Copyright N" 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSrr. 
 
ELEMENTARY 
 
 PEDAGOGY 
 
 BY 
 
 LEVI SEELEY, Ph.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THE SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCATION, 
 IN THE NEW JERSEY STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, 
 AUTHOR OF "A NEW SCHOOL MANAGE- 
 MENT," "THE FOUNDATIONS 
 OF EDUCATION," ETC. 
 
 S' 
 
 HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE, 
 31-33-35 West 15th Street, 
 
 NEW YORK CITY 
 
LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
 Two Cooles Received 
 
 MAY 16 1906 
 
 CLASS /dU. XXC. No, 
 COPY B. . 
 
 Copyright, 1906, 
 
 BY 
 
 HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The subject of pedagogy is very generally regarded by 
 young teachers with a certain amount of dread. They 
 think of it as dry, difficult, uninteresting, and hard to 
 comprehend. Were it not that examining boards and 
 superintendents require that candidates for certificates 
 shall possess a knowledge of pedagogy and pass an exam- 
 ination in that subject, it is to be feared that many teachers 
 would never study it. And yet, it is one of the most valu- 
 able subjects, and one of the most profitable that can 
 engage the attention of the instructor. It not only gives 
 a broad view of the work of education, but it may also be 
 a most potent aid in solving the problems of the school- 
 room. Hence it is necessary and invaluable to every 
 teacher. 
 
 Nor need the subject be dry or distasteful even to the 
 young and untrained beginner. Indeed, it is one of the 
 most interesting subjects that demand the attention of 
 those to whom is committed the education of the young. 
 Taste for any kind of literature is a growth. It has seemed 
 to me that works on general pedagogy have presupposed 
 a development too advanced in educational thought on 
 the part of the beginner, and therefore have discouraged 
 him at the outset. The attempt is made in this book to 
 provide material for the beginner in the study of pedagogy. 
 Let this not be forgotten. 
 
 The method employed is largely inductive. Through 
 
fv PREFACE 
 
 numerous concrete illustrations the student is led up to 
 the general truth. At the close of each chapter one or 
 more principles are stated wliich summarize the teacliings 
 of the chapter in as compact a form as possible. The sum 
 total of these principles constitutes an educational phi- 
 losophy — not a complete or exhaustive philosophy, by any 
 means, but one that is believed to introduce the most im- 
 portant educational thought of the day. The final word 
 in educational theory has not been spoken, and never will 
 be spoken, for new conditions arouse new interests and 
 bring forth new problems. Questions that attracted atten- 
 tion a quarter of a century ago have been settled, — 
 some of them at least — and new ones are constantly 
 arising. Therefore it is not claimed that this book is ex- 
 haustive, even upon the questions it discusses. Educational 
 philosophy should be a guide to the teacher as to the course 
 of study, method of instruction, discipline, educational 
 means and ends, elements that enter into the problem of 
 education, etc. If pedagogy can furnish this guide to the 
 teacher, surely it is a most important study. 
 The following plan of study is recommended : 
 
 1. Take the outline of a chapter as a scheme or plan 
 and consider each topic in order. 
 
 2. Read the discussion under each topic in the text, and 
 investigate the subject as thoroughly as may be in the 
 works of reference given at the beginning of the chapter 
 and in the foot-notes. This opens a field for unlimited 
 study and therefore suggests material not only for begin- 
 ners, but also for the most advanced students of pedagogy. 
 
 3. Commit to memory the principles stated at the end 
 of the chapter. This fixes the truth and lays it away for 
 
PREFACE V 
 
 future use when needed. For justification of this sugges- 
 tion, see page 93. 
 
 4. Reverse the process by way of review, employing the 
 deductive method; that is, starting with the principle, see 
 if the student has understood and can apply it. 
 
 It is very important that breadth of vision be gained by 
 reading as many as possible of the works cited as well as 
 other pedagogical literature. 
 
 It may be repeated that this book is designed for be- 
 ginners in the study of pedagogy, — for students in normal 
 and training schools; for teachers' classes and reading 
 circles; for the teacher in the country school, isolated from 
 colaborers and sympathetic advisers and obliged to pursue 
 her way alone; indeed, for the young teacher everywhere; 
 and for the earnest student of education in whatever field.' 
 To all such, may this book prove a blessing. 
 
 Due credit should be given to the influence of Rosen- 
 kranz's "Philosophy of Education," in shaping the plan 
 of the book. It is doubtful if any work has yet appeared 
 that marks so definite an educational philosophy as this 
 treatise, wliich has for nearly half a century claimed the 
 attention of educational thinkers. Therefore the author 
 gratefully acknowledges its influence upon him in his teach- 
 ing and in the preparation of this volume. I have also 
 quoted freely from other authors that have been a help 
 and inspiration to me. It seems to me just and honest, 
 if some one has originated a thought or discovered a truth 
 that I wish to use in support of a position, to give that 
 person credit for his contribution. Hence there is no 
 apology for the numerous quotations. 
 
 In addition to the help from these sources, which has 
 
tv PREFACE 
 
 numerous concrete illustrations the student is led up to 
 the general truth. At the close of each chapter one or 
 more principles are stated which summarize the teachings 
 of the chapter in as compact a form as possible. The sum 
 total of these principles constitutes an educational plii- 
 losophy — not a complete or exhaustive philosophy, by any 
 means, but one that is believed to introduce the most im- 
 portant educational thought of the day. The final word 
 in educational theory has not been spoken, and never will 
 be spoken, for new conditions arouse new interests and 
 bring forth new problems. Questions that attracted atten- 
 tion a quarter of a century ago have been settled, — 
 some of them at least — and new ones are constantly 
 arising. Therefore it is not claimed that tliis book is ex- 
 haustive, even upon the questions it discusses. Educational 
 philosophy should be a guide to the teacher as to the course 
 of study, method of instruction, discipline, educational 
 means and ends, elements that enter into the problem of 
 education, etc. If pedagogy can furnish this guide to the 
 teacher, surely it is a most important study. 
 The following plan of study is recommended : 
 
 1. Take the outline of a chapter as a scheme or plan 
 and consider each topic in order. 
 
 2. Read the discussion under each topic in the text, and 
 investigate the subject as thoroughly as may be in the 
 works of reference given at the beginning of the chapter 
 and in the foot-notes. This opens a field for unlimited 
 study and therefore suggests material not only for begin- 
 ners, but also for the most advanced students of pedagogy. 
 
 3. Commit to memory the principles stated at the end 
 of the chapter. This fixes the truth and lays it away for 
 
PREFACE V 
 
 future use when needed. For justification of this sugges- 
 tion, see page 93. 
 
 4. Reverse the process by way of review, employing the 
 deductive method; that is, starting with the principle, see 
 if the student has understood and can apply it. 
 
 It is very important that breadth of \ision be gained by 
 reading as many as possible of the works cited as well as 
 other pedagogical literature. 
 
 It may be repeated that this book is designed for be- 
 ginners in the study of pedagogy, — for students in normal 
 and training schools; for teachers' classes and reading 
 circles; for the teacher in the country school, isolated from 
 colaborers and sympathetic advisers and obliged to pursue 
 her way alone; indeed, for the young teacher everywhere; 
 and for the earnest student of education in whatever field.' 
 To all such, may this book prove a blessing. 
 
 Due credit should be given to the influence of Rosen- 
 kranz's ''Philosophy of Education," in shaping the plan 
 of the book. It is doubtful if any work has yet appeared 
 that marks so definite an educational philosophy as this 
 treatise, wliich has for nearly half a century claimed the 
 attention of educational thinkers. Therefore the author 
 gratefully acknowledges its influence upon him in his teach- 
 ing and in the preparation of this volume. I have also 
 quoted freely from other authors that have been a help 
 and inspiration to me. It seems to me just and honest, 
 if some one has originated a thought or discovered a truth 
 that I wish to use in support of a position, to give that 
 person credit for his contribution. Hence there is no 
 apology for the numerous quotations. 
 
 In addition to the help from these sources, which has 
 
VI PREFACE 
 
 been duly recognized, I desire especially to acknowledge 
 the valuable assistance and advice of Dr. James M. Green, 
 Principal of the New Jersey Normal School; of my col- 
 leagues, Dr. H. B. Boise, and Dr. E. F. Carr, and of the 
 Rev. Henry Colin Minton, D.D. 
 
 L. Seeley. 
 
 State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. 
 
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction i 
 
 1. Educational theory embraces, (a) history of education, (b) 
 method, (c) school management, (d) a knowledge of subject- 
 matter, (e) a knowledge of man (psychology), (f) philosophy of 
 education. 2. Office of psychology and pedagogy respectively. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Aim of Education 8 
 
 I. As viewed at different periods. 2. Spencer's definition. 
 
 3. Education as an aim. 4. Harmonious development. 5. 
 What is character? 6. Other views. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Science of Education 22 
 
 I. Is there a science of education? — opinions of leading edu- 
 cators. 2. Science defined. 3. Reasons for there being a science 
 of education, (a) educational principles established, (b) scientific 
 works on education, (c) organized study of the subject, (d) chairs 
 of pedagogy maintained, (e) long recognized as such 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Who can be Educated ? 35 
 
 I. Educating and training. 2. Self-activity. 3. Comparison 
 of man with lower animals, (a) instinct, (b) sense-perception, (c) 
 imagination, memory, (d) reason, (e) the power of abstraction. 
 
 4. Man alone can be educated. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Elective Studies 49 
 
 I. The course of study. 2. Nature of course of study, (a) sub- 
 jects must be properly correlated, (b) essentials of culture in the 
 
Vlll ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 elementary course, (c) must be well balanced and symmetrical, 
 (d) takes into account the stages of the child's development, (e) 
 must meet the aim it intends to meet. 3. Election in the ele- 
 mentary school, (a) the period of character-forming, (b) influence 
 of the grade teacher. 4. Election in the high school — different 
 courses therein. 5. Election in higher institutions of learning. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Gaining of Knowledge 60 
 
 I. The senses as means of gaining knowledge. 2. Choice 
 of material. 3. Old material to be utilized. 4. The work of 
 the teacher — rendering assistance. 5. The apperceptive pro- 
 cess, (a) choice and arrangement of material, (b) the child and 
 his store of experience, (c) the process of teaching. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Process of Education 83 
 
 I. Real purpose of the school. 2. The formal steps of the 
 recitation, (a) preparation — illustration, (b) presentation, (c) 
 association, (d) recapitulation — use of rules, (e) application. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Methods of Instruction 100 
 
 I. Knowledge and method. 2. Method a guide. 3. Care 
 in using illustrations. 4. Personahty of the teacher a factor in 
 method. 5. Definition of method. 6. Self-improvement essen- 
 tial to method. 7. Different methods, (a) analjlic, (b) synthetic, 
 (c) inductive, (d) deductive. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Play AS AN Educational Factor 116 
 
 I. A natural tendency of the young. 2. The kindergarten — 
 its dangers. 3. The clothing of children. 4. The meaning of 
 play. 5. Definition of work and play. 6. Purpose of play. 
 7. Teacher's part in games. 8. Play vs. work. 9. Playthings. 
 
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS ix 
 
 35 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 PACK 
 
 Habits and their Formation i 
 
 I. What is habit ? — (a) physical habits, (b) intellectual habits, 
 (c) moral habits, (d) religious habits. 2. Choice of habits. 3. 
 The changing of habits. 4. Obedience. 5. Punishment. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 Educational Limitations 159 
 
 I. Education is emancipation, 2. Dulness not incapacity. 
 3. Self -activity — views of Froebel and Herbart. 4. Self-em- 
 ployment. 5. Self-control. 6. Material means of education. 
 7. The power of self-direction. 8. Advantages of superior edu- 
 cation. 
 
 CHAPTER Xn. 
 
 Factors in the Education of the Child 180 
 
 I. Primitive education. 2. Importance of education. 3. 
 The home. 4. The school. 5. "Fads." 6. Civil society. 
 7. The state. 8. The church. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 Physical Development 198 
 
 I. A sound mind in a sound body. 2. Nourishment. 3. 
 Food. 4. Clothing. 5. Cleanliness. 6. Fatigue and rest. 7. 
 Gymnastics. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Intellectual Development 216 
 
 I. Self-activity. 2. Attention, (a) isolation, (b) analysis, 
 (c) abstraction, (d) finding relations. 3. Practical suggestions 
 as to attention, (a) see to material conditions, (b) require proper 
 attitude, (c) awaken interest, (d) use judgment as to length of 
 recitation, (e) never teach without attention. 4. Industry. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Three Stages of Intellectual Development 233 
 
 I. Sense-perception. — i. Perception depends upon, (a) the 
 number of sensations received, (b) the order in which the sensa- 
 tions are received, (c) the vividness of the sensations, (d) the 
 
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS 
 
 associations connected with it, (e) attention to details. 2. Use 
 of pictures. 3. Making collections. 4. Training the ear. 
 II. Imagination — i. Creative imagination. 2. Cultivating 
 the imagination. 3. Myths and fairy tales. 4. Good taste for 
 literature. 5. Memory. 6. Training the memory. III. Rea- 
 son — I. Training the logical powers. 2. The use of the rule. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 The Act of Learning 259 
 
 I. Education a process of cancellation. 2. Instruction the 
 principal work of the school. 3. The professionally taught and 
 the self-taught. 4. The course of study. 5. What the elemen- 
 tary school should accomplish. 6. Arrangement of the daily 
 program. 7. Means of learning. 8. Text-books. 9. Oral 
 instruction. 10. Agencies of instruction. 11. Kinds of 
 schools, (a) elementary, (b) secondary, (c) undergraduate, (d) 
 graduate, (e) special. 12. Management of the school. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Will Training 2? 
 
 I. The will — will defined. 2. Obedience to authority the 
 first step in training the will. 3. Will trained by teaching con- 
 formity to social customs. 4. Will trained through formation 
 of habits. 5. Good character the result of right will training. 
 6. Moral training in the school. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Religious Education 307 
 
 I. Religion a universal principle. 2. Dissatisfaction as to 
 the present religious instruction. 3. Education to be complete in- 
 cludes religion. 4. What religious education embraces, (a) rever- 
 ence, (b) knowledge of the Bible, (c) prayer, (d) a conception of 
 religion, (e) initiation to religious forms. 5. Agencies of religious 
 instruction, (a) the home, (b) the church, (c) the school. 6. The 
 state and religion. 7. Religion defined. 
 
ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 General References.* — Rosenkranz, Philosophy of Education; 
 Prince, Courses and Methods; Spencer, Education; Payne, Contri- 
 butions to the Science of Education; Parker, Talks on Pedagogics; 
 Boone, Science of Education; Home, Philosophy of Education; 
 McMurry, General Method; White, Elements of Pedagogy; Ogden, 
 Science of Education; Butler, The Meaning of Education; Edu- 
 cational Review. 
 
 Every teacher should be grounded in educational theory. 
 It is said that "Experience is a good schoolmaster," but 
 experience gained in the schoolroom is expensive both to 
 the child and to the teacher, unless it be preceded on the 
 part of the latter by a study of educational philosophy. 
 Such philosophical study should prevent many mistakes 
 and enable the teacher to give his pupils the best that the 
 world has yet learned. Nothing less than this is their 
 due, and the teacher must be prepared to offer nothing 
 less. Hence the necessity of a knowledge of pedagogy. 
 
 But what does educational theory embrace? What are 
 the subjects that a scheme of general pedagogy must in- 
 
 ' The references here given are those that are employed throughout the 
 whole study of the subject. Special references will be given at the head 
 of each chapter touching the topics therein treated, but these are for general 
 and constant use. 
 
2 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 elude? The answer is as follows, and this is the order 
 in which the subjects should be taken: 
 
 A Knowledge of Man, which enables the teacher to care 
 for the physical well-being of his pupils, on the one hand, 
 and also makes him acquainted with the intellectual activi- 
 ties and the laws that govern those activities, that is, with 
 psychology, on the other hand. It includes a knowledge 
 of man's moral and religious nature. 
 
 History of Education, which describes the educational 
 movements of the past; sets forth the lives and teachings 
 of great thinkers who have written educational works or 
 who have been great teachers; outlines the systems and 
 theories of education that have been promulgated; traces 
 the advance of civihzation through educational means; 
 gives warning as to the errors of the past ; and suggests new 
 fields for future improvement and investigation. The 
 history of education is semi-academic in character and, 
 therefore, it furnishes a natural link between the purely 
 academic and the professional training of the teacher. 
 
 Method, which treats of the natural, orderly, and syste- 
 matic manner of presenting the material to the mind and 
 of the relative values of subject-matter; or, as Kant puts 
 it, "Method is procedure according to principles." A 
 knowledge of method is essential to the theoretical prep- 
 aration of the teacher. 
 
 School Management, which considers school discipline^ 
 good order, proper habits, correct morals, relation of the 
 school to the community, as well as other matters con- 
 
INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 nected with the internal affairs of the school, such as, 
 promotion, grading, and classification, the daily schedule, 
 school incentives, relation of teachers to their pupils and 
 to those in authority over them, school hygiene, etc. 
 
 A Knowledge of Subject-matter, not only from the culture 
 standpoint, but also concerning its value for the purpose 
 of intellectual discipline. This must, of course, include 
 a far broader range of material than the specific subjects 
 that one is called upon to teach. The teacher must possess 
 a reserve of knowledge upon which he can draw at all 
 times to the increased advantage of his pupils. 
 
 Philosophy of Education, in which the climax of pro- 
 fessional training is reached. It states the aim, determines 
 the nature, and defines the limits of education. In a sense, 
 the philosophy of education summarizes the teachings and 
 gathers up the lessons taught by the foregoing subjects. 
 It gives a broad view of the whole field of education and 
 brings every act of teaching to the test of sound phil- 
 osophy as a basis. 
 
 Psychology and Pedagogy. — There is a close relation- 
 ship between psychology and pedagogy. It may be well 
 to consider this relationship and point out the field that 
 each should seek to cover. Joseph Payne says, "Psy- 
 chology is the basis of all the practical sciences which 
 have to do with the moral faculties of man; but the other 
 sciences which are derived from psychology treat of but 
 certain energies of the human soul — logic, of thought, 
 aesthetics, of the sentiment of the beautiful, ethics, of the 
 
4 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 soul. Pedagogy alone embraces all the faculties of the 
 soul and should put under contribution the whole of psy- 
 chology." Professor James emphatically cautions teachers 
 as to the limitations of psychology. He says,* " You 
 make a great mistake, if you think that psychology, 
 being the science of the mind's laws, is sometliing from 
 which you can deduce definite programmes and schemes 
 and methods of instruction for immediate schoolroom 
 use. . . . Everywhere the teaching must agree with the 
 psychology, but need not be the only kind of teaching, 
 that would so agree with psychological laws." He further 
 adds, "To know psychology, therefore, is absolutely no 
 guaranty that we shall be good teachers. To advance to 
 that result, we must have an additional endowment alto- 
 gether, a happy tact and ingenuity to tell us what definite 
 things to say and do when the pupil is before us. That 
 ingenuity in meeting and pursuing the pupil, that tact for 
 the concrete situations, though they are the alpha and 
 omega of the teacher's art, are things to which psychology 
 cannot help us in the least. But if the use of psychological 
 principles thus be negative rather than positive, it does 
 not follow that it may not be a great use, all the same. It 
 certainly narrows the path for experiments and trials. We 
 know in advance, if we are psychologists, that certain 
 methods will be wrong, so our psychology saves us from 
 mistakes. It makes us, moreover, more clear as to what 
 we are about. We gain confidence in respect to any 
 method which we are using as soon as we believe that it 
 has theory as well as practice at its back. Most of all, 
 it fructifies our independence, and it reanimates our in- 
 » "Talks to Teachers," p. 7. 
 
INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 terest, to see our subject at two different angles — to get 
 a stereoscopic view, so to speak, of the youthful organism 
 who is an enemy, and, while handling him with all our 
 concrete tact and divination, to be able, at the same time, 
 to represent to ourselves the curious inner elements of his 
 mental machine. Such a complete knowledge as this of 
 the pupil, at once intuitive and analytic, is surely the knowl- 
 edge at which every teacher ought to aim. 
 
 "Fortunately for you teachers, the elements of the 
 mental machine can be clearly apprehended, and their 
 workings easily grasped. And, as the most general ele- 
 ments and workings are just those parts of psychology 
 which the teacher finds most directly useful, it follows that 
 the amount of this science which is necessary to all teachers 
 need not be very great." 
 
 Accepting in general this view, we may think of the field 
 of psychology as dealing with the laws and activities of 
 the mind; as including a study of instinct, imitation, sense- 
 perception, memory, imagination, reasoning, generalizing; 
 and, in a teacher's course, the consideration of psychologi- 
 cal phenomena — the study of children. Pedagogy treats 
 of the application of the principles discovered by psycho- 
 logical research. It is based on ethics as well as on psy- 
 chology, ethics pointing out the end of education, and 
 psychology, the way, the means of reaching the end. 
 Pedagogy, according to Rosenkranz, treats of the aim, the 
 nature, and the form of education. It discusses the rela- 
 tion of teachers to pupils; it considers the various factors 
 of education, such as, the home, the school, the store, 
 society, and the church; it treats of methods of instruction, 
 of the school program, of the course of study, of physical, 
 
6 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 intellectual, and moral growth; of securing and holding 
 the attention; of interest; of the formation of habits, of 
 self-activity, of that discipline which aims at self-control. 
 In a word, it views the whole development of the individual, 
 not only during school life, but after leaving school, and 
 seeks to compass that development in a natural, systematic, 
 logical, and economical manner. 
 
 If some topics, such as habit, attention, self-activity, 
 memory, imagination, reason, etc., receive treatment in 
 both psychology and pedagogy, the former considers the 
 mental laws involved, while the latter considers their 
 practical application to educational problems. The con- 
 sideration of the same subjects from a double standpoint, 
 namely, that of psychology and that of pedagogy, thus, 
 instead of being a waste may prove to be the very best 
 economy. To quote again from Professor James, "It 
 reanimates our interest — to see our subject at two dif- 
 ferent angles." The study of psychology, which precedes 
 that of pedagogy, prepares the student to comprehend the 
 field undertaken by pedagogy, and to apply the principles 
 discovered to living and practical educational problems. 
 
 While the field of pedagogy embraces history of educa- 
 tion, school management, methods, psychology, and ethics, 
 just as geometry embraces arithmetic and algebra, a knowl- 
 edge of these subjects is presupposed, and therefore they 
 are not considered here. The question before us is of 
 educational philosophy; of the problems of educational 
 thought rather than of school practice; of theories that 
 are to be established; of principles that shall guide in con- 
 structing courses of study, in the employment of methods, 
 in formulating schedules, and in school government; and 
 
INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 of that all-round and complete development of the child 
 which shall prepare him for good citizenship, and which 
 shall enable him to make the most of the capacity that 
 God has given him. 
 
 Summary 
 
 Pedagogy is the science of teaching. It states the aim, 
 determines the nature, and marks the limits of educatiofi. 
 It presupposes psychology, is founded upon ethics, and em- 
 braces in its scope history of education, school management, 
 and method. It discusses educational problems from a phil- 
 osophical standpoint and shows their application. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE AIM OF EDUCATION 
 
 References. — Rosenkranz, Philosophy of Education; Prince, 
 Courses and Methods; McMurry, General Method; Spencer, Edu- 
 cation; Payne, Contributions to the Science of Education; Parker, 
 Talks on Pedagogics; De Motte, Character Building; Payne, Edu- 
 cation of Teachers; Roark, Method in Education; Colcr, Character 
 Building; Home, Philosophy of Education; Shearer, Morals and 
 Manners; Smith, Systematic Methodology; White, School Man- 
 agement; Elements of Pedagogy; Laurie, Primary Instruction; 
 Barnett, Common Sense in Education and Teaching; Briggs, School, 
 College, and Character. 
 
 The question, "What is the aim of education?" has 
 engaged the attention of thinkers for many centuries. The 
 answer to it has been colored by national characteristics, 
 by the needs of a people, by the spirit that has dominated 
 the age, and by the state of civilization attained. Indeed, 
 the answer to this question may have had a great deal to 
 do in forming the character of individuals and of nations, 
 and in making prominent certain influences which have 
 affected the world in different ages. In Cliina, for example, 
 the aim of education for thousands of years has been to 
 maintain the established order of society, and to teach 
 respect for traditions and ancestral customs. In India, 
 it was to preserve the ancient castes, and prepare for absorp- 
 tion into Nirvana. In Persia and Sparta, it was to pre- 
 pare for war, to give physical strength, and foster moral 
 rectitude. To the early Jews, it meant training to respect 
 laWj and reverence Jehovah. Athens would have a beau- 
 
 8 
 
THE AIM OF EDUCATION 9 
 
 tiful soul in a beautiful body, while the ideal in Rome was 
 "To make a man fit to perform justly, skilfully, and mag- 
 nanimously all the offices, both public and private, of 
 peace and war." 
 
 The aim of education according to Socrates was "To 
 dispel error and discover truth," while Plato defined it to 
 be, "To give the body and soul all the beauty and all the 
 perfection of which they are capable," a definition which 
 was quite Athenian. Quintilian, on the other hand, voiced 
 the spirit of the Rome of his period by teaching that the 
 purpose of education was to make orators. Seneca anti- 
 cipated Herbert Spencer when he declared that education 
 is "Not for school, but for life." Charlemagne, with the 
 wise statesmanship which comprehended the existing con- 
 ditions in which only the favored few received any educa- 
 tion at all, declared the aim of education to be "To make 
 intelligent citizens." Very naturally the monastic schools 
 sought to make education further the interests of the 
 Church, while, on the other hand, the Burgher schools 
 would train for the practical needs of life. 
 
 Modern educators have also considered the problem 
 from the standpoint of modern conditions, and as civiliza- 
 tion has advanced, their answer to the question becomes 
 broader and more comprehensive. Comenius, the Mora- 
 vian preacher, declares the aim to be, "To attain eternal 
 happiness in and with God, through Education." Francke, 
 the Pietist, who founded the great orphan asylum at Halle, 
 says it is "To prepare for a life of usefulness and piety," 
 while Locke, the great English philosopher, who had 
 been an invalid all his life, borrows from Aristotle an idea 
 which he sums up in the words, "A sound mind in a sound 
 
10 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 body." Pestalozzi, with perhaps a larger vision than any 
 of his predecessors, says it is the "Natural, progressive, and 
 systematic development of all the powers of man." Froebel 
 adds to this idea when he defines it to be, "To direct the 
 natural activities to useful ends." 
 
 Spencer's Definition. — Perhaps Spencer's definition of 
 education has received tlie most general acceptance; it 
 has at least provoked the widest discussion. He says, 
 "To prepare us for complete living is the function which 
 education has to discharge; and the only rational mode 
 of judging of any educational course is, to judge in what 
 degree it discharges such function." Tlie difliculty with 
 this definition is that it needs defining, for one may well 
 ask, "What is complete living?" To the Indian in the 
 far West it would mean plenty of game, freedom from re- 
 straint, with absence of what men call work; to the devotee 
 of fashion, the whirl of society, the admiration of others, 
 the gratification of the desire for personal adornment; to 
 the actor, the excitement, applause, and environment of 
 the play-house; to the enthusiast in any vocation or enter- 
 prise, the fulfillment of his ambitious purposes and success 
 in whatever undertaken. To the Chinaman it would mean 
 one thing, to the Hindu another, and to the Frenchman 
 another. In one age it would require one interpretation 
 and in a different age another. It is true that education 
 is adaptation to the age or the people involved, as we have 
 already seen. But Waitz says, "There must be a universal 
 pedagogy for Greeks and Romans, as well as for pagans, 
 Jews, and Christians; for ancient and modern peoples; for 
 those of original as well as those of derived culture." It 
 
THE AIM OF EDUCATION II 
 
 will be obvious, then, that "complete living" as a defini- 
 tion of education does not suffice, inasmuch as it needs 
 interpretation as to its meaning, and as that meaning varies 
 according to ideals and circumstances. 
 
 The most of the definitions quoted regard education as 
 an aim. Many educators, especially German, consider it 
 from the standpoint of its Latin root- word, educere, to lead 
 forth; they interpret it to mean to bring up the child. To 
 them education is a process rather than an ahn. Thus 
 Rosenkranz defines it as follows: "Education is the influ- 
 encing of man by man, and it has for its end to lead him 
 to actualize himself tlirough his own efforts. The attain- 
 ment of perfect manhood as the actualization of the free- 
 dom essential to mind constitutes the nature of education 
 in general."^ Waitz also says, "In education two indi- 
 viduals stand opposite each other, one ripe and in a meas- 
 ure at least master of himself, and the other possessing 
 possibilities, but still largely undeveloped, but capable of 
 responding to external influences."^ 
 
 The methods of instruction practiced in the German 
 schools are the natural outgrowth of this conception. The 
 teacher instructs, the pupils learn; the teacher leads, the 
 pupils follow; the teacher is the fountain of knowledge, 
 the pupils draw from him; the teacher is the wise master, 
 the pupils possess the possibilities of learning. There is 
 a great difference between the two which the process of 
 education seeks to cancel. Education is to be attained 
 by means of instruction (Erziehende-Unterricht) through 
 the influence of the teacher upon the pupil. 
 
 ' "Philosophy of Education," p. i. 
 * "Padagogik," p. 39. 
 
12 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 Education as an Aim. — The purpose here is to study 
 education as an aim rather than as a process, although the 
 student should consider the subject from both standpoints. 
 What is the aim of education for any people or of any age ? 
 We answer, Education is tJie harmonious development of all 
 the powers of man, and has for its purpose the formation of 
 good character. Teachers for all time have sought to train 
 their pupils to be good men, but only recently has the prin- 
 ciple been stated as a formal doctrine. With a clear and 
 definite principle fixed in the mind, a purpose is more 
 likely to be carried out than if there be merely a vague idea 
 of an end to be reached without a formulated statement 
 concerning that end. One should not only possess a notion 
 of the end to be sought, but also be able to express that 
 notion in a clear manner. Hence the statement of the 
 end of education as character building marks an advance 
 in pedagogical practice and theory. 
 
 While the preceding definition is definite in statement 
 and clear in meaning, a discussion of it may serve to 
 throw light upon the problem of education itself. 
 
 Harmonious Development. — Some one has said, "Edu- 
 cation considers the physical, intellectual, and moral nature 
 of the child. Any system of education which cultivates 
 only one of these, not recognizing the others, is a failure. 
 Train only the physical faculties of your child, and you 
 make an animal of him; cultivate his moral nature exclu- 
 sively, and you develop a fanatic; direct all your attention 
 to his intellectual faculties, and you may produce a prodigy, 
 but you will ruin him for usefulness in life. True educa- 
 tion consists in so stimulating the development of the phy- 
 
THE AIM OF EDUCATION 1 3 
 
 sical, moral, and intellectual nature of the child as that he 
 may be fitted to occupy the best position in life that his 
 natural powers permit, that he may be useful to his fellow- 
 men and of value to the community, that he may be as 
 important a factor as possible in making the world better." 
 No one would say that the pugilist or the athlete meets 
 the ideal of education because of his muscle or his physical 
 skill. It must not be denied, however, that physical devel- 
 opment has its place in school work, probably a far greater 
 place than it now occupies, that is, physical training of the 
 right sort. When it fulfills its true function in education 
 greatest stress will not be laid upon, and enthusiasm awak- 
 ened concerning foot-ball, base-ball, track athletics, or some 
 special interest that attracts only a small proportion of 
 the student body. There is no objection to these in them- 
 selves, and they should be encouraged and maintained. 
 But they meet only a fraction of the whole number and, 
 therefore, do not satisfy the demand for general physical 
 culture as an educational means. Indeed, the few highly 
 trained athletes become the center of attraction of the wliole 
 school, not for educational purposes, but as the represen- 
 tatives of the institution, who are to win glory for her in 
 a field far from educational. A half a score of men, trained 
 to the highest limit, reach perfection as athletes and repre- 
 sent their school, while the hundreds look on and get no 
 suitable training. At least, the athletic sports as now 
 practiced do not foster general physical culture in the 
 whole student body. The ideal will be reached when 
 physical culture is not only a general requirement, but a 
 universal joy to all youth of both sexes who are being 
 educated. This kind of development is educational, and 
 
14 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 it is an end to be most zealously sought for in all our 
 schools. 
 
 As to the need of intellectual development, there is una- 
 nimity of opinion. Indeed, the principal criticism that 
 might be offered concerning educational practice is that 
 it has ignored the other sides of man's nature and given 
 its entire attention to the intellectual. Train the mind, 
 awaken the mental activities, stimulate and direct the in- 
 tellectual powers, has been the key-note of educational 
 philosophy, and the chief theme of educational practice, 
 for ages. There is no disposition to minimize the impor- 
 tance or value of intellectual training. It will continue to 
 require the greater part of the time of the school and the 
 thought of educators. From the standpoint of the atten- 
 tion it demands, it will always be the most important 
 feature of education. The principal discussions which 
 follow in this book have a bearing upon intellectual devel- 
 opment. But it must not monopolize the whole thought 
 of educators nor be the sole theme considered. Nor 
 must man be considered as a being that can be divided into 
 physical, intellectual, moral, etc. It is the whole man that 
 is to be educated. 
 
 Moral training must receive due attention. Indeed, 
 to omit the ethical side of education is to add to the power 
 to do evil, for the better and acuter the intellectual train- 
 ing the more dangerous the individual becomes, provided 
 there is no moral foundation. To omit moral training is 
 to make education dangerous. It is not the purpose at 
 this time to discuss the character of moral training needed, 
 but merely to call attention to the fact that it is needed to 
 produce well-rounded and complete education such as our 
 
THE AIM OF EDUCATION 1 5 
 
 detinition demands. It must not be forgotten that we 
 are considering the sufficiency of the definition for our 
 purpose rather than a treatment of its various phases, 
 which is the task of the whole book. 
 
 It may be urged that the teaching of religion is impos- 
 sible in the American public school, and therefore it is 
 needless to add this to the definition. In reply we would 
 say in the first place, that it is not admitted that religion 
 cannot be taught in the public school; but rather, indeed, 
 it will be maintained that religion in its best and truest 
 sense is taught in these schools, and must be taught so 
 long as the great majority of the teachers believe in God 
 and practice righteousness, and so long as history, literature, 
 and science abound in illustrations and lessons founded upon 
 a belief in Divine Providence. (See Chap. XVIII.) In the 
 second place, it should be remarked that the school is not 
 the sole factor responsible for the education of the child, and 
 that education is the sum of all influences wherever obtained 
 — the home, the school, the church, society, and the State. 
 Therefore, a definition of the aim of education must take 
 into account all the influences involved, and surely religion 
 is a most important factor in every man's education. 
 
 All of these powers — the physical, intellectual^ moral, 
 and spiritual — are to be harmoniously developed for a pur- 
 pose, and that purpose is good character. This is the end 
 that the teacher should have in view from the first. The 
 teaching of arithmetic, geography, history, language, science, 
 has a much broader meaning than the mere mastery of 
 these subjects for practical purposes as a means of bread- 
 winning, however necessary this may be. Their practical 
 value is not despised, and this end must certainly be in 
 
l6 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 view; but there must be a higher aim ever present, namely, 
 that of employing this teaching and these subjects as a 
 means of forming character as an ultimate and highest 
 aim. 
 
 What is Character? — But what is character? may be 
 asked. Character has been defined as a "completely 
 formed will." What a person wills constantly and persist- 
 ently gives him character. A good character is where 
 the volitions are in the right direction. Rev. J. Richards 
 Boyle says concerning character:^ ''Never before was man- 
 hood so necessary to the world as it is to-day. For never 
 before had it such immense responsibility and such tre- 
 mendous power. The supreme question of the century 
 is the question of personal character. The nation that 
 can grow a worthy manhood and womanhood can live. 
 It is immortal. The nation whose personal life deterio- 
 rates is already smitten with death. Character is the only 
 conserving and conquering power. 
 
 "Now, what power can guarantee the life and progress 
 of the twentieth century civilization? What can control 
 and overthrow its reactionary and disintegrating forces, 
 and perpetuate and perfect its beneficent growth? What 
 is to decide the conflict on the final battlefield of earthly 
 life? Are mere numbers or material wealth to do this? 
 Can government, can armies, can navies, as such, do it? 
 Civilizations have expired notwithstanding all these agen- 
 cies. In the last analysis there is only one human power 
 that can assure the endurance of present conditions and 
 carry them safely forward to their consummations. And 
 * Address before the students of Grant University. 
 
THE AIM OF EDUCATION 1 7 
 
 that power is true manhood and womanhood. The indi- 
 vidual Hfe is evermore the determining factor in associated 
 life. As the man is, so must the nation and the world 
 ever be. And the problem of the race is not the produc- 
 tion of wealth, nor the marshaling of armies, nor the enact- 
 ment of laws, but the development of human character. I 
 have said that one of the most significant facts of modern 
 life is the rise of the personal man. I now declare that 
 the most essential and important necessity of the world's 
 stability and prosperity is his growth and equipment." 
 
 The men who have been conspicuously a blessing to this 
 country — Washington, Lincoln, Grant, McKinley — have 
 been men not distinguished by wealth, by the endowments 
 of nature, or by the favor of men, but by their strong per- 
 sonality. George H. Martin says, "The early life of 
 Washington is singularly transparent as to the creation 
 and influence of the ideal. We see how one quality after 
 another was added until the character became complete. 
 Manly strength, athletic power and skill, appear first; then, 
 courtesy and refined manners, temperance, consideration 
 for others; then, careful and exact business habits; then, 
 military qualities; then, devotion to public service. Stead- 
 ily but rapidly, the transforming work went on, until the 
 Man was complete; the ideal was realized. Henceforth, 
 the character, the man, appears under all the forms of 
 occupation and office. Legislator, commander, president, 
 the man is in them all, though he is none of them. Cincin- 
 natus at the plow is Cincinnatus still. Wasliington at 
 sixty, moving in the clamor and confusion of the Genet 
 episode, is the same careful, prudent, patient, dignified, 
 self-respecting, self-controlled, patriotic, masterful man 
 
t8 elementary pedagogy 
 
 that he had begun to be at twenty-one, when he went on 
 his mission to the French forts on the Ohio." 
 
 One other quotation from the pen of the Rev. J. G. K. 
 McClure concerning character must suffice. He says, 
 "The best thing in the world is a good man. The 
 greatest thing in this world is a great good man. The 
 most blessed thing in this world is a blessed good man. 
 The first thing that a human being should recognize about 
 himself is that his character is his distinguishing feature. 
 It is not the amount of money, the amount of power, the 
 amount of brains that a man has that is his distinguishing 
 feature, but his character. Whatever his fellow-men may 
 temporarily say or do to the contrary, this is a fact, that 
 what separates him from others and gives him his individ- 
 uality is his goodness or lack of goodness, according to 
 its degree. Money, power, brains, have their place, and 
 they do exert an influence in temporarily deciding a man's 
 position and recognition. But the standard of the ages, 
 by which any one and every one is tried, is character; and 
 in God's sight, which is the final and determining sight, 
 men are what they are in their wishes and purposes. It 
 is not, then, too much to say that the supreme ambition of 
 a person's life should be to secure a worthy character." 
 
 Character is not considered as embracing the ethical 
 side only; but it involves the physical, intellectual, moral, 
 and spiritual attributes; it means such development of 
 hand, head, and heart as will prepare a man to serve his 
 fellow-men, to bring out the best that is in him, and to 
 fulfill the will of the Creator. To attain this surely is the 
 aim of education. 
 
THE AIM OF EDUCATION 19 
 
 Other Views. — Thus far the discussion has held closely 
 to the aim of education, stress being laid upon the ethical 
 view. Another view considers education more from the 
 cultural standpoint and seeks to secure complete develop- 
 ment, moral, and religious as well, through the mastery 
 of the branches necessary to an all-round education. It 
 may be profitable briefly to consider what these branches 
 are and to note their utility in connection with the question 
 under discussion. Dr. James M. Green defines education 
 as follows: "Education is the development of the powers 
 of the mind by exercising them in the various common 
 channels of thought necessary to make one masterful in 
 his environment." As to the "common channels of 
 thought," quite a unanimity of opinion among educational 
 thinkers is found. Dr. Green says, "The mental ener- 
 gies of the race have grouped themselves under these com- 
 mon channels, namely, mathematics, science, history, lan- 
 guage, aesthetics, ethics, and economics." No harmonious 
 development can be secured that omits any one of these 
 branches. 
 
 Dr. De Garmo remarks,* " It may be assumed, first of 
 all, that a normal, well-educated man should at least be 
 intelhgent concerning the conquests of his race in all the 
 distinct fields of its endeavor. He need not, indeed, be 
 master of Greek, Spanish, calculus, ontology, physical 
 chemistry, geology, civil engineering, law, medicine, theol- 
 ogy; but he should at least know that these studies exist, 
 comprehend something of their respective functions, and 
 be familiar with some of their elements. In other words, 
 the normally constituted mind should dwell, for a time at 
 * "Interest and Education," p. 61. 
 
20 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 least, upon each distinctive department of important 
 human knowledge." He then classifies these departments 
 into three groups, namely, (i) the human sciences, embrac- 
 ing languages, ancient and modern, literature, art, and 
 history; (2) the natural sciences, such as physics, chemistry, 
 and astronomy with their basis of pure mathematics, the 
 biological sciences, and the earth sciences — physical geog- 
 raphy and geology; and (3) the economic sciences, which 
 include economics proper, technology, and commercial 
 knowledge. 
 
 President Eliot marks out the four great divisions of 
 knowledge as, languages, history, mathematics, and natural 
 science, and urges that these "should all be adequately 
 represented" in the course of study at all times. 
 
 Dr. Harris names five coordinate groups as follows: lan- 
 guage, arithmetic, geography, history, and other branches, 
 and he insists that, "From the primary school on through 
 the academic course of the college, there should be five 
 coordinate groups of studies represented at each part of 
 the course." 
 
 President Butler ^ thinks that there should be a center 
 or core around which the students' work should be formed, 
 and this core should have three constituent elements, 
 namely," (i) the study of language; (2) the study of de- 
 ductive reasoning, in mathematics and formal logic; (3) 
 the study of inductive method, in experimental science, 
 and, in part, in history. If it is provided that the course 
 pursued by every student must contain a subject selected 
 from each of these tliree classes, we may safely trust to the 
 student's tastes, needs, and ambitions, together with the 
 
 ' Educational Review, Vol. XVI, p. 23. 
 
THE AIM OF EDUCATION 2l 
 
 advice of his parents and teachers, both to select the speci- 
 fied subjects, and to add to them others that He outside 
 those classes. He cannot very well fail to make a satis- 
 factory course. Tliis arrangement suits equally well the 
 student who has a college course in view, or liis fellow who 
 looks forward to a scientific school, an agricultural college, 
 a technical institute, a business career, or indeed any other 
 form of occupation." 
 
 Thus, through exercising the faculties in these "common 
 channels of thought," which are generally accepted as 
 necessary, and in all of these channels, the individual is 
 led to understand his environment, to utilize it, and to 
 command its forces for his own personal welfare and hap- 
 piness, and for the good of his fellow-men. Just in so 
 far as this end is attained, the aim of education is realized. 
 These two phases of the general subject are set forth in the 
 summary. 
 
 Summary 
 
 I. The aim of education is the harmonious development 
 of all the powers of man to the end that good character may 
 he formed. 
 
 II. Education is the development of the powers of the 
 mind by exercising them in the various common channels 
 of thought necessary to make one masterful in his environ- 
 ment. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 
 
 References. — Morgan, Studies in Pedagogy; Payne, Lectures 
 on Teaching; Page, Theory and Practice; Roark, Method in Edu- 
 cation; Colcr, Character Building; Ogdcn, Science of Education; 
 London, School Management; McMurry, Method of the Reci- 
 tation; O'Shea, Education as Adjustment; Educational Review, 
 Vol. I; Tate, Philosophy of Education. 
 
 The question as to whether or not there is a science of 
 education has been under discussion for many years. 
 Many assert that there exist only scraps of scientific edu- 
 cational knowledge, that there are no mutual purposes and 
 no common grounds that hold teachers together as in 
 law or medicine, so essential in a profession, and that, 
 therefore, it is folly to talk of the profession of teaching, or 
 of a science of education. Others, on the other hand, with 
 equal insistence, affirm that education is entitled to a place 
 among the sciences. They point to the fact that other 
 countries, especially Germany, have long recognized peda- 
 gogy as being on a scientific basis, according to it the dig- 
 nity of a place among university subjects, and sustaining 
 chairs to promulgate its teaching. 
 
 Opinions as to the Science of Education. — Superintend- 
 ent Soldan says, " No matter how limited the strictly scien- 
 tific domain of education is considered to be, it cannot be 
 denied that there is such a science, and it should be mas- 
 tered before the practical duties of teaching are assumed." 
 
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 23 
 
 Supt. James M. Greenwood says, "The hypothesis that 
 one line of work, human development, is not susceptible 
 to any law, that education is not a science, is a matter of 
 chance caprice, is to affirm that there is one great realm of 
 human activity not subject to law. This leads to a strange 
 inconsistency. Is there not a large body of educational 
 literature written upon the nature, the activity, and the 
 development of the human body and soul — a set of prin- 
 ciples founded upon human nature in all its phases, deter- 
 mining the nature, the function, and the limits of educa- 
 tion, and are not these principles as elementary as are 
 those of any one of the physical or mathematical sciences, 
 and do not these embrace the very deepest problems of 
 philosophy and of life, and have a self- justification in the 
 subject-matter they cover ? 
 
 "For forty years, the chief effort of the leading educators 
 of the United States has been to place teaching on the 
 same professional basis that law and medicine now hold 
 in the public mind. It is a profession having its history, 
 its body of doctrines, and its methods as sharply defined 
 as other professions. A handful of opponents, however, 
 claim that molding and developing a human being can 
 lay no claim to scientific or rational treatment. They 
 hold, without good reason, that all teaching is experi- 
 mental, and in its very nature cannot be reduced to a 
 scientific basis. The two most scientific nations of Cliris- 
 tendom, Germany and France, treat it as a science and 
 one that can be learned and practiced. Compayr^, the 
 leading pedagogical lecturer of France, says, * To under- 
 take the direction of education without having analyzed 
 the faculties of human nature, would be to run the risk 
 
24 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 of committing the grossest errors; it would be to go astray, 
 to walk at random like a traveler in an unknown country 
 without a map before him. On the other hand, equipped 
 with proper psychological observations, the educator is 
 prepared to determine the theoretical and general laws 
 which govern the development of mind and character. 
 Now, without the key which psychology puts into our 
 hands, the child would remain to us an insoluble enigma.' "^ 
 
 Professor O'Shea thinks that inasmuch as certain prin- 
 ciples of education have long been believed and have stood 
 the test of time, there is evidence of science. He observes,^ 
 "Is it safe to say that articles of belief in education which 
 have been held by generation after generation, and tested 
 by them, and are as fresh to-day as ever — is it safe to 
 say that such principles are scientific? that they express 
 in a truthful way certain relations of the race to the world ? " 
 
 "And have not such principles really been established in 
 conformity to the requirements of effective method ? Every 
 induction in any field and at any time leads at first to a 
 hypothesis, which does not become a law until it is tried 
 under varying circumstances and not found wanting. 
 Newton thus formulated the principle of gravitation first 
 as an hypothesis ; men have been working with it ever since, 
 and to-day they believe it is a law, for it has never failed 
 to work in any situation in which it has been tried. So 
 men have been working with certain principles of educa- 
 tion for a much longer period than they have worked with 
 the law of gravitation, and they have stood the test." 
 
 Professor Roark remarks,^ "The science of education 
 
 ' Annual address to the teachers of Kansas City, Mo., 1904. 
 ' "Education as Adjustment," p. 27. 
 ^ "Method in Education," p. 10. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 2$ 
 
 is justifying itself so admirably in these latter days when 
 educational matters are on everybody's tongue and on the 
 pages of every popular periodical, that those who deny 
 teaching a place among the liberal professions have a 
 heavy burden of proof to carry. The question of method 
 has forced an asking in all the higher institutions of learn- 
 ing, and there is hardly a college or university in this coun- 
 try to-day that does not have its department of pedagogy." 
 Later in this chapter we shall give a number of such 
 principles that have been long taught and that find uni- 
 versal acceptance. 
 
 Science Defined. — Perhaps the discussion will be some- 
 what clearer if a definition of the term of science be agreed 
 upon. Webster defines science as "Accumulated and 
 established knowledge, which has been systematized and 
 formulated with reference to the discovery of general 
 truths or the operation of general laws; knowledge clas- 
 sified and made available in work, life, or the search for 
 truth; comprehensive, profound, or philosophical knowl- 
 edge." Sir William Hamilton says, Science is "a com- 
 plement of cognitions, having, in point of form, the char- 
 acter of logical perfection, and, in point of matter, the 
 character of real truth." In point of form, it will not be 
 claimed that education has reached logical perfection, and, 
 from the very nature of things, it will never be possible 
 for it to reach such perfection as is the case with the science 
 of mathematics, physics, or botany. Like psychology, it 
 deals with mental activities, and therefore complete exact- 
 ness can never be expected. But in point of matter, edu- 
 cation has certainly reached much that bears the character 
 of real truth. 
 
26 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 With the limitations given in the definition of science, i.e.^ 
 "Accumulated and established knowledge, which has been 
 systematized and formulated with reference to the dis- 
 covery of general truths or the operation of general laws," 
 the question arises, Have a sufficient number of principles 
 been established such as to warrant the claims of a science ? 
 That many principles are universally accepted all will 
 agree. Whether or not sufficient progress has been made 
 to meet the claims of a science, or whether these are mere 
 isolated truths, upon which all agree, is the rock upon which 
 educators split. A comparison of opinions upon this point 
 may throw some light upon the question. Tate says,^ 
 "Practical teachers, as well as the public generally, had, 
 until recently, regarded education more as an art than 
 as a science, consisting merely of a few arbitrary and empir- 
 ical rules which may be modified or altered to suit the 
 tastes and attainments of the teacher, or to answer the 
 opinions and circumstances of the managers of schools. 
 This unfortunate prejudice has, no doubt, had its origin, 
 to a great extent, in the fact that the greater part of the 
 teachers were unfit for their ofhce. . . . The science of 
 education must be based upon the nature of the being to 
 be educated; that is to say, upon the laws which govern 
 the development of the intellectual and moral faculties. 
 These laws may be determined as well by observation as 
 by psychological analysis. Every faculty of our nature has 
 its proper period and peculiar mode of development." 
 Further he adds, "The art of education, without a due 
 regard to its science, degenerates into empiricism; and the 
 science, without the piactice of the art, becomes little 
 
 * "Philosophy of Education," pp. 14, 19. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 27 
 
 better than a code of barren abstractions without the vital 
 principle of development. The philosophy of education 
 should go in hand with the practice of it: every step of 
 advance taken by the one should be followed by corre- 
 sponding progress of the other; philosophy should suggest 
 plans and theories, art should test and try them; philosophy 
 should build up a structure of general principles and rules, 
 art should supply the facts — the materials — by which, 
 and upon which, this structure should be reared." 
 
 To quote a brief paragraph from a thorough discussion 
 of this point by a recognized authority,^ "The science of 
 pedagogics ... is still incomplete in its matter, all its first 
 principles not having been formulated; and it is imperfect 
 in form, its admitted principles not having been arranged, 
 and deductions from them not having been made with 
 the required completeness and order. Whoever takes an 
 established psychological law and draws from it legitimate 
 deductions that can be employed for guidance in educa- 
 tional work, has made a contribution to the science of 
 pedagogics ; and works like Bain's ' Education as a Science,' 
 and Rosenkranz's 'Pedagogics as a System,' that discuss 
 in a comprehensive way the doctrines of education, are 
 actual treatises on the science of pedagogics. ... A 
 science of pedagogics exists as an actual fact, but it is still 
 incomplete in matter and imperfect in form. The need of 
 the hour is a systematic rearrangement of the old material, 
 and the addition of omitted principles and their deductions."^ 
 
 * Payne's "Contributions to the Science of Education," p. 3. 
 
 ' Many other authors discuss this question. I call especial attention 
 to McMurry's "Method of the Recitation," p. i, for a full treatment of 
 Ithis topic. 
 
28 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 We believe that there is a science of education for reasons 
 which follow. 
 
 I. Because of educational principles established. It may 
 be profitable to call attention to some of the educational 
 principles that are universally accepted, as well as to those 
 that are still debatable. No one can furnish a complete list 
 of established pedagogical truths any more than any one 
 can tabulate the mental activities as presented in psychol- 
 ogy. As in psychology, so in pedagogy, there is abun- 
 dant debatable ground. In both, some of the disputed 
 points will ultimately be established and thus add new 
 principles to perfect their respective science, while others 
 will be rejected as lacking the element of a scientific basis. 
 One can easily recall numerous discussions within the last 
 generation in which pedagogical themes have been treated, 
 some to secure a permanent place in educational doctrine, 
 while others have entirely dropped out of consideration. 
 We may mention such questions as the duty of the state 
 to provide education for all children, and the right to tax 
 the people therefor ; her right to extend free education 
 beyond the elementary school ; compulsory school atten- 
 dance ; the introduction of the kindergarten, manual 
 training, drawing, music, etc. These questions are 
 settled for all time in the educational policy of this 
 country. More strictly scientific and pedagogical ques- 
 tions, such as, the training of the senses by means of object 
 teaching, the doctrine of interest, of apperception, or corre- 
 lation, have each received its share of attention, and to each 
 has been accorded its permanent place in educational 
 theory. 
 
 It seems as if the past quarter of a century has been 
 
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 29 
 
 the most productive in the discussion and settlement of 
 educational questions, as well as in suggesting new prob- 
 lems to be solved, of any period in the world's history. 
 And yet the history of education shows that individuals 
 and peoples have met and settled many educational ques- 
 tions. The following may be mentioned in illustration, 
 quoting from Karl Schmidt: "In Greece at last the idea 
 of human individuality as the principal end, and not as a 
 means to an end, was grasped. Conformable to this 
 truth, all human, social, and pohtical conditions were 
 shaped and education given its form. This idea of the 
 emancipation of the individual became established in 
 Greece with a brilliancy which attracts attention to that 
 land until the present time." 
 
 Plato taught that the aim of education is to bring all 
 the powers of man into harmonious cooperation, a principle 
 upon which the Herbartians have laid great stress during 
 the latter half of the nineteenth century. 
 
 Aristotle believed that pedagogy should be based upon 
 a knowledge of the individual, and in his method he pro- 
 ceeded "from the concrete to the abstract," teachings that 
 have universal acceptance in modern education. 
 
 Cicero held that the amusements and the environments 
 of the child should be such as elevate and refine, as well 
 as properly to develop his powers. These are the same 
 truths that Pestalozzi worked out in his object teaching, 
 and Froebel in the kindergarten. 
 
 Seneca commanded respect for the office and person 
 of the teacher in these words: "Such a man, who con- 
 secrates his whole being to our good, and who awakens 
 our dormant faculties, is deserving all the esteem that we 
 
30 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 give a benevolent physician or our most loved and dearest 
 kindred." 
 
 Quintilian, among many other pedagogical precepts, 
 held that children should begin early with a foreign tongue, 
 as their own language will come to them naturally in their 
 intercourse with those about them. 
 
 The Great Teacher by precept and practice taught that 
 all education is for the individual. Of Him, Karl Schmidt 
 says, "Christ, the perfect teacher, gave by his example and 
 by his own teaching the eternal principles of pedagogy." 
 
 Charlemagne taught the principle of universal educa- 
 tion, that every child has a right to an education, a prin- 
 ciple that is accepted by most civilized countries of the 
 world. He also taught compulsory school attendance. He 
 believed, too, that girls as well as boys should be educated. 
 
 Erasmus held that during the first six years little should 
 be done with the education of the child save to develop a 
 strong body; also that religious training should not be 
 neglected. 
 
 The Jesuits made their schools interesting, and learning 
 pleasant. They urged that the teacher must be specially 
 trained for the duties of his office. 
 
 Rabelais placed the study of the sciences in the front 
 rank, thereby starting a movement that has revolutionized 
 courses of study and educational methods, and anticipated 
 Herbert Spencer. 
 
 Bacon furthered this work by his discovery of the in- 
 ductive method, and made application of it in science 
 through experiment, investigation, and verification. 
 
 Ratke followed the order of nature, thereby anticipating 
 Rousseau and modern nature study. Comenius follows 
 
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 31 
 
 the same thought when he says, "If we would teach and 
 learn, surely we must follow the order of Nature." "Let 
 everything be presented through the senses." "Proceed 
 from the easy to the difficult, from the general to the special, 
 from the known to the unknown." "Learn to do by 
 doing." "Learn language by use rather than by precept." 
 
 F^nelon also anticipated Froebel by teaching that all 
 instruction must be made pleasant and interesting, and 
 that the instinct of play should be utihzed in teaching. 
 "Present the thing before its name, the idea before the 
 word." "Morality should be taught early by means of 
 fables, stories, and concrete examples." 
 
 Francke believed that teachers should be trained, and 
 carried out this thought in connection with his orphan 
 asylum. 
 
 Pestalozzi taught the harmonious development of all 
 the human powers. "Instruction, especially for young 
 children, should be based upon observation." " The 
 mother is the natural educator of the child in its early 
 years." Dr. Harris says of Pestalozzi, "He is the first 
 teacher to announce convincingly the doctrine that all 
 people should be educated, that, in fact, education is the 
 one good gift to give to all whether rich or poor." 
 
 Rein says, "Froebel gave the world the kindergarten, 
 while Herbart elevated education to the dignity of a 
 science." ^ 
 
 It will not be claimed that all the pedagogical theories 
 and principles above enunciated are universally accepted 
 and established. But many of them are so established, 
 
 * For the statement of many more educational maxims, I refer the reader 
 to the svimmaries following each chapter in my "History of Education." 
 
32 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 and many more might be added. It would seem, therefore, 
 that in the field of education enough that is fundamental 
 is fixed to warrant the claim that there is a science of 
 education. 
 
 2. Because of scientific works on education. — A second 
 argument is found in the numerous scientific and philo- 
 sophical works on this subject with which educational litera- 
 ture abounds. The output in this field during recent 
 years has been remarkable, and this output increases year 
 by year. Discussions of educational philosophy have 
 claimed the attention of the profoundest thinkers and the 
 wisest men of the world, not only among teachers, but also 
 from every class of men. 
 
 These discussions have found their way into educational 
 books and periodicals, and also into popular magazines 
 and papers, showing that interest has been awakened 
 outside the field of the professional teacher. Every year 
 more than three hundred books and articles on education 
 that are worthy of serious consideration, appear in the 
 English language alone,^ while in other languages a like 
 activity is manifest. Surely, such a wonderful activity 
 could not be expected if there were no science of 
 education. 
 
 Mr. Greenwood says, " With a pedagogical literature that 
 represents hundreds of volumes in English, more than two 
 thousand in French, and more voluminous still in German, 
 there is hardly a valid excuse why any one who assumes to 
 teach in a public or private school should be ignorant of 
 the existence of this great treasure-house of educational 
 knowledge." 
 
 ^ See the annual June number of the Educational Review. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 33 
 
 3. Because of organizations for the study of education. — 
 Teachers' organizations, which meet periodically to con- 
 sider educational questions, from the National Educational 
 Association down to the smallest teachers' club, furnish 
 an evidence that there is a science of education. It is true 
 that other societies, like labor organizations, meet to discuss 
 their rights and formulate plans for united action; but 
 there is this vital difference, — the former, like medical, 
 law, and theological associations, meet to discuss the great 
 questions which affect the welfare and progress of the race, 
 while the latter busy themselves with their own interests 
 and ends. In teachers' meetings are presented the experi- 
 ences and conclusions of men devoted to the elevation of 
 mankind and to the furtherance of altruistic principles. 
 Such meetings contribute to the sum of pedagogical knowl- 
 edge and confirm the truth that education is a science. 
 
 4. Because chairs for the study of education are main- 
 tained. — A most convincing and practical reason for the 
 belief that there is a science of education, lies in the fact 
 that pedagogical chairs have been established in colleges 
 and universities, and that normal schools, training classes, 
 etc., are maintained at great expense. Legislators and 
 philanthropists are not likely to devote large sums of money 
 to maintain a science that has no existence. 
 
 5. Because educators have long recognized it as a sci- 
 ence. — German thinkers and the German educational 
 authorities have recognized pedagogy as a science for more 
 than half a century. In some of the universities, pedagogy 
 is accepted as a branch which may be offered for a degree, 
 coordinate with philosophy, psychology, science, or math- 
 
34 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 ematics. The same is practically true in France. Provi- 
 sion for training in the science and art of teaching is being 
 increasingly made in this country, while great numbers of 
 young men and women are availing themselves of the oppor- 
 tunities thus afforded. Teachers, like lawyers, doctors, 
 and ministers, are banding themselves together for the 
 purpose of protecting their interests, studying the principles 
 underlying their profession, and advancing the cause to 
 wliich they have devoted their lives. 
 
 There seems to be good reason, therefore, to accept edu- 
 cation as a science, and teaching as a profession. 
 
