake, and, when 
 once established, ought to be a sure crop. Stake the 
 vines as soon as they need support, and tie each one with 
 bass-string, which is the cheapest material, and least likely 
 to cut the tender shoot. As soon as the vines reach the 
 glass, the sashes may be raised a foot or more at the gut- 
 ters, thus obtaining sufficient head-room. Still later in 
 the season, the sashes may be entirely removed, giving 
 the vines all the air and sunlight in order to harden and 
 ripen them. 
 
 Owing to the cost of potting the cuttings when taken 
 from the propagating-bed, it is to be avoided if possible. 
 If the young plants are allowed to remain in the bed four, 
 five, or six weeks, gradually diminishing the heat until 
 they are somewhat hardened, the roots being firm and 
 vigorous, they may be transferred from the bed directly 
 to the house-borders with a good degree of success. 
 Every precaution should be taken to insure against fail- 
 ure. The house should have been previously kept close, 
 so that the borders may be well warmed by the sun; 
 shade should be at hand when necessary ; a growing heat 
 should be kept up. The difficulty will be over in a few 
 days, and a great saving will be effected, provided com- 
 
62 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 plete success attend the elFort to establish the plants. 
 A careful gardener would prefer to run the risk rather 
 than go through the labor and expense of potting. 
 
 But a more certain and perhaps cheaper and better 
 method is to prepare frames to receive the plants directly 
 from the propagating-bed. They are best prepared as fol- 
 lows : Throw out the surface-soil to the depth of a foot, 
 the soil being placed on each side to bank the frame : six- 
 feet sashes being used, this will be the width of the pit. 
 Fill the pit to the depth of nine inches or a foot with 
 fresh manure for a'^felight bottom-heat. Half a foot of 
 manure is sufficient, if the ground is warm, and the season 
 advanced. As the depth is slight, the manure may be 
 thrown in without turning. Then cover with a compost 
 of two-thirds light, floury, pasture-loam, and one-third of 
 a spent hot-bed at least a year old. Add charcoal-dust 
 ad libitum; also bone-dust and wood-ashes to a moderate 
 degree, if at hand. This covering should be at least five 
 inches thick over the manure. The front plank of the 
 frame should be a foot wide, and the back eighteen inches. 
 Bank up the sides, and let the sashes remain close upon 
 the frame for a few days in order that the soil may be 
 well warmed. When the temperature of the bed is 
 found to be above sixty degrees, the cuttings may be 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 63 
 
 ft 
 
 taken from the propagating-bed, and carefully planted in 
 the frames, shading as the work progresses. As it is a 
 wretched want of economy to produce vines of inferior 
 quality, care should be taken to give room for growth. A 
 distance of six inches each way is quite near enough; and 
 probably true economy would require an increase of this 
 distance to nine inches between the rows, and six inches 
 in the row. At the former distance, a sash would cover 
 seventy-two vines, and only forty-eight vines at the latter 
 distance. An allowance should be made for strong or 
 feeble-growing kinds. 
 
 With the warmth secured by the bottom-heat, and 
 owino- to the closeness of the frame, the cuttings are 
 readily established, and will soon begin to grow. They 
 require careful attention in watering, and giving air. Re- 
 member the sulphur, imdi prevent the approach of mildew. 
 When the vines approach the glass, they must be staked, 
 and another plank added on each side of the frame. I 
 have lost thousands of vines by removing the sashes at 
 this stage, before the vines had acquired sufficient consti- 
 tution to endure so great an exposure. As the weather 
 becomes genial, the vines may gradually become accus- 
 tomed to the winds and the full blaze of the sun. Make 
 free use of sulphur " about these days." Sulphur will^re- 
 
64 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 • 
 
 vent mildew ; but it is by no mecns a certain cure. Re- 
 move the sashes first, allowing the planks to remain for a 
 time as a protection. In the fall, the vines will require all 
 the air and sun in order to mature as much of the cane as 
 is possible. There is no difficulty in obtaining canes of 
 free-growing .kinds as large as the usual size of lead-pen- 
 cils, with at least three feet of well-ripened wood, in a 
 single season. I have myself grown Allen's Hybrid, from 
 an eye started in March, thirty-six feet in one season by 
 actual measurement. Such excessive growth, however, is 
 not desirable. A few plump, well-hardened eyes, with a 
 good foundation of healthy roots, is all-sufficient. 
 
 In November, the vines should be dug ; and, if any of 
 the wood of new kinds is wanted, it should be taken at 
 this time. Heel the vines in, in beds five feet wide, the 
 roots lying at an angle of forty-five degrees, the rows 
 across the bed being as close as possible without having 
 the roots come in contact. When the vines are all in, 
 cover the tops of the vines with earth taken a foot firom 
 the sides of the bed. The bed will thus be raised above 
 the adjoining surface ; and a trench dug completely 
 around it will carry off the surface-water. Cover the 
 bed with boards or shutters to prevent the winter rains 
 from penetrating. It is a delight to find how fresh these 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 65 
 
 vines will come fortli tVoiu their sleep in the spring. Let 
 them rest for the present. 
 
 SOFT-WOOD CUTTINGS. 
 
 This is a' method of recent introduction ; at least, I find 
 no mention made of it until within a i^w years. It has, 
 however, been extensively adopted, especially in the mul- 
 tiplication of the new varieties, which can be propagated 
 much more rapidly in this way than by waiting for the 
 maturity of the wood. The method has been abused, and 
 the country has sufiered largely by the sale of immature 
 vines which have not sufficient vitality to endure the first 
 winter. This method ceitainly is not objectionable in- 
 trinsically. Indeed, it is, theoretically, the best way, next 
 after the natural way by seed. If roots can be started 
 directly from a young growing shoot, with no intervening 
 old wood, the whole plant is homogeneous : it is a very 
 near approach to a seedling. Now, the great evil has 
 been that these cuttings have been rooted during the 
 summer months, and have not had time to mature before 
 frosts. 
 
 My opinion is, that provided they are started early in 
 the season, and are well managed, thev will make strong 
 
66 
 
 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 and healthy plants. To secure this end, let the stock- 
 vines be potted in December in a rich soil, and started 
 very gradually. About the middle of February, the first 
 crop of cuttings will be ready. These are taken off 
 
 precisely like the soft cuttings 
 of the rose or verbena. The 
 appearance of the cutting when 
 prepared is seen in fig. 11, the 
 lower end being cut just below 
 an eye. This is not essential, 
 as roots are developed at any 
 part of the stem. A plant can be obtained from every 
 eye, if carefully managed ; though it is certain that roots 
 form with more readiness just under an eye. The parent 
 vine should never be denuded of foliage. By being ju- 
 diciously cut back, it will break again, and, without sus- 
 taining injury, will give several more cuttings before 
 April 1, After this time they should not be used, 
 unless grown in pots,' and matured in the fall by artificial 
 heat. 
 
 These cuttings are put in the propagating-bed, directly 
 over the boiler, the warmest part, in a temperature of 
 eighty to ninety degrees. In order to secure this, and also 
 closeness, bell-glasses, or a sash, should be used. Guard 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 67 
 
 against excessive moisture, maintain the required heat, and 
 the cuttings are as sure to root as verbenas, requiring 
 fi'om two to four weeks' time. Coming from such a heat, 
 of course, they will be soft and tender. They should be 
 potted, and plunged in a cooler part of the propagating- 
 bed. Thus established, they will acquire substance, and 
 grow with vigor. They may then be treated in the 
 same way as heretofore described for hard-wood cut- 
 tings. 
 
 This mode is so liable to abuse, and is so unnecessary 
 and disadvantageous, except where the amount of ripe 
 wood of new varieties is limited, that its adoption is 
 undesirable, except under the conditions named. As an 
 instance of the rapidity with which vines may be propa- 
 gated in this way, I mention the fact, that, when the Re- 
 becca Grape was first introduced, I received twelve small 
 vines in the spring of 1857 ; and in twelve months from 
 that time I had over three thousand plants which would 
 average a larger size than the original vines. I should 
 add, that one of the original vines never started ; so that 
 the stock was only eleven to commence with. 
 
68 
 
 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 CUTTINGS IN THE OPEN AIR. 
 
 This is the ancient method of propagation ; the cuttings 
 being called malleolus^ on account of 
 their resemblance to a mallet. Pre- 
 cisely this form is continued in use to 
 the present day, and in France its use 
 is quite general. Fig. 12 is a repre- 
 sentation of this form. The head of 
 the mallet, a, is a piece of the old cane, 
 the wood being at least two years old. 
 The shoot, 5, is the growth of the ^yq- 
 vious season. It is not true that roots 
 are more easily developed from the old 
 wood than from the new. It is also obvious that but 
 a very limited number of cuttings can be obtained from a 
 single vine, and none at all except by cutting back the 
 fruiting cane. It is true, however, that some varieties 
 will root more readily in this way than by simple cut- 
 tings. The reason is probably twofold : 1st, The old 
 vv'ood being hard, the young wood is preserved in a more 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 69 
 
 uniform state, never absorbing so much moisture as to 
 rot, and, on the other hand, not becoming too dry ; 2dly, 
 There is an unusual amount of cambium at the junction 
 of the old and new wood ; and here also there are always 
 to be found several buds, either developed or dormant. 
 Hence this is a peculiarly favorable point from which to 
 develop young roots. Some kinds which are difficult to 
 root in the open air, the Delaware for example, are propa- 
 gated quite successfully by cuttings in this form. Mil- 
 ler, in his "Gardener's Dictionary," gives the following 
 directions for a primitive method : " Having an iron bar of 
 an inch or more in diameter, a little pointed at the end, 
 they therewith make a hole directly down, about three 
 feet and a half deep ; then being provided with an instru- 
 ment they call a criicciala^ having a handle of wood like 
 that of a large auger, and the body of iron four feet long 
 and more than half an inch in diameter, at the end of 
 which there is a nick something like a half-moon, they, 
 after twisting the end of the cutting, put it therein, and 
 force it down the bottom of the hole, where they then 
 leave it, and afterward fill up the vacancy with fine sifted 
 earth or sand ; observing to tread the earth close to the 
 plants, which otherwise (unless it be stiff land) is often 
 
70 
 
 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 inclinable to be loose and dry, especially if rain does not 
 soon follow their planting : and it is incredible how many 
 vines three persons can in this manner plant in one day ; 
 viz., upwards of two thousand." 
 
 The two foregoing modes are brought into juxtaposition 
 in order to show how little and how much progress has 
 been made. The mallet-cutting was used by the Komans, 
 and is still largely used. The rationale of Miller's 
 method is simpl}'- this : That a large cane being inserted so 
 deeply in the ground is almost certain not to suffer from 
 drought, and it has substance enough to sustain it until 
 roots are formed. It is obvious that such a trunk of old 
 wood is very objectionable. 
 
 The most common form for open-air 
 cuttings is seen in fig. 13, using the 
 wood grown the previous season. Most 
 vineyardists use from three to five eyes, 
 the cutting being a foot or more in 
 length. It is thought that this length is 
 some guard against injury from drought ; 
 but I think it far better to use a 
 Fig. 13. shorter cutting, and guard against in- 
 
 juries by other methods. With the long cutting, the 
 roots are formed at each eye, and are so scattered as to 
 
CULTURE OF THE G 1} A P E. 
 
 71 
 
 make an undesirable vine. It is true, the lower roots may 
 
 be cut awa}^, as indicated 
 
 in fig. 14, at the line «, 
 
 thus securing a compact 
 
 and very satisfactory vine ; 
 
 but in doing this we sac- 
 rifice at least tAvo-thirds 
 
 of the roots, the lower 
 
 roots being generally found 
 
 to be strongest. 
 
 As the best method for 
 the open air, I would re- 
 commend that the cut- 
 tings be made in the fall 
 or early winter, of an av- 
 erage length of seven 
 inches, and having at least two buds. Some varieties are 
 much more short-jointed than others, in which case there 
 will be three or more buds on this length. This is an en- 
 tirely immaterial point ; but, as a general rule, there will be 
 but two eyes. With the shears (fig. 4) cut at right angles 
 to the slope of the lower bud, and a quarter of an inch 
 below the base of the bud. Be careful that the cut is clean, 
 and made without bruising the bark. The upper cut 
 
 n. 
 
72 CU L T U RE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 should be at least an inch above the upper eye. These 
 cuttings should be tied in small bundles, and buried in 
 dry soil, or kept in boxes of moderately dry loam in a 
 cold cellar. A cutting-bed should be made in the fall, 
 if convenient, in order that any enriching material may 
 be thoroughly decomposed and incorporated. It should 
 be composed two-thirds of light garden loam, and one- 
 third of decomposed stable manure or spent hot-bed soil. 
 Sand should be added if the soil is too compact ; also a 
 slight addition of coal-ashes, charcoal, bone-dust, or super- 
 phosphate of lime, will be found advantageous. This 
 compost should be at least a foot in depth, and the sub- 
 soil should also be a free loam, at least six inches deeper ; 
 so that capillary attraction may be free in case of dry 
 weather. Great care should be taken to avoid all decay- 
 ing vegetable matter, even partially decomposed manure. 
 Hence it will be best if the bed is made up in the fall, and 
 forked over in early spring. The bed may be six feet 
 wide. When the ground has become somewhat warm, 
 and heavy frosts have past, from the middle of April to 
 the first of May, the cuttings may be brought out ; and, 
 if properly kept, they will be found to be impatient for a 
 start. Indeed, it will be necessary to guard against too 
 rapid development of the buds by keeping them as cool 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 73 
 
 as possible, and rather dry. If the buds show signs of 
 breaking, planting must not be delayed With a spade 
 cut the first line across the bed to the depth of six inches; 
 place the cuttings 
 in the line, in a 
 slanting position, as 
 seen in fig. 15, four 
 
 inches apart in the 
 line. This is rather 
 thick; but some of 
 the cuttings will Fig- is. . 
 
 probably fail. The lower eye, it will be seen, is behind 
 the cutting, and the lower cut is in a position to be 
 })ressed firmly to the earth. Partially fill the trench, and 
 press the cuttings quite firmly with a long-handled mal- 
 let prep ared for the purpose. Then fill up the line to a 
 level, the upper eye being just visible on the surface. 
 Cut a parallel line twelve inches from the first for such 
 varieties as the Delaware, or fifteen to eighteen inches for 
 grosser kinds, and proceed as before. Should the cuttings 
 be in perfect condition, they will soon make root, though 
 they sometimes remain stationary until June in cold and 
 wet seasons. It is true economy to give the bed every 
 requisite, — a partial shade if the weather is very dry and 
 
74 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 burning ; and also continued waterings, should they seem 
 to be necessary. Each vine should receive a small stake ; 
 for which purpose I have found the annual cuttings of 
 a buckthorn hedge, pruned in March, are admirably 
 adapted. Under favorable circumstances, the plants will 
 make from three to six feet of growth. The cost of pro- 
 ducing vines is less in this way than in any other, as it 
 requires no glass, and there is no transplanting, and but 
 little space is required. For older and free-growing 
 kinds, where there is a full supply of wood, it is un- 
 doubtedly an advantageous method; but it is by no 
 means as certain as the method by artificial heat, and the 
 vines are seldom as well rooted at the end of the season. 
 Tlie roots of single eyes being also developed near the 
 surface, they are decidedly preferable for planting. 
 
 Other modes of planting have been suggested, — such, 
 
 for example, as is seen 
 in fig. 16, — with the 
 Fig. 16 ^^ intent to keep the 
 
 scion entii-ely buried, and so fresh and moist as to make 
 the process of rooting more certain ; but it is doubtful if 
 the theoretical advantage is realized, and there are objec- 
 tions which outweigh any supposed gain. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 75 
 
 Provided the soil is light, porous, and dry, and the bed 
 is well protected from frost by a good covering of leaves, 
 there will be an advantage in planting the cuttings in the 
 fall. During winter, the cutting will be gradually prepar- 
 ing for the early development of roots in the spring. 
 Special care will be requisite that the cuttings are not 
 loosened or displaced by the frost, or destroyed by mice. 
 Under these conditions, there are decided advantages in 
 fall-planting. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 LAYERING AND GRAFTING. 
 
 "YTERY strong vines may speedily be obtained, with 
 ^ much certainty and little trouble, by layering. To 
 obtain strong vines in a single season, it is only necessary 
 to bring a shoot, the growth of the previous season, to the 
 ground early in April ; and having made a slight incision 
 
 below an eye, as 
 seen in fig. 17, peg 
 the shoot firmly 
 down at the cut, 
 and cover to the 
 Fig, 17. depth of four inch- 
 
 es. The ground should be mellow and rich, and pre- 
 
 pared soil should be placed at the point of layering if 
 76 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 77 
 
 necessary. Only a single eye should be allowed to grow 
 beyond the point of layering; but this will be so strong as 
 to require a firm support. When extra strength is not 
 so much the object sought, but layering is relied upon for 
 obtaining a considerable number of plants, the parent 
 " stools," as the rooted trunks are termed, should be devot- 
 ed to this sole purpose, and not be allowed to fruit. From 
 two to four new shoots may be grown each year, from 
 four to eight feet in length. These are succession-canes, 
 which are to take the place of the canes which are lay- 
 ered this season. About the 1st of April, the canes of 
 last season are uncovered from their winter bed, and a 
 slight incision is made below each eye, as seen in fig. 17, 
 not commencing nearer than a foot and a half from the 
 stool. Now dig trenches radiating from the stool, suffi- 
 ciently long for each cane to lie its length ; the trenches 
 being four inches deep. Peg down the canes, sprinkle 
 a slight quantity of prepared compost around them to a 
 level with the eyes, and partly fill the trench with light 
 moss. This will preserve the cane in a humid state, and 
 will not prevent the eyes from seeking the light. Judg- 
 ment must be exercised as to the amount of moss to be 
 used, and the time when the young shoots are sufficiently 
 strong and hardened to bear the removal of the moss and 
 
78 
 
 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 a substitution of soil. By this method, a well-rooted vine 
 can be obtained from every eye on the cane ; yet they will be 
 stronger, and will ripen better, if not allowed to be nearer 
 than nine inches on each cane. The distance of the eyes 
 on the cane will govern this. Give a strong support to 
 the young plants, and allow a single shoot for each plant 
 to grow as long as it will. At the end of the season, 
 the young canes will be from four to eight feet, or even 
 ten feet, long ; and an abundance of roots will be found 
 along the entire length of the old cane, as seen in fig. 18. 
 
 d\ ' dh dil di 
 
 Fig. 1». 
 
 It will be found that roots have formed freely at the 
 notches in the arm a, and also at the base of each of canes 
 
 b, h; the last being of later growth. The arm is now to 
 be separated into a number of distinct vines at the hues 
 
 c, c, c / leaving the new canes c?, c?, <7, d^ for the same 
 process the following season. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 79 
 
 An interesting experiment may be tried in producing 
 fruit in pots by plunging the pot up to the rim, it being 
 first filled with a rich compost. Then bring down a strong 
 fi"uiting-cane, cutting a notch just below an eye, as seen 
 in fig. 17 ; insert the cane four inches deep into the pot at 
 this cut ; fasten it firmly with a strong peg, and support 
 the fruiting-end of the cane in a perpendicular position 
 with a strong stake. Several pounds of grapes may be 
 ripened in this way ; and, by severing the new vine from 
 the parent stock in September, it becomes a beautiful 
 specimen for exhibition. Vines may also be layered in 
 pots in this manner for the purpose of fruiting during 
 the following winter. Layering is also practised in the 
 month of July, as soon as the young wood has acquired 
 substance, so as to bear the tonguing process, as seen in 
 fig. 17. As the ground is warm, the young roots are 
 soon formed ; but the season is so far advanced, that 
 the layers seldom equal spring layers in strength. Yet it 
 is a raj)id method, and requires little care, except mulch- 
 ing and staking. 
 
80 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 GEAFTIN^G. 
 
 This art is very ancient, being mentioned by Columella 
 as long in use. Other ancient authors give detailed 
 directions on the subject. However easily the vine may 
 be propagated by the methods previously described, there 
 are instances when grafting would be extremely advan- 
 tageous. A vineyard may be composed of inferior varie- 
 ties. It w^ould be a great gain if choice kinds could be 
 substituted by grafting, — a gain of at least three years 
 in time. It would much reduce the cost of experiment- 
 ing with seedling grapes if those which prove inferior 
 could at once be used as stocks for grafting. In this way 
 also, the wood of new kinds can be more rapidly in- 
 creased than in any other manner. In " The Country Gen- 
 tleman," Mr. E. A. King states the actual measurement of 
 the growth of a Delaware, three months after grafting 
 in a three-years'-old stock, to be sixty-nine feet. Of 
 course, this included lateral growth. The method usually 
 recommended by authors is cleft or wedge grafting, — 
 sawing off the vine two inches below the surface. The 
 time recommended is different, — some giving the prefer- 
 ence to March, just before the sap begins to flow; others 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 81 
 
 waiting until the buds have started, and danger from 
 bleeding has passed. While these methods are care- 
 fully described and recommended, it is still a fact, that 
 comparatively few are successful in grafting, and but few 
 attempt it. Certainly it is not as easy an operation as in 
 the case of the apple or the pear. First of all, it is the 
 almost invariable recommendation to go below ground. 
 A serious and universal difficulty arises from the exces- 
 sive bleeding of the vine wherever a cut is made in the 
 spring. When the whole top is taken off, the flow is so 
 free as to drown and rot, or poison the vine in some in- 
 stances. Some persons do, however, have very tolerable 
 success by commencing quite early, before the flow of 
 sap has become free. The following directions, given by 
 Chaptal, and practised very successfully in France, will 
 apply equally well to this country : " Having selected a 
 healthy stock, it is, just when the sap is beginning to flow, 
 taken off with a clean cut an inch or two below the 
 ground. The upper portion of the stock, which must 
 be perfectly free from knots, is split evenly down the 
 centre, and pared quite smooth within, to a sufficient 
 size for the reception of the scion. The latter is pruned 
 to three eyes in length, having the lower part cut in the 
 form of a wedge, commencing about an inch below the 
 
82 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 lowest eye, and graclually tai:>enng to the bottom. It is 
 then mserted as far as the lowest bud into the cleft of the 
 stock : the second bud is level with the surfice of the 
 ground, which is drawn close around it ; and the upper- 
 most is quite above the soil. Great care is necessary in 
 adjusting the scion, that its bark may touch that of the 
 stock in every possible point. The whole is then bound 
 round with a pliable osier, which retains the scion in its 
 proper place. The best season for grafting the vine is 
 just when the warmth of spring sets the sap in motion; 
 and it should be performed when the sky is cloudy, with 
 the wind blowing from the south-east or south-west. 
 Whenever a northerly wind or a great drought prevails, 
 it is better to delay the operation : a burning sun, or cold 
 wind, would arrest the course of the sap by drying up 
 the vessels at the point of union. Neither is it advisa- 
 ble to graft in rainy weather, because the water will 
 trickle down into the incision, and prevent the union 
 between the scion and the stock. The best time for 
 taking off the grafts is in a dry day toward the end of 
 autumn, when the sap is still. They should be cut off 
 with a portion of the old wood adhering, which will 
 assist in preserving them until wanted for use. They 
 should be plunged two or three inches deep in damp 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 83 
 
 sand, and kept in a cool cellar, where neither heat nor 
 frost can penetrate. Twenty-four hours previously to 
 being used, they should be taken up, and that part which 
 had before been in sand should be laid in water." 
 
 These directions are excellent, and only very slight 
 variations seem to be desirable. In making the split in 
 the stock, it may be necessary to smooth some rougli 
 threads ; but it would be unwise to cut or pare " to a 
 sufficient size for the reception of the scion." The split 
 will open with a wedge quite sufficiently for the recep- 
 tion, and it is very desirable that the stock should bind 
 firmly. In case the scion is large, and the stock very 
 stiff, a thin paring may be taken from the split, and also 
 the scion may be shouldered, as seen in fig. 20. 
 I think the scion is unnecessarily long as recom- 
 mended by Chaptal, two eyes being quite suffi- 
 cient. Instead of commencing the cut for the 
 wedge an inch beneath the lower eye, it is better 
 to begin the slant very near the base, and on 
 each side of the eye; so that, when the scion 
 is in its place, the lower eye will be just out- 
 side the cleft of the stock. The advantage of 
 this form consists in securing the thicker deposit 
 of cambium, which is found at the base of an ^^' 
 
84 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 eye, and applying it at tlie point of juncture with 
 the stock. The union will be more sure and more 
 perfect than in so long a cleft, and so long an inser- 
 tion, as is described by Chaptal. And yet we can by 
 no means indorse his strong statement, that "the vine 
 is thus grafted with so much facility, and the union be- 
 tween scion and stock is so perfect, that no plant aj^pears 
 more adapted for this mode of propagation." Undoubt- 
 edly there is more truth in this opinion, as apj^lied to 
 sunny France, than to our country and our varieties of 
 the vine. Possibly the vine is not as liable to excessive 
 bleeding from a spring cut m France as with us. They 
 have at least a longer and more favorable season in early 
 spring in which to perform the operation. Whatever 
 may be the reason, it is certainly true, that the result of 
 grafting by the above method has not proved as uniform- 
 ly successful as could be desired ; yet it is oftentimes so 
 desirable to change varieties, that grafting is resorted to, 
 even though but partial success is exj)ected. To avoid 
 the evil of bleeding. Prof Lindley recommends keeping 
 the scion in a dormant state until the stock has so f;ir 
 developed its shoots and leases as to be beyond the dan- 
 ger of bleeding. He then recommends the ordinary 
 mode of cleft-sjraftinGr the branches, usin<r clay around 
 
C U L T U n E OF THE GRAPE. 85 
 
 the scion. He terms this delay the great secret of suc- 
 cess. In the humid climate of England, tliis plan may 
 succeed; but, under our hot and drying sun, tlie scion 
 will generally perish, unless kept cool by being almost 
 entirely under ground. Now, the recommendation to 
 wait until the vine is under a full flow of sap, and then 
 at a blow to remove every vestige of foliage, and substi- 
 tute a dormant scion in its place, is doing violence to 
 every principle in the theory of horticulture. Such a 
 sudden check to the sap must inevitably result in great 
 injury to the stock. A much more judicious method 
 would be to remove a considerable proportion of the 
 shoots of the parent stock, and, after drawing away the 
 soil at the root, to apply the scion in some one of the va- 
 rious forms of whip-grafting. But it is always diflicult to 
 apply the scion exactly, and bind it sufficiently firm so 
 near the surface ; and it is not probable that the plan 
 will be adopted to any considerable extent. 
 
 As has been intimated, the great difficulty in grafting 
 the grape lies in the abundant flow of sap from every 
 spring cut. In "The Horticulturist," vol. i. p. 515, Mr. 
 Robert Nelson communicates his practice of autumn 
 grafting of the roots of various trees and shrubs, which 
 he adopted with great success in the fall of 1836. The 
 
86 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 roots being protected by covering with earth and leaves, 
 the j)rocess of uniting progresses to some degree througli- 
 out the winter. As the vine has no tendency to bleed when 
 cut in the fall, it is obvious that it is a 623ecially fit subject 
 for this method. Indeed, so comi^letely is the difficulty 
 avoided, that the language of Chaptal, in respect to suc- 
 cess, does not seem to be too strong when applied to this 
 country. Mr. Fuller recommends this method in his book 
 upon the Grape, and gives clear directions ; by carefully 
 following which, success is almost certain. 
 
 In October or November (later if the weather permits), 
 the vine is cut away just below the surface, and the scion 
 inserted as described by Chaptal, with the excej)tions that 
 the scion should not have more than two eyes (even one 
 being sufficient), and the stock should be tied with bass- 
 string, for the sake of more firmness, and because it will 
 decay of itself at the proper time, or can easily be re- 
 moved. This being done, the earth is drawn around the 
 stock, leaving the upper eye of the scion just above the 
 surface. Now cover the scion with a common flower-pot, 
 a small box, or even a triangle of shingles, if the others 
 are not at hand. After this, a covering of leaves from 
 four to six inches deep, made firm by a little earth over 
 all, will effectually exclude the frost. The pot is the 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 87 
 
 cheapest covering and most perfect, and is also a bet- 
 ter guard against mice. Leaves are better than earth, 
 hay, or straw; although they, as well as hay and straw, 
 are an invitins: nest for mice. The advantag-es of this 
 method are as follow^s : First, the work is done at a com- 
 paratively leisure season of the yetir, when there is time 
 to select the best days ; secondly, the cut of the stock 
 being made in the fall, the pores have time to close before 
 the flow of sap in the spring, and very little if any bleed- 
 ing ensues ; thirdly, the frost being excluded, a slight as- 
 similation of the stock and scion is going on throughout 
 the winter. In the spring, they are in the precise condi- 
 tion to make the start together. The object of the pot as 
 a covering is to prevent any thing from coming in contact 
 with the scion to disturb it during the winter, or when 
 uncovered in the spring. I once omitted this covering, 
 but substituted a considerable mound of earth. As a 
 result, some scions escaped injury, and grew with great 
 vigor ; while others, being caught at the top by the frost, 
 were drawn completely out of the stocks, and so perished. 
 But a sufiicient covering is a complete guard against this 
 danger. The scions are not to be uncovered until the 
 severe fi'osts are past, which, in the vicinity of Boston, is 
 about April 1. This should be done with care, that no 
 
88 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 displacement may occur; the jDots being allowed to re- 
 main at hand for rej^lacing, in case of unfavorable changes 
 in the weather. Provided no accident has occurred, and 
 the work has been well done, the scion will start with the 
 vi '•or of a natural shoot, and make about an equal growth 
 the first season. A cane may be obtained the first sea- 
 son, which will be abundantly able to bear a good Crop 
 the follow^ing summer. Judging from present experi- 
 ence, I see no reason why this mode of grafting should 
 not come into general use, and prove invaluable to the 
 vineyard ist. 
 
 Of the various forms of whip-grafting, it is scarcely 
 necessary to s]3eak, inasmuch as the oj^eration is attended 
 by very indifferent success in most cases. Should any 
 one wish to try experiments in this direction, it will be 
 necessary to bear in mind two imperative conditions : 
 First, to bind the scion with great firmness ; and, second- 
 ly, to keep it moist with grafting-clay, and a wrapping of 
 wet moss over all. 
 
 In " The Gardener's Monthly," vol. ii. p. 347, is a de- 
 scription of a mode practised with success by Mr. Corne- 
 lius, which we copy, not merely as it is interesting in 
 itself, but also because it illustrates many other modifica- 
 tions in g;raftint>" : — 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 89 
 
 "After the first four or five leaves are formed, and the 
 sap is flowing, you choose the place on the vine where 
 you intend to graft. At that point, 
 wrap tightly a twine several times 
 around the vine. This will, in a meas- 
 ure, prevent the return-sap. 
 
 " Below the ligature make a sloping 
 cut down, as shown at a ; also a simi- 
 lar reversed one above the ligature, as 
 at 5, about one inch in length. In se- 
 lecting a scion, prefer one that has natu- 
 rally a bend. Cut it so that it shall be 
 wedge-shape at both ends, and a little 
 longer than the distance between the 
 cuts in the vine at a and h. Insert the 
 scion, taking care to have the barks in 
 direct contact, securing it with a string, 
 c, bound round both scion and vine sufficiently tight 
 to force the scion-ends into their jjlaces. If the work is 
 done well, no tie will be required at a and h ; but the 
 joints must be covered with grafting-wax. In a short 
 time, the bud at d will commence its growth ; after which 
 you can by degrees remove all the growing shoots not 
 belonging to the scion ; and, in the course of the sum- 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
90 C U L T U n E OF TEE GRAPE. 
 
 mer, you may cut off the wood above Z>, and in the fall 
 remove all above a on the stock, and c on the scion." 
 
 This method, however successful, has many disadvan- 
 tages, and will require too much careful watching to 
 come into generr.l use. 
 
 It will be observed that grafting-wax is not recom- 
 mended. Most kinds of composition are indeed posi- 
 tively injurious, seeming to enter and poison the porous 
 wood. Below the surface, the moist earth is all-sufficient 
 as a covering ; but in extreme cases, where grafting above 
 ground is desirable, the air may be excluded by a judi- 
 cious use of wax. 
 
 It has been the practice of some to whip-graft single 
 eyes upon short pieces of roots, precisely in the manner 
 of root-grafting the apple. This may be done with suc- 
 cess, and new varieties may be propagated with stronger 
 growth the first season than from single eyes ; yet tlie 
 gain is so inconsiderable, and the eyes root with so much 
 freedom, that this practice is not specially desirable. 
 
 Still another form of grafting, "by approach," or inarch- 
 ing, is in frequent use in glass houses, and may also be 
 successfully applied in the vineyard. It consists in bring- 
 ing a potted vine alongside of a stock at any timfe during 
 the growing season, — the month of May being best. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 91 
 
 With a sharp knife cut a strip from two to three inches 
 long from the stock-cane, and also a strip of correspond- 
 ing length from the scion -cane. The aim should be to 
 bring as large a surface of the alburnum of the stock and 
 scion in contact as is possible. Apply the two canes so 
 that the strips shall fit, and lace them firmly together with 
 bass-matting. Surround the work with moss, which should 
 be kept moist for several weeks. It will be necessary to 
 relieve the canes whenever the tying binds too firmly. 
 In the fall, the union will be sufficiently complete to allow 
 the separation from the pot-plant. Though this is a safe 
 mode, it is troublesome, and will not be much in use in 
 the vineyard. Under the constant watching, and in the 
 humid atmosphere of a house, it does admirably well. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 SOIL AJ^B smrATio:N". 
 
 TTTTHEN" we consider the exorbitant price of some 
 of tlie vineyard-lands in favorite localities (some 
 spots on the Rhine being appraised at eight to ten thou- 
 sand dollars per acre), we might infer that it is only in 
 these localities that we can expect good results. Price is 
 indeed the great index of the comparative value of an 
 article. Applying this index to grape-lands, we shall find 
 a vast preference given to one situation over another. 
 Probably the Rhine vineyards are valued at a higher rate 
 for the mere purpose of cultivation than any other land 
 on the globe. Quite different in character, yet held at the 
 enormous j^i'ices of a thousand to five thousand dollars 
 per acre, are the wine-uistricts of Bordeaux and of Bur- 
 
 92 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 93 
 
 gundy. In our own country, the same partiality is mani- 
 fested, to some degree, for favorite localities. For exam- 
 ple, some lands bordering upon Lake Erie are held at 
 from two to three hundred dollars per acre and upwards, 
 which is a great increase over ordinary farming lands. 
 
 A brief description of the peculiarities of the most 
 famous European districts will be interesting and sug- 
 gestive. Tlie world-renowned vineyards of the Rhine dis- 
 trict are planted on both sides of the river, some of the 
 most famous having even a due-north aspect. They are 
 described as having a good deal of clay mixed with the 
 loose stony soil. When a vineyard becomes exhausted 
 after a culture of about thirty years on these steep slopes, 
 it is renewed by adding several inches of clay as well as 
 manure. The clay is necessary to give strength to the 
 otherwise gravelly and loose stony soil. The Steinberg 
 lands are a bluish clay, the substratum being gravelly. 
 Most of the Rhine soil, the famous Johannisberg for ex- 
 ample, is a very red clay, with gravel freely intermixed. 
 In the Burgundy district, the finest wines are produced 
 from vineyards upon the Cote d^Or (Golden Hills). This 
 range stretches from Chalons to Dijon, a distance of 
 eighty miles, in a north-east and south-west course. The 
 soil is described as red and gravelly, containing a good 
 
94 CULTURE O F THE (! RAPE. 
 
 deal of limestone. At the top (an elevation of two to 
 three hundred feet) there is but little soil, the red rock 
 projecting in many places. The vineyards commence 
 nearly at the top, where the soil is reddest, and where 
 the richest wines are produced from the small black 
 Pineau Grape. The middle range of the hills is planted 
 with the Black Gamai, larger and more prolific, but yield- 
 ing an inferior wine. Third-class vineyards are planted 
 down to the foot, and extending into the plain, producing 
 abundantly, but giving only ordinary wine. The hills on 
 both sides of the River Marne are planted ; but the sides 
 looking due south are classed differently from those look- 
 ing north. The south slopes include such distinguished 
 vineyards as Hautvilliers, Disy, and Aix ; while the equally 
 famous Epernay, Moussy, and 'Vinay are on the opposite 
 bank, looking nortli. The Mountain of Rheims, though 
 in the north of France, is planted on its northern as much 
 as on its southern slope ; the soil being a limestone and 
 chalk formation, with a thin covering of vegetable matter. 
 Among the Pyrenees, the vineyards are extended half-way 
 up the highest mountains. In a comparison of French 
 and Hungarian wines, M. de Szemere writes as follows : 
 " In Hungary the old system prevails, under which the 
 quality is the principal object in view, and under which 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 95 
 
 a faA'orable exposure is the all-important consideration ; 
 and the poor, light, stony, granitic land, from whence 
 alone the choicest and the most highly-flavored wines can 
 be obtained, is joreferred to a rich, manured soil which 
 insures an abundant, but, in quality, far inferior return. 
 Nothing is grander or more beautiful than our mountains, 
 crowned either with shady woods, or with vines of exu- 
 berant vegetation. Where you see a mountain, there you 
 will find our vineyards. The superb Badacsong Moun- 
 tains form a high semicircle around the majestic Lake of 
 Balaton, covering a surface of a hundred and twenty-five 
 English square miles. The arid mountains of Menes or 
 Yilagos overlook proudly the rich plains of Banat, the 
 holy Canaan of Hungary. The mountain called Tokay 
 rises in another large plain like a lofty pyramid. It has 
 the form of Vesuvius, and, indeed, its existing but silent 
 crater : its volcanic formation shows evidently that it was 
 once a fire-spreading mountain. The cultivation of such 
 a soil is very difficult and expensive, the produce ob- 
 tained but little ; but then the latent fire of this volcanic 
 mountain is what we call Tokay wine." 
 
 The above examples confirm the truth of Virgil's oft- 
 quoted statement, "Bacchus amat colles." Yet we find 
 marked exceptions to this rule in various pr.rts of Italy, 
 
96 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 France, and other countries. Falernia, whose wines were 
 so celebrated in classic song, was a fertile j^lain. The 
 Medoc district, near Bordeaux, is a gently undulating 
 plain, extending from the River Gironde on the east to 
 the Atlantic on the west, with frequent lagoons indenting 
 the shores on either side. This peninsula contains some 
 of the finest vineyards in the world, such. as Lafitte, Cha- 
 teau-Margaux, Branc-Mouton, &c. The soil is a coarse, 
 sandy clay, strongly impregnated with oxide of iron. 
 The vineyards of Languedoc, of Tonnere, and on the 
 banks of the Rhone, are of this level or slightly undulat- 
 ing character. Although a chemical analysis of a soil is 
 a very uncertain guide, indej^endent of other conditions, 
 yet the following table of the soil of the celebrated plain 
 of Chateau-Margaux will be of interest : — 
 
 Oxide of IrSn 3.341 
 
 Alumina 1.590 
 
 Magnesia 0.263 
 
 Soluble Silicates 0.380 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 0.147 
 
 Potash 1.291 
 
 Carbonate of Lime 0.891 
 
 Organic matter 6.670 
 
 Insoluble residuum 85.427 
 
 100.000 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 97 
 
 It cannot be doubtetl, that, with a favoring climate and 
 soil, an excellent wine can be obtained from plain lands. 
 We know, that, nnder French manipulations, these wines 
 become famous; yet it is equally certain that the very 
 highest wines can be obtained only where the growth 
 and produce' have been quite limited, and the fruit has 
 attained the most concentrated flavor from an abundant 
 amount of light, air, and heat. 
 
 There is no apparent reason why the rule which is 
 observed in Europe should not hold good in this coun- 
 try. Certain conclusions may be drawn from a study and 
 comparison of European methods. We may conclude 
 that the production of grapes for the table and for wine 
 are two distinct purposes. For the table, we require 
 fair, large, and luscious fruit, full of juice, bunches of good 
 size and form, an ornamental as well as a useful fruit. 
 These conditions require a generous growth, which will 
 give a large supply of watery matter at the expense of 
 the high saccharine and vinous quality which is so much 
 prized by connoisseurs. A good home drink can un- 
 doubtedly be made even from the gleanings of our plain 
 vineyards; but if there is any aim to produce wines 
 which will bear the test of comparison witli those of the 
 
 Rhine, of Burgundy, or Tokay, we must learn to account 
 
 7 
 
98 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 quantity as of least importance, while quality is the sine 
 qua non. Again : it will be noticed that the hillsides 
 flanking a river are universally esteemed. The deeper 
 these valleys, the farther north the culture of the vine 
 may be successfully extended. This is the secret of suc- 
 cess in the Rhine Valley, the grape being planted even 
 upon the northern sloj^es of this high latitude of fifty-one 
 degrees. In these valleys the air becomes heated during 
 the summer much more so than in the o^en plain. In 
 addition, a moderate humidity is preserved by the mist 
 arising from the flowing river. It will be noticed that 
 the Rhine lands are described as having a large propor- 
 tion of clay. It should be borne in mind that this is 
 freely intermixed with calcareous and silicious gravel, 
 while the sharp pitch of the hill will insure quick drain- 
 age and a warm soil. As a rule, we observe that pref- 
 erence is given to a loose, warm soil ; limestone and silex 
 being both considered as desirable elements. On the 
 plains, more sand is required than on the hills : a heavy 
 clay or loam, at all inclined to dampness, is unfavorable. 
 Sufficient clay to give strength to a dry, gravelly hillside, 
 or a sandy plain, would be a valuable addition. Just that 
 degree of richness should ' be souoht that will insure 
 health and a fair degree of vigor, in order to the full 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 99 
 
 development and early maturity of the fruit ; at the same 
 time guarding against such fat lands as will produce rank 
 and immature growth. Sume varieties of the grape {e.g. 
 the Rebecca) require more strength in the soil, more clay, 
 than others; but this should never so abound as to be 
 called heavy land. 
 
