Class Book ■ SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT 3^EDDP$«9r& i5M0Of HISTORY GREECE AND ROME, INCLUDING JUDEA, EGYPT, AND CARTHAGE. Jtatgefc tor % te 0f Stfpis. WITH QUESTIONS FOR THE EXAMINATION OF STUDENTS. BY J JOHN RUSSELL, A.M. AUTHOR OF THE HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES AND THE HISTORY OF FRANCE. A NEW AND REVISED EDITION, W\i\ Illustration. PHILADELPHIA: LINDSAY & BLAKISTON. 1854. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1854, by Liyj QSAY& MiAK ISTOy, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 3 5"«1 PREFACE Is completing his series of school histories, the author of the present work has deemed it important to comprise in the same volume the ancient history of Greece and Rome, and of the other ancient nations, who were all more or less con- nected with these powerful and far-conquering states. Al- though it would be easy to multiply volumes by giving to each of the less civilized and influential nations a minute and extended history, yet the true interest of learners would not be consulted by such a course. To trace the progress of civilization and intellect with that degree of distinctness which is requisite in a course of historical instruction at school, it is deemed sufficient, so far as ancient history is concerned, to study a clear and succinct history of Greece and Rome, with such notices of the other ancient nations as will give a correct idea of their extent and importance ; the leading events and characters occurring in their annals ; and their relations with those two great states which were the chief depositaries of power, learning, and refinement, during the respective periods of their independence. Such a course has been followed in this volume ; and it is hoped that the information which it comprises will enable the young student to acquire a correct idea of the earlier periods of history ; and to understand the allusions, which he may meet with in a general course of literature, to the great nations, charac- ters and events of antiquity. 1* (5) CONTENTS. HISTORY OF THE JEWS. Chap. 1. From the Creation to the Confusion of Tongues Page 13 2. Noah's Descendants 15 3. The Call of Abraham 16 4. The Israelites in Egypt 19 5. The Judges over Israel 21 6. David and his Successors 24 7. Jehu, Amaziah, and their Successors 26 8. Xerxes favours the Jews — Macedonian Dominions in Judea 29 9. Dominion of the Romans in Judea — Asmonean Dynasty 31 10. Herod, King of the Jews. — Birth of Jesus Christ 34 11. Judea under Roman Procurators 36 12. Ancient Nations connected with the Jews 39 HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. Chap. 1. Description of Egypt. — Its Architecture 47 2. Learning and Superstition of the Egyptians — Military Establishment 50 3. Of the Kings of Egypt 52 4. Egyptian Colonies 55 5. Nechao, Psammis, Apries— Conquest of Egypt o7 HISTORY OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. Chap. 1. Origin of the Carthaginians — Their Religion, Government, and Com- merce 63 2. Resources, Extent, and Early History of Carthage ". . 65 3. Colonies of Carthage — Foreign Wars — Hamilcar — Hannibal 68 4. Hanno, Agathocles — War with Rome 70 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. 1. Early History of the Grecian States 79 2. Institutions of Lycurgus 81 3. Institutions of Solon . 84 4. Preparations of Darius for the Invasion of Greece 87 5. Invasion Of Greece by the Persians 89 6. March of Xerxes to Greece 91 7. Defeat of the Persians in Greece 94 8. Final Expulsion of the Persians from Greece 96 9. Treason of Pausanias — Flight of Themistocles 97 10. Death of Xerxes 98 11. Rise of Pericles — Public Services of Conon 101 12. Pericles at the Height of his Power 103 13. The Peloponnesian War 107 14. Peloponnesian War continued — Affairs of Persia — Alcibiades 109 15 Unfortunate Expedition to Sicily 112 16. The Thirty Tyrants— Thrasybul us 115 17. Expedition of Cyrus 117 18. Retreat of the Ten Thousand 118 19. Agesilaus — Victory of Conon — Decline of the Lacedaemonian Power 121 20. Socrates •. . . 125 21. Manners and Customs of the Greeks 126 22. Government of Athens , 129 (7) Vlll CONTENTS. Chap. 23. Government of Athens, continued 131 24. Education and Military Institutions of the Greeks 132. 25. Character of the Athenians 135 26. Kise of the Theban Power. — Pelopidas — Epaminondas 136 27. Artaxerxes Mnemon undertakes the Reduction of Egypt 140 28. War of the Allies against the Athenians 142 29. Philip of Macedon 143 30. The Sacred War 146 31. Siege of Perinthus — Battle of Chaeronea — Banishment of ^Eschines 148 32. Philip is declared Generalissimo of the Greeks against the Persians — His Death 150 33. Alexander ascends the Throne; and is declared Generalissimo of the Greeks against the Persians 152 34. Alexander's Expedition 154 35. Battle of Issus— Siege and Capture of Tyre 156 36. Battle of Arbela— Death of Darius 159 37. Death of Clitus — Expedition to India 161 38. Alexander returns from India — His Death 164 39. Successors of Alexander — Death of Phocion 168 40. Achaean League — Greece reduced to a Roman Province 170 41. Affairs of Judea, Egypt, and Syria 172 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. 1. The Foundation of Rome 179 2. Sabine War — Numa Pompilius — Tullus Hostilius 181 3. Ancus Martius — Lucius Tarquinius Priscus— Servius Tullus 184 4. Lucius Tarquinius Superbus— End of the Regal Government 188 5. Consuls *38 6. Tribunes created, U. C. 260.— Agrarian Law 190 7. The Creation of the Decemviri, U. C. 302— Virginius 193 8. Veian War — Invasion of the Gauls 196 9. War with the Latins and Samnites — Pyrrhus 199 10. First Punic War, B. C. 264 202 11. The Second Punic War 204 12. War with Philip, King of Macedon 207 13. Jugurthian War— Marius— Sylla 210 14. Catilin^s Conspiracy — Caesar crosses the Rubicon 213 15. Battle of Pharsalia— Death of Pompey 216 16. Caesar in Egypt— Cato in Utica 219 17. Death of Caesar— The Triumvirate 221 18. Battle of Philippic Death of Brutus 227 19. Antony in Egypt 229 20. Consolidation of the Imperial Power by Augustus . . 232 21. Tiberius— Caligula 234 22. Claudius— Expedition to Britain 237 23. Nero— Galba 239 24. Otho — Vitellius — Vespasian 240 25. Titus— Domitian 242 26. Nerva — Trajan — Adrian 244 27. Adrian's Expedition — Antoninus Pius— Marcus Aurelius 246 28. Coramodus — Pertinax — Septimius Severus 249 29. Caracalla and Geta — Alexander Severus — Maximin — Philip — Decius — Gallus 251 30. Valerian and his Successors 254 31. Constantine 256 32. Successors of Constantine— Julian 258 33. Valentinian — Valens — Gratian — Theodosius 260 34. The Barbarous Nations who subverted the Roman Empire — Fall of the Empire 262 35 Boundaries of the Roman Empire 265 ( io ANCIENT HISTORY THE JEWS. (ii) HISTORY OF THE JEWS. CHAPTER 1. FROM THE CREATION TO THE CONFUSION OF TONGUES. We learn from the Sacred Scriptures, the only source from which the earliest authentic information can be drawn, that the creation of the heavens and the earth was produced by the immediate power of the Deity. By his sovereign command the light appeared. Form and order arose out of a rude chaotic mass. The wide expanse of firmament divided the upper from the lower waters. The earth, the sea, and the air, abounded with living creatures, adapted to their respective ele- ments ; lastly Man, the noblest work of the creation, was called into existence ; and as it was not good for man to be alone, to him was given a suitable helpmate. Adam and Eve, our original parents, were placed in a paradise, called the Garden of Eden, in which they enjoyed a state of innocence and purity, with permission to partake of every tree in the garden, except that of the knowledge of good and evil. But they disobeyed the divine command, and they suffered the consequence of their disobedience ; they fell, and were banished from Paradise, B. C. 4004. — Cain, Adam's eldest son, was born in the first year of the world ; and in the year fol- lowing, Abel, his brother. Abel was a keeper of the flocks, but Cain was a tiller of the ground, and occupied in the labours of husbandry. Their tempers were as different as their occupations. Abel was a lover of righteousness : Cain was obstinate and wicked. It was usual, in the infancy of the world, to present oblations to God. Abel brought of the firstlings of his flock, and Cain of the fruit of the ground. The sacrifice of Abel, on account of his piety, was more acceptable to God than the offering of Cain ; and the latter, transported with envy and rage, slew his brother. The Almighty, on account of this fratricide, condemned Cain to become for a while a fugitive and a vagabond on the earth, till he settled in the land of Nod. What is the scripture account of the Creation? — For what crime were Adam and Eve banished Paradise? — When? — Who were their children? — Why was Abel's sacrifice more acceptable than Cain's ? — What followed ? 2 (13) 14 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. The birth of Seth, which happened some time after, must have afforded our first parents much consolation. His descendants were long distinguished for their piety, so that they were called the sons of God,~ while the family of Cain were denominated the sons and daughters of men. At length, however, the descendants of Seth also neglected the service of the great Creator, and contracted alliances with the daughters of Cain, whose vices they gradually adopted. Some arts must have attained a degree of cultivation before the Deluge. For Cain built a sity. Jabal was the father of such as dwell in tents. Jubal was the father of such as handled the harp and organ. Tubal Cain taught the manufacture of brass and iron. The sister of Tubal Cain, Naamah, discovered the art of spinning, and of making woollen clothes. By degrees the human race had so degenerated, all flesh had so corrupted its way upon the earth, that God determined to destroy it by a flood of waters. One man, Noah, a descendant of Seth, however, found grace in the eyes of the Lord. And on account of his piety, God was pleased to save him from the general destruction ; commanding him to build an ark, or vessel, sufficient to contain himself, and his own family, and some of every species of animals, with proper provision for their sub- sistence. In the year of the world, 1656, and B. C. 2348, he entered the ark ; and the windows of heaven were opened, and the fountains of the great deep were broken up ; and the world which then was, being overflowed with water, perished. The waters, which had in- creased during one hundred and fifty days, at length subsided; and after being inclosed in the ark for about the space of a year, Noah, and all that were with him, came forth out of the ark, which rested on the mountains of Ararat, B. C. 2347. On quitting the ark, Noah erected an altar and offered thereon burnt-sacrifices ; and the Almighty gra- ciously accepted his piety, and declared, that he would not again curse the ground for man's sake, nor cut off all flesh by the waters of the flood. And as a token of that promise, said God, " I do set my bow in the clouds." With the testimonies of the Sacred Scriptures, (Genesis, chap. 6, 7,) the writings of some of the ancient authors, and the different appear- ances of Ihe globe, concur in support of the truth of this event. The length of the ark was 517 feet, its breadth 94, and its height 55. Not only the lives of the Antediluvians, but of many after the flood were protracted to a great age. Adam lived 930 years, Methuselah 969 years, and Noah 950 years. Many historians having marked some coincidences between the cha- racter and life of Fohi, the first emperor of China, and that of Noah, have conjectured that Noah might have been the founder of the Chi- nese empire. ? The sons of Noah were Shem, Ham, and Japhet. Japhet was the eldest, and the patriarch pronounced a blessing upon him, saying, How were the descendants of Seth and Cain distinguished?— Jabal?— Jubal?— Relate the particulars of Noah and the flood.— When did it take place?— What were the ages of several antediluvians?— What is said of Noah?— Repeat the prophetic words of Noah ? noah's descendants. 15 "God shall enlarge Japhet, he shall dwell in the tents of Shem, and Canaan shall be his servant." Concerning the posterity of Ham, he said, " Cursed be Canaan, a servant of servants shall he be unto his brethren." Shem was honoured by the Hebrews, who were his de- scendants, as were also the Assyrians, Persians, Syrians, &c. Ham was the founder of the Egyptians, Ethiopians, &c. CHAPTER 2. NOAH'S DESCENDANTS. Among the most distinguished of the descendants of Ham, was Nim- rod, who is termed, in Genesis, a mighty hunter before the Lord. The beginning of his kingdom was Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneth. The immediate descendants of Noah quitted the environs of Ararat, and descended to the plains of Shinar. On this spot they resolved to build a city, and a tower whose top might reach to heaven, about 2247 years B. C., and 100 years after the flood. When'they had carried their edifice to a very considerable height, the Scriptures inform us that the Almighty confounded their language, so that they no longer under- stood each other. For this reason the city was called Babylon. This compelled them to relinquish their vain project, and the result was the dispersion of mankind into different countries. Before this event mankind spoke the same language, and occupied the same portion of the earth ; but their diversity of tongues occasioned their separation, and the forming of different nations. As families increased, their domains were extended, and towns and cities were erected. Hence arose the different laws and customs of nations, which have since overspread a considerable portion of the globe. It may, perhaps, be collected from the testimony of the Sacred Scriptures, and from the deductions of philosophy, that man has always existed in society, and that the first societies were families, the first form of government patriarchal ; that the first nourishment was the fruits of the earth, that gradually man became a keeper of flocks and herds, and a cultivator of corn, that from the union of families arose monarchies, the most ancient form of extended civil government. It is in this last state we propose to trace the most important events that have taken place among the various branches of the human race. About 150 years after the deluge, Nimrod (the Belus of profane his- torians) built Babylon on the eastern side of the river Euphrates, and Assur built Nineveh, on the river Tigris, which became the capital of the Assyrian Empire. Ninus, the son of Belus, and his queen Semiramis, particularly the latter, are said to have raised the empire of Assyria to a high degree of splendour. From the death of Ninus down to a revolt of the Medes under Sardanapalus, a period of 800 years, there is a chasm in the his- What were Shem's descendants? — Ham's? — What is said of Nimrod? — When and by whom was the tower of Babel built ? — What occasioned the dispersion of mankind ? — What was the most ancient mode of government ? — Who were the builders of Babylon and Nineveh? — What is said of Ninus and Semiramis? 16 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. tory of Assyria and Babylon, that can be supplied only by conjecture ; and the earliest periods of the Egyptian history are equally uncertain. Origin of Laws. — Certain political writers have supposed that, in the infancy of society, penal laws must have been extremely mild. Perhaps the contrary was rather the case, as the more barbarous the people, the stronger must be the bonds to restrain them ; and history confirms the supposition in the ancient laws of the Jews, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. Among the earliest laws of all states, are those regarding marriage, for the institution of marriage is coeval with the formation of society. The laws of succession are next in order. The father had the absolute power in the division of his estate ; but primogeniture was understood to confer certain rights. Early method of authenticating contracts. — Before the invention of writing, contracts, testaments, sales, marriages, and the like, were tran- sacted in public. Of these the Jewish and Grecian histories furnish many examples. Some barbarous nations authenticate their bargains by exchanging symbols or tallies. The Peruvians accomplished most of the purposes of writing by knotted cords of various colours, termed Quipos. The Mexicans communicated intelligence to a distance by painting, or, as it is called, picture writing. Other nations used sym- bols called hieroglyphics, as did the Egyptians. The first vehicles of history were poetry and song. The songs of the bards record a great deal of ancient history ; and the laws of many of the ancient nations were composed in verse. Among barbarous nations, the monuments of their history are stones, both rude and sculptured, tumuli and mounds of earth; and among people more refined are columns, triumphal arches, coins and medals. CHAPTER 3. THE CALL OF ABRAHAM. When Abraham was about seventy-five years old, at the command of God he removed from Mesopotamia,* with Sarah his wife and Lot his nephew, into Canaan, (B. C. 1920,) where the Lord appeared to him, and promised that his seed should possess that land. He was afterwards compelled, however, to remove into Egypt for a short time on account of a great famine in Canaan. He had not been long in that country when Pharaoh the king, not knowing that Sarah was Abraham's wife, was struck with the charms of her person, and took her to his palace. (B. C. 1919.) God graciously interfered for them, and she was restored to Abra- ham. After their return from Egypt, Abraham and his nephew separated on account of a quarrel between the shepherds concerning the pasture. ♦Mesopotamia is the country lying between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. What is said of penal laws ? — What laws were supposed to have been first insti- tuted? — What next? — How were bargains and contracts made in early times?— What of Qiiipos ? — What were the earliest vehicles of history ? — What were the earliest monuments ? — The later ones ? — From what country was Abraham called —When? THE CALL OF ABRAHAM. 17 About this time the Almighty renewed the promise to Abraham, ■** that in his seed all the nations of the earth should be blessed," when as yet he had no child. By the advice of Sarah, he took to him Hagar, her hand-maid, who bore him a son called Ishmael. (B.C. 1857.) A misunderstanding arising between her and Sarah, she departed from her master's house, and took with her Ishmael, who became the father of the Arabs. When Abraham was an hundred years old, Isaac, the promised child, was born, and was circumcised on the eighth day, according to the command of God, who had appointed that rite as a sign of the cove- nant made between himself and the patriarch. In order to try his faith, the Lord ordered Abraham to sacrifice his beloved son Isaac, who was the child of promise. Accordingly he prepared to obey the command, bound his son, and laid him as a victim on the altar, when the Almighty, satisfied with his fidelity, bade him desist from his design, and repeated his promise to him who had not withheld his only son. Soon after this happened, Sarah died and was buried in Hebron. Abraham then espoused Keturah, by whom he had six sons, who settled in Arabia. Abraham being solicitous to see Isaac settled, sent his steward (B. C. 1838,) to Padan Aram, to seek a wife for Isaac ; and Rebecca, the pa- triarch's niece, became the spouse of his son. Abraham died at the age of one hundred and seventy-five years, and his sons Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah, where Sarah had been interred. Rebecca bore Isaac two sons, Esau and Jacob. As the lads grew, Esau became a noted hunter, and was his father's favourite; but Re- becca evinced a partiality for his milder brother, who, she had been as- sured by divine revelation, was to inherit the blessing. When Esau returned from hunting one day, greatly fatigued, he sold his birth-right to Jacob for the gratification of his appetite. By afterwards depriv- ing him of his father's blessing, Jacob incurred the displeasure of Esau (B. C. 1761,) and to avoid his resentment, was obliged to seek a retreat at Padan Aram, the place of his mother's nativity. On his journey, God renewed to him all the promises he had made to Abraham. Jacob was welcomed to the house of his uncle Laban, whose two daughters, Leah and Rachel, he married, having served their father seven years for each. They with their hand-maids bore the twelve patriarchs, and one daughter Dinah. His beloved Rachel bore only Joseph and Ben- jamin. After having fed the flocks of his father-in-law for twenty years, and having amassed considerable wealth, he returned with his family and treasures unto his own country. Jacob despatched messengers to ap- prise Esau of his arrival ; and sent with them a rich present as a token of his brotherly love. They met with a favourable reception, and Esau set out to meet his brother, with four hundred men. When Jacob per- ceived this numerous retinue, he was greatly alarmed, fearing that Esau What was the Almighty's promise to Abraham? — When was Ishmael born?— Tsaac? — What sacrifice was Abraham called to make? — What followed ? — Whom did Isaac marry? — What was Abraham's age? — For what did Esau sell his birth- right?- When ?- What followed ?— To what country and family did Jacob retire ? a * 18 HISTOR? OF THE JEWS. still harboured feelings of resentment against him. The meeting of the two brothers, however, was amicable, and a perfect reconciliation was effected. Esau departed to his residence at Seir, and Jacob pitched his tents in the vicinage of Succoth. Isaac died in the hun- dred and eightieth year of his age, and his sons Esau and Jacob buried him. Jacob lost Rachel when she was delivered of Benjamin : Joseph now became his favourite child, and was distinguished with peculiar marks of love. (B. C. 1729.) His brothers beheld with jealousy their father's partiality. They were further exasperated against Joseph, by his relating to them some remarkable dreams, which evidently foretold that he should come to great honour, and that his brothers should do him ho- mage. Therefore to rid themselves of this object of their jealousy, they sold him to a troop of Arabian merchants, who carried him into Egypt, and disposed of him to Potiphar, captain of Pharaoh's guard. In the mean time the wicked brothers dipped his coat in blood, and sent it to their aged father, who in the anguish of his soul exclaimed " Joseph is without doubt rent in pieces." The young Hebrew served Potiphar in Egypt with diligence and fidelity, and his master advanced him to great honour, and appointed him overseer of all his affairs. His mistress, however, conceived a violent passion for him, but Jo- seph rejected her solicitations. She then accused him to her husband of insulting her, and he was cast into prison. In the same place of confinement were Pharaoh's chief butler and chief baker, each of whom related a remarkable dream to Joseph, which he interpreted and ap- pointed the time for their fulfilment, begging, as the only recompense, that the chief butler would remember his kindness when he was re- stored to his former office, as Joseph foretold he should be. After this the king was greatly perplexed by a dream which the ma- gicians and wise men were unable to interpret. (B. C. 1715.) The butler now recalled to mind his own dream, which had been accomplished pre- cisely as Joseph had foretold. Accordingly, at his recommendation, Jo- seph was sent for, who readily interpreted this dream. He was now ho- noured at the Egyptian court, and raised to the highest distinction in the empire next to the king. He rode in the second state carriage, and they cried before him " Bow the knee." According to his prediction there came seven years of great abundance, when he built granaries, and col- lected vast quantities of grain for provisions in the famine that was to follow. Joseph espoused Asenath, the daughter of Potipherah, priest of On, by whom he had two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim. How was he reconciled to Esau 1 — How came Joseph to be sold and carried to Egypt ? — What gave occasion to his imprisonment ? — What dreams did he interpret ? — What was the consequence ? — How did he serve Pharaoh? — How was he re- warded ? THE ISRAELITES IN EGYPT. 19 CHAPTER 4. THE ISRAELITES IN EGYPT. The famine came on as Joseph had predicted, and was severe in Ca- naan. Jacob, hearing that there was corn in Egypt, sent his ten sons thither to purchase some, but kept Benjamin at home, as he was now the darling of his father. When the ten brothers arrived in Egypt, Joseph immediately recognised them ; but being desirous of proving them, he pretended that they were spies, and ordered Simeon to be put into prison, while the nine went to carry provision for their families. He also told them not to presume to see him again without bringing Benjamin, their younger brother, with them. When they told this to their aged father, with his heart full of grief he exclaimed, " My son shall not go down with you." But the urgency of the case, and the promise of Judah to restore Benjamin to his father, induced the patriarch to let him go. When Joseph beheld his younger brother, all his fraternal feelings returned, and after trying their affection for Benjamin, he discovered himself to his brothers, and instead of revenging their baseness, he owned the hand of Providence in the whole transaction. He then sent for his father and all the family to emigrate into Egypt. When Jacob saw the presents and carriages sent by his son, his heart revived and he exclaimed, "It is enough ; Joseph my son is yet alive ; I will go and see him before I die." The meeting was truly affecting; Pharaoh gave them permission to settle in the land of Goshen, and appointed Joseph's brothers his principal shepherds. After living seventeen years in Egypt, the venerable patriarch felt his dissolution drawing nigh. (B.C. 1689.) He called his children into his presence, and after blessing them enjoined them to carry his bones into Canaan, to be buried in the sepulchre of his fathers. The body was embalmed, according to the Egyptian custom, and Joseph and his brothers, with a numerous retinue, carrried it to Machpelah. (B. C. 1630.) Joseph died in the hundred and tenth year of his age, greatly lamented by the Egyptians. On his death bed he reminded his brethren of God's promise to bestow upon them the land of Ca- naan, and by a solemn engagement bound them to carry his bones with them at their departure. After a lapse of some years a new king commenced a violent perse- cution against the Hebrews, and subjected them to the most rigid sla- very. Finding their numbers multiply very fast, he published a cruel edict, ordering that every male child of the Hebrews should be cast into the Nile as soon as born. (B. C. 1571.) About this time Moses What occasioned the Israelites to go to Egypt? — In what part of Egypt did the Tsraelites settle ? — Give an account of Jacob's death and burial. — What was Jo- seph's age ?— What promise did he exact from his brethren ? — What happened to the Hebrews after his death? — Who was Moses? — Relate the particulars of Mo ees in the bulrushes. 20 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. was born, and his parents finding him a promising child, hid him till concealment became dangerous. His mother then laid him in an ark of bulrushes, and placed it upon the banks of the river. He was dis- covered by Pharaoh's daughter, who sent his sister Miriam to fetch an Hebrew nurse, and she called her own mother, who was charged by the princess to nurse the infant. His royal patroness adopted him as her son, and gave him an education worthy of that dignity. When he grew up, Moses beheld with indignation the oppression and misery of his brethren, and having slain an Egyptian who abused one of the Hebrews, he sought an asylum in the land of Midian. Here he continued forty years, when he received the divine commis- sion to the Egyptian court. He was joined by his brother Aaron ; and on their arrival, they acquainted the elders of Israel with their mission. At their audience they demanded in the name of " Jehovah, the God of Israel," the dismission of the Hebrews. The answer from Pharaoh was "I know not the Lord, neither will I let Israel go," and at the same time he ordered the task-masters to increase the work of the Hebrews. Invested with divine authority, Moses again approached the pres- ence of Pharaoh and made the same demand. He threw down his rod and it became a serpent ; and by the command of God he stretched out the same rod and the waters were turned into blood. After this an in- numerable swarm of frogs consumed the fruit of the ground, and the houses and even the beds of the Egyptians swarmed with them; then he turned the dust into venomous flies and innumerable quantities of lice ; he afflicted them with terrible boils, breaking out with blains on man and beast. Still Pharaoh refused to let them go; but the smiting of the first-born of all the Egyptians, from the first-born of Pharaoh, to that of the captive, and also of their beasts, struck such terror into the Egyptians that they were glad to rid themselves of the Hebrews, and hastened their departure. On this memorable night was the Pass- over instituted ; for the Israelites, by the command of God, had sprin- kled their doors with the blood of a lamb, as a sign for the destroying angel to pass by. (B. C. 1491.) Moses now marched at the head of this vast multi- tude, consisting of 600,000 men, besides women and children, their servants, and their cattle, under the guidance of God, in a pillar of cloud by day, and by night in a pillar of fire. They took with them the bones of Joseph, and when they came near the Red Sea, they saw Pharaoh and his army in their rear, for he was determined to pursue them and oblige them to return. But Moses, by divine appointment, stretched out his hand towards the sea, and the waters were divided so that the Israelites went over on dry ground. The Egyptians with im- pious rage pursued them into the sea, and were all drowned, while the Hebrews landed safe on the opposite shore. (See engraving at the be- ginning of the History of the Jews.) His education. — What occasioned his flight to Midian? — His return to Egypt? What were the ten plagues of Egypt ?— The Passover ?— What caused the libera tion of the Israelites? — Whatbelel the Egyptians in the Red Sea? THE JUDGES OVER ISRAEL. 21 The Israelites being thus miraculously delivered, marched through the desert, and were sustained by divine power. When they came to the foot of mount Sinai (B. C. 1491,) they heard the voice of the De- ity deliver audily the ten commandments. Moses went up into the mount, and was there forty days, during which time he had two tables of testimony written with the finger of God. When Moses went down, and saw the people dancing round a molten calf, which Aaron at their request had made, he grieved at their apostacy, and indignant- ly threw down the tables of stone and broke them. The people after- wards repented of their idolatry, and the Lord graciously gave them two other tables ; and Moses demanded of them a free-will offering for the tabernacle which God had commanded him to rear. The people gladly assisted in this work, and in a short time it was completed, (B. C. 1490,) and Aaron and his sons were set apart for the ministry. Moses sent some spies to examine the Promised Land, who return- ed, after an absence of forty days, with an unfavourable report. This irritated the minds of the people, and they rose in a tumult to stone Mo- ses and Aaron. But Joshua and Caleb, two of his spies, endeavoured to appease them, and wished them to march immediately into Canaan. But their courage failed, and God declared that none of the Israelites, above twenty years old, except Joshua and Caleb, should enter Canaan. Not even Moses, for he had displeased the Lord, and was allowed only to see the Promised Land. Accordingly they wandered about the wil- derness for forty years, during which time this was fulfilled. (B. C. 1426.) Moses died in the hundred and twentieth year of his age, in view of Canaan. CHAPTER 5. THE JUDGES OVER ISRAEL. Joshua (B. C. 1451,) succeeded Moses ; and when they arrived on the borders of Canaan, he sent out spies, who entered Jericho, and found that the approach of the Israelites had struck terror into the in- habitants. On their return, Joshua passed over Jordan in a miraculous manner, and marched to Jericho. This was a walled city, and the Is- raelites, by the command of God, marched round the walls for seven days, carrying the ark of the covenant, blowing with rams' horns, and shouting. On the seventh day the walls fell down before them, and all the inhabitants, except Rahab and her family, who had received the spies, were slain. After this they advanced to Ai, which place was subdued. In a glorious victory over the Canaanites, at the word of Joshua, " the sun stood still, and the moon 9tayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies." Having made a division of the Land of Promise among the people, Joshua assembled the tribes at Shechem, On what Mount were the two tables delivered ? — Relate the circumstances. — How long did the Israelites wander in the wilderness ? — Where ? — When and where did Moses die 1 — Who led the Israelites over Jordan into Canaan ? — How was Je richo taken ?— What miracle was performed by Joshua ? 22 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. renewed the covenant between them and God, and reminding them of past favours, he exhorted them to adhere to their engagement. He died in the one hundred and tenth year of his age, and was buried in the border of his inheritance in Timnath-serah. After this (B. C. 1426,) the tribe of Judah, under the command of Calob, took and burnt Jerusalem, and obliged the inhabitants of Gaza, Askelon, and Ekron, to submit to them. The other tribes did not en- tirely destroy the Canaanites, but imposed a tribute upon them. They lived among them, and married the Canaanitish maids, and worshipped their idols. This was a cause of great disasters to them, and they met with continual defeats. The tribe of Benjamin (B. C. 1406,) was ex- tinguished, except six hundred men, in a war which they waged against the other tribes. Repenting of this afterwards, the Israelites endea- voured to restore their fallen tribe, and at length succeeded. On account of their wickedness and idolatry, God delivered them into the power of the Assyrians, whom they served eight years, when Othniel, Caleb's nephew, delivered them, and was judge forty years. After his death they were subject to the Moabites eighteen years. Ehud slew Eglon, king of Moab, and restored liberty to Israel, which they enjoyed eighty years. After this, the Canaanites brought them under slavery for twenty years ; they were then delivered by Barak and De- borah, who ruled over them forty years. The Midianites were their next masters, in whose power they were seven years ; Gideon marched against the forces of Midian, gave them a complete overthrow, and slew their generals. He enjoyed the government forty years. Abimelech, (B. C. 1236,) Gideon's natural son, slew his seventy brothers, except Jotham; usurped the authority, and exercised it in a tyrannical manner. He met his death at the siege of Thebez. Jephthah, one of their judges, marching against the king of the Ammonites, vowed, if he should be successful in his expedition, to sacrifice the living being that should first meet him on his return. Having returned in triumph, his daughter, an only child, came out to congratulate him on his success. When apprized of her father's rash- ness, she begged a respite of two months to bewail her youth, and then calmly met her fate. After this, when the Israelites were tributary to the Philistines, God raised up Samson, a mighty man, who made great slaughter among them, and, on one occasion, slew a thousand Philistines with the jaw- bone of an ass. While he kept the cause of his great strength secret, his enemies had no power over him. But being enamoured of Delilah, a Philistine woman, he imparted the secret to her. This proved fatal to him ; but he slew more of the Philistines at his death, than he had slain during his life. Eli, the high priest, then assumed the government. He had two sons, Hophni and Phineas, who were guilty of injustice towards men, Where, and at what age did he die ? — What occurred under the command of Caleb?— What occurred under Othniel ?— Ehud ?— Gideon ?— Where did he die?— What of Jephthah? — Samson, and the Philistines? — What is recorded of Eli am] his sons ? THE JUDGES OVER ISRAEL. 