 Summary 
 
 There is a science of education because educational prin- 
 ciples have been formulated and classified, an educational 
 literature created, associations formed to further and protect 
 the interests of teachers and to foster a scientific spirit, peda- 
 gogical chairs established and maintained, and because it 
 has received recognition in this and other countries. It is 
 not a complete or exact science, and never can be, for it deals 
 with the activities of the human mind. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 WHO CAN BE EDUCATED? 
 
 References, — Btitler, Meaning of Education; McMurry, 
 Method of the Recitation; Ward, Psychic Factors of Civilization; 
 Rosenkranz, Philosophy of Education; De Gar mo, Interest and 
 Education. 
 
 If we accept the definition of education given by Rosen- 
 kranz, namely, " Education is the influencing of man by 
 man, and it has for its end to lead him to actualize liimself 
 through liis own efforts," we have the answer to the ques- 
 tion, "Who can be educated?" in the definition itself. 
 The term " education," however, is often applied in a wider 
 sense, as an educated horse, an educated dog, an edu- 
 cated lion. It may be well to study the meaning of the 
 words employed, and seek to arrive at an understanding 
 of them. We speak of training and educating as though 
 they were interchangeable terms. Such use of these words 
 is unwarrantable. By training there is direction by some 
 external agent, the being or thing trained is passive. Thus 
 we speak of training a horse, a dog, a regiment, a vine. 
 It is not that the object trained is necessarily destitute of 
 intelligence; but it is led by the intelligence and volition of 
 another to do tilings that it would not do of its own volition. 
 The trained horse or the trick dog learns to perform feats 
 that have been thought out by a superior intelligence and 
 taught to him. He would never have learned these tricks 
 of his own volition. Observe the most highly "educated" 
 horse, study his tricks, and it will at once appear that he 
 
 35 
 
36 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 performs only as he has been taught to perform, only as 
 he has been trained. An external force, a man, has con- 
 ceived the interesting feat and patiently trained him to per- 
 form it. Had it not been for the man, the horse would never 
 have performed the trick. 
 
 Weal so employ the term "training" in connection with 
 self-active beings, with man. Thus, the athlete who is to 
 enter a contest, the pugilist who is to do battle, the foot- 
 ball player — all these are placed in the hands of the 
 trainer whose commands they must obey. They are in 
 training, and while they are intelligent and must employ 
 their intelligence, and possess the power of self-direction, 
 during the time they are at work they must submit to the 
 direction of an outside force, the trainer. We also have 
 the training school, the training class, the training of sol- 
 diers, the training of children. In every case there is an 
 outside intelligence, superior in knowledge and capable of 
 directing. The student in the training school is set to per- 
 form certain tasks, such as, managing children, teach- 
 ing a class, and the manifold duties of the teacher. He 
 does this work under the eye and the direction of tlie 
 critic teacher. He is being trained. Wherever the idea 
 of training is correctly employed, there is an external force 
 operating. 
 
 But education is from within. If there is no self-acti\'ity, 
 there is no learning. We criticise the grammatical accu- 
 racy of the expression, "I shall learn you tliis fact;" there 
 is also a sense in which the expression, "I shall teach you 
 this fact," is incorrect. We can teach no one who will not 
 be taught, as, from the very nature of the term education, 
 activity from within is implied and required. Educere, the 
 
WHO CAN BE EDUCATED f 37 
 
 Latin word from which we derive the word Education, 
 means the act of leading forth. It begins within and pro- 
 ceeds outward. A teacher may be employed, it is true, to 
 arouse, direct, and lead, but, unless the activity of the child 
 is stimulated, the work of the teacher is in vain, there is 
 no educating. The horse can be trained under the lash 
 to perform certain acts quite perfunctorily as a matter of 
 habit, with little exercise of intelligence. So also man 
 may be trained, as we have seen, to perform acts without 
 it being necessary to give any thought to them. But the 
 process of education requires conscious exercise of the in- 
 telligence. If this is not brought about, all effort on the 
 part of the teacher is fruitless. 
 
 Let us proceed to the further consideration of the ques- 
 tion. Who can be educated ? Do animals possess the same 
 mental qualities as man, differing only in degree? If not, 
 at what point is the dividing line? Beginning with the 
 lowest form of intelligence and proceeding to the highest 
 form, we will try to discover if any difference exists, and, 
 if so, where it may be found. 
 
 I. Instinct. — Comparing man with lower creatures we 
 find that both possess instinct. The homing instinct, that 
 of self-preservation, of care for offspring, of herding with 
 those of their kind, are stronger in many animals than in 
 man. Indeed, instinct often serves the animal in the 
 accomplishment of ends that man reaches through higher 
 intellectual power. On the whole, it will be found that 
 instinct is stronger in the lower than in the higher creation ; 
 hence this cannot be the dividing line between the two, else 
 the animal must be accorded the higher place. 
 
38 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 2. Sense- perception. — Proceeding to the next higher 
 form of intellectual activity, that of sense-perception, we 
 find that animals possess keener senses than man. The 
 hound follows the trail of the fox by means of a keen scent, 
 and is not thrown oiT the track of his particular prey even 
 though other animals may cross it ; the dog traces his master 
 through the streets of a city, where thousands of other men 
 have passed to and fro, with unerring certainty; the hawk 
 poises a thousand feet above the earth and detects a snake 
 or a mouse moving through the grass, and shoots down 
 from the sky like an arrow upon his victim ; the horse travels 
 with perfect security in the darkest night when his master 
 is totally unable to see a thing; the cat has no trouble to 
 find its way in the deepest gloom ; the watch-dog detects 
 the slightest suspicious sound. Examples are abundant 
 to show that each animal is endowed with such acuteness 
 of sense as is necessary for its self-preservation, or for secur- 
 ing the end for which its hfe was designed, and this acute- 
 ness often far surpasses that of man in the same direction. 
 Hence, if sense-perception were the dividing line, man 
 would be placed below the brute creation. 
 
 3. Imagination. — Next in the order marking intellec- 
 tual advance is imagination. It is difficult to discover 
 that animals possess imagination in any high form, as they 
 cannot convey their thoughts through speech; but it is easy 
 to discover that they possess memory, which is a form of 
 imagination. Remarkable instances of memory on the 
 part of animals are easily authenticated, having been wit- 
 nessed by thoughtful observers. An elephant refuses to 
 cross a bridge where perhaps, years before, it had been 
 injured; a horse remembers a road over which it had passed 
 
WHO CAN BE EDUCATED? 39 
 
 or a house at which it had stopped; a dog remembers a 
 trick when called upon to perform it by the one who taught 
 it to him even though years have intervened since it was 
 last performed. Examples can be multiplied showing that 
 some animals possess excellent memories. In this form of 
 imagination, that of memory, it is certain that in many 
 cases the animal equals if not surpasses man. Memory 
 cannot be the dividing line. 
 
 4. Reason. — When we come to reason, we may well 
 hesitate to ask the question. Do animals reason ? Many 
 psychologists confidently affirm that they do not, while 
 others assert that they do. Before we can intelligently 
 discuss this question, it will be necessary to define what we 
 mean by reason. Ward says that reason is the "faculty 
 by which the mind reaches conclusions."^ We understand 
 reason to be the power of reaching conclusions from certain 
 premises or propositions, expressed or understood, the 
 ability to proceed from cause to effect. That animals pos- 
 sess this power in a hmited sense, abundant and reliable 
 instances on record would seem to prove. Ward^ relates 
 many incidents in which animals show the power to proceed 
 from cause to effect. The following is a most striking ex- 
 ample: "In the summer of 1875, while making botanical 
 collections in Rabbit Valley on Fremont River, Utah, the 
 camp was several times invaded by coyotes during the 
 absence of myself and my assistant, and these animals would 
 howl around us nights, sometimes approaching quite 
 closely. I finally set my fowhng piece, both barrels loaded 
 with buckshot, in a gulch among the sagebrush a hundred 
 
 ' "Psychic Factors of Civilization," p. 28. 
 ^ Ibid., p. 152. 
 
40 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 yards from the tent, attaching a piece of fresh meat to a 
 string twenty yards long, which at the opposite end passed 
 round the stem of a bush and was tied to both triggers. 
 The least jerk on the string would fire off the gun, which 
 was carefully aimed in the direction of, and a little over, 
 the meat. The next morning tracks were seen all about 
 the place, but meat, string, and gun were untouched. The 
 second morning I found the meat gone and the string bitten 
 off. The meat had been dragged six inches toward the 
 gun, as shown by the mark it made in the loose alkaline 
 soil, and the string was slack. The gun had not been dis- 
 charged. I renewed the meat and reset the gun, and the 
 third night I heard the report of the gun in the night. It 
 was moonlight and I went to the spot as quickly as possible, 
 but as no dead wolves were to be found I left matters till 
 morning, when I found that the operation of the previous 
 night had been repeated, but that by some accident the 
 string had been pulled and the gun discharged, probably 
 without injury to the animal, as the string now lay out of 
 range. I continued for several nights to repeat the experi- 
 ment with somewhat varying results, but did not succeed 
 in killing any wolves. The tracks showed that on the first 
 night they had traversed the length of the string and around 
 the gun, evidently exploring the situation thoroughly and 
 acting upon the knowledge they possessed." 
 
 "Has the lower animal the power of reasoning?" asks 
 the Rev. Charles J. Adams. He answers his question as 
 follows: "I claim that I have discovered four phases of 
 reason. These are, that of appreciation, that of adapta- 
 tion, that of imitation, and that of origination." The 
 following incidents are related to prove his claim: "A 
 
WHO CAN BE EDUCATED? 41 
 
 young lady, with some friends, was in an orchard. In a 
 field adjoining, two of her brothers were at work. In an 
 adjoining pasture were two young horses. To the bars 
 which connected the field in which the young men were 
 working with the pasture, one of these horses came run- 
 ning and whinneying. One of the young men, who did 
 not think that intelligence stopped short off at man, walked 
 toward him. Then the horse started off, looking back 
 over his shoulder as if he expected the young man to follow. 
 The horse was not disappointed, and the young man found 
 the horse's mate on his back in a ditch unable to get up. 
 
 "Here is a clear case of appreciative reason. The horse 
 could not save his companion, knew that a man could 
 do so, and did the sensible thing by going off to get a 
 man. 
 
 "The appreciation of the output of any faculty by an- 
 other is evidence that the one appreciating has the same 
 faculty. The musician appreciates those who have the 
 musical faculty. To go no further for illustration, did 
 not the fact that the horse knew that a man could act 
 rationally, prove that the horse is endowed with reason?" 
 
 Mr. Adams also tells a story of a monkey that had a 
 grudge against a coachman, and took the following means 
 to vent his spite : he found his way through an open window 
 into the man's room over the stable, saturated his bed with 
 kerosene, which he obtained by unscrewing the top of the 
 lamp, struck a match and set fire to the bed. " But admit," 
 says Mr. Adams, "that the monkey was only imitatively 
 rational in striking the match, was there not something of 
 origination in his unscrewing the top from the lamp and 
 pouring its contents on the bed?" These instances seem 
 
42 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 to prove that animals possess the power of appreciation, 
 adaptation, imitation, and origination. 
 
 A personal experience with a dog shows the power of 
 appreciative reason, that of recognizing powers in man to 
 assist where his power had reached its limitation. It was 
 upon a farm in New York state where woodchucks abound. 
 The dog was a great hunter, and there was scarcely a day 
 during the summer season that he failed to run a wood- 
 chuck into a stone fence, when he would call for help by 
 loud barking. He came in one day, wet, dirty, and tired. 
 I said to him in ordinary tone of voice, "Sport, have you 
 found another woodchuck?" The dog showed every 
 demonstration of joy, springing up to me, running off in the 
 direction of his game, returning, then starting off again, 
 plainly begging me to go with him. I got my hat and fol- 
 lowed him. As soon as he was sure that I was coming, he 
 left me to follow a necessarily circuitous route while he 
 took a short cut, arriving some time before I did. He 
 stood on top of the stone wall and by his barking directed 
 me to his quarry. Now here is a case of appreciative 
 reasoning. Not being able to secure his game without 
 assistance, he called upon one that he knew could render 
 aid. 
 
 It would seem, then, that reasoning is not the dividing 
 line, though no one would assert that the power of reason- 
 ing on the part of animals equals that of man. The ani- 
 mal always reasons in connection with the concrete, and, 
 at best, his reasoning is elementary. 
 
 5. The Power of Abstraction. — The highest form of 
 intelligence is the power of abstraction, the ability to form 
 generalizations. Do animals possess tliis power? Let us 
 
WHO CAN BE EDUCATED? 43 
 
 first define what we mean by abstraction. It is the with- 
 drawal from the concrete, the notion obtained which ex- 
 ists independent of any particular object. Thus beauty, 
 shape, color, weight, attraction, virtue, honesty, righteous- 
 ness, etc., are abstract ideas. , Though they are applied to 
 objects, they represent notions independent of them.^ Prin- 
 ciples, axioms, rules, laws, although they may be evolved 
 by means of many examples, state a general or abstract 
 truth. It is not conceivable that an animal can compre- 
 hend an abstract truth. Whatever be its power of intel- 
 ligence, it is always associated with something concrete. 
 
 Here, then, we have a clear distinction which marks 
 the difference between man and the brute creation. Man 
 alone has reached the power of abstract thinking, and be- 
 cause of this he alone can be educated. Indeed, the goal 
 of instruction is to reach the abstract, as McMurry shows.^ 
 
 Quoting from Bulwer-Lytton on this point,^ "The more 
 I look through nature the more I find that on all varieties 
 of organized life is carefully bestowed the capacity to re- 
 ceive the impressions, be they called perceptions or ideas, 
 which are adapted to the uses each creature is intended to 
 derive from them. I find, then, that man alone is endowed 
 with the capacity to receive the ideas of God, of soul, of 
 worship, of a hereafter. I see no trace of such a capacity 
 in the inferior races; nor, however their intelligence may be 
 refined by culture, is such capacity ever apparent in them." 
 
 Further he adds: 
 
 *' ' Man alone,' says Miiller, ' can conceive abstract notions;' 
 and it is in abstract notions, such as time, space, matter, 
 
 ^ See McMurry's "Method of the Recitation," for a discussion of in- 
 dividual and general notions. 
 
 ' Ibid., p. 51. ' "A Strange Story," p. 345. 
 
44 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 spirit, light, form, quantity, essence, that man grounds, 
 not only all liis philosophy, all science, but all that prac- 
 tically improves one generation for the benefit of the next. 
 And why? Because all these abstract notions uncon- 
 sciously lead the mind away from the material into the 
 immaterial, from the present into the future." 
 
 The child begins to learn to count with objects, but the 
 lesson is not learned until he can add, subtract, multiply, 
 etc., without any objects at hand, until he possesses the 
 abstract notion. It may seem that as man and the animal 
 run parallel in their manifestations of intelligence as we 
 have traced, the difference between them is but slight. 
 But the power of abstraction, which man possesses and 
 which the animal totally lacks, marks a mighty chasm 
 which can never be bridged. The intellectual distance 
 between the lowest type of man and the highest type of 
 animal has not been lessened during the ages and never 
 can be lessened, for man's progress is due to his power of 
 abstract reasoning, a power which no animal possesses in 
 any degree whatever. Man has progressed of his own 
 impulse and volition. Horses can run a mile in two min- 
 utes, not because they have set this goal for themselves, 
 but because man set that goal, and through breeding, train- 
 ing, and improved facilities he has brought the horse to the 
 desired speed. Dogs have reached wonderful perfection 
 and beauty, and have learned to perform remarkable tricks, 
 not of their own volition but because another and higher 
 intelligence has taken them in hand and by long-continued 
 and painstaking efforts has secured the end sought. The dog 
 is more intelligent in some respects and less intelligent in 
 others than he was in his wild state a thousand years ago 
 
WHO CAN BE EDUCATED? 45 
 
 before he was domesticated by man. Not an animal is 
 one whit better or more intelHgent than were his ancestors 
 thousands of years ago because he planned to better his 
 species or reach higher aims. Every particle of improve- 
 ment in him is due to the fact of his contact with man, who, 
 with the power of abstract reasoning, saw possibilities in 
 him and patiently proceeded to realize those possibilities. 
 It is inconceivable that it should be otherwise. The animal 
 can be trained, but man alone can be educated. 
 
 I have traced this parallel thus carefully for another 
 reason, which will be apparent; that is, to emphasize the 
 thought that as abstraction is characteristic of human 
 intelligence alone, it therefore marks a definite aim in the 
 education of man. The teacher, while proceeding from 
 the concrete, must not stop until the abstract has been 
 reached. Knowledge must be pursued until it is fully 
 incorporated in the mind of the child as general notions. 
 
 If the preceding reasoning is correct, the theory which 
 makes man descendant of lower animals must of neces- 
 sity fall to the ground, for the distance between man and 
 the creature representing the highest evolutional develop- 
 ment from an intellectual standpoint is as great as it ever 
 was, and that distance is immeasurable and infinite. Evo- 
 lution from a physical standpoint may be capable of proof; 
 but from an intellectual standpoint — that wliich distin- 
 guishes man — the ages have marked no progress in the 
 lower animals/ 
 
 Louis Agassiz, in his "Essay on Classification," says, 
 "All the facts proclaim aloud the one God whom man 
 may know, adore, and love, and natural history must in 
 good time become the analysis of the thoughts of the 
 
46 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 Creator of the universe." A- writer who knew Agassiz well, 
 comments upon him as follows: "Every living thing repre- 
 sented not so much animated matter, but a thought of the 
 Creator, and the group to which it belonged, this thought 
 working itself out through the centuries. For he believed 
 in an evolution. But the evolution of Darwin did not 
 exist for liim. He did not believe in an evolution by trans- 
 mutation. His was an evolution, not by organic forces 
 within, but according to a great intelligent plan without. 
 Not by a change of one species into another, but by the 
 substitution of one for another, according to tliis great 
 plan. His devout reverence for the things of nature made 
 itself manifest in his work. He said, 'I never make prep- 
 arations for penetrating into some small province hitherto 
 undiscovered, without breatliing a prayer to the Being who 
 hides his secrets from me.' For him the laboratory was a 
 sanctuary, the study of the things of nature, intercourse 
 with the Creator." 
 
 Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, who discovered the theory of 
 evolution independently of and simultaneously with Darwin, 
 differed from the latter as to the origin of man from an 
 intellectual and moral standpoint. He says, " The belief 
 and teaching of Darwin was that man's whole nature — 
 physical, mental, intellectual and moral — was developed 
 from the lower animals by means of the same laws of varia- 
 tion and survival; and, as a consequence of this belief, that 
 there was no difference in kind between man's nature and 
 animal nature, but only one of degree. jNIy view, on the 
 other hand, was, and is, that there is a difference in kind, 
 intellectually and morally, between man and other animals; 
 and that while his body was undoubtedly developed by con- 
 
WHO CAN BE EDUCATED? 47 
 
 tinuous modification of some ancestral animal form, some 
 different agency, analogous to that which first produced 
 organic life and then originated consciousness, came into 
 play in order to develop the higher intellectual and spiritual 
 nature of man." 
 
 We are now ready to answer the question, Who can be 
 educated? Man alone can be educated, for he alone is 
 self-active, self-conscious, self-directing, responsible for his 
 acts; he alone possesses the power of generalization, the 
 power of abstraction. The answer suggests very important 
 problems inherent in the nature of education. In the 
 light of this answer the aphorism, "From the concrete to 
 the abstract," wliich is the law of educational procedure, 
 takes a broad meaning. It is certain that with the child 
 we must begin with the concrete, but too often our work 
 ceases before the abstract conception is reached. In so 
 far as tliis is true, the educational end has not been attained. 
 A good illustration of this is found in the practice of chil- 
 dren to continue to count with their fingers. The trouble 
 is, they have not yet reached the abstract conception. No 
 child will use objects in counting if he can get along with- 
 out them. The child avails himself of "short-cuts" as 
 truly as the adult. What the teacher should do is not to 
 forbid the child to employ objects, but to give him, through 
 drill and many repetitions, such a thorough knowledge of 
 the numbers he employs that he no longer thinks of objects, 
 or needs them, but knows the number in the abstract. 
 Not until this end is reached can the instruction in any 
 field be called completed. When to employ the concrete 
 and when to employ the abstract is a question that will 
 receive attention in later pages. 
 
48 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 Summary 
 
 Man alone is self-active, self-directive, and self-conscious, 
 possessing the ability to actualize himself through his own 
 efforts. He has the -power of abstraction, and this places 
 him far above animal creations. It marks a gulf that is 
 inconceivable for them to pass. Because of this power pos- 
 sessed alone by man, he alone can be educated. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 ELECTIVE STUDIES 
 
 References. — Eliot, Educational Reforms; Payne, Education 
 of Teachers; Bain, Education as a Science; De Garmo, Interest 
 and Education; FouilUe, Education from a National Standpoint; 
 Report of the Committee of Fifteen; Shaw, A new Course of Study. 
 
 The Election of Studies. — The question of the course of 
 study and the choice of subjects to be pursued has met 
 with wide discussion in recent years, presenting all points 
 of view from extreme individualism, which would allow the 
 child upon entering school to choose what he likes best and 
 pursue that, to the rigid curriculum of the old-fashioned col- 
 lege. In most institutions of higher learning there is an 
 increasing tendency to enlarge the list of elective studies, 
 until in many universities practically all of the work is thrown 
 open to the free election of the student. The course of 
 study has undergone many modifications to meet new 
 demands, to support and further new discoveries, and to 
 keep pace with the progress of civilization. College fac- 
 ulties, superintendents and teachers everywhere are ear- 
 nestly seeking to offer the best that mature learning and 
 experience can suggest for the advancement of those whose 
 lives they are shaping. It would be folly to discard the 
 results of such long-continued and conscientious study. 
 One of the most suggestive evidences of educational prog- 
 ress is found in the enriched, systematized, well-balanced, 
 carefully worked out courses of study. They are not want- 
 ing in fundamental elements, they furnish a working basis 
 of study, they suggest a point from which to start, and, 
 
 49 
 
50 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 therefore, must be a far safer guide to the young person 
 than his own inchnation, or even his owti judgment. 
 
 Election in the Elementary School. — Having estab- 
 lished the character, value, and necessity of the course of 
 study, we may proceed to ask how far it should control 
 in shaping the work of the student, how much choice should 
 he have in the subjects he takes? Beginning with the 
 elementary school, no elective should be possible for two 
 general reasons — (i) it is the period in which an all- 
 round development is to be gained, the period for obtain- 
 ing a general culture; (2) it is the time when character is 
 being formed. Discussing these points separately the 
 child is incapable of selecting the subjects that will furnish 
 him complete development. We have seen that the effort 
 to outline in courses of study the material that will produce 
 such culture has cost the best thought and study of educa- 
 tors for many generations, and yet without wholly satis- 
 factory results. It cannot be expected that an immature 
 child will be able to select the proper material for his cul- 
 ture. Again, he is apt to be influenced in liis choice by 
 superficial causes, such as the popularity of a teacher, 
 the subjects that are easy for him, hkes or dislikes, etc. 
 Miinsterberg has shown that it does not follow that a 
 child's seeming aptitudes are always permanent, that they 
 foreshadow what his life work will be. Hence, his course 
 must be chosen for him and he must be held to it whether 
 or not he likes it until a foundation of general culture has 
 been established. It by no means follows that one should 
 not be required to do things he does not like to do. Tasks 
 
 * See Chap. XVI for treatment of the Course of Study. 
 
ELECTIVE STUDIES 51 
 
 must be performed in school however distasteful they may- 
 be, and this is one of the best means of training for duty, 
 and preparing to meet life's difficulties. 
 
 The Period of Character-Forming. — In the next place, 
 and perhaps of even more importance than the incapacity 
 of the child to select his course, it is not to be forgotten that 
 this is the formative period, the time when character is 
 being formed and established. If this is the chief end of 
 education, great weight must be attached to the effect of 
 any policy on character-forming. The grade teacher, who 
 has charge of the class for the full day for an entire year 
 or longer, must certainly come into much closer touch with 
 children than the specialist, who meets them for a single 
 period a day and then has no further responsibility. The 
 former thinks of the whole child, his needs, his aptitudes, 
 his weaknesses, his discipline, the formation of liis habits, 
 his growth into a perfect well-balanced manhood. The 
 latter very naturally devotes himself to his subject and 
 the problem of furthering the class in that work. From 
 the very nature of things, the motive of the specialist is the 
 advancement of his pupils in his special work, regardless 
 of the other work that the child may be pursuing. He is 
 responsible for that work alone, and his success as a teacher 
 is measured by the progress of the pupils therein. Hence, 
 it often occurs that the enthusiast in some specialty may 
 overwork his class to the detriment of other studies and 
 at the expense of general development. 
 
 The grade teacher, on the other hand, carries the work 
 along evenly, lightening tasks in one subject when some 
 other subject demands more attention, spurring up pupils 
 
52 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 that are dull, while checking any that are prematurely 
 bright, having patience with those that are slow to 
 comprehend, and thereby securing well-balanced work. 
 Surely no teacher of a single subject, meeting a class but 
 once a day, can obtain so thorough acquaintance with the 
 capacities or the characteristics of a class as the grade 
 teacher. It will readily be admitted that the specialist 
 knows his subject better and may be able to present it 
 better than the grade teacher who must teach several sub- 
 jects. But for young children this is not so important 
 as the well-ordered, coordinated, and harmonious presenta- 
 tion of all the work. In the work, as wxll as in the disci- 
 pline, the teacher is to form right habits. With older 
 children, when the habits are established, the emphasis 
 may be laid upon the character of the work. 
 
 The main thing with young children is the strong person- 
 ality of the teacher, and this evinces itself far better in the 
 teacher who has the class the whole day in all of its sub- 
 jects, and who disciplines the children, not merely to main- 
 tain order during the period of instruction, but to estabhsh 
 those habits and to secure that general power of self- 
 control which form good character. The grade teacher 
 is able to understand the child in all his needs. This far 
 overbalances any peculiar power that the specialist may 
 possess in the presentation of subject-matter. Nor is 
 it too much to expect of the grade teacher k\ elementary 
 work that he shall be master of all the subjects he is caHpd 
 upon to teach. 
 
 It is of highest importance that the teacher of young 
 children should come into closest touch with them, not 
 only in their studies, but also in their play, and also in all 
 
ELECTIVE STUDIES 53 
 
 matters that enlist their interests. This can be done only 
 when the teacher is their constant companion, guide, and 
 friend. Thus can the evil influences growing out of the 
 outside environment of many children be counteracted and 
 overcome. The specialist, who meets a different class 
 each period of the day, teaching perhaps a total of two or 
 three hundred children, can know but little about the indi- 
 vidual. He will do well if he learns the name of each, to 
 say nothing of individual characteristics. His discipline 
 necessarily has for its purpose the maintenance of order 
 during the lesson, and if that is attained no further respon- 
 sibility in this respect is laid upon him. But discipline must 
 have a much liigher ultimate aim than this. It must inculcate 
 the power of self-control; it must teach self-respect as well as 
 respect for the rights of others; it must lead to good habits; 
 it must form character. The teacher who is the companion 
 of the pupils during the whole day will be able to encour- 
 age when a word of encouragement is needed, reprove when 
 reproof is necessary, assist when the critical moment for 
 assistance has come, spur up the lazy, and restrain the 
 overzealous, and by word and deed and by kindly interest 
 further every honest effort and check every evil tendency. 
 He will also carry his study of the individual child to his 
 home, when peculiar circumstances require, and he will 
 seek to know and counteract the influences that hinder or 
 debase. These things are impossible to the specialist be- 
 cause of the numbers involved and because his interest is 
 in his subject rather than in the individual child. 
 
 To summarize, the grade teacher's interest lies in the 
 child, his growth, his general advancement, and his perfect 
 development in all directions, while the specialist's interest 
 
54 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 lies in the accomplishment of certain ends in the mastery 
 of subject-matter. 
 
 Instead of dividing the lessons of the day among a num- 
 ber of teachers, there is a tendency in some schools to con- 
 tinue a teacher with a class for three to four years, the 
 teacher moving up with the class. Such practice is excel- 
 lent for both pupils and teachers, — for pupils, because 
 definite and permanent impressions may thereby be made 
 by a strong, intelligent, and zealous teacher ; for teachers, 
 because broader \aews of education and of life are 
 attained than is possible when the same grade of work is 
 pursued year after year. The tendency of teaching is to 
 narrow one's life, because the teacher is constantly appeal- 
 ing to persons inferior in knowledge and experience, and 
 that effect is intensified when one continues in the same 
 grade year after year. To carry a class through three 
 years thus takes the teacher into new fields, but does not 
 take him far away from the particular work wherein lie 
 his aptitude and his strength. After completing the three 
 or four years with a class the teacher starts at the begin- 
 ning with a new class. The impression that an efficient 
 teacher might make upon a class in three years would be 
 lasting, affecting in all probability their whole lives. The 
 wonderful impression that Thomas Arnold, Mary Lyon, 
 or Mark Hopkins made upon students did not come 
 from the recitation alone, but from the personal contact 
 of strong lives for a period of years. And this is the chief 
 reason for the eminent success of many private schools — 
 the personal, daily, continued intercourse of teachers and 
 pupils. But what if the teacher is incompetent or unsuited 
 to inspire the highest intellectual and moral endeavor? 
 
ELECTIVE STUDIES 55 
 
 For such there is no law. No system of pedagogy can 
 provide a place for them or contemplate their presence in 
 the school. They have no place there. 
 
 In the High School. — The reasons for non-election of 
 studies and against the employment of specialists in the 
 elementary school have less weight in the high school. The 
 pupils are well established in character, they are experi- 
 enced enough to have some voice in the choice of their 
 work. The subjects, too, are so much broader that it could 
 hardly be expected that a teacher should become expert in 
 the several themes involved in a daily program. Chief 
 attention may now be given to the presenting of subject- 
 matter, whereas, it has been urged that in the earlier course 
 the child must be the central thought. The high school 
 student is mature enough to be largely self-directive, he 
 is more capable of judging what he needs. Hence the 
 thought of the teacher may be devoted to the presentation 
 of his material. It is of utmost importance that the high 
 school teacher should possess greater knowledge and 
 breadth in his particular field than would be possible if 
 he were required to teach many subjects. The literature 
 of each field grows wider and the demands are more exact- 
 ing, the more advanced the subject becomes. For this 
 reason it is well recognized that in the college and the uni- 
 versity the teachers must be specialists. 
 
 Whether or not the pupils in the high school should be 
 allowed to choose their subjects, even though they are 
 taught by specialists, is another question. The New Jersey 
 Council of Education, after extended discussion, expressed 
 itself as follows upon this point: "Resolved, That in the 
 
56 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 opinion of the Council the miscellaneous election of studies 
 in the high school is not desirable, but that the best results 
 are to be obtained by a judicious study of the aptitudes of 
 pupils, and such selection of courses as seem to be in ac- 
 cordance with such aptitudes. This should also involve 
 consultations with parents and former teachers." Every 
 well-organized high school wdll have at least two general 
 purposes, namely, to prepare students for college, and 
 those who cannot go to college for life. To limit its 
 work to the first purpose is to give over an institution sup- 
 ported by public taxation to the service of the comparative 
 few of its supporters and constituents. The high school 
 must fit for college in order to gain a standing among insti- 
 tutions of learning, as well as for the direct purpose of meet- 
 ing the needs of even a minority, but it must also be a 
 "people's college" for those whose schooling can extend 
 no further and who must be equipped for life. It may be 
 difficult to outline just what the material should be to meet 
 this second demand. There are some things in the spe- 
 cific requirements of college entrance that are not needed 
 in the preparation for the future. The college course is or- 
 ganized with the idea of preparing for broad culture and pos- 
 sibly for a professional career. The college, therefore, must 
 require certain specific preparation to enable the student 
 to enter upon and successfully carry out the work thus 
 planned. It is definitely understood that the college is 
 another step in the completion of the young man's educa- 
 tion. But the high school must have some courses that 
 are complete, that do not contemplate later courses. 
 
 Every well-equipped high school will have at least four 
 courses — a classical course, a scientific course, an English 
 
ELECTIVE STUDIES 57 
 
 course, and a commercial course. These courses should 
 be so arranged as to require practically the same work for 
 the first two years, the principal differentiations taking place 
 during the last two years, especially in small schools where 
 there is limited teaching force and where economy must 
 be practiced. Tliis would necessitate all courses embrac- 
 ing at least Latin, one or more modern languages, higher 
 mathematics, some science, literature, and history — the 
 essential subjects both for college preparation and for life. 
 None of these should be omitted from the education of any 
 person, even though he devotes himself to business. The 
 child should be allowed to choose his course upon entering 
 the high school, his parents and former teachers being 
 called into consultation. But the final decision need not 
 be made until the end of the second year, provided the 
 courses are planned as above outlined. He is far more 
 competent to make this final decision at the end of the 
 second high school year than he was when he left the gram- 
 mar school, a mere child. He is less likely to be influenced 
 by such matters as the reputation of instructors, the deci- 
 sion of other children, or the imagined easiest course. He 
 is initiated into the life of the high school, begins to under- 
 stand his own needs and capabilities, hears more about 
 going to college, is clearer as to the occupation he may 
 follow, and is better prepared to decide. For these 
 reasons no mistake should be made in the work out- 
 lined for him during the first two years, that will exclude 
 him from the choice of a course best suited to his needs. 
 It would seem clear that the high school student should 
 be allowed no choice other than as to the course he will 
 pursue, at least for the first two years. If, then, he is fully 
 
58 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 decided as to his future purpose he may settle upon his 
 course, and that, in the main, should be followed as pre- 
 scribed. We have already seen that the course of study 
 is the result of centuries of consideration and experiment by 
 wise men. This cannot be ignored and must count for more 
 than the whim and inexperience of a cliild. Only in excep- 
 tional cases should election be allowed in the liigh school. 
 These exceptions would involve those that are preparing 
 for some later special course or those to whom the high 
 school is the end of their schooling. 
 
 In the Higher Institutions. — In the college and univer- 
 sity the usual plan is to allow but little choice in the fresh- 
 man year, a larger choice in each of the succeeding years, 
 until the senior year when the work is nearly all elective. 
 The question of electives in college is still in the experi- 
 mental stage, the authorities themselves not being agreed 
 as to what is wisest. Conservative opinion favors, inas- 
 much as the young man entering college is introduced to 
 a new environment, that his work be marked out for the 
 first year until "he finds himself." After that he may 
 have a voice in shaping his subjects of study with refer- 
 ence to his proposed life work. In purely university work 
 the young man has sufficient maturity and knowledge to 
 enable him to know exactly what he wants and to choose 
 wisely. Therefore, the work may all be elective. 
 
 When the foundation of general culture has been laid, 
 the specialist will never become narrow. He will \'iew 
 civilization with a large vision, and while he concentrates 
 his time and his efforts in furthering the special work to 
 which he has devoted himself, he will also find time and 
 
ELECTIVE STUDIES 59 
 
 inclination to be interested in many other fields of activity 
 and thought. He will be the better specialist because of 
 the larger view that broad culture engenders, and at the 
 same time, he will take his place among men, entering into 
 their thoughts and lives, and thus find a place of eminent 
 usefulness and service. 
 
 Summary 
 
 I. Ths course of study in the elementary school should 
 embrace each of the fields of human knowledge properly har- 
 monized and correlated until general culture has been se- 
 cured. It should take into account the physical and intel- 
 lectual growth of the child. It should seek to meet the aim 
 for the school for which it is intended. 
 
 II. The election of studies should be allowed only in 
 advanced courses after general culture has been attained. 
 Specialization should be practiced only in the higher schools, 
 after the child's character is established. The influence of 
 the grade teacher is the most potent force in the formation 
 of the character of young children. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE GAINING OF KNOWLEDGE 
 
 References. — Rooper, A Pot of Green Feathers; Lange, Apper- 
 ception; McMurry, General Method; Bain, Education as a Science; 
 Johonnot, Theory and Practice; Rosmini, Method in Education. 
 
 The little child is born into the world an utter stranger. 
 He possesses nothing but the capacity to be educated, the 
 possibility of knowing. Without this he cannot be educated. 
 He has five avenues through which he becomes acquainted 
 with the outer world — seeing, hearing, touching, tast- 
 ing, and smelling. He does not know how to use a single 
 one of these possessions, he must learn to see, hear, feel, 
 taste, and smell. The whole process of education consists 
 in making the strange, the unknown, familiar and known. 
 All that is possible in human knowledge lies between the 
 condition of a new born babe and a Solomon or an Aristotle. 
 The child masters, step by step, the great mysteries of the 
 world until what was at first inexplicable becomes a 
 matter of familiar knowledge. 
 
 The Senses as Means of Gaining Knowledge. — Through 
 the eye he learns to measure distance, to determine shape, 
 to distinguish color and form, to recognize symbols, to 
 appreciate the external beauties of the world. Through 
 special training he may be able to note great distances, as 
 the sailor at sea or the herdsman on the prairie, on the one 
 hand, or the minutest details, as the jeweler or the micro- 
 scopist, or the trapper in the forest, on the other hand. 
 
 60 
 
THE GAINING OF KNOWLEDGE 6l 
 
 Through the ear he learns first to distinguish his mother's 
 voice, and later through patient training he may become 
 able to detect the finest differences in notes of music, and 
 to appreciate the most delicate and exquisite melodies. 
 If he devotes himself to it, his ear may become so acute as 
 to be able to distinguish and interpret sounds in the wilder- 
 ness or in the night-time that to the untrained ear would 
 be meaningless, or even unheard. The words of an un- 
 known tongue at first sound like a strange jargon; but 
 soon the ear becomes accustomed to them, the sounds are 
 separated into words, and intelligent comprehension fol- 
 lows. 
 
 By means of the taste he becomes acquainted with the 
 nutriments that sustain the body and afford pleasure, as well 
 as with those that are dangerous and unwholesome. Very 
 much of the pleasure of Hfe depends upon the taste. That 
 the taste is capable of training is manifest. Every person 
 has experiences in learning to like certain foods and liquids. 
 A person who had been obliged to take quinine for malaria 
 came to like it as a child likes candy^ Few people are fond 
 of olives when they first taste them, and the use of tobacco 
 has to be cultivated. Some peoples, long habituated to 
 certain kinds of food, eat them with relish, whereas the 
 stranger visiting them temporarily, regards such food with 
 disrelish, if not disgust. Keenness of taste may be devel- 
 oped, as in case of the tea-merchant, the wine-tester, or the 
 butter- buyer. 
 
 The smell, though not of so great importance as the 
 other senses in unfolding a knowledge of the world about 
 us, is nevertheless a means of obtaining knowledge that 
 can be obtained in no other way. The scent of musk, the 
 
62 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 odor of cooked foods, the delicious perfume of flowers, can 
 never be known except through the smell. Professor Cook 
 says:^ "Smell has importance even as related to cookery, 
 what we call tasting things being for the most part smelling 
 them. For example, if a blind man were to hold his nose 
 he could not, from the taste alone, tell whether he were 
 eating beef, mutton, or pork. A man blindfolded and his 
 nose held cannot tell, by tasting them, a slice of onion from 
 a slice of apple as one after the other is laid on his tongue. 
 At the table it is not the flavors of the things that delight 
 us, but the smell, for, as we have said, we taste nothing but 
 sour and salt, bitter and sweet. 
 
 "Not only the food itself, but the accompaniments of 
 the feast, were made to minister to smell by the ancients. 
 Athenaeus relates that, at the banquet he has described, 
 the dishes had been made by baking perfumed clay with 
 aromatic woods as fuel. Other cases of the ornamental 
 uses of odors were found in the Roman theaters, the air 
 of which was perfumed. Incense in houses of worship 
 was another instance." 
 
 Smell plays a far more important part in the enjoy- 
 ments of life than we ordinarily think. It is therefore a 
 valuable means of knowledge. Professor Cook further says, 
 "It is a mistake to suppose that men even are not assisted 
 by smell. A certain blind man, we are told, could by 
 smell alone tell if cats were in the house, notwithstanding 
 the fact that several doors intervened between him and 
 them. A blind man, named Mitchell, knew by smell, 
 whether, for example, one was a rogue, a miser, or what 
 not. But why do we speak of this when there is a Jaeger ? 
 
 * "Psychology," p. lo. 
 
THE GAINING OF KNOWLEDGE 63 
 
 This eminent man, a designer of woolen clothes, claims to 
 have proved that every nation, kindred, tribe, family, and 
 individual may be known by the smell, and thinks that 
 even the secret of heredity can be gotten at by it." 
 
 Through the sense of touch a vast field of knowledge is 
 obtained that can be reached in no other way. Pain, heat, 
 gravity, and resistance are comprehended by touch. Helen 
 Keller is a noted example of the wide range of knowledge 
 that can be gained through this means alone. Not only 
 has this remarkable woman acquired a store of knowledge 
 equal to most women of her age, but by indomitable per- 
 severance, added to an unusual capacity, she completed 
 a thorough college course at the age of twenty- four, although 
 totally deprived of sight and hearing. She was obliged to 
 depend solely upon the sense of touch as a means of gaining 
 the knowledge necessary to entitle her to a degree, and 
 in spite of the terrible handicap, she bravely surmounted 
 all obstacles and completed her course with credit. This 
 case illustrates that a large amount of knowledge can be 
 obtained in spite of great obstacles. It shows how much 
 can be gained through the sense of touch alone. 
 
 Many things that can be learned only by means of the eye 
 and ear will forever remain incomprehensible to her. The 
 beauties of color and harmonies of music are wholly out- 
 side of the possibility of her comprehension. Helen 
 Keller's case illustrates that where one or more senses 
 are lacking, the remaining ones become the more keen. 
 The blind become acute in hearing and touch, and the mute 
 very observing with the eye. Deprived of seeing, the blind 
 learn to take care of themselves through the greater acute- 
 ness of the other senses. When they come to a street- 
 
64 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 crossing they feel the movement of the air from the cross- 
 street even though no v^ind be blowing. A blind man tells 
 me that he knows when he is passing a tree or a post by 
 the subtle current of air that he perceives. A deaf senator 
 was able to comprehend the work of his legislative body 
 and fully hold his own with his colleagues in point of use- 
 fulness, because of his watchfulness and because he kept 
 his eyes open. 
 
 The idea of resistance can be obtained only through the 
 touch. Is an object soft or hard, heavy or light, touch 
 alone can give information of that fact. The most vivid 
 description of the pain of a burn can never give the faintest 
 idea of it. An instant's touch of the heated surface conveys 
 the knowledge at once and emphatically. 
 
 The object of the foregoing discussion is to show that 
 through the senses the estrangement is removed, the knowl- 
 edge gained. The more knowledge possessed, the easier 
 the acquirement of further knowledge becomes. And so 
 the child, starting with nothing, gradually and rapidly gains 
 a store of knowledge and adds to it as long as life and 
 intelligence last. There is no limit to his possibilities 
 except in his own capacity. The whole world is before him, 
 and it is his privilege to go forth and overcome it. The 
 gaining of such mastery is education, and it is the duty of 
 the teacher to bring to the child the right material, at the 
 right time, in the right way. 
 
 Choice of Material. — Great care must be exercised in 
 the gaining of knowledge as to choice of material. New 
 ideas are gained with difficulty when they are utterly strange, 
 and with comparative ease when the mind is already in 
 
THE GAINING OF KNOWLEDGE 6$ 
 
 possession of related ideas. A few illustrations will illumi- 
 nate the point. A troop of American Indians connected 
 with a show, wandered through the streets of Paris with 
 stoic indifference to the artistically decorated shop win- 
 dows, the works of art, the fine buildings, the monuments — 
 the wonders of that beautiful city. These works of civil- 
 ization and aesthetic taste are far beyond their compre- 
 hension, so far that they fail to make an impression. A 
 brilliantly colored blanket appeals to them more than the 
 noblest Duchesse lace, a rude household implement more 
 than a Glacen6 vase, a string of gaudy beads more than a 
 resplendent jewel. Where a civilized person would view 
 with delight the marvels of taste and beauty, the savage 
 passes on utterly oblivious. The works of art, the exquisite 
 beauty of architecture, the wonderful fountains, the mar- 
 velous exhibitions of the highest art of man that make the 
 French capital so attractive, are entirely beyond the Indian's 
 comprehension. He must pass through some centuries of 
 civilization before he is able to grasp the meaning of these 
 things and appreciate them. 
 
 A few years ago at considerable expense, the United 
 States government brought several hundred teachers from 
 Cuba to one of our great universities, provided lecturers 
 and gave them instructions in the art of teaching. 
 Those most intimately acquainted with the enterprise, 
 express the belief, that so far as the definite purpose 
 was concerned, these young people were but little 
 benefited. They were not ready for so much that was new 
 and strange, however elementary the pedagogical material 
 presented; it was beyond them. Doubtless the enterprise 
 was well worth the expense, for these earnest young persons 
 
66 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGV 
 
 necessarily picked up a great deal of valuable information 
 as to the customs of the land; but from a professional 
 standpoint, they learned very little of the science and art 
 of teaching. Even in this respect, they learned far less 
 than would have been possible had they been well prepared 
 to receive the new ideas. 
 
 Goethe llescribed his own life and characteristics in 
 these words: 
 
 ** Vom Vater hab'ich die Statur, 
 Des Lebens ernstes Fiihren 
 Vom Miitterchen die froh Natur, 
 Die Lust zu Fabuliren." 
 
 To one unfamiliar with the German language, at first sight 
 there is nothing in this stanza that conveys intelligence. But 
 upon a closer examination of the lines, light gradually begins 
 to break in. For example, take the first line, the words 
 "Vater," "hab'," and "Statur," will not be difficult to 
 translate because of their similarity with the English words, 
 "father," "have," and "stature." It will now be easy to 
 translate the line as follows: "From my father I have my 
 stature," or freer, "I am like my father in stature," or "I 
 inherit my stature from my father." The second line is 
 more difficult because it lacks words that furnish a hint to 
 the English student, the only word being "ernstes," earnest. 
 But the clue is given in the first line, which speaks of 
 qualities inherited from the father, and it would not there- 
 fore be difficult to conclude that the second line continues 
 to speak of these qualities, and alludes to the earnest or 
 serious side of the poet's character, also inherited from the 
 paternal side. We have, then, "Life's earnest strivings," 
 
THE GAINING OF KNOWLEDGE 67 
 
 or, ''The tendency to take life seriously," — a tendency 
 that was not very prominent in Goethe's character. 
 
 In the third line again we have "Miitterchen" and 
 ''Natur, " which are easily comprehended as "Mother," 
 and "Nature." It is hardly expected that the casual 
 reader will understand the sweet endearment compassed 
 in the diminutive form of "Mutter," rendered "Miitter- 
 chen, " which touches the German heart with so much 
 tenderness and love, and which, of course, every child 
 understands. The word "mother" will have to suffice in 
 Enghsh. Now a knowledge of Goethe's character will aid 
 in understanding that from his mother he must get the 
 other side of his character, that of vivacity, of joyousness, 
 of good fellowship, which predominated. The word "froh" 
 thus becomes intelligible, not through the medium of lan- 
 guage, but through a knowledge of Goethe's real character. 
 We have, then, "From my mother (dearest), my joyous 
 nature." 
 
 The fourth line furnishes no word that helps us, unless it 
 be "Fabuliren" from its likeness to our word "fable." 
 Our process of inductive reasoning, together with a knowl- 
 edge of Goethe's poetic genius, once more comes to our 
 assistance. In the first two lines he tells us what his father 
 bequeathed to him; is it not likely that in the last two he 
 tells us of his inheritance from his mother? We know that 
 he possessed great poetic genius, and a remarkable power 
 of phantasy. It ought not to be difficult to infer that the 
 last line means, "The love of phantasy," or "The power 
 of poetic expression." The whole verse freely translated 
 would express about the following thoughts: 
 
68 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 From father I my stature bear, 
 My strength for serious striving ; 
 
 From mother dear the nature fair, 
 The fiction gift deriving. 
 
 Now success in interpreting this stanza without a knowl- 
 edge of German, depends upon previous knowledge of 
 English, upon acquaintance with the life of Goethe, and 
 upon the power of inductive reasoning. If either of these 
 be lacking, the meaning will remain obscure. This serves 
 to make clear the point under discussion, namely, that 
 new ideas will be acquired easily or with difficulty, just in 
 proportion to the newness or strangeness of the material 
 presented. It will thus readily appear that he who knows 
 several languages easily acquires a new one because of 
 the similarity of words in different languages, and because 
 of the fund of ideas already gained. It is said that Dr. 
 Schliemann, the great archaeologist and discoverer of 
 ancient Troy, who knew some fifty languages and dia- 
 lects, could master a new language in three or four weeks. 
 His knowledge of many languages made each new one less 
 strange and, therefore, more easy of acquirement. 
 
 If I were to see a typewriter for the first time, doubtless 
 it would seem to be a curious instrument. But having seen 
 a piano, its keys would hint to me that it was something 
 to be played upon; knowing the alphabet, the presence 
 of letters on the keys would suggest that by pressure upon 
 them they are reproduced; and knowing that men com- 
 municate their thoughts by writing, it would not be diffi- 
 cult for me to conclude that this instrument is intended for 
 writing. To a barbarian who had never seen a piano, did 
 not know any alphabet, and was unfamiliar with the prac- 
 
THE GAINING OF KNOWLEDGE 69 
 
 tice among men of writing to each other, it would be a 
 profound mystery. To the one man it easily reveals its 
 purpose; to the other its purpose is inexplicable. 
 
 Old Material to be Utilized. — In learning new truths 
 we utilize the knowledge we now possess as an introduction 
 to the new, we call up whatever we have that has any rela- 
 tion to new lessons we would learn. If we possess nothing 
 that has such a bearing, the acquirement of the new knowl- 
 edge will be correspondingly difficult. The bewilderment 
 will be like that of the Indians in the city of Paris, or of 
 a person first hearing the sounds of a strange tongue. The 
 sounds will be mere jargon, without conveying any mean- 
 ing. But after a time when we know some words, gradu- 
 ally the meaningless character disappears as new words 
 are learned, light breaks in and we understand. The 
 most important pedagogical principle that the teacher can 
 apply is, utilize all the related old material that the pupil 
 possesses as an introduction to the new. 
 
 It is like a stranger appearing at our door and asking 
 hospitality. If he brings a letter of introduction from 
 some friend, or if he is able to establish his identity through 
 some acquaintance, we bid him welcome. The cordiality 
 with which he is received will depend entirely upon the 
 sympathy of interests that he can establish. So it is with 
 new ideas that present themselves. They will be allowed 
 to enter and find lodgment when relationship to those 
 already in possession is discovered. 
 
 This process will be recognized as what the Herbartian 
 school of pedagogy calls apperception. Lange says,^ "Man 
 
 * "Apperception," translated by the Herbart Club, p. i. 
 
70 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 enters life a stranger; he knows nothing of the world 
 that receives him; it is to him a new, unknown country, 
 which he must explore; which he must conquer. How is 
 this to be done? Nature assails his senses with a thou- 
 sand allurements; she sends the rays of light that she may 
 open his eyes to the innumerable things of the outer world, 
 she knocks upon the door of the human spirit with excita- 
 tions of tone, and touch, and temperature, and all the 
 other stimulations of the sensitive nerves, desiring admis- 
 sion. The soul answers these stimuli with sensations, with 
 ideas; it masters the outer world by perceiving it." 
 
 Again he says,^ "In order that a sensation may arise, 
 there is, as a rule, a fusion or union of its content with 
 similar ideas and feelings. With the assistance of the 
 latter, the sensation is held in consciousness, elevated into 
 greater clearness, properly related to the remaining fields 
 of thought, and so is truly assimilated. We call this second 
 act in distinction from that of simple perception or the 
 reception of a sensation, apperception, or mental assimila- 
 tion. This is a psycliical process which has a validity be- 
 yond mere subjective perception, and is of great signifi- 
 cance for all knowledge, yes, even for our whole spiritual 
 life." 
 
 In support of the subject under discussion, we quote 
 again from Lange;^"What is entirely new and can find 
 no point of connection is either not understood or only 
 superficially apprehended. On the other hand, the best 
 instruction is given when the words of the teacher stir the 
 inmost thoughts of the child, so that he is not passive, but 
 wholly active. And so it remains true, as we have already 
 > "Apperception," p. 5. ^ "Ibid.," p. 105. 
 
THE GAINING OF KNOWLEDGE 71 
 
 seen, that the most eminent characteristic of learning is 
 not to be denominated passivity, but activity, that all 
 learning is apperceiving. 
 
 "Accordingly it cannot be the duty of the teacher simply 
 to transmit to the pupil the material of knowledge, or to 
 communicate to him ideas, feelings, and sentiments, but 
 to awaken, stimulate, and give life to mental activities. 
 He has to reach down with regulative hand into those 
 quiet private thoughts and feelings of the child in wliich 
 lie his ego and his whole future, that they may rise above 
 the threshold of consciousness and communicate under- 
 standing, clearness, warmth, and life to instruction. In 
 a word, he has to make provision that in every case the 
 process of apperception is accomplished with as much 
 thoroughness as certainty and judgment. Then not only 
 will the matter taught be mechanically acquired, but it 
 will be transformed at once into mental power; it will con- 
 tribute steadily, by awakening thought and interest, to 
 lift and ennoble the mental life." 
 
 McMurry remarks,* "Apperception may be roughly 
 defined at first as the process of acquiring new ideas by the 
 aid of old ones already in mind. It makes the acquisition 
 of new knowledge easier and quicker. Not that there is any 
 easy road to learning, but there is a natural process which 
 greatly accelerates the progress of acquisition, just as it is 
 better to follow a highway over a rough country than to 
 betake one's self to the stumps and brush. . . . One may 
 perceive a new object without understanding it, but to 
 apperceive it is to interpret its meaning by the aid of similar 
 familiar notions." 
 
 ' "General Method," p. 257. 
 
72 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 The Work of the Teacher in the Process of Gaining 
 Knowledge. — It now remains for us to consider the part 
 that the teacher must take in the cultivation of the percep- 
 tive and the apperceptive powers. In a word, what is the 
 pedagogical application of the lessons this subject teaches? 
 Perceptions are gained through the senses, and not only 
 must the objects be brought within the range of the respec- 
 tive senses, but the child must be taught to observe accu- 
 rately. Many have "Eyes that see not," "Ears that hear 
 not," and it is the duty of the teacher to inculcate in his 
 pupils the habit of correctly using the senses. Pestalozzi's 
 great service to the world lay in this direction. He made 
 instruction not mere formal drudgery, but a living and in- 
 teresting process. He transformed the school from a dreary 
 prison house to which the children had to be driven, into a 
 place of delight, and he did this by bringing his pupils into 
 contact with things, by studying their real needs, their 
 interests, and their natural development, and by making the 
 school bright and interesting. Every teacher, especially of 
 young children, must follow his example, giving chief atten- 
 tion to the training of the perceptive faculties. 
 
 Rosmini gives some very valuable suggestions as to train- 
 ing the perceptions.^ "The child should be provided in 
 abundance with objects to look at, touch, examine, and 
 experiment upon — in a word, to perceive, and perceive 
 more and more accurately. The objects chosen should be 
 those which most attract his attention, which will also be 
 those which satisfy his wants, his desires, and give him 
 pleasure; for it is only by these that his attention is aroused. 
 
 "It will be found useful also to present him simple 
 ' "Method in Education," p. 82. 
 
THE GAINING OF KNOWLEDGE 73 
 
 objects in the following order — for example, the seven 
 colors of the rays of light, one after the other; also white and 
 black; and, still better, the harmonic scale of colors, the 
 succession of which will delight him. Let him hear, in the 
 same way, the seven primary notes, first in succession, then 
 by degrees in their harmonic intervals and chords; then 
 give him solids to play with, to the proportions of which, in 
 form and measurement, his eye and hand may become 
 accustomed, at the same time that they impress themselves 
 on his imagination. Later on, but not till much later, the 
 child may be familiarized with more colors, more sounds, 
 more forms harmoniously combined, but always by degrees, 
 and never passing on to a new play till he shows weariness 
 of the old. It must be evident that, besides other advan- 
 tages, the reception of so many well-ordered images into 
 his mind will both provide fitting material for his future 
 reflection, and facilitate the intellectual operations he will 
 soon be called upon to undertake, not to mention that his 
 mind itself perceives a precious moral benefit from insen- 
 sibly conforming itself to order, and being trained to a 
 feeling of beauty." 
 
 How Much to Give. — The amount of material that the 
 teacher should give his pupils is always a puzzling question 
 requiring wisdom, judgment, a knowledge of children, and 
 pedagogic insight. There must be a sufRcient amount to 
 keep the pupils stimulated and active on the one hand, and 
 not enough to discourage or fail to obtain a thorough 
 mastery of the material on the other hand. Upon this point 
 I quote again from Rosmini : ^ "It may be laid down in gen- 
 
 ^ "Method in Education," p. 128. 
 
74 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 eral, that the positive portion of intellectual and moral 
 education should be least in the earliest period of infancy, 
 and go on enlarging with each successive period; but what 
 is the law which governs this continued extension? In a 
 word, what are its limits in each period? The answer to 
 these questions must be arrived at by manifold experi- 
 ments and observations — which are now, thank Heaven! 
 beginning to be made — and it is high time that the art of 
 experiment and observation should be applied to educa- 
 tion." 
 
 It was nearly half a century before this fertile suggestion 
 of the great Italian thinker was seriously carried out. 
 The child study movement of recent years is seeking to 
 solve this very problem, and it has already contributed 
 valuable data towards its solution. 
 
 The Apperceptive Process.^ — The pedagogical require- 
 ments in respect to apperception are more difficult to meet 
 than those of perception, and they are of even greater 
 importance, for, unless the apperceptive process is fulfilled 
 there can be no complete education. Lange indicates 
 three features to be observed in the treatment of appercep- 
 tion, as follows: 
 
 1. With reference to the objects of apperception. 
 (Choice and arrangement of the material of instruction.) 
 
 2. With reference to the subject apperceiving. (Inves- 
 tigation, enlargement, and utilization of the child's store of 
 experience.) 
 
 ' In the discussion which follows, I shall be guided somewhat by Langc's 
 treatment of this subject, and even where direct quotations are not made, 
 I desire to acknowledge full credit to that author. 
 
THE GAINING OF KNOWLEDGE 75 
 
 3. Proper union of the factors of apperception in learn- 
 ing. (The process of teaching.) 
 
 Taking the topics in order we will study their meaning, 
 and endeavor to discover the practical, pedagogical lessons 
 they teach. 
 
 I. The objects of apperception, or the choice and arrange- 
 ment of material. — A great deal of thought has been de- 
 voted to the answer of this question, which has been ex- 
 pressed in the course of study, as we have seen elsewhere. 
 (Chapter V.) We have first the "Seven liberal arts" of 
 the Middle Ages, the first crude attempt to arrange the 
 material of instruction ; then the elaborate system of Sturm, 
 which Professor Williams pronounces to be the "very 
 earliest scheme that we have, looking to an extended, sys- 
 tematic, well-articulated course of studies for a school of 
 several teachers, in which is assigned to each class such 
 portions of the subject-matter of the course of instruction 
 as is suited to the age and stage of advancement of its 
 pupils;" then the Ratio Studiorum of the Jesuits, laying 
 stress upon the humanities and theology; and, finally, the 
 courses which represent most modern ideas. 
 
 The Herbartian school answers the question as to 
 material in what is known as the " Culture Epochs Theory." 
 This theory holds that every child passes through the same 
 periods of development that the race has passed through, 
 and, therefore, the material to be selected for any given 
 period of the child's development must be drawn largely 
 from the corresponding epoch of racial development. Ziller, 
 a disciple of Herbart, who first promulgated this theory, 
 says, "The mental development of the child corresponds 
 
76 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 in general to the chief phases in the development of his 
 people or of mankind. The mind-development of the 
 child, therefore, cannot be better furthered than when he 
 receives his mental nourishment from the general develop- 
 ment of culture as it is laid down in literature and history. 
 Every pupil should, accordingly, pass successively through 
 each of the chief epochs of the general mental development 
 of mankind suitable to his stage of advancement." 
 
 It should be mentioned that this theory is not exclusively 
 Herbartian. Rosmini,^ independently of the German school 
 says, "History shows the same epochs in the individual 
 as in the whole human race. The infant begins by believ- 
 ing everything, just as in early forms of civilization men 
 are credulous." Professor J. Mark Baldwin remarks, "The 
 infant is an embryo person, a social unit in the process of 
 forming; and he is, in these early stages, plainly recapitu- 
 lating the items in the soul history of the race." 
 
 Based upon this theory, Ziller planned the centers for 
 the course in the eight years of the German "Volkschule" 
 as follows: i. The epic folklore stories; 2. Robinson 
 Crusoe; 3. History of the Biblical patriarchs; 4. The 
 judges of Israel ; 5. The kings of Israel; 6. The life of 
 Jesus; 7. Apostolic history; 8. The Reformation. He 
 teaches that in these thought wholes of material the pupil 
 traverses, "Corresponding to his own development, the 
 chief periods in the development of mankind." Van Liew 
 thinks that Ziller draws the line too sharply. He says,^ 
 "These epochs, the characterization of which must ever 
 
 * It will be remembered that Rosmini was an Italian writer who prob- 
 ably was not acquainted with Herbart's writings. His book was written 
 in 1839, a longtime before Ziller promulgated the "Culture Epochs Theory." 
 
 ' The First Year Book of the Herbartian Society, p. 89. 
 