 In respect to the aspect of hill-slopes, the testimony of 
 the majority both in this country and in Europe is de- 
 cidedly in favor of a southern exposure. An eastern 
 exposure is good, as having the benefit of the early sun ; 
 a south-east aspect being still better, as receiving the 
 warmth for a longer time. A western slope is shaded 
 from the morning sun, an hour of which is reckoned by 
 gardeners to be worth two hours of the evening sun. 
 After the cool moisture of night, all plants long for the 
 warm rays of early day. A northern slope is oftentimes 
 so situated as to receive the sun's rays from rising to set- 
 ting. Such aspects may be allowable in many cases, 
 especially for early kinds, and in portions of the country 
 where the fruit has abundant time to mature; yet it 
 must be for other reasons, and not because the slope is 
 desirable, that this aspect is chosen. An exposure to 
 sweeping winds is objectionable, causing much more 
 rapid evaporation from the expansive foliage, and thereby 
 
100 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 exhausting the life of the vine in hot, dry weather. The 
 contrast between such arid exposure and the compara- 
 tively moist and confined heat of river hillsides is very 
 perceptible on the vine. It is found also that vines 
 greatly exposed are more liable to mildew than in posi- 
 tions where a more uniform humidity is preserved and 
 the changes are less violent. It is well known, that, in 
 many parts of the country, the grape does not ripen as 
 well as in former years. In Massachusetts, the Isabella, 
 for example, used to be a certain fruit, but has now be- 
 come almost a certain failure in ordinary localities. Our 
 State was formerly covered with forests, — Nature's vast 
 system of sponges, — which absorbed the rains, and gradu- 
 ally gave them off in the humid atmosphere, and in gently 
 flowing streams, for months afterwards: but now the 
 greater portion of the country is laid bare to the fierce 
 rays of our clear sun ; the natural mulching of leaves is 
 lost ; our rains rush in torrents down our hillsides, and 
 speedily make for the ocean whence they came. By this 
 we do not imply that our climate can, with any propriety, 
 be called arid; yet it is true that there is much less 
 uniform humidity of the atmosphere during the summer 
 than in former years. An able presentation of this sub- 
 ject will be found in the volume of Hon. G. P. Marsh, 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 101 
 
 entitled "Man and Nature," to which the reader is re- 
 ferred. 
 
 The drainage of our meadows and bogs will have an 
 influence in the same direction ; so that, by the slow but 
 constant effort of man, silent yet vast changes are effect- 
 ed in the entire system of Nature. This diminution of 
 the even humidity of the air during summer, and the 
 increase of strong sweeping winds with more sudden and 
 violent changes, we cannot doubt, is prejudicial to the 
 grape. We must resort to means to counteract this evil ; 
 and, a.s has been said, we must avoid arid positions ex- 
 posed to strong currents of wind; seeking protected 
 situations having, if possible, an evaporating surface of 
 water near at hand. Not that more moisture is needed, 
 but that the modifying influence of the lake or ocean 
 may give more uniformity to the humidity and the tem- 
 perature. Hence the shores of Lake Erie, the Hudson, the 
 Rhine, the Rhone, and the Bordeaux peninsula between 
 the Gironde River and the Atlantic, are all highly prized. 
 It is within the power of man greatly to modify the char- 
 acter of a situation by the judicious planting of belts of 
 evergreens, by a wise addition of elements and a proper cul- 
 ture of the soil, and by encouraging the shade of the vine- 
 yard itself wherever circumstances indicate its necessity. 
 
102 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 The mechanical texture of the soil is perhaps of more 
 consequence than its chemical analysis. It should be 
 loose and friable ; limestone and silicious sand being al- 
 ways esteemed desirable elements. Limestone soils are 
 found to absorb more of the sun's heat during the day, 
 and to part with this heat much more slowly at night, 
 than is the case with vegetable soils. The same is true 
 also of silicious soils ; so that they may with propriety 
 be termed warm soils. In conclusion, we may add that 
 the vine will exist in almost any variety of soil ; that it 
 luxuriates in rich, fat lands, the growth of wood being 
 excessive, and the fruit large, well developed, but lacking 
 in quality; and that in lighter and dryer soils the growth 
 and fruit are less, but the quality is superior, and the 
 plant is much less liable to disease. A common and rough, 
 yet in general a correct test, is found in the question, 
 whether a soil is f^ivorable for the growth of Indian corn. 
 
 PEEPAEATION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 Many soils well situated, and naturally adapted to the 
 grape, are yet wet and springy. It is of great impor- 
 tance that the subsoil as well as the surface should be 
 thoroughly drained. It must be determined, before plant- 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 103 
 
 ing, whether this work is necessaiy. The distances for 
 the drains will vary from twenty to forty feet apart, 
 according to the nature of the soil. It is desirable to 
 place the tile from three to four feet deep, in order that 
 they may be out of reach of the roots. We are next to 
 consider the nature of the soil, the purpose for which the 
 grapes are cultivated, and the particular kinds to be 
 planted. If the soil is a light, silicious sand, some clay 
 may be added with other enriching material. A strong 
 gravelly soil will require a compost of two-thirds vege- 
 table mould with one-third of stable manure which has 
 been mixed for some time previous. 
 
 Fifteen cords of this compost to the acre is little 
 enough dressing for most New-England soils. Indeed, 
 for the purpose of obtaining table fruit, and for such 
 varieties as the Delaware, this quantity may be doubled ; 
 but, for such strong and long-jointed kinds as the Concord, 
 a less amount than that first named will generally be 
 found sufiicient. Tlie compost is to be spread evenly 
 over the whole surface. To this compost we may add, 
 with i^rofit to most soils, at the rate of two barrels of un- 
 slacked lime for every acre. Wood-ashes are always in 
 order for the grape : yet the sole object for the first two 
 years is to produce wood only ; and for this the natural 
 
104 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 strength of the soil, aided by the compost manure, should 
 be fully equal. The bulk of ashes, bones, lime, sulphur, 
 phosphates, or other special manures, should be reserved 
 for top-dressing in the third year and thereafter. We 
 are now ready for the work of loosening the soil and 
 incorporating the compost. Trenching is recommended 
 by some, working the entire surface with the spade to a 
 depth of two feet at least. Some authors recommend that 
 the subsoil should be brought to the top, and the surface 
 should go to the bottom ; others would preserve them in 
 their relative position, simply loosening the earth ; others 
 still advise that the two soils should be well mixed. Dif- 
 ferent soils require a modification of every general rule; 
 yet the latter course seems to be most reasonable, and has 
 the approval of most practical cultivators. But this hand- 
 work, though most thorough and })erfect, seems to me 
 to be too laborious and expensive for any extensive appli- 
 cation. In most soils suited for a vineyard, the plough 
 can be made to go to the depth of twenty inches or two 
 feet, and the work is done sufficiently well for practical 
 purposes. The first furrow being opened as deep as is 
 possible with a strong team, let the subsoil plough follow 
 in the furrow, not only loosening the subsoil to the re- 
 quired depth, but also mixing the surface soil to an extent, 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 105 
 
 as I think, sufficient for all practical purposes. On the 
 hillside, the side-hill j^lough will throw the surface fur- 
 row so far down the hill as to give full space to work the 
 subsoil. This work of jDloughing should be done in the 
 fall. If, however, the compost is not in readiness in 
 the fall, it may be spread in the spring, and worked in 
 by a second surface-ploughing. 
 
 In case the situation is a hillside, the question of ter- 
 racing will arise. Undoubtedly this maybe advantageous 
 in some cases. Narrow terraces, supported by a stone 
 wall, or even a grass sod, will prevent wash, and give 
 the vine a warm and protected exposure; but this ex- 
 tra expense will not be warranted except the situa- 
 tion is very steep, so that the wash will prove excessive. 
 A partial terracing may be done without great expense, 
 j^rovided a sufficient quantity of stones, from one to 
 two feet in diameter, is at hand. A single course of 
 such stones running in parallels along the face of the 
 hillsj and just behind each row of vines, will be a 
 great help in preventing wash. On many hillsides, it 
 would not prove tedious, or very expensive, to throw 
 narrow terraces when the greater part of the work 
 can be done w^ith the plough, the bank and other fin- 
 ishing work being left for the shovel. In such a case, 
 
1G6 C U L T U n E OF THE G RAP E. 
 
 the top sarflice of the terrace should slope slightly 
 towards the hill, in order that rains may not run down 
 the bank, and wash. Where a more expensive sys- 
 tem of terracing is adopted^ it will be rather for orna- 
 ment than for profit ; and this may be left to the land- 
 scape-gardener. 
 
 VINE-BORDERS. 
 
 We have thus far spoken only of vineyard-lands. Many 
 persons will wish for instructions for borders for a few 
 vines exclusively for table-fruit. In such cases, the borders 
 may be made deeper and richer. We have instances where 
 the vine is an exceedingly gross feeder. The Hampton- 
 Court Vine lives upon the sewerage of London. We read 
 of artificial borders, three to four feet deep, one-third of 
 which is rich stable-manure, with a large supply of b-ones, 
 lime, &c. The result is a prodigious crop of grapes. We 
 are now speaking of foreign varieties, under glass, which 
 receive constant and peculiar care. Let it be remembered 
 also that such excessive growth is only of second quality 
 for the table, and would be utterly worthless for wine. 
 There is a limit to the richness of a border ; though the 
 American people will incline to err on the side of extra 
 
CULTURE OF THE (1 U A P E. 1C7 
 
 growth, to the sacrifice of quality. In such rich borders, 
 another difficulty occurs : the vine is inclined to make 
 wood rather than fruit. This is much more true of some 
 varieties, e.g. the Concord, than of others. The Dela- 
 ware, and such other kinds as are short-jointed, prolific, 
 and of moderate growth, will allow, and even require, a 
 rich soil. If, then, the purpose is to give special advan- 
 tages to one or more vines for table-fruit, as the first step, 
 see that the sub-soil is well drained. Then add a suffi- 
 cient quantity of fi-iable pasture sod to increase the depth 
 of surface-loam to eighteen inches : to this add six inches 
 of stable-manure, and about a bushel of bone-dust, to a 
 square rod of border. If the soil is inclined to be heavy 
 and retentive, add pure sand ; or, if sand is in excess, add 
 a moderate quantity of clay, and perhaps well-decom- 
 posed vegetable soil. But peat and meadow-muck are 
 not desirable additions to such a soil as may be called a 
 good garden or pasture loam. To such a loam, six inches 
 of manure will be quite a sufficient supply of vegetable 
 matter. In such rich borders, special care is necessary 
 that they do not become too heavy, and retentive of moist- 
 ure. 
 
 An addition of lime will be beneficial in correcting this 
 tendency, and will also be of service, both as food for the 
 
108 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 plant, and as assisting in the decomposition of organic 
 matter and in destroying insects. Potash, in some form, 
 is essential to the grape ; yet this may better be supplied 
 as a surface-dressing during the after-growth, when, as 
 we shall see, it is most needed in producing fruit. 
 
 The border must be trenched, mixing all the materials, 
 simply loosening the sub-soil, and letting it remain at the 
 bottom. If, however, the character of the sub-soil should 
 be judged suitable to have a good mechanical effect upon 
 the surface-soil, or if it contain any elements which are 
 desirable on the surf ice, it should be brought up, and 
 mixed to a greater or less extent. The border will be 
 two feet deej) when finished, deep enough and rich enough 
 for the feeblest variety ; too much so for rampant kinds. 
 
 Some authors recommend the grossest and richest ma- 
 terials for the border, such as slaughter-house offal, whole 
 carcasses of horses and cattle, and the like. This is with 
 the object of giving permanence to the border, it being 
 supposed that these remain a store of fertilizing wealth 
 for many years ; the large bones becoming fit for use as 
 the fleshy matter is exhausted. Provided such gross ma- 
 terial is buried to such a depth that the young roots do 
 not come in contact with it in its putrid state, it may do 
 no present injury ; but it will ultimately draw the roots 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 109 
 
 to such a depth from ah- and warmth as to prove objec- 
 tionable. 
 
 Such use of material is not only a waste, but a positive 
 injury. The use of whole bones is a decided benefit, yet 
 a most expensive mode of applying nourishment. Some 
 kinds of bones will remain in the ground for half a centu- 
 ry with but little change. It is manifest that it would be 
 poor economy to furnish so expensive and valuable food 
 by such a slow process. It is true that vine-roots will 
 intwine themselves around and through fresh bones, and 
 greedily take up whatever is obtainable; yet the great 
 bulk is forbidden food until crumbled by time. It is said 
 that vine-borders should be supplied with permanent ma- 
 terial which should last as long as the vines themselves. 
 It is indeed of the utmost importance that the composi- 
 tion of tlie soil should be such that it shall never become 
 sodden, or suffer from drought. Being originally com- 
 posed of suitable earths, and a moderate supply of organic 
 matter, it wdll be easy to add manures on the surflice, 
 from year to year, as the land may require. Unques- 
 tionably the most economical mode of applying manure is 
 to reduce it, as nearly as possible, to a condition for imme- 
 diate use as food for the plant. Stable-manure should 
 be well composted and decomposed. Bones should be 
 
110 CULTURE O F T II E H 11 A P E. 
 
 broken into fine pieces, or, better still, ground to powder. 
 Nothing is lost by this process, and a great gain is ob- 
 vious, both in time, and in other respects which it is not 
 necessary to enumerate. If, then, we can answer four re- 
 quests, — viz., thorough drainage, a fi'iable soil, a generous 
 dressing of composted manure, and loosening to a depth 
 varying from eighteen to thirty inches, — we shall be ready 
 to take the next step of planting. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 TTTHAT kind of vines are best? With care, vines 
 three or four years old may be moved, and will 
 produce fruit the following season. Indeed, they may 
 show fruit the same season ; which shouM be removed at 
 once, in order that the vine may expend all its energies in 
 becoming established. A gain in time may be made by 
 taking large vines. The gain is, however, more apparent 
 than real. At the end of five years, a young vine will 
 probably have borne more fruit than one which was three 
 or four years old when transplanted. Layers have not had 
 the preference, especially layers of new growth, for the 
 reason that the young roots are very fibrous, as a general 
 rule, not running ofi* like strong cords. Such a plant 
 
 111 
 
112 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 might be called finely rooted by one unaccustomed to 
 judge. But this is a great mistake ; for these tender fibres 
 are so delicate, as almost inevitably to perish during the 
 process of transplanting, and thence they become worse 
 than useless: they are nothing less than decaying matter 
 attached to the plant. Such fine fibres should be cleaned 
 from the roots, leaving only those whicli have considera- 
 ble substance. If the layer shall still have a sufficiency 
 of roots, there is no reason why it should not become a 
 perfect vine. Cuttings from the open border seldom be- 
 come sufficiently strong in a single season to be desirable 
 for the vineyard or trellis. Frequently, also, they have a 
 double or a triple set of roots; and it becomes desirable 
 to remove the lower set. The second size of cuttings from 
 eyes under glass is also too small for vineyard planting. 
 Extra No. 1 vines, one year from the eye, with strong, 
 healthy, cord-like roots, and a few plump and ripe eyes on 
 the cane, — I consider such young, vigorous, and healthy 
 stock to be as good as larger vines. They will not bear 
 exposure and neglect as well as vines of larger size ; but 
 skilful cultivators will select such stock in preference to 
 any other. The yearlings of second quality will require 
 another season of nursing. They may go into rich beds 
 much like open-air cutting-beds, as previously described. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 113 
 
 In a bed five feet wide, there may be four rows of 
 vines, running the length of the bed. The roots of the 
 two outside rows should be turned outwards, the two 
 inside rows occupying the inner portion of the bed. 
 As the vines may be planted within six inches of 
 each other in the rows, a large number will occupy 
 but a moderate space of ground. They will require 
 very similar treatment to the cutting-beds of the pre- 
 vious season, allowing but a single eye to grow near 
 the ground. If a suflScient quantity of stakes are not 
 at hand, it may be as well and cheaper to plant a strong 
 stake at each end of each row, and intervening stakes 
 at a distance of every ten feet in the row ; then draw 
 a trellis of strong twine for each row (the lines being 
 wound around each stake in its row), tlie first line being 
 six inches from the ground, and the Knes above being six 
 inches apart. The upper lines should not be put on until 
 gi'owth requires it. Remember the ounce of prevention, 
 — frequent dustings of sulphur. Keep the vines carefully 
 tied to the lines as they grow^ allowing but a single cane 
 for each, and removing all the laterals. The growth may 
 be so rank as to require checking of the main cane in 
 August in order to its ripening. The great majority of 
 these will be extra large vines, with at least six feet 
 
114 CULTURE OF THE (J RAP E. 
 
 of ripe wood, — in all respects as good as could be de- 
 sired. 
 
 Fall and spring planting have each their advocates. It 
 is claimed, and I think with truth, that a vine planted in 
 early October, if in a warm and dry soil, will, in some 
 degree, establish itself in its new locality in the fall, so as 
 to start more vigorously in the spring than if newly 
 planted. Under favorable circumstances, fall-planted vines 
 certainly make more growth the ensuing season than if 
 planted in the spring. On the other hand, there is risk 
 that fall vines may be injured by the winter. There may 
 also be an advantage in leaving a field unplanted, in order 
 to give it another ploughing and loosening after the 
 winter freezing. Certainly there is some extra labor in 
 protecting and uncovering fall-planted vines. These rea- 
 sons are to be weighed. I should advise fall-planting as 
 preferable, when the ground is in readiness, and the soil 
 is light and dry, and if it is a more leisure time for the 
 planter to do the work in the fall than in the spring. 
 
 In planting, the following rules are to be observed : 
 Examine the roots, cutting away any fine threads that 
 will be likely to dry and perish ; shorten any of the long 
 cords of roots extending beyond two or three feet, accord- 
 ing to the size of the vine ; and see that all bruised ends 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 115 
 
 are removed by a a smooth cut. If many vines are to be 
 thus prepared, do the work in some moist and shaded 
 place, and take them to the field in a mat or box, with 
 moss around the roots. The holes should be already dug, 
 being large enough for the roots to radiate from the 
 centre without bendins;. The holes should be about six 
 inches deep, the centre being very slightly crowning, so 
 that the base of the vine shall be from four to five inches 
 below the surface when the work is finished. The vine 
 should be placed exactly in the place where the cane is to 
 be brought up. Some advise the plan of placing the 
 vine a distance from the trellis, and then lavino; down 
 the cane tow^ards the trellis, and burying all but the 
 end of the cane uj^on which an eye is left remain- 
 ing. This eye is to furnish a new cane, while the 
 old cane under ground is making an extra supply of 
 new roots. It is claimed that a greatly increased amount 
 of roots can thus be obtained in a single season; but 
 such a vine is an ill-arranged and incongruous aif.ar. 
 Make haste slowly; preserve the symmetry of the vine; 
 keep the roots as near as possible to the stem, and radiat- 
 ing around it : these are safe rules to follow. In a good 
 soil, there need be no fear but the roots will do all that 
 may be desirable. 
 
116 C U L T U n E OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 Never plant, under any consideration, just after or 
 during a rain, when the soil is wet and heavy. It is best 
 to have the soil pretty dry, so that, during the process of 
 planting, the soil may be pressed to the roots with the 
 foot without danger of hardening it. If the work is done 
 in the fall, it will be necessary, just before the ground 
 freezes, to bend the cane to the earth, and cover it slightly 
 with a few spadefuls of soil. Then throw a slight cover- 
 ing of litter around each vine, if it can be conveniently 
 obtained. This will keep the frost from penetrating too 
 severely, and will favor a slight root-action during the 
 winter. Uncover the cane in the spring before the buds 
 become too much started. On a warm southern slope, 
 they will start earlier when covered than when exposed. 
 Judgment must therefore be exercised not to allow the 
 buds to become too forward, and, on the other hand, not 
 to expose them to severe freezing. As the buds start, 
 rub off all but the three strongest which are near the base. 
 When these are sufficiently grown to take the first tie, 
 select the most promising shoot, and secure it to the stake, 
 or trellis. This work must not be delayed, else the young 
 shoots are very liable to become broken by the wind, or 
 to be bent and misshapen. At this time, the other two 
 shoots (which were only a reserve against accidents) are 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 117 
 
 to be removed. The cane itself can be cut away just 
 above the growing shoot, now that clanger from bleeding 
 has passed. We shall thus have but a single, strong 
 shoot starting from the very surflice of the ground. 
 Allow it to grow as far as it will, keeping it tied in an 
 upright position. Many lateral shoots will start from the 
 axils of most of the lower leaves. Do not rub these late- 
 rals entirely out, but check them with the thumb and 
 finger just above the first leaf on the lateral. The object 
 in preserving one joint of the lateral is to protect the eye 
 in the axil at the base, which would be exposed, and liable 
 itself to start, if the lateral should be entirely removed. 
 If the vine is vigorous, it will attain a height of eight feet; 
 when it may be stopped, and the laterals allowed to grow, 
 pinching the strongest so as to preserve the proportions 
 of the vine. In the fall, the cane is to be shortened to 
 two feet, and again covered with earth. Before proceed- 
 ing farther, the method of training must be decided upon. 
 
CHAPTER YII. 
 
 MODES OF TRAINING. 
 
 "TVTATURE is our guide. With an intelligent obser- 
 ■^ ^ vation of the habits of plants, we can scarcely 
 go astray in their culture; and yet how greatly do we 
 modify the circumstances, retaining the conditions which 
 are of essential importance, and rejecting incidents which 
 have no intrinsic connection with the i)lant! We find the 
 grape running wild over our stone walls, oftentimes bear- 
 ing considerable fruit in this trailing position. More com- 
 monly we find it climbing to the tops of forest-trees, its 
 naked trunk being oftentimes twenty, forty, or even sixty 
 feet in length. Reaching the top, its branches spread out 
 horizontally ; and on its pendent laterals we shall find a 
 profusion of fruit. Seldom do we find much fruit while 
 
 118 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 119 
 
 the vine maintains an upright position. In such a posi- 
 tion, the upright flow of sap is strong, and the break of 
 the bud is for wood-growth rather than for fruit. We 
 infer that the position of a vine upon a wall is some 
 check to its growth, that it will develop fruit-buds to 
 some degree,' but that a tangled and crowded mass of 
 growth is not conducive to fruitfulness. We also infer 
 that the elongated trunk of the vine in the forests is 
 for the simple purpose of climbing to the light ; that its 
 length is of no account, provided light and a spreading 
 support are obtained at the top ; and that a horizontal posi- 
 tion is a healthful check to growth, and a condition of 
 fruitfulness. Now, supposing we could cut away the 
 whole naked trunk, and drop the vine on a trellis, in 
 the form of the top of the tree, to within four feet of the 
 ground : would the essential conditions of healthy devel- 
 opment be changed ? Let us see. We know that sap 
 will course through a long, hard, and dry-looking trunk, 
 and show vigor at the extremity; but we cannot for a 
 moment believe there is any gain (rather a loss) by such 
 long passage. We know the vine likes air and light; yet 
 there is a limit to these : exposure to high winds must be 
 avoided. The leaves and branches will be much less lia- 
 ble to be torn, and evaporation from the leaves during 
 
120 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 parching winds will be much reduced, if the vines are 
 near the ground. Is the state of the atmosj^here twenty 
 or forty feet from the surface more suited to the vine 
 than nearer the ground? Both theory and facts are 
 against such a supposition. A more uniform temperature 
 and humidity are preserved near the surface than in the 
 upper air. The temperature will average higher, and 
 changes will be less sudden. It is the testimony of 
 French vineyardists, that graj^es trained close to the 
 ground will ripen considerably earlier than when carried 
 into the air. The main lesson of the natural vine, then, 
 is the horizontal and the pendent position of the fruiting- 
 branches. The natural vine has no kind hand to check 
 exuberant growth; but it adopts this principle of a rever- 
 sal of the position of the branches to accomj^lish this end. 
 Let us now examine the various modes of training which 
 recognize this principle. 
 
 In the vinery, under glass, we train the cane at an 
 angle of from thirty to forty-five degrees with the sur- 
 face ; the lateral branches being tied out on each side, ap- 
 proaching to a horizontal position. In the common form 
 of an arbor, the overarching top Avill give a horizontal 
 growth, and the branches may be allowed to hang pendu- 
 lous. Such vines are difficult to manage at the top, and 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 I'll 
 
 the growth is liable to become tangled and excessive. 
 Various other plans hav^e been suggested for the purpose 
 of checking the flow of sap and developing fruit. The 
 bow-system has been in use in Ohio to a considerable 
 extent, having been introduced by Germans accustomed 
 to the practice in Europe. 
 It consists in training two 
 canes, — one of which is 
 of the previous season's 
 growth, and which is the 
 present fruiting-cane ; the 
 other being the growth of 
 this season, and designed 
 to replace the other cane, 
 which is cut away as soon 
 as the fruit is matured. 
 Figure 21 illustrates the Fig. 21. 
 
 mode. The bow is often varied in form, being sometimes 
 bent to a complete hoop. Of course, the flow of sap will 
 be checked by this process. Among other objections, the 
 one which I should regard as final is the annual expendi- 
 ture of so much energy in producing new canes. It 
 would be possible to train vines in the form of a tree, 
 as seen in fig. 22. The annual growth is to be cut back 
 
122 
 
 CULTURE OF THE GRATE. 
 
 to within one plump eye of the trunk each MI. The 
 branches will arch by their own weight and the weight 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 of fruit. A large hoop, supported by stakes, may give sup- 
 port and symmetry to the vine. The objections to this 
 plan are, that the growth and the fruit would be too com- 
 pact near the trunk : it would also be found troublesome 
 to give suitable support to such a form. 
 
 But in California, where the amount of wood-growth 
 is limited on account of the dry climate, this is the form 
 adopted ; the vine being stiff, and able to support itself 
 A form which endeavors, .to some extent, to diminish the 
 strong flow of sap, is a simple coil, or cork-screw, of the 
 vine around a post. The fruit-branches are allowed to 
 grow, and hang down of their own weight. The coil, or 
 twisting, has an undoubted tendency to check the flow of 
 sap; yet its effect is by no means suflicient : the growth 
 
CULTURE OF TEE GRAPE. 123 
 
 of leaf and branches will be too strong at the top; the 
 lower eyes will become Aveak ; and the quantity of fruit 
 will diminish, especially at the base. The more the vine 
 is coiled, and even bowed, the less this evil will be felt. 
 It may also be remedied by bringing up a renewal-cane 
 once in four or six years, whenever the old cane becomes 
 bare. This involves some waste of energy ; and the neces- 
 sity which requires it indicates an imperfect system. Yet 
 it is by no means a bad method ; indeed, it has some ad- 
 vantages over any other, and seems peculiarly suited to 
 some varieties. Its simplicity commends it, and the very 
 little amount of labor required in tying is another ad- 
 vantage. There is, however, considerable risk in allow- 
 ing the branches to hang unsupported. When they are 
 young and tender, they are liable to part from the vine 
 by their own weight, or by the force of a strong wind. 
 This objection, of course, will aj^ply to every system where 
 there is no support for the branches. The distance apart 
 will depend upon the height of the posts, and may ex- 
 actly correspond. For instance, if the posts are six feet 
 high, the vines may be planted six by six ; or, if trained 
 to eight-feet posts, increase the' distance to eight feet 
 each way. If the vines are carried above eight feet, the 
 rule will require modification, as the distances will not 
 
124 
 
 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 then increase as rapidly as the height. As each vine will 
 require a post, the cost will generally be about the same 
 as a trellis, with fewer posts, and wire for the spaces. If 
 two-inch poles are used, the first cost will be less; but 
 these will last only a few years. Many good cultivators 
 are adopting this cork-screw system, if it may be so 
 termed, as a very easy, simple, and economical way, hav- 
 ing the advantage of making each vine independent, and 
 accessible on all sides, and securing a good circulation of 
 light and air. But there are objections to it, as we have 
 seen; and it is belicA^ed that other systems are superior. 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 A method adopted in France more than a century ago, 
 in the village of Thomery, and since that time brought 
 into extensive use, more especially for the culture of table- 
 fruit, has been brought into special notice in this country 
 within a few years. It consists in the training of two 
 horizontal arms in opposite directions upon a wall or trel- 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 115 
 
 lis, with fruiting branches tied perpendicularly, in the 
 manner seen in fig. 23. By this position, the distribution 
 of sap is equalized ; there being no marked difference be- 
 tween the growth of branches near the trunk and those 
 at the extremities of the arms. The arms may be ex- 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 tended to a considerable distance, though they are gener- 
 ally limited to four feet for vineyard-culture. Fig. 23 in- 
 dicates that the arms are kept near the ground, which is 
 regarded as a decided advantage. However, it is often 
 desirable to cover a high, upright wall, or trellis. The 
 Thorn ery system admits of an easy modification to ac- 
 complish this end. By an examination of fig. 24, it will 
 be seen that there are four tiers of arms, which will re- 
 quire a height of about twenty feet from the ground. It 
 
126 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 will be obseryed that the principle on which the system 
 is based remains intact. The branches are in such posi- 
 tion, and may be arranged with such regularity, as to be 
 easily and firmly tied ; so that the whole apj^earance of 
 the vine will be neat and symmetrical in the extreme. 
 It may be asked why it would not be as well to have a 
 single main upright trunk, half-way from the ends of the 
 wall or arbor, and the four tiers of arms stretching hori- 
 zontally from one trunk. It would be a serious objection 
 to this plan, that the upper tier of arm's -would receive too 
 large a proportion of tlie strength of the vine, while the 
 lower arms would experience a corresponding lack, and 
 would ultimately become barren. It is the excellence of 
 the Thomery plan, that it reduces all the fruiting-eyes 
 of an individual vine to an exact level. Though there 
 are four tiers represented in fig. 24, yet all the eyes of 
 each single vine will be seen to be on a level ; and conse- 
 quently there will be an impartial distribution of the 
 sap. This complication, however, though simple, is by no 
 means desirable, except for the j)urpose of covering build- 
 ings or high walls. It is far better in the vineyard to 
 have but a single course of arms, planting the rows suffi- 
 ciently near together to economize all the land. The 
 objections to a high trellis, and a double or a triple course 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE., 127 
 
 of arms, are, first, that, in rough vineyard-culture, there is 
 more or less danger that the growth of the different arms 
 will not be kept separate in actual practice, occasioning 
 some confusion, and unequal distribution of foliage ; sec- 
 ondly, the lower tiers and the ground will be too much 
 sheltered and shaded by the upper tiers, causing a damp- 
 ness, and a lack of circulation of air near the ground ; 
 thirdly, the upper tiers will be exposed to strong cur- 
 rents of wind, which are very injurious; and, in addition, 
 the expense of building high trellises, and managing the 
 vines upon them, is much greater than in the low system. 
 By a study of fig. 24, any one of ordinary judgment 
 will be able to follow the form that is given, or make 
 such simple modifications as are desirable for covering 
 the sides of barns, or the roofs of sheds, arbors, &c. To 
 the novice in grape-culture it nay be well to mention, 
 what will more fully appear in \he chapter on Pruning, 
 that all the upright fruit-bearing wood is annually cut 
 back to one new eye, leaving but the trunk and the two 
 arms at the close of the season. Is this system correct in 
 theory? and what is the practical testimony in regard to 
 it? It is the misfortune of horticultural science that 
 many of its questions cannot be answered with mathe- 
 matical certainty : so much time is required in making 
 
128 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 observations, so many disturbing causes enter into our 
 calculations, and it is so easy to misinterpret, that it is 
 not strange there are very conflicting opinions. Yet 
 to how much more certainty might we attain by a care- 
 ful study and comparison of l^ature's laws ! At present, 
 we can only give qualified opinions in regard to the 
 Thomery system. Its arms are near the ground, which 
 we judge to be favorable : they are in a horizontal posi- 
 tion, which, we know, checks the strong flow of sap, and 
 induces fruitfulness. Its fruit-branches are tied in an 
 upright position, and evenly spread, so as to receive a full 
 supply of light and air in all their parts. The practical 
 cultivator will complain of the amount of labor involved 
 in the repeated tying of every shoot. In large vineyards, 
 and with the present high cost of labor, this is, indeed, a 
 serious item. The theorist will also question whether 
 this bolt-upright position of the branches is favorable. 
 Nature indicates that they should arch over, or even be 
 pendent, with the weight of fruit. While the position 
 of the arms tends to an equal distribution of sap, yet it 
 will be found that the upright shoots nearest the trunk 
 are generally the strongest; and, if one is left directly 
 over the trunk, it will be like a perpendicular cane, and 
 w^ill require frequent checking. This upright position of 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 129 
 
 the branches unquestionably counteracts, to some extent, 
 the horizontal influence of the arms: it induces growth 
 at the extremities of the branches, and tends to enfeeble 
 the dormant fruiting - eyes of the succeeding season. 
 This is the theoretical tendency. To what degree this 
 will result in" evil has not yet been proved in this coun- 
 try. It is a well-established fact, that the best table- 
 grapes are thus grown in France, and that they have 
 been thus grown with admirable success in tliis country ; 
 and it is manifest that the plan combines many advan- 
 tages. Yet these facts by no means establish as true that 
 it has no practical or theoretical defects. It should be 
 borne in mind that the climate of France is dryer than 
 our own, and the tendency to wood-growth is consequent- 
 ly less than with us ; so that the upright position of the 
 laterals may be much less objectionable in France than in 
 our Atlantic States. Theoretically it will be a rule, that 
 countries which have the least amount of rain fall during 
 the growing season will sufier least from the counteract- 
 ing effect of the upright branches. In such dry climates, 
 there is little danger of excessive wood-growth. I ques- 
 tion the principle of two arms, as being less simple and 
 less manageable, especially in cold latitudes, where it is 
 desirable to lay down the vines and cover them in the 
 9 
 
130 
 
 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 winter. It is true, a vine with the two arms can be bent 
 backwards to the ground, so that the trunk and the arms 
 can be covered ; yet it is not an easy process, and will 
 require more of a bank of earth to effectually cover the 
 trunk than can well be spared from the roots. The prin- 
 ciple of the system may be entirely preserved with a 
 single arm, as is represented in fig. 25. It may be sug- 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 gested, that, if but one arm is used, it would be necessary 
 to have it about equal in length to the combined length 
 of the two arms; and that, consequently, the extreme end 
 of the single arm would suffer, inasmuch as the upright 
 shoots are strongest near the base. It is true, that, if an 
 upright shoot starts at the bend of the arm, it will receive 
 more than its proportion of vigor; but, when the sap is 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 131 
 
 turned into the horizontal arm, its tendency is to seek the 
 extreme end. This force is diminished by the suction of 
 the successive upright shoots ; yet it is sufficiently strong 
 at the end of a cane of the ordinary length of six or 
 eight feet. This one-arm system, or single, horizontal 
 cane-system, I have tried for two seasons in my own 
 vineyard, and with gratifying results. Upon arms six 
 feet in length, I have not noticed any appreciable diifer- 
 ence in vigor at the end of the cane. 
 
 As the canes all lead in one direction, the whole woik 
 of training, pruning, and winter-covering, is reduced to 
 its simplest and easiest form. The two main objections 
 which I have experienced have been, first and especially, 
 in the vigor of the upright shoots ; and, secondly, in the 
 labor of carefully tying each shoot. It is evident, as was 
 before stated, that the upright position of the bearing 
 wood tends directly to overcome the influence of the 
 horizontal arm. In the case of the wild vine, not only 
 the arms run horizontally in the tops of trees, but also 
 the branches arch over, or are pendent, with the weight 
 of fruit. In the Thomery plan, it is evident that Na- 
 ture's pattern is not followed. What will be the result, 
 if, instead of a partial use of Nature's hints, we apply 
 the i^rinciple entirely ? 
 
132 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 There is no form in present use to which there are not 
 practical and theoretical objections. To obviate some 
 of these difficulties, I have conceived a modified form 
 of training, which I call the horizontal-branch system. It 
 will meet w^ith criticism, and it may prove to be valueless. 
 I am aware of facts and theories which seem to be op- 
 posed to it. These I shall endeavor to state fairly, so that 
 no one may be misled by a theory, but rather may await 
 the test of actual trial. I suggest the following mode : 
 Posts for a trellis are to be set in the rows twelve feet 
 apart, and sawed to a level, three feet above ground. To 
 the top of each post, and at right angles with the row, 
 nail a strip of wood one foot in length. Draw a wire 
 from post to post, fastening it by staples two inches from 
 the top of the posts. The ends of the strips at the top of 
 the posts should project an equal distance of six inches on 
 each side of the wire. Now draw two more wires, which 
 are to be secured by staples to each end of the strips. 
 Thus we shall have a horizontal trellis of three wires, the 
 middle wire beino; from two to three inches lower than 
 the two outer wires. A single arm, or horizontal cane, 
 is to be tied to the middle wire. The side wires, being 
 but six inches from the cane, and a little above it, will 
 give early support to the soft fruit-bearing shoots. The 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 133 
 
 majority of these may be simply placed in position npon 
 the outer wires, where their own weight will keep them. 
 Some stray shoots will require tying. As the fruit 
 matures, the weight will gradually bend down the 
 branches, checking the tendency to growth at the ex- 
 tremities, and- securing all the forces of the vine for the 
 fruit. Fig. 26 represents a vine grown after this manner. 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 So far as I am aware, this mode of training is novel ; 
 it has not had the test of trial. The main advantage 
 which it claims is the economizing of the forces of the 
 vine to the utmost extent possible for the production and 
 maturity of fruit. It is a near approach to the position 
 of a vine in a tree-top. The two outside wires are a 
 little raised for the purpose of encouraging growth in 
 the shoots during the early stage of development; this 
 growth, however, becoming gradually restrained as the 
 branches take a horizontal position. Incidental advan- 
 tages of this form may also be suggested, — such as a 
 more uniform and moderate shade of the soil than by 
 
134 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 upright trellis; also securing the benefit of more radia- 
 tion of heat, and uniform and moderate humidity from 
 the soil ; and, again, securing an abundance of light and 
 air, without exposing the vine to sifting winds as a per- 
 pendicular trellis does. Thus far, the plan seems to have 
 manifest and very decided advantages, and to answer all 
 the requisites. There yet remains one important consid- 
 eration. Will such a broad exposure of the vine to the 
 sun, the rain, and the dews, be beneficial, or otherwise ? 
 Upon this point we have the very definitely expressed 
 opinion of Prof. Lindley, given in his " Theory of Horti- 
 culture," p. 269 ; which opinion is certainly entitled to very 
 great consideration. We quote as follows : " That train- 
 ing a tree over the face of a wall will protect the blossoms 
 from cold must be apj^arent when we consider the severe 
 effect of excessive evaporation upon the tender parts. 
 A merely low temperature will produce comparatively 
 little injury in a still air, because the more essential parts 
 of the flower are very much guarded by the bracts, 
 calyx, and petals which overlie them ; and, moreover, 
 because radiation will be intercepted by the branches 
 themselves, placed one above the other ; so that none but 
 the uppermost branches which radiate into space will 
 feel its full effects : but, when a cold wind is constantly 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 135 
 
 passing through the branches and among the flowers, 
 the jjersph'ation — against which no sufficient guard is 
 jDrovided by Nature — becomes so rapid as to increase the 
 amount of cold considerably, besides abstracting more 
 aqueous matter than a plant can safely part with. It be- 
 ing one of the great objects of training trees to prevent 
 this, it is inconceivable how any one should have recom- 
 mended such devices as those mentioned in ' The Horti- 
 cultural Transactions,' vol. ii.. Appendix, p. 8, of training 
 trees upon a horizontal plane ; the only effect of which 
 would be to expose a tree as much as possible to the effect 
 of that radiation which it is the very purj)ose of traing to 
 guard against." 
 
 This is sufficiently explicit ; indeed, too much so to 
 be taken without consideration. Consider the natural 
 growth of trees. All flat-topped trees have precisely 
 this horizontal plane : so, indeed, the vast majority of 
 vegetable growth inclines more or less to this plane con- 
 tour. Such perpendicular growth as the Lombardy Pop- 
 lar or the Irish Juniper is exceptional, and not the gen- 
 eral habit of vegetation. Can it be that Nature has made 
 a mistake ? that the habits of plants are not best adapted 
 to their necessities? Prof Lindley very justly alludes 
 to the effect of " cold winds constantly passing through 
 
136 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 the branches ; " but we must bear in mind that- currents 
 of cokl air are ahnost entirely in a horizontal direction. 
 Of course, then, the jjerpendicular trellis will receive the 
 full force of the wind, like a spread sail ; while the hori- 
 zontal cuts the wind like a knife, presenting far less sur- 
 face for resistance than any other form. In this consists 
 a very decided advantage for the horizontal plane ; but it 
 is true that the wind will strike the outer foliao^e with full 
 force as it passes over the trellis. This same foliage is 
 again exposed alternately to the fierce heat of a direct 
 sun, and the cold air and heavy dews of night. Such 
 fluctuations are not favorable. It is noticeable that the 
 outer and more exposed foliage of the grape is, in gen- 
 eral, most liable to mildew. Whether this fact, as applied 
 to the horizontal trellis, will prove a serious objection, 
 can only be determined by actual trial. While horizontal 
 training of fruit-trees has been suggested, and a partial 
 and modified form is almost universally adopted for the 
 grape under glass, yet as a complete system, and for 
 open culture, I am not aware that the form given above 
 has ever been tried ; but I think it is so plainly suggest- 
 ed by the natural habit of vegetation, and that it secures 
 so many theoretical and practical advantages, that it is 
 worthy of the most careful trial. If the vines can be 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 137 
 
 guarded from mildew, I shall have no question of the 
 excellence of the mode. I am aware, that, in the opinion 
 of many, the dews of night are the great prolific cause 
 of mildew, and that partial roofs are recommended for 
 upright trellises for the sole purpose of keeping off the 
 dew : but I am inclined to think that the cold niixht air 
 is the true cause of disease. I believe, also, that the vines 
 near the ground will feel the night currents less than 
 when elevated. Possibly the radiating heat of the earth 
 may, to some extent, be preserved by the sj^reading 
 branches. I trust also, that, by this j^lan, the moisture will 
 prove to be more uniform and less excessive, as the shade 
 of the vines is moi"e even and less dense in spots. The 
 plan is so contrary to jDrevailing theories, and, I grant 
 also, to some experiences (which perhaps are exceptional), 
 that I would not advise its extensive adoption without 
 previous trials on a moderate scale ; yet I have so much 
 confidence, that, if there are objections, there are also 
 counteracting or mitigating circumstances, that I shall not 
 hesitate to transform a considerable portion of a present 
 vineyard to this method of training, for trial. 
 
