LIBRARY OF CONGRESS,
- - ©ojnjriijtjt
Shelf. H.6-
T T r^7
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
THE SLOYD SYSTEM
WOOD WORKING
WITH A liUIEF DESCRIPTION (tFTHE EVA KODIIE MODEL SEIUES
AND AN HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE CROWTH
OF THE MANUAL TRAINING IDEA
B. B. HOFFMAN, A.B.
SUPEKINTENDENT OF TUB BARON DE HIKSCII FUND TUADE 8CUOOLS
- JUL 2^
NEW YUUK • ■ CINCINNATI ■:• CIHCAGO
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
COPYKIOHT, 1893, BY
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY.
Press of J. J. Little & Co.
Astor I'lace, New York
/- '3/VOl
PREFACE.
The object of this book is to give an account
of the tlieoiy and practical application of the
" Niliis System" of manual training. Although
the principles upon which this system has been
founded are very fully explained in the two
educational monographs of the New York
College for the Training of Teachers, entitled
" The Sloyd in the Service of the School," by
Otto Salamon, and " Manual Training in Ele-
mentary Schools for Boys," by A. Slu3^s, a full
exposition of the subject as taught in the Niiiis
Sloyd Seminarium, and as incorporated in the
Swedish public schools, has not as yet appeared.
The author hopes that the following chapters
may in a measure supply this want.
In the chapter on the practical work, as few
technical expressions as possible have been used,
so that a teacher who may have had no previous
experience in work of this kind may neverthe-
less be able to follow out a course of manual
5
G PREFACE
training in wood-work without any outside assist-
ance.
Chapter III. is a translation of Book V. of
Director Otto Salamon's " Sloyd och Follvskola"
C'Sloyd and the Public School"), which gives an
account of the history of the manual training
idea. Chapter VI. is a translation of Mr. Sala-
mon's article on Sloyd in the "Nordeska Familie
Bok" ("Northern Encyclopedia").
The book also includes a list and drawings
of the models of the Eva Rodlie System for
children of the age of five to eleven years. In
the " Pratiska Arbetskolan " (" Practical Working
School") in Gothenburg, this system has been
taught for a number of years, and has met with
considerable success, filling the void between the
Kindergarten and the " Naas System."
The author desires to express his sincere
thanks to Director Otto Salamon, Mr. Alfred
Johannson, Mr. Jacob Hyberg of Niiiis, SAveden,
and to Mr. George E. Tuthill of New York,
for valuable assistance in the preparation of
this work.
CONTENTS.
Chapter Page
I. The Theory of the Sloyd System of Wood- Working 9
The Need for Manual Training ... 9
Various Systems of Manual Training 12
A Love for Work 23
Respect for Rough Bodily Labor 25
Self-reliance and Independence 26
Ordei' and Exactness 28
Attention 29
Industry and Perseverance 30
Physical Power 31
The Chest, Head, and Feet 34
Position in Sawing and Planing 35
To Train the Eye to the Sense of Form 30
General Dexterity of Hand 36
II. Special Arrangements of the Sloyd 39
Many Forms of Manual Work 39
Arrangement of the Models 44
Tools 45
Age of Pupils, Length of Lessons, etc 46
Who shall be the Teacher ." 47
Individual and Class Teaching 48
7
8 CONTENTS
Chapter Page
HI. The History of Manual Training 53
Development of the Idea in Europe 53
IV. Alfred Johannson's Nilas Model Series 91
Otto Salamon's Introduction 91
The Naiis Models 90
Fundamental Series. 101
Town Elementary Series ... 191
High School Series 201
V. Eva Rodhe's Model Scries 219
Introduction 219
The Eva Rodhe Models 223
VI. The Progi'ess of the Sloyd in the Elementary Scliools 235
Extension of the Movement in Europe and America 235
CHAPTER I.
THE THEORY OF THE SLOYD SYSTEM OF
WOOD-WORKING.
THE NEED FOR MANUAL TRAINING.
rpiHAT book-training alone is not sufficient to
-L educate the child is shown by the fact that
during the past twenty years, throughout both
Europe and America, various systems of handi-
craft work have been introduced in the schools
as part of the elementary school instruction,
educators and teachers in all countries liavino-
found something lacking in the ordinary form
of public education.
They saw that the youth, who, after leaving
the school, started out to make his own living,
was in many cases quite unable to do so, and
naturally the question arose : " Is the present form
of public education of a nature calculated to fit
the child for a useful career in life? If not, what
reforms can be instituted so that the school
10 THEORY OF THE SLOYD SYSTEM
instruction will be better able to meet the exigen-
cies of life and the demands of the times ? "
In all educational circles these questions have
been discussed; and, as a direct result, we find
that different systems of manual training have
been applied as remedies.
The chief arguments, and those which have
greatly influenced the adoption of some of the
present European systems of manual training,
are the so-called " Economic " and the " Educa-
tional " arguments.
(3n the one hand, the " Educational " advocates
urged that in order to systematically develop the
natural forces it was necessary, from a psycho-
logical point of view, to try to give to the child
the ability to express objects by means of delin-
eation and construction, and thus to add to the
power of mere verbal description. In other
words, " It is more natural for the boy to be able
to draw a sphere, or to make one out of wood
or clay, than to understand the geometrical defi-
nition of a sphere."
On the other hand, the " Economic " argument
was l)ased more particularly upon the social and
industrial benefits to l)e derived from the training.
To the " Economic " arc;umcnt was added the
" Physiological." The researches of Hughlings,
THE NEED FOR MANUAL TRAINING 11
Jackson, and Ferrier were frequently quoted.
Their experiments proved that the brain is not,
as was formerly supposed, a single organ acting
as a whole, but a congeries of organs capable of
more or less independent action.
In speaking of these experiments, and their
connection with early manual education, a recent
writer says : ''As the development of the motor
centers in the brain hinges, in a great degree,
upon the movements and exercises of youth, it
will be readily understood how important is the
nature of the part played by the early exercise
of the hand in evoking inherited skill and in
creating the industrial capabilities of a nation.
''There can be no doubt that the most active
epoch in the development of these motor centers
is from the fourth to the fifteenth year, after
which they become comparatively fixed and stub-
born. Hence it can be understood that bo^^s and
girls whose hands have been left altogether un-
trained up to the fifteenth year are practically
incapable of high manual efficiency thereafter."
The " Economic " advocates stated, furthermore,
that by cramming the children's heads full of
l)Ook-studies, and by withholding from them the
exercise of their hands, the skill of a future race
of mechanics was being destroyed.
12 THEORY OF THE SLOT!) SYSTEM
VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF MANUAL TRAINING.
Of the various systems of manual training that
have been introduced in the elementary public
schools of Europe, the Delia Vos in Russia, the
Sctlicis in France, and the Sloyd in Sweden, Nor-
way, Denmark, Finland, and recently in special
schools in England, Germany, Belgium, and Italy,
are the most prominent.
The French system, under the name of JJen-
seignement da Travail Manuel, was made compul-
sory in the public schools in 1882.
It was mainly due to tlie efforts of M. Buisson,
Director of Primary Instruction, that in this year
a special normal school was created in France,
in which wood-working at the bench and lathe,
iron-working in the smithery, with vise and
turning-lathe, drawing, modeling, molding, and
graphic designing were the principal subjects of
instruction. Experimental physics, chemistry,
natural history, fencing, and fire-practice were
likewise taught.
This institution was founded after a vote liad
been taken in the Chamljer of Deputies, in
March of 1882. Admission was granted by com-
petition to forty-eight school-teachers, graduates
of the University de France. It was a one-year
VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF MANUAL TRAINING 13
course. To-day we find that each year about
fifteen hundred students are being graduated from
the various normal schools in France.
" In fifteen years," said the late Inspector-
General A. Salicis, " nearly all our primary high
schools, and most of our forty thousand elemen-
tary schools for boys ought to provide our
2,750,000 male children of the working classes
with the instruction which will fit them for
the future they have in store. If we do not
speak of the girls, it is because they have already,
to a certain extent, a suitable primary course
in manual training, consisting of needlework,
cutting out, and dressmaking."
The object of this system is clearly expressed
in the words of the French minister of public
instruction : " The love for work can only come
through the habit of working ; and, reciprocall}'^,
the habit of work can only come by implanting
the love for it."
In short, from this early acquired taste should
be engendered a precocious ability — an indis-
pensable condition of future excellency, and
consequently a condition of economic success in
foreign markets.
In 1868 a systematic method of teaching the
arts of turning, carpentering, fitting, and forging
14 THEORY OF TUE SLOTD SYSTEM
was introduced in the Imperial School at Mos-
cow, under the directorship of Victor Delia Vos.
These arts were taught because they were con-
sidered to be the foundation of all mechanical
pursuits.
Furthermore, the school council, who inaugu-
rated this system, found it necessary to separate
the school shops from the mechanical works, ad-
mitting pupils to the latter only when they had
perfectly acquired the principles of practical labor.
Tliis was done in order to secure a symmetrical
teaching of elementary practical work, as well
as for the more convenient supervision of the
pupils while practically employed. It is the first
known instance of such an arrangement.
Tlie primary object of the Russian method
was to teach the child manual work, if not
directly for the purpose of fitting him for a
future vocation in the arts or trades, at least in
order to make him more capable, in case he
should select some mechanical pursuit as his
future work in life.
Since 1872 the stud}^ of the Sloyd in the
Folkskola (public school) of Sweden has created
tlie most intense interest. The Sloyd, a S3^stem
of manual training in wood and metal work, is
taught as an optional study in fifteen hundred
VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF MANUAL TRAINING 15
schools in Sweden to boys of the age of ten to
fourteen years.
At the present time, the JSfdas System, arranged
by Otto Salanion, director of tlie Nails Normal
College, has been universally adopted. This has
been called the Sloyd System. Its object is solely
educational. The faults of the old method of
teaching only theoretical subjects being recognized,
the best ideas of the teachers in this field were stud-
ied, and a method was formulated which combines
hand and head work in the simplest way possible.
The word system is meant to convey the idea of
a plan running through the work, which rests on
a scientific basis and holds good for those classes
for which it is intended.
In speaking of the Sloyd System, it is necessary
not to confound the Sloyd series of models with
the system itself. The two are entirely distinct.
A series of models is never more than the outward
expression of an idea. Models of almost any
kind could be constructed upon the princi])les
that underlie those of the Naas series, and, though
very different in form, they might have equal
educational advantages, and might even be more
applicable in certain instances. It is from the
point of view of the system that the models
should be judged.
16 THEORY OF THE SLOTD SYSTEM
The word Sloyd (Swedish, /Slojd) is derived
from the Icelandic, and means dexterity or skill.
In old Swedish, we find the adjective slog (artis-
tic or skillful). In the Low German dialect, the
word Kl'utern has a similar signification. There
is in Sweden a distinct class of workmen known
as Sloyders, whom we would call "jacks of all
trades," as they are able to do various kinds of-
odd jobs about a house. The Swedish word
Slojd exists in other languages, but has a more
restricted meaning, referring to the educational
idea. In English it is synonymous with manual
training as distinct from technical and indus-
trial training.
The problem which confronted the educators
was how to create a manual training system
which would be a true factor in public education.
Pul)lic education is designed to be a systematic
infiuence for the good, exercised by the teacher
upon the minds and characters of the pupils ; it
aims to make them more fit to cope with the
difficulties of life, and thus to make them use-
ful and honorable members of the community.
Would manual training be of material aid in this
direction ?
The immediate object of all })ublic education
being thus defined, teachers came to the conclu-
VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF MANUAL TRAINING 17
sion that the instruction should be imparted not
only for the sake of the actual knowledge to be
derived, most of which must of necessity in time
be forgotten, but principally as a means of devel-
oping the character.
At one time it was thought best to allow the
liome influence to be the sole guide in the forma-
tion of character, but the error of such a course
became evident when it was considered that it
was impossible to determine whether the home
influence would be exerted for the good or for
the evil. Again, tlie duties of the parents were
found at times to be of such a nature as to
prevent their giving the proper attention to the
education of their children.
It was therefore decided that the work of ele-
vating each life should be carried on in the school,
where the child is competing all the time for
some desired goal, and consequently soon begins
to feel the necessity of knowing and doing.
He feels this in the school even more than in
the home ; for the school is to the child like a
little world, which has much in common with
the larger one for which he is preparing him-
self. It therefore becomes the duty of the school
to train the heart, the mind, and the body har-
moniously.
18 THEORY OF THE HLOYD SYtiTEM
Since the work of the school is so important,
and since the entire school life of most children
must be limited to a period of from six to eight
years, it seemed desirable that the school should
arrange its course of study and its methods of
instruction in such a Avay that each subject would
be a means of educational development. Any
subject which did not fulfill this requirement was
not to be taught. No subject was to be taught
simply for the sake of imparting information.
By experiment it Avas found that manual work
tended to develop character, mind, and body, and
that it gave such information as was necessary
and useful after the school period was passed,
increasing in each individual the capacity for
work. It was therefore decided that it should
hold a place among the school studies.
We must now distinguish between the general
object of all systems of manual training, and the
special purposes to be served by the system here
under consideration.
The object of introducing manual training into
the puldic schools is well defined by Prof. C. M.
Woodward, when he says : " We do not wish to
make mechanics. We teach banking, not because
we expect our pupils to become bankers ; we teach
drawing, not because we expect to train architects,
VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF MANUAL TRAINING 19
artists, or engineers ; and we teach the use of
tools, the properties of materials, and the meth-
ods of the arts, not because we expect our boys
to become artisans. We teach them the United
States Constitution and some of the Acts of Con-
gress, not because we expect them all to become
congressmen. But we do expect that our boys
will, at least, have something to do with bankers,
and architects, and artists, and engineers, and
artisans ; and we do expect all to become good
citizens. Our great object is educational ; other
objects are secondary."
The Sloyd has for its first object* to give an
indirect preparation for life by teaching branches
of certain trades and by imparting a general
dexterity to the hand — to train the hand as the
obedient servant of the brain.
The Swedes set out to accomplish this by teach-
ing the boys in the schools the rudiments of
special trades; they discarded that system some
years ago, adopting the present one in its stead.
* These are the aims of the Sloyd instruction as set forth
by Director Otto Salamon in his lectures. It will of course be
understood that any statement of results to be achieved must
in a great measure be conditional ; yet the object of the work,
and the probable effects, must surely be best known to him
who has arranged the course, and who has daily watched its
effects upon the minds and characters of many hundreds of
children.
30 THEORY OF THE SLOYl) SYSTEM
Experience taught them that the boy was not old
enough to know what ])articular trade he should
choose. Again, usually only one trade could be
taught, and this, of course, did not accomplish
the aim with which the instruction was given.
From a practical point of view, any one of the
important trades is as necessary as the other.
It was impossible to teach any one trade thor-
oughly in so short a time as could be devoted
to it at scliool ; and, as a result, many children
left the scliool impressed Avith the false notion
that they were competent workmen. How fatal
such a spirit was, need hardly be stated.
The second object of the Sloyd is to develop
the mental faculties, and at the same time to im-
})art positive useful information. As Froebel had
provided a system which gave expression to this
idea by creating the kindergarten, and as he had
felt that this was a principle which would regu-
late every step in tiie child's education, so it is to
this end, also, that the Sloyd aims.
It embraces the doctrine which educators and
teachers have been preaching for a long time —
that of giving a practical direction to mental
activity. IMan is not only born to think, but
also to do. He is a creative animal; he can
and must embody his ideas in form.
VARIOUS SYSTE3IS OF MANUAL TRAINING 21
The third object of the Sloyd is to make it a
means of intensifying intuitions, tliereby giving
a clearer insight into the nature of things. As
Herbart desired to see instruction more concen-
trated, all the subjects closely interwoven, the
one serving to aid in the comprehension of the
other — so the Sloyd, in combining the theo-
retical and practical, by teaching the elements of
the arts and sciences, and the method of con-
struction and illustration, aims to excite the
intuitive faculty.
It is hardly likely that the efforts of a child
will be -adequate to j)rovide accurate scientific
apparatus to be used in the class-room, but the
making of oljjects directly connected with the
theoretical studies will increase the interest in
the Avork and excite new ideas.
Sloyd aims to cultivate dexterity in the manip-
ulation of tools. This is considered as one of its
secondary aims. Too much stress must not be
laid upon the use of tools, as the pupil is apt to
lose interest in the work if he does not see a full
and quick result for his labor.
In France, at one time, the children were taught
various exercises in the use of tools, and models
were not made at all. In the Danish system, the
making of models is considered of quite second-
22 THEORY OF THE SLOYD SYSTEM
ary importance. Very few are made, and these
only because they necessitate certain useful exer-
cises of the tools. The use of many tools should
be taught, but should serve rather as a means
than an end to this instruction.
Primarily Sloyd is to be used as a means of
formal education — formal as opposed to material.
A material education seeks to impart a definite
knowledge of things for their own sake. A for-
mal education seeks chieliy to develop the innate
mental powers, and selects and imparts knowledge
in order to strengthen character, will-power, mem-
ory, perception — in short, all of those faculties of
the mind which at birth are dormant, and which
gradually and through education become to a
greater or lesser degree marked characteristics of
the individual.
All subjects can be used both for material and
formal instruction — some more, some less. His-
tory and science give material information ; and
yet, if the teacher seeks to arouse the imaginative
faculty, or to inspire a love and sympathy for
humanity, a formal training is thereby added.
The child when he studies his history lessons
sees that among the first causes of a nation's
welfare may be traced the underlying principle
of order. Again, as he becomes acquainted with
A LOVE FOR WORK ^3
tlie elements of the sciences, and as he begins
to understand the workings of nature's laws, a
desire to systematize and arrange things in a
rational and orderly manner takes possession of
liis mind. Mathematics and gymnastics are of
more value as formal than as material means
of education, as the former develops the reasoning
faculty, while the latter strengthens the body.
Materialists believe in giving a knowledge of the
actual things met with in life, while the formalists
lay stress upon the cultivation of correct habits.
Sloycl has for its aims, as a means of formal
instruction — to instil a love for work in gene-
ral ; to create a respect for rough, honest bodily
labor ; to develop self-reliance and independence ;
to train to habits of order, exactness, cleanliness,
and neatness; to teach habits of attention, indus-
try, and perseverance ; to promote the develop-
ment of the physical powers ; to train the eye
to the sense of form, and to cultivate the dex-
terity of the hand.
A LOVE FOR WORK.
No child can enjoy a healthy happiness without
doing some work. Most children are inquisitive,
and want to know facts about the objects they
see and handle. As an infant, the child con-
24 THEORY OF THE SLOYD SYSTEM
stantly moves, and grasps at everything that lie
sees ; and, as he grows older, lie shows similar
impulses in his delight in building, constructing,
and destroying objects.
In order to bring about a love for work, it is
necessary that the work be useful, otherwise it
will soon become tiresome. The work should not
require wearisome preparatory exercises ; this is
apt to cause the distaste which we have often seen
among apprentices to the various trades. The
Avork must afford variety — not necessarily nov-
elty, but there must be a change, and not too
much of one thing at a time.
The children must be capable of doing the
entire work themselves, for they feel happy only
when they can feel and say that they have done
it all themselves. The teacher must refrain from
forcing a child to accept much unnecessary assist-
ance. To help the child to overcome all the diffi-
culties which will necessarily arise, and then to
permit him to claim the work as his own, encour-
ages him to deceive others, and, worse than that,
leads him to deceive himself.
The work must be real, and not ''play at work.''
If the occupation has no serious importance, but
is merely given to keep the children busy and
out of mischief, the true educational value is lost.
RESPECT FOR ROUGH BODILY LABOR 25
Finally, the work, when finished, must become
the property of the child, for he has j)urchased
the right to it with his own labor.
From the outset, the child must be shown the
true nature of the work, so that he will do it vol-
untarily and in a proper spirit. M. Pizzurno trans-
lates from an Italian pamphlet into French the
following passage : '' It is not possible to produce
in facsimile a pattern of every article we make ;
but it is important that a thing be done as accu-
rately as possible from the outset, and the earlier
we teach the child this, the better it will be in
the end."
RESPECT FOR ROUGH BODILY LABOR.
We no longer absolutely despise hard bodily
labor as we did a century ago, Avhen to do noth-
ing was considered more honorable than to work ;
yet even to-day we attach a certain stigma of
inferiority to all forms of bodily labor. In the
social world, the clerk ranks higher than the
skilled artisan, and the workmen themselves are
only too apt to consider that their labor is less
honorable than that of their masters.
This perverted idea may be a survival of
the opinion that prevailed in the middle ages,
when all rough work was done by serfs. The
26 THEORY OF THE SLOYD SYSTE3I
lal)or question is one of the important prob-
lems of our times. We know that there are
many causes at work which sow discord be-
tween capitalists and laborers. Would it not
be a step taken in the right direction if each
child in the rising generation could be in-
spired with a true respect for rough physical
labor, so that as workman he could find con-
tentment in his vocation, and as capitalist he
would not undervalue the true worth of his
artisans? We cannot make children respect
rough labor unless we let them take part in it
themselves.
To inspire the child with a respect for rough
labor, the models produced must not be fancy
knick-knacks or articles of luxury. If taught
only to do fancy and decoration work, ho may be
inclined to regard I'ougher forms of labor as of
inferior dignity.
SELF-RELIANCE AND INDEPENDENCE.
It is of the utmost importance that we help the
cliild to utilize that which he knows, and force
liim to give some visible expression and some
practical application to the information he has
acquired. Here is one of the teacher's most
difficult tasks. There are many i)eople possessed
SELF-RELIANCE AND INDEPENDENCE 27
of much knowledge, who totally lack the power
of applying it.
Home lessons are intended to test the children's
power of working alone, but they often fail to
accomplish this object, because some parents allow
their children to neglect their home work, while
others provide private teachers. Even in tlie
class-room, it is often difficult to get clear answers
without occasionally prompting and helping the
children.
By means of the Sloyd, however, it is very
easy for the teacher to set a certain task to ha
performed, and to detect and prevent any undue
assistance.
Self-reliance can best be encouraged if the work
is adapted to the capabilities of the pupil ; that
is, it must be neither too easy nor too difficult.
If it is too easy, no real development is insured;
if too difficult, dependence upon others must
result.
The teacher should conduct, control, and super-
intend the work, but must guard against putting
his hand to it. Nothing is gained by getting the
child to produce a faultless model if this is not
the result of his own unaided exertion.
The child must use his judgment at every
step, must recognize tliat he, and not the teacher,
28 THEORY OF THE 8L0TD SYSTEM
is responsible for the work. This is the only
way in which independence can be fostered.
If necessary, the teacher should illustrate on a
different piece of wood. The rule, " Never touch
the child's model," has no exception.
In order to sustain the interest in the work,
the child should never be compelled to make
the same model more than twice in succession.
ORDER AND EXACTNESS.
The habits of order and exactness, which appear
to be contrary to the natural instincts of many
children, require much training. Order refers to
an absolute idea; exactness is more relative. It
is quite possible to make very exact models, and
yet remain ver}' disorderly in the manner of
work. These habits are, in a sense, the founda-
tion of an aesthetic education.
Disorderly habits and inexactness are always
antagonistic to a true conception of beauty.
Much has been said about giving the young an
«3sthetic education ; 1:)ut it seems that the real
foundation for this instruction has been neg-
lected, inasmuch as stress has been laid upon
the decoration of objects before the objects were
correctly made. As a result, we find that many
children think certain objects beautiful, which
ATTENTION 39
arc ill reality only higlily oriianieaitod. Tlio
child must be taught from the very beginning
to understand form as well as decoration.
No matter how useful a dirty or repulsive work
may be, it is not suitable to be taught in the
schools. The models must always be of such a
nature and material that they will admit of
being copied with order, exactness, neatness, and
cleanliness.
ATTENTION.
A teacher's work is useless if the child is in-
attentive. Many discussions have centered upon
the time to be devoted to certain subjects, but
the question as to how a subject can be taught so
as to attract and fix the attention is worthy of
greater consideration ; for more matter can often
be taught in half an hour, if it is rightly pre-
sented, than in an hour, if it fails to attract the
attention of the pupils. It has been said, with
some truth, that if we work six hours a day,
we do six hours' work ; whereas if we work
eight hours, we do but four hours' work.
In order to attract the attention, the chief
thing necessary is to bring about a true and not
a specious interest. The former consists in a
desire to understand the subject for its own
30 THEORY OF THE SLOYD SYSTEM
sake ; the latter, for tlie sake of marks or rewards.
In teaching theoretical subjects, it is at times
very difficult to know whether the attention of
a child is fixed or not. He may appear atten-
tive, and yet his mind may be far away.