THE GAINING OF KNOWLEDGE 77 
 
 remain general in nature, so far as educational needs are 
 concerned, cannot be held to too narrow and definite time 
 limitations; this follows from the very conception of devel- 
 opment. They must be given freedom and breadth, 
 allowed to overlap and to lose their boundary lines in one 
 another." 
 
 While the "Culture Epochs Theory" may be valuable 
 in suggesting material for the study of history and litera- 
 ture, to apply it in all the subjects of the school course 
 necessitates the bending of the course to meet the theory, 
 rather than utilizing the theory in the formation of a course 
 of study. In literature, the myths, fairy-tales, stories from 
 the Bible, or from Homer, accounts of deeds of chivalry, as 
 well as the various kinds of modern literature, furnish most 
 suggestive and suitable material for children of all ages. In 
 history, too, though perhaps in a less marked degree, the 
 same is true. But in other subjects, such as arithmetic, 
 science, art, etc., the theory offers nothing of value. More- 
 over, the process of development in tlie child is more rapid 
 correspondingly than that of the race. The primitive 
 forms of manufacture employed by the race, even less than 
 a century ago, have been supplanted by improved ma- 
 chinery made necessary by harnessing the forces of steam, 
 electricity, and the air. There is no longer any need of 
 employing the crude handiwork formerly in use, and it is, 
 therefore, folly to carry the pupils through all the stages 
 of slow development throughout the earlier centuries. The 
 "Culture Epochs Theory," therefore, does not furnish a 
 solution of the question as to choice of material, though it 
 is suggestive in certain fields. The materials chosen must 
 be suited to the three well-defined epochs in the child's 
 
78 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 development, namely, the intuitive, the imaginative, and 
 the logical, and the method of presentation likewise must 
 follow these natural periods of development. To divide 
 the child's life into eight or more periods, corresponding 
 with the eight elementary school years, is an arbitrary and 
 superficial discrimination/ 
 
 2. The subject apperceiving, or the child and his store 
 of experience. — Lange says,^ "The teacher must see to it 
 that the pupil holds in readiness numerous similar, strong, 
 and well-arranged ideas, for the new material that instruc- 
 tion is to bring to the understanding." From the very 
 nature of things the teacher must be acquainted with the 
 child-mind, its activities, its manner of unfolding, its needs. 
 He must know how to discover what the child really knows, 
 what he brings with him when he enters the class. Citing 
 Lange again, "It is certain that the child brings to school 
 in the numerous, important, and strong ideas, feelings and 
 inclinations acquired in youth, at the same time the best 
 and most vivid helps to apperception in the recitation. 
 But the content and extent of these are nowhere entirely 
 the same, and in many pupils often differ strikingly from 
 one another." 
 
 Investigations have been undertaken in recent years for 
 the purpose of discovering the content of the child's mind 
 at any given period. Many of these have been futile and 
 valueless; but some have added materially to the pedago- 
 gical knowledge of the subject, and further investigations 
 in this field are destined to do still greater good. When 
 the teacher has found out what the child already knows, 
 
 * See McMurry's "Method of the Recitation," old cd., p. 90. 
 ' "Apperception," p. 151. 
 
THE GAINING OF KNOWLEDGE 79 
 
 he is ready to build upon whatever foundation exists, 
 strengthening its weak points, adding to and constructing 
 further until a building fitly joined and complete is reared. 
 
 The child has picked up a great deal of knowledge before 
 he comes to school. The first duty of the teacher is to 
 find out what experiences the child already possesses, and 
 then proceed slowly and surely to make him familiar with 
 the vast field with which he is eager to become acquainted. 
 The child has thus far been influenced entirely by 
 his environment. He has seen many objects, or possibly 
 pictures of objects in the marvelous picture books for 
 children, and has become somewhat familiar with the 
 objects represented. I knew a boy three years of age, 
 that could call the names of forty or more animals from a 
 picture book that he possessed. The cliild's knowledge will 
 best be enlarged by showing him familiar things, telling liim 
 all about them, and then gradually proceeding to new things. 
 Thus he begins geography by studying the schoolroom, 
 the schoolyard, the brook, the hills, the immediate environ- 
 ment. Nature is studied at first hand by going out into 
 the fields, picking the flowers, watcliing the birds, observ- 
 ing insects, studying the things themselves. 
 
 A group of boys from twelve to fourteen years of age 
 were taken to the village of Mohra in Thuringia, where 
 Luther's parents lived previous to his birth. A monument 
 stands near the house in which they lived, having various 
 inscriptions on each side of the shaft. After examining 
 the monument on all sides, the teacher gathered them to 
 one side, and questioned them as to what was inscribed 
 thereon. So well had these boys been taught to observe, 
 that every one of them could tell the somewhat lengthy 
 
8o ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 inscriptions on each of the four sides. They had been 
 trained to see and fix in memory what they saw. German 
 and French teachers often take their pupils on excursions, 
 not merely for an outing, but for the purpose of instructing 
 them in matters that could not be learned in the schoolroom. 
 In company with Professor Stoy, about fifty boys, and some 
 teachers and students, I once visited the great battle-field 
 of Jena where Napoleon gained a signal victory over the 
 Prussians and reduced their kingdom to a mere tributary 
 country. By a careful study of the history of that period, 
 the boys had been prepared for the lesson of the day. The 
 respective positions of the French and the Prussians were 
 pointed out, the movements of each army indicated, and 
 the details of that great, decisive battle outlined. Every 
 boy gained an insight into the history of his country, and 
 an understanding of one of its most important events such 
 as never could have been obtained from books. This 
 same idea could be carried out, even if no great battle-field 
 is close at hand, in connection with the ordinary things of 
 life, and the lessons can be made vivid, impressive, and 
 lasting. Material gathered in this way will furnish abun- 
 dant topics for composition, for the child loves to tell with 
 tongue or pen what he knows. 
 
 A like course can be pursued with arithmetic and other 
 subjects of the school course. Through the use of objects 
 the knowledge already possessed can be utilized and made 
 to lead directly to new knowledge. 
 
 In the words of Lange,^ "We are at the end of our answer 
 to the question. What can the teacher do for the subject of 
 apperception? How can he provide for his instruction 
 * "Apperception," p. 199. 
 
THE GAINING OF KNOWLEDGE 8l 
 
 sufficient apperceiving ideas in the consciousness of the 
 pupil? We found that it was his duty to gain a definite 
 view into the pupils' range of thought, especially in the ex- 
 tremely important experience that they have acquired 
 previous to all instruction, to brighten and deepen this and 
 to enlarge it through suitable home instruction. We 
 emphasized further that he must, in the most careful man- 
 ner, join all his instruction to the acquired experience of 
 the pupils in many ways, especially through advancing 
 instruction." 
 
 3. The union of the subject and the object of appercep- 
 tion, or the process of teaching. — Great stress should be 
 laid upon the process of instruction. This is so important 
 that another chapter will be devoted to it. Rosmini offers 
 some excellent suggestions as to errors in instruction with 
 which this chapter will close.* They are as follows: 
 
 (a.) " Sometimes the intellectual activity of the child be- 
 comes annoying and troublesome, and an attempt is made 
 to repress it by authority, refusing it sufficient food. 
 
 (&.) " Sometimes the material memory of the child is bur- 
 dened, wliile its intelligence is left to starve — which is 
 not only a most serious injury to the little, intelligent crea- 
 ture, who craves only to understand, but also cruel and 
 inhuman. 
 
 (c.) "Sometimes it is given food not adapted to it; in 
 other words, it is called upon to perform acts of a higher 
 order than it has yet attained to — in which case, to under- 
 stand anything beyond mere words is an absolute impos- 
 
 ^ "Method in Education," p. 112. 
 
82 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 sibility. Sometimes the cognitions required of it are not 
 beyond its powers, but the intellectual attention lacks the 
 necessary stimulus to make the effort to attain them. 
 
 {d.) "Finally, even when the cognitions required of the 
 childish intelligence are proposed to it in their order, and 
 accompanied by the appropriate stimuli, there is failure, 
 because the teacher passes from one thing to another, with- 
 out having assured himself that the first tiling was duly 
 understood, and that the child is really following the suc- 
 cessive steps of the teaching; in other words, he does not 
 give the child time to take in matter, to master it, and to 
 recover from a kind of surprise which every new idea pro- 
 duces in him." 
 
 Summary 
 
 I. The child first gains knowledge through the senses. 
 These should he carefully and systematically trained in order 
 that the perceptions may be vivid and accurate. 
 
 II. The material chosen should be suited to the stage of 
 development of the child. Niw knowledge should be based 
 upon the old — proceed from the known to the unknown. 
 The ease with which new ideas are gain d will depend upon 
 their newness or strangeness. The success of th ' apper- 
 ceptive process depends upon the thorough harmony into 
 which the new is brought with the old. Unless knowledge 
 is apperceived it is lost and useless — it is not gained. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION 
 
 References. — McMiirry, The Method of the Recitation; Mor- 
 gan, Studies in Pedagogy; Prince, Courses of Studies and Methods 
 of Teaching; White, The Art of Teaching; Fitch, Lectures on 
 Teaching; Lange, Apperception; De Garmo, Essentials of Method. 
 
 Real Purpose of the School. — The object for which the 
 school is maintained is not the mere keeping of the children 
 out of the street for a given number of hours per day; not 
 the preserving of order and the maintaining of decent control, 
 though these are essential in every school ; it is not to relieve 
 the home of the care and training of its young, and to furnish 
 a place of safety for them while parents attend to other 
 duties; not even to fill their minds with a mass of knowledge; 
 it is to form habits through proper disciphne, to impart 
 knowledge, to build character, and the principal medium 
 through which this is accomplished is instruction. The 
 teacher is in possession of material which is to be trans- 
 mitted to his pupils. The method by which this is accom- 
 plished should be sound, and the manner of carrying out that 
 method skilful. Hence the necessity of trained teachers, 
 prepared most carefully and thoroughly. As has been 
 shown elsewhere (p. 259), the purpose of instruction is 
 to cancel the difference between the teacher and the pupil. 
 It follows that the better equipped the teacher, both as to 
 material and method, the more hope for the pupil, and the 
 greater his advantages. 
 
 In the foregoing chapter we indicated the third step in 
 
 83 
 
84 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 the pedagogical requirements with reference to appercep- 
 tion, to be the process of bringing the object of apperception, 
 that is, the subject-matter, to the consciousness of the 
 child. The Herbartians have given many valuable sugges- 
 tions as to this process in their formal steps of the recitation 
 (Formalstufen). Lange says,^ " The process of appercep- 
 tion does not by any means properly develop itself in the 
 child; experience teaches rather, that even under the most 
 favorable circumstances v^hen the cliild is offered the 
 material of instruction for which it already possesses 
 numerous apperceiving ideas, the connection of the old 
 with the new not infrequently fails to be made. This is 
 the case, if the consciousness of the pupil during the instruc- 
 tion is either filled with foreign thoughts and feelings which 
 do not permit the apperception helps to arise; or if the 
 latter lacks the requisite strength and clearness, the neces- 
 sary order and completeness, and therefore power, to grasp 
 apperceivingly the ideas called forth by instruction. Hence, 
 it does not suffice that the learner possesses apperception 
 aids for the new; they must also be at his disposal with the 
 greatest clearness at the right time and place. They must 
 likewise, in the moment of learning, stand at the threshold 
 of consciousness to present to the new all related elements, 
 and so to grasp the new knowledge as to prepare for it the 
 right mood and correct understanding." In other words, 
 the new material must be withheld until the child has been 
 prepared to receive it. This brings us to the discussion of 
 the first of the formal steps. 
 
 I. Preparation. — The teacher meets his class with new 
 truth and new material which he is prepared to give to them. 
 * "Apperception," p. 200. 
 
THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION 8$ 
 
 He is thorough master of his subject as well as of the 
 method of presenting it. But he must first be assured that 
 his pupils also are ready. It is not enough that they sit 
 erect, faces to the front, bodies still, and with the air of 
 attention. While these are essential, they are mere exter- 
 nalities or mechanical requirements. The knowledge 
 already possessed, which has a bearing upon the theme to 
 be treated, must be discovered and brought forward. 
 
 The child must be encouraged to talk freely about the 
 subject, but must not be allowed to roam over the whole 
 world as some children are inclined to do if free range is 
 given to them. They must be held to the theme before them 
 and not allowed to wander into other fields, no matter how 
 much they may be interested in those fields, or how much 
 they may know about them. They must be taught to think 
 of the matter in hand and of nothing else. A teacher was 
 presenting the subject of percentage to a class of girls, and 
 as a preliminary exercise, he attempted to find out what 
 they already knew about it. He found them very ready to 
 talk, but not to the point. One little miss after frantically 
 waving her hand, gained his attention and asked, "What 
 do you think of the decline of the grain elevators of Minne- 
 sota?" "What in the world has the grain elevator to do 
 with percentage?" queried the teacher. "I don't know, " 
 she replied, " but papa was talking about it last night and I 
 wondered what you thought of it." Her father was a 
 member of the Chicago grain exchange, and had been 
 discussing the subject of elevators in her presence. The 
 teacher must know exactly what he wants and hold his 
 pupils to a consideration of the subject in hand and no 
 other. "The pupil must first become at home in definite 
 
86 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 old groups of thought; he must pass through these old 
 groups with a certain warmth and ease before we offer him 
 the new; he must feel firm ground under his feet for the 
 new mental operations that instruction exacts from him. 
 If the preparatory conversation makes it apparent that the 
 existing apperceiving ideas are too weak and unsatis- 
 factory, it becomes necessary for the preparation to pro- 
 vide what is lacking."* 
 
 From the outset the teacher must not only have a 
 clear idea of what he intends to impart, but he must 
 transmit that idea to the class. The end to be sought 
 should be cleverly set forth and the teacher should repeat 
 the preparatory exercise times enough, and should so 
 order and arrange it that the pupil is able fully to compre- 
 hend it. Nothing is gained by haste; it pays to do this 
 work thoroughly, as will appear later, in gaining complete 
 mastery. "If we should pass over the material but once, 
 and in the order in which it would appear by chance, many 
 contradictions would remain unreconciled, and many prin- 
 cipal thoughts not seldom be lost in a mass of incidentals. 
 A brief summing up, suitable to the content of the ideas, 
 and a separation of the essential from the unessential is 
 therefore absolutely necessary; and not less so, a sufficient 
 repetition and impressing of that which, as yet, shows itself 
 uncertain and wavering. When this is neglected, we stop 
 half way, and apperception, in spite of the preparation, 
 cannot be accomplished with requisite ease."^ 
 
 There should be the greatest freedom allowed the pupils 
 in the disc;ussion of the material, the caution already men- 
 tioned being observed, that they be not permitted to digress 
 ' Lange, p. 202. ^ Ibid., p. 203. 
 
THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION 87 
 
 to any great extent. They should be encouraged to talk 
 freely, telling their own experiences in their own way. 
 Suggestive questions from the teacher will guide the con- 
 versation and serve to bring out what is desired. Lange 
 shows that by this method/ "The dullest mind has time to 
 act, and even the retiring disposition is encouraged by the 
 confidential tone of conversation. No one should be 
 omitted in the relation of his experience, and each, accord- 
 ing to the measure of his knowledge, will add something 
 to the new thought-structure. Every one rejoices that his 
 own knowledge, which has heretofore been smuggled in as 
 forbidden ware as compared with the word of the teacher, 
 is recognized and respected, and each looks forward to 
 every new lesson with redoubled interest. This condition 
 of mind is the most favorable that the new material can 
 meet; the apperceptive process is introduced in the very 
 best way possible." 
 
 Illustration. — It may be mentioned that the preparation 
 of the lesson which the child makes in his seat or at home 
 previous to his appearance in class, is not under consider- 
 ation. We are considering his preparation needed to re- 
 ceive the instruction that is to follow. That such prepara- 
 tion is essential, a familiar illustration will emphasize. 
 The husbandman understands that if he is to secure a 
 crop he must not scatter his seed aimlessly, no matter how 
 good that seed may be, how skilfully it may be deposited, or 
 how rich the soil. He must first laboriously plow, and 
 harrow, and work up the soil until it is mellow and rich, 
 ready to invite the fruitful seed to its bosom, when, under 
 
 ' Lange, p. 212. 
 
88 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 the blessing of heaven, it will in due time yield its increase, 
 "some thirty, some sixty, and some an hundred fold." No 
 better illustration can be given suggesting a parallel in the 
 teacher's vi^ork of instruction. Much of his sowing goes to 
 waste because of too little attention being paid to preparing 
 his pupils for the reception of the truth. The pupil must be 
 prepared to receive the seed or much of it will fall upon 
 stony ground and bear no fruit. There can be no better 
 expenditure of time and effort than in getting the soil 
 ready for the reception of the seed of truth, and that prep- 
 aration is made through calling up the old, related knowl- 
 edge already possessed by the child. 
 
 2. Presentation. — With the interest awakened, the 
 correlated, matter brought forward, the soil prepared, the 
 next step in instruction is the presentation of the new 
 material. It is needless to reiterate that the teacher should 
 be equipped with a complete mastery of the subject-matter. 
 In addition to this, he should be acquainted with the 
 mental activities of the child, and their development, 
 should possess skilled judgment and discretion as to the 
 amount of material to be given and the method of present- 
 ing it to the particular class in hand, be endowed with the 
 faculty of bringing himself to the level of the child's mind, 
 and of entering fully into the child's sympathies. A 
 definite aim has already been demanded in the first step, 
 that of preparation. The method of presentation to be 
 employed will depend upon the stage of development and 
 capacity of the pupils, upon the subject under discussion, 
 and upon the end sought. A consideration of different 
 methods will follow in a later chapter. 
 
 Great discretion must be exercised in giving the right 
 
THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION 89 
 
 amount of material. Seed sown too thick in a field 
 grows a mass of stalks and yields but little harvest; 
 and the richer the soil, the more rank the growth of stalk, 
 the more choked the crop becomes. The same holds good 
 in the presentation of material to children. There is more 
 danger of giving too much than too little, for the teacher 
 is apt to measure his pupils' capacity by his own. The 
 young teacher needs especially to observe this caution. 
 There is no better test of the wisdom, experience, and good 
 judgment of the teacher, than is shown in this particular 
 direction. Too much food instead of nourishing and 
 strengthening the body serves as a detriment and a burden, 
 and the same is true of the mind. 
 
 Upon this point Lange wisely remarks,^ "It is clear that 
 even well-prepared matter cannot be thoroughly mastered 
 if the ideas are forced too rapidly upon the consciousness 
 of the learner, or if they are too weakly and obscurely 
 presented. The pupil will not become master of the 
 material if he is overwhelmed with too much at once, if 
 the teacher fails to linger upon difficult points with neces- 
 sary stress, if the material is not presented in proper order 
 and with proper clearness, and if the attention is not held. 
 The more time given to the individual members or parts 
 of the object to be studied in order that it may unfold 
 clearly and intelligently to the consciousness of the children, 
 the more opportunity the pupil has to appropriate the pre- 
 sented notions that are to be apperceived, the better they 
 will be apperceived and the better learned. It follows that 
 the amount of material given must be measured ty the 
 capacity of the pupil, in order that neither too much nor too 
 little may be asked of him ; such material must be properly 
 
 ' "Apperception," p. 213. 
 
90 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 connected in order that he shall not receive it as a mass, 
 but rather that it may be fixed in liis mind according to the 
 law of successive clearness, from section to section, from 
 item to item." 
 
 It is of utmost importance, as we have seen, that the 
 pupils themselves be allowed to take part in the exercise. 
 This is especially true of young children. Attention can- 
 not long be held by any other method; besides, through 
 expressing their own thoughts and by hearing other chil- 
 dren express theirs, they gain insight into the new truths 
 presented. There must be a combination of the act of 
 imparting by the teacher and reciting by the pupils in 
 order to maintain interest and secure the best results. No 
 doubt more ground can be covered by the imparting or 
 lecture method, and, therefore, with advanced students, 
 this may be employed; but with young children the cate- 
 chetical method should be adopted in order that the apper- 
 ceiving process may be completely successful. It is not a 
 question of the amount of ground covered, but of the 
 thorough assimilation of the new ideas with the old. This 
 process must of necessity be slow, owing to the limited 
 number of related ideas that the child possesses. 
 
 With a clear consciousness on the part of the teacher as to 
 the kind of material to be presented, and as to the capacity 
 of the children, with a definite aim as to the result to be 
 reached, this step in the process of instruction should thus 
 be carried out upon a psychological basis and should bear 
 abundant fruit. 
 
 3. Association. — When the new ideas are really brought 
 over the threshold of the child's consciousness, are indeed 
 apperceived by him, they must be so associated with and 
 
THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION 9 1 
 
 related to the old ones as to become, as it were, perfectly 
 at home. They are no longer strangers, or guests even, 
 they are a part of the household, they belong to the family. 
 These new ideas should be employed and familiarized until 
 they are no longer new, until their strangeness has disap- 
 peared. It is like food taken into the stomach, thoroughly 
 digested, turned into blood, circulated to every part of the 
 body, changed into bone and tissue, becoming a part of 
 the man. It is no longer foreign, it is assimilated, and 
 incorporated with the old until it is as much a part of the 
 body as any material previously absorbed. So must it be 
 with new ideas. They must be so thorouglily associated 
 with those already gained as to have a definite and abiding 
 place among them. This is accomplished through repeti- 
 tion, through illustration, through questioning, through 
 variety in method, and through reflection. It often happens 
 that the presentation of a fact by one method would 
 carry conviction ; by another, it would remain strange 
 and unfamiliar. Hence the necessity of approaching 
 a subject from a variety of standpoints and by different 
 methods. New materials that are not thus settled in their 
 relations to those established are of but little value and are 
 soon forgotten. Much teaching goes to waste from a 
 lack of appreciation of this fact. Hence the importance 
 of association as a step in the work of instruction. 
 
 4. Recapitulation. — It now follows that the pupil 
 should be required to reproduce the lesson as a whole in 
 order to see whether its relations have been comprehended, 
 and to fix the logical sequences. Kern says, "No lesson 
 is completely learned until the pupil is able to restate all 
 of its parts in the form of a logical summary." Recapitu- 
 
92 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 lation gathers up the individual parts of the lesson and pre- 
 sents them as a whole. The lesson may indeed have been 
 well taught and its truths vividly presented, but if there is 
 failure to summarize and classify the results as a culmina- 
 tion of the work, the best results will not be attained. The 
 power to analyze, outline, or classify a discourse to which 
 one has listened is a measure of the trained intelligence 
 possessed. The impression of a sermon or lecture is often 
 evanescent because of the lack of this power. The culti- 
 vation of this power is therefore of vital consequence in 
 education, and it should begin with young children in con- 
 nection with the instruction given in each class. It is of 
 great value as a means of retaining the lessons taught. 
 
 Lange remarks,* "The presentation of the new material 
 closes with a recapitulation and review of the whole by the 
 pupil. He should now show by a systematic reproduction 
 of the lesson presented that he has fully understood the 
 subject. 'The best test that a person has understood a 
 thing is, that he can reproduce it in his own way, with his 
 own words ' (Herder). So, then, if the separate parts of 
 the new arc more closely united by many repetitions, the 
 entirety will be more strongly impressed upon the mind. 
 To every lesson which offers something new, belongs the 
 mission of making a definite, well-defined series of ideas 
 the inalienable property of the child. But the formation 
 of such fixed ideas would be furthered but little if the repe- 
 tition and combination of the material learned should pro- 
 ceed in the form of repeated questioning and analyzing 
 of such material, i.e., if the pupil is not required to give 
 the whole matter at once, but is allowed to give it piecemeal. 
 
 ' "Apperception," p. 218. 
 
THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION 93 
 
 .... Then apperception would, to all outward appear- 
 ance, never reach perfection. We always require, there- 
 fore, a complete, free narration, an independent, connected 
 presentation of what is learned. We allow the pupil to 
 speak freely and without hindrance, without interrupting 
 his course of thought by questions or suggestions. As a 
 rule, we do not interfere even when he mixes in error or 
 forgets important things; but after the conclusion of his 
 presentation, we ask the whole class to rectify errors, supply 
 deficiencies, and correct an incomplete rendering. Further, 
 we must avoid forcing the pupils to comprehend or grasp 
 the whole by means of prepared forms of expression that 
 are not clear to him." 
 
 Rules. — This combats the idea of committing a rule 
 to memory before it is understood, but it does not forbid 
 the committing of rules as a final act of recapitulation. 
 Indeed, for an individual to possess definite rules that 
 govern his life and conduct is an evidence of the right kind 
 of education. Without rules he is a vagabond, intellectu- 
 ally and physically, as well as morally. From the outset, 
 the mother trains her child to obey rules governing its 
 physical life, — regularity of meals and of sleeping-hours, 
 cleanly habits, obedience to the laws of the home and of the 
 community. The maintenance of health and the happiness 
 of the child depend largely upon its knowledge of such rules 
 and obedience to them. Moral life depends upon the pos- 
 session of rules or maxims of common acceptance, and the 
 living up to them. Every person established in his ethical 
 life is governed by rules which have been committed to 
 memory, whose significance has been explained, and the 
 importance of obedience to these rules has been impressed 
 
94 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 upon him. "As ye would that men should do unto you, 
 do ye even so unto them," "Honesty is the best policy," 
 "Govern your passions or they will govern you," 
 "To err is human, to forgive, divine," "Forgive us 
 our debts, as we forgive our debtors," are ethical 
 principles the possession of which does a great deal to 
 safeguard a person from evil. Just so there are intellect- 
 ual laws and principles that hold one to correct thinking. 
 A child may be trained in a home of culture and grow up 
 to use correct English. This will not answer as a substi- 
 tute for the study of grammar. He must not only speak 
 correctly, but later in life he must know the rules for the 
 use of language through which he may "prove all things," 
 may fortify and establish the ground on which he stands. 
 Without this he must ever remain uncertain and insecure 
 in his use of language. 
 
 A rule is a sort of recapitulation. The child should first 
 state the truth in his owti language as proof that he has 
 comprehended, as the quotation from Lange on a preced- 
 ing page shows; but after he has furnished proof that he 
 understands, after the corrections and criticisms of the 
 class have been made, then a carefully worded rule or prin- 
 ciple should be given him to commit to memory. It is no 
 easy matter to formulate a rule that states the whole truth 
 and nothing but the truth, in language that will stand the 
 test of criticism. It requires the closest thought of a wise 
 person, and surely this may not be expected of a child. Nor 
 will such memorizing be by any means a difficult task for 
 the child who has been prepared for it by a gradual 
 approach, and to whom it is a mere recapitulation in cor- 
 rect language of what he has already learned. A rule is 
 
THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION 95 
 
 a standard or norm, and the more norms of truth that 
 the individual has stored away, whether it be regarding 
 the ethical, intellectual, or physical aspect, the better he is 
 educated. 
 
 A rule should not be committed to memory at the out- 
 set without understanding its meaning. Let the truth be 
 reached by an inductive process, and let its statement be a 
 recapitulation of the material mastered and comprehended. 
 It is a sound educational doctrine to require at this stage, 
 stated rules, principles, summaries, or outlines to be com- 
 mitted to memory as the final act in the process of instruc- 
 tion and as a means of fixing material which has been 
 skilfully presented, brought into intimate relation through 
 association, as the summary of the result. These norms 
 thus stored away will constitute reserves upon which 
 to draw, and supply the mind with certain and tried 
 standards of accepted truth. 
 
 5. Application. — It now remains to apply the general 
 concepts that have been gained to concrete cases. Lange 
 thinks that "the application of universal concepts to the 
 concrete, seldom comes of itself; it must be taught, shown, 
 and practiced in every branch of study," The child is 
 apt to think of the school as another world from that in 
 which he lives out of school, and the school itself is often 
 responsible for that feeling because it fails closely to touch 
 life. The school should come into intimate relation with 
 the verities of every-day life, and this final step of instruc- 
 tion, or that which may be said to succeed instruction, 
 application, will clinch the whole process and reduce it 
 to practical value. Schoolwork should be applied to 
 the activities of the home, the vocation, the recreation, the 
 
96 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 social relations. The paving of a neighboring street, the 
 construction of a house, the planting or harvesting of a 
 crop, dealings in the shop and at the store, a hundred varied 
 and daily transactions, will suggest abundant examples in 
 arithmetic. What better means of illustrating and apply- 
 ing the various tables of measure than could be found by 
 taking a class to a house under construction? Let the 
 pupils compute the cubic yards excavated from the cellar; 
 the contents of the cellar wall; the amount of lumber in the 
 timbers of the framework, and in the boards for covering; 
 the shingles of the roof; the lathing and plastering; the 
 surface to be painted, — in a word, the whole work of 
 construction and cost of the same, from lifting the first 
 shovelful of earth to the last square of papering. This 
 would doubtless take a long time, but there would be con- 
 stant application even while the instruction is going on. 
 And, when completed, it would be found that the pupils 
 thoroughly understand what they have studied. 
 
 By a similar plan, geography can be taught and applied. 
 Take the pupils to a neighboring creek, or bay, or moun- 
 tain, and let them study it as a real thing, not as something 
 described in the text-book. History may be treated in a 
 like manner, especially if there are points of historic interest 
 near at hand. Language work may be made intensely 
 practical by having pupils describe with pen or orally 
 the incidents and things concerning which they know 
 something. And so on with all the subjects of the 
 curriculum. In this way, by means of constant and practi- 
 cal application the teacher will illustrate the truth that the 
 school not only prepares for life, but it is life itself. 
 
THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION 97 
 
 McMurry offers some valuable suggestions on this point:* 
 "Children who have learned to apply one lesson thoroughly 
 are ready and eager to grapple with new problems. There 
 is no better test of successful progress in studies than this 
 power to render practical account of our possessions, and 
 there is no better guarantee for future energetic effort. 
 
 " One conclusion that springs from this entire discussion 
 is, that the proper use of knowledge has to he learned. It 
 does not come by accident or inadvertence, but is the result 
 of definite purpose and rigorous effort. Even if later life 
 with its severer tests were not to follow, the school would 
 need the tonic of this kind of effort to adapt and use knowl- 
 edge in order to bring schoolwork to proper unity and 
 completeness. 
 
 "We may now glance back at the lesson unit, in the treat- 
 ment of which application is the final step. In working up 
 to a general truth or concept through particulars, we have 
 followed the inductive movement through the steps of prep- 
 aration, presentation, comparison, and generalization. A 
 single central thought, which lies at the root of the lesson 
 unity, has dominated the entire movement. In the appli- 
 cation we are still operating with this central truth, turn- 
 ing it about, testing it with new data, and detecting the 
 various forms in which it clothes itself. The length of time, 
 that is, the number of recitations required in working out 
 this general truth through all the five steps, depends upon 
 the simplicity or complexity of the central truth itself, and 
 the amount of data required to develop and apply it." 
 
 There is no doubt that a strict adherence to the five 
 formal steps as a method of procedure in each recitation 
 
 * "Method of the Recitation," p. 234. 
 
gg ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 would have a tendency to make teaching mechanical, to 
 rob the teacher of originality, and to destroy his individu- 
 ality. Surely such was not the intent of those who formu- 
 lated this scheme. Indeed, the successful carrying out of 
 this plan with a topic will often involve several recitation 
 periods. It may require a whole period to prepare the pupils 
 for the new truth, another for its presentation, and so on; 
 but it maintains a unity of thought and purpose whether 
 one period or ten periods may be required, and therefore 
 reaches a definite end. It furnishes a logical, systematic, 
 and natural order of instruction. 
 
 A knowledge of the formal steps, then, may be of great 
 value to the teacher as a guide and as a natural plan to be 
 followed. It furnishes a definite and scientific scheme as 
 against an absence of plan, a groping in the dark. It is 
 methodical, but not mechanical; it requires system, but it is 
 not so pedantic as to destroy the individuality of the teacher. 
 It never loses sight of the end to be reached in instruction, 
 namely, the apperception of the knowledge-material on the 
 part of the pupil. 
 
 Summary 
 
 I. Instruction is the process whereby the difference in 
 knowledge between two persons is wholly or in part can- 
 celled. The main purpose of the school is to furnish instruc- 
 tion, the maintenance of order and the supplying of material 
 means being merely for the purpose of making instruction 
 possible and effective. It should be systematic, intelligent, 
 and forceful. It implies the possession of knowledge and 
 skill in imparting it; hence the necessity of trained teachers. 
 
THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION 99 
 
 //. There are Jive steps of instruction to he observed, 
 namely, (i) preparation, (2) presentation, (3) association, 
 (4) recapitulation, and (5) application. In general, these 
 steps suggest the natural and logical order of procedure so 
 as to secure the apperceptive results. The teacher, how- 
 ever, should not be so bound by these formal steps as to for- 
 feit his own individuality. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 References. — Roark, Method in Education; Rein, Encyklo- 
 padisches Handbuch der Padagogik, Vol. V; White, Elements of 
 Pedagogy; De Gar mo, Essentials of Method; McMuny, General 
 Method; McMurry, Method of the Recitation; McMurry, Special 
 Methods in Geography, History, English Classics, etc.; Prince, 
 Courses and Methods; Smith, Systematic Methodology. 
 
 Knowledge and Method. — Many urge that the essential 
 thing for the teacher is knowledge of the subjects he is to 
 teach. They say, "If he knows his subject, he can teach 
 it." It will readily be admitted that one cannot teach 
 what one does not know, and therefore the first essential 
 for the teacher is knowledge of the subject-matter. No 
 amount of skilful manipulation, no pleasant manner, no 
 happy gift in presentation, can be a substitute for lack of 
 knowledge, though it may temporarily seem to be. No 
 one can give what he does not possess, and, therefore, before 
 the young teacher can be shown how to teach, he must know 
 the subject-matter that he is to teach. Hence there must 
 be an academic foundation before attention is given to 
 method. 
 
 Although knowledge is admittedly first in importance 
 in the equipment of the teacher, method also must be re- 
 garded as essential. Roark says,* "To know well what is 
 to be taught, is, of course, one prerequisite of teaching, but 
 it is only one of them. The other two are a loiowledge of 
 
 * "Method in Education," p. lo. 
 
 lOO 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION lOI 
 
 mind and its laws of growth, and a knowledge of how to 
 make subject-matter stimulate and nourish growth. An 
 attempt to teach without this knowledge of mind would be 
 much like an attempt to practice medicine with only a 
 knowledge of the pharmacopoeia, and with none of anatomy 
 and physiology. ... So while it is still true that teachers 
 with good method, without full knowledge, will sometimes 
 accomplish as much as the thorough scholar who lacks 
 method, — and may even accomplish more, — yet the best 
 teaching is done where sound and broad scholarship is 
 joined to sympathetic knowledge of mind processes, and to 
 skill in making mind hungry for the best nutriment.''^ 
 
 The testimony of Pestalozzi is:^ "Only have a proper 
 method, and you will be surprised at the amount children 
 learn in a single day." Diesterweg remarks with emphasis, 
 "The typical power of the teacher lies in his method;" 
 again, some one has said, "The teacher himself is the best 
 method." It has been asserted that method only touches 
 the superficial, the external side of the child's life; and 
 Karl Lange very pertinently asks, "Which of these is 
 right?" and he answers, "Neither of them. For the edu- 
 cating influence of the teacher depends not alone upon his 
 method of instruction, but also upon the inner working 
 power of his own ideal. Again, the teacher is not the 
 method, but rather he has method. He is still a teacher 
 even if he has no method, though indeed a poor one. He 
 becomes a good teacher by means of method; it is an im- 
 portant trait of his character, because the definition of a 
 capable teacher's personality includes the idea of method. 
 What follows? This, that the teacher's method and his 
 
 ' Rein: " Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik," Vol. V, p. 308. 
 
102 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 personality are closely bound together, and that it is a false 
 notion to set these characteristics in opposition to each 
 other. The one cannot be thought of without the other," 
 
 According to Rosenkranz three things are presupposed 
 in instruction, namely, the subject to be taught, the con- 
 sciousness of the pupil, and the activity of the teacher. 
 These interpenetrate each other and "constitute in actuality 
 one whole." The subject must be suited to the age and 
 capacity of the pupil. It must be presented in a logical 
 manner, even though the child has not yet reached the 
 distinctive period of reasoning. No teacher may offer as 
 an excuse, "I did not present this topic in a logical manner 
 because my pupils have not yet reached the logical epoch." 
 Any topic will be better taught and better learned if 
 presented in the order of sequence. Then, too, "The 
 subject has a nature of its own which requires it to be 
 studied in a certain definite order. Whatever modifica- 
 tions are made in the subject to adapt it to the immature 
 mind of the pupil, this essential nature of the subject must 
 not be changed. ... It is clear enough that all subjects 
 to be taught possess logical relations of dependence of one 
 part on another, of the parts on the whole. There must be, 
 therefore, a certain order of exposition of the subject: the 
 dependent parts must be shown in their dependence, 
 otherwise the subject will not be taught properly. We 
 cannot teach the zones or parallels and meridians unless 
 we have previously taught the spherical form of the earth. 
 
 "]\Iuch change and adaptation will be made by the 
 teacher in order to make the subject entertaining to his 
 pupil and easy of access, but the logical order of dependence 
 of one topic on another within arithmetic, geometry, nat- 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 103 
 
 ural history, grammar, etc., cannot be changed; he must 
 take it as it is, for that is the inteUigible order and must 
 be followed. The words of the classic author must be 
 translated as they stand, and not from the end backward, 
 if we would find sense in them." ^ 
 
 Method a Guide. — The teacher thus has a guide in the 
 method of presenting his material to which he must adapt 
 himself. In many non-essentials and devices, he may em- 
 ploy his originality and exercise personal ingenuity. But 
 he must conform to the natural order of development, and 
 no personal enthusiasm or unique method can be a sub- 
 stitute for that order. Then the child must be consciously 
 present. No matter how well articulated and logical the 
 method, no matter how interesting the teacher may be, 
 there can be no instruction unless the child is consciously 
 engaged in the matter. To reach the consciousness of the 
 child, the material must be properly selected. Quoting 
 again from Rosenkranz, "But the subject must be adapted 
 to the consciousness of the pupil, and here the order of 
 procedure and the exposition depend upon the stage which 
 he has reached intellectually, for the special manner of 
 instruction must be conditioned by this. If he is in the 
 stage of sense-perception, we must use the illustrative 
 method; if in the stage of image-conception, that of com- 
 bination; and if in the stage of tliinking, that of demon- 
 stration. The first exhibits the object directly, or some 
 representation of it ; the second considers it according to the 
 different possibilities which exist in it, and turns it around 
 
 ' Comment of Dr. Harris in Rosenkranz, "Philosophy of Education," 
 p. 97. 
 
104 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 on all sides (and examines its relations to other things); 
 the third demonstrates the necessity of the relations in 
 which it stands either with itself or with others. This is 
 the natural order from the standpoint of the developing 
 intelligence: first, the object is presented to the perception; 
 then combination with other things shows its relations and 
 presents its different phases; and, finally, the thinking 
 activity circumscribes the restlessly moving reflection by 
 the idea of necessity." ^ 
 
 No method that ignores the truths above set forth, can 
 secure good results. Hence the necessity of a knowledge 
 of the laws of mental development. In the early years of 
 the child's life there must be a great deal of illustra- 
 tive material employed. Indeed, illustrative material may 
 never be wholly discarded. Even in the university where 
 original investigation is pursued, some of the most impor- 
 tant work is successfully carried out only by the employ- 
 ment of concrete illustration, — as, for example, the clinic 
 and the dissecting-room in the medical college, the labora- 
 tory in all science work, and pictures and sculpture in the 
 study of art and history. Illustration is also employed 
 with excellent results by public speakers — preachers, 
 orators, lecturers — in appealing to adult audiences. But 
 with mature persons the use of illustration is incidental, 
 while with young children it is the chief means of instruc- 
 tion. 
 
 Care in using Illustrations. — A caution, however, may 
 be necessary at this point. Because objects are essential, 
 many teachers employ them in such variety and number 
 
 * "Philosophy of Education," p. 98. 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 105 
 
 as to dissipate the attention rather than attract and fix 
 it. For example, a teacher was endeavoring to teach a 
 class the number six. She had marbles, beans, splints, 
 blocks, and a variety of other objects. The pupils were 
 interested in the objects, but not in the end sought, the 
 learning of the number six. The lesson was therefore a 
 failure. Another young lady at great pains constructed 
 a beautiful house of pasteboard for an object-lesson, not 
 in architecture, but in number. She had the pupils count 
 the windows, the gables, the doors, but she failed to teach 
 the number she had in mind because the attention of the 
 class was diverted by the object itself. A single class of 
 objects should be employed, sufficient to make the appeal 
 to the senses, and all other objects should be excluded. 
 
 Care should be taken in the choice of objects. For 
 example, if oranges were chosen for the purpose of teaching 
 number, the attention of the pupils would be diverted to the 
 taste, smell, color, desire for possession, etc. Instead of con- 
 centrating the attention upon the one idea to be taught, it 
 is dissipated. Hence some simple objects, like blocks, 
 should be selected, because they will not divide the atten- 
 tion, and, at the same time, they furnish the necessary con- 
 crete illustration. Every particle of attention diverted from 
 the lesson in hand by external conditions is just so much 
 loss in securing the end sought. Again, objects are em- 
 ployed as a means to an end, and when they are no longer 
 needed to secure that end, they should be abandoned. 
 The rule should be, employ concrete illustration whenever 
 necessary to enforce the truth even till adult life, but omit 
 it when it is not needed. 
 
106 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 Personality of the Teacher a Factor in Method. — The 
 
 third essential of method is the personality of the teacher. 
 Rosenkranz thinks that the personality of the teacher creates 
 an individual method. "For," he says, "however clearly 
 the subject may be defined, however exactly the psycho- 
 logical stage of the pupil may be regulated, the teacher 
 cannot do away with his own individuality even in the 
 most objective relations. This individuality must pene- 
 trate the whole with its own exposition. . . . The teacher 
 must place himself on the standpoint of the pupil, i.e., he 
 must adapt himself; he must see that the abstract is made 
 clear to him in the concrete, i.e., he must illustrate, he 
 must fill up the gaps which will certainly appear, and 
 which mar the thorough seizing of the subject, i.e., he 
 must supply. In all these relations the pedagogical tact 
 of the teacher may prove itself truly ingenious in varying 
 the method according to the changefulness of the ever- 
 varying needs, in contracting or expanding the extent, in 
 omitting or accumulating examples, in stating or only in- 
 dicating what is to be supplied. The true teacher is free 
 from any superstitious belief in any one procedure as a 
 sure specific which he follows always in a monotonous 
 bondage. This freedom can only be enjoyed by him who 
 is capable of the highest method. The teacher has arrived 
 at the highest point of ability in teaching when he can make 
 use of all means, from the loftiness of solemn seriousness, 
 through smooth statement, to the play of jest — yes, even 
 to the incentive of irony, and to humor." * 
 
 For our purpose, method is twofold : it embraces (a) the 
 order of procedure in selecting and arranging material, and 
 
 ' "Plulosophy of Education," p. 104. 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 107 
 
 (6) the mode of systematic presentation of subject-matter, is 
 instruction in the discovery, confirmation, and elucidation of 
 truth. The order of procedure, the mode of presentation, 
 and the manner of elucidation define the teacher's person- 
 ality. The best method serves its purpose only through a 
 capable person, who carries it out with zeal and spirit ; but 
 a model teacher, on the other hand, without a well-consid- 
 ered method of instruction, is inconceivable. Without gen- 
 uine personality method is nothing but cold formality. It 
 must be warmed by the enthusiasm and fire of the ardent 
 personality of a living teacher. It is the means whereby 
 the instructor speaks to the heart of the child. 
 
 To reach the ideal character of teacher requires time, 
 and that experience which comes only with years of careful 
 study and conscientious work. Principles must be adopted, 
 and these must be put to actual test. The training of the 
 normal school is the very best means of preparing one to be 
 a teacher, especially in the common school. The school 
 must seek to instil into its pupils the true pedagogical 
 spirit; and the more this is done, the better the true per- 
 sonality of the teacher will be brought out, the surer will be 
 the success. Educational theory must be so incorporated 
 into the very flesh and blood of the teacher that he will 
 exemplify that theory unconsciously though in a rational 
 manner in every exercise and at all times. The teacher is 
 free only when he is no longer obliged to measure every 
 act by formulas, but is so imbued with the truth that the 
 method of imparting it is no longer thought of. 
 
 Self-Improvement Essential to Method. — The teacher 
 must also continue his own scientific education, for even 
 
Io8 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 the richest will become poor who forever pays out and 
 takes nothing in. " Who has ceased to improve himself, 
 has ceased to improve others," says Diesterweg. While 
 general culture must certainly come in for a large part of 
 the teacher's improvement, the central idea of further 
 culture should be professional. Not only by means of 
 books, but also through association with talented educa- 
 tors, will he gain inspiration for his work. He must not 
 be ashamed to possess the peculiarities that characterize 
 the teacher, though he should not cultivate offensive ped- 
 antic manners. Too often this latter characteristic sub- 
 jects him to ridicule if not contempt. It shows itself by 
 certain mannerisms that contact with children in the school- 
 room has a tendency to foster. There he is superior in 
 knowledge and authority, and it is very easy to acquire the 
 habit of exhibiting his pedantry even when he is out of 
 school. But in the. school it is not necessary to assume 
 these peculiar mannerisms, and the freer the teacher is from 
 them the better will be his influence and his discipline. 
 
 It is as important for the teacher to cultivate a self-con- 
 trolled and a pleasing personality, both in and out of school, 
 as it is that he should be master of the details of method. 
 There are many things in the schoolroom that try the pa- 
 tience, arouse anger, and awaken evil feelings. On the 
 other hand, daily contact with young children, whose spirit 
 is naturally joyous, and whose hearts overflow with love, 
 ought to make the teacher generous, loving, sympathetic, 
 and full of good cheer. In lifting others into a higher 
 plane of living and opportunity, in implanting in them 
 noble thoughts, in arousing better aspirations, and in in- 
 citing them to higher ambitions, the teacher himself acquires 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 109 
 
 nobler thoughts, aspirations, ambitions. It illustrates the 
 divine truth, "With what measure ye mete, it shall be 
 measured to you again." This is one of the teacher's 
 richest rewards, and it, in a measure, compensates for 
 inadequate salary and want of appreciation. In blessing 
 others, he himself is blessed, and he finds that "It is 
 more blessed to give than to receive." And this 
 is true also in the teacher's intercourse with his people, 
 to whom he may also be a blessing. One of the most 
 important lessons that Booker T. Washington teaches 
 his students at Tuskegee is that they are to go out not only 
 to instruct the children, but also to teach the parents how 
 to live better and to uplift the race. If the teacher pos- 
 sesses the qualities and the spirit that have been pointed 
 out as necessary to success in the schoolroom, it wall not 
 be difficult for him to be interested in the community, and 
 the same spirit that makes him beloved by his pupils will 
 make him beloved and respected by his people. 
 
 To return to the three elements that a method of instruc- 
 tion must take into account, — the selection and mastery 
 of the subject to he taught, the consciousness of the 
 pupil, and the personality of the teacher, — it will be 
 seen that the third element plays a most important part. 
 If the teacher knows his subjects thoroughly, is earnest 
 and impressive; if he understands his pupils and knows how 
 to select and present suitable material ; if he is so fully 
 master of method as not to be fettered by it, but to be 
 set free by making it his instrument and his aid; if he pos- 
 sesses the peculiar sympathy that attracts childhood and 
 has the ability to enter into the thoughts and life of the 
 child, — then his method is likely to be good and his in- 
 
no ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 struction successful. White remarks/ "A method is but 
 an orderly mechanism; its efficiency depends on what the 
 teacher puts into it, and a teacher can never put into a 
 method what he does not possess. In the last analysis, 
 the vital element in teaching is the teacher. He is the soul 
 of his methods and measures. If he is weak, they will be 
 weak; if he is potent, they will be potent." 
 
 Different Methods. — Thus far we have discussed the 
 general characteristics that determine method. It now re- 
 mains to consider the individual methods and their em- 
 ployment in the work of instruction. The teacher, even 
 if possessed with the genius of teaching, or of the necessary 
 personal characteristics, must, nevertheless, be familiar with 
 different methods of instruction in order to apply the method 
 that is suited to the particular subject that is presented, and to 
 the individual child. It is clear that the child in the pri- 
 mary classes will be reached by a different method from that 
 employed with the student in college. Many subjects re- 
 quire their own peculiar manner of approach; and it is 
 also certain that there is a great difference in children, even 
 of the same age, in their abihty to comprehend a lesson. 
 Some can grasp it by one method, while to others it must 
 be presented by another. If a traveler has the choice 
 of several routes to a given destination, he will be more 
 likely to secure the transportation that suits his time, 
 his convenience, his purse, and his wishes, than if he has 
 only one route at his disposal. Just so the teacher who 
 is equipped with a variety of methods will be more likely 
 to attain the best results than he could secure if limited to 
 one. 
 
 ' "Elements of Pedagogy," p. 210. 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION III 
 
 Smith ^ very clearly points out that "there are four dis- 
 tinct methods of teacliing, which can be understood only 
 in the hght of a knowledge of the nature and the relation 
 of individual concepts and general concepts. They are 
 the analytic method, synthetic method, inductive method, 
 and deductive method." He proceeds to define and illus- 
 trate what he understands by each as follows : — 
 
 Analytic Method. — " The analytic method of teaching 
 is the method in which we set out with individuals or wholes, 
 and proceed to a consideration of the parts of which they are 
 composed. Starting with a flower, and proceeding to a 
 study of its parts, calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil, etc., is an 
 example of analytic teaching. As examples of the analytic 
 method of procedure in other studies may be mentioned: 
 taking a sentence in grammar and proceeding from that 
 to a consideration of its parts, — subject, copula, predicate, 
 modifiers, etc.; taking a problem in arithmetic and pro- 
 ceeding to its solution by the method of independent an- 
 alysis; taking a state or country in geography and proceed- 
 ing to learn the several parts (the names, locations, and 
 characteristics of the particular rivers, mountains, towns, 
 etc.) of which it is composed. In an analytic method of 
 teaching, we have given us the individuals or wholes which 
 are simply the parts in their proper relation to each other, 
 and we proceed to consider each of these parts as if it were 
 then a separate thing." 
 
 Synthetic Method. — " The synthetic method of teaching 
 is the method in which we set out with the dissociated parts 
 
 ^ "Systematic Methodology," p. iii. This presentation is so lucid 
 that I shall quote quite fully from it. The italicizing of the definitions is 
 mine. 
 
112 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 of things and proceed to bring these parts into proper rela- 
 tion to each other, so as to construct as a final product the 
 individual. Having a pile of dissociated bones, studying 
 the function of each, and then bringing them into such 
 relation with one another as to produce finally the human 
 skeleton, is an example of a synthetic method of teaching. 
 Taking isolated words and building possible sentences with 
 them is a synthetic procedure. 
 
 " It should be noted that, in the analytic method, the 
 parts are given their relation to each other, and, hence, 
 the relations are clearly present to be discovered; the 
 functions of the several parts as they affect one another are 
 thus made manifest. In the synthetic method the parts are 
 given out of their proper relation to each other, and it is 
 assumed that they can be studied in such isolation, and 
 that their several relations can be discovered in the process 
 of bringing them together to construct the unit, or individual 
 thing. It should also be noted that these two methods have 
 to do only with the mental movement between single things 
 and their parts; the idea of classification does not enter 
 into cither of them." 
 
 Inductive Method. — " The inductive method of teach- 
 ing is the method in which we set out with individual 
 things and by a comparative study of several individuals — 
 noting likenesses and difjerences — develop general notions 
 or generalizations ; or, we begin with generalizations of a 
 given order and by their comparative study we arrive at 
 still wider generalizations. Taking several observable 
 portions of land, and, from a comparative study of these, 
 deriving the notion and the definition of island, is an 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 1 13 
 
 inductive procedure. Solving several problems in arith- 
 metic by independent analysis, and then, by comparison 
 of their processes, formulating a rule for the solution of 
 such problems, is an inductive process. Generalizing 
 definitions, rules, laws, and principles, from a comparative 
 study of facts, is inductive. The very essence of induction 
 is comparison of members of a class with a view to discover- 
 ing similar elements." 
 
 Deductive Method. — " The deductive method of teaching 
 is the method in which we set out with generalizations {defi- 
 nitions, rules, laws, or principles) and proceed to their appli- 
 cation in individual cases. As example of the deductive 
 method we may mention: committing rules in arithmetic, 
 and then applying them to the solution of problems; study- 
 ing the definitions of geography from a book, and then 
 proceeding to find them illustrated in the land and water 
 forms about the school; reading the generalizations about 
 the human body, which are contained in the ordinary 
 works on physiology, and then proceeding to examine our 
 bodies in order to verify them; studying botany by first 
 reading the book statements about plants, and following 
 this by an examination of specimens of the plants pre- 
 viously described; starting with the axioms of mathematics 
 and proceeding by a demonstrative process to principles, 
 rules, and the solution of problems. 
 
 "A careful consideration of the above definitions and 
 examples cited will enable the learner to understand that 
 the terms induction and deduction apply only to those mental 
 movements which involve a passage from generalizations, 
 
114 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 never to mental movements between individual tilings and 
 their several parts." * 
 
 Which of the methods explained should be employed in 
 education? Doubtless all of them under varying circum- 
 stances. In general, the practice employed and illus- 
 trated in the recitation as set forth in the preceding 
 chapter, should prevail. As outlined by careful thinkers, it 
 is as follows: " (i) the apperception or assimilation of 
 individual notions; (2) the transition from individual to 
 general notions, whether the latter appear as definitions, 
 rules, principles, or moral maxims; and (3) the application 
 of these general truths to new concrete facts — the return 
 from general notions to new individuals. " With young chil- 
 dren the method to be employed should be either synthetic 
 or analytic, chiefly the former, as these methods deal with 
 single things and their parts, and do not require power of 
 classification. With older persons, who are capable of 
 understanding principles and laws, and who have the power 
 of generalizing and classifying, either the inductive or the 
 deductive method should be employed. It must not be 
 forgotten, as has already been shown, that the personal 
 peculiarities of both pupil and teacher, as well as the 
 characteristics inherent in the subject itself, should be 
 taken into account. Finally it may be repeated that the 
 teacher must not be a slave to method, but should be so 
 thoroughly master of the subject-matter, and so imbued 
 with the spirit of teaching, that method becomes the uncon- 
 
 ^ These four methods are so often confused — synthetic with inductive, 
 and analytic with deductive — that it has seemed wise to give the full pre- 
 sentation of each method with the illustrative examples so clearly set forth 
 by this author, without further explanation or comment. 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION' II5 
 
 scious instrument through which he presents the truth 
 forcefully, logically, earnestly, and in the manner to leave 
 deepest impressions. 
 
 Summary 
 
 I. With young children illustrative material must be em- 
 ployed, not as an end in itself, hut as a means to an end. Too 
 many objects may dissipate the attention and defeat the end 
 in view. The rule should be, employ suitable illustration 
 whenever it will aid in making the lesson clear, even with 
 advanced students, but abandon it when no longer necessary. 
 
 II. Method is the form in which the living content of 
 the teacher's personality flows forth, the means through 
 which that personality realizes its educative purpose. The 
 three elements that method must take into account are the 
 subject to be taught, the consciousness of the pupil, and the 
 personality of the teacher. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 PLAY AS AN EDUCATIONAL FACTOR 
 
 References. — Wiggin, Children's Rights; Harrisan, Study of 
 the Child; Roark, Method in Education; Hughes, Mistakes in 
 Teaching; Forhush, The Boy Problem; Bain, Education as a 
 Science; Educational Review, Vol. VIII; Young Folks' Cycle pcedia, 
 Vol. VIII; Ogden, Science of Education; Beale, Work and Play 
 in Girls' Schools; Froebel, Education of Man; Griggs, Moral Edu- 
 cation. 
 
 A Natural Tendency of the Young. — There is a natural 
 tendency in all young life to express itself in play. One 
 sees this in the gambols of the young lamb, the friskiness 
 of the puppy, the antics of the kitten, as well as in the cease- 
 less activity of the child. The period of play is the 
 period during which the being is coming to maturity, the 
 period of education. Hence many educators have sought 
 to utilize this activity in the education of the child. The 
 Chinese have never had many toys, or made use of play 
 in their educational system, and this partly accounts for 
 its serious defects. On the other hand, the Greeks encour- 
 aged play in their Olympian games and the preparation 
 for them, and these great national meetings exerted a most 
 important influence upon the character and the culture of 
 the people. The toys of the Athenian child were greater 
 in variety than those of any other people of antiquity. 
 Their purpose, however, was to amuse the child rather 
 than serve as a means of equipping for life's duties, as was 
 the case in Sparta and Persia. 
 
 1x6 
 
PLAY AS AN EDUCATIONAL FACTOR 117 
 
 That play is a potent influence in stimulating a health- 
 ful physical and intellectual growth is an educational 
 truth that has been fully recognized only within recent 
 years. And yet, the Athenians appreciated it in the home, 
 and utilized it in their educational practice twenty-five 
 centuries ago. In this they anticipated the kindergarten. 
 
 Fenelon employed the principle of play in securing his 
 remarkable success with the young Duke of Burgundy. 
 Through this means this skilful teacher awoke interest in 
 that intractable boy; and by means of liis " Dialogues and 
 Fables," Fenelon's success with his pupil was so phenom- 
 enal that the passionate and wilful prince became docile 
 and obedient, a monument to the patience and wisdom of 
 his teacher. 
 
 But to Froebel is due the credit of utilizing play in a 
 systematic manner in the education of the young. Inspired 
 by Pestalozzi, concerning whose influence upon him he 
 'said, "He set one's soul on fire for a higher and nobler 
 life, though he had not made clear or sure the exact road 
 toward it, or indicated the means whereby to attain it," 
 Froebel began the study of "boys' play, the whole series of 
 games in the open air, and learned to recognize their mighty 
 power to awaken and strengthen the intelligence and the 
 soul as well as the body." The outgrowth of this study 
 was the kindergarten. 
 
 The Kindergarten. — It is not the purpose here to dis- 
 cuss the kindergarten plays or to consider their educational 
 value. There are two dangers that one not fully acquainted 
 with the philosophy of Froebel is likely to fall into. The 
 first danger lies in the character, purpose, and employment 
 
Il8 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 of the plays themselves. Under the unskilled, improperly 
 trained teacher the plays may be so ill-chosen or so badly 
 managed as to become formal and mechanical in their 
 use. Indeed, they cease to be plays because they lack the 
 spontaneity, the freshness, the ingenuousness so apparent 
 in real play. The example of the boy who returned 
 home from his first day in the kindergarten, threw his 
 schoolbagon the sofa, and indignantly exclaimed, "I'm not 
 going there any more! I can't waste my time that way! " 
 illustrates this point. He had been treated to "play" 
 that was neither play nor instruction, and saw through the 
 sham, as children are likely to do. The teacher must be 
 very careful that the real essence of play, that is, spon- 
 taneity, freedom, genuine joyousness, is retained, while 
 she knows the definite end to be sought, and while she 
 carries in her own mind the lesson to be taught. Such 
 exercises must be to the children real play, or their value 
 will soon be lost. When the children are too old or too 
 far advanced to enter upon an exercise as pure play, the 
 time has come to abandon such exercise as a means of 
 education. 
 
 The second danger is the other extreme, that of mere 
 amusement, that of entertainment. While, as has been 
 said, from the children's standpoint the plays must be 
 spontaneous, from the teacher's standpoint they must have 
 an aim. Froebel must have had this thought in mind 
 when he said, "Play is the purest, most spiritual activity 
 of man at this stage, at the same time, typical of human 
 life as a whole — of the inner hidden natural life in man 
 in all things. It gives, therefore, joy, freedom, content- 
 ment, inner and outer rest, peace with the world. A child 
 
PLAY AS AN EDUCATIONAL FACTOR 1 19 
 
 that plays thoroughly, with self-active determination, per- 
 severingly, until physical fatigue forbids, will surely be a 
 thorough, determined man, capable of self-sacrifice for the 
 promotion of the welfare of himself and others." Thus 
 Froebel saw a definite purpose in play, and in his whole 
 scheme he sought to utilize this natural instinct in laying 
 the foundations of education. The employment of aimless 
 plays teaches the children to be restless, impatient of con- 
 trol, fidgety, dependent upon entertainment, and incapaci- 
 tates them to fix the attention. The training of the school 
 should lead gradually to the power of concentrated work. 
 The school prepares for life — an oft-repeated truism — or 
 better still, as Colonel Parker puts it, it is life, and life is 
 full of tasks that must be performed. This does not mean 
 that childhood is to be repressed and its natural tendencies 
 stifled, but its tendencies are to be utilized and guided 
 rather than allowed to run riot. That is what the founder 
 of the kindergarten meant, and that is what he taught. 
 This danger under discussion is responsible, in part, at 
 least, for so many children coming into the higher classes 
 with no power of concentration, with so little disposition 
 to self-exertion and self-application, and possessed of the 
 notion that everything must be made superlatively easy. 
 