 Though this principle of horizontal training, as h;is 
 been said, lias not heretofore been completely carried out 
 
138 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 and applied in this form, yet we often see a modified 
 form, and with good results. 
 
 The allusion by Professor Lindley to the suggestions 
 in " The Horticultural Transactions " has reference to a 
 mode of training fruit-trees described by M. Noisette of 
 France, and introduced in England by George H. Noch- 
 den, LL. D. It consists in the simple training of fruit- 
 branches upon a horizontal trellis ; one form, for example, 
 being circular, like a centre-table, the tree-trunk being the 
 centre pillar of the table. The supposed advantage of 
 this form is so well stated by Mr. Nochden, that I give it 
 in his own words : — 
 
 "The essential point is to lay the branches in a 
 horizontal position ; for, by training them in this way, 
 the current of sap is forced to assume a direction in 
 which it cannot move with the same quickness as it 
 would in its natural channel, which is from the root 
 straight upwards: and the diversion favors the process 
 of forming fruit, by inducing, as has been elsewhere inti- 
 mated, a slower motion of the sap, and thus affording 
 time for the secretion and deposition of the particles." 
 
 M. Noisette designed his mode especially for the peach, 
 the apricot, and other fruit-trees ; but it must be obvious 
 that these stiff and naturally upright fruiting-trees are by 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 139 
 
 no means such natural subjects for this mode as the flexi- 
 ble and pendulous grape. Very naturally, therefore, they 
 have often been trained over the tops of arbors, generally 
 without system, and with an entire neglect of summer- 
 pinching. As another instance, a vine running over the 
 roof of a house, if properly cared for, will give excellent 
 results. The plane is inclined, yet is so flat as to spread 
 out the foliage to the full efiects of sun and wind and 
 rain. Vines running over rocks have a broad and full 
 exposure of the whole surface ; and grapes are ripened in 
 the cold latitude of Maine in this way better than in any 
 other. Of course, the rocks are favorable ; but we must 
 conclude that the position is, at least, not unfavorable. 
 Other similar instances might be mentioned, and they 
 certainly go a great way in strengthening the belief that 
 the horizontal is the true position for developing fruit. 
 
 In concluding this chapter on Training, it may be said, 
 in review, that the spiral or cork-screw system has strong 
 ^advocates, and answers very well, though open to objec- 
 tions. The Thomery plan, with two horizontal arms and 
 upright shoots, is better in some respects, and on other 
 accounts not so good, having more numerous and earnest 
 advocates. A modification of the Thomery, the single 
 arm, is better in some respects, and equally good in all. 
 
140 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 And, finally, the horizontal system seems to be based upon 
 the laws of Natm-e, approaching very nearly to a perfect 
 theoretical form for an equal development of fruit and 
 foliage; and setting aside the effects of mildew, which 
 time and trial alone can determine, in other respects it 
 seems to be the most promising of all. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 DISTANCES AND TRELLISES. 
 
 rriHE mode of proceeding will vary essentially, to ac- 
 cord with the different kinds of training. If it is 
 decided to adopt the spiral coil, the plan involves large 
 and high posts ; and these must therefore be planted deep 
 in the ground. It will be necessary to do such deep dig- 
 ging before the vine is planted. In order to do the work 
 systematically, so that the posts may range in every direc- 
 tion, the distances should be determined, and the land 
 laid out in squares. For this mode, I think, as an average 
 rule, the Jewish sacred number seven may be ai^plied. 
 The posts may stand seven feet apart each way, and seven 
 feet out of ground. Perhaps the height is stretched a 
 foot for the sake of uniformity ; and it would undoubt- 
 
 141 
 
142 C U L T U RE O F THE GRAPE. 
 
 edly be better to reduce the height for short-jointed 
 kinds, such as* the Delaware. At the distance of seven 
 feet apart each way, it would require eight hundred and 
 eighty-eight vines to plant an acre. The simplest wny 
 to lay out a lot with exactness is to divide a line into the 
 distances determined for planting the vines, and fasten a 
 bit of string at each point on the line. Apply the line on 
 one side of the lot, and drive stakes at each string ; then 
 apply one end of the line at either of the end-stakes, draw 
 it at a right angle with the row of stakes, and again drive 
 stakes at each string. This gives two sides of a square ; 
 and in the same way the third and fourth sides may be 
 formed, and the exact spot for every stake may readily be 
 indicated by the strings on the line. On level ground, or 
 a smooth slope, the posts will range diagonally as well as 
 at right angles : they should also be sawed to a uniform 
 height for the sake of neatness of appearance. For the 
 spiral mode there is no trellis, — no other support than 
 the post, with a few nails driven partly in at suitable inter- 
 vals on which to hang loops for supporting the vine. 
 
 For the trellis system, I am inclined to think six feet 
 apart each way will be found to be a sufficient distance, 
 as an average rule. Such strong and rank growers as 
 Union Village, or Rogers No. 15, may need more width 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 143 
 
 between the rows" if in a rich soil. On the other hand, 
 tlie Delaware, in ordinary soils, will not require so much 
 space between the rows. There is also no arbitrary ne- 
 cessity for planting at a distance of six feet in the rows : 
 the two arms of the Thomery may be more or less than 
 three feet each, and the single arm may be extended to 
 eight or even twelve feet or more. With liberty for varia- 
 tion, it is yet probable that a distance of six feet each way 
 will be found the safest rule for general adoption. This 
 will give twelve hundred and ten vines to the acre. As 
 the vines are to be trained to temporary stakes during the 
 first and second season after planting, it will not be neces- 
 sary to prepare the trellis until the spring of the third sea- 
 son. The height of a perpendicular trellis should be made 
 to vary according to the variety of grape to be cultivated. 
 As has been previously stated, it is not probable that we 
 can adopt such severe checking with our American varie- 
 ties as is done in Europe. A celebrated French culti- 
 vator, M. Malot, has a trellis at Montreuil ; the arms upon 
 it being only fifteen inches one above another. He there- 
 fore allows the fruiting-branches of such varieties as the 
 Chasselas de Fontainebleau to grow but fifteen inches. 
 This is less than the usual length in France, which varies 
 from seventeen to twenty inches. In this country, the 
 
144 
 
 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 shoots are seldom less than two feet long, and more fre- 
 quently extend to two and a half, and even three feet. 
 The Delaware may easily be kept within a limit of two 
 feet ; while the long-jointed Concord must have, as a least 
 allowance, thirty inches. Hence the height of trellises 
 will vary. A form of trellis is recommended by Fuller 
 in his treatise upon the grape, which is less in accordance 
 with practical good sense than most of the suggestions in 
 his book. It consists of the usual uj^right posts, with two 
 horizontal bars, one at the top, and one within a foot of the 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 ground. Wires are passed from bar to bar at such inter- 
 , vals as the shoots are expected to appear. This is seen at 
 a glance in fig. 27. It must be obvious that the amount 
 of wire will be considerable, and that there Avill be a good 
 deal of waste in winding so many short pieces round the 
 bars. A perfectly practicable and much moi'e economical 
 
CULT U RE OF THE QUA P E. 145 
 
 way is to draw the wires horizontally from post to post. 
 The first wire is the support for the arm, and shoidd be a 
 foot from the ground at least. Even at tliis distance, it is 
 sometimes tlie case that the lower bunches of fruit are 
 spattered with earth during heavy sho\yers. The next 
 wire sliould not be more than eight inches above the first, 
 in order that the young shoots may obtain an early sup- 
 port. The next wire may be from twelve to sixteen 
 inches above the second, and from twenty to twenty-four 
 inches above the fii'st. The top Avire will therefore be 
 from tliirty-two to thirty-six inches from the ground. 
 Three wires will generally be found quite sufficient. 
 When the shoots are extended to three feet, however, it 
 may be desirable, in windy positions, to have a fourth 
 wire. The ends of the shoots may, with safety, extend 
 from six to nine inches beyond the last tie. The posts 
 may be j^lanted twelve feet apart ; and, being but about 
 three feet above the surface, of course the strain will be 
 slight. Yet it is best to put a brace to the inside of the 
 two end-posts of each row, as this secures against all sag- 
 ging. Galvanized wire has been recommended as being 
 more durable. It is much the most expensive, and is no 
 more permanent than common annealed wire can be 
 made to be by a trifling expense in painting. I have 
 
 10 
 
146 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 found nmnber-thirteen wire to be quite strong enough; 
 this number yielding about forty-five feet to the pound, 
 and costing six cents per pound in Boston in 1862. An 
 ordinary pair of nippers and a hammer are all the tools 
 necessary for putting up the wires. With the nippers, cut 
 l^ieces from the wire two inches in length, first bending 
 the pieces at the centres. These pieces are for staples, 
 which will answer every purjiose, and can readily be 
 formed and sharpened with a hammer in a rainy day at 
 much less cost than they can be bought. The wire, being 
 fastened to the post at one end of the row, is stretched to 
 the post at the other end, and with the nippers drawn 
 tightly around it, and made fist. It will be an easy mat- 
 ter to slacken the wire at the fall-pruning in order to 
 avoid the strain of contraction during cold weather. The 
 strand being made fast to the posts at both ends, it only 
 remains to secure it to each of the intervening posts by 
 driving the staples. As soon as the trellis is finished, the 
 wires should be pamted with common parafiine varnish, 
 which costs from sixty cents to a dollar per gallon, and 
 which quantity would be sufiicient for an extensive vine- 
 yard. A stiff swab of woollen cloth will make the best 
 brush. It can be drawn with long strokes, covering the 
 wire very rapidly. This varnish, when api^lied every 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 147 
 
 second year in a single coat, proves a perfect protection 
 against rust. 
 
 In regard to the horizontal form of trellis, while I have 
 great confidence in the theory, and hope and believe it 
 will have practical merit, yet it is to be remembered that 
 it has not stood the test of trial. Some defect or objec- 
 tion may be found. Many are fond of experiment, how- 
 ever, and are willing to venture a moderate risk as the price 
 of progress. In a previous chapter, the height of a hori- 
 zontal trellis was suggested as three feet. This was with 
 a view of letting the branches arch down over the outside 
 wires. It is also high enough to give space for the hoe. 
 Possibly it may be found, upon trial, that it will be ad- 
 vantaofeous to brino* the trellis six or more inches nearer 
 the ground. This will undoubtedly hasten the maturity, 
 and otherwise benefit the fruit, provided there are no 
 practical difiiculties in the way of cultivation. The con- 
 struction of this trellis is very simple. The posts being 
 sawed to the desired height of two and a half or three 
 feet, the centre wire may pass directly over the tops : a 
 cross-piece, from twelve to sixteen inches in length, is then 
 nailed to the top of each post, at right angles to the wire. 
 The two outer wires can then be secured at each end of 
 the strips, equally distant from the centre wire, and about 
 
148 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 two inches above it ; this being nearly the thickness of 
 the strip. Thus the shoots will have a slight upward in- 
 clination at first, and will have support by a tie at the 
 wires, six or eight inches from the cane. The weight of 
 fruit will rest upon the wires ; while the weight of growth 
 beyond the outer wires, a length of sixteen to twenty 
 inches, will incline downwards. Possibly strong-growing 
 kinds might find advantage in another outer wire, which 
 could easily be added. When the rows are six, or even 
 five/eet apart, this form will not prevent the use of the 
 horse-hoe in the spring, and until growth is advanced. 
 
 The question occurs, At what points of the compass is it 
 most desirable to run the trellis rows? The north and 
 south line has many advocates, and so also has the east 
 and west, both sides giving weighty reasons for their pref- 
 erence. For the north and south hne, it is said, that, dur- 
 ing some part of the day, the sun shines on all sides of the 
 trellis, — the east side in the forenoon, and the west side in 
 the afternoon ; while at mid-day it warms the soil on both 
 sides. The advocates of the east and west line claim that 
 the sun will send its beams aslant between the trellises at 
 its very first appearance in the morning, and its last rays 
 at night ; that during the cold and dewy morning hours, 
 when light and warmth are much more important than at 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 149 
 
 a later hour of the day, one row does not shade another, 
 but the first beams stream in to give light and some 
 degree of warmth, and to dispel the mists. There is rea- 
 son in both views ; and, while I incline to give preference 
 to the east and west line, I do not regard the direction as 
 in itself essential : it will be often varied by circumstances. 
 For instance, on sloping ground, it is undesirable to run 
 the rows up and down the hill, both on account of the 
 greater labor in working up and down hill, and also 
 because of the greater liability to wash. In the case of the 
 horizontal trellises, it will be seen that it is still less mate- 
 rial which way they run, as the foliage is spread out to 
 the utmost to catch the sunshine in every position. For 
 walls, it must be apparent that the nearest approach to a 
 due east and west line will give the greatest amount of 
 sunlight and heat. A wall looking south-easterly, or 
 even easterly, will do very well ; but a west wall is 
 much less desirable. On a wall looking due north, the 
 sun would strike but a brief hour, morning and night; 
 and it would be useless to plant grapes in such a posi- 
 tion. 
 
 Many kinds of grapes will not endure the full force of 
 our clear sun when trained against a wall or a building 
 lookino' due south. The leaves of the Rebecca, for exam- 
 
150 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 j^le, will become scorched and crisp in such a position. 
 Indeed, there is no variety, however rough its foliage, 
 that will not suffer from the burning heat, when in close 
 contact with the south side of a wall or building. It is 
 best to keep the foliage a few inches from the wall. 
 
 TRAINING FOR FAMILY USE. 
 
 There are multitudes who have no interest in vineyard 
 culture, and yet who wish for a few vines in the garden, or 
 to run over buildings, for the purpose of obtaining fruit for 
 their own table. For such cases, distinct and definite 
 directions are often wanted. It is frequently the case that 
 a garden is surrounded by a picket or a close board-fence. 
 Every face of this fence which does not look more directly 
 to the north than north-east or north-west may have a row 
 of vines planted in front of it. If the face looking south 
 is protected, and has the full force of a glaring sun, the 
 vines should be trained at least a foot from the fence. If 
 the fence is but four feet high, there will be room for only 
 one course of arms ; and the single horizontal arm, pruned 
 on the short-spur system, is best for this position. But, 
 supposing the fence to be six feet high, there will then be 
 space sufficient for two " cordons," or tiers, of fruit. It is 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 151 
 
 perfectly practicable to supply both these tiers by the 
 single-arm system, as represented in fig. 28; the arms being 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 all led in one direction, which will enable us the more 
 readily to lay them down for winter covering. Aside 
 from this advantage, the Thomery plan of two arms, as 
 represented in fig. 24, p. 125, is a good method.' Adopting 
 the single-arm system, the vines may be j^lanted in a row 
 one foot in front of the fence, and four feet apart in the 
 row. The first and probably the second season after 
 planting will be required to make the strong fruiting 
 canes, and establish the vines, as directed for the vine- 
 yard. It will be necessary to grow the cane b, fig. 28, two 
 and a half feet longer than the cane a, in order to provide 
 for the extra length of the upright trunk at c. The vines 
 being planted four feet apart, the arms will, of course, be 
 
152 CULTURE OF THE G R A 1' E. 
 
 eight feet long; the lower arm being a foot from the 
 ground, and the upper arm being three feet and a half from 
 the ground. 
 
 This will allow a space of two and a half feet for the 
 upright fruit-branches upon each arm, which will cover the 
 fence to the top. The eyes upon the trunks have all been 
 rubbed off; and upon the arms they will be so close to- 
 gether, that, in most instances, the upper eyes alone will 
 be sufficient to give sixteen upright branches for each 
 arm of eight feet in length. The method of pruning will 
 be found described on p. 173. The upright branches will 
 also require frequent stopping during the growing season, 
 as directed on p. 170. 
 
 When single vines are to be planted in vacant spots 
 in a garden, they may be trained around a post, according 
 to the spiral method, as described on p. 128. Frequently 
 there is an opportunity to train a vine upon the branches 
 of a feeble tree. By keeping watch of the growth, con- 
 trolling the form, and allowing the fruit-branches to radi- 
 ate from the trunk and hang pendent with their own 
 weight of fruit, they are often found to do admirably well. 
 This is Nature's system of horizontal fruit-branclies. 
 
 There can, however, be no virtue in the old trunk of a 
 tree, which is not likely to be symmetrical in form, is high 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 153 
 
 in air and inaccessible, and is also liable to fail at any time. 
 It would seem that the principle might be preserved 
 in better form by the horizontal trellis, as previously de- 
 scribed. 
 
 ARBORS. 
 
 The usual modes of training upon arbors is very imper- 
 fect; an upright cane being allowed to furnish shoots for 
 the side, and also arching over the top for the same pur- 
 pose. The flow of sap being towards the top, of course 
 the growth on the top will be excessive and succulent ; 
 and in its high position, being exposed to drafts, it is very 
 liable to suffer from mildew. The shoots on the side of 
 the arbor, not receiving a due proportion of the strength of 
 the vine, are almost sure to be weak in growth, producing 
 little fruit. It would be much better to plant a larger 
 number of vines, and train them on the Thomery plan, 
 so that the bearing-shoots on each individual vine shall 
 all be on a level, and no one of the shoots be allowed to 
 grow higher than the rest on the same vine. This reduces 
 them all to a perfect equality. By this means we shall 
 never be troubled with long naked canes on the sides, 
 with here and there a weak and barren shoot. 
 
154 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 HIGH TKELLISES. 
 
 The same rule will apply to all high trellises. When 
 the number of cordons, or fruiting-arms, exceeds two, it 
 is generally best to adopt tlie double-arm plan, as is rej)- 
 resented in fig. 24, p. 125. When vines are trained on 
 the sides of buildings, instead of supporting them with 
 leather loops nailed to the building, as is frequently done, 
 it is far better for the building and for the vine to erect 
 a trellis standing out from six inches to a foot from the 
 building. This is generally constructed of wood, with 
 upright posts, and light, horizontal cross-bars. A neater 
 and less expensive way is to nail brackets, or arms, from 
 six inches to a foot in length, to the side of the building, 
 at suitable intervals, for the support of the horizontal 
 wires, which are to be fastened to the ends of the arms. 
 By keeping the vine at this distance from the building, 
 there is opportunity for the air to circulate behind the 
 foliage, and thus prevent dampness and decay. 
 
 Should the system of horizontal branch - training be 
 applied to the side of a building, the grape-arm may be 
 secured horizontally to the building. In front of each 
 arm, and about on a level, two wires are to be stretched; 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 155 
 
 the first wire being eight inches from the building, and 
 the second one sixteen inches. The fruiting-shoots will 
 be led from the building, and tied down to the wires. 
 Though the branches will project from eight to sixteen 
 inches beyond the outer wire, yet in this position, with 
 the weight downwards, they will be much less liable to 
 injury than if the same distance were exposed on the 
 tojD of an open perpendicular trellis. The appearance of 
 a vine so trained to the side of a building would be like a 
 series of shelves ; the fruit hanging in beautiful exposure 
 underneath each shelf As I am not aware that grapes 
 have been grown in this form, I cannot advise from ex- 
 perience as to the distance between the shelves. Of 
 course, this will depend materially upon the length to 
 which the branches are allowed to grow. As a general 
 rule, I should judge that a distance of at least three feet 
 would be required to clear the overhanging shade ; and, 
 in some cases, it would be desirable to increase the dis- 
 tance to four feet. The arms on the side of a building 
 being elevated and more exposed to cold currents of air, 
 it will be best to have a wide projection of cornice, or of 
 the eaves, above the upper arm, extending as far out as the 
 length of the branches, both for the sake of protection, 
 and also to prevent the fall of too much rain uj^on the 
 
156 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 foliage. Of this form I can say the same as of the single 
 horizontal trellis, it is worthy of careful trial. 
 
 It is unnecessary to speak of the many cheap and 
 temporary devices for the support of the vine, — such 
 as the nailing of latlis and poles to stakes, and other 
 plans which may have obtained in Europe. These are 
 all temporary and imperfect. What is worth doing at 
 all is worth doing well. The plans which I have rec- 
 ommended are not expensive, are easily put up by any 
 one, are neat, do not shade, and are permanent. We 
 shall see vast changes and improvements in grape-cul- 
 ture in this country, resulting simply from systematic 
 modes of training. 
 
CHAPTER IX, 
 
 SUBSEQUENT MANAGEMENT AND PKUNING. 
 
 TN order to a distinct understanding of the different 
 parts of the vine, it may be well briefly to describe 
 them, though their character may appear very obvious from 
 their names. The up- 
 right part of the cane, 
 A, in fig. 29, is gener- 
 ally termed the trunk, 
 especially when there 
 are two or more side- 
 canes. The horizontal 
 part of the cane, b, 
 is called an arm, or 
 cordon. From the arm, 
 
 or cordon, is the new 
 
 157 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
158 CULTUIiE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 growth c, c, the upright shoot in the Thomery plan, termed 
 the fruit-branch ; the fruit being two or more leaves from 
 the arm. At every joint of the branch is a strong leaf, 
 at the axil of which eyes are formed, which, if allowed 
 to remain, will develop into fruit-branches next year. By 
 the side of these embryo fruit-eyes, sub-shoots, e, e, often 
 start into growth, which are termed laterals. 
 
 When they are broken off at the top, or checked as it 
 is technically termed, other shoots will start at the axil 
 of the leaves of the laterals ; these being teraied sub-lat- 
 erals. On the opposite side of the branch to the fruiting- 
 eye, leaf, and lateral, is a tortuous fibre of the branch, as 
 seen at r, called a tendril, preserving its vitality but a 
 single season, and designed by Nature for the purpose of 
 clinging to some support until the branch shall have 
 attained a permanent position. The fruit-cluster is but a 
 modified tendril. It is frequently observable that the 
 cluster is inclined to return to its normal condition of ten- 
 dril, and also that the tendril becomes a fruit-cluster. 
 Now, as we give artificial support to the branches, the use 
 of the tendril seems to be entirely superseded, except as 
 we transform a desirable number into fruit-clusters. In 
 illustrating the short-spur mode of pruning, let us take 
 our vine at the end of the first season after planting. If 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 159 
 
 vigorous, it will have attained a length of cane of about 
 six or eight feet of ripe wood, which is cut back to within 
 two feet of the ground, before winter-covering, as directed 
 in a previous chapter. The vine is neither old enough, 
 nor the cane strong enough, to bear any quantity of fruit 
 the follow^ing season. It is often the case that a very 
 little fruit is allowed to grow, rather to gratify curiosity 
 and test new kinds. In such a case, the vine is cut back 
 to within eighteen inches or two feet of the ground, and 
 the fruit-bearing eyes are allowed to remain, while the 
 top eye is encouraged to form the cane. This, however, 
 is a pernicious practice. 
 
 SECOND YEAR OF THE VIISTEYAED. 
 
 The vines are to be uncovered after the severe frosts 
 are passed, and before the earth has become so Avarm as 
 to sw'ell the buds. Let the cane remain lying on the 
 ground; and, when the buds have barely changed to shoots, 
 rub out all the top - shoots, leaving but three strong 
 shoots near the ground. In a few days, the strongest of 
 this trio may be SQlected, and tied to the stake, rubbing 
 off the other two shoots, and cutting away the vine above 
 the remaining shoot. This is a precise repetition of the 
 
160 CULTURE OF THE G 11 APE. 
 
 process of the previous year, and all the growth of the 
 previous year is apparently lost. This loss is only in 
 appearance. It will be delightful to watch the vigorous 
 growth of the new cane during the second season. As 
 this cane is destined to become the permanent arm for 
 the branches of future years, it is essential that its growth 
 should be strong and uniform, with a development of 
 eyes about six inches apart. It is very probable that the 
 shoot may have a single bunch or two near the ground. 
 If it is a new kind, and is desired as a specimen, it may 
 remain ; yet it is better to give the future arm every pos- 
 sible advantage. As the growth pushes with vigor, the 
 laterals will develop themselves. By no means allow 
 them to be rubbed off, since they not only guard the eye 
 in the axil of the leaf, but are also to serve the purpose 
 of developing the growth of the vine as soon as the main 
 cane is checked. During the first season after planting, 
 the sole object is to encourage a healthy growth of wood, 
 and consequently a corresponding increase of roots. 
 During the second year, the same object is to be kept in 
 view ; and, in addition, it is now time to develop fruiting- 
 eyes. The upright position of the cane is preserved until 
 it attains a height of eight feet, when the leading shoot 
 is to be pinched off. This will cause all the laterals to start 
 
CLLTUllE OF THE GRAVE. IGl 
 
 witli vigor. As it is not desirable to allow the vine to 
 bear fruit near the ground, the laterals within two and 
 a half feet of the ground may be entirely rubbed out. 
 Those above should be alloAved to make uniform growth, 
 pinching off the tips of the strongest, from time to time, 
 if they are inclined to outstrip the rest. In such a case, 
 sub-laterals will develop, and the proportions of the 
 vine will be preserved. The laterals will spread out side- 
 ways, and are to be allow^ed to arch over by their own 
 weight, in order gradually to check growth, ripen the 
 wood, and develop the fruiting-eyes at the axils. Should 
 the growth be excessive, it will be well to keep it in con- 
 stant check by pinching during the latter part of summer, 
 in order to bring the wood to full maturity. The height 
 of the cane is given at eight feet ; but this will vary 
 according to the plan of training and the length of arm 
 desired. This length is designed to apply where the 
 vines are planted six feet apart in the row. For a wall 
 or high trellis, the canes for the lowest tier should be 
 allowed to grow from two to three feet longer than the 
 designed length of arm. The next tier of canes should 
 be six feet longer, and a third tier should be nine feet 
 longer, than the designed length of arm. This extra 
 
 length is the length of the upright trunk, Athich is not 
 11 
 
162 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 designed for fruit, and therefore may be stripped of lat- 
 erals in order to develop growth above. It may not be 
 possible to grow the upper tiers to a sufficient length to 
 furnish the entire length, of arm the second season after 
 planting ; but these can, of course, be easily extended the 
 following season. 
 
 It will be apjiarent that this method is designed to form 
 but one arm, which, as has been before stated, I regard as 
 the simplest and best form for the vineyard. If the vines 
 are not to be covered in winter, or if the two-arm Tho- 
 raery system is preferred, then, instead of rubbing off the 
 upper shoots in the spring, we are to seek for two eyes 
 about eighteen inches from the grqund, which are to be 
 developed to form the two arms. All other eyes are 
 rubbed off, and these two are inclined a little from each 
 other, and treated precisely as has been directed for one 
 cane, except that the arms are not usually allowed to 
 grow so long by two or three feet as a single cane. Dur- 
 ing this second season, the treatment is the same, whether 
 we design to adopt in the future the spiral, the horizontal 
 arms with upright branches, or the complete horizontal 
 mode of training. It is true, that, when the arm is brought 
 down to a horizontal position, the fruiting-eyes will not 
 all point upwards ; but they can be turned into position 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 163 
 
 without much difficulty. For the horizontal mode, it 
 will be found that we meet the exact form of grow^th ; 
 the eyes on each side of the cane pointing towards the 
 side wires. Some varieties are longer jointed than oth- 
 ers, and consequently the eyes on the arms will be farthei- 
 apart on some kinds than on others. This seems to be a 
 wise design of Nature, to give more space to the coarse- 
 growing kinds. The fruit and foliage of the Delaware 
 being small, its fruit-spurs should be nearly twice as fre- 
 quent as the coarse Concord or Hartford. Soon after 
 the frost has killed all the foliage, let the vines be pruned. 
 It is better to do this early, in order to harden the wood 
 as much as possible before covering. The vine is to be 
 pruned to a single cane; the laterals being cut half an 
 inch from the cane, and the cane left for its entire length. 
 Just before the ground freezes, stretch the cane upon 
 the ground, and cover with two inches of earth, as in 
 the previous winter. Up to this time, the soil, if prop- 
 erly enriched and prepared, will have been amply suffi- 
 cient to give the necessary wood-growth. At this period, 
 either late in the fall of the second, or early in the 
 spring of the third season, it is desirable to supply 
 special stimulants for fruit-bearing. It will be remem- 
 bered, that, in the preparrition of open vineyard lands, 
 
164 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 ashes, bones, and lime were not recommended to be 
 used to any considerable extent. This was not be- 
 cause the importance of these fertilizers was underrated 
 or forgotten. Indeed, they may be called the specifics 
 for the grape; but they are most economically held as 
 a reserve-force, and can easily be applied as a top- 
 dressing, the virtues of which will soon penetrate into 
 the soil. In the chapter upon Manures, special directions 
 will be found for the application of these fertilizers. 
 
 THIRD YEAR OF THE VINEYARD. 
 
 This is the year of results. The vines, if well man- 
 aged, will bear a two-thirds crop ; the fruit being equal in 
 size, and perhaps su2:)erior, to any which will come after. 
 It is the first-fruits of a virgin soil, and of most vigorous 
 new wood. We must be the more cautious not to over- 
 strain, and must so feed and prune and check as to make 
 our vine a permanent institution. Uncover the vines 
 early in the spring, as directed for the previous year. 
 The spiral cane may be allowed to lie on the ground until 
 the eyes are pushing strongly. Its horizontal position 
 will encourage the eyes to break from the base to the 
 top. When these have fairly started, but before growth. 
 
C U LT U n E OF THE (i U A P E. 165 
 
 the cane is to be coiled to the post. The Tliomeiy and 
 the horizontal arm maybe secured to their positions at 
 once. The fruiting-eyes (and every eye should be such) 
 will develop into shoots having from two to five bunches 
 of fruit, the bunches being opposite the first five leaves. 
 If a shoot has developed its fourth leaf without showing 
 fruit, it will be barren. For the first year of fruiting, two 
 bunches will generally be quite sufficient, as the bunches 
 are likely to be large. I give a very decided preference 
 to wires running parallel with the cane for the upright 
 trellis, as will be seen in the chapter upon this subject. 
 The first wire being but six inches from the canes, the 
 young shoots can be secured by tying with bass-string, 
 at a time when this tender, succulent growth is very 
 liable to be injured by strong winds. Let the tie be 
 very loose, to allow for future growth. For the upright 
 traininir, one more wire, a foot above the second, will be 
 sufficient. As soon as the branch has passed one leaf 
 beyond the top wire, each branch is to receive a second 
 tie, and the head of the shoot is to be pinched out. This 
 is apparently contrary to Nature, — to check the young 
 shoot at a time when it is most rapidly furnishing new 
 leaves, — the lungs of the plant. Prof Lindley, in his 
 
166 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 "Theory of Horticulture," has stated the reasons for 
 this step with great distinctness: — 
 
 "But although the general rule is to allow as many 
 leaves to remain on a tree as can be kept in health, yet 
 there are circumstances which justify their removal, and 
 indeed render it necessary. For example, when a tender 
 tree is trained to a wall, a great object with the gardener 
 is to secure ripe wood ; for, unless he does this, the frost 
 of the succeeding winter may destroy the branches, or the 
 buds may be so imperfectly formed as to produce feeble 
 shoots the ensuing season. To attain this object, those 
 leaves must be removed which prevent the sun from 
 striking upon the branches to be ripened ; the effect of 
 this being to stop the rapid growth of the branches, and 
 to consolidate their tissue, in consequence partly of the 
 excessive perspiration, and partly of the rapid digestion 
 of the sap which is thus induced : for the rate of diges- 
 tion and perspiration in a healthy plant is in proportion 
 to the quantity of light and heat to which it is exposed. 
 Hence the removal of those shoots, which in summer 
 overshadow that wood of the peach-tree which is in- 
 tended to be preserved another year, is useful. There can 
 be no doubt, hoAvever, that as few shoots as possible 
 
CULTURE OF THE GBAPE. 167 
 
 shoultl be thus removed. Another case in whicli the 
 removal of leaves is justifiable occurs in the vine. In 
 this plant, the fruit is borne near the base of the lateral 
 shoots, which will, if unchecked, go on lengthening, and 
 producing leaves to a considerable distance. Now, all 
 the food of such a lateral shoot is obtained from the main 
 branch, which, however, is only capable of furnishing a 
 certain quantity. If the lateral shoot is allowed to grow 
 unchecked, it will consume its portion of food in the pro- 
 duction of many leaves and some grapes ; and the more 
 there are of the former, the less will be the weight of the 
 latter. But if the shoot is stopped, after having formed 
 two leaves, all that quantity of food which would have 
 been consumed in the production of other leaves is ap- 
 plied to the increase of size in the grapes and the two 
 leaves that are left ; while, on the other hand, the general 
 crop of leaves on the vine will be amply sufficient to pre- 
 pare those secretions which are to give flavor, color, and 
 sweetness to the grapes. This will perhaps be better 
 explained by the annexed diagram: — 
 
 "Let the line a g represent a lateral vine-branch, 
 bearing fruit at ^, and leaves at c, c?,' 6, f. Suj^pose 
 six ounces of sap are destined to support this lat- 
 
d 
 
 c 
 B 
 
 a 
 
 168 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 g tcr;il a g cluring the summer : it is evident, that, 
 ^ if equally distributed, each leaf and branch will 
 receive one ounce of sap as its proportion. But 
 if e, y, g^ are removed, it is obvious that the three 
 which remain will have two ounces each, or 
 double the supply. 
 
 " Why, then, it may be asked, not remove c 
 and d also ? Because, in that case, B^ the bunch 
 of fruit, would have the whole six ounces of 
 sap to itself. The reason why this should not be done 
 is this : If all the leaves on the lateral be removed, 
 there will be no force left upon it wherewith to attract 
 from the main branch the food that belongs to it ; for 
 the power which the parts of the plants possess of 
 attracting fluid is in proportion to the amount of their 
 perspiration. Now, leaves perspire copiously, but the 
 grapes themselves scarcely at all ; whence their gradual 
 conversion, from a substance of the texture of a leaf, into 
 a mass of pulp. In the instance of vine-pruning, the great 
 object is to leave on the laterals just as much force as may 
 be required to secure for the bunches the food that is 
 iitended for them, and at the same time to deprive the 
 laterals of the means of expending that food uselessly in 
 the production of leaves insteal of fruit." 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 169 
 
 The closing sentence may be taken as the rule for all 
 checking of the growth of the grape. In all climates 
 where there is considerable humirlity, if the branches 
 have an upward support, tliere is a strong tendency to 
 excessive growth, to the almost total failure of fruit. But 
 in the dry climate of California and of Sj^ain there is no 
 such excessive growth, and consequently the grape is 
 allowed to grow with no checking. In N^orthern France, 
 and in our Northern States, the practice has been to check 
 constantly throughout the season. This is absolutely ne- 
 cessary where the shoots have an upaight position. Even 
 when checked, the rush of sap is strongly upwards ; and 
 laterals and sub-laterals are continually being developed. 
 
 Nature accomplishes the desired end in another w\ay : 
 she reverses the position of the branches. When the fruit 
 weighs down the branches, the flow of sa^) becomes so 
 slow, that there is very little inclination to growth, and the 
 fruit obtains a full amount of nourishment. Can we not 
 imitate Nature, and so diminish this necessity of checking 
 growth ? We will proceed, however, with the checking 
 upon the upright trellis ; and the same directions will, to 
 some extent, apply to the horizontal trellis, though the 
 necessity will be far less. The first checking will occur 
 before the clusters are in blossom. It will be well to 
 
170 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 remove the superfluous clusters at once, in order to pre- 
 serve all the strength of the vine. At Thomery, the 
 checking is very severe ; the branches being allowed to 
 grow but eighteen inches, and the laterals being either 
 rubbed out or stopped at one leaf. Such severe checking 
 has never been practised in this country, that I am aware 
 of; and it is believed that the rampant nature of most of 
 our varieties, and our clear, hot atmosphere, would not 
 allow of so small a quantity of foliage. The general 
 practice is to stop the branch two or three leaves beyond 
 the last bunch, and, as the terminal lateral and a suc- 
 ceeding sub-lateral are developed, to increase the length 
 by a single joint at each checking; thus growing a final 
 length of two and a half to three feet. The force of the 
 ascending sap will be such, that several of the laterals 
 towards the end of the shoot will break. As the eye at 
 the axil is of no consequence, these laterals may be either 
 entirely rubbed out, or stopped at one leaf; the rule vary- 
 ing with different kinds of graj^es, according to the amount 
 of folias:e. 
 
 So long as we keep to this upright position, this prac- 
 tice- of constant checking is our only means of keeping 
 the vine within due bounds; yet it is a very imperfect 
 remedy, as any one who has had experience can testify. 
 
CULTURE OF THE C i; A P E. 
 
 171 
 
 Fiff. 30. 
 
 Fig. 30 illustrates the effect, the representation being ex- 
 aggerated in order to be 
 
 more clearly seen. The 
 laterals are seen to be 
 stronger at the top of the 
 shoot than near the base : 
 the foliage is also larger. 
 This is the natural conse- 
 quence of the strong up- 
 ward flow of sap. The 
 evil is felt not merely in 
 diminishing the supply of 
 secretions for the clusters at the base, but the fruitincr. 
 eyes a or b, or even c, are by no means developed as 
 prominently as d and those above. This last evil has 
 been so severely lelt as to suggest the long-spur alternate 
 system of pruning. It is to obviate these evils that tlie 
 system of horizontal training of the branches as well as of 
 the arms is suggested. It is obviously reasonable to ex- 
 pect that the buds a and b, in fig. 31, will develop more 
 strongly as brought to the light and air by the arching 
 and horizontal position of the branch, at the same time 
 that the sap is retarded and elaborated for the benefit 
 of the fruit and lower buds. Even with the advan- 
 
172 
 
 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 tage of this position, there will still be a necessity of 
 checking, but to a much less extent, and to a raore 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 effectual purpose, than with upright branches. By this 
 mode, the short-spur system of pruning becomes very 
 easy and practicable. 
 
 As soon as the fruit is gathered, and the foliage killed, 
 the vines are to be fall-pruned. On all horizontal branches, 
 the bud a (fig. 31) will be a plump, fruit-bearing eye : the 
 branch may therefore be cut just above the bud a. It is 
 extremely desirable that the same bud a (fig. 30) may be 
 the fruiting-eye for upright shoots; but, in case it is too 
 weak, the cut is made above the eye b. As all subsequent 
 years are a repetition of this third year, with the single 
 change in fall-pruning, we conclude this chapter with a 
 description of the different modes of fall -pruning. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 173 
 
 SHORT-SPUR SYSTEM. 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 Fig 32 represents a section 
 of the horizontal arm in the 
 spring of the third season ; 
 the eye a being i)him|), and 
 strong for fruit. Fig. 33 rc]3re- 
 
 sents the shoot a after it is cut back in the fall following. 
 The eye d is well developed, especially if it is borne upon 
 a horizontal shoot, or if the shoot above was kept well 
 checked during the previous season ; and this is to be 
 the eye for fruit the following season. The eyes h and 
 c at the base are generally too small to be trusted for 
 fruit, and are to be removed if they start. Fig. 34 rep- 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
174 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 resents the spur at the succeeding 'fall-pruning. The eye 
 h is to bear the fruit the following year, and the small 
 eyes a must be rubbed off if they start. Thus it will be 
 seen we are annually increasing the length of the spur 
 about an inch each year. This, though an objection, is 
 not a serious evil; and it can often be remedied by 
 taking some strong plump eye near the base, which fre- 
 quently develops sufficiently to give a good fruiting-shoot. 
 Or, if the spur becomes long and ungainly in a course of 
 six or more years, it may be remedied by adopting the 
 double-spur system for a single season. 
 
 THE ANNUAL RENEWAL SYSTEM. 
 
 It is known, to all who understand the habits of the 
 vine, that its fruiting-shoots are the growth of buds formed 
 the previous season. It is true that dormant eyes from 
 old wood do sometimes break, and bear fruit ; but this is 
 exceptional, and the fruit is inferior. Hence the necessity 
 of preserving newly formed wood on which to rely for a 
 succeeding crop. This necessity of new wood suggested 
 the alt'ernate system of Speechly, which is very similar 
 to the renewal system of Clement Hoar. Fig. 35 repre- 
 sents the plan. While the cane «, the growth of last 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 175 
 
 season, is bearing fruit, the spur b is allowed to grow, 
 and form the cane of the succeding year. The cane 
 a is cut away in the fdl, and forms 
 a new spur for the succeeding year. 
 Thus they alternate from year to year, 
 keeping up an endless succession of new 
 wood. The Ohio bow-system adopts 
 this renewal-principle. But such an 
 annual growth of new wood is objec- 
 tionable. The new shoot is a constant 
 drain from the fruitin2:-cane. Mag-ni- 
 ficent specimens of fruit have been 
 produced by this method upon the 
 luxuriant young wood ; but it must Fi'-^- 35. 
 
 be a waste of energy to grow so much wood only to be 
 thrown away the succeeding year. Certainly it would 
 be better if more of the sap which went to form this 
 growth could be diverted into fruit. We cannot, there- 
 fore, regard the system in any of its various forms as 
 specially desirable ; and there will be no need to make 
 further explanations. It should be stated, however, that 
 it is frequently desirable to renew a cane after it lias be- 
 come old and blind by fruiting a series of years. In such 
 a case, we bring up a new shoot from the base of the 
 
176 
 
 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 vine; but this is entirely cliiferent from the annual re- 
 newal. The short-spur system is the one now almost 
 universally adopted, as best adapted to practical purposes, 
 and economizing to the utmost the strength of the vine. 
 
 THE ALTERNATE-SPUR SYSTEM. 
 