23 and of impiety towards God. They were slain in a battle against the Philistines, and the ark of the covenant was carried away by the ene- my. When the sad tidings reached the aged Eli, he was so distressed at them that he fell from his seat and died, in the ninety-eighth year of his age. After the Philistines had detained the ark four months, they voluntarily returned it to the Hebrews. Samuel, (B. C. 1096,) the prophet, succeeded Eli in the government, which he maintained with so much integrity and satisfaction, that when he appointed his two sons to succeed him, the people demanded a king, alleging that his sons were unworthy of the succession. Samuel re- monstrated with them ; but finding all to no purpose, he proclaimed Saul, the son of Kish, king of Israel. No sooner was Saul (B. C. 1095,) invested with the regal dignity than he commenced a successful expedition against the king of the Am- morites, which gained him the respect of all his subjects. This was followed by several victories over the Philistines. But being sent against the Amalekites, he presumed to act contrary to the directions of the prophet, and he was informed that the kingdom should be taken from him, and given to a neighbour more worthy of the dignity. Some time after this, God sent the prophet to Bethlehem to anoint David, son of Jesse, for the sovereignty. Saul being grievously afflicted with a demoniacal disorder, his friends had David summoned .to court, to endeavour by his skill on the harp, to revive the spirits of the prince. In this he was successful ; and when Saul seemed recovered, he obtained permission of Jesse to detain his son in his service. (B. C. 1069.) In a contest with Goliath, the champion of the Philistines, David displayed such signal valour and intrepidity, that the land resounded with his praise. This roused the jealousy of his royal master, who sought means to rid himself of this victorious champion. He gave him his daughter in marriage, on condition of his destroying 600 of the Philistines. He sought to en- trap him by various means, and he even endeavoured to despatch him with his own javelin. Jonathan the king's son, had contracted an in- timate friendship with David, and assisted him in escaping the king's treachery. David, to avoid the vengeance of Saul, sought an asylum with the Philistine kings. Samuel, the prophet, died, (B. C. 1059,) and was buried in Raman, in the eighteenth year of Saul's reign. Saul, going against the Philistines, was greatly troubled at the su- periority of the enemy, and went in disguise to a necromantic woman, desiring her to raise him up Samuel. The king was informed that he, together with his sons, would fall in the battle. Saul returned to the camp, and in the engagement the Hebrews were defeated with great slaughter, (B. C. 1055,) and the king and all his sons, except Ishbo- sheth, were among the slain. Abner, Saul's general, proclaimed this sur- viving son king. David was already acknowledged sovereign by one Who was Samuel, and who was proclaimed king by him? — Why? — What is related of Saul and his victories ? — On what conditions did David obtain Saul's daughter? — When did Samuel die?— Relate Saul's death, and David's advance- ment to the crown. 24 HISTORY OP THE JEWS. tribe at Hebron, and thus a civil war commenced, which raged for some time with great violence. But at length Ishbosheth was assassinated by the treachery of his friends, and David received homage from all the tribes of Israel. CHAPTER 6. DAVID AND HIS SUCCESSORS. When he was firmly settled on the throne, David overran the land of the Philistines, and annexed it to his own dominions. He also sub- dued the Moabites, the Syrians, and the Idumeans. He took Mephibo- shetb, son of Jonathan, to his court, and honoured him at his table. The Hebrews defeated the Ammonites, with a great slaughter, and be- sieged them in their capital. But David fell into a grievous sin, for being enamoured of the wife of Uriah, an officer in the army, he pro- cured his death at the siege, in order to gratify his passion. (B. C. 1035.) This flagrant injustice induced God to send Nathan the prophet with a reproof in the parable of the ewe lamb. David became sensible of his guilt, and implored forgiveness of the Lord. In the mean time Joab, David's general, had been successful against the Ammonites, and had taken their capital. The troubles of David seem now to begin, for one son having committed incest, was slain by his brother. Absalom, his son, rebelled against him, and compelled him to flee for his life. (B. C. 1023.) This wicked son was slain in a battle fought against his father, who, on hearing of his son's death, exclaimed, "O my son Absalom; my son, my son ! would to God I had died for thee." Having quelled this conspiracy, David returned to his palace, and died in the seventy-fifth year of his age, after a reign of forty years. Solomon succeeded his father, and took off all he had reason to sus- pect of infidelity. He married the daughter of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and began his reign with prudence and moderation. God appeared to him in a dream, and told him to name what he desired to have. The young king begged wisdom and discernment to govern his subjects wisely. He obtained his request, and received a more than ordinary shareof understanding and wisdom. (B. C. 1013.) The Hebrews now- enjoyed a long peace ; and Solomon made an agreement with Hiram, king of Tyre, for timber to build the temple for which David had made preparations. The foundations were laid in the fourth year of his reign, and in seven years, this stupendous pile of building was completed at an enor- mous expense. Solomon (B. C. 1005,) dedicated it to the Almighty, and removed the ark of the covenant, and the tabernacle into it with great pomp. He encouraged commerce, and built a numerous fleet, Fate of Ishbosheth. — David's final success. — What nations did David subdue ? — What of Mephibosheth ? — Into what sin did David fall? — How was it re- proved ? — What sons rebelled ? — What was David's age, &c? — Who succeeded David? — For what did Solomon pray? — What followed ? — When were the foundations of the Temple laid ? — When was it dedicated ? DAVID AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 25 which traded to India and Ethiopia, and brought immense riches. As he advanced in years, he married a multitude of wives without regarding either the law of Moses, or of what country they were, and out of his affection for them, he followed their idolatries, and gave into their fo- reign customs. This apostacy drew the anger of God upon him, and he was informed that his posterity should lose the kingdom, except the tribe of Judah. He died in the fortieth year of his reign. (B. C. 975.) Rehoboam succeeded Solomon, and in an assembly at Shechem declared his determination of ruling them with more rigour than his father. This incensed the people so much against him that ten tribes revolted, and ordained Jeroboam king over them. Only the tribes of Judah and Benjamin submitted to Rehoboam, who resided at Jerusalem. Jeroboam, being apprehensive that if his subjects went to Jerusalem to worship in the temple, they would desert to his rival, set up two golden heifers, the one at Bethel, and the other at Dan, and appointed priests from among the meanest of his subjects. Those that abhorred his impiety, fled to Jerusalem, and greatly augmented the number of Rehoboam's subjects. Displeased at the irreligious practices of Rehoboam, the Almighty permitted Shishak, (B. C. 972,) king of Egypt, to invade his dominions, and he advanced to the gates of Jerusalem. The Egyptian took the city without resistance ; pillaged the temple, and carried off the riches of the king in great abundance. Rehoboam died after a reign of seven- teen years, in the fifty-seventh year of his age, and was succeeded by his son Abijah. In the mean time, Jeroboam continued in his impiety, and on the succession of Abijah, to the throne of Judah, he marched against the young king with a powerful army. (B. C. 958.) Jeroboam was com- pletely defeated with a great loss. Abijah did not long survive his vic- tory ; and left his throne to his son Asa. Jeroboam died after a reigc of twenty-two years, and was succeeded by his son JVadab, who resem • bled his father in impiety and wickedness. He had reigned only two years, when he was slain in a conspiracy made against him by Baasha, who usurped the authority, and destroyed all the race of Jeroboam. (B. C. 955.) Asa, king of Jerusalem, was remarkable for his piety and goodness. In the tenth year of his reign, Zera, king of Ethiopia, marched against him with a numerous army. Asa, relying on the God of Israel, attacked the enemy, and overthrew them with great slaughter After this, Baasha, the usurper who reigned over the ten tribes, invaded the kingdom of Asa. This prince made an alliance with the king of Damascus, who assisted him against Baasha. Ei,ah, the son and successor of Baasha, when he had reigned two years, fell a victim to the treachery of Zimri, who survived his base- ness only seven days. Omri then assumed the government over the ten tribes. He enjoyed his authority twelve years, and was succeeded by his son Ahab. The Who succeeded Solomon? — Who ruled over Israel? — What was his sin? — Who invaded Jerus&Jem and pillaged the temple ? — What wars took place be- tween the kings of Judah and Israel ? — What result ? — What is recorded of Asa ? 3 26 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. good king of Judah, Asa, died after a happy reign of forty-one years, and left his kingdom to his son, Jehoshaphat. (B. C. 918.) Ahab, the king of Israel, exceeded his predecessors in impiety and wickedness. He espoused Jezebel, a Sidonian princess, who set up her foreign idols, and appointed priests and prophets for her idolatries, and slew those of the God of Israel. Naboth had a field adjoining that of the king, who wished to purchase it to join to his own. Naboth was not disposed to part with it, and Jezebel ordered Naboth to be stoned, upon pretence of blasphemy to God, and disloy- alty to the king. As a just punishment for these infamous practices, the Almighty declared by his prophet Elijah, that both Ahab and his wife should be slain, and that dogs should lick his blood, and eat the body of Jezebel, which was fulfilled in the seventeenth year of Je- hoshaphat, king of Judah. Jehoshaphat triumphed over a league formed against him, and died in the twenty-fifth year of his reign. (B. C. 896.) Ahaziah succeeded his father Ahab, on the throne of Israel. But happening to hurt himself by a fall, he sent to the God of Ekron, to inquire about his recovery. Elijah the prophet intercepted the messengers, and bid them tell the king, that because he had despised the God of Israel, and had sent to inquire of an idol, he would not recover; accordingly, Ahaziah died in a short time after, and was succeeded by his brother Joram, (B. C. 889.) In the reign of this prince, Benhadad, the Syrian general, besieged Samaria, and reduced the place to such dreadful extremity, that an ass's head was sold for eighty pieces of silver, and mothers were compelled to eat their own offspring. In this distress, God struck such terror into the hearts of the besiegers, that they fled with precipitation, and left such plenty of provisions in their camp, that a measure of fine flout was sold for a shekel, and every thing else in proportion, in the gat6 of Samaria. CHAPTER VII. JEHU, AMAZIAH, AND THEIR SUCCESSORS. Jehu, who was anointed king by the prophet of the Lord, slew seventy of Ahab's sons, and forty-two princes of the house of Judah ; he put Jezebel to death, and destroyed the worshippers of her idols. He did not utterly abolish idolatry, out allowed the people to worship the golden heifers. However, as a reward for his zeal for God, he was assured (B. C. 856) that his posterity should reign over Israel for four generations. He died in the twenty-eighth year pf his reign. At the time he was zealous for the Jewish worship, Mhaliah, daughter of Jezebel, reigned in Jerusalem, and she endeavoured to extinguish the ,house of David; but Joash escaped through the faithfulness of his friends, and in the seventh year of her reign, Athaliah was deposed, Ahab ? — Jehoshaphat ? — What of Jezebel, and of Naboth 's vineyard ? — Jeze- bel's fate? — What did Elijah pronounce against Ahaziah? and what befel the Syrian army ? — What is related of Jehu ? — Athaliah ? JEHU, AMAZIAII, AND THEIR SUCCESSORS. 27 and Joash proclaimed king. This prince forsook the worship of the true God, and was assassinated by his servants, after he had reigned forty years. (B. C. 838.) Amaziah, his son, succeeded him on the throne of Judah, who brought the murderers of his father to justice. The beginning of his reign promised well ; but his subsequent wickedness drew upon him captivity and distress. He was slain by a conspiracy in the twenty-ninth year of his reign. During the latter part of this reign, Jeroboam II. reigned in Samaria He was the cause of great troubles to his subjects ; but afterwards he restored the kingdom of Israel to its former splendour. (B. C. 772.) He reigned forty-one years, and was succeeded by his son Zechariah, who was treacherously slain by Shall um, after a reign of six months. From this time, the history of Israel is replete with treasons, murders, and anarchy. Tiglath Pileser king of Assyria, in the reign of Pekah, overran the country beyond Jordan, and carried many of the inhabitants captive into his own kingdom. While Israel was thus languishing under cruel tyrants, Uzziah, son of Amaziah, sat on the throne of Judah. He raised his kingdom to affluence and prosperity, and made several successful expeditions. This prince, presuming to usurp the priest's office, was struck with a leprosy, which proved fatal to him. He was succeeded by Jotham, his son, who was eminent for his virtue, for his pious zeal in beautify- ing the temple, and for repairing the walls of Jerusalem. He died in the sixteenth year of his reign. Ahaz succeeded Jotham, his father, on the throne of Judah. By his impieties he drew upon his country an invasion by the allied armies of Israel and Syria. The Israelites slew one hundred and twenty thou- sand of the troops of Judah, and took two hundred thousand prisoners. They were met by the prophet Obed, who persuaded the Israelites to release their captives. The reign of Ahaz was a scene of vices, im- pieties, and misfortunes. Pekah, king of Israel, was despatched through the treachery of Ho- shea, who usurped the authority. In the ninth year of his reign, he was taken captive by Shalmanezer, king of Assyria, and carried, toge- ther with the ten tribes, into Media. (B. C. 721.) He was the last king of Israel. Hezekiah had succeeded his father Ahaz on the throne of Judah. This prince esteemed the worship of God of the greatest importance. He assembled the priests and Levites, proclaimed a passover, and in- vited to the temple all the worshippers of the true God. In the four- teenth year of his reign, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invaded Judah with a mighty army, defying the God of Israel, and sent troops under the command of Tartan, Rabsaris, and Rabshakeh, to destroy Jerusalem. But the angel of God cut off in one night an hundred and eighty-five Joash? — Mention the events of the reigns of Amaziah. — Jeroboam [I. — Za- chariah. — What is recorded of Uzziah ? — Jotham ? — Ahaz ? — What victory did the Israelites gain over Judah? — What, befel the Assyrian army in the davsof Hezekiah ? 28 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. thousand Assyrians ; and their generals marched back to their own land. After this Hezekiah was dangerously ill ; and Isaiah was commission- ed to declare that his disease would prove fatal. The king implored that his life might be prolonged : the Almighty granted his request ; and as a token of his life, the shadow of the sun went back ten degrees. He died in the twenty-ninth year of his reign. (B. C. 698.) Manasseh then ascended the throne, and as a punish- ment for his diabolical sacrilege, profaneness, and barbarous cruelty, his country was laid waste, and himself led captive to Babylon. He there humbled himself on account of his vices, and was afterwards restored to his kingdom ; when he became as remarkable for his vir- tues, as he had been for his vices. (B. C. 643.) Amon, his son, suc- ceeded, who imitated his father only in his wickedness. He perished by a conspiracy in the second year of his reign. Josiah (B. C. 633,) ascended the throne at the age of eight years, and his long reign was a series of piety and benevolence. He sup- pressed idolatry, beautified the temple, and restored its worship to its ancient splendour. He lost his life in attempting to hinder ths Egyp- tians passing through Judea. Jehoahaz then assumed the government; but after enjoying the dig- nity three months, he was deposed by the Egyptian king, who trans- ferred the crown to Jehoiakim, and imposed a heavy tribute on the land. He paid this tribute for three years, and then revolted. Nebuchadnez- zar, king of Assyria, overran the whole country, slew the king, and pillaged the temple of its most valuable vessels, which he carried to Babylon. (B. C. 599.) Jehoiachin succeeded him in his throne and in his vices. After reigning three months, he, together with his court, was carried captive to Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar then appointed Zedekiah, the late king's uncle, to be king, on condition of his paying a certain tri- bute. Having observed the oath for eight years, he revolted, Jerusa- lem was taken, and Zedekiah had his eyes put out, and was led captive to Babylon. The city and temple were pillaged, and the most stately edifices burnt to the ground; and the inhabitants were led in triumph to Babylon. Thus the kingdom of Israel was destroyed, after it had stood three hundred and eighty-eight years from the revolt of the ten tribes, and one hundred and thirty-four from the destruction of Samaria. The Jews continued in slavery seventy years, (B. C. 536,) when, as had been predicted by Isaiah, Cyrus allowed them to return to the land of their nativity, and to rebuild Jerusalem and the temple of God. The number of those that returned was forty-two thousand four hundred and sixty-two. But the Cutheans, who had been planted in Samaria, when the ten tribes were carried into captivity, succeeded in hindering the building for some years. But under the reign of Darius, (B. C. 518,) Zorobabel obtained the royal consent, the temple was rebuilt, and dedi- cated with great solemnity. Relate what change took place in Manasseh. — What king of Assyria reduced the people into captivity ? — What befel Zedekiah ? — Whither were the people led captive ? — How long were the Jews in captivity ? — By whom and by whose command was the temple rebuilt? XERXES FAVOURS THE JEWS. 29 CHAPTER 8. XERXES FAVOURS THE JEWS — MACEDONIAN DOMINION IN JUDEA. Xerxes, the son and successor of Darius, was well disposed to the Jews. He commissioned Ezra, the priest, to return with as many of his countrymen as were desirous to go. Ezra renewed the Jewish worship, and collected and revised the sacred books ; after him the king permitted Nehemiah to rebuild the walls. In the reign of Arta- xerxes, the consort of Esther, the Jewish nation was on the point of de- struction through the baseness of Haman, an Amalekite, in favour at the Persian court. But at the intercession of the queen, her country was spared, and Haman was executed. (B. C. 373.) The government of Judea was then annexed to the Sy- rian prefecture ; and the high priests were entrusted with the adminis- tration of affairs. In the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon, John, the high priest, quarrelled with his brother Jesus, and slew him in the temple. Bagoses, the governor cf Syria, then polluted the temple, and imposed a tribute on the Jews for every sacrifice that was offered. During the priesthood of Jaddua, Alexander the Great, having vanquished Darius, sent to Jerusalem to demand provision for his army at the siege of Tyre; their refusal incurred the resentment of that prince; but the pru- dence of the priests, who went out of the city to meet Alexander, avert- ed the threatened danger. At the partition of the Macedonian empire, Ptolemy (B. C. 320,) invaded Judea, took Jerusalem by treachery on the Sabbath day, and led great multitudes of the Jews into Egypt. Being confident of their fidelity, he distributed many of them into garrisons, and admitted them to great privileges at Alexandria. On the succession of Philadelphus to the throne of Egypt, he released the Jews, to the number of a hun- dred and twenty thousand ; and he procured a translation of their law for his library. About this time died Simon, the high priest, whose piety and integrity procured him the surname of the Just : Eleazer, his brother, then succeeded to the high priesthood. On the succession of Ptolemy Philopater to the throne of Egypt, Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, endeavoured to wrest Palestine from his hands ; and after the death of Philopater, the Jews were com- pelled to submit to Antiochus, (B. C. 204,) and at his death to his son Seleucus. On the death of Onias, the high priest, the Jews quarrelled among themselves about the succession. One of the parties fled to Se- leucus, who marched against Jerusalem, and having taken the city, he pillaged the temple of its immense treasures, (B. C. 168,) he prohi- bited the Jews from observing the laws of their country, and the inhu- By whom were Nehemiah and Ezra encouraged to rebuild the walls of Jerusa- lem, and renew the Jewish worship? — To what state was the Jewish government annexed ? — By what act was Alexander the Great appeased ? — Relate the par- ticulars of the Ptolemies towards the Jews. — Who pillaged the temple and pun ished the people ? 30 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. man tyrant sacrificed those who presumed to disobey his orders. Ho built a citadel that commanded the temple, and put into it a garrison of Macedonians. (B. C. 167.) At length Mattatkias, a priest of Jerusalem, with his Jive sons, and a few adherents, routed the generals of the tyrant, and de- stroyed the idols that Antiochus had set up. Judas Maccabeus, his eld- est son, succeeded him, and struck great terror into the enemy, and slew their generals. After gaining three successive victories, he marched into Jerusalem, purified the temple, and offered the appointed sacrifices with great solemnity. He rebuilt the walls of the city, and erected fortifications in the neighbourhood. Antiochus Eupator having suc- ceeded his father in Syria, marched against Judas, and besieged him in the temple at Jerusalem. Having spent much time at the siege, Antiochus made a treaty with Judas, but the perfidious Syrian, contrary to his oath, ordered his troops to demolish the walls. He despatched Menelaus, the high priest, and gave the high priesthood to Alcimus. Demetrius, the successor of Antiochus, sent Bacchides and Alcimus against Judas. When they arrived in Judea, they endeavoured to take the Jewish general by treachery ; but Judas, being aware of their base- ness, eluded their intentions. Alcimus applied to the Syrian court for more assistance. The king sent Nicanor, with numerous forces, who advanced to Jerusalem, and threatened to pull down the temple, unless they would deliver Judas to him. This heroic chief, however, attacked the Syrian general, and cut both him and all his troops to pieces, so that not one escaped. After this glorious victory the Jews enjoyed peace a short time, during which Judas contracted an alliance with the Romans, who had the treaty engraven in brass and deposited in the Capitol. When Demetrius was informed of the death of Nicanor, he des- patched Bacchides with an army into Judea. In an engagement, Judas, being deserted by many of his troops, fell fighting valiantly against Bacchides. Jonathan succeeded his brother Judas in the command of the Jewish army. (B. C. 160.) Having collected all his adherents, he went into the wilderness, whither Bacchides followed them, and at- tacked them on their Sabbath ; but he was compelled to retire to Jeru- salem, with the loss of two thousand men, and Jonathan escaped across the Jordan. Bacchides fortified all the principal cities in Judea, and put garrisons into them who made frequent sallies on the defenceless Jews. He then shut up the sons of the principal Jews in the citadel, at Jerusalem, as hostages, and afterwards returned to the king. But the enemies of Jonathan again persuaded Demetrius to send Bacchides against Jonathan. Victory once more decided for the Jewish general, and a treaty was made between him and Bacchides. Jonathan after this governed Judea, and restored peace to his country. (B. C. 153.) In the dispute between Demetrius and Alexander Ba- las, the former feared lest Jonathan remembering how he had formerly What family of Jews arose against the Syrians ? — What did Judas, the heroic Jewish chief, effect ? — What followed ? — What success had Jonathan over the general Bacchides ? — Who governed Judea ? DOMINION OF THE ROMANS IN JUDEA. 31 treated him, should join his competitor ; he therefore sought the friend- ship of Jonathan, by permitting him to raise an army, and to receive back the hostages in the citadel at Jerusalem. Alexander, wishing to outvie his rival, conferred on Jonathan the high priesthood, and sent him some rich presents. When Alexander obtained the crown of Syria, he honoured Jonathan in a distinguished manner. But the Syrians re- volted in favour of young Demetrius, and Apollonius, governor of Ccelo- Syria, marched against Jonathan, (B. C. 148,) but he was routed with great slaughter of his troops. Alexander, as a reward for his bravery, sent Jonathan a magnificent present, and allowed him Ekron, with its toparchy, for his inheritance. After maintaining the government of the Jews for seventeen years he was treacherously murdered by Trypho, one of Alexander's generals. (B. C. 144.) Simon succeeded his brother' Jonathan in the high priesthood ; and he delivered his country from the Macedonian yoke. He also took and demolished the citadel at Jerusalem. Antiochus, brother of Demetrius, having ascended the Syrian throne, sent ambassadors to Simon to make a league of friendship and mutual assistance. The high priest readily ac- cepted their proposals, and presented Antiochus with large sums of money. (B. C. 139.) But this perfidious monarch soon after sent an army to ravage Judea and to seize Simon. However, his troops were defeated, and Simon made a league with the Romans. After Simon had been ruler of the Jews eight years, he was treacherously assassinated by Ptolemy, his son-in-law. The murderer also despatched two of Simon's sons, and endeavoured to take John, surnamed Hyrcanus ; but he es- caped from him, and assumed his father's office. CHAPTER 9. DOMINION OF THE ROMANS IN JUDEA—ASMONEAN DYNASTY. Antiochus then invaded Judea, and having ravaged the country, he besieged Hyrcanus in Jerusalem, which he reduced to a dreadful state by famine. Antiochus then agreed to make peace with the Jews, on condition that they should deliver up their arms, pay tribute for Joppa, and should give him hostages, and five hundred talents of silver. After the death of Antiochus, the Jewish governor delivered his country from the Syrian yoke. (B.C. .130.) He also took Samega, and the neigh- bouring cities, Shechem and Gerizim; and demolished a temple built by Sanballat. Hyrcanus also renewed the league with the Romans ; and he governed Judea with prudence and success for thirty years, during which period Jerusalem and the temple were restored to their ancient splendour and privileges. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Jristobulus, who claimed sove- reignty, and assumed to himself the diadem. He barbarously mur- dered his mother and brother. He died after a short but cruel reign, and his brother Alexander was appointed to succeed him. Alexander What occurred between Jonathan and Alexander Balas ? — What success had Simon? —With whom did he league? — How long did Hyrcanus govern Jerusa- lem? 32 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. led his army to besiege Ptolemais ; but he was compelled to raise the siege for fear of Ptolemy Lathyrus, and received a terrible defeat on the banks of the Jordan. Alexander then turned his arms against Ccelo-Syria; he besieged and took Gaza, and abandoned the city to the fury of his troops. After his return to Jerusalem he was insulted by his subjects, who pelted him with citrons, as he was sacrificing upon the altar. He was so enraged at their insolence that he slew about six thousand of the Jews. On account of his cruelties, he rendered him- self odious to his subjects. To reduce them to submission, he slew thousands of them, which exasperated them so much the more against him. By his excessive debauchery, he brought on himself a disease which terminated fatally in the twenty-seventh year of his reign. Alexander left behind him two sons, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, the elder of whom was appointed high priest. (B. C. 107.) Alexandra, the widow of the late -king, assumed the government; but she was beset by the Pharisees, who compelled her to grant the most exorbitant demands. The queen becoming dangerously ill, Aristobulus made an attempt at seizing the government, and immediately after Alexander's death, the two brothers commenced a civil war about the succession. (B. C. 69.) Hyrcanus was compelled to resign the regal dignity to his younger brother, and to retire to his private estate. But Antipater, an Idumean, endeavoured to inflame the minds of the Jews against their new king. He persuaded Hyrcanus to apply to Aretas, king of Ara- bia, who marched with an army against Aristobulus, defeated him in a battle, and besieged him in the temple. In this extremity, Scaurus, the Roman general, at the request of Aristobulus, obliged Aretas to raise the siege and to quit Judea. (B. C. 65.) Pompey cited the two brothers to plead their cause before him at Damascus. Having heard the complaints of each, he dismissed them with an assurance that when he came again into their country he would settle their affairs. Aristobulus, however, without waiting for the determination of Pompey, marched into Judea. This greatly incensed the Roman gene- ral, and he put Aristobulus into prison, and besieged Jerusalem. Pom- pey's army was admitted into the city, and the party of Hyrcanus delivered both the city and the king's palace to Pompey. The parti- sans of Aristobulus were closely besieged in the temple. However, the priests did not desist from offering the usual sacrifices, though numbers of them were slain at the altars. Twelve thousand Jews were slain, and Pompey penetrated into the inmost part of the temple. He restored the high priesthood to Hyrcanus, and then carried Aristo- bulus and his four children in triumph to Rome. Alexander, the son of Aristobulus, escaped from Rome, and, pass- ng through Judea, collected numerous forces: but he was defeated in the vicinage of Jerusalem, by the Romans. Gabinius, the Roman general, divided Judea into five districts, and appointed a separate What was the conduct, and what w ? ere the wars of Alexander? — Did not Pom- pey interfere between the brothers Hyrcanus and Aristobulus ? — and hi what manner? — How did Pompey treat the Jews in Jerusalem? — What Roman y Pericles? — What occasioned the Peloponnesian war? — What city did the Athenians besiege ? 106 HISTORY OF GREECE. vehement and triumphant than it had ever appeared before. He ob- served, that were the Athenians to submit to these requisitions, the Lacedaemonians would then prescribe new laws, as to a people seized with dread ; he proposed, however, that arbitrators might be chosen, in order to adjust their differences. The ambassadors returned home — no reply was sent to Athens, and the Peloponnesian war soon com- menced. Before we proceed with this war, we will glance at the transactions of the Greeks in Sicily and Italy. We have already noticed that Xerxes, who meditated the destruction of Greece, had prevailed on the Carthaginians to make war on Sicily, and Hamilcar was charged with the expedition ; but the Carthaginians were entirely defeated by Gelon, who at that time had the chief authority in Syracuse. Gelon was born in the city of Gelas in Sicily. He had signalized himself very much in the wars which Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela, carried on with the neighbouring powers. After the death of Hippocrates, Gelon possessed himself of the government ; and some time after he made himself master also of Syracuse ; he extended the limits of that territory, and made himself very powerful. Gelon gained a second victory over Ha- milcar ; and from this defeat of the Carthaginians, Sicily enjoyed a profound peace ; Syracuse was particularly happy in its tranquillity, under the auspicious government of Gelon. The whole of royalty that he assumed were the toils and cares of it, a zeal for the public welfare, and the sweet satisfaction which results from making millions happy by his cares. Tacitus said he found no other example, except in Vespasian, of any one whom the sovereignty made the better man. A revered old age — a name dear to all his subjects — a reputation equally diffuse within and without the kingdom — these were the fruits of that wisdom which he retained on the throne to the last period of his life. A splendid mausoleum, surrounded with nine towers of a surprising magnificence, was erected to his memory. After Gelon's death, the sceptre continued for nearly twelve years in his family : he was succeeded by Hiero, his eldest brother. Hiero has been charged with being avaricious, and unjust ; and acting as a tyrant over his people, rather than a king; but an infirm state of health in- duced him afterwards to seek the conversation of men of learning. The most famous poets of the age came to his court, as Simonides, Pindar, Bacchylides, and Epicharmus; and it is affirmed that their interesting conversation greatly contributed to soften the cruel and savage disposition of Hiero. On one occasion the prince asked Simo- nides his opinion with regard to the nature and attributes of the Deity The latter desired one day's time to consider it; the next day he asked two, and went on increasing in the same proportion. The prince pressing him to give his reasons for these delays, he confessed that the subject was above his comprehension, and that the more he reflected, the more obscure it appeared to him. Hiero died after having reigned eleven years, and was succeeded by his brother Thrasybulus, who treat- What is said of Xerxes? — What of Gelon? — What is the character of Hiero — What was the reply of Simonides ? THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 107 ed his subjects with a cruelty that was insupportable. On which ac- count he was besieged even in Syracuse ; and, after a feeble resistance, he withdrew into banishment among the Locrians, when he had reigned but one year. CHAPTER 13. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. The first act of hostility in the Peloponnesian war was committed by the Thebans, who besieged Plataea, a city of Boeotia in alliance with Athens. The truce being evidently broken, both sides prepared for war, and almost every part of Greece was in motion. The majority were for the Lacedaemonians, as being the deliverers of Greece; be- cause Athens, by its pride and severity, had incurred their hatred ; and they were apprehensive of becoming its dependents. The confederates of the Athenians were the people of Chios, Lesbos, Plataea, the Mes- senians of Naupactes ; the greatest part of the Acarnanians, Corcyrans, Cephalonians, and Zacynthians ; besides the tributary countries, as maritime Caria, Doria, Ionia, the Hellespont, and the cities of Thrace (Chalcis and Potidaea excepted) ; all the islands between Crete and Peloponnesus eastward, and the Cyclades (Melos andThera excepted). The forces of the Lacedaemonians being ready, two-thirds marched to the isthmus of Corinth, and the rest were left to guard the Pelopon- nesus. Achidamus, king of Sparta, who commanded the army, still zealous for the tranquillity of Greece, sent a Spartan to Athens, to pre- vail, if possible, with the Athenians to lay aside their designs; other- wise his army would soon march into Attica. But the Athenians would not suffer him to enter their city. The Athenians, by the advice of Pericles, as they had not forces suf- ficient to oppose the enemy on land, their chief strength consisting of 300 galleys, immediately removed with their wives, children, movea- bles, and all their effects from the surrounding country, and took shelter within the city ; intending to shut themselves up without hazarding a battle. In the mean time the Lacedaemonians entered Attica, and laid waste, with dreadful havock, the whole country round Athens ; but finding the Athenians were determined not to leave the city, and having learned also that the Athenian fleet had carried fire and sword into the Lacedaemonian territories, they raised their camp, returned to Pelopon- nesus, and retired to their separate homes. In the beginning of the second campaign, (B. C. 430,) the Lace- daemonians made another incursion into Attica, and laid it waste; but the plague made a greater devastation in Athens than had ever been be- fore known. Hippocrates was actively employed in visiting the sick but the pestilence baffled the utmost effort of art ; and the skill of the physicians was a feeble help to those that were infected. The king of Persia had invited Hippocrates to his court, with the most advanta- geous offers ; but all the glitters of Persian riches and dignities could What character is given of the Athenians ? — How were the forces of the La> cedceraonians employed ? — What ste.^s were taken by the Athenians ? 108 HISTORY OF GREECE. not bribe this great physician. He, therefore, in a short reply, declin ed the invitation, saying, " that he owed all his cares to his fellow citizens and countrymen." The Athenians were struck with the deep- est sense of gratitude for this generous care of Hippocrates, and or- dained, by a public decree, that he should be presented with a crown of gold of the value of 1,000 statens. (£358. 