 Mr. Howard J. Rogers summarizes the present tendency 
 most admirably :^ "Beginning with the kindergarten and 
 continuing into the elementary grades, we have run a little 
 wild in the last decade or more in making things easy for 
 the child. We have coaxed and coddled and bribed with 
 sweetmeats till the child has a totally wrong impression 
 
 * Address at the meeting of the National Educational Association in 
 1905, on "Educational Progress of the Year." 
 
120 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 of his relativity to his environment. I yield to no one in 
 acknowledging the great work done by the kindergarten, 
 particularly in the crowded portions of our great cities, and 
 in approving its purpose, but this does not mean approval 
 of all its methods. They should not be extended too far 
 into the child's life, and the elementary schools should 
 begin to differentiate at once between work and play. A 
 cliild has a weak, imperfect, illogical mind, or he would not 
 be a child. To appeal to his reason and his interest is to 
 premise your work on negative quantities. Prescribe what 
 your reason and the experience of the race have proven 
 good for him, and see that he does his tasks through love 
 if possible, through compulsion if necessary. If a subject 
 be thoroughly disciplinary and wholly distasteful, and 
 a child does it, it is good for the child. And above all, let 
 us see to it that we instill into the child by leading him to 
 conquer difficulties, and to subordinate his desires to his 
 obligations and his duty, a moral fiber which will carry 
 him straight through fire and water to his goal in life; and 
 let us not be responsible for turning into the world creatures 
 of flexible backbone, who will pursue their sinuous way 
 along lines of pleasure, interest, and the least resistance." 
 
 This is not a criticism of the kindergarten idea, or of 
 Froebel's teaching, or of the application of the principle 
 of play in education. It is a warning against a misap- 
 prehension and misapplication of the great Thiiringian's 
 teachings. It is an appeal for the choice of suitable plays, 
 those that call for spontaneous action on the part of the 
 children, and yet are so directed and utilized by wise and 
 intelligent teachers as to accomplish some definite aim. 
 As planned and taught by its great founder, the kinder- 
 
PLAY AS AN' EDUCATIONAL FACTOR I2i 
 
 garten is the most natural and the wisest scheme for the train- 
 ing of young children yet devised by man. And its central 
 idea is the utilizing of the instinct of play in the young. 
 
 The Clothing of Children. — Before entering upon the 
 discussion of what we mean by play and of what value it 
 is, we may briefly consider the character of clothing. The 
 proposition that the child should be so dressed as in no 
 way to interfere with the perfect freedom of his body will 
 need no discussion. This is essential for all of his activi- 
 ties whether play or work. On this point Froebel says/ 
 "In order to enable the child at this period to move and 
 play, to develop and grow freely, his clothing should be 
 free from lacing and pressure of all kinds; for such cloth- 
 ing would oppress and fetter also the spirit of the child. 
 The clothing of the child in this as well as in the next 
 period, should not bind the body; for it will have on the 
 mind, on the soul, of the child, the same effect it has on the 
 body. Clothes, in form and color and cut, should never 
 become an object in themselves, else they will soon direct 
 the child's attention to his appearance instead of his real 
 being, make him vain and frivolous — dollish — a puppet 
 instead of a human being." These wise words have value 
 for moral as well as for physical well-being. 
 
 The Meaning of Play. — What do we mean by play ? 
 How is play distinguished from work? It is necessary to 
 determine clearly the difference between these two activi- 
 ties to define them, in order to discover the educational 
 value of play. Some would say that it is the element of 
 
 ^ "Education of Man," p. 63. 
 
122 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 pleasure that distinguishes play. This is not true, for 
 many persons find pleasure in their work. "We go back 
 to school to-morrow after a vacation of two weeks. I 
 shall be glad, for I am always happiest when I am busiest," 
 writes an enthusiastic teacher. Indeed, that one shall be 
 fond of his work and take pleasure in it, is the first essen- 
 tial of success. 
 
 Play is easier than work, may be offered as the distinc- 
 tion. But some plays are very hard, both physically and 
 mentally. No one would say that foot-ball or chess is 
 easy, and yet they stand for play. Indeed, there is scarcely 
 any kind of work that calls for harder physical application 
 than foot-ball, or more severe mental application than 
 chess. It will not be urged that a game of base-ball is 
 easier for a boy than to go on an errand. In fact, many 
 boys love those games best that require greatest activ- 
 ity, that offer supreme obstacles to be overcome. There 
 is the greater triumph in winning. 
 
 Again, it may be said that length or intensity of the 
 activity is what decides the question. But some of the 
 games above mentioned require the greatest intensity of 
 thought and action, and yet they are play. Still again, 
 it might be urged that the desire to win is the characteristic 
 of play. In many occupations men are as eager to win 
 and as jubilant over success as the most enthusiastic col- 
 lege student over a base-ball victory. None of these distinc- 
 tions clearly mark the difference between work and play. 
 
 Definition of Play and Work. — We are now ready for a 
 definition of play and work. Play is activity or effort that 
 finds its end within itself, while work finds its end outside 
 
PLAY AS AN EDUCATIONAL FACTOR 123 
 
 of itself. To illustrate: The amateur base- ball player 
 reaches his aim in the activity itself, while the professional 
 player has an end beyond the game, namely, the salary 
 upon which he lives. Both may play with great skill, 
 both may thoroughly enjoy the game, both may desire to 
 win, but the latter has a purpose, an end, which is outside 
 of and which follows the activity. Therefore the former 
 engages in play, the latter in work. The same activity 
 may be work or play according to the motive of it. The 
 child drearily runs the scales in piano practice. He is at 
 work because the end is in the future when he will be able 
 to play with skill the same scales woven into wonderful 
 harmonies to his own and his hearers' delight. The actor 
 carries his part on the stage and finds pleasure for himself 
 while he pleases his audience. To him it is work, because 
 later his salary will be his reward. To his audience it is 
 play. They have spent an hour in witnessing the pro- 
 duction, and the end for which they came has been reached 
 when the play is over. 
 
 One may read a book for the enjoyment it affords. Let 
 the same book be read in order to write a review of it or 
 pass an examination, and the latter becomes work because 
 the end was not reached in the reading, while the former 
 was recreation or play. I may take a walk for the mere 
 enjoyment of it. But if I walk to my place of business in 
 order to perform the duty of bread- winning, the walk is 
 work. Indeed, in some trades the mechanics do not reckon 
 their time from the moment they enter upon their job, but 
 from the time they are said to leave the shop. It is the 
 motive that governs the activity, and not the activity 
 itself, that distinguishes work from play. 
 
124 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 Purpose of Play. — Play strengthens all the powers of 
 body and soul. "It is the telescope which lengthens life 
 and extends its vision;" and the longer the spirit of play is 
 retained in a man's life, the younger he remains, the brighter 
 his spirit, the happier and more optimistic he is. Hence 
 it should be encouraged in the form of holidays and recre- 
 ation in the arrangement of life's plan in old as well as in 
 young. Play teaches the child to be self-reliant, and that 
 characteristic will best be brought out when the child has 
 companions of about his own age in the home and in 
 school. Through play he learns to measure his strength 
 and skill with the strength and skill of others; he increases 
 his powers, thereby acquiring greater agility and strength. 
 
 Without the advantage of play with other children 
 the child is likely to grow up puny in body, selfish in 
 spirit, exacting, overbearing, and self-opinionated. Nothing 
 teaches a boy so quickly and thoroughly the place he is 
 capable of holding among his fellows as contact and asso- 
 ciation with other boys in healthful, earnest, hearty, and 
 suitable play. I used to watch a boy who had no one of 
 his own age to play with during the earlier years of his life. 
 He was an intolerant bully and a general nuisance to the 
 whole neighborhood. When he went to school, however, 
 and associated with other boys, he soon learned to know his 
 place ; he found that the whole world did not revolve 
 around him, and he became a fine boy. Play under right 
 conditions was the civilizing and educating influence that 
 taught him the most important lesson of life. 
 
 Through play the child strengthens his muscles, acquires 
 knowledge of distance, trains the judgment, learns much 
 concerning nature's laws, and becomes acquainted with 
 
PLAY AS AN EDUCATIONAL FACTOR 12$ 
 
 the moral principle embodied in the Golden Rule. Hence 
 the teacher should watch over and direct the games of the 
 playground, as truly as the lessons of the schoolroom, as 
 an important educational means. Far more attention 
 should be paid to this feature of education than is usual. 
 Such games should be encouraged as will develop all the 
 powers. There is no better game for boys than base-ball. 
 Ideas of distance and accuracy of judgment are incul- 
 cated by throwing the ball, by catching "flics" in the field, 
 and by attempting to hit the thrown ball. Skill is acquired 
 by the same means in throwing and judging the ball. 
 Alertness is necessary in deciding where to throw the ball 
 when fielded in order to put out the opponent, — the boy 
 must act at once with decision and accuracy. Agility is 
 cultivated in running bases, and in picking up the swiftly 
 batted "grounder." Unselfishness is engendered and 
 genuine practice of the Golden Rule by the necessary team 
 spirit which seeks to win the game through concentrated 
 action and not through individual effort. Every one 
 must do his best in the position he occupies, wliile he 
 works in concert with his mates. Nothing puts in jeopardy 
 the game in which a whole team is involved, as base- ball, 
 basket-ball, or foot-ball, so much as self-seeking or jeal- 
 ousy on the part of individuals. Base-ball, then, may be 
 made a most excellent educational means, teaching lessons 
 that nothing in the schoolroom fosters, and it should be 
 sustained by every school. 
 
 Basket-ball serves a similar purpose at the time of the 
 year when base-ball cannot be played. For quiet indoor 
 games those should be selected that furnish sufficient incen- 
 tive and interest in themselves, and rest upon no external in- 
 
126 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 centive. Any game that requires a money stake or a prize 
 "just to make it interesting," should be discountenanced. 
 If a game does not offer a healthful exercise of skill and judg- 
 ment, a stimulating and lively interest to win for the sake of 
 winning, it does not fulfil the conditions prescribed. 
 
 Indeed, it is not play, it is work, for the end is outside of 
 the activity, the end is to secure the prize or money at 
 stake, and not the mere enjoyment of a pleasurable pastime. 
 If a game is played for the pleasure found in it, it is play; if 
 the same game is played for a stake, it is no longer play, 
 it is gambling. For this reason professional gamblers do 
 not select games like chess or checkers, which depend 
 upon skill and knowledge, but they prefer dice which 
 requires no skill and which is quickly decided, or some 
 kinds of card games in which the element of chance plays 
 a large part. No one, on the other hand, would long 
 play dice for amusement. It requires an outside stimulus 
 to keep up the interest, and therefore should be discouraged, 
 as well as all other games that fail in themselves to furnish 
 the necessary interest. This will be a sufficient guide for 
 parents and teachers in determining what games should be 
 allowed. 
 
 Cricket serves the same purpose with English boys that 
 base-ball does with ours. Concerning this game, Mr. 
 Hughes says,^ "The discipline and self-reliance on one 
 another which it teaches is so valuable, I think, it ought to 
 be such an unselfish game. It merges the individual in the 
 eleven; he doesn't play that he may win, but that his side 
 may." 
 
 Teachers will have to meet the question of marble-play- 
 
 ^ "School Days at Rugby," p. 381. 
 
PLAY AS AN EDUCATIONAL FACTOR 1 27 
 
 ing among boys. This game is harmless if merely a trial 
 of skill. It may be very harmful if the children are allowed 
 to play "for keeps," which is a species of gambling. With 
 most children one merely needs to call attention to the 
 evil, and explain its moral bearing. A most conscientious 
 Christian gentleman was passing some boys who w^re 
 playing marbles on the street. Although he was upw\irds 
 of sixty years of age, the old spirit of his boyhood came 
 over him, and he asked the boys to be allowed to come into 
 the game. He borrowed a marble from one of the boys 
 with which he won another, and then paid back his debt. 
 He had not lost his skill, and soon he had won all the marbles 
 the boys possessed. And he put those marbles into his 
 pocket and carried them home for his grandson! It never 
 occurred to liim that he had been gambling, and a suggestion 
 of that kind would have thoroughly shocked him. Boys 
 should be taught the nature of such a game, and shown that 
 it is evil. They should also be taught that the intrinsic 
 value of the thing played for does not change the principle. 
 
 Teachers' Part in Games. — The teacher may exert a 
 most positive and beneficent influence by encouraging and 
 directing the right kind of games. This must be done 
 with discretion so that the children will not feel that he is 
 dictating their sports and hindering a free exercise of their 
 natural right to play. It is certain that a feature of educa- 
 tion that cannot be fostered in the schoolroom can be 
 secured on the playground; and if the teacher possesses the 
 ability to mingle freely with his pupils in their recreation, 
 taking part with them at times, preventing harmful games 
 and encouraging good ones, he wdll be able to do great 
 
128 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 good to his pupils. Besides, he will discover character- 
 istics that will aid him in discipline, and he will gain an 
 influence over his pupils which cannot be gained otherwise. 
 For in the hour of play the child manifests his true self. 
 It often occurs that the pupil who is intractable and indo- 
 lent in the schoolroom is the leader in sports. The watch- 
 ful teacher may be able to discover by observing such 
 pupils at play a means to interest them in their work. 
 
 The child should be taught early in life, to respect the 
 property rights of others; he should also be made to feel 
 that no luck or skill of his can justify his appropriating 
 the property that he may win from another. The teacher 
 should encourage the sports that develop agility, strength, 
 alertness, judgment, and accuracy. The educational value 
 of the Olympian games lay in the nature of the games 
 themselves, as well as in the spirit of fairness that was 
 cultivated. Running, jumping, throwing the discus, wrest- 
 ling, trials of strength and endurance, constituted the 
 earlier Grecian games, and they produced a magnificent 
 type of manhood. The only material reward was a v/reath 
 of laurel placed upon the victor's brow, and it was enough. 
 It was the insignia of honors that endured while life lasted. 
 And the same effect would follow a like practice at the 
 present time. Some boys, connected with the late Profes- 
 sor Stoy's school at Jena, were holding their annual gym- 
 nastic contests. On a branch of a neighboring tree were 
 hung several laurel wreaths, the only prizes for which they 
 were striving. There was no evidence of lack of interest 
 because the prizes carried no intrinsic value. Indeed, 
 every boy did liis best; and when the contest was over the 
 victors were called forward and crowned with impressive 
 
PLAY AS AN EDUCATIONAL FACTOR 129 
 
 ceremony, after the manner of the Greeks of olden time. 
 Here a lesson in simplicity was inculcated; and through 
 those games, and the simple rewards that followed, the 
 most important lesson that play teaches was illustrated, 
 namely, to find the interest in the activity itself and not in 
 any external reward. The laurel wreath sufficiently dis- 
 tinguished the victor, but did not serve as pay for his 
 success. Hence it was play and not work. 
 
 Play vs. Work. — While the early years of the child are 
 devoted to play, and, as we have shown, this natural in- 
 stinct should be employed for educational purposes, he 
 must be gradually led to know that life has earnest pur- 
 poses that can be satisfied only with work. It is not neces- 
 sary that he gain the idea that work, which is the antithesis 
 of play, is uninteresting or unpleasant. On the contrary, it 
 should be shown to the child that work at the proper time and 
 of the right kind to meet his stage of development may be 
 extremely interesting. Professor Withers says,* "Work 
 need never be irrational servitude, and the highest forms 
 of work admit of the greatest amount of self-expression, 
 and, therefore, of true freedom, relieved from 'the weight 
 of chance desires.' Thanks, in a great measure, to 
 Froebel, the whole world is coming to see that the work of 
 the little child must be delicately adapted to its stage of 
 growth, and must give full scope to its budding instincts, 
 its love of muscular development, of variety, of construc- 
 tiveness, of living animals, and plants, of pictures, and of 
 cheerful sights and sounds. There is no reason why this 
 should impair the seriousness and mental concentration 
 
 * Address before the Froebel Society of Great Britain. 
 
130 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 which work ought always to imply. On the contrary, the 
 'strangle- hold' is far easier to get upon some subject which, 
 to begin with, appeals to the child nature. So frail and 
 wavering is the little child's power of continuous attention 
 that we need not be afraid that we can ever make work 
 ' too interesting,' if it be genuine work, i.e., energy devoted 
 to a definite object." 
 
 All education is self-activity, and play is the very best 
 means by which the child expresses himself, satisfies the 
 longing which every healthy child has to do something, 
 and gives vent to the animal spirit within him which is 
 likely to break out in some form of mischief unless properly 
 directed. Professor Withers further adds, "It is of great 
 importance, therefore, to bear in mind that, when we speak 
 of play at the kindergarten stage, we are not thinking of 
 play in antithesis to work, hut rather of play as the most 
 convenient name for the sum-total of self-activity in the 
 child. This self-activity resembles play, in that it is pur- 
 sued for its own sake and as the expression of inner impulse; 
 but it resembles work in so far as it is quite earnestly carried 
 on, and is the most strenuous form of action of which the 
 child is, at that stage, capable. 
 
 "When once the antithesis has arisen, and the child's 
 eyes are opened to know good and evil, then the child must 
 be accustomed from time to time, in gradually lengthening 
 periods, to attack the task with entire attention, and not 
 take its mind off until that task has been completed." 
 
 Play does not cease with Childhood. — It may be well 
 
 to state that the educative value of play does not cease 
 with childhood, though at this period it is of greatest im- 
 
PLAY AS AN EDUCATIONAL FACTOR 131 
 
 portance. If it is "the great telescope which lengthens 
 life and extends its vision," it may well be utilized even 
 till old age. It may be called "recreation," but it is the 
 same principle. Its purpose will be less to stimulate 
 growth, and it need not be so constant or occupy so large 
 a proportion of one's time, — the healthy adult should work 
 a large part of the time, — but it is needed for rest, for 
 change, for reviving the spirit, for the renewing of youth. 
 Hence a reasonable amount of recreation, particularly out 
 of doors with clean games, in society, with books intended 
 to amuse or entertain, is absolutely essential to all. The 
 devoting of a part of the time to holidays and half- holidays, 
 in which the people give themselves up to wholesome out- 
 of-door life and sport, not only conduces to health and 
 longevity, but also brightens life, adds to its happiness, 
 and fits for its more serious duties. Every life will be better 
 if some time is devoted to recreation, in which there is 
 utter freedom from the cares of business or household, 
 and in wliich the individual yields himself up pure enjoy- 
 ment. When he again engages in work it will be per- 
 formed with greater zest, and life will be made brighter 
 and better because of the interruption. Recreation gives 
 new courage to the spirit and recuperates the body. 
 
 Playthings. — Closely allied to play itself arc the imple- 
 ments employed in it, or playthings. They, too, have their 
 educational lesson. Professor Paulsen says, "It may 
 safely be stated that the real value of a playtliing is gener- 
 ally in inverse ratio to its cost." It is not the expensive 
 toy that pleases the child most by any means. The elegant 
 china doll that costs several dollars does not please the baby 
 
132 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 as much as the rag-baby that costs nothing, or the stuffed 
 cat or rabbit that costs only a few cents. The child loves 
 the plaything that it can handle and do with as it pleases. 
 Therefore it is foolish to spend large sums for the toys of 
 young children. A father purchased for his three-year- 
 old son a beautiful music box costing twenty-five dollars. 
 When the child was placed by the music box he would 
 turn the crank and produce music. One day he discovered 
 a nail- hole in the casing of the door, and he stuck the crank 
 into the hole and turned it with as much glee as when it 
 was inserted in the music box. The fact is, the only part 
 of the plaything that interested him was the crank, which 
 could have been bought for a cent. Doubtless at a later 
 period he might have appreciated the costly music box, 
 but at that time it was a total misfit. 
 
 The nurseries of many American homes are crowded 
 with toys, and the greatest evil is not the expense. Chil- 
 dren should learn to be unselfish, full of gratitude to 
 those who sacrifice for their happiness, and satisfied with 
 few things. There is nothing more beautiful in children 
 than genuine simplicity, which is perfectly natural with 
 them and should not be destroyed. Such lavishness in 
 gifts teaches children to expect everything they see, it 
 makes spendthrifts of them, and does not inculcate the 
 lesson of economy. The country boy is not accustomed 
 to many playthings. Many of them he must make for 
 himself. If he must get boards and saw out the runners 
 and other parts of his sled, if he must nail them together, and 
 fit some iron hoops that he has taken from an old barrel 
 upon the runners for shoes, he has an appreciation of the 
 result far greater than the boy whose father purchases him 
 
PLAY AS AN EDUCATIONAL FACTOR 133 
 
 a beautiful " Greyhound." He certainly gets just as much 
 fun out of it, and is far better off from having constructed 
 it himself. 
 
 "But what has this to do with the teacher and the 
 school?" may be asked. It must not be forgotten that 
 the whole duty of education is not committed to the school. 
 The home has its part to perform, and it should learn the 
 lesson herein taught. But the school also has something 
 to do with this question, for the "Schoolmaster is the high- 
 priest of the future." The school, more than any other 
 factor, is shaping the future, is laying the foundations of 
 future civilization, is forming the ideals that are to govern 
 the world. Hence the school should raise its voice for sim- 
 plicity, for economy, for unselfishness, for gratitude, thank- 
 fulness, and sincere appreciation ; and in teaching simplicity 
 in the instruments of play, it is inculcating some of the very 
 fundamentals of morality and forming right ideals. 
 
 Play and playthings, therefore, are most important edu- 
 cational agencies, wliich should be employed for the phys- 
 ical, intellectual, and moral development of the child. And 
 there are no other agencies that can wholly take their place 
 in this great work. 
 
 Summary 
 
 I. Play is activity or effort that finds its end within itself; 
 work finds its end outside of itself Play should be utilized 
 in developing certain educational features that cannot be 
 taught in the regular school exercises, while it fortifies other 
 lessons that can be taught in the school. Recreation is 
 essential to the well-being of adults as well as children. Play- 
 things should be few in number and inexpensive. 
 
134 ELEMMNTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 II. The object of play in connection with education is to 
 utilize fhe natural activity of the child so as gradually to 
 lead him to the power of concentration and self-direction as 
 exemplified in work. The interest of play must be found in 
 the activity itself rather than i?i something external. Such 
 plays should be encouraged as develop strength, agility, 
 alertness, judgment, decision, accuracy, generosity, unself- 
 ishness, and the spirit of fairness. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 HABITS AND THEIR FORMATION 
 
 References. — • White, School Management; MacCunn, The 
 Making of Character; Coler, Character Building; Smith, System- 
 atic Methodology; Patrick, Elements of Pedagogics; MacVicar, 
 Principles of Education; Spencer, Education; Shearer, Morals and 
 Manners; Adler, The Moral Instruction of Children. 
 
 Habits and their Formation. — The character of a per- 
 son is shown by the fixed habits he possesses. If the 
 habits are good, the character is good ; if the habits are bad, 
 the character is bad. Most of the activities of Hfe are con- 
 trolled by habit, and he that is established in his habits is 
 good or bad according to the nature of those habits. The 
 individual may be relied upon just in proportion to the 
 fixedness of his habits. Is he habitually punctual, truth- 
 ful, honest, polite, men who have dealings with him recog- 
 nize these qualities and are able to depend upon him. 
 Hence the importance of definite, consistent, well-directed, 
 and persistent effort on the part of the educator in training 
 the child to possess good habits. Every function of the 
 school — the thoroughness with which the lessons are 
 taught, the steady and wise carrying out of disciplinary 
 measures, the leading into good conduct, the whole relation- 
 ship between teacher and pupil — should aim to form and 
 establish good habits. 
 
 Rosenkranz says,^ "Education seeks to transform every 
 particular condition so that it shall no longer seem strange 
 
 * "Philosophy of Education," p. 30. 
 135 
 
136 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 to the mind or in any wise foreign to its nature. This 
 identity of the feeling of self with the special character of 
 anything done or endeavored by it, we call habit (Gewohn- 
 heit — customary activity, habitual conduct, or behavior. 
 Character is a 'bundle of habits'). It conditions formally 
 all progress; for that which is not yet become a habit, but 
 which we perform with design and an exercise of our 
 will, is not yet a part of ourselves," 
 
 What is Habit? — Habit may be defined as the tendency 
 to repeat the same act in the same way without conscious 
 reflection. The most of the acts of life are controlled by 
 habit. This is true in our physical, intellectual, moral, 
 and spiritual activities, as a moment's reflection will show. 
 
 I. Physical Habits. — We learn to stand upright, to 
 place one foot before the other, to walk as a matter of habit. 
 Any change in gait, as when one is trained to march as a 
 soldier, or when one walks on the deck of a rolling ship, 
 or when one attempts to keep step with another who takes 
 unusual strides — long or short — occasions discomfort 
 until one becomes accustomed to the change, forms a new 
 habit. The steps of a staircase are usually constructed 
 about eight inches in height, and we ascend and descend 
 with comfort; but let the height be changed and we stumble 
 and are more easily wearied. An illustration of the effect 
 of peculiar stairs is found in ascending the leaning tower 
 of Pisa. As one circles the upper side of the tower, one 
 passes from stair to stair without really ascending, while 
 on the lower side the ascent becomes the more pronounced 
 owing to the peculiar situation created by the leaning of the 
 structure. The stairs were all made originally of the 
 
HABITS AND THEIR FORMATION 137 
 
 same height, but the settHng of the tower on one side caused 
 the curious effect described. 
 
 Eating also becomes a physical habit. The carrying of 
 the food to the mouth, the use of table implements, the 
 following of stated times for meals are habits. One of 
 the most important lessons that mothers must teach their 
 children is to expect their food at regular periods. When 
 the time comes for the meal we are inconvenienced if there 
 is delay, not so much because we are in need of food as 
 because the regular habit is being infringed upon. Chil- 
 dren are also trained to regularity in sleep, and the adult 
 becomes accustomed to rise at a certain hour. If the 
 necessities of his vocation demand, a man can acquire the 
 habit of awakening at any hour of the night or day without 
 much inconvenience. 
 
 Very much of the comfort and happiness, as well as the 
 usefulness of life, depends upon the possession of right 
 physical habits, and it is certain that good health is largely 
 dependent upon them. A good example of the acquirement 
 of physical habits and their effect upon character, is found 
 in the soldier. A new recruit enters the army, crooked and 
 bent from the hardship of farm or shop life. He is drilled 
 in all the details of walking, carrying the body firm and 
 erect, handling his gun, keeping his clothing and accou- 
 trements in perfect order, and in all the requirements ol 
 military duty. He is closely inspected and punished foi 
 infractions of rules in all of these respects. He is trained 
 to march and perform the various military evolutions a1 
 sharp word of command, and he may not choose what he 
 will do, but must obey promptly and implicitly. What is 
 the result of this training? Good physical habits art 
 
138 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 formed, and the slouching, uncouth, awkward recruit 
 learns to carry himself like a gentleman. The effect upon 
 his moral life is also marked, for in learning control of his 
 body he gains in that self-respect which is essential to 
 moral living. It is the acquirement of right habits that 
 has wrought the transformation, and he has received the 
 kind of training that was needed in his educational develop- 
 ment. 
 
 2. Intellectual Habits. — Keenness of observation, accu- 
 racy of comprehension followed by the power of accurate 
 statement, vividness and richness of imagination, logical 
 order in thinking, may become habit. Indeed, the pur- 
 pose of intellectual training is to secure these habits. The 
 child learns to read, to pronounce distinctly, to enunciate 
 sounds and syllables, to give proper inflections and modu- 
 lations, to grasp meanings as a matter of habit. He cannot 
 become a good reader until these things are habitual. 
 Just so in writing, the child becomes so habituated to the 
 forming of letters and words that he no longer thinks of 
 the pen, ink, and paper, he writes unconsciously, that is, 
 from habit. The skilled accountant runs up the long 
 columns of figures without a thought of them, and the 
 child must be drilled in arithmetical work until the relations 
 of numbers become so familiar to him that he does not 
 have to stop and think them out. Certainly not, so far as 
 the simpler combinations are concerned. The study of 
 history has but little value if it does not train to habits of 
 research, of weighing events to determine their importance 
 in the development of civilization, and of noting the effects of 
 the deeds of men and of events in shaping human destiny. 
 And literature fails of its purpose if it does not create a 
 
HABITS AND THEIR FORMATION 139 
 
 taste and establish a love for the good and pure things that 
 men have written. The purpose of each and every study 
 in the curriculum, from nature study in the primary class 
 to higher mathematics, language, literature, history, and 
 science in the most advanced university work, is to estab- 
 lish correct intellectual habits. 
 
 Even memory, so often neglected in modern methods 
 of instruction and school requirements, should be trained 
 so that committing accurately poems, texts, and formulas 
 may become easy because memorizing has become a fixed 
 habit. 
 
 3. Moral Habits. — It is surely the business of the 
 school to inculcate those moral habits in the pupils which 
 are so essential to well-ordered and successful life. Pro- 
 vided moral balance has not been established, the indi^id- 
 ual not only fails to attain an ideal education, but he also 
 becomes positively dangerous to society, the more danger- 
 ous because of the keenness of intellect which makes him 
 the more acute in wrong-doing and escaping punish- 
 ment. Proper intellectual culture is also moral culture, 
 for the marvel of beauty, symmetry, and perfection of 
 God's handiwork as revealed in nature study, the exact- 
 ness of mathematics and science, the unfolding of the 
 facts of liistory, and the study of pure literature, cannot 
 fail to exert a wonderful moral influence upon the child, 
 if the teacher is alive to his opportunity. So, too, the very 
 thoroughness required in study, and the perseverance 
 demanded of the pupil in mastering tasks, must have a 
 moral bearing. 
 
 But there are abundant opportunities for instilling moral 
 ideas and establishing moral habits in the daily routine 
 
I40 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 of school duties, and in the exercise of discipline. Punctu- 
 ality and regularity of attendance, neatness in schoolwork, 
 tidiness of person, promptness in obedience and in the 
 discharge of duty, faithfulness in meeting school require- 
 ments, honesty in the attitude towards tasks imposed, 
 such as, examinations, tests, daily work, etc., consideration 
 for the rights of others, both in the schoolroom and on the 
 playground, regard for public property, and respect for 
 law, are among the many moral lessons that the school 
 should teach. In many homes there is neither the ability 
 nor the inclination to teach these important lessons; there- 
 fore not only a great responsibility, but also a boundless 
 opportunity, is afforded the school to train children into 
 abiding and well-ordered moral habits. 
 
 " Sow a thought and reap a deed, 
 Sow a deed and reap a habit, 
 Sow a habit and reap character, 
 Sow character and reap destiny." 
 
 4. Religious Habits. — There are certain habits that 
 may be classed as religious, such as, regular church attend- 
 ance, reading the scriptures, stated hours of devotion, 
 reflection upon spiritual themes, and a recognition of 
 God's providences and acts of mercy. The mother who 
 teaches her young child to kneel at his bedside and repeat 
 a little prayer each night before he goes to sleep is forming 
 a habit that is likely to influence his whole life. He may 
 not understand the meaning of the words he utters, or 
 comprehend why he does it, but it is of untold importance 
 in that it early teaches him to love and obey God, in whom 
 he lives, moves, and has his being. Such a habit, early 
 
BABITS AND THEIR FORMATION 141 
 
 formed, often clings to a person all his life, and proves a 
 restraint as well as a blessing. It often lays the founda- 
 tion for the consecration of self when the maturer years of 
 understanding are reached. 
 
 Requiring children to attend upon and participate in 
 the ordinances of the church, forms a religious habit that 
 they are not likely to break away from in later life. Such 
 habits also act as safeguards in the hour of temptation; 
 indeed, they will save from many temptations. Reading 
 from God's Word and reflection upon it may become so 
 much a habit as not only to influence the thought, but also 
 to mold the life of the individual. The old-time practice 
 of daily taking down the family Bible, reading a chapter 
 therefrom, and kneeling in prayer, — parents, children, and 
 the whole household, bowing in humble devotion while the 
 father lifted a petition to the eternal throne, — was an edu- 
 cational means for which no substitute has been found, and 
 the effects of which are not lost during a whole lifetime. 
 Through this means, through the Sunday school, through 
 church attendance, through committing texts of scripture, 
 and through the contemplation of God's goodness, habits 
 of thought are formed that are likely to influence the des- 
 tiny of the child so trained, and to lead him to a life of 
 benevolence and usefulness. 
 
 The whole child must be educated ; and therefore, while 
 we establish his physical, intellectual, and moral habits, 
 we must also find means somehow and somewhere to 
 complete the ideal of perfect manhood and train the reli- 
 gious side also- Upon this last point we shall enter into 
 further discussion in another chapter. 
 
142 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 Choice of Habits. — Thus far we have considered habits 
 whose formation is largely under the direction of another 
 person, — a parent or a teacher. If this work has been 
 well done in early life, it is likely that permanent good 
 habits will be chosen in later life. But there comes a 
 period of definite personal choice, when the individual 
 must decide for himself whether he will form this habit 
 and reject that. The boy sees his father and other men 
 using tobacco, and decides that he will learn to use it. 
 He doubtless tliinks it manly, and this is the motive that 
 influences him, for certainly it is not pleasant for him in 
 the beginning. Quite early in life, before he has contracted 
 the habit, he should be taught the evil effect of tobacco upon 
 a growing boy, first upon his physical being, and later, as 
 an inevitable consequence, upon his moral nature. Care- 
 ful and exhaustive studies show that the tobacco habit with 
 boys not only destroys their physical health and their 
 intellectual power, but also their moral sensibilities. It is 
 folly to tell him that the use of tobacco in itself is wicked, 
 for it is not true. Moreover, his father, perhaps, and many 
 good men whom he loves and respects, who have his confi- 
 dence, and who, he believes, would not willingly do wrong, 
 use it. Why should he not follow their example ? For the 
 simple reason that it would surely harm him, and does 
 not harm them. There are many things that a man may 
 do that a child may not do, and the sooner this lesson is 
 impressed upon the child the better. The father may sit 
 up late nights, belong to a club, engage in many enter- 
 prises that are perfectly proper, but would not be proper 
 for his son until he too is a man. This does not mean that 
 the parent may be indifferent as to his example before his 
 
HABITS AND THEIR FORMATION 143 
 
 children. Far from it; but it simply means that a practice 
 of the parent, which in itself is not wrong, may not be in- 
 dulged in by the child if harmful to him, on the ground 
 that his p^.rent indulges in it. 
 
 A perfectly frank and clear explanation of this distinc- 
 tion should be made by the father to his son. A German 
 father, a minister of the gospel, called his seventeen-year- 
 old son to him one day, and said, "Fritz, I hear that you 
 are beginning to smoke. Is it true?" "Yes," responded 
 the son. "Now, my boy," continued the father, "you 
 are still too young to acquire the habit of smoking. You 
 have not yet attained your growth, and I want you to wait 
 two or three years longer. It will be harmful to you now." 
 "Very well, father," replied the boy, and that was the end 
 of his smoking at that time. The father did not think it 
 necessary to apologize for using tobacco himself, or hold 
 himself up as a warning or example of the evil of tobacco; 
 for he was an inveterate smoker; it did not occur to either 
 that the boy had a right to do a thing because the man did 
 it. The use of tobacco per se was not condemned, it was 
 simply shown to be bad for a growing boy. That confi- 
 dence between father and son should exist which will 
 enable the former to advise frankly, and the latter to accept 
 such advice without stopping to question its wisdom. 
 
 The child should be shown the right and wrong of an 
 act, and then be encouraged to choose for himself, especially 
 as he approaches maturity. The father cannot always be 
 with the son, and therefore he must be trained to make 
 proper choice. Dr. McClure touches upon this point very 
 forcibly in speaking of the life of Joshua under the text, 
 "Choose ye this day whom ye will serve." He says,^ "As 
 
 * "The Voluntary Adoption of Good Habits." 
 
144 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 Joshua became aware of his approaching death, there 
 appears to have come to him the reahzation of a new idea. 
 It was this, that it mattered not how good the habits of the 
 people then were, the permanent value of those habits, for 
 themselves and their children, largely lay in their conscious 
 and voluntary adoption of those habits, if possible, through 
 some form alact. He seems to have become convinced 
 that unless he could bring the people to face the moral 
 issues involved in their good habits and then persuade 
 them to adopt anew, or adopt for the first time, by a dis- 
 tinct act of choice, those good habits would not be a very 
 portion of their being, and consequently would not have a 
 lasting control over them. To Joshua the supreme benefit 
 of a good moral habit was in its intelligent adoption by the 
 person for himself. Physical habits formed unconsciously 
 have little, if any, tendency to change: the person who is 
 left-handed, or the person who is right-handed, need have 
 no anxiety about a change in the habit of using his hand. 
 The left-handed man will continue to be left-handed whether 
 he continues to reside in his birthplace, or moves into an 
 entirely different environment; the right-handed man will 
 be right-handed at forty years of age as well as at twenty. 
 Physical habits once practiced for a considerable time are 
 not subject to unconscious change. 
 
 " But moral habits are subject to change. If those moral 
 habits are superficial, touching only the outward features 
 of our lives, they may be put off as easily as we put off 
 a garment when we come into a different atmosphere. They 
 may even slide off, as a cloak slides off when the air gradu- 
 ally becomes warmer and the cloak becomes loosened little 
 by little. Superficial moral habits sometimes glide away 
 
HABITS AND THEIR FORMATION 145 
 
 from a man or youth almost before he is aware that they 
 are gone — and only some new experience, or forced con- 
 trast of his present with past conduct, makes him aware that 
 his habits have left him. 
 
 "Moral habits to be permanent must be a part of one's 
 inner self. They must be a man's very being, so that they 
 go with him where he goes, and stay with him where he 
 stays. This can only be through a voluntary adoption of 
 such habits; the intelligence must consider them and be- 
 lieve in their value, and then the will must engage to do 
 them. Thus they become inworked into the interior life. 
 When this is done they are no longer like a cloak, they are 
 rather like our life-blood, an abiding and constituent ele- 
 ment of our being." 
 
 Further he adds, "Yes, good habits are a benefit. They 
 are always to be taught as such. Blessed is the child who 
 has had them about him from infancy up; they put him in 
 a safe atmosphere, and hold him back from many injurious 
 surroundings. But a human life is not like a twig or a 
 stream. Bend the twig, and the tree grows as an exterior 
 force has determined. Start the stream from the summit of 
 the Rocky Mountains toward the Atlantic or toward the 
 Pacific, and you may be sure what the trend of its whole 
 course will be. But it is not so with human life. 'Choice' 
 comes in — a factor that neither twig nor stream can know. 
 Solomon may be wtII trained in boyhood, and still go to 
 pieces in maturity. Africaner may be hurtfully trained 
 in boyhood, and still reach a splendid character in matu- 
 rity. And all because of this wonderful power that we 
 name 'the power of the will,' whereby we choose and deter- 
 mine whether the old habits shall hold us." 
 
146 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 It is not enough that the child shall be trained to good 
 habits. This is external. He must be brought "to a 
 personal adoption of good habits by a clear, decisive, ever- 
 lasting choice of his own; and the child must realize 
 that beyond all he has ever heard concerning the benefit 
 of temperance, integrity, self-control, he is called upon 
 to choose for himself what his habits of life shall be with 
 reference to these virtues. 
 
 "Here there are two elements: one the necessity for in- 
 formation, and the other the necessity for choice. Joshua 
 made the people see what was involved in choice — a clear- 
 cut separation of themselves from hurtful things ; and then 
 he said, 'Choose, choose, choose,' and when a choice has 
 been made to record it in some open pledge that the world 
 may know the stand taken, and that the individual himself 
 may feel that a final decision has been made and duly 
 recorded." 
 
 There must be first instruction as to the nature of the 
 habit to be formed, its meaning and consequences, and 
 then the child should be led to form it of his own free choice. 
 And this instruction and this choice should be brought 
 about early in life before evil habits are yet in possession 
 and while the child is yet plastic and easily molded. 
 
 It has been said that "Habits are built into the reflex 
 nervous system by the will; but we have to rid ourselves 
 of many habits; this, too, is the work of the will; but it is 
 harder to unlearn than to learn a habit, for the will has to 
 contend with the inherent tendency to repeat what it has 
 once done. Here is seen the value of education; the edu- 
 cated man can see reasons for unlearning a bad habit, or 
 acquiring a new one, — reasons that may powerfully influ- 
 
HABITS AND THEIR FORMATION I47 
 
 ence his will. Life consists in action; to live aright we 
 must have good habits, for habits direct our acts. Teachers 
 well know they can do much more for the pupil who has 
 good habits; that is, good home training to start with. A 
 vast number are under bondage to habit, few are free men. 
 . . . Some lie simply from habit; many are truthful from 
 habit ; as we are what we are more from training than from 
 education, the wise teacher is always training into good 
 habits or training out bad ones; he who simply presents a 
 fact is a poor teacher." 
 
 The Changing of Habits. — In order successfully to 
 eradicate a bad habit it must be supplanted by a good one. 
 Thus the habit of laziness is changed to one of diligence by 
 introducing those activities that interest the child; that of 
 lying to the habit of truthfulness by showing the beauty of 
 truth and the sin of lying, and following this by encourag- 
 ing the telling of truth; that of slovenliness to that of neat- 
 ness and cleanliness by furnishing examples of cleanly 
 children and extolling the merit of cleanly habits; tardi- 
 ness and irregularity are to be supplanted by punctuality 
 and regularity, by showing the evil to the individual, as 
 well as the interference with the rights of others as the 
 result of these evils, and by making these virtues an essen- 
 tial requirement of school life; the habit of generosity and 
 thoughtfulness for others in place of selfishness through 
 exhibiting the blessedness and joy of service, and of giving 
 without expectation of recompense. And so all the vices 
 should be supplanted by corresponding virtues, and in this 
 way riglit habits may be established and wrong ones eradi- 
 cated. 
 
148 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 Every child is strongly influenced in his habits by his 
 comrades and his environment. When it becomes clear 
 that a child is not amenable to the influences that form 
 good habits and good character, that he is a danger to 
 others, he must be removed from contact with them, else 
 he may be instrumental in establishing evil habits in those 
 who are innocent. Smith remarks, "A habit is established 
 by repeatedly performing an act, and it is destroyed by 
 refraining from the performance of the act. In no other 
 way can a habit be established, and in no other way can 
 a habit that has been formed be removed." It may 
 be added that great assistance is rendered to one who 
 is endeavoring to rid himself of evil habits by leading him 
 to abandon the associations that foster those habits, and 
 by substituting other associations that foster opposite 
 habits. Thus the inebriate must abandon the saloon and 
 the company of other inebriates and seek the influence of 
 the temperance society and the church, and of sober people. 
 There is little hope of permanent reform unless the bad 
 habits are supplanted by corresponding good ones. 
 
 In the early part of this chapter the general kinds of 
 habits — physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual — were 
 treated. " Education deals altogether with the formation 
 of habits. For it aims to make some condition or form of 
 activity into a second nature for the pupil. But this in- 
 volves, also, the breaking up of previous habits. This 
 power to break up habits, as well as to form them, is neces- 
 sary to the freedom of the individual." ^ Since the forma- 
 tion of habits is so important to education, it may be profit- 
 able to consider the fundamental habit of obedience. 
 
 ' Dr. Harris. Note in Rosenkranz' " Philosophy of Education," p. 35. 
 
HABITS AND THEIR FORMATION 149 
 
 Obedience. — The child should be educated to implicit, 
 unquestioning obedience from the outset. The parent first 
 of all, and later the teacher, owes it to the child to teach 
 him this lesson because so much of his happiness and use- 
 fulness as an individual depends upon it. When this 
 habit has been formed, parental and school discipline will be 
 reduced to a minimum. The question naturally arises, 
 How early should its formation begin? When should the 
 parent expect the child to obey ? For surely the lesson must 
 be learned long before the child goes to school. In general 
 it may be said that the formation of the habit of obedience 
 should begin as soon as the child is able to understand 
 what is required of him, and this is when he is only a few 
 months old. A concrete example will illustrate the point. 
 A young father was brought face to face with the problem 
 of securing obedience from his eighteen-months-old boy. 
 He assured himself thoroughly that the child understood 
 what was required of him, and that an act of his was a 
 clear case of disobedience. He punished the boy until 
 complete submission was secured, although it required 
 fully half an hour before the child yielded. He believed that 
 this was the first step towards the formation of the habit 
 of obedience which would only need be followed by steady 
 and firm treatment. I met that father sixteen years later, 
 and inquired as to the success of the form of discipline 
 which he so early inaugurated. He replied that from the 
 time of the first struggle in which the child was brought 
 to obedience till that time, when he was nearly eighteen 
 years old and about to enter college, he had never offered 
 any serious resistance to parental discipline. He also said 
 that the same plan had been followed with his three younger 
 children with a similar result. 
 
150 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 There is no doubt that the formation of the habit in 
 children of implicit obedience early in life would save parents 
 many hours of anxiety and doubt, and would also guarantee 
 to the children themselves a greater degree of real happi- 
 ness and freedom. It is natural that the parent should 
 exercise authority and that the child should obey, and the 
 same is the true relation between teacher and pupil. The 
 child, being weak, must rely upon one who is strong, and 
 this is true in the intellectual as well as in the physical 
 world. And this reliance, this obedience, must be confid- 
 ing, unquestioning, absolute. The child must obey because 
 one who is wiser, stronger, older, and possesses authority 
 gives the command. Such command need not be harsh 
 and must not be unreasonable. The reason need not be 
 given to the child until he is old enough to comprehend it. 
 It destroys discipline to allow the child to stop and argue. 
 When he is old enough to comprehend the reason it may 
 be given him, but it will hardly be necessary if the early 
 training has inspired confidence in the wisdom, justice, and 
 love of the parent. "Charles (four years old) does not 
 know why he should obey me any more than I should obey 
 him," said a father to me. I have watched that boy for 
 the past ten years since that time, and he has given his 
 father a great deal of trouble simply because he had not 
 been taught at the outset the law of obedience. 
 
 The great lesson of divine government is obedience, and 
 the better that lesson is learned, the more confidence is 
 there in the Father's everlasting love and kindness. "Hath 
 the Lord as great delight in burnt offerings and sacrifices, 
 as in obeying the voice of the Lord? Behold, to obey is 
 better than sacrifice, and to hearken, than the fat of rams," 
 
HABITS AND THEIR FORMATION 151 
 
 is the rebuke of the prophet Samuel to Saul when the 
 latter excused his disobedience on the ground that the 
 spoils of war, saved contrary to divine command, were to 
 be offered as sacrifices. And the parent, in his relation to 
 his children, stands as the representative of Jehovah. 
 
 Instead of destroying the independence, the spirit of 
 freedom, which Americans love to inculcate in their children, 
 it gives them true ideas of freedom, — the freedom that 
 respects the rights of others; that submits to the necessary 
 regulations of the family and the school, and to the laws 
 of the state; that finds its highest ideals met by submission 
 to rightful authority; that expresses itself through perfect 
 self-control. The man who disobeys the laws of the State 
 and becomes a criminal, is outside of the law, or an out- 
 law. He must be deprived of his freedom because he fails 
 to comply with the laws of society. Even if he is not incar- 
 cerated in jail, he is not free, because he is in constant fear 
 of the vengeance of the law, and in dread of apprehension 
 by its officers. Thus he is never free. But he who lives 
 in obedience to law is free indeed. No policeman watches 
 his domicile, and no detective dogs his footsteps. Greatest 
 freedom, therefore, is enjoyed by those who live within the 
 letter and the spirit of the law. This is as true with the 
 child in the home, the pupil in the school, who obeys 
 the necessary regulations, as it is with the citizen under the 
 laws of the state. Obedience to constituted authority 
 alone gives true freedom, and therefore, in training the 
 child to the habit of obedience, he is being prepared for 
 his most precious birthright of American citizenship. It 
 is the lack of this training in early life that is responsible 
 for the growing disrespect for law and disregard for authority 
 
152 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 which may well awaken alarm in the heart of every patriot. 
 And the only way to correct these tendencies is by early 
 implanting the habit of obedience. 
 
 With the fundamental habit of obedience thoroughly 
 established, the fixing of other right habits in the home and 
 in the school becomes a natural and an easy matter. For 
 the child is ready to heed the admonitions against habits 
 that are evil, and follow directions concerning those that 
 are good. Without the habit of obedience there is no cer- 
 tainty that other good habits will be formed. 
 
 Punishment, — Some form of corrective means must 
 at times be resorted to in securing the habit of obedience 
 and of other habits. Hence a discussion of punishment 
 must be connected with this theme. "Punishment," says 
 Rosenkranz/ "as an educational means is, nevertheless, 
 essentially corrective, since, by leading the youth to a 
 proper estimation of his fault and a positive change in his 
 behavior, it seeks to improve him." By punishment we 
 mean a penalty imposed by some one in authority as a 
 consequence of some wrong done. It must not be lightly 
 or thoughtlessly inflicted. " Only when all other efforts have 
 failed is punishment, which is the real negation of the error, 
 the transgression, the vice, justifiable. Punishment inten- 
 tionally inflicts pain on the pupil, and its object is, by means 
 of this sensation, to bring him to reason, — a result which 
 neither our simple prohibition, our explanation, nor our 
 threat of punishment, has been able to reach." ^ 
 
 It must not be forgotten that the purpose of punishment 
 in the school is quite different from that of the State. In 
 the State the object of punishment is to satisfy justice, to 
 
 1 'Thilosophy of Education," j). 39. " Ibid., p. 38. 
 
HABITS AND THEIR FORMATION 153 
 
 serve as a warning, to act as a restraint upon others, to be 
 retributive. The State deals with those who have arrived 
 at the age of personal accountability, and it holds them 
 answerable for their acts. Such attitude on the part of the 
 State is necessary in order to secure a wholesome respect 
 for law, and in order to prevent crime. In the home and 
 the school, however, the transgressor is immature, and 
 largely irresponsible for his deeds, and therefore the object 
 of punishment is corrective and reformatory rather than 
 retributive. The State also acts in this spirit in dealing 
 with its juvenile criminals in that it sends them to reforma- 
 tories instead of prisons. It must be said that the recent 
 tendency in prison methods, even with adult criminals, is 
 to seek their reform as well as to satisfy justice. 
 
 This leads us to say in the next place that punishment 
 in the case of children should be individual rather than 
 serve as an example for others. What is for the good of 
 the individual child for a particular offense, the nature of 
 which is clearly understood by him, is the problem, and 
 his individual offense should be in mind in the punishment 
 inflicted. Doubtless others will be restrained by the knowl- 
 edge that such punishment has been inflicted, but the effect 
 upon them should not enter into the consideration. Again, 
 it will be noticed that this is an entirely different motive 
 from that which must control the State in dealing with its 
 mature offenders. The motives of the child, his home 
 training, his environment, his temperament, the tempta- 
 tions that have beset him, the circumstances connected 
 with the wrong, must all be taken into account. It must 
 never be forgotten that he is a cliild. He must be treated 
 with a view to his reformation and the formation of the 
 
154 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 habit of right action and obedience to law. The teacher 
 must have no fixed penalties for given offenses, as in the case 
 of the State, but must consider each individual case, tak- 
 ing into account the considerations above enumerated, and 
 then administer such punishment as will meet the partic- 
 ular case in hand. The State, with certain limitations 
 within the discretion of its courts, fixes the penalties fo^ 
 each crime. The school cannot do this because the pur- 
 pose of its punishments is so essentially different, as has 
 been shown, and because it deals with immature beings. 
 
 Again, the punishment with children should, as far as 
 possible, he the natural sequence of the offense. This prin- 
 ciple was laid down by Basil the Great in the fourth cen- 
 tury, by Rousseau in his theory of training Emile, and 
 emphasized by Herbert Spencer. Mr. Spencer discusses 
 this point as follows:^ "When a child falls, or runs its head 
 against the table, it suffers a pain, the remembrance of 
 which tends to make it more careful in the future; and by 
 an occasional repetition of like experiences, it is disciplined 
 into a proper guidance of its movements. If it lays hold of 
 the fire-bars, thrusts its finger into the candle-flame, or 
 spills boiling water on any part of its skin, the resulting 
 burn or scald is a lesson not easily forgotten. So deep 
 an impression is produced by one or two such events, that 
 afterward no persuasion will induce it again to disregard 
 the laws of its constitution in these ways. 
 
 "Now in these and like cases. Nature illustrates to us 
 the simplest way, the true theory and practice of moral 
 discipline.^ . . . Observe, in the first place, that in bodily 
 
 * "Education," p. 172. 
 
 ^ The discussion is too long for these pages and I can only quote excerpts. 
 The reader is advised to study the whole passage in Spencer's "Education." 
 
HABITS AND THEIR FORMATION 155 
 
 injuries and their penalties we have misconduct and its 
 consequences reduced to their simplest forms. Though, 
 according to their popular acceptations, right and wrong 
 are words scarcely applicable to actions that have none 
 but direct bodily effects; yet whoever considers the matter 
 will see that such actions must be as much classifiable 
 under these heads as any other actions. . . . Note, in the 
 second place, the character of the punishments by which 
 these physical transgressions are prevented. Punishments, 
 we call them, in the absence of a better word; for they are 
 not punishments in a literal sense. They are not artificial 
 and unnecessary inflictions of pain, but are the beneficent 
 checks to actions that are essentially at variance with bodily 
 welfare — checks in the absence of which life would be 
 quickly destroyed by bodily injuries. It is the peculiarity 
 of these penalties, if we must so call them, that they are 
 nothing more than the unavoidable consequences of the 
 deeds which they follow: they are nothing more than tlie 
 inevitable relations entailed by the child's actions. 
 
 "Is it not manifest that as 'ministers and interpreters of 
 Nature,' it is the function of parents to see that their 
 children habitually experience the true consequences of 
 their conduct — the natural reactions ; neither warding 
 them off, nor intensifying them, nor puttmg artificial con- 
 sequences in place of them?" 
 
 As to the effect of this method the author further adds, 
 "Among the advantages of this method we see — First, 
 that it gives that rational comprehension of right and 
 wrong conduct which results from actual experience of the 
 good and bad consequences caused by them. Second, 
 that the child suffering nothing more than the painful 
 
156 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 effects brought upon it by its own wrong actions, must 
 recognize more or less clearly the justice of the penalties. 
 Third, that, recognizing the justice of the penalties, and 
 receiving those penalties through the workings of things, 
 rather than at the hands of an individual, its temper will 
 be less disturbed; while the parent occupying the com- 
 paratively passive position of taking care that the natural 
 penalties are felt, will preserve a comparative equanimity. 
 And fourth, that mutual exasperation being thus in a 
 great measure prevented, a much happier, and a more 
 influential state of feeling will exist between parent and 
 child." 
 
 As the teacher in a large measure stands in the place of 
 the parent, it will not be difficult to apply the same line of 
 reasoning to the punishments of the school. If the general 
 principles above outlined are followed, school punishment 
 will be reduced to a minimum. Rosenkranz, in speaking 
 of the kinds of punishment, says,^ ''Generally speaking, 
 we must take into consideration the sex and age: (i) some 
 kind of corporal punishment is most suitable for children, 
 (2) isolation for older boys and girls, and (3) punishment 
 based on the sense of honor for young men and women." 
 
 The strong tendency of modern times is to abolish cor- 
 poral punishment from the schools, and many states have 
 enacted laws forbidding it. There is no question that this 
 tendency has had a most humanizing influence upon the 
 schools. The old-time brutality that characterized the 
 schools has gone forever. It is certain that the teacher 
 who cannot control a school without frequent resort to 
 severe discipline is lacking in the most essential requisite 
 
 * "Philosophy of Education," p. 40. 
 
HABITS AND THEIR FORMATION 157 
 
 of the good disciplinarian. The best discipline is that 
 which remains in the background, which controls without 
 noise or friction, and in which the pupils quietly and 
 almost unconsciously govern themselves. That children 
 can be accustomed to this kind of self-government is beyond 
 question. When frequent punishments must be resorted 
 to, whatever be their nature, the supreme end of school 
 government has not been attained. When the pupils have 
 learned to obey and to exercise self-control and self-govern- 
 ment, and when this has become a habit, the end of disci- 
 pline has been reached and the teacher can devote himself 
 to the real purpose of the school, that of instruction. 
 
 Summary 
 
 I. Habit is the tendency to repeat an act in the same way 
 without conscious reflection. The character of the indi- 
 vidual is outwardly exhibited by the nature of his habits; 
 hence it is the function of education to superintend the 
 formation of the chiUVs habits. Bad habits, to be effectu- 
 ally eradicated, must be supplanted by good ones. As the 
 child becomes mature he should first be taught the nature of 
 a habit, and then encouraged to choose right ones. 
 
 II. Obedience is a fundamental habit which should be 
 formed early in life. It is the natural relation between 
 parent and offspring, teacher and pupil, and is necessary to 
 the real happiness and genuine freedom of the child. Prop- 
 erly inculcated in the home, the school, and the State, it 
 secures that respect for law which is essential to patriotic 
 citizenship. 
 
158 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 III. Punishment is a penalty imposed by some one in 
 authority as a consequence of a wrong act. With children 
 it should be corrective and reformatory rather than retribu- 
 tive, individual rather than as an example for others, and it 
 should be the natural sequence of the ojjense. Its ultimate 
 purpose is to establish the habit of self-control, and self- 
 direction. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 EDUCATIONAL LIMITATIONS 
 
 References. — Smith, Walks and Talks; Harden, Pushing to 
 the Front; Helen Keller, Story of My Life; Shearer, Morals and 
 Manners; Lamson, Laura Bridgnian; Seeley, Foundations of Edu- 
 cation; Barhe, Going to College. 
 
 Education is Emancipation. — The process of educa- 
 tion is a process of emancipation. The normal child is 
 born into the world entirely ignorant of its wonders, its 
 beauties, and the vast field of knowledge it embraces. 
 But he possesses the capacity to learn, not everything it 
 is true, but many things, and therefore marvelous possi- 
 bilities lie before him. He has no knowledge to begin 
 with, and is weak and powerless; and yet, in a few years a 
 world of knowledge may be mastered by him, and the 
 forces of the whole realm of nature may be subject to his 
 command. What a measureless expanse lies between the 
 helpless infant just opening his eyes upon a great world, 
 and a Bacon, a Newton, a Gladstone, an Aristotle! The 
 child is in the bondage of ignorance, and every act of curi- 
 osity, every exercise of hand, foot, or mind, every ques- 
 tion asked, every impulse expressed is a struggle toward 
 freedom from that bondage. For intelligence is freedom, 
 and he who is in the bonds of ignorance is a slave indeed. 
 
 The education of every child must start with the pre- 
 sumption that he possesses capacity. No device of teach- 
 ing, no well-conceived method, no arrangement of the 
 educative material, no zeal, or wisdom, or skill, or enthu- 
 
 159 
 
l6o ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 siasm on the part of the teacher can avail if the pupil does 
 not possess the capacity to learn. Dr. Marble writes, 
 "There is a presumption at the start that the child has 
 brains. It is safe, also, to assume that he has used that 
 organ to some extent, and in more directions than one, 
 before coming to school; and he must be compelled to use 
 it again, and to use it constantly. This presumption will 
 enable the teacher to skip many of the methods and to 
 lighten and shorten the work." He speaks of the various 
 methods employed, and adds, "I am not objecting to these 
 ingenious methods at the beginning; but they ought to be 
 dropped at the earliest possible moment, so that the child 
 may be compelled to employ his own activity — to use his 
 brain; for, let it not be forgotten, the child is presumed to 
 have brains." 
 
 Only in such directions as the child has capacity can he 
 be educated. Some possess capacity for music, some for 
 art, some for handiwork, some for business, some for 
 invention, some for investigation, some for literary pursuits, 
 and each individual can attain highest efficiency and success 
 only in the field in which nature has endowed him. No 
 amount of training can avail to secure marked results where 
 such endowment is wanting. Of course the teacher must 
 not be too ready to pronounce the child who may be slow 
 to respond as incapacitated. Rapid physical development, 
 material unsuited to the period of the child's life, false 
 method of presentation may cause the child to appear dull 
 and incapable of certain work. Child study has discovered 
 many of the causes of arrested development and led to the 
 adoption of means of correcting mistakes and meeting 
 irregularities in intellectual growth. And still greater 
 results are to be expected in this field of investigation. 
 
EDUCATIONAL LIMITATIONS l6l 
 
 Sometimes the material is offered at the wrong time. 
 Mrs. Wilson gives us a case in point with one of her own 
 cliildren. She writes/ "We had a child whose mind 
 balked in arithmetic. We lost all patience — so much 
 easier it is to preach than to practice in the matter of 
 patience. Then common sense and consistency flashed the 
 thought upon me: 'This child is of at least ordinary 
 intelligence; I am surely of extra-ordmdiry patience in 
 educational matters; we must, therefore, be attempting 
 unnatural things.' On the spot I said to the child: 
 'There! Close your book. You need have no more to 
 do with arithmetic for one year. We'll see if you won't 
 grow to that! We'll try a rotation of crops.' 
 
 "We were given grace (which I think was quite remark- 
 able) to adhere to that decision, and when at the end of 
 the year, the child went again about her arithmetic, we 
 were delighted and inconsistently amazed to observe the 
 naturalness and ease with which she skipped along, making 
 not the slightest difficulty over the particular subject on 
 which she had stumbled so vexatiously. And that child, 
 at a later date, performed some quite unusual feats in 
 mathematics, which I cannot help fancying she would 
 never have done if she had continued to be nagged instead 
 of being set free." 
 