In the manual work, the pupil's attention is
attracted in three different directions — on what
the teacher says, for the pupil soon finds that
he cannot do his work without attending very
closely to instructions ; upon himself, for other-
wise the child comes to grief with his tools ; and
upon the work engaged on, or he spoils it.
At Naas, experience has shown that groAvn
people destroy more work and hurt themselves
more frequently than children. This is due to
the fact that they have more to think about,
and cannot concentrate their thoughts so fully
upon any one particular object.
Here it is that the great value of all educa-
tional manual work shows itself — in cultivating
the habit of attention. In order to create a habit
of attention, the work must require mechanical
as well as mental effort.
INDUSTRY AND PERSEVERANCE.
In the theoretical suljjects tlie connection be-
tween industry and success is not ap|)arent. It
PHYSICAL POWER 31
is often difficult to impress upon the child's
mind the fact of his inability to execute any
real work without industry and perseverance. If
book studies alone are relied upon to bring this
truth home, the task of the teacher becomes all
the more ungrateful, because many children find
it impossible to grasp theoretical studies. They
do their best, and yet they fail.
The marking system is by no means a standard
which will impress the child with an idea of the
close relation existing between industry and suc-
cess. Questions may be given which the child
can answer correctly, though he himself feels
that he has not comprehended the lesson. In
manual work, however, industry can never fail
to secure success.
The school life and the after school life have
heretofore differed much in the demands they
have made upon us. Society requires that men
put their ideas into execution. Has the school
heretofore desired the same ? It may be said that
a combination of manual and theoretical work
reconciles the demands of the school with those
of the world.
PHYSICAL POWER.
The ancients, and especially the Greeks, with
their love of beauty and harnjony, devoted much
33 THEORY OF THE SLOYD SYSTEM
time to the symmetrical development of the hu-
man body. No nation since their time has attained
so high a standard of physical strength combined
with physical beauty.
In the middle ages we find two extremes —
the monks, who mortified and suppressed every
power of the body ; and the knights, who per-
formed prodigies of strength and agility, while
their minds were often as enij^ty as were their
helmets.
In comparatively modern times, the education
of the masses was confined chiefly to the mind,
as no organized provision existed for the train-
ing of the body.
To-day this question is regarded from a scien-
tific standpoint. It is recognized that the school
work must include nothing Avliich interferes with
healthy bodily development.
In order to strengthen the body, the work must
demand much movement, thereby counteracting
the bad effects of sitting still in the class-room.
The principles which underlie any rational sys-
tem of gymnastics should guide us in this work.
Every exercise should have its appropriate posi-
tion, which should be clearly explained. It may
be argued that this is unnecessary, as each form
of work instinctively suggests the most natural
PHYSICAL POWER 33
attitude ; bat the fallacy of such an argument is
shown l^y the great mortality among men en-
gaged in certain handicrafts, which is due to
the cramped and unhealthy positions assumed
in their occupations. Consumption, swelling of
the veins and arteries, heart failure, and many
other diseases are brought on by crowding the
chest and by working with bent head.
Dr. B. W. Richardson, in his popular work
on " Health and Occupation," has given much
valuable information on this subject. It is quite
natural for workmen to assume that position
wliich will enable them to finish their tasks in
the shortest period of time.
Knowing the evil effects of such habits, the
teacher should be careful that the child does not
assume a cramped position.
Another point to which attention should be
directed is the equal exercise of both sides of
the body. It still remains to be proven that
the left side is naturally weaker than the right.
There are many exercises which involve the use
of both the right and the left sides, such as
rowing, swimming, boxing, weaving, plowing,
kneading, digging, driving, etc., and if the left
appears the Aveaker, it is probably due to years
of unsymmetrical training.
34 THEORY OF THE SLOYD SYSTEM
Special consideration should be given to the
positions taken by the chest, head, and feet.
THE CHEST, HEAD, AND FEET.
It is of the greatest importance that the chest
be permitted to expand freely. All prolonged
work should be executed with the chest out and
the shoulders thrown back. Contracted chests
})roduce shortness of breath and palpitation of
tlie heart.
The head should be held as erect as possible.
I)y keeping the head in a bent position, the pas-
sage of the blood through the veins of the neck
and throat is impeded (the vein tube being
stretched vertically), and at the same time the
muscles at the back of the neck, which hold up
the head, become strained. When we are erect,
much of the weight of the head is supported
by the spine.
Again, in this bent position we look at objects
from a wrong angle, and thus strain and injure
the eyes. The work should be held at a dis-
tance of about thirty centimeters (one foot) from
the eye.
In order that a worker may assume a firm and
stable position, the direction of the resistance
must at all times be taken into consideration. If
POSITION IN SAWING AND PLANING 35
the resistance comes from the front, onQfoot must
be placed before the other, for the resistance
offered must be as great a distance as possible
from the center of gravity.
POSITION IN SAWING AND PLANING.
In sawing, it is thought best by some that the
feet be placed at an angle of 90° ; by others, at
60°. We consider 90° the better position. The
shoulder and arm must be in line Avith the direc-
tion which the saw is to take. In order that
the head may be held high and the chest well
expanded, the benches should be so made that
they can be raised or lowered as the work may
require.
When sawing with the right arm, the left foot
should be put straight out and parallel with the
bench. When sawing with the left arm, the
right foot should be put forward. The arm
should move in the direction of the resistance.
The saw should move in a line parallel with the
bench. The body should move slowly back-
Avard and forward, and its swing should be
regulated by the amount of resistance to be
overcome.
In planing, the knee should be parallel to the
bench, and one foot should be at right angles to
3G THKORT OF THE SLOTD SYSTEM
the other. The pressure on the plane, so that the
phme-iron will catch the wood, should come from
the weight of the body. Very little force should
be put upon the plane with the arms.
In drilling, the weight of the body should be
used to overcome the resistance, since the pressure
must be vertically downward.
TO TRAIN THE EYE TO THE SENSE OF FORM.
A numljur of models have been included in
the Sloyd which might justly be termed "sense
of form " models. Such models are princi-
pally those which are bounded by curved and
regular surfaces in sucli a way that their general
effect is pleasing to the eye.
As drawing trains the eye to a sense of outline,
and modeling to a sense of solid form, so the
manual wood-work should combine the two aims.
In drawing we cannot exercise the sense of form
to the greatest possible extent, as we have but a
plane surface on which to represent that which we
see. An important requisite is that all the models
be artistic in form.
GENERAL DEXTERITY OF HAND.
A general dexterity of liand can only result
from the education of many powers of the
GENERAL DEXTERETY OP HAND 37
hands. It is not special dexterity, such as we
see in mechanics or factory employes, though it
always facilitates the acquirement of special dex-
terity. Sir Charles Bell in his treatise " On the
Hand," gives us an excellent idea of its infinite
uses.
The following are a few interesting examples
of the great extent to which hand dexterity may
be developed :
1. Two hundred and twcnty-onc words were written on a
grain of wheat.
2. A PoHsh monk wrote the whole of the lUad on a pieee
of paper that could be put into a nut-shell.
3. A Swede, Nauringaros, gave Pope Paul the Fifth twelve
I)lates of ivory which were so small that they fitted inside of
a pepper-corn.
4. A gold chain of fifty links, which could only be seen
when placed on white paper, was presented to Queen Eliza-
beth.
These, then, are the aims of the Sloyd, as a
means of formal education, while the material
element may be considered to have been provided
for in the power imparted of manipulating tools
and of producing models. The real worth of the
instruction is naturally something more than the
making of any series of models. From a mone-
tary point of view, much unnecessary time and
38 TnEOllY OF THE f^LOYD SYSTEM
labor are expended upon the models, but it is not
correct to judge an educational system solely from
a monetary point of view.
There are many ways in which Sloyd can be
taught. It may be done with a view to economy,
to utility, or as a ready-made plan of corporal
work ; but the true way to bring about a lasting
boneht is to regard it altogether as a means of
education, and to attend to the teaching of its
most minute details with this thought ever upper-
most in the mind.
CHAPTER II.
SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS OF THE SLOYD.
MANY FORMS OF MANUAL WORK.
THE simultaneous employment of many forms
of manual training in the public schools
is fen- several reasons detrimental to progress.
A sufficient numl)er of subjects is already being
taught, and every branch of manual training is
a distinct subject in itself. If the same advan-
tages can be derived from one form of this work
as from several forms, it is obviously better, on
grounds of economy of time, labor, and expense,
to confine the teaching to one.
When many kinds of manual training are
undertaken at once, proficiency cannot be
attained in any of them in the limited time
devoted to each, the interest of the children is
diverted, and in the end the true value is lost.
If, however, we restrict the teaching to one par-
ticular kind of manual work, it is necessary that
great caution be observed in choosing the best.
39
40 SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS OF THE 8L0YD
The various handicrafts have beea subjected
to the same tests, with the results shown in the
table on p. 41. The following ten points have
been considered :
1. Is the work in accordance ^vith the average child's
capabihtics ?
2. Docs it excite and sustain interest ? That is, after the
novelty lias worn off, docs the interest flag or increase with
each lesson ?
3. Are the models of such a nature that they can be used ?
Are they as serviceable as an artisan's work, even though
they are not as correctly finished ?
4. Does the work tend to cultivate a respect for rough
bodily labor ?
5. Does it train to habits of order and exactness ?
6. Is it of a character tliat admits of habits of cleanliness
and neatness ?
7. Does it cultivate the sense of form ?
8. Is it beneficial from the hygienic point of view ? Does
it counteract the evil effects of sitting still ?
9. Does it allow of methodical arrangement ? Can tlie
exercises be so arranged as to enable the pupil to proceed
from the easy to the difficult, from the simple to the complex,
so that at the beginning the work does not discourage him
by its difficulty?
10. Does it teacli general dexterity of hand ?
It will be seen from the tal)le that the car-
pentry Slovd answers all of these (piestions in the
affirmative.
MAWY forms of 3IANUAL WORK
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42 SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS OF THE SLOTD
A marked diftereiice exists between carpentr}^
Sloyd (manual wood- work) and trade carpentry,
as regards the character of the objects made.
In the former the ol)jects are generally smaller ;
and as to the tools used, the carpenter has spe-
cial planes, while in the Sloyd the knife is the
essential tool, in place of which the carpenter
uses the chisel.
The ax, bench-knife, and spoon-iron (which,
though not carpenters' tools, are used by build-
ers, wheelwrights, and coopers) are also used
in the Sloyd.
Finally, there is a difference in the manner
in wdiicli the work is done. In the trade car-
pentry there is a division of labor. In the Sloyd
the complete object is made by one person.
With the Sloyd, wood-carving and wood-turn-
ing may be combined. The teacher may include
both in the manual instruction, provided they
do not prove too difficult.
When wood-carving is included in the course
of instruction, great care must be taken that the
objects to l)e carved are themselves correctly
finished, as ornament should never conceal
imperfect work.
The following are the principles which have
served as guides in the choice of the models.
MAJ^r FORMS OF MANUAL WORK 43
1. All articles of luxury have been excluded.
2. The ol)jects have a practical value ; that is, they can be
used.
3. The objects can be finished by the pupils themselves
without any help.
4. The objects are such that they can be made entirely of
wood. This docs not mean that the requisite fixings, such as
screws, hangers, hinges, etc., may not be employed, but that
the child should not be required to make these things.
5. The work is not to be polished. This refers to the use
of clear-varnishes, French polish, etc. ; sand-paper may be
used. The object is to encourage the children to work well,
and not to think too much of the surface appearance.
6. As little material as possible is to be used. The lesson
to ]:)e enforced is that the value of the model depends not
upon the material used, Ijut upon the amount of real work
expended upon it.
7. The pui)iLs are to learn to work both in hard and soft
wood. It is not wise to have them work too much in the
hardest kinds of wood, as it is a great strain upon their physi-
cal strengtli, and consecjuently would soon prove beyond their
]iowers.
'S. Turning and carving are to ho used as little as possible,
altliough both may be included. Experience has shown that
tJiey are not as valuable as the carpentry Sloyd. Tiie time
for manual work in the public school is of necessity limited,
and to teach turning and carving for educational pur-
poses would require as much time as is necessary for the
Sloyd. Carving in all cases ought to be left for the end of
the course.
9. The models must develop the pupils' sense of form and
beauty. In order to attain this object the series should in-
44 SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS OF THE SLOYD
elude a number of examples of form, such as spoons, ladles,
and other curved objects.
10. The whole series must be arranged so as to teach the
pupils the use of all the necessar}' tools, and to know and
perform the most important manipulations connected with
wood-work. Each model ought to complete the preceding
ones, and to teach the use of some new tool or some new
kind of wood. The models constitute a series only when
there is a logical connection between all of them, each one
being the supplement as well as the comi)lement of its prede-
cessor.
ARRANGEMENT OF THE MODELS.
In the arrangement of the models the following
points have been kept in view :
1. The series must progress without break from the easy to
the difficult, from the simple to the complex.
2. There must be a refreshing variety both in the exercises
and in the models.
3. The first models of the series should ho of sucli a nature
that they can l^e quickly executed. The tasks nn;st he such
that results will speedily follow, so that the children Ijy de-
grees will gain sufficient confidence to undertake work requir-
ing more extended time.
4. In making the first models, only a small numl»er of tools
sliould ])c used.
5. The models must follow in a progressive order, so that
by means of the preceding work the pupils will have attained
the necessary aptitude to make the succeeding without any
direct help from the teacher, and conseciuently it will not be
more difficult to make one model than another. Tlie mak-
TOOLS 45
ing of the forty-nine previous models should render No. 50
no more difficult than No. 1 was at the outset.
6. The models must be of such a nature that the child is
able to make an exact copy and not only an approximate one.
7. The knife should be used as the fundamental tool. As
nearly every child knows how to use the knife, wc have
hereby a means of enabling the pupil to proceed from the
known to the unknown.
8. Rather hard wood should be used for the first models, as
it is more difficult to work with the knife upon soft wood.
TOOLS.
It is desirable that each pupil have a set of
tools, and be held responsible to keep them sharp
and in good order. A special cupboard should
be placed in the room, wherein most of the tools
can l:)e put away after the school hours. Each
tool should be numbered according to the bench
to which it belongs. The art of sharpening
tools must be taught.
An opinion has prevailed that the tools used
in the school should be of smaller size than
those of the trades. This idea was carried out
in Denmark as well as in France until within
recent years.
Experience shows, however, that children of
the age of eleven to fourteen years are quite
capable of using full-sized tools, and even manage
to work better in consequence thereof, since the
4C SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS OP THE SLOTB
weight of the tool frequently assists in the doing
of the work, as, for instance, in planing.
Furthermore, if small tools are used, the par-
ents and the children are not apt to regard the
work as real. We have not as yet seen any
advantage attending the adoption of small tools
in the manual work.
AGE OF PUPILS, LENGTH OF LESSONS, ETC.
The Nails System is not suital)le for children
under ten years of age. In Sweden the Sloyd is
taught in the public school to boys of the age
of eleven to fourteen years. The amount of
time that is devoted to it is from four to six
hours a week, or, on an average, about one hun-
dred and twenty-five hours a j^ear.
It has l)oen found l)est to extend the duration of
each lesson to two hours, as one hour is too short
to admit of arranging the benches, tools, and
wood, as well as of doing the work, while three
hours proves too great a tax upon the child's
strength.
Manual work is perliaps best taught in the
middle of the morning, as it then serves to break
the monotony of too many book studios, and
3'et the children are n(^t too tired to enjoy and
take an interest in the exercise.
WHO SHALL BE THE TEACHER? 47
WHO SHALL BE THE TEACHER?
The teacher is the most important factor in
education. As is the teacher, so are the pupils.
The earnest spirit of the teacher working amid
poor surroundings will bring about better results
than fine premises, external advantages, and ex-
pensive apparatus. The teacher must assume a
great responsibility, and for this reason artisans
who are not teachers should not be employed
to give instruction in manual wood-work.
The greatest recommendation for the artisan is
his superior technical skill. The principle that
must not be lost sight of is that this instruction
is an educational means, and that only a teacher
can properly impart his knowledge and impress
it upon the child's mind. An artisan may be a
good teacher, in which case he is equally quali-
fied to instruct, and a teacher may in reality not
be a teacher at all ; but, as a rule, the artisan
lacks a professional training — an important req-
uisite for the miking of a good teacher.
It is necessary for the teacher to take a course
in manual work, and to become sufficiently ac-
quainted with the manipulation of tools to be
able not only to understand the method, but
also to make the models.
48 SPECIAL AliRAJSGElfENTS OF THE SLOYD
SHOULD THE INSTRUCTION BE INDIVIDUAL OR
CLASS TEACHING?
Manual training loses much of its educational
value when it is not taught individually. Edu-
cators have agreed that the nature of the cl^iild
is the basis upon which educational s^^stems must
be built. Since children have difierent capabili-
ties, and since there are as many individualities
as there are children, it is evident that the
same instruction will not suit all.
To be sure, book studies are taught by class
teaching, but this is only a sad necessity. Teach-
ers generally are of the opinion that these sub-
jects could be better taught individually. From
an economical point of view, the only advantage
in class teaching is that it permits the teacher
to take more pupils under his care at one time
than individual teaching does.
In the Sloyd the teacher may give instruction
to a class of any number of pupils in the method
of making the models, l)ut he can neither super-
vise nor control the work of more than sixteen
to eighteen children at one time.
In manual training, several methods of class
teaching have been tried ; for instance, in France
and in some Danish schools the scholars have
INDIVIDUAL AND CLASS TEACHING F 49
kept time while at work, going through the
exercises at the command of the teaclier. The
result of this was that the pupils did not keep
together in the amount of work accomplished,
as one child with several movements of the
same tool did as much work as it took another
child many movements to accomplish. '
Supplementary work was also attempted. This
l)roved unsuccessful, because the boys who re-
ceived the supplementary work and a repetition
of the exercises were very frequently just those
who needed it least ; and thus, having been kept
back, they were prevented from learning certain
necessary manipulations, and left school without
having completed the entire work. It was also
found that the boy who did supplementary work
required as much supervision as though he pro-
ceeded with the ordinary series.
The most common method in the class-teach-
ing system of manual work is to allow those
pupils who have finished the model to wait for
tlie rest to catch up, without doing anything at
all. The excellence of this method requires no
comment.
Of course there are other opinions on this sub-
ject. One of our American authorities believes
that class instruction is preferable, and states
50 SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS OF THE 8L0YD
that individual instruction drives pupils into
enforced idleness while waiting for the teacher.
In Sweden, where individual instruction has
l)een practically applied for many years, this has
only been found to be the case at the very
outset. Each pupil soon became sufficiently in-
formed to go on with the work quite inde-
pendently of the teacher, since the models are
arranged according to the child's ca})abilities.
Later on, when the work became more intri-
cate with a second model in hand, the boys
have rarely, if ever, been found idle.
The London " Journal of Education," in dis-
cussing this question, says: *' If the class be
taught as a unit, what of the enforced idleness
of those wlio work too fast, or of the enforced
scampering of those who work too slow ? " .
Our American author in a former work, speak-
ing of the Swedish Sloyd system, mentions the
following three objections to this system :
1. The manual training is limited to wood-work.
2. The pupils are taught and shown a1)out their work
separately ; class instruction is not given, and the several
jHipils in the laboratory are doing very different things.
3. The things wrought are household furniture or im])le-
ments and utensils to be carrietl home and used tliere. There
appears to he no aim beyond making thrifty householders.
INDIVIDUAL AND CLASS TEACHING. 51
Regarding the first objection, the advocates of
the Sloyd movement regret that the author has
quoted this information without due authority,
for in the pubHc schools of Stockholm, Gothen-
burg, and in almost all of the towns of Sweden,
Sloyd metal work and Sloyd cardboard work
have been taught for many years.
The second objection — namely, to individual in-
struction — is not treated at all in this earlier book,
and in the later one is confined entirely to the
"enforced idleness while waiting for the teacher"
theory. Tlie author likewise promises to show
that " the evils resulting from class instruction "
are not real, but only apparent evils. This still
remains to be shown.
In regard to the third objection, in which it is
claimed that the objects should be of less impor-
tance than the method and aim of the work,
the question arises Avhether the making of
" thrifty householders " should not be an aim
in public education.
The same author continues : " The attractive-
ness of the Swedish word Sloyd is that (to us) it
has no etymological meaning to bias us. It shall
forever mean to us just what we see it means
when we see the things that the Swedes call by
that name."
4
53 SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS OF THE SLOTD
In spite of this statement, it seems tliat the
Sloyd has a special meaning for this author,
which, though not an etymological one, neverthe-
less biases his opinion most strongly, and which
he takes special care to emphasize by calling the
Sloyd models '' things,"
Again, on close examination, these " things "
will be found to contain more exercises in wood-
working than any series of wood models used in
our American manual training schools, which
are, practically speaking, high schools, and for
which the Sloyd system is not intended.
The slight put by so great and eminent a writer
upon the Sloyd system is likewise imposed upon
the various other European systems of educa-
tional manual training, as they are all practically
ignored. This seems very strange indeed, as the
European systems existed prior to the establish-
ment of any manual training school in America,
and it Avould be vain to deny that many of our
best ideas on tliis subject have been gathered from
the tried experiences in Euro})ean institutions.
CHAPTER III.
THE HISTORY OF MANUAL TRAINING.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MANUAL TRAINING IDEA IN
VARIOUS EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.
(^1 Traudatiauj'/vni the SwedLsh of' Salamoii's "■ Sloydskola and Folk-
skola,'''' Book V.)
THE application of manual training to pub-
lic education is not a new idea. The his-
tory of pedagogy for centuries back confirms this
statement.
Luther and Zwiiigli, reformers of the Church
and the school, have written widely on this
subject.
Amos CoiiDtienius, savant and teacher, who,
driven from his native town by the religious
persecutions of the thirty years' war, found a
home in every place where science and scientists
Avere honored, and who, without doubt, may be
called the " father of pedagogy," has in his
several works shown the true significance of
manual training as a means of education.
53
54 THE niSTOBT OF MANUAL TRAINING
Francke, who fouiulud the " religious direction "
in pedagogy, gave instruction in wood-turning,
[)asteboard worlv, and glass-cutting at his remark-
able Halle schools. Their institution dates back
to the end of the sixteenth century.
John Loche, the sharp-sighted English })liilos-
opher, says in his well-known essay, '' Some
Thoughts Concerning Education," that chil-
dren from an early age should be trained in
corporal work ; and he recommends carpentry
and gardening.
Jean Jaciptes Housseau, the many-sided genius,
whose '' Emile," or "On Education," is a peda-
gogical gold-mine (and this metaphor holds
good especially when we consider that the noble
metal must always be freed of much dross),
requires that his pupils be taught a trade, and
after careful investigation arrives at the conclu-
sion, that of all trades carpentry is best adapted
for educational purposes. "■ He must work like
a peasant, and think like a philosopher, in order
not to become good for nothing or a savage ;
and the great secret of education is to combine
mental and physical work so that the one kind
of exercise refreshes for the other."
The philanthropists Basedow, Sahmann, and
Gamine replanted Rousseau's ideas on German
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 55
soil, and in their writings have laid great stress
upon the manner in which they applied these
principles.
Pestalozzi, who introduced intuition in in-
struction, and love in education, speaks of the
importance of a methodical arrangement in the
teaching of manual training.
Herhart, the creator of the newer scientific
pedagogics, sees in hand-labor an almost indis-
pensable means of building up the child's char-
acter, and especially the power of self-reliance.
FTiedricli Froehel, founder of the " Kinder-
garten," thinks that activity exists before knowl-
edge, and is the cause of it. He places manual
work in the center of the instruction system,
and groups all the other studies around it.
It is not only these great thinkers who have
recognized the importance of manual instruction.
Many suggestions, both theoretical and practical,
have come from other sources, and more especially
so during the last twenty years, since the question
of manual training and its place among school
subjects has become one of the day.
The following are the names of some of the
educators who have been much interested in this
work, and whose ideas arc worthy of our careful
consideration.
56 THE mSTORY OF MANUAL TRAINING
MaHin Planta (1727-1772), a Swiss clergyman
of evangelical faith, who in many respects may
be regarded as the predecessor of his great coun-
tryman Pestalozzi, introduced at the Haldenstein
school near Chur, which was afterward moved to
the Castle of iMarschlin, a system of manual work
for educational purposes. He busied his pupils
with wood-turning, pasteboard work, glass-cutting,
gardening, and similar occupations. Barometers,
thermometers, and various physical and mathe-
matical instruments were made. Phinta's activity
was limited entirely to this institution.