6s. 8d.) _ In the mean time the enemy, having again marched into Attica, laid waste the whole country. Pericles, adhering to the maxim he had established, not to expose the safety of the state to the hazard of a battle, would not suffer his troops to sally out of the city ; however, before the enemy left the plains, he sailed to Peloponnesus with 100 galleys, in order to hasten their retreat, by his making so powerful a diversion, and after having made as dreadful havoc as he had done the year preceding, he returned into the city. The campaign being thus ended, the Athenians, who saw their country depopulated by war and pestilence, began to despond and mur- mur against Pericles. They also sent deputies to Lacedaemon to sue for peace ; but the ambassadors returned without being able to obtain any terms. Pericles was, therefore, deprived of his command, and a large fine was imposed on him ; but as fickleness and inconstancy were the prevailing characters of the Athenians, his public disgrace was not to be lasting; the anger of the people was soon appeased, and they wished to see him again in their assemblies. But Pericles now expe- rienced domestic troubles. The plague had carried off Xanthippus, his son, his sister, and many of his relations. About the end of the second campaign, ambassadors had been sent from Lacedaemon, to solicit the king of Persia's alliance and assistance, to enable them to enlarge their fleet. This reflected great ignominy on Sparta, and sullied their former glorious actions at Thermopylae, in opposing Persia. The ambassadors, however, were intercepted and sent to Athens, where they suffered death. Potidaea had now been besieged almost three years, by the Athenians, and being reduced, at length, to the utmost extremity, they surrendered. Soon after this event, Pericles was infected with the pestilence, and near his end. The principal citizens, and such of his friends as had not forsaken him, were discoursing together in his bed-chamber about his distinguished merit, and the trophies he had won by his many vic- tories ; not imagining that Pericles overheard them. Pericles suddenly broke silence, and expressed his surprise that while they extolled him for actions common to other public men, and in which fortune has so great a share, they should forget the most glorious circumstance in his life ; which was, that he had never caused a single citizen to put on mourning. Pericles united most of the qualities that constitute the great man. During forty years he governed the Athenians ; and what What was the reply of Hippocrates to the Persian king, and what reward did the Athenians confer on him ? — What occurred between the Spartans and Athe- nians ? — What disgrace and troubles awaited Pericles ? — What steps were taken by Lacedaemon ? — What was the fate of the ambassadors? — Relate the inter- View between Pericles and his friends. PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 109 is more surprising-, he gained this great ascendency merely by persua- sion ; without employing mean artifices or force. The most memorable transaction of the following years was the famous siege of Platsea, by the Lacedaemonians, — on account of the vigorous efforts of both parties ; but especially for the glorious resist- ance made by the besieged, and for their bold and industrious strata- gems, by which numbers got out of the city and escaped the fury of the enemy. The next, summer, the fourth year of the war, the people of Lesbos resolved to break their alliance with the Athenians. The affliction of the Athenians was greatly increased, when the news was brought of the revolt of so considerable an island ; and notwithstanding their efforts to retain it, the Lesbians entered into the alliance of Peloponne- sus ; and brought two-thirds of their forces in the gulf of Corinth, intending to invade Attica both by sea and land. The Athenians, to undeceive their enemies, who supposed they were very weak, put to sea with a fleet of 100 sail, and after having shown themselves before the Isthmus of Corinth, they made descents, into whatever parts of Peloponnesus they pleased. The world had never seen, in those days, it has been said, a finer fleet. The Athenians guarded their own coun- try and the coasts of Euboea and Salamis, with a fleet of 100 ships. They cruised round Peloponnesus with another fleet of the like number of vessels, without including their fleet before Lesbos and other places. The whole amounted to 250 galleys. But the expenses of these pow- erful armaments helped materially to exhaust their treasury. CHAPTER 14. PELOPONNESIAN WAR CONTINUED — AFFAIRS OF PERSIA — ALCIBIADES. The Lacedaemonians, greatly surprised at so formidable a fleet, returned with the utmost expedition to their own country. A thousand heavy-armed troops had been sent to Mitylene, by whose assistance the city was taken. Many of the factious Mitylenians were put to death, and the city dismantled. The cities which belonged to the Mitylenians on the coast of Asia, were also subjected to the Athenians. In the sixth year of the war of Peloponnesus, the plague broke out again at Athens, and swept off great numbers. But the Lacedaemoni- ans made yearly incursions into Attica, and the Athenians into Pelo- ponnesus. In the seventh year of the war, the Athenians, headed by Demosthenes, had taken Pylo, a small city on the west coast, and for- tified it. The Lacedaemonians attempted its recovery, and Brasidas, one of their leaders, signalized himself here by one of the most extra- ordinary acts of bravery. A battle was fought at sea, in which the Athenians were victorious ; a suspension of arms was the consequence, and the Lacedaemonians sent to Athens to sue for peace. The Atheni- What display did the Athenians rrwke of their fleet ? — Did the Athenians grant the peace solicited ? 10 110 HISTORY OF GREECE. ans had now a happy opportunity for terminating the war, by a peace, which would have been as glorious to them, as advantageous to all Greece. But Cleon, their present leader, prevented its taking effect ; nor would the Athenians restore the Peloponnesians the ships held during the suspension. A haughty carriage in success, and want of faith in the observance of treaties, never fail to involve the aggressors in calamities. In the seventh year of the Peloponnesian war, Artaxerxes sent to the Lacedaemonians, Artaphernes, an ambassador, with a letter, written in the Assyrian language, acknowledging having received many embassies from them ; but the purport of them differed so widely, that he knew not what they requested : and that he had sent a Persian, desiring, if they had any proposal to make, they would send a confidential person back with him. This minister landed in Thrace, and was sent by an admiral of the Athenian fleet to Athens, where he was treated with the utmost respect, and, as soon as the season would permit, he was sent back at the public expense ; and some of the citizens were appointed to attend him to the Persian court. Upon landing at Ephesus, they were informed that Artaxerxes was dead ; upon which the Athenian ambassadors thinking it not advisable to proceed further, and taking leave of Artaphernes, returned to their own country. Artaxerxes died about the beginning of the 49th year of his reign, (B. C. 425,) and Xerxes, who succeeded him, was his only legitimate son. Sogdianus, a natural son, in concert with Pharnacias, one of Xerxes' eunuchs, came insidiously, one festival day, to the new king, who, after drinking to excess, had retired to his chamber, and killed him, after he had reigned forty-five days. Sogdianus was declared king in his stead. He was scarcely on the throne, when he put to death Bagorazus, one of his father's eunuchs. By these two murders, he became the horror both of the army and the nobility. He next sent for Ochus, who, suspecting the design, delayed coming, till he could advance at the head of a strong army. A great number of the nobility, and several governors of the provinces joined in his cause, put the tiara on Ochus's head, and proclaimed him king. Sogdianus made but an ill-conducted and cowardly defence to retain the crown ; and falling into Ochus's hands he was thrown into ashes, and died a cruel death. * Ochus, now settled in the empire, changed his name from Ochus to that of Darius ; and to distinguish him, historians add the epithet No0oj, (Nothos,) signifying bastard. He reigned nineteen years. Arsites, the third brother, meditated supplanting Ochus (hereafter to be called Darius ;) but both himself and Artyphius, his general, were defeated, and being made prisoners, were smothered in ashes. Another commotion was occasioned by the rebellion of Pisuthenes, go- * This was a kind of punishment peculiar to the Persians, and exercised only on great criminals. One of the largest towers was filled to a certain height with ashes. The criminal was thrown headlong into them. After which the ashes were by a wheel turned perpetually round him till he was suffocated. What message was received from Artaxerxes ? — When did the Persian monarch die ? — How long did he reign, and who succeeded ? — Mention the plots formed against Darius. PERSIAN AFFAIRS. Ill vernor of Lydia. But he being subdued and made prisoner, met his death, by being sentenced to the same fate as the former rebels. The son of Pisuthenes, Amorges, still rebelling, was at length delivered up to suffering and death. Darius was again involved in fresh troubles, by one of his eunuchs, who, intoxicated by the supreme authority which the favour of his sovereign gave him, resolved to make himself king. However, his plot being discovered, he was delivered up to Parysatis, the queen, who put him to an ignominious death. But the greatest revolt in the reign of Darius was that of the Egyp- tians ; who, weary of the Persian government, fled to Amyrtaeus, of Sais ; when he came out of the fens, where he had defended himself from the suppression of the revolt of Inarus. The Persians were driven out, and Amyrtaeus was proclaimed king of Egypt, where he reigned six years. News having been brought to the king of Persia that Amyr- taeus was preparing to pursue them to Phoenicia, he recalled the fleet which he had promised to the Lacedaemonians, to employ it in the defence of his own dominions. While Darius was carrying on the war in Egypt, the Medes rebel- led ; they were, however, defeated, and reduced to their allegiance by force of arms ; and to punish them for this revolt, their yoke, till then easy, was made heavier. Darius afterwards gave Cyrus, the youngest of his sons, the su- preme command of all the provinces of Asia Minor, by which the pro- vincial governors in that part of the empire (B. C.407,) came under his jurisdiction. The three or four campaigns, which followed the reduction of the small island of Sphacteria, were distinguished by few considerable events. The Athenians, under Nicias, took the island of Cythera, near the southern coast of Lacedaemonia, and from thence they infested the whole country. Brasidas, on the other side, marched towards Thrace, with a view to divide the Athenian forces. He also marched after- wards towards Amphipolis, an Athenian colony on the river Strymon, and possessed it. About the ninth year of the Grecian war, the losses and advantages on both sides being pretty equal, the nations began to grow weary of the contest. A truce for a year was, therefore, concluded between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians, in the hope that it would be followed by a general peace. But there were two men, Cimon of Athens, and Brasidas of Sparta, who opposed the tranquillity of Greece, and raised, but in a very different way, an invincible obstacle to its peace. The Athenian, because the war screened his vices and malversations; the Spartan, because it added new lustre to his virtues. But their death, which happened about the same time, made way for a new accommo- dation. The Athenians had appointed Cleon to command the troops, which were to oppose Brasidas, and also to reduce those cities which had revolted from their allegiance ; among which Amphipolis claimed And the revolt both of the Egyptians and Medes. — What leading men were opposed to peace, and by what motives were they influenced ? 112 HISTORY OF GREECE. their first solicitude, and Cleon encamped before it, intending to invest the place on all sides, and afterwards take it by storm. In the moment of Cleon's temerity, Brasidas made a sally on the Athenians, and be- fore the close of the engagement, both the commanders fell, and the city remained in its alliance with the Lacedaemonians. After this engagement, both nations seemed inclined to an accommo- dation, and particularly their chiefs, namely, Phlistonax, king of Lace- daemonia, and Nicias, general of the Athenians. Both states began by renewing a suspension of arms for twelve months ; and after a whole winter had been spent in conference and interviews, a peace was con- cluded (B. C. 421,) for fifty years. But Alcibiades, who had Socrates for his tutor, began now to advance himself in the state, and to appear in the public assemblies. He was not born for repose, and used his ut- most endeavours to infringe the peace, and to break with the Spartans. Passing over several minor events, we hasten to the expedition of the Athenians into Sicily, to which they were excited by Alcibiades, in the sixteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. Alcibiades had gained a sur- prising ascendency over the minds of the people, though they knew that his great qualities were united with still greater vices. Timon, the man-hater, meeting him one day as he was coming out of the as- sembly, told him that " his advancement would be the ruin of the Athe- nians." The war of Sicily will show that Timon was not mistaken. CHAPTER 15. UNFORTUNATE EXPEDITION TO SICILY. The people of Egesta, in Sicily, (B. C.416,) at this juncture, im- plored the aid of the Athenians against the inhabitants of Selinunta, who were assisted by the Syracusans. The aid was granted, and Alci- biades, Nicias, and Lamachus, were appointed to the command of the fleet, with full powers, not only to succour Egesta, but also to regu- late the affairs of Sicily. When the ships were loaded, and the troops got on board, the trumpet sounded, and solemn prayers were offered up for the success of the expedition ; gold and silver cups were filled everywhere with wine, and the accustomed libations were poured out. And now, the hymn being sung, and the ceremony ended, the ships sailed first to iEgina, and from thence to Corey ra, where the army of the allies was assembling with the rest of the fleet. When they arrived in Sicily, Alcibiades took Catana by surprise. This was the first and last exploit performed by him in this expedition; he being immediately recalled by the Athenians, to be tried, with some others, for an offence against the sacred mysteries.* Alcibiades obeyed the order of the captain, who was commissioned ♦The crime was that of wantonly mimicking the ceremonies and mysteries of Ceres find Proserpine ; Alcibiades, representing the high priest, at their head. What befel the Spartan and Athenian commanders ? — Who were now for peace ? Who opposed it? — What said Timon, the man-hater, to Alcibiades? — Who implored the Athenians' aid ? — What ceremonies took place before the departure of the ships? — For what crime was Alcibiades recalled ? EXPEDITION TO SICILY. 113 to recall him from Sicily ; but the instant he had arrived at Thurium, he got on shore and disappeared, and the captain was under the morti- fying necessity of returning to Athens, without his prisoner. Alcibi- ades was sentenced to die for his contumacy ; his estates were confis- cated, and the priests and priestesses were ordered to curse him. Among the latter was one Theano, who alone had the courage to oppose the decree; saying, "that she had been appointed priestess, not to curse, but to bless ♦" After the departure of Alcibiades, Nicias possessed the chief au- thority. As Alcibiades despaired of ever being recalled home, he sent to the Spartans, desiring leave to reside among them, under their guard and protection. He was received by them with open arms, and soon after his arrival in their city, he gained the esteem of all the inhabitants by his engaging urbanity. Nicias, after some engagements, besieged Syracuse, a city of vast extent, on the eastern coast of Sicily, in the eighteenth year of the war. The Sicilians, in their distress, sent to Corinth, their parent state, for succours ; but none arriving, after having held out a long time, they were resolving to capitulate, and a council was held to settle the articles of capitulation to the Athenian forces. It was at this criti- cal juncture, that an officer named Gylippus, arrived from Corinth with a considerable force, and completely changed the face of affairs. The Athenian generals, though often defeated on land, hazarded a sea fight, and were vanquished. After still holding out on land to the utmost extremity, they surrendered. On the next day a council was held to deliberate on the fate of the prisoners ; the cruel sentence was enforced, that the two Athenian generals should be first scourged with rods, and afterwards be put to death. Thus, the finest fleet that ever sailed from Athens, together with an army of 40,000 men, with their generals, lost life and liberty. The news of this defeat reaching Athens, they vented their griefs against the orators and the soothsayers. Never had they been reduced to so deplorable a condition. Without horse or foot — without money, galleys, or mariners, they were apprehensive every moment that the enemy, elated with so great a victory, would invade Athens by sea and land, with all the forces of Peloponnesus. This defeat of the Athenian army was followed by the taking of Athens ; of which the ancient form of government was changed by Lysander. An alteration took place in the constitution of Athens, by the influ- ence of Pisander. Alcibiades was recalled from exile, and afterwards appointed Generalissimo. In several contests he was so successful as to humble the pride of Sparta. Byzantium, and several other cities, submitted to the Athenians. (B. C. 407.) Alcibiades, who passion- ately desired to see his country again, after so many victories over their enemies, now set out for Athens. The sides of his ships were covered with bucklers, and all sorts of spoils, with their ensigns and ornaments, in form of trophies. The people came out in a body to welcome and congratulate him with incredible shouts of joy. What was enjoined upon the priests and priestesses? — What fate awaited the Athenian generals ? — ; To what state were the Athenians reduced ? — What change did Pisander effect ? — Relate Alcibiades' victories, and his visit to Athens. 10* 114 HISTORY OF CREECE. Alcibiades soon called an assembly of the people. The Athenians, transported with hearing him speak, decreed him crowns of gold, appointed him general by sea and land, with unlimited power, and restored him all his fortune. He set sail accordingly with 200 ships, and steered for the island of Andros, which had revolted. The Lacedaemonians, alarmed at the return and success of Alcibi- ades, thought it needful to oppose him with an able general ; and they gave Lysander the command of the fleet, who sailed for Ephesus. But such was the fame of Alcibiades, never having been overthrown in any battle, either by sea or land, that Lysander dared not encounter him. Alcibiades, however, had occasion to go into Phocsea and Ionia, to raise money for the payment of his troops ; and while absent, Antiochus, to brave the Spartan, entered the port of Ephesus with two galleys. Lysander, enraged at the insult, pursued him, — a general engagement was the result, and Lysander gained the victory. Thrasybulus left the camp, and went to Athens to accuse Alcibiades of neglecting his fleet, and of his numerous debaucheries. The Athe- nians gave credit to these impeachments. They had vainly supposed that nothing Alcibiades desired to do was impossible for him ; and they made it a sufficient crime in him, that the rapidity of his conquest did not equal their expectations. Alcibiades was deposed, and ten generals were nominated in his stead. He retired to some castles he had in the Thracian Chersonesus. About this time died Phlistonax, one of the kings of Lacedsemonia ; and was succeeded by Pausanias, who reigned fourteen years. Calli- cratides was now appointed to succeed Lysander ; and after having gained several victories over the Athenians, he pursued Cimon, one of their generals, into the port of Mitylene, and kept him blocked up. But Cimon, receiving large supplies from Athens, a battle ensued at Arginusse, in which Callicratides lost his life, and the Lacedsemonians gave way, and retired in great disorder. Plutarch equals Callicratides, the Lacedaemonian general, for his justice, valour, and magnanimity, with all who had ever rendered them- selves most worthy of admiration among the Greeks : and Cicero, before the time of Plutarch, had passed nearly the same opinion of him. In the battle of Arginusae, the Athenian generals ordered some of the officers to return with about fifty galleys, to take up the wrecks and dead bodies, in order to their interment : for the ancients held it a great crime not to provide sepulture for the dead. The officers excused them- selves by alleging the violence of the storm, and appealed for the truth of what they said to the pilots. But it was decreed that the delinquent officers should be punished with death, their estates confiscated, and the tenth part thereof consecrated to the Goddess Minerva. Some senators at first opposed this decree as unjust and contrary to the laws ; but Socrates, the celebrated philosopher, was the only one who per How came the Spartans to gain the victory? — What generals succeeded Alci hiades? — What is said of Phlistonax, Pausanias, Cimon, &c.? — With whom does Plutarch equal Callicratides ? — What cruelties were exercised towards the officers., and was it not opposed by Socrates ? THE THIRTY TYRANTS. 115 sisted firmly in his opposition. Six of the officers were scarcely exe- cuted, when the people opened their eyes, and perceived all the horrors of that sentence ; but their repentance could not recall the dead to life. Callixenes, the orator who spoke against them, was first imprisoned ; and, after making his escape, he ended his days universally detested and abhorred. CHAPTER 16. THE THIRTY TYRANTS — THRASYBULUS. After the defeat at Arginussc, the affairs of the Peloponnesians declining, the allies sent an embassy to Sparta, to request that the com- mand should be again given to Lysander. The request was complied with. Lysander sailed towards the Hellespont, and laid siege to Lamp- sacus, which he carried by storm. The Athenians followed him close, and halted at JEgospotamus, over against the enemy at Lampsacus. The Hellespont is not above 2,000 paces broad in that place. The two armies, seeing themselves so near each other, expected to come to an immediate engagement. But Lysander manoeuvred for some days, till he found the enemy entirely off his guard, and then made an easy and a complete conquest. Thus Lysander terminated a war in the space of an hour, which had already lasted twenty-seven years. Three thou- sand prisoners taken in this battle were condemned to die. When the news of this entire defeat arrived at Athens, the city was in universal consternation. Nothing was heard but cries of sorrow and despair. The two kings of Sparta, Agis and Pausanias, advanced with all their troops towards Athens ; and Lysander soon arrived at the Piraeus with his fleet, and shut up the port. The Athenians, besieged both by land and sea, and without provisions, or hopes of relief, sent deputies to Agis, to propose a treaty with Sparta. After much delay, a peace, on these conditions, was concluded, " That the fortifications of the Piraeus, with the long wall that joined it, should be demolished ; that the Athenians should deliver up all their galleys, twelve only ex- cepted ; that they should abandon all the cities they had seized, and content themselves with their own lands and country ; and that they should make a league offensive and defensive with the Lacedaemoniana" Lysander caused the wall to be demolished to the sound of flutes and trumpets, and with all the exterior marks of rejoicing, as if all Greece had that day regained its liberty ; and he then established thirty archons, or rather tyrants, over the city. It was about the end of the Peloponnesian war, that Darius Nothos, king of Persia, died, after a reign of nineteen years. Cyrus had ar- rived at the court before his death, and Parysatis, his mother, whose idol he was, not contented with having made his peace, pressed the old king to declare him his successor. But Darius did not carry his com- plaisance for her so far ; he gave the crown to Arsaces, his eldest son, What decisive battle was fought at the Hellespont ? — What disasters happened in consequence to Athens? — What Persian king died, and who attempted to suc- ceed ? 116 HISTORY OF GREECE. by Parysatis, and bequeathed to Cyrus only the provinces he had al- ready. (B.C. 404.) Arsaces, upon ascending the throne, assumed the name of Artaxerxes, to whom the Greeks gave the surname of Mnemon, from his prodigious memory. Cyrus, having resolved to dethrone his brother, employed Clearchus, the Lacedaemonian general, with a body of Grecian troops, under pretence of a war which that Spartan was to carry into Thrace. The Council of Thirty, established at Athens by Lysander, committed the most execrable cruelties, upon pretence of restraining the multitude within the bounds of their duty. They had caused guards to be as- signed them — they armed 3,000 citizens for their service, and at the same time disarmed the rest. The whole city was in the utmost terror and dismay. Whoever opposed their oppressions, became their vic- tims. Riches were a crime that never failed to draw a sentence upon their owners ; always followed with death and the confiscation of their estates, which the thirty tyrants divided among themselves. Nothing passed through the city but imprisonments and murders. Every one trembled for himself or his friends. The Athenians seemed to have lost not only their valour, but their speech, lest their words should be construed into a crime. Socrates alone remained intrepid, and set all men an example of courage and resolution. Many of the citizens, of any consideration in Athens, quitted a place reduced to such slavery. At the head of these was Thrasybulus, a person of extraordinary merit, who beheld with the most lively affection the miseries of his country. Lysias, an orator of Syracuse, who had been banished by the thirty, raised 500 soldiers at his own expense, and sent them to the aid of the Athenians, and Thrasybulus with these and the force he could raise, took the small fort of Phyla, and then marched to the Piraeus, of which he made himself master ; and the tyrants were overthrown and expelled. Ten persons were substituted in their stead, whose conduct proved no better than theirs. It is a matter of surprise, that so general and so uniform a conspiracy against the public good, should always actuate the several bodies in the administration of this government. This we have seen in the four hundred, formerly chosen by Athens ; again in the thirty, and now in the ten ; and what augments our wonder is, that this passion for ty- ranny should possess so immediately republicans, born in the bosom of liberty. There must be in the mind of man a strong propensity to imperious rule, and the subjection of his equals. The lust of power seems in some to extirpate the social affections. The tyrants, having taken up arms to re-instate themselves in the government, and being present at a parley for that purpose, were all put to the sword, and left Athens in full possession of its liberty. Thra- sybulus at this time proposed the celebrated amnesty, by which the citizens engaged upon oath, that all past transactions should be buried How did the Council of Thirty behave at Athens ? — What did Socrates, Thra sybulus, and Lysias? — What reflections have been drawn from it? — Wherein consisted the wisdom of Thrasybulus ? EXPEDITION OF CYRUS. 117 in oblivion. The government was re-established upon its ancient foot- ing ; the laws restored to their pristine vigour, and magistrates elected with the usual forms. The wisdom and moderation of Thrasybulus, so salutary, after a long continuance of domestic troubles, stand here conspicuous. It is one of the finest events in ancient history ; worthy the Athenian lenity and benevolence ; and may serve as a model of good government to succeeding ages. Lysander, after his victories which terminated the Peloponnesian war, was carried away by vanity and presumption. He permitted the Grecian cities to dedicate altars to him, to offer sacrifices, and chant hymns and canticles in honour of him. He governed cities with ty- rannic power, nor could those he hated escape his vengeance. The number he caused to be massacred is incredible. Pharnabasus, the satrap of Persia, weary of Lysander's repeated acts of injustice, sent ambassadors to Sparta, to complain of the wrongs he had received from that general, and the Ephori recalled him. Lysander was at that time in the Hellespont. The letter to the Ephori threw him into great con- sternation. He returned to Sparta, and was divested of his power. CHAPTER 17. EXPEDITION OF CYRUS. Young Cyrus, son of Darius Nothos and Parysatis, saw with pain his elder brother Artaxerxes on the throne ; and he attempted to de- prive him of his crown and life together. The tears and entreaties of Parysatis obtained his pardon from Artaxerxes, who dismissed him to his government in Asia Minor. Cyrus was still bent on dethroning him, and for this purpose carried himself courteously, and gained the hearts of those who were under his jurisdiction, that they might aid his design. He was solicitous also to raise a body of Grecian troops, and Clearchus the Spartan, having retired to his court, after being banished from Sparta, was joined by a body of about 13,000 Grecians, the flower and chief force of his army — besides these, Cyrus had about 100,000 Asiatics, under Ariaeus the Persian general. Artaxerxes assembled a numerous army to receive his brother. The battle was fought at Cunaxa, about twenty-five leagues from Babylon. The forces of the king of Persia amounted to 1,200,000, under four generals, without including 4,000 horse, which never quitted the king's person. In the royal army were also 260 chariots armed with scythes, in that of Cyrus about thirty of such chariots. When the armies approached each other within four or five hundred paces, the Greeks began to sing the hymn of battle, and then sprung upon the king's army with such impetuosity, that they did not wait the charge, but fled with precipitation, except Tisaphernes who stood his ground with a small portion of his troops. Supposing the victory gained, Cyrus was proclaimed king by those Was not Lysander intoxicated by his victories ? — What was the attempt of young Cyrus? — How did the Greeks commence the battle ? 118 HISTORY OP GREECE. around him : but he soon perceived that Artaxerxes was wheeling his right to attack him in flank, and marched directly against him with his GOO horse, and beholding his brother, he made for him with a head- long impetuosity. The battle then became, in some measure, a single combat, between Artaxerxes and Cyrus; and after a doubtful conflict Cyrus fell ; but whether by a flight of darts, which was aimed at him from all sides, or from the king's javelin, is not known. The greatest persons then attendant on Cyrus, were all killed around him. The Greeks on their side, and Artaxerxes on his, not knowing what had passed elsewhere, believed, each of them, that they had gained the victory : the former because they had put the enemy to flight and pursu- ed them, and the king because he had killed his brother, and plundered his camp. Nor was it till the next day, that the Greeks were certain of Cyrus's death, when Persian heralds arrived from the king to sum- mon them to deliver up their arms. They haughtily replied they would sooner die than part with them, and that they would sell their lives and liberties together. The generals of the Greeks, after a conference with Tisaphernes and the queen's brother, were assured of not finding any obstacle to their return to Greece; but in an interview which happened soon after, five of them, namely, Clearchus, Menon, Proxenes, Agias and Socrates, on entering the tent of Tisaphernes, were seized, and sent to the king, who ordered their heads to be struck off; and their attendants, twenty captains, and about 200 soldiers, were put to the sword. CHAPTER 18. RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND. Their generals having been thus seized and their attendants massa cred, the Grecian army was in the highest consternation. They were five or six hundred leagues from Greece, surrounded with great rivers and hostile nations, without any supplies of provision. They therefore chose generals and captains to supply the place of 'those that had been so treacherously murdered, and prepared to commence their retreat. As they were occasionally harassed by detachments sent against them, they began their march in the form of a hollow square, with the bag- gage in the centre. The first day, they were much annoyed by the horse and slingers sent against them. To oppose these, 200 men were chosen out of the Rhodians in the army, whom they armed with slings, and augmented their pay for their encouragement. They could throw as far again as the Persians ; because they discharged balls of lead, and the others made use of large flints. They mounted also a squadron of fifty men upon the horses, by which a second detachment of the enemy was very severely handled. After some days' march, Tisaphernes appeared with all his forces, What was the result of the conflict between Artaxerxes and Cyrus ? — What was the haughty reply of the Greeks ? — How were the Greeks treated by Tisaphernes ? — In what way did they commence their march ? RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND. 119 narassing the Greeks, who still kept moving on till they arrived at the river Tigris ; but as its depth would not allow them to pass at that place without boats, they were obliged to continue the march over the Carducian Mountains. They were told by some peasants that on en- tering Armenia they might cross the Tigris at its source, and not far from it the Euphrates also. To gain these defiles before the enemy could arrive, they set forward in the night. A council of war being soon after held, it was judged proper to leave behind them all the beasts of burden not absolutely needful, together with all the slaves lately taken. The passing of the mountains, which took up seven days, fatigued the troops extremely, but at length they arrived at villages, where they found provisions in abundance, and where they rested some days to re- cover the severe fatigues the army had suffered. They found themselves soon after exposed to new dangers. Almost at the foot of the mountains they came to a river 200 feet broad, called Centrites, which stopped their march ; and they had to defend them- selves against the enemy, who pursued them in the rear, and the Arme- nians, the soldiers of the country, who guarded the opposite sides of the river. By good fortune they afterwards discovered a place not so deep, — but it required abundance of address and valour to keep off the enemy on both sides. The army, however, passed the river without much loss. They afterwards marched with less interruption, passed near the source of the Tigris, and arrived at the beautiful little river, Teleboa, in Western Armenia, which has many villages on its banks. Tiribases, the governor, a satrap much beloved by the king, permitted the army to pass, and the soldiers to purchase what they wanted, provided they committed no ravages. He kept, however, as a check, a flying camp, at a small distance from the army. A fall of snow which occurred soon after gave the troops some inconvenience. After some days' march through deserts, they passed the Euphrates near its source ; not having the water above their middles. They afterwards suffered extremely from a north wind which blew in their faces. In order to appease it, they sacrificed to it, according to the custom of their religion ; upon which it seemed to abate. They marched on in snow five or six feet deep, which killed several servants and beasts of burden, besides thirty soldiers. They made fires during the night, for they found plenty of wood. Continuing their march the next day through the snow, many, from excess of hunger, were affected with languor and fainting ; and some were found lying on the ground through excessive weakness ; but when refreshed and recovered, they continued their march. The enemy still pursued them : of whom many, overtaken by the night, remained on the way without fire or provisions ; so that several died of their hardships ; and the enemy that followed took some bag What river did they attempt to cross, and what mountains ? — With what new enemies did they encounter ? — What refreshments did they obtain ? — What did they do to appease the severity of the North wind ? — What loss did they sustain in the snow ? 