 Dulness not Incapacity. — Again, a child may be natur- 
 ally slow, not dull, but a type of mind that grasps the 
 truth only with difficulty, but often, as a compensation, holds 
 what is once grasped with remarkable tenacity. A super- 
 ficial examination may lead the teacher to think that 
 
 * "Pedagogues and Parents," p. 183, 
 
l62 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 capacity is lacking, when it is simply a slow unfolding. 
 The morning glory unfolds its petals almost at the first 
 burst of sunlight and exposes its brilliancy to the world; 
 the calla lily requires days to reach the fulness of its wonder- 
 ful grace and exquisite beauty. So it often is with minds 
 that are slow in unfolding; when once they reach the com- 
 pleteness of their development, they exhibit power, strength, 
 and sometimes even brilliancy. Patience must be exercised 
 in discovering the presence or absence of capacity. 
 
 Even if there be lack of capacity in some particular 
 direction, it by no means sets one down as an imbecile. 
 The late Colonel Parker used to say, " So far as music is con- 
 cerned, I am an idiot." And yet, he did more to influence 
 elementary education in this country than any one since 
 Horace Mann. General Grant remarked, "There are only 
 two tunes that I know: one is 'Yankee Doodle,' and the 
 other isn't." Wellington, Goldsmith, James Watt, An- 
 thony Trollope, and Sir Walter Scott were incapable of 
 meeting many of the requirements of the school course. 
 Harden remarks,* "Give every boy and girl a fair chance 
 and reasonable encouragement, and do not condemn them 
 because of even a large degree of downright stupidity ; for 
 many so-called good-for-nothing boys, blockheads, num- 
 skulls, dullards, or dunces, were only boys out of their 
 places, round boys forced into square holes." 
 
 Thackeray says, "Let us people who are so uncom- 
 monly clever and learned, have a great tenderness and 
 pity for the folks who are not endowed with the prodigious 
 talents which we have. I have always had a regard for 
 dunces, — those of my own school days were among the 
 
 * "Pushing to the Front," p. 86. 
 
EDUCATIONAL LIMITATIONS 163 
 
 pleasantest of the fellows, and have turned out by no means 
 the dullest in life; whereas, many a youth who could turn 
 off Latin hexameters by the yard, and construe Greek 
 quite glibly, is no better than a feeble prig now, with not a 
 pennyworth more brains than were in his head before his 
 beard grew." 
 
 But when it becomes evident that capacity for a certain 
 thing is lacking in a child, school life should not be made 
 a burden to him by insisting that he take work which he has 
 no power to grasp. George Combe said, in speaking of 
 mathematics, "I can speak on this subject the more decid- 
 edly from being myself very deficient in this faculty, not- 
 withstanding my exertions to cultivate it. Arithmetic has 
 always been to me a profound mystery, and the mastery 
 of the multiplication table an insurmountable task. I 
 could not now tell you how many eight times nine are with- 
 out going to work circuitously and reckoning by means of 
 the tens, and yet for seven years I studied arithmetic. 
 This deficiency has been the occasion of much trouble to 
 me. I could understand everything relating to accounts, 
 but had always to employ clerks to perform calculations. 
 This faculty in me is in fact idiotic." And yet, he was a 
 great scholar, anthropologist, and lecturer. 
 
 With the possession of capacity, all things are possible 
 to the human mind. Illustration of this is found in the 
 many instances of young men who have been handicapped 
 by lack of means and by other unfavorable circumstances, 
 and yet have overcome all obstacles and achieved success. 
 The most remarkable instance of this in modern times is 
 the case of Helen Keller, who, though deprived of seeing 
 and hearing, the two most important avenues of com- 
 
164 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 munication with the external world, burst the fetters 
 that bound her, prepared for and passed through college, 
 and obtained a breadth of knowledge surpassing that of 
 most young people of her age. Although handicapped in 
 the means of obtaining knowledge, she overcame the 
 obstacles because she possesses capacity. It shows what 
 can be accomplished by one determined to succeed, even 
 though placed under extraordinary limitations, and her 
 case should therefore serve as an inspiration to others. 
 Indeed, it proves that possession of capacity is a far more 
 valuable heritage than wealth, than "blue blood," or even 
 than the senses of seeing and hearing, however desirable 
 these tilings may be. 
 
 Self-Activity. — But no amount of zeal or skill on the 
 part of the teacher, no approved method, no superior 
 instruction, no clioice of material, no employment of cir- 
 cumstance, environment or mechanical means, however 
 essential all tliese may be, can avail unless the self-activity 
 of the pupil can be aroused. Froebel lays great stress 
 upon the child's self-activity; Herbart upon educative 
 instruction (Erziehende-Unterricht). Inspector Hughes 
 makes a most vivid comparison between the conceptions 
 of these two great educators.^ 
 
 "Both Herbart and Froebel studied the child in order 
 to lay down a system of education that would help to ennoble 
 man, and enable him to work out his highest destiny. 
 They were fully in accord in regard to the true aim of 
 education. Both made the development of moral char- 
 acter the great purpose of all education, and their study of 
 
 ' Educational Review, Vol. X, p. 240. 
 
EDUCATIONAL LIMITATIONS 1 65 
 
 the child was made to find the surest way to reach this 
 desired end. There was a radical difference, however, in 
 their attitude toward the child. Herbart studied the child 
 to find the best that could be done for it; Froebel studied 
 it to learn how it could be aided in working out its own 
 best development. Herbart magnified the work of the 
 teacher; Froebel magnified the work of the child. Her- 
 bart made instruction and Froebel made self-activity the 
 source and cause of growth in knowledge and character. 
 . . . Froebel's educational system rests broadly on two 
 great laws: the law of unity, and the law of self-activity. . . . 
 Froebel believed that the child has within him a self-active 
 soul, an element of divinity, the selfhood or individuality of 
 the child, and this develops by being put forth in gaining 
 a knowledge of his environment, and in performing the 
 duties pertaining to social relationships. These opinions 
 led him to discover liis law of spontaneity or self- activity, 
 which he made the underlying principle of all his develop- 
 ing and teaching process in the kindergarten and in the 
 school. Herbart studied the child to mold it; Froebel 
 studied it to guide it in its growth. Herbart studied the 
 child as a philosopher; Froebel studied it as a sympathetic 
 friend. . . . Herbart saw the need of control much more 
 clearly than the need of freedom ; Froebel saw the harmony 
 between freedom and control Herbart made instruction 
 the basis of virtue; Froebel made morality depend on true 
 living in the home and in the school, on the awakening of 
 the ideal as a counterpoise to the sensual, and on the recog- 
 nition of, and reverence for, the life principle in and behind 
 nature. Herbart made will result from action; Froebel 
 made action result from will. Self-activity developed the 
 
1 66 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 will according to Froebel, but will increased in power is 
 the result of its exercise in causing creative self-activity. " 
 
 Doubtless the truth lies between these two positions. 
 Left absolutely to his own self-activity, the child would 
 make little progress, nor would the race progress. The 
 child would move in a circle, would not be able to utilize 
 the results of the world's intellectual advancement, would 
 fail to begin where others have left off, and would be 
 unable to avail himself of the experience and knowledge 
 that others have gained. He must be directed in his 
 activity, and through wise and systematic instruction be 
 inducted into the wisdom that the world has already 
 attained. On the other hand, to depend entirely on instruc- 
 tion, to expect that through the superior knowledge, skill, 
 and enthusiasm of the teacher, education may be secured, 
 is equally futile. Only when wise and suitable instruction 
 directs, systematizes, and stimulates the child's activity 
 will the end be reached. The truth, then, lies between 
 the extreme Froebehan and the radical Herbartian view. 
 
 The true method will employ both of these ideas, — it 
 will stimulate self-activity in a child, without which he will 
 acquire nothing, and it will lead and direct that activity by 
 means of instruction. The child must think and act for 
 himself, and the teacher must never attempt to do for him 
 what he can do for himself. But left entirely to himself, 
 he will fail to make systematic progress, he will waste effort 
 in doing over again what has long since been done; hence 
 the necessity of instruction. 
 
 Self-Employment. — Following closely upon the idea of 
 self-activity is that of self-employment. The child is 
 
EDUCATIONAL LIMITATIONS 167 
 
 naturally active. This activity at first shows itself in 
 various kinds of play. We have seen how play may be 
 utilized for educational ends (p. 116). Gradually the child 
 must learn to work, and if he never learns to work, except 
 under the supervision of another, he will forever remain a 
 menial and a drudge. The difference between the man 
 who directs and the one who is directed by others, lies in 
 their power of self-employment. The man who is placed 
 over others as superintendent, must first have learned how 
 to set himself at work before he is capable of directing his 
 subordinates. This is the chief characteristic of leaders 
 in every field, and it is the most important element of 
 success in any sphere of life. The school, therefore, finds 
 here a most essential duty. It must train the pupils to set 
 themselves at work, and tenaciously to stick to their tasks 
 until they have mastered them. Discipline will be much 
 easier when the child has learned how to employ himself, 
 when to keep busy has become a habit. 
 
 Nor is the danger of getting into mischief when unem- 
 ployed confined to children. It is not during the hours of 
 occupation in the shop or the factory that the saloon tempts 
 men, but during their idle hours. Nor is it the man who 
 possesses within his own resources the means of entertain- 
 ment and employment who seeks places of evil. The pro- 
 prietors of these places understand human nature and there- 
 fore they provide entertainment — music, cards, and other 
 attractions. The best way to fortify the youth against these 
 allurements is to establish in them the ability to employ 
 themselves profitably and entertainingly. Provide men with 
 this power and more will be done to close the saloon than 
 any other means that can be devised, for it will rob the 
 saloon of its patrons. 
 
1 68 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 Training to employ one's self thus becomes a most 
 important duty of the teacher, because it equips the pupil 
 for success in life and establishes a moral influence that 
 enables him to satisfy his needs through his own resources, 
 and furnishes an outlet for the expression of his energies. 
 Such training should be persistent and systematic through- 
 out childhood until the habit is established. And if such 
 a habit has become fixed, it will be of more value than a 
 knowledge of many books, than the learning embraced in 
 a whole curriculum, for these will be within his future 
 mastery. 
 
 The home can materially aid in securing this educational 
 equipment by providing good books, suitable games, and 
 the right kind of tools. Professor Stoy of Jena used to pro- 
 vide a plot of ground which was divided among his school 
 boys, each having a section which he was allowed to plant 
 with whatever crop he pleased, care for as he would, and 
 enjoy the harvest in his own way. It furnished a splendid 
 opportunity for the boys to employ themselves in healthful 
 out-door work, under the inspiration of the hope of future 
 reward in the crop raised. And valuable moral lessons 
 were taught, for those that were most diligent and pains- 
 taking reaped the largest harvest, while those who were 
 negligent were punished with a limited reward. The 
 wise parent who lives in the country, will make use of the 
 same practice with his children by giving them a garden 
 of their own to cultivate, putting into their charge fowls or 
 young animals to bring up, holding them responsible for 
 their charge, and letting them have the increase therefrom. 
 The many opportunities thus furnished on the farm, largely 
 will account for the sterhng men and women it produces, 
 
EDUCATIONAL LIMITATIONS 169 
 
 who are early trained to habits of responsibihty and self- 
 employment. 
 
 Self-Control. — 
 
 "The noblest lesson taught by life 
 To every great, heroic soul, 
 Who seeks to conquer in the strife, 
 Is self-control." 
 
 One of the best evidences of an education is the power 
 of self-control. The cultivated person is far less likely to 
 give way to unreasoning and unbridled passion than the 
 ignorant man. Indeed, want of power to hold one's self 
 in check under extraordinary provocation is an evidence of 
 lack of good training. The person who has learned to be 
 urbane, polite, polished, until he exercises these qualities 
 from force of habit, exhibits the result of long training and 
 education. Self-control on the part of a person accused 
 of crime is regarded by courts as an evidence that he is 
 accustomed to being called before the bar of justice, and 
 is therefore educated in crime, whereas, perturbation on 
 the part of the accused is evidence that he at least is not an 
 old offender, if not innocent. 
 
 If the purpose of education is to establish character, the 
 cultivation of self-control should be an important function 
 of the school work. The most salutary means of training 
 the child to this valuable habit may be mentioned as follows : 
 
 I. Make him feel the loss of love of those dear to him, 
 and the respect of those about him, when he gives way to 
 unbridled anger, to selfishness, or to other intemperate 
 actions. 
 
170 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 2. Appeal to his sense of shame, and make him uncom- 
 fortable as a result of his wrong-doing. 
 
 3. When he is old enough, appeal to the fear of God, 
 and the wrong in His sight of yielding to passion, as a 
 means of leading him to abstain from evil and to control 
 himself. 
 
 4. Through a wise and judicious employment of the 
 principle of appeal to honor as a means of discipline, lead 
 him to be self-governing, rather than to depend upon 
 being governed by means of the watchfulness of the teacher 
 or the parent. 
 
 5. Teach him the meaning and importance of this 
 principle and lead him to desire to practice it himself. 
 
 6. Give him the opportunity to practice self-control upon 
 all occasions, hold him responsible for failure to do so, and by 
 wise and gentle admonitions lead him always to do his best. 
 
 A celebrated German educator who visited this country 
 in 1893, as a royal representative of educational interests 
 at the Columbian Exposition, was struck with the remark- 
 able self-control manifested by the American people. 
 Said he, "I was at the Exposition on Cliicago Day when 
 750,000 people passed tlu-ough the gates. Every trans- 
 portation facility was taxed to the uttermost. Immense 
 crowds gathered at each terminus, patiently and good- 
 naturedly waiting their turn to get into the cars. I did not 
 see a single disgraceful jam. Why, if five persons wanted 
 to get on a Berlin street car, there would be more confusion 
 than I saw in that great crowd. It was the most remark- 
 able exhibition of self-control that I ever saw. " Doubtless 
 
EDUCATIONAL LIMITATIONS 171 
 
 this result is largely owing to the American theory that 
 every man must take care of himself, must be indepen- 
 dent, as against the German theor' of paternalism, of con- 
 trol by those in authority. 
 
 This power of self-control is fostered by such experiences 
 as those of Erasmus, who starved himself to buy Greek 
 books; by Faraday, who lived over a stable and peddled 
 newspapers; by Lincoln, who read the Bible and ^Esop's 
 fables by the light of a pine knot; by Franklin, who 
 told his landlady to "make the soup thinner" when she 
 informed him that she would have to charge more for his 
 board, and by many others who became great in spite of 
 unfavorable circumstances. 
 
 Material Means of Education. — There are certain 
 material means that must be taken into account in con- 
 sidering the limitations of education, such as, the time 
 involved, and the necessary money. Rosenkranz speaks 
 of this as the objective limit as follows:^ "That the talent 
 for certain culture shall be present is certainly the first thing ; 
 but the cultivation of this talent is the second, and no less 
 necessary. But how much cultivation can be given to it, 
 extensively and intensively depends upon the means used, 
 and these again are conditioned by the material resources 
 of the family to which one belongs. The greater and 
 more valuable the means of culture which are found in 
 the family, the greater the immediate advantage which the 
 culture of each one has at the start. "With regard to many 
 of the arts and sciences, this limit of education is of great 
 significance. But the means alone are of no avail. The 
 
 ' "Philosophy of Education," p. 48, 
 
172 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 finest educational apparatus will produce no fruit where 
 corresponding talent is wanting, while on the other hand 
 talent often accomplishes incredible feats with hmited 
 means, and, if the way is only once open, makes itself the 
 center of attraction which draws to itself with magnetic 
 power the necessary means." 
 
 This interpreted, means that if there be the possession 
 of talent, and the determination to overcome the disadvan- 
 tage of the lack of money, a way can always be found to 
 gain an education. Abundant illustrations of this fact are 
 found on every hand, in the experiences of students, poor in 
 this world's goods, but rich in energy, determination, and 
 capacity. Every college in the land can furnish numerous 
 examples of students who are working their way through 
 the course, wholly dependent upon themselves, performing 
 all sorts of labor of hand and brain in order to meet their 
 expenses. And it is a fine comment on the spirit of Ameri- 
 can youth that such students rarely lose caste among their 
 fellow students. This furnishes an example of true democ- 
 racy, where a man is esteemed for what he is and what he 
 does, rather than for his wealth or social position. The 
 lack of capacity is an insurmountable obstacle to education; 
 but the lack of material means can be overcome by every 
 one who is determined to secure an education, and many 
 a man is better through being comj)elled to bear this 
 burden. The noblest fiber of the individual is brought to 
 light and tested, the real value of education is understood, 
 and lessons of great import in after life are learned 
 never to be forgotten. It thus often happens that lack of 
 material means, instead of being a misfortune becomes a 
 real blessing; instead of being an evil it proves to be a 
 
EDUCATIONAL LIMITATIONS l73 
 
 most valuable means of self-culture. Certain it is that 
 many of the leaders of the world's thought and activities 
 to-day, have passed through just this crucible. 
 
 The Power of Self-Direction. — No man's education is 
 ever completed as long as life lasts. The wider the intel- 
 lectual horizon the greater the possibihties of further knowl- 
 edge. If a candle be placed in the center of a dark space 
 it will light up objects near at hand for a space of, say, 
 twenty feet in diameter. In the horizon of the circle about 
 this diameter, there will appear many indistinct objects. 
 Substitute a lamp for the candle and the dim objects in 
 the former horizon become perfectly clear; but a large 
 horizon of perhaps fifty feet in diameter will be formed and 
 consequently a far greater number of unknown, indistinct 
 objects will appear. Once more, substitute for the lamp 
 an arc light, capable of illuminating a space five hundred 
 feet in diameter, and again the objects dimly seen in the 
 former horizon become clear; but we find a still greater 
 number of unknown objects in the much enlarged circle. 
 So it is with the widening, enlightening power of education. 
 A little learning fosters conceit; the horizon being small 
 there are but few things that are unknown. Enlarge the 
 horizon and the conceit diminishes — the wisest men are 
 noted for their humility. Every enlargement of the horizon 
 increases and extends the view, while it impresses the mind 
 with how little relatively the wisest can know. An edu- 
 cated man has been described as one who has found out 
 that he knows but little. 
 
 Instead of leaving one satisfied with a narrow horizon, 
 or discouraged by the immensity of the field of knowledge, 
 
174 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 it is the province of education to awaken a thirst for intel- 
 lectual acquirement, to stimulate atnbition for its possession, 
 and to cultivate the power of pursuing it independently. 
 The teacher that accompHshes these ends bestows the 
 greatest boon upon his pupils, a far more important result 
 than if he gives them great knowledge and fails to teach 
 them to be self-directive. 
 
 Rosenkranz calls this the absolute limit. He says,^ 
 *' The absolute limit of education is the time when the youth 
 has apprehended the problem which he has to solve, has 
 learned to know the means at his disposal, and has acquired 
 a certain facility in using them. The end and aim of edu- 
 cation is the emancipation of the youth. It strives to make 
 him self-dependent, and as soon as he has become so, it 
 wishes to retire and leave to him the sole responsibility for 
 his actions. To treat the youth after he has passed this 
 point still as a youth, contradicts the very idea of educa- 
 tion, which finds its fulfilment in the attainment of this 
 state of maturity by the pupil. Since the completion of 
 education cancels the inequality between the educator 
 and the pupil, nothing is more oppressing, nay, revolting 
 to the latter than to be excluded by a continued state of 
 dependence from the enjoyment of the freedom wliich he 
 has earned." 
 
 When one considers that a large proportion of pupils 
 leave school at twelve years of age or earlier, the importance 
 of training children to be able to direct their own. future 
 educational development becomes evident. This object 
 should be clearly in the minds of the teachers of the elemen- 
 tary schools, else the great majority of the people will never 
 * "Philosophy of Education," p. 49. 
 
UD UCA TIONAL LI MI TA TIONS 
 
 175 
 
 attain to it. The teacher that inspires the cliild with a 
 desire for learning and equips him with the power of 
 directing his own acquirement, has done the very best thing 
 that can be accompHshed in the school. It puts him in the 
 way of attaining the complete emancipation of which 
 Rosenkranz speaks. The work of the elementary teacher 
 is thus shown to be the most important in the whole field 
 of education, (i) because it alone reaches some eighty 
 per cent of the whole mass of children that go to no other 
 school; and (2) because it gives even to those who extend 
 their course the inspiration, the impulse, the power of self- 
 direction without which future study would be misdirected 
 and inefficient. With the abundance of educational facil- 
 ities at hand, the libraries, the lecture courses, the maga- 
 zines and newspapers, the pulpit, the literary club, the 
 intercourse with cultured persons — there is no limit to 
 the development of one who has learned how to direct 
 his intellectual energies. 
 
 Advantages of Superior Education. — Possessing the 
 capacity and the material means, and having acquired the 
 power of self-direction, is it wise to secure an advanced 
 education? Does it pay? is the question that Americans 
 are apt to ask. From an analysis of a list, given in "Who's 
 Who in America," of 8000 persons who have achieved dis- 
 tinction in the United States, the following result is apparent: 
 
 1. " That an uneducated child has one chance in 
 150,000 of attaining distinction as a factor in the progress 
 of the age. 
 
 2. "That a common school education will increase his 
 chances nearly four times. 
 
176 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 3. " That a liigh school training will increase the 
 chances of the common school boy twenty-three times, giving 
 him eighty-seven times tlie chance of the uneducated. 
 
 4. "Tha,t a college education increases the chances of 
 the high school boy nine times, giving him 219 times the 
 chance of the common school boy, and more than 800 
 times the chance of the untrained." Of the nearly 8000 
 notables given in this book, 4810 are full college gradu- 
 ates. 
 
 Dr. William T. Harris thinks that the chances of success 
 of the properly educated person in both character and 
 attainment, are as 250 to i over the uneducated. Investi- 
 gations have shown that in the ministry, law, medicine, 
 teaching, journalism, and even in merchandising, manu- 
 facturing, and other business enterprises, education greatly 
 increases a man's likelihood of success. James M. Dodge 
 shows by careful statistics that the expenditure of time and 
 money for an advanced education adds to the potential 
 value of a man and increases his earning power far beyond 
 the investment. He says,^ "I have endeavored to find out 
 what the money investment is in a boy of sixteen. The 
 census reports and statistics from abroad cannot possibly 
 give all the items. It is so difficult to decide upon the 
 class to which any individual belongs. I feel satisfied, 
 however, that the world at large places a very accurate 
 value on any commodity, and labor certainly is a commodity, 
 and the community in which we live says that a sixteen- 
 year-old lad in good health entering a shop is worth $3.00 
 per week, and, consequently, his potential or invested 
 
 * Address before the Williamson Trade School, Philadelphia, on "The 
 Money Value of Training." 
 
EDUCATIONAL LIMITATIONS 1 77 
 
 value is $3000. We will, therefore, establish this as his 
 value." After a course of careful reasoning, amply illus- 
 trated, he concludes, "A trained man at twenty-five years 
 of age has a potential value of $22,000 (earning $22 per 
 week), or in nine years he has increased his value $19,000, 
 or at the rate of $2100 per annum, as compared with 
 $1300 per annum for the untrained man (who may be 
 expected to earn only $13 per week at twenty-five years of 
 age), and with this manifest additional advantage over the 
 untrained man — that his line has no limitation, so far 
 as we can see," ^ 
 
 But the money value of education is by no means the 
 most important. Education increases a man's influence 
 and his usefulness. In general, it may be asserted that 
 the most useful and influential persons of a community 
 owe their superiority to education rather than to wealtli, 
 social position, or any other means. 
 
 Then, too, must be considered the personal satisfaction, 
 the power to comprehend and enjoy life, and make the 
 most of it by those whose minds have been opened to the 
 rich things of the world through the instrumentality of 
 education. The power of enjoyment and appreciation is 
 increased through the refining, broadening, and uplifting 
 character of knowledge, and through the revelation of one's 
 own capacities. The world of books, of science, of art, 
 of nature, of the works of God and man is opened to the 
 soul, and the invitation to enter, possess, and enjoy is 
 understood and accepted. 
 
 Education invites a man to make the most of himself and v 
 shows him how to do it. This attainment is his duty as well 
 ^ See also Barbe, "Going to College." 
 
178 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 as his privilege. Hence the work of the teacher, who stimu- 
 lates the youth to desire education and take advantage of 
 his opportunities, who guides him in that work and unfolds 
 unknown possibilities to him, who arouses his self-activity, 
 is the greatest work in which man can engage. And the 
 State through its generous support of schools, and private 
 benefactors through their munificent gifts have made it 
 possible in this land for every boy and girl who possesses 
 the capacity, and who desires it, to gain a liberal education. 
 
 Summary 
 
 I. Education starts out with the assumption that the 
 child possesses capacity, and this alone limits his possible 
 achievement. Training should be along the line of the 
 child's particular endowment, but the teacher must not be 
 hasty in determining the special field in which the child is 
 best fitted to work. 
 
 II. Without self-activity on the part of the pupil all 
 attempts to development are futile. This activity, however^ 
 must be aroused by the teacher through instruction. The 
 teacher must stimulate and guide the child, but never do for 
 him what he can do for himself. The end ever in view 
 must be the systematic direction of the child's activities so 
 that he will have to employ himself and exercise self-control. 
 
 III. A second limit of education is found in the material 
 means at command, such as time and money. This, how- 
 ever, can be overcome if there is determination and zeal 
 coupled with capacity. 
 
EDUCATIONAL LIMITATIONS 1 79 
 
 IV. The final limit is reached when the individual has 
 acquired the ability to direct his own education. He then is 
 emancipated, and is able to continue his development even 
 if he cannot attend school or employ teachers. The attain- 
 ment of this end is of far more importance than much 
 knowledge and the possession of many facts. Wide culture 
 increases the influence, the efficiency, the success, and the 
 power of enjoyment of those possessing it. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 FACTORS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 
 
 References. — Educational Review, Vol. XXIV; Ogden, Science 
 of Education; Seeley, Foundations of Education; Butler, The Mean- 
 ing of Education; Spencer, Education; Wilson, Pedagogues and 
 Parents. 
 
 Primitive Education. — Many are disposed to relegate 
 the work of education entirely to the school, — the secular 
 school for secular education, and the Sunday school for 
 religious education. This is a conception that too often 
 prevails. In primitive times the home undertook the 
 whole work of training the young. There were neither 
 schools nor teachers in the modern sense, nor were these 
 needed. In the simple nomadic Hfe the father tended his 
 herds, followed the chase, and moved his tent from place 
 to place as was necessary to seek pasturage for his flocks. 
 Naturally his son went with him and obtained all the educa- 
 tion needed for the simple Hfe they lived, through asso- 
 ciating with and assisting his father. How to strike tent, 
 to sling the stone or hurl the spear in battle or chase, how 
 to prepare the skins of beasts for clothing and their flesh 
 for food, how to defend himself, how to meet and conquer 
 his enemies, were lessons he learned from his father in daily 
 association, and they constituted all the education he needed. 
 So, too, the daughter learned the ordinary duties of her 
 home from her mother. But as civilization advanced, 
 as the simple gave way to the more complex form of life 
 in the home and in the vocation, as new demands were 
 
 1 80 
 
FACTORS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE CHILD i8l 
 
 made upon parents and new duties had to be assumed by 
 them, they could no longer meet the educational require- 
 ments of their cliildren and they were obliged to seek some 
 other agency for their education. Hence the necessity for 
 schools and teachers. Under the strenuous requirements 
 of modern life in business, in the professions, as well as in 
 society, neither the father nor the mother, even if well quali- 
 fied to do so, can devote the necessary time for the educa- 
 tion of their children. In addition to the increased de- 
 mands upon the parents' time in meeting the duties of life, 
 there are also greatly increased educational requirements, 
 which can be satisfied only by employing persons specially 
 prepared to teach, and by devoting a great deal of time in 
 order to fulfil these requirements. 
 
 But with all the multifarious duties of modern life that 
 crowd upon parents, there can never be an excuse for turn- 
 ing over the whole matter of educating their children to 
 others — the duties of parentage involve the training, as 
 well as the nourishing, clothing, and housing of their chil- 
 dren. While, as we have seen, in the primitive period of 
 the world's history, the whole duty of education could be 
 assumed by the parents, they should not go to the other 
 extreme at the present time. Attempt will be made later 
 to show what agencies enter into the education of the child 
 and the duties that should be assumed by them respec- 
 tively. 
 
 Importance of Education. — The problem of the edu- 
 cation of the young is one of the greatest problems that 
 has ever commanded the interest and thought of mankind. 
 Many of the greatest men that ever lived have devoted their 
 
l82 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 noblest thoughts to this question. Socrates, Plato, Saint 
 Augustine, Charlemagne, Luther, Locke, Bacon, Rousseau, 
 Comenius, Pestalozzi, Spencer, and many others, have added 
 to the riches of the world's literature in their writings on 
 this subject. And these works have mightily forwarded 
 the progress of civilization. Upon the solution of this 
 problem depends the future of the child, the home, the com- 
 munity, the State, and in the largest sense, the welfare of man 
 himself. Education must teach the child his duty to his 
 parents, to his comrades, to society, to his country, and to the 
 world at large. It shapes the relationship of the home — 
 between husband and wife, parents and children, brothers 
 and sisters, master and servant, between the family and the 
 outside world. It shows what one owes to the community, 
 it teaches regard for the rights of others, awakens interest 
 in public affairs, and leads to the practice of the Golden 
 Rule in dealings with one's neighbors. It fosters genuine 
 patriotism, informs as to the duties of citizenship, and 
 makes peace-loving, law-abiding, duty-respecting members 
 of the State, who are patriotic in peace as in war, who be- 
 lieve that municipal integrity is as essential as personal 
 righteousness, and of the same character, and who are con- 
 sequently the support and bulwark of the State. The 
 problem of education recognizes that the material and the 
 intellectual in man do not comprise his whole being, but 
 it assumes that he is also spiritual, and unless this side of 
 his life is developed the full work of education has not been 
 accomplished. 
 
 There are at least five factors that enter into the education 
 of the child, namely: the home, the school, civil society, the 
 State, and the Church. Each has its duty to perform 
 
FACTORS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 183 
 
 which cannot be delegated to any other instrumentality 
 without the child suffering in the completeness of his de- 
 velopment. 
 
 I. The Home. — We have seen how in primitive times 
 the home was obliged to take the full responsibility of edu- 
 cation, and how under the existing conditions it was easy 
 for it to bear that responsibility. Under modern condi- 
 tions, this is impossible in most families. But the home 
 cannot be absolved from its duty whatever the conditions. 
 In the first place, the first five or six years of childhood 
 belong solely to the home. The child must be trained to 
 good habits, such as cleanliness, regularity in eating, caring 
 for its personal wants. It also learns to use a language, 
 and much future trouble will be prevented if it learns cor- 
 rect forms of expression. In the next place, it must not 
 be forgotten that in this country the school has the child 
 for only about five hours a day for something like two hun- 
 dred days a year and for an average of about five years. 
 This leaves by far the larger part of the child's time under 
 the jurisdiction and influence of the home, even during its 
 school life. 
 
 Again, with reference to the school itself the home can- 
 not escape responsibility. It must see that the child 
 attends school punctually and regularly; that it is provided 
 with suitable books and other school material, and that 
 it gives obedience to the necessary school regulations. 
 And when the child is old enough to do home-work, parents 
 must see to it that these tasks are performed. It is not the 
 duty of the parents to perform these tasks for their children, 
 or even to assist them, and no wise teacher expects this. 
 Indeed, the teacher generally prefers that parents shall not 
 
184 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 aid their children in their scliool work. The child is sent 
 home with work that has already been explained and that 
 should require no outside aid, work that is within his 
 ability, and therefore aid from the parents is not desirable. 
 It is the duty of the school to give the necessary instruction, 
 to assign home tasks that are intended to fortify that in- 
 struction, and all that should be expected of the parents 
 is to see that their children are faithful in performing their 
 work, devoting a reasonable amount of time thereto. In 
 this way the parents will have a part in the intellectual 
 education of their children, but will not be burdened with 
 its details. This belongs to the school. 
 
 If the intellectual development cannot be neglected by 
 parents, how much more must their attention be given to 
 their moral and spiritual upbuilding, which also is an 
 essential part of the education of every human being. 
 Religious culture as such cannot be undertaken in the 
 State schools, for the support of which the public are taxed; 
 hence the obligation upon parents in this respect is doubly 
 binding. The moral teaching carried on in the schools 
 should be supplemented by work in the home. The 
 Church, the Sunday school, the Young Men's Christian 
 Association, and various other institutions may furnish 
 religious instruction for the young, but they should only 
 serve as aids to the home, where children are to be 
 regarded as "Gifts of God," and in which teaching them 
 their duty to God and their fellow-men is accepted as a 
 sacred obligation as well as a blessed privilege. Where the 
 home is a sanctuary in which instruction in God's Word and 
 in personal duty toward Him is supplemented by the holy, 
 pure, and consistent example of the parents, there is no 
 
FACTORS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 185 
 
 substitute for it in any other institution as a means of 
 teaching genuine rehgion. 
 
 " Fads." — It is perfectly proper that parents should hold 
 the school responsible for its work. It is an institution 
 created and supported by them, their children are committed 
 to its care, and much of the future success of these children 
 depends upon its efficiency. But parents should not be too 
 ready to criticise the school. They should visit it, study its 
 work, become acquainted with the teachers, enter into 
 their plans, sympathize with their difficulties, and intelli- 
 gently aid them in every possible way. They should 
 realize that most teachers are earnestly seeking to be a 
 blessing to the children under their care, and therefore 
 are worthy of support rather than antagonism. They 
 should also remember that the school must prepare the 
 children for present civilization and present conditions, 
 and that the requirements of even a generation ago will not 
 suffice to-day. New discoveries and inventions have been 
 made which have added greatly to the world's knowledge; 
 business methods have changed, and the curriculum of the 
 school has necessarily been enlarged to meet the new 
 conditions. The improvements of the school must keep 
 abreast with the progress of the world, if not anticipate it. 
 Besides this, greater knowledge of child development and of 
 educational problems bear fruit in better methods of 
 instruction and in a more rational course of study. For 
 these reasons the common school course of study cannot 
 be confined to the "Three R's." That reading, writing, 
 and arithmetic should be thoroughly taught goes without 
 saying, and it may be confidently asserted that they are 
 
l86 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 being better taught at the present time than at any period 
 in the history of our schools. No teacher minimizes their 
 value; but they are not the only subjects to be taught, nor 
 even the most important ones. They are the instrument, 
 the key that opens the door to the great riches of literature, 
 art, science, and other stores of knowledge.^ 
 
 2. The School. — The second factor in order of sequence 
 is the school. In the ordinary conception of education, 
 that of mere intellectual development, the school is the 
 most important agent. But thinkers regard education as 
 the development of the whole man, physical, intellectual, 
 moral, and spiritual, as has already been shown in Chapter 
 II, and with many cliildren, it must be admitted, about 
 the only hope of their spiritual, as well as secular salvation, 
 lies in the efficiency of the school. It is certainly true that 
 the other agencies that largely influence the child in his 
 environment are so demoralizing, in many cases at least, 
 that if the school does not save him there is little hope for 
 him. It is a blessed truth that many a man has been 
 saved to usefulness and honorable life through the instru- 
 mentality of a devoted teacher who established him in 
 good habits and inspired him to right living in spite of the 
 evil surroundings of his home. This is one of the compen- 
 
 * In a comparative study of results in spelling, arithmetic, writing, etc., 
 in 1846 and 1905, made in Springfield, Mass., it was found that even in 
 the " Three R's," the school of the present time is far ahead of the old time 
 school, — the percent correct being as follows: 
 
 1846 1905 
 
 Spelling 40.6 5^-2 
 
 Arithmetic 29.4 65.5 
 
 See New York School Journal. Vol. Lxxi, p. 589. 
 
FACTORS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 187 
 
 sations of the life of a consecrated school teacher, and it 
 makes his sacrifice worth while even if the world fails 
 suitably to recognize his efforts. 
 
 But the school is clearly responsible for instruction in 
 the conventionalities of education, such as, reading, spell- 
 ing, arithmetic, geography, history, etc. If the school fails 
 in this work the parents certainly should call it to account. 
 The teacher is professionally prepared to do this work, the 
 school is equipped for it at great expense, and time is set 
 apart for its accomplishment. Intellectual instruction 
 must ever occupy the chief part of the school's time, 
 although the moral and physical must not be neglected, 
 inasmuch as they are so essential to success. The 
 school takes the child at five or six years of age, keeps 
 him in charge for perhaps five hours a day, and superin- 
 tends, in a measure, his intellectual work outside of these 
 hours. This continues for a period of years. Because 
 of the sacrifices made by parents, because of the expense 
 devoted to the maintenance of schools, certain definite 
 results may be demanded. While the school thus becomes 
 the chief instrumentality of education, it may be again 
 remarked that it is not the only one. 
 
 Dr. Harris says:^ "It is important to know the exact 
 province of the school, and to see that it is only one of the 
 five forms of education that civilization provides for man. 
 Much of the carping criticism leveled against schools, in 
 times of financial distress or general social depression, is 
 based on the assumption that the province of the school 
 is all education instead of a small but important fraction 
 of it. The school may do its share of correct education, 
 
 ' Rosenkranz, "Philosophy of Education," p. 58. 
 
l88 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 but it cannot correct the effects of neglect of family nurture, 
 nor insure its youth against evil that will follow if civil 
 society furnishes no steady employment, no opportunity 
 for settled industry, and the State no training into con- 
 sciousness of higher manhood by its just laws, and by offer- 
 ing to the citizen a participation in the political process of 
 legislation and administration, carefully guarding its forms 
 so that its politics does not furnish a training in corruption. 
 Nor can the school insure the future of its pupils unless 
 the Church does its part in the education of the individuals 
 of the community." 
 
 Upon the school, then, is laid the duty of the systematic 
 and scientific intellectual development of the child almost 
 entirely, and of a large part of the physical and moral educa- 
 tion, while the religious training must largely be left to 
 other instrumentalities. 
 
 3. Civil Society. — There are two aspects in which civil 
 society acts as an educative influence: (i) in the trade 
 or vocation that one follows, and (2) in the effect of 
 the environment in which one lives. As to the 
 vocation pursued, the school may lay the foundations 
 which prepare the way for the final preparation for life 
 work, but it cannot make the preparation itself. Manual 
 training and trade schools do much to fit for mechanical 
 pursuits, technical institutions give a higher form of prep- 
 aration, but even they cannot complete one's education 
 in this field. Their efficiency is made the greater by an 
 equipment of tools, machines, and apparatus, which the 
 student is required actually to use and become familiar with, 
 but even these experiences, at best, can only prepare him 
 to grapple more easily with the actual problems of his voca- 
 
FACTORS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 189 
 
 tion. He is still in his apprenticeship even after completing 
 the most extended school course, and must serve under the 
 direction of a master who has practiced in the real work of 
 his calling. The same is true in the professional world. 
 The best courses in the medical college must be supple- 
 mented by hospital work. Otherwise the practitioner in 
 his future experience would be seriously handicapped. 
 The normal school course, however much of theory and 
 practice it may offer, however careful it may be in present- 
 ing to the young teachers the problems of education, at the 
 most, can only open the way to that larger conception of 
 their work which comes from actual experience in the 
 schoolroom and in life. 
 
 The vocation itself must be taken into account in sum- 
 marizing educational effects. Thus the teachers of a 
 school refused to recommend their boys as butcher's appren- 
 tices, or as waiters in restaurants, not because these callings 
 in themselves are dishonorable, but because they tend to 
 brutalize and debase the nature. Some vocations ennoble 
 the nature, broaden the mind, elevate the thoughts, sweeten 
 the life, arouse the benevolent tendency, stimulate the 
 spirit of altruism in man, while others produce the opposite 
 results. Therefore the vocation is a most important and 
 subtle educational influence. 
 
 In the second place, society in its broader sense exerts 
 a powerful influence upon human development. Parents 
 recognize this in the selection of places of residence in 
 which to rear their children. The atmosphere that pre- 
 vades a community — social, intellectual, moral, religious 
 — has a marked effect in forming the ideals of those brought 
 up in its midst. To live in a community where there are 
 
IQO ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 superior educational advantages has a tendency in itself to 
 foster a desire for learning. This is shown by the large 
 number of those who go to college when they are brought 
 up under the shadow of such an institution. Even the 
 presence of a good high school, or a private academy, 
 is a great stimulus to advanced education, and its effect 
 is felt not only upon those who take its courses, but 
 also upon their parents, and upon others who come 
 within the radius of its influence. Many mechanics and 
 laboring people of a college town are elevated by the work 
 of the institution through free lectures, through the per- 
 vading educational spirit, through contact with professors 
 and other people of superior intelligence, and through the 
 various activities that characterize a small college town. 
 And through these influences many of them are led to have 
 their children avail themselves of the opportunity that lies 
 at their door, and which they have learned to appreciate. 
 
 Then the moral tone of society has its effect upon the 
 education of youth. If vice predominates so that it is 
 popular, it becomes very easy to drop into evil practice. 
 One has only to compare the situation in a new frontier town 
 where the saloon, gambling dens, and other places of evil 
 flourish, and where a low standard of moral living prevails, 
 with a settled community where evil places are discoun- 
 tenanced, where churches abound, and where a healthful 
 moral sentiment rules. The pure life of every man and 
 woman is an educative influence that cannot be measured, 
 and the higher the social position occupied the wider is that 
 influence. As the moral tone of the community is so 
 important an agency in education, parents, when they are 
 able to do so, select their places of residence with reference 
 
FACTORS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 191 
 
 to this condition fully as much as with reference to the 
 physical health. The ideal place for a home, from an 
 educational standpoint, is that in which there is not only 
 healthful physical .environment, but also society of high 
 moral tone, with suitable means of intellectual growth, 
 together with the inspiring spiritual life exemplified by 
 Christian manhood and womanhood. These influences, 
 though subtle and difficult to measure, are none the less 
 real and vital to education. 
 
 4. The State. — It is not the purpose here to discuss the 
 office of the State in assuming control of education, in build- 
 ing schoolhouses, in training and licensing teachers, in 
 supervising the schools, in directing and administering 
 educational forces, and in taxing itself for the same. This 
 is accepted as the duty of the State, and is recognized as 
 essential in order to secure its own safety and perpetuity. 
 Especially is this true in a republic where the final respon- 
 sibility of government rests upon the individual citizen. 
 In no country in the world is the burden of public education 
 more cheerfully assumed than in ours. It is universally 
 understood and accepted that our schools must be main- 
 tained, their standard raised, and no expense spared to 
 keep them in touch with the mighty progress of the age. 
 Upon this question there is no dissenting voice, the nation 
 is a unit. 
 
 But there is another sense in which that institution which 
 we call the State is a tremendous force in education. There 
 is "the political education into citizensliip, resulting from 
 obedience to laws and participation in making and sustain- 
 ing them." By the enactment and enforcement of just 
 laws, by inspiring respect for its authority, by demanding 
 
ig2 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 strict integrity and faithfulness on the part of its officials, 
 by proper economy in public expenses, by dispensing the 
 funds committed to it by the people wisely, honestly, and 
 judiciously, the State gives an example and teaches lessons 
 that have a positive influence upon the individual and upon 
 the community. And where the State is wanting in these 
 practices, evil lessons are correspondingly taught. Striking 
 examples of the evil effects of pernicious municipal govern- 
 ment unfortunately are not lacking in our land. The 
 presence of a ring in a city government, the rule of " bosses, " 
 the existence of dishonest men looting the public treasury 
 for private ends, rewarding subservient followers and pun- 
 ishing opponents, cannot fail not only to exert a most 
 debasing influence upon public morals, but also to have 
 a baneful effect upon the young. 
 
 So long as public servants do not feel bound to render 
 adequate service in the discharge of their duties the same 
 as if employed by private concerns; so long as robbing the 
 public is considered less a crime than robbing an individual; 
 so long as a different standard of ethics exists with reference 
 to a man's attitude towards public and private matters, a 
 false notion of right and wrong prevails that is sure to work 
 evil with the youth. When the notorious Tweed debauched 
 all the branches of the government of a great city and seemed 
 to prosper thereby, the worst effect was not upon those 
 directly corrupted, nor upon the suffering public who were 
 robbed, but upon the great mass of young people who were 
 dazzled by the immediate success of a career of crime, and 
 whose moral sense was vitiated thereby. Without doubt 
 many a young man was led into evil practice by the prev- 
 alence and success of crime on the part of those whose 
 
FACTORS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 193 
 
 duty it was to administer just laws. Righteousness in high 
 places has a tendency to foster righteousness in the individ- 
 ual, while an evil atmosphere in places of authority like- 
 wise stimulates evil. And these things must certainly be 
 reckoned with in education. 
 
 Patriotism. — True patriotism can never be fostered in 
 a community in which there is lacking strict integrity in the 
 discharge of public duty, in which office-holders regard 
 their places as opportunities for graft rather than a sacred 
 trust committed to them in order that they may serve their 
 country, and in which the standard of righteousness is 
 other than that of God's law. It is useless to deliver 
 orations on the Fourth of July boasting of our great country 
 and our free institutions, it will not avail even to float the 
 flag over the schoolhouses and sing patriotic songs in the 
 schools with the expectation that patriotism will be the 
 result, if the children are confronted with dishonest practices 
 of office-holders and party leaders, such as buying votes, 
 looting the treasury, corrupting legislation, and failing to 
 render honest service. Civic righteousness must be the 
 prevailing tendency if a healthful, genuine, and inspiring 
 patriotism is to be fostered in the youth of our land. 
 
 Again, the enactment and enforcement of just and whole- 
 some laws have a salutary effect upon the ideals of a people. 
 Respect for and obedience to the laws of a State is an 
 important part of that education which prepares for good 
 citizenship, and this is a lesson that American youth need 
 to learn. The State owes it to itself in order to insure its 
 stability and perpetuity to make only just and equitable 
 laws, and to insist upon their honest and faithful enforce- 
 
194 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 ment. There are too many laws on the statute books that 
 are wholly forgotten or totally ignored. As a consequence 
 evasions of the law are common, not only by criminals and 
 large corporations, but also by citizens of every class, and 
 gross indifference to the requirements of laws that inter- 
 fere with the wishes of individuals is far too common. This 
 is a result of the negligent enforcement of law by those to 
 whom this duty is committed until the sacredness of law 
 has lost its force. As an example of this tendency, one has 
 but to note the violations of speed laws concerning the 
 automobile, by which the rights of many are disregarded 
 and their lives endangered. 
 
 Strict integrity in pubhc affairs as in private, faithful and 
 honest discharge of public duty are essential to the well- 
 being of the nation, and in securing such a condition the 
 State becomes a mighty factor in the education of youth. 
 If this is wanting, it will be practically impossible for the 
 home and the school to counteract the evil emanating 
 therefrom, and to implant in youth those high ideals of 
 life and citizenship which are particularly essential in a 
 republic, and which are necessary under any form of gov- 
 ernment. Both the home and the school can inculcate 
 the spirit of obedience to authority, but the State must 
 supplement this by an honest and rigid performance of its 
 duty. This is not an infringement of the liberty of the indi- 
 vidual but rather a protection of it. The highest ideal of 
 liberty is inculcated when the individual is taught to re- 
 spect the rights of others and to submit to constituted 
 authority. The disregard for law which some parents 
 rather approvingly denominate as the "Young America" 
 spirit, is neither wholesome nor sane. It is often the asser- 
 
FACTORS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 195 
 
 tion of a spirit of lawlessness that is not in accord with 
 republican institutions, which are the highest form of gov- 
 ernment because it is government "of the people, by the 
 people, for the people." The true spirit of "Young 
 America" is the embodiment of respect for the laws which 
 the people themselves have made, and an appreciation of 
 a dearly bought liberty. In the enjoyment of that liberty 
 they must never forget that others, too, have equal rights 
 with them. Thus the State in the broadest sense becomes 
 an important factor in the education of a people. 
 
 5. The Church. — We shall not here discuss the func- 
 tion of religious education, that subject being treated in a 
 later chapter. That religious education is essential to 
 a complete manhood is universally accepted. A great 
 responsibility lies upon the home in respect to religious 
 training, for, in a State like ours, where Church and State 
 are separate, the public school, supported by general taxa- 
 tion, cannot undertake this work. The Church must 
 supplement the religious training of the home, and, indeed, 
 in many cases owing to parental neglect, it is obliged to 
 assume practically the whole work of religious teaching. 
 
 Attention is here called to the subtle, constant, ever- 
 pervading, and powerful influence of the Church as an in- 
 strument of education through its presence rather than 
 through its instruction. Every church, every chapel, every 
 Christian hospital or institution, every minister of the 
 gospel, every consistent Christian man or woman, is a 
 silent, mighty, and salutary element in the education of a 
 people blessed with their presence. Who would live in 
 a community destitute of these agencies! Everyman that 
 comes in contact with them is consciously or unconsciously 
 
ig6 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 affected by them. Life and property are more secure, 
 peace is less disturbed, happiness is assured, and the rights 
 of the individual are guaranteed by the presence of the 
 Church and what it represents. Remove the Church from 
 a community and not only would vice and crime lift their 
 monstrous heads, but general ignorance also would increase. 
 A New York police commissioner recently said, "Were it 
 not for religion and the faith behind it, there are not 
 enough policemen in all the world to keep order in the city 
 of New York." If tliis be so, every citizen is under obliga- 
 tion to support religious institutions, even if he does not 
 attend divine service. It reduces his taxes, restricts crime, 
 and therefore adds materially to the financial value of his 
 property, while it makes life safer. 
 
 Every person living within the influence of the Church 
 is affected thereby even if he never enters its sacred 
 edifices. It engenders respect for the Sabbath, compels 
 vice to hide its head, lessens crime, on the one hand; 
 while on the other hand, it establishes institutions of 
 mercy, elevates moral sentiment, gives correct ideas of 
 justice, stimulates right living, encourages every good word 
 and work, not to mention its more direct and holy influence 
 upon the lives of those who accept its ministrations in their 
 own personal experiences and lives. Hence this institution 
 must be counted as one of the educational agencies both 
 directly and indirectly, and its silent, ever-pervading, holy 
 influence should be cherished and its work sustained. 
 
 It may then be asserted that each of these factors — the 
 home, the school, civil society, the State and the Church — 
 must enter into the work of education, that each has its 
 part to perform that cannot be undertaken by the others. 
 
FACTORS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 197 
 
 Let each do its work, none attempting to shirk responsi- 
 bihty, but all working together in harmony, sustaining, 
 upholding, strengthening one another. Then will result the 
 highest type of manhood and womanhood, individuals 
 well-rounded in character, efficient in their callings, con- 
 scientious, moral, patriotic, and God-fearing. 
 
 The school, upon which the principal burden of educa- 
 tion is laid, is ready to discharge that responsibility accord- 
 ing to the wisdom and strength given it. But it has a right 
 to expect the aid and cooperation of each of these other 
 factors. And if in individual cases the final result falls 
 short of the ideal manhood, the teacher may justly feel that 
 others must share the responsibility of that failure. 
 
 Summary 
 
 While upon the school is laid the chief responsibility of 
 the education of youth, there are four other agencies that 
 must share this work, namely, the home, civil society, the 
 State, and the Church. Each must perform its own special 
 function in a right manner in order that the children may 
 develop into perfect manhood and womanhood. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 References. — Overton, Applied Physiology; Anderson, Gymnas- 
 tics; Lukens, The School-Fatigue Question in Germany, Educational 
 Review, March, 'g8; Burnham, Fatigue, New York Teachers' Mono- 
 graph, Vol. Ill, No. 4; Spencer, Education; Maclaren, Physical 
 Education; Lagrange, Physiology of Bodily Exercise; Wood, Brain- 
 work and Overwork; U. S. Commissioner's Report for 1898, 
 
 A Sound Mind in a Sound Body. — The first six years of 
 the child's life are devoted chiefly to physical growth. The 
 child must learn to walk, to use its hands, to control bodily 
 activities; it must acquire regular habits of sleep, of taking 
 food, of caring for its physical needs. Its physical develop- 
 ment is brought about chiefly through play. Its very rest- 
 lessness, its ceaseless activity is a means which nature pro- 
 vides for developing the physical powers. The child that 
 is inactive is ill either in body or mind, or both, for physical 
 activity is a law for the normal being, a law which continues 
 in force as long as the body is coming to maturity, and which 
 is closely allied to intellectual growth all through life. 
 
 Locke taught the principle, "A sound mind in a sound 
 body," asserting that there can be no complete and success- 
 ful mental development unless there is corresponding phys- 
 ical development. While he himself struggled with disease 
 all his life, he believed that far greater success would have 
 crowned his efforts had he possessed a sound body. He 
 therefore laid down a set of rules as to the food, sleep, 
 physical exercise, and clothing of children. 
 
 198 
 
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT I99 
 
 Montaigne writes, "I would have the youth's outward 
 behaviour and mien and the disposition of his hmbs formed 
 at the same time with his mind. It is not the soul, it is not 
 the body, that we are training up, but a man, and we ought 
 not to divide him." Rousseau says, "Exercise, therefore, 
 not only the physical strength but also the senses that 
 direct it, make the best possible use of each, and verify the 
 impressions of one by those of another. To learn to think, 
 therefore, we should learn to exercise our limbs, senses, 
 organs, since these are the instruments of our intelligence, 
 and in order to make the best use of these instruments it 
 is necessary that the body which produced them should 
 be robust and healthy." 
 
 "The laws of health are the laws of God, and arc as 
 binding as the Decalogue," asserts Colonel Parker. Dr. 
 Munger declares that, "You will never get fine thought out 
 of a coarse body. Nor less will you get a sound thought 
 out of an unsound ' body. The bodily condition strikes 
 through and shows itself in the quality of the thought. A 
 vast amount of the poor, illogical, insipid, morbid, extrav- 
 agant, pessimistic thought that finds its way into books 
 and sermons and conversation has its origin in poor bodies 
 and bad health. The body lies at the basis of success in 
 all respects. A poor body means a poor life all the way 
 up, even to the highest stages of spiritual life. Any relig- 
 ious experience that is connected with a weak or diseased 
 body is to be regarded with suspicion. There can be no 
 healthy thought, no normal feeling, no sound judgment, no 
 vigorous action, except in connection with a sound body." 
 
 G. Stanley Hall believes that morals are largely depend- 
 ent upon the condition of the body. "I plead strongly for 
 
200 ELEMENTARY PEDAG0G7 
 
 physical education on the ground of good morals. I 
 believe that the temptations that assail young people nowa- 
 days are to quite an extent those that would not overcome 
 them if their muscles were strong. They are of that insid- 
 ious, corroding, undermining kind that are somehow or 
 other so prone to creep in as the contractile tissues become 
 relaxed and habitually flabby," 
 
 The usefulness of that apostle of American education, 
 Horace Mann, eminent though it certainly was, undoubt- 
 edly was seriously impaired and his life shortened by a 
 weak body, caused by ignorance of the laws of health. 
 He says, "At college I was taught the motions of the heav- 
 enly bodies, as if their keeping in their orbits depended 
 upon my knowing them, while I was in profound ignorance 
 of the laws of health of my own body. The rest of my 
 life was, in consequence, one long battle with exhausted 
 energies." 
 
 "Mind and body should be viewed as the two well- 
 fitting halves of a perfect whole, designed in true accord 
 mutually to sustain and support each other, and each 
 worthy of our unwearied care and unstinted attention, to 
 be given with fuller faith and more reverent trust than they 
 have who would argue that He who united in us our two- 
 fold nature made them incompatible, inharmonious, 
 opposed. No, no; even blind and blundering man does 
 not yoke two oxen together to pull against each other. 
 Mind and body can pull well together in the same team if 
 the burden be fairly adjusted." * 
 
 * Maclaren, "Physical Education," p. 34. 
 
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 201 
 
 Nourishment. — If the child comes to school ill-fed and 
 ill-nourished, it is certain that he cannot perform the tasks 
 that may be expected of one in normal condition. It 
 has been observed that in times of great strikes, when 
 there is a scarcity of food in the home, and uncertainty 
 as to the necessary supplies in the families of the strikers, 
 that there is a marked diminution in the ability of their 
 children to perform the ordinary school requirements. 
 Doubtless the lawlessness and agitated state of mind pre- 
 vailing, affects not only the discipline of the school, but 
 also the ability to study. But the chief cause of the falling 
 off in work is found to be the depleted condition of the 
 body. Children of the extremely poor are ever placed at 
 a great disadvantage from this cause. London, Paris, 
 Berlin, and other great cities provide food for children of 
 the poor, in order that they may be able to do better school 
 work. It is recognized that it is useless to expect good 
 intellectual work if the body is poorly nourished, hence 
 the expenditure of public funds for food is ultimately an 
 economy in the matter of education. 
 
 Splendid school buildings, modern apparatus, efficient 
 teachers call for large expenditure of money. All of these 
 things avail nothing if the child is not in condition to be 
 taught. Therefore the State may well consider the ques- 
 tion of the physical ability of the child to study as depend- 
 ent upon nourishment, as it already considers the matter 
 of the eyesight, and contagious diseases among children. 
 
 That weakness of the body affects the mind, is shown 
 by the decreased mental power caused by severe illness, in 
 feeble-minded children, and in forms of insanity. Long- 
 continued illness, like a case of typhoid fever, pneumonia, 
 
202 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 or consumption, not only reduces the vigor of the body, 
 but also that of the mind, which shows itself by peevish- 
 ness, childishness, and other evidences that do not appear 
 when the body is sound. Mental power returns only 
 with the restoration of health. In the case of the feeble- 
 minded, it may be stated that the length of their lives is 
 generally inversely to the degree of their weak-mindedness. 
 Idiots are usually short-lived. Authorities state that the 
 average length of life of those classed as feeble-minded is 
 about twenty-one years, while that of mankind generally 
 is about forty. And the efforts of institutions for the feeble- 
 minded in stimulating their minds, as well as caring for 
 their bodies, have resulted in increasing the length of their 
 lives by about three years within the last two decades. One 
 rarely meets a person destitute of mind, an idiot, who 
 reaches maturity. 
 
 The same law holds in insanity. Violently insane per- 
 sons seldom live more than four years, usually much less 
 than this, while mild cases may live many years. It is 
 certain that there is a close relationship between the mental 
 and the physical activities, each mutually supporting and 
 affecting the other. Of course there are exceptional cases 
 where these laws do not hold. Rosenkranz remarks, 
 "Mens Sana in cor pore sano is correct as a pedagogical 
 maxim, but false in the judgment of individual cases; 
 because it is possible, on the one hand, to have a healthy 
 mind in an unhealthy body, and, on the other hand, an 
 unhealthy mind in a healthy body. Nevertheless, to strive 
 after the harmony of soul and body is the material condi- 
 tion of all normal activity. The development of intelli- 
 gence presupposes physical health." 
 
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 203 
 
 The care of the human body is then essentially an educa- 
 tional question. Knowledge of food, clothing, cleanliness, 
 fatigue, and rest, as well as other matters pertaining to the 
 body should be possessed by the teacher and taught to chil- 
 dren. While works on physiology and hygiene must be 
 consulted for details, the subject is so important to peda- 
 gogy that a discussion of elementary principles will not be 
 out of place. 
 
 I. Food. — The American people generally are ignorant 
 as to the nature, use, and character of foods. Hot-breads, 
 prepared breakfast foods, sweetmeats, and mixtures totally 
 incongruous and harmful are swallowed with impunity. 
 As a result, perverted and unnatural appetites are created, 
 indigestion invited, and stomach and intestinal disorders 
 have become most common. These conditions invite 
 gross forms of intemperance in eating and drinking in order 
 to satisfy the unnatural craving that has been created. 
 Most states in the Union require instruction in the public 
 schools as to the nature and effect of alcohol upon the 
 human system, A much more salutary effect would be 
 produced directly in furthering the cause of temperance, as 
 well as in establis'ning the health of the people, if such teach- 
 ing were preceded, accompanied, and supplemented by 
 intelligent and practical instruction as to the nature and 
 use of foods. For there is intemperance in eating as well 
 as in drinking, possibly fully as serious when one considers 
 the far more general character of the former, and that it 
 very often leads to the latter. 
 
 Such intelligent instruction is carried on in every school 
 in Germany. • I once witnessed the instruction given to 
 a class of six-year-old boys in Leipsic on the subject of 
 
204 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 bread. The teacher asked, *'How old must bread be before 
 it is eaten?" The answer was, "Not less than twenty- 
 four hours." It is instruction of this character that has 
 taught the German people to abstain from the use of 
 fresh bread, and of other harmful foods, as well as to 
 know the nature of foods that may be mixed and those 
 that may not be. As a consequence of such instruction, 
 one rarely meets with a dyspeptic among that people, 
 and gross forms of drunkenness are by no means so com- 
 mon as in this country. The use of candies and sweet- 
 meats is discouraged, the amount of sugar consumed being 
 less than one-fourth per capita of that consumed in this 
 country. 
 
 Instruction should be given not only as to the kind of 
 food essential to good health, but also as to the quantity. 
 Physicians assert that most people eat too much rather than 
 too little. Without doubt the death or permanent disabil- 
 ity of so many men in middle life is owing, not so much to 
 the strenuous life they live, as to the eating of highly- 
 seasoned, incongruous, and unsuited foods, and eating 
 them at the highest possible rate of speed. In this respect 
 we need to learn the lesson of the "simple hfe, " thereby 
 increasing the capacity for labor, lessening the ravages of 
 disease, fortifying the system against its attacks, and thus 
 materially lengthening life. 
 