Ferdinand Kinderman (1740-1801), the Bohe-
mian school reformer, at this time advanced
the idea of introducing manual work in the
public elementary schools. It is to him that
is due the honor of Ijeing the first to bring this
question into public discussion. In his work
'' Von der Entstehung und Verbreitungs-art der
Industrie Klassen in der Volkschulen des Konigs-
reichs Bohmens " (" An Account of the Origin
and Increase of the Industrial Classes in the
Public Schools of the Kingdom of Bohemia"),
Kinderman says : " After carefully examining the
work of our ]U'imary schools, it became apparent
to me that the children were least of all occu-
pied with those studies which would l)e of most
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 57
service to tliom after the school period. I became
convinced that this was the cause of much lazi-
ness and poverty, of unfruitful religious life, of
neglect of God's decrees, and of great wickedness.
I set myself the task of studying the nature of
the child. The common opinion that much can
be done with the young mind contributed largely
to strengthen me in my determination to carry
out my ideas.
" Before long I became convinced that our
primary schools, even if they are worthy of being
followed as examples in some respects, certainly
do not come up to the highest standards, and,
besides, do not in any way fulfill the aim of pre-
paring the pupils for their life-work. It is not
enough to cram the heads full of information, and
take no step to create a love for work. Work-
ing classes and reading classes must be combined.
This is the only way that industry can be made a
national characteristic. I became all the more
eager to bring about a reform, as my experience
taught me that the most industrious people were
always the most moral."
Kinderman established a school in Kaplitz, a
small town in Budweiser Kreitz, where he like-
wise officiated as clergyman. In 1773 this
school became a state normal college, and was
58 THE HISTORY OF MANUAL TRAINING
enlarged in accordance with Kinderman's ideas.
His work was appreciated so much, that in 1781,
according to his account, some two liundred
manual training departments were organized in
connection with the primary schools of Bohemia.
Instruction was given to boys and girls in spin-
ning and knitting, and in some classes manual
wood-working was taught.
Von Helfest, the author of the " Austrian Pri-
mary School," says in this work : " We have
little left of Kinderman's great labor, except the
healthy effect that can still be traced as a direct
result of his work. If Bohemia's industries rank
highest in Austria, among the causes that have
brought about this happy result the influence of
the great schoolman, Ferdinand Kinderman, will
not be forgotten. He had hardly any public sup-
port, but by his great wisdom and untiring energy
he urged a collaboration with men of all classes.
He has made the primary school the foundation of
the welfare of our state. If you will ask the ma-
jority of those who during the early part of the
century were successful farmers, thriving mer-
chants, or wealth}' manufacturers, to what cause
they would attribute the first source of their
material prosperity, I am sure they will without
exception answer : ' It was the school which gave
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 59
US the love and desire for work, and showed us
the blessing of industry, order, and economy.'"
In evangelical Germany, the first manual train-
ing school was established in Gottingen in 1784,
by L. G. Wageman, a clergyman, who was deeply
attached to the cause of increasing the general
usefulness of mankind. Following the example
of the work of this institution, many others of a
similar nature were founded at the end of the last
and the beginning of the present century.
Heppe, in his " Geschichte des Deutschen Volk-
schulwesens " ('* History of the Condition of the
German Public Schools"), talks much about their
organization and growth. He states that such
schools were established in Lippe-Detmold, 1788;
Wurzburg, 1789; Hanover, 1790; Braunschweig,
1792; Wurtemburg, 1795; Prussia, 1798; Gotha,
1798; Baden, 1803; Bavaria, 1804; Hesse, 1808.
These '' Industrieschulen " (Industrial Schools)
were intended exclusively for the poorer classes,
and their aim was to instil the love for work as
a human duty.
Arnold Wageman, a brother of the clergyman
of Gottingen, published in 1791 a book entitled
" tjber die Bildung des Volks zur Industrie "
(" On the Education of the Mnsses for Industrial
Pursuits "), wherein the word "Industrie" is de-
60 THE HISTORY OF MANUAL TRAINING
lined as ''an uniployinont of time and energy to
the best ends, conforming to the laws of econ-
omy." He speaks of the aim of the industrial
schools, as follows :
" We cannot expect any good influence from
the home training, unless in the home can be
found persons who perfectly understand the rela-
tion of education to ' Industrie.' Therefore this
work must at present be carried on in the
schools. It is there that from an early age the
child should be trained in such occupations as
will exercise and develop those forces which can
and will later on l)e usefully applied. Up to the
present time we have not done so. We have
occupied the child's mind with subjects which are
of no real importance to him, and upon whicli
his attention has remained only as long as there
were external means at work, such as either his
love for the teacher or his fear of punish-
ment. How can such compulsory activity be
useful to the mind ?
" I am l)old enough to say that it is wrong to
begin school work with direct instruction in
subjects that are purely mental, and amount to
nothing more than memory lessons, since the
cliild has had no experience, and it is only ex-
perience that can give interest to the study of
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 61
abstract subjucts. It woultl certainly be better to
follow the hints offered by Nature, who allows
the growth of the body in early childhood to
supersede that of the mind. We should, there-
fore, put a greater demand upon the more
rapidly growing corporal forces than upon tlie
brain with its slower development.
" The youthful strength has been stunted rather
than invigorated. What child can understand
the necessity of all this uncomfortable sitting
still and all these memory lessons? The child
must have an aim in his work, an aim very near
to his heart, if we wish him to achieve the
desired result. How often does it happen that
the real pleasure tlie child exj^eriences when
leaving the school exists in aught else than the
consciousness of being finally able to give vent to
forces that have been held in check?
" We need only, unobserved by the children,
watch them at their occupations after school
hours. We will soon see how we ought to busy
them in the class-room, in order to make their
school life both agreeable and useful.
'' The boys will be found at the brooks, build-
ing dams and water-wheels, making grottos, con-
structing cottages, or possibly carrying wood and
other material on little wagons. Some choose
63 THE msrORY OF MANUAL rRAINING
moru difficult, others more easy tasks, dei)ending
upon their natural boldness.
"■ The girls play with dolls, though these may
be made of nothing but leaves and moss, and
they often imitate housekeeping in their games.
" All want activity, and thus they compensate
themselves for the sitting still in the school-
room. Can these facts not teach us how we
ought to occupy our little ones? Rapidly they
go from one pastime to another ; perseverance
is not their forte, and still we are to make
steady workmen out of them. Do we employ
the right means, when we keep them for six
hours a day at their desks ? "
Wageman gives us a concise rule as a guide
in teaching manual work. He says: " As a most
elementary principle, we must follow Nature's
way, and choose at the beginning such work as
sliall require both little mental and physical
hibor, so that the results may Ijo quickly attained.
The instruction must be thorougli, and tlie atten-
tion must be closely riveted, and only at the
outset should poor or faulty work l)e tolerated."
Dr. I. G. I{:rimitz, a contemporary of Wageman,
lias treated this subject more at length in his
work "Die Landscliulen s<^ wohl wie Lelir als
auch Arlu'its odor Industrie Schulcn IJetrachtet"
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 63
(" The Country Schools Viewed as Instruction
and Manual or Industrial Schools"). This work
was published in 1794, and by a royal mandate
was ordered to be bought by every parish in
Prussia.
He says: "The time devoted to book studies
might be much decreased if theoretical and prac-
tical work Avere combined ; and, since we have
arrived at the conclusion that more will be
learned in this way, one might say that the
half has become greater than the whole. Book
work alone is very unproductive of good re-
sults, as is proven by the fact that our country
boys, after spending six hours per day at school
during a period of from six to eight years, are
in most cases ignorant, rough, and illiterate."
This book contains many practical sugges-
tions concerning the arrangement of manual
instruction, as well as accounts of the public
schools in which manual training has been intro-
duced.
At this time a similar movement was going on
in France. The great revolution against all the
old customs had just begun. In the words of
Mirabeau, " pour tout reconstruire ete force de tout
demolir " (" in order to reconstruct everything,
everything must first be destroyed"). The signs
64 THE HISTORY OF MANUAL TRAINING
of the early period gave promise of an entire
cliange in the form of public instruction, and a
well-arranged plan embodying the new ideas on
manual work was adopted.
In a comprehensive and interesting book en-
titled ''L'instruction Public en France Pen-
dant la Revolution," published in Paris in 1881,
Hqjpeau says : ** All principles of education and
all systems of instruction have been studied
and developed from the point of view of a
government which through the grace of God has
been founded from the ruins of a kingdom, by
the national will. Our education should have,
as its starting point, a respect for the rights of
man, and should be arranged to suit the needs
and demands of a people who but a short time
ago acquired their liberty."
The National Assembly now exhibited a pecul-
iar drama. At the same time that it crushed
out all that seemed to stand as an obstacle in the
way of the new order of things, executing thereby
the most terrible and bloodthirsty acts, it inter-
ested itself in the study of all matters pertaining
to the education of the masses, Avitli a calmness
and judgment most astonishing in its strong con-
trast to the perpetration of its dreadful deeds.
In 1793, the year that witnessed the falling of
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 65
the heads of the king and queen before the
guillotine, when terrorism raged at its highest,
the convention worked with great eagerness to
establish throughout the excited republic new
schools embodying the new ideas. At no time
before or since have these questions played so
prominent a part in public debate, and caused so
much general discussion, as during these event-
ful times.
Hippeau further says : '' To the time of the
convention can be traced the origin of the idea
of introducing manual work in the elementary
schools."
On the 13th of July, 1793, Hohe^jylerre laid
before the National Assembly a plan of educa-
tion which was to be followed throughout the
republic. This plan had been drawn up by
Michael le Peletier, a member of the Assembly,
who was murdered in January of the same year.
Robespierre Avas its warmest advocate.
The following is an extract from this plan :
" Public education, besides giving strength and
health, must instil the duty of the habit of
work, because this is to all both a necessity and
an advantage. I do not refer to a thorough
knowledge of any particular kind of work, but
rather to that energy, that activity, that Indus-
66 TUE HISTORY OF MANUAL TRAINING
triousness, and that perseverance to the end,
which characterize the life of every diligent
individual. Educate such men, and the republic
will see its fruits of agriculture and of industry
redoubled. Instil in the child this need, this
habit of work, and his future existence is se-
cured, as he will then be entirely dependent
upon himself. I consider this part of education
as the most important, and therefore my plan of
general instruction contains manual labor as its
vital feature. Of all the sources which are apt
to stimulate the average child, none will pro-
duce a greater desire for activity than physical
work.
" By this bill which I lay before you, I hope to
interest fathers, teachers, and pupils. Fathers,
because their taxes will be decreased ; teachers,
because they may hope for honor and recom-
pense in this new field ; and children, because the
accomplishment of some real, material work will
always be to them a source of great delight.
I would desire that various kinds of handicraft
work might be introduced."
In spite of Robespierre's efforts, this question
remained for almost a century at a stand-still, and
it was not until the era of the third republic
that the ideas of the first were carried into execu-
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 07
tion. Let us return for a moment to the progress
in Germany.
A. H. Niemeyer (1754-1828), rector of tlie
University of Halle, and director of the institu-
tions founded by Francke, in his well-known
work, " Die Grundsatze der Erziehung und des
Unterrichtes " (" The Principles of Education and
Instruction "), says : " The more incessantly Ave
employ the children, the more we can shield
them from evil habits, and create in them a
desire for the good. Children for whom other-
wise there seemed no hope, needed but very
little correction as soon as a means for keeping
them actively employed was found. To dis-
cover an occupation suital)le to each stage of
development, is without doubt the important
work of every educational system. We should
therefore give the children an opportunity to be-
come mentally and physically active, and should
not tax them beyond their natural forces. Man-
ual work strengthens the body, and frees the home
life from dullness and emiuL
" Of the many kinds of physical labor, the
carpentry may be considered as the most suitable
handicraft for the young, on account of the many
works that can be accomplished in it, and also on
account of the great variety of tools employed.
68 Tllb: HI8T0BY OF MANUAL TRAINING
Carpentry is not beyond the natural powers of tlie
child. Turnery exercises the senses and creates
an artistic faculty. It is Avell to teach the child
how to handle such tools as are used in the home,
as the saw, the haninier, the ax, the auger, etc.
Neglecting this, we are really making our children
helpless, since they will be unable to use the com-
- mon tools without hurting themselves."
In 17U7 a pamphlet appeared entitled, " Uber
die I]eniitzung des bei Kindern so thiitigen
Triebes, beschaftigt zu sein " (" How to Make Use
of the Child's Active Impulse to be Occupied").
The author, J. H. G. Ileusiiiger (17G6-1837), doc-
tor of philosophy and i)edagogy at the University
of Jena, is, generally speaking, to be regarded as
the predecessor of Froebel, as he begins with very
nearly the same princijdes, and arrives at similar
conclusions.
Rissmann says : " Heusinger's works were very
carefully studied by Froebel. His books owned
by Froebel were all marked with many mar-
ginal notes. It is needless to say that this does
not in any way detract from the practical value
of Froebel's pedagogy." Much stress is laid
u})on the development of the sense of beauty, for
which reason Heusinger believes that modeling
should form a part of the school work.
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 69
The following is a short extract from his re-
markal)le writings : " From the sixth year on, the
children are taught from books. Is it at all sur-
prising that they think it is from books alone that
knowledge is to be obtained? A bright child has
therefore no other desire than to get books and
to study out of them. The acquisition of knowl-
edge by his own observation, by his own efforts,
is something that our present education does not
teach him. This is left for after school hours,
because it is still Itelieved that the teaching of
facts should be the main feature of all educational
systems."
Heusinger shows us in his book " Die Familie
Wertheim " ("The Family Wertheim "), how his
principles are best to be applied. He shows that
the instruction must be founded upon experi-
ences gathered by those who are closely watch-
ing the school work. He thinks that manual
work sliould be a principal means of education,
as it satisfies the child's natural desire for creat-
ing and imitating.
Regarding the choice of occupation, he l)elieves
— first, that tlie occupation should correspond
with the physical forces ; secondly, that the work
should not impair the child's health ; thirdly,
that it sliould be executed both while sitting and
70 THE UISTORY OF MANUAL TRAINING
standing, thus giving opportunity to frequently
change the position of the body ; fourtlily, that
the work should not only be the means of mak-
ing the future apprenticeship to the trades easier,
l)ut should be of general use in any vocation ;
liftlily, that materials should be chosen from
which many different objects can be made ;
sixthly, that the main stress should be laid upon
the connection between the practical work and
the acquisition of true knowledge ; and, finally,
that the work should develop the sense of form
and beauty. To accomplish all this, Heusinger
pro})oses pasteboard, bone, wax, metal, and wood
work.
Emanuel von FelUnherfi (1771-1844), founder of
Hofwyl, as he liked to call himself, partly col-
laborating with Pestalozzi, strove to develop a
national system of education . Hofwyl was an
estate situated several miles north of Bern, Switz-
erland. Fellenberg bought this in 1799, and
turned it into a colony which to-day might serve
as a model for agricultural and industrial work.
Among all the institutions founded there, the
well-known '' Poor School " was his favorite. The
motto of the school was '' I'ray and Work," and
he told his pupils again and again tliat truly
industrious men not only produce more than
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 71
dull, mechaniccil workers, l)ut are really able to
do the state a greater and higher service.
In this school the pupils were principally oc-
cupied in the fields, in the woods, in housework,
and in the shops. As a recreation, instruction
was given in theoretical studies. One who wit-
nessed what was done here says : '' The instruc-
tion given was indeed refreshing. The boys would
come from an arduous task, and would return to
it with renewed energy and readiness. I can only
explain this on the ground that they were spurred
on by the existence of an inner mental joy."
Here are Fellenberg's words : " Philanthropists,
come and rejoice with me in the blessed expe-
rience of the fact that the necessity of earning
one's own bread can be productive of better re-
sults than the dwarfing of mental and corporal
forces, and that physical exertion under correct
guidance may be of great and lasting benefit to
l)0th mind and body." In his school for boys
of the higher classes, in which, during a period
of some ten years, tlic sons of the most renowned
families of Europe, and even princes of the
reigning houses, were pupils, manual instruction
was given in wood and pasteboard work.
Johann Jacoh Wehdi (1700-1855) was for many
years the director of the poor school at Hofwyl.
73 THE HI8T0RT OF MANUAL TRAINING
Though a plain and simple man, who never had
the advantage of a higher education, he never-
theless possessed just those qualities which emi-
nentty fitted him to be a teacher of the poor.
He followed Pestalozzi's method of instruction,
placing all matters Ijefore the children in the
most intelligible and practical light.
The education for work being the chief aim
of the school, little time was devoted to the
usual studies. Wehrli gave much chance in-
struction. When at work, lie told many instruc-
tive tales, and sometimes lie would even require
tlie children to solve problems in arithmetic; and
at the same time, in the most natural way, he
would tell them facts connected with the prac-
tical work which they had in hand.
Through his efforts, the scholars learned to
work in a thoughtful manner. He loved his
pupils as a father, and nursed them as a mother.
In later years, many schools with his method
were founded throughout Germany, and such
have been called '' Wehrli schools."
Bernliard Heinrwli Bhtsche was to Salzmann
wlint Weln-li was to Fellenberg; namely, a higldy
esteemed contemporary. Blasche superintended
the so-called " mechanical work." A man of
much experience as a teacher, he has ex})ressed
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 73
the value of manual labor as an educational in-
fluence in his numerous writings, the best known
of which, " Die Werstiltte der Kinder," is an ex-
tensive and interesting- work in four volumes.
His views, like Rousseau's, are that manual
training should \)g taught as a basis for intel-
lectual improvement.
J. G. Fichte (17G2-1814), in his well-known
speeches to the German nation, points out the
importance of incorporating manual training into
the national educational system, and says that it is
the only means for the fatherland's regeneration.
" My cliicf request is that theoretical instruction
and practical labor be combined, so that each
school will appear self-supporting to its scholars,
thereby creating a desire in each pupil to con-
tribute his share of work in accordance with his
capabilities.
" Without touching upon the feasibility or tlie
economical practicability of such a method of
instruction — questions which rightfully belong to
our proposition — my request arises as a direct re-
sult of the aim of true education, partly because
tlie majority of those Avho are instructed under
the national educational system belong to the
workingmen's classes, whose early training should
without doubt be in the line of technical work,
H THE HISTORY OF MANUAL TRAINING
and more especially bocauye there will arise in
the young a consciousness of being able to shift
for themselves, and a reluctance to rely upon the
munificence of others.
" This is surely the solo condition of each man's
self-respect. If we were to investigate the careers
of those Avho have led a bad or demoralized life,
we should always find that they would neither
learn to work, nor to understand the true habit
of economy.
" Our idea is to teach the .young how to work,
so that in the future they will not l)e tempted to
commit crime in order to satisfy the mere needs
of existence. We would in no case except those
who intend to follow a learned career from this
kind of work."
Schindlei', a prominent Swiss statesman, in 1854
gave to the public the following prize question :
" How shall the instruction in our elementary
schools be freed from its present abstract method,
and be made luore conducive to true mental
development?" This question was the cause of
many competitive writings, nnu^ng which may be
mentioned essays from the most })rominent peda-
gogues of the day.
The newspapers discussed the matter, and held
it in its true light before the eyes of the public.
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAININO Vo
The pedagogical value of manual education
was at once suggested.
Among the valuable answers, two deserve
special mention ; viz., '' Die Arbeits-schulen der
Land-gemeinden in ihren voll-berechtigten zu-
sammenwirken mit der Lchrschulen " (" The
Working Schools of the Parishes in their True
Relation to the Elementary Schools ") by Dr.
Conrad Michelson, and "Die Erziehung zur Ar-
beit, eine Forderung des Lebens an die Schule "
('' The Education to Work, a Demand which
Life makes of the Scliool ") by Karl Friedricli.
We give a few extracts from these works.
Proceeding from Fichte's statement that the
public education was the important problem of
the period, Michelson tried to prove that the so-
lution could be more easily reached b}^ connect-
ing the elementary schools, which at that time
were simply reading schools, with the so-called
working schools. The author speaks of those
founded in 1796, by Duke Peter of Oldenhurg, in
Ilolstein. This warm-hearted nobleman, feeling
that he had not done sufficient by simply grant-
ing freedom to his serfs, and knowing " that he
wlio is free must understand how to use his
lil)erty, how to busv tlie mind, and employ tlie
hands," established manual schools in which
7G THE BISTORT OF MANUAL TRAINING
spinning, sewing, and weaving were taught to
girls, wood-work to boys, and gardening to both.
Dr. Conrad Michehon, who had made a close
study of these schools, says : " I spent much time
talking to men and women who had been edu-
cated there ; I found that though many had for-
gotten the most of that wliich had been taught
in the reading schools, the working school was
still living in their grateful recollections, and
they all, without exception, acknowledged the
valuahle habits they had acquired there."
In another chapter he says : " When it is nec-
essary to fight against a dee[)ly rooted disease, the
facts of the case must be taken as they are, and
not as one would like them to be. I could tell
you many curious facts about these families.
"I recall one instance of a father who had been
an lial)itual drunkard, and who worked only
when urgent necessity drove him to it. His s<^n
liad joined one of these working schools, and
busied himself evenings by doing some little
manual work. One evening the father l)ecame
interested in the son's work, and it was not a
long time after this that he was encouraged to
take a luind in it. He has since become thrifty
mid useful. I know of another case, where,
through the influence of a daughter, the good
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 77
taught in the school was reflected as a blessing
in the house.
" To you who believe only in figures, I can show
by figures that a large part of the expenses which
working schools will entail would in reality be
saved out of the funds which are now expended
on the poor-house."
According to Michelson, all articles of luxury
should be excluded from the manual work, for
the same reason that all abstract subjects should
be omitted IVom the book studies. His motto is,
" Erziehen, nicht Verziehen " (" Guidance, not Mis-
guidance "). It is not models we want, but the
habit to work. Referring to the models, he says :
" On this rock many a manual training school
has been wrecked." The kind of work must be
arranged in accordance with the sphere in which
the pupils live, so that they may in a measure be-
come prepared for their future occupations. The
country boys should be instructed in Kliitern '•'
(manual training in wood-work) and in plaiting.
* The oxpression Kliitern^ taken from tlio PTolstoin dialect,
corres])oii47 young men who could
not write, 1,877 had taken a primary school
education. Of 6,480 who could wi'ite, 1,476 could
not add the figures 41)2, lO'i, 18; ;3,12() did not
DEVELOPMEm OF MANUAL TRAINING 79
know how many meters there are in one kilo-
meter; 684 did not know in which country Lon-
don is situated ; and 4,047 did not know whether
Moses lived before or after Christ.
'' Purely mental exertion impedes healthy
bodily development. In a certain community
in Saxony, out of 1,004 young men who were
to be enrolled in the military service, 902 were
found physically incapable, 176 partially inca-
pable, and 199 beneath the required stature. In
a certain part of Prussia, among 17,246 young
men, who on account of having passed special
examinations were only to serve for one year in
the army, 80/^ were found physically incapable.
" In the work of the public school, a great dis-
proportion exists between the teaching force and
the number of pupils, and therefore it becomes
impossible for the most zealous teacher to occupy
all the children under his care, and to keep
proper discipline. He is sure to be overworked
and physically enfeebled.
" The continuous still sitting, and the teaching
of subjects which neither attract nor hold the
child's attention, are the reasons why no real
desire for knowledge is engendered ; and when
the children work with eagerness and apparent
pleasure, it is generally due to other means than
80 TUE UISTOBY OF MANUAL TRAINING
an interest in the subject itself. The present
instruction neither corresponds with what the
true aim of the pubhc school should be, nor
with the laws that directly relate to the nature
of the child.
" The cause of these sad truths may be found
in the fact that the school has been changed
from an institution which should be a means to
an end, into one that has concentrated its entire
aim within itself. Instead of at every stage
adapting its instruction to the requirements of
the after-school period, it dogmatically follows
out its own ideas regarding the subjects to be
taught, and the degree of perfection to which
each study is to be carried. What is the result?
We force our children to abide by a system
which is opposed to their natural desires, since
they prefer the golden fruits of life to grave and
})Ouderous theories.
" By making the instruction more practical
tlian it has hitherto been, we can best effect a
true i)reparation. So long as the school teaches
only theoretical subjects, it will continue to be-
come more and more proud of these, and will
instil an air of superiority toward the home and
the life outside of the school. A purely prac-
tical element would l"urnisli reactionary means.
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 81
This tendency to do practical and physical work
is a demand of human nature, especially visible
in the young, since they not only require a har-
monious development, but also can have their
desire for activity best satisfied in this way.