120 HISTORY OF GREECE. gage. A few soldiers also were left behind that had lost their eyes, and others their toes by the snow. Against the first evil, something black was ordered to be worn before the eyes ; and against the other, the legs were to be kept always in motion, and the feet to be bathed at night. Arriving in a more commodious place, they dispersed them- selves into the neighbouring villages, to recover and repose after their fatigues. The houses were mostly built under ground, with an open ing at top, through which the descent was by a ladder. Here they were taught to fasten a kind of small hurdles to their feet, to prevent sinking in the snow. The army, after resting seven days in these vil- lages, pursued their route. After a march of seven days more, they arrived at the river Araxes or Phasus. A few days after they discovered the Phasians, the Cha- lybes, and the Taochians, who kept the passes of the mountains to prevent their descent ; but at length the enemy was put to flight and the passes cleared. They crossed the country of the Chalybes, who are the most valiant of all the barbarians of those parts. Having marched twelve or fifteen days longer, they arrived at a very high mountain called Tecqua, from whence they descried the sea. The view of it caused great delight, and they cried out with exultation, " The sea, the sea ;" while they could not refrain from tears, nor from embracing their generals and officers, and then, without waiting for orders, they heaped up a pile of stones, and erected a trophy, with broken bucklers and other arms. From thence they advanced to the mountains of Colchis, of which the Colchians had possessed themselves. The Greeks drew up in bat- tle at the bottom, and their generals encouraged them with its being the last obstacle they had to surmount. Imploring the assistance of their gods, they ascended ; but the enemy, not being able to support the charge, dispersed. The Greeks passed the mountain, and encamped in villages, where they found provisions in abundance. A singular cir- cumstance happened there to the army. The soldiers, finding a num- ber of bee-hives in that place, and eating the honey, were taken with violent vomiting and fluxes, attended with raving fits ; so that even the least ill seemed like drunken men, and the rest either furiously mad or dying. The earth was strewed with their bodies, as after a defeat ; however none of them died, and the distemper ceased the next day, about the same time it had taken them. The third or fourth day the soldiers got up, but in the condition of people who have taken a violent medicine. Two days after the army arrived at Trebisond, a Greek colony of Si- nopians, situated upon the Euxine, or Black Sea, in the province of Colchis. Here they lay in camp for thirty days, and acquitted them- selves of the vows they had made to Jupiter, and the other deities, to obtain a happy return to their own country. They also celebrated the Mention the precautions that they made use of — From what mountain did they descry the sea ? — How did the Colchians oppose them ? — What effect had the honey eaten by the Grecians ? — Where is Trebisond ? — How long did they en- camp there ? — What game3 did they celebrate ? AGESILAUS. 121 games of horse and foot races, wrestling, boxing, the pancratium ; the whole attended with joy and solemnity. They next deliberated on the best means for their return to Greece. They were inclined to proceed by sea ; but not being able to procure a sufficient number of ships, they marched by land to Cerasus, where they had a general review of the troops, who were found to amount to 8,600 men, out of about 10,000 ; the rest having died in the retreat, of their wounds, fatigues, or diseases. From thence they proceeded to Cotyora, where they embarked, and the next day arrived at Sinope, a city of Paphlagonia. Hitherto, during their march, they had no leader ; all affairs were determined in the council of w T ar by the plurality of voices. They were now resolved to nominate a general, and they cast their eyes on Xeno- phon ; but he declining the honour, they elected Chirisophus, a Lace- daemonian, for their general. The soldiers, now approaching near to Greece, were desirous of making some booty, and it was not without difficulty that Xenophon extricated both them and their leaders from some imprudences. At length, partly by land and partly by sea, they reached Chrysopolis, opposite Byzantium, and from thence crossed over that arm of the sea which separates the two continents. CHAPTER 19. AGESILAUS — VICTORY OF CONON — DECLINE OF THE LACEDAEMONIAN POWER. This retreat of the 10,000 Greeks has always passed among the judges of the art of war for a perfect model in its kind, and never had a parallel. No enterprise could be formed with more bravery, or con- ducted with greater prudence, or executed with better success. Ten thousand men, 500 or 600 leagues from their own country, who had lost their generals and best officers, in the heart of the enemy's vast empire, in the sight of a victorious and numerous army ; to retire in a manner from the gates of the king's palace, and to traverse a vast ex- tent of unknown countries, almost all in arms against them, every hour exposed to innumerable obstacles and dangers ; passes of rivers, of mountains and defiles ; open attacks, secret ambuscades, famine, almost inevitable through vast and desert regions, and to return through a thousand dangers triumphant to their own country, these are exploits to which there is no parallel. Jt was the success of this memorable retreat which filled the people of Greece with contempt for the power of Artaxerxes, and gave birth to those bold enterprises which at length brought the Persian empire to the very brink of destruction. (B. C. 397.) Agis, one of the Lacedaemonian kings, died about this time, and the crown was disputed by Leotychides and Agesilaus, the former the son, the latter the brother, of the deceased. Indeed there was a current report that the queen had confessed Leotychides to be Whom did the Greeks now appoint as their leader? — What eulogiums nave been bestowed on the above retreat ? 11 122 HISTORY OF GREECE. her son by Alcibiades. Most of the Spartans, charmed with the virtue and great merit of Agesilaus, supported him with all their influence ; and he was declared king. Plutarch observes that Agesilaus, from his infancy, was remarkable for uniting those great qualities in himself "«i T hich are generally incompatible ; a vivacity of spirit, an invincible resolution, and an ardent passion to surpass others, with a docility, gentleness, and nobleness of disposition. He was lame ; but that de- fect was covered by the easy gaiety of his manner, and the gracefulness of his person. By such obliging conduct, supported by such extraordinary merit, he acquired great credit, and almost absolute power, in the city. The Ephori, to prevent its effects, and give a check to his ambition, laid a fine upon him ; alleging, as their sole reason, that he attached the hearts of the citizens to himself alone, which were the right of the republic. Never was a king of Sparta so powerful as Agesilaus ; and it was only, as Xenophon says, by obeying his country in every thing,* that he acquired so great an authority. Agesilaus had scarcely ascended the throne when accounts came from Asia that the king of Persia was fitting out a fleet, with intent to deprive the Lacedaemonians of the empire of the sea. The Spartan king took upon himself the expedition, accompanied by Lysander ; and his first object was to deliver the Greeks in Asia from their subjection to Persia. He first gained a victory over Tisaphernes, the Persian satrap ; and Tithraustes was commissioned by the Persian king to say that the cities of Asia should enjoy their liberty, paying him the cus- tomary tribute, provided he would withdraw his troops, and return to Greece. Agesilaus had been two years at the head of the army in Asia, and had already made the most remote provinces tremble at his name. He had restored order and tranquillity in all the Greek cities, and reinstated them in the possession of their liberty, not only without shedding of blood, but without banishing a single person. Agesilaus was then about to lead on his troops into the heart of Persia ; but he received orders from the Ephori to return and defend his country. Tithraustes, who commanded for the king in Asia, seeing the ten- denc) r of Agesilaus's designs, and desiring to prevent their effects, had sent Timocrates, of Rhodes, into Greece, with great sums of money, to corrupt the principal persons in the cities, and by their means occa- sion defection against Sparta. The haughtiness of the Lacedaemonians, especially since they considered themselves masters of all Greece, had universally disgusted the people ; and from the cities in their depend- ence they exacted a submission, which by their severity was rendered insupportable. Tithraustes, therefore, did not find it difficult to draw off Thebes, * Simonides, the poet, called Sparta " the tamer of men ;" because it rendered its in- habitants, by good habits, the most active and vigorous, and, at the same time, the most obedient to the laws. What said Tlutarch of Agesilaus? — What did the Ephori to check his ambi- t.on? — How did Agesilaus oppose the Persian forces? — Did not the Persians attempt to bribe the Grecians ? DECLINE OF THE LACEDEMONIAN POWER. 123 Argos, and Corinth, from Sparta; and Athens soon after seconded their efforts with vigour. The Lacedaemonians took the field, and entered Phocis. Lysander, in besieging Haliartus, met his death, and Pausa- nias, who was to act in concert with him, on his return to Sparta, was disgraced. In the mean time, the Lacedaemonians had raised anothei army, and given the command of it to Aristodemus. Their enemies assembled to concert the operations of the war. Timolaus, of Corinth, said the Laced aemonians were like a river, that grew larger as it removed from its source ; or a swarm of bees, which it was easy to burn in their hives, but who disperse themselves widely when they fly abroad ; and his opinion was, that they should be attacked in their capital. But the Lacedaemonians did not give them time ; they took the field, and found the enemy near Nemeea, not far from Corinth, where a rude battle en- sued, in which the Spartans had the advantage. About this time the Persian and Lacedaemonian fleets came in view of each other near Cnidos, a maritime city of Caria, in Asia Minor. Pharnabazus, the satrap, and Conon, the Athenian, had the command of the former; and Pisander, the brother-in-law of Agesilaus, of the latter. Conon, who had in some measure occasioned the taking of Athens, by the loss of the sea-fight near ^Egospotamus, used extraor- dinary efforts in this to retrieve his misfortune, and to obliterate, by a glorious victory, the disgrace of his former defeat. In the battle he was going to give, the Persians would bear the whole expense, although the victory would redound to the credit of Athens. The battle was con- tested with great valour; but the allies of Sparta betaking themselves to flight, Pisander, the Spartan leader, died sword in hand. Conon took fifty galleys, the rest escaped to Cnidos. The revolt of almost all the allies of Sparta was the consequence of this victory ; and from this battle the power of the Lacedaemonians declined. All their actions in Asia were no more than the feeble efforts of an expiring power, till the defeats of Leuctra and Mantinea completed their downfall. Pharnabazus and Conon then made themselves masters at sea, and ravaged the whole coast of Laconia. That satrap, returning to his government of Phrygia, left Conon the command of the naval arma- ment, with very considerable sums for the re-establishment of Athens. Conon, victorious, repaired thither, and was received with universal applause. Providence seemed to decree that this city, formerly des- troyed by the Persians, should be again raised at their own cost. Co- non, seconded by the zeal of the Thebans, soon rebuilt the walls, and restored the city to its ancient splendour. Sparta could not see without extreme mortification, so glorious a change in its ancient rival and almost constant enemy. This made them take the resolution of avenging themselves on Athens and on Conon its deliverer, by making peace with the king of Persia, and by accusing Conon of having wasted the king's money, employed in the re-estab- lishment of Athens. Tiribazus, the Persian satrap, seized Conon and What Grecian states were bribed ? — What was said of the Lacedaemonians? — Who headed the Persian forces? — And who the Spartan? — Who were victori- ous ? — What the effect on the Lacedaemonians ? — Did not Conon improve the city ot Athens ? — What disgrace befel Conon ? 124 HISTORY OF GREECE. put him in prison. Some authors, according to Cornelius Nepos, have written that he was carried to Susa, and there executed by the king's order. The silence of Xenophon, who was his contemporary, in regard to his death, makes it doubtful. It was at this time that E vagoras extended his conquests in the island of Cyprus. The war had been feebly conducted for some years between E Vagoras and the Persians; but at last Artaxerxes applied himself more vigorously to terminate the conflict. Evagoras was descended from Teucer of Salamis, who, at his return from Troy, built this city, and gave it the name of his country. His descendants had reigned there from that time ; but a stranger of Phoenicia, having dispossessed the lawful king, took his place, and to maintain himself in the usurpa- tion, had filled the city with barbarians, and subjected the whole island to the king of Persia. Under this tyrant Evagoras was born. He was distinguished among the youth by the beauty of his aspect, the vigour of his body, and by the gracefulness of his deportment. Evagoras when he grew up ex- pelled the usurper, and established himself in Salamin, the capital, and afterwards, extending his conquests from city to city, endeavoured to make himself master of the whole island. But the Persian king at last attacked Evagoras with all his forces, and besieged the city. A negotiation was then concluded, that Evagoras should continue king of Salamin only, and that he should pay to the king of Persia an annual tribute: Evagoras lived twelve or thirteen years after the conclusion of this treaty. His old age was attended with happiness and tranquillity, uninterrupted by sickness and disease, the probable effect of a sober and temperate life. Nicocles, his eldest son, succeeded him, and in- herited his virtues as well as his throne. The next expedition of Artaxerxes (B. C. 372,) was against the Ca- dusians, a people that inhabited part of the mountains situated between the Euxine and Caspian seas. The king marched against them in person, at the head of an army of 300,000 foot, and 10,000 horse. — Artaxerxes had not advanced far into the country when his army suf- fered extremely by famine. The whole camp was reduced to eat their carriage beasts. In this conjuncture, Tiribazus, the satrap, by a strata- gem, saved the king and his army. The Cadusians had two kings, who did not act in concert. Tiribazus went himself to one, and sent his son to the other. Each informed the king to whom he applied, that the other had sent ambassadors to treat privately with Artaxerxes, and advised him to lose no time to make his peace also. The fraud suc- ceeded. Tiribazus and his son brought ambassadors with them to the king, and the treaty was concluded with both parties. Who was Evagoras ? — From whom descended ? — Of what city was Evagoras 'king? — What was his character? — And who succeeded him? — What was the next expedition of Artaxerxes ? — What stratagem was used by Tiribazus, the satrap ? SOCRATES. 125 CHAPTER 20. SOCRATES. About 400 years before the birth of Christ, died Socrates, one of the greatest heathen philosophers. Socrates was born at Athens. His father was a sculptor, and his mother, Phaenarete, a midwife. Crito is reported to have taken him out of his father's shop, from the admiration of his fine genius. He was the disciple of Archelaus, and his first study was that of the works of nature, or physics, and of the move- ment of the heavenly bodies. But finding how. little useful that kind of learning was to the generality of mankind, he conceived the thought of bringing down philosophy from heaven, to place it in cities, and more within the reach of man's capacity ; to make them more rational, just, and virtuous. In what consist fortitude, temperance, and wisdom ; what is the end of all government, and what the rules of it, Socrates had a just and piercing judgment, joined with the most exquisite pru- dence. Chasremon, a zealous disciple of Socrates, happening to be at Delphi, demanded of the oracle whether there was a wiser man in the world than Socrates. The priestess answered there was none. So attentive was he to benefit his country, that he seemed the com- mon father of the republic. But, as it was difficult to correct the aged, he devoted his labour principally to the instruction of youth. He had no open school, like the rest of the philosophers, nor set times for the lessons. He was the philosopher of all times and seasons. He taught in all places and on all occasions, — in walking, conversation, and at meals, — in the army — in the midst of a camp, and in the public assembly. The services he did the state, by the instructions he gave, and by the disciples he formed, are inexpressibly great. Soon after the expulsion of the thirty tyrants out of Athens, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, Socrates was accused of holding bad opinions with regard to the gods. The contempt into which he had brought the doctrine and morals of the sophists of his time, who were then in high reputation, drew public envy upon him ; and his enemies were bent upon his destruction. The first seeds sown against him were in a satirical comedy, called "The Clouds," introduced in the theatre, — in which Aristophanes lent his pen to the malice of Socrates' enemies, to depreciate the best and most excellent man that ever the pagan world produced. Melitus appeared as his accuser : — First, that he did not admit the gods acknowledged by the republic ; second, that he corrupted the youth of Athens. Socrates' reply displayed a noble and intrepid assu- rance, resulting from a consciousness of his truth and innocence. His discourse was bold, manly, and generous ; without passion or emotion, with no other ornament but that of truth. Plato, who was present, What is said of the birth and character of Socrates ? — Relate his mode of in- struction. — Of what was he accused ; and what comedy was written against him, and by whom ? — What, accusations were brought against him? — What is said of his imprisonment ; of his wife and family; and of his death ? 11* 126 HISTORY OF GREECE. transcribed it afterwards ; and he has given it to the world as the "Apo- logy of Socrates." His defence, able as it was, did not save him ; sentence was passed upon him. The morning before his death his friend Crito proposed that he should escape from prison, and obtain a safe retreat in Thessaly. This offer Socrates declined, and when the fatal cup of hemlock was presented to him, he drank off the draft with an amazing serenity of aspect. His wife and children had visited him in the prison ; but the extremity of her grief made it needful that she should be removed. Plato, and the rest of Socrates' disciples, apprehending the rage of his accusers, retired to the house of Euclid, at Megara, till the storm blew over. Euripides, however, to reproach the Athenians with the horrible crime they had committed, composed his tragedy called " Pa- lamedes." But it was sometime after the death of Socrates before the notorious injustice of the sentence appeared to the Athenians in all its horrors. Then the accusers were called to account for the blood they had shed. Melitus was condemned to die, and the rest were banished. A statue of brass was erected to the memory of Socrates, and a chapel was dedicated to him, as to a hero and a demi-god. As to the doctrine of Socrates, it must be allowed that the pagan world never produced anything so great and perfect. To what a height did he carry the sublimity of his sentiments, not only with respect to moral virtue, temperance, sobriety, patience in adversity, acquiescence in poverty, forgiveness of wrongs, but, what is far more considerable, in regard to the Divinity, his unity, omnipotence, creation of the world, and providence in the government of it ; the immortality of the soul ; its ultimate end and eternal destiny; the rewards of the good, and the punishment of the wicked. When we consider this train of divine knowledge, we are ready to ask ourselves, whether it is a pagan who thinks and speaks in this manner ; and we can scarcely be persuaded, that from so dark and obscure a source as paganism should shine forth such living and glorious rays of light. It is true his reputation was not without alloy; and it has been affirmed that his manners did not always answer the purity of his sen- timent. He did not dare to give a public testimony to the truths he believed, but observed all the customs and ceremonies as enjoined by the laws of his country. He held peculiar opinions in the schools, but followed the multitude in the temples. He acknowledged in reality only one divinity, and yet worshipped, with the people, that multitude of infamous idols, which ancient superstition had heaped up during a long succession of ages. CHAPTER 21. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE GREEKS. It is an essential part of history to illustrate the character, genius, and manners of the people. In noticing those of Lacedaemon and What is said of Plato, Euripides, Melitus, &c. ? — What is said of the doctrine of Socrates? — Did his conduct always correspond with the purity of his senti- ments! MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE GREEKS. 127 Athens, we shall speak of their political government, war, and religion : and first of Sparta. From the time the Heraclides had re-entered Pe- 'oponnesus, Sparta was governed by two kings, who were always of the same two families, descended from Hercules by two different branches. Sparta, in its beginning, was always involved in commo- tions and revolts which would infallibly have occasioned its ruin, if the wise foresight of Lycurgus had not prevented the fatal consequences. Lycurgus restored order and peace to Sparta by the establishment of twenty-eight senators, over whom the two kings presided. At length, to prevent an abuse of power, a curb was given to it by the nomination of five Ephori, who were elected out of the people. Their office lasted only one year ; and they had authority not only over the senators, but over the kings themselves. The power of the kings was extremely limited, especially in time of peace. In war they had the command of the fleets and armies ; and at that time greater authority. There must have been much wisdom in the laws established by Lycurgus, because, as long as they were obeyed, no commotions or seditions of the people were known. The reason assigned is, that in Sparta the law governed with sovereign authority, while many other Grecian cities were abandoned to the arbitrary and irregular sway of private men or despotic power. To preserve the Spartan laws without change, particular care was taken to educate the youth according to the laws and manners of the country. The hard and sober manner in which they were brought up, inspired them during the rest of their lives with habits of frugality and temperance, and prepared them for supporting the fatigues of war. From Sparta were banished drunkenness, debauchery, and their conse- quent disorders. Their children were accustomed from their infancy to an entire submission to the laws, to magistrates, and all in authority. Not only the poor and the ordinary citizens, but the rich and powerful also were subject to the same obedience. To this entire submission to the laws of the state Lycurgus added another principle, which removed from Sparta all luxury, profusion, and magnificence, which decried riches and made poverty honourable. The epoch of the declension of Sparta began with the violation of Lycurgus's laws. No sooner had the ambition of reigning over all Greece acquainted them with the design of naval armies and foreign troops, and that money was necessary for the support of these forces, than the way was prepared for changes which were ultimately the cause of their ruin. It is well known that Lycurgus had formed his plan upon the model of the laws in the island of Crete. Minos, whom fable calls the son of Jupiter, was the author of these laws. He lived about 100 years before the Trojan war. He was a powerful, wise, and gentle prince ; and still more estimable for his moral virtues than for his military abili- ties. The end he proposed in the establishment of these laws was, to From whom were the Heraclides descended ? — Was the power of the kings much limited? — What was their mode of educating the young? — Upon whose inodel did Lycurgus form his laws? 128 HISTORY OF GREECE. render his subjects happy by making them virtuous. He banished idle- ness and voluptuousness from his states, and with them luxury and vicious pleasures. He endeavoured to establish a kind of equality amongst them, to remove all envy and dissension. He did not make any new division of the lands, nor prohibit the use of gold and silver. He decreed that the children should be brought up and educated together, that they might learn the same principles and maxims. Their life was hard and sober ; they were accustomed to suffer heat and cold ; to skirmish with each other ; to suffer courageously ; and were so edu- cated that, even in their diversions, everything might form them for war. They were made to learn certain airs of music, but of a manly and martial kind. They excelled in drawing the bow ; and as to archery and light-armed soldiers, fit to execute the stratagems of war, the Cretans pretended to hold the foremost rank. Minos, as well as Lycurgus, is reproached with having no other view in his laws than war, which is a great fault in a legislator. But he ordained that war should only be made for the sake of peace. Among the Cretans, the cultivation of the mind was not entirely neglected ; the youth received some tincture of learning. One of Minos's regulations, and which Plato admired the most, was to inspire youth with a high respect for the maxims, customs, and laws of the state, and not to suffer them to call in question the wisdom of these institutions. The government of Crete was at first monarchical, but the authority of king was of no long duration ; and it gave place to a republican form, as Minos had intended. The senate composed the state council ; but the public affairs were of no force till the people had given them their approbation. The magistrates, to the number of ten, called Cosmi, were the balance between the other two powers. The slaves and mer- cenaries of Crete cultivated the lands. They were called Perioeci. Minos committed to his brother Rhadamanthus a share in the admi- nistration of justice in the capital city, and another minister had the care of the other cities. Crete, under so wise a legislature, seemed to become the abode of virtue, purity, and justice ; as we may judge from what fable tells us of the honour conferred on Minos and his two bro- thers in making them the judges of the other world. The wise laws of Minos did not expire with him, but subsisted in all their vigour even in Plato's time, that is, more than 900 years after. Notwithstanding this solid merit, the theatres of Athens re- sounded with nothing so much as imprecations against the memory of Minos. This was owing to an unjust and cruel tribute he imposed upon them, in obliging them to send him every nine years seven young men and as many maids to be devoured by the Minotaur. But this was exacted by the grandson of the first Minos. Theseus put an end to this tribute by killing the Minotaur. It is true that the Cretans degenerated much from their ancient repu- To what habits were the Spartan youths accustomed 1 — Wherein did the laws of Minos differ ? — Was not the government of Crete republican? — What honours were conferred by Jupiter on Minos and Rhadamanthus ? GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. 129 tation, so that to Cretise became a proverb among the Greeks, implying to lie and to deceive.* St. Paul cites against them, as truth, the testi- mony of one of their ancient poets, (believed to be Epimenides,) who paints them in colours much to their dishonour. But this change of manners does not affect the probity of the ancient Cretans, nor the glory of Minos their king. CHAPTER 22. GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. The government of Athens was neither so permanent nor so uniform as that of Sparta. Athens, after having long been governed by kings, and afterwards by archons, assumed entire liberty ; which gave place, however, for some years, to the tyrannic power of the Pisistratida?, but was soon after re-established, and subsisted with splendour till the de- feat in Sicily, and the taking of the city by the Lacedaemonians. These subjected them to thirty tyrants, whose authority was not of long dura- tion, and gave place again to liberty. In that state it continued, amidst various events, during a series of years, till the Roman power had sub- dued Greece and reduced it to a province. Solon was the first who established the popular government at Athens. Theseus, long before him, had traced out the plan, and began the execution of it. After having united the twelve towns into one city, he divided the inhabitants into three bodies — that of the nobility, to whom the superintendence in religious affairs and all offices was confided — the labourers or husbandmen, and the artizans. But Athens, to speak correctly, did not become a popular state, till the establish- ment of the nine archons, whose authority continued only for one year — before that, it was for ten ; and it was not till many years after, that Solon, by the wisdom of his laws, instituted and confirmed this form of government. Solon's great principle was to establish, as much as possible, a kind of equality among his citizens ; which he regarded as the foundation of liberty. He therefore resolved, while he left the public employ- ments in the hands of the rich, to give the poor some share in the go- vernment, from which they had been excluded. For this reason he made an estimate of what each individual was worth. Those who had an annual revenue of 500 measures, as well in grain as in liquid things, were placed in the first class. The second class was composed of such as had 300 ; and those of 200 measures were in the third class. Out of these three classes only, the magistrates were chosen. The citizens below these were denominated hirelings, or workmen, labouring with their hands. These held no office, they had the right only of giving their suffrages in the assemblies and trials of the people. * Titus i. 12. The Cretans are always liars, &c. Had not the Cretans degenerated in the times of St. Paul ? — What changes oc- curred in the government of Athens? — What is said of the plans of Theseus and Solon ? —Mention the qualifications for Solon's classes. 130 HISTORY OF GREECE. But the people of Athens became more haughty after their victories over the Persians ; pretending to have a right to share in all the public offices ; and Aristides, to prevent the disorders which too tenacious opposition might have occasioned, thought proper to yield to them. The citizens of the first three classes paid certain sums into the public j treasury, and the proportion of revenue determined the order of the / classes. Solon revived and reformed also two councils ; the first was ( that of the Areopagus : he gave it new lustre by augmenting its power. The second was the Council of the Four Hundred, that is an hundred out of each tribe ; for Cecrops, the first king of the Athenians, had divided the people into four tribes. Calisthenes, long after him, changed that order, and established ten. It was in this Council of the Four Hundred all affairs were considered before they were proposed to the assembly of the people. With respect to the inhabitants of Athens, there were three sorts, citi- zens, strangers, and servants. In the account taken by Demetrius Pha- lereus, (B. C. 314,) the number amounted to 21,000 citizens, 10,000 strangers, and 40,000 servants. The number of citizens was almost the same in the time of Cecrops, and less under Pericles. A citizen could only be such by birth or by adoption. To be a natural denizen i of Athens, it was necessary to be born of a father and mother both free : and Athenians. The freedom of the city was also conferred, in honour and gratitude, to strangers who had rendered great services to the state, as to Hippocrates. Even kings have sometimes canvassed that title for themselves and their children. Evagoras, king of Cyprus, thought it much to his honour. When the young men attained the age of twenty, they were enrolled upon the list of citizens, after having taken an oath never to dishonour the profession of arms, but always to fight for their religion and civil interests, and submit to the laws, &c, to which they call the gods to witness. By the strangers of Athens are meant those who came from a foreign country to settle in Attica, for the purpose of commerce or trade. They had no share in the government, nor votes in the assembly of the people, nor could they be admitted into any office. They paid a yearly tribute, and in default were made slaves. Xenocrates, the celebrated, but poor philosopher, for such default was sent to prison ; but Lycur- gus, the orator, having paid the tax, released him from the farmers of the public revenues. The generous act of Lycurgus was publicly extolled ; and Xenocrates meeting, some time after, the sons of his deliverer, told them, " I pay your father the favour he has done me with usury ; for the world praises him on my account." What changes took place after they had conquered the Persians ? — What waa the census of Athens, B. C. 314, as taken by Demetrius Phalerius, Cecrops, and Pericles? — Who were deemed natural denizens of Athens? — At what age were the oaths taken by the young citizens ? — Who were comprehended under the term strangers ? — What said Xenocrates to the sons of Lycurgus ? GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. 131 CHAPTER 23. GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. Of Servants there were two kinds — the one, who were free, whose 3ondition was easy ; the other were slaves, who had either been born such, or who had been taken prisoners of war. The masters could dis- pose absolutely of their slaves, though they were generally treated with great humanity. Whenever they were treated with rigour and inhumanity, they had their action against their masters, and if the fact was proved, they could ransom themselves without their masters' con- sent, when they had laid up money enough for the purpose. Persons, when satisfied with their service, often gave their slaves liberty, and the same acknowledgment was granted them by the public. The humane, equitable usage with which the Athenians treated their ser- vants and slaves, was an effect of the good temper natural to that people ; and very remote from the austere and cruel severity of the Lacedaemonians. The Council or Senate of Four Hundred, which Solon instituted, was increased by Calisthenes, about a hundred years after, to five hun- dred. They were chosen by lot, in which they made use of black and white beans. If the number of white beans carried it, that question passed, otherwise not. The senators, before assembling, offered a sacrifice to Jupiter, and to Minerva, as the goddess of good council, asking for prudence and understanding necessary in such wise delibe- rations. After a question had been settled, it was read aloud. Each senator then gave his vote by scrutiny, in putting a bean into each urn. This sort of decree was only a preparatory resolution. It was after- wards laid before the assembly of the people, where, if it was received and approved, it had the force of a law ; — if not, its authority subsisted only for a year. This may show with what wisdom Solon fixed the inconstancy of that people, and how judiciously he contrived to sup- port a wise balance between the different bodies. The council of the Areopagus took its name from the place where it assembled, called the Quarter or Hill of Mars. It was believed to be as ancient as the nation, though Cicero and Plutarch attribute the in- stitution of it to Solon ; but he only re-established it. The number of the senators of the Areopagus was not fixed ; at certain times they amounted to two or three hundred. Solon purposed that they only who had borne the office of Archon, should be honoured with that dignity. The orators here were not permitted to excite the passions, but w T ere obliged to confine themselves to the subject matter in dispute. The senate held their sittings in an open place, and during the night. The affairs of religion, the introduction of new ceremonies and new di- vinities were brought before this tribunal. We read in Justin Martyr, that Plato, who in his travels in Egypt had acquired new light concern- What were the different kinds of servants ? — How was the Council chosen ? ■ What their number? — What subjects were discussed in the Areopagus? 