 The purpose here is to call attention to the necessity of 
 such instruction as a part of practical education. Surely 
 there is none more practical, for the right food is necessary 
 for health, and without health it is impossible to reach the 
 highest intellectual development. The details as to foods 
 will be found in every good physiology; happily recent 
 
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 20$ 
 
 works on this subject are giving attention to this vital 
 question/ 
 
 2. Clothing. — The primary purpose of clothing is to 
 protect the body against the loss of heat and keep it at 
 normal temperature. Hence the material chosen should 
 be such as to prevent the escape of bodily warmth in cold 
 weather, and allow it in warm weather. Wool, being a 
 poor conductor of heat, is therefore more suitable for the 
 winter, and linen and cotton being good conductors are 
 selected for summer wear. " The amount of clothing which 
 one needs depends largely upon a person's occupation and 
 previous habits. A day laborer seldom needs an over- 
 coat, but works in his shirt sleeves, while a clerk would be 
 chilled were he to step outdoors without extra wraps. It 
 is a mistake to think that by exposure to the cold one can 
 always become hardened to it. It is true only when a 
 person takes active exercise and lives out of doors contin- 
 uously. The body cannot adapt itself to the sudden changes 
 from hours spent in a warm room to an hour or two in the 
 cold air. Enough clothing should be worn so that the 
 body does not feel chilled on entering the cold air." Cloth- 
 ing, like food, is essential to keep the body at its normal 
 temperature, without which health cannot be maintained. 
 
 Every individual should understand the danger of 
 exposure to draughts. Colds are taken, pneumonia invited, 
 and diseases contracted which may be difficult of removal, 
 through sitting in a draught. A few moments in a draught 
 may do the deadly damage, while consequences arising 
 from a stuffy room are not so immediate. Because the 
 
 * I call especial attention to Chapters XII and XIII of Overton's "Applied 
 Physiology, Advanced," on "Animal and Vegetable Food." 
 
206 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 draught is pleasant to one suffering from heat, careless and 
 inconsiderate persons take chances that often involve 
 later suffering. Two mothers with sleeping babes in their 
 arms, entered a trolley-car about nine o'clock one October 
 evening. They sat with the windows open in front of 
 them and a perfect hurricane blowing upon the faces of the 
 babies when the car was in motion. They seemed to be 
 utterly ignorant of the fact that they were exposing their 
 offspring to deadly danger. The ignorance and indiffer- 
 ence of most people in regard to tliis matter are appalling. 
 Children should be trained to avoid draughts whether in a 
 car, a pubhc hall, the home, or the schoolroom. Especially 
 dangerous are draughts when one is freely perspiring. A 
 moment's exposure will often result in a cold. Hence care- 
 ful atliletes cover themselves with wraps whenever a respite 
 in a game occurs, even though it be but for one or two 
 minutes' duration. 
 
 3. Cleanliness. — Rosenkranz says, " Cleanliness is a vir- 
 tue to which children should be accustomed for the sake of 
 their physical well-being, as well as because, in a moral point 
 of view, it is of great significance." It teaches good orderand 
 system, it inculcates a sense of fitness of surroundings, and 
 is disturbed when things are out of harmony. It is very essen- 
 tial that the schoolroom be kept neat and clean, that the 
 walls be decorated, that school books and school apparatus 
 be taken care of. There are aesthetic as well as hygienic 
 reasons for keeping text-books clean and properly covered. 
 Attention should be given to the cleanliness of person and 
 dress of pupils. No school can secure the highest educa- 
 tional development, especially from the standpoint of 
 morals, that fails to inculcate habits of cleanliness. And 
 
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 20/ 
 
 wise instruction in this matter will not only lead the pupils 
 to come to school clean and decent, but will also affect 
 their home habits and life. Where the sentiment of the 
 school demands neat but inexpensive clotliing, and clean- 
 liness of person, every child, whatever be his home environ- 
 ment, will be affected thereby and gradually acquire the 
 prevailing habits. Definite instruction as to the manner of 
 keeping clean and the physical and moral benefits to be 
 derived therefrom, should be patiently given to all children, 
 in addition to the good example set. The school that 
 neglects this duty cannot attain to a high standard of 
 morals. Every school should be provided with such ac- 
 commodations as modesty and decency require, and it is 
 incumbent upon the teacher to insist upon strictest cleanli- 
 ness for hygienic as well as moral reasons. 
 
 4. Fatigue and Rest. — A careful study of fatigue has 
 revealed some notable results. For instance, Wagner found 
 that the effects of fatigue produced by various subjects may 
 be represented as follows: Mathematics (higher), 100; 
 Latin, 91; Greek, 90; history, 85; geography, 85 ; arithme- 
 tic, French, and German, 82; natural science, 80; drawing 
 and religion, 77. This table would suggest that as a change 
 from one subject to an easier one serves, temporarily at 
 least, to lessen and relieve fatigue, the arrangement of the 
 daily schedule of work should be based upon the principle 
 of alternating the easy with the difficult subjects. It cer- 
 tainly proves that the arrangement of the program of 
 studies requires careful thought.* 
 
 There are certain signs of fatigue that are manifest to the 
 
 ^ See chapter on "The Daily Program " in "Foundations of Education," 
 
208 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 casual observer. Some one has outlined these signs as 
 follows: ''Physical signs — (i) angles of mouth depressed, 
 (2) furrows across the forehead, (3) eyes wandering, (4) 
 coloration beneath the eyes, (5) white lines around the 
 mouth, (6) bluish spots on cheek and neck, (7) pulse un- 
 usually slow or rapid, (8) frequent attacks of headache, 
 (9) awkward position of body, (10) neurasthenic voice, (11) 
 unnatural action, (12) general appearance of depression. 
 Mental signs — (i) lack of ability to give attention, (2) 
 weakening of perception, (3) unreadiness and inaccuracy 
 of judgment, (4) diminishing power of insight, (5) loss of 
 sensitiveness, (6) lack of self-control, (7) lessened work- 
 rate, (8) lengthened reaction time, (9) deep sense of misery 
 in the morning, (10) one or more insistent ideas which can- 
 not be thrown off." 
 
 It must be admitted that these manifestations, especially 
 of the latter, are not always chargeable to fatigue. They 
 may be caused by lack of interest, by the dull manner and 
 want of enthusiasm of the teacher, by an unnatural method 
 of presentation of the subject, by ignorance of the subject- 
 matter on the part of the teacher, or by an inherent dislike 
 for the subject on the part of the pupil, which causes him 
 to seem bored. But generally speaking, the signs above 
 given are evidences of fatigue. 
 
 True fatigue must not be considered as unnatural, or even 
 undesirable. It presupposes activity, wMch is essential to 
 human development, both physical and mental. Proper and 
 healthful fatigue is followed by sweet and refreshing sleep. 
 The laborer who drags his tired limbs to liis home at even- 
 tide after a day's hard work rarely suffers from insomnia. 
 The child that has been active all day in play falls into 
 
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 209 
 
 slumber as soon as he touches his bed at night. Over- 
 exertion and over-weariness are to be guarded against, but 
 not that healthful weariness which is the natural result of 
 physical or mental activity. Every one should work enough 
 to get tired. The body will be made healthier thereby, the 
 mind happier and more contented, and rest sweeter. But 
 overwork exacts an inevitable penalty. It may be sleepless- 
 ness — "I am too tired to sleep," is a common expression; 
 it may break down the health, it may bring the victim pre- 
 maturely to the grave. A sure test as to the sufficiency of 
 sleep is found in the answer to the question, "Are you 
 rested when you get up in the morning?" Many a man 
 has succumbed to the inexorable laws of nature far too early 
 in life because he has "burned the candle at both ends," 
 because he has set too hard a pace. Broken health or 
 death is the fate of many who might have been vigorous 
 and useful for many years had they obeyed the laws of 
 health, husbanded their strength, and allowed fatigue to be 
 followed by suitable and complete rest. 
 
 Again, it has been remarked that " an understanding of 
 the laws governing overwork, and the penalties of over- 
 exertion should be of the utmost value to every student and 
 worker. When a man is tired he has, either by inactivity 
 or over-activity, committed a chemical, physiological, and 
 psychological violation of the laws of the human economy, 
 and is then in no condition to withstand the wear and tear 
 of life. Fatigue is the result of labor, and as such is a 
 periodic symptom with which every healthy person should 
 be familiar. It is one of the laws of organic life that 
 periods of relaxation shall succeed periods of activity. 
 The heart itself is normally in repose for about one-third 
 
2IO ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 of the time consumed by each beat — a fact in which 
 there is something peculiarly suggestive, since it is generally 
 agreed that about one-third of the twenty-four hours 
 should be devoted to sleep. Life itself is made up of a 
 series of vibrations, in which tension and rest succeed 
 each other. The heart vibrates about seventy times per 
 minute; the vibrations of the respiratory organs occur 
 about sixteen times within the same period; while the 
 vibrations of the whole organism may be said to complete 
 their cycle once in the twenty-four hours. 
 
 "An abnormal fatigue, a state approacliing exhaustion, 
 occurs when one attempts to alter nature's rhythm, when 
 the hours of tension are made to encroach upon those 
 which should be devoted to rest, when brain, and muscle, 
 and nerve are driven to the furthest exertion. Fatigue 
 of the kind known as over-training results, in the case of 
 the athlete, in heart weakness and shortness of breath; 
 while the long-continued fatigue occasioned by excessive 
 application to study, or to business or professional pursuits, 
 results often in nervous prostration, and not infrequently 
 lays the foundation for paralysis." 
 
 A change of occupation may rest some muscles that have 
 been overworked while it brings into activity other muscles 
 that have been idle. A similar result is also true in mental 
 work. But absolute relief from general fatigue can only 
 be obtained by rest. 
 
 Dr. Lukens says, "Change of work in school is, never- 
 theless, undoubtedly advantageous. In the first place, the 
 interruptions give a time for recreation ; secondly — and 
 this is the most important reason — the school subjects do 
 not all require an equal effort of attention and an equal 
 
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 211 
 
 expenditure of energy. After a difificult lesson an easy 
 lesson will afford an opportunity for a partial recovery from 
 the fatigue previously produced. The change of work, 
 therefore, must not be merely a change of subject, or even 
 a change of occupation, but a change in the difficulty of the 
 task. Easy and difficult must alternate. Thirdly, we may 
 obtain refreshment by change of work, on accpunt of the 
 fresher mood with which we turn to new work. Of course 
 this change must not be too frequent or sudden; in that case 
 it becomes an unpleasant disturbance, owing to the diffi- 
 culty we feel in going from one mood to another. In order 
 to work well we must gain the necessary absorption in 
 the subject-matter, our feelings must harmonize, and our 
 thoughts directed toward the object. In this way we 
 become 'warmed up' to a subject, and tliis warmth is all 
 lost when we go over to an entirely different subject." 
 
 As sleep is the only complete restoration for fatigue, it 
 may be asked, "How much sleep is necessary?" Doubt- 
 less some people require more sleep than others. A Napo- 
 leon may be satisfied with a daily average of four hours, 
 while many others need ten. Children, who are active, 
 need more sleep than adults. The average person needs 
 about eight hours, and time devoted to sleep must by no 
 means be considered wasted. It restores the body to its 
 normal strength, refreshes and reinvigorates all the facul- 
 ties, and prepares for the activities of a new day. Sleep 
 is a great, an indescribable blessing, and the proper time 
 devoted to it should not be begrudged. 
 
 As to the application of these principles to the school, 
 Griesbach demands " (i) No scientific work in the after- 
 noons; (2) later beginning of the school in the morning 
 
212 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 (never before eight, the German schools often begin at 
 seven in the summer); (3) abohshment, as far as possible, 
 of school examinations; (4) reduction of home-work, and 
 especially less mechanical learning by heart." 
 
 5. Gymnastics. — Left to itself the body is apt to ac- 
 quire unnatural, and perhaps uncouth proportions, and 
 lack that grace which is an evidence of perfect self-control. 
 Therefore the physical body must receive special training. 
 The whole man is to be educated, and if the body is not 
 properly developed all the other powers are affected, as 
 has already been shown. Gymnastics seeks to give the 
 body grace of movement, self-control, and complete self- 
 command. Indeed, Rosenkranz well remarks,^ "The 
 fundamental idea of gymnastics must always be that the 
 spirit shall rule over its body and make this an energetic and 
 docile servant of the will. Strength and adroitness must 
 unite and become confident skill. Strength, carried to its 
 extreme, produces the athlete; adroitness, to its extreme, 
 the acrobat. Education must avoid both. All gigantic 
 strength, as well as acrobatic skill, fit only for display, must 
 be discouraged and so too must be the idea of teaching gym- 
 nastics with the motive of utility; e.g. that by swimming 
 one may save his life when he falls into the water, etc. 
 Among other things, utility may be the consequence; but 
 the principle in general must always be the necessity of the 
 spirit subjecting its bodily organism to the condition of a 
 perfect instrument, so that it may ever find it equal to the 
 execution of its will." 
 
 Physical exercises in general are usually classified as 
 follows: 
 
 * "Philosophy of Education," p. 65. 
 
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 213 
 
 a. Exercises of strength, requiring strong effort of the 
 will, fixation of the chest, and straining of the muscles to 
 the utmost. They include wrestling, and lifting of heavy 
 weights, and are unsuited to children. 
 
 b. Exercises of skill, intended to train the power of 
 coordination; they involve brain and nerve activity, with 
 more or less muscular exertion. They include compound 
 movements in calisthenics, work with apparatus, such as, 
 the vaulting horse and horizontal bar, and are excellent 
 for all ages up to and including the early years of maturity. 
 They are carried to the extreme in manual training, per- 
 forming on musical instruments and handicraft work 
 generally. 
 
 c. Exercises of quickness, requiring the repetition of 
 similar movements in the shortest possible time, resulting 
 in very great activity of heart and lungs, and, when 
 carried too far, temporarily exhausting these organs. 
 They include racing in all its forms, running, climbing, 
 etc. In moderate degrees, they are excellent for children. 
 
 d. Exercises of endurance, requiring a moderate degree 
 of exertion in movements kept up for a long period. 
 They include such exercises as long distance racing. 
 They are exhaustive in their effects, particularly upon the 
 will, and are unsuited to children. 
 
 e. Exercises of the attention, requiring a small amount 
 of muscular effort, but making great demand on the 
 attention. As illustration of these may be mentioned 
 marching in its various forms, and the learning of new 
 movements of all kinds. For persons that are hard 
 
214 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 worked mentally, these exercises should be employed 
 sparingly. 
 
 /. Exercises of alertness, involving quick response to 
 varying conditions. They include most games, especially of 
 a competitive nature. They are particularly enjoyed by 
 children, and are beneficial for almost all years, up to 
 middle life. 
 
 While there is some over-lapping in the different divis- 
 ions in this classification, the scheme outlined is the one 
 generally followed by the leaders in the department of 
 physical training at the present time. 
 
 By means of attention to food, clothing, cleanliness, and 
 proper physical exercise, a better understanding of the laws 
 of health, and the enforcement of sanitary regulations,- the 
 death rate has been considerably reduced. In 1867, the 
 death rate of New York City was 32.27 persons in the 
 thousand. In 1904 it was 18.2, being a saving of 14.07 
 persons to the thousand, or nearly one-half. This would 
 be 56,280 lives saved each year in a city of 4,000,000 
 inhabitants. A like saving in the 80,000,000 population of 
 the whole country would mean that over 1,000,000 persons 
 who go down to untimely graves would be spared, to say 
 nothing of the increased efficiency of the whole population 
 because of more vigorous health. Surely the problem of 
 physical training, as well as education in the laws of 
 health, becomes of mighty import, not only to educators, 
 but also to statesmen, philanthropists, and public econo- 
 mists everywhere. 
 
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 21$ 
 
 Summary 
 
 I. Intellectual and moral development is closely connected 
 with the development of the body. Hence specific instruc- 
 tion upon all matters that affect the physical being should be 
 included in every system of education. Especial attention 
 should be given to fatigue and rest. While change of occu- 
 pation may afford temporary relief sleep is necessary to 
 obtain absolute rest. 
 
 II. The fundamental principle of gymnastics is that " the 
 spirit shall rule over its body and make this an energetic and 
 docile servant of the will.^^ 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 References. — Home, Philosophy of Education; Tompkins, 
 Philosophy of Teaching; Froebcl, Education of Man; Bowen, 
 Froebel and Education Through Self- Activity; Rosmini, Method in 
 Education; Parker, Talks on Pedagogics. 
 
 To many the whole conception of education is embraced 
 in the development of the intellect. We have shown that 
 the whole man must be educated. Without doubt, how- 
 ever, the work of the school is centered in the intellectual 
 development of the child, and upon this idea is focused all 
 other discipline, even though it be recognized that the 
 highest end of education is moral character. 
 
 Self-Activity. — The first essential to success is the 
 arousing of the child's self-activity. Unless tliis is done 
 there can be no education. Rosenkranz well remarks,^ 
 "All apparatus is dead, all arrangement of no avail, all 
 teaching fruitless, if the pupil does not by his free self- 
 activity receive into his inner self what one teaches him, 
 and then make it his own property." 
 
 Dr. Hervey, in discussing "The Doctrine of Self- Activity," 
 says:^ "Of all the conceptions that give aid and comfort to 
 the teacher, that of self-activity is one of the most inspiring 
 and fruitful. The notion is a fundamental one in pliiloso- 
 phy and psychology, and it is therefore basal in educa- 
 
 ^ "Ph/tosophy of Education," p. 115. 
 ' New York, "Teachers' Monograph," Oct. 1901. 
 216 
 
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 21/ 
 
 tion. This fact was never more clearly recognized than it is 
 to-day. In modern works on philosophy, we meet again 
 and again such expressions as these : ' Primal being can be 
 conceived only as self-activity;' 'The soul is self-activity.' " 
 
 "Imitation, interest, and effort," says Horne,^ "this trin- 
 ity of wonderful words, each representing a way to which 
 the self-active mind works out its own growth, almost 
 covers the theoretical part of contemporary educational 
 discussions." Arnold Tompkins remarks, "Whenever 
 teaching is found to be dead it is because the teacher strives 
 to induce action from without, instead of utilizing the self- 
 activity of the pupil. Witness, for example, the dire dis- 
 tress of the teacher in striving to secure oral or written 
 expression from the pupil when there is no inner motive 
 to expression! " 
 
 No apostle of education has laid so much stress upon the 
 principle of self-activity as Froebel. He asserts that^ 
 "The prescriptive, interfering education, indeed, can be 
 justified only on two grounds; either because it teaches the 
 clear, living thought, self-evident truth, or because it holds 
 up a life whose ideal value has been established in experi- 
 ence. But, where self-evident, living, absolute truth rules, 
 the eternal principle itself reigns, as it were, and will on 
 this account maintain a passive, following character. For 
 the living thought, the eternal living principle as such de- 
 mands and requires free self-activity and self-determina- 
 tion on the part of man, the being created for freedom in 
 the image of God." 
 
 Bo wen cites from Froebel as follows: ' " Instruction begins 
 
 ' " Philosophy of Education, " p. 175. 
 
 * "Education of Man," p. 11. 
 
 ' "Froebel and Education Through Self-Activity," p. 29. 
 
2l8 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 in the fifth year of the child's Hfe by leading him simply 
 to find himself (get the command of his senses), to distin- 
 guish himself from external things and these from one 
 another, to know clearly what he sees in his nearest sur- 
 roundings, and at the same time to designate it by the right 
 word, to enjoy his first knowledge as the first contribution 
 towards his future intellectual treasure. Self-activity of 
 mind is the first law of instruction ; therefore the kind of in- 
 struction given here does not make the young mind a strong- 
 box, into which, as early as possible, all kinds of coins of 
 the most different values and coinage, such as are now 
 current in the world, are stuffed; but slowly, continuously, 
 gradually, and always inwardly, that is, according to a con- 
 nection founded on the nature of the mind, the instruction 
 goes on without any tricks . . . from the simple to the 
 complex, from the concrete to the abstract, so well adapted 
 to the child and liis needs that he goes as readily to his 
 learning as to his play." 
 
 It may be stated, then, that the first essential of intellectual 
 development is to stimulate self-activity on the part of the 
 person to be taught. Until this is accomplished all effort 
 at instruction, all skill in method, all zeal, enthusiasm, and 
 learning on the part of the teacher is in vain. 
 
 • Attention. — Before the child can be stimulated to intel- 
 ligent and proper self-activity his attention must be gained. 
 Without this no instruction can be given, no knowledge 
 acquired. It is not sufficient to demand attention, the 
 interest of the pupil must be aroused. Without interest 
 there can be no real attention. The method of stimulating 
 interest will depend upon the maturity of the children, the 
 
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 219 
 
 subject to be taught, and the individuality of the teacher. 
 There are certain general principles, however, that should 
 be borne in mind, which hold true in all cases. These will 
 be considered later. 
 
 But what is meant by attention ? Rosmini defines it as 
 follows: "Attention is that power of the mind which directs 
 the intellect to one object rather than another; attention 
 itself, again, being directed by sensible wants." ^ Hughes 
 says,^ "Attention is the direction of the powers of the mind 
 to the impressions received through the senses or to subjects 
 of reflection." 
 
 Colonel Parker very clearly sets forth that, "Attention is a 
 process of mental or conscious action stimulated, excited, 
 aroused, induced, or caused by the attributes of external 
 objects upon consciousness." Professor James remarks, 
 "To excite a pupil's attention and hold it is the greatest task 
 of the teacher's life. Our ability to remember a thing de- 
 pends on the attention we give to it when under considera- 
 tion. There are many external methods of awakening 
 attention, but to gain the interest is more effective. You 
 will never gain attention by demanding it, unless you 
 awaken the child's interest. The young child as a rule 
 has very little native interest. The teacher must arouse 
 and hold it by action — experiments, anecdotes, diagrams, 
 drawings, etc. 
 
 "How can we get the child interested when these means 
 cannot be used? There is one rule; you must connect the 
 new matter with some other matter that you know the child 
 is already interested in. Associate the uninteresting new 
 
 ^ "Method in Education," p. 50. 
 
 ? "Securing and Retaining Attention," p. 4. 
 
220 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 with the interesting old and the whole will become interest- 
 ing. This is the abstract principle, but the application is 
 by no means easy. Here the teacher's native tact, ingenu- 
 ity, and invention are demanded. It is this abihty that 
 marks the born teacher." 
 
 Superintendent Brooks gives nine suggestions for securing 
 attention: " (i) Manifest an interest in the subject you 
 are teaching. (2) Be clear in thought and ready in expres- 
 sion. (3) Speak in your natural tone, with variety and flexi- 
 bility of voice. (4) Let your position before the class be 
 usually a standing one. (5) Teach without a book as far 
 as possible. (6) Assign subjects promiscuously when neces- 
 sary. (7) Use concrete methods of instruction when pos- 
 sible. (8) Vary your method, as variety is attractive to 
 children. (9) Determine to secure attention at all haz- 
 ards." 
 
 Ability to give attention may be taken as a measure of 
 intellectual power. Sir Isaac Newton ascribed liis superior- 
 ity over other men in intellectual power to his ability to 
 concentrate his attention. There are four steps that dis- 
 tinguish the powers of attention, namely, isolation, analysis, 
 abstraction, and the essential relations of analysis and 
 abstraction to each other. Let us consider these steps 
 separately. 
 
 I. Isolation. — The object to which attention is called 
 is separate from others so that it stands out by itself. Thus 
 a tree standing in an open field is an object of greater atten- 
 tion than it would be in a forest ; a man dressed in fantastic 
 costume parades the streets as an advertising medium — 
 his dress isolates him from others and he is able to attract 
 attention to his wares; an advertiser employs skill in setting 
 
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 221 
 
 type so as to catch the eye of the reader, one or two isolated 
 articles standing out prominently; the show-window or 
 parlor of a millinery establishment exhibits only a few typi- 
 cal hats separated from each other on standards, thus 
 attracting attention to the individual. The purpose of 
 advertising is to attract attention, and the secret of it lies 
 in the ability to employ the principle of isolation. Ex- 
 amples might be multiplied showing that the first essential 
 in winning attention is to isolate the object from all others, 
 and the same law holds good in intellectual as well as in 
 material matters. If an exercise or a thought is to be con- 
 sidered, it must first be set apart from all others. The 
 teacher must therefore exclude all other matter but the 
 particular thing to be considered, present this in the most 
 vivid manner, and employ concrete illustrations with young 
 children. Thus may attention in its simplest form be 
 gained. 
 
 2. Analysis. — When the attention to the individual 
 isolated tiling has been gained, the next step is to analyze 
 it into its parts. Thus if an advertisement catches the eye, 
 wins the attention, it will be read to see what is offered. 
 The description of the article advertised, its price, by whom 
 offered, etc., will be taken into account, the attention being 
 intensified in proportion to the needs of the reader and 
 to the skill of the appeal made. Or the hat that gains 
 attention as it stands isolated is examined as to its shape, 
 its trimmings, its color, its materials, its style. The tree 
 standing alone in the field is noticed as to its shape, its 
 foliage, its kind. The street advertiser, dressed perhaps 
 as "Uncle Sam," is noticed as to his tall hat, his striped 
 trousers, his ribbon-tailed coat, and then to the thing he is 
 
222 ELEMENTAPY PEDAGOGY 
 
 advertising. The attention of a class is called to a picture 
 which is first seen as a whole. Then the various features 
 of the picture may be brought out by analysis. Or a sen- 
 tence is placed on the blackboard, read by the class, then 
 its subject, predicate, modifiers, etc., pointed out. Thus 
 it will be found that the second step in the process of atten- 
 tion is analysis, and but little material will be fixed in the 
 mind if this step is not taken. 
 
 3. Abstraction. — It has been shown elsewhere (p. 43) 
 that an ultimate aim in the process of instruction is to bring 
 the child to a conception of the abstract notion; that to 
 stop short of this aim is to fail to establish the relations of 
 knowledge; that this end is essential in order to fix the mate- 
 rial in the mind so that it may be used unconsciously, 
 habitually, masterfully; and that this power distinguishes 
 man from the lower creatures. In the process of atten- 
 tion, having analyzed the object with its parts, the next 
 step is to "seize upon one of the distinctions found by 
 analysis" and proceed to abstraction. As a concrete illus- 
 tration we may once more refer to the hat. A feature of 
 its trimmings, as the flowers, may be considered in the 
 abstract as to their color, beauty, faithfulness in represent- 
 ing genuine flowers, etc. The same may be true of any 
 feature of the street advertiser, "Uncle Sam," that may be 
 thought of without any relation to the whole; also 
 the object of the fantastic costume, which is to get 
 the attention fixed upon the thing advertised, may be 
 thought of independent of the advertiser. A word in the 
 sentence analyzed may be thought of as a noun, a verb, an 
 adjective. A class may have analyzed the celebrated paint- 
 ing, "Washington Crossing the Delaware." Washington 
 
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 223 
 
 can be thought of as a great historic character without 
 regard to the picture; the other occupants of the boats, the 
 blocks of ice, the peril, each of these can be considered in 
 the abstract. A whole train of events — the battle of Tren- 
 ton immediately following, its effect upon the cause of the 
 patriots, Washington's subsequent career, the establish- 
 ment and growth of the nation, its effect upon the world's 
 history, all these ideas naturally flow out of the incident 
 portrayed by the artist. Thus the attention awakened by the 
 picture comes to have a breadth and meaning far beyond 
 anything that the picture itself contains. 
 
 4. Finding relations. — The final act of attention con- 
 sists in a synopsis, a summary of the whole, an establish- 
 ment of the relations that exist between the parts. Dr. 
 Harris speaks of this point as a "process of synthetic 
 thought, a grasping together, a comprehension — a higher 
 activity of the mind — a fourth potence of the power of 
 attention." We may illustrate tliis process by once more 
 employing the examples already cited and proceeding a 
 step further. In the picture "Wasliington Crossing the 
 Delaware," a whole train of events is suggested, as already 
 pointed out. By reflection the attention is easily led to a 
 great many relations and circumstances that flow out of 
 the event pictured, such as, the battle which immediately 
 followed, its good effect upon the cause of the patriots, 
 and the corresponding disastrous effect upon our enemy 
 who spoke of it as "that unfortunate affair at Trenton." 
 Employing again the illustration concerning the choice of 
 a hat, its suitability of style, shape, color, etc., to the wants 
 of the person considering it may be spoken of as the em- 
 ployment of attention to determine the relations. To quote 
 
224 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 once more from Dr. Harris/ "Reflection, or attention in its 
 higher powers, discovers necessary relations, and forms 
 more adequate ideas of truth. Isaac Newton saw the sun 
 and planets as one gravitating whole — a system — and 
 his knowledge certainly came nearer the truth than did 
 the knowledge of previous astronomers who merely knew 
 the sun and planets in their separate existence. In going 
 into the truth of objects, the mind goes into itself at the 
 same time. Psychology points backward to the great fact 
 that reason made both the world and the human intellect." 
 
 Practical Suggestions as to Attention. — It is useless to 
 attempt to teach without attention. If a teacher is willing 
 to go on with the recitation with only a part of the class 
 attentive, he will soon find that all are inattentive and hence 
 there is no instruction being given. Children soon learn 
 whether or not the teacher is oblivious to his surroundings 
 or whether he will not teach unless all attend to the matter 
 in hand. Nothing is so fatal to successful instruction or to 
 good order as want of attention. It is useless to demand 
 attention without providing the means to win and hold it. 
 When this cannot be done, it is better to close the recita- 
 tion. 
 
 The following suggestions may be of use, especially in 
 dealing with children. 
 
 I . See to the material conditions. — It is impossible to 
 hold the attention of a class very long if the surroundings 
 are unfavorable. A high temperature or bad air in the 
 room, the flapping of window-curtains, draughts, direct sun- 
 shine, uncomfortable seats, mischievous neighbors, may 
 * Rosenkranz, "Philosophy of Education," p. 72. 
 
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 22$ 
 
 defeat the effort to gain attention. A moment spent at 
 the outset in regulating these things will prove to be time 
 well spent. Indeed, unless these conditions are favorable 
 there is little use in beginning the lesson. 
 
 2. Proper attitude must he required. — Children should 
 be required to sit or stand erect, facing the teacher and in 
 as close proximity to him as possible. It is difficult to hold 
 the interest of a class located a long distance away, espe- 
 cially if other pupils are at work in the same room. It may 
 be said that the effectiveness of the instruction varies in- 
 versely with the distance between the teacher and the class. 
 While it is useless to demand attention, it is not useless to 
 require a prouer attitude in class. 
 
 3. Awaken the interest. — Having attended to these pre- 
 liminary matters, the teacher may proceed with the instruc- 
 tion. The first thing necessary to gain attention is interest. 
 "Interest," says Dr. Johnson, "is the mother of attention; 
 attention is the mother of memory; to get memory, get her 
 mother and her grandmother," If, then, the pupil is to 
 remember the truths taught, his attention must be gained 
 through awakening his interest. With young children this 
 is done chiefly by means of concrete illustration. The child 
 is interested in what appeals to his senses. Nor does the 
 use of illustration as a means of stimulating interest cease 
 with children, as we have seen elsewhere. The preacher 
 employs it to enliven his sermon and to enforce the truths 
 he would teach; the lawyer uses it in his pleas in court; 
 the medical professor and the surgeon utilize it in the clinic 
 before their students; the orator makes use of it in appeal- 
 ing to voters; and the lecturer clarifies his theme through 
 
226 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 this means. With young children it is absolutely essential, 
 while with adults it may be employed to arouse the flagging 
 interest. So long as interest is maintained attention can 
 be held and no longer. 
 
 4. Use judgment as to the length of the recitation. — 
 There is a limit to the length of time that attention can be 
 held, depending upon the maturity of the pupils, the char- 
 acter of the subject, the method employed, the time of the 
 day, and the personality of the teacher. In general, the 
 attention of young children can be held only for a brief 
 period. In most subjects, ten or fifteen minutes in the 
 primary grades is as long a period as the children can be 
 held in profitable recitation, as their interest is sure to flag. 
 Subjects that admit of illustration or experimentation may 
 be treated for a longer period. Laboratory work in phy- 
 sics, chemistry, biology, etc., may be successfully continued 
 for an hour, and even for a number of hours, especially 
 where the pupils are engaged in individual work in which 
 they may move freely about, selecting material, arrang- 
 ing apparatus, and experimenting. The same is true of 
 manual training. Other subjects of the curriculum also 
 offer in themselves incentive to extended attention, and this 
 is true of various phases of the same subject. For ex- 
 ample, it would be more difficult to hold the attention of a 
 class in English grammar than in the thrilling events of his- 
 tory; and stories of the personal life of Washington or Ben- 
 edict Arnold would be phases of liistory that would appeal 
 to the interest more than an account of the formation of the 
 American constitution. 
 
 The method of instruction is a very important factor in 
 holding the attention. The lecture method wearies rapidly 
 
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 22/ 
 
 — even adults do not like a sermon to be over thirty or forty 
 minutes long, and it takes a good lecturer with a most 
 interesting theme to hold an audience for a very long time. 
 Children must be allowed to take part in the exercise by 
 asking and answering questions, while the method employed 
 in high schools and colleges that secures the best results is 
 a combination of lecture and recitation. Although a 
 knowledge of the subject on the part of the teacher is most 
 essential, the method of presenting it must not be lost sight 
 of if interest is to be maintained and attention held.^ 
 
 It is evident that keener interest can be secured early in 
 the day, when the pupils are fresh and strong, than later 
 the day when the body is weary and when the mind has 
 already grasped about all that it is capable of taking. 
 Therefore the schedule should be so arranged as to place 
 subjects requiring close attention at the beginning of the 
 day and those requiring less concentration at later periods.^ 
 
 Finally, the personality of the teacher is an important 
 factor in winning attention. The teacher who is enthusi- 
 astic, alert, pleasing, fertile in expedient, himself interested, 
 will certainly keep the attention longer than one who lacks 
 these qualities. All of these factors — the age of the pupils, 
 the subject, the method, the period of the day, and the per- 
 sonality of the teacher should be taken into account in de- 
 termining the length of time the attention may be held and 
 therefore the length of the recitation period. 
 
 5. Never attempt to teach without attention. — What- 
 ever the condition, or the cause, whatever the age of the 
 
 * See Chapter VIII on "Methods of Instruction." 
 
 ^ See "Foundations of Education," Chapter V on "The Daily Pro- 
 gram." 
 
228 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 pupils, when they cease to give attention, it is time to make a 
 change, perhaps to close the recitation. It is utter waste of 
 time and effort, and nothing whatever can be accomplished. 
 Every teacher should understand this and never attempt to 
 teach without the interested attention of every member of 
 the class. A careful adherence to these suggestions will 
 soon secure the attention that is expected, and there will be 
 a gradual increase of the power on the part of the pupils to 
 give attention to any subject at will. The possession of 
 this power is the best possible evidence of a trained mind, 
 of an education. "The great skill of the teacher is to get 
 and keep the attention of his scholars," says Locke. 
 
 "Attention, depending as it does on the self-determina- 
 tion of the observer, can therefore be improved, and the 
 pupils made attentive, by the educator. Education must 
 accustom him to exact, rapid, and many-sided attention, 
 so that at the first contact with an object he may grasp it 
 sufficiently and truly, and that it shall not be necessary for 
 him always to be changing his impressions concerning it. 
 The twilight and partialness of intelligence which force a 
 pupil always to new corrections because he has all along 
 failed to give entire attention must not be tolerated." ^ 
 
 Industry. — The child is naturally active, and total inert- 
 ness may be taken as a sign of mental or physical weakness. 
 "There never was such a thing as a lazy child born on 
 earth," asserts Colonel Parker. From morning till night the 
 little child is busy, ceasing only when weariness compels 
 sleep. Such activity is nature's method of introducing the 
 child to his environment, of securing his development, of 
 
 * Rosenkranz, "Philosophy of Education," p. ii6. 
 
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 229 
 
 enabling him to gain command of himself. One of the 
 most important functions of education is so to utilize this 
 natural activity that the individual shall become purpose- 
 ful, systematic, self-directive, and constant. Laziness may 
 be considered as relative rather than absolute. While it is 
 true that the normal child is active, it is also true that all 
 men will escape, if possible, uncongenial tasks, that is, they 
 are lazy with reference to them. In the spring of 1894, the 
 contractors of the Chicago drainage canal offered employ- 
 ment at small pay to the great crowd of men left stranded 
 after the hard winter succeeding the World's Fair. Thou- 
 sands of men responded to the call and offered themselves 
 for work, bravely taking up pick and shovel to earn daily 
 bread for themselves and families. Before noon large 
 numbers abandoned the job, and by night only a few were 
 left. The unthinking declared that the men were too lazy 
 to work. The fact that they walked miles to secure work, 
 that they entered upon it and did the best they could, dis- 
 proved the charge of laziness. They were clerks, book- 
 keepers, and other men unaccustomed to manual labor 
 and were, therefore, in their half- famished condition, unable 
 to stand the heavy work. Many of them returned the next 
 day and persevered until they were able to endure the 
 labor, thus giving evidence of their industry. 
 
 The mathematical expert would soon lay dovm the spade 
 on a hot August day, while he might spend half the night 
 in the solution of some abstruse problem. On the other 
 hand, the man accustomed to manual labor would work all 
 day in the ditch but would fall asleep in a few moments 
 over a theorem in Euclid. Each might be said to be lazy 
 in one field and industrious enough in another, thus prov- 
 ing that laziness is relative. 
 
230 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 The teacher will need to employ tact in utilizing the 
 interests of the child — those things in which he is active 
 enough, in order to lead him to be industrious in fields 
 where he has less interest, but where it is his duty to go. 
 For the child must not be excused from performing tasks 
 that are uncongenial to him. In the words of Locke, 
 "The foundation of all virtue consists in following the 
 dictates of reason even though appetite lead the other way." 
 
 Many of the world's greatest geniuses have been called 
 lazy. The father of Sir Joshua Reynolds wrote on one of 
 his son's drawings, "Done by Joshua out of pure idleness." 
 James Watt was scolded by his grandmother because he 
 was too lazy to do anything but watch the steam of the 
 tea-kettle ! 
 
 Again, the child must be trained to systematic industry. 
 Rosenkranz says,* "Education must accustom him (the 
 pupil) to use a regular diligence. The frame of mind suit- 
 able for work often does not exist at the time when work 
 should begin, but more frequently it makes its appearance 
 after we have begun. The subject takes its own time to 
 awaken us. Industry, inspired by a love and regard for 
 work, has in its quiet uniformity a great force, without 
 which no one can accomplish anything essential. The 
 world, therefore, holds industry worthy of honor." Every- 
 one knows what it means to set himself at work, and it will 
 often be found that the disagreeableness of uncongenial 
 tasks soon disappears. Very often dreaded tasks become 
 a delight when one has fully entered upon them, when their 
 mastery is being accomplished, and when their value comes 
 to be appreciated.^ 
 
 * "Philosophy of Education," p. 117. 
 
 ' See my "New School Management," p. 102. 
 
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 2$ I 
 
 An important difference between a barbarian and a civil- 
 ized man is found in the fact that the former is content 
 to be idle, while the latter is most happy when employed 
 either at work or in some form of recreation. Elsewhere 
 it has been shown that the ability to direct one's activities 
 serves as a moral safeguard, as well as conduces to 
 success in life. (See p. i66.) Hence industry, which 
 is so essential to moral and intellectual growth, is an evi- 
 dence of advancement in civilization and of well-developed 
 educational habit. It thus becomes most important that 
 the teacher shall insist upon industry in his pupils, and 
 wisely direct it so as to form systematic and permanent 
 habits. 
 
 Summary 
 
 I. The child's self-activity must he stimulated and di- 
 rected, without which he cannot he educated. Left to him- 
 self such activity would he misdirected and little progress 
 would he made. Hence the necessity of a teacher, who 
 unfolds to the child the results of the world's intellectual 
 achievement. The teacher's knowledge, skill, and enthu- 
 siasm are devoted to the end that the child may reap the 
 results of all past civilization and proceed to new fields of 
 conquest and higher planes of thought. By this fneans he 
 starts " on the shoiddcrs " of the world's attainment. 
 
 II. Without attention all efforts to instruct are fruitless. 
 The first essential to attention is interest, and ability to give 
 attention may he taken as a measure of intellectual power. 
 The steps marking the different degrees of attention are iso- 
 lation, analysis, ahstr action, and finding the relations. As 
 
232 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 practical suggestions in regard to gaining and holding the 
 attention ?nay be mentioned, — (i) see that the physical con- 
 ditions of the room are normal; (2) require a proper attitude 
 of the class; (3) awaken their interest; (4) cease when the 
 pupils become weary; (5) never attempt to teach without it. 
 
 III. The child is naturally industrious, laziness being 
 relative, — // is an evidence of physical or mental defect, or 
 of lack of interest in the matter in hand. While the child 
 must be trained to perform tasks, even though they i7iay not 
 always be agreeable, the skill of the teacher should be em- 
 ployed to utilize his natural interests, to win his love for 
 tasks, and to bring him to the performance of duty. The 
 child that has been trained properly and systematically to 
 employ his activities has the key to the mastery of the world 
 and is possessed of a moral safeguard. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 THREE STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 References. — Smith, Systematic Methodology; Eckoff, A. B. C. 
 of Sense-Perception; Burton, The Observing Faculties; Morgan, 
 Studies in Pedagogy; Rosmini, Method in Education; Hughes, 
 Dickens as an Educator; Adler, The Moral Instruction of Children; 
 HoTvland, Practical Hints to Teachers; Parker, Talks on Pedagogics; 
 McMurry, Method of the Recitation; Dodd, Introduction to Her- 
 bartian Principles of Teaching; Schaejjer, Thinking and Learning 
 to Think; Hopkins, How Shall my Child be Taught? Hall, Ado- 
 lescence. 
 
 I. SENSE-PERCEPTION. — The normal child at birth 
 possesses five senses, seeing, hearing, taste, smell, and touch, 
 which are the avenues through which he is to obtain a knowl- 
 edge of the world. The brain is reached only through the 
 senses, and there can be no education in any particular di- 
 rection if the sense whereby that knowledge is gained is 
 wanting. Thus the blind person can have no conception 
 of color, the deaf person of the melody of music, and to the 
 individual destitute of smell, savory odors and sweet per- 
 fumes can bring no delight. Especially is this true if 
 the defect dates from birth. 
 
 Rosenkranz defines sense-perception as "the free grasp- 
 ing of an object immediately present to the mind." ^ He 
 further asserts that "Education can do nothing directly to- 
 wards the performance of this act ; it can only assist in mak- 
 ing it easy : (i) it can isolate the object of consideration; 
 
 * "Philosophy of Education," p. 76. 
 233 
 
234 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 (2) it can give facility in the transition to another; (3) it 
 can promote the many-sidedness of the interest, by which 
 means the return to a perception already obtained has al- 
 ways a fresh charm." Each sense is not only capable of 
 the general development necessary in ordinary life; but it 
 also may receive special development, as we have seen 
 (p. 60). The following suggestions for the cultivation of 
 the perceptions may be found helpful. 
 
 1. Perception is dependent upon the number of sensations 
 received. — I meet the same person many times and gradu- 
 ally a perception of him becomes fixed. An object is held 
 before a class day after day and in time it fixes itself upon 
 their minds even if it is not particularly studied or described. 
 I hear a voice repeatedly until the sound of it becomes 
 familiar and I recognize it ever afterward. The blind man 
 touches the minute points representing the alphabet and 
 after repeated trials he knows these characters instantly, 
 and is on the road to reading. A perception of the charac- 
 ters is gained, then the words are formed into sentences, 
 and the avenue to the recorded thoughts of other men is 
 open. 
 
 2. Perception depends upon the order in which the sen- 
 sations are received. — ■ If I meet the same man at about the 
 same time and place, and under like circumstances, the per- 
 ception of him will be more readily and more permanently 
 fixed than if I meet him irregularly. The presentation of a 
 subject to a class in a systematic manner, not only repeating 
 it many times, but also in the same way, has a tendency to 
 fix the perception of the subject. Recitations occurring at 
 the same hour of the day, with regularity and system are 
 
THREE STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 235 
 
 more likely to secure good results than if they are held at 
 irregular times and without order. 
 
 3. Perception depends upon the vividness of the sensa- 
 tions. — A startling event as a cry of fire, a call for help, 
 a unique or fantastic dress, a peculiarity of some kind, 
 makes a vivid impression upon the perceptions. A great 
 disaster even though witnessed but once, will be remembered 
 as long as life lasts because of the vividness of the impres- 
 sion made. We have seen elsewhere how this fact is em- 
 ployed in advertising schemes to attract attention. (See p. 
 220.) Carl Schurz in his "Reminiscences of a Long Life," 
 tells of seeing a man executed by the guillotine in a public 
 square in Cologne when he was a boy ten years old, over 
 sixty years ago. He narrates the details with remarkable 
 explicitness and adds, "I remember walking home shudder- 
 ing and trembling, and finding it impossible to eat my 
 breakfast. Nothing could have induced me to witness an- 
 other execution." 
 
 4. Perception depends upon the associations connected with 
 it. — In ascending Vesuvius I meet a fellow-countryman 
 among a party. The fact of my being in a foreign land, of 
 climbing a volcano, and of there being only two Americans 
 in the party leads me to gain an unusual perception of my 
 compatriot, such as I would be unlikely to gain of any 
 other member of the group. A classmate in the laboratory 
 failed to take the precaution to cut a piece of phosphorus 
 under water and, as a consequence, the heat of his fingers 
 ignited the phosphorus and he was severely burned. This 
 made an impression upon his fellow students as to a charac- 
 teristic of phosphorus that was never forgotten. There 
 
236 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 are incidents in the experience of every teacher which make 
 a strong impression upon the class. 
 
 5. Perception depends upon the attention given to minute 
 details of the thing considered. — An object said to be a 
 mermaid was brought before a scientific society and, after 
 looking it over, an old teacher said, "This is certainly a gen- 
 uine mermaid, the first I ever saw." A young professor 
 present after examining the object carefully, showed it to 
 be a most clumsy hoax. The latter was accustomed to 
 minute and careful study of details and was therefore able 
 to discern the truth. The more careful consideration, 
 the more exact study an object commands, the more com- 
 plete and correct will be the perceptions gained. For this 
 reason it becomes a most essential educational process to 
 train the senses to careful and painstaking observation. 
 
 To recapitulate, then, the senses are trained and the 
 perceptions perfected by repetition of the act or experience, 
 by following systematic order, by making the perceptions 
 vivid, by taking into account the associations connected 
 with their reception, and by a minute consideration of the 
 details. The importance of these processes will be under- 
 stood and emphasized if we remember that it is only through 
 the senses that the brain is reached, and that as we develop 
 the senses we also develop the brain. 
 
 Object Teaching. — The first work of the school is 
 directly connected with sense-training. Hence the use of 
 objects or the concrete in primary work, and this is the 
 principal means to be employed. This continues during 
 the first two or three years of the child's school life, but 
 gradually the use of the concrete will be lessened and the 
 
THREE STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 237 
 
 work become more abstract. Education seeks to give 
 the pupil general notions, abstract ideas. The process 
 is from tlie concrete to the abstract. A few cautions, how- 
 ever, should be observed. 
 
 1. Too many objects should not be employed. (See p. 
 104.) Every particle of attention which objects attract 
 to themselves is just so much attention drawn away from 
 the lesson to be taught and for which purpose the objects 
 are employed. Thus, for example, in teaching number, 
 the approach must be made concretely, but some simple 
 objects like blocks of uniform size and color should be 
 chosen. They will serve to bring the knowledge to the 
 mind through the sense of sight or touch without the dis- 
 tractions of color, taste, or desire for possession to inter- 
 fere. After the abstract notion has been gained, the appli- 
 cation may be made to other objects, but the instruction 
 must not cease until the abstract notion has been gained. 
 
 2. The use of the concrete should be abandoned when 
 it is no longer necessary. Illustration may be employed, 
 even with mature minds in some cases. Whatever the stage 
 of development, it may be safely urged that when the con- 
 crete is no longer necessary, when the abstract truth is 
 reached directly without its aid, it should be abandoned. 
 The abstract notion is the end sought. 
 
 3. There should be a definite aim in the employment 
 of the concrete. There are two reasons for the use of 
 objects: first, they are employed in teaching lessons con- 
 cerning the objects themselves; second, they are employed 
 as a medium of knowledge concerning something else. To 
 illustrate the first point, if a class were studying botany 
 
238 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 the most direct means would be to take them to the plant, 
 or to place it before them for examination. The object is ex- 
 hibited in order that it may be studied. The lessons learned 
 are direct and immediate. To illustrate the second case, we 
 employ blocks, not for their own sake, but as a means of 
 teaching the number. The blocks have no interest, in 
 themselves, but are merely a means whereby interest in 
 other knowledge is awakened. Therefore they should pos- 
 sess no characteristics that would attract interest to them- 
 selves. With a definite aim in view, the teacher will select 
 such illustrative material as will best meet that aim to the 
 exclusion of all else. 
 
 Use of Pictures. — In the absence of the object itself, 
 recourse is often had to pictures as a means of direct illus- 
 tration. In many respects the picture is preferable to the 
 object itself. Many large animals cannot be brought into 
 the schoolroom. Rosenkranz shows that pictures have 
 certain decided advantages.^ " Pictures are extremely valu- 
 able aids to instruction when they are correct and char- 
 acteristic. Correctness must be demanded in these substi- 
 tutes for natural objects, historical persons, and scenes. 
 Without this correctness, the picture, if not an impediment, 
 is, to say the least, useless." 
 
 Pictures must be accurate, clear, typical, and true to the 
 object they seek to represent. In some respects they are 
 better than the object itself. As has been said, many 
 animals cannot be brought into the schoolroom. Indeed 
 there are very few animals that can be profitably studied 
 in the school. The difficulty of securing a suitable animal, 
 ' "Philosophy of Education," p. 78. 
 
THREE STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 239 
 
 its restlessness when brought, the excitement of the chil- 
 dren all tend to disturb the school and prevent any genuine 
 study of its characteristics. Nor does a visit to the menag- 
 erie — seldom convenient to the school — avail as a means 
 of study. Animals thus seen serve as a curiosity and 
 nothing more. The picture, on the other hand, may show 
 the animal in its natural environment — the tiger in the 
 jungle, the bird in its nest or upon a tree, the squirrel in 
 the forest, or the beaver in the river. Thus the picture 
 becomes a natural means of showing the life and habits of 
 the creature as well as illustrating the type of the animal 
 itself. 
 
 The employment of illustrated text-books, beginning with 
 the " Orbis Pictus " of Comenius in 1658, has been a most 
 valuable educative means for training the eye, cultivating 
 the taste, and conveying knowledge. Publishers are fully 
 alive to this requirement, and illustrated text-books have 
 materially furthered educational progress. Not only is" 
 animal life made familiar, but also an acquaintance is made 
 possible with historical scenes, important personages, geogra- 
 phical places, works of art, and other things that cannot be 
 brought into the schoolroom. The illustrated book thus 
 becomes a most valuable adjunct to instruction, both in the 
 home and in the school. 
 
 Making Collections. — Most children delight in mak- 
 ing collections, and this fact may be employed in the 
 cultivation of the senses, especially the eye. Collections 
 of plants, coins, postage-stamps, insects, etc., can be made 
 of great value to the child, provided he is guided in making 
 such a collection, encouraged to make it complete, arrang- 
 
240 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 ing, classifying, studying, and accurately observing it. Mere 
 collections without systematic classification, have little 
 value either educationally or commercially. Not long ago, 
 an examination of the botanical collection of a gentleman 
 recently deceased was made with view to purchasing it for 
 a state museum. It was the most extensive collection ever 
 made in that state, many years and large expense having 
 been devoted to it. The specimens were mounted on 
 scraps of newspaper, bits of wrapping paper, and writing 
 paper without regulation or plan. Had the specimens 
 been properly mounted, the collection would have been 
 worth not less than twenty thousand dollars. As it was, no 
 purchaser could be found for it. 
 
 Not only the eye and the aesthetic nature, but also the 
 practical and the utihtarian sense of the child may be cul- 
 tivated by pictures and by collections. Besides this, a de- 
 cided moral value may be attached to this kind of 
 training. Order, system, perseverance, faithfulness, neat- 
 ness, and other virtues may be inculcated. A practical use 
 may be made of some of these collections in the work of in- 
 struction. It will not be difficult to interest the child in the 
 geography, history, government, customs, and peoples of a 
 country from which he possesses stamps or coins; or in the 
 habits of insects, or the uses of plants collected. It must 
 be emphasized that the value to the child does not lie with 
 the mere collecting, but rather with the use made of the 
 objects after they are collected. 
 
 Another most valuable means of training the eye is draw- 
 ing. Through it the child learns to judge distances, to es- 
 timate size, to distinguish color, as well as to gain control 
 of the hand so as to enable it to obey the direction of the 
 
THREE STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 241 
 
 will. Nothing else in the school course is so valuable as a 
 means of furnishing this training, indeed, through no other 
 means can these ends be attained. 
 
 Training the Ear. — Attention thus far has been directed 
 chiefly to the means employed in training the eye. The 
 other sense that is susceptible of training in the school is 
 that of hearing. The ear is cultivated by music, and if 
 music had no other ofhce than this, it would be worthy of a 
 place in the curriculum. Much of the enjoyment of life is 
 lost to one who cannot appreciate harmony of sound. An 
 appreciation of harmony is apt to affect the tone of voice 
 so that speech and reading are improved by music. A 
 pleasant tone of voice can be cultivated also by securing 
 a proper pitch in reading. The best means of doing this 
 is found to be the training of the ear to distinguish differ- 
 ences in pitch. Hence, the training of the ear should re- 
 ceive especial attention, and every course of study must 
 include such studies as will develop the various senses. 
 This is especially true of the course for the first few years 
 when most knowledge is obtained through the senses and 
 when sense-perception is the dominant power of intellectual 
 development. 
 
 II. IMAGINATION.— The next period in the mental devel- 
 opment of the child is that of imagination, which may be 
 defined as the power of calling up images or experiences of 
 perceptions already gained through the senses, and com- 
 bining them into new images. Rosenkranz says, "The ac- 
 tivity of perception results in the formation of an internal 
 picture or image which intelligence can call up any time at 
 
242 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 pleasure, and imagine it as occupying an ideal space, al- 
 though the object is absent, in fact, and thus the image or 
 picture becomes a sort of general scheme (or pattern ap- 
 plicable to a class of objects), and hence an image-concept. 
 The mental image may (i) be compared with the percep- 
 tion from which it sprang, or (2) it may be arbitrarily altered 
 and combined with other images, or (3) it may be held fast 
 in the form of abstract signs or symbols which intelligence 
 invents for it. Thus originate the functions (i) of the 
 verifications of conceptions, of (2) creative imagination, and 
 (3) of memory." 
 
 Creative Imagination. — The progress of civilization is 
 dependent upon the power of creative imagination. Smith 
 remarks,^ "In all acts of original illustration either of philo- 
 sophical, scientific, or practical truth; in all mechanical in- 
 ventions, original compositions, or decorations; in the per- 
 formance of intelligent manual labor, or the production of 
 an ideal human character — in a word, in all mental ad- 
 vancement held within the bounds of individual notions 
 and not directly supplied by the senses, the imagination is 
 involved as the dominant faculty." 
 
 The value of the " Sistine Madonna" is not found in the 
 canvas, the material used in the exquisite colorings, or in 
 the time devoted to sketching and painting it. But it lies 
 in the originating, creative genius of a Raphael who could 
 conceive and bring to realization such a masterpiece. Leo- 
 nardo's "Last Supper," painted upon the walls of the 
 Maria delle Grazie chapel in Milan, scarred by the ravages 
 of time and neglect, is not so beautiful as a dozen copies 
 
 * "Systematic Methodology," p. 39. 
 
THREE STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 243 
 
 standing upon easels in front of it, where modern artists are 
 reproducing the original; but it is of infinite more value be- 
 cause it is an original creation, and therefore it adds to the 
 riches of the world. A bar of steel may have a value of a 
 few dollars, but if drawn into fine wire and constructed into 
 watch-springs its value is increased a millionfold. Words 
 may be simply expressive of individual and heterogeneous 
 ideas ; but if they are so placed together as to convey a noble 
 thought, expressing that thought in an essay or a poem, 
 they become immortal. Ideas gained through the senses 
 are combined, rearranged, and developed through imagina- 
 tion and the result is an essay, a poem, a painting, an inven- 
 tion, a new thought, a creation, a contribution to the world's 
 progress. 
 
 Citing Smith again,^ "Objection is sometimes urged to 
 the use of the term ' creative ' in reference to the human im- 
 agination. It is stated that the imagination can create noth- 
 ing new; it can at best only take old materials and put them 
 into new relations. All the elements in the product are old, 
 and we are totally incapable of making anything in imagi- 
 nation which was not furnished in its elements by the senses. 
 If by creation we meant bringing into being, then the criti- 
 cism would be a valid one; but when it means producing 
 that which in its present form did not previously exist, the 
 objection to the word seems unfounded. We speak of per- 
 sons making new houses, new wagons, new art designs, or 
 new clothing, and the expressions go unchallenged; and 
 yet most people have doubtless never stopped to think in 
 what the element of newness consists. All the materials in 
 a new house — the wood, stone, iron, slate, etc. — are all 
 
 ^ "Systematic Methodology," p. 42. 
 
244 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 old. What is it, then, that makes it a new house ? We dis- 
 tinguish between new clothing and 'made-over' clothing, 
 and yet all the materials in the new garments may be as old 
 as those in the others. What, then, is the ground for the 
 distinction; and just what do we mean by a new gar- 
 ment? Every material product of man's skill is made up 
 of two things — material elements and relations. The 
 material elehients man must always find at hand ready for 
 his use; he cannot bring any of them into being. The 
 relations, or arrangement of these elements, he furnishes. 
 And these new relations constitute the only element of new- 
 ness in any of the products of man's skill. A new house, 
 then, is all old, except the arrangement of the materials 
 which compose it. If these materials have never before 
 been put into the relations required for the production of 
 such an object as is before us, we call the object new; if they 
 have been in such a relation before, we call the object a 
 'made-over' one. A new garment differs from a made- 
 over one only in this: the materials of the 'made-over' gar- 
 ment have been used in garments before, while those of the 
 new one have never been so used. Now, in the products 
 of imagination we have just the same amount of newness 
 that we have in material products — new relations. All the 
 elements (ideas) which serve as the data of imagination are 
 old; the arrangement alone is new, and these new rela- 
 tions man creates." 
 
 Cultivating the Imagination. — Since imagination is so 
 important to the advancement of the individual and of the 
 race its training becomes a vital problem of pedagogy. 
 How is the imagination, especially the creative imagination, 
 
THREE STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 245 
 
 to be cultivated ? It is cultivated cliiefly by works of art and 
 literature. The study of fine paintings has a tendency to 
 create a love of the beautiful and to fill the mind with noble 
 thoughts. For this reason the Church has decorated her 
 chapels and her cathedrals with the finest works of the great- 
 est masters. Scarcely a masterpiece of the old artists can 
 be found outside of a religious edifice, unless it has been 
 brought away from such a place. Hoftmann's "Clirist be- 
 fore the Doctors," Rubens' "Descent from the Cross," 
 Raphael's "Sistine Madonna," Millet's "Angelus," whether 
 found in a cathedral, an art gallery, or a home, can- 
 not fail to awaken noblest sentiments and inspire better 
 thoughts and higher imaginations in those who lixe in their 
 presence. On the other hand, vulgar pictures stimulate 
 evil thoughts and imaginations. Hence, the walls of 
 saloons are decorated with pictures that incite evil passions. 
 No better commentary on the wickedness of Pompeii when 
 it was overwhelmed could be made than the testimony of 
 the vile mural paintings that have been unearthed after 
 twenty centuries of oblivion. The depraving eft'ect of 
 evil pictures upon public morals is fully recognized by the 
 government, which visits severe punishment upon any one 
 offering them for sale or circulating them through the mails. 
 
 Illustrated books, copies of masterpieces for wall deco- 
 ration and for class use, free picture galleries, and the 
 many art schools established at public expense afford ample 
 means for the cultivation of good taste in art. The teacher 
 can utilize these means in training the imagination. 
 
 But the most important and available material is offered 
 in the field of literature. Here, too, remarkable changes 
 have taken place whereby the best and most suitable 
 
246 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 classic works are brought within the reach of all, both as 
 to cost and as to suitability for classroom use. The term 
 "Dime Novel," which used to be a term of reproach, 
 because only trashy stories were published at that price, 
 need be no longer so, for many of the best works of liter- 
 ature are now published for ten cents, or even half that 
 amount. Suitable literature for all ages of children is 
 provided so that the child may have such reading as he 
 needs to stimulate his imagination at any period. 
 