" The advantage of a practical discipline can
be explained by stating that the method must
proceed from the simplest and most convenient
to the more difficult and involved exercises of
the powers ; thus being opposed to the tlieoretical
method, which usually proceeds from conij)li-
cated abstractions, which of necessity strain and
confuse the pupils.
'' Since practical work is consistent with the
nature of the youth, there is no particular need
of awakening an interest by artificial or com-
pulsory means. Pedagogy itself will accomplisli
through practical instruction that which it con-
ceives as its first duty ; namely, it will secure
by investigation a correct knowledge of the true
characteristics of its pupils.
"■ Individuality presupposes a distinct self-
activity, and can never be the result of recep-
tivity alone. Every teacher has known boys
who were remarkable for their dullness while
at school, and who, Avhen put in other sur-
roundings, became active and useful, while some
82 THE HISTORY OF MANUAL TRAINING
of the so-called excellent pupils grew to be
lazy and unprincipled men.
" When we think of the sickness and deformity
caused by the leaning positions assumed by both
teacher and pupils, it requires no argument to
convince us of the advantages to health and
physical development to be gained from the
l)ractical work.
"The greatest advantage of manual work is
its intkience on the cliaracter and moral nature,
which renders it as niucli a feature of education
as of instruction. Competition in this Avork
takes a more natural and less dangerous turn,
for the reason that an ambition which seeks to
do a work more correctly is surely more nat-
ural and less dangerous than one which aims
at simi)ly heing considered to have done some-
thing better.
" The fact tliat the practical instruction has a
direct bcjaring u})on the home and the family
life is of a great pedagogical value, because less
educated parents are al)le to take an interest in
the i)rogress of tlieir children, as this work
conies more within the capacity of their judg-
ment."
Having spoken :il»out the })revious attempts
made, and liaving explained some of the reasons
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 83
wliy such attempts proved unsuccessful, the
author tries to show a possibiHty of the realiza-
tion of his ideas.
His book ends thus : " Whatever be the
destiny of these contemplations, whetlier they
are going to have some direct result or not,
the author thinks that lie has paid a debt to
his fatherland, and to tlie youth growing up
to manhood, Ijy openly declaring what to
him seems to be the real defect in the present
educational system. He does not claim any
originality for his proposition, but it has the
advantage of being the expression of a thought,
which perhaps for a long time has been in the
minds of many fathers and many teachers."
''Die Erziehung zur Arbeit" came out in
1852. Thirty-one years later it appeared in
another edition, completely revised by the
author. Instead of the noni de plume Karl
Frledrwh, we find on the title-page tlie name
of Prof. Karl Biederinan, a prominent writer on
political science. Professor Biederman took an
active part in the political strife of 1848. In
this second edition, the Swedish Sloyd is men-
tioned in a most flattering w^ay.
In the middle of this century, while through-
out Germany a great deal of activity was mani-
84 THE HISTORY OF MANUAL TRAINING
fested in pedagogical circles — a period marked
by numerous writings on tlie manual training
question — Torsten Hudenschold (17U8-1859), the
self-made schoolman as he has been called,
worked with unremitting zeal to reform the
Swedisli public school system.
It is not so much because of what he said or
wrote, but rather for what he did, and for the
example he furnished to others, that many of
those who liave worked in the cause of educa-
tion will remember him with a feeling of love
and esteem, as a man whose warm heart told
liim what the 2:>eople needed, and whose gifts
as a true educator enabled him to scatter the
seeds for future harvests.
To tlie advocates of the Swedish Sloyd in-
struction system, it will be pleasant to recollect
that Rudenschold did not overlook the impor-
tance of educational manual training.
In a little pamphlet which appeared in 185G
entitled, " The Practical Arrangement of the
►Swedisli Public School," he says : '' It is becom-
ing more and more universally acknowledged,
that in the elementary school the children are
overburdened with continual reading lessons,
which they have not had sufficient time to
digest, and the result of which is a valueless
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 85
memory knowledge. That the mind and the
body are to be developed at the same time, is
gradually coming to be more and more under-
stood. Gymnastics is too much of a health
remedy to awaken either a sufficient pleasure or
interest for its own sake.
" To devote too much time to corporal work
cannot be advantageous, as we do not propose
to make either mechanics or j)hysical workers
of all our children ; yet no one can tell the
future of his child. In real life, everything
rests upon an uncertain and ever changing basis.
In the mercantile world, ' all is not gold that
glitters.'
" The system of credits, when closely examined
into, may be likened to a tremendous sphere
resting upon a volcano. The pupils who are
fond of speculation are walking upon it. The
eruption suddenly comes. It then happens that
the young men of the better classes are left
without a means of self-support.
''Children of the best families, no matter how
high their social position may be, will receive
much benefit from an early training in physical
work, as we constantly hear the complaint that
they are too weak, and seek only the pleasures
of life and its expensive diversions. They will
86 TEE HISTORY OF MANUAL TRAINING
then learn for themselves that in corporal work
there is more true satisfaction, and will prefer
it as a refreshing pastime.
"It is said of John Adams, President of the
United States of America, that after spending
his mornings in executive duties he would
devote his leisure afternoons to farming and
gardening."
In studying the history of pedagogy, in order
to learn the ideas expressed by the more promi-
nent writers on the manual training question,
two names which must not be overlooked are
those of Tuiskon Ziller and Uno ('Vgnaeus.
Tuiskon Ziller in 1864 published his scientific
work entitled " Grundlegung zur Lehre von
Erziehenden Unterricht " ('' The Principles for
the Study of Educational Instruction "). Ziller
was professor of pedagogy at the University of
Leipzig, and was a follower of Herbart in the
true sense of the word. He discusses manual
training very thoroughly.
'' Its object," he says, "■ is to make any life's
calling easier, and it should not be put in
the direct service of the state by the teaching
either of special trades or of manual work in
the home. If the work is to be arranged so
that a profit will accrue I'rom the sale of the
DEVELOPMENT OF 31 A JS UAL TRAINING 87
objects made, the future of each child will be
sacrificed. This question is not to be regarded
from an economical standpoint. The selling of
the work would imply a continual repetition
of aljout the same exercise, which means a
thoughtless, mechanical occupation.
'^ The elements of various handicrafts may be
taught, such as turnery, the use of the hanniier,
saw, plane, bore, and file. Such models must be
taken from the series in which the simplest exer-
cises are to Ijc found, so as to avoid difficult and
intricate combinations. Theoretical and practical
work should as far as possible bear one another
out.
" On the one hand, natural science, mathemat-
ics, grammar, histor}^, geography, drawing, and
singing should offer problems to the work-shop ;
and, on the other hand, the practical experiences
gathered in the manual work should make Ijook
studies the more easily learned."
Ziller argues very strongly against the theory
which had been previously advanced; namely,
that " manual work should form the basis for
all instruction whose aim is a general educa-
tional one."
l/no Cygna/ns has not come to occupy his
prominent place among the educators of his
88 THE HISTOBT OF MANUAL TRAINING
time tlirougli his numerous scientific C()ntril)u-
tions to pedagogical literature. His views have
been expressed less in words than in deeds. They
stand forth in sharp, distinct clearness in those
special school laws which put life into the public
school system of Finland, and in all the princi-
ples according to which this system is now car-
ried on. They have been subjected to the closest
practical investigation, and all Finnish teachers
know how well they have stood the test. Some
of these principles, taken from observation of the
school Avork, and from information given per-
sonally, are the following :
" The primary school should be organized as
a general fundamental educational institution,
common to the children of all classes of society.
Its direction must be practical, and its system
of instruction thoroughly educational. Since tlie
mother is the chief educator in the home, the
growing woman must be trained for her future
vocation, and be made familiar with those facts
that relate to the child's physical life and its
education. To bring this about, nurseries and
kindergartens should be connected with every
public school. Iveligious and moral training,
the teaching of orderliness and cleanliness, are
more important re(piisites ibr the school to
DEVELOPMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING 89
fulfill than the teaching of book studies. In
order to promote the practical tendency in the
school work, much stress must be laid upon
drawing, singing, music, and manual work.
" The manual work is to be applied as a
means of formal education ; that is, to develop
the eye to the sense of form, and the hand to
dexterity, not for a particular trade, but for pro-
moting symmetry in general, and creating order-
liness and neatness. Carpentry work, turnery,
and smith's work are excellent means to this
end.
" The manual work is neither to be driven
like a trade, nor to l)e regarded as a recreation
or play. It must hold a position of equal impor-
tance with the other subjects. For these reasons,
it must be taught by pedagogically educated per-
sons, pai'ticularly so in the country schools, where
the general teacher should also give instruction
in this kind of work.
" The teacher himself must study the theory
and its practical application. He must have a
true conception of its aim as a means of for-
mal training, and he must have learned most
of the manipulations so as to be able to properly
direct his class. I do not underestimate theo-
retical lessons ; I believe that all work, even the
90 THE HISTORY OF MANUAL TRAINING
roughest manual labor, presupposes a mental mo-
tive and a mental aim.
" Just as the masses, who form the germ of
society, should receive a higher education in
order to acquire a nobler, more moral, and more
ideal ambition for whatever work they may have
chosen, so should the so-called better class be
taught that God has not given the hands merely
as limbs for taking food and drink, but rather
as the most useful and ingenious of tools.
'' I do not forget that the hand guides the pen,
the paint-l)rush, and the operation knife, and I
also value such wonderful work as it lias achieved
in these directions ; but I would lay stress upon
general hand dexterity as a most important ac-
quisition to each and every one. Those of high
or low station who possess this valuable treasure
will better understand its worth in others.
" Teach the child general manual dexterity, and
the practical work will in time take a position of
honor. The strife l)etween capital and lal)or will
then be made far less severe."
CHAPTER IV.
ALFRED JOHANNSON'S NAAS MODEL SERIES.
OTTO SALAMON'S INTRODUCTION.
[Translated from the Swedish.)
IN questions relating to educational matters,
there is no danger so great as that of re-
maining at a stand-still. These questions, like
all things in this universe, are continually under-
going change. Much that was yesterday found
desirable can to-day hardly be used, and will
to-morrow be discarded altogether.
It is easy to admit the truth of this fact, with-
out committing one's self to the error of saying
that all that is old is l)ad, and all that is new,
good. There are truths which can never grow
old, though they may at times appear disguised
under new forms ; while, on the other hand,
many new ideas seem excellent until they have
been subjected to the actual tests of experience,
when they are found to be utterlv impracticable.
91
92 NAAS MODEL SERIES
In educational matters, the golden mean must
be chosen. On the one hand, we must be care-
ful not to stagnate, not to offer ourselves as prey
to the advocates of the old methods ; but, on the
other hand, we should seek to avoid that restless
anxiety to change a system of education which
has hardly had time to be submitted to a fair
trial, for a newer system which has perhaps
never been tried at all.
The true teacher will adopt the method which
in his opinion is best calculated to produce a
full development of the faculties, and will then
see that his method is carefully and systemati-
cally carried out. The teacher soon finds, by
experience, that in educational matters " things
are not always as they seem," and what appears
clear and simple may really be of a very com-
plex nature.
The experienced teacher is careful not to
jump at conclusions concerning any method ;
he is not satisfied to accept what others may say
regarding it, nor is he willing even to trust to his
own judgment; but, Ijefore he will adopt a new
metliod, he must know from personal observation
and experience what results it yields.
Educational Sloyd, one of tlie latest educa-
tional methods, is as ^^'t in its first stage of
OTTO SALAMON'S INTRODUCTION 93
devolopmeiit. Tho fundamental i)rinc'iplos wliicli
govern it are clearly defined, 1)ut the ({uestion
as to the most advantageous application of these
principles is still an open one. We have taken
advantage of the investigations and suggestions
made by others, and have availed ourselves of
the results of their wide experiences. This
applies in particular to the selection of our
present series of models. A series of models
which a few years ago was considered practicable
is now found to be unsuitable.
In an institution such as that at Naiis,
where the avowed aim is to educate teachers,
an}^ neglect to keep pace with the spirit of the
times would have been inexcusable. The ex-
periences gained from each course of instruction
have been invaluable, and we have profited by
the suggestions of the students themselves.
Three hours a week were devoted to discussion,
and it was then that each student had an oppor-
tunity to express his ideas on the subject. In
this way, with hundreds of eyes watching and
criticising our work, it was comparatively easy
to discover and correct the errors in the system.
These changes, however, have not always been
found to be improvements, and it has often been
necessary to reinstate the older methods.
94 NAA8 MODEL SERIES
Tlio Niiils method, in contradistinction to the
Nilas system, is that particular method which
adopts the exercises of carpentry Sloyd as a basis
for tlie educational manual Sloyd. Neither tools
nor models should form the l)asis of any method ;
for exercises performed with one tool do not
become more or less difficult when practiced
with the assistance of other tools, and models
are merely chance expressions of various combi-
nations of exercises. ^y exercises we mean
work done by the use of tools, in accordance
with delinite rules, designed to meet special pur-
poses.
The statement that "the models of the series
are to ])e arranged in consecutive order accord-
ing to their comparative difficulty, proceeding
from the simple to the complex," refers, there-
fore, to the series of exercises to be used, more
than to the models which are the embodiment
of the work done in these exercises.
As to the choice of models, the following rules
should be observed :
1. All articles of luxury slionld ho oxcludod, and the
models should have a practical value.
2. The models should be such as can be finished by the
pupils themselves.
OTTO 8ALAM0N'8 INTRODUCTION 95
3. They should be made entirely of wood; some of soft
and others of hard wood.
4. As little material as possible should be used.
5. The work should not require polish.
6. The models should require little or no turning and carv-
ing.
7. They should develop the sense of form and beauty.
8. The construction of the series of models should require
the use of all necessary tools, and the performance of the
most important manipulations connected with wood-work.
The practical work at the Naas Seminariuiii
originally consisted of but one series of models.
This has been changed so that the student can
work out such a series as will be best adapted to
the school in which it is to be used. We have
at present three series with nearly the same exer-
cises. Wherever possible, the same models are
used in each of the three series.
The three series of the Naas system are : " The
Fundamental Series for Country Elementary
Schools," " The Town Elementary School Series
for Boys," and the " Higher Boys' School Series."
The series for higher girls' schools has not as yet
been completed.
Otto Salamun„
Naas, March 18, 1890.
96
NAAS MODEL SERIES
THE NAAS MODELS.
/. Models in the Fundamental Series.
(A Series for the Country Elementary Schools.)
I. a. K i 11 d e r g a r t c n
pointer.
I. h. K i n d e r g a r t e n
pointer.
II. Rake tooth.
III. Round flower stick.
IV. Penholder.
V. Rectangular flower
stick.
VI. Slate-pencil holder.
yil. Key label.
VIII. Thread winder.
IX. Dibble.
X. Harness pin.
XI. Paper-cutter.
XII. a. Pail liandle.
XII. h. Part of an ox-bow.
XIII. Small bowl.
XIV. Hammer handle.
XV. Spoon.
XVI. Chopping Ijoard.
XVII. Flower-pot cross.
XVIII. Scythe sharpener.
XIX. Scoop.
XX. Clothes-rack.
XXI. Flower-pot stand.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXIII.
XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
XXXVII.
XXXVIII.
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
XLII.
XLIII.
XLIV.
XLV.
XLVI.
Ax handle.
Footstool.
Barrel cover.
Box.
Ladle.
Baker's shovel.
Clothes-beater.
Ruler.
Bootjack.
Lamp bracket.
Weaving shuttle.
Knife box.
American ax han-
dle.
Match box.
Baseball bat.
Meter measure.
Pen box.
Stool.
Try-square.
Plate rack.
Marking gauge.
Rake liead.
Picture frame.
Tool rack.
Douirh trout^h.
THE NAAS MODELS
97
XLVII.
XLVIII.
Book-stand.
Hooped bucket.
XLIX. Cabinet.
L. Table.
//. Models in the Town Elementary Series.
(A Series for the City Public Scliools.)
I.
a. Ki nd erg arte n
XXV.
Box.
pointer.
XXVI.
Ladle.
I.
h. K indergarten
XXVII.
Baker's shovel.
pointer.
XXVIII.
Clothes-beater.
11.
Parcel pin.
XXIX.
Ruler.
III.
Round flower stick.
XXX.
Bootjack.
IV.
Penliolder.
XXXI.
I^amp bracket.
V.
Rectangular flower
XXXII.
Weaving shut
stick.
tie.
VI.
Slate-pencil holder.
XXXIII.
Knife box.
VII.
Key label.
XXXIV.
American ax han
VIII.
Thread winder.
die.
IX.
Bar.
XXXV.
Match box.
X.
Pen rest.
XXXVI.
Baseball bat.
XI.
Paper-cutter.
XXXVII.
Triangle.
XII.
Strop stick.
XXXVIII.
Pen box.
XIII.
Small bowl.
XXXIX.
Stool.
XIV.
Hammer handle.
XL.
Try-square.
XV.
Spoon.
XLI.
Plate rack.
XVI.
Choi:)ping board.
XLII.
Marking gauge.
XVII.
FloAver-i>ot cross.
XLIII.
Rake head.
XVIII.
Meter measure.
XLIV.
Picture frame.
XIX.
Scoop.
XLV.
Tool rack.
XX.
Clothes rack.
XLVI.
Dough trough.
XXI.
Flower-pot stand.
XLVII.
Book stand.
XXII.
Ax handle.
XLVIII.
Hooped bucket.
XXIII.
Footstool.
XLIX.
Cabinet.
XXIV.
Book carrier. -
L.
Table.
98
NAA8 MODEL SERIES
III. Models in the High-School Series.
I.
a. K i n d r g a r t c ii
XXIV.
Book carrier.
}){)intcr.
XXV.
Box.
I.
b. K i n d c r g arte n
XXVI.
Ladle.
pointer.
XXVII.
Flower-press.
11.
Parcel pin.
XXVIII.
Coat stretcher.
III.
Round flower stick.
XXIX.
Ruler.
IV.
Letter opener.
XXX.
Bootjack.
V.
Rectangular llower
XXXI.
Lamp l)racket.
stick.
XXXII.
Weaving shuttle.
VI.
Charcoal and pencil
XXXIII.
Knife box.
holder.
XXXIV.
American ax han-
VII.
Key label.
dle.
VIII.
Pack-thread winder.
XXXV.
Match box.
IX.
Bar. ■
XXXVI.
Baseball bat.
X.
Pen rest.
XXXVII.
Triangle.
XI.
Paper-cutter.
XXXVIII.
Pen box.
XII.
Strop stick.
XXXIX.
Stool.
XIII.
Small bowl.
XL.
Try-square.
XIV.
Hammer handle.
XLI.
DraAving board
XV.
Pen tray.
with frame.
XVI.
Chopping board.
XLII.
Marking gauge.
XVII.
Flower-pot cross.
XLIII.
Bracket.
XVIII.
Meter measure.
XLIV.
Picture frame.
XIX.
Scoop.
XLV.
Tool rack.
XX.
Clothes rack.
XLVI.
Tea tray.
XXI.
Flower-pot stand.
XLVII.
Book stand.
XXU.
Flower-press roller
XLVIII.
IIooi)ed bucket.
and rests.
XLIX.
Calnnet.
XXI 11.
Footstool.
L.
Table.
THE NAAS MODELS
99
Exei'cises in the Nads Model Series.
I.
Long cut with knife.
XXII.
8crai)ing.
II.
Cross cut with knife.
XXIIL
Obstacle ])laning.
III.
ObHque cut with
XXIV.
Perpend i c ular
knife.
chiseling.
IV.
Bevel cut with knife.
XXV.
01)li(|ue chiseling.
V.
>Sawing oif.
XXVI.
G o u g i n g with
VI.
Convex cut \vith
gouge and
knife.
spoon-iron.
VII.
Long or xi\) sawing.
XXVII.
Concave chisel-
VIII.
Edge planing.
ing.
IX.
Squaring.
XXVIII.
C]ioi)ping.
X.
Gauging.
XXIX.
Smoothing with
XI.
Boring with b r a c e
s})okeshave.
and shell-bit.
XXX.
Modeling or sliap-
XII.
Face planing.
ing with sj)oke-
XIII.
Filing.
shave.
XIV.
Boring with l)race
XXXI.
01)li(pie sawing.
and center-bit.
XXXII.
Obli(]Ue i^laning
XV.
Convex sawing.
(tapering).
XVI.
Concave cut with
XXXIII.
Smoothing up.
knife.
XXXIV.
End planing.
XVII.
Bevel leaning.
XXXV.
H a 1 V i n g with
XVIII.
Modeling ur shaping
knife.
with })lane.
XXXVI.
Working in hard
XIX.
Cross-cut s a w i n g
wood.
with tenon or back
XXXVII.
Fitting in pegs.
saw.
XXXVIII.
Beveling with
XX.
Wave sawing.
oblique posi-
XXI.
Plane surface cut.
7
tion.
100
NAAS JJOL/1JL SERIES
XXXI X.
XL.
XLI.
XI. 1 1.
XLJII.
XLIV.
XLV.
XI AM.
XLVll.
XIA'III.
XLIX.
LIl.
J. ill.
LIV.
I A'.
(iluinj,'.
Uorinjf with l)rad-
uwl.
S i 11 k i 11
iron
plates.
Nailing.
l*uucliin 1 a, n-
ing (ac r o s s the
grain).
Wedge {) 1 a n i 11 g
(s ni o o 1 h i n g
])laiu').
Planing with round
or compass plane.
LVi. Fixing with wooden
})egs (for planing
thin wood).
LVII. Straight e dge
grooving.
LVIII. Dovetailing (com-
mon).
LIX. Planing with use of
shooting-board.
LX. Scooping out with
outside gouge.
LXl. Axle fitting (applied
only to shuttle).
LXll. Housing or square
grooving.
liXIII. Long ,ol)li(jUe plan-
ing.
LXIW Setting out (mark-
ing divisions with
chisel).
LXV. Grooving with knife
and chisel.
LXN'l. (iluing with use of
elamj)S.
LX\dl. Sawing with key-
hole saw.
LXVllL ()l)li<|Ue edge groov-
ing.
LXIX. Slotting (mortising
with s a w a n d
chisel).
FUNDAMENTAL SEIUKS
101
LXX.
J^ovctailiiig ill
LXXXl.
llall'-concealed
thick wood.
edge-grooving.
LXXI.
Mitcriiig.
LXXXII.
Hollowing with
LXXII.
Mortising (c o ni-
plane.
111 o n a n d
LXXXIII.
Fixing bottom
()bli(iue).
of bucket.
LXXlll.
Halving with saw
LXXXIV.
Hooping.
and chisel.
LXXXV.
Haunched ten-
LXXIV.
Rabbeting.
on (concealed
LXXV.
Graving with V-
mortising).
tool.
LXXXVl.
Blocking (g 1 u-
LXXVI.
Half-lap dovetail-
ing with use
ing.
of blocks).
LXXVII.
Fixing hinges.
LXXXVll.
Mortised block-
LXXVIII.
Fixing lock.
ing.
LXXIX.
Double o b li(iue
LXXXVlll.
Vertical long
dovetailing.
sawing (foot
LXXX.
Ubli(j[Ue notching.
sawing).
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES.
To simplify niattors throughout theso sorius, the
two broadest surfaces of any model will be called
the sides; the two smaller surfaces in the direction
of its grain, the edges ; and the two remaining
surfaces, showing the ends of the fibers, will be
called the ends. The expression "corners" will
refer to the lines in which any surfaces meet.
Geometrically speaking, this would be incorrect;
but median ically — that is, in the language of the
shop — it is not.
103 NAAS MODEL SEBIEf^
The woods, white birch, cherry, red oak, and
white wood, will be abbreviated, W. B., C, K. 0.,
W. W. Their prices are: birch, about $5 per hun-
dred ; cherry, $7 ]jer hundred ; white wood, $4 to
$6. Board measure is twelve inches square (sur-
face measure) and one inch or less in thickness.
The woods can be obtained in all thicknesses up
to six inches, varying in each case by one fourth
of an inch in thickness. The length varies from
12 to 16 feet. Standard lengths arc 12, lo, 14,
and 10 feet. Special lengths are 18 to 20
feet.
The dimensions will be given in the inch and
the metric system. In Sweden the latter is used.
On all the drawings, the dimensions are stated in
inches. The fiUl dimensions do not always
appear on the drawings, but they are given in
the statements under each drawing.
As the ordinary rule has no smaller dimen-
sion than one sixteenth of an inch, each
number of millimeters is expressed in the
nearest c(juivalent in inches and sixteenths of
inches. The abbreviation cm. represents centi-
meter.