132 HISTORY OF GREECE. ing the unity of God, when he returned, concealed his sentiments, fear ing to appear before the Areopagus ; and we know that St. Paul was accused before them, as teaching a new doctrine, and endeavouring tc introduce new gods. Of the magistrates, -a. great number were established for different func- tions. We shall speak principally of the archons ; they succeeded the kings, and their authority at first continued for life. It was then limited to ten years, and at last reduced to one. Solon found them with the number nine ; he did not abolish their office, but limited their power. The first of these nine magistrates was called, by way of eminence, Archon, and the year was denominated from him. " Under such an Archon such a battle was fought." The second was called the king ; the third polemarch, &c. Of the assemblies af the people. There were two sorts, the one ordi- nary, and fixed to certain days — the other extraordinary ; and of these the people were informed by express proclamation. All the people, the poor as well as the rich, had a right to give their suffrages. This as- sembly always began with sacrifices and prayers, to obtain from the gods the knowledge necessary to wise deliberations ; and they never failed to add the most terrible imprecations against such as opposed the public good. For trials, there were different tribunals; but appeals might be brought from all other judges. All the allies were obliged to bring their cause to Athens. The parties either pleaded their cause in person, or employed advocates. The time allowed for the hearing was generally fixed, and a water clock regulated its duration. It is re- markable that a friend was not obliged to give evidence against a friend. The authority of the Amphictyonic Council had always been of great weight in Greece. Before any were installed into that body, they took a very remarkable oath ; and among other things that, should any at- tempt to steal and take away any of the rich offerings preserved in the temple of Apollo at Delphi, they will use all their powers and faculties to avenge the sacrilege. That oath was attended by the most terrible imprecations ; and, knowing this, I am not astonished that the holy war, undertaken by the order of the Amphictyons, should be carried on with so much ardour. From the moment, however, that Philip of Macedon was admitted into their body, he set himself above all law, and abused his power. This Demosthenes, in his third Philippic, reproaches him with. " When he does not deign to honour us with his presence, he sends his slaves to reign over us." The Revenues of Athens amounted, in the time of the Peloponnesian war, to about 2,000 talents. They were reduced to four kinds: 1st. The revenues arising from agriculture, the sale of woods, the produce of mines, the duties on the import and export of merchandize, and the taxes levied upon the city and its inhabitants. What were the Archons; their office, their number, &c.? — Did not the assem- blies begin with sacrifice and prayer ? — Could the parties plead their own cause? — What is said of the Amphictyonic council? — What was the revenue of Athens EDUCATION OF THE GREEKS. 133 The history of Athens often mentions the silver mines of Laurium, a mountain, situated between the Piraeus and Cape Sunium, and those of Thrace, from whence many persons extracted imm'ense riches. The second species of revenue were the contributions-paid the Athenians by the allies for the common expenses of the war. Under Aristides they amounted to 460 talents. Pericles augmented them almost a third, and raised them to 600, and some time after they were raised to 1,300. A third sort of revenue were the extraordinary capitation taxes, raised on pressing occasions and emergencies of state. CHAPTER 24. EDUCATION AND MILITARY INSTITUTIONS OF THE GREEKS Of the education of youth, and the exercises for forming their bodies and minds, may be mentioned dancing, music, fencing, riding, polite learning, and philosophy. Dancing was cultivated by the Athenians with great attention. It made a part of what the ancients called the Gymnastic ; divided, ac- cording- to Plato, into two kinds ; the Orchestric, (OgzneOat,, voltare,) which takes its name from the dance, and Palestric, (Ila^,) so called from a Greek word signifying wrestling. The exercises of the latter kind conduced to form the body for the fatigues of war, navigation, agriculture, &c. Dancing taught the rules of motion, and contributed to the ease and gracefulness of the figure. Music was cultivated with no less solicitude. The ancients ascribed wonderful effects to it. They believed it proper to calm the passions, and soften the manners, and contribute to humanize the barbarous. Polybius, a grave historian, attributes the extreme difference between two people of Arcadia to the influence of music. The one esteemed for the elegance of 'their manners, humanity to strangers, and piety to the gods ; the other, on the contrary, hated for their malignity, brutality, and irreligion. Socrates himself, in an advanced age, was not ashamed to learn to play on an instrument. 'But the license of the Grecian stage, which made use of both dancing and music to excite the vicious pas- sions, soon corrupted the art, and the theatre became a school of vice.] It is probable, however, that the wisest and greatest characters among them did not apply themselves to these arts with any great industry. "Are you not ashamed," said Philip to his son Alexander, " Are you not ashamed to sing so well ?" The other exercises of the body all the Greeks were very assiduous in performing. The places allotted for these exercises they called Palaes- tra or Gymnasia. These rendered the body more supple, active, hardy, and robust; more capable of bearing fatigue, and effecting great enter- prises. There were masters who taught the youth to ride, to handle What other species of revenue ? — In what did the several exercises consist ?-- What of dancing? — Was not the study of music and dancing at length said to corrupt, the morals of youth ? — and why ? — What said king Philip to his son Alex- andsr? — Name the other manly exercises and pursuits. 12 134 HISTORY OF GREECE. their arms, or fence. Even hunting- was considered by the ancients aa a, fit exercise for forming youth for the stratagems and fatigues of war. 7 Athens, too, was the school and the abode of polite learning. Poetry, eloquence, philosophy, and mathematics, were there greatly cultivated. Hence proceeded the universal fine taste of Athens, where (as history informs us) a simple herb-woman distinguished Theophrastus to be a stranger from the expression of a single word. To the study of rheto- ric, they annexed that of Philosophy, under which may be comprised all the sciences. . The Grecians were at all times warlike. During the Trojan war, Greece signalized her valour in battle, and acquired fame by her bra- very. This expedition, however, was no more than the cradle of her infant glory. In these early times there were in Greece several repub- lics ; neighbours by situation, but extremely remote in customs, laws, and particular interests. This difference proved a perpetual source of divisions. Two cities distinguished themselves above the rest, Sparta and Athens ; in consequence of which, they either successively or together, held the empire of Greece through a long series of time. Thebes disputed this honour with them for some years, by surprising acts of valour, which had something of prodigy in them — a short-lived blaze of exceeding splendour, which soon disappeared, and left that city in its original obscurity. All the laws of Sparta and institutions of Lycurgus seem to have had no other object than war. All other employments were prohibited among them. Arts, polite learning, sciences, trades, and even hus- bandry itself had no share in their applications ; from their earliest infancy no other taste was instilled into them but for arms ; but among the Athenians and the other states of Greece, arts, trades, husbandry, commerce, and navigation, were held in honour, and were thought no obstacle to the valour and knowledge necessary for war. The famous battle of Marathon infinitely heightened their courage ; and the battle of Salamis raised them to the highest pitch of glory. With respect to the different kinds of troops, both Sparta and Athens had four sorts — citizens, allies, mercenaries, and slaves. The soldiers were sometimes marked in the hand, to distinguish them from the slaves, who had that character impressed on their foreheads. The Spartans never marched without Helots : in the battle of Platsea, every citizen had seven. The infantry consisted of two kinds of soldiers. The one were heavy armed, and carried great bucklers, lances, half pikes, and scimitars; the other, light armed, with bows and slings. These were commonly placed in the front of the battle, or upon the wings, as a first line, to shoot their arrows, and sling their javelins and stones at the enemy; then they retired through the intervals behind the battalions, as a second line, and continued their volleys. The Lacedaemonians did not begin to use cavalry till after the war with Messene. It was still more rare among the Athenians. After the war with the Persians, the Athenians had no more than 300 horse, What is said of the purity of their speech ? — Which two cities particularly uis linguished themselves? — Mention the different kind of Grecian troops. CHARACTER OF THE ATHENIANS. 135 but increased them at length to 1,200. In naval affairs the Athenians were much superior to the Lacedaemonians, and to all the other states of Greece. The ships were of two kinds ; the one rowed with oars, which were ships of war, — the other carried sails, and were vessels of burden for commerce and transports. But both kinds sometimes made use of oars and sails together. The ships of war are often called long ships, by authors, by which they are distinguished from vessels of bur- den. Some long ships had only one rank of oars on each side ; others had two, three, four, five, &c. Those most commonly used in the bat- tles of the ancients carried from three to five ranks or benches of oars ; and were called triremes, quinquer ernes, &c. The rostrum, or beak of the prow, was that part of the vessel of which much use was made in sea fights. The beaks at a single blow often sunk the triremes. Two sorts of people served on board the galleys; 1st. the remiges, or rowers, and the nautas, or mariners ; 2d. the soldiers intended for the fight. This regulation was, however, a modern one. He who took care of the whole crew, and commanded thp vessel, was called nauckrus, and was the principal officer; the second was the gubernator, or pilot. The pay of those who served in these ships varied much at different times. When young Cyrus arrived in Asia, it was only three oboli, which was half a drachm, or five pence ; and the treaty between the Persians and Lacedaemonians was concluded on this foot. Cyrus, at Lysander's request, added to that pay a fourth, which made it sixpence half-penny a day, and on extreme occasions it was raised to a whole drachm, or ten pence. The same may be said of the land troops that has been said of the seamen, except that the horse had double their pay. CHAPTER 25. CHARACTER OF THE ATHENIANS. If it be asked how the Lacedaemonians, with their iron coin, which would pass nowhere else, could maintain armies — doubtless they raised their resources as did the Athenians, by contributions from their allies ; and still more from the cities to which they gave liberty and protection, or from those they had conquered from their enemies. Their second fund for paying their fleets and armies, was the aid they someiimes drew from the king of Persia. The peculiar character of the Athenians may be worth briefly notic- ing. Plutarch says, " they were easily provoked to anger, and as easily induced to resume their sentiments of benevolence and compassion." Of this truth history supplies numerous exumples — the sentence of death passed on the inhabitants of Mitylene, and revoked the next day; the condemnation of the ten generals, and that of Socrates, both followed by extreme repentance, and the most lively grief. They were better pleased with penetrating, and almost guessing at Did the Spartans, in early times, use cavalry? — Which state was superior in naval warfare ? — What was the pay of the troops ? — How did the Lacedaemoni- ans, with their iron coin, maintain armies ? — What was the peculiar character of the Athenians ? 136 HISTORY OF GREECE. an affair themselves, than with taking the pains to be informed tho- roughly respecting it in all its extent. Artificers, husbandmen, soldiers, mariners, &c, are generally slow in their conceptions, but the people of Athens had great penetration, vivacity, and even delicacy of wit. We have already spoken of Theophrastus. He was cheapening some- thing of an old woman at Athens, that sold herbs. " No, Mr. Stranger," said she, " you shall have it for no less." He was surprised to see himself treated as a stranger, who had passed almost his whole life at Athens, and who prided himself in the elegance of his language. The Athenian soldiers knew the finest passages of Euripides by heart. The artificers and common people, from their frequency in public assemblies, were generally versed in affairs of state. Of this we may judge from the orations of Demosthenes, whose style, we know, is ardent, brief, and concise. They were attentive to the rules of politeness and benevolence. In the war against Philip of Macedon, having intercepted one of his cour- tiers, they read all the letters he carried except that to Olympias his wife, which they returned sealed up and unopened, out of regard to conjugal love and secrecy. The same Athenians having decreed that a strict search should be made after the presents distributed by Harpa- lus among the orators, would not suffer the house of Calicles, who had lately been married, to be visited, out of respect for his bride, not long brought home. Such behaviour is indicative of true politeness. It was glorious for Athens to have formed so many excellent persons in the art of war and government. In philosophy, eloquence, poetry, painting, sculpture, and architecture, Athens formed a greater number of each kind than any other city in the world, if perhaps we may ex- cept Rome, which had imbibed learning and arts from her. The last attribute of the Athenians, which we shall mention, is their ardent love of liberty. In the war with the Persians, they sacrificed every thing for the liberty of Greece, and they answered the Persians, by the mouth of Aristides, that all the gold and silver in the world would not be able to purchase the liberty of Greece. The Lacedaemonians, though possessing contrary qualities in many respects, were equally tenacious of liberty. No people could have more wit than the Athenians, nor more solid sense than the Lacedeemonians. CHAPTER 26. RISE OF THE THEBAN POWER. — PELOPIDAS — EPAMINOJNDAS. The peace of Antalcides, of which mention has been made, excited in the Grecian states much division and discontent. In consequence of that treaty, the Thebans were obliged to abandon the cities of Wherein did the Athenians differ from other Grecians ? — And what is men- tioned to prove the purity of their language? — What, proofs are adduced of theii politeness and delicacy? — What praise is due more particularly to Athens? — What reply did Aristides give to the Persians ? — How do you discriminate be- tween the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians ?— What peace excited discontent? — Who were the Spartan kings ? RISE OF THE THEBAN PCWER. 137 Boeotia, and let them enjoy their liberty ; and the Corinthians, to with- draw their garrison from Argos ; the Mantineans were compelled to demolish the walls of their city, and the Lacedaemonians, who were the authors of these changes, saw their power extremely augmented. The Spartan kings were Agesipolis and Agesilaus, persons of very dif- ferent characters. The first was naturally inclined to peace, and dis- posed to suffer the Grecian cities to enjoy their liberties; the other was restless, active, full of great views of ambition and conquest. Complaint arrived at Sparta that Olynthus, a city of Thrace, was extending her influence and making new conquests on every side. The Lacedaemonians lost no time, and their troops marched directly. Thebes was gained possession of by artifice, and the Olynthians, be- sieged and reduced by the want of provision, were obliged to surren- der. All Boeotia was soon in the power of the Lacedaemonians, and all Greece seemed now subject to them, either by force or alliance. Even the king of Persia, and the tyrant of Sicily, seemed to emulate each other in courting their friendship. But a prosperity founded in injus- tice is seldom of long duration. The greatest blow that was given to the Spartan power came from the people that had been recently op- pressed. Two illustrious citizens of Thebes, Pelopidas and Epaminondas, both descended from noble families, and between whom subsisted a perfect union and friendship, and holding the first offices of state, gave a new face to the affairs of Greece. Several campaigns passed be- tween the Thebans and Lacedaemonians without any thing decisive on either side. It was prudent in the Theban general not hastily to hazard a battle till the soldiers had time to become inured and emboldened. When the occasion was favourable, they had a taste of victory, by way of reward. The principal glory of success was due to the generalship of Pelopidas. The engagement at Tegyra, which was a prelude to the battle of Leuctra, added much to his reputation. Having failed in the enterprise against Orchomenos, who had joined the Lacedaemonians at his return, he found the enemy posted to intercept him near Tegyra. As soon as the Thebans perceived them from the defiles, a person ran in haste to Pelopidas, exclaiming, " We are fallen into the enemies' hands." He replied, " Should we not rather say they are fallen into ours ]" And so it proved : for though the Theban forces were not more than two-thirds of the Spartan, the two generals who had charged Pelopidas were presently killed, and the Spartans, after a short con- flict, were dismayed, and fled in disorder. This encounter proved the prelude to great actions and events. It had never happened till then, in any war, either with the Persians or Greeks, that the Lacedaemonians, with a superiority of numbers on their side, had been defeated. They now lost that glory; and the Thebans became the terror and dread of the Grecian states. All Greece being weary of war, deputies were sent to Lacedaemon to concert a general peace ; but, by the influence of Agesilaus, one of the kings of Sparta, How did the Lacedaemonians act towards Thebes ? — Who were the two illus- trious citizens of Thebes ? — What king encouraged the war against the Thebans 12* 138 HISTORY OF GREECE. war was determined against the Thebans, who were much alarmed a' first, seeing themselves without allies or support, while all Greece looked on them as utterly lost. But Epaminondas, who was a host in himself, was appointed general ; and he had several colleagues joined in commission with him. His army did not amount to more than 6,000 foot, and 400 horse, while the enemy had above four times that num- ber. He was supported by Pelopidas at the head of the sacred batta- lion. In the battle, Cleombrotus, the Spartan general, died of his wounds; and the Thebans, after a long-continued slaughter, completed the vic- tory. The Lacedaemonians had never received such a blow ; they lost 4,000 men. The Thebans had only 300 men killed. The Spartans were celebrating at that time their gymnastic exercises, and the city was full of strangers ; when the couriers arrived from Leuctra with the terrible news of their defeat, the Ephori, though sensible that the Spar- tan power had received a mortal wound, would not suffer the represen- tations to be interrupted. Agesilaus decreed, "That, for the present day, the laws should be suspended." The Thebans now entered Peloponnesus, and caused many states to revolt from the Lacedsemonians — Elis, Argos, Arcadia, and the greater part of Laconia itself. They ran through their country with fire and sword without opposition. Parties had been posted by the Spartans to defend the passes. Ischolaus, the Spartan, who defended one of these, finding it impossible, with his small body of troops, to support the enemies' attack, sent away a part of his men, and devoted himself and the few that remained with him, after the example of Leonidas, to the public good ; and, after making a great slaughter of their enemies, they perished to a man. Epaminondas approached the Spartan capital. Agesilaus took the command of the city. He was determined not to quit it, nor to hazard a battle. Epaminondas would have been glad to give battle to Sparta. He did not, however, think proper to attempt forcing the city, and not being able to induce Agesilaus to quit it, he retired. Not long after, (B. C. 370,) Pelopidas marched against Alexander, tyrant of Pherse, and was killed in battle. His funeral was magnifi- cent, especially in the sincere affliction of the Thebans and Thessaiians. Nor were they content with lamenting Pelopidas, but resolved to avenge him. They sent a small army against Alexander, and compelled him to restore the cities he had taken, and to renounce all future con- quests. Alexander was assassinated not long after, in consequence of a conspiracy formed against him by his wife Thebe and her three bro- thers. The extraordinary prosperity of Thebes greatly alarmed the neigh- bouring states, and every thing was in motion in Greece. The people of Tegea had called in the Thebans to their aid ; and the Mantineans, with whom they were at war, had the aid of the Spartans and Atheni- ans. Epaminondas had the command of the Tegean troops ; and being Relate the success of the Thebans at Leuctra. — What befel Pelopidas and Alexander of Pherae? — Who called Epaminondas to their aid ? DEATH OF EPAMINONDAS. 139 informed that Agesilaus had left Sparta, and was leading his forces for Mantinaia, he left Tegea in the night with his army, intending to take Sparta by surprise, as it had neither walls nor troops for its defence. He began to attack the city in several quarters, and penetrated as far as the public place, and no doubt but he would have taken the city by surprise, had not Agesilaus been secretly apprised of it, and returned hastily for its defence. Epaminondas, having failed in his aim, return- ed to Tegea, and foreseeing that his command was upon the point of expiring, he held his troops in readiness for battle. The Lacedaemonian forces consisted of 20,000 foot and 2,000 horse ; the Theban of 30,000 foot and 3,000 horse. The troops fought on both sides with incredible ardour, the resistance was equally obstinate, and the success of the contest doubtful. Epaminondas made an ex- traordinary effort, without regard to the danger of his person, and re- ceived a mortal wound, with a javelin, in the breast. The conflict was, nevertheless, still vigorously supported, till at length the troops on both sides stood still and rested on their arms, and the trumpets of both armies, as if by consent, sounded a retreat at the same time. Each party pre- tended to the victory, and each erected a trophy. Such was the event of the famous battle of Mantinasa. When Epaminondas was told that the Thebans had gained the victory, and was shown his shield, he se- renely desired his friends not to regard this day as the end of his life, but the beginning of his happiness. " I leave Thebes triumphant, proud Sparta humbled, and Greece delivered from the yoke of servi- tude, &c.' T Having spoken to this effect, he drew the head of the javelin from the wound, and died. With this great man the Theban power expired. Cicero ranks him above all the illustrious men Greece ever produced. Before him, Thebes was not distinguished by any memorable action, and, at his death, it sunk into its original obscurity. Epaminondas sought not power for himself but for his country. His actions were perfectly void of self- interest; the commands that were conferred upon him were not of his seeking. Spintharus, in giving his character, said, " That he never had met with a man who knew more and spoke less." The victory of Leuctra had drawn upon Epaminondas the eyes and admiration of all Greece ; he was beheld as the restorer of Thebes and the triumphant conqueror of Sparta. Epaminondas, little sensible to such a glory, said, " My joy arises from my sense of that which the news of this victory will give my father and mother." Nothing in history seems to me so valuable as such sentiments, proceeding from a heart which neither false glory nor false greatness had corrupted. The Lacedaemonians were never able to recover the reputation and influence which they lost in the Theban war. Epaminondas was an exception to the general opinion, that the Boeotians were dull and stupid. Their dullness was imputed to the gross air of the country ; and, on the contrary, the Athenian delicacy Relate the events of the battle. — What is the character of Epaminondas ? — What was his observation after the victory of Leuctra? — To what was the dull ness of the Boeotians ascribed ? 140 HISTORY OF GREECE. of taste was attributed to the purity of the air they breathed. Pindar and Plutarch, who had very little of the soil in them, are proofs that genius is of all nations. CHAPTER 27. ARTAXERXES MNEMON UNDERTAKES THE REDUCTION OF EGYPT. Artaxerxes formed a design of reducing Egypt. Achoris, who then reigned there, and who had given Evagoras, king of Salamis, in the isle of Cyprus, powerful aid against the Persians, foresaw the storm and raised abundance of troops, and took numerous auxiliaries into pay, of whom Chabrias had the command. But the Persians complained to Athens of the appointment, and Chabrias was recalled. The prepara- tions of the Persians went on so slowly that two whole years elapsed before they entered into action. Achoris, king of Egypt, died in that time, and was succeeded by Psammathis, who reigned but one year. Nephretitus was the next ; and four months after, Nectanebis, who reigned ten or twelve years. At length a Persian camp was formed at Ptolemais, since called Acre, in Palestine, the place appointed for the general rendezvous. — The army consisted of 200,000 Persians, under the command of Phar- nabazus, and 20,000 Greeks, under Iphicrates, and the forces at sea were in proportion to those on land. The war was to open with the siege of Palusium, but so much time had been given to the Egyptians, that Nectanebis rendered the approach to it impracticable both by sea and land. The Persians, however, found an entrance at another of the mouths of the Nile, called Mendesium, and the fort was carried sword in hand, and no quarter given. Iphicrates purposed, without loss of time, to attack Memphis, the capital of Egypt, and had he done so, it must inevitably have fallen. But Pharnabazus believed it necessary to wait for the concentration of the whole army. Abject jealousy has been ascribed to him as the motive, apprehending that, if the enterprise against Memphis succeeded, the whole glory of the war would redound to Iphicrates. This delay was the preservation of Egypt, and pre- vented the Persians' advance into the country. The inundation of the Nile came on, the Persians returned to Phoenicia, and the best part of their troops were ineffectually lost. After the battle of Mantinsea, both parties entered into a general peace with all the states of Greece, by which the enjoyment of its laws and liberties was secured to each city ; and the Messenians were included in it, notwithstanding the intrigues of the Lacedaemonians to prevent it. While this passed in Greece, Tachos, who had ascended the throne of Egypt, in order to defend himself against the king of Persia, invited Agesilaus, king of Sparta, to take the command of the forces. A mis- By whom were preparations made against Egypt ? — What Egyptian fort did tho Persians carry? — Whom did Agesilaus place on the throne of Egypt? — Wha was the age of Agesilaus ? — How long did he reign? WAES OF THE PEESIANS. 141 understanding arising afterwards between him and Tachos, Agesilaus left him, and placed Nectanebis, his cousin, on the throne. On the return of Agesilaus to Lacedsemon, he died at the age of eighty-four years. He had reigned forty-one at Sparta, and had passed as the leader and king of all Greece till the battle of Leuctra. His son JlrcM- damns succeeded to the throne. The end of Artaxerxes' reign abounded with cabals, and the whole court was divided into factions in favour of one or other of his sons. He had many by his concubines, and three by his lawful wife Antossa. To put a stop to these divisions, he declared Darius, the eldest, his successor, and permitted him from thenceforth to assume the title of king. Darius, nevertheless, conspired against his father. But Arta- xerxes having timely notice, Darius and the conspirators were seized, and their lives paid the forfeiture of their crimes. Artaxerxes died after a reign of forty-three years, which might be called happy, if it had not been interrupted by so many revolts. Ochus, who succeeded, was the most cruel and wicked of all the princes of his race. In a short time the palace and the whole empire were filled with his murders. At one time, 100 of his relations were shut up in a court of the palace and put to death. Ochus afterwards turned his thoughts on Egypt, which had revolted, and while preparing for the expedition, he received advice of the revolt of Phoenicia. That people, oppressed by the Persian government, resolved to throw off so heavy a yoke ; and they made a league with Nectanebis, king of Egypt, against whom Persia was marching its armies. As there was no other passage from Persia to Egypt but through Phoenicia, this insurrection was very seasonable for Nectane- bis. He intended to make Phosnicia his barrier. The king approached Sidon, and by treachery, the city was surrendered to him. All Phoenicia then submitted to Ochus. The Jews must have had some share in this war of the Phoenicians ; for Sidon was no sooner taken, than Ochus entered Judea, besieged and took Jericho, and car- ried a great number of Jewish captives into Egypt, and sent many others into Hyrcania, where he settled them along the coasts of the Caspian Sea. In his way to' Egypt, he reduced the isle of Cyprus, and notwithstanding the vast preparations of Nectanebis, after suffer- ing some severe defeats, and having lost all hope, he escaped with his treasures and best effects into Ethiopia, from whence he never returned. He was the last king of Egyptian race, since which it has continued under a foreign yoke, according to the prediction of Ezekiel. (Ezek. xxix. 14, 15.) Ochus having entirely conquered Egypt, dismantled the cities, pil- laged the temples, and returned in triumph to Babylon, laden with spoils, in which were included immense sums of gold and silver. He afterwards abandoned himself to pleasure, leaving the care of his affairs entirely to his ministers. The two principal of them were the What revolts did Artaxerxes experience ? — What was the character of Ochus, his successor? — In what wars was Ochus engaged ? — And with whom? — What conquests did he make in Phoenicia, Cyprus, &c. ? — What spoils did Ochus cany from Egypt ? 142 HISTORY OF GREECE. eunuch Bagoas, and Mentor the Rhodian, who divided all power be- tween them. The death of Ochus is believed to have arisen from the revenge of Bagoas, who placed Arsaces, the king's youngest son, on the throne; reserving to himself the whole power of the sovereignty. Arsaces, perceiving the wickedness of Bagoas, adopted measures with a view to punish it, but he failed, and was destroyed with all his family. Bagoas then placed Darius upon the throne. He was the third of that name who reigned in Persia; his real name was Codomanus, of whom we shall speak hereafter. CHAPTER 28. WAR OF THE ALLIES AGAINST THE ATHENIANS. Some few years after the revolt of Asia Minor, (B. C. 358,) Chio, Cos, Rhodes, and Byzantium, took up arms against Athens, upon which, till then, they had depended. To employ them, they had en- gaged a large number of forces and great captains — Chabrias, Iphicra- tes, and Timotheus. They were the last of the Athenian generals who did honour to their country. Chabrias acquired a great name ; when having been sent against the Spartans, to the aid of theThebans, though abandoned in the battle by the allies, he sustained alone the charge of the enemy. The Athenians erected a statue to him. Iphicrates was of very mean extraction ; but in a city like Athens, merit was the sole nobility. Though at first only a private soldier, his deserts soon raised him to a command. In a prosecution carried on against him, his accuser, having reproached him with the baseness of his birth, — " Yes," replied he ; " the nobility of my family begins with me; that of yours ends with you." He married the daughter of Co- tys, king of Thrace. Timotheus was the son of Conon, so much celebrated for his great actions. He did not degenerate from his father's reputation. At first no captain ever experienced less than he did the inconstancy of fortune; he had only to undertake an enterprise to accomplish it. Success ever attended his designs. Those who envied him caused him to be painted asleep, with fortune by him, taking cities with nets. Timotheus coldly replied, " If I take places in my sleep, what shall I do when I awake]" The goddess of Fortune, says Plutarch, offended at his arrogance, abandoned him, and he was never successful afterwards. The war of the allies, after having continued three years, was con- cluded. (B. C. 356.) But this did not entirely remove the apprehen- sions of the Athenians with regard to the king of Persia. The great preparations he was making gave them umbrage. Athens took the alarm. The orators increased the fears of the people, exhorting them to have immediate recourse to arms. Demosthenes (born B. C. 381,) made his first appearance in public at this time : he was twenty-eight What cities revolted against Athens ? — Who was Iphicrates ? — Who was Timo- theus ? — When did Demosthenes make his first appearance ? — What was his age ? — How long before the time of Christ ? WAR OF THE ALLIES AGAINST THE ATHENIANS. 143 years of age. He dared not, indeed, oppose their advice in a direct manner, lest he should render himself suspected ; but he represented that it was not consistent with prudence to be precipitate, nor to take up a resolution upon certain reports, nor to furnish so powerful a prince with a just reason to turn his arms against Greece. All that was neces- sary now was to fit out a fleet of 300 sail, and also to hold the troops in readiness, in case of an attack ; and that the report alone would be sufficient to induce the Persian king, if he had formed such a design, to change his measures. Nor was it needful to lay an immediate tax upon the estates of private persons for the expense of the war. Should the necessity appear, everybody would then be ready to contribute a little, rather than lose their all, &c. This discourse had all the effects desired. Two years after, an enterprise of the Lacedaemonians against Mega- lopolis, a city of Arcadia, gave Demosthenes another opportunity to sig- nalize his zeal, and display his eloquence. The Megalopolitans had recourse to Athens ; the others concerned sent their deputies thither also, and the affair was debated before the people. The Athenians, moved by the eloquent address of Demosthenes, sent 3,000 foot and 300 horse to the aid of the Megalopolitans, under the command of Pammenes ;* and the city was reinstated in its former condition. The people of Rhodes and Cos, who had been declared free by the Grecian treaty, received the yoke of Mausolus, king of Caria. He died about two years after, having reigned twenty-four years. Art.e- missa,f his wife, succeeded him ; and as she was supported with all the influence of the king of Persia, she retained her power in the isles lately subjected. This princess immortalized herself by the honour she rendered to the memory of Mausolus, her husband. She caused a magnificent monument to be erected for him in Halicarnassus, which was called the Mausoleum, and for its beauty was esteemed one of the wonders of the world ; and it has given the name of Mausoleum to all great and magnificent structures of the kind. She is said also to have gathered his ashes, to have had his bones pounded in a mortar, and to have mingled some of the powder every day in her drink, desiring by that means to make her own body the sepulchre of her husband. She survived him only two years, and her grief did not end but with her life. CHAPTER 29. PHILIP OF MACEDON. Macedon was an hereditary kingdom, situated in ancient Thrace, and bounded on the south by the mountains of Thessaly. It was formed * This is not the Pammenes of Thehes, of whom mention has been made before. t B. C. 354. She must not be confounded with the Artemissa that lived about one hundred years before, and distinguished himself in the time of Xerxes, at the battle of Salamis. What events occurred at Megalopolis ? — What is recorded of Mausolus, and ''-* Sn eye. Philip marched into Thessaly, which had implored his asxl^tance against the tyrants. Ono- marchus, in a second engagement with Philip, was slain, and his army entirely defeated. By the success of this expedition, Philip acquired the affection of the Thessalians, whose excellent cavalry, joined to the Macedonian phalanx, had afterwards so great a share in his victories and those of his son. Phayllus, who succeeded his brother Onomarchus, from the immense riches he had found in the temple, raised a numerous army, and sup- ported by the troops of the Lacedemonians, Athenians, and the other allies, he went into Boeotia and invaded the Thebans. Phayllus, seized with a sudden disorder, died, and was succeeded by Phalecus then very young, the son of Onomarchus. Mnaseas, a man of great experience, was appointed his counsellor. Phalecus, like his prede- cessor, having plundered the temple, and by that means enriched his friends, the Phocians became alarmed, and called those to account who had any concern with the public moneys. Upon this Phalecus was de- posed, and upon full inquiry it was found that there had been taken from the temple 10,000 talents, or about 1,500,000/. sterling. Philip now resolved to carry his arms into Phocis. (B. C. 352.) This was his first attempt to get footing in Greece. He had intended march- in o- towards Thermopylae, to possess himself of a pass which would have given him a free passage into Greece. The Athenians hastened to Thermopylae, and preoccupied the pass, which Philip did not dare to force, and he returned into Macedon. What states declared war against the Phocians? — What was the fatal end o< Philomelus ? — What city did Philip attack ? — What wound did he receive ? — Ot what sums had the temple been despoiled ?