 Rosenkranz well remarks,^ "The best literature designed 
 for the amusement of children from their seventh to their 
 fourteenth year consists always of that which is honored 
 by nations and the world at large. One has only to notice 
 in how many thousand forms the story of Ulysses is repro- 
 duced by the writers of children's tales. Becker's 'Ancient 
 Stories,' Gustav Schwab's most admirable 'Sagas of 
 Antiquity,' Karl Grimm's 'Tales of Olden Times,' etc., 
 what were they without the well-talking, wily favorite of 
 Pallas and the divine swine-herd? And just so indestructi- 
 ble are the stories of the Old Testament up to the separation 
 of Judah and Israel. These patriarchs with their wives 
 and daughters, these judges and prophets, these kings and 
 priests, are by no means ideals of virtue from the stand- 
 point of our modern lifeless morality, which would smooth 
 out of it pattern-stories for the 'dear children' everything 
 that is hard and uncouth. For the very reason that the 
 shadow-side is not wanting here, and that we find envy, 
 vanity, evil desire, ingratitude, craftiness, and deceit, 
 among these fathers of the race and leaders of God's 
 chosen people, have these stories so great an educational 
 
 * "Philosophy of Education," p. 84. 
 
THREE STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 247 
 
 value. Adam, Cain, Abraham, Joseph, Samson, and 
 David, have justly become as truly world- historical types 
 as Achilles and Patroclus, Agamemnon and Iphigenia, 
 Hector and Andromache, Ulysses and Penelope." The 
 Culture Epochs theory outlines suitable literature for 
 each year, and many schools have adopted courses of 
 reading for each of the twelve grades. Nothing could be 
 more practical and valuable in the training of children 
 for life. 
 
 Myths and Fairy Tales. — The myth often gives a semi- 
 historical account of primitive times, and it possesses a 
 peculiar fascination for children. The story told the chil- 
 dren should be free from everything morbid or creative of 
 a false idea. For example, stories that represent step- 
 mothers as wicked, unfeeling, or wanting in the qualities 
 of motherhood, even for children of another, should be 
 wholly eliminated. Without doubt, fairy tales are in a 
 large measure responsible for the ill-favor that still clings 
 to the name ''step-mother," and the prejudice that so 
 commonly exists against women who have accepted this 
 heavy burden, German schools and homes have long 
 since banished all literature that teaches this false notion, 
 and, as a consequence, the step-mother is most cordially 
 received, not only by the children, but also by the friends 
 of their mother. 
 
 The fear is often expressed that myths, wliich are not a 
 statement of absolute fact, will have a tendency to teach 
 the child to be untruthful. As a consequence, some would 
 never allow the Santa Claus myth to be introduced to 
 the home at Christmas time. Such matter-of-fact people 
 remind one of the character Mr. Gradgrind in Dickens. 
 
248 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 "'And what,' asked Mr. Gradgrind in a still lower voice, 
 'did you read to your father, Jupe?' 'About the Fairies, 
 sir, and the Dwarf, and the Hunchback, and the Genies, ' 
 she sobbed out. 
 
 "'There,' said Mr, Gradgrind, 'that is enough. Never 
 breathe a word of such destructive nonsense any more.'" 
 
 Another example — "Louisa had been overheard to 
 begin a conversation with her brother by saying, 'Tom, 
 I wonder — ' upon which Mr. Gradgrind, who was the 
 person overhearing, stepped forth into the light, and said, 
 'Louisa, never wonder!'" 
 
 The child loves the mysterious and it is hard for him 
 finally to accept Santa Glaus as only a myth. And he will 
 neither lose confidence in any one nor be made one whit 
 more untruthful when he discovers that the cherished char- 
 acter is only a myth. Myths and fairy tales are perfectly 
 natural material for children, and it is uneducational, 
 if not cruel, to rob them of this beautiful means of culti- 
 vating the imagination in their early life. 
 
 Good Taste for Literature. — It has been shown that it is 
 no longer necessary to depend upon trashy books as a means 
 of supplying literature for cliildren because of their cheap- 
 ness, as standard works are issued in cheap editions. It 
 is the duty of the school to get possession of the ground 
 before evil seed has been sown. Weeds flourish in unoccu- 
 pied soil, and if good seed has been first planted and has 
 taken root there is httle danger of noxious plants getting a 
 start. Applying the analogy to reading, if plenty of good 
 books are put into the hands of children little is to be feared 
 from the evil ones. A good taste can be established only 
 
THREE STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 249 
 
 by furnishing wholesome, pure, and interesting material 
 and leading the children to read it instead of that which is 
 vicious. A great deal more attention should be paid to 
 children's reading than is common. There should be sys- 
 tematic, constant, watchful effort to lead the children into 
 reading good works. Little need be said of evil books or 
 the curiosity to see what they contain will be stimulated. 
 Leave no place for the bad by occupying all the territory 
 at the outset with the good. 
 
 A teacher of a fourth grade class pursued a very prac- 
 tical and excellent plan whereby she led her pupils to read 
 such books as she desired. The plan was this — each 
 pupil contributed five cents to found a class library, and 
 with this money forty- five of the "Five-cent Classics"^ 
 were purchased. One of the pupils was appointed libra- 
 rian, and the books were circulated according to rule, and 
 thus each child would be entitled to more than a book a 
 week for the entire year. Not only were the members of 
 the class interested, but their parents and older brothers 
 and sisters became interested and were allowed to join the 
 club upon paying fifteen cents, and the movement became 
 a neighborhood blessing, while each child was furnished 
 with all the reading it needed. Biography, stories of patriot- 
 ism, history, and classic works can thus be put into the 
 hands of children. No more important and fruitful work 
 can be undertaken by the teacher. A love for the good, 
 the true, the chaste, the noble, the beautiful, can be incul- 
 cated, the imagination furnished with plenty of pure mate- 
 rial, and the moral life stimulated and fortified. 
 
 * Published by the Educational Publishing Co., New York. This house 
 publishes also the "Ten-cent Classics." The Normal Instructor Publish- 
 ing Co., Dansville, N.Y., publishes many books of this character. 
 
250 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 It has been said, "If you can cultivate or establish in 
 your pupils a genuine love for good reading, you will have 
 conferred upon them a perfectly inestimable blessing. A 
 boy who really enjoys the fine thoughts of our great writers 
 can never go far wrong. Though absolutely alone, he 
 need never be lonely. Though friendless and forsaken, 
 he can associate with the master minds which the ages 
 have labored to produce. Though poor in this world's 
 goods, he can claim and enjoy as his rightful heritage all 
 the best that has gone before." 
 
 Memory. — This power is most retentive during the 
 period when the imagination is most active. Indeed, more 
 definite and lasting impressions are made upon the mind 
 during the period from seven or eight to twelve or fourteen 
 than during any other time of life. I knew a woman who 
 had passed the century mark and who was in full posses- 
 sion of her mental faculties. She remembered perfectly 
 events that took place ninety years before when she was 
 ten years old, but could recall nothing that took place 
 twenty years before when she was eighty. G. Stanley 
 Hall maintains that the principal mental training during 
 the period under discussion is "arbitrary memorization, 
 drill habituation with only limited appeal to the under- 
 standing." And James M. Greenwood, commenting on 
 this statement, forcefully asks — "Is this man a seer? 
 Has he seen into human nature farther and better than 
 multiphed thousands of others? He is neither mad nor 
 dreaming. He is telling the teachers of America gospel 
 truth." ^ 
 
 * Educational Review, Vol. XXIX, p. 360. 
 
THREE STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 2$ I 
 
 If tliis be true, and most thoughtful educators accept 
 it as true, texts of scripture, memory gems, poems, and 
 other material that should be woven into the intellectual 
 and moral fabric, should be thoroughly memorized during 
 this period. Dr. Edson remarks, "Suitable memory gems 
 and recitations should have a place in every school and 
 in every grade. Time and effort given to memorizing 
 some of the standard selections in verse and prose will 
 bring rich returns in many ways. Not only will memory 
 be trained — a much neglected faculty in these latter 
 days — but the head and heart will be filled with ' beautiful 
 thoughts, beautifully expressed.'" 
 
 Another lesson is also apparent, namely, that our courses 
 of study, which place the beginning of the study of 
 languages in the high school — when the child is fourteen 
 or fifteen years of age — are based upon false principles. 
 The chief thing in beginning to learn a foreign tongue is 
 to fix the declensions, conjugations, and other accidents, 
 together with the acquirement of a vocabulary. This 
 certainly is largely a matter of memory, and therefore the 
 acquirement of these languages should be begun and car- 
 ried well forward during the memory period previous to 
 the fourteenth year. 
 
 The Training of the Memory. — That the memory should 
 receive training as truly as any other power of the mind is a 
 fact that needs to be reiterated and reestablished. This 
 training has been by far too much neglected and children 
 as a consequence are lacking in exactness and thoroughness. 
 Artificial means should be totally discarded, as they fail 
 to produce any permanent result in aiding the memory. 
 
252 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 Rosenkranz suggests that to train the memory, "The 
 means to be used (and these are based on the nature of 
 memory itself) are, on the one hand, the pronouncing and 
 writing of numbers, and on the other, repetition; by the 
 former means we gain distinctness, and by the latter, sure- 
 ness of memory." 
 
 There are three things that must always be observed in 
 cultivating the memory and in permanently fixing material 
 in the mind. First, the attention must be given to the 
 thing to be remembered. No impression will be made 
 unless the mind attends to the matter in hand. Second, 
 there must be many repetitions in order to deepen and fix 
 the impression made. And third, logical order must be 
 followed. Thus if the dates of history, the kings or presi- 
 dents of a country, the verses of a chapter are taken in 
 order, they will be more easily remembered. Association 
 also assists the memory. A friend whom I have not seen 
 for twenty-five years calls upon me. Scenes and events 
 that occurred in boyhood and of which we had not thought 
 for many years, are called up through the meeting between 
 us, by association. I wish to recall a name that has 
 gone from memory, and, starting with the first letter of the 
 alphabet, I ask, " Does it begin with A, with B, with C, 
 etc.?" until possibly I can recall through the associating 
 process the whole name. 
 
 Memory should have definite and systematic training, and 
 there is need of a revival of interest in this respect. Atten- 
 tion, repetition, logical order are the key-words in training 
 memory, and the teacher can improve the memory of his 
 pupils or of himself by adhering to these ideas. 
 
 It is urged by many that the child should never be 
 
THREE STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 253 
 
 required to commit to memory what he does not understand. 
 While this may be accepted as a general principle, there are 
 certainly many very forcible exceptions to it. Some things 
 that should be exactly remembered cannot be understood 
 until mature life, if even then. The Lord's Prayer, the 
 Apostle's Creed, the Catechism, gems of literature, should 
 be committed to memory during the retentive period long 
 before they are understood. Their meaning will become 
 clear in maturer life, and the material so thoroughly fixed 
 in the memory becomes a precious and appreciated acquire- 
 ment. If the memorizing of them is delayed until they are 
 understood, the fixing of most valuable material in the 
 mind becomes very difficult if not impossible. Hence they 
 should be memorized during the early years even before 
 they are understood. 
 
 III. REASON. — The third epoch in intellectual devel- 
 opment is the logical epoch, or the epoch of reasoning. No 
 hard and fast lines can be made fixing the period of sense- 
 perception, of imagination, or of reason. But knowledge is 
 gained during the first seven or eight years chiefly through 
 the senses, during the next six or seven years through 
 imagination, and after that through reason. This fact 
 must be taken into account in the arrangement of the 
 course of study, and in the method of instruction. The 
 thinking activity is dependent upon the processes which 
 have preceded. Thinking employs all that has been 
 gained through the senses and through imagination, but 
 it leads into a realm of its own, it forms images of its 
 own, it comprehends the general notion, it proceeds to ab- 
 straction, which represents the highest form of intellectuality, 
 the end to be sought in education. 
 
254 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 There is no doubt that, "The fostering of the sense of 
 truth, from the earhcst years up, is the surest way of 
 leading the pupil to gain the power of thinking. The 
 unprejudiced, disinterested yielding to truth, as well as the 
 effort to shun all deception and false seeming, is of greatest 
 value in strengthening the power of reflection." Lying 
 inculcates looseness, not only in expression, but also in 
 thought, while truth fosters accuracy both in expression 
 and thought. Exaggeration and untruthfulness, and often 
 the distinction between the two is difficult to mark, have a 
 tendency to create a state in which one does not know 
 whether one's statements are true or not, and surely this is 
 destructive to correct thinking. Therefore, the training of 
 youth to think and speak the truth has an inteellctual as 
 well as a moral value. There is little hope of attaining 
 intellectual power unleSs the sense of truth is intrenched in 
 the very fiber of the soul. The great thinkers of all ages 
 have been noted for their love for and practice of simple 
 truth according to their enlightenment. 
 
 Training the Logical Powers. — Many have believed that 
 the chief means of training the logical power is mathe- 
 matics. The reason for this is that mathematics cannot 
 be taught without employing the reason, while many other 
 subjects of the curriculum can be. History can be merely 
 committed to memory and the teacher can hear the pupils 
 recite. Geography work may consist in learning defini- 
 tions and hunting up places on the map. Reading may be 
 a mere calling of the words of the text with correct empha- 
 sis and inflections without a comprehension of the beauties 
 of literature or of the thought contained. Science may be 
 
THREE STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 2$$ 
 
 Studied by simply committing to memory text-book state- 
 ments. But this is not the best teaching, perhaps not teach- 
 ing at all. Every subject of the curriculum should be so 
 taught as to call forth the causes which led to certain 
 effects. The least value of all in history is the memorizing 
 of events. The underlying cause must be discovered, the 
 various incidents that have led up to certain results must 
 be traced in their relation to each other and to the final 
 outcome, and the effect of the whole upon civilization and 
 upon the world's progress be brought to light. And this 
 requires the exercise of the highest reasoning power. The 
 location of cities and causes that led to such location, the 
 effect of climate, temperature, etc., the influence of rivers 
 and other bodies of water upon climate and commerce, 
 these and other matters of geography must be studied in 
 relation to the earth as the home of man, which also neces- 
 sitates a consideration of cause and effect. While due 
 attention in reading must be given to the conventional 
 requirements — the correct pronunciation of words, the 
 inflections, the pauses — the great purpose of reading is to 
 get at the thought, to comprehend the meaning of the 
 author, to grasp the truth taught. The study of science 
 takes the student into the deep things of Nature and 
 reveals her symmetry, her eternal laws, and the logical 
 sequence of her manifestations. And so, whatever the 
 subject taught the teacher will be able to make it contribute 
 to the training of the pupil to reason, especially if he has 
 reached the period of life when reason predominates. And, 
 while the logical power is thus trained, the subject itself 
 will be far better taught, its. truths revealed, and it will be 
 made to serve its purpose as a means of the development of 
 
256 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 the child. All the subjects of the curriculum should con- 
 tribute to the cultivation of the reasoning power, though 
 none can take the place of mathematics, which is essential 
 to the cultivation of pure reason. 
 
 The Use of the Rule. — The final step in logical training is 
 the complete statement, wliich brings the whole matter into 
 small compass'in the form of a principle, logical summary, 
 or rule. Some object to requiring the child to commit to 
 memory a rule, urging that if he has grasped the subject he 
 may be left to express his knowledge of it in his own words 
 and in his own way. This attitude is the extreme opposite 
 of the earlier method which started out by requiring the rule 
 to be committed to memory without regard to an understand- 
 ing of its meaning, and then attempting to apply its teaching. 
 The falsity of tliis method being understood, educators im- 
 mediately swung to the other extreme and declared that the 
 rule should never be learned, an error almost as great as 
 the former. The truth evidently lies in the middle ground. 
 Take a concrete illustration, as for example, learning long 
 division. Teach the child the process, have him explain 
 how he worked a given example, then let him tell in his 
 own words how any example in long division should be 
 worked, thus forming a rule, and finally, let him commit to 
 memory the stated rule. It will not then be beyond his 
 comprehension, it will be in more accurate language, it will 
 express the whole truth and no more.* 
 
 * See p. 93 for further treatment of this topic. 
 
THREE STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 2$/ 
 
 Summary 
 
 I. The medium through which the child begins to get 
 acquainted with external things is his senses. Accuracy of 
 perception depends upon the number of sensations received, 
 upon the order they are received, upon their vividness, upon 
 association, and upon the attention that is given. Concrete 
 material should be employed when necessary, but abandoned 
 as soon as the abstract notion is gained. Definite training 
 of the eye is given through pictures, collections, and drawing; 
 of the ear, chiefly by means of music and the proper pitch in 
 reading. 
 
 II. The second stage of development is imagination, 
 which may be defined as the power of calling up images, 
 perceptions already gained through the senses, and combin- 
 ing them into new images. Through combining, rearrang- 
 ing, and developing these ideas by means of creative imagi- 
 nation the result is a new creation, — a poem, an essay, a 
 painting, a sculpture, an invention, a contribution to the 
 world's riches and to the progress of civilization. The im- 
 agination is trained chiefly through works of art and litera- 
 ture. Good taste can be formed by furnishing the pupils 
 with wholesome, pure, and interesting material. 
 
 III. Memory is most retentive during this period. Hence 
 memory gems, texts of Scripture, the beginning of foreign 
 tongues, and other material requiring accurate memory should 
 be taught at this time. Memory is trained by fixing the 
 attention, by repetition, and by presenting the subject-matter 
 in logical order. Artificial means should be discarded. 
 
258 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 IV. The final stage of intellectual development is that of 
 reason, or the logical epoch. Thinking, while based upon 
 perceptions and conceptions, enters a realm of its own, it 
 comprehends the general notion, it proceeds to abstraction, — 
 the highest form of intellectuality, the end to be sought in 
 education. Every subject in the curriculum may be so 
 taught as to develop the reasoning power. While in each 
 of the three stages of development, — sense- perception, im- 
 agination, and reason, — these are the predominant char- 
 acteristics, as has been shown, there is an overlapping 
 between them, and no period belongs exclusively to any one 
 of them. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 THE ACT OF LEARNING 
 
 References. — McMurry, Method of the Recitation; also, Series 
 of Works on Special Methods; Ogden, Science of Education; 
 Parker, Talks on Pedagogics; Spencer, Education; Sabin, Common 
 Sense Didactics; Report of the Committee of Ten, and of the Com- 
 mittee of Fifteen; Shaw, A New Course of Study; Chancellor, Our 
 Schools, their Administration and Supervision. 
 
 Instruction presupposes a person qualified to teach and 
 another possessing the capacity to learn. The teacher must 
 first have knowledge to impart, and then know how to bring 
 that knowledge witliin the range of the learner's compre- 
 hension. While special methods are valuable as a means 
 of increasing the skill in the art of teaching, and adding 
 to the efficiency of the work, they are necessarily subor- 
 dinate to knowledge itself. (See p. io8.) The acquirement 
 of knowledge is a long and slow process; skill in presenting 
 it to others may be rapidly attained. 
 
 Education a Process of Cancellation. — The relation of 
 teacher to pupil necessitates taking for granted that there 
 is an inequality between them. The teacher knows the 
 subject to be presented, the pupil is ignorant of it. In 
 the words of Rosenkranz,^ "All instruction starts from the 
 inequality between those who possess knowledge and abil- 
 ity and those who have not yet obtained them. The 
 former are qualified to teach, the latter to learn. Instruc- 
 
 * "Philosophy of Education," p. io6. 
 259 
 
260 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 tion is the act which gradually cancels the original inequal- 
 ity of teacher and pupil, in that it converts what was at first 
 the property of the former into the property of the latter 
 by means of his own activity." It follows that where there 
 is much to give, where the teacher possesses a large fund of 
 knowledge and experience, the learner may enjoy the greater 
 advantages, has more to expect, because there is greater 
 inequality to cancel. Hence those who would employ as 
 teacher the untrained and insufficiently educated young girl 
 on the ground that her pupils are young, urging that "she 
 knows enough to teach these little cliildren," are laboring 
 under a fundamental error. Where the difference between 
 the teacher and the pupil is but little, the latter can receive 
 but little. Thus, instead of employing inexperienced 
 teachers at small cost as a matter of economy, the expendi- 
 ture becomes really waste. It is not enough that those 
 placed in charge of a school should know only the subjects 
 they are to teach, they must possess a reserve upon which 
 they can draw so that out of the fulness and richness of 
 their knowledge they may present "things new and old." 
 It must be taken for granted, however, that the instructor 
 has pedagogical insight and mastery of method which will 
 enable him so to present his subject-matter as to bring it 
 within the comprehension of his pupils. Without this 
 power to impart, it will be difficult to bridge the difference 
 between the two. The well-equipped teacher, therefore, 
 will possess the necessary knowledge, and also the profes- 
 sional skill in the art of presenting it. The culture work of 
 the high school and college must be supplemented by training 
 in the technique of teaching as truly as the medical student, 
 the lawyer, or the dentist, must be trained in the technique 
 of his profession. 
 
THE ACT OF LEARNING 261 
 
 Instruction the Principal Work of the School. — The chief 
 work of the teacher is to instruct, and the management of 
 the school, the maintenance of discipline, and the preservation 
 of order, which are absolutely essential, are only means to an 
 end, that end being the instruction of the children. Order 
 is maintained only because teacliing cannot go on without 
 it, and therefore it should never be given prominence. This 
 thought should be emphasized, and it Avill be found that 
 if the instruction is interesting and suitable, disorder is 
 unlikely to appear and the true function of the school can 
 be fulfilled. 
 
 Rosen kranz indicates three stages of development 
 through instruction, namely, apprenticeship, journeyman- 
 ship, and mastership, following the distinctions employed 
 in trades, which indicate degrees of efficiency. The ap- 
 prentice is under the direction of a master. He must learn 
 to be self-directive, and this is an essential result to be 
 sought in intellectual education as well. The child is an 
 apprentice, a learner, and he must be taught to be inde- 
 pendent, so that he can continue his education when he is 
 separated from his school and his teacher. When it is 
 borne in mind that the average time that an American cliild 
 spends in school, according to Dr. Harris, is about five 
 years, and that more than eighty per cent of the children 
 leave school before the completion of their twelfth year, the 
 necessity of securing this essential power of self- direction 
 at the earliest possible age becomes evident. Without this 
 power, education has failed to fulfil its greatest function, for 
 it does not equip the man to continue his development even 
 after he is thrown upon his own resources. The work of 
 the elementary school, which alone reaches four-fifths of the 
 
262 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 children, is thus demonstrated to be the most important 
 of all educational work. Every teacher, therefore, should 
 seek to bring his pupils as early as possible from the state 
 of educational apprenticeship into the larger life of inde- 
 pendent beings, capable of self-direction. 
 
 The method of instruction is important in securing 
 this result. The imparting method (Erziehende-Unter- 
 richt), as practiced in the German Volksschule fails to 
 do it, for but few cliildren who leave school at fourteen 
 years of age, however thorough their mastery of the subject- 
 matter, however comprehensive their general knowledge, 
 have either the desire or the ability to pursue their educa- 
 tion further. Give the child the ability to direct liis own 
 culture, and the desire to continue to advance, and the great- 
 est office of the school has been accomplished. His educa- 
 tional apprenticeship, if not completed, is so far along that 
 he will know how to complete it and will be likely to do so. 
 If he must forego further educational advantages, the whole 
 field of knowledge is still before him. Having learned to 
 discover things for himself, having been taught where to go 
 for information and how to study, books, and nature, and 
 the whole world will be at his command. The difficulties 
 of knowledge will disappear before his perseverance, his 
 industry, and his intelligent mastery of himself. He is now 
 capable, like the journeyman in the trades, of doing inde- 
 pendent work. Although he may still be under a master, 
 he may be assigned tasks which he can perform alone 
 without supervision or direction. 
 
 The final stage — final in a relative sense only — is that 
 of mastership. In tliis stage the individual not only knows 
 how to direct his own efforts with perfect freedom, but he is 
 
THE ACT OF LEARNING 263 
 
 also able to direct and instruct others. As Rosenkranz 
 remarks, "The master is complete only in relation to the 
 journeyman and apprentice; to them he is superior. But, 
 on the other hand, in relation to the infinity of the prob- 
 lems of his art or science, he is by no means complete; to 
 himself he must appear as one who begins ever anew, 
 one who is ever striving, one to whom a new problem 
 ever rises from every achieved result. He cannot discharge 
 himself from work, he must never rest on his laurels. He 
 is the truest master whose finished performances only force 
 him on to never-resting progress." Like Sir Isaac Newton, 
 he regards himself as "A child gathering pebbles on the 
 seashore." 
 
 " Who shall pupil be ? " 
 " Every one." 
 
 "Who shall craftsman be?" 
 " Who good work has done." 
 " Who shall master be ? " 
 " He who thought has won." 
 
 Thus the process of instruction will vary under the dif- 
 ferent stages of development, ever aiming to bring the learner 
 into the largest possible ability to direct his own education. 
 How far this may be carried depends upon the capacity 
 of the individual, as we have already remarked (p. 159). 
 With the mass of humanity the greatest skill in instruc- 
 tion is required. To uncover hidden powers, and make 
 the most of them, to distinguish the presence of capac- 
 ity and its absence, to stimulate the backward and arouse 
 the dull, to give courage to the timid and lead them to at- 
 tack difficulties, to awaken the interest of the indolent, is 
 the teacher's most difficult task — a measure of his skill 
 
264 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 and power. Herbert Spencer well remarks, " Mankind, 
 like a group of men selected haphazard, is made up of a 
 few clever individuals, many ordinary ones, and some de- 
 cidedly stupid." It is with the "ordinary ones" that the 
 teacher is chiefly concerned. Where there is total incapacity, 
 the school can do nothing. But one must not be too ready 
 to accept apparent incapacity in some particular field. It 
 often occurs that a child really possesses powers that are 
 dormant and that need arousing. Possibly it is a case of 
 arrested development — happily not so common as formerly 
 since child-study has made so many discoveries in the 
 development of children; it may be that because of some 
 physical condition the child is temporarily under a cloud; 
 or it may be that the subject-matter offered belongs to a 
 later period of the child's life. Whatever the cause, patience, 
 watchfulness, and careful solicitude on the part of the 
 teacher should safeguard the child and intelligent effort be 
 made to lead it into the light, or at least, bring to it the very 
 best it is capable of receiving. 
 
 With bright and talented pupils, there is less difficulty so 
 far as bringing them to grasp the material of instruction is 
 concerned; but there is danger that they, accustomed to gain 
 knowledge with little effort, may lack perseverance, may 
 appreciate too little the value of education, and may there- 
 fore be satisfied with superficial knowledge. It is as true 
 in education as in life, that which costs little is valued little. 
 Hence the slow, mediocre, perhaps dull pupil, who must 
 work for what he gets, is apt to learn patience, persever- 
 ance, fidelity, and that dogged persistence which never rec- 
 ognizes defeat. His knowledge costs him great effort, and 
 when it is gained, it is not only appreciated, but eternally 
 fixed. 
 
THE ACT OF LEARNING 26$ 
 
 Many children are precocious in certain directions. 
 Such cliildren need to be carefully guarded in order to pre- 
 vent egotism on the one hand, and premature develop- 
 ment on the other. "Youthful precocity," says George 
 Eliot, "is like too early rising, apt to be followed by a long 
 and wearisome afternoon." Too much notice of specially 
 bright children, either in the home or in the school, has 
 a tendency to make them self-conscious and vain, and to 
 destroy that innocence and naivety which are the charm of 
 childhood. 
 
 The Professionally Taught and the Self-Taught. — After 
 a child has passed through his educational apprenticeship 
 his further development may be obtained in general by 
 two means, (i) through professional channels, and (2) 
 through self-teaching. In either case his progress may be 
 continuous, being limited only by his capacity, and by the 
 amount of time and effort he may devote to it. Of course 
 there are decided advantages possessed by the first of these 
 means, that is, through the discipline of organized educa- 
 tion as represented in schools. As Dr. Harris puts it, 
 "The professionally educated masters thoroughly what the 
 experience of the race has transmitted to his own specialty, 
 and hence increases his own stature by standing on the 
 shoulders of the human race." He begins at the point 
 that the world's development has reached and goes forward 
 to a higher level. The school, with its course of study — 
 the result of the experience and wisdom of centuries — with 
 its systematic teaching and its thoroughness, with its edu- 
 cated teachers, and with its equipment, stands for profes- 
 sional education. In it the pupil accepts what the world 
 
266 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 has learned and what is established, and presses forward 
 into new fields of discovery and investigation. Thus 
 further progress in civilization becomes possible. 
 
 The person who must depend upon teaching himself, 
 although he possesses the two requisites heretofore pointed 
 out, namely, desire for further improvement and knowledge 
 of how to attain it, such person will always be handi- 
 capped by lack of material equipment, the tools with 
 which to work, by uncertainty as to selection of material, 
 by the uneconomical methods employed, and by the want 
 of guidance by more experienced and wiser men. Quoting 
 from Rosenkranz,^ "The self-taught man has often true 
 talent, or even genius, to whose development, nevertheless, 
 the inherited culture has been denied, and who by good 
 fortune has through his own strength worked his way into 
 the field of effort. The self-taught man is distinguished 
 from the amateur by the thoroughness and industry with 
 which he acts; he is not only equally unfortimate with him 
 in the absence of school training, but is much less assisted 
 by the advice of the competent. Even if the self-taught 
 man has for years studied and practiced much, he is still 
 haunted by the feeling of uncertainty as to whether he has 
 yet reached the standpoint at which a science, an art, or a 
 trade, will receive him publicly. It is of great consequence 
 that man should be comprehended and recognized by man. 
 The self-taught man, therefore, remains embarrassed, and 
 does not free himself from the apprehension that he may 
 expose some weak point to a professional, or he falls into 
 the other extreme — he becomes presumptuous, steps forth 
 a reformer, and, if he accomplishes nothing, or earns only 
 
 * "Philosophy of Education," p. iii. 
 
THE ACT OF LEARNING 267 
 
 ridicule, he sets himself down as a martyr unrecognized 
 by an unappreciative and unjust world." 
 
 The Course of Study. — The material of instruction is 
 indicated in the course of study. For centuries the 
 formation of a school curriculum has been the center 
 of educational thought and experiment. Sturm's course of 
 study, which appeared in 1538, is the oldest attempt 
 of Protestant educators to systematize the material of in- 
 struction into an organic unity. Indeed, Williams says,^ 
 "With regard to Sturm's plan of organization, it should be 
 borne in mind that it is the very earliest scheme that we 
 have, looking to an extended, systematic, and well-articu- 
 lated course of studies for a school of several teachers, in 
 which is assigned to each class such portions of the sub- 
 ject-matter of the course of instruction as is suited to the 
 age and stage of advancement of its pupils." This plan 
 had the merit of definiteness, thoroughness, and unity, 
 though even Sturm found trouble in carrying out its full 
 requirements. 
 
 Later the Jesuits produced the Ratio Studiorum, a scheme 
 of work that lays principal stress upon the humanities and 
 religious instruction. In his "Great Didactic," Comenius 
 presents a complete plan of school organization covering 
 the whole period of education from birth till the completion 
 of the university. Modern educators have not been want- 
 ing in zeal for the improvement of school courses, and 
 some notable documents treating this subject have appeared, 
 among which may be mentioned the " Report of the Com- 
 mittee of Ten," of the " Committee of Fifteen," and of other 
 
 * "History of Modem Education," p. 91. 
 
268 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 committees of the National Educational Association; "A 
 Suggestive Course of Study for Primary, Grammar, and 
 High School Grades," known as Document No. 21, of the 
 New Jersey Council of Education; "A New Course of 
 Study," by Edward R. Shaw.* 
 
 Dr. Balliet remarks, "There is a nascent period for each 
 physical and mental power, a period of rapid growth when 
 new aptitudes and interests are developing. It is our dense 
 ignorance of most of these nascent periods that makes it im- 
 possible for us as yet to prepare a proper course of study. 
 Hence our courses of study are little more than conscientious 
 guesses. When we shall know more about these nascent peri- 
 ods, we shall be able to arrange a course in which the various 
 phases of every study will be presented at the proper nascent 
 period when they will appeal most strongly to the child. 
 Such a course must take into account three types of 
 children — the observer, the thinker, and the doer. The 
 last type has but recently been recognized in education."' 
 
 It may be said that every course of study must include all 
 the subjects necessary to accomplish the purpose it sets out 
 to attain, which subjects must be so arranged as to be sequen- 
 tial in their order, harmonious in their relation to each other, 
 economical in the presentation of material, at the same time 
 offering a complete unity from beginning to end. There 
 must be no undue repetition of subjects, and yet, there must 
 
 * This is an "Analytical Outline of a Course of Study for Elementary 
 Schools," in which the work for the first eight years is marked out according 
 to the three centers that De Garmo advocates, namely. Humanistic, Scien- 
 tific, and Economic. The scheme is elaborately developed and is well worth 
 a careful study. 
 
 ' See De Garmo, "A Working Basis for the Correlation of Studies, " Sti- 
 ucational Review, Vol. V, p. 451 ; also " Report of the Committee of Ten," 
 
THE ACT OF LEARNING 269 
 
 be enough repetition to fix the material in the pupil's mind. 
 It may be remarked that the same subject presented at 
 different stages of the child's development, under varied 
 conditions, by different methods and different teachers, 
 not only affords new view-points and broader conception 
 of the lesson, but is absolutely essential in securing thorough 
 apperceptive results. Thus repetition instead of being a 
 waste may prove the truest educational economy. 
 
 The problem has been to decide upon the essential studies 
 and to arrange them in proper order. So long as civiliza- 
 tion progresses no permanent curriculum can be perfected. 
 New discoveries and inventions, increased demands of life, 
 better teachers and more complete equipment, extended 
 period of schooling for the cliild, more correct knowledge of 
 the laws of human development, better methods of teaching 
 — all these, make improvement and extension of the curri- 
 culum both imperative and possible. Higher institutions of 
 learning are the first to feel the need of advance, and they 
 endeavor to keep pace with progress by increasing their 
 entrance requirements and broadening their courses. Sec- 
 ondary schools are obliged in turn to change and raise their 
 standards to meet the demands of the higher institutions 
 which their students desire to enter, and finally the elemen- 
 tary school must make its work fit the new exactions of the 
 high school. Thus, commencing at the top and reach- 
 ing downward the whole course has been changed. Pres- 
 ident Butler has shown that the graduate of Columbia be- 
 fore the Civil War was not so well equipped as the sophomore 
 of the present, while it has been claimed that a graduate of 
 Yale of fifty years ago had not as much preparation as is re- 
 quired of the candidate for entrance now. A constant for- 
 
270 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 ward movement with regard to the curriculum is both nat- 
 ural and necessary. 
 
 This increased demand upon the student must not be too 
 exacting, nor must the higher institutions require more of 
 the schools below them than they are able to accomplish. 
 
 While no ideal course of study has yet been made, and 
 it may never be possible to construct one, owing to 
 the new demands of life, and to advancing civilization, 
 every corps of teachers must seek to bring to their pupils 
 the very best that their concentrated wisdom can attain. 
 
 Nature of the Course of Study. — We design here to 
 outline certain mental principles that must control in any 
 course of study, leaving to each faculty the duty of con- 
 structing such a curriculum as their school demands/ 
 Among the principles that must govern this work are the 
 following : 
 
 I. The subject of the course of study must he properly 
 correlated. — The Committee of Fifteen very forcibly 
 urged the necessity of a proper correlation of studies and 
 suggested the branches of study that are necessary to a 
 complete development. Dr. Harris in a later discussion 
 of that report says,^ "The studies of the school fall natu- 
 rally into five coordinate groups, thus permitting a choice 
 within each group as to the arrangement of its several 
 
 * I call attention to two solutions that have lately been offered as follows: 
 "A New Course of Study," by the late Dr. Edward R. Shaw. Document 
 No. 21, Council of Education of New Jersey, entitled, "A Suggestive Course 
 of Study for Primary, Grammar, and High School Grades." 
 
 ^ Dept. of Superintendence, National Educational Association, at Jack- 
 sonville, Fla., Feb. 1896. 
 
THE ACT OF LEARNING 27 1 
 
 topics, some finding a place early in the curriculum and 
 others later. These five coordinate groups were first, 
 mathematics and physics; second, biology, including chiefly 
 the plant and the animal; third, literature and art, includ- 
 ing the study of literary works of art; fourth, grammar and 
 the technical and scientific study of language, leading to 
 such branches as logic and psychology; fifth, history and 
 the study of sociological, political, and social institutions. 
 Each of these groups, as it was assumed, should be repre- 
 sented in the curriculum at all times by some topic suited 
 to the age and previous training of the pupil." 
 
 A few years ago the subject of correlation received a great 
 deal of attention among educational thinkers and, as a result, 
 a more careful, systematic, and mutual relation has been es- 
 tablished between the subjects of the school course. Geog- 
 raphy and history, reading, spelling, grammar, and litera- 
 ture, mathematics and science, language and composition, 
 possess a mutual relation to each other, which, if observed 
 in the course and in the instruction, advances rather than 
 retards the progress in each individual subject, at the same 
 time it produces a well-balanced development. 
 
 2. In the elementary course chief stress must be laid upon 
 the essentials of culture. — Every child must know how 
 to read, write, and cipher. These are the first essentials 
 demanded of the schools and they must not be neglected. 
 But they are not the only essentials nor by any means the 
 most important. They are the means to an end, they 
 open the door to the fields of knowledge, they are the imple- 
 ments of work. Being the key that unlocks the store- 
 house of knowledge, perfect mastery of them should be 
 gained and no excuse for less than this can be tolerated. 
 
2/2 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 To quote again from Dr. Harris, "The first stage of school 
 education is education for culture, and education for the 
 purpose of gaining command of the conventionahties of 
 intelhgence. These conventionahties are such arts as 
 reading and writing, and tlie use of figures, technicahties 
 of maps, dictionaries, the art of drawing, and all of those 
 semi-mechanical facilities which enable the child to get 
 access to the intellectual conquests of the race. Later on 
 in the school course, when the pupil passes out of the 
 elementary studies, which partake more of the nature of 
 practice than of theory, he comes to the secondary school 
 and the college, to the study of science and the technique 
 necessary for its preservation and communication. All 
 these things belong to the first stage of school instruction 
 whose aim is culture." 
 
 Opinions may differ as to exactly what subjects are 
 necessary for culture, and as to how early mastery of these 
 should be expected. At least all the work of the elementary 
 school is embraced, and possibly that of the high school 
 and much of the college course. This point has received 
 treatment in a former chapter. 
 
 3. The course must he well-balanced and symmetrical. — 
 It must take the child into all of the difi"erent fields of human 
 knowledge. "From the primary school on through the 
 academic course of the college, there should be symmetry, 
 and five coordinate groups represented at each part of the 
 course — at least in each year, although perhaps not through- 
 out each part of the year." Dr. Harris as we have seen, marks 
 out five branches to be included. (See also Chapter II.) 
 President Butler indicates these departments of knowledge 
 to be science, literature, the cssthetic, the institutional, and 
 
THE ACT OF LEARNING 2/3 
 
 the religious. Dr. De Garmo outlines the field into human 
 sciences, such as languages, literature, art, and history; 
 natural sciences, such as physics, chemistry, astronomy, 
 biology, geography, mathematics, etc.; economic sciences, 
 such as economics proper, technology, and commercial 
 knowledge- 
 Whatever scheme may be accepted, the teacher in formu- 
 lating a course of study, should see to it that every child 
 receives instruction in eacli of the branches of knowledge 
 during every year of the elementary course. 
 
 4. The course must take into account the stages in the 
 child's development. — In the intellectual development of 
 the child there is a period when the sense perceptions are 
 best appealed to, another period when memory is especially 
 tenacious, another when reason predominates, and so on. 
 The material offered liim should be selected with reference 
 to these periods. Thus, the course should appeal largely to 
 the senses in the first three years, should furnish material 
 to employ the memory at say eight to twelve, and place sub- 
 jects that require much reasoning later. The development 
 of the physical body should also be taken into account. 
 Control of the motor activities should be sought and there 
 should be such systematic and natural training of the body 
 as will not only foster its growth and maintain its health, 
 but also bring it to its highest physical perfection. The 
 course should also have in mind the development of sound 
 and intelligent moral habits and ethical life. 
 
 5. The course must meet the aim for which it is in- 
 tended. — The foregoing principles are general and they 
 should be applied to all courses for elementary schools and 
 
274 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 for all who are beginning to acquire an education. In 
 more advanced work, there will be courses for technical 
 students — commercial courses, engineering, medical, legal, 
 theological, pedagogical, etc. These courses should be 
 adapted to the purpose for which the school stands. 
 
 What the Elementary School Should Accomplish. — We 
 
 have said that every course must meet the aim of the school 
 for wh ch it is intended. For example, the course of the 
 elementary school must first of all equip the child for his life 
 work. It may well be asked, What has the parent a right to 
 expect the school to do for his child? It would seem a just 
 requirement that the child who has completed the grammar 
 school course at the age of fourteen or fifteen should possess 
 the following qualifications: 
 
 1. He should be able to speak and write the English 
 language accurately, not only from habit, which, of course, 
 is of chief importance, but also with a knowledge of the 
 underlying rules of grammar. 
 
 2. He must be able to spell correctly such words as he 
 will use in letter- writing and composition, as well as to 
 write legibly. 
 
 3. He should be able to read from a newspaper or 
 ordinary book witli clear enunciation, correct pronuncia- 
 tion, and such understanding as not only to gain the thought 
 himself, but also to convey it to others when reading aloud. 
 
 4. He must possess sufficient mastery of arithmetical 
 processes to meet the ordinary affairs of life. 
 
 5. He must be familiar with the history of our own 
 
THE ACT OF LEARNING 2^$ 
 
 country and also have some acquaintance with the most 
 important events of the world's history. 
 
 6. He must know the elementary processes of our 
 scheme of government so that he may later discharge the 
 duties of intelhgent and patriotic citizenship. 
 
 7. He should have a good knowledge of geography. 
 
 8. He should understand to a degree the structure, sup- 
 port, nourishment, and care of the human body. 
 
 9. He should know something of elementary science so 
 as to comprehend the ordinary phenomena of the world 
 about him. 
 
 10. In addition, he will know many tilings that cannot 
 well be formulated; such as, music, handiwork, drawing, 
 and, in its broadest sense, the principles of ethical living. 
 
 If the school fails to reach approximately these results 
 with the normal child who is regular in attendance, the 
 parent has a right to complain, and the course of study 
 should be planned to accomplish these ends. With this 
 foundation to build upon, the higher schools can direct 
 his activities into commercial, scientific, classical, or 
 technical channels to meet the purpose designed. The 
 Herbartian school of pedagogy has rendered the cause 
 of education great service by calling attention to the 
 importance of a proper correlation of the subjects of the 
 school course, even though its scheme of correlation may 
 be considered too formal. 
 
 Arrangement of the Daily Program. — The success of 
 instruction depends in a measure, upon the time of its 
 presentation. Investigations have proven that increased 
 
276 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 efficiency on the part of the pupils is attained through a 
 proper arrangement of the program of work. Not only this, 
 but great economy is effected thereby.^ "The program," 
 says Rosenkranz,^ "must assign the exact amount of time 
 which can be appropriated to each study. It must prescribe 
 the order in which they shall follow each other, it must, as 
 far as possible, unite kindred subjects, so as to avoid the 
 useless repetition which dulls the charm of study; it must, 
 in determining the order, bear in mind at the same time 
 the necessity imposed upon the subject itself and the 
 psychological progression of intelligence from perception, 
 through conception, to the thinking activity which grasps 
 all." 
 
 The powers of the child are most active in the early part 
 of the day, and these powers diminish with each succeeding 
 period. A period of rest or recess recuperates the strength 
 in part, dependent upon its nature and length. Wliile all 
 subjects will necessarily lose something by being placed 
 at the later period when the intellectual vitahty is weakened, 
 some will suffer more than others. Thus mathematics, if 
 placed at the end of the day after four or five hours of 
 work, would suffer more than a subject requiring less 
 concentration, like drawing, penmansliip, nature study ,or 
 laboratory experiments. 
 
 As the program should be arranged to secure the least 
 waste and the greatest efficiency in the presentation of all 
 the subjects, the following conclusions seem inevitable: 
 (i) The subjects requiring closest attention, greatest use 
 of the memory, and strictest accuracy should be placed in 
 
 * See " Foundations of Education," chapter on "The Daily Program." 
 ' "Philosophy of Education," p. 133. 
 
THE ACT OF LEARNING 2// 
 
 the early part of the day. This would mean reading for 
 little children, tliis being their most important work, and 
 mathematics for those more advanced. (2) Subjects next 
 in difficulty, such as, history, science, geography, and 
 formal grammar should follow. (3) Subjects requiring 
 the least application should be placed toward the end of 
 the session. (4) Inasmuch as the intellectual force dimin- 
 ishes with increasing ratio, it follows that with young 
 children long sessions should be discouraged, and that 
 there should be frequent recesses during the day. (5) 
 Alternation and variety in the program will add to the 
 efficiency of the work and serve to keep up the interest of 
 the pupils. (6) For these reasons, the work of the elemen- 
 tary school should be assigned to grade rather than depart- 
 mental teachers. 
 
 Means of Learning. — There are three ways by which 
 we learn, namely, (i) experience, (2) the written or 
 printed page, and (3) oral instruction. Some of the most 
 important lessons of life are learned through experience 
 and can be learned in no other way. Indeed, in the early 
 years this is the chief means of learning. Through the senses 
 a person gains knowledge of the things he experiences. 
 It has been said that the child learns as much during his 
 first seven years as he learns during the remainder of his 
 life. This statement may well be questioned, for, although 
 it is remarkable how much is learned during these years, 
 it must not be forgotten that whatever knowledge is already 
 gained opens the door, through the apperceptive process, 
 to new knowledge. Thus the possession of one language 
 prepares the way for the acquirement of a second, and the 
 
278 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 possession of two or three languages makes the learning 
 of another still more easy. It is an illustration of the 
 truth, "To him that hath, shall be given." It is difficult 
 to measure all that a child of seven possesses. He is ac- 
 quainted with perhaps a thousand words of his mother 
 tongue, and knows the names of common objects and 
 many of their qualities; is familiar with his environment and 
 knows how to adjust himself to it; his eye has learned to 
 see, his ear to hear, liis hand to weigh and handle; he has 
 learned to control his body, direct its movements, and 
 perform acts of skill and agility; in a word, a child of 
 seven has met and removed many estrangements, is well 
 on the way toward a mastery of the world's mysteries. 
 But in each of the years that follow, if there be no cessation 
 of effort, the progress may continue with accelerated speed 
 as long as life lasts. His vocabulary of one thousand words 
 has been multiplied many times ; literature, art, science, 
 history, have brought their riches to him. A trade or 
 profession may have been mastered by him. In the first 
 case, the child begins with nothing but the capacity to 
 learn; in the second case, he still possesses that capacity, 
 and has the impetus which the experience, the training, 
 the knowledge already gained give him. He has added 
 to experience, as a means of learning, the power to read, 
 and facility in learning from others. 
 
 It is not suggested that experience ceases with the early 
 years. As long as we live it will continue to be a means 
 of learning. "We learn to do by doing," says Comenius, 
 and much of the work of the school requires that pupils 
 shall personally experiment. The trade or profession that 
 one selects cannot be mastered by reading books, or 
 
THE ACT OF LEARNING 279 
 
 listening to lectures; it is necessary that the novice shall 
 have actual experience before he attains the full measure 
 of proficiency. 
 
 Text-Books. — The second means by which we learn is 
 through printed or written characters. In the words of 
 Rosenkranz,* "What we learn through books forms a 
 contrast to that which we learn through living. Life forces 
 upon us its wisdom; the book, on the contrary, is entirely 
 passive. It is locked up in itself; it cannot be altered; but 
 it waits by us till we wish to use it. We can read it rapidly 
 or slowly; we can simply turn over its leaves — what in 
 modern tjmeg one calls reading — we can read it from 
 beginning to end or from end to beginning; we can stop, 
 begin again, skip over passages, or cut them short, as we 
 like. To this extent the book is the most convenient means 
 for instruction," The hieroglyphics on the Egyptian 
 monuments, or the tablets found in the library of Nippur 
 are utterly meaningless unless some one possesses the key 
 of interpretation, unless they can be read. The same is 
 true of the characters in a reading book to the child when 
 he first sees them. They must be interpreted to him, that 
 is, he must be taught to read as his first and most important 
 work in order that he may be able to take advantage of 
 this means of self-instruction. It prepares him to use the 
 text-book, which certainly has a place in the school. While 
 it is true that the old-time servile adherence to the text- 
 book on the part of the teacher is not to be countenanced, 
 it is equally true that it cannot be abandoned. It would 
 seem folly to expect the average teacher to be capable of 
 
 * "Philosophy of Education," p. 121. 
 
280 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 planning consecutive work, arranging its details, and pro- 
 viding suitable material such as an author could do w^ho 
 has devoted many years to this work, and who perhaps has 
 himself taught the subject many times and is therefore 
 giving the results of rich experience. And if teachers were 
 capable of doing this, how many could devote the neces- 
 sary time to such work in addition to the burden of daily 
 tasks? And that, too, for each of the many subjects they 
 are called upon to teach. 
 
 While the use of text-books by the teacher is advocated, 
 it hardly need be said that he should have such a mastery 
 of the subject-matter and the method as to be free 
 from dependence upon the book during the process of 
 instruction. The text-book should be a guide both to 
 teacher and pupils, indicating the proper subjects to be 
 treated, inviting to steady and systematic progress, and 
 leading to perfect unity and completeness. 
 
 Text- books should be clear in the presentation of mate- 
 rial, accurate in statement, attractive in their mechanical 
 construction, possess suitable and artistic illustrations, be full 
 enough to meet the end for which they are intended, but 
 not too full, and be clothed in language that is easily com- 
 prehended by the pupil. It is no credit to an author to 
 present his material in obscure and unnecessarily technical 
 terms under the mistaken notion of profundity. 
 
 Oral Instruction. — The third means of instruction is the 
 oral or lecture method. This is the most direct and 
 common medium of conveying knowledge. "Since speech 
 is the natural and original form in which the mind mani- 
 fests itself, no book can rival it. The living word is the 
 
THE ACT OF LEARNING 28 1 
 
 most powerful agent of instruction. ... In two cases 
 especially is it indispensable: one is when some knowledge 
 is to be communicated which is in process of discovery 
 and as yet is found in no compendium; and the other when 
 a living language is to be taught, for in this case the printed 
 page is entirely inadequate." ^ 
 
 With young children the catechetical method must 
 chiefly be employed. They must be called upon to answer 
 specific questions; they must be allowed to take part in the 
 exercise. Only by sympathetic and mutual participation 
 in the work by teacher and pupil can the best results be 
 obtained. With adult students the lecture method may 
 be adopted. The progress is more rapid and the students 
 possess the power of continued concentration which enables 
 them to listen with profit for an extended period. 
 
 Agencies of Instruction. — The three agencies employed 
 in the work of instruction are the family, the tutor, and the 
 school. The family, which has the child exclusively 
 during the earliest years, begins his educational career and 
 prepares the way for later progress. We have seen 
 (Chapter XII) that owing to the complexity of modern 
 life it is practically impossible for the family to continue 
 and complete the formal education of the child, hence 
 the necessity for other agencies. 
 
 In general, two courses are open to parents when the 
 time arrives for them to choose the manner of continuing 
 the education of their children, namely, the tutor and the 
 school. The advantages of the tutorial plan may be 
 stated as follows: (i) the direct and personal influence of 
 
 * " Rosenkranz, " p. 124. 
 
282 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 the teacher may be most powerful; (2) the teaching is 
 individual and therefore the progress may be measured 
 entirely by the ability of the pupil; (3) personal characteris- 
 tics of the pupil may be considered and met; (4) the 
 method employed may be suited to the individual. The 
 disadvantages, on the other hand, may be noted as follows: 
 (i) there is danger of cultivating a spirit of selfishness and 
 egotism on the part of the pupil inasmuch as he is the 
 center of thought and effort; (2) there is lack of the inspira- 
 tion which comes from measuring his strength with others 
 of the same age and ability — it is a good tiling for a boy 
 to meet others in both physical and intellectual con- 
 tests, even if he sometimes suffers defeat, for that is what 
 he must do later in life; (3) there is danger that the pupil 
 may depend too much upon his teacher and therefore fail 
 to gain the self-reliance which comes from exercising one's 
 powers to the full limit; (4) pupils in a class learn from 
 each other in reciting — frequent repetition, struggle 
 of the others to overcome difficulties, hearing the difi"erent 
 presentations of the teacher in order to make the lesson 
 clear to all, variety of discussions both by teacher and pupils, 
 use of language suitable to the intellectual advancement of 
 the whole class — all these tend to fix the material in a 
 way that is impossible when the pupil is taught alone. 
 
 The third agency of instruction, and the one that reaches 
 by far the largest proportion of the youth, is the school. 
 We have already shown the office that the school is to per- 
 form (p. 180). It now remains to consider the different 
 kinds of schools and their office. The generally accepted 
 nomenclature of schools in tliis country is as follows: 
 
THE ACT OF LEARNING 283 
 
 1. The elementary school — which takes the children at 
 five or six and continues their education for about eight 
 years. The work that should be demanded of this school 
 has already been outlined in this chapter. 
 
 2. The secondary school — which receives children who 
 have completed the elementary school and in a four years' 
 course prepares them for college, or some other institution 
 of learning, or for business. There is a decided move- 
 ment towards shortening the elementary course to six years 
 and making the secondary course two years longer, that is, 
 six years. The argument for this change may be briefly 
 stated as follows: (i) A very large proportion of the pupils 
 remain in school only till about their twelfth year ; there- 
 fore a course should be arranged that would be approxi- 
 mately complete at that time. (2) This is the beginning of 
 the adolescent period when great physical changes take 
 place in the child, and therefore a decided change in the 
 method of instruction and the material offered is essential. 
 (3) Many of the subjects that belong peculiarly to the sec- 
 ondary school require more than four years for their com- 
 pletion. Some of them should be begun earlier than is 
 now common, especially languages, which require a great 
 deal of memoriter work in learning vocabularies, accidents, 
 and rules. The memory is more retentive before than after 
 the fourteenth year, (See p. 250.) (4) If started in 
 the high school course at twelve, the child is more 
 likely to continue longer in school than under present 
 conditions. At fourteen he is restless, eager for change, 
 desirous of earning money. Hence if the elementary course 
 closes at that time, and a new epoch confronts him, the 
 chances are that he will choose to leave school, if allowed 
 
284 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 free choice. If, however, he has already had two years of high 
 school work and has become interested in it, and not being 
 confronted with the question of choice at the more critical 
 period, it is probable that he will continue his course. 
 These reasons seem strong and forcible enough to warrant 
 a consideration of this change, a scheme that corresponds 
 with that outlined by Comenius in his "Great Didactic," 
 and that is in vogue in European schools, as well as in 
 many preparatory schools in this country. 
 
 3. The undergraduate school or college — which admits 
 students from the preparatory school and offers them 
 a course usually four years in extent, culminating in a 
 Bachelor's degree. Some institutions make it possible to 
 shorten this course to three years, or even two, thereby 
 enabling the student to begin his professional study earlier. 
 
 4. The graduate school, or university — which offers 
 courses in law, medicine, philosophy, etc., and prepares 
 the student for the learned professions. The term univer- 
 sity is lacking in well-defined meaning in this country, many 
 institutions having assumed the title without sufficient 
 grounds. President Butler offers some valuable sugges- 
 tions on this point as follows:^ "The distinction between 
 the function of the college and that of the university which 
 becomes clearer day by day to the student of education, 
 has thus far proved too subtle to reach the understanding 
 and too commonplace to satisfy the pride of the American 
 people; for the existing terminology inextricably confuses 
 colleges and universities, and sometimes even institutions 
 that are little more than secondary schools, and it taxes 
 
 * "The Meaning of Education," p. 125. 
 
THE ACT OF LEARNING 285 
 
 the patience and skill of the expert to disentangle them. If 
 we cut the Gordian knot by allowing every institution 
 founded for any form or phase of higher education to clas- 
 sify itself by the name that it assumes, then there are no 
 fewer than one hundred and thirty-four universities in the 
 United States" (1890). Dr. Butler defines a university as 
 an "institution where students, adequately trained by previous 
 study of the liberal arts and sciences, are led into special fields 
 of learning and research by teachers of high excellence and 
 originality ; and where, by the agency of libraries, museums, 
 laboratories, and publications, knowledge is conserved, 
 advanced, and disseminated." 
 
 5. Special schools would include all those that fall out- 
 side of the foregoing traditional scheme. The variety of 
 these schools, together with those already described, affords 
 opportunity for youth to pursue almost any educational 
 aim desired. 
 
 Management of the School. — The external management 
 of the school is vested in the board of education, and the 
 internal management belongs to the professional expert, 
 the teacher. It is the office of the school board to furnish 
 the necessary equipment and supplies, to appoint teachers 
 and provide for their support, to make necessary regula- 
 tions for the control of the school, and to sustain the 
 teachers in the enforcement of discipline and in carrying 
 out the work of the school. To the teachers belong the 
 formulation of the course of study and its successful enforce- 
 ment, the maintenance of discipline, the duty of instruc- 
 tion, and the direct furtherance of the educational purpose. 
 This belongs to them because of their professional training 
 
286 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 and their expert knowledge. The function of the school 
 will best be subserved when these relations between school 
 boards and teachers are understood, and when they respec- 
 tively fulfil the duties devolving upon them. The chief 
 purpose of the establishment and maintenance of the school, 
 and of the preparation and consecration of teachers, is that 
 the children may be properly instructed. Around tliis 
 thought should center all the effort and all the zeal of the 
 school. 
 
 Summary 
 
 I. The principal work of the school is instruction. The 
 idea of instruction presupposes a difference between teacher 
 and pupil. The purpose of instruction is to cancel that 
 difference. The formal education of a large part of the 
 children ceases with the elementary school. Hence it is 
 essential that the stage of educational apprenticeship shall 
 he successfully passed during this period. That is, the 
 child should have learned how to direct his further culture in 
 case he can no longer attend school. 
 
 II. The skill of the teacher is put to test in his treatment 
 of children of different capacities — the dull, the mediocre, 
 and the talented. Patience, wisdom, and pedagogical knowl- 
 edge are necessary in order that he may bring out the best 
 there is in each. 
 
 III. The course of study is an expression of the accu- 
 mulated wisdom and experience of educators of all ages. It 
 is a systematic plan of work, which must include such sub- 
 jects as are necessary to accomplish the purpose it sets out to 
 attain. These subjects must be so arranged as to be sequen- 
 
THE ACT OF LEARNING 28/ 
 
 tial, and harmonious in their relation to each other. There 
 should be a perfect unity from the beginning to the end of 
 the course. 
 
 IV. The daily program should be so arranged as to place 
 the subjects requiring closest attention, strictest accuracy, and 
 greatest use of the memory early in the day. Subjects next 
 in difficulty should follow, and those requiring least appli- 
 cation should be placed near the close of the session. 
 
 V. We learn by experience, by the printed page, and 
 through oral instruction. Each of these agencies must be 
 utilized in the work of education, as each has a separate office 
 to fulfil. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 WILL TRAINING 
 
 References. — Morgan, Studies in Pedagogy; Dutton, Social 
 Phases of Education ; Wiggin, Children's Rights ; Shearer, Morals 
 and Manners ; White, Elements of Pedagogy ; also, School Man- 
 agement ; Adler, Moral Instruction of Children ; Coler, Character 
 Building ; Forbush, The Boy Problem ; Griggs, Moral Education ; 
 Mark, Individuality and the Moral Aim in Education ; Baker, 
 Education and Life ; Smith, Systematic Methodology ; Ogden, 
 Science of Education. 
 
 The Will. — The discussion of the nature of the will 
 belongs to the field of ethics on the one hand and psycho- 
 logy on the other, — ethics as the science of human duty 
 and psychology as the science of the activities of the mind. 
 We have already seen that the science of education is based 
 upon both ethics and psychology. This fact must be 
 accepted without entering into consideration of the prin- 
 ciples of ethics or the laws of mental development. As 
 pedagogy seeks to make application of ethical and psycho- 
 logical laws to education, a discussion of the training of the 
 will is peculiarly fitting in a treatise on pedagogy. (See 
 
 P- 3-) 
 
 Will may be defined as that faculty or power of the soul 
 
 which enables it to choose, determine, and direct its own 
 actions. The child does not possess this power at the 
 beginning, and it is the office of education to train his will 
 so that he may control his appetites, direct his activities, 
 make wise choice of opportunity, and hold himself under 
 
 288 
 
WILL TRAINING 289 
 
 constant self-command. "In childhood," says Smith,^ 
 "this power (of the will) is relatively small and should be 
 exercised for only a brief period at a time; most of the 
 actions are then impulsive, or at least non- voluntary. It is 
 well that this is so, for a strong will should be coupled with 
 a strong judgment. This latter the child does not possess, 
 and he must therefore submit to the guidance of the maturer 
 judgments of others. Having the faculty of self-direction 
 in but a small degree, he is more easily diverted, and thus 
 managed in accordance with reason at a time when it would 
 be useless to attempt to reason with him. But as reason 
 develops we should gradually withdraw from him the 
 interference of outside authority." 
 
 Speaking of the will, Bittenger says,^ "It is the monarch 
 of the mind, ruling with despotic, and at times with tyran- 
 nical powers. It is the rudder of the mind, giving direc- 
 tion to its movements. It is the engineer giving course and 
 point, speed and force, to the mental machinery. It acts 
 like a tonic among the soul's languid powers. It is the bond 
 that ties into a strong bundle the separate faculties of the 
 soul. It is the man's momentum; in a word, it is that 
 power by which the energy or energies of the soul are con- 
 centrated on a given point or in a particular direction; 
 it fuses the faculties into one mass, so that instead of 
 scattering all over like grape and canister, they spend their 
 united force on qpe point." 
 