All models, wlien linislied, are to l)e smoothed
with sand-paper, but only on those })arts where
the use of it is absolutely necessary.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES 103
Fine sand-paper, No. 1, should first be used;
tlien coarse, No. or 00.
The tools are always named in the order in
which they are used for the making of the
models.
Model No. I. (a).
Kindergarten Pointer of W. B. or C. (Straight Grain).
ODl
linch
1 cm.
Length, m in., or 10 rrn. TMrlnenn, -,^, in., or 0.7 cm.
1. Cut a suitahle piece of wood in its entire
length, so that two of its surfaces will he at right
angles to each other.
2. Cut the required thickness, having first
measured same with an inch rule or meter
measure.
3. Taper the four sides, haA^ng drawn a small
square on one of the ends. The ol)ject will now
have the appearance of a regular four-sided trun-
cated pyramid. Cut the corners, making a regu-
lar octagonal truncated pyramid. Cut the corners
again, making a regular cone.
4. "Measure the required length and cut off at
the l)road end.
Exercises. — Long cut and cross cut.
104
NAAS MODEL SERIES
Model No. I. (b).
Kindergarten Pointer of W. B. or C.
-3}^
B\ 'f ->
1 1 1 ■ ■ ■ ' ■
1 inch
1 cm.
Lfvqth, 3i^ in., or 10 cm.
ThirkncKs, ^. in., or 0.7 cm.
1. rrocood as in No. I. [a), 1, 2, 3.
2. Mako the two ol)liquo cuts (the entire work
to l»e (lone with the Sloyd knife).
Exercises. — Tj/ng cnt, cross caU, oblique cut.
IVIodel
1 N
o.
II.
Ra
ke
Tooth
3-,
of
W
. B.
or
c
-V
'
=^
\^
-1 iV
—
J
->•
UJ 1 1 1 1 L
/ i licit.
_i_i
Lcnritli, 3,"„ iv., or cm.
Tliickncus, J^f, in., or 0.8 cm.
1. Proceed ns in No. T. (ff), 1 nnd 2.
2. Taper as in No. T. {a). :'., luakin^- a regular
four-sided truncated i>yraiuid.
PVNDAMlCMTAL SERIES 105
3. Chamfer the corners, as shown in drawing.
4. Measure the length and cut off.
Exercises. — Lo7ig cut, cross cut, bevel cut.
Model No. III.
Round Flower Stick of W. W.
1 1 1 i^
1 inch
i-i-i
1 cm.
Length, l\]f, in., orSOcm. Thicknefif!. ^a in., or 1 rm.
1. Saw off from l)oar(l with rip saw a suital)le
piece of wood a little longer than the finished
length. Eemove this piece with the cross-cut
saw.
2. C'ut it in its entire length in tlie form of a
square in cross section. Cut the corners, making
a regular octagonal prism.
3. Round it to a regular cylinder. Taper the
end as shown in drawing. Measure the length
and cut off.
4. Round the end as shown in drawing.
Exercises. — Solving off", Jong rut, cross cut, con-
vex cut witJi knife.
106 J^AAS MODEL SERIES
Model No. IV,
Penholder of W. W.
Lenfffh .,71'^. in., or 'iO cm. Thic.kneutt, fi.,in., orl.Srw.
1. Procoed as in No. III., 1, 2, 3.
2. Taper as before. Measure the lengtli ' and
cut off.
3. Round the tliieker end. Tlie crescent-
si i aped seat for the pen to fit in is made l)y
l)orin<2; a series of lioles in the Hnes, as indicated
by the drawino-, with a suitable twist-drilL
Exercises. — Sawing off, loiifi cut, crn,9s rvt, con-
vex cut.
' In layinp; nut tho rlimonsions of a model, it is well to lay
the rule down on one of its edges, placinji; it close to a mark
previously drawn on the model from wliich the required
measurement is to l)e taken. Use the point of the knifc> to
mark out tlie measurem(Mit.
It is hkewise advisable to lay out tlie mensurernent about
one sixteenth of an inch more than the re(iuired dimension,
so as to have a little spare room to work d(^wn on, in case of
any slii^ht mistake, l^y followinti this rule throui^hout the
series, it will l)e easier to make the work more coi-n^ct than
if the exact dimension is laid out at the start, either by means
of rule, com]>ass, or marking gauge. This also aj)plies to
those measurements which of themselves arc exceedingly
small.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES 107
Model No. V.
Rectangular Flower Stick of W. W.
1 n ' H -■>
r3n>
1 inch
L-Li
J cm.
J.fnqth, 13 Jg m., or 35 cm. ThickmRH, f^, in., or 1 cm.
1. Saw off along and across the grain of tlio
l)oard a suitable piece of wood with rip and
cross-cut saw.
2. Plane face and edge at right angles with
try-plane or fore-})lane.
.3. Measure the thickness at each end with rule
and plane down with try-plane,
4. One end is made level with knife. Draw
diagonals on it to obtain the point of the i)yra-
niid.
5. Mark out the length of the pyramid on the
four sides.
G. Cut oldiquely to produce pyramid.
7. Measure the entire length and cut off.
Exercises. — Saininr/ off, Jovg saimng, edge p/an-
i7ig, squarivg, ohlique cut, convex cut.
108 IfAAS MODEL SERIES
Model No. VI.
Slate-Pencil Holder of W. W.
^ < — m—^
1 inch 1cm.
Lenqlh, 71^ hi., or 20 cm, T/iirknctg, ^^ in., or 1.3rm.
1. Remove from Itlock, witli rij) mid cross-cut
saw, a suital)le piece of wood. (Jut as in previous
model, making the four sides CMjual.
2. Square off one end with knife, and (h-aw
diagonal lines on tliis end, so as to locate tlie
center. I]ore a hole with suital)le l)it.
o. Measure the length and cut off.
4. La}' out on tlie second end the re(luced
square. Draw lines to indicate the re(|uire(l ta])cr
on two opposite sides. Cut to these lines. Now
la}^ out the lines of taper on the two remaining
sides and cut to these lines.
5. Reduce to its cylindrical foi-m witli knife
and lialf-round flic.
(^. Round the ends wifli file.
Exercises. — Stiiiu)ifj ()j)\ Jovfj ciil, horliig with
shell-hit, co}ivcx nit, rro-s.s^ cvt, jilnig.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES
109
Model No. VII.
Key Label of W. W.
/ 1 riff I
/ em.
Lengthy 4 in., or 10.1 nn.
Brendth, l/,- in., 07'S.Scm.
1. Prepare the wood as before.
2. Plane face and edge at right angles with
try-plane.' Gauge l)readth and plane down.
3. Draw outlines with pencil, square, and com-
pass.
4. Bore the hole with gouge hit. Gauge thick-
ness and plane down.
5. Saw off the square end with hack cross-cut
saw and cut the curved end with knife. Finish
Ijoth ends with half-roinid file.
6. Cut the notches.
Exercises, — Sfvuiinrj off, rrof^,^ cut, rrlrjr planing,
squaring, gauging, horiug 'H'lfh ^hrll hit, convex cui,
cross cut, fling.
' Even on surfaces of small area the Swedes use the try-
plane, and the Sloyd is taii.ii:ht accordinti; to this practice. It
is helieved that the child will he assisted in his work hy the
weight of the tool itself. However, a-smoothing-plane might
be used for such work as this.
110
NAAS MODEL SERIES
Model No. Vim.
Thread Winder of W. B.
1 1
O
)
1
1
1
'!
1
1
1
1
't
v^
1
1,
1
1
1 ^_^
y
b r
Geometrical Construction.
I I i-i I I I I I
1 iiu-h
J^nrilh, :l,'li (■/(., or !) cm.
1 tiicli Ictn.
2.
Breadth, l-fr, in., or 4 cm.
1. Proparo the wood as ])oforo, sawing out a
picco al)out one half an inch longer than the
finishecl length.
2. Plane face and edge at right angles with
try-plane.
3. Draw the ontline as indicated in the geo-
metrical construction (2), Avith pencil, square, and
compass, allowing equal waste on each end.
4. Th(> concave ends are madn,g, convex sliapitig
or modeling witli tlic plane, convex cat, cross ciU, filing.
ill all cases to take tlic \nwv, (juite a little lonj;er, l)roa,(ler,
and thicker than the linished leii,L!;th, hreadtli, and thickness
ri'(|uire, hecause niure accurate results will l)e ohtained hy
workin^f a model down to its correct dimensions with smooth-
ing'; tools, such as the file, scraper, or spokeshavti, than by
depending too much uiion the saw or jack-plane. Besides,
a slight error can more readily l)e rectihed.
113
Model No. X.
Harness Pin of W. B.
_!_!_
/ iiicli,
1 cm.
Lemjih, 4 in., or 10 cm.
BreadUi, \'i in., or 3 cm.
1. Saw otr from block as in previous exercises.
2. Dress the piece on its four sides with a small
hand ax.
3. Draw the form on each end as indicated in
the drawing. Reduce to shape with knife.
4. Locate the position of tlie recess with com-
pass, and cut out with tenon saw and knife.
5. Bore the holes with a suitable gouge or
auger-bit.^
6. Smooth with file.
Exercises. — Rawing off, chopping, long cut, cvo.svs'
sawing with, tenon saw, concave cat, boring with shell
bit, cross cut, convex cut, filing.
The boring may hv done from both sides.
lU
Model No. XI.
Paper-cutter of W. B.
1 inch
1 cm.
Length, \\\}, in., or 30 cm.
B^'eadUi., \^s ««•. or 3 cm.
1. Saw off from block. Pliiiiu one face and
edge at right angles with try-plane. Gauge the
thickness. First saw off with rip saw and then
plane down with try-plane.
2. Draw outline as in drawing.
3. First saw off with compass saw; then smooth
the edges with knife.
4. Pare off the broad surfaces from the outline
of the back down to a center line (previously
drawn). This center line will thus become the
cutting edge of the paper-knife.
5. Round the edges of the handle and the back
edge of the blade with knife.
0. Smooth with file and scraper.
Exercises. — SawliKj <>lf, loinj ,^(i wing, facc planing,
edge planing, .sipuiruig, ganging, wave mwlng, con-
cave cu,t, coiivc.c cat, plane sarfacc cat, filing, scraping.
r. SERIES
115
Model No. XII. (a).
Movable Pail Handle of W. B.
^=DD
♦io**-
LbiKjtli, \ipn i"-i O'' 37 t'"'
-l^io
1 inch
1.1-1
'1 cm.
Breadth, {J in., or 2.2 cm.
1. Prt3])ari^ the wuud as in previous exercises.
2. Plane face and edge at right angles with try-
plane. Gauge breadth and thickness and plane
down.
3. Draw outline according to the drawing.
With the knife proceed to finish the surface adja-
cent to the recess, a sufficient length to allow the
remaining surface to he finished with a try-plane
(obstacle planing).
4. Finish the recess and the projection piece
with tenon saw, chisel, and knife.
5. Finish the depressions in the lower surface
with tenon saw, chisel, and knife, having meas-
ured their position by compass, square, and gauge.
G. Measure the length and saw off at right
angles with tenon saw. Smooth the ends with
chisel.
7. Smooth entire model with file and scraper.
Exercises. — Saw'uKj olf, Ioikj sawuuj, face planing,
lUi
'perpendicular chiMiiiiij, Imuj cat, cross cat, oblique
cat, bevel cat, Jilinjj, scrapiiuj.
Model No. XII. (b).
Part of an Ox-bow ' of W. B.
X
W V 1 J 1 J
/ inch
The iiiuusuiuiiiL'iils iiw j;iviii on tliu ilrawiiif; arc to hv Uoublcil in nmkiii^,' each piece of
llie model.
LciKjth, Zi\n ill... Ill- 00 cm. . lirtaiUli, X!]",, //(., uv (i..i.'j an.
1. Prepare iliu wood as in previous exercises.
'2. Plane face and edge at right angles with
try-plnne.
W. (Jaug(^ breadtli and tliickness. Phme down.
1. I )raw outlines as in drawing with ('onii)ass,
s;lit of the frame makes
the saAvini;- to a straiglit line easier. Their dexterity in lian-
dlin^Li; these saws is tiuite remarkable.
^^ A MENTAL BFAilES
Model No. XIV.
Hammer Handle of W. B.
T
J,
J: — t-
119
1 inch
1 cm.
Lenrith, \\\l in., or 30 cm. Breadth, 1 ,•*,- f«., or 3.2 cm.
1. Remove from block.
2. Plane face and edge at right angles with
try-plane.
3. Draw outlines on opposite sides.
4. Saw nearly to these lines with broad frame
compass saw, and finish to the lines with spoke-
shave.
5. Cut away the corners with knife, and finish
to elliptical form with spokeshave.
6. Measure the length, and saw off Avith back
saw.
7. Finish with knife. Smooth with file and
scraper.
Exercises. — Sawing off, long sawing, face plan-
ing, edge planing, squaring, ivave sawing, smjOothing
witJi spokeshave, hevel cut, modeling with spokeshave,
cross cut, filing, scrapdng.
120
^^A8 MODEL SERIES
Model No. XV.
Spoon of W. B.
Geometrical Consfrnction.
1 iyich 1 cii).
Length, 8{'f, in., or 31.5 cm.
Breadth, 2i'n In., or 5.2 cm.
1. Prepare wood as in previous exercises.
2. Cut away with a small hand ax, so as to
ol)tain approximate width and thickness.
8. Plane face and eds^e at ri<;ht angles with
jack and try-plane. Gauge a little beyond the
required width and plane down.
4. On each edge draw the oulliiic of the npjjcr
side of the spoon, as indicate*! in second drawing
121
(side view ot ^^M^^^'^y^ ,^.,,.. and
compass.
5. Saw off with rij) and compass saw. Smootli
with chisel and file.
6. Draw on the surface tlius obtained an out-
line of the upper surface of the model, according
to geometrical construction drawing (2), with try-
square and compass.
7. Bring out the form of the sides with cen-
ter-l)it^ and compass saw. Smooth with chisel
and file.
vent splitting on the lower side.
122
^^^■^ MonML s^n,^.
,^, . . VI. V ll
Chopping Board of W. W.
1 inch
Lfivf/th, 17|^ w., or 45.1 cm.
Breadth, 5Jf; in., or in.l cm.
1. Prepare the wood as in former exercises.
2. Plane face and edge at right angles with jack
and try-plane. Gauge breadth and plane down.
3. DraAV outline of the ends with square and
compass. Bore the hole with center-bit.
4. Saw off the ends with back cross-cut and
frame compass saw. Smooth the ends with chisel,
smoothing-plane, and file. Gauge the thickness,
and plane down with jack and try-plane.
5. Smooth the sides and edges with smoothing-
plane. Finish the edges and ends with scraper.
Exercises. — Smriiif/ off\ fdcc pJaiiivg, edge jilmi-
ing, sqitaring, gauging, boring ivith center-hit^ convex
saving, perpendicvJar chiseling, end 'planing, filing,
smoothing itp, scraping.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES 123
Model No. XVII.
Flower-pot Cross of W. W.
T-T
i inch 1 cm.
Length, r>f^ ??/ , n?- l-T cm. Birmlth, 1 f/!., or 2.5 rm.
1. Saw from block a piece of sufficient length
for the two parts of the model.
2. Plane face and edge at right angles with
jack and try-})lane. Gauge breadth and thick-
ness, and plane down with try-plane. Saw into
two parts of equal length.
3. Lay out outline on these parts with com-
pass, tr3'-square, and gauge. Draw the recess on
one piece at the top, as shown by full lines of
tlie drawing ; and on the other, at tlie l)ottom,
as shown by dotted lines, so that they can be
Joined in the form of a cross.
4. Lay out outline of curved corners and of
feet. Cut recesses, form of feet, and curved cor-
]iers with knife. Fit together.
Exercises. — Sau'ing off, long saiving, edge plein-
iiig, squaring, gcmging, cross cut, long cut, convex
cut, filing, hahing ivith knife.
124
;V^yl";i",S' MOJ)J found file. TIk; I1;iI is used ou \A:\no
surliU'cs, the liiiU'-rouiid on ))l;ine ;ind cufved suiT;iees, :ind
the full round in lioles or (Uirvecl openings.
'"' In m.-ikinj.!: •'"' handle, ;i, center line ni:iy hedr;i\\n, ••ind n.
(•:u'(||io;ird teni|ilet iiKiy he employed, 'reiiiplels :ire not used
in the Niiiis nietln»d.
FUNDAMENTAL SKRIRS
125
5. Smo ^th tlie handle witli flat file and scraper,
and the ev^ges of the blade with file.
Exercises^ — Sawing off, long sawing, face 'planing,
edge 'planing, squaring, ganging, obstacle pkmhig,
smoothing with spokeshavc, wave sawing, modeli^ig
with spoheshave, concave cut, con/vex cut, cross cut,
oblique cut, filitig, scraping, workiiig iii hard wood.
Model No. XIX.
Scoop of B.
1 inch 1 cm.
Geometrical ronsfrnction.
linch X cin.
2.
Length, 9,'„ in , or 24 cm. Breadth, 2|s in., w 7 cm.
1. Prepare wood as before. Reduce it to
120 NAAS MODEL SERIES
approximate size with hand ax. Plane face and
edge at right angles with jack and try-plane.
2. Construct diagram of model as in drawing
1 (a) with try-square and compass.
3. Make the form with center-bit, rip saw,
and frame compass saw. Smooth with smooth-
ing-plane and chisel.
4. Construct diagram as in drawing 1 (/>). Saw
with rip and compass saw to bring out the form.
Smooth with smoothing-plane and chisel.
5. Tlie hollow is outlined with compass and
gauge, and is made with gouge, mallet, spoon-iron
or spoon-gouge, file, and scraper.
(). Produce the form of the lower surface of
the model with hand ax,^ smoothing-plane, and
knife. Smooth the entire model with file and
scraper.
Exercises. — Sauing off, clioiijmui , face 'pinning,
squaring, boring with center-hit, long saving, convex
sawing, perpendicular chiseling, ohlicpie sawing,
ohlicpie j)laning {tapering), oblique chiseling, gouging
witJi gouge and sjw'on-iron, filing, modeling ivith
plane, convex cid, concave cut, cross cut, scraping.
' Tho hand ax is a too] not used by us for this purpose.
We would take a chisel instead ; but the correct use of the
hand ax is very inipoi-fant, and it will be found advisable not
to substitute the chisel for it in the Hloyd work.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES 1^7
Model No. XX.
Clothes Rack of W. W.
-1511-
n i =^
§ 4" i
1 inch
1 CTO.
Length, 15}g in., or 40 cm. Bmadlh, 3,-c in., or8cm.
1. Saw out a suitable piece of wood for the
fiat portion of the model.
2. Plane face and edge at riglit angles with
jack and try-plane. Gauge breadth and plane
down.
3. Draw a center line the whole length of this
piece, on which locate the position of the three
holes for the pegs to be fitted in, and also locate
the centers for the semicircular ends.
4. With center-bit, carefully bore these holes
at right angles to the surface of the plate.
5. Outline diagram of the flat portion or plate
of the model as in drawing («). Shape with
frame compass saw, chisel, and file. Gauge thick-
ness, and plane down with try-plane.
6. Measure the required width of the chamfers,
and mark same with gauge. Chamfer with try-
plane, knife, file, and scraper.
128 NAAS MODEL SERIES
7. Plane the wood for the pegs in one piece
with try-plane. Gauge width and thickness and
plane down. Measure the length of each peg
ahout half an inch longer than the required
length, and saw oft' at right angles with tenon
saw.
8. Draw diagonals on one end of each peg.
With the same center-bit ^ with which the holes
in the plate of the model were bored, and with
the intersection of each two of these diagonals as
a center, describe a circumference.
U. Draw outline of each peg as in drawing (6),
measuring the exact length from the semicircu-
lar end of each peg to the shoulder, so as to
give the extra half-incli to the length of the j^eg
that is to project through the plate.
10. ]\Iake the pegs with tenon saw, chisel,
knife, and file. Glue the pegs in position as
indicated in the drawing, so that thc}'^ are at
right angles to the plate, being careful that the
hook in each peg-head is nearest to the top edge
of the plate.
11. Dress off the ends of the pegs that project
through the rear of the plate with chisel and
smoothing-plane.
' A compass may also ha iisod lor tliis i»uri)ose.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES
129
12. Take a small piece of flat iron suitable for
the hangers. Fold same together at the middle.
File the ends into the shape indicated by the
drawing. Make the holes with stamp and ham-
mer. Fasten in position with wood-screws.
13. Smooth the entire model with scraper.
Exercises. — Scvwutg off, long sawing, face plan-
ing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, boring with
center-hit, convex sawing, perpendicular cidseling,
filing, ohlique hevellng, hcvel cat, cross cut, convex
cut, fitting in pegs, smoothing up, oblique chiseling,
gluing, sinhing iron plates, scraping.
Model No. XXI.
Flower-pot Stand of W. W.
'^a^
Length, 15}g in., or 40 cm.
-16!
T^
^2=3-
linch
lew.
Breadth, Af^ in., or 11 cm.
1. Saw off from board a suitable piece for the
strips.
2. Plane face and edge at right angles with
jack and try-plane.
3. Gauge thickness and plane down.
130 JVAA^S MODEL SERIES
4. Moiisuro the luiiglh, and saw olt' with tciioii
saw. Siiiuotli the oiids in shuotiiig-huanl with
try-pUinu.
5. Mark tiio width of uach strip at uach end,
and connect tlu; points obtained with penciled
lines, leaving sufhcient s])ace between the lines
to saw and dress.
('). Saw out the strips with rip saw, and plane
to recprired width witli try-plane.
7. Saw out a suitable ])iece of wood suilicient
lor the two legs. Plane lace and edge at right
angles with try-})lane.
«S. (jrauge breadth and thi(;kness and j)lane
down. Saw in two ecpial })arts with tenon saw.
9. Screw the two pieces in tlie vise, and smooth
the ends with snioothing-plane.
10. Draw outline of legs witli compass, try-
square, and gauge, and work tlu; i)ieces to the
lines witli tenon saw, chisel, knil'e, and iile.
11. Nail down the stri})s at right angles to the
Ujgs with suitable brad-head nails. Drive the
nails below the surface of the wood with nail-set
and hannner.^
' AVluTcver it is possible, racli nail sliould l»e driven into
tlio wood in ;i sli,i;litly inclined direetion, niid always in the
o])|)osite direction to thai in which liu' preeedinsj; nail has been
driven in. This will make the work hold toij'etlier bettor.
FUN DA MKNTA L SERIES
131
12. Sirootli the oiids of thu strips with lilu,
and the uiitiru inudul with scraper.
Exercises. — Sawiiuj off, long mwing, face plan-
ing, edge platiirig, squaring, gauging, end plarilng,
croHS sawing ivlth tenon-sate, cross cut, long cut,
filing, nailing, punching nails, smoothing up).
Model No. XXII.
Ax Handle of W. B.
<^ 1 -
Laiijlh, iJHlil in., or 73 cm.
-28 1 J—
1 inch
Icm.
JJrcadlh, 2j\i in., vr cm-
1. Saw olF from l^lock witli ri]) and cross-cut
saw. Dress to approximate thickness with hand
ax. Plane face and edge at right angles with jack
and try-i)lane. Gauge thickness and plane down.
2. Outline diagram as in drawing and saw oil
with rip and frame compass saw.
3. Cut the edges with drawing-knife.
4. Sliape with smoothing-phme, spokeshave, and
knife. Measure the length, and saw off with
cross-cut saw. Smooth with file and scraper.
132
NAA8 MODEL SERIES
Exercises. — Sawing ojf, cliopplng, fcce plan-
iiKj, edge planing^ squaring^ gauging^ long sawing^
convex sawing, beveling with dtwio-knife, modeling
with plane^ modeling ivith spoheshavi, oblique 2)lan-
ing, concave cut, bevel cut, filing, scraping.
Model No. XXIII.
Footstool of W. W.
linch Icm.
1.
Geometrical Coustiuction.
■^I 4
■"
(^-7
H
.x. ■
^f^£
i.j
1 \
^iik-*
1 inch,
1 ' ' ' 1
1 cm.
2.
Length, \(\\% in., or 27 cm.
linadih, 8;;3 in., or 32 cm.
1. ]\Iake the strips in tlic saiiu; way
Model No. XXI. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, G.
as in
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES 133
2. Saw out from board a piece of sufiicieiit
length for the two legs.
3. Plane face and edge at right angles with jack
and try-plane.