 This is also called the long-spur and the double-spur 
 system, and is based upon the same principle as the an- 
 nual renewal of the cane, but is applied to tlie fruit- 
 branches. It is illustrated in 
 ^ fig. 36. By a comparison with 
 fig. 33, it will be seen that 
 the branch a, in fig. 86, is the 
 developed bud d in fig. 33, 
 which has borne fruit : the bud 
 h has also developed to the 
 shoot h in fig. 36; while the 
 bud c, in fig. 33, has been rubbed ofi". The branch a is 
 now to be cut away at the dotted line, leaving the shoot 
 ^, which grew to the same length as a, but which is now 
 represented as it appears after pruning, to take the place 
 and perform precisely the same part as the removed shoot. 
 The bud d will, in general, be stronger than c, and is 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 177 
 
 therefore chosen for the fruiting-shoot ; while a bud e 
 forms a new slioot, springing from the base, or near it, 
 which is to be the spur for the succeeding year. Thus 
 the process is repeated from year to year, with but a 
 shght increase in the size of the spur. It is also an ad- 
 vantage that- strong fruit-buds can always be selected; 
 the bud d, in fig. 36, being generally stronger than c, and 
 always stronger, and showing larger fruit-clusters, than 
 the bud 6. The principle is the same as in the alternate- 
 cane or annual-renewal system, and a corresponding ad- 
 vantage is claimed for it ; and it is obvious that the same 
 objection lies against this as against that. It is manifest, 
 that while the branch a, in fig. 36, is bearing fruit, it is 
 a serious tax upon the vine to be forming the new shoot 
 b in preparation for the following year. It is plain that 
 the shoot b will draw much nourishment away from a, 
 which clearly ought to be economized for the fruit. This 
 unnecessary expenditure of strength is so great, for the 
 twofold object of avoiding the increasingly long spurs, or 
 knobs, and of securing large and plump fruitiiig-eyes? 
 that, though the ends are desirable, we cannot afford to 
 purchase them at such expense. 
 
 Careful and close summer pinching is a great help in 
 developing the buds at the base of the shoots : horizontal 
 
 12 
 
178 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 traiuing is also a great helj). There is, therefore, no 
 practical difficulty in obtaining good eyes within a rea- 
 sonable distance from the base by the single, short-spur 
 system. But, should tlie spur increase in the course of a 
 few years, a new shoot from one of the dormant eyes at 
 the base of the spur may be trained up for one season. 
 The old spur may then be cut away, and the wound cov- 
 ered with shellac dissolved in alcohol to a creamy thick- 
 ness ; and the young shoot will then form a new spur as 
 good as the first. Upon old canes, it will be well to 
 renew one or two spurs on each vine each year, rather 
 than do the whole work of renewal upon a vine in 
 a single year. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 METHODS OF HASTENING MATURITY. 
 
 ~¥"T is well known that the same variety of grape will 
 -■- ripen at different times in different localities, and 
 under varying circumstances. A protected southern 
 slope, or an angle of buildings looking southerly, with a 
 loose, warm soil adjoining, will make a difference of two, 
 three, or possibly of four weeks in the time of ripening, 
 over ordinary localities. It is the experience of French 
 cultivators, that vines trained near the ground mature 
 their fruit from one to two weeks earlier than when car- 
 ried higher up. It will be found, that, under the spiral 
 system, the grapes nearest the ground ripen first : yet, in 
 this case, the difference is not so marked as we might 
 expect, since the ascending sap rushes past the lower 
 
 173 
 
180 
 
 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 clusters, and they do not receive a proportionate share 
 of the strength of the vine ; which is, of course, a hin- 
 derance to their process of maturing. Aside from the 
 many other advantages resulting from keeping vines near 
 to the ground, there can be no question that this one of 
 hfistening the maturity of the fruit is a very important 
 consideration. 
 
 In the early part of the eighteenth century, a very 
 curious method of treating fruit, especially the vine, was 
 discovered and practised in France, the object of which 
 was not only to hasten the maturity, but also to develop 
 the size, of the fruit. In the year 1745, the French Agri- 
 cultural Society awarded the premium to M. Buchatt of 
 Mentz for the successful practice of this method. It 
 
 consisted in the entire re- 
 moval of a ring of bark from 
 a fruiting-branch just below a 
 cluster of fruit, as seen in fig. 
 37. Though the experiments 
 were always successful, we 
 do not hear that the plan 
 was known to any extent in 
 England until the early part 
 Fig. 37. of the present century. In 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE, 
 
 181 
 
 the year 1808, Mr. John WilHams of Pitmaston commu- 
 nicated the plan, with full directions, to the London Horti- 
 cultural Society, as published in the fii'st volume of its 
 "Transactions," p. 107. He states that he performed the 
 work in June and July, " leaving the naked alburnum com- 
 pletely exposed above an inch in width. . . . The fol- 
 lowing autumn, the fruit growing on these trees came 
 to great perfection, having ripened from a fortnight to 
 three wrecks earlier than usual ; but in the 
 succeeding spring the branches did not 
 shoot with their accustomed vigor, and I 
 found that I had injured them by exposing 
 the alburnum unnecessarily." The next 
 season, he performed the operation a month 
 later in the season, and diminished tlie 
 width of the ring, and, he states, with 
 the best results. The j^hilosophy of the 
 method is very clear, as will appear upon 
 examination of a section of a branch thus 
 oj^erated upon, as represented in fig. 38. 
 The removal of the bark has not inter- 
 rupted the flow of sap upwards through 
 the porous wood. It has, however, abso- 
 lutely arrested all descending and elaborated sap, which. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
182 CULTURE OF THE G li A P E. 
 
 as is well known, passes down between the wood and 
 the bark. The consequence is, the part of the branch 
 above the ring, receiving a full share of sap, elaborates 
 it, and reserves it all for itself. Fig. 38 shows the branch 
 larger above the cut than below. The result upon the 
 fruit is to increase its size, in some cases more than fifty 
 per cent, and to hasten the time of ripening from one to 
 three weeks. Not only the cluster just above the ring, 
 but also all the clusters above, and the whole upper 
 portion of the branch, will be affected. The bunch 
 nearest the ring will, however, receive the most benefit, 
 as we should naturally expect. While these desirable 
 points are attained (and it is admitted by all that the 
 appearance of the fruit is very superior), yet there are 
 few who do not admit that the quality of the .fruit 
 has deteriorated. A few English cultivators are even 
 bold enough to claim that the quality has imj^roved. 
 It is not probable that most persons would detect the 
 difference ; yet I think a critical taste would always give 
 preference to the natural growth. Certain it is that the 
 French regard the ringing process as injurious for wines. 
 The time for performing this operation, by the French, 
 is just after the fruit has set, which is as soon as the branch 
 has acquired strength and substance ; thus securing the 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 183 
 
 virtue of *tlie descending sap for the entire season. They 
 act upon the belief, that, the earUer the work is done, the 
 more manifest will be the results. But there is a limit. 
 If the ring is made too soon, the branch is very liable to 
 break or be seriously affected by the premature exposure 
 of its tender wood. In our dry climate, and for our vari- 
 eties, I should recommend delay until the young grapes 
 begin to stone. This is a stage in their growth when 
 they especially need additional stimulus. Where the 
 experiment is tried only to a limited extent, an ordinary 
 knife will do the work sufficiently well ; but, if the opera- 
 tion is to be performed to a considerable extent, it would 
 be an economy of time to procure a French tool expressly 
 adapted to the work. This is simply a pair of nippers, 
 with two knives at the jaw, at a suitable distance for the 
 length of bark to be taken out. When the jaw is closed 
 over a branch, a single turn of the instrument completes 
 the two circular cuts. If the knife is used, the work must 
 be done with boldness, cutting quite down to the wood. 
 The length of bark to be taken out should be at least 
 half an' inch: some recommend the length to be an inch. 
 The least distance that will effectually check the descend- 
 ing sap is manifestly best. Mr. Thomas Weaver, a suc- 
 cessful English grape - grower, in communicating his 
 
184 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 practice to " The Cottage Gardener," adds as follows : 
 " By thus practising ringing, I have produced, for the last 
 twelve or fourteen years, grapes out of doors, that have 
 puzzled many a tyro, and others too. Our indefatigable 
 editors have both watched my progress in vine-culture 
 for years. My grapes have many a time puzzled the late 
 Mr. Elphinstone, when he was gardener to the late Speaker 
 of the House of Commons, now Lord Eversley, although 
 I used to compete against him with both in-door and out- 
 door grapes." This quotation is made to show that the 
 practice has been carried on for years with the best suc- 
 cess. The question will now be asked, if this practice is 
 to be recommended. It is undoubtedly better suited for 
 the alternate long-spur mode of training than for the 
 short-spur. The branch that has been ringed is to be cut 
 away in the fall at any rate. The new shoot will not be 
 materially affected by the process. When this alternate 
 system is practised, and when there is a desire for early 
 grapes of extra size, it is perfectly practicable and advisa- 
 ble to ring a portion of the branches. Still, it requires 
 but the reflection of a moment to perceive that the prac- 
 tice is against Nature's law, and that a too extensive 
 application of the principle would be fatal even to the 
 life of the vine. It is an established law, that a plant re- 
 
CULTURE OF THE G R AP E. 185 
 
 quires the support of the elaborated and descending sap, 
 to some degree, for the trunk, and even for the roots. 
 If this support is arrested above, the lower parts will suf- 
 fer. The more complete the arrest of the descending 
 sap, the more injury results to the trunk and roots As 
 a general rule, when a tree is girdled at the trunk, it will 
 die ; but a branch may be girdled without serious injury 
 to the entire system. 
 
 For the short-spur system of pruning, it is plain that 
 the ringing practice would be very injurious. The eyes 
 upon which we rely for fruit the following season must 
 be below the ring. Consequently they are deprived of 
 the downward flow of elaborated sap, which is absolutely 
 necessary to their perfect development. It would be 
 very foolish to rely upon eyes below the ring, and on the 
 same branch, for fruiting the following season. If every 
 other eye on an arm of the single-spur system should be 
 fruited and ringed, and should be allowed to re-establish 
 on the succeediiig year, without fruiting, the result might 
 be satisfactory. But it cannot be questioned that this 
 practice interrupts the natural flow and distribution of 
 sajD, and that its tendency is decidedly injurious. It may 
 be practised to a certain extent, and for certain purposes ; 
 but it cannot be recommended as a desirable mode for 
 
186 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 general cultivation. What we gain in one direction we 
 lose more than proportionately in another. We must 
 therefore regard this curious, interesting, and valuable 
 method as applicable only to a limited degree, and for the 
 specific purpose of obtaining a few early bunches of 
 extra size. 
 
 In the more difficult climate of England, a practice has 
 obtained to some extent of enclosing clusters of fruit 
 under bell-glasses, or an entire fruit-branch under a small 
 glass frame secured against a wall. Fruit may be ob- 
 tained from two to four weeks earlier in this way. But 
 there is too much trouble and expense attending this, and 
 the results are too limited, to warrant the use of such 
 glasses to any extent. Cheap glass houses are a better 
 substitute ; and there can be no doubt that these are very 
 desirable, and can be used with profit in skilful hands. 
 This is an interesting and prolific subject, and is destined 
 to become increasingly interesting to the public. The 
 limits of this treatise forbid any extended suggestions in 
 regard to the construction and management of fruiting- 
 frames, or glass sheds or houses. In a subsequent chaj)- 
 ter upon the treatment of vines under glass, some further 
 hints are given upon this subject; but its full develop- 
 ment would require an entire volume. A single method 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 187 
 
 for the use of sashes has occurred to me, and I am in- 
 clmed to think it has sufficient merit to be carried into 
 extensive practice. It is mainly appUcable to the hori- 
 zontal-branch system of training. Supposing we have a 
 lot of sashes from hot beds and houses which are gener- 
 ally released from use by the 1st of June : now, if our 
 horizontal trellis is two and a half feet from the ground, by 
 running two wooden strips horizontally, the length of the 
 rows, a foot above the vines, — the bars being three feet 
 apart (which is the ordinary width of sashes), and resting 
 upon small posts, which are three and a half feet out of 
 ground, — it will be seen that we have a very simple and 
 cheap fi'ame upon which sashes could rest, directly over our 
 vines. It will be easy to secure these sashes to the fi'ame 
 by side-hooks, to prevent them from being lifted by a 
 gale. Sashes three feet in width would cover the princi- 
 pal part of the foliage of a horizontal trellis. If the sashes 
 were applied to the frame early in the spring, the vines 
 underneath would start much earlier than when uncov- 
 ered : they would also be protected to a great degree 
 from late spring frosts. There would therefore be a gain 
 of some weeks in growth. The inconvenience in disbud- 
 ding, tying, and checking under tlie sash, would be but 
 trifling. Throughout the season, it will be found that the 
 
188 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 glass covering is a material aid in developing and matur- 
 ing the fruit. I am inclined to think that the foreign 
 kinds, at least many of them, can be cultivated with great 
 success by this simple method. As our sashes are mostly 
 in use in April, and perhaps in May, if we delay to apply 
 them to the frame until June, we shall still find them of 
 great service : they materially hasten the maturity of the 
 fruit, drawing the heat of the sun, and confining the radi- 
 ating heat and moisture of the earth ; they are a great 
 protection against mildew and other evils during summer; 
 and they are also a guard against autumn frosts. If our 
 rows are six feet apart, then our sashes will cover just 
 half the surface of the ground ; but, if the rows should be 
 only five feet 'apart, we should still have walks between 
 the rows, of two feet in width, after the sashes are applied, 
 which will be sufiicient for ventilation, and for conve- 
 nience in working. It will undoubtedly be best to have 
 the north side of the sash a little the highest, both for the 
 purpose of taking the sun's rays more directly, and also in 
 order to shed the rain. When the sashes run east and 
 west, they will not be constructed properly to shed rain ; 
 but, if well i^ainted, the slight lodgement of water will be 
 no serious detriment. The pouring of water from the 
 edge of the sash will be a greater evil, and, in some 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 189 
 
 positions, will cause considerable washing of the soil. A 
 mulch of litter along the edge w^here the water drops 
 will generally prevent this evil from being serious. In 
 the fall, the sashes can be removed for winter and spring 
 use on houses or frames. 
 
 This plan is not suggested as a perfect glass structure, 
 but only as a cheap and a double use of glass at a season 
 when it is not wanted for other purposes. I cannot speak 
 from experience of the practical working of this form ; 
 but I do not now see any reason to doubt its merit. 
 Such a roof of glass over at least one-half the surface of 
 the vineyard, with space sufficient for ventilation, so ar- 
 ranged as to check rather tlian encourage draughts of air, 
 — such a roof must, to a considerable degree, secure the 
 warmth and humidity and geniality of the glass graj^ery. 
 I have a good deal of confidence in my preparations to 
 use my idle sashes the coming summer in this way ; and 
 with the same confidence I suggest it to the judgment of 
 others for trial. 
 
 I may here say, th^t, in my thoughts, the horizontal- 
 branch system of training, and the use of movable 
 sashes, grew out of each other. One thing is certain, that 
 a much more general use of glass in some cheap form, 
 requiring little care, will be adopted for the early ripening 
 
190 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 of grapes. Graperies are admirable , for their specific pur- 
 pose ; but they are expensive, and involve a gardener, and 
 the constant labor of opening and closing. More simple 
 and less expensive forms, with permanent ventilation, are 
 found sufficient to mature Black Hamburgs of the dark- 
 est hue and hio-hest flavor. The use of brick or stone 
 walls has been somewhat extensive in England. The 
 vines or other fruit-trees are trained close to the surface, 
 which is supposed to absorb and radiate the heat of the 
 sun. The theory is undoubtedly correct, and the practi- 
 cal results are satisfactory, especially since the walls serve 
 a double purpose of sheltering from winds. Some experi- 
 ments have been made in coloring the walls black, in order 
 that the sun's heat may be more perfectly absorbed, and 
 the heat be gradually imparted to the vines. In the third 
 volume of " The Horticultural Transactions," p. 330, is 
 a communication from Henry Dawes, relating his ex- 
 perience Avith colored walls, which is worthy of being 
 transcribed : — 
 
 " Two years ago, I covered a portion of my wall with 
 thick black paint. The vine was divided into two equal 
 ])arts : one-half was trained on the painted, and the other 
 on the plain wall. The season was so unfavorable last 
 year, that scarcely any out-door grapes came to perfection ; 
 
CULTURE OF THE G^RAPE. 191 
 
 but those in the blackened part of the wall were much 
 finer than those on the plain part. This year the success 
 of my experiment has been complete. The weight of 
 fine grapes gathered from the blackened part of the wall 
 was twenty pounds and ten ounces; while the plain part 
 yielded only seven pounds and one ounce, being little 
 more than one-third of the other. The fruit on the black- 
 ened part of the wall was also much finer, the bunches 
 were larger and better ripened, than on the other half: 
 the wood of the vine was likewise stronger, and more 
 covered with leaves, on the blackened part. It is a gen- 
 erally known fact, that a black, unpolished surface ab- 
 sorbs more rapidly than other colors the sun's rays, and 
 thereby becomes sooner heated. It is equally w^ell known, 
 that surflxces which absorb heat more quickly part with 
 it more easily when the source of heat is withdrawn, and 
 cool quicker. In the summer-time, when the days are 
 long, the wall will be more intensely heated under the 
 blackened surface; and, the night (or time of cooling) 
 being short, it may not have returned to the temperature 
 of the air before it is again subjected to an increase of 
 heat. If the time of cooling were long enough, that part 
 of the wall under the blackened surface miixht become 
 
192 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 actually cooler than the part not blackened, and thus 
 the extremes of heat and cold be greater than when the 
 wall was left with its usual surface. In the summer-time, 
 however, the wall is not only more intensely heated, but 
 probably retains a great portion of the heat during the 
 night." 
 
 Another writer upon the same subject, Mr. Charles 
 Harrison, writes as follows : — 
 
 " The dark color absorbing the rays of the sun, the wall 
 acquires at least ten degrees more of heat than the walU 
 not colored as directed; thus affording great assistance 
 in maturing the buds upon fruit-bearing shoots, so that 
 the fruit may be productive. In cold and wet seasons, 
 without such aid, I should not have been able to obtain 
 ripe buds upon fi-uit-trees under my care. This I have 
 had ample proof of by the unfruitfulness of those trees 
 which are against walls not colored, at the same time 
 that trees against colored walls were abundantly fruitful. 
 The wall being colored is also a preventive of insects 
 harboring in it, and also tends to keep it dry." 
 
 The importance of coloring walls will be more espe- 
 cially felt in England, where the sun's rays are never so 
 clear and powerful as in this country. Yet the subject is 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 193 
 
 one of interest ; and there are many situations where its 
 application may possibly be advantageous even in this 
 country. It is often noticeable, that, where vines ramble 
 over the surface of dark-colored rocks, they ripen much 
 better than elsewhere. Walls are too expensive if erected 
 expressly for this pui;23ose. Close board-fences will answer 
 nearly the same purpose. These may be painted with 
 coal-tai*, which is very cheap, and very quickly applied. 
 While it is true that the wall will soon become covered 
 to a considerable extent with foliage, yet it is also true 
 that the sun's rays will always penetrate to more or less 
 of the black surface, and cause a decided change of tem- 
 perature. The practical value of the plan should have a 
 cautious test of actual trial. In this connection it should 
 be stated, that vines upon close board-fences have been 
 found in many cases to suffer from mildew. This has 
 been attributed by some to a want of circulation of air, 
 and by others to the extreme heat of mid-day and the . 
 great change at night. 
 
 It is prudent and it is wise to expend freely and largely, 
 with well-informed judgment, in the production of fruit of 
 superior excellence. He who, at a proportionate cost, can 
 excel in the quality of his fruit, or the time of ripening it, 
 
 13 
 
194 
 
 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 will obtain an altogether disproportionate price for his 
 fruit, and is the only producer who can show a large 
 margin of profit. High culture, the best modes, — these 
 must be the watch-words of the horticulturist. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 MAITORES. 
 
 "TN the preparation of the soil for planting, it was 
 recommended that a compost, consisting of one-third 
 stable-manure and two-thirds peat, or vegetable matter 
 well decomposed, should be applied. The quantity will 
 vary with the character of the soil and the variety of 
 grape, — from twelve to thirty cords to the acre. The 
 land should be rich enough to insure a strong growth, 
 without additions, for the two first seasons. The me- 
 chanical condition of the soil is quite as important a 
 consideration as its fertility. Any element that is want- 
 ing to make it loose, friable, light, and warm, yet 
 retentive, and moderately rich in organic matter, should 
 
 195 
 
196 C U L T U R E OF THE G II A P E. 
 
 be added. The soil will, ordinarily, contain a sufficient 
 supply of alkaline matter for the first and second sea- 
 son. When it is borne in mind, however, how greatly 
 these enter into the composition of the vine, it will 
 be evident that they must not lack in these materials. 
 Various analyses of the ashes of the grape vary in 
 results ; but we may state, in round numbers, the more 
 important items. 
 
 According to the tables of the French chemist Crasso, 
 the ashes of the wood of small Burgundy vines contain 
 of jDotassa, 45 per cent ; lime, and phosphate of lime, 
 35 ; i^hosphoric acid, 7 ; magnesin, 5 ; soda, 4 ; sulphuric 
 acid, 2 ; with traces of silicic acid, chlorine, &c., to make 
 up the 100 parts. In the fruit, the proportion of potassa 
 is very considerably increased, rising as high as 60 per 
 cent in some experiments ; while the phosphoric and sul- 
 phuric acids are also considerably increased ; and, on the 
 other hand, lime falls away, in the fiuit, to about 4 per 
 cent. 
 
 Dr. Emmons, of Albany,*N.Y., who has made valuable 
 analyses of the inorganic parts of various kinds of fruit- 
 trees, gives the following result f.om the ashes of the 
 common wild grape : — 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 197 
 
 Wood. Bark. 
 
 Potash 20.84 1.77 
 
 Soda 2.06 0.27 
 
 Clorlne 0.02 0.40 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 23 trace. 
 
 Phosphate of Lime 15.40 5.04 
 
 Phosphate pf Per-oxiJe of Iron .... 1.20 5.04 
 
 Carbonic Acid ■ 34.83 32.22 
 
 Lime 17.33 39.32 
 
 Magnesia 4.40 0.80 
 
 Silex 2.80 14.00 
 
 Soluble Silica 0.00 0.30 
 
 Coal, and Organic Matter 2.20 1.70 
 
 100.21 100.86 
 
 It will be noticed that the percentage of carbonic acid 
 given by Dr. Eininons is quite large, while the percentage 
 of potash is correspondingly small. The diiFerence be- 
 tween the hard, firm growth of Burgundy wood and the 
 more succulent wild vine will account for the variation 
 to some extent. In all other analyses whicli I have seen, 
 the amount of sulphuric acid has been considerably larger, 
 vai-ying from 1.5 to 2 per cent. In the fruit, all chemists 
 agree that this amount is considerably increased. Mr. A. 
 J. Downing, in " The Horticulturist," vol. iii. p. 526, states, 
 "that, while the analysis of the ashes of tlie foreign grape 
 shows only about 2 per cent of sulphuric acid, the analy- 
 
198 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 sis of the must-pulp, or juice of the ripe grape, shows 
 more than 13 per cent of sulphuric acid, — a most ex- 
 traordinary increase, and, we believe, a larger percentage 
 than is found in any other fruit." This is a larger per- 
 centage in the fruit than is given by most chemists. 
 
 These analyses are a clear indication that potash, lime, 
 and bone are three prominent and necessary fertilizers. 
 These may all be applied in large quantities, with less 
 danger of over-stimulating than in the use of stable- 
 manure or vegetable matter. Coal-ashes have but very 
 slight traces of potassa, and have but little value for the 
 vineyard, except as they may contain sulphate of lime (in 
 which case they will serve an important purpose, as will 
 be seen hereafter), and also for the mechanical purjDOse 
 of making the soil more porous. Wood-ashes, on the 
 contrary, contain a large amount of potash, and also 
 l)hosphate of lime, and magnesia. The ashes of oak- 
 wood contain 38 per cent of potassa, and about an equal 
 amount of the carbonates and phosphates of lime and 
 magnesia. As before stated, the ashes of the vine have a 
 still larger percentage of potassa. These elements are 
 therefore valuable, as entering directly into the composi- 
 tion of the vine, and also because the potash promotes 
 the dissolution of vegetable matter in the soil. We ma)- 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 199 
 
 aj^ply leached ashes in alijiost unUmited quantities. Un- 
 leached ashes (if they can be obtained) are much more 
 vahiable. A hundred bushels might be applied to the 
 acre without injury, and without causing an excessive 
 growth of foliage, as is the case when stable-manure is 
 heavily applied. Probably an annual dressing of fifty 
 bushels of unleached ashes would be found quite sufficient 
 for most lands. If ashes are not to be obtained, we can 
 obtain the elements in crude potash, in ground bones, and 
 in lime. Common ashes will usually yield five and a 
 half pounds of potash to the bushel. As a portion of the 
 potash does not leach, we may say that fifty bushels is 
 equivalent to three hundred pounds of potash, or about 
 two hundred jjounds of soda-ash. If we dissolve this 
 amount of potash, and pour it upon fifty bushels of peat 
 (triple this amount Avould be better), we shall then have 
 obtained a very considerable part of the virtue of the fifty 
 bushels of wood-ashes. For the supply of the phos- 
 phates, and the carbonate of lime, and magnesia, we will 
 resort to bone-dust, or ground bones. This is the safest 
 and most universally esteemed fertilizer. There is not a 
 single particle in the composition of bones which is not 
 of essential service in contributing food to the vine. This 
 will be seen by examining an analysis of the fi-esh bones 
 
200 CULTURE OF THE (r R A P E. 
 
 of an ox, jDrepared by M. Bei-zeliiis. He found 100 parts 
 of these bones consisted of — 
 
 Cartilage • 33.30 
 
 Phosphate of Lime • • • • 55.35 
 
 Fluate of Lime 3.00 
 
 Carbonate of Lime 3.85 
 
 Phosphate of Magnesia 2.05 
 
 Soda, with a Uttle common Salt 2.45 
 
 100.00 
 
 These are precisely what is wanted as food; and hence 
 the testimony as to the value of tliis fertilizer is uniform 
 and decided, as we might expect. In the purchase of this 
 article, there is always considerable shrinkage from the 
 above analysis, resulting from the usual processes in 
 reducing the bone to powder. It is, however, most eco- 
 nomical to purchase it in this form, in order to secure 
 immediate results. For ordinary field -crops, English 
 cultivators use, as the only fertilizer, from fifteen to forty, 
 and even eighty, bushels per acre. In regard to the an- 
 nual, amount for a dressing to the vineyard, no definite 
 rule can be given, as the various soils have different neces- 
 sities. We may bear in mind, however, that any reasona- 
 ble amount of bone-dust is a safe fertilizer, and that, 
 where table-grapes, in large quantity and of superior size, 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 201 
 
 are the desideratam, it will be prudent to borrow money 
 in order to procure a good supply of the dust. He is a 
 shrewd usurer who regards manure as the best security 
 on which to loan money to the agriculturist. As we have 
 found such a large percentage of lime in the ashes of the 
 vine, we should naturally conclude that this substance 
 also should be liberally supplied. This is indeed true, 
 and we notice that the grape always thrives in a lime- 
 stone soil. The action of lime is twofold : it enters 
 directly into the combination of almost all classes of 
 plants, and is therefore valuable as food; and it also 
 serves another important purpose, in its chemical effect 
 upon the organic matter contained in the soil. If we use* 
 bones in considerable quantity, as before directed, we 
 shall have nearly the amount of phosphate and carbonate 
 of lime (about 60 per cent of the bone) that will be 
 needed by the vine as a direct food. But there are many 
 soils that would receive natural benefit by the chemical 
 action of lime upon them. Heavy soils inclining to clay 
 are rendered much more friable and porous to receive 
 the gases of the atmosphere. There is also a considera- 
 ble quantity of vegetable and animal matter, worms, and 
 animalculse, in the soil, upon which the lime has a direct 
 effect, reducing them to food for the vine. 
 
202 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 in England, lime is applied in vast quantities upon 
 some of the low, heavy lands; in some instances, the 
 amount reaching a thousand bushels to the acre: but, 
 upon ordinary uplands, fifty bushels are considered a 
 large dressing. As most vineyard-soils are inclined to 
 be dry, and as we advise to a considerable supply of 
 lime through bones, an annual dressing of five or ten, or, 
 in the case of heavy soils, of fifteen bushels, will probably 
 be found quite sufiicient. The best way to apply this will 
 be by mixing it with three times its bulk of peat. 
 
 It will be seen by the analyses previously given, that, 
 while sulphur is found in small quantity in the wood, it 
 enters largely into the composition of the fruit. We 
 should consequently infer that a top-dressing of sulphur 
 would be of service as soon as the vines come to bearing, 
 not merely for the i)urpose of i^reventing mildew, as we 
 shall see hereafter, but also as direct food for the plant. 
 It is well known that in volcanic soils, wliere there is con- 
 siderable impregnation of sulphur, the vines do extraordi- 
 narily well, and the product in fruit and wine is of a supe- 
 rior character. As there is a deficiency of this element in 
 most soils, it would seem essential to provide a sufiicient 
 quantity. May it not prove that the increase of rot and 
 mildew within the past twenty years is owing, in a very 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 203 
 
 considerable degree, to an exhaustion of this element in 
 the soil, which causes an enfeebled and diseased state 
 in the berries, and invites the attack of fungi ? It is an 
 invariable rule, that j^lants Avhich abound in certain earthy 
 salts never flourish in soils in which these salts are want- 
 ing ; but, upon application of the deficient elements, the 
 result is as invariable, that the plants recover their vigor. 
 It is for the purpose of supplying a deficiency of sulphur, 
 that gypsum (sulphate of lime), or plaster of Paris, is 
 recommended. Gyj^sum is composed, according to the 
 analysis of Chaptal, of 
 
 Sulphuric acid 32 to 43 parts. 
 
 Lime 30 " 33 " 
 
 Water 38 " 24 " 
 
 This article has long been known as a fertilizer ; and upon 
 some soils, and for some crops, there is no other artificial 
 manure so decided in its effects. The results of its appli- 
 cation have been unequal, however ; for the simple reason 
 that some soils have a sufficiency of sulphate of lime for 
 some crops, and hence an addition would be useless. 
 Johnson, in his " Farmer's Encyclopaedia," states that an 
 ordinary crop of clover and sainfoin grasses usually con- 
 tains from one and a half to two hundred-weight of 
 sulphate of lime to an acre. This is the amount (tw^o 
 
204 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 hundred-weight) of gypsum to an acre which he recom- 
 mends to be applied annually for such crops. The amount 
 of sulphate of lime needed for an acre of grape-fruit must 
 much exceed two hundred-weight per annum, if the state- 
 ment of Mr. Downing, that the fruit yields thirteen per 
 cent of sulphuric acid, is not altogether wrong. Lime, we 
 know, exists in the wood in a much larger proportion. 
 It would seem reasonable to conclude that an application 
 of at least two hundred-weight per annum of sulphate 
 of lime in some form would be not merely desirable, but 
 necessary. 
 
 According to Johnson, coal-ashes contain about ten 
 per cent of sulphate of lime. This undoubtedly refers to 
 ashes of the EngHsh coal, and is probably a larger per- 
 centage than is contained in our anthracite coal-ashes. 
 At this rate, ten per cent of fifty bushels of coal-ashes 
 would be equal to five bushels of gypsum, which would 
 be a suitable dressing for an acre. Wherever coal-ashes 
 are on hand, they should be tried, not because they con- 
 tain, any considerable amount of potash, but more espe- 
 cially because of the sulphate of lime which they may 
 contain. 
 
 Upon this subject of furnishing the specific food for the 
 vine, recognizing the desirableness of a change of diet at 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 205 
 
 different periods of growth, and formation of wood and 
 of fruit, an interesting communication was made to the 
 French Academy of Sciences by M. Perzoz, and is 
 quoted in "The Horticulturist," vol. iii. p. 525, as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 " The new process which I propose for cultivating the 
 vine, inasmuch a§ it enables us to make use of half the 
 land for growing nutritive plants, may, at first sight, ap- 
 pear to differ completely from the plans now adopted in 
 vineyards. Such, however, is not the case ; and, as those 
 who have studied the various methods adopted in differ- 
 ent countries will see, several of the recommendations 
 here made have already been followed in practice. I 
 acknowledge this the more readily, as it enables me to 
 
 appeal, as a proof of their usefulness, to results attained 
 
 * 
 by a long experience. In one respect, my plan differs 
 
 from every other ; for I propose that all the vine-stocks 
 
 in a certain space of ground should be brought together 
 
 in a trench, where by one chemical action the wood, and 
 
 by another the fruit, may be induced to form. This I 
 
 propose, in consequence of having by direct experiment 
 
 satisfied myself, that, of the manures which are fit for the 
 
 culture of the vine, some seem exclusively for the increase 
 
 of cells, — i.e., of wood ; that others cause the develop- 
 
206 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 ment of the flower-bud (frui, '"ape) ; and that the 
 
 actions of these substances, instead of both going on at 
 the same time, ought to be successive. By the appUca- 
 tion of these principles, the growth of the wood can be 
 stopped at pleasure ; while, by the ordinary methods, the 
 same efiects can only be produced by artificial and empi- 
 rical means. 
 
 "When it is wished that wood should be developed, 
 the vines (roots) must be placed in a trench, and covered 
 with three or four inches of earth with which have been 
 mixed, for every square yard of the surface of the trench, 
 eight pounds of pulverized bone, four pounds of pieces of 
 skin, leather, horns, tanners' refuse, &c., and one and a 
 half pounds of gypsum. 
 
 " When the wood is sufficiently forward, which will be 
 in a year or two, according to circumstances, the roots 
 must be supplied with salts of potash in order that the 
 fruit may be produced. For this purpose, it is necessary 
 to spread over the trench, at a distance of three or four 
 inches from the buried wood (roots), five and a half 
 pounds of a mixture formed of silicate of potash, and 
 two and a half pounds of double-phosphate of potash and 
 lime. The trench is then to be filled up, and the roots 
 have as much potash as they want for a long time. To 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. . 207 
 
 prevent, however, the exhaustion of the potash, it is as 
 well to spread every year, at the foot of the stools, a cer- 
 tain quantity of the marc ('cheese,' or refuse of the wine- 
 press) of grapes. This marc, containing 2.5 per cent of 
 carbonate of potash, will restore annually a large propor- 
 tion of the potash which may have disappeared from the 
 trench. 
 
 " Hitherto, the success of a vintage depended, cceteris 
 paribus., in a great measure upon the influence of the 
 atmosj^here. Thus, suppose a vine-stock required ten 
 parts of potash to be enabled to bear fruit : if the action 
 of the heat and rain on the stones and earth, in a state 
 of decomposition, could only furnish five, the vintage 
 would be bad. 
 
 " This danger will be avoided by the above system of 
 culture, in which the vine must always have suitable 
 food. But it is not to be forgotten, that, although I prom- 
 ise those grape-growers who follow my plan an abundance 
 of produce, I can by no means insure the quality of that 
 produce ; for quality must always depend on the tempera- 
 ture." 
 
 It is unnecessary to specify all the different kinds of 
 fertilizincc matters that mi^rht be used to advantao-e in the 
 vineyard. We are safe in concluding that soap-suds, con- 
 
208 CULTURE OF THE CRAPE. 
 
 tainiiig potassa and greasy matter, or old leather or horn- 
 shavings, any thing that approaches the nature of ashes 
 or bones, will be valuable. Watering with liquid manure 
 is recommended by some ; and this is a great stimulant 
 to the vine at the time of stoning and swelling-off of the 
 fruit : but it must be done judiciously, that the wash be 
 not so strong as to injure the roots. Care also should 
 be taken that the soil does not become wet and sodden. 
 We have instances where the vine feeds near the sink- 
 spout and around the cesspool. The roots of the great 
 Hampton - Court Vine are said to feed upon London 
 sewerage. Yet these roots will be found not to have 
 passed a certain limit. Roots cannot remain in a healthy 
 condition in ground that is continually saturated with 
 moisture. 
 
 It may not be out of place in this connection to con- 
 sider the fertilizing effect of rain. It is well ascertained 
 that rain contains a considerable quantity of nitrogen, 
 ammonia, chlorine, lime, and magnesia. An analysis of a 
 cubic metre of water by M. Barral is given in Lindley's 
 " Theory of Horticulture," upon which he bases the fol- 
 lowing estimate : — 
 
 " The average depth of rain which falls in the neigh- 
 borhood of London is well ascertained to be about twenty- 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 209 
 
 four inches j^er annum. This is at the rate of 87.120 cubic 
 feet or 2.466 metres of rain-water per acre ; and this, 
 according to the proportions per cubic metre in the pre- 
 ceding table (M. Barral's), would afford annually of 
 
 " Nitrogen. 45^ pounds. 
 
 Nitric Acid 103 " 
 
 Ammonia 19^ " 
 
 Chlorine 12^ « 
 
 Lime 35 " 
 
 Magnesia 11 " 
 
 Amount total per acre 227 
 
 (( 
 
 " Of these substances, the three first are of the utmost 
 importance, on account of their entering so largely into 
 the indispensable constituents of the food by which vege- 
 table life is sustained. The quantity of ammonia thus 
 ascertained to exist is about what is expected in two 
 hundred- weight of Peruvian guano; and bountiful Na- 
 ture gives us, moreover, nearly one hundred and fifty 
 pounds of nitrogenous matter equally suited to the nutri- 
 tion of our crops." 
 
 True as it may be that there is vast benefit from rain 
 in addition to the humidity which it yields, and that an 
 increased supply promotes luxuriant vegetation, yet there 
 is a limit to the requirements, and also to the capacity, of 
 
 14 
 
210 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 the grape. Indeed, we do not find results to harmonize 
 with the theory which might be deduced from a consid- 
 eration of the foregoing table. By a comparison of the 
 following tables, taken from " The United-States Agricul- 
 tural Report" for 1862, p. 594, it will be seen that the 
 most favored grape-districts have the least- amount of 
 rain-flill, especially during the growing season of sum- 
 mer : — 
 
 INCHES OF RAIN. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. ■ Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. Total. 
 
 Sacramento 3.3 0.1 3.0 6.9 13.5 
 
 San Francisco 4.6 0.7 3.7 8.8 17.8 
 
 Los Ani^eles 2.5 0.1 1.6 5.5 9.7 
 
 NEW MEXICO. 
 
 El Paso 0.6 6.6 4.9 0.3 12.4 
 
 Alberquerque 0.6 5.6 1.2 1.0 8.4 
 
 AMER. ATLANTIC CLIMATES. 
 
 Cincinnati 11.9 14.2 10.0 11.3 47.5 
 
 Cleveland 9.1 11.6 9.8 6.9 27.4 
 
 Ann Arbor 7.3. 11.2 7.0 3.1 28.6 
 
 Pittsburg 9.5 12.3 7.6 7.4 36.8 
 
 St. Louis 12.7 14.6 8.7 7.0 42.5 
 
 Nashville 14.1 14.0 12.3 12.4 52.8 
 
 EUROPEAN CLIMATES. 
 
 Turin, Piedmont 8.2 9.0 11.5 7.8 36.5 
 
 Valley of tlie Rhone 10.2 9.5 10.4 4.3 34.4 
 
 Vevay, Switzerland 7.9 10.8 11.1 3.9 33.8 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 211 
 
 Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. Total. 
 
 Manheim, Rhine 6.3 8.0 7.4 5.3 27.0 
 
 Bordeaux, West France 7.3 7.4 10.3 9.0 34.0 
 
 Dijon, East France 7.1 7.5 9.3 7.3 31.2 
 
 Chnlons, North-east France ... 5.4 6.2 6.1 5.6 23.3 
 
 St. Michael's, Azores Q.Q 3.6 9.5 11.7 31.4 
 
 . It will be observed that the most noted grape-growing 
 countries have the least amount of rain-fall, especially 
 during summer. The average of the Atlantic States dur- 
 ing summer is about tliirteen inches; and of the vine- 
 growing countries of Europe, less than eight inches: 
 while the Los Angeles vineyards receive but the almost 
 incredibly small amount of 0.1 of an inch. In an article 
 in "The United-States Agricultural Report" for 1863, by 
 I. S. Lippincott, p. 206, he expresses the opinion, that, in 
 climates where the summer fall of rain exceeds fourteen 
 inches, the grape cannot be profitably grown, on account 
 of the liability to rot and mildew. He adds, "The 
 region over which the fall of nine to ten inches of sum- 
 mer rain extends includes all the localities where the 
 cultivation of the vine has, in the northern section of our 
 country, been attended with the largest share of success." 
 It appears by the able researches of L. Blodget, as pub- 
 lished in his work upon " The Climatology of the United 
 States," that on the coast of New England, the valley of 
 
212 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 Lake Champlain, the shores of the Great Lakes as far 
 west as Superior, Pennsylvania west of tlie Susquehanna, 
 and, passing south, through the mountain district of Vir- 
 ginia, the average fall of rain dui-ing the summer is about 
 ten inches. The lower region of the Hudson has about 
 eleven inches, while Southern New Jersey and Eastern 
 Pennsylvania average about twelve inches. 
 
 In comparing these statistics of Blodget, as applied to 
 the last district, Mr. Lippincott remarks, "This is not 
 generally a favored region for the vine, having an average 
 fall of two inches more than the district of less rains, 
 though more promising than where fourteen inches pre- 
 vail. . . . And such must ever be the experience of 
 those who in this district continue to cultivate the 
 Catawba and Isabella, and other varieties subject to in- 
 jury from excess of moisture. It is only in the region of 
 lesser rain-fliUs, and within the zones adapted to their 
 needs as respects summer heat, and length of season, that 
 we can reasonably hope to find a greater or general ex- 
 emption from influences so unfavorable." 
 