— En what attempt was Philip unsuo cessful? i48 HISTORY OF GREECE. The ambitious designs of Philip gave rise also to the orations of De- mosthenes. The Athenians became the king's most powerful opposers. But Athens at that time was not what it was in the days of the battles of Marathon and Salamis. They had no longer the same maxims, nor the same zeal for the public good. To those glorious days had suc- ceeded a fondness for repose, an indolence with regard to public affairs, an aversion to military fatigues, and a fondness for the profusion of the public treasures, in games and shows. Demosthenes exerted his eloquence to stimulate the Athenians to make a powerful resistance. This is the subject of his orations called his Philippics. Demades, on the contrary, bribed by Philip's gold, opposed the advice of Demosthenes, but in vain. Chares was sent with chosen troops for the protection of Olynthus ; but the year follow- ing, (B. C. 348,) Philip possessed himself of the place. Neither the succours nor the efforts of the Athenians could defend it against its domestic enemies. It was betrayed by two of its most eminent citi- zens, in actual employment at that time. CHAPTER 31. SIEGE OF PERINTHUS — BATTLE OF CILERONE A — BANISHMENT OF JESCHINES. Philip carried on the siege of Perinthus with great vigour. He had 30,000 troops, and also military engines of all kinds. He had raised towers eighty cubits high, which far outstripped those of the Perinthi- ans, whose foundations he shook by subterraneous mines, and beat down their walls with his battering-rams. The inhabitants of Byzan- tium sent the Perinthians all the succours necessary. The Asiatic satraps, or governors, by the king's order, whose assistance the Athe- nians had requested, likewise threw forces into the place. Philip dreaded the power of the Athenians, and addressed to them an artful letter, which is a masterpiece in the original, so that what was said of Caesar might be justly applied to Philip, " that he handled the pen as well as he did the sword." His letter did him as much service as a good manifesto, and gave his pensioners in Athens a fine opportunity of justifying him to the people. Demosthenes, sensible how needful it was to erase as soon as possi- ble these impressions, ascended the tribunal, and boldly and firmly rebutted both Philip and his orators. At the very time this was de- bating, news was brought of the shameful reception Chares had met with in aiding the Byzantians ; and, as Chares was a general without great military knowledge, Phocion was appointed to the command of a body of fresh troops ; and the Byzantians, on his arrival, opened their gates to him with joy, and lodged his soldiers in their houses, as their twn brothers and children. What gave rise to the orations of Demosthenes? — What change had taken place in the Athenians ? — What orator opposed Demosthenes? — Describe Philip's siege of Perinthus, and his artful address to the Athenians. — Did not Demosthenes rebut Philip's orators? MACHINATIONS OF PHILIP 149 Struck with the confidence reposed in them, the Athenian officers and soldiers behaved with prudence and modesty, and we.e entirely irreproachable in their conduct. Nor were they less admired for their courage ; and Philip was obliged to abandon his designs both on By- zantium and Perinthus, — and his being beaten out of the Hellespont diminished Philip's fame and glory. The Byzantians and Perinthians testified their gratitude to the peo- ple of Athens by a very honourable decree ; namely, that they might settle in their country, purchase lands, and enjoy all the privileges of citizens : they also granted them a distinguished place in their public shows, and the right of sitting both in the senate and the assembly of the people next to the pontiffs, &c. The inhabitants of Chersonesus, in full senate, made a similar decree, and, after a full expression of their gratitude, awarded a crown of gold, worth fifty talents, to their benefactors. Philip, having been driven from Byzantium and Perinthus, marched against Atheas, king of Scythia, and defeated him without difficulty. He got a great booty, not of gold and silver, the use and value of which the Scythians did not know, but of cattle and horses, and even of wo- men and children. At his return from Scythia, the Triballi, a people of Mcesia, disputed the pass with him, claiming part of the plunder. A severe battle ensued, in which great numbers on each side were slain. Philip himself was wounded in the thigh, and with the same thrust had his horse killed under him. The king of Macedon made overtures of peace, but Demosthenes was persuaded that Philip's view was only to amuse and deceive, and he prevented the Athenians listening to his proposals. Philip foresaw that he had now no alternative but by exciting the Thessalians and Thebans to break with Athens, for he could not yet attack that city either by sea or land. For the passage to Attica by land would be shut against him as long as the Thessalians should refuse to join him, and the Thebans should oppose him. By the machinations of his pensioners, he raised divisions in the Locrians of Amphissa. Their country was situated between iEtolia and Phocis ; and they were accused of having profaned a spot of sa- cred ground, by ploughing up the Cirrhsean fields, which lay very near the temple of Delphi. The reader has seen that the like cause of com- plaint occasioned the first sacred war. The affair was to be heard before the Amphictyons. By the oratory of iEschines, Philip was appointed, by the Amphictyons, general, to act with full power. Philip immediately assembled his forces, and possessed himself ot Elatea, the greatest city of Phocis, situated most happily for awing the Thebans, who now began to see their danger. The news spread terror through every part of Athens. By the power of Demosthenes' elo- quence the Thebans made a common cause with the Athenians, and Did not the Athenians cause Philip to abandon his designs both at Byzantium and Perinthus? — By what decree did they show their gratitude? — Against whom did Philip next march? — Did Demosthenes oppose Philip's hollow truce? — Of what crime were the Locrians accused ? — What fear did Philip's victories excite 13* 150 HISTORY OF GREECE. Philip entered Boeotia with all his forces. The united armies of the Athenians and Thebans encamped near Chaeronea, a city of Bceotia. But there were no leaders that could be opposed to Philip. A battle ensued, and more than 1,000 Athenians were left upon the field, and above 2,000 taken prisoners. The loss was as great on the Theban side. The bones of such as were killed in the battle of Chaeronea were brought to Athens, and received honourable interment. Demosthenes was appointed to compose the eulogy of those brave men.* It was the very year of the battle of Chaeronea, and two years before the death of Philip, that vEschines drew up an accusation against Ctes- iphon, or rather against Demosthenes ; but the cause was not pleaded till seven or eight years after. No cause ever excited so much curi- osity, or was pleaded with so much pomp. People flocked from all parts, says Cicero, to be witness between these two orators ; and these orations have been considered as the masterpieces of antiquity; espe- cially that of Demosthenes. iEschines was deservedly banished on account of this rash accusation of Ctesiphon. He therefore removed to Rhodes, where he opened a school of eloquence, the fame of which continued for many ages. He began his lectures with the two orations that occasioned his banishment. Great encomiums were given to them ; but when the Rhodians heard those of Demosthenes, their plaudits and acclamations were redoubled ; and it was then he spoke those words so laudable in the mouth of a rival, " But what applauses would you not have bestowed, had you heard Demosthenes himself deliver them !" It is worthy of remembrance that when iEschines left Athens to em- bark for Rhodes, Demosthenes ran after him, and forced him to accept a purse of money. On this occasion iEschines exclaimed, " How will it be possible for me not to regret a country in which I leave an enemy more generous than I can hope to find friends elsewhere ?" CHAPTER 32. PHILIP IS DECLARED GENERALISSIMO OF THE GREEKS AGAINST THE PERSIANS — HIS DEATH. The battle of Chaeronea may be said to have enslaved Greece. It gained for Philip the object he had long had in view — that of being the generalissimo of the Greeks against the Persians. He now made pre- parations to invade that empire ; and forwarded two of his generals, Attalus and Parmenio, to Asia Minor. Philip consulted the gods to know what would be the event. The priestess replied, " The victim is already crowned, his end draws nigh, and he will soon be sacrificed." Philip interpreted the oracle in his own favour, though the ambiguity ought to have kept him in some suspense. After this he offered up a * Demosthenes, in his oration against Leptines, observes that the Athenians were the only people who caused funeral orations to be spoken in honour of those who lost their lives in the defence of their country. What resulted from the battle of Chaeronea? — Describe the orations of Demos- thenes and iEschines, and the public curiosity they excited. — Relate (he interview between Demosthenes and iEschines. — What was the Priestess s reply to Philip? DEATH OF PHILIP. • 151 solemn sacrifice to the gods ; and prepared to celebrate, with incredible magnificence, the nuptials of Cleopatra, his daughter, with Alexander, king of Epirus, and brother to Olympias his queen. The day after the nuptials, games and shows were solemnized ; and as these formed a part of their religious worship, statues of the gods were carried in it, in one of which Philip himself was represented as a god. The hour for his leaving the palace arrived, and he went forth in a white robe, and advanced with an air of majesty, amidst acclamations, towards the theatre. His guards marched before and behind him, leav- ing a considerable space for the better view of him by the spectators. But all this festivity and pomp ended in the murder of Philip. The king had refused to do an act of justice towards Pausanias, a young nobleman, and one of the chief officers of his life guard. He therefore, choosing the instant of this ceremony to put his bloody design in exe- cution, stabbed the king with a dagger, and laid him dead at his feet. The assassin had prepared horses ready for his escape ; but he was overtaken and torn to pieces on the spot. Thus died Philip, at forty- six years of age, after having reigned twenty-four. (B. C. 336.) When the news of Philip's death arrived, the Athenians abandoned themselves to the transports of immoderate joy. Demosthenes is said to have appeared in public at Athens, crowned with a wreath of flowers, urging the Athenians to offer sacrifices and to thank the gods for the good news ; an action quite out of character. Alexander was born the first year of the lOGth Olympiad, (B. C. 356,) the same day the celebrated temple of Diana in Ephesus, which had been called one of the seven wonders of the world, was burned. It had been built in the name and at the expense of all Asia Minor. Its length was 425 feet, and its breadth 2-20. It was supported by 127 columns, 60 feet high. One Erostratus had fired the temple on purpose ; and being put to the torture, he confessed it was to hand down his name to posterity. The passion which prevailed most in Alexander, even from his early years, was ambition, and an ardent desire of glory. Philip valued himself upon his eloquence, and the beauty of his style; and he had the vanity to have engraved on his coins the several victories he had won at the Olympic games ; but it was not to this his son aspired ; for being asked one day whether he would not be present to dispute the prize (for he was very swift of foot), he replied, " He would, if kings were to be his antagonists." Alexanders judgment was said to be exceedingly mature for his years. He had several preceptors ; among these were Leonidas, a person of severe morals, and Aristotle, the most learned philosopher of the age, to whom was entrusted the chief care of his education. So sensible was Philip of the treasure he possessed in the person of Aristotle, that he settled a considerable stipend upon him, and even re- built and adorned Stagira, the native place of the philosopher. Nor By whom and on what occasion was Philip assassinated? — What temple was burned on Alexander's birth ? — Who were his preceptors ? — What reward had Aristotle ? 152 HISTORY OF GREECE. was Alexander less sensible of his high value. " He was indebted," he said, " to the one for living, and the other for living- well ;" and nistory informs us that the progress of the pupil was equal to the abili- ties of the preceptor. Alexander's admiration of Homer's works was very great, and we are told that after the battle of Arbela, when the Macedonians had found among the spoils of Darius a gold box enriched with precious stones, in which were contained the prince's perfumes, Alexander ordered that the box should be employed for no other pur- pose than to hold Homer's Poems ; which he believed to be the most perfect and the most precious productions of the human mind. There had been sent from Thessaly to Philip, a very noble warlike horse called Bucephalus, valued by the owner at thirteen talents, about 1,900/. sterling; but he appeared so restive and fiery that no one dared to mount him ; and Philip was about to return him to the owner. Alexander regretted that so fine a creature should be lost for want of a rider, and offered to mount him himself. His father permitted him. After some manoeuvres, he mounted Bucephalus, and animated him by degrees to his full speed. The king and attendants, trembling with fear, followed them with their eyes, in breathless silence ; but when the prince returned, having run the first heat, the courtiers endeavoured to outvie each other in their applauses ; and Philip shedding tears of joy, said, " My son, seek a kingdom more worthy of thee, for Macedon is below thy merit." CHAPTER 33. ALEXANDER ASCENDS THE THRONE; AND IS DECLARED GENER- ALISSIMO OF THE GREEKS AGAINST THE PERSIANS. Darius and Alexander began to reign the same year ; the latter was but twenty years of age when he ascended the throne. His first care was to solemnize with much pomp the funeral obsequies of his father, and to revenge his death. Upon his accession to the throne, he saw himself surrounded with extreme dangers; for though Philip had made conquests among the barbarous nations, and had subdued all Greece, yet the minds of the vanquished had not been yet calmed and moulded into subjection. The Macedonians, reflecting on the precarious situation of things, advised Alexander to relinquish the conquest of Greece, and to bring the Barbarians more firmly under his yoke by gentle and conciliatory methods. Alexander did not listen to these timorous counsels ; firmly persuaded that should he relax in one point, all his neighbours would fall upon him. He therefore first marched against the Barbarians, cross- ing the Danube, and defeating the Triballi in a great battle, and making the Getse fly at his approach. While Alexander was thus employed, all the cities of Greece, which were animated by Demosthenes, formed a powerful alliance against that prince. Alexander now marched to- What poems did Alexander treasure in Darius's gold box? — Relate Alexander's encounter with the horse Bucephalus. — What difficulties had Alexander to en- counter? — Against whom did he first march? ALEXANDER. 153 wards Greece; passed Thermopylae and appeared suddenly in Bceotia. A. great battle was fought, in which the Thebans were surrounded, and the city was taken and plundered. The city experienced dreadful calamities on this occasion. Some Thracians, having pulled down the house of Timoclea, a virtuous lady, carried off her goods and treasures. Their captain, having seized the lady and insulted her, inquired whether she had not concealed much gold and silver. Timoclea, animated by revenge, replied that she had hid some in the garden, and that she had thrown it into a well. The officer drew near, and he stooping down to examine its depth, she thrust him in, and killed him by great stones thrown upon him. She .was instantly seized and bound in chains, and carried to Alexander. The prince, perceiving by her mien that she was a woman of quality and dignity, asked who she was. Timoclea replied, " I am sister to Teagenes, who fought against Philip, and who was killed in the battle of Chaeronea." The prince admiring the generous answer of the lady, and still more the action she had done, gave orders that she should re- tire wherever she pleased with her children. Alexander now debated in council how to act with regard to Thebes ; and notwithstanding Cleades made a powerful oration in favour of the city, it was doomed to fall, and was destroyed. However, he set at liberty the priests, the descendants of Pindar, the poet who had done so much honour to Greece, with such as had opposed the revolt, &c. The Athenians were so sensibly afflicted at the sad disaster which had befallen Thebes, that, being about to solemnize the festival of the great mysteries, they suspended them upon account of their extreme grief; and they received with great humanity all those that had fled from the battle and the plunder of Thebes, and made Athens their asylum. Alexander's sudden arrival in Greece had abated the haughtiness of the Athenians and extinguished the vehemence of Demosthenes. A deputation was therefore sent to Alexander to implore his clemency. Demosthenes was among them ; but he had no sooner arrived at Mount Cithgeron, than, dreading the anger of that prince, he quitted the em- bassy and returned home. The prince sent immediately to Athens, requiring the citizens to deliver up to him ten orators, whom he sup- posed to have been the chief instruments in forming the league w T hich Philip his father had defeated at Clweronea. It was on this occasion that Demosthenes related to the people the fable of the wolves and dogs. " The wolves one day," said he, " told the sheep that, in case they desired to be at peace with them, they must deliver up to them their dogs, which were their guard." The application was easy and natural, especially with respect to the orators, whose duty it was to watch and protect the flock. In this serious dilemma of the Athenians, the king waived his demand, and required that Chridemus only, who was a native of Eubcea, should be sent into banishment. As for the Athenians, he What was Alexander's generous treatment to Timoclea? — When Thebes was destroyed, whom did Alexander respect? — What had the fable of Demosthenes to do with Alexander ? 154 HISTORY OF CREECE. expressed a particular regard for them — exhorted them to keep a watchful eye over the transactions of the states ; because, he observed, in case of his death, their city was to give laws to the rest of Greece. He summoned the assembly of the several states at Corinth, to obtain from them the same supreme command against the Persians that had been granted to his father. No diet ever debated on a more important subject — it was the western world deliberating on the ruin of the east- ern. To form such a design required a prince bold and enterprising — one that was not to be intimidated by dangers, and above all, one that had the supreme authority over all the states of Greece, — and such a prince was Alexander. The deliberations of the assembly were, therefore, very short ; and that prince was unanimously appointed gen- eral issimo against the Persians. Diogenes, the cynic of Sinope, was then at Corinth, and Alexander passing by saw him lay down in the sun. The prince, surprised to see so famous a philosopher reduced to such poverty, asked whether ho wanted any thing] Diogenes replied, " Yes, that you would stand a little out of my sunshine." This answer raised the indignation of the courtiers, but the monarch was struck with the philosopher's indepen- dent mind. " Were I not Alexander," he said, " I would be Diogenes." All, or nothing, presents us with the true image of Alexander and Di- ogenes. How great soever that prince might think himself, he could not but suppose that he was then inferior to a man to whom he could give, and from whom he could take nothing. Before he set out for Asia, Alexander consulted the oracle of Apollo, and he happened to arrive at it on one of those days which are called unlucky ; accordingly the priestess refused to go to the temple. But Alexander, who would have no refusal, took her forcibly by the arm, and was leading her to the temple, when she cried out, " My son, thou art irresistible." This was all he desired. He interpreted it as spoken by the oracle, and set out for Macedonia to make preparations for his great expedition. CHAPTER 34. ALEXANDER'S EXPEDITION. Alexander called a council of the grandees of his court and chief officers, to deliberate on his intended expedition against Persia, in which all concurred. Some few, however, recommended his first making choice of his consort to secure himself a successor; advice which Alexander did not choose to follow. He offered up splendid sacri- fices to the gods, and caused to be celebrated at Dire, a city of Ma- cedonia, scenical games in honour of Jupiter and the muses. He had a tent raised large enough to contain a hundred tables, on which nine hundred covers might be laid. To this- feast were invited the princes, ambassadors, generals, and officers. Before he set out, he settled the affairs of Macedon, ovei which he What, deliberation was commenced at Corinth ? — What of Diogenes !- What was Alexander's reply? — What reply did the priestess give to Alexander?- -What was the result of Alexander's council? ALEXANDERS EXPEDITION. 155 appointed Antipater, as viceroy, with 12,000 foot, and nearly the same number of horse. He quitted Macedon, for Asia, in the spring. His army consisted of little more than thirty thousand foot, and four or five thousand horse, but they were all veteran troops, well disciplined, and inured to fatigues. He arrived at Sestos after twenty days march. — The greater part of his army crossed from thence to Abydos. by the assistance of 160 galleys, and several flat-bottomed vessels. When he had gained the shores of Asia, he erected altars to Jupiter, Minerva, and Hercules, for so propitious a descent. So greatly did he depend on the success of his arms, and the rich spoils of Asia, that he made but little provision for so great an ex- pedition ; and he inspired his soldiers with so much courage and se- curity, that they seemed to march, not to precarious war, but to certain victory. Being arrived at Lampsacus, which he was determined to destroy, to punish the rebellion of the inhabitants, Anaximines, a native of that place, came to him. The king, suspecting his business, and to be beforehand with him, swore that he would never grant his request: " the favour I have to desire of you," said Anaximines, " is, that you would destroy Lampsacus." By this evasion, the intercessor saved his city. From thence Alexander arrived at Ilion, and paid great honour to the manes of Achilles, and caused games to be celebrated round his tomb. He admired the double felicity of that renowned Grecian, in having found, during his life, a faithful friend in Patrocles, and, after his death, a herald in Homer, worthy the greatness of his exploits. From thence Alexander advanced to the bank of Granicus, a river of Phrygia. The Persian satrap waited his coming on the other side, firmly resolved to dispute his passage. The Persian army consisted of 100,000 foot, and 10,000 horse. Memnon, who was a Rhodian, and commanded under Darius all the coast of Asia, advised the generals not to venture a battle, but to lay waste the country, thereby to starve Alexander's army. But Arsites, a Phrygian satrap, opposed this opinion. The two armies continued for some time in sight of each other on the banks of the river, as if dreading the event. The Macedonians, whose cavalry was vastly inferior in number, were severely wounded while crossing ; and, after having lost their first ranks, began to give ground. But Alexander reinforced them with his best troops, headed by himself, after which the whole army followed and attacked the Persians on all sides. The conflict was long, and the slaughter great. A considerable number of the Persian commanders were left dead on the spot. Arsites fled into Phrygia ; 20,000 foot and 2,500 horse were killed in the engagement, on the side of the Persians. This victory had all the happy consequences that could be expected from it. Sardis surrendered to Alexander; and, arriving at Ephesus, he restored its popular form of government. He assigned to the temple Who was appointed to the care of Macedon ? — With what force did he set out for Persia? — By what artifice was Lampsacus saved ? — What homage did Alexan- der pay to old Troy? — What victory obtained on the banks of the Granicus ? — What surrenders followed the victory ? 156 HISTORY OF GREECE. of Diana the tributes which were paid to the kings of Persia. He of fered sacrifices to that goddess, and solemnized her mysteries with the utmost pomp. The cities of Trallis and Magnesia also waited upon him with the keys of those places. He then marched for Miletus, in which Memnon had shut himself up, and, after a powerful resistance, the city capitulated. Alexander next marched into Caria, and laid siege to Halicarnassus, in which Memnon had taken shelter, and with vast difficulty demolished its fortifications. Memnon, finding it impossible to hold out any longer, abandoned the city by sea, and took with him most of the surviving in- habitants, and conveyed them to the adjacent island of Cos. Several kings of Asia Miner submitted voluntarily to Alexander, among whom was Mithridates, king of Pontus. When Alexander went into winter quarters, he permitted many of his soldiers to return to Macedonia, to spend their winter with their wives and families, upon condition of their returning in the spring. The next year the king began the campaign very early. He directed his march to Phaselis, a city situated between Lycia and Pamphylia ; and, during his residence in this neighbourhood, he discovered and crushed a conspiracy. From thence he proceeded to Coeloenoe, which, after holding out some time, opened their gates to him. He then pro- ceeded to Phrygia, the capital of which was called Gordium, the noted residence of king Midas. Having taken this city, he was desirous of seeing the famous chariot to which the Gordian knot was tied with so much art that it was impossible to discover where the strings began or ended. According to an ancient tradition of the country, an oracle had foretold that the man who could untie it should possess the empire of Asia. Alexander, after many fruitless trials, cut it with his sword, and thus either eluded or fulfilled the oracle. CHAPTER 35. BATTLE OF ISSUS— SIEGE AND CAPTURE OF TYRE. In the mean time, Darius was making preparations for a vigorous defence ; and Memnon advised the king to carry the war into Macedo- nia, which would compel Alexander to return home to defend his own country. Darius -approved the counsel ; accordingly Memnon was ap- pointed admiral of the fleet and captain-general of the forces, and he had made himself master of Chios and Lesbos. Preparing to march from thence into Eubcea, he died before Mitylene, and the enterprise was abandoned. Darius's whole refuge was now in the armies of the east ; and not placing confidence in the skill of his generals, he resolved to command in person, and he appointed Babylon for the rendezvous of his army, where, upon being mustered, they amounted to four, five, or six hun- dred thousand men. What happened to Memnon at Halicarnassus ?— Relate the circumstance of the Gordian knot. — What did Memnon advise ? — And how was the advice defeated? — Where lay Darius's army? — What the amount? BATTLE OF ISSUS. _57 Alexander next subdued Paphlagonia and Cappadocia ; and having thence heard of Memnon's death, he was confirmed in his resolution of marching- immediately into the provinces of Upper Asia. He entered into Cilicia, and arrived at the country called Cyrus's camp. Directing his course to Tarsus, which led through a very narrow strait, through which it was Alexander's good fortune to pass without interruption, though, had it been properly guarded, it might have proved an almost insurmountable barrier to him, — he reached Tarsus, through which city the cold Cydnus runs. In this river Alexander, while suffused with sweat, bathed. He was immediately seized with a violent shivering, which for some time endangered his life, but, by the prescriptions of his physician, he recovered. During this interval Darius was on his march, full of confidence in the number of his troops. Instead of availing himself of the plains of Assyria, which his situation afforded him, he resolved to march through narrow passes, where his cavalry and the number of his troops, only encumbered each other. There was, at this time, in the army of Da- rius, one Charidemus, an Athenian, a man of great experience in mili- tary affairs. Darius questioned him as to his opinion of the war. Charidemus, who had been brought up in the bosom of liberty, and for- getting that he was in a country of slavery gave his honest opinion, which cost him his life ; and while he was led to execution, he ex- claimed, " My avenger is at hand, and he will soon punish you for despising my counsel." Darius advanced with his troops towards the Euphrates, and his train was encumbered with women, princesses, concubines, eunuchs, and domestics of both sexes, as was the custom of the country. Nothing could exceed the splendid magnificence of the king. His chariot was enriched with images of the gods in gold and silver. He was clothed in a vest of purple, glittering with gold and precious stones : around his waist he wore a golden girdle, from which his scimitar hung, and on his head a tiara or mitre. Surrounded with this mighty pomp, the Persian approached Alexander ; and when in the plains of Assyria, the Grecian commanders that were in his army advised the latter to wait the coming of the enemy. The Persian courtiers, on the contrary, advised Darius to attack the Macedonians immediately in the narrow passes and defiles to prevent their escape. Darius, therefore, sent his treasures and most precious moveables to Damascus, a city of Syria, under a small convoy, and marched the main body of his army towards Cilicia, and entered it by the pass of Amanus. His queen, and mother, with the princesses, his daughters, and the little prince, his son, followed the army. The battle was fought near the city of Issus, which the mountains bounded on one side, and the sea on the other. Through the middle of the plain ran the river Pinarius, which separated the two armies. Both sides fought with the utmost bravery ; the battle became a close fight — sword in In what river did Alexander bathe ? — During this time what course did Darius take ? — How was Darius's army encumbered ? — What advice did Darius reject? — • Where was the battle fought ? 14 153 HISTORY OF GREECE. hand, and a dreadful slaughter ensued. The routing of the Persian cavalry completed the defeat of the army. Darius, when he saw the left wing broke, fled in his chariot, till the ruggedness of the roads in- duced him to mount the horse of his armour-bearer; but his mother, wife, and children, fell into the hands of Alexander, who treated them with great respect and tenderness. The consequence of this victory was, that all Syria submitted to the conqueror. Alexander sent a message to the queens to inform them that he was coming to pay them a visit. He entered the tent, accompanied only by Hephaestion. They were of the same age — but Hephsestion was taller, so that Darius's mother took him at first for the king; but some captive eunuchs showing them Alexander, Sysigambis fell prostrate and begged his pardon, hoping, that having never seen him, would plead her apology. The king, raising her from the ground, replied, "Dear mother, you are not mistaken, for he also is an Alexander!" a fine ex- pression which does honour to them both. " The princesses and their daughters," says Plutarch, "were in Alexander's camp, not as in that of an enemy, but as in a sacred temple, and a sanctuary assigned for the asylum of chastity." After the first visit of Alexander, which was a respectful and ceremonious one, he, to avoid exposing himself to the danger of human frailty, never paid them a second visit. After he had consecrated three altars on the river Pinarius, the first to Jupiter, the second to Hercules, and the third to Minerva, as so many monuments of his victory, Alexander sent Parmenio to Damascus to take possession of Darius's immense treasure, which was deposited in that place. He next marched into Phoenicia : the citizens of Byblos opened their gates to him, but no people with more pleasure than the Sidonians ; and he permitted Hephsestion to elect, as king, whomsoever of the Sidonians he found worthy of so exalted a station. Hephsestion conferred it on Abdolonymus, a poor descendant of the royal family. Tyre, entitled the queen of the sea, alone remained to be subdued, and it made a defence for seven months of the most determined character. The city was at last taken by storm, and a dreadful slaughter ensued. The conqueror offered up a sacrifice to Hercules on its ruins. The number of prisoners amounted to thirty thousand, who were all sold. The loss of the Macedonians was inconsiderable. While carrying on the siege of Tyre, Alexander received a second letter from Darius, offering him ten thousand talents as a ransom for the captive princesses, and also his daughter Statira in marriage, with all the country he had conquered, as far as the Euphrates, &c. Alex- ander summoned a council, in which Parmenio was of opinion that those offers should be accepted ; declaring that " he would comply with them were he Alexander." " And so would I," replied Alexander, " were I Parmenio." He therefore returned the following answer : " That he wanted not the money — and that it did not become him to Where fled Darius? — What befel his wife, &c. — What occurred in Alexander's visit to the queens? — What altars did Alexander consecrate? — What was Darius's letter, and Alexander's reply? CAPTURE OF GAZA. 159 offer what he did not possess, and that a battle would soon determine &c." Upon receiving this answer Darius lost all hopes of an accom modation, and prepared for war. CHAPTER 36. BATTLE OF ARBELA — DEATH OF DARIUS. From Tyre, Alexander marched to Jerusalem, firmly resolved to show it no favour, it not having supplied him with provisions in besieging Tyre. But on entering Jerusalem he was met by the high priest in his robes, whom he had seen in a dream, dressed in like manner, two years before. He was struck with awe at the sight. The high priest showed him the prophecy of Daniel, wherein his conquests were fore- told. Alexander, in consequence, paid him particular respect, and spared the Jews the experience of that cruelty with which he had fully resolved to punish them for their disobedience to his commands. He had scarcely left Jerusalem when the Samaritans waited on him, humbly intreating him to visit their temple, which visit he declined, and marched towards Gaza, a place of great strength, and defended with great vigour by Betis, one of Darius's eunuchs. This was also taken, and it opened to him the whole country of Egypt, of which he soon became master. Exasperated at its holding out so long, and his receiving two wounds, he treated the governor, inhabitants, and soldiers, with a barbarity absolutely inexcusable ; for he cut ten thousand men to pieces, and sold all the rest, with their wives and children, for slaves. Betis, the governor, he put to death with singular cruelty. He ordered a hole to be made through his heels, when a rope being put through them, and this tied to a chariot, he ordered his soldiers to drag Betis round the city till he died. Having left a garrison in Gaza, Alexander turned the whole power of his arms against Egypt. On arriving at Pelusium, he found a great number of Egyptians, who had assembled to recognize him as their sovereign. The hatred of these people to the Persians was so great, that they cared but little who should be their king, provided he could rescue them from Persian insolence and indignity. Mazaeus, who com- manded in Memphis, opened the gates of the city to the conqueror, and gave up 800 talents, about $700,000, and all the king's furniture. Thus Alexander, without opposition, possessed himself of all Egypt. At Memphis he formed a design of visiting the temple of Jupiter Ammon, built in honour of Ham, the son of Noah, and situated twelve days' journey distant, in the midst of the sandy des>erts of Libya. A ridiculous vanity was the motive of this journey. Being desirous of passing for a hero, he was determined to have some god for his father, and having fixed upon Jupiter Ammon, he bribed the priests to his pur- pose. In passing from Memphis to the sea, he observed, opposite the What prophecy did the High Priest of Jerusalem show Alexander? — What bar- barities occurred at Gaza? — Who welcomed Alexander at Palusium? — What tern pie did he visit? — And for what purpose? 