4. Gauge the breadth and phine down.
5. Saw at right angles into two equal i)arts
with tenon saw.
0. Nail the two parts together. Smooth tlie
ends with smoothing-plane.
7. Outline diagram as in geometrical construc-
tion (drawing on both sides) with try-square
and compass.
8. Bring out tlie form with tenon saw, compass
saw, chisel, center-bit, gouge and file.
9. Take the legs apart, gauge the thickness of
each, and plane down with jack and try-plane.
10. Nail down the strips, driving the nails
below the surface of the wood with nail-set and
hammer.
11. Smooth the ends of the strips with file,
and the entire model with scraper.
Exercises. — Sawing off, hnxj sawing, face 'planing,
edge jjlaning, squaring, gauging, end planing , convex
sawing, perpendicular gouging, oblique sawing,
oblique chiseling, boring with center-bit, filing, smooth-
ing up, nailing, punching in nails.
134
NAAS MODEL SEHIES
Model No. XXIV.
Barrel Cover of W. W.
■ V-''^rr
Geoinutricul Coiif^truction.
-l-iV
J inch 1 cm.
IHatneter, ISft in., or Mem.
1. Saw off from block with rij) and cross-cut
saw two pieces of equal size, which, when put
together and dressed, will forni the completed
disk.^
2. Plane flice and edge of each piece at right
1 The disk may be iiindc citlicr ot" two or of three jiieces
glued together, as may l)e I'ouiid i)relerable.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES 135
angles, taking especial care to plane the edges
very smooth, as the pieces are now to be glued
together, j While drying, clamp these pieces in
the vise or otherwise.^
3. After the glue has dried, dress off the entire
surface to a true plane.
4. Outline diagram as in drawing 1 (a) with
compass and rule.
5. Lay out the position of the grooving in
which the dovetailed tongue is to be fitted Avitli
try-square, compass, rule, and marking awl. -
Gauge the depth of the grooving. Remove so as
to produce the groove, using knife, tenon saw,
chisel, and router.
6. Make tlie dovetailed tongue, being careful
to plane same to a width which is to be a little
more than the widtli of tlie groove. The sides
of the tongue incline in the form of a wedge,
and its depth in the form of a dovetail.
7. Fit the tongue into the groove and glue it
tightly in position. Plane down the projecting
surface of tlie tongue flush with the surface of
the disk.
' Tt rnqniros tlirco to four lionrs for thn p;luo to harden.
■ Tlio ol)jeet of this dovetuilecl tono;uo is to make the eover
stronger, and to prevent it from warpino-. The grooving is
laid out in the opj)osite direction to the grain of the wood.
13G NAAS MODEL SERIES
8. Gauge the thickness of the disk and plane
down with jack and try-plane.
9. The circular form is made with frame com-
pass saw. Smooth the edge and l)ring out the
form with spokeshave and file.
10. Smooth the sides with smoothing-plane.
11. Saw out with rip saAv a small piece of white
l)irch suitable for the handle. Gauge the re-
quired breadth and thickness, and plane down
with tr3"-})lane.
12. Outline diagram of tlie handle as in geo-
metrical construction (2) with try-square and
compass.
13. Bring out the form with rip saw, chisel,
smoothing-plane, knife, file, and scraper.
14. As sliown in drawing, the lioles for the
screws are to be bored at a sliglit inclination,
with a suitable bit. Screw the handle in place.
15. Finish entire model with scraper.
Exercises. — Smimig off, fare planing, plane joint-
ing, sqaaring, gluing, dorrfail clamjynig, gauging,
circa lav flawing, miiooihiug irifJi sj)okcs]iarr, modeling
'iiri/Ji. s^poh'^have, filing, long miring, coavex mwing,
jierpeiidicitlar cliiscling, concave chiseling, niodeUng
luitli plan(\ long cnt, herd cnf. boring irilh shell-hit,
scrapi ng, fixi ng irilh scrt/rs.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES
137
Model No. XXV.
Box of W. W.
*
l.
1
1.
1 1 1 !•
1 1 II
•*-
9i'g <■
Length, OvV in.-, or 23 cm.
1 cin.
T}?'fa(lfh, C^i% in., or 13 «w.
1.^ Saw out with rip saw two pieces, eacli of
sufficient length to make one long and one short
side.
2. Plane face and edge of each at right angles
with try-plane. Gauge width and thickness and
plane down.
3. Measure the length of each side and each
end with ruler and try-square, and saw off at
right angles with tenon-saw.
4. Smooth the ends of each of the four pieces
in shooting-board with try-plane.
5. Nail the parts together witli brad nails,
having bored holes witli brad-awl. Drive the
nails below the surface, using a nail-set and ham-
mer.
0. Smooth t1ie lower edges of the sides and
ends with smoothing-plane.
138 JVAAS MODEL SEIilES
7. Saw out a suital)lo piece for the bottom of
the box.
8. Plane face and edge at right anglers.
9. Gauge width and tliickness, and plane
down.
10. With rule and try-square, lay off the length
one fourtli of an inch longer than the finished
length.
11. Saw off at right angles with tenon saw.
12. Nail down the ])ottom of the box, l)eing
careful that the box is square before completing
the nailing.^
13. Smooth tlie entire model with smoothing-
plane and scra})er.
Exercises. — ^^dii'iiif/ off, lovfj ^aivhiff, fdcr j'^hining,
edge pinning, ."^ffKiring, gauging, pldiiing wltli shoot-
ing-hoard, nailing, jntnching in nails, smoothing ttp,
scraping.
' In nailing it is well to drive in the nails at the ojiposite
ends first, and those in l)etween afterwards. This, in a meas-
ure, ])revents the piece from sliit])ino: out of ])ositi(^n while
fastening the parts together.
The nails which are used in tlie Sloyd work are thin hrad
nails a.1»out an inch and a lialf long. The common cut nails
wiiuld not do as well for lliis work, because it is frequentl}'^
necessary to drive nails into very thin material, which would
be a]it to split if rectangular nails were used. If brad nails
cannot be (tbtainecl, the lieads of other round nails should be
llattened with a hannner.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES
139
Model No. XXVI.
Ladle of W. B.
Oeomrtrical Construction.
1 inch
Lenff/h, 13,°,., in., or 34 cii
2.
Brcnilth, Sf,. in., cir S.6 cm.
1. Saw off a suital)lc piece of wood from the
l>lock. Cut it with hand ax to ai)proximate
thickness.
2. Plane face and edge at right angles with
trv-])lane.
3. Gange the l)readth one fourth of an inch
more than the required dimension. Plane down
with try-plane.
140 JVAAS MODEL SERIES
4. Construct on both side surfaces an outline
of the upper surface of the model, as shown in
upper part of drawing 1 (h). Saw out with rip
and frame compass saw. Smooth witii smooth-
ing-plane and chisel.
5. Outline diac;ram as in geometrical construe-
tion (2), with rule and compass.
C). Bring out the form with center-bit, rip and
compass saw.
7. Smooth w^ith cliiscl and file.
S. The hollow is made witli gouge, mallet,
spoon-iron or spoon-gouge, scraper, and sand-
paper.
0. Construct outline of the lower surface as in
drawing 1 {}>).
10. Bring out the form with drawing-knife,
spokeshave, and knife.
11. Smooth the entire model with file and
scrajx'r.
Exercises. — S(nrin(/ (>(f\ vliappiiKj, J'.icc pJ'ise lines with
frame compass saw.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES 143
4. Plaiiu down the concave surface with com-
pass or circular plane, and the convex surface
with smooth ing-plane.
5. Outline diagram of the handle with try-
square and compass. Saw out with compass saw,
and shape with knife and spokeshave.
G. Measure the length, and saw off at right
angles with cross-cut saw. Smooth the broad
end surface with snioothing-plane and chisel.
7. Round the edges with spokeshave. Smooth
with file and scraper.
Exercises. — Sawing off, chopping, face planing,
squaring, gauging, convex sawing, planing with, round
plane, smoothing up), concave cut, convex cat, end plan-
ing, modeling with spokeshave, filing, scraping.
Model No. XXIX.
Ruler of W. B.
< i"iC -
o
-ils-
i inch 1 cm,.
Lenqlh, 17}g in... or 45 cm. Breadlh. \\l in., or 4.t cm.
1. Prepare wood as in previous exercises.
144 NAAS MODEL SERIES
Pkiiiu facu and edge at right angles with try-
plane.
2. Gauge the breadth and plane down.
3. Mark out the position of the hole with
compass, and bore same with center-bit. Gauge
the tliickness, and saw off with rip saw.
4. As the model piece is now too thin to be
held in the iron pins of the bench, it must be
fixed with wooden pegs on a perfectly level foun-
dation piece. This foundation piece is to be at
least an inch broader than the model })iece.
The model piece is fixed by boring witli a pin-bit
through it into the foundation piece about an
inch on each side beyond the required length.
Two pegs are fitted in to hold the model piece in
position.
5. Plane down to re({uired thickness. The
bevel on either side is made with try-plane.
G. Measure the length and saw oft" at right
angles with tenon saw. Smooth the ends with
knife and file.
Exercises.— Sawing ojf, long saudng, face planing,
edge 2)lAWjiiig, sqaaring, !/""g'>ig, Iforlng with center-
hif, horing with sliell-hit, fixing with wooden pegs (for
planing thin wood), beveling ohliquely, cross cat,
filing, scraping.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES
145
Model No. XXX.
Bootjack of W. B. ; Foot of W. W.
Il r.li i.l LU
1 ivch ' '-■"•'.
1.
Geometrical Construction.
-13,V
I. !. ft rill
1 inch
Length, 131%- in., or 34 C7n.
Breadth, 4fs in., or 10.8 cm.
1. Saw from block a suital)le piece of wood
with rip saw. Plane face and edge at right
angles with jack and try-plane.
14f) NAAS MODEL SERIES
2. Outline diagram as in drawing No. 1 (a)
with try-square and compass. Dimensions are
to be measured from a center line drawn the
entire length of the wood. Saw out with rip
and compass saw. Gauge the thickness, and
l)lane down with try-plane.
3. Smooth the edges with spokeshave and
chisel.
4. Saw out with rip saw a small piece of W.
W. for the foot. Plane face and edge at right
angles. Gauge thickness and plane down.
5. Mark out the position of the grooving with
compass, marking awl, try-square, bevel, and
marking gauge. Remove so as to make the
groove with knife, tenon saw, and chisel.
6. Make the dovetailed tongue of tlie foot,
using marking gauge, bevel, and knife. Fit the
foot into the groove and glue it fast, driving it
in firmly.
7. Saw olf with tenon saw the })rojecting ends
of the foot. Smooth with smoothing-phme.
Finish the edges with spokeshave, lile, and
scraper.
S. Lay out tlie lines on each edge, indicating
the inclination of the lower surface of the foot
and body with pencil and rule, l^^iuisli to these
lines with tenon saw and smootliing-plane.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES
147
9. Round tlio corners with spokesliuve, knife,
and file. Smooth with scraper.
Exercises. — iSawimj off, long sawing, face i^laning,
edge planing, squaring, oblique sawing, convex sawing,
gauging, smoothing with spokeshave, concave chiseling,
straight edge grooving, gluing, end planing, oblique
planing, modeling with spokeshave, concave cat, con-
vex cut, cross cut, filing, scraping.
Model No. XXXF.
Lamp Bracket of W. W.
Geometrical Construction.
■ X inch 1 cjii.
Length, ItJ J i«., . Smooth the end surfaees in sliooting ])oard
with try-})hine.
1. The l)ack and the l)()(t()in piece an; now to
l)e dovetailed togetlier. Lay out the mortises on
the h;ick {)ieee as ill drawing 1 [h), using compass,
rule, and hevel. JVhirk out the depth of the
mortises e or 19 cm. BrmiUh, S,^. hi., w 8.5 cm.
1. Saw out the several parts with rij) and cross-
156 NAAS MODEL SERIES
cut saw. Piano face and odgo of each at
riglit angles with try-piano. Gauge breadth and
thickness of each part, and plane down. (The
back or wall piece when planed down is ad-
justed with wooden pegs to a foundation piece,
as in Model No. XXIX.)
2. ( )utline diagram of wall i)iece as in geomet-
rical construction (2) with try-square and com-
pass. Sliape same with knife. Smooth with
file.
3. Bore holes with center-bit and brad-awl.
4. Make the dovetailing as in Model No.
XXXI.
5. After the lower edges of the box have been
smoothed with file, the bottom is glued fast, and
held in clamps in position to dry.
6. The box is rounded with knife, and
smoothed with file and scrapei-. Nail down tho
wall piece.
7. A piece of emery or fine sandpaper ma}'' be
glued on the front surface of the wall piece, near
the lower end, as indicated by the lines on tho
drawing.
Exercises. — Rawing off, long sanmig, face planing,
edge ijlani iig, squaring, ga aging, leaning ivifh. ronnd
or com,j)ass plane, boring /rllh center-hit, concave cut,
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES
157
loiif] cut, rms.s cut, convex cui, filing, phming in
shooting-board, common doveta/Uing, gluing 'witli, use
of clamps, nailing, hcjring witJi brad-awl, scra'ping.
Model No. XXXVl.
Baseball Bat of W. B.
■1 inch
Lnl(|fh,^^ ni in., or 80 cm.
1 cm.
Breadth, \fi., in. nr li% in. ; or 3 or 4 c?n.
1. Saw off from block a siiila])lo piece of wood.
Plane face and edge at right angles with try-
plane. Gauge thickness and plane doAvn.
2. Proceed as in Model No. IX. 4, making the
work first rectangular, then octagonal, and then
sixteen sided. Round with try and smoothing-
plane (the planing to be done from the lower to
the upper end).
3. Measure the length, and saAV off at right
angles with tenon saw. Shape the ends with
knife.
4. Smooth with file and scraper.
Exercises. — Saiving off, long sawing , face planing ,
scpiaring, gauging, long oblique ptlaiiiiig, bevel plan-
ing, modeling with pjlane, convex cut, filing, scraping.
158
NAA."^ MODEL SERIES
Model No. XXXVII.
Meter Measure of W. B.
Lenf/lli, 25111 ;,/;., oj- 05 cm.
Breailth, \% la., or 2.2 cm..
1. I*ro[)iir(' wood as in provions exercises.
Piano face and od«j;o at Y'\\i}\i an^los. Gauge
breadtli and tlnckness, and })lano down.
2. Lay out on oacli end the finished width,
and connuct tlicsci points l)y lines indicating the
taper. Plane down to these lines with try-plane.
Afark (n\{ the divisions with eoni})ass, tr^^-sqnare,
and 1)rad-awl.
3. treasure the length, and saw ofT at right
angles with tenon saw.
4. The position of the hole is laid ont with
compass and l)ored with center-hit.
5. Outline diagram of handle, and shape with
chisel and knife. Smooth with f\\Q: and scraper.
Exercises. — ISiuvhuj o//', loiuj .^(LH)i)i, xcraping, working iih hard, wood.
^ 111 ni;il-;iiiL;: Hiis model, it is of tlir utmost im|)ort;inee that
special care betaken to worlv down to exact dimensions. It
is ne(;essarv that the try-square be made :d)Solute]y accurate,
and tlierelbre no wood should be used which has not been
thoroughly seasoned.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES
105
Model No. XLI.
Plate Rack of W. W.
"V
/ inch 1 cm.
si \] M SI \) M Nj Nj M si SI \
-ItV
AAA
1.
Geometrical Coustructiou.
-\-l\-^^-h-^-
Length, 19JJ j«., or 50 cm.
2.
Breadth, ^{'^ i-i., or 10 cm.
166 NAA8 MODEL SERIES
1. Saw out tliu parts for tliu sidus with rij) saw.
2. Piano face and edge at right angles with
jack and try-plane. Gauge breadth and thick-
ness and plane down. Measure the length, and
saw off at right angles with tenon saw. Smooth
the ends in shooting-board witli try-phine.
3. The dovetailing is made as in Model No.
XXXI. Nail the two long sides togetlier. (Jut-
line diagram of the form on opposite surfaces
with compass, try-s(|uare, and gauge. Bring
out the form with frame compass saw, gouge,
spokeshave, knife, and tile. Separate the parts.
4. Mark out the position of the notches with
compass, try-square, and gauge, and cut same
with tenon saw and knife.
5. Smooth the inner surfaces with smoothing-
plane. Glue the parts together.
G. Saw out the piece for the bottom. Plane
face and edge at right angles. Measure Ijreadth,
gauge thickness, and plane down.
7. Smooth tlie lower edges of tlie four sides
with smoothing-plane. Nail down the bottom
piece.
8. Smooth all the outer surfaces witli try-])lane
and smoothing-plane.
9. Saw out a suit;i1)l(' piece for tlic four feet.
Plane face and edgc^ at right angles. ( )utHne
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES 167
diagram with try-squaro and compass, and form
witli chisel and gouge. Nail down.
10. Saw off a suitable piece for the plate-rest.
Plane face and edge at right angles.
11. Measure breadth, gauge thickness, and plane
down.
12. Saw off at one end at right angles with
tenon saw. Smooth in shooting-board with
smoothing-plane. Outline diagram of plate-rest
as in geometrical construction (2) with try-s(|uare
and compass.
13. Form with center-l)it, compass saw, smooth-
ing-plane, chisel, gouge, and file.
14. Mark out tlie position of the two holes in
tlie long sides in wliich nails are to be driven to
liold the plate-rest. (These nails form pivots
upon which the plate-rest may b(i turned down
when not in use.)
15. Bore the holes with brad-awl, and nail the
plate-rest in place.
IG. Smooth the entire model with scraper.
Exercises. — Smrivfj off, loncj snivinr/, face jiJan-
ing, edge j^Ianing, squaring, ganging, 'planing in
si tooting -hoard, dovetailing in thicJc mood, convex
saicing, swoothivg irith spokeshave, j)erperidicnlar
gouging, long cut, cross sawing with tenon saw,
168
NAAS MODEL SERIES
oblique cut, cross cut, smoothing up, gluing, nailing,
punching in nails, mitering, oblique chiseling, end
planing, boring with center-bit, oblique satuing, oblique
planiiig, perpendicular chiseling, modeling with plane,
oblupie gou,ging, boring with brad-awl, fitting axle.
scraping.
Model No. XLII.
Marking Gauge of W. B.
^
'S-
■\
OI
-9iV
1 inch
1 b
1 CM.
Length, 5,',! Ji., nr 13 nn.
BreniUh, \\l in., orA.hcm.
1. Saw out tlio several parts (head or stock,
l)ar, wedge, and key)' witli rip and eross-eut saw.
* The marking gauge consists of four parts. The stock is
tlic handle. The bar is the blade which moves up and down
in the stock. The wedge holds the bar in i)()sition. The key
is a smallcv wcdtie.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES lG9
Plane face and edge of each at right angles.
Gauge the breadth and thickness and plane
down.
2. Mark the position of the mortise with com-
pass, try-square, and marking gauge,^ and make
same with firmer-chisel and mallet.
3. Measure the length of tlie head or stock,
and saw off with tenon saw. Sliape its ends with
chisel.
4. Fit the bar into the mortise witli smooth-
ing-plane. Measure the lengtli of the bar, and
saw off with tenon saw. Shape with knife.
5. Make the wedge and the key with tenon
saw, smootliing-plane, chisel, and knife.
G. Smootli all the ])arts with file and scraper,
and fit together.
Exercises. — Satving off, long sawing, face 'planimg,
edge plaiting, squaring, gauging, mortising (corn-
m.on and obl/upir), jJcrjDendicular chiseling, sino< till-
ing up, cross cut, long cut, convex cut, modeling 'iriili
plane, filing, scraping, boring with hrad-aiul.
' In American shops it is customary to place tlie gauge in
the left liand and push it forwards. The Swedes use either
hand, and they ])ull the gauge toward tlie body, or i»ush it
away from it, as happens to be most convenient under the
circumstances.
170
NAA8 MODEL SERIES
Model No. XLIII.
Rake Head of W. B. and Alder or Ash.
11'
1 hich /rill.
Lmrjtfi, ^m in., or fiO cm. Breadth, 1 ,^. in., or 3 r7n.
\. Saw off a RiiitaMe piece for tlie curved top
and plane fjice and edge at right angles. Out-
line diagram as in drawing {(().
2. Saw ont with frame saw, and finish 1o the
lines with smoothing-plane, spokeshave, chisel,
and file.
3. Saw from Mock a suitahle piece of alder or
ash for the handle. Plants face and vih^i' at right
a miles.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES 171
4. Outline diagram with try-square and com-
pass, and shape with try-phine, center-bit, rip
saw, knife, and file.
5. Taper with jack and try-plane.
6. Outline position of the mortises in the top
piece in which the handle is to be fitted with
try-square, bevel, and mortise gauge, and make
tlui mortises with firmer-chisel and mallet. Fit
the parts together with chisel.
7. Measure the length of the handle, and saw
off with tenon saAV.
8. Draw a center line on one side of the top
piece, and mark out the position of the holes
for the teeth with compass. Bore holes with a
suitable pin-bit.^
9. Gauge the thickness and plane down with
try-plane.
10. Smooth entire model with fde and scraper.
Exercises. — Sawing off, convex sawing, face j)km-
ing, smoothing up, squaring, smoothing with spoke-
shave, perpeiidicular chiseling, oblique saiving, oblique
j)laning, boring with center-bit, long cut, gauging,
mortising [common and oblique,) bevel cut, concave
cut, cross cut, boring wWi sluU-hit, filing, scraping.
^ In order to m:iko the opcnin,(>:s jierfeetly suiooth, it is best
to bore with pin-bit from oppt)site sides.
172
naas model series
Model No. XLIV.
Picture Frame of W. B.
H
..^
±__i^
Lenr/th, 12Jg i/i , o?' 33 rm.
-Hi's-
1 inch 1 cm.
^— irc-
m
^iiV
-^L,
Breadth, 11 in., or 28 rm.
1. Saw out tlie several parts with rip and eross-
eut saw. Plane face and edge of each at right
angles. Gauge l)readth and thickness and plane
down.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES 173
2. Measure the length of the pieces intended
for the four sides. Saw off at right angles with
tenon saw. Smooth the ends in shooting-board
with try-plane.
3. Mark out the position of the half-lap joints
Avith try-square, marking awl, and gauge, and
make same with tenon saw and chisel (halving
with saw and chisel).
4. Fit the parts and glue together.
5. Smooth on outside and inside surfaces with
smoothing-plane.
6. The rabbet on the rear side in which the
l)icture back is to be fitted is made with mark-
ing gauge, chisel, and knife.
7. Mark out the position of the graving with
compass, try-sc^uare, and gauge. Make same with
V-tool or knife.
8. Make the hanger with smoothing-plane,
center-l)it, and chisel. Make a groove for same
with tenon saw and chisel. Glue in.
9. The small square pyramids which ornament
the outer surface of the frame are made in one
piece with try-plane. Saw off to required length
with tenon saw. Smooth ends in shooting-board
and shape with chisel. Glue down.
10. Smooth the ends of the piece intended for
the picture back in shooting-board witli try-plane.
174 NAAS MODEL SERIES
Fit into the rabbet. Smooth entire model with
scraper.
Exercises. — /Sawing off, long scming , face planing ,
edge 2^laning, squaring, gauging, pla7iing in shoot-
ing-board, halving vnth saw and chisel, gluing,
smootJiing ujJ, rabbeting, plain jointing, fixing with
wooden 2'>€gs, oblique cJdseling, graving with V-tool, bor-
ing with center-bit, cross sawing with tenon saw, perpen-
dicular chiseling, cross cut, bevel cut, filing, scraping.
Model No. XLV.
Tool Rack of W. W.
o
o
O
<^
o
o
O
o
o
t
bv
-ll^
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES
175
Geometrical Construction.
Length, 31 J J in., or 55 cm.
Breadth, 11 in., or 28 cm.
1. Saw out all the parts with y\\) and cross-cut
saw. Mark off the .required breadth, gauge the
required thickness of each, and plane down with
jack and try-plane. Measure the length of each,
and saw off at right angles with tenon saw.
2. The ends of the pieces that are to be dove-
17C NAAS MODEL SERIES
tailed are siiiootlied in shooting-board with try-
plane.
3. Make dovetailing as in Model No, XXXI.
(half blind dovetail as indicated by drawing).
4. Outline diagram of the back with try-square,
compass, meter measure or rule, and gauge, and
finish to the lines with frame compass saw, center-
bit, smoothing-plane, knife, and file. Smooth
the ends of the bottom in shooting-board.