 These views are so conflicting, that the expression 
 by an eminent pomologist in regard to grape culture, 
 " We are at sea without a rudder," sometimes seems to 
 be true. In this case, I apj^rehend we can reconcile the 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 213 
 
 apparent differences more easily than in many other in- 
 stances. That the rain has great fertilizing power is 
 beyond question. With the vine, it promotes excessive 
 vegetation; and also, by an excess of humidity at times, 
 with sudden and extreme changes to heat and dryness, 
 causes rot and mildew. The growth of vine is far 
 greater with us than at Los Angeles, where the grape is 
 so stubbed that it supports itself without a stake, and 
 there is no necessity for summer checMng. Yet the salu- 
 brity of the Pacific air, and the uniformity of climate, 
 make it a favored spot both for European and American 
 grapes. While there is force in the views of Mr. Lippin- 
 cott, it is a matter of doubt whether such arbitrary rules 
 can be given in regard to the culture of the grape. A 
 location may be subject to an average rain-fall of fourteen 
 inches during the summer; and yet it maybe so high and 
 dry, and the land so porous, that no serious results may 
 follow. Irrigation has been suggested as a method of 
 fertihzing the vineyard; but it must be evident, from a 
 consideration of the foregoing statistics, that this can 
 never be recommended for the Atlantic States. Doubt- 
 less it might be practised to advantage in California. 
 It is a question of importance, at what season of the 
 
214 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 year to apply a top-dressing. After the young fruit is 
 set, it is a great assistance to the vine if some extra sup- 
 ply of food can be given in the stoning and " swelling- 
 off " of the berries. It is like a friendly lift over a hard 
 place. The vine has then partially ceased its efforts to 
 make wood, and the fertilizing matter seems to be 
 specially appropriated for the fruit. I think a little 
 bone-dust, or a slight sprinkling of guano, in June, will 
 have twice the effect upon the fruit that the same 
 amount Avould have if applied in November. On the 
 other hand, ashes, wliicli serve the double purpose of 
 developing the soil and building up the vine, should 
 be applied a considerable time before the results are 
 expected. Certainly it is not true economy to enrich 
 land while the roots are inactive. We think it in- 
 jurious to water a pot-plant with liquid manure when 
 it is at rest. Moreover, there is waste in top-dress- 
 ing a vineyard in the fall ; a portion of the manure being 
 volatile, and passing off in the air, while some of the sol- 
 vent portion will pass off by filtration. Yet the amount 
 of loss in either case is not so great as many suppose. 
 The ground is generally frozen, and oftentimes covered 
 with snow. These conditions not only prevent much 
 
C U LT.U 11 E OF THE G 11 A P E. 215 
 
 loss, but also any perceptible effect of the manure upon 
 the roots. The fall application brings the manure into 
 excellent condition for the use of the jjlant the following 
 season. When ashes and bones are conijDosted with peat 
 (which is by far the best method), or when stable-manure 
 is used, if the dressing is applied in the fall, it serves also 
 as a protection for the roots against winter frosts. Ashes, 
 or peaty composts, should always be mixed into the soil 
 with the horse-hoe. Some have advocated the applicar 
 tion of stable-manure in the spring, that it may serve the 
 purpose of a mulching during the summer. On most 
 soils, this would be a positive and serious injury. In the 
 dry climate and soil of California, this mulch would prove 
 a great benefit. Also upon very light, dry, and sandy 
 soils, in the Atlantic States, it might be safe to use a 
 mulch. But when we consider the superabundance of 
 rain, and the danger from mildew and rot, we cannot be 
 too careful in keeping our soil w^arm and dry. The sun 
 should exert its full power to warm the roots as well as 
 the branches. This is the rule. If some one suggests an 
 ugly case of a vine whose roots run out of sight, around 
 a building or under a pavement, and yet yields the best 
 results, we can only sav it is an excejDtional case. As 
 
216 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 a general rule, avoid mulching; apply all heavy manures 
 in the fall, in order that they may become thoroughly 
 decomposed and incorporated; and let the soil be kept 
 light, and free from weeds, exposefi as much as possible 
 to the sun and air. 
 
 1 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 DISEASES. 
 
 TT is to be expected that we shall find great diversity 
 of experience in respect to the diseases of the vine 
 in different climates. In the Atlantic States of America 
 we have two evils, so universal, and so much more serious 
 than all others combined, that they deserve special con- 
 sideration. Every one who has had any experience with 
 grapes will understand that I refer to miJdew and rot. 
 Mildew has been the bane of the husbandman from the 
 earliest ages. God repeatedly warned the Israelites that 
 blasting and mildew should be sent as a penalty foi- 
 disobedience. By the prophet Amos (iv. 9) he reminds 
 them. "I have smitten you with blasting and mildew: 
 
 when your gardens, and your vineyards, and your fig- 
 
 217 
 
218 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 trees, and your olive-trees, increased, the palmer-worm 
 destroyed them." And again (Hag. ii. 17): "I smote 
 you with blasting, and with mildew, and with hail, in all 
 the labors of your hands." Theophrastus, in his " History 
 of Plants," written three hundred and twenty years before 
 Christ, treats very distinctly of mildew, and mentions the 
 plants most subject to its attack. He states that the crops 
 on high-lying lands were seldom attacked by this disease, 
 but that the hollows surrounded by hills, where winds 
 could not get at the crops, were frequently infected. 
 This disease is often alluded to by subsequent ancient 
 writers, and is generally connected with the dog-star and 
 with foggy weather. The Romans even regarded the mist 
 as a cloud of mildew; and they recommended fumiga- 
 tions with " stinking, pungent smokes," at such times as 
 the mists should appear in the air. The credit of discov- 
 ering: the true nature of mildew belongs to Felice Fon- 
 tana, who j^ublished a work, entitled " Osservatione soj^ra 
 la Ruggine del Geano," at Lucca, in the year 1767, in 
 which he declares it to be a fungus. Since this time, 
 observations with the microscope have been made by 
 botanists; and it is determined that there are distinct 
 species of fungus infesting different plaints. These minute 
 parasitic plants, or fungi, seem to have a perfect vegeta- 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 219 
 
 ble organization. Their roots fasten upon the leaf or 
 stalk of a plant ; while their stems groAV and bucl, and 
 mature seed, during their brief life, with as much system 
 as the California giant Sequoia of three thousand years' 
 growth. 
 
 A correct knowledge of the nature of this j^arasite 
 will of course afford great assistance in checking its rav- • 
 ages. 
 
 Prof B. Silliman, jun., in an article upon Mildew in "The 
 Horticulturist," vol. xviii. p. 305, remarks, "But little 
 study has been given by botanists to the investigation of 
 mildew. In fact, Dr. George Engleman is the only bota- 
 nist whose i^apers I have seen upon this subject. In ' The 
 Transactions ' of the Academy of Science of St Louis, 
 vol. ii. 1863, Dr. Engleman, th^ president, describes two 
 species of fungi destructive to vineyards (p. 165). I add 
 an abstract of Dr. Engleman's short note on this subject, 
 for the information of your readers. Dr. Engleman de- 
 scribes first a species of Botrytis, probably the B. viticola 
 of Berkley. It makes its appearance in the latter j^art 
 of June on the lower, downy surface of the leaves. . . . 
 About the same time, the mildew appears on the pedicles, 
 and often also on the young berries, when they are about 
 the size of peas, or smaller. Dr. Engleman never saw it on 
 
220 c u LT u n E OF T a e a u a p e. 
 
 full-grown berries. Those attacked on their surface or on 
 their pedicles soon fall off: but the most material damage 
 is done by the mildew infesting the leaves ; whereupon 
 the greater part of the berries will gradually turn yellow- 
 ish-brown at their base, shrivel from that point, assume 
 a club shape, and at last dry up entirely, usually remain- 
 ing adherent to the withered racemes. This is the brown 
 rot^ so well known to all cultivators to their dismay. The 
 second kind of rot, the black rot^ is. brought on by a very 
 different fungus, which Dr. Engleman thinks is undescribed 
 by botanists. It evidently belongs near Ehrenberg's ge- 
 nus Noemaspora, and ought to bear the name Ampeli- 
 cida. It makes its appearance only on nearly full-grown 
 berries, exhibiting in the first stage a discolored spot on 
 the side, but never at the base, of the berry, about two 
 lines in diameter, with a dark spot in the centre. This 
 spot soon becomes light brown, and remains so; while the 
 surrounding part of the berry gets darker, and exhibits a 
 rough or (under the magnifier) pustulous surface : gradu- 
 ally now the berry shrivels up, and becomes black. The 
 individual fungi are little spherical bodies (0.07-0.10 
 line in diameter), formed under the surface in great num- 
 bers, which, growing, elevate, and at last burst, the epi- 
 dermis; then open at their apex by a small, jagged hole 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 221 
 
 and, shrivelling with the berry, eject a more or less curled 
 or twisted thread, which, moistened, becomes gelatinous, 
 and shows the innumerable oval sporules (0.004-0.005 
 line long), each embedded in its coat of mucilage." 
 
 The first species of fungus, which Dr. Engleman calls 
 Botrytis, is very similar to, if not identical with, the Euro- 
 pean Oidium Tuckeri. Another species (Erysiphe) is more 
 frequently seen upon the European varieties of grapes, 
 though it is sometimes found upon our native kinds, indi- 
 cating that it may at a future day become a source of 
 evil. It is entirely distinct, developing upon the upper 
 surface of the leaf in the form of a white powder, which 
 spreads like a web, enveloping leaf and fruit. This may 
 be peeled off with ease, leaving the foliage uninjured, as 
 the roots of the fungus do not appear to penetrate the 
 leaf to any extent. Hence it may not be called a para- 
 site, but rather an epiphyte, in its habit of growth. Bat 
 it is a serious check to the vine, and will entirely prevent 
 the ripening of the fruit. This last species is of rare 
 occurrence upon our native grapes, but may be observed 
 upon the European varieties of gooseberry. 
 
 I believe it is well ascertained that all those species of 
 parasitic fungus which infest the grape, and which we 
 call mildew, vegetate most rapidly in a moist atmosphere. 
 
222 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 Indeed, a somewhat moist state of the air is necessary to 
 their continued life. Hence we find that those climates 
 which are subject to rain and fogs are also most subject 
 to mildew. On the other hand, the dry climate of Cali- 
 fornia, for example, is almost a complete safeguard. It is 
 also true, that this excess of moisture, with heavy dews, 
 and sudden changes from heat to cold, tend to make the 
 grape-foliage feeble or unhealthy, possibly rupturing the 
 pores of the leaves, and destroying the cuticle, which is 
 a guard against the lodgement of floating seeds of fungi. 
 In muggy weather, the foliage is soft and succulent, which 
 IS also an assistance in the vegetation of fungus-seeds. 
 It is well known with what anxiety the English farmers 
 watch their wheat-crop during its rapid growth, and time 
 of ripening, lest the mildew, or rust as it is called 
 {Puccinia graininis)., should have the favoring influences 
 of their dull weather. M. Duharael states that mildew 
 is caused by such an atmosphere. Though this may not 
 be strictly true, it is universally observed that such 
 weather greatly favors its development. We are to con- 
 sider mildew as a living 2^1ant, dependent, like all other 
 vegetable life, upon its conditions of growth. Possibly 
 we may be able to prevent its seed from taking root, or 
 we may produce such a state of the atmosphere that it 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 223 
 
 cannot grow, or we may cause a violent death by poison- 
 ing. I think it wise to keep it constantly in mind that 
 this is a plant, and let our efforts be distinctly directed to 
 one or other of these three ends. In this way we shall 
 arrive at intelligent results, and be spared a multiplicity 
 of foolish theories. For example, in "The Horticulturist," 
 vol. xix. p. 143, Mr. J. Stagman " fully elucidates the 
 subject " of mildew and grape-rot, and concludes that the 
 first is produced by a negative state of electricity, and 
 the rot by a positive state. If the nature of the disease 
 is kej^t distinctly in view, we shall not be in danger of 
 bewilderment by incorrect statements and crude opinions. 
 Let us take the three possible ways of counteracting the 
 disease, in the order in which they are before written. 
 1st, Preventing the seeds of fungi from taking root. Can 
 we guard against the attacks of mildew? It is univer- 
 sally observed that feeble and sickly growth is much more 
 liable to the attack than firm and healthy foliage. Mid- 
 dle-aged vines are more free than either young or old 
 vines : this is the universal law. A good constitution 
 can make a more successful defence against disease. Any 
 thing, therefore, that contributes to the health of the vine, 
 is so far a help. In " The Horticulturist," vol. i. p. 148, 
 is an article signed by " Chemico," which suggests that 
 
224 CULTURE OF THE (i 11 A P E. 
 
 the fungi causing bliglit, or mildew, is caused by a surplus 
 of carbonic-acid gas, which gas would not exist as such 
 were there a sufficient supply of potash in the soil. " We 
 may now easily account for facts mentioned by your cor- 
 respondent, that old vines are much more liable to mil- 
 dew than young. They have exhausted the potash from 
 the soil ; and, when their leaves absorb carbonic acid, the 
 plant has no potash with which to form a healthy salt by 
 union with it, and the diseased plant invites the fungi. 
 A humid summer is favorable for the generation of car-- 
 bonic acid, and hence the reason why 'T ' found his young 
 vines attacked during such a season. 'T' is correct 
 when he says, 'Soap-suds are always beneficial, and can 
 be used freely.' The reason is, soap-suds contain potash." 
 To this Mr. A. J. Downing adds, " There is some point in 
 these notions regarding mildew. Young and healthy 
 plants are seldom attacked by mildew, while old and 
 feeble ones are very liable to it. Our own observation 
 has led us to believe that wood-ashes are one of the most 
 beneficial fertilizers for the grape, giving it the appear- 
 ance of extraordinary luxuriance and health. The great 
 productiveness and longevity of the vineyards abroad, 
 which are formed upon a soil composed mainly of the 
 spent ashes of volcanoes, and the acknowledged superiority 
 
CULT U n E OF THE GRAP E. 225 
 
 of the grapes and wine yielded by such soils, are mani- 
 fest proofs of the value of ashes. . . . Let every one 
 troubled with the mildew, esi^eeially in grapes, make a 
 fair trial of it, and report for tlic benefit of others. There 
 are certainly soils where this phmt thrives wonderfully 
 well, and no mildew appears; and others, where, with all 
 ordinary care, it can seldom be prevented. If the appli- 
 cation of potash in the form of wood-ashes will insure 
 the cultivator against mildew in grapes alone, it is a dis- 
 covery of no ordinary utility." The form of expression 
 which is used by"Chemico,"that "mildew is caused by 
 a surplus of carbonic-acid gas," is unfortunate. But 
 there is plausibihty in the theory, that a superabundance 
 of carbonic-r.cid gas in wet weather may act upon leaves 
 having an insufficient supply of potassa, and thus cause a 
 diseased state which invites fungi. At any rate, we 
 know that potash will give that vigor which will en- 
 able the vine the better to resist mildew. 
 
 Sudden changes from heat to cold, and from wet to 
 dry, are conditions which universally develop mildew; 
 but these are not conditions which specially favor the 
 growth of the fungus plant. We must therefore con- 
 clude that these sudden fluctuations have so disar- 
 ranged the delicate tissues of the leaves, and perhaps 
 
 15 
 
226 c u L T u n E of the grape. 
 
 ruptiiTed the pores, that, so to speak, the ground is 
 broken up, and prepared for the fungus-seed to take 
 root. Strong currents of wind, and exposure to clear 
 sun by day and cold dews at night, have each a ten- 
 dency to disorganize the delicate leaf-tissue. Possibly 
 it may be, that, when active respiration is going on 
 from the leaves during 'dry weather, this respiration is 
 suddenly checked when damp weather , comes on, and 
 the leaves may become gorged with sap, which cannot 
 pass off by evaporation; and, as a consequence, the 
 tissue becomes disorganized. 
 
 Mr. J. N. Jones, of Charleston, S.C., communicates to 
 "The Gardener's Monthly" (vol. ii. p. 363) the result of 
 his observations upon mildew, under the microscope, 
 which confirm this view. He says, " I had always con- 
 sidered mildew as a disease of plants, or at least as a 
 cause of disease, regarding it as a parasitic fungus, feed- 
 ing upon the sap, obstructing the respiration, and destroy- 
 ing the vegetable tissue. I observed, however, that he- 
 fore the fungus made its appearance, and before any 
 trace of it could be observed under a high magnifying 
 power, the foliage in parts, and sometimes entire leaves, 
 put on a peculiar glazed appearance, evidently caused by 
 the exudation of some gummy or viscid matter oozing 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 227 
 
 out of the stomata, gradually spreading over the surface, 
 and drying in the form of a thin pellucid pellicle, scarcely 
 distinguishable by the naked eye. Upon or under this 
 pellicle, after some days, the vegetation of the fungus was 
 distinctly observable in the form of fine threads, ramify- 
 ing in all directions exactly as mushroom-spawn runs 
 through a 'brick.' A low magnifying power of two or 
 three hundred shows the object beautifully in the form of 
 most delicate lace-work. Fine particles of dust frequent- 
 ly adhere so thickly on the viscid surface as to interfere 
 with a good view of the object. In a iew hours, under 
 favorable conditions, little globular bodies may be ob- 
 served, forming all over the net-work of fibres. These 
 burst through the thin layer of extravasated sap, ' coming 
 up' very much like a fine crop of mushrooms. On twirl- 
 ing an afiected leaf in a tumbler of warm water, the gum- 
 my matter dissolved, and carried with it the fungi, root 
 and branch. The conclusions deduced from these facts 
 seem to be that mildew is not a parasite in the proper 
 sense of the word, but rather a scavenger, decomposing 
 and changing into another form the excrementitious mat- 
 ter, or whatever it may be, thrown ofi" by the leaves. ' 
 Mildew cannot exist upon a healthy vegetable surface; 
 
228 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 but, wherever decomposition is going on, there mildew 
 will be fomid in some form or other. 
 
 "'The unhealthy exudation, from the surface of a leaf, 
 of this viscid raattei', which dries, and no doubt decom- 
 poses, on exposure to the atmosphere, forms a j^roper food 
 for the mildew. The stomata, or pores of the leaf, being 
 stopped up, it is impossible that healthy respiration can 
 be resumed until the surface is j^erfectly cleansed. The 
 cause which produced the overflow of sap (if I may so 
 term it) may have been transient; but, as long as the 
 pores remain closed, it is impossible for the plant to grow 
 healthily. The tissue of the leaf or fruit becomes un- 
 healthy under such circumstances, merely from suffoca- 
 tion, as it were. The application of lime or sulphur 
 may cause the destruction of the fungus by acting 
 upon and purifying the viscid sap. Possibly, however, 
 the plentiful use of warm or even h.ot water, where it 
 can be used, might be quite as efficacious." 
 
 I have quoted the communication of Mr. Jones nearly 
 entire, because it gives an interesting, and, I think, a cor- 
 rect view of the superinducing cause of mildew. Facts 
 will, however, compel us to differ from him in regarding 
 mildew as merely a " scavenger," &c. Were it of such 
 nature, we might rcgar.l mildew as a remedy for the pre- 
 
CULTURE F T H E G It A J> E. 229 
 
 vious e\il. But it is clear that this is not th(3 case. This 
 viscid appearance is sometimes noticed upon the leaves; 
 but, under favoring weather, the mildew is not developed, 
 and the vines do not suffer materially. On the other 
 hand, the strictly parasitic growth of the mildew notice- 
 ably and speedily sucks out the life of the leaf. Again : 
 when we apply dry suphur as a remedy, manifestly it is 
 not to take off the viscid matter, but simply to destroy 
 the life of the parasite. When this last result is accom- 
 plished, the vine recovers its health, though the viscid 
 matter remains. 
 
 All our views and theories in regard to mildew piust 
 bend to facts. It is of the utmost importance that we have 
 the experience and observations of scientific men, in order 
 that, by a comparison of cases under a variety of circum- 
 stances, we may be able to build a true philosophy of the 
 evil. Witli the hope of contributing to this end, I make 
 free quotations. In " The Horticulturist," vol. xviii. p. 304, 
 Prof B. Silliman, jun., mentions the case of a Catawba 
 vine twenty years old, covering an open space in front of 
 his piazza, twenty-one feet long and twelve feet high, 
 above which is a cornice projecting rather over a foot 
 beyond the wires on which the vine is trained. "The 
 exposure is west by north ; and, although it is late in the 
 
230 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 morning before the sun rests upon it, this vine has very 
 uniformly ripened its fruit, and has never (on the portion 
 described) been affected with mildew to any noticeable 
 extent. Three years ago, I carried some strong shoots 
 of this vine over the cornice, with a view to transfer the 
 chief grow^th of the plant to a new trellis which I con- 
 structed, reaching from the edge of the piazza-roof to the 
 top of the main house, at an angle of forty-iive degrees, 
 above a tin roof Here, I thought, was an exposure so 
 much more favorable than the old one, that the fruit would 
 be much more fully and more early ripened ; and, as the 
 strength of this old plant seemed equal to it, I proposed 
 to remove all the old branches on the lower trelhs, and 
 supply their place by new plants, while the new trellis 
 above should be covered by strong new shoots trained in 
 horizontal cordons. To my surprise, I find my plans do 
 not meet the approbation of the old Catawba; in fact, he 
 quite resents this proposed change. All the branches 
 which I have brought up over the roof are badly mil- 
 dewed. At this time (Sept. 14), but few leaves on the 
 vertical surface of the old trellis, under the cornice, 
 show a trace of mildew ; while above the roof the exact 
 reverse is true. Few of the berries fell off with brown 
 rot (of wliich more anon) from the vertical surface, wdiile 
 
CULTURE OF THE G 11 A P E. 231 
 
 over the roof this trouble was much more general. In 
 short, to view tlie vine at a distance, the part above the 
 roof seems as if it were scorched by fire, while that be- 
 low tlie cornice is as green as it was in June. The fruit 
 on the portion fully exposed to the sun is likely to fail, in 
 good i^art, from the loss of foliage ; while, on the protected 
 part, there will be a good crop ripe in October. The plain 
 inference from this and many similar cases within my 
 observation is, that the vine must have some protection 
 from nocturnal radiation." 
 
 Mr. C. A. Riehl, of Boonville, Mo., writes to "The 
 Gardener's Monthly," vol. ii. p. 362, giving facts which 
 are so much to the point, that we again quote : " I 
 have for many years been of the opinion that two things 
 were essentially necessary for the healthy growth of 
 the grape ; namely, natural or artificial protection from 
 dew, and thorough drainage. The reasons for enter- 
 taining this belief are these: Some ten' years ago, my 
 father tried some experiments on three vines of the Isa- 
 bella planted on the east side of the house. At first 
 they were trained close to the wall, where they would be 
 protected from dew by the projection of the roof; and, 
 while grown thus, they bore regular and fine crops of 
 grapes. But subsequently they were permitted to run on 
 
•232 CULTURE OF THE G R A J' E. 
 
 some framework, so as to make a kind of arbor in front 
 of the house, and where the dew would fall on the leaves; 
 after which the grapes invariably rotted botli on the arbor, 
 and under the roof, and on the wall : and I have observed 
 the same thing in other localities ; thus showing that it is 
 not the fault of the soil or climate, aside from the dew." 
 Mr. Riehl gives his opinion, that vines do better in the 
 tops of trees, because their foliage is protected from dews 
 by the foliage of the trees. He also states, that, upon 
 thoroughly drained lands, there is always less rot or mil- 
 dew than where the ground tends to heaviness; and that 
 in dry seasons, when there is little dew, the vines are 
 wholly exempt from disease. 
 
 We have already seen that the amount of rain which 
 falls in the Atlantic States is in excess of the wants of the 
 in-ape. Those States which have the least amount are 
 best for the vine, and suffer least from mildew and bhick 
 rot. By the tables taken from " The United-States Agri- 
 cultural Report" for 1862, it appears that at St. Louis, 
 Mo., there is the greatest amount of summer rain-falJ, 
 averaging 14.6 inches; while the total average for the 
 year reaches the large amount of 42.5 inches. As might 
 be expected, this region suffers extremely from mildew 
 and black rot. On the other hand, there is a small tract. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 233 
 
 commencing at Rochester, in New York, and extending 
 west along the shore of Lake Erie, and including its 
 islands, where the rain-fall does not average over nine 
 inches during the summer months; which is less than in 
 any other part of the Northern United States east of the 
 Mississippi. On Kelly's Island, in the western part of 
 Lake Erie, there is not only this favoring circumstance of 
 a light rain-fall, but also a remarkable freedom from dews 
 and fogs during the summer. After the water of the lake 
 becomes warm, the nigiit temperature of the island is 
 kept up ; and the consequence is, that very little dew falls. 
 Fogs are also very seldom experienced. It is to this that 
 the cultivators on the island attribute their uniform 
 success in ripening their grapes, and their almost entire 
 freedom from mildew and rot. The water of the lake 
 preserves a uniformity of temperature, and prevents the 
 extremes of heat and cold. This alone is a most impor- 
 tant advantage, and a great safeguard ag;nnst mildew. It 
 is a question, whether dew is in itself promotive of mil- 
 dew, or whether we should not, with more propriety, say 
 that the conditions which produce dew tend also to 
 develop mildew. This distinction is important; and I 
 confess that upon it my hope for the unprotected hori 
 zontal trellis to some extent depends. That such a trellis 
 
234 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 is exposed in the gi'eatest degree to the effects of dew is 
 obvious. Copings and projecting cornices have, in num- 
 berless instances, proved a safeguard against mildew. A 
 single, w^ide board has been run along the top of j^er- 
 pendicular trellises for the purpose of keeping off the 
 dew ; and it has been thought to effect good results. 
 Whether such results are not rather the eff*ect of protec- 
 tion from cold, and a partial arrest of warm air radiating 
 from the earth, may be a question. In the cases of Prof. 
 Silliman and Mr. Riehl, — and such cases might be multi- 
 plied, — it is important to determine whether the evil 
 result of bringing vines out from a projecting coping is 
 caused by the new exposure to strong currents of air, and 
 the extremes of heat by day and cold by night, rather 
 than by the effect of' dew. It is a question wliich must 
 be determined by facts alone. I have hope that a vine 
 trained horizontally, near the ground, will of itself arrest 
 radiation to some extent ; that it will, to some extent, 
 find a benefit in its proximity to the earth, the tempera- 
 ture of wdiich is so much above the cold night-air. We 
 know this benefit is very appreciable where vines run 
 over rocks, which become heated during the day, and give 
 off* their heat during the night. It must be kept in mind 
 that the leaves spoken of by Prof Silliman were high in 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE 235 
 
 air, and exposed to cold draughts, and that a low-trained 
 vine relies upon its favoring circumstances. Of course, we 
 would wish to avoid the dew, because a cold dry air is 
 less injurious to vegetation than a cold damp air. But, if 
 we may hope to retain a higher temperature underneath 
 the vine, we may also trust that the dew upon the upper 
 surface will not in itself be a serious injury. Actual trial 
 can alone determine this. While it is true that an expo- 
 sure to strong draughts of air is an injury to the foliage, 
 which tends to mildew, it is equally true that foliage 
 growing in a close or a shady place is almost a certain 
 prey to mildew. Hence it is that close fences are re- 
 garded by some as undesirable. A certain amount of 
 circulation is necessary to keep the air sweet and dry, and 
 to produce a firm instead of a succulent growth. We 
 may sum up our views, under the head of preventing 
 the seeds of fungi from taking root, as follows: So long 
 as we can keep the foliage of the vine in perfect health, 
 we are safe against attacks. Whatever tends to promote 
 firm growth, especially the use of ashes, is beneficial. A 
 light and warm soil is least affected. Copings which 
 guard from the cold night-air are also a benefit. Any 
 thing done in either of these three directions, which pro- 
 motes the health of the vine, and prevents that debility 
 
236 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 of foliage, and exudation of viscid matter, upon which the 
 fungus may fasten, is done wisely. Upon the second 
 point, namely, a state of the atmosphere in which mildew 
 will cease to grow, we shall have little to say. That mil- 
 dew delights in a warm and muggy air is beyond doubt. 
 It is equally clear, that, though the vines have become 
 debilitated, and in condition to receive, and have actually 
 received, the seeds, yet, if the weather becomes warm, dry, 
 and clear, the fungus will perish. It cannot grow in a 
 clear, dry air. However important this fact may be, it is 
 one over which we have very little control. In a glass 
 house, we can control the atmosphere ; and I have no 
 doubt that by this means alone we could check the 
 growth and spreading of the fungus. In the open air, we 
 must be content with the slight modification of the tem- 
 perature, and the material diminution of the humidity of 
 the air, Avhich result from a warm, well-drained soil. 
 
 The third and last remedy consists in destroying the 
 life of the fungus by poison. In England, it is found that 
 caustic lime, and also common salt, are destructive to the 
 Puccinia graminis, the species of mildew which attacks 
 grain. In Johnson's "Essay upon Salt," 3d ed. p. 52, is an 
 account of the application of salt, by Rev. Edmund Cart- 
 wright, upon a field of wheat which was badly mildewed. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 237 
 
 A brine was made in the proportion of one pound of salt 
 to one gallon of water, which was sprinkled broadcast. 
 The result was, that the mildew was completely subdued. 
 Mr. Cartw^right adds, " I believe it to be instant death to 
 fungus. This, however, is certain, — in less than forty- 
 eight hours, the straw nearly recovers its original color and 
 brightness. The certainty and celerity of its operation I 
 account for thus : The mildew, it is well ascertained, is a 
 parasitical plant of the fungus tribe, the principal constit- 
 uent of which tribe is water : when salt is therefore ap- 
 plied to them, the aqueous particles are immediately 
 absorbed, and their vitality destroyed. The action of salt 
 upon mushrooms, as in making mushroom-catsup, confirms 
 this theory." 
 
 This applies to mildew upon wheat ; but it would be 
 reasonable to suppose that its nature was so similar to 
 grape mildew {Oidlum, Tuckeri of Europe), that it would 
 have equal eifect upon the latter also. I have never heard 
 of any experiments in this direction in this country as 
 applied to the grape. It is certainly worthy of trial. But 
 the most powerful specific is sulphur, which, has long been 
 known and applied, — long before the nature of the dis- 
 ease was understood. The testimony in its favor is unani- 
 mous and very decided. If it can be made to pervade a 
 
238 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 house or a vineyard, it not only will prevent develop- 
 ment, but it will absolutely arrest and kill the fungus 
 when growing. It will be found far easier, however, to 
 prevent than to cure. Various modes of applying the 
 sulphur have been tried. In one of the " Gardener's 
 Magazines" a suggestion was made (to which I have not 
 been able to turn), that sulphur, if worked into the soil 
 in moderate quantity, would prove a sure jyreventwe. I 
 know of no case where this has been tried. The sulphur 
 would prove valuable as a fertilizer ; and possibly a very 
 small amount of gas would pervade the air of the vine- 
 yard. So far as the sulphuric acid, which the vine im- 
 bibes, tends to promote vigor, and prevent the enfeebled 
 condition and viscid secretion of the leaves, it should be 
 applied like ashes, to give constitution and tone, which 
 will enable the vine itself to resist the disease. With this 
 design in view, it is well to make trial of sulphur as a 
 dressing ; but, when we have the direct " intent to kill," 
 we must make more direct application. 
 
 In forcing - houses or graperies that have hot -water 
 pipes or flues, it is a very simple and effectual plan to dust 
 the flower of sulphur upon the pipes or flue. The fumes 
 of sulphur pervade every part of the house ; and, in such 
 an atmosphere, the fungus cannot live. Care must be 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 239 
 
 taken that the sulphur is not put upon very hot bricks, so 
 that it will approach burning, else the sulphurous acid gas 
 will prove destructive to the foliage of the vine as well as to 
 the fungus. Another mode of applying it is to dust the diy 
 flour through the foliage in the middle of a clear, dry day. 
 The sulphur is' much more efficacious and pervading when 
 the foliage and the air are free from moisture. For the 
 vineyard, this is the easiest and most rapid mode of appli- 
 cation, requiring, however, a larger amount of sulphur. I 
 have never found any evil resulting from too free use ; 
 and I therefore recommend frequent and liberal dustings 
 wherever there is a liability to the disease. Several ma- 
 chines have been devised for the purpose of dusting the 
 sulphur evenly underneath and through the foliage, — such 
 as the bellows principle to blow the dust ; also a tin cyl- 
 inder, two feet in length, and about three inches in diame- 
 ter, perforated with minute holes at one end and on the 
 sides, and having a round woollen ball to play inside as a 
 valve. This cylinder is attached to a handle two feet or 
 more in length. When the cylinder is j^artly filled with 
 sulphur, and is thrust back and forth under the vines, the 
 ball acts as a plunger to drive out clouds of siili:)hni-. 
 Though I have neVer used such a machine, I think it can 
 be made very efficient. My own practice has been to use 
 
240 CULTURE OF THE G U A P E. 
 
 an open tin j^an, with a common feather clui=;ter. The 
 work is more rapid, there is no liability to clog, and the 
 quantity of sulphur is more liberally supplied. Still I am 
 not prepared to say it is better than the mode of applying 
 by a cylinder. The main point is to secure an even dis- 
 tribution in a dry time. To make sure work, this appli- 
 cation should be made before any signs of mildew appear, 
 and repeated three or four times during the season. The 
 first application should be soon* after the leaves appear ; 
 a second, about the time of blossoming ; and one or more 
 rej^etitions, when the grapes are of the size of peas, with 
 frequent repetitions if there are indications of the disease 
 after this time. In "The Horticulturist" for June, 1864, 
 p. 170, " Horticola " gives a letter from Neubert, a cele- 
 brated vine-grower at Leipzic, Saxony. In addition to 
 the ordinary application of sulphur during the growing 
 season, Mr. Neubert also recommends the following: 
 " Treatment of the vines before the leaves appear : Sy- 
 ringe them thoroughly, also the walls, posts, stakes, trel- 
 lises, &c., with the following mixture : Take eight and a 
 half ounces of common " salt, four ounces of saltjietre, 
 thirty-six ounces of water, and add ten drops of oleum 
 anthos and ten drops of oleum lavendulas to the solu- 
 tion, shaking it well; take one part of the solution, and 
 
CULTUr.E OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 241 
 
 from a liundrod to a Imndretl and t^venty parts of water. 
 Immediately before using, it must be vigorously shaken, 
 on account of the oils, which, of course, easily separate' 
 from it." In view of this syringing and the use of sul- 
 phnr during the growing season, Mr. Neubert, allndino- 
 to his past years of sleepless anxiety, struggling with thl" 
 ^lisease, adds, "Kow, however, I am confident that all 
 the cares arising from that disease are at an end." He 
 gives no re.ason for his solution, and we are at a loss to 
 comprehend the benefit of rosemary and Lavender. T!>e 
 salt and saltpetre are in such homceop.athic quantities, 
 that we cannot understand how so practical and skilful 
 a cultivator as Mr. Neubert can attach so much value 
 to it. The early and frequent dustings with sulphur 
 must be the secret of his success. 
 
 We account for the efficiency of sulphur from the 
 known efiect of sulphurous acid gas upon vegetable and 
 ammal life. This gas, as we have stated, is very destruc- 
 tive to vegetation. It extinguishes flame and animal life 
 When diluted with a large proportion of atmospheric air. 
 It IS still so acrid as to produce a sense of suffocation and 
 violent coughing. Every one has experienced the sufib- 
 eating odor of friction-matches. Flour of sulphur is in- 
 soluble in water, and decomposes slowly by combining. 
 
 16 ^ 
 
242 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 with oxygen, forming sulphurous acid in the proportion 
 of one part sulphur and two parts ox^^gen. Now, when 
 we use dry sulphur, it is converted into a gas so slowly, 
 that the grape-foliage receives no perceptible injury. But 
 the parasitic fungus is far more sensitive, and perishes 
 upon the least perception of this gas. 
 
 And yet, though we express the opinion that the sul- 
 phur acts as a direct poison upon the fungus, and that its 
 chief merit consists in this, still it maybe well to consider 
 how far the enfeebled state of the folinge, and of the ber- 
 ries also, in the case of black rot, is caused by a lack of 
 sulphur in the plant, arising from a lack in the soil. If 
 this were true, possibly the slight amount of sulphurous 
 gas given off, instead of being an injury, may be, to some 
 extent, directly inhaled by the leaves in sufficient quantity 
 to give them tone, and enable them better to withstand 
 the attacks of mildew. Careful observation may enable 
 us better to understand the principle upon which sulphur 
 acts. 
 
 It will be obvious, that though this mode of using sul- 
 phur is easy and safe, yet we get but a small percentage 
 of the virtue of the sulphur at the time of application. 
 This involves a loss of material to some extent ; but, on 
 the other hand, there is an advantage in having a pro- 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 243 
 
 longed effect from the gas. For dull weather, and when 
 immediate effect is desired, another more speedy and 
 more powerful remedy is to dissolve the sulphur, and 
 apply it in solution. This mode was recommended by 
 Prince, in his "Treatise on the Grape," published in 1830. 
 His mode is to take a pint and a half of sulphur, and a 
 lump of unslacked lime as big as the fist, and dissolve 
 the two together by pouring a pail of boiling water upon 
 them in a barrel. This is to be diluted by adding two 
 barrels of water, at which strength it is to be applied to 
 the vines. A pint and a half of sulphur will therefore 
 make about sixty gallons of the wash. This is too weak, 
 and the quantity of lime is also too small to dissolve all 
 the sulphur. In the twelfth volume of " Hovey's Maga- 
 zine " is a recipe for a solution, recommending one peck 
 of lime, and half a pound of sulphur, to be slacked with 
 boiling water in a tight barrel. After slacking, three gal- 
 lons of water are to be added ; and, when settled, the 
 clear liquor is to be poured off. To every gallon of this 
 mixture add forty-eight gallons of water. This will give 
 about a hundred and forty-four gallons of liquor for half 
 a pound of sulphur. In this case, the amount of sulphur 
 is far too small for so much lime and so great a dilution. 
 The heat which is evolved by slackening a peck of lime 
 
244 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 with boiling water will dissolve ten times the half-pound 
 of sulphur. Though the caustic lime-water is undoubt- 
 edly destructive of the fungus, yet its effect is limited to 
 actual contact with the disease. Our main reliance is* 
 upon the sulphurous gas. I have made a solution of the 
 following proportions, without perceiving the slightest 
 injury to the foliage of the vines from its application: To 
 a peck of lime add five pounds of sulphur; slack with hot 
 water, in order that the heat of the lime may be as great 
 as possible, and the solution of the sulphur more perfect. 
 This may now be diluted with two barrels of water, which 
 is in the proportion of twelve gallons of liquor for every 
 pound of sulphur. I have indeed used it stronger than this 
 without ill effects. Considerable strength will be obtained 
 by drawing off a second, and even a third, run from the 
 lime-mortar. This liquid is to be applied to the foliage 
 with a syringe or hand garden-engine. It is quick in 
 action, and is therefore more desirable than dry sulphur 
 when the disease is under headway. It may also be used 
 in dull weather. A vineyardist will therefore do wisely 
 to provide this remedy in case of necessity, relying upon 
 the dry flour mainly for prevention, and in dry weather. 
 tVith a faithful use of these remedies, it is believed that 
 mildew cannot make headway. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 245 
 
 In regard to the black-rot fungus, it is more doubtful if 
 sulphur is a specific remedy. The fungi are formed under 
 the surface of the berries, making it difiicult to reach 
 them. I apprehend that sulphur would be an important 
 preventive to the development of the fungus. The uni- 
 versal testimony is, that heavy soils are certain to be most 
 troubled with rot; also that the disease is much more 
 prevalent in wet seasons than in dry. In California, the 
 disease is unknown except in low clay soils. This is the 
 most serious of all evils in Southern Ohio, where the soil 
 is strong, and the rain-fall is excessive. So serious has 
 the evil become within a few years, that some extensive 
 vineyards around Cincinnati are being abandoned for the 
 more favored locality of Kelly's Island and the surround- 
 ing region. In the vast extent, where the summer rain 
 does not average above ten inches, we may hope, that in 
 warm and well-drained soils, with a free use of ashes and 
 sulphur and other tried remedies, we may have a good 
 degree of exemption from this evil. In this connection, I 
 would again suggest the use of gypsum, or plaster of Paris, 
 as containing the essential elements, sulphur and lime, 
 which enter so largely into the structure of healthy vines. 
 Experiments with this sulphate of lime have been made 
 for the purpose of testing its effects upon the black rot; 
 
246 c u L T u n E of the g r a p e. 
 
 and many cases have been reported where it had a very 
 percei^tible influence. The late A. J. Downing was accus- 
 tomed to recommend it as a specific. A great many cases 
 might be cited where the rot has disappeared, and there 
 has been entire exemption after the use of plaster. Cer- 
 tainly it must be of great service wlierever there is a defi- 
 ciency of sulphur in the soil ; and it would be wise to try 
 its effect upon every vineyard. 
 
\ 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 INSECTS INJCEIOUS TO THE VINE. 
 
 T'TTE cannot, of course, expect to give a complete list 
 of insects which prey upon the vine, to a greater 
 or less degree, in the diffei-ent pra-ts of the country. It 
 will be enough if those which are liable in any case to 
 become serionsly destructive are enumerated. In making 
 up the list, great rcli.'ince has been placed upon Prof. 
 Harris's most able and interesting ti-eatise upon insects, 
 wdiich, though limited to New England in its researches, 
 will probably be found to embrace all insects that are to 
 any extent troublesome in other parts of the country. 
 Long as the list is, and seriously troublesome as some of 
 them are, yet they have not hitherto been as much so as 
 the diseases mentioned in the jireceding chapter. Some 
 
 247 
 
248 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 species increase with great rapidity, and we cannot be too 
 much on onr guard against them. Reports will materially 
 differ in different localities ; some places being entirely ex- 
 empt from insects that are very destructive in other sec- 
 tions. Every section, however, is liable to attack ; and it 
 is wise to know the enemy, and guard against invasion. 
 It is evident, thnt as the cultivation of fruit extends, and 
 as the number of birds diminishes, the increase of inju- 
 rious insects is a natural result. It will be absolutely 
 essential that human skill shall be made effectual against 
 this increase. Already we know of substances destruc- 
 tive to most insects, and there is no reason for discourage- 
 ment in a single instance. 
 
 THE EOSE-CHAFEE. 
 
 (Melolontha subspinosa of Fabricius.) 
 