160 HISTORY OF GREECE. sland of Pharos, a spot well situated for the erection of a city. This city lie called after his own name, and it afterwards rose to he the capital of the kingdom. As its harbour was very commodious, having the Mediterranean on one side, and the Nile and the Red Sea in its neigh- bourhood, it drew all the traffic of the east and west, and became one of the most flourishing cities in the universe. The king being come to the temple, the senior priest delared him to be the son of Jupiter, which appellation Alexander accepted with joy, and acknowledged Jupiter as his father. The priest also assured him that he should be monarch of the universe. The sacrifice being ended, he offered magnificent presents to the god, nor were the priests for- gotten who had been so faithful to his interest. Swelled with the splendid title of son of Jupiter, and fancying him self raised above the human species, he returned from his journey as from a triumph. From that time, in all his letters and decrees, he styled himself, " Alexander, king, son of Jupiter Jlmmon." Varro observes, that, at the time the king built Alexandria, the use of papyrus for writing was found in Egypt. To hasten the building of his new city, and in order to people it, he invited thither the Jews, and allowed them very advantageous conditions ; not only granting them the free exercise of their religion, but putting them on the same footing with the Macedonians whom he settled there. Alexander set out from thence to meet Darius ; he crossed the Eu- phrates at Thapsacus, and continued his journey to the Tigris, where he expected to come up with the enemy. Darius prepared himself for battle. He assembled in Babylon an army, half as numerous again as that of Issus, and marched it towards Nineveh. His forces covered all the plains of Mesopotamia. With such difficulty and hazard did Alex- ander's troops cross the Tigris, that had the Persians known how to conquer, the Macedonians might have been cut to pieces. Darius now renewed his proposal to Alexander, who returned a haughty answer. There was a great difference between the two armies in point of numbers, but more so with regard to courage. That of Darius consisted of at least 600,000 foot, and 40,000 horse ; and the other of no more than 40,000 foot, and 7,000 or 8,000 horse. This was the last great and decisive battle which Alexander fought against the Persians. It took place near the town of Arbela. The Persians fought desperately, and victory was for a long time doubtful ; but it was at last decided in favour of the valour and high discipline of the Macedonians. The Persians lost 300,000 ; the Macedonians not more than 1,200, most of whom were horsemen. This engagement was fought about two years after the battle of Issus. Darius, after his defeat, rode with few attendants towards the river Lycus, and from thence fled towards Media, over the Armenian moun- tains. He took this way, supposing that Alexander would proceed What effect had the priest's declaration on him ? — For what purpose, and when first was the Papyrus used in Egypt? — What course did Alexander next take? — Describe the numbers in each army. — Where was the decisive battle fought? — Whither did Darius fly after his defeat? DESTRUCTION OF THE SPARTAN POWER. l6l owards Babylon and Susa, and because a numerous army could no* pursue him by this road. From Babylon Alexander entered the pro- vince of Sitacena, and thence proceeded to Susa and Persepolis. While at Persepolis, the king heard of Darius's arrival at Ecbatana, the capi- tal of Media, and was resolved to pursue him ; but on his arrival there, he found that Darius had left that city five days before ; and in his flight he was assassinated by Bessus, one of his own satraps. Thus termi- nated, 330 years before Christ, the great Persian empire, which had subsisted 209 years, from the time of Cyrus the Great, till it submitted to the all-powerful arms of Alexander. Darius was about fifty years of age, six of which he had reigned He was a gentle and pacific prince ; his reign having been unsullied with injustice or cruelty. His death did not prevent Alexander from pursuing Bessus, who had withdrawn into Bactriana, where he had assumed the title of king, by the name of Artaxerxes. Before Alexan- der's arrival, Spitamines, Bessus's chief confidant, formed a conspiracy against him, and putting him in chains, presented him to Alexander, who delivered him over to Oaxartes, Darius's brother, to suffer all the ignominy he deserved. CHAPTER 37. DEATH OF CLITUS — EXPEDITION TO INDIA. While these things passed in Asia, w T e must notice some tumults which broke out in Greece and Macedonia. Memnon, whom Alexan- der had sent into Thrace, having revolted there, and thereby drawn the forces of Antipater on that side, the Lacedsemonians thought this a proper opportunity to throw off the Macedonian yoke, for which pur- pose Agis, their king, advanced with an army of 20,000 foot and 2,000 horse. The Macedonian army under Antipater was twice that number. Victory declared for the Macedonians ; and Agis, intrepid and invinci- ble to the last, oppressed by numbers, died sword in hand. This vic- tory not only ruined the power of Sparta, but also of its allies. Alexander, insatiable for victory and conquest, still marched forward in search of new nations to subdue, and, after having suffered much by long and dangerous marches, he advanced to the Jaxarthes. Not far from this river the barbarians, rushing suddenly from their mountains, attacked Alexander's forces. The king in repulsing them received a wound in the leg. They acknowledged themselves subdued by his unparalleled bravery, and he accepted their homage. After this he set out upon his march in a litter, on account of his wound, and arrived at Maracanda, the capital of Sogdiana, which he took. While here, there came an embassy to him from the Scythians, expressing their submis- sion. The last city to which he marched in Persia, was Cyropolis. It had been built by Cyrus, after whose name it had been called. What was the age of Darius ? — What was his character ? — What troubles broke out in Greece and Macedonia? — With whom did Alexander next engage? — Was he not wounded ? 14* 162 HISTORY OF GREECE. After these conquests, Alexander returned to Jaxarthes, where he surrounded the whole spot of ground which his army had covered, built a city thereon, and called it Alexandria. All things being now restored to a profound tranquillity, there remained but one strong hold, called Petra Oxiana, or the rock of Oxus, which was strongly defended. The king, after viewing the works, was some time in suspense whether he should besiege it ; for nature itself seemed to fortify this rock so as to render it absolutely impregnable. He therefore selected a few moun- taineers from his army, and sent them to gain the heights, by which means he possessed himself of the place. From hence he advanced to Maracanda, to the government of which he appointed his friend Clitus ; and the evening before his departure he was invited to an entertainment by the king. Alexander, heated with wine, began to celebrate his own exploits, and to depreciate the warlike acts of his father. Clitus, who was also inebriated, extolled the deeds of Philip before those of his son, and even repeated verses lauding that prince. Alexander, incensed, struck him with a javelin, and laid him dead at his feet, crying out at the same time, " Go now to Philip, to Parmenio, and to Attalus." The king's anger being, in a manner, extinguished on a sudden, by the blood of Clitus, his crime displayed itself in the most dreadful light. He threw himself upon his friend's body, and would have despatched himself with the same javelin, had not his attendants prevented him. He passed that night and the next day in tears, and continued speech- less, except giving utterance to deep sighs, groans, and lamentations. Alexander soon after entered the country of the Sacse, which he overran and laid waste. Oaxartes received him in his palace, and in- vited him to a sumptuous banquet, in which he displayed all the mag- nificence of the barbarians. He had a daughter called Roxana, a young lady whose exquisite beauty was heightened by all the charms of wit and sense. Alexander found her charms irresistible, and made her his wife. Alexander now bent his whole thoughts to carrying the war into India. That country was considered as the richest in the world, not only in gold, but also in pearls and precious stones. He - marched for this enterprise at the head of 120,000 men. But, previously to setting out, he revealed the design he had so long meditated, of having divine honours paid to him. He wished not only to be called, but to be be- lieved to be the son of Jupiter, and flatterers were not wanting to che- rish these ridiculous pretensions. He, therefore, appointed a festival, and made a pompous banquet, and during the king's short absence from the banquet, Cleon, one of his flatterers, proposed the offering of in- cense to him, as to a god. Callisthenes, the philosopher, who had accompanied the king, opposed the homage which Cleon had proposed, and his opposition cost him his life. Callisthenes was thrown into a dungeon, loaded with irons, and afflicted with the most grievous tor- What strong hold did he besiege?— and with what success ?— What befel Cli tus at an entertainment?— Relate the effect it had on the king. — Whom did the king visit ? — And whom did he marry ? 163 ments, in the midst of which he expired. Nothing has reflected so much dishonour on Alexander as this unjust and cruel death of Callis- thenes. At length, to appease the murmurs and discontents which arose among his soldiers, Alexander set out for India. He had, doubtless, read in the ancient fable of Greece, that Bacchus and Hercules, both sons of Jupiter, as himself was, had marched so far ; and he was deter- mined not to be surpassed by them. In this ridiculous desire of dis- turbing the tranquillity of nations consists the glory and merit of such pretended heroes; and it is that which many people, dazzled by a false splendour, still admire in Alexander. He besieged and took several cities. Among the most powerful was one governed by Porus. Alexander summoned him to surrender, Po- rus replied that he would do so, but it should be sword in hand. Porus advanced to the borders -of the Hydaspes, with eighty-five elephants, 300 chariots, guarded by 30,000 foot, and 7,000 horse. The prince was mounted on an elephant of a much larger size than the rest, and he himself exceeded the usual stature of man, so that, clothed in his armour glittering with gold and silver, he appeared at the same time terrible and majestic. The greatness of his courage equalled that of his stature, and he was as wise and prudent as it was possible for the monarch of so barbarous a people to be. It was with this prince that the Macedonians had now to fight ; and to overcome him, with his nu- merous elephants, required all the courage and skill of an Alexander. The battle, however, was, after a difficult struggle, decided in favour of the Macedonians ; and when Porus came into his presence, Alexan- der asked him how he desired to be treated I " Like a king," replied Porus. " But," continued Alexander, "do you ask nothing morel" "No," replied Porus, "all things are included in that word." Alex- ander, struck with the magnanimous reply, not only restored him to his kingdom, but annexed other provinces to it. The conqueror was now meditating about proceeding to the Ganges to attack the Gangaridee and the Prasii, whose king was preparing to oppose his entering his dominions. This raised a general murmur through the army. The Macedonians, who had travelled through so many countries, and grown grey in the field, were incessantly directing their wishes towards their native country : they complained that Alex- ander heaped war upon war, and danger upon danger. The king in vain addressed them ; there arose a sudden murmur, which increased into deep groans, by which the king was much affected. Alexander therefore shut himself up for two days in his tent, in the hopes of some change taking place in the army, but finding them unchanged, he com- manded them to prepare for their return. This news filled the whole army with inexpressible joy. What caused the death of Callistenes ? — For the conquest of what country did \lexander next march? — What was the force of Porus ? — What was his reply? What prevented Alexander's further conquests in India ? 164 HISTORY OF GREECE. CHAPTER 38. ALEXANDER RETURNS FROM INDIA — HIS DEATH. Alexander's fleet consisted of 800 galleys and boats, to carry the troops and provisions; and the whole army embarked. In passing through the country of Oxydracas and Malli, they had enemies to oppose, in which the king's person was involved in great danger, and rescued with extreme difficulty. After nine months sailing down the Acescines, the Hydaspes, and the Indus, they arrived at the ocean. Nearchus was appointed admiral of the fleet, which was to return to the Persian Gulf. Alexander returned by land, and in marching through the country of the OritK, such was his want of provisions that he lost a fourth part of his army. Sickness, bad food, and the excessive heats, had swept them away in multitudes, but famine made a still greater havoc. After marching sixty days, Alexander arrived at Gedrosia, where he found plenty of all things for his army. Through Caramania (now Kerman), he passed with the air and equipage of a warrior and con- queror. Nearchus still keeping along the sea coast, from the mouth of the Indus, came at last into the Persian Gulf, and arrived at the island of Hermusa (now Ormus). On his arrival he waited upon the king in Caramania, who was overjoyed to" hear of the safety of his fleet, and ordered it to sail up the Euphrates to Babylon. Nearchus's interesting account of his voyage had kindled up in the mind of Alexander a desire to visit the ocean. He proposed to himself sailing round Africa, and to return by the Mediterranean, a voyage which had been performed once, by order of Necho, king of Egypt. It was also his design to humble Carthage, cross to Iberia (now Spain), return by the Alps, and coast along Italy, from whence he would have but a short passage to Epirus, and from thence to Macedonia. But these and many other projects were defeated by his early death. On arriving at Susa, Alexander found all the captives of quality he had left there. He married Statira, Darius's eldest daughter, and gave the youngest to his dear friend Hephoestion, and persuaded the greatest men in his court to imitate him. Accordingly they chose from among the noblest families of Persia eighty young females whom they married. From Opis, Alexander arrived at Ecbatana, in Media. There had come to him from Greece 3,000 dancers, makers of machinery, and persons skilled in diversions. During the festivals, to the king's great grief, Hephsestion died. He was the king's most intimate friend, and equally beloved by all the courtiers for his unassuming and even temper. Alexander being arrived within a league or two of Babylon, the Chaldeans, who pretended to a knowledge of futurity, predicted that he would be in danger of his life if he entered that city. The great In his return, down what rivers did he sail? — At what ocean did his forces arrive? — Find on the Map, Gedrosia, Kerman, Persian Gulf, the Euphrates, and Babylon. — What projects did Alexander conceive? — And what defeated them? What matrimonial engagements were entered into? — Did not the Chaldeans pre diet Alexander's life in danger ? ( 166 ) DEATH OF ALEXANDER. 167 reputation of these Babylonian astrologers had such a temporary im- pression on his mind that it delayed his entrance for some time till the principles of Anaxagoras, who held divination in contempt, had coun- teracted their influence. On his arrival at Babylon he found that am- bassadors from all parts of the world had assembled to pay him homage, and he entered the city in triumph. During almost a year that Alexander continued in Babylon, its embel- lishments much employed his thoughts, but his death soon after put an end to these projects. The Deity, by the mouth of Isaiah, (Isaiah, xiv. 22, 23,) 390 years before, had pronounced an anathema, which no human power could avert — " I will cut off from Babylon the name and remnant. I will make it a possession for the bittern. I will sweep it with the besom of destruction. It shall never be inhabited," &c. Alexander was for ever solemnizing new festivals, and was perpetu- ally at new banquets. After having spent a whole night in carousing, a second was proposed to him. There were twenty guests at table : he drank to the health of every person in company, and then pledged them severally. After this, calling for Hercules' cup, which held six bottles, he pledged Proteus in this furious bumper, drinking down the whole. An attempt to renew it threw him on the floor, which brought on a violent fever, from which he never recovered. Finding himself past all hopes, and his voice faltering, he gave his ring to Perdiccas, with orders to convey his corpse to the temple of Amnion. Notwithstanding his extreme weakness, he presented to the soldiers in attendance his dying hand to kiss. The principal courtiers asking to whom he left the empire, he answered, "To the most worthy ;" foreseeing, doubtless, the struggles there would be for pre-eminence. After great contentions about appointing a successor, it was agreed that Aridaeus, natural brother to Alexander, should be declared king, and that, in case Roxana should be delivered of a son, he should share the throne with Aridseus, and that Perdiccas should have the care of both, for Aridosus was of weak intellect. In contemplating the character of Alexander, Livy justly observes that it appears different according to the times in which we consider him. Before the siege of Tyre, he appeared temperate, brave, judi- cious, intrepid ; but, during the latter part, arrogant, cruel, enervated by delights and abandoned to intemperance. The first years of his reign are, perhaps, the most glorious of his life. He then displayed presence of mind, strength of soul, courage, intrepidity, and, what is more than all, a consummate prudence ; qualities which form the char- acter of the true hero. But though Alexander possessed great virtues, we may throw into the other scale his errors and vices — the presump- tuous idea he entertained of his own merit, his ridiculous notion of fancying himself to be the son of Jupiter, and of ascribing divinity to himself, his violent anger, which rcse to brutal ferocity, the murder of his most worthy friends, and his frantic ambition, which knew neither law nor limit. These diminished his title to the surname of Great. What prophecy has Isaiah against Babylon ? — What festival was fatal to Alex- ander? — Who was appointed as his successor? — Describe his character. — What says Livy of him i ■a 168 HISTORY OF GREECE. By his death, Macedonia, the kingdom he inherited, and which his ancestors had governed for so many ages, was possessed by another family. When the news of his death reached Sysigambis, she was inconsolable. " Who now," .said she, " will take care of my two daughters'? W~here shall we find another Alexander !" At last she sunk under her grief. CHAPTER 39. SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER— DEATH OF PHOCION After Alexander's death, great contention arose among the principal officers, and as there were thirty-three who had been previously appoint- ed to the superintendence of the provinces, each trusted to his own sword to secure his possession ; but nothing was permanently settled till after the battle of Ipsus, which was fought by Antigonus and his son, against Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander, and Seleucus, who had bound themselves to maintain the rights of each other. In this event- ful engagement Antigonus lost his life, and in consequence the whole empire of Alexander was thus divided: to Ptoiemy, Egypt, Libya, Arabia and Palestine ; to Cassander, Macedonia and Greece ; to Lysi- machus, Bithynia and Thrace ; and to Seleucus, the rest of Asia as far as the Indus. This last was called the kingdom of Syria, and became the most powerful of the four. Seleucus built Antioch, and made it his capital, in honour of his father Antiochus. In Macedonia, scenes equally sanguinary were carried on. Alexander had left the government of this country in the hands of Antipater, a general who had been highly esteemed by his father Philip. The news of Alexander's death being known at Athens excited great joy, and the people who had reluctantly sustained the Macedonian yoke, now made liberty the subject of their discourse. A war was resolved upon, and a deputation was sent to all the states of Greece to gain their accession to the league, and all, except the Thebans, united. This was called the Lamiacum war, and Leosthenes was appointed to conduct it against Antipater. The Macedonian garrisons were at first expelled, and Anti- pater was obliged to surrender at discretion. He, however, soon extri- cated himself from this difficult situation, and, in his turn, he obliged the Athenians to accept the same conditions as those they had imposed upon him. Antipater falling sick with a disease which proved fatal, he was very solicitous to fill up ably the two great stations which he enjoyed. It was necessary to appoint a governor over Macedonia, and a regent of the empire. Antipater had a son, Cassander, not void of merit; but the preservation of the Macedonian monarchy obliged him to nominate a man of authority — one reputed for his age, experience, and past services. He therefore extinguished the voice of nature, and sacrificed the interests of his own family to the public welfare. History has transmitted to us an expression of the emperor Galba, which does What effect had his death on Sysigambis ? — What were the contentions among the officers? — What countries were assigned to each ? — What effect had Alexan- der's death on Greece ? — What is said of Cassander, Antigonus, Polysperchon, &c. DEATH OF OLYMPIAS. 169 honour to his memory ; " Augustus," said he, " chose a successor out of his own family ; and I one from the whole empire." Antipater appointed Polysperchon. Cassander was extremely enraged by this choice, and endeavoured to engage Ptolemy and Antigonus to his party against the new regent, whorn it was equally their interest to destroy, as well as the regency itself. The death of Antipater had rendered Antigonus the most pow- erful of all the captains of Alexander. His authority was absolute in all the provinces of Asia Minor. Polysperchon, on his part, neglected nothing that could strengthen his interest. He recalled Olympias, with the offer of sharing his authority with her, and he reinstated all the cities of Greece in their ancient privileges. Phocion, who had long presided at Athens, was divested of his office, and accused of treason. He was not allowed to plead his cause. When he arrived at the prison, one of his friends asked him if he had any message to send to his son 1 " Yes," replied he, " it is to desire that he would never re- member the injustice of the Athenians." When he had uttered these words, he took the hemlock, and died. Phocion was one of the greatest men Greece ever produced ; in whoso person every kind of merit was united. He restored the manner of governing both of Pericles and Aristides, by uniting the talents of each in himself. It was highly glorious for Phocion that he was forty-five times elected general by the people. His wife was fully sensible of the honour; for one day when an Ionian lady of high rank showed, with ostentation, her ornaments, she replied, " For my part, I have no ornament but Phocion, who, for these twenty years, has always been elected general by the Athenians." His infatuated and ungrateful country was not sensible of its criminal proceedings till some time after his death. The Athenians then erected a statue of brass to his memory, and honourably interred his bones at the public expense. During the disorder that reigned at Athens, Cassander entered the Pircsus with a fleet of of thirty-five vessels, and held possession of the city. Polysperchon made an ineffectual attempt to besiege him. Du- ring these transactions, Olympias, the mother of Alexander, whom Po- lysperchon had recalled, had made herself absolute mistress of affairs, and had caused Aridceus to be put to death. Eurydice, his consort, sustained the same fate. Olympias afterwards retired to Pydna. Cas- sander advanced thither; and he employed in her murder the relations of those whom she had caused to be put to death. Thus perished the famous Olympias, the daughter, the sister, the wife, and the mother of kings, and whose crimes and cruelties merited so tragical an end ; while we detest the wickedness of a prince who deprived her of life in so unworthy a manner. Cassander thus raising himself on the throne of Macedon, Polysper- chon first sheltered himself in Naxa, and thence retired to Thessaly. Antigonus, in order to rid himself of so dangerous an enemy, raised What is recorded of Phocien ? — What reply did his wife make to an Ionian lady * — What occasioned the death of Olympias, the mother of Alexander ?- Who pos- sessed himself of the throne of Macedon ? 15 170 HISTORY OF GREECE. an army in Asia, and advanced against Eumenes. Persia and Mtdia were the scene of its operations. Eumenes was taken prisoner, and Antigonus ordered him to be put to death. Antigonus now concluded that he should become master of the empire. Many of the governors of the provinces he discarded, or proscribed.— Among the latter was Selencus, governor of Babylon, who, to escape the danger, threw himself under the protection of Ptolemy, governor of Egypt, and engaged him in a league with Lysimachus and Cassander. Selencus, on his return to Babylon, was received with acclamation. With this entry commences the famous era of the Seleucides, received by all the people of the east, as well Pagans as Jews, Christians as Mahomedans. The Jews called it the era of contracts, because when they were subject to the Syro-Macedonian kings, they were obliged to insert it in the dates of their contracts. The two books of Maccabees called it the era of the Greeks. The thirty-one years of the reign as- cribed to Seleucus begin at this period. CHAPTER 40. ACHAEAN LEAGUE — GREECE REDUCED TO A ROMAN PROVINCE. The young Alexander being now about fourteen years old, Cassan- der caused him and his mother, Roxana, to be secretly put to death in the castle of Amphipolis, where they had both been confined for some years. Seleucus (B. C. 301) formed his army at Babylon, and marched into Cappadocia to act against Antigonus. At length the confederate army of Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander, were opposed to the army of Antigonus and his son, Demetrius. Each army consisted of about 70,000. The battle was fought near lpsus, a city of Phrygia. In the engagement, Antigonus, having received many wounds, fell, after defending himself valiantly to the last. Demetrius, his son, in consequence retired toEphesus; and the four confederate princes di- vided the dominions of Antigonus among themselves, and added them to those they already possessed; and thus the empire of Alexander was at last divided, as before mentioned, into four kingdoms.* The reign of twenty years assigned to Seleucus commences at this period, because he was not acknowledged as king till after the battle of lpsus ; and if we add to these the twelve years during which he exercised the regal authority without the title, they will make out the reign of thirty-one years assigned him by Usher. The dominions of this prince are usually called the kingdom of Syria ; and his own reign, and those of his successors, are usually termed those of the Seleucidas. * The Prophecies of Daniel, viii. 6— ft ; ii. 22, were exactly accomplished by this last portion of Alexander's empire. With whom did Seleucus, and Ptolemy unite? — Who caused the young prince Alexander and his mother Roxana to be put to death? — What great and decisive battle was fought near lpsus? — Over what provinces was Seleucus king? LYSIMACHUS. 171 Cassander, when he had destroyed the family of Alexander, took the title of king. His vicious and feeble sons lost their lives and the throne, which was seized on by Demetrius, son of Antigonus ; and he, in his turn, was expelled by Pyrrhus of Epirus, and Pyrrhus by Lysi- machus, king 1 of Thrace. During sixleen years, twelve kings of dif- ferent houses governed Macedon and the paternal dominions of Alexan- der. In the time of these kings, an army of Kelts devastated Mace- don, penetrated into Greece, and advanced to pillage the temple of Delphi. The Greeks rolled down rocks from the heights — thunder roared through the mountains — the terrified barbarians fled, and the god got the renown of defending the temple. Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius, a man of prudence and hu- manity, raised Macedon out of the ruin into which it had been plunged ; and during the reign of forty years he was the protector of Greece. His son, Demetrius II., (B. C. 243,) who succeeded him, emulated his virtues. Demetrius dying, left an infant son, Philip, whose uncle and guardian, Antigonus, surnamed Doson, married the widow of the late king, and usurped the kingdom, which he governed with ability for eleven years, and then left it to the lawful heir, Philip. This prince mixed himself with the affairs of Greece, and was recognized as sove- reign lord of that country. War took place in consequence, between him and the Romans, (B. C. 198,) and Philip was defeated, obliged to withdraw his garrisons from Greece, reduce his shipping, and pay the expenses of the war. His son, Perseus, renewed the war with Rome, but was taken, and died in prison ; and Macedon was shortly after reduced to a Roman province. The cities of Achaea renewed among themselves an old confederacy, named the Achaean league, which, under the guidance of Aratus, la- boured with vigour for the freedom of Greece against Macedon ; other cities gradually joined the league, and among them Athens. The Mto- lian towns formed a similar union ; but their enmity with the Achaeans and Sparta prevented their arriving at any importance. Civil discord, the perpetual bane of Greece, gave the Romans the wished-for oppor- tunity of intermeddling in its. affairs. Corinth was taken and destroyed ; and Greece reduced to a Roman province, under the name of Achsea. The last of the race of the Greeks was Philopoemen, the Arcadian gene- ral of the Achaean league. Lysimachus, the king of Thrace, at one time conquered Macedon, and was master of part of the countries about the Euxine. His reign was the flourishing period of Thrace; but it was of short duration. Lysimachus fell in battle against Seleucus. The Gauls ravaged the land, which sometimes obeyed Syrian and sometimes Egyptian princes. The native princes at length recovered their power. King Cotys, one of these princes, formed an alliance with the Romans; and king Sacales gave up Thrace to them. (B. C. 43.) At this period some independent states arose in Lesser Asia, which we shall here briefly notice. Bithynia, stretching along the Black What occurred to the army that pillaged Delphi ? — With what Grecian king did the Romans war ? — What was the Achaean league ? — Was it successful ? — Name the states that lose in Lesser Asia. 172 HISTORY OF GREECE. Sea, was at one time tributary to the Lydians, and then to the Persians. After the death of Alexander, internal troubles continually agitated this state. The Gauls had a district assigned them called Galatia. In the reign of Prusias, Hannibal in vain sought a refuge at his court. Nicomedes 4th, seventy-five years before Christ, having no children, made over his dominions to the Romans. Pergamus, the ancient Mysia, vanished in the Lydian and Persian empires. The most celebrated of its kings was Eumenes 2d, in whose reign- the pergament or parchment was invented. Attalus 3d, having no heirs, left his kingdom to the Romans. (B. C. 133.) Pontus, so named from lying near the Pontus Euxinus, is situated east of Bithynia. Mithridates 7th was a talented and ambitious prince, and, during a space of thirty years, he sustained a war against the arms of Rome. It was finally reduced by the emperor Nero to the form of a Roman province. Armenia appears not till late in the history of Asia. It obeyed suc- cessively the Assyrian, Persian, and Syrian empires, and the greater part was at one time subject to the Romans. In the time of the empe- ror Adrian it had kings of its own, and was finally absorbed in the Per- sian empire of the Sassanides. Syria. — Seleucus, named Nicator, was an active, prudent prince, an encourager of trade, and a founder of cities. His son, Antiochus, ob- tained the name of Soter (the Saver), for having delivered Lesser Asia from the Gauls. Antiochus the Great invaded Greece, but was repelled by the Romans ; and the surrender of all countries west of the Taurus, and the sending his son as a hostage to Rome, were the consequence. The Syrian power was now at an end. Roman influence was para- mount. Parthia rapidly extended its conquests. Judea and Armenia asserted their independence. The empire was finally contracted into Proper Syria and Phoenicia; and the Romans (B. C. 64,) terminated the empire of the Seleucidae, by declaring Syria a Roman province. CHAPTER 41. AFFAIRS OF JUDEA, EGYPT, AND SYRIA. Judea continued in obedience to the Persian Monarchy till the con- quests of Alexander, then to his successors ; first to the king of Egypt, and afterwards to that of Syria. Their rulers had, hitherto, respected their religion ; but Antiochus Epiphanes attempted to enforce them to adopt Grecian rites. The Maccabees, a race of heroes, like the Judges of old, arose. Mattathias began, and his valiant son, Judas Macca- beus, continued the warfare. His brothers followed up his successes so ably after his death, that the Syrians were forced to acknowledge the independence of Judea. John Hyrcanus, uniting in his person the dignities of high priest and prince, extended the dominions. But the Jewish power was not of long continuance ; the throne was often dis- What is said of Mithridates ? — What power terminated the empire of the Seleu- cides ? — What changes did Judea undergo ? AFFAIRS OF EGYPT. 173 puted, and the Romans interposed to settle the succession. In the year 39 before Christ they set the Idumean Antipater over Judea, whose son Herod became king, a prince well known for his cruelty. Parthia is the country lying between Media and Aria, south of Hyr- cania. Its inhabitants had obeyed the Persian and Syrian Monarchs. The tyranny of the latter drove them to rebellion. Arsaces, a man of humble birth, but of military talent, placed himself at their head, and achieved their independence. The succeeding' kings were called Arsa- cides. Their dominions extended from India to the Euphrates, and from the Caspian to the Arabian Sea. They were the only people who resisted Rome with success. Egypt continued part of the Persian empire till Alexander the Great vanquished Darius. At Alexander's death it fell to the share of Pto- lemy Lagus, (B.C. 304,) or, as he is sometimes called, Soter ; who, however, did not assume the regal title till nineteen years after the death of Alexander. It was in the reign of Ptolemy Lagus that the famous tower of Pharos was finished ; and the image of Serapis was conveyed to Alexandria by permission of the king of Pontus. Ptolemy also founded the famous library at Alexandria, which before he died con- tained two hundred thousand volumes, and this number was afterwards increased to seven hundred thousand. These books were kept in a magnificent building under the superintendence of several learned men, who lived together in a stately palace, and were maintained at the pub- lic expense. A great part of this famous library was consumed, as some authors assert, by the enthusiasm of the Caliph Omar, under the impression that if the same doctrine was contained in these books as in the Koran, they were useless ; and if not, they were dangerous. In the latter part of his reign, Ptolemy Lagus joined with himself in the government his second son, Philadclphus, in preference to Cerau- nus, his eldest son ; and this prudent choice of Ptolemy is to be com- mended, as Ceraunus was a monster of cruelty and matchless barbarity, whom neither moral nor divine laws could restrain within the bounds of decorum. Ptolemy Philadelphus (B. C. 284,) succeeded his father on the throne of Egypt. In order to revenge himself on Demetrius Phalereus, who had honestly advised Lagus to appoint his eldest son his successor, Philadelphia banished him till the nature of his punishment should be determined ; but he met his death by the bite of an asp, and thus escaped the vengeance of Ptolemy. Philadelphus contracted an alliance with the Romans ; and being solicitous to enrich his kingdom by improving its commerce, he had the commodities of Arabia, India, Persia, and Ethiopia, conveyed to Alex- andria by means of a canal which he had cut, which nearly joined the Nile to the Red Sea. Alexandria became famous, as carrying on the most extensive commerce of any city in the world. This prince was a great patron of learned men, and a lover of the arts and sciences. He Whom did the inhabitants of Parthia obey ? — And what changes did Egypt un- dergo before Ptolemy Lagus and Ptolemy Philadelphus? — And what alliance did Philadelphus contract with the Romans ? 