5. Glue the several parts together.
G. Outline diagram of the front of the box
with try-square, compass, and gauge. Bring out
the form with compass, knife, and file. Fit
together the sides of the box with tenon saw,
chisel, and file. Nail down.
7. Smooth all outer surfaces with smoothing-
plane. Outline diagram of the brackets — two as
in geometrical construction No. 2 (/), two as in
geometrical construction No. 2 {
1 inch
Length, 15 in., or3S cm.
Breadth, Oj'g in., or23cm.
1. Saw out all the parts with rip and cross-cut
saw. Plane face and edge at right angles with jack
178 NAAS MODEL SERIES
and try-plaiio. Gauge bruadth and thickness and
})lane down. Measure the lengJi of the fcnir
sides with rule, and mark out the. angle of
the inclination of their ends with Ijevel and
try-square. Saw to the lines with tenon saw.
Smooth the ends in shooting-board with smooth-
ing-plane. Smooth the inner surfaces of the four
sides with smoothing-plane. Glue the parts
together. Smooth the outer surfaces with smooth-
ing-plane.
2. (Jutline the grooves for the handles to ilt
in with try-scpiare, bevel, and marking gauge,
and make same with knife and chisel. Make
each handle in three se})arate pieces with tenon
saw, smoothing-plane, chisel, knife, and file. Fit
the three pieces togetlier by means of an open
mortise and tenon joint. Glue the two side
pieces of each handle in position in the box, then
glue the cross pieces fast, and finish the corners
with knife and file.
o. Measure the length of the bottom piece.
Saw off at right angles with tenon saw. Smooth
the ends in shootinoi-board.
4. Round the edges and ends of the bottom
with smooth ing-])lane and lile.
5. Nail down the ])()ttom. l)riv(' nails below
the surface Avith iiail-sct.
FUN DA MKNTA L SERIES
1T9
G. Smooth tlio bottom with smoothing-plane
and thu entire model with scraper.
Exercises. — Sawing off, long sawing, face 2)laning^
edge i^/aMWi,^, squaring, gauging, oblique saiuing,
oblique planing, double oblique dovetailing, smoothing
up, gluing, plain jointing, oblique notching, fixing
with wooden pegs, convex ad, long cut, filing, model-
ing with plane, 'nailing, puncJiing in nails, scraping.
Model No. XLVII.
Book Stand of W. W.
*\?t,
12
1.
180
NAAS MODEL SERIES
Geometrical Coustruction.
r-Mf-
Geomcliicul CmiBtruction.
< 5 A ^
rI-»
ri-ri;;-
i iiic/t t cm.
3.
-5i^; ~
1 inch 1 cm.
2.
Length J 'iOf^ hi., or 52 cm.
Breadth, 17};-; in., oiihcm.
1. Saw out the several parts with rip and cross-
cut saw. Phme face and edge of each at right
angles. Measure the breadth, gauge the thick-
ness, and plane down.
2. Nail together the two pieces intended for
the sides.
'1 Outline diagram on opposite surfaces with
try-square, coni[)ass, and meter measure. Shape
with compass saw, chisel, spokeshave, knife, file,
and scraper. Separate the two piec^es.
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES 181
4. The grooves in which the shelves are to be
fitted are outlined on the inner surfaces with
compass, try-square, bevel, aiid marking gauge.
Make the groove with knife, tenon saw, and
chisel. Measure the length of the shelves, and
saw off at right angles with tenon saw. Smooth
the ends in shooting-board.
5. Round the front edges of the shelves with
smoothing-plane.
(). Fit the shelves into the grooves with chisel.
Glue fast. Smootli all the surfaces with sniootli-
ing-plane, file,^ and scraper.
Exercises. — Sawing off, long sawing, face plan-
ing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, planing in
sliooting -hoard, convex sawing, perpendicular chisel-
ing, smoothing with spoheshave, conca.ve cut, convex
cut, cross cut, filing, scraping, half-concealed edge
grooving, smootldng up, inodellng witli plane, gluing.
' The proper use of tlie file in the 81oy<:l work is very diffi-
cult to master. Tlie file should he i)ushed from the hody,
never pulled towards it. It is likewise necessary to guard
against allowing- the file to roll or wahhle, as the surface
Avorked upon will l)ecome true only when the file is grasped
firmly hy the handle, and pushed forward with a raj^id, steady
stroke. It should then be lifted from the wood and placed in
its original position. Be careful not to press too heavily upon
the wood, as the teeth of the file will then become dull very
rapidly. The grooves between the cutting edges should be
cleaned from time to time.
182
NAAS MODEL SERIES
Model No. XLVIII.
Hooped Bucket of W. W.
Heii///t, 7\i in., or 20 cm.
Diameter, Si% in., or 21 cm.
1. Saw out all the parts with rip and cross-
cut saw. Plane face, edge, and ends of each
stave at right angles with jack and try-plane.
2, Draw on both ends of each stave a curved
FUNDAMENTAL SERIES 183
line, which is to guide in the planing down, in
order to produce the inner concave surface of
each stave. Form the concave surface with jack
and round-plane.
3. Gauge the thickness of each stave along
the edges. Draw on both ends the curved line
to guide for making the convex surface. Finish
to the lines with hand ax, jack, and smoothing-
plane.
4. Outline diagram of the bottom as in draw-
ing 1 (/>) with compass. Gauge the thickness
and plane down. Bring out the form with frame
compass saw and spokeshave.
5. The inclination of edges of the staves is
marked out with bevel and marking gauge, and
made with smoothing-plane.
6. Outline diagram of the grooves V)y means of
marking awl, bevel, and gauge, on the inner sur-
face of each stave, in which the bottom is after-
ward to be fitted, making- the breadth of the
grooves equal to the thickness of the bottom
piece. Cut the grooves Avith knife and chisel.
7. With try-square and gauge mark out the
position of the holes in which the little wooden
pegs that hold the staves together are to ha fitted.
Bore the holes with brad-awl.
8. Fit the staves together and set the bottom
184 NAA8 MODEL SERIES
into the grooves. Smooth the outer surface of
the staves with smoothing-phxne.
9. The iron bands which encircle the staves are
now made fast.
10. Mark out tlie required lengtli between the
l)ottom piece and the lower end of the staves by
means of the compass. Saw off with tenon saw.
Smooth the ends with smoothing-plane and
spokeshave.
11. The height is also to be measured from
the bottom piece, and sawed off with tenon saw
Smooth the upper ends with smoothing-plane
and spokeshave.
12. Outline diagram of lower ends as in draw-
ing 1 {Series are
made in tlie same way as the corresponding models in the
193 JVAAS MODEL SERIES
Model No. II.
Parcel Pin of W. B.
1 inch ■' cm.
Length, 2{l in., or 7 cm. Thickness, y*s in., or 1 cm.
1. A suitable piece of wood is cut four-sided so
that it will have the form of a square in cross
section.
2. Measure the length and cut off.
o. Chamfer as shown in drawing. (Jut the
notches. (The entire work is to be done with
the knife.)
Exercises. — Long cut, cross cut, bevel cut.
Model No. III. Round Flower stick. [ScC pCKJC 105.)
Model No. IV. Penholder. {^ScC pCigC 106.)
Model No. V. Rectangular Flower Stick. {^ScC pdQC
107.)
Model No. VI. Slate-pencil Holder. [ScC page 108.)
Model No. Vll. Key Label. [ScC jXigC \00.)
Model No. Vlll. Thread Winder. i^ScC 'pagC llO.)
Fundamental Series, and many of those in the Iliph Sehool
Series are made like those in either the Fundamental or the
Town Series. In such (uises a reference to tlie paije on wliieh
the mo(U'l has already been described is sullieient.
2'OWN ELEMENTARY SERIES 193
Model No. IX.
Bar of W. W. (used by the Wood-Carriers).
Am-
1 inch 1 cm,
Len/fth, 13ig In., or 3b cm. Diarmter. 1 in., or 2.5 cm.
1. Saw from block a suitable piece of wood with
ri[) and cross-cut saws.
2. Plane ftice and edge at right angles. Gauge
breadth and thickness, and plane down with
jack and try-planes.
3. Draw diagonals on both ends. With the
intersection points as centers, describe circumfer-
ences within the squares.
4. Make the object octagonal, then sixteen-sided
with try-plane.
5. Round with smoothing-plane.
6. Measure the length and saw off with tenon
saw.
7. Round the ends with knife, and smooth
entire model with file.
Exercises. — Sawing off, long Sdiving, edge planing,
squaring, gauging, bevel planing, modeling luith
plane, convex eat, cross-cut, filing.
194
JVAAS MODEL SERIES
Model No. X.
Pen Rest of W. B.
Q 9
Otti *
ruT
1 r
tinch
Lenglh, 3^^ lu.^ nr 9 cut.
Brtadlh, \% in.., or 2 cm.
1. Saw from block us buforu. Cut to approxi-
iiiatu tliicknoss with hand ax.
2. Plane facu and odgu at right angles. Gauge
breadth and thickness and plane down.
3. Measure the length and the position of the
recesses with compass. Saw off the length with
tenon saw. Cut the recesses with tenon saw
and knife.
4. On each end construct a semicircle with a
radius equal to half the thickness. Round the
upper surface with these semi-circumferences as
guiding lines, using smoothing-plane for the pur-
pose. Smooth the ends with knife and the entire
model with file.
Exercises. — Smving off, cho^^iying, edge planing,
squaring, gauging, cross-sawing tuith tcu,on saw, long
cut, cross cut, modcli'tuj with plane, filing.
Model No. XI. Paper-Cutter. [ScC puge 114.)
TOWN ELEMENTARY SERIES li>5
Model No. XII.
Strop Stick of W. B.
1
t
o \a
,f
\m
''
lA
c.
V
5^
t inch 1 cm.
■^1
I, 15
1?
in.
,07
40
cm
Bfeadth,
lis in., or icm
1. Saw from block as before.
2. Plane face and edge at right angles. Gauge
breadth and thickness and plane down,
3. Construct outline on both edges as in draw-
ing {b) with try-square and gauge. Bring out the
form with rip saw, smoothing-plane (obstacle plan-
ing), and chisel.
4. Saw off the length of the handle with tenon
saw. Smooth this end with chisel. Measure the
entire length and saw off. Round the upper end
with tenon saw and chisel.
5. Bore the hole with center-bit, working from
opposite sides. Smooth with file and scraper.
Exercises. — Salving off, long sawing, face planing,
edge planing, squaring, gauging, obstacle planing,
perpendicular chiseling, boring with center -bit, filing,
scraping.
13
iO(J
KAAS MODEL SERIES
Model No. XIII. Small Bowl. {^ScC iJiKJC I'll .)
Model No. XIV. Hammer Handle. {ScC pMJC llU.)
Model No. XV. Spoon. {8eG pa(JG 120.)
Model No. XVI. Chopping Board. [See JKl'JC 122.)
Model No. XVII. Flower-pot Cross. (^/S'ctJ j^rt^tJ 123.)
Model No. XVIII.
Meter Measure of W. B.
z:
>l c
:7z:
irMt^ *
aZDt-6
Len(//h,25i'si»;Or6ic»i. Breadth, \ in., or 2.^ cm.
1. Saw from Ijlock a suitable piece of wood
as l)efore.
2. Plane face and edge at right angles. Gauge
breadth and thickness and i)lane down.
3. Draw outline of the rule as in drawing (a)
with try-square and gauge, and make with rip
saw, smoothing-plane, and spokeshave.
4. Taper Avith try-plane.
5. Draw outline of the handle. Saw out with
compass saw and shape with knife. Chamfer
with knife.
6. Measure length, and saw olF at right angles
with tenon saw.
7. Smooth entii-e model with file and scraper.
TOWN ELEMENTARY SERIES
197
Exercises. — Sawing off, long scvwlng, face 'plan-
ing^ edge plcudng, squaring, gauging, ohstacle 'plan-
ing, smoothing with spoheshave, convex sawing,
concave cut, long cut, convex cut, cross cut, level cut,
filing, scrapjing.
Model No. XIX. Scoop. (aScC pagC 125.)
Model No. XX. Clothes Rack. (aS'cC pagC 127.)
Model No. XXI. Flower-pot Stand. (^'CC p)a(JC 120.)
Model No. XXII. Ax Handle. (aS6'(^ pagC 131.)
Model No. XXIII. Footstool. (iS'ee pagC 132.)
Model No. XXIV.
Book Carrier of W. W. and W. B.
I inch I cm.
1—
1
1 1 1
j
1
II •
( 1
• (1
1
1
1
1
1 1
t
1
1.
198 JVA-iS MODEL SERIES
Geometrical Construction.
1 inch 1 cm.
Length, 9^^111., or 'i^ cm, 2. Breadth, b\f. In., or lb cm.
1. Saw out the two pieces that form the carrier
as before. Plane face and edge of each at right
angles. Measure the breadtli and plane down.
2. Mark out the position of the grooving in
the top piece with try-square, compass, meter
measure, marking-awl, bevel, and gauge. Cut the
groove with tenon saw, chisel, and rabbet plane.
3. Make the two dovetail tongues with jack
and try-plane. Fit them into the grooves.
Gauge the thickness and plane down.
4. Measure the required length of the parts,
and saw off with tenon saw.
5. Nail the parts together. Smooth the ends at
right angles Avith smoothing-plane. Mark out
the position of the recesses with try-square and
compass, and make them with tenon saw, chisel,
and knife. Separate the parts.
6. Saw out a suitable piece for the handle.
Gauge breadth and thickness and jdane down.
Draw outline as in geometrical construction (2)
TOWN ELEMENTARY SERIES 199
with try-square and compass, and bring out the
form with compass saw, chisel, smoothing-plane,
knife, file, and scraper.
7. Bore the holes with pin-bit or drill. Fasten
the handle with wood-screws, driving the screws
in at a slight inclination.
Exercises. — Sawing off , face planing, edge 'plac-
ing, squaring, dovetail clam/ping, heveling with
ohlique 'position, ganging^ end planing, cross sawing
tvith tenon saw, perpendicnlar cliiseling, long cut,
convex sawing, concave chiseling, cross cut, modeling
loith plane, fixing loith screws, filing, bevel cnt,
scraping, boring with shell-bit.
Model No. XXV. Box. [ScC page 137.)
Model No. XXVI. Ladle. {ScC page 139.)
Model No. XXVII. Baker's Shovel. [ScC page 141.)
Model No. XXVIIl. Clothes-Beater. (^See J^agC 142.)
Model No. XXIX. Ruler. [ScB page 143.)
Model No. XXX. Bootjack. [See page 145.)
Model No. XXXI. Lamp Bracket. [Sce pagC 147.)
Model No. XXXll. Weaving Shuttle. (ScC pagC 150.)
Model No. XXXIII. Knife Box. [ScC page 151.)
Model No. XXXIV. American Ax Handle. {^ScC _2X/^e
154.)
Model No. XXXV. Match Box. (See page 155.)
Model No. XXXVI. Baseball Bat. [ScC pagC 157.)
200
JfAAS MODEL SERIES
Model No. XXXVII.
Triangle of W. B.
7|j
liiich 1 cm.
Length, 7{^ in., nr 20 cm. Breadth,m in., or 10 cm.
1. Saw from l)lock a suitable piece of wood, as
in previous exercises.
2. Plane face and edge at right angles with
try-plane. Gauge the thickness and saw off with
rip saw.
8. Plane to required thickness as in Model No.
XXIX., page 144, adjusting the wood upon a
foundation piece.
4. Chamfer witli try-plane.
5. Smooth the one end in shooting-board Avith
try-plane.
6. Lay out diagram as in drawing with meter
measure, try-square, marking awl, and bring out
the form witli tenon saw and smoothing-plane.
7. Divisions are laid out witli tlie aid of com-
j)ass, and scratclicd on tlie clmmfer with try-
srpiarii and marking awl. Smooth with scraper.
BlOn SCHOOL SERIES 201
Exercises. — Sawing off, long sawing, face plan-
ing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, fixing loith
wooden pegs {for planing thin wood) , planing wiili
compass plane, heveUng with ohlique position, plan-
ing in sliooting-board, boring with center-hit, ohlique
sawing, ohlique planing , setting out, scraping.
Model No. XXXVIII. Pen Box. {Sce page 159.)
Model No. XXXIX. Stool. [^^CC page 160.)
Model No. XL. Try-square. {SeC J)agG 163.)
Model No. XLI. Plate Rack. {ScG page 165.)
Model No. XLI I. Marking Gauge. {See page 168.)
Model No. XLIII. Rake Head. {ScC page 170.)
Model No. XLIV. Picture Frame. {ScC p>agG 172.)
Model No. XLV. Tool Rack. {See JXige 174.)
Model No. XLVI. Dough Trough. {Sce JXtgC 177.)
Model No. XLVII. Book Stand. {See page 179.)
Model No. XLVIII. Hooped Bucket. {See page 182.)
Model No. XLIX. Cabinet. {See page 185.)
Model No. L. Table. {See pKige 188.)
MI. HIGH SCHOOL SERIES.
Model No. I. (a). Kindergarten Pointer. {Seepage 103.)
Model No. l.(b). Kindergarten Pointer. (Seepage 104.)
Model No. II. Parcel Pin. {See page 192.)
Model No. III. Round Flower Stick. {See page 105.)
202 JVAAS MODEL SEUIES
Model No. IV.
Letter Opener of W. B.
-C,\:-
z©
Length, 6J5 in., or 17.1 cm. Breadth, f,. in., or 1 cm.
1. Select a suitable piece of wood. Cut to
required breadth and thickness.
2. Construct outline as in drawing, and shape
with knife, making it first octagonal, then six-
teen-sided, and then round.
3. Measure the length and cut off.
4. Round tlio ends.
Exercises. — Sawing off, lonrj cut, crof^fi cut, convex
cut.
Model No, V. Rectangular Flower Stick. {^ScC page
107.)
Model No. VI. Charcoal and Pencil Holder of W. W. (*Se6
page lOS.)
Model No. VII. Key Label, (a'^^^ jmgC 100.)
Model No. Vm. Pack-thread Winder. [ScC pagC 110.)
Model No. IX. Bar. (See page 103.)
Model No. X. Pen Rest. [ScC JKigC 194.)
BTGH SCHOOL SERIES
303
Model No. XI. Paper-cutter. {ScC page 114.)
Model No. XII. Strop Stick. (^Sce pCigG 195.)
Model No. XIII. Small Bowl. [See page 117.)
Model No. XIV. Hammer Handle. [See page 119.)
Model No. XV.
Pen Tray of W. B.
! ■
4 i
i
-£ U
h !\
Lenfjth, 9}^ in., or 25 cm.
J inch 1 em.
Breadth, 2}f in., or 7 ctn.
1. Saw off from block a suitable piece of wood.
Plane face and edge at right angles. Gauge
breadth and plane down.
2. Lay out the position of the hollow as in
drawing (a) with try-square, compass, meter
measure or rule, and gauge. Make the hol-
low with gouge, mallet, spoon-iron,^ or spoon-
' The spoon-iron is rarely, if ever, used in American cnr-
penter shops. It is similar in appearance to our spoon ,e;ou,t>e,
Init it is very much more convenient for deep concave
surfaces.
204 NAAR MODEL SERIES
gouge, and smooth with scraper and sand-
paper.^
3. Gauge the thickness, and plane down with
try -plane.
4. Measure the length, and saw off at right
angles with tenon saw.
5. Lay out the form of the ends with compass,
and shape with chisel and smoothing-plane.
Smooth with file.
G. Smooth the outer surfaces of the entire
model with smoothing-plane and scraper.
Exercises. — Sawing off, long sawing, face planing,
edge jdaidng, squaring, gauging, gouging with
gouge and with spoon-iron, scraping, perpendicular
chiseling, filing, modeling luith jj/(/7^e, smoothing
up.
Model No. XVI. Chopping Board. {^Seepage 122.)
Model No. XVH. Flower-pot Cross. i^Sce JMigC 123.)
Model No. XVI 11. Meter Measure. [HcC pxtgC IDG.)
Model No. XIX. Scoop. [See page 125.)
Model No. XX. Clothes Rack. [ScC P>age 127.)
Model No. XXI. Flower-pot Stand. {Seejmge 12*.).)
'After nibbin.ti: lliis liollow surface with sniid-paper, a
])ieee of rork should Ite used to reuiove any slight rough-
ness. •
HIGH SCHOOL SERIES
205
Model No. XXII.
Flower-press Roller and Rests of W. B.
]
I
-i-iV
1.
Geometrical Construction.
Length, 15 in., or 38 cm.
ThicknenK, 2i% in., or&cm.
1. Saw out a suitable j^ieeo for tlie roller.
Plane face and edge at right angles. Gauge the
200 NAAS MODEL SERIES
thickness, and plane down with try-plane. Meas-
ure the length and saw off at right angles.
2. Lay out the position of the holes with try-
square, compass, and gauge. Bore the holes from
l)oth sides with center-bit.
3. Construct on each end a circumference with-
in the square. Make tlie piece first octagonal,
then sixteen-sided, and tlien cylindrical, Avith jack
and try-plane.
4. Smootli with file and scraper.
5. Saw out the pieces for the two rests in one
length.
0. Gauge breadth and thickness of each and
plane down.
7. Lay out outline as in geometrical construc-
tion (2) with try-square and compass.
8. Shape with compass saw, gouge, chisel, and
file.
9. The inclination of the upper edges is
marked out witli compass and meter measure
or rule, and is planed down with try-plane.
Lay out position of the holes for the screws.
Bore them with suitable bit or drill.
10. Smooth the entire model with scraper.
Exercises. — Saiving off, long sawing, face planing,
8(piaring, gauging, horing with center-hit, bevel 2>l<(ii-
HIOH SCHOOL SERIES
20?
ing, modeling with ijlanc, perj:)e7icHc^t/ar chisding,
filing, scraping, boring luith shell-bit, edge 'planing,
convex sawing, perpendicular gouging, oblkpie plan-
ing.
Model No. XXMI. Footstool. [Sce page 132.)
Model No. XXIV. Book Carrier. {^Sce page 197.)
Model No. XXV. Box. [ScC page 137.)
Model No. XXVI. Ladle. [See page 139.)
Model No. XXVll.
Flower-press of W. W.
Jf'.T-
1 J
]..4-
U_J
^li'e*
-15ii-
*r'2^(r>
'linch ( \ Icvi.
A --' y.
^m^
1.
208
NAAS MODEL SERIES
Length, \"\l i»., or 45.1 cm.
+l"la
Breadth, 9|J in., or 25 J cm.
1. Saw out the two parts for the top and
bottom pieces.
2. Plane face and edge of each at right angles.
Measure the breadth of each and plane down.
3. Lay out the position of the grooves by
means of compass, try-square, meter measure or
rule, marking awl, and bevel. Remove so as to
make the grooves with knife, tenon saw, chisel,
and rabbet-plane or router-plane.
4. The dovetail tongue is made with jack and
try-plane and fitted into the groove.
5. Lay out diagram of the form, and saw out
with frame compass saw. Gauge tlie thickness,
and ])lane down with jack and try-plane.
0. Smooth the ends with spokeshave and file.
7. Tlie inclination of the lower side of the
HIGH SCHOOL SERIES 309
bottom piece is marked out with compass, try-
square, and gauge, and planed down with try-
plane and smoothing-plane.
8. Smooth entire model with smoothing-plane
and scraper.
Exercises. — Smuing off, chopimig, face planing,
2)lain jointing, gluing, squaring, dovetail clamping,
convex sawing, gauging, smoothing with spokeshave,
square planing, wedge planing, smoothing up, scrap-
ing, modeling ivith draiu-knife.
Model No. XXVIII.
Coat Stretcher of W. B.
W^ " 1
-\5\l-
Length, 15j§ in., or 40 cm. Breadth, \f^ in., or 3.5cm.
1. Saw out a suitable piece of wood. Plane
face and edo;e at right angles. Gauge thickness
and plane down.
210 NAAS MODEL SERIES
2. Lay out outline on opposite edges as in
drawing (6). Saw out with frame compass saw.
Plane down convex surface with smoothing-plane
and concave surface with compass or circular
plane.
3. Measure the length and saw off. Round
the ends with knife.
4. Mark out the position of the holes and bore
witli center-bit and pin-bit, boring from below
with center-bit, and from the top with pin-bit,
as indicated in drawing (b).
5. Round the edges with spokeshave, and
smooth with file and scraper.
6. Fasten the iron hook in position, having
previously made a tenon with chisel. Fit this
tenon into the hole and glue fast.