 The prevalence of this insect on the rose, and its annual 
 appearance coinciding with the blossoming of that flower, 
 harv^e gained for it the name of Rose-bug. Harris de- 
 scribes the beetle as "measuring seven-twentieths of an 
 inch in length, with a slender body, tapering before and 
 behind, entirely covered with very short and close ashen 
 down ; the thorax is long and narrow, angularly widened 
 
CULTURE OF T H E G R A P E. 249 
 
 ill the middle of each side, which suggested the name 
 Subspinosa, or somewhat spined ; tlie legs are slender, and 
 of a pale-red color; the joints of the feet are tipped with 
 black, and are very long, which caused Latreille to call 
 the genus Macro dactylus, i.e. long-toe or long-foot. This 
 insect comes from the ground in swarms, in some sec- 
 tions about the secon'd week in June, and especially 
 chooses the grape, taJdng also the chen-y, apple, plum, 
 garden-A'^egetables, and indeed almost every green thing; 
 feeding indiscriminately npon leaves, flowers, and fruit. 
 Dr. Harris states that they have prodigiously increased in 
 number during the last forty years; though I think the 
 contrary is true for the last ten yeai-s, since his opinion 
 was written. In the early formation of Dr. Underhill's 
 celebrated vineyard at Croton Point, N.Y., the rose-chafer 
 was very nnmerous and destructive ; and Avould have 
 ruined the vines, had not the doctor taken vio;orous meas- 
 ures to destroy them. This can easily be done by shak- 
 ing tliem into a pan of water, and killing tliem when col- 
 Jlected in suflicient quantity. If taken soon after their 
 "appearance from the ground, being then quite feeble, they 
 do not attempt to fly, but drop helplessly at the least 
 shake of the branch. John Lowell, Esq., states in the 
 "Massachusetts Agricultur.il Repository," vol. ix. p. 145, 
 
250 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 that, in 1823, the rose-bug appeared upon a solitary apple- 
 tree " in such vast numbers as could not be described. . . . 
 Destraction by hand was out of the question." He shook 
 them down upon sheets, and burned them. "Eighty-six 
 of these spoilers were known to infest a single rose-bud, 
 and were crushed by one grasp of the hand." Owing to 
 this ease of its destruction, we can with certainty protect 
 ourselves against the ravages of the bug. According to 
 Dr. Harris, the male bug becomes exhausted in from 
 thirty to forty days, and perishes ; while the females en- 
 ter the earth, lay their eggs, re-appear, linger for a few 
 days, and die also. The number of eggs deposited by 
 each bug is about thirty, at a depth of one to four inches 
 below the surface. They are globular, whitish, about one- 
 thirtieth of an inch in diameter, and are hatched in twenty 
 days after tliey are laid. The young larvae are ofa yellow- 
 ish-white color, with six short legs ; and attain a full size in 
 autumn, when they are three-quarters of an inch long. In 
 October, they descend below the frost, and pass the winter 
 in a torpid state. In the spring, they approach towards the' 
 surface ; and each grub forms an oval cell by frequently 
 turning around so as to compress the earth, and make 
 it hard and smooth. In the month of May, the grub 
 is transformed into a yellowish-white pupa, with short 
 
CULTURE OF THE (i 11 A P E. 251 
 
 stump-like wings, and legs folded upon its breast, all 
 enclosed by a thin film. In June, the filmy skin is rent, 
 and the beetle digs to the surface. As before stated, they 
 can be more easily destroyed soon after they appear. The 
 rose-bug is very fond of the blossoms of the ailantus, 
 being attracted by their sickening odor. Fortunately, 
 the ailantus-blossoms are of some service, as they are 
 deadly poison to the bug ; and this may account for their 
 gradual diminution since the ailantus has been culti- 
 vated. 
 
 THE FLEA-BEETLE (HalUca Chalybea). 
 
 This insect is found upon the grape-^dne in all parts of 
 the United States, both upon wild and cultivated vines* 
 Generally it is not numerous enough to be very destruc- 
 tive ; though there are cases mentioned, such as Mr. How- 
 ell's, in " The Horticulturist," vol. v. p. 52. Mr. David 
 Thomas also, in the twenty-sixth volume of Silliman's 
 "Journal of Science," speaks of them as appearing in un- 
 usually great numbers in the vicinity of New Haven, 
 Conn., and doing unexampled injury, in the spring of 
 1831. " Some vines w^ere entirely despoiled of their fruit- 
 buds, so as to be rendered for that season barren." I>r. 
 
252 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 Harris describes the color of the beetle as varying in 
 shades of blue. " The most common tint of the upper 
 side is a glossy, deep greenish-blue; the under side is 
 dark green; and the antennse and feet are dull black. It 
 measures rather more than tliree-twentieths of an inch in 
 length. The beetles emerge from the ground about the 
 last of April, and continue to appear during the month 
 of May. Soon after their first appearance, they pair, and 
 probably lay their eggs on the leaves of the vine. A sec- 
 ond brood of the beetles is found on the grape-vines 
 towards the end of July." The larvae are small chestnut- 
 colored and blue worms, about one-quarter of an inch in 
 length, which feed upon, and are very destructive to, the 
 foliage of the vine, until they descend into the ground, 
 and undergo their transformations. 
 
 The beetle appears so early in the season, that, in order 
 to find food, he is compelled to resort to bonng the 
 grape-bud. This is the most serious injury which the 
 beetle effects; and it can be prevented by washing 
 the canes, especially the eyes, with a mixture of whitewash 
 and sulphur. After the vine is in leaf, and if seriously 
 infested, probably the beetle may be driven away by a 
 dusting of air-slacked lime. Tobacco-water will subse- 
 quently destroy the larvae, and it will probably have the 
 
C U L T U n E O F THE G 11 A P E. 253 
 
 same effect upon the beetle. At present, this beetle is 
 not a serious pest. 
 
 THE SPOTTED PELINDOTA (P. punctata). 
 
 This is an oblong, oval-shaped beetle, about an inch in 
 length, appearing during the months of July and August, 
 in some sections in great abundance. The wings are of 
 a dull brownish color, with three black dots on each ; 
 the body and the legs are of a deep bronze-green. Owino- 
 to the size of this beetle, and the fact that it subsists only 
 upon the foliage of the vine, its increase would prove 
 very injurious. At present, they are easily kept under by 
 hand-picking, and destroying them with the foot. 
 
 ANOMALA VAKIAJTS. 
 
 This is a broad, oval-shaped beetle, described by Dr. 
 Harris as very variable in color; the males being sometimes 
 entirely black, and sometimes the head and thorax green- 
 ish-black, margined with tile-red : the wina:-covers being; 
 clay yellow, irregularly furrowed, and punctured in the fur- 
 row ; the legs are pale red, brown, or black. It measures 
 about seven-twentieths of an inch in length ; the females 
 
254 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 being slightly larger than the males. This beetle has 
 been found in many gardens in Cambridge, Mass.; and has 
 proved very injurious to the vine. Should it increase, 
 it may prove as difficult to check as the vine-chafer 
 of Europe {Anomala vitis), which it much resembles. 
 The beetle appears in the months of June and July, and 
 feeds upon the leaves, completely devouring them. It 
 should be destroyed by collecting in a pan of water, as 
 directed for the rose-bug; this bug being also a melo- 
 lantha,.and of about the same size as the subspinosa. 
 
 THUIP, OR VHnTE-HOPPER (Tettigoma vitis.) 
 
 The thi-ip is distinct from the European vine-fret- 
 ter. It is about one-tenth of an inch in length, of 
 a straws-color, with two red lines upon the head, and 
 a scarlet band across its middle and at the base of 
 the wing-covers : the tips of the wing-covers are black- 
 ish, with red lines between the band and the tips. 
 Upon its first appearance in June, it is small, and, being 
 in the larva state, is not provided with wings. Coming 
 from the egg previously deposited upon the leaf, it re- 
 mains quietly sucking its nourishment, unless disturbed ; 
 when it is very shy, and leaps with great agility. During 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 255 
 
 its growth, it frequently changes its skin ; and great num- 
 bers of these cast-off skins are frequently founcl upon tlie 
 leaf. In August, the insects become mature, and, with 
 their flying, and leaping powers combined, become exceed- 
 ingly active, and exhaustive to the vine. In the autumn, 
 they hide themselves under leaves, and come forth in 
 the spring to lay their eggs, and die. They live by 
 suction of the juices from the under side of the leaf, and 
 even from the fruit. They have been much more destruc- 
 tive to the European varieties of grapes than to our 
 native ; so mu^h so, that some wn-iters have asserted that 
 they were to be found only in grape-houses. This opin- 
 ion is quite erroneous; for though the thrip, or vine-fret- 
 ter, is almost universal in all grapeiies, and would j^rove 
 a serious evil if not held in check, yet it by no means 
 confines itself to graperies. I have seen its evil effects 
 in multitudes of vineyards. Attaching themselves to the 
 under surface of the leaves, they greedily suck the life of 
 the leaf, producing the yellowish, spotted appearance 
 which is seen upon the upper surfice. I have seen them 
 increase so much, especially in dry summers, as to exhaust 
 almost every appearance of green upon the vine ; and to 
 fly away at my approach, in such numbers as to make it 
 quite disagreeable to walk through the swarm. In the 
 
256 C U L T V li E OF THE G 11 A P E. 
 
 grapery, they can be killed by fumigating with tobacco, 
 which is a specific for all plant-lice. They are tenacious 
 of life, however; and it will generally require two or three 
 smokings to effectually clear a house. In the open air, 
 tobacco-water and a suds of whale-oil soap are the reme- 
 dies which can most easily be applied. A strong decoc- 
 tion of tobacco, syringed upon the foliage, is usually 
 effectual in driviug them away, though it does not kill 
 them. Whale-oil soap would also probably prove effica- 
 cious if used in June, when the thrip first appears in its 
 larva state. If allowed to mature, neither tobacco nor 
 soap will prove effectual in the open air. Fcssendeu, in 
 " The American Gardener," suggests movable tents, to be 
 placed over the trellis, so that tobacco-smoke can be 
 applied. This might be done during the early stage of 
 the insect; but, when it has acquired wings, it would find 
 no inconvenience whatever in shifting its quarters as 
 the tent advanced. The movement of the tent would 
 prove too slow for these saltatory larva3. They dance 
 to quicker music. 
 
 Dr. Grider, President of the East-Pennsylvania Fruit- 
 growers' Society, recommends carrying lighted torches 
 under the vines at night. He says the thrip, being 
 attracted by the light, flies into the fire, and is killed. 
 
 \ 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 257 
 
 It is a statement easily tested, and if true, of which I 
 am somewhat doubtful, would prove an easy way of 
 destroying them. To my surprise, I have found tlie 
 Clinton, firm in its foliage as it is, to be more affected 
 than any other kind in my vineyard. I have never had 
 occasion to protect other kinds from thrij^ in the open 
 air, wdiile this inferior fruit has suffered severely. 
 
 I have never known the wingless species of aphis, or 
 green fly, seriously to infest llie grajDC in the open air ; and 
 it seldom troubles the vine under- glass. Should it be 
 found, it will be at the ends of the soft, new growth, 
 which, in the open air, may easily be cleared by either 
 dipping or syringing them with whale-oil soap or tobacco- 
 water. For aphis on the cherry and apple, I have used the 
 soap-suds with the best success. But it is fortunate that 
 this green fly does not show a preference for the vine. 
 
 VINE-SCALE (Coccus vitisj. 
 
 This is a species of bark -louse, having the appearance 
 of a small scale. This is the protecting cover of a mi- 
 nute insect, which subsists by sucking the juices from the 
 bark. It is readily destroyed by w^ashing it in a strong- 
 solution of caustic potash. Also, as a preventive, when 
 17 
 
258 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 the vines are taken up in the spring, the canes should 
 be cleaned, and all the crevices thoroughly washed with a 
 solution of one pound of potash to two gallons of water. 
 A brine made of one quart of salt and two gallons of 
 water is also effectual. 
 
 Other species of bark-lice are found to some extent. 
 The Coccus Adonidicm^ or mealy bug, is a bark-louse, cov- 
 ered with a downy, white scale, which is frequently seen 
 in graperies, especially where other plants are kept. It 
 draws from the sap of the vine, lodging in the axil of the 
 leaves and in crevices, or in the bunches of fruit ; and 
 proves very injurious, disgusting, and difficult to reach. 
 
 The same application of potash as in the previous case, 
 if thorough, will be found effectual. . . . Still another 
 species of Uce is mentioned by Dr. Harris, as follows : — 
 
 "Many years ago, wdien on a visit from home, I ob- 
 served, on a fine native grape-vine that was trained 
 against the side of a house, great numbers of reddish- 
 brown bark-hce, of a globular form, and about half as 
 large as a small pea, arranged in lines on the stems. An 
 opportunity for further examination of this species did 
 not occur till the summer of 1839, when I was led to the 
 discovery of a few of these lice on my Isabella grape- 
 vines by seeing the ants ascending and descending the 
 
CULTURE OF THE <i R A PE. 259 
 
 stems. Upon cr.reful search, I discovered the lice, which 
 were nearly of the color of the bark of the vine, partly 
 embedded in a little crevice of the bark, and arranged one 
 behind another in a line. They drew great quantities of 
 sap, as was apparent by their exudations, by which the 
 ants were attracted. Further observations were arrested 
 by a fire, which consumed the house, and the vines that 
 were trained to it." 
 
 Wherever there is danger of any of these or other 
 forms of bark-lice, the solution of potash will be found an 
 effectual remedy. It may be freely applied, without re- 
 gard to the drippings, as that which falls to the ground 
 will not be lost. 
 
 GLAXLS. 
 
 The leaves of the vine are sometimes seen to have ex- 
 crescences, which appear in the month of August. This 
 is undoubtedly caused by the sting of some insect, or gall- 
 11}', depositing a poison, and making a puncture* for the 
 lodgement of its young. The effect upon the vine is very 
 slight; but, lest the evil should increase, it would be well 
 to collect and destroy the leaves so punctured, before the 
 eggs are hatched. 
 
260 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 BED SPIDER {Acairns tellarius). 
 
 This minute insect delights in a dry atmosphere, and is 
 destroyed by continued humidity : consequently we sel- 
 dom find it troublesome in the open air, except in very 
 dry seasons. It almost invariably makes its appearance 
 in the greenhouse or grapery that has been kept hot and 
 dry, and soon disappears when these conditions fail. In 
 dry seasons, we sometimes see the effect of the insect in 
 small, light spots, and the generally sickly, dry, and yellow 
 color of the leaves. The insect is so minute as to be 
 scarcely discernible to the naked eye; but attaching itself 
 generally to the under surface, as the softer part of the 
 leaf, it spins a fine film as a protection, and subsists by 
 suction upon the leaf. When in sufficient quantity, it is 
 as exhausting to the plant as the thrip. But there is no 
 excuse for this ever happening. In addition to humidity, 
 sulphur is a sovereign remedy. In the grapery, it may be 
 sprinkled upon the flues, or dusted upon the foliage ; and, 
 in the open air, it should be used precisely as directed for 
 mildew. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 261 
 
 CATERPILLARS. 
 
 There are several kinds of caterpillar which feed npon 
 the vine, some of them being exceedingly voracious. 
 They are not so nmnerous as to be troublesome in most 
 sections; and are easily destroyed by hand-i^ickiug, as 
 their work becomes apparent. In some cases, it will be 
 necessary to pick entire leaves, or else dip the leaves in 
 strong whale-oil suds. Though these gourmands will re- 
 quire looking after, yet it is not probable that they will 
 ever multiply so as to cause serious trouble. I condense 
 and arrange the following descriptions from the work of 
 Dr. Harris. Linnaeus gave the generic name of Sphmges 
 to a group of moths, from the fancied resemblance which 
 their caterpillars bore to the Egyj^tian Sphinx. These 
 caterpillars are often found supporting themselves by 
 their hind-legs, with the fore-part of their body elevated, 
 with Sphinx-like fixedness, for hours. The Sphinx genus 
 is subdivided; and one group is known as S. r>hilampelus., 
 from the fact that the larvae or caterpillars feed upon the 
 vine. The caterpillars which produce the moth S. satel- 
 litia are pale -green or brown, with six cream -colored, 
 broad oval spots on their sides. 
 
262 CULTURE OF THE <J 11 A P E. 
 
 Another caterpillar of about the same size and habit, 
 producing the Sphiux-moth Achemon^ is more commonly 
 found upon the vine. It is about three inches in length, 
 and the six cream-colored spots on each side are found as 
 in the preceding species ; but they are long and narrow. 
 They have the power of withdrawing the segments of the 
 body within each other (of which there are six besides 
 tlie head), giving them a blunt appearance. When of full 
 size, they are very voracious, coming to their maturity in 
 August. They then enter the earth, and apj^ear the fol- 
 lowing June as a winged moth, four or five inches from 
 tip to tip of wing, of a light olive, with patches of dark 
 olive color. 
 
 In "The Gardener's Monthly," vol. iv. p. 151, a "new 
 enemy of the grape-vine" is figured and described by 
 Jacob Staufier, which, he says, was found cutting oflf entire 
 bunches of native grapes in Lancaster County, Penn., in 
 the month of July, 1861. Mr. Stauffer says this caterpillar 
 belongs to the genus Papilio, which produces a tribe of 
 day-flying, swallow-tailed butterflies. It is styled " a dan- 
 gerous species, undescribed before. It certainly is a fear- 
 ful- looking monster." The representation is like the 
 Achemon Sphinx caterpillar, with the segments of its 
 body drawn in. 
 
C U L T U n E OF T 11 E G RA P E. 263 
 
 Another Sphinx caterpillar {Choerocumpa, or Hog 
 Caterpillar)^ smaller and more numerous, though solitary 
 in its habits, like the preceding, is much more destructive. 
 Eating the leaves as it descends the stem, it also nips 
 off the half-grown grapes in great quantities, and allows 
 them to fall to the ground. It receives its name from the 
 resemblance of tlie fore-part of the body to the head 
 and snout of a hog. Its color is pale green, sometimes 
 brown, mth orange-colored spots on the back, six or seven 
 darker lines on each side, and a horn at the hinder ex- 
 tremity. It descends to the ground in August, and forms 
 a partial cocoon under the leaves ; and the small winged 
 moth appears in the following July. 
 
 Besides the Sphinx caterpillars, there are other species 
 which feed upon the vine. The common Blue Caterpillar^ 
 which produces the delicately colored and very beautiful 
 small moth Eudryas grata (beautiful wood-nymph), 
 is often found, solitary but in considerable numbers, feed- 
 ing upon the vine -leaves. When fully grown, it measures 
 an inch and a quarter, stretching to an inch and a half, in 
 length; its color being blue with deep orange bands, dot- 
 ted with black across the middle of each ring. They first 
 appear about the middle of July, and, when not feeding, 
 may be found on the under side of the leaves, until they 
 
264 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 disap]3ear, and go into the chrysalis state three or four 
 inches deep in the ground, and re-appear in the beautiful 
 moth-form in the latter part of June following. Hand- 
 picking, or syringing with tobacco-water, is a remedy, 
 whenever they are so numerous as to be troublesome. 
 Among a group of caterpillars called Glaucopidians is one 
 which produces the moth Procris Americana., representing 
 the Procris vitis of Europe. This caterpillar is above half 
 an inch in length when fully grown, is of a yellow color, 
 with a transverse row of black, velvety tufts on each 
 ring, and a few consi^icuous hairs on each extremity. 
 It is hatched from eggs, twenty or more in number, 
 laid on the lower side of the leaves early in July. 
 These caterpillars are gregarious, collecting side by side, 
 and eating every particle of the leaf except the ribs. 
 They have sixteen short feet, are rather sluggish in 
 their motions, and, when touched, curl their bodies side- 
 wise, and fill to the ground, or hang by a silken 
 thread. They continue for about a month, disappear- 
 ing in the latter part of August, and, in some shel- 
 tered spot, enclose themselves in a thin, tough, ob- 
 long-oval cocoon, and soon are transformed into shining 
 brown chrysalides, producing the moth in the latter part 
 of June following. It is evident, that, wheji numerous, 
 
CULTURE OF THE G R A l> E. 265 
 
 these caterpillars are very destructive; but they are 
 easily detected, and can be soon gathered. Still another 
 and more frequent and destructive insect, mistaken by 
 Fuller for the preceding, is called 
 
 False Caterpillar. — This caterpillar is the offspring of a 
 jet-black saw-fly named Selandria vitis, which rises from 
 the ground at irregular intervals in the spring and early 
 summer, and lays its eggs on the under surface of the termi- 
 nal leaves of the vine. In July, these caterpillars may be 
 seen in swarms of various ages and of all sizes ; those which 
 are fully grown being about five-eighths of an inch in 
 length. The head, and tip of the tail, are black ; the body 
 being light green, with two transverse rows of minute black 
 points across each ring, the lower side of the body being 
 yellowish. They are somewhat slender and tajjering be- 
 hind, thickest before the middle, and have twenty-two lags. 
 Each swarm consists of twelve or more worms, feedins: in 
 rank with surprising regularity. Commencing at the edge 
 of a leaf, a platoon in exact line, they retreat in perfect 
 order, eating every particle of the leaf except the ribs, 
 doing their work with a thoroughness, and a regard for 
 straight lines and mutual rights, that would be beautiful 
 to see, were it not so destructive to the vine. At their 
 last moulting, they become nearly yellow ; when they 
 
266 CULTURE O F T U E G U APE. "^ 
 
 descend, and form oval cells in the earth. Passing through 
 their chrysalis state in a fortnight, they come out, take 
 wing, and lay their eggs for a second brood. The second 
 brood remain in cocoons in the ground through the win- 
 ter. Inci-easing more rapidly than the Procris Caterpillar, 
 they have consequently been very destructive in some 
 cases. 
 
 Air-slacked lime is fatal to them, either dusted upon 
 the foliage, or upon the ground to receive those that fall. 
 Whale-oil soap, one pound to seven gallons of water, is 
 also effectual. 
 
 Leaf-rollers. — There are some kinds of caterpillar 
 that curl up the edge of leaves into rolls, thus securing to 
 themselves food and hnbitation by the same process. 
 They generally appear early in May, soon after the leaves 
 appear ; and mature, and pass through their chrysalis, in 
 the folds of the leaf. Tlie only way to destroy them is 
 to pluck the leaves; and, as the vine is not subject to 
 this attack, the process will not be found tedious. 
 
 Sun-scald. — This is a mere development of mildew. 
 The vitality of the leaf being destroyed by the fungus 
 when the sun acts upon it, it becomes dry and crisp. The 
 reason why so many have mistaken this for a distinct dis- 
 ease is because its full effect is not seen until after active 
 
CULTURE OF THE G It APE. 267 
 
 mildew may have disai^peared ; and its result is therefore 
 attributed to another cause. Of course, the remedy Ues 
 back in the treatment of mildew. 
 
 Birds. — The truth must be told, that some birds, espe- 
 cially the robins, are exceedingly destructive in some sec- 
 tions. However disagreeable the flict may be, our plump, 
 domestic, and motherly robin is one of the least serviceable 
 of insect-devouring birds, and, as a natural consequence, 
 does more damage to our fruits than all others put to- 
 gether. In the vicinity of Boston, robins have become so 
 numerous as to be an almost unendurable nuisance to the 
 fruit-grower. Commencing with the strawberry, they 
 turn from all insect food, for which they never show a 
 special fondness, except for the harmless fish-worm, and 
 follow up all our choicest fruits ; selecting the best kinds, 
 the largest specimens, and the ripest side, of strawber- 
 ries, cherries, raspberries, grapes, peaches, and even pears ; 
 extending through almost the entire list of fruits. They 
 are the more provoking, because, instead of contenting 
 themselves with a meal upon a single bunch of gi-apes, for 
 example, they are most dainty tasters, and will spoil half 
 a dozen bunches in making a single breakfast. To find a 
 premium-bunch just spoiled by a few pecks at the finest 
 berries is no slight trial of patience. In my own vine- 
 
268 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 yard, I have found it absolutely necessary, in order to 
 have any salable fruit, to keep a boy constantly at work 
 with a watchman's rattle, and also with a gun, " contrary 
 to the statute in such case made and provided." Of 
 course, this will be called cruel and barbarous ; and it will 
 be asked with an outgush of generous emotion, " Why not 
 raise grapes enough for ourselves and the birds also ? " 
 Yes ; but when the robin spoils tenfold what he can eat, 
 and, in his greed, lays claim to all, however extensive the 
 vineyard, I for one am inclined to resort to the argument 
 of powder and shot. 
 
 In concluding this subject of diseases and injurious in- 
 sects, we must admit that the list looks long and formida- 
 ble, and that " eternal vigilance " is the price which we 
 must pay for the grape. In the Atlantic States, it is no 
 spontaneous growth, as in California, where they treat the 
 vine much as we treat a crop of corn, with no training, no 
 checking, no mildew, and no complaint of insects. And 
 yet we are not to be discouraged : we shall find, that, 
 by systematic effort, our difiiculties can not only be over- 
 come, but will prove less than we anticipated. Many of 
 the insects, for example, are not likely to trouble us in the 
 least; and there is not one of them which cannot be kept 
 in check, the thiip being perhaps the most difficult. Not- 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 2G9 
 
 withstanding all these difficulties, we do not complain, or 
 despair that this noble fruit will strike the beam, even 
 with the still more serious evils of rot and mildew thrown 
 into the opposite scale. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 VAKIOUS ITEMS. 
 THINNING THE FEUIT. 
 
 "11 yrOST of our American varieties of the grape do not 
 set their bunches as closely upon the cluster as do 
 the foreign kinds. This is owing in some cases to the 
 flowers being imperfect, and in other cases to the length 
 of the pedicles, and the long spaces in which they are 
 arranged upon the peduncle. As a general rule, it is not, 
 therefore, necessary to thin our bunches. This is fortu- 
 nate ; for it would otherwise involve a great amount of 
 labor in the vineyard. Some varieties are quite too loose 
 in their bunches, the Scuppernong for example, having but 
 very few berries set separately upon a long peduncle. On 
 the other hand, a few kinds, such as the Diana, Herbe- 
 
 270 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 271 
 
 inont, and Delaware, will develop their berries to a larger 
 size if the bunches arc somewhat thinned. For the pur- 
 pose of raising a few bunches of superior quality, this is a 
 very desirable practice. This work should be done soon 
 after the clusters have gone out of blossom and have 
 taken their first swelling. From one-quarter to one-half 
 of the berries may be cut out, selecting those which stand 
 inside of the contour of the cluster, and leaving those 
 which remain evenly arranged at the extremities of the 
 pedimcle. The work is done with a pair of long, slender- 
 pointed scissors made expressly for this work. An expert 
 hand will go over the grapes quite rapidly ; and it is often 
 desirable, when the season has been favorable for the set- 
 ting of fruit, to go over many of our varieties, thinning 
 out some bunches, and removing defective clusters and 
 the surplus quantity. 
 
 THINNING THE FOLIAGE* 
 
 It has been the practice of some, as the fruit approached 
 maturity, to remove some of the dense shade, and allow 
 the sun to warm and ripen the fruit. When the wood 
 has been allowed to grow throughout the summer with- 
 out checking, the foliage is undoubtedly in excess, and 
 
272 CULTURE OF THE G R A P E. 
 
 the fruit is not inclined to ripen ; neither does it receive 
 its suitable share of nourishment in this damp shade. 
 But the mischief has been done, and it is folly to expect 
 that a removal of the leaves in so sudden and violent 
 a manner will remedy the evil. It is better, even thus 
 late, to check the wood-growth, rather than have that 
 streno;th of the vine which should oo towards maturino; 
 the fruit diverted in this direction, though this is work 
 which should have been done months before. The re- 
 moval of developed leaves will prove rather an injury 
 than a benefit, as the plant has become accustomed to 
 and dependent upon these lungs for the elaboration of 
 the sap. The fruit of the grape also is unlike many other 
 fruits : it is dei:)endent upon the foliage for its maturity. 
 We can never cut the grape in an unripe state, and ripen 
 it in the house, as we do apples, pears, and other fruit. 
 Even if the bunch remains on the vine, and the leaves 
 are stripped, the chemical action of maturing is arrest- 
 ed, and the bunch changes color without ripening. In 
 cases of excessive growth and foliage in August, there 
 may be a partial remedy in an entire stoppage of all 
 growth, and in a moderate removal of the superfluous 
 foliage ; but it is an unnatural and imperfect remedy, and 
 the indolent cultivator must expect to pay the penalty for 
 his neglect. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 273 
 
 GATHERING THE PRUIT^ 
 
 The time for this work will vary, to meet the purposes 
 for which the fruit is raised. If raised for wine or for 
 table-use, the fruit should be thoroughly ripened. Proba- 
 bly upon this "dead" ripeness, as it is commonly termed, 
 depends the high quality of the Tokay and many other 
 celebrated European brands. The vinous quality of the 
 fruit is greatly increased by remaining on the vines a con- 
 siderable time after the fruit is called ripe. On the other 
 hand, if the fruit is to be sent to a distant market, or if it 
 is designed to be packed away for winter use, it should be 
 cut as soon as it can be said to be fairly ripe. In all cases, 
 this work should be done when the fruit is perfectly dry ; 
 and every imperfect berry should be cut out with the scis- 
 sors. Generally, there is a slight inequality in the time 
 of ripening in the different bunches, which makes it de- 
 sirable to go over a vineyard twice, making two cuttings. 
 From vineyards in the vicinity of cities, the fruit is sent 
 to market in baskets ; but the larger part of the grapes 
 which come from a distance are packed in paper boxes 
 which hold from four to eight pounds. The box is packed 
 perfectly full, so that the grapes cannot shake about, with 
 
 18 
 
274 CULTURE OF THE GRATE. 
 
 no paper or cotton protection between the bunches. In 
 this manner, great quantities are sent to the Atlantic 
 cities from a distance of six to eight hundred miles inte- 
 rior; and they generally arrive in good order. Some 
 kinds, of course, are unsuited for such transit. In my 
 own experience, a temporary advantage has resulted to 
 those living near a market from this fict. The Hartford 
 Prolific is the earliest market-grape ; but, as it is liable to 
 drop if carried to a distance, those who cultivate it in the 
 vicinity of cities enter the market without any competi- 
 tion from the interior. The result has been, up to this 
 time, that, when the average wholesale price of grapes has 
 not exceeded fifteen dollars per hundred pounds, the 
 Plartford, which is an inferior fruit, has sold for twenty 
 dollars. As earlier and better kinds are introduced, this 
 condition will cease. 
 
 AM:orrN"T petr acre. 
 
 Very extravagant impressions are received by many as 
 regards the profit of grape-growing and the annual pro- 
 duct per acre. I have under my eye a recent estimate 
 made in " The New- York Tribune," in which it is shown 
 that it is an ea§y matter to produce ten tons of grapes 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 275 
 
 per acre, which, at fifteen cents per pound, would amount 
 to three thousand dollars. The estimate is based upon 
 the supposition, that the vines are planted four feet apart 
 each way, giving two thousand seven hundred and twenty- 
 two vines per acre, which, at an average of seven and a 
 half pounds of fruit for each vine, would yield twenty 
 thousand four hundred and fifteen pounds. It cannot be 
 disputed that vines may be trained to stakes at that dis- 
 tance, and that they may produce even more than seven 
 and a half pounds in some cases; but it may well be 
 doubted whether any acre ever did yield this amount. 
 Estimates based upon a few vines or a few rods of ground 
 are entirely fallacious. We must rely mainly upon actual 
 results, although we may hope to increase these results 
 by improved modes of culture. In the established vine- 
 yards of Cincinnati, the opinion of Mr. Buchanan and 
 Mr. Longworth was, that an average yield of wine per 
 acre was about two hundred and fifty gallons, requiring 
 about seventy bushels of grapes. I have no means of 
 estimating the equivalent in pounds of fruit. This is 
 called a fair average " for eight or ten years, with but 
 little rot." Mr. Longworth, in a report to the Cincinnati 
 Horticultural Society in 1846, mentions some much 
 larger results. He says, "The best crop for the extent 
 
276 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 of ground this season was at the vineyard of Mr. Rentz, 
 about four miles from town. Two acres yielded thirteen 
 hundred gallons. This is as large a yield as I have known, 
 taking two acres together. To select particular spots, I 
 have raised at the rate of fourteen hundred and seventy 
 gallons to the acre." Such enormous productiveness 
 must have been at a great sacrifice of quality. Probably 
 the grapes were very watery; so that a bushel would 
 produce considerably more than three and a half gal- 
 lons of juice. At that rate, the " particular spots " men- 
 tioned by Mr. Longworth would have produced at the 
 rate of four hundred and twenty bushels per acre. Of 
 course, this must be regarded as quite exceptional. In 
 the vineyards on Kelly's Island, it is said that the aver- 
 age annual product is not less than six thousand pounds 
 per acre. No doubt, there are many instances where 
 this amount is very much exceeded; but, taking the coun- 
 try at large, this is decidedly above the average. Judg- 
 ing from my own experience, I think there is great liabili- 
 ty to overestimate. I should say, that, with the excep- 
 tion of some specially favored spots, it would not be 
 prudent to estimate the average annual yield above four 
 thousand pounds per acre of good marketable grapes. 
 Of course, there will be some shrinkage, and many infe- 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 277 
 
 rior bunches, which a prudent mim will not reckon upon. 
 Even this net amount of two tons per acre, if it could be 
 depended upon, would yield a very large profit at the 
 present prices for grapes. Certainly there is great en- 
 couragement to plant the grape extensively as a market- 
 fi'uit. 
 
 PRESERYTN^G THE GRAPE. 
 
 The great bulk of this fruit is consumed during the 
 autumn months. It is a wise economy that fruits should 
 be more abundant during the summer and fall, as the 
 most suitable food at that season. Yet who would not 
 regard the refreshing and invigorating grape in winter as 
 something more than a luxury, — a real and needed good? 
 No fi'uit can be taken with such impunity ; no other is so 
 little inclined to clog. You may eat the Diana at night, 
 and a pleasant taste is created, and lingers in the mouth 
 the next morning. It is indeed important that the use of 
 this fruit should be extended through as many months as 
 is possible. There is room for much improvement in this 
 direction, and also abundant promise of success. 
 
 We must first determine by trial which varieties are 
 best adapted to being kept into winter. I know of no 
 
278 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 extensive experiments, and am unable to give a perfect 
 list. It is certainly useless to attempt to keep the Con- 
 cord or the Hartford or Creveling. Delaware, Isabella, 
 and Catawba all keep well; the Union Village keeps 
 better still ; the new Dana Grape has been exhibited in 
 January in unusually good preservation. But the Diana 
 probably exceeds all others in its keeping qualities. Its 
 thick, tough skin preserves it from decay, and enables it 
 to retain its high quality. There is no difficulty in keep- 
 ing this kind until March, with moderate care. By some 
 of the methods enumerated, it is to be hoped that the 
 same will be true also of many other equally good and 
 less difficult varieties. As before stated, grapes intended 
 to be kept into winter should be cut before they are veiy 
 ripe. This should be done when they are perfectly dry; 
 and every decaying or imperfect berry should be scrupu- 
 lously removed. A cool and dry atmosphere is absolutely 
 essential to really successful preservation. At a low tem- 
 perature, moisture is less promotive of decay than at a 
 higher. But it is far better to secure both a dry air, 
 and also a temperature just above the fieezing-point. 
 A thoroughly drained and cool cellar is the easiest 
 approach to this, and yet it will prove considerably 
 warmer than could be desired. Either this, or a cool 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 279 
 
 room on the north side of the house, must be the 
 substitute for a more perfect place, when the amount 
 of fruit is small. But I have thought an improved 
 and very simple method might be contrived for pre- 
 
 f- 
 
 A. 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 serving the temperature at a low range. This can easily 
 be done by introducing ice in the various forms of 
 our common refrigerators. But the objection is, that, 
 
280 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 while the temperature is reduced, there is necessarily a 
 great amount of moisture constantly accumulating. To 
 avoid this, I would plan a fruit-room, or a refrigerator, as 
 follows : In the fig. (39), the lower square, a, a, a, repre- 
 sents the fruit-apartment. The square, b, is the second 
 story of a refrigerator ; or, on a large scale, it may be a 
 room over the cellar or other fruit-room. In this square 
 is the ice-chest, c, which must be made of some close 
 metal, a good conductor of cold, and not porous. Iron 
 chests painted thoroughly inside and out will answer 
 every purpose. From one corner of this chest, a small 
 pipe, c^i conducts the water of the melted ice entirely 
 away from the house. Another gutter may run around 
 the bottom of the chest to collect and carry off any moist- 
 ure which may be condensed from the air upon the cold 
 surface of the chest. The principle on which such a re- 
 frigerator, or fruit-room, would act, is very simple, and 
 must be understood at a glance. The cold air radiating 
 from the iron chest reduces the temperature of the square, 
 B. This cold air, being heaviest, immediately descends 
 through the wooden pipes, e, e, to the bottom of the fruit- 
 room; while the warmer air rises through the apertures, 
 /*, /*, to be cooled, and descend in turn. Possibly it will 
 be found desirable in practice to provide one or two air 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 281 
 
 valves at the top of the square, b, in order to let currents 
 in and out, and thus make the circulation of the cold 
 current more rapid. This can quickly be determined by 
 trial. I do not know that this form has been used ; but I 
 regard it as having decided advantages over other forms 
 in use. While- the temperature is under easy control, it 
 will be seen that there is no liability to moisture from the 
 melting ice. This has heretofore proved the great bane 
 of all fruit-rooms; and it is with some satisfaction and 
 confidence that I give this plan, in the hope that this evil 
 may thereby be avoided. In any case, there will be more 
 or less of moisture ; to avoid which, the plan of Dubreuil, 
 which is most successfully in use in France, is very sim- 
 ple, inexpensive, and altogether the best. I copy the 
 directions as translated in " The Horticulturist," vol. xviii. 
 p. 85: — 
 
 " Until now, the only means used to get rid of the 
 dampness which arises from the fruit in the fruitery has 
 been to ventilate the fruitery during ten days before 
 closing up the house. This plan has serious objections. 
 In the first place, it causes the temperature of the room 
 to become the same as that of the open air, which often 
 injures the fruit. It also introduces air less charged with 
 carbonic acid, which is quite as objectionable: besides, it 
 
282 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 is exposed to the light, which hastens its maturity. More- 
 over, this method can only be used in dry weather, and 
 when the temperature is above the freezing-point. Now, 
 as this is seldom the case in winter-time, the fruit is con- 
 sequently subjected to the dampness of the fruitery. 
 
 "To overcome this difficulty, we recommend to use 
 chloride of calcium, which must not be confounded with 
 chloride of lime (chaux). This comparatively cheap arti- 
 cle absorbs nearly double its weight of moisture, and be- 
 comes deliquescent after being exposed a short time to 
 the damp air. 
 
 " In order to make use of the chloride of calcium, make 
 a wooden box, lined with lead, twenty inches square and 
 four inches deep, which must be raised about sixteen 
 inches from the floor, on a small stand, inclined a little at 
 one side : in the middle of the inclined side place a spout. 
 This apparatus being placed in the fruitery, put in it about 
 three inches deep of chloride of calcium, very dry and 
 porous. As it melts, the liquid runs out through the 
 spout into a stone jar underneath it. If all the chloride 
 of calcium is melted before all the ii'uit is taken out, you 
 must renew it. About forty pounds are sufficient to keep 
 a fruitery dry, used at three diflerent times. 
 
 " The liquid which is obtained by this plan should be 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE 
 
 283 
 
 carefully kept in stone jars, and tightly covered until tbe 
 next fruit-season. Then, when the fruitery is again filled, 
 pour the liquid into an iron pot, and evaporate it. It is 
 then again fit for use the next year." 
 
 This plan has been tried with entire success in an ex- 
 tensive fruit-room at Cleveland, O., using the cheap and 
 abundant waste bitterns from salt-Avorks. It is stated 
 that fifty gallons of water have thus been absorbed from 
 six thousand bushels of ai323les every week. 
 
 By using this chloride 
 of calcium in the man- 
 ner proposed, and in a 
 fruit-room constructed on 
 the principle before de- 
 scribed, the exact con- 
 ditions of ]oi'6servation 
 may easily be obtained, 
 and grapes may be kejH 
 in great perfection for 
 many months. 
 
 It has been recommended to suspend the clusters in an 
 inverted jDOsition, as may be seen in fig. 40, in order that 
 the berries may fall apart, and have a free circulation 
 of air, as preventive of decay. In ordinary dry- rooms, 
 
 Fisr. 40. 
 
284 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 the bunches will be liable to shrivel too much by this 
 method ; but in our cold, close fruit-room, they will keep 
 very well in this way. More space is required by this 
 plan than is desirable to give; and, as boxes answer 
 every purpose, they will be best when there is a consid- 
 erable quantity of fruit. Shallow wooden boxes suffi- 
 ciently deep to contain but a single layer of grapes are 
 best. A layer of glazed cotton-wadding or of paper, or 
 of cork-dust or wheat-bran or rice-chaff, may be placed 
 in the bottom of the box. I incline to think that clean 
 and perfectly dry sand would be better still. This might 
 be sifted in after the fruit is placed away in the room. 
 But it is not essential to use either one of these materials. 
 The fruit as it is cut in the vineyard should be at once 
 packed closely, so that there shall be but one handling. 
 Every appearance of imperfection or decay should be cut 
 away. 
 