15* 174 HISTORY OF GREECE. had an extraordinary taste for books ; and spared no expense in the augmentation and embellishment of the library founded by his father, and in collecting statues and paintings. He died in the sixty-third year of his age, and the thirty-eighth of his reign, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Ptolemy Euergetes. On ascending the throne, this prince declared war against the king of Syria. Euergetes was so successful in this expedition that he made himself master of Syria and Cilicia, after which he passed the Euphra- tes, and conquered all the country as far as Babylon and the Tigris ; he then marched back to Egypt, laden with the spoils he had acquired by his conquests. This prince carried off a prodigious quantity of gold and silver, and two thousand five hundred statues, part of which were those Egyptian idols that Cambyses had carried into Persia. When Ptolemy Euergetes set out on this expedition, his queen Berenice made a vow to consecrate her hair, if he should return in safety. Accord- ingly she caused it to be cut off, and dedicated it to the gods. This consecrated hair is fabled to have disappeared, and to have been con- verted into a constellation in the stars. (B. C. 274.) Ptolemy, in his return from his expedition, passed through Jerusa- lem, where he offered a great number of sacrifices to the God of Israel, in order to render homage to him for the victories he had obtained over the king of Syria. He devoted the leisure of peace to the cultivation of the sciences in his dominions, and the enlargement of his father's library at Alexandria with all sorts of books ; but as a proper collec- tion could not be made without an able librarian, Euergetes, upon the death of Zenodotus, who had exercised that function from the time of Ptolemy Soter, sent to Athens for Eratosthenes, the Cyrenian, who was then in great reputation, and had been educated by Callimachus, a native of the same country. Euergetes died (B. C. 222,) after a reign of twenty-five years, and was the last of that race in whom any true virtue and moderation were conspicuous. Ten degenerate descendants of Ptolemy Lagus succeeded. Murders were perpetrated for empire. The frequent interference of the Romans alone preserved it from dissolution. The last Ptolemy had espoused his sister Cleopatra. Driven from Egypt, she sought the protection of Caesar, who re-established her as sole ruler. After his death, she united herself to Antonius ; and on his decease poisoned herself, rather than grace the triumph of Octavianus. Egypt was then reduced to the form of a Roman province. (B. C. 30.) Thus the kingdom of Europe and Asia, whose destinies we have traced in the preceding pages, fell, as we have seen, almost all, into the spreading empire of Rome; a state which embraced nearly the whole civilized world within her sway. What expedition did Euergetes undertake? — What vow did his queen Berenice make ? — What farther account have we of Ptolemy Evergetes ? — What are the concluding remarks on Egypt before it became a Roman province? ( 176 ) ANCIENT HISTORY. ROME. (177) [ 179 ] HISTORY OF ROME CHAPTER 1. THE FOUNDATION OF ROME. The Romans were particularly desirous of being thought of high descent. iEneas, the son of Venus and Anchises, having escaped the destruction of Troy, arrived in Italy, A. M. 2294,* where he was kindly received by Latinns, king of the Latins, who gave him his daughter, Lavinia, in marriage. On the death of his father-in-law, the kingdom of Latium fell to iEneas. In an engagement with the Rutuli and the Tyrrhenians, near the banks of the Numicus, he was unfortunately pre- cipitated into that river and drowned. ./Eneas was succeeded by Ascanius, his son, born to him by Creusa, before the fall of Troy ; and to him Silvius, the second son of ^Eneas, whom he had by Lavinia ; and that succession continued nearly four hundred years in the same family. Numitor, the fifteenth from iEneas, was the last king of Alba, a city that was founded by Ascanius. Numitor took possession of the kingdom in consequence of his father's will ; he had a brother named Amulius, to whom were left the treasures brought from Troy, who made use of his riches to supplant his brother, and to the crime of usurpation he added that of murder. Numitor's sons first fell a sacrifice, and he caused Rhea Silvia, his brother's daughter, to become a vestal. The office of a vestal was given to ladies of noble families, whose duty consisted in keeping up the sacred fire in the temple dedicated to the goddess Vesta — they were devoted to perpetual virginity. Rhea Silvia was called to the performance of some religious service in the Temple of Mars, where a person, disguised in the military habit like that in which Mars was commonly represented, surprised and forced the vestal. When Rhea Silvia could no longer conceal her shame, she charged the god Mars with being the cause of it. In due time she be- came the mother of two boys, who were no sooner born than devoted * The ancient names of Italy were Saturnia, CEnotria, Hespcria, and Ausonia. What was the origin of the Romans ? — In what part of Italy did they settle? — Who succeeded vEneas ? — By what means did Numitor gain possession of the king- dom ? — Relate the origin of Romu'us and Remus. 180 HISTORY OF ROME. by the usurper to destruction. The mother was condemned to be buried alive, the usual punishment for vestals who had violated their vows, and the twins were ordered to be flung into the river Tiber. It happened at that time that the river overflowed its banks, and the water where the infants were thrown was too shallow to drown them. It is said by some that they were exposed in a cradle, which, after floating awhile, was left on dry ground, and that a wolf descending to drink, ran, at the cry of the children, and nursed them, until Faustulus, the king's shepherd, struck with so surprising a sight, conveyed them home and delivered them to his wife, Acca Laurentia, to nurse, who brought them up as their own. Romulus and Remus, the twins, however preserved, seemed early to discover abilities above the meanness of their supposed origin. They led, however, the shepherd's life. But pastoral idleness displeased them, and they betook themselves to the chase. They next turned their strength against the robbers of their country. The youths who con- tinued to join them, increased in number, so as to enable them to hold assemblies and celebrate games. From many circumstances, Faustulus suspected that the twins under his care were the same that Amulius exposed on the Tiber, and at length divulged his suspicions to Romulus. From that time nothing was thought of but the tyrant's destruction. He was beset on all sides, and, during the distraction that ensued, was taken and slain, while Numitor, who had been deposed for forty years, recognized his grandsons, and was once more placed on the throne. The two brothers, leaving Numitor the kingdom of Alba, determined to build a city on the spot on which they had been exposed. But a fatal desire of pre-eminence seized them both, and they were advised by the king to take an omen from the flight of birds, to know which of them the tutelary gods would decree the honour of governing the rising city. In compliance with this advice, each took his station on a diffe- rent hill. To Remus appeared six vultures ; in the moment after, Ro- mulus saw twelve. Some parties declared for Remus, who first saw the vultures ; others for Romulus, who saw the greater number. This produced a contest, which ended in a battle, in which Remus was slain. Another account says that he was killed by his brother, who being pro- voked at his leaping contemptuously over the city wall, struck him dead on the spot. Romulus being now sole commander, and eighteen years of age, be- gan the foundation of a city that was one day to give laws to the world. It was called Rome, after the name of the founder, and built upon the Palatine Mount, on which side he had taken his successful omen. (A. M. 3252. B. C. 752.) The city was first nearly square, containing about a thousand houses. It was almost a mile in circumference, and commanded a small territory round it of eight miles over. It was at first poorly inhabited, and the first method made use of to increase its numbers, was the opening of a sanctuary for all malefactors and slaves, and such as were desirous of novelty. What were the employments of their youth? — By what means did Remus come by his death ? — What city did Romulus begin to build ? SABINE WAR. 181 Scarcely was the city raised above its foundation, when its rude in- habitants began to think of giving some form to its constitution. Ro- mulus left them to choose whom they would for their king, and they concurred in electing their founder for their ruler. He was acknow- ledged as chief of their religion, sovereign, magistrate, and general of the army. Besides a guard to attend his person, he was preceded by twelve lictors, each armed with an axe tied up in a bundle of rods ; these were to serve as executioners of the law, and to impress his new subjects with an idea of his authority. The Senate, who were to act as counsellors to the king, was com- posed of a hundred of the principal citizens, consisting of men whose age, wisdom or valour, gave them a natural authority over their fellow subjects. The Patricians, who composed the third part of the legisla- ture, assumed to themselves the power of authorizing those laws, choosing magistrates, &c. The Plebeians were to till the fields, feed cattle, and follow trades, but to have no share in the government, to avoid the inconveniences of a popular power. The first care of the new king was to attend to the interests of reli- gion. The precise form of their worship is unknown, but it consisted in a reliance on the credit of their soothsayers, who pretended, from observations on the flight of birds and the entrails of beasts, to direct the present, and to dive into futurity. Romulus commanded that no election should be made, nor enterprise undertaken, without first con- sulting them. He next gave orders to ascertain the number of his sub- jects. The whole amounted to no more than three thousand foot, and about as many hundred horsemen, capable of bearing arms. These were divided into three tribes, and each tribe into ten curiae or compa- nies, consisting of a hundred men each, with a centurion to command it. By these judicious regulations, each day added strength to the new city ; multitudes of people flocked in from the adjacent towns, and it only seemed to want women to ensure its duration. CHAPTER 2. SABINE WAR— NUMA POMPILIUS — TULLUS HOSTILIUS. In this exigence Romulus sent deputies among the Sabines, his neighbours, entreating their alliance ; the proposal was rejected with disdain. Romulus, therefore, proclaimed a feast in honour of Neptune throughout the neighbouring villages. These feasts were generally preceded by sacrifices, and ended in shows of wrestlers, gladiators, and chariot courses. The Sabines were among the foremost who came to be spectators, bringing with them their wives and daughters. While the strangers were most intent upon the spectacle, a number of the Ro- man youths rushed among them with drawn swords, and carried off the youngest and most beautiful women by violence. In vain was all re- Who was chosen king ? — With what power was he invested ? — What composed the senate ? — Who were the Patricians ? — What was the employment of the Ple- beians? — What was the first care of Romulus? — By what means did the Romans procure women ? 16 182 IIISTOEY OF ROME. sistance from the parents and the virgins. Perseverance and caresses obtained those favours which timidity at first denied, so that the ravish ers soon became the partners of their affections. A bloody war ensued. The cities of Caenina, Antemnae, and Crustu- minum, were the first to revenge the common cause. But these, by making separate inroads, became an easy conquest to Romulus, who made a merciful use of his victories. Tatius, king of Cures, a Sabine city, was the last, although the- most formidable, who undertook to re- venge the disgrace his country had suffered. He entered the Roman territory at the head of twenty-five thousand men, and made himself master of the Roman citadel. But hostilities were at length terminated by the women whom the Romans had violently seized, and who be- sought the combatants to lay aside their animosity and desist. An ac- commodation ensued, by which it was agreed that Romulus and Tatius should reign jointly in Rome, with equal power and prerogative — that a hundred Sabines should be admitted into the Senate, and that the citizens should be called Quirites, after Cures, the principal town of the Sabines. The conquest of Cameria was the only military achieve- ment under the two kings ; Tatius was killed about four years after by the Lavinians, and Romulus once more saw himself sole monarch of Rome. Soon after a cruel plague and famine having broken out at Rome, the Camerini embraced the opportunity to lay waste the Roman territory. But Romulus gave them battle, killed six thousand, and returned in triumph to Rome. He likewise took Fidena, a city about forty furlongs from his capital, and reduced the Veientes to submission. Successes like these induced the conqueror to affect absolute sway. The Senate was displeased at his conduct, as they found themselves used only as instruments to ratify the rigour of his commands. We are not told the precise manner which they employed to get rid of the tyrant. Some say that he was torn in pieces in the Senate-house ; others that he disappeared while reviewing his army : certain it is, that, from the secrecy of the fact, and the concealment of the body, they took occasion to persuade the multitude that he was carried up into heaven. Thus him, whom they could not bear as a king, they were contented to worship as a god. Romulus reigned thirty-seven years; and after his death had a temple built to him under the name of Qui- rinus. B. C. 715. Upon the death of Romulus, the city seemed divided in the choice of a successor. The Sabines were for having a king chosen from their own body ; but the Romans could not endure to have a stranger advanced to the throne. In this perplexity the senators under- took to supply the place of a king, by taking the government each in his turn for five days, and during that time enjoying all the honours and privileges of royalty. This new form of government continued .for a year ; but the plebeians, who saw that mode of government only What hostilities did the infant state experience? — What conquests did Romulus make ? — How long did Romulus reign? — What report was circulated concerning his death ? — What was built to his honour ? — What form of government was after wards adopted ? the curiatii. 183 multiplied their masters, insisted upon an alteration. Therefoie the Senate fixed upon Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, and their choice was received with approbation by the people. Numa Pompilius, who was now about forty, had long been eminent for his piety, justice, moderation and exemplary life. He was skilled in all the philosophy of the Sabines, and lived unambitious of higher honours, and it was not without reluctance that he accepted the dignity. No monarch could be more proper for them than Numa, at a conjunc- ture when the government was composed of various petty states but ill-united to each other. Numa inspired his subjects with a veneration for the gods. He built many new temples, instituted sacred offices and feasts. He pretended to a particular correspondence with the goddess iEgeria, and that by her advice he built the temple of Janus, which was to be shut in time of peace, and open in war. For the encourage- ment of agriculture, he divided the lands which Romulus had gained in war among the poorer part of the people ; he regulated the calendar, and abolished the distinction between Romans and Sabines. Thus having arrived at the age of fourscore years, and having reigned forty-three in profound peace, he died ; ordering his body, contrary to the custom of the times, to be buried in a stone coffin, and his books of ceremonies, which consisted of twelve in Latin, and as many in Greek, to be buried by his side in another. Upon the death of Numa, the government once more devolved upon the Senate, till the people elected Tullus Hostilius for their king, in which choice the other part of the constitution concurred. He was the grandson of a noble Ro- man, but, unlike his predecessor, was entirely devoted to war. The Albans, by committing some depredations on the Roman territories, gave him an opportunity of indulging his inclinations. Both armies met about five miles from Rome, and the Alban general proposed to decide the dispute by single combat. There were at that time three twin brothers in each army, those of the Romans called Horatii, and those of the Albans Curiatii; — all six remarkable for their courage, strength, and activity ; and to these it was resolved to commit the man- agement of the combat. Victory, after being long doubtful, appeared to declare against the Romans ; they beheld two of their champions lying dead upon the plain, and the three Curiatii, who were wounded, slowly endeavouring to pursue the survivor, who seemed by flight to beg for mercy ; but his flight was only pretended in order to separate his three antagonists, for quickly after, stopping and turning upon the first, he laid him dead at his feet ; the second brother, who was coming up to assist, shared the same fate; the last Curiatius, disabled by his wounds, advanced to offer an easy victory, the conqueror exclaiming, " Two have I already sacrificed to the manes of my brothers ; the third will I offer up to my country." The Alban army now consented to obey the Roman. The Whom did the senate choose for king ?— For what was Numa Pompilius remark- able ? — What temple did he build ? — How long did he reign ? — Who was chosen his successor ?— What war broke out? — By what means was the contest decided? - Who were the victors ? 184 HISTORY OF ROME. victorious youth, returning triumphant from the field, found his sister lamenting the loss of her lover, one of the Curiatii, to whom she had been betrothed. This so provoked him that in a rage he slew her. The action displeased the Senate, and drew after it condemnation from the magistrates ; but making his appeal to the people, he was pardoned. Tullus having increased the power and wealth of Rome by repeated victories, now demanded satisfaction of the Sabines for some insults offered to Roman citizens at the temple of the goddess Feronia, which was common to both nations. A war ensued which lasted some years, and ended in the total overthrow of the Sabines. Hostilius died after a reign of thirty-two years ; some say by lightning ; othte, with more probability, by treason. CHAPTER 3. ANCUS MARTIUS — LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS — SERVIU& TULLUS. After an interregnum, as in the former case, Ancus Martius, ths grandson of Numa, was elected king by the people, and confirmed by the Senate. This monarch made Numa the great object of his imita- tion. He instituted the sacred ceremonies which were to precede war, but took every occasion to advise his subjects to return to the arts of agriculture, and lay aside the less useful stratagems of war. These institutions were considered by the neighbouring powers as the effects of cowardice, and the Latins began to make incursions ; but they were conquered by Ancus, their cities were destroyed, and the inhabitants removed to Rome. He quelled also an insurrection of the Veii, the Fidenates, and the Volsci ; and over the Sabines he obtained a second triumph. But his victories over the enemy were not comparable to his works at home, in raising temples, fortifying the city, making a prison for malefactors, and building a sea-port at the mouth of the Tiber, called Ostia, by which he secured the trade of that river, and that of the salt-pits adjacent. Thus having enriched his subjects, and beauti- fied the city, he died after a reign of twenty-four years. Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, who was appointed guardian to the sons of the late king, took his surname from the city of Tarquinia, (B. C. 610,) the place of his previous residence. His father, a merchant of Corinth, in Greece, who had acquired considerable wealth by trade, settled in Italy. His son Lucumon, married a woman of family in the city of Tarquinia, and removed to Rome. His elegant address, his frequent invitations, and the many benefits he conferred, gained him the esteem of the people. On his removal to Rome, say the historians, as he approached the city gate, an eagle, stooping from above, took off his Vat, and, flying round the chariot for some time, put it on again. This, nis wife Tanaquil, who it seems was skilled in augury, iG'.erpreted as What occasioned a war with the Sabines ? — Ho w long did Tullus Hostilius reign ? — Who was next elected ? — What remarkable works did Ancus effect ? — How long did he reign ? — Who next obtained the kingdom ? SERVIUS TULLUS. 185 a presage that he should one day wear the crown. Tarquin used all his power and art to set aside the children of the late king, and to be elected in their stead. For this purpose he urged the benefits he had done the city. It had the desired effect, and the people elected him for their sovereign. A kingdom thus obtained by intrigue was notwithstanding governed with equity. In the beginning of his reign, in order to recompense his friends, he added a hundred members more to the Senate, which made them in all three hundred. But his peaceful endeavours were soon in- terrupted by the Latins, over whom he triumphed. He then turned his arms against the Sabines, who had once more risen and had passed the Tiber. He routed their army, and many who escaped the sword were drowned in attempting to recross the river, while their bodies and armour floating down to Rome, brought the first news of the victory. Tarquin having forced his enemies into subjection, perfected several public works for the convenience and embellishment of the city. Pre- parations for erecting the Capitol were made by him. The city was fortified by additional stone walls, and the cloacae, or common sewers, were constructed for carrying into the Tiber the rubbish and superfluous waters of Rome. Tarquin was not content with a kingdom without the ensigns of roy- alty. In imitation of the Lydian kings, he assumed a crown of gold, an ivory throne, a sceptre with an eagle on the top, and robes of purple. It was perhaps the splendour of these royalties that first raised the envy of the late king's sons, who had now for above thirty-seven years quietly submitted to his government. They resolved to destroy him, which they effected by hiring two ruffians. The sons of Ancus found safety in flight. Thus fell Lucius Tarquinius, surnamed Priscus, to distinguish him from one of his successors. He was eighty years of age, and had reigned thirty-eight years. (B. C. 573.) Servius Tullus, the son-in-law of the late king, by marrying his daughter, came to the crown by the Senate's appointment, and without attempting to gain the suffrages of the people. Upon being acknowledged king, the chief object of his reign was to increase the power of the Senate, by depressing that of the people. The populace who were unable to see into his designs, conferred upon him the full power of settling the taxes. Accordingly he insisted that they should pay their taxes by centuries, and that by centuries they should give their votes in all public transactions. In former deliberations, each citizen gave his suffrage singly, and the numbers of the poor always carried it against the power of the rich ; but, by the regulation of Ser- vius, the Senate was made to consist of a greater number of centuries than all the other classes put together. Mention the victories and public works of Tarquin. — What distinction did Tar- quin assume? — Who procured his death ? — How long did he reign ? — Who then came to the throne ? — What was his chief object? 1G* 186 HISTORY OF R03IE. CHAPTER 4. LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS — END OF THE REGAL GOVERNMENT. Servius instituted another regulation, called a lustrum.* By this all the citizens were to assemble in the Campus Martius, in complete armour and in their respective classes, and there to give an exact ac- count of their families and fortune. Having enjoyed a long reign, spent in settling the domestic policy of the state, he had thoughts of laying down his power, and, after having formed the kingdom into a republic, to retire into obscurity ; but so generous a design was frustrated ere it could be put into execution. In the beginning of his reign, he had married his two daughters to the two sons of Tarquin. But Lucius placed his whole affections on his brother's wife, who answered his passion with sympathetic ardour, and they both undertook to murder their respective consorts, and were soon after married together. A first crime ever produces a second, and they next proceeded to conspire the death of the king, which they effected, after he had spent a useful and prosperous reign of forty-four years. Lucius Tarquinius, afterwards called Superbus, or the Proud, having placed himself on the throne, supported his dignity by violence, and even refused burial to the late king's body, under pretence of his being an usurper. Many looked upon his accession with detestation and horror, and this act of cruelty served only to confirm their hatred. His chief policy was to keep the people employed in wars or public works, in order to divert their attention from his unlawful method of coming to the crown. He first marched against the Sabines, and reduced them to submis- sion. In the mean time many of the discontented patricians, abandon- ing their native city, took refuge at Gabii, a city of Latium, about twelve miles from Rome. To subdue that city he had recourse to stratagem ; he caused his son Sextus to counterfeit desertion, and to seek refuge in Gabii. When Sextus thought his authority established, he sent a con- fidential slave to his father for instructions. Tarquin made no answer, but taking the messenger into the garden he cut down before him the tallest poppies. Sextus understood the meaning, and found means to destroy or remove, one by one, the principal men of the city ; confisca- ting their estates among the people. In the end they fell under the power of Tarquin, without his even striking a blow. Tarquin undertook to build the Capitol, the foundation of which had been laid in a former reign ; but an extraordinary event contributed to * A space of five years. What design did Servius form? — What occasioned his death?— Who afterwards succeeded ?— What was his policy ?— Relate the expedition of Tarquin against the Sabines, and against -the city of Gabii. — What event happened to hasten the build- ing of the Capitol ? DEATH OF LUGRETIA. 187 hasten the execution of it. A woman in strange attire came to the king, offering to sell nine books, said to be composed by herself. Not knowing the abilities of the seller, or that she was one of the celebrated Sibyls, whose prophecies were never found to fail, Tarquin refused to buy them. Upon this she departed, and burning three of her books returned again, demanding the same price for the six remaining. Being once more despised as an impostor, she again departed, and burning three more returned with the remaining three, still asking the same price as the first. The king, surprised at her behaviour, consulted the augurs, who advised him to purchase them; and the woman, having recommended special attention to their contents, suddenly disappeared. Tarquin chose proper persons to keep the books, which were deposited in a stone chest, and the newly-designed Capitol was thought the properest place in which to secure them. Tarquin upon some frivolous pretence proclaimed war against the Rutuli, and he invested their chief city, Ardea, which lay about sixteen miles from Rome. While the army was encamped before the place, the king's son, Sextus Tarquinius, and Collatinus, a noble Roman, with some others, sat drinking in a tent. The discourse turned upon wives, each man preferring the beauty and virtue of his own. Colla- tinus offered to decide the dispute by putting it to an immediate trial. Being heated with wine, they posted to Rome. There they found the wife of Collatinus spinning in the midst of her maids, and portioning out their tasks. They unanimously gave her the preference, and Sextus became so much inflamed with love, that nothing but possession could satisfy him. He therefore visited her privately a few days after, and Lucretia, suspecting nothing, ordered a chamber to be prepared for him. But he having found means to convey himself into her chamber at midnight, achieved what could not otherwise be obtained. In the morning the ravisher returned to the camp ; and Lucretia, sending for her husband Collatinus, and Spurius her father, informed them of the indelible dis- grace that had befallen the family, and after relating to them some particulars and requesting them to avenge her cause, she drew a po- niard from beneath her robe, and plunging it into her own bosom, expired without a groan. Junius Brutus, whose father Tarquin had murdered, caused the body of Lucretia to be exposed to the people, calling upon the gods to wit- ness that he would be her avenger. Their pity was soon changed into rage and revenge. A decree of the Senate banished Tarquin and his family for ever from Rome. Thus this monarch, who had now reigned twenty-five years, being expelled the kingdom, took refuge with his family at Cira, a little city of Etruria. In the mean time the Roman army made a truce with the enemy, and Brutus was proclaimed deliv- erer of the people. Thus ended with Tarquin, after a continuance of 245 years, the regal state of Rome. Against whom did Tarquin proclaim war ? — What event happened in the camp with Sextus, the king's son? — Relate the circumstance which procured the banish- ment of Tarquin, and the elevation of Brutus. — How long had the regal state existed ? 188 HISTORY OF ROME. CHAPTER 5. CONSULS. The regal power being overthrown, a republican form of government was sustituted. The Senate, however, reserved the greatest share of the authority, and decorated their own body with the spoils of deposed monarchy. The centuries of the people chose from among the Senators two annual magistrates, whom they called Consuls, with power equal to that of the regal ; and with the same privileges and ensigns of au- thority. Brutus, the deliverer of his country, and Collatinus the hus- band of Lucretia, were chosen the first consuls of Rome. But a party was formed in favour of Tarquin, by some young men of the principal families of the state, and who had shared in the plea- sures and luxuries of the court. This party secretly increased, and what may create surprise, the sons of Brutus and the nephews of Collatinus were among the number. The conspiracy was discovered by a slave, and Brutus was placed as a judge upon the life and death of his own children, impelled by justice to condemn, and by nature to spare. Un- moved by any motive but that in favour of what he deemed the public good, he pronounced upon them the sentence of death, and by his of- fice was obliged to see it put in execution, while the multitude looked on with mingled sensations of pity, astonishment, and horror. The lenity of Collatinus rendered him suspected, and he was deposed from the consulship, and banished from Rome. Valerius Publicola was chosen in his stead. Tarquin's hopes of an insurrection in his favour being thus frustrated, he now resolved to force himself upon his former throne by foreign aid. He prevailed upon the Veians to assist him, and with a considerable army advanced towards Rome. The consuls were not remiss to oppose him. Valerius commanded the foot, and Brutus, being appointed to head the cavalry, went out to meet him on the Roman border. Aruns, the son of Tarquin, who commanded the cavalry for his father, seeing Brutus at a distance, resolved by one great attempt to decide the fate of the day before the engagement of the armies, when spurring his horse he flew to him with fury. Brutus perceived his approach, and they met with such ungoverned rage that both fell dead on the field to- gether. A bloody battle ensued ; but the Romans, remaining in posses- sion of the field of battle, claimed the victory. Tarquin next prevailed on Porsenna, one of the kings of Etruria, to espouse his cause. This prince, equally noted for his courage and con- duct, with a numerous army laid siege to Rome. The siege was car- ried on with vigour ; the consuls opposed in vain, and were carried off wounded from the field. The Romans, flying in great consternation, were pursued by the enemy to the bridge, over which both victors and Who were the first consuls, and what was their dignity? — Who formed a con- spiracy against the consulship, and what was the event? — Who were chosen instead of Collatinus ? — Whose aid did Tarquin obtain against the consuls ? DEATH OF TARQUIN. 189 vanquished were about to enter the city in confusion. All now ap- peared lost, when Horatins Codes, who had been placed there as sen- tinel to defend it, opposed himself to the torrent of the enemy ; and, assisted only by two more, for some time sustained the whole fury of the assault, till the bridge was broken down behind him. He then plunged into the Tiber and swam back victorious. Still, however, Porsenna carried on the siege ; the distress of the besieged became insufferable, when another act of fierce bravery brought about its safety and freedom. Mutius, a youth of undaunted courage, entered, disguised, into the camp of the enemy, resolving to die or to kill the king ; but mistaking the secretary for the king, stabbed him to the heart. Upon Porsenna's demanding who he was, and the cause of so heinous an action, Mutius replied with such undaunted heroism as amazed Porsenna. He therefore ordered him back to Rome, and offered the besieged conditions of peace. These conditions were accepted, and ne retired from the Roman territory. The year after the departure of Porsenna, the Sabines invaded the Roman territories. The war that ensued was long and bloody; but at length the Sabines were compelled to purchase a peace. Tarquin now, by means of his son-in-law, Manlius, stirred up the Latins to espouse his interest, and took the most convenient opportunity, when the ple- beians were at variance with the senators, concerning the payment of their debts. These refused to go to the war, unless their debts were remitted on their return. The consuls finding their authority insuffi- cient, offered the people to elect a temporary magistrate, who should possess absolute power, not only over all ranks of the state, but even over the laws themselves. To this the plebeians readily consented, willing to give up their own power for the sake of abridging that of their superiors. Lartius, in consequence, was created the first dictator, (B. C. 495,) and he, enter- ing upon his office surrounded with lictors and all the ensigns of ancient royalty, completed the levies without resistance. Then going forth to oppose the enemy, he concluded a truce with them for a year, and re- turned with his army. In six months he laid down the dictatorship, with the reputation of having exercised it with a blameless lenity. The next year required another dictator, and Posthumius was invested with the office. He gave the Latins a complete overthrow, and con- cluded an advantageous peace. About this time died Tarquin, at the advanced age of ninety years, which put an end to all further contests for the crown. But though for that time the people submitted to be led forth, they yet resolved to free themselves from their yoke; and, as they could not obtain a redress of their grievances, they determined to i ia.m.v - - - - Portugal* C Minorca, 1 n - 1 I LKAi < Ma, C and I Gallia I HELVETIA ... Switzerland. Belgium - - - - Belgium, \ imu i.k i a - - - - Swabia, RHOBTIA - - - - The T;/r