7. Smooth entire model with scraper.
Exercises. — Sauring off, long sawing , face planing ,
edge planing, squaring, gauging, convex saiuing,
2)laning with compass jjlane, smoothing up, cross cut,
convex cut, boring with ceiiter-bit, boring with shell-
bit, modeling luith spokeshave, filing , scraping, sink-
ing iron pdates.
Model No. XXIX. Ruler. (iSVc pagC 143.)
Model No. XXX. Bootjack. (aSc'C page 145.)
HIGH SCHOOL SERIES
211
Model No. XXXI. Lamp Bracket. [ScC ptigC 147.)
Model No. XXXII. Weaving Shuttle. [See ])age 150.)
Model No. XXXIII. Knife Box. [Sce JjaiJC 151.)
Mode! No. XXXIV. Ax Handle (American). [See iJaQG
154.)
Model No. XXXV. Match Box. [See page 155.)
Model No. XXXVl. Baseball Bat. [See J)age 157.)
Model No. XXXVII. Triangle. [See Jjage 200.)
Model No. XXXVIII. Pen Box. [See page 159.)
Model No. xxxix. Stool. [See page 100.)
Model No. XL. Try-square. [See pjage 163.)
Model No. XLI.
Drawing Board with Frame of W. W.
Board.
4A>
-li'is-
tijtr
-3f
LetKjth, I'J^J ill., or 50 cm.
14
1 inch 1 cm,
Breadth, 15 Jg in., or 40 cm.
212
NAAS MODEL SE1UE8
Frame.
r
(5>-
-19]
"^
-
- Vp "■■
J
pn
'^ JM 1 ivch
—^ 1cm.
Length, 19}J iti., or 50.5 cwi.
Breadth, ITy'V iw. or 44.5. c;«.
1. Saw out tlio several parts with rip and
cross-cut saws.
2. Plane face and edge of the parts for the
frame at right angles. Measure the hreadth,
gauge the thickness, and plane down. Measure
the length and saw off. Smooth the ends in
shooting-board.
3. Dovetail as in Model No. XXXIII. (page 152).
4. IMane face and edge of the [)arts for the
board at right angles. Measure breadth, gauge
thickness, and plane down. JMeasure length and
saw off at right angles with rip saw.
5. Lay out the position of the grooves with
HIOH SCHOOL SERIES 213
try-square, compass, meter measure or rule,
marking awl, bevel, and gauge. Remove so as
to produce the grooves with knife, tenon saw,
chisel, and rabbet-plane.
6. The inclination of the sides of the dovetail
tongue is laid out witli rule and compass, and
made with jack and try-plane.
7. Smooth the ends with try-plane and fit into
the frame. The small support blocks that
strengthen the corners of the frame are planed in
one length with try-plane, and sawn off to their
required length with tenon saw. Smooth the
ends with chisel and nail down.
8. The bolts are planed in one length with
try-plane, and shaped with chisel and knife.
0. Bore the holes with brad-awl and screw
the bolts down. Smooth entire model with
smoothing-plane and scraper.
Exercises. — Sawing off, long savring, face plan-
ing, edge j^lnnimg, squaring, gluing, gauging, plan-
ing in shooting-hoard, dovetailing in thick luood,
dovetail clamping, end planing, oblique planing,
smoothing up, mitering, oblique chiseling, boring
ivith brad-awl, nailing, perpendicular chiseling,
long cut, fixing with screius, scraping.
Model No.XLM. Marking Gauge. {ScC JjagC 168.)
214
JVAAti MODEL SERIES
Model No. XLIII.
Bracket of W. B.
Gcoinctrical Coiiistruction.
6i*.
L ^ j'g 1
JLeimth, Vo\l in., or 40 cm.
Breadth, 7\%i>i., or 20 cm.
BIOH SCHOOL SERIES 315
1. Saw out the several parts with rip and cross-
cut saws.
2. Plane face and edge of the pieces intended
for the two bracket supports and the piece for
the body of the shelf at right angles. Gauge
l)readth and thickness and plane down.
3. Nail the parts for the supports together.
Draw outlines as in geometrical construction 2 (d)
with try-square, compass, and meter measure or
rule.
4. Saw off the upper end at right angles with
rip saw and smooth with smoothing-plane.
Bring out the form with compass saw, chisel,
gouge, file, and scraper.
5. Lay out the position of the two grooves on
the bottom of the body of the shelf, in which
the supports are to be fitted with compass, try-
square, marking awl, bevel, and gauge. (The
depth of the grooves is marked out with mortise
gauge.)
6. Remove, producing the grooves with knife,
tenon saw, chisel, and ral)bet-plane.
7. Saw off' the required length of the back and
the body of the shelf at the same time with tenon
saw.
(S. Smooth the ends with smootliing-plane.
9. Glue the supports into position.
216 NAA8 MODEL SERIES
10. Smooth tlie body of tlie slielf with smootli-
ing-plane.
11. Saw out the pillars (e) in one lengtli. Bring-
out their form with plane, chisel, and knife.
12. The railing (h) of the balustrade is made
with the try-plane.
13. The distance between the pillars is marked
out with compass. The holes in which the
tenons of the pillars are to fit are bored with
center-bit.
14. Nail the l)ack and body together. Fit the
other parts and glue fast. Smooth all outer sur-
faces with smoothing-plano.
15. The carving on the edges is made with
carving-tools.
10. Smooth entire model with scraper.
Exercises. — Sawing off, long sawing, face planing,
edge 'planing, scpiaring, 2)lai7i jointing, gluing, gaug-
ing, end planing, convex sawing, perpendicular chisel-
ing, pcip)endicidar gouging, filirig, scraping, Jadf
concealed edge grooving, smoothing up, concave cut,
long cut, hcvcl cat, mortising, setting out, scraping,
sinking iron plates, boring with center-hit, nailing,
graving with. V-tool.
Model No. XLIV. Picture Frame. [SrC page 172.)
Model No. XLV. Tool Rack. [SfC pOgC 174.)
HIGH SCHOOL SERIES
217
Model No. XLVI.
Tea Tray of W. W.
91 '.
linch
Letif/th, lajf! »??., or 35 cm.
Breadfh, O,',- in., or 24 cm.
1. Saw out the several parts as in previous
exercises.
2. Plane face and edge of each at right angles,
(lauge thickness, measure breadth, and plane
down.
3. Lay off the length of the four sides with
meter measure or rule, determining the angles of
inclination of the ends by means of level. Saw
off with tenon saw and smooth the ends with
smoothing-plane.
4. The dovetailing is made as in Model No.
XXX TIL (page 152).
5. Draw the outline of the ends and l)ring out
the form witli center-bit, chisel, compass saw, file,
and knife.
218 NAAS MODEL SERIES
6. Glue the sides and ends together. Smooth
the outer surfaces with smoothing-plane,
7. Draw the outline of the bottom and shape
with smoothing-plane and file.
(S. Nail down the bottom. The upper edges are
rounded wdth smoothing-[)lane, knife, and file.
9. Smooth the entire model with scraper.
Exercises. — Sawing off, long sawing, face planing,
edge planing, squaring, gauging, plain jointing, glu-
ing, oblique sawing, oblique planing, double oblique
dovetailing, boring with center-bit, perpendicular chisel-
ing, convex sav)ing, long cut, convex cut, concave cut,
filing, smoothing up, modeling luith plane, boring
with brad-awl, nailing, punching in nails, scraping.
Model No. XLVM. Book Stand. [ScC page 179.)
Model No. XLVIII. Hooped Bucket. (/ScC pogC 182.)
Model No. XLIX. Cabinet. [ScC page 185.)
Model No. L. Table. (*SVy' pogc 188.)
CHAPTER V.
EVA RODHE'S MODEL SERIES.
INTRODUCTION.
THE object of all education is to form the
character and to strengthen the will power,
to develop the intellectual fjiculties and the
ability to work, and to give a healthy physical
training. As to this aim, all educators are agreed,
as also to the idea that education is the most
important factor in the making of the man ; but
in two other respects there is among educators
great difference of opinion : first, as to when
the education should begin ; and, second, as to
what a correct and rational education should
comprise.
I believe that the education of the child
begins with his consciousness. The foundation
for the child's character should be laid in the
earliest years of his life. Even at the age of
five years, great differences may be noted in
219
220 EFA ROD HE S MODEL SERIES
the characters of diirerent children, differences
which are the result not only of natural or
inherited tendencies, but also of the '' bringing
up." If all parents understood how to educate
their children in the right way, without exer-
cising either undue severity or excessive indul-
gence, if they themselves could serve as worthy
examples of what they would have their chil-
dren be and do, then indeed might we expect
our future generations to display a far nobler
type of manhood and womanhood. It is the
province of the school to assist parents in form-
ing the child's character, to impart information,
and to cultivate the power " to do," thereby de-
veloping the mental faculties, and last, but not
least, to send the child back to the home with
a strong and healthy l)ody. In order to accom-
l)lis]i these ends, the school must demand of
the pupils that they be truthful, obedient, faith-
ful, diligent, orderly, kind to their comrades, and
active and willing in their work. How can
this be best accomplislied ?
As few rules as possible should be laid down
for tlie guidance of the pupil. No pedantry
should exist within the class-room, and any tend-
encies towards it should l)e discouraged. Tlie
lessons should be sliorl and of a character calcu-
INTRODUCTION 221
lated to arouse tlio interest of the eliild, so tliat
the work may prove })leasaiit and not irksome.
When the work is of a healthy character and
within the child's capability, then only will the
information imparted be of lasting vakie, and
then only can the mind be broadened in all its
phases. The course of instruction must not com-
prise too many subjects to be taught at once.
Too many studies tend rather to weaken than to
strengthen the mind. In order to develop the
physical powers, book studies and practical work
must be combined in all the school exercises.
If the child spends seven hours a day at school,
at least two of these seven hours should be devoted
to physical work.
The objections to the present system of educa-
tion are as follows : first, the children take up
the study of abstract subjects at too early an age ;
second, the subjects succeed one another too
rapidly, so that the thorough mastery of any one
subject becomes impossible ; third, the children
are compelled to remain seated and inactive for
too great a period of time ; and, fourth, they have
no practical work.
Up to the age of seven years the child should
be busied with nothing but manual work and
games, after which theoretical work and prac-
222 EVA RO DUE'S MODEL SERIES
tical exercises, manual work, games, and gym-
nastics should be combined in such a way that
one exercise will relievo another, and prevent
the child from growing tired.
The books in use must be brief, and some
reading-book should be used in every class.
The greater part of the time should be devoted
to the art of reading, writing, and speaking the
mother tongue. Courses in moral instruction,
the rules for health, and the laws and customs of
the country should ha ol)ligatory in every school.
Girls at the age of thirteen or fourteen should
receive instruction in matters pertaining to the
home, and boys of the same age should be taught
the various kinds of manual work.
Froebel's system may 1)0 applied to children up
to the fifth year. From the fifth to the eighth
year suitable manual work should be provided,
with the use of light tools; from the eighth to
the eleventh year, manual work with larger and
heavier tools, in various kinds of wood suitable
for the making of simple models ; and from tlie
eleven til to the thirteenth year, the Sloyd Sys-
tem of Niiiis will be found very valuable.
Eva Rodhe.
GoTiiENRURf;, Fchniary, 1801.
THE EVA ROD LIE MODELS
233
THE EVA RODHE MODEL SERIES.
(A Series fur Children from Ave to eight yearn of age.)
List of the Models.
All the models are to bo made of thin birch or cedar wood
the thickness to be about one fourth of an inch.
I. Fish-line winder.*
II. Key label.*
III. Sewing stand.*
IV. Thread paper.*
V. Palette (play toy).*
VI. Cutting board.*
VII. Darning-needle.*
VIII. Bottle label.*
IX. Clothes hanger (play
toy).*
X. Plant label.*
XI. Stocking board (play
toy).*
XII. Chopping board (play
toy).*
XIII. Potter's knife (play
toy).*
XIV. Shovel (play toyj.*
XV. Leaf.*
XVI. Flower stick.*
XVII. Butter knife (play
toy).*
XVIII. Baker's shovel (play
toy).*
XIX. Glass stand.*
XX. Clothes-pin.*
XXI. Pointer.*
XXII. Pvibbon holder.*
XXIII. Picture frame (play
toy).*
XXIV. Flower-pot foot.*
XXV. Flower-pot spade.*
XXVI. Flower-pot hoe.*
XXVII. Paper-cutter.*
XXVIII. Penholder.*
XXIX. Ladder.
XXX. Lace winder (used
in knitting).*
XXXI. Leaf.*
XXXII. Bean-sling (play
toy).*
XXXIII. Crochet-needle.
XXXIV. Knife-holder.
XXXV. Bread-board in
form of a fish
(play toy).*
XXXVI. Soldier (play toy).
XXXVII. Castanets.*
* Drawings of the starred models will be found on pj). 227-2o4.
234
EVA RODHE'S MODEL SERIES
XXXVIII. Jack in the box.*
XXXIX. Stand.*
XL. Egg-cup.
XLI. Toothbrush hold-
er.
XLII. Ironing board.
XLIII. Desk protector.
XLIV. Frame saw (play
toy).
XLV. Key-rack.
XLVI. Crocodile (letter
o p e n e r), (play
toy).
XLVII. Sledge (play toy).
XLVIII. Easel.*
XLIX. Roller-stand.*
L. Horse and ride r
(play toy).
THE EVA RODHE MODELS.
Models No8. II. and XXVII. furnish an illus-
ation of the metl
models of this series.
tration of the method of making all of the
Model No. n.
Key Label of thin Birch or Cedar.
A j^iece of wood somewhat larger than the
model is placed in the vise of the bench. By
means of a spokeshave its rough sides ^ are planed
doAvn, and they are smoothed with a scraper.
The teacher should draw a straight line close to
one of the edges with rule. The child is to saw
oif close to this line. The edge is now to be
smoothed with file. With try-square draw a
^ Here, as in the " Nilils Series," the expression " sides "
refers to the two broad surfaces ; " edges," to the two narrow
surfaces ; " ends," to the two in which are the extremities of
the fibers.
THE EVA RODUE MODELS 225
line close to one of the ends, straight across one
of the sides. Saw out and file down to this
second line. Lay off' 7 cm., or 2f| in., along
the edge, and draw a line across one of the
sides. With compass lay off* a distance of 2 cm.,
or W in., and describe a semicircle. Saw out
and file down. The hole is bored with brad-awl.
Smooth with scraper and sand-paper.
Model No. XXVII.
Paper-cutter of thin Birch or Cedar.
Plane down with spokeshave as in previous
model. A drawing of the model is made with
pencil, rule, and try-square. Saw close to the
lines and file down. The cutting edge of the
model is made with spokeshave, file, and scraper,
working first on one side, and then on the other.
The teacher should mark on the object how
much is to be worked away. Smooth the model
with sand-paper.
Experience has taught us that children of
five to nine years of age should not be permitted
to use the knife, as they are apt to cut themselves.
The tools used in the Eva Rodhe Series are the
saw, file, hammer, bit, spokeshave, scraper, brad-
awl, marking awl, compass, meter measure or
rule, and try-square.
326 BVA BOBHE'S MODEL SEBlEti
It is best to allow the child to use the saw for
a few lessons before he begins the making of the
models. Very little sand-paper should be used,
and that only where it is absolutely necessary.
The tools are somewhat smaller than ordinary
mechanics' tools, being made of such a size and
weight as not to overtax the strength of the
child.
THE EVA ROUHE M0DEL8
227
No. 1.
No. 2.
No. 4.
I L.:;,..
No. 3.
y
rK
4
No. 5.
228
I^l-x-l-*^l-^
THE EVA ROD HE MODELS
231
Wo. 2G.
No. 27.
No. 28.
2'62 EVA RODHE'S MODEL SERIES
No. 31.
No. .•)•;
THE EVA RODHE MODELS
233
No. 38.
—
^
' i ' "
-ZM
EVA RODHE'S MODEL SERIES
No. 48.
-u-^h-
CHAPTER VI.
THE PROGRESS OF THE SLOYD IN THE ELE-
MENTARY PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
EXTENSION OF THE MOVEMENT IN EUROPE
AND AMERICA.
IN 1870 the Sloyd was first taught in some of
the primary schools of Sweden. Secretary
of State Carlson, who at that time was also at
the head of the ecclesiastical department, took a
great interest" in this question, and in 1877 he
introduced a bill in the '' Rikstag " (Congress),
suggesting the adoption of a system of manual
work for all the schools throughout the king-
dom. As a direct consequence of his resolution,
there appeared on the lltli of September of that
year a royal mandate to the effect that to each
school where the Sloyd had been taught a
yearly stipend of 75 kroner ($21.00) should be
paid. This was intended to meet the expense
of the material to be used.^ At this time a grant
' In Sweden, the avera,2;e cost for wood used by one eliild
is al»out 50 ore (14 cents) per year, the child working four
hours a week and thirty-six weeks per year. In Stockholm,
235
23G THE PROGRESS OF THE SLOYD
of 1,500 kroner was paid each year to about 200
schools. However, the number of schools in
which the Sloyd was taught increased so rapidly
that in 1889 1,278 schools were receiving a sub-
vention.
In 1876 a private normal Sloyd school was
established in Karlstad, and in 1877 the govern-
ment laid a proposition l)efore the '' Rikstag "
to introduce the Sloyd in all of the jniblic
seminaries for teachers. At this time, as well
as in 1880 (when the same question was moved
by individual members), the " Rikstag " rejected
the proposition, and it was not until 1887 that
it was finally agreed to introduce the work in
three public normal colleges — Karlstad, Lund,
and Hernosand.
The " Landsting " (State Assemblies), the Hus-
hallningssallskap (Industrial and Agricultural
Associations), and several prominent private
persons had worked zealously for this purpose.
The Board of Aldermen of Stockholm introduced
the Sloyd in their city schools in 187(3. In
Gothenburg, it had been introduced on a small
scale in 1872, and five years later it was taught
in all the schools.
tlie cliildren work forty-one weeks, and seven and a half hours
per week, and tlie average cost is one kroner (28 cents).
THE MOVEMENT IN EUROPE AND AMERICA 237
At first, the work consisted in teaching the
elements of the various trades. In Stoclvholm,
the transition to a regular educational manual
training system took place in 1882, and in
Gothenburg in 1887. In Gefle, Norkoping, Lin-
koping, Malmo, and various other towns, the
educational Sloyd was taught from the outset.
In the summer of 1887 a general meeting of
Swedish teachers was held in Gothenburg. Uni-
versal satisfaction was expressed as to tlie results
of this work. The academical authorities at
Upsala and Lund have offered their students
opportunities to do Sloyd work during certain
hours of each day.
At the Naas Sloyd Normal College, the
method of instruction was originally worked
out. Though the Sloyd is not a compulsory sub-
ject, there are in Sweden nearly 1,500 schools out
of a possible 3,800, which have introduced the
teaching of the " Naiis System." Since the Niias
was established in 1875, up to September, 1890,
1,349 teachers (1,060 of them being Swedes) have
taken longer or shorter courses there.
In Nonvay, the " Storting " (Congress) of 1806
accepted the proposition of the government, and
decided to give to every public school in wliich
Sloyd was taught tlie sum of 80 kroner. The
288 THE PROGRESS OF THE SLOYD
Sloyd is taught in six public normal colleges, and
also at the " Fredrikshaldssloyd-forenings Arbeids-
kole " (Fredrickshall Sloyd Association Working
School). The instruction in all of the schools
is in wood Sloyd, and the pupils who have had
at least two hundred hours' instruction, and have
done the required amount of Avork, receive a
special mention of this fact in their graduation
diplomas. According to the new Norwegian
school law, the Sloyd is compulsory for boys of
the age of eleven and twelve years, and optional
for younger or older pupils.
By the statute of May, 1866, manual work was
made obligatory for the country schools, and
oj^tional for the city schools, of Finland. In all
teachers' seminaries, some manual work is at
})resent being taught. In the public schools there
are many lady teachers, and special courses have
been arranged for them. The Finnish Hushall-
ningssallskap encourage this work b)^ giving
yearly stipends and distributing models and
drawings.
Educational Sloyd is of recent date in Den-
mark. In the autumn of 1885 a Danish Sloyd
Union was formed, which assisted the establish-
ment of a Teachers' Sloyd School in Copenhagen,
and the introduction of this work into ten
THE MOVEMENT IN EUROPE AND AMERICA 339
private high schools. It is generally in the high
schools that the Sloyd has been carried on. In
1882 the " Kjobenhavn-Husflidsforening " (Copen-
hagen Home Industrial Society) established a
large Sloyd school for the children of the " Koni-
niuneskolerne " (Public Schools).
In Germany, the *' Deutscher Verein fiir erzieh-
lische Knaben-handarbeit " (German Association
for Educational Manual Work for Boys), which
counts among its members some of the most
prominent men in Germany, has been very suc-
cessful in its propaganda in behalf of this
movement, especially so Avhen we take into
consideration the conservatism that has always
existed among German teachers. The govern-
ments of Prussia, Saxony, and Alsace-Lorraine
have given both moral and material support
to the system. Sloyd schools have been organ-
ized in a great many cities, and the German
Government, which yearly calls a congress of
the friends of Sloyd instruction, has founded a
normal college in Leipzig.
In southern Austria- Hungary and in Bohemia,
the movement has progressed very rapidly. The
Sloyd has been introduced as an elective subject
in the elementary schools. In Hungary this
W(^rk dates back to 1870, when the minister of
340 THE PROGRESS OF THE SLOYIJ
}nihlic instruction issued an order that instruc-
tion be given in at least one of the following
subjects to all the boys of the primary schools ;
viz., agriculture, gardening, silk-cultivation, or
Sloyd. In 1881 manual training was made com-
})ulsory in twenty-four state seminaries for
teachers, and in the Normal College of Buda
Pesth a three years' course was introduced.
In Russia, in the State Normal College of St.
Petersburg and in several other teachers' semi-
naries of that city, since 1884, Sloyd has been
taught. For lack of means, the work has pro-
gressed but slowly. In the Baltic provinces,
much has been done to further the Swedish
system, ^
The local governments of several of the can-
tons of Switzerland have, during the last seven
years, supported private efforts for establishing
Sloyd courses for teachers.
About four years ago, a commission of seven-
teen gentlemen from Jlahj was sent by the
Italian Minister of Public Instruction to study
the various manual training systems of Europe,
and more especially the Swedish system of
Sloyd instruction. Each member of this body
took a course of Naiis, and has since then per-
sonallv directed a class for teachers at home.
THE MOVEMENT IN EUROPE AND A3IERIGA 241
The law of March 28, 1882, passed by the
Chamber of Deputies and the Senate in France,
made manual training compulsory in all normal
as well as public elementary schools. At that
time, the " Ecole normale speciale pour I'enseigne-
ment du travail manuel " (Special Teachers'
Seminary for Manual Training Instruction) was
established. Though this institution has been
abolished, the study of this subject is carried on
in about one hundred schools of Paris ; tlie most
prominent school is tlie '* Rue Tournefort." At
the international meeting in Havre, in 1885, it
was stated that manual work was a necessary
feature in every rational system of education.
The officers of the late liberal government of
Belgium had already begun to make arrangements
to introduce the Sloyd in normal and primary
schools, Avhen through the election of 1884 they
were compelled to go out of office. The members
of the present clerical ministerial party expressed
their views in 1887, at which time the minister
of public instruction stated that he had the
greatest sympathy with the movement, and that
the government would soon take active steps in
the matter. As a result, courses for teachers
were formed, all of wliich have been very largely
attended. Two societies — " Societe nationale du
242 THE PROGRESS OF THE SLOYD
travail inanuel " and " Le Sloyd " — have worked
for its introduction in the public schools.
In England, a very active propaganda in favor
of the adoption of the Swedish Sloyd has been
going on. The most recent school laws are
strongly in sympathy with the movement, and
many school boards have made arrangements
for the introduction of the system. A groat many
teachers have studied at Naiis. Several societies
— ^"The Union of Sloyd Teachers Trained at
Naas" and the "Sloyd Association" — have been
organized by those interested in the matter.
The new school law of Scotland is even stronger
in its Sloyd clause than the English law.
American teachers have shown a deep interest
in educational manual work. Various systems
of manual training have been introduced in the
school courses. In New York, Boston, San Fran-
cisco, and other places, the Swedish Sloyd has
been introduced in private institutions.
Argentine Republic, Chile, and Uruguay have sent
rein'csentatives to Nails to study the Sloyd, with a
view to adopting it in their primary scliools.
The Government of Japan has the intention of
introducing this work during the ensuing year.
Holland, Spain, and Brazil have likewise taken
active steps in this direction.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
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