 The boxes should then be placed in a cool, dry room 
 for a day or two, with the covers off, to allow all perspira- 
 tion and moisture to pass off. Then shut down the 
 covers, and set the boxes away in the fruit-room until 
 wanted for use. It may be necessary to examine the 
 fruit occasionally, and remove any signs of decay. It is 
 best, however, to keep the grapes as close, and as little 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 285 
 
 exposed to the air, as possible. Indeed, it is an excellent 
 plan to pack the fruit in glazed earthen jars, with sufficient 
 wheat-bran, or perfectly dry sand or grain, between each 
 bunch to keep them separate ; and, when the pot is full, to 
 seal it hermetically. Grapes are sent from the Crimea to 
 St. Petersburg, • packed in sealed pots, with kiln-dried 
 grain between the bunches ; and they are said to keep 
 perfectly throughout the year. Another most successful 
 method has been adopted by M. Rose Charmeux of 
 Thomery, in France, by which he has been enabled to 
 exhibit fresh grapes in spring and early summer. He 
 cuts a portion of a branch having two or more bunches 
 of fruit attached. The lower end of the branch he places 
 in a small bottle of water, to which is added a little char- 
 coal for the purpose of keeping the water sweet. The 
 bottles arranged in the rack, as 
 seen in fig. 41, will convey an 
 idea of the plan better than any 
 description. Though M. Char- 
 meux does not direct it, it would 
 be an undoubted advantage to 
 seal the upper cut of the branch 
 with a shellac solution, or with 
 wax, and also to close the mouth 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
286 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 of the bottle, in order to prevent evaporation. These 
 racks are to be kept in the cool fruit-room, as described for 
 boxes. M. Charmeux preserves his Chasselas and Black 
 Hamburgs (cut the previous fall) until the end of April, 
 with the "grapes as plump, and the stems as green, as 
 when taken from the vine " With such strong assurances, 
 and the great inducements to bring fruit into the market 
 at a season when it will command large prices, it is to be 
 hoped we shall see more enterprise in this art of preserv- 
 ing fruit. 
 
 WINE-MAKING. 
 
 In some parts of the country, this has already be- 
 come an immense business, — an art by itself In giving 
 a few simple directions for the home manufacture of 
 an innocent and health-giving beverage, it is not ex- 
 pected that they will be any guide to the professed 
 vintner; neither can it be inferred that we thereby 
 commit ourselves upon the question of the expediency 
 of wine-selling. The rules may be taken as they are 
 intended, — for home use. When the grapes are "dead 
 ripe," strip the berries from the stems, rejecting any 
 which are unripe or .decayed. The fruit should be per- 
 
CULTURE OF THE G R A P F.. 287 
 
 fectly dry when gathered. It is now to be mashed in 
 a mill or churn, or in any convenient way by which the 
 skin and pulp may be completely broken without breaking 
 the seeds. This should be done as speedily as possible 
 after gathering, and before any decay can set in. In 
 order to make a white wine, the first run of the juice is 
 taken : the second run from the press will be of a deeper 
 color ; and the third pressing of the skins still deeper, and 
 of an inferior quality. For the manufacture of deep 
 colored clarets in France, the juice and the husks are 
 allowed to ferment together in immense vats; the husks 
 being frequently pressed down as they rise to the surface. 
 It may not increase the relish for this drink to state, that 
 in order to keep the temperature up to about sixty de- 
 grees, and also to facilitate the mashing and mixing of the 
 husks, many of the workmen are accustomed to strip, and 
 enter for the work. 
 
 In making a sparkling wine, the must is never casked, 
 but is bottled directly from the vat; so that all fermen- 
 tation is in the bottle. Before bottling, the must is al- 
 lowed to settle in vats, the fibrous matter either rising or 
 settling at the bottom. This must is then drawn off*, or 
 racked as it is termed, into another vat ; and this process 
 is repeated several times until the wine is clear. It is 
 
288 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 then strained into bottles, which are corked and wired, 
 and laid upon their sides in a cool cellar, to remain until 
 the following autumn. There is usually considerable loss, 
 during the summer, from the bursting of bottles. In 
 September, a gentle inclination of the bottle, bottom 
 upwards, twice a day, will facilitate the settlement of sedi- 
 ment towards the neck and cork. Later in the fall, the 
 bottles must be opened with extreme care, and the sedi- 
 ment let out. The bottles must then be refilled, and 
 again corked, wired, and sealed. It will be seen that it 
 is a much more troublesome and risky process to make 
 sparkling than still wines ; and it is not wise to undertake 
 this for family use. Neither is it, in general, desirable to 
 make different grades of wine, but rather to secure a good 
 average from one thorough pressing. The skins, jDulp, 
 and juice are emptied into the press as soon as they are 
 mashed ; and the " cheese " is pressed dry, requiring to be 
 partially turned in order to obtain all the juice. The 
 must is immediately j)ut into casks, and placed in the 
 cellar ; the most desirable temperature being about fifty 
 degrees. The larger the casks, the slower but more per- 
 fect will be the fermentation. The cask should be of oak, 
 or some perfectly clean wood that will not give flavor to 
 the wine; and should be filled to within two or three 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 289 
 
 inches of the top, and the bung put in loosely. A better 
 way tfo allow for fermentation, and yet keep the wine from 
 the air, is to fill full and bung tightly, but insert a siphon 
 through the bung (the outer end of the siphon being 
 introduced into a pail of water) ; thus allowing the gas to 
 pass off through the water, without the admission of air 
 into the cask. The first is a violent fermentation, during 
 which all the fibrous matter settles to the bottom of the 
 cask, and is called " lees." Most writers advise that the 
 wine should be racked soon after this (in December or 
 January), the lees emptied out, the cask thoroughly 
 cleansed, and the wine returned ; the cask being filled full, 
 and bunged tight. Such early racking avoids the danger 
 of too rapid fermentation, which is liable to j^ass into the 
 acetous form, to the ruin of the wine. A second fermen- 
 tation will take place, during which the wine again be- 
 comes turbid ; and gelatinous matter works clear, and set- 
 tles to the bottom. A small quantity of isinglass, or an 
 ounce of fish-glue, dissolved in a pint of alcohol for a 
 barrel of forty gallons, is sometimes used for the purpose 
 of facilitating this settling of the sediment and clearing 
 the wine. It may be desirable to rack again in March, 
 as is the opinion of most authorities. Buchanan, how- 
 ever, from his own extensive experience, advises other- 
 
 19 
 
290 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 wise. He says, " The fewer rackings it receives, and the 
 less it is exposed to the air, the sweeter and better it will 
 keep ; retaining the fine aroma and flavor of the grape, 
 and acquiring but little acidity." Through the summer, 
 the cask is to be kept tightly bunged, drawing a little 
 from it in case of such fermentation as to endanger the 
 bursting of the cask. But fermentation will be much less 
 active as the wine becomes clear, and the lees are sepa- 
 rated. In the fall, the wine may be bottled ; though it will 
 improve by remaining in the cask another season. The 
 bottles are to be placed on their sides, in a cool cellar ; 
 and will improve by being kept two or three years. If a 
 good quality of fruit is used, and care is taken that the 
 fermentation is not too rapid (which may be checked by 
 an early and a second racking), there will be no necessity 
 for adding sugar or alcohol, or resorting to any other 
 mode of " doctoring." But a vast amount of liquor (I 
 will not call it wine) is annually made from imperfect 
 fruit of an inferior quality, to which a considerable quan- 
 tity of sugar must be added to increase its alcoholic 
 properties, and prevent its change to vinegar. In my 
 opinion, such a change would be "a consummation de- 
 voutly to be wished." And yet it is true, that in our 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 291 
 
 Northern latitude, where growth has been excessive, and 
 maturity imperfect, the juice of most of our grapes will 
 require an addition of sugar-water to prevent souring. 
 So necessary is this, that I believe it is regarded as abso- 
 lutely essential by the prudent housewife, in making a 
 few bottles for family use and for culinary purposes. 
 The rule, as laid down by Dr. Ludwig Gall of Ger- 
 many, "for making very good middling wines (third 
 quality) from unripe grapes, and an excellent wine 
 from the pressed skins, or husks," is to add from thirty 
 to fifty pounds of refined sugar, dissolved in an equal 
 number of quarts of water, to every hundred quarts of 
 must. The poorer the grapes, the greater the quantity 
 of sugar-water to be added. The sirup is to be poured 
 in when very hot, as soon as the must comes from the 
 press. 
 
 Very full and lengthy extracts from Dr. Gall's " Guide " 
 are given in the volume, for 1860, of "The United-States 
 Agricultural Report," pp. 323-358, designed as a guide 
 in the extensive manufacture of "improved" wine. But 
 no one should be deceived into the supposition that such 
 a manufacture is a pure wine, or can be called a temper- 
 ance drink. Only the very best fruit, thoroughly ripened, 
 
292 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE, 
 
 or ripened even to drying, as in California, the Rhine, and 
 Tokay, will yield a juice which requires uo sugar, and 
 will mellow and refine to a beverage worthy to be called 
 wine. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 CTJLTUEE UNDER GLASS. 
 
 /^ LASS HOUSES are in use for two pui-poses : first, 
 ^-^ as a protection for varieties which are otherwise 
 too delicate to ripen well in our climate ; and, secondly, 
 for the purpose of ripening fi'uit out of the natural season. 
 For the first purpose, a very slight protection is all that is 
 essential. The Black Hamburg, and many other of the 
 more vigorous European varieties, are found to ripen per- 
 fectly under a roof of glass ; the back of the house being 
 left entirely open throughout the season. Indeed, they 
 have ripened well under single sashes left open on all 
 sides. So simple is the requirement, that every house- 
 holder may have foreign grapes growing under a tempo- 
 rary roof of sashes, with none of the care of ventilation ; 
 
 298 
 
294 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 his main efforts being directed in training, and in guard- 
 ing against mildew. But there are advantages in having 
 close houses, in order to obtain entire control of the 
 atmosphere, even for the summer crop. 
 
 THE COLD GKAPEET. 
 
 Contrary to the direction of Mr. Allen, for the j^osition 
 of the grapery I should advise a double or span roof, the 
 ridge running as nearly as possible to the north and south. 
 Thus the sun will have its utmost effect during the morn- 
 ing and evening, while its fiercest rays will be mitigated 
 by striking obliquely upon the glass at mid-day. The 
 pitch of the roof may vary from thirty to forty-five de- 
 grees; the latter pitch, however, giving a more upright 
 position to the vines than is desirable. Fixed roofs are 
 cheaper, and also much lighter and neater, than sashes 
 with framework, and are therefore much to be preferred, 
 unless the sashes can be put to double use during the 
 winter, when the vines are at rest. The curvilinear 
 style is perhaps more graceful than the straight-lin^ 
 roof; but one has no very material advantage over the 
 other. For the sake of a j^leasing picture, houses are 
 often represented with a high elevation ; but this form is 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 295 
 
 in every respect disadvantageous in practice. It is better 
 to have the sides of the house quite low ; and, as we have 
 heretofore seen, the nearest approach to the horizontal 
 position is the most favorable for an even develoiDment of 
 fruit. So strongly was this advantage felt, that Alex- 
 ander Seaton, Esq., adopted the plan of training his canes 
 horizontally, lengthwise of the house, instead of leading 
 them up the rafters ; and for many years he claimed very 
 successful results in comparison with the best English 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 competitors. But the almost uniform and entirely suc- 
 cessful mode of training is to lead the cane up under the 
 
296 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 roof, at the same angle with it, and suspended about a 
 foot from the glass. The form of the cane and of the 
 side-branches is represented in fig. 42. It will be seen, 
 that, with the exception of the elevation of the cane to 
 correspond with the pitch of the roof, the form is a very 
 near approach to the horizontal system jDreviously sug- 
 gested. The branches are spread to receive the utmost 
 effect of the sun's light and heat. However this form 
 may prove to be adapted for open-air culture, there is no 
 question of its excellence for the grapery. Ample venti- 
 lation is necessary ; and, in houses exceeding fifty feet in 
 length, it is best, in addition to the top-sashes and end- 
 doors, to have side-passages for the air to enter. It is 
 better to make large provision for the outlet of the hot 
 air at the top, depending upon the side ventilators as lit- 
 tle as possible for the admission of a cold current at the 
 bottom. For top-ventilation, the simplest form is to hinge 
 sashes about three feet in length to the ridge-pole, allow- 
 ing them to shut down upon the roof like a trap-door. 
 An iron rod a half-inch in diameter, running the length 
 of the house just under the lower lids of the ventilators, 
 will be of sufficient strength to raise them all at once. 
 Pieces of window-cord about six feet in length are at- 
 tached to this rod at suitable distances, which, passing 
 
CULTURE OF THE nUAPE. 297 
 
 through a pulley screwed to the roof, descend to the 
 lower end of the pushers, which are attached to the lower 
 side of the shutters. The cords being tight, when the rod 
 is drawn, the lower end of the pusher will be drawn up 
 towards the pulley, and thus the sash will be pushed up. 
 
 At the end- of the house, a strong rope is fastened to 
 the iron rod, which, passing over a wheel, descends to a 
 windlass or a simple lever, which may be made sufficiently 
 powerful to raise all the sashes at a single stroke. Any 
 ingenious mechanic can so arrange the pushers as to pre- 
 vent the sashes from being blown open or raised too far 
 by the wind. The ventilator may be made of indefinite 
 length, extending even to the entire length of the house, 
 by having a number of pushers attached at suitable dis- 
 tances, so that the ventilator may be raised evenly in all 
 parts. This simple contrivance will save a vast amount 
 of labor involved by the old methods. A water-tank and 
 a force-pump, with rubber-hose, are the only requisite ap- 
 purtenances to a cold grapery. The tank is formed by 
 digging a hole in the ground, and lining its face with two 
 coats of common New-Jersey cement, either arching the 
 top with brick, or covering with plank. For a house fifty 
 feet long and twenty feet wide, a cistern ten feet in diam- 
 eter each way will prove sufficient. The house should 
 
298 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 have gutters, as well to keep the borders dry as to fill 
 the cistern. 
 
 THE FORCIITG-GRAPERT. 
 
 For this a "lean-to" house is best, having a single roof 
 pitching as nearly as possible due south. In order to ad- 
 vance growth as rapidly as possible during the winter, the 
 house will require the direct rays of the mid-day sun. 
 For early forcing, I would also advise that the borders be 
 made entirely inside of the house. It is against all reason 
 to expect good results from forcing the tops while the 
 roots are stagnant in the cold ground. Protection of the 
 open border with leaves or manure, or by shutters, which 
 also shed the rain, have given measurable success ; and yet 
 we can expect that vigor and early maturity which is 
 desirable, only by keeping the roots warm, and as active as 
 the tops. The north side of the house will be a conve- 
 nient place to erect a store-room for fuel, potting-mate- 
 rials, &c., giving a space also to the furnace. The simple 
 brick furnace and flue will do the work at a great saving 
 in the first cost, but with much larger consumption of fuel 
 than a water-boiler. With the use of a simj^le flue, I 
 should always combine the Polmaise system. This con- 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRJPE. iZDD 
 
 sists in leading a covered air-drain from the coldest cor- 
 ner of the house down under the furnace, and bringing it 
 up into an air-space which surrounds the furnace, and 
 which opens into the house. The air, becoming heated 
 in the chamber around the furnace, rises, and produces 
 a draught of air in the drain at the cold end, causing a 
 vacuum, which the warm air flows to fill ; thus creating 
 a continued current, which tends to equalize the tempera- 
 ture of different parts of the house. 
 
 There is no doubt of the efficacy of this plan ; and for 
 narrow houses of moderate elevation it works very well 
 indeed, and is a valuable auxiliary to the simple furnace 
 and flue. Yet there is no disputing its inferiority to the 
 hot-water apparatus. My preference is for the upright 
 boiler of Weathered & Cherevoy, over many others which 
 I have seen and tried. Iron pipes four inches in diame- 
 ter are in general use for circulating the water. The 
 slate-tank, as described for the propagating-house, would 
 give a much greater radiating surface for the same cost, 
 and, upon actual trial, works admirably. Steam-pipes have 
 been used to a limited extent ; but by these the fluctua- 
 tions and the liabilities are increased, without securing 
 any decided advantages. A slight pressm-e upon the 
 
300 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 boiler may allow a saving in the extent of piping, and be 
 unobj ectionable. 
 
 THE EETAEDrN"G-HOUSE. 
 
 This should be so situated, that the vines may be kept 
 dormant as late as possible in the spring, and come for- 
 ward very moderately throughout the season. Probably 
 a " lean-to " roof, sloping west, is as good a position as can 
 be obtained. A north aspect would not secure sufficient 
 sunlight. A simple flue is sufficient to keep out the frost; 
 and this is all that is desirable after the fruit has ripened, 
 in November. In such a house, grapes may be kept with 
 a good degree of freshness until February ; yet it involves 
 much care, labor, and cost : and it is to be hoped that the 
 methods of preserving grapes in the fruit-room will, to 
 some extent, remove the necessity of the retarding-house. 
 
 BORDERS. 
 
 The cost of the houses, and the permanence of the 
 vines, make it desirable that the borders should be as per- 
 fect and as enduring as possible. Tile, or covered drains, 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 301 
 
 should be laid, three and a half feet deep, running the 
 length of the border, near the eaves, on each side of the 
 house; and another course of drain should be placed 
 fifteen feet farther out from the house. If this work is 
 well done, it will be wholly unnecessary to pave the bot- 
 tom of the border with loose stones, as is recommended 
 by some. The directions previously given for a border 
 will here apply, though the depth for the grapery is gen- 
 erally increased to three feet. If the soil on the spot is 
 not very objectionable, it may remain ; its character being 
 modified by sand, or other material which it may seem to 
 need. In addition, most soils will require about a foot of 
 friable pasture-loam, and nine sohd inches of stable- 
 manure, with three bushels of bone-chips, to every square 
 rod of the border. Then commence at one end, and 
 trench, and thoroughly mix, to the dejDth of three and a 
 half feet, so that the border may be fully three feet deep 
 when settled. It is important that the material used 
 shall be of such a character that it will not become sodden. 
 Any of the fertihzers recommended for the vineyard may 
 be added to the border at its formation, or as a top-dress- 
 ing from year to year. For the cold grapery, it is best to 
 have the principal part of the border outside, to receive 
 
302 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 the summer rains and the warmth of the sun, and also to 
 avoid the walking which is necessary inside of the house 
 in checking, thinning, and otherwise caring for the vines. 
 For early forcing, however, the roots should be kept 
 warm; and this is most economically done by keeping 
 them within the house, and covering tlie border where it 
 is necessary to walk. When the fruit is not to be rij)ened 
 until May, or afterwards, the roots may extend into an 
 outside border which is well protected from frost, as be- 
 fore described. It is best that the houses rest upon stone 
 or cedar j^osts, so that the vines may be planted inside, 
 and the roots may have free space to ramble. The 
 breadth of the border will, of course, depend upon the 
 length of the cane. If trained to the rafter, it is a fair 
 rule to have two or three feet of border inside the house, 
 and a width equal to the length of rafter outside the 
 house, except for very early forcing. It is not necessary 
 that this whole width should be made at once. The bor- 
 der may be extended during the second and third years if 
 more convenient. These borders will require moderate 
 annual top-dressings of ashes, plaster, bone-dust, or stable- 
 manure, when the vines are in bearing; those elements 
 being supplied of which the border seems most deficient. 
 Keep it light by frequent forkings. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 303 
 
 THE FIRST YEAE. ^ 
 
 The planting and training is as directed for the open-air 
 culture. The distance of planting is from three to four feet 
 apart, the latter being best for strong kinds. Owing to the 
 richness of the border and the more favorable atmosphere 
 under control in the house, the growth will be far supe- 
 rior. A single cane should be allowed to grow fi'om 
 twenty to thirty feet in length; after which it should 
 be stopped, and side- shoots maybe allowed a moderate 
 and uniform development. In the growing part of the 
 season, the air should be kept moist and warm ; giving air 
 in the morning as soon as the thermometer rises to eighty 
 degrees, and closing up early, and showering, so as to 
 create a warm humidity, which will be retained through 
 the night. Frequent but moderate sprinklings of the 
 floor, and showering of the foliage, when the sun is not 
 too strong, will cause luxuriant growth. If any danger 
 of mildew is apprehended, sulphur should be dusted 
 through the foliage during the heat of a dry day. Keep 
 the temperature as nearly up to ninety degrees as is 
 convenient. By the 1st of September, water should be 
 withheld, and the growth allowed to harden and ripen. 
 
304 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 The canes should be from three-fourths of an inch to an 
 inch in diameter ; and, if allowed to bear from three to 
 five pounds the following season, they should be cut back 
 to within six feet of the ground in November, and then 
 laid down and covered for the winter. 
 
 THE SECOND YEAR. 
 
 In case we take a little fruit for trial, this year will be 
 a ty2:>e of all succeeding years. We suppose our cane to 
 be six feet in length. All the eyes below the level of the 
 eaves should be I'ubbed out. Also, as a general rule, rub 
 out every alternate eye on the remainder of the cane, 
 leaving the eyes from eight to ten inches apart, according 
 to the vigor and size of foliage of the variety. The 
 branches will then alternate on each side of the cane, and 
 be from sixteen to twenty inches apart on either side; the 
 latter distance being near enough for such strong kinds as 
 the Syrian. At the end of the cane an eye is preserved, 
 to extend to the top of the house. The same system of 
 sprinkling and showering is pursued as in the previous 
 year, withholding the water during inflorescence. The 
 fruit-branches are carefully tied to side wires, and continu- 
 ally checked, as directed for the vineyard. We even carry 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 305 
 
 snmmer-pinclnng to a greater extreme in the house than 
 in open-air culture and upon our native varieties. The 
 vines being but four feet apart at most, the whole length 
 of the branch must be less than two feet. The usual rule 
 is to pinch the shoot, at first, thi-ee leaves above the 
 bunch, leaving one leaf to each lateral; as it develops, 
 rubbing out the laterals below the fruit, but not the 
 one opposite the bunch. At the end of the branch, 
 the sub-laterals may develop a single leaf at each course 
 of pinching. This work should be done regularly, so as 
 never to require the removal of full-grown leaves. Dur- 
 ing inflorescence, the house should be kept dry, with a 
 free admission of air for Muscat varieties, which set their 
 fruit imperfectly. Nearly all foreign varieties set their 
 fruit so compactly as to require thinning. This work is 
 done with long-pointed scissors, commencing as soon as 
 the berries are large enough to see that they are impreg- 
 nated. It is often the case that two-thirds of the berries 
 will require to be cut out, selecting those which are 
 within and are likely to crowd. In the fall, water is 
 withheld, for the sake of the fruit as well as of the wood. 
 The vine may now remain the full length of the rafter, 
 and be allowed to bear three-fourths of a crop the follow- 
 ing season. One bunch for each branch is quite sufiicient ; 
 
 20 
 
306 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 the size increasing as the number of bunches diminishes. 
 Should such varieties as the Frontignan shrivel the ber- 
 ries at the tips of the bunches, it indicates an inequality 
 between the temperature at the roots and in the house; 
 the border being too cold or wet. Over-cropping, or too 
 rapid forcing, will also cause this. 
 
 The vines are pruned in November for the cold 
 grapery, or in August or September for early forcing. I 
 give a decided preference for the short-spur system ; find- 
 ing by experience, that, by this approach to horizontal 
 training of the branches, there is no practical difficulty in 
 producing good fruiting-eyes near the cane for a succes- 
 sion of years. Should the spurs become long, the cane 
 may be renewed after six or ten years. In forcing, en- 
 deavor to secure the same conditions as in summer 
 growth. Start the vines gradually, taking four to six 
 weeks to break the buds, keeping them humid, and in a 
 horizontal position, until the eyes are all pushing: then 
 raise the canes, and increase the heat to fifty-five, sixty, 
 and seventy degrees at night ; at which last temperature 
 the fruit will mature. During the day, the heat may in- 
 crease to ninety or even a hundred degrees, with a proper 
 degree of humidity to guard against the red spider. 
 By observing the laws of natural growth, the work 
 
C V L T U li E OF THE Li R A P E. C07 
 
 of forcing, or early ripening, is simple, and the crop 
 certain. 
 
 POT-CULTURE. 
 
 In our clear and hot cliniate, and in view of the extra 
 amount and the higher cost of labor with us, pot-culture 
 does not seem to be so desirable as in England. Yet the 
 work can be done with perfect success; and, for some 
 purposes, the method is most desirable. For very early 
 forcing, vines in pots can be managed with the greatest 
 ease. So also, for retarding, they may be kept in a cold 
 cellar or ice-room until July, and then be brought forward 
 as desired. For summer-fruiting, there is no advantage 
 in the use of pots ; and as the labor of watering, and 
 keeping in perfect condition, is so greatly increased, it is 
 far better to plant in the border. For forcing, the follow- 
 ing course may be pursued : About the 1st of April, 
 select a healthy, one-year old vine, or a vigorous young 
 plant started from an eye in February previous, and shift 
 into a seven-inch pot. The soil should consist of about 
 two parts of well-rotted pasture-sod, and one part of 
 thoroughly decomposed horse-manure. Fine bone-chips 
 may be mixed with the compost, and a handful of 
 
308 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 crocks used for drainage. Kept in a warm, close house, 
 and showered frequently, the vines will grow with 
 surprising rapidity. In order to give strength to the 
 cane, it may be desirable to check the leading shoot if it 
 is growing too rapidly. The leading lateral-eye will then 
 break, giving a more stocky cane and stronger foliage. In 
 June, it will be necessary to shift into the fruiting-pot. 
 This is called the twelve-inch size, and has four or more 
 large holes at the bottom, through which the roots are 
 hereafter to run. The same compost is used as for the 
 previous shifting, it being rammed into the pot very 
 firmly with a dibble. In consequence of this firm pack- 
 ing, there is much less liability to fluctuation in the 
 moisture of the soil. When the canes have attained 
 six feet in length, they should be stopped, and the later- 
 als allowed to develop evenly to a length of two or three 
 leaves. In September, give a plenty of air, withhold 
 Avater, and harden the wood as thoroughly as possible. 
 By observing these simple conditions, there is no difficulty 
 in obtaining strong fruiting-canes the first season. About 
 the 1st of October the laterals may be cut away, and the 
 vines kept dry for a month or more. Up to this time, the 
 space occupied will have been only about one-third of 
 that which is required for fruiting-vines. In November, the 
 
CULTURE OF T II E G R A P E. 309 
 
 vines are to be placed in the forcing-house, if it is desired 
 to ripen the fruit by the 1st of April. The house should 
 have an inside border of moderate depth, on which the 
 pots stand ; the drainage-crocks having been displaced, so 
 as to allow the roots to come through into the border. Each 
 vine will require a space of about three feet square, and will 
 ripen, on an average, six pounds to a vine. A house four- 
 teen feet wide would accommodate four rows of pots, and 
 leave space sufficient for a walk in the middle. The treat-' 
 ment is obvious, and similar to that of forcing vines in the 
 border. . Under careful management, the crop will equal 
 in weight a border-crop ; and it can generally be bi'ought 
 to earlier maturity. In April, when the fruit is ripe, the 
 roots which penetrate the border are severed, and the pot 
 is carried to the exhibition, or the fi-uit is sold. The house 
 is cleared for a summer crop or for other use. These 
 same pot-vines may be kept in a dry, cool, airy position 
 during the summer, and given an eai'lier start in the 
 following autumn. Before again placing them in the 
 forcing-house, they should be drawn out of the pots, and 
 the roots pruned, especially the tap-roots ; so that new 
 roots may readily form, and descend- into the borders, 
 which have been renovated for that purpose. By a care- 
 ful and systematic method of pot-culture, houses may thus 
 
310 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 be put to a double, or a winter and summer use, with the 
 best and most economical results. Yet this cultui-e re- 
 quires constant and long-continued care ; and it should 
 not be undertaken except with a determination to grant 
 every requisite, and allow no neglect. 
 
 DISEASES. 
 
 We have given an extended view of this subject in 
 treating of open-air culture ; and the rules there given 
 will, in general, apply with equal force in the grapery. 
 In the latter case we have such control of conditions, that 
 it is comparatively easy to banish all diseases. 
 
 We can avoid sudden changes of temperature, or cold 
 bottom-draughts, or dampness, wliich are the causes or 
 conditions of mildew. We can also apply the remedies 
 more effectually: we can pervade the house Avith a smell 
 of sulphur {iiever hurning it)., and thus defy mildew and 
 red-spider; we can fumigate with tobacco-smoke, which 
 is a sovereign remedy against most other insects. Where 
 there is a liability to the attack of the mealy-bug, or 
 scale, it is best to make a wash, of the thickness of cream, 
 of the following ingredients : Half a pound of whale-oil 
 soap, four pounds of sulphur, and one ounce of nux vomi- 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE, 311 
 
 ca. Mix this \vitli boiling water in which half a pound 
 of tobacco has been steeped, and then wash every part 
 of the cane at the season just prior to starting its growth. 
 A solution of one pound of potash in two gallons of 
 water is also effectual in killing the insects and destroy- 
 ing the eggs. • So complete is our control of all the essen- 
 tial conditions, that we may safely say, that the grape- 
 crop, under glass, is the most certain of all fruit-crops. 
 If the crop has been injured by diseases, it is a certain 
 proof of culpable neglect: if there is a partial or total 
 failure of the crop, it arises from circumstances which 
 might easily have been prevented. Considering the cer- 
 tainty and the ease with which the grape may be thus 
 grown, and the very important fact that it retains its high 
 quality under glass, in striking contrast, for example, with 
 the peach, we may conclude that no other fruit is so well 
 suited for glass-culture as the grape. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 
 
 TT would be worse than useless to give a list of all the 
 -■- varieties that have ajipeared. A large number of 
 them, if tried, would jjrove to be merely duplicates of 
 known kinds, or so closely resembling them, that the differ- 
 ence is not noticeable. Many others have been consigned 
 to oblivion as unworthy of culture. Of the fifteen hun- 
 dred varieties collected in the Garden of the Luxembourg, 
 only about tliree hundred are regarded as distinct, and 
 less than fifty can be called really desirable. Of these, it 
 would be best to make a still larger reduction, selecting 
 the best five or ten, or at most twenty ; always placing 
 the Black Hamburg in the fore-front fo'- general cul- 
 ture. It is therefore wise to retain only such kinds as 
 
 312 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 313 
 
 have known excellence, and give marked prominence to 
 the best. This is becoming an easy task in respect to exotic 
 grapes, as opinions are settling down upon a solid basis ; 
 though, within a few years, there have been an unusual 
 number of seedlings brought to notice in England, which 
 give promise of becoming really valuable varieties, — such 
 as the Bowood Muscat, the Muscat Hamburg, Lady 
 Downes, the Golden Hamburg, and some others. But, 
 with native kinds, experiment is rife : seedlings and hy- 
 brids are multiplying to a surprising degree ; and the list 
 will continue to extend until some one or more shall stand 
 as prominent for general excellence among our natives as 
 the Black Hamburo^ does amons; exotics. I shall en- 
 deavor to name only such as have known excellence, or 
 are now prominently before the public. 
 
 EXOTIC KINDS. 
 
 Aleppo. — Belongs to the Chasselas family ; the ben-ies 
 being round and thin-skinned, curiously striped from 
 light to pink and black; sweet, but of second quality. 
 Knight's variegated Chasselas is probably the same. 
 
 August Muscat. — Probably the earliest grape, having 
 ripened its fruit in three months under high forcing. The 
 
314 c u L r u u E OF the crape. 
 
 vine is weak in growtli ; the berries are small, oval, black, 
 with a slight Muscat flavor, but of third quality. 
 
 Barharossa. — Bunches of largest size, often weighing 
 six pounds, heavily shouldered, compact; berry large, 
 roundish-oval, black, with a thick bloom; skin membra- 
 nous; flesh greenish-white, juicy, and of fair quality. Is 
 rather shy in fruiting, and requires heat, but is a valuable 
 late kind. 
 
 Blach Alicante. — Bunches large; berries large, oval, 
 black; sets well, and keeps late. 
 
 Black Corinth. — A small, round, black grape of third 
 quality, — the Zante currant of commerce. 
 
 Black Cluster. — A hardy and very early kind, with 
 small and very compact bunches; berries small, oval, 
 black, with a thin skin, often bursting from the pressure of 
 the berries ; flavor brisk, rather acid until over-ripe ; pro- 
 ductive, and does well upon open walls. 
 
 Black July. — Very similar to the preceding, being 
 perhaps a little earlier, and the berries more round ; ber- 
 ries equally small, and quality the same. I think it dis- 
 tinct; though, in the opinion of some, it is considered 
 identical with Black Cluster. 
 
 Burgundy. — This is surnamed Miller's, on account of 
 the downy or mealy appearance of its leaves ; which is 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 315 
 
 almost the only marked characteristic which distinguishes 
 it from the Black Cluster. It does j^retty well in the 
 open air, but is too small for culture under glass. 
 
 Black Prince. — An excellent kind, with large and 
 long bunches, generally shouldered ; berries of good size, 
 oval, black ; juicy and sprightly, with rather a thick skin. 
 Cambridge Botanic Garden is identical with this. 
 
 BidwelVs Seedling. — Resembles Black Prince in bunch 
 and berries ; berries medium, round, bluish-black, with a 
 fine bloom; skin thin; flesh tender, very juicy, and rather 
 too acid for the taste of most. 
 
 Bishop. — A large, slightly oval, black grape of pecu- 
 liar flavor, firm, coarse, keeps well. It seems to be iden- 
 tical with Portien N'oir. 
 
 Boicker. — A seedling from a Malaga raisin raised by 
 Joel Bowker of Salem, Mass., resembling the Lisbon 
 Grape, but is superior. The bunch is large, closely set, 
 vv'ith large, oval, white berries of second quality. It is 
 very productive, and equal in appearance to the White 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Canadian Chief. — Probably an American seedling of 
 the Chasselas, somewhat resembling Royal Muscadine in 
 the shape of the cluster. 
 
 Chasselas de Fontainehleau (White Chasselas, or Sweet- 
 
316 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE 
 
 water). — This is the famous and the most common French 
 table-graj^e. Though it can claim no excellence in high 
 flavor, yet its simple, melting juiciness, combined with its 
 excellent habits of growth, render it one of the most val- 
 uable varieties- It grows well, is very productive, is one 
 of the most hardy and least liable to disease, and is quite 
 early ; bunches of good size, long, generally shouldered ; 
 berries round, of medium size, of a pale-amber color, very 
 juicy and sweet. 
 
 Chasselas de Bar sur Auhe. — This resembles, but is 
 not identical with, the preceding. Its bunches are longer, 
 and it is less inclined to shoulder. In other respects, it is 
 so similar that it is classed by many as a synonyme of 
 Chasselas de Fontainebleau. 
 
 Chasselas^ Golden. — Earlier than any other Chasselas: 
 its berries also are much larger, with large clusters of a 
 beautiful golden-iimber color. But it has the serious fault 
 of setting badly, many of the berries remaining very 
 small and seedless. In a house, under control during 
 inflorescence, it may be desirable, though always some- 
 what uncertain. 
 
 Chasselas Masque (Joslyn's St. Albans). — One of the 
 highest flavored of gi-aj^es, having a remarkably concen- 
 trated, sweet, Muscat-taste. This is all which can be said 
 
CULTURE OF THE G 11 A P E. 317 
 
 in its favor. The bunches are under medium size, taper- 
 ing; berries round, pale-amber, with a tliin skin, which is 
 unusually liable to crack and to shrivel. A variety for 
 the amateur alone. 
 
 Chasselas^ Hed. — This is easily distinguished by the 
 fact that the berries are tinged with red as soon as 
 formed : the young wood is also bright red. The bunches 
 and berries are larger than the following. 
 
 Chasselas^ Hose. — A beautiful and good variety, re- 
 sembling Chasselas de Fontainebleau, except in color, 
 which is bright rose. The bunches and berries are 
 scarcely equal in size ; but its beauty and flavor will 
 recommend it to every collection. 
 
 Chavoush. — This variety is said to have been recently 
 obtained from Bithynia in Asia Minor, the fruit of which 
 has received a^ first-class certificate in England. Bunch 
 medium, shouldered, tapering; berries large, long, oval, 
 white or light amber, very showy ; skin thin ; rich, high- 
 flavored, juicy. 
 
 Damascus. — Bunches large ; berries of immense size, 
 oval, black, full of juice, brisk, sj^rightly, rather too acid 
 for most tastes. It requires heat to set well, and is then 
 very showy. 
 
 De Candolle. — A large, round, purple grape, sweet, and 
 
 / 
 
318 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 of good quality ; clusters large and showy ; requires high 
 temperature to ripen. 
 
 DecorHs Superb. — Bunches of good size, and handsome ; 
 berries of a frosted-amber color, and of good size, of sec- 
 ond quality, and ripening unevenly. Sahibee is supposed 
 to be identical with this. 
 
 Dutch Sweet-vKiter'. — Bunches well shouldered, and of 
 medium size ; berries large, amber, transi^arent, oval ; skin 
 thin ; a good early white grape of the Chasselas class. 
 
 Duchess of Duccleugh. — A new grape, said to be a 
 cross between Chasselas Musque and a Muscat, and of 
 the highest flavor; bunches large and long, tapering, 
 slightly shouldered; is early, bears well, and does not 
 crack. 
 
 Esperione. — Clusters very large, heavily shouldered ; 
 berries small, black, with a fine bloom ; ^sprightly sub- 
 acid ; of second quality. 
 
 Foster's Seedling. — Exhibited in England in 1865, and 
 described as having large bunches ; berries medium, of a 
 pale-amber color; flesh juicy, luscious, and refreshing, 
 equalling the flavor of Lady Downes, and, like it, hanging 
 without shrivelling. 
 
 Frontignan, Blach (Black Constantia). — Bunches long, 
 tapering, slightly shouldered, below medium size ; berries 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 319 
 
 medium, black, sweet, with a fine Muscat-flavor; is liable 
 to " shank," and does not color well. 
 
 Frontignan^ Blue (Purple Constantia). — Similar to the 
 previous kind, but having less Muscat-flavor, and coloring 
 to a blue-black. 
 
 Frontignan, Grizzly. — One of the best of this class ; 
 bunches above medium, long, tapering, slightly shoul- 
 dered ; berries large, round, of a grizzly-gray color chan- 
 ging to dull red, of a high musk-flavor, quality best ; early 
 and excellent. 
 
 Frontignan^ White. — Bunches large, or above medium, 
 r>liou]dered, long; berries large, round, white, sweet, with 
 a rich musk -flavor; an excellent kind. 
 
 Gros Coulard. — A large, early, white variety of the 
 Chasselas type. 
 
 Hamhurg^ Black. — This variety is universally esteemed, 
 in all situations, as the very best for general culture. It is 
 so hardy, prolific, constant, of good fair quality, and unob- 
 jectionable to all tastes, that it should take the lead in all 
 collections. The bunches are large and shouldered; the 
 berries large, round or slightly oval, perfectly black when 
 v/ell grown, pleasant, sub-acid, juicy. 
 
 Hamhwg^ Champion. — Like the Black, but said to have 
 larger berries. 
 
320 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 Hamburg., Golden. — A fine, new, white grape ; bunches 
 large and shouldered ; berries large, oval, pale-yellow ; 
 skin thin ; flesh tender, rich, vinous ; very free and showy, 
 ripening with, and a fine contrast to, the Black Hamburg. 
 
 Hamburg^ Mill-Hill. — Much like Wilmot's, and per- 
 haps identical. 
 
 Hamburg., Pope^s Black. — This is said to be similar 
 to but earlier than the old Black. 
 
 Hamburg., Victoria. — Resembles Black Hamburg ; the 
 bunches being somewhat larger and more tapering; the 
 berries very similar. As it is so difficult to distinguish 
 them, there is much confusion in the two kinds. 
 
 Hamhurg., White. — This is tlie Portugal Grape of com- 
 merce sent to all parts of the world, packed in kegs, or 
 jars filled with saw-dust. The clusters are large and 
 well-shouldered ; berries large, oval, white ; flesh crisj^ 
 and sweet, coarse, and of third quality; ripens late, and 
 keeps well. 
 
 Hamburg., Wilmofs. — Short compact bunches ; ber- 
 ries very large, round, black, with a peculiarly dented or 
 hammered appearance ; a fine grape, but a little coarser 
 than Black Hamburg:. 
 
 Hamburg^ Wilmofs, No. 16. — Scarcely distinguishable 
 from the Black Hamburs:. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 821 
 
 liigrahani' s Hardy Prolific. — A new grape, whicli Ims 
 obtained a first-class certificate from the English Royal 
 Horticultural Society. Bunches a fi3ot in length, with 
 black oval berries, vinous, with slight Muscat-flavor. 
 
 Lady Downes. — This variety receives unifi:)rni praise 
 as the best late-keeping grape. It somewhat resembles 
 the St. Peter's ; the bunches and berries being large, and 
 the quality being excellent.. The fruit will remain plump 
 and firm upon the vine, if the frost is kept out, until new 
 growth commences. 
 
 JLo7nhardy^ Black. — Same as West's St. Peter's. 
 
 Lombardy., Red. — Same as Queen of Nice. 
 
 Macready'^s Early. — Bunches of medium size, com- 
 pact ; berries white, transparent, oval, pointed ; skin thin, 
 very juicy and melting ; a pleasant little grape. 
 
 Malvasia. — An early white grape ; bunches below me- 
 dium, slightly shouldered, tapering; berries small, oval, 
 sweet. Burchard's Amber Cluster seems to be iden- 
 tical. 
 
 3Iarchioness of Hastings. — A new grape, now attract- 
 ing much attention at the English exhibitions ; of a green- 
 ish-white color, the bunches being very large, weighing 
 five pounds. 
 
 Morocco. — Clusters large, shouldered ; berries very 
 
 21 
 
322 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 large, reddish-black, oblong-oval; sets badly, and is not 
 of first quality. 
 
 3Iuscat of Alexandria. — A type of all the Muscats; a 
 late variety, requiring heat, or a current of dry air, during 
 inflorescence, in order to set well. Bunches large and 
 loose ; berries large, oval, light, changing to amber-color 
 when perfectly ripe; flesh firm, juicy, high-flavored, and 
 excellent. All the Muscats prefer a high temperature. 
 
 Muscat^ Austria?!. — Similar in apj^earance and flavor, 
 but inferior, to Grizzly Frontignan; bunches medium, very 
 compact ; berries oval, tawny-red ; keeps well, but some- 
 times cracks. 
 
 3fuscat, JSowood. — An excellent new kind, shorter- 
 jointed than Muscat of Alexandria ; having all its good 
 qualities, and also the advantage of setting its fruit fi^eely 
 in a cold house. A. Cramb, in " The Gardener's Chroni- 
 cle" for 1860, p. 1021, asserts that it is the same as Passe 
 Muscat ; yet we cannot doubt that it is a seedling. 
 
 Muscat., Cannon Hall. — A stronger variety than Mus- 
 cat of Alexandria, both in growth, and size of fruit. The 
 berries are of the very largest size, oval and white : it 
 sets very poorly, and needs heat, or even artificial impreg- 
 nation ; but it will give an ample return for special care. 
 
 Muscat Hamburg. — A strong, free variety, w^hich sets 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE., 323 
 
 well, and does not require more heat tlian the Haniburgs. 
 Fruit large, oval, black, with a high Muscat-flavor. Sir 
 Joseph Paxton afiirms that it is identical with Black Mus- 
 cat ; but it is probably a seedling, and is valuable. 
 
 Muscat, Portuguese. — Similar to Muscat of Alexandria, 
 but of higher musk-flavor, and said to set its fruit better. 
 
 Muscat., Princess Blach. — This is a new seedling, very- 
 similar in description to the foregoing, which received a 
 first-class certificate at the London Exhibition of 1865. 
 
 Muscat., Tottenham ParJc. — Sets well, and is similar 
 to but has less musk than the preceding. 
 
 3Iuscat Troveren. — A new white oval grape, large as a 
 Black Hamburg, with a Frontignan-flavor, which received 
 a first-class certificate at the English exhibitions of 1865. 
 
 Palestine. — Bunches often two or more feet in length, 
 much branched or shouldered; berries very small, oval, 
 amber, very sAveet. It is quite distinct, but only desirable 
 for the amateur. 
 
 Pitmaston White Cluster. — Cluster of medium size, 
 compact ; berries round, large, white, sweet, early ; a good 
 variety of the Chasselas class. 
 
 Portien JVbir. — Bunches large and fine ; berries large, 
 slightly oval, black, peculiar in flavor; late. It is identical 
 with Bishop. 
 
324 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 Prince Albert. — Biinclies large and well-shouldered ; 
 berries large, oval, black; flesh firm, rather coarse ; growth 
 very vigorous, too much so to be jDroductive except in a 
 poor soil ; ripens late, and keeps well. May prove to b(3 
 Barbarossa. 
 
 Queen of Nice (Reine de Nice, Regnier de Nice of 
 Prince, Red Lombardy, and Flame-colored Tokay). — 
 This variety is known under all these names, but is so 
 distinct as to be unmistakable. Bunches long, heavy at 
 the top, and tapering to a point ; berries large, oval, pecu- 
 liarly tapering and pointed ; tinged or considerably col- 
 ored red ; flesh firm, of third quality ; keeps well. 
 
 Raisin de Calabre. — A large, round, pure white trans- 
 parent grape of musk-flavor, sweet and firm, which keeps 
 well. 
 
 JRed Traminer. — A celebrated table and wine grape 
 of the Rhine. Cluster small and compact ; berries small, 
 roundish, rose-color ; quality sprightly sub-acid, pleasant, 
 and excellent. The Delaware so much resembles the de- 
 scription of this variety, that many have afiirmed it to be 
 a seedling from it ; while others have even gone so far as 
 to assert its identity with the Traminer. Undoubtedly 
 the last is a mistaken opinion. 
 
 Royal Muscadine (White Nice or Xeres). — This be- 
 
C U L T U n E OF THE G It APE. 325 
 
 longs to the Cliasselas class, but is remarkable for its 
 large, loose, heavily-shouldered bunches, more resembling 
 the Syrian, and often weighing six pounds : indeed, it has 
 been grown to weigh nineteen j^ounds. Berries round, 
 amber, sweet, and of fair quality. 
 
 Royal Vineyard. — Bunch large, tapering ; berry large, 
 oval ; deep, clear amber ; skin thin ; flesh sweet, luscious, 
 aromatic. New, and said to resemble the Golden Ham- 
 burg. 
 
 Syrian. — Bunches of the largest size, heavily shoul- 
 dered ; berries very large, oval, white, sweet, but coarse : 
 if allowed to remain a long time, until fully ripe, the 
 quality is good. This is the variety produced in England 
 which weighed nineteen and a half pounds, and it is 
 probably identical with or similar to the Eshcol Grape of 
 the Hebrew spies. Duretto and Akbar Khan are very 
 similar. 
 
 Tokay^ Charlesworth. — Resembles the Muscat of Al- 
 exandria in shape and quality, but is said to be more 
 vigorous, to set freely, and to keep longer. 
 
 ToJcay^ White. — Bunches compact, medium, long ; 
 berries medium, oval, sweet ; liable to shrivel. 
 
 Trehbiana. — This is one of the largest Exhibition 
 grapes; the bunches frequently weighing eight pounds. 
 
326 C U L T U RE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 It resembles the Syrian, but is distinct, and of better 
 quality ; berries large, white, oval, firm, and keep well. 
 
 Trentham Black. — Bunches large ; berries large, pur- 
 ple-black ; skin thin, earlier than Black Hamburg, and 
 better than Black Prince, which it resembles. 
 
 Yerdelho. — The table and wine grape of Madeira, of 
 the best quality. Bunches small, loose; berries small, 
 oval, greenish-white or amber; sweet and good; ripens 
 late. 
 
 West's St. Peter's. — A noble variety, with large, long 
 bunches, well shouldered, often weighing two or three 
 pounds; berries large, oval, very black, covered with a 
 fine bloom; quality excellent, sprightly sub-acid; late, 
 and keeps well. 
 
 White Corinth. — A small, white, seedless grape, in com- 
 pact clusters, of sweet and pleasant flavor. 
 
 Wliite GasGoigne. — Bunches large, compact, shoul- 
 dered ; berries large and oval ; quality good. 
 
 Wliite Nice. — Is identical with Royal Muscadine. 
 
 White Miessling. — A famous Rhenish - wine grape, 
 very productive, with small, compact bunches, and small 
 white berries of a pleasant flavor. 
 
 Zinjindal (Zinfardel of Prince). — Bunches generally 
 almost equally divided into two long shoulders, making a 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 327 
 
 large cluster ; berries medium, round, very black, covered 
 with a thick bloom ; sprightly acid, becoming good when 
 fully ripe. 
 
 A SELECT LIST OF EXOTIC VARIETIES. 
 
 As it is specially undesirable to grow inferior kinds 
 under glass, it is well to limit the list as much as is con- 
 sistent with a sufficient variety in qualit3^ The follow- 
 ing list of best kinds for a cold grapery will give every 
 variety in color and quality as well as size. The figures 
 indicate the relative value and the number of each which 
 I would recommend in a collection of fifty vines. When 
 the collection is small, or for market-purposes, select only 
 the hi<rhest numbers. 
 
 10 Black Hamburg. 
 4 Bowood Muscat. 
 
 2 Black Prince. 
 
 1 Black Frontignan. 
 
 3 Chasselas Fontainebleau. 
 
 1 Chasselas ]\Iusque. 
 3 Golden HamJ)urg. 
 
 2 Grizzly Frontignan. 
 1 Lady Downes. 
 
 1 Marchioness of Hastings. 
 
 2 Muscat Hambu-ir. 
 
 1 Red Chasselas. 
 
 1 Reine de Nice. 
 
 2 Syrian. 
 
 1 Trebbiana. 
 
 2 Trentham Black. 
 5 Wests St. Peter's. 
 
 1 White Gascoigne. 
 
 3 White Frontignan. 
 
 2 White Nice. 
 
 1 Wilmot's Hamburg. 
 1 Zinfindal. 
 
328 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 In addition to these, the Muscat of Alexandria is a most 
 valuable kind if it can have a warmer position. The 
 Cannon Hall Muscat requires even more heat ; and indeed 
 all the Muscats are better if they can have fire-heat at 
 critical times. Some of the newer grapes are not in- 
 cluded in the above list, because not sufficiently proved. 
 For a retarding-house, the most suitable are Lady Downes, 
 Barbarossa, Trebbiana, and West's St. Peter's ; to which 
 may be added Bhick Hamburg, Reine de Nice, White 
 Lisbon, Muscat of Alexandria, and Syrian. A wise culti- 
 vator, who seeks a profitable return, will confine himself 
 to a very few standard kinds ; while the amateur will take 
 pleasure in "proving all things, and holding fast that 
 which is good." 
 
 NATIVE VARIETIES. 
 
 The list has become extended to such a degree, that it 
 is now undesirable to give even the names, much less a 
 description, of the great majority which will soon fall 
 into oblivion. It is a great public injury to introduce and 
 disseminate an inferior variety ; and it should be the ob- 
 ject of every pomologist to give such fruit a silent burial 
 in an early grave. We must learn also to hold introdu- 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 329 
 
 cers as answerable, to some extent, for the correctness of 
 their descriptions, and the quality of their seedlings. If 
 three-fourths of the kinds now before the public could be 
 destroyed, it would be greatly to the public advantage. 
 It is in view of this fact that the following list is limited 
 to such kinds as require special notice, either from their 
 intrinsic merit, or their present prominence in the market. 
 It should be borne in mind that to many tastes the strong, 
 wild, fox, or musk flavor of our native kinds is not dis- 
 agreeable; and they are therefore surprised to find some 
 favorite and ruo:2:ed native, like the Dracut Amber, for 
 example, classed as worthless, because put in comparison 
 with varieties of superior excellence with which they are 
 unacquainted. Z^e gustibus non est disputandum : we 
 must expect and allow a diversity of opinion. Yet we 
 may have a certain standard of excellence upon which 
 there will be an agreement of opinion. It is desirable to 
 have bunches and berries of good size ; an abundance of 
 juice, with as little pulp as possible ; a sprightly mingling 
 of sugar and acid ; small seeds, and a thin but firm skin. 
 Freedom from foxiness, or nny strong and wild flavor, is 
 an essential merit with those whose tastes have been cul- 
 tivated. It must be admitted, however, that no grape 
 combines all excellences. The Diana, for example, in 
 
330 c u L T u u E OF r Ji E a n a p e. 
 
 quality, has much merit; yet it also has a thick skin, con- 
 siderable pulp, and a very peculiar musk-flavor, which is 
 disagreeable to some, but of which others" are very fond. 
 There is so much variety, that all may be pleased. 
 
 A SELECT LIST OP THE MOST PROMINENT NATIVE 
 
 KINDS. 
 
 Adiroudac. — This grai^e is presumed to be a seedling 
 from the Isabella, which it resembles in many respects. 
 The original vine, as is supposed, is on the estate of J. G. 
 Wetherbee, Port Henry, N.Y., on the western shore' of 
 Lake Champlain. In this favorable locality, it has been 
 free from mildew, ripened early, and been excellent in 
 quality. In other localities, there has been some com- 
 plaint of its tendency to mildew ; but it is to be hoped, 
 that, as the vines become established, they will ac- 
 quire more vigor, and power of endurance. If so, it 
 will prove a valuable acquisition on account of its earli- 
 ness and good quality. Bunches large, compact, shoul- 
 dered ; berries large, round, dark, with a slight bloom ; 
 skin thin ; flesh melting to the centre, sweet, excellent, 
 juicy, but not high-flavored. 
 
 Allen\s TLjhrid. — Across between the Chasselas and 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 3ol 
 
 Isabella, raised by J. F. Allen of Salem, Mass. I regard 
 this variety as giving clear evidence of hybridization ; 
 the appearance of the wood and of the foliage, as also 
 of the fruit, being unmistakably foreign ; while its vigor 
 in open culture, its adaptedness to our climate, together 
 with a slight ta'ace of native flavor in the fruit, are proofs 
 of its mixed origin. The foliage in the vineyard is re- 
 markably fine, seeming to be as subject to the attacks of 
 mildew as the Isabella, but having a marked power 
 of enduring and resisting the evil effects of the disease. 
 In this respect, it is essentially different from any foreign 
 kind. The vine is not as hardy as most native kinds, but 
 is safe under a slight covering of earth. Though a little 
 tender, and rather late, it is the best grape of its color 
 yet introduced. Bunches large, long, compact, shoul- 
 dered ; berries medium, round, pale amber ; skin thin ; 
 flesh melting to the centre, very sweet and juicy, with 
 more character than the Chasselas, and superior to it. 
 Ripens with the Concord, but is better if allowed to hang 
 ten days later. 
 
 Catawha. — Mr. John Adlum, of Georgetown, D.C., 
 procured this grape from the garden of Mrs. Schell, in 
 Maryland, about the year 1820. He considered it very 
 similar to a gr. p(> growing wild in Maryland, and called 
 
332 . CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 by him the Red Muncy. Since Mr. Adlum first intro- 
 duced it, the Catawba has been the favorite variety in all 
 sections where it will ripen thoroughly. It is too late for 
 the ISTew-England climate ; and, within a few years, it has 
 been so subject to the rot, that other varieties are being 
 substituted for it, even in vineyards where the Catawba 
 has formerly held undisputed precedence. Its high vi- 
 nous and musk flavor has given character to its wines. 
 Bunches above medium, moderately compact, shouldered ; 
 berries large, round, deep red, with lilac bloom; skin 
 thick; flesh juicy, with some pulj), rich, spirited, vinous; 
 ripens early in October, around Boston, in favorable po- 
 sitions. 
 
 Clinton. — In the year 1821, Hon. Hugh White, then 
 in the junior class in Hamilton College, N^.Y., planted a 
 seedling vine in the grounds of Prof Noyes, on College 
 Hill, wdiich still remains, and is the original Clinton, — a 
 very hardy, healthy, and productive grape, of the first 
 class. Bunches and berries small, black, with blue bloom ; 
 brisk, juicy, quite acid, but improves by keeping until 
 February. 
 
 Concord. — Raised by E. W. Bull, of Concord, Mass. 
 A retrograde from the Isabella or Catawba in the quali- 
 ty of the fruit, yet so superior in its habits, that it is 
 
 \ 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 333 
 
 generally regarded as one of the most valuable kinds. 
 In hardness, vigor of growth, productiveness, and fine 
 appearance of its fruit, it is unsurpassed. In the opinion 
 of most cultivators, it is the most profitable market va- 
 riety. The leaves are very thick and leathery, and com- 
 paratively free from mildew : the fruit is, however, subject 
 to mildew and black rot, which seem to increase in some 
 localities, and may prove serious evils. Bunches large, 
 long, heavy, compact, shouldered, and of noble appear- 
 ance; berrries large, round, black, with a beautiful blue 
 bloom ; skin thin ; flesh sweet, with a pulp, and acid at 
 the centre, somewhat foxy; ripens about the 20th of 
 September. 
 
 Creveling (Catawissa, or Bloom). — Discovered grow- 
 ing wild on the banks of the Catawissa River, in Penn- 
 sylvania. It is now much esteemed on account of its har- 
 diness, earliness, productiveness, and the somewhat pecu- 
 liar excellence of the fruit. The wood is long-jointed, 
 and of a reddish color, easily distinguishable. Bunches 
 medium, long, and loose-; berries large, oval, dark-red, or 
 black ; skin thin ; flesh melting, sweet, juicy, with a pecu- 
 liar plum-like flavor, not high or vinous, but decidedly 
 superior to Concord, or even a well-ripened Isabella; 
 
334 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 ripens with the Delaware, and is a vahiable early black 
 grape. 
 
 Delaware. — Mr. Paul H. Provost, of Kings wood, N.J., 
 emigrated from Switzerland, and brought with him many 
 varieties of foreign grapes, which he cultivated in his gar- 
 den. The Delaware is supposed to have originated with 
 him. From New Jersey it was carried to Delaware, 
 O., by Joseph Heath; and hence its name. Consider- 
 ing the circumstances of its origin, and the character of 
 the vine and fruit, there is strong reason to believe it is 
 a seedling from the Red Traminer. But this in no way 
 detracts from its value : it is now so well tested, that its 
 reputation will stand entirely upon its intrinsic merit. Its 
 growth is slender, very short-jointed, in some localities 
 somewhat subject to mildew, acquiring more vigor with 
 age, and is hardy and very productive. Its fruit is small 
 and light ; but what it lacks in size it makes up in the 
 number of bunches, standing among grajoes very much as 
 the Seckel does among pears. In quality, and as a wine- 
 grape, it deserves unqualified praise. Bunch below me- 
 dium, long, generally lightly shouldered, very compact; 
 berries small, round, beautifully rose-colored ; skin tliin ; 
 flesh juicy, with some pulp, very sweet, but with a slightly 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 335 
 
 vinous fl;ivor; seeds large; quality unsurpassed; ripens 
 Sept. 15 in the vicinity of Boston. 
 
 Diana. — A seedling from the Catawba, raised by Mrs. 
 Diana Crehore, of Milton, Mass. With many decidedly 
 bad points, it still has a high musk (not foxy) fla- 
 vor, which marks it as excellent in quality. It is an 
 uncertain grape, sometimes doing very well, and again 
 being shy in setting its fruit, or very unequal in the time 
 of ripening its berries on the same bunch. A warm, dry, 
 and rather poor soil is found to secure the best results, 
 securing well -ripened wood and an abundance of fruit. 
 Bunches medium, very compact, seldom shouldered ; ber- 
 ries above medium, round, pale -red; skin remarkably 
 thick ; flesh tender, with some pulp, very sweet, juicy, with 
 a rich musk-flavor, which is oflTensive to some, and to oth- 
 ers very delicious. Ripens about with the Concord, and 
 keeps well throughout the winter. 
 
 Hartford Prolific. — Introduced by Mr. Steel, of 
 Hartford, Conn. Its merits consist in being very 
 early, of large size, and wonderfully prolific. Notwith- 
 standing its tendency to drop its berries when fully ripe, 
 and the fact that it is rather below the Concord in 
 quality, it is yet a profitable market-fruit. Bunches large, 
 
336 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 compact, shouldered; berries large, round, black; skin 
 firm, moderately thick ; flesh sweet, juicy, with considera- 
 ble foxiness and pulp ; ripens ten days before the Dela- 
 ware, and is, therefore, valuable for the market. 
 
 lona. — A very promising seedling, raised by C. W. 
 Grant, of lona Island; undoubtedly spnnging from the 
 Catawba, which it much resembles. The quality of the 
 fruit is excellent, partaking of the high vinous character 
 of its parent ; while the character of the vine is healthy, 
 vigorous, and not subject to mildew. In the Northern 
 States, the test of its value w;ill be in the time of its 
 ripening. Bunches large, shouldered, and rather loose, 
 so far as my observation extends; berries large, round, 
 light-red, with dark-red veins ; skin thin ; flesh melting to 
 the centre; full of juice, brisk, vinous, and excellent; 
 probably ripens about with the Concord. 
 
 Israella. — Another seedling from Dr. Grant, somewhat 
 resembling the Isabella, but valuable on account of its 
 earliness, claiming to be ripe with the Hartford. If this* 
 should prove true, and if it is not subject to mildew, 
 as it is of decidedly better quality than the Hartford, 
 and does not drop its berries, it will be of great value. 
 Bunches large, compact, shouldered ; berries large, black, 
 
CULTURE OF THE U li A J' E. 337 
 
 slightly oval like the Isabella; skin thin; flesh melting to 
 the centre, sweet, and free from foxiness ; ripens early in 
 September. 
 
 isahella. — An old variety, introduced at the North by 
 Mrs. Isabella Gibbs, of Brooklyn, L.I., from whom it has 
 received its name. In ordinary localities, especially in 
 New England, it is liable to mildew, and does not ripen 
 its fruit. In favorable localities, especially on the shores 
 of large bodies of water and in a warm position, it still 
 does admirably well. There is a vine on the shore of 
 Lake Winnipiseogee, in New Hampshire, which annually 
 ripens several hundred pounds of noble-looking fruit with 
 great certainty, and in season for the fruit exhibitions 
 about the middle of September; but this is exceptional. 
 In most positions, the vine mildews, and the fruit will 
 not ripen ; and hence this noble variety is, to a great ex- 
 tent, being displaced by new kinds. Bunches large, long, 
 shouldered ; berries large, black, with a thin bloom, oval ; 
 when well-ripened, the flesh is melting, juicy, sprightly, 
 and good ; ripens in Boston, Sept. 25. 
 
 Lydia. — A seedling raised by Mr. Charles Carpenter, 
 of Kelly's Island, O., and promising well in quality 
 and earliness. Bunches above medium; berries large, 
 22 
 
338 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 oval, greenish-white, with a tinge of rose in the sun; 
 flesh sweet and excellent ; ripens with the Delaware. 
 
 Maxatawny. — Originated at Eagleville, Penn., and 
 is a healthy, hardy, and vigorous variety of excellent 
 quality, but is too late for Northern culture. Bunches 
 medium, compact, without shoulder; berries medium, 
 oval, greenish-white ; flesh tender, sweet, and delicious, 
 without pulp; ripens Oct. 1. 
 
 Meadh Seedling. — By John Mead, of Lowell, Mass., 
 from the Catawba, which it resembles. Bunch above 
 medium ; berry of the size of the Catawba, darker, with 
 a fine blue bloom; flesh juicy and very sweet, and bet- 
 ter than the Catawba. It was found in the summer of 
 1847, and taken to Illinois in 1850, where it is received 
 with favor. 
 
 Miles, — A recent variety from Pennsylvania, said to be 
 the earliest of grapes, ripening before Canby's August. 
 Vine vigorous, healthy, and hardy ; fruit of medium size, 
 black, oval ; flesh sweet and rather buttery, but of fair 
 quality. 
 
 Rebecca. — A chance seedling, found in the garden of 
 E. M. Peake, Hudson, N.T. It is subject to mildew when 
 young, and its foliage also suffers from the burning rays 
 of the sun. Yet it becomes more vigorous with age, and 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 339 
 
 its excellent quality makes it desirable for garden culture. 
 It is a litile tender, and requires covering. Bunches me- 
 dium, compact ; beriies above medium, oval, pale, yellow- 
 ish-green ; flesh tender, sweet, with a slight native aroma, 
 which gives character, with little pulp; ripens with the 
 Concord. 
 
 Rogers's Hyhrids. — It is a public misfortune that this 
 large family of seedlings has been disseminated without 
 names, and before they were tested. A great majority 
 of the number, though an improvement upon the I3arent 
 Mammoth, are yet below the standard of table-grapes. 
 They all claim to be hybrids ; the Black Hamburg and 
 other foreign kinds being the male parents, and the wild 
 Mammoth being the female. Mr. E. S. Rogers of Salem, 
 Mass., is deserving of much credit for his skill and enter- 
 prise in hybridizing ; and it is hoped and believed, that, 
 from his numerous seedlings, some will prove to be of per- 
 manent value. 
 
 N"o. 1 indicates its foreign blood, in foliage, and charac- 
 ter of the fruit: its leaves suffer somewhat from the 
 effects of our clear sun, and also from mildew; yet it 
 is a grape of fine appearance and good quality, and 
 meets with favor at the South, where it is more certain 
 of ripening. Bunches large, shouldered; berries large, 
 
340 CULTURE OF THE CRAP E.- 
 
 very oval, amber, with a reddish tinge ; skin very thin ; 
 flesh tender, juicy, somewhat stringy, of good quality; 
 ripens with the Isabella. 
 
 No. 2. — One of the largest, both in bunch and beny; 
 dark purple, slightly oval; flavor sprightly and vinous; 
 is later than the Isabella. 
 
 No. 3. — One of the most desirable of this class, on 
 account of its earliness, which is nearly with the Dela- 
 ware. Bunches of medium size ; berries above medium, 
 oval, dark red ; flesh tender, sweet, with flavor resembling 
 the Diana. 
 
 No. 4. — A very large, black grape, resembling the 
 Union Village. It is of vigorous growth, hardy, and pro- 
 ductive ; of good quality, noble appearance, and promises 
 to be a good market-grape. Bunches large, compact; 
 berries very large, round, black, with thick bloom ; flesh 
 melting, very juicy, sprightly acid, but becoming sweeter 
 when fully ripe ; later than the Concord. 
 
 No. 5 and No. 9 resemble No. 3, but are not equal to it. 
 
 No. 15 is regarded by Mr. Rogers as his best. It is re- 
 markably vigorous, productive, and hardy ; and will pass 
 as a good, sweet grape, where the taste is not critical. 
 Bunches of fair size, rather loose, shouldered; berries 
 oval, large, dark red ; flesh juicy, with some pulp and foxi- 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 341 
 
 ness, and somewhat stringy ; leaves a rough taste upon 
 the palate; ripens as early or earlier than the Concord. 
 
 No. 19 and No. 33 resemble No. 4; but, I am inclined 
 to think, are less desirable. 
 
 No. 41 is a large, black grape, of the character of No. 4 ; 
 perhajjs earlier and sweeter. 
 
 The higher numbers of these seedlings are a second 
 generation fi*om the lower numbers impregnated with 
 foreign kinds; and, in general, they seem to have too 
 much of the foreign element for our climate. Trial alone 
 will determine which of these have a permanent value. 
 
 In regard to these, Mr. J. F. C. Hyde, an able pomolo- 
 gist, and Chairman of the Massachusetts Horticultural 
 Society, in his report for 1865, remarks, — 
 
 "We are happy to say, that, from all we have seen of 
 the various numbers during the past year, we are very 
 much better pleased^ with them than ever before, and 
 truly believe that some of them are destined to become 
 highly popular and valuable varieties, especially for the 
 market. We have given our judgment of these grapes 
 as they appeared this year, but may, from the experience 
 of another year, change it as much as we have changed 
 it the past year ; for it is very certain that none can 
 safely judge of a grape until the vine gets age, and the 
 
342 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 fruit has been grown in different localities and under 
 varying circumstances. So far as relates to quality 
 merely, we do not yet regard any of these grapes as equal 
 to Delaware, Allen's Hybrid, lona, and others." 
 
 Union Yillage. — A seedling from the Isabella, raised 
 by the Shakers at Union Yillage, O. It resembles its 
 parent in growth, though more rampant, and with larger 
 foliage ; does not ripen its wood thoroughly, and requires 
 winter-covering. Notwithstanding these objections, and 
 its lateness, it will be retained on account of its noble 
 appearance. Bunches very large, compact, shouldered; 
 berries of largest size, round, black, with bloom ; flesh very 
 juicy, with little pulp, spirited, and rather too acid, until 
 fully ripe in the early part of October, when it is full of 
 juice, and its quality is good. 
 
 RECENT KINDS, PROMISING WELL, BUT NOT SUFFICIENTLY 
 
 TESTED. 
 
 Barnes. — Mr. Parker Barnes has, for two years past, 
 exhibited a grape which appears to be nearly as early as 
 the Hartford, and quite superior to it in quality. Bunches 
 about five inches in length, shouldered ; berries medium, 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 343 
 
 oval, black, sweet, and good; ripe Sept. 5; worthy of 
 trial as au early grape. 
 
 Bogue's Eureka.— "- The Attica Atlas" (N.Y.) describes 
 this as stronger, earlier, and better than the Isabella, which 
 it resembles. 
 
 Clover-street Black. — Originated by Jacob Moore of 
 Rochester, N.Y., and said to be a cross between Diana 
 and Black Hamburg. Bunch large and well shouldered ; 
 berries large, black, with a line bloom ; flesh tender, with 
 little pulp, sweet, spirited, and excellent ; was fully ripe 
 when exhibited Sept. 20. Promises well. 
 
 Bana. — K seedling by Francis Dana of Roxbury, 
 Mass., which is described by Mr. Hyde, Chairman of f e 
 Fruit Committee of the Massachusetts Horticultural So- 
 ciety, as follows: "Bunch of medium size, shouldered, 
 compact, with a peculiar red stem ; the berries of rather 
 large size, nearly round, red, with a rich, heavy bloom, so 
 that, when fully ripe, they appear almost black ; as free 
 from pulp as the Delaware ; not so sweet, but more spir- 
 ited and vinous, and yet not an acid grape." This grape 
 is now under trial. 
 
 Diana Hamburg. — Another hybrid by Mr. Moore, 
 of Rochester, KY., and thus described in "Hovey's 
 Magazine:" "Clusters very large, six to eight inches in 
 
344 CULTURE OF THE G R A I' E. 
 
 length, usually longer in proportion to breadth than 
 the Hamburg, regularly shouldered, compact ; berries 
 roundish, larger than the Concord, dark crimson, with 
 a rich purple bloom, mingled with a fiery lustre in 
 the sunlight ; flesh perfectly tender, breaking to the cen- 
 tre, and letting out the seeds like a foreign grape; 
 of sugary sweetness, in flavor remarkably like the Ham- 
 burg, but more aromatic and lively, fully equalling that 
 excellent variety. Hardy, and very productive; fruit 
 ripens after the Concord, and a week or ten days ear- 
 lier than the Diana." When exhibited, Sept. 20, it was 
 not fully ripe, but appeared very promising. 
 
 Howell. — Of this new grape, Mr. Meehan says, in his 
 "Monthly," that it was "perfectly ripe Sept. 4, with 
 bunches and berries of medium size, of a jet-black color; 
 with a thick skin, and too firm pulp, but superior to Con- 
 cord, and much better than many that have been 'let out' 
 with a loud explosion." 
 
 Lincoln County. — Raised by W. H. Read, of Canada 
 West, who states that the clusters are larger than the 
 Union Village, and the berries equal in size, while its 
 time of ripening is with the Concord. 
 
 Martha. — A seedling from the Concord, raised by 
 S. Miller, Calmdale, Penn. The vine is vigorous, hardy. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 345 
 
 and healthy ; bunches medium, loose, shouldered ; berries 
 large, round, pale yellow; flesh sweet, juicy, with some 
 pulp and foxiness, but of good quality. This descrip- 
 tion is given by George Husmann, who is a careful 
 judge. 
 
 Nonantum. — Another seedling by Mr. Francis Dana, 
 and described by Mr. Hyde as "a black grape; bunch 
 rather small as it appeared this year, shouldered ; berries 
 of good size, oval, similar in shape and appearance to the 
 Isabella ; entirely free from pulp, being quite remarkable 
 in this respect ; good flavor ; promising. Some prefer 
 it to the Dana. Time of ripening about the same as the 
 Dana." This also is under trial. 
 
 Pollock. — A grape raised by Mr. Pollock, of Tremont, 
 N.Y., has been mentioned as promising. Bunches are 
 said to be as large as the Concord, very compact ; ber- 
 ries large, dark purple or black ; flesh without pulp, very 
 vinous, and not too sweet. 
 
 Yecldo. — A new species from Japan, and classed in 
 England as Vitis glaucescens. It was sent to this coun- 
 try by Dr. Hall, and has been introduced through Par- 
 sons & Co., of Flushing, IST.Y. In England, the quality 
 of the fruit is highly spoken of The bunches are of 
 medium size ; the berries brown, with a thin skin, and 
 
346 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 "flavor all that can be desired." Not yet proved, but 
 will probably be rather late. My own vines have been 
 inclined to mildew. 
 
 SYNONYMES, AND VARIETIES OF LESS VALUE, OR DE- 
 SIGNED FOR SPECIAL LOCALITIES. 
 
 Alexander. — Large, black, tough pulp, with some foxi- 
 ness ; rather late. 
 
 Aiken. — Same as Isabella. 
 
 Albino^ or Alhiness. — A worthless large white grape. 
 
 Allair. — A worthless red grape. 
 
 Alvey. — A Southern grape, but hardy at the North, 
 ripening in the latter part of September. Berries small, 
 vinous, without pulp. 
 
 Ainerican Harnburg. — A large black and poor fox 
 grape. 
 
 Amber Catawba. — Said to resemble, but is earlier and 
 more musky than, its parent. 
 
 Anna. — Introduced by Dr. Grant. Bunches and ber- 
 ries large, white, rich Catawba-flavor, with a tough pulp ; 
 vine not healthy, and fruit too late for any latitude north 
 of Washington. 
 
 Arkansas. — Is Isabella. 
 
CULTURE OF THE G li 'A P E. 347 
 
 Bdldwm Le N'oir. — Like the Alvey ; rich in graj^e- 
 sugar for wine. 
 
 Baxter. — A very large-clustered frost-grape, with ber- 
 ries of the size and quality of Clinton. 
 
 Bland. — Mr. Van Buren recommends this strongly for 
 the South, as resembling and more desirable than the 
 Catawba. 
 
 Black King. — A hardy and vigorous early grape, of 
 medium size ; sweet, but foxy. 
 
 Bloom. — Resembles the Union Yillasfe. 
 
 Blood's Black. — An early sweet, black, foxy grape. 
 
 Blood's White. — A worthless fox-grape. 
 
 Blue Favorite. — A frost-grape, not equal to Clinton. 
 
 Brackeifs Winchester. — Very similar to Union Vil- 
 lasfe. 
 
 BrinckU. — A seedling from the European. 
 
 CanOjda Chief. — Like the Chasselas ; not suited to our 
 climate. 
 
 Cassady. — A white grape of medium size, of good 
 flavor, juicy, with little pulp. Vine vigorous, hardy; 
 ripens Oct. 1. 
 
 Canhy's August. — Is York Madeira. 
 
 Camden. — Is a wild fox:-grape. 
 
 Chippewa. — Is a small, black, and sour grape. 
 
348 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 ChilcVs Superb. — Foreign, and unsuitable for open cul- 
 ture. 
 
 Clara. — A seedling from the foreign, originated in 
 Philadelphia. Bunch and berries medium, round, green- 
 ish-white ; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, and delicious ; ripens 
 last of September. 
 
 Christi/s Isabella. — Same as Isabella. 
 
 Charlotte. — A seedling from the Catawba, by Edmund 
 Ward, Kelly's Island. Bunches medium, not shouldered, 
 compact ; berries medium, roundish, pale red ; flesh ten- 
 der, sweet, vinous, with slight musky aroma ; ripens with 
 the Delaware. 
 
 Cloantha. — Resembles, but is more foxy than, the Isa- 
 bella. 
 
 Coriell. — Resembles *the Isabella, but is said to be 
 larger and better; ripening Oct. 1. 
 
 Cuyahoga. — Introduced by Mr. Wemj^le, of Cuyahoga, 
 County, O. A greenish-white grape, of medium size, com- 
 pact, round, sweet, and juicy; does not ripen well at the 
 North. 
 
 Cynthiana. — Is puljoy and inferior. . 
 
 Devereux. — Is Le Noir. 
 
 Diller. — Pulpy, and inferior to the Isabella. 
 
 Dracut Amber. — An early, productive, foxy grape. 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 349 
 
 Marly Amber. — Similar to the last ; berries drop. 
 
 Early Hudson. — Berries round, black, of medium size, 
 often seedless ; of third quality. 
 
 Elizabeth. — Originated on the farm of James Hart, 
 near Rochester, N.Y. Resembles the Isabella in size and 
 form, but of a greenish-white color, and thought to be of 
 better flavor by the editor of " The Rural New-Yorker." 
 
 El Paso. — Foreign varieties, or Mexican and Califor- 
 nia seedlings from the foreign, are sent out indiscrimi- 
 nately under this name. 
 
 Esinburg. — Originated in a town of this name in 
 New Jersey. Bunches large, long, loose, shouldered ; ber- 
 ries small, black, with a blue bloom ; skin thin ; flesh melt- 
 ing, sweet, sprightly, and vinous. Ripens Oct. 1. 
 
 Emily. — Two kinds have been sent out under this 
 name; one a foreign seedling, and the other a worthless 
 frost-grape, having remarkably fine foliage. 
 
 Fancher. — Found by Mr. F. B. Fancher, of Lansing- 
 burg, N.Y., where it succeeds well, and is equal to the 
 Catawba, if not superior. The Catawba will not ripen so 
 far North. 
 
 Framingham, — Resembles, but is scarcely as desirable 
 as, the Hartford. 
 
350 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 Franklin. — A dark-colored, free-growing wine-grape, 
 like the Clinton. 
 
 Garrigues. — Similar to, and perhaps identical with, the 
 Isabella. 
 
 Golden Clinton, — Like the Clinton, except in color, 
 which is yellowish-white. 
 
 Graham. — A good purple grape, of medium size, juicy, 
 and with tender pulp ; is rather late. 
 
 Harris. — A Southern grape, of medium size, round, 
 black, sweet, juicy, with some pulp. Vigorous and pro- 
 ductive. 
 
 Hashel. — Is Concord. , 
 
 Herhemont. — A Southern variety of the Yitis cestivalis., 
 which mildews, and is quite too late, at the Korth. Far- 
 ther South, it is a vigorous, coarse vine, very prolific, and 
 excellent ; bunches very large, sometimes weighing two 
 pounds, compact, shouldered'; berries round, small, purple, 
 with a blue bloom ; flesh juicy, vinous, sprightly, and free 
 from pulp. 
 
 Hyde! 8 Eliza. — Raised by Wilkes Hyde, Catskill, N.Y. 
 A smaller and somewhat earlier grape than the Isabella, 
 which it resembles. 
 
 Lahe. — From Lebanon, Penn. Bunches medium, com- 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 351 
 
 pact, not shouldered ; berries large, deep black ; flavor 
 brisk, with a peculiar pleasant sweetness. Of promise. 
 
 Jje N'oir. — One of the earliest and best of the South- 
 ern varieties, resembling and ripening two weeks before 
 the Herbemont ; has less compact bunches, and is about 
 equal in quality. In some favored garden-spots at the 
 Korth, it may mature. 
 
 Lincoln. — Is much like the preceding, but is distinct 
 in foliage. 
 
 Long. — Resembles the Le Noir, but is not equal to it. 
 
 Logan. — Bunches medium, compact; berries above 
 medium, oval, black; flesh juicy, but of second quality; 
 ripens with the Concord. 
 
 Louisa. — A seedling from the Isabella, raised by Sam- 
 uel Miller, of Calmdale, Penn. It is much like its parent, 
 but is said to be more healthy, and ten days earlier. 
 
 3fanhattan. — A strong, foxy grape ;' sweet, with tough 
 pulp. 
 
 Marion. — Of the frost class ; bunches above medium, 
 very compact ; berries medium, black, with a fine bloom ; 
 very shai-p, with pulp, but becomes eatable in the winter. 
 
 Mary Ann. — An early, black, foxy grape. 
 
 Massachusetts White. — Introduced by B. M. Watson, 
 of Plymouth, but proves to be a worthless wild grape. 
 
352 C U L T U 11 E OF THE G R APE. 
 
 Maguire. — Is like tlie Hartford, but more foxy. 
 
 MercerorCs Seedling. — Reported as "a decided im- 
 provement on the Catawba, and two weeks earlier." 
 
 Merritts Seedling. — Is of foreign habit, and undesira- 
 ble for our climate. 
 
 3Iottled. — From the Catawba, by Charles Carpenter, 
 of Kelly's Island. Said to be earlier and less disposed to 
 rot than its parent. It is of brisk, sprightly flavor, and 
 otherwise resembles the Catawba, but is mottled with 
 darker purplish -red shades. 
 
 Newport. — ^Is a seedling from and is like the Herbe- 
 mont. 
 
 North America. — Is early, sweet, foxy, with pulp ; of 
 third quality. , 
 
 Norton's Virginia. — Introduced by Dr. Norton, of 
 Richmond, about the year 1825. It is esteemed as a 
 wine-grape at the South and West, being healthy, pro- 
 ductive, and spirited. Bunches long, loose ; berries small, 
 round, black, harsh, and sour, but becoming sufficiently 
 sweet at the South for wine. 
 
 Ohio Cigar-box. — Is much like Herbemont. 
 
 Ontario. — Is the Union Village, 
 
 Oporto. — Introduced by E. W. Sylvester, of Lyons, 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 353 
 
 N.Y. A black, harsh, and very acid grape ; too poor for 
 
 wine. 
 
 Pauline. — A Southern grape, of excellent quality, re- 
 sembling Le Noir, but with larger and lighter-colored 
 
 berries. 
 
 Perkins. — The true variety from Massachusetts is of 
 the general appearance of the Diana, but larger, earlier, 
 much more foxy, with a hard pulp, and drops badly. 
 Ranks with the Northern Muscadine. 
 
 Powell. — Is the same as Bland. 
 
 Provost White and Sage. — Are like common wild 
 
 grapes. 
 
 Paahe. — A cross between Elsinburg and Bland. 
 Bunch and berry small, compact, dark red, very sweet 
 and good. 
 
 Scuppernong. — Of this Southern family, belonging to 
 the species Vitis vulpiiia, there are several varieties, as 
 the white, the blue, &c., having similar characteristics, but 
 differing in the color of the fruit. Clusters are small, 
 loose, with but few scattered berries, which are large, 
 bronzed, white, blue, or black, with thick skin; very 
 sweet, with fine musky aroma; makes an excellent wine. 
 Suitable only for the South. 
 
 23 
 
354 CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 St, Catherine. — A good native kind, with large and 
 fine-looking bunches and berries, which do not drop. 
 Flesh sweet, foxy, with considerable pulp. 
 
 St. Geiievieve. — Is probably the same as Herbemont. 
 
 Taylor's Bullitt. — Introduced by Judge Taylor, of 
 Jericho, Ky. Of rapid growth ; bunches and berries of 
 medium size ; nearly white ; not productive, and not equal 
 to other white grapes. 
 
 Northern 3fuscadine. — A dark amber, foxy grape, fi-om 
 the Shakers ; is large, early, sweet, with a hard pulp ; drops 
 badly ; of third quality. Ranks with the Dracut Amber, 
 or Early Amber. 
 
 To Kalon. — Introduced from New York, and known 
 also in Massachusetts as the Carter & Wyman. It is a 
 large, blue-black grape, with a fine bloom ; skin thin ; 
 flesh tender, rich, juicy, with little pulp ; mildews, and is 
 not productive. 
 
 TlnderhilVs Seedling. — Similar in color to the Ca- 
 tawba, but having a tough pulp and foxy flavor; ripens 
 earlier. 
 
 Venango. — A Southern wine-grape, of the size of the 
 Catawba, and of brownish-lilac color. 
 
 'Wilmington. — A very showy oval white grape, from 
 
CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 355 
 
 Delaware, but requiring a long Southern season to be- 
 come of good quality. 
 
 York Madeira. — A small black grape from Pennsyl- 
 vania, somewhat resembling the Clinton. Of second 
 quality, but makes a good wine. 
 
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