 The will is susceptible of discipline, and educators should 
 give far more attention to its training than is common. We 
 see, hear, taste, feel, imagine, think, remember, act, largely 
 
 ^ " Systematic Methodology," p. 72. 
 
 ' Quoted from Ogden, " Science of Education," p, 228. 
 
290 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 because we will to do these things. "In short," says 
 Coler, "it is the will that has, or may be made to have the 
 controlling influence over body, over intellect, over sen- 
 sibility, and over conduct." We may then turn our atten- 
 tion to the means of securing proper will-training. 
 
 I. The first step in training the will is to teach absolute 
 and unquestioning obedience to authority. — This should 
 begin very early, as soon as the child consciously resists 
 authority, which is long before he enters school, and there- 
 fore is a duty devolving upon the parents. While no 
 specific age can be given as to when the child first under- 
 stands a command, no intelligent person having charge of 
 a child is long in doubt as to when it is consciously dis- 
 obedient. (See p. 149.) It may be remarked that the 
 American parent is averse to the idea of "breaking the 
 will" of the child, ha\'ing the false notion that to require 
 him to submit to a stronger will is to make him cowering 
 and weak, — in a word, that it robs him of spirit, of courage, 
 of that independence which should characterize the citizen 
 of a republic. Nothing is farther from the truth, either 
 in theory or practice. Breaking a colt to harness, if prop- 
 erly done, does not spoil him, it makes him of value; it 
 certainly does not destroy his ambition or take away his 
 spirit. The child must be taught to submit his will to the 
 guidance of others who possess judgment and wisdom, 
 until he is capable of self-direction. And when that power 
 is gained he will be able to control appetite, govern his 
 temper, make the right choice, and act up to his con- 
 victions when a choice has been made. Therefore the 
 bringing of the child to submit to the will of one of ripe 
 judgment and wise discretion is an act of wisdom of great 
 
WILL TRAINING 29 1 
 
 pedagogical and ethical significance. The parent that fails 
 to teach this lesson fails in a God-given duty, and the earlier 
 it is taught the easier it will be, and the better for all con- 
 cerned. As we have said, the lesson of obedience should 
 be taught as soon as the cliild consciously resists authority, 
 and if so taught, the first step towards a proper conception 
 of the child's relation to parents, to teachers, and to the 
 community at large has been taken. It will do much 
 towards preparing the individual for that respect for law 
 and authority which is essential to good citizenship and to 
 a maintenance of a proper relation to liis fellow-men. 
 
 In learning to obey the child yields his will to superior 
 wisdom and authority, but through this act he does not 
 surrender his freedom. Freedom has been defined as, 
 " That condition which is brought about by an implicit 
 obedience to all just law. Whether the law is moral, natural, 
 or civil, the individual is free witliin each domain, only 
 in proportion to liis obedience within that domain. He 
 may be a free man in the civil sense and be in moral bond- 
 age."^ Thus in teaching the child early to obey, he is pre- 
 pared for freedom in its widest, truest, and best sense. 
 
 2. In the second place, the child's will is trained by 
 teaching him to conform to social usages and customs. — 
 "The pupil must become civilized; i.e., ht must learn to 
 govern, as a thing external to him, his natural egotism, and 
 to make the forms which civilized society has adopted his 
 own." Man by nature is a social being. The child is 
 born into family life, and he must learn to conform to the 
 requirements of the home, — respect for and obedience to 
 
 ' Smith, " Systematic Methodology," p. 75. 
 
292 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 his parents, acknowledgment of the rights of brothers and 
 sisters, proper treatment of other members of the house- 
 hold. The training in social usages is best carried out in 
 large families where the occasion to share benefits is fre- 
 quent and where unselfishness is engendered. Where there 
 is but a single child he is apt to be egotistical and self- 
 centered. His opportunities to learn the requirements of 
 society are fewer because of the limited number of occasions 
 to practice the ordinary virtues of social contact. We 
 have seen that the family first of all must inculcate implicit 
 obedience. Although this duty rests upon the family, its 
 influence extends out into life, — to the school, to the State, 
 to contact with men. So, too, the social usages, which 
 are adopted first for the maintenance of right relations 
 among the members of the family, should be those that 
 society in general requires in order that the child may be 
 prepared to act his part among men with intelligence and 
 urbanity. Rosenkranz says,^ "The family, however, edu- 
 cates the children, not for itself but for civil society. In 
 the latter a system of manners and customs is formed 
 which furnishes a social formula or fixed code of etiquette 
 to determine the behavior of the individual in society. 
 This social code endeavors to subdue the natural roughness 
 of man, at least as far as it manifests itself externally." 
 
 The family must therefore not limit its instruction in 
 social forms to its own requirements, it must also prepare 
 the child to conform to the usages of the world. Only 
 when these usages are consistently and systematically prac- 
 ticed in the home may we expect the child unconsciously 
 and habitually to practice them in society. And this 
 * "Pliilosophy of Education," p. 145. 
 
WILL TRAINING 293 
 
 politeness must exist in spirit as well as in form. The 
 spirit of politeness is unselfishness; the form consists in 
 those usages or acts of conduct common to any particular 
 people or age. The spirit of politeness is a universal prin- 
 ciple which cannot be circumscribed by artificial boundaries 
 or confined to any age. It is best exemplified by conform- 
 ity to the Golden Rule of the Great Teacher. The forms 
 of politeness may vary in different ages or in different lands. 
 Thus the formal etiquette of the days of chivalry is differ- 
 ent from that of the present; and many of the forms of 
 politeness required in Japan or China or Germany vary 
 materially from those of America. Although the spirit of 
 politeness is the more essential, the child must learn to 
 conform to the usages in practice in the country in which 
 he lives; he should also learn that in visiting other countries 
 good breeding requires a certain conformity to their usages. 
 In this sense, "when one is in Rome one must do as the 
 Romans do." To ignore such established customs and 
 follow one's own peculiar ideas of etiquette is likely to bring 
 odium upon the individual and to arouse unfriendly criti- 
 cism. Henry James illustrates this in his story, "Daisy 
 Miller." 
 
 Dr. Harris says: "The object of the social code is to 
 subdue the natural rudeness that belongs to man as a mere 
 animal, and thus clothe the brutal with garb of unselfish 
 forms. The essence of politeness consists in treating 
 others as if they were perfectly ideal people. The polite 
 person utterly ignores all rudeness shown him, and treats 
 others as if they intended the same politeness toward him. 
 He prefers others before himself, and adopts as a second 
 nature the form of divine charity or 'altruism,' which 
 
294 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 devotes itself to the good of others. Politeness is only the 
 form of this altruism; morality and religion are the sub- 
 stance of it. Since the form of politeness is the same for 
 all, — the same for the king as for the beggar — it follows 
 that politeness is the ceremonial form by which we cele- 
 brate the equality of all men in the substance of their 
 humanity. 'All are equal before God,' and also before 
 the ideal of politeness." 
 
 This training in social usages, then, becomes one of the 
 most essential duties of the home. The child must recognize 
 that he owes certain duties to others and to society. In this 
 connection a caution is to be observed. The cliild must be 
 taught to be on his guard against the insincerity of the 
 world. " We must teach the youth that he may be imposed 
 upon by cunning dissimulation and hypocrisy, and there- 
 fore he must not give liis confidence lightly and credu- 
 lously. He must learn how he can, without using deceit, 
 gain his own ends in the midst of the throng of opposing 
 interests." The child that is brought up in a home where 
 there is mutual confidence between its members, where 
 there is an atmosphere of truth and genuineness, where 
 love controls and where selfishness has no place, is likely 
 to believe in all the rest of the world. Such confidence is 
 beautiful, but unfortunately the child must be prepared to 
 find that society in general does not measure up to this 
 ideal. "This duty is painful, because the child naturally 
 feels an unlimited confidence in all men. This confidence 
 must be modified and restricted but not destroyed." On 
 the other hand, while the individual must be sufficiently 
 guarded against the insincerity of the world, he must not 
 be made unduly suspicious. It is unfortunate to become 
 
WILL TRAINING 295 
 
 imbued with the belief that most men are dishonest and 
 that in every transaction there is danger of an attempt to 
 cheat on the part of some one. A certain amount of confi- 
 dence in the integrity of mankind is necessary for business, 
 for social intercourse, and for peace of mind. Therefore 
 the child must be taught that although he may not expect 
 the same generosity and disinterestedness in the world 
 that he has been accustomed to in the home, yet there is a 
 great deal of goodness in the world, and a great many 
 places where confidence may well be bestowed. 
 
 There is a certain amount of danger that every cliild must 
 encounter when he goes out from his home. . No parent 
 will voluntarily thrust a child into temptation ; and yet there 
 are temptations that must be met, and the wise parent 
 will allow liis children to mingle with other children, 
 watcliing over and safeguarding them in every possible 
 way until they become strong and self-reliant. The public 
 school should possess so high a moral tone that it will be 
 perfectly safe to send any cliild to it. When this is the 
 case there is no more wholesome or more suitable place for 
 a child to obtain the will-training secured through acquain- 
 tance with and participation in social usages and customs. 
 
 3. The child's will is trained through the formation of 
 habits. — Among the habits that have a direct bearing upon 
 the will may be mentioned the habit of self-mastery, self- 
 control, politeness, obedience to duty, respect for the right 
 of others, industry, temperance. Habit is formed by the 
 repetition of an act until it becomes unconscious and 
 almost automatic. We have shown (p. 12) that the chief 
 end of education is to form good character. Character has 
 been defined as "a bundle of habits "; therefore in training 
 
296 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 the will to form right habits the highest aim of education 
 is sought. "It is the voluntary or will element in human 
 action that gives it moral quality. Moral training involves 
 the right training of the will," says White. Parents should 
 therefore lead their children to repeat voluntarily such acts 
 as will tend to form good habits, and this work should be 
 definitely and systematically continued by the teacher. 
 The child should not only be taught the difference between 
 right and wrong, but he should be encouraged to choose the 
 right repeatedly until the principle is established in him. 
 Through his own voluntary choice, through an exercise of 
 the will, he thus builds character. 
 
 Obedience to Duty is one of the most essential habits 
 to be acquired. Concerning the idea of duty, Rosen- 
 kranz remarks,^ "We must accustom the pupil to uncon- 
 ditional obedience to it, so that he shall perform it for no 
 other reason than that it is duty. The performance of a 
 duty may bring with it externally a result agreeable or dis- 
 agreeable, useful or harmful; but the consideration of such 
 consequences ought never to determine us. Tliis moral 
 demand, though it may appear excessive severity, is the 
 absolute foundation of all genuine ethical practice." 
 
 It may be remarked that the practice of hiring a child 
 to do liis duty is pernicious in the extreme. It teaches him 
 to expect a reward for the mere doing of duty. The virtue 
 of the performance of an act lies in the willingness to do it 
 as a pure act of duty. To pay a child for every errand 
 run, to secure obedience through some compensation, 
 establishes a low and selfish motive. There are many 
 
 ' " Philosophy of Education," p. 150. 
 
WILL TRAINING 297 
 
 duties in life that must be performed without hope of direct 
 reward. To reduce church, temperance, hospital, and other 
 benevolent work to the basis of financial reward is to rob 
 these activities of their altruistic motive and minimize the 
 blessings that come from such endeavor. Therefore the 
 child should early learn to perform many acts freely and 
 without expectation of pay; and by proper training he will 
 learn to perform them willingly and cheerfully. This 
 training will be a good preparation for activity in the many 
 fields of benevolent and gratuitous service which are always 
 open to zealous and consecrated men, and which make the 
 world better. And such altruistic spirit will harmonize 
 with the teaching of the Holy Word, "It is more blessed to 
 give than to receive." 
 
 A keen sense of duty will also have a great influence in 
 solving the labor problem. It will require employers 
 equitably to share the profits of their business with their 
 employees in wages, perquisites, or other emoluments, 
 after a fair return on their investment is assured. On the 
 other hand, it will require the employees to further the 
 interests of their employers by diligent service, by zeal and 
 industry, and by honestly, faithfully, and intelligently doing 
 their best work. There should be greater stress laid upon 
 the assumption and discharge of duty, and the school must 
 take its share of tliis responsibihty. 
 
 Emphasis has been given to the cultivation of a sense of 
 duty; it is not to be inferred, however, that other virtues 
 are to be neglected. Industry, self-control, temperance, 
 honesty, truthfulness, and all the other virtues must be taught. 
 Dr. Harris well remarks, "No virtue may be neglected for 
 another. The worst results follow from the habit of pro- 
 
298 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 crastinating the performance of a duty or the indulgence 
 of a weakness until a fixed day. The person who 'turns 
 over a new leaf on an important epoch is apt to turn it 
 back again soon after. The wiU must not be trifled with. 
 Duty must be obeyed now. To permit a temporary lapse 
 from virtue occasionally is as inadmissible as allowing 
 one's self now and then a misstep in ascending a flight of 
 stairs. Such missteps undo the whole work." 
 
 Each of the virtues should receive definite attention in 
 early childhood, so that conformity to them becomes a 
 habit. The will is the most important agency in the for- 
 mation of habit and in the establisliment of character. Hence 
 attention given to will-training is directly in harmony with 
 the purpose of education as pointed out in Chapter II, on 
 the Aim of Education. 
 
 4. The ultimate end of will-training is reached when the 
 individual is capable of governing himself — The cliild 
 must be guided in his earlier years by a will stronger than 
 his own; but the end to be sought is to bring liim to be 
 able safely to direct his own life. He must be exercised 
 in the art of self-government until he is capable of acting 
 wisely and independently. This training should accustom 
 him to freedom in its truest sense. He will learn that in 
 the society of men, absolute freedom is impossible, that 
 the rights of others must be considered. To illustrate this 
 point: A family were in the habit of drumming on the 
 piano at all times of the day and night, much to the annoy- 
 ance of their neighbors on the other side of the thin parti- 
 tion wall. On one occasion when their neighbor was ill, 
 and after the noise had continued till midnight, a request 
 came politely asking for a cessation of the nuisance. The 
 
WILL TRAINING 299 
 
 reply was, "This is a free country and we will do as we 
 please," and they continued to play. They forgot that 
 it is a free country for the people on the other side of the 
 wall also, and that they had no right to trespass on their 
 rights. This false conception of freedom is much too 
 common, and our schools should teach that true freedom 
 takes into account the rights of other men. "Education," 
 says Rosenkranz, "aims at accustoming the youth to free- 
 dom, so that he shall always measure liis deed by the idea 
 of the good. . . . The pedagogical maxim is, then: Be 
 independent, but be so through doing good." 
 
 This conception of freedom is doubly essential in a 
 country that boasts of its liberty, a country in wliich 
 the people are rulers. As an outgrowth of the false idea 
 that every man is free to do as he pleases regardless of 
 others, we have bosses, ring government, and grafting in 
 politics; heartless corporations that stifle competition and 
 drive to the wall small concerns that stand in their way; 
 greed and selfishness on the part of capitalists on the one 
 hand, and arrogance and tyranny on the part of the unions, 
 which compel men to join their ranks or starve, on the 
 other hand. As a result we have increase in peculation 
 and crime that is already appalling. Perhaps the gravest 
 of these tendencies is the attitude of trade unions which 
 do not permit a man to dispose of liis labor to whom 
 he will and under such terms as he pleases. A very 
 vital principle of freedom is attacked if this claim of 
 the unions is allowed. A man should be free to join a 
 labor organization if he will, and he has a right to decline 
 to work under conditions that are unacceptable to him; 
 but his neighbor is equally free to withhold his alliance 
 
300 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 with the union and to work if the terms satisfy him. In 
 a word, I may work or not as I please, but I am not free 
 to prevent my neighbor from working even if he chooses 
 to do so upon terms unacceptable to me. The govern- 
 ment that cannot protect me in that right, that cannot 
 enforce tliis idea of freedom, is weak and incapable of 
 protecting its citizens, and therefore does not deserve to 
 exist. A free government must guarantee to all its citi- 
 zens equal rights and privileges before the law. 
 
 Under a free government this high conception of educa- 
 tion, namely, that which "accustoms the youth to freedom," 
 can best be reached. Absolute forms of government 
 must necessarily restrict the individual and give him false 
 ideas of freedom, for it must be remembered that the 
 State also as a protecting, controlling, and governing body 
 is a factor in education. (See p. 191.) Under absolute 
 forms of government education in the highest sense, that 
 is, education that sets free, that makes the individual 
 capable of governing himself, can never be attained. 
 
 The home, as it offers wider opportunities to the child 
 to control his own actions, should train him to freedom. 
 The school, which seeks through its discipline to lead the 
 child to act, not under the watchful eye of the teacher 
 to follow mere rules and commands, but from inner impulse 
 and from liigh personal ideals and from a sense of individ- 
 ual responsibility, — such a school is in the highest sense 
 training the will, and preparing the child to be self-govern- 
 ing. Placing the child on his honor * in school prepares 
 him to exercise freedom of choice, to act from his own 
 
 * See p. 74 of my "School Management" for a full discussion of the 
 principle. 
 
WILL TRAINING 3OI 
 
 sense of right rather than blindly to follow a rule that the 
 teacher has promulgated for his observance. In every case 
 he decides liis action upon the principle of right and wrong 
 rather than upon that of keeping a rule in order to escape 
 its penalties. He is constantly exercising liis own will 
 instead of subordinating himself to the will of another. 
 He thus, guided by his teacher to a discriminating sense 
 of etliical action, becomes a law unto liimself, establishing 
 a principle which he must follow later in life when no 
 longer under the guidance of a teacher. This should 
 lead to good citizensliip in a country where he is called 
 upon to exercise liis freedom as a patriot, as a member of 
 the body politic, and of society. Hence the right kind of 
 discipline in school becomes as truly an essential element 
 in preparing the child for self-government as the material 
 of the curriculum does. 
 
 5. The result attained will be manifest in good character. 
 It has been pointed out in former pages of this book that 
 the supreme purpose of education is the formation of 
 character. This is no new proposition, character-build- 
 ing having always been the end sought by educators, 
 even though tliis doctrine had not been specifically for- 
 mulated, and was not definitely fixed in the consciousness 
 of the instructor. The Herbartian School of pedagogy 
 lays great stress upon character-building as the central 
 thought of school work; they also teach that character is 
 nothing less than a rightly trained will. We have seen 
 that the formation of habits is a will process. If most of 
 the habits are good we say the character is good, and if 
 most of the habits are bad the character is bad. Hence 
 the great work of education is to lead the pupil volun- 
 
302 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 tarily to adopt good habits and to establish them through 
 repeated virtuous acts and right hving. If education fails 
 to form good habits it increases the power to do evil 
 because it equips the individual to be the more acute in 
 roguery. Education that fails in fixing a moral basis 
 thus makes the man the more dangerous to society. 
 
 Finally, "the consideration of the culture of character 
 leads to the subject of conscience," says Rosenkranz. 
 Dr. Harris defines conscience as ^^ the criticism which 
 the ideal self makes on the realized self." This definition will 
 stand the test of scrutiny. Every man possesses certain 
 ideals. These ideals may be high or low according to the 
 teaching he has received and the environment in which he 
 lives. His conscience will trouble him only when he fails 
 to reach his own ideals. A boy is brought up in the slums, 
 surrounded by thieves, accustomed to profanity and intem- 
 perance, being perhaps liimself sent out to steal, and pun- 
 ished or rewarded according to the success he has met 
 with. His conscience will trouble him but little when he 
 perpetrates a crime, because he has not violated his ideals. 
 Another boy, brought up in a pure home, acquainted with 
 the laws of God and man, nurtured in an atmosphere of 
 etliical and Christian practice, will surely have higher ideals 
 and therefore his conscience will hold him to a strict account 
 concerning acts in which the other boy would not be dis- 
 turbed in the least. A Hindu mother performs a religious 
 act when she casts her child into the Ganges and satisfies 
 her conscience by a deed which to a Christian mother 
 would be murder and which could not fail to cause terrible 
 remorse. The one loves her baby as truly as the other, 
 but the difference in their feelings lies in the ideals which 
 
WILL TRAINING 303 
 
 each possesses. It therefore is incumbent upon education 
 o implant correct ideals as well as to train the pupil to 
 live up to the ideals he has. 
 
 Moral Training in the School. — Inasmuch as the moral 
 side of education has so direct a bearing upon will- train- 
 ing, as well as upon the practical things of life, we may 
 well inquire what is the office of the school in this work? 
 Mos American educators seem to be averse to formal 
 lessons in morals, although Germany, France, England, 
 and other countries have adopted such courses with excel- 
 lent results In a few schools in this country such instruc- 
 tion has been introduced also with satisfactory results. 
 White very truly remarks,^ " Effective moral training involves 
 the discipline of the will to act habitually in \dew of those 
 motives which elease the soul from bondage to low and self- 
 ish desires, and make the conscience regal in life," Super- 
 intendent Carr, who has had a definite course in morals in 
 his schools for some years, says: "The moral instruction of 
 children is the highest duty imposed upon teachers. Many 
 children receive little moral training at home; they attend 
 neither church nor Sunday school; therefore, if they receive 
 moral instruction at all, it must be in the pubhc schools. 
 So whatever other work of tliis course is sHghted, the part 
 pertaining to moral instruction should be carried out. 
 
 "The aim of moral instruction is to teach the child to 
 know, to love, and to do right. It therefore appeals to 
 the intellect, the sensibihties, and the w^ill. While all 
 children have a moral conscience, yet what is right and 
 what is wrong must be taught to them the same as other 
 
 ' "Elements of Pedagogy," p, 314. 
 
304 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 facts. The moral judgment must be developed. This 
 culture of the moral understanding should be accompanied 
 by a heart culture that causes the child to love the good. 
 The moral sensibilities need cultivation as well as the 
 moral intellect. But the final outgrowth of the moral 
 training is upright conduct, and unless this result is attained 
 the training goes for naught. The child should be taught 
 to he industrious, honest, truthful, obedient, patriotic, and 
 reverential. His moral acts should be repeated until they 
 become habits." 
 
 The teaching of morals in the school should be syste- 
 matic even though no fixed place be given to it in the daily 
 program. The teacher should have a plan in mind that 
 will insure methodical instruction in each of the virtues.* 
 In carrying out such a plan he will utilize daily incidents 
 gathered in the school and out of it and will take into 
 account the home life and environment of his pupils. He 
 will not neglect the physical condition of the children, 
 which may have an important bearing upon their moral 
 conduct. He will remember that suitable employment is 
 an excellent safeguard against mischief. By suitable and 
 artistic schoolroom decorations, and by attractive environ- 
 ments, not only aesthetic but also ethical feelings will be 
 inspired. From the lives of great men and from the 
 pages of liistory abundant illustrative examples of noble 
 living will be found. Literature, especially the Bible, will 
 contribute suitable material for illustration and instruction 
 concerning each of the virtues. Besides these things the 
 teacher will be able to inculcate moral ideals and habits by 
 
 For treatment of the teaching of school morals, see Chapter XI in my 
 " School Management." 
 
WILL TRAINING 305 
 
 means of the school discipline, by . the intermingling of 
 pupils, by the maintenance of the rights of the respective 
 children, by supervision of the recreation hours, as well as 
 through the formal studies of the curriculum. 
 
 Above all and most essential of all is the personal charac- 
 ter of the teacher, v^hich is the most potent and effective 
 moral influence in connection with the lives of school 
 children. 
 
 Summary 
 
 I. Will is the faculty or power of the soul which enables 
 it to choose, determine, and direct its own actions. It is the 
 office of education so to train the will of the child that he will 
 he able to maintain self-command. The will should have 
 the controlling influence over body, intellect, sensibility, and 
 conduct. 
 
 II. Obedience to authority is the first step to be learned 
 in will-training. In appropriating this lesson the child 
 does not surrender his true freedom, which may be defified 
 as the state or condition acquired through obedience to just 
 and wholesome laws. 
 
 III. The second step in will-training involves a con- 
 formity to social usages and customs. Man is a social 
 being and he must acquiesce in the laws of social order. The 
 earlier he begins to comprehend this fact the better. The 
 essence of politeness is unselfishness. Not only must there 
 he the spirit of politeness but also a conformity to its forms. 
 
 IV. Again, the will is trained through the exercise of 
 choice. Frequent exercise of the will in the same way re- 
 
3o6 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 suits in habit. Obedience to duty should be inculcated as a 
 principle of life. 
 
 V. The end to be sought in will-training is the power of 
 self-government. This requires consideration of the rights 
 of others as well as assertion of one^s own rights. Educa- 
 tion must " accustom the youth to freedom.''^ That educa- 
 tion which emancipates man should be attained best under a 
 free government. 
 
 VI. The right training of the will should result in good 
 character, the culture of which leads to the subject of con- 
 science. Conscience may be defined as " the criticism which 
 the ideal self makes on the realized self?'* 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 
 
 References. — Coe, Education in Religion and Morals; Diirell, 
 A New Life in Education; Crooker, Religious Freedom in Ameri- 
 can Education; White, Elements of Pedagogy; Forhiish, The Boy 
 Problem; Payne, Education of Teachers; Century Magazine, May, 
 1900; Educational Review, Eebruar\', 1897; also October, 1903; 
 N. E. A. Minutes of 1902 and 1903; Proceedings of the Religious 
 Education Association; King, Personal and Ideal Elements in 
 Education; Griggs, Moral Education; Tompkins, The Philosophy 
 of Teaching; Spalding, Thought and Theories .of Life and Educa- 
 tion; Sterrett, The Freedom of Authority ; Wishart, Primary Facts 
 in Religious Thought. 
 
 Religion a Universal Principle. — The religious instinct 
 is innate with every human being. No race or tribe of 
 people has been discovered that does not possess in the 
 development of this inborn capacity some form of belief 
 and worsliip. It may be the crudest fetich, the most 
 debasing form of idolatry, the subtlest philosophy of 
 paganism, or the highest and noblest form of Christianity. 
 It is the cry of the soul to some power or some influence 
 believed to possess the ability to aid in the hour of distress, 
 to comfort in sorrow, or to avert evil. " Man has a religious 
 nature," says Coe,^ "The definite establishment of this 
 proposition is perhaps the greatest service that the history 
 and psychology of religion have performed. Not very long 
 ago men were still asking whether religion might not have 
 
 ^ "Education in Religion and Morals/' p. 57. 
 307 
 
3o8 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 arisen through priestcraft or statecraft, or at least through 
 some incidental feature of human experience. Religion 
 was looked upon as a theory or belief which men had 
 formed for themselves somewhat as we form our hypotheses 
 of inhabitants in other planets. Some tribes were said to 
 be entirely without religion, and hence it was inferred that 
 religion does not belong to humanity as such. But the 
 * tribe destitute of religion ' is found to be purely imagin- 
 ary, and the history of religion begins its recital with the 
 affirmation that man as such has a religious impulse out 
 of which have sprung all the religions of the world." 
 
 Recognizing the truth set forth in the foregoing state- 
 ments, the educational systems of many countries provide 
 religious instruction as a part of the regular school work, 
 and outline a complete course in religion. Tliis is possible 
 in countries where there is a state religion or where there 
 is a limited number of religious confessions. It would be 
 impossible in this country where Church and State are 
 separate and where there are so many religious sects, — at 
 least it would be impossible to enter into the discussion of 
 religious dogmas in the public school. But it may be 
 mentioned again, that the duty of education is not limited 
 to the public school, — the school being only one factor 
 in this work. (See Chap. XII.) It must also be remem- 
 bered that the term education has a broader significance 
 than the term instruction. American educators with 
 considerable unanimity recognize the need of religious 
 education. This is evidenced by the numerous articles 
 on the subject that have appeared in educational journals, 
 popular magazines, and other periodicals; in discussions 
 that have taken place in teachers' gatherings; in the organ- 
 
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 3^9 
 
 ization of the Religious Education Association, and b}- the 
 growing interest in the question everywhere felt. 
 
 Dissatisfaction Manifest. — In an address before the 
 National Educational Association at Minneapolis, in 1902, 
 Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler remarked as follows: " I want 
 to call attention to a phenomenon which is so universal that 
 we do not notice it, — paradoxical though that sounds — but 
 which, if it is permitted to continue, will one day produce 
 startling results in our life and civilization. I refer to the 
 facts that owing to a series of causes, operating over a con- 
 siderable period of years, knowledge of the English Bible is 
 passing out of the life of the rising generation, and that 
 with the knowledge of the Bible there is fast disappearing 
 any acquaintance with the religious element which has 
 shaped our civilization from the beginning." 
 
 This sentiment voiced the opinion of that great body of 
 educators as shown later by the adoption of the following 
 from the report of the committee on resolutions: "It is 
 apparent that familiarity with the Enghsh Bible as a 
 masterpiece of literature is rapidly decreasing among the 
 pupils of our schools. This is the direct result of a concep- 
 tion which regards the Bible as a theological book merely, 
 and thereby leads to its exclusion from the schools of some 
 States as a subject of reading and study. We hope for 
 such a change of public sentiment in this regard as will 
 permit and encourage the reading and study of the English 
 Bible, as a literary work of the highest and purest type, 
 side by side with the poetry and prose which it has inspired 
 and in a large measure formed. We do not urge this in 
 the interest of sectarian instruction of any kind, but that 
 
3IO ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 this great book may ever be the teacher's aid in the interpre- 
 tation of history and literature, law and life — an unrivaled 
 agency in the development of true citizenship as well as in 
 the formation of pure hterary style." This was adopted 
 "without dissent" as one of the declarations of principles 
 of the Association. While tliis expression may not be inter- 
 preted as a demand for positive religious instruction in the 
 schools, it indicates a dissatisfaction with what is being 
 done at present, and it will have a tendency to arouse 
 further interest in this important matter. 
 
 Education that Omits Religion is Incomplete. — Rosen- 
 kranz summarizes this thought in the words,^ " Education 
 must, therefore, accustom the youth to the idea that, in 
 doing the good, he unites himself with God as with the 
 absolute Person, but that in doing evil he separates him- 
 self from Him. The consciousness that through his deed 
 he comes into relation with God himself, affirmatively or 
 negatively, deepens the moral standpoint with its formal 
 obedience to the commands of virtue, to the standpoint of 
 the heart that finds its all-sufficient principle in love." 
 The philosophy of education as worked out by Rosen- 
 kranz reaches its logical conclusion and completeness in 
 the religious ideal. 
 
 Arnold Tompkins says,^ "Education and religion must 
 have some common, vital principle, in spite of the fact that 
 they have been set over against each other as if they belonged 
 to different categories, if not antagonistic. This sharp 
 line of distinction often blinds to the best truth in both, 
 leaving education without purity, holiness, faith, noble 
 
 * " Philosophy of Education," p. 159. ' "Philosophy of Teaching," p. 271. 
 
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 31 1 
 
 purpose, a striving for perfect knowledge and harmony 
 with God — with notliing but the sharp intellect either 
 with or without character; and religion without beauty, 
 fullness and vigor of life, large-mindedness, generous man- 
 hood — with nothing but dogma and creed and formal 
 piety. We hear that education is a doubtful factor, having 
 to do with the intellect, and giving reckless power unless 
 restrained by the religious heart; that it is an affair of this 
 world to satisfy hunger and pride, while religion is for 
 eternity, satisfying and saving the soul. 
 
 "Religion is not a branch, a department, or anything 
 that can be added to education; but rather vitalized, 
 purified, and quickened blood. It is the attachment and 
 devotion of every faculty of the soul to truth, beauty, and 
 virtue. It includes man's whole being, — his tone and 
 temper of life, purity of heart; his striving to know and feel 
 the true, the permanent, the external source of all things; 
 his tendency of life upward toward truth and God. What- 
 ever else you may desire to include, so much are essential 
 elements. Neither is education a branch, a department, 
 or anything that can be added to religion. Education is 
 to fix the tendency of life upward; to stimulate a striving 
 for perfection of character; to enlighten and strengthen the 
 native tendencies of the soul; to intensify and purify, 
 broaden and deepen, refine and enrich life by all things 
 true, beautiful, and good; and to establish the current of 
 being in the safe channel of spiritual activity. Education 
 is not power unqualified, but power regulated and directed 
 to righteous ends. The work of education is fatally defec- 
 tive which gives faculties power without the power of right 
 direction, strength of life without right tendency of Ufe." 
 
312 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 What Religious Education Embraces. — It may be diffi- 
 cult to outline the religious knowledge that is essential to a 
 well-developed educational equipment. In discussing this 
 question it must be reiterated that we are not thinking of 
 the work of the school, or the teacher, or the home, or any 
 other single agency. We have shown that the religious 
 impulse is universal, affecting all mankind ; that it is a part 
 of the education of every intelligent, self-conscious being, 
 and that no life is complete without it. The consideration 
 of it, then, logically follows as a part of educational philoso- 
 phy. No theory of education is adequate that ignores it. 
 That religion is a factor of civilization is too self-evident to 
 require discussion. That it wonderfully affects all human 
 action and influences individuals is also unquestioned. 
 We may then ask, What religious knowledge is essential to 
 a harmonious development, and what are the lessons in the 
 sphere of religious thought and activity that every individual 
 should learn? The following are the most essential of 
 these lessons : 
 
 I. Reverence. — Every child should learn to be reverent. 
 Respect for the name of God, His house. His consecrated 
 servants. His Word, and His works should be implanted in 
 every life. There is far too much flippancy with regard to 
 sacred things. In the home, in the school, everywhere, a 
 spirit of reverence for those things that pertain to religion 
 should always be inculcated. Surely no parent, whatever 
 his creed, would object to this spirit being implanted and 
 fostered in his children, even in the secular school. The 
 rather, would not parents justly condemn the school that 
 fails in this particular or that neglects this essential? 
 
 Good breeding requires that one shall be reverent and 
 
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 313 
 
 respectful towards all things of a truly religious character, 
 and the teaching of reverence need in no sense partake of 
 the nature of a theological creed. Every 'intelligent, self- 
 respecting, cultured person respects true religion, even if 
 he makes no pretension to personal faith. It is a part of 
 his education and every man owes it to himself to possess 
 and maintain a reverent attitude. 
 
 It cannot be too often repeated that the character of the 
 teacher is the most vital and powerful agency in molding 
 the lives of his pupils. The teacher therefore must be 
 reverent in spirit as well as consistent in life. 
 
 2. Knowledge of the Bible. — Famiharity with the 
 Scriptures is essential in every walk in life in order to 
 grasp the meaning of literature, art, science, and all the 
 other evidences of civilization. "To appreciate the litera- 
 ture, sculpture, painting, action, and indeed, all expres- 
 sions of life during these Christian centuries, a knowledge 
 of the basal sources of the Christian religion is essential. 
 Consider, for instance, how necessary a knowledge of the 
 Bible is to the appreciation of half the paintings in any 
 European gallery. As the Bible is the great text-book of 
 Christianity, so it is a source from which much of our civi- 
 lization can be explained. The study of the history and 
 sources of religion, prevalent in the society about the indi- 
 vidual should have, therefore, an important place in the 
 work we do in the history of culture."^ 
 
 There should be freedom, therefore, to use the Bible in 
 the school, not only for the devotional exercises, but also 
 for a study of its historical data, its literature, and its moral 
 
 * Griggs, "Moral Education," p. 281. 
 
314 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 teachings, as demanded by the great body of teachers of the 
 National Educational Association in their declaration of 
 principles cited earlier in this chapter. Many of its stories, 
 especially of the Old Testament, are pecuHarly suited to 
 the needs of young children. 
 
 This can be done without arousing sectarian prejudice, 
 or awakening religious animosity. It is being done all 
 over the land by thousands of teachers and to the universal 
 satisfaction of parents of all shades of belief. Unfortunately 
 it is being neglected in the very place where most attention 
 should be given to it, namely, the home. Numerous 
 investigations recently made prove that there is a woful 
 ignorance of the Bible among all classes of people, not 
 excepting even people of culture and members of Christian 
 churches. This is certainly retrogression from an educa- 
 cational, to say nothing of religious standpoint. The 
 teaching of the truths and precepts of God's Word is essen- 
 tial as a safeguard to citizenship and as a means of pre- 
 serving our institutions, which as we shall see later are 
 founded upon religion. 
 
 This age is characterized by zeal to know about the 
 Bible rather than to know the Bible itself. Hence the 
 many commentaries, "lesson helps," "lesson leaves," etc., 
 which are employed in Sunday-school work. The use of 
 these is not condemned if they are properly employed in 
 connection with the Bible itself; but they are often employed 
 as a substitute for the Bible, and utilized in learning about 
 the Word, rather than leading to a direct acquaintance with 
 it. Higher criticism has occupied the attention of scholars 
 in recent years. While good may ultimately come from 
 this, it must be said that the principal effect thus far mani- 
 
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 315 
 
 fest has been to lessen among the masses the reverence for 
 God's Word as a statement of His eternal truth and pur- 
 pose. We endorse Professor Coe when he says, "Happy the 
 man whose memory is stored with truth in the forms of 
 Biblical phraseology, for he has constant means of self- 
 expression, and therefore of self-understanding." 
 
 Instruction concerning reverence and the Bible, in a 
 measure, at least, falls within the province of the school. 
 The other lessons indicated as essential, namely, prayer, 
 conception of religion, and initiation to the forms and 
 ceremonies of religion, must be wholly relegated to other 
 agencies. Therefore only brief reference will be made to 
 them, although they constitute an important part in a 
 complete education. 
 
 3. Prayer. — As religion is a universal instinct, so 
 prayer, which is the expression of the needs and desires of 
 the soul, which by its very nature implies faith — belief in 
 the Being addressed — and which embraces adoration, 
 supplication, confession, and thanksgiving, should be taught 
 to every child as a part of his education, his duty, and his 
 privilege ; almost as soon as the child begins to talk it learns 
 to lisp its simple prayer. Hence to the home belongs the 
 supreme duty of teaching this religious exercise. 
 
 4. A Conception of Religion. — "Religion," asserts 
 Rosenkranz, "in common with every spiritual activity, must 
 pass through three stages — feeling, conception, and 
 comprehension. Whatever the special character of any 
 religion may be, it cannot avoid the psychological neces- 
 sity, either in its general history or in the history of the 
 individual." Conception of religion must not stop with 
 
3l6 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 feeling, though this may be the earliest form of its experience 
 and expression. It must go forward to such knowledge and 
 such trust in God as will enable the individual not only to 
 consecrate himself to God's service, but will also lead 
 him to be reconciled to the will of the Almighty even in the 
 midst of adversity. Rehgious feeling may exalt tempora- 
 rily to a high state of ecstasy, but comprehension has been 
 reached only when the soul, whatever the trials of life, is 
 able fully to accept the words of the Apostle when he says, 
 "And we know that all things work together for good to 
 them that love God." 
 
 5. Initiation into Religious Forms. — Lastly, education 
 requires the child to be acquainted with the forms and 
 ceremonies of the church and to be inducted into church 
 membership. Modern investigation and experience have 
 disproved Rousseau's theory, which holds that Emile at 
 fifteen "will know nothing of history, nothing of humanity, 
 nothing of art and hterature, notliing of God." At this 
 age Rousseau asserts that Emile does not even know that 
 he has a soul, and he thinks that perhaps the eighteenth 
 year even is too early for him to learn this fact. The great 
 Italian priest, Rosmini, had a truer conception of the child 
 and its ability to enter into the thought and experience of 
 religious Hfe. He writes as follows : ^ " Truly it is in vain that 
 Rousseau pretends that worship of God is beyond the 
 lisping of the infant tongue. On the contrary, the little 
 child, as if nearer to its origin, seems to turn towards it 
 with delight, to seek it with eagerness, and to find it more 
 easily even than the adult; and it belongs to God rather 
 
 * "Method in Education," p. 161. 
 
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 317 
 
 than to man to impart himself to the simple soul that 
 knows nothing, yet understands its Ma'ker. " 
 
 This part of the duty of education is surely as genuinely 
 essential as to teach youth how to win their daily bread; 
 how to seize life's opportunities; how to obtain pleasure 
 and inspiration from literature, history, or art; how to 
 meet the responsibilities of patriotic citizenship, even though 
 it belongs to other agencies than the school. 
 
 Agencies of Religious Instruction. — The principal instru- 
 mentalities of religious instruction are the home, the 
 church, and the school; or the "trinity of divinely ordained 
 institutions, the home, the Church, and the State," the 
 school representing the last. Under primitive conditions, 
 when the whole duty of instruction could be undertaken 
 by the parents, we know, concerning the Hebrews espe- 
 cially, that the children were taught the Ten Commandments, 
 the laws of Moses, the prophecies and promises of the 
 Scriptures, the history of the race, the duties of the sanc- 
 tuary, the rites and ceremonies of public worship, and the 
 traditions of their people. In modern times the school 
 has largely relieved the home of secular education, and in 
 far too many cases parents have also absolved themselves 
 from the religious training of their children, a duty that 
 belongs peculiarly to them and that cannot be entirely 
 thrown upon any other agency. Some of the greatest of 
 the world's benefactors — Chrysostom, Augustine, Wesley, 
 Ruskin, Moody — have testified to the profound impression 
 made upon them by the religious teaching of their mothers. 
 
 The tendency is to turn the religious training of children 
 over to the Sunday school as the secular training is turned 
 
3l8 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 over to the day school, and this is utterly inadequate to 
 perform the work of proper religious instruction. There is 
 no disposition to minimize the work of the Sunday school, 
 which is certainly doing a noble work. But it has most 
 serious limitations. Its sessions are held once a week for 
 about an hour; attendance is irregular; the children rarely 
 make a thorough study of the lesson — often none at all; 
 the lessons themselves are not graded to suit the capacity 
 of the children, usually the same lesson is given to imma- 
 ture children and adult men and women; the lessons are 
 often scrappy and disconnected; the teachers are usually 
 untrained, lacking pedagogical skill, and this skill, under 
 the unfavorable circumstances, is doubly essential; and 
 finally, it reaches less than fifty per cent of the children of 
 our land. 
 
 On the other hand, the Sunday school is truly educa- 
 tional in so far as it inculcates the spirit of worship through 
 its songs, its study of the Word of God, its various religious 
 exercises, and its associations. 
 
 Because of its limitations even with those it reaches, and 
 because less than half of the children are enrolled in its 
 ranks, the Sunday school is not a sufficient or adequate 
 means for the religious education of the young of our land. 
 
 The third instrumentality of religious instruction is the 
 school. In private schools under denominational control 
 such instruction may be freely given. But private schools 
 reach only about seven per cent of the children in our 
 elementary and secondary schools. Ninety-three per cent 
 attend public schools where religious dogmas may not be 
 taught. Parents are jealous of their religious beliefs and 
 there must be no attempt in the public school, concealed 
 
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 319 
 
 or otherwise, to teach any distinctive creed. Upon this 
 point the American people agree with great unanimity. 
 
 The public school is supported by taxing the property 
 of all classes of people without respect to religious belief. 
 It has done more to unify our citizens and cement them into 
 a strong, homogeneous, and patriotic whole, than any 
 other institution. The introduction of creeds would dis- 
 rupt our school system to its very foundation; hence the 
 wisdom of our forefathers in excluding doctrinal instruc- 
 tion. The discussion of rehgious dogmas always stirs men 
 to the very depths — some of the most dreadful wars of 
 history have been religious wars — and therefore even if 
 the law did not forbid its introduction, it would be unwise 
 to endanger the harmony of that institution where children 
 of all classes meet as on one common ground. 
 
 But if creeds may not be taught in the public school, does 
 it follow that religion in the truest sense is excluded? Are 
 these institutions "Godless," as has been charged? There 
 are, says White, "At least three avenues open for the 
 introduction of religious ideas and sanctions into our 
 schools. These are sacred song, the literature of Christen- 
 dom, and, best of all, faithful and fearless Christian teachers, 
 the living epistles of the Truth. Against these there is no 
 law." So long as the great body of teachers are righteous 
 in their practices and true believers in God, the schools can 
 never be "Godless" nor destitute of real religion. 
 
 The State and Religion. — There is a confusion of terms 
 which is partly responsible for the wide differences of 
 opinion among the masses and among thinking men, both 
 .as to the problem of religious instruction and its solution. 
 
320 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 The terms religion and church arc employed as synonyms, 
 and the real meaning of religion is often obscure in the 
 minds of many. Hon. William M. Lanning^ has offered 
 some original and valuable suggestions concerning the 
 relation of the State to religion which tend to clarify this 
 subject. He holds that while Church and State are sep- 
 arate, religion and the State are not separated. He shows 
 that the history of the development of our national and 
 State constitutions abounds with examples, expressed and 
 implied, in which God is recognized, and adds, "We find, 
 then, that the separation of Church and State in the Ameri- 
 can republic has not led to a Godless or non-religious State. 
 The State believes that the God of the Bible is our Supreme 
 Ruler, that He administers justice perfectly, and that He 
 bestows upon us individual and national blessings. She 
 believes that He punishes perjury, and therefore requires 
 her officials to bind their consciences by calling upon Him 
 to hear and witness, and help them to perform, their 
 promises of faithful performance of official duty. She 
 appoints ordained servants of that God to lead her legisla- 
 tors to the throne of grace to ask for national and State 
 favors. There are principles and practices in every depart- 
 ment of our federal and State governments that publish to 
 the world that the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob is 
 the God of our government." 
 
 In the application of these facts and these principles to 
 the educational problem. Judge Lanning further says, 
 "It is not the function of the State to teach the peculiar 
 doctrines of any religious sect. That is left to the Church. 
 What the State cannot do directly it should not attempt to do 
 
 * Judge of the United States District Court for New Jersey. 
 
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 321 
 
 by indirection. The free public school is an institution of 
 the State and not of the Church. It is wholly supported 
 by taxes and other rates gathered from a people of a great 
 variety of religious creeds. Each religious sect is free to 
 teach its peculiar doctrines, but it cannot use the free 
 public school as an instrument in such teaching, nor should 
 it be permitted to use any portion of the public taxes for such 
 purpose. As, however, the State recognizes in her affairs 
 the overruling hand of God, so the children in the free 
 public school, it being an institution of the State, should be 
 taught to revere God. When they take the name of God 
 in vain they should be told that it is wrong because God has 
 forbidden it. When they steal they should be told that 
 God has commanded us not to steal. When they lie they 
 should be told that God has commanded us to speak the 
 truth. They should be taught that the Ten Command- 
 ments are in force because they came from God. While 
 teachers in our public schools are not permitted to teach 
 sectarian religion, they have no right to permit their schools 
 to become Godless, for as the State is not Godless, and 
 as it acknowledges God's justice and avenging power, the 
 children of the State should not be left in ignorance of 
 these great facts." 
 
 In addition to the teaching that the Commandments 
 must be kept because they are God's laws. Judge Lanning 
 concludes, "The State has no part in teaching the doctrines 
 which form the basis of classification into religious sects. 
 But both the State and the public school have a very impor- 
 tant part in the work of teaching that men have rights that 
 are God-given and duties that are God-imposed, and that 
 the measure of their enjoyment of these rights and the 
 
322 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 manner of their performance of these duties will be deter- 
 mined by the nature of their faith in God's sovereignty, 
 justice, and providence. These three religious doctrines 
 pervade our whole governmental history, and they have a 
 vital place in the State, and in the public school, and in 
 every other agency of the State." 
 
 Thus far it would seem that the public school might go; 
 and, instead of stirring up sectarian jealousy, it is beheved 
 that parents would welcome such instruction as necessary 
 and fundamental in the complete education of their children. 
 With wise and God-fearing teachers; with the inculcation 
 of proper respect and reverence for sacred things; with an 
 insight into the very nature of the subjects of the curricu- 
 lum, all of which may easily be found to point to an All- wise 
 and beneficent Creator, the religious instinct of every child 
 may receive its natural development. "There is no sub- 
 ject in the curriculum, there is no relation in the life of the 
 school, which is not packed with potential di\dnity, and 
 which may not make for morality," says Dr. Hervey. 
 
 In the foregoing discussion we have attempted to show 
 the universality of the principle of religion; that it is an 
 essential part of the education of every man; what lessons 
 it includes; the agencies to whom is committed the work of 
 teaching it; and the relation of the State to religion. We 
 have shown that the results attained under present con- 
 ditions are not satisfactory, and that tliinkers are studying 
 the problem and seeking a plan whereby better results may 
 be secured. 
 
 Religion Defined. — Perhaps a wrong conception of what 
 is meant by religion is partly responsible for the confusion 
 
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 323 
 
 that exists in this field of thought. There are doubtless 
 many views of religion, owing to the different standpoints 
 from which it is considered. I offer the following view as 
 presented by Dr. Alfred Wesley Wishart : ^ "But suppose 
 we deal with what we have assumed to be a fact, irrespec- 
 tive of the knowledge or consciousness of that fact. Sup- 
 pose man is related to God, whether he knows and feels it 
 or not; that the laws of the moral and physical world are 
 God's laws; that every fact of nature tells us something 
 about God, and that, when we deal with these laws of 
 nature and obey them, we deal with and obey God ; that all 
 moral ideals proceed from God, so we cannot try to realize 
 any moral ideal without trying in some degree to do what 
 God wants us to do, whether we know it to be God's will 
 or not. Then a man's rehgion is his attitude toward all 
 things — toward God, nature, humanity. What he tliinks, 
 feels, and wills is his religion, because, from the very 
 nature of the case, in view ofj the supposition taken, a 
 man cannot think, feel, and act without displaying his 
 attitude toward God." 
 
 What the Public School May Do. — If the public school 
 will teach religion according to this conception, if teachers 
 will point out the fact that every good deed, every truth, 
 every pure thought emanates from God; if the whole im- 
 pulse of life and action is directed to a search after truth; 
 if the symmetrical and perfect laws of nature are shown to 
 be the expression of an intelligent Creator; if the relation- 
 ship of human beings to each other is founded upon love 
 and fosters the human brotherhood that Christ preached 
 
 ' "Primary Facts in Religious Thought," p. 10. 
 
324 ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY 
 
 and exemplified: if instructors will teach by theory and 
 practice, consciously and perpetually, line upon line and 
 precept upon precept, these great truths, then our children 
 will gain a true and abiding conception of religion. This 
 will prepare them to be good citizens, good parents, good 
 neighbors, good men and women. It should also make 
 easy the work of the home and the church in leading them 
 to confession of faith and admission into church member- 
 ship. This work can be done without friction or without 
 stirring up religious strife; indeed, it is the natural function 
 of the school to perform this work and it cannot reach its 
 highest and truest aim unless it does perform it. 
 
 That such teaching, in a measure, is already given in the 
 American public school is evident — it could not be other- 
 wise with the great body of Christian men and women who 
 are consecrated to this vocation. But the fear of arousing 
 religious controversy — a fear that has been greatly exag- 
 gerated — has deterred the mass of teachers from such 
 conscious, definite, and thorough instruction as has been 
 suggested in the foregoing treatment. 
 
 If, with Dr. Wishart, we take religion to mean "man's 
 actual inner life, viewed in its relationship to God, in 
 which experience, thoughts, feelings, and will are indis- 
 solubly united," surely no school in the land may be 
 debarred from teacliing it. Formal creeds and peculiar 
 doctrines may be promulgated by other agencies; but the 
 essence of religion which is love, charity, benevolence, 
 brotherly kindness, honesty, loving service, unselfishness, 
 faith in God, and trust in an all-wise Providence, may 
 surely characterize all instruction, and permeate all the 
 activities of the school. 
 
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 325 
 
 Summary 
 
 I. Religion is a universal characteristic of mankind. As 
 education includes the development of the whole man, it 
 must necessarily include religious culture, which embraces 
 a spirit of reverance, knowledge of the Bible, prayer, a con- 
 ception of religion, and initiation into the ceremonies of wor- 
 ship. The agencies of religious instruction are the home, 
 the church, and the school. 
 
 II. While the public school may not teach creeds, in the 
 truest sense, it must teach religion, which is recognized by 
 the State. Although Church and State are separate, relig- 
 ion and the State are not separate, and therefore the public 
 school, the representative of the State, must prepare the 
 children for intelligent citizenship by training the con- 
 science and by instructing them as to the sovereignty, justice, 
 and providence of God. 
 
 III. It is incumbent upon the teachers consciously and 
 daily, through every act of discipline and instruction, in 
 every subject of the curriculum to stimulate that inner life of 
 the pupils " viewed in its relationship to God, in which 
 experience, thoughts, feelings, and will are indissolubly 
 united." 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abstraction, end of education, 237. 
 
 highest intellectual power, 42. 
 
 third step in attention, 222. 
 Act of learning, 259. 
 Adams, on the reasoning of animals, 
 
 40. 
 Agassiz, on evolution, 45. 
 Aim, of education, 8, 11. 
 Analysis, second step in attention, 
 
 221. 
 Analytic method, iii. 
 Apperception, 69. 
 
 process of, 74. 
 Application, final step in instruction, 
 
 95- 
 Apprenticeship, the first stage in 
 
 instruction, 261. 
 Aristotle, on education, 9, 29. 
 Arnold, influence upon students, 54. 
 Association, the third step in in- 
 struction, 90. 
 Athenians, toys of, 116. 
 Athens, education of, 8. 
 Athletics, not the purpose of educa- 
 tion, 13. 
 Attention, aids perception, 236. 
 cannot long be held, 90. 
 essential to self-activity, 218. 
 must not be dissipated, 106. 
 necessary in memory, 252. 
 practical suggestions concerning, 
 
 224. 
 \atally essential, 6. 
 
 Augustine, studied educational prob- 
 lems, 182. 
 
 influence of mother of, 317. 
 Authority, of parent and teacher, 151. 
 
 obedience to in will training, 290. 
 
 Bacon, inductive method of, 30. 
 
 student of education, 182. 
 Baldwin, on culture epochs, 76. 
 Balliet, on course of study, 268. 
 Base -ball, a game to encourage, 125. 
 Basil the Great, on punishment, 154. 
 Basket-ball, as a game, 125. 
 Berlin, free lunches for children in, 
 
 201. 
 Bible, in teaching morals, 304. 
 
 knowledge of necessary, 313. 
 
 read by Lincoln, 171. 
 N. E. A. resolutions regarding, 309. 
 Bittenger, on vdW power, 289. 
 Blind, acuteness of, -63. 
 Boyle, Rev. J. Richards, on char- 
 acter, 16. 
 Bowen, on self-activity, 217. 
 Brains, presumption of, 160. 
 Brooks, on attention, 220. 
 Bulwer-Lytton, on abstraction, 43. 
 Burgher school, purpose of, 9. 
 Butler, N.M., on college courses, 269. 
 
 on departments of knowledge, 20. 
 
 on religious instruction, 309. 
 
 on what constitutes a university, 
 284. 
 
 327 
 
328 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Capacity, of child, 159. 
 
 shows his limitations, 263. 
 Carr, on moral training, 303. 
 Chairs, of pedagogy, ^;^. 
 Character, as connected with habits, 
 
 135- 
 definition of, 16. 
 formed by habits, 295. 
 the aim of education, 12. 
 the result of will training, 301. 
 the influence of elementar}' school 
 upon, 51. 
 Charlemagne, ideas of education, g, 
 29. 
 student of education, 182. 
 Child, content of the mind of, 277. 
 Child study, work it has accom- 
 plished, 160. 
 Children, average five years in 
 school, 174. 
 belong to home first six years, 183. 
 clothing of, 12. 
 three types of, 268. 
 China, education of, 8. 
 Chinese, have few toys, 116. 
 Christianity, noblest of religions, 
 
 307- 
 Church, paintings in, 245. 
 
 part of in education, 184. 
 
 separate from state, 308. 
 
 silent influence of, 195. 
 Cicero, idea of education of, 29. 
 Citizenship, education prepares for, 
 
 7- 
 Civil society, part of in education, 
 
 188. 
 Classics, "Five-cent," 249. 
 Cleanliness, teaching of, 206. 
 Clothing, character of, 205. 
 of children, 121. 
 
 Coler, on memorizing the Scriptures, 
 
 315- 
 
 on the will, 290. 
 College, "People's," 56. 
 
 courses offered, 284. 
 
 elective courses in, 58. 
 
 possibilities of self-help in, 172. 
 
 value of training of, 176. 
 Coe, on religion, 307. 
 Columbia, courses in, 269. 
 Combe, incapacity of for arithmetic, 
 
 163. 
 Comenius, definition of education of, 
 
 9- 
 
 Great Didactic of, 267. 
 
 on experience, 278. 
 
 on nature study, 31. 
 
 Orbis Pictus of, 239. 
 
 a student of education, 182. 
 Commercial courses, 56. 
 Compayre, on science of education, 
 
 23- 
 Concrete, abandonment of, 237. 
 
 judgment in use of, 105. 
 Conscience, definition of, 302. 
 Cook, on the smell, 62. 
 Correlation, essentials of, 271. 
 Council of Education, of New 
 
 Jersey, 55. 
 Course of study, 49, 267. 
 
 in the high school, 56. 
 
 nature of, 270. 
 
 not limited to the three R's, 185. 
 Creative imagination, 242. 
 Creeds, may not be taught in the 
 
 public school, 319. 
 Criticism, of schools, 185. 
 Cuba, teachers from, 65. 
 Culture Epochs Theory, 75. 
 
 offers suitable literature, 247. 
 
INDEX 
 
 329 
 
 Deductive method, 113. 
 
 De Garmo, on course of study, 269. 
 
 on departments of knowledge, 19. 
 
 gives outline of field of culture, 273. 
 Departmental teaching, 25, 277. 
 Development, harmonious, 12. 
 
 subjects necessary for, 19. 
 
 intellectual, 216. 
 Diesterweg, on method, loi. 
 
 on self-improvement, 108. 
 Dickens, concerning myths, 247. 
 Dodge, on value of higher educa- 
 tion, 176. 
 Dulness, not incapacity, 161. 
 
 necessitates persistency, 264. 
 Duty, obedience to, 296. 
 
 Ear, training of, 61, 241. 
 Edson, on memory gems, 251. 
 Educating, compared with training, 
 
 35- 
 Education, advantages of higher, 175. 
 aim of, 8. 
 
 a process of cancellation, 259. 
 best attained under free institu- 
 tions, 300. 
 cannot omit religion, 310. 
 definition of, 12. 
 Dr. Green's definition of, 19. 
 duty of, 182. 
 
 German conception of, 11. 
 importance of, 181. 
 is from within, 36. 
 has to do with habits, 148. 
 material means of, 171. 
 of primitive sires, 180. 
 philosophy of, 3. 
 possible to man alone, 47. 
 process of, 83. 
 the two ends it should reach, 173. 
 
 Educators, recognize pedagogy as a 
 
 science, 33. 
 thoughts of concerning religious 
 
 instruction, 308. 
 Election, in the elementary school, 
 
 5°- 
 in the high school, 55. 
 
 Elective studies, 49. 
 
 Elementary school, election in, 50. 
 ends it should accomplish, 274. 
 
 Eliot, George, on precocity, 265. 
 
 Eliot, President, on departments of 
 knowledge, 20. 
 
 Emancipation, the purpose of edu- 
 cation, 159. 
 
 Erasmus, concerning education, 
 
 3°- 
 self-control of, 171. 
 Ethics, embraced in pedagogy, 6. 
 
 relation to the will, 288. 
 Experience, as a means of learning, 
 277. 
 value of, I. 
 Evolution, Agassiz's idea of, 46. 
 Eye, training of, 240. 
 
 Factors, in the educadon of the 
 
 child, 180. 
 Fads, discussion of, 185. 
 Fairy tales, use of, 247. 
 Family, must teach obedience, 291. 
 Fatigue, statistics concerning, 207. 
 Fenelon, anticipated Froebel, 31. 
 employed the principle of play, 
 
 117. 
 Field-work, at Jena battle-ground, 
 
 80. 
 Finding relations, fourth step in 
 
 attention, 233. 
 Food, knowledge of essential, 203. 
 
330 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Formal steps, of instniction, 84. 
 Francke, definition of education of, 
 
 9- 
 
 on training teachers, 31. 
 Franklin, self-control of, 171. 
 Freedom, definition of, 291. 
 
 false conception of, 299. 
 
 gained through obedience to law, 
 
 151- 
 Froebel, definition of education of, 
 
 10. 
 on the clothing of children, 121. 
 on self-activity, 164, 217. 
 utilized play, 117. 
 
 Gambling, definition of, 126. 
 Games, the ones to be encouraged, 
 
 125- 
 teacher's part in, 127. 
 Goethe, gives his own character- 
 istics, 66. 
 Golden Rule, to be applied in games, 
 
 125. 
 Goldsmith, limitations of, 162. 
 Government, dishonesty in, 192. 
 must protect its citizens, 300. 
 Grant, character of, 17. 
 
 on music, 162. 
 Grecian games, copied at Jena, 
 
 128. 
 Greeks, games of, 116. 
 Green, definition of education of, 
 
 19. 
 Greenwood, on memory, 250. 
 on pedagogical literature, 32. 
 on science of education, 22. 
 Griesbach, concerning fatigue, 211. 
 Griggs, on knowledge of the Bible, 
 
 313- 
 Gymnastics, purpose of, 212. 
 
 Habits, and their formation, 6, 83, 
 
 135- 
 
 changing of, 147. 
 
 choice of, 142. 
 
 definition of habit, 136. 
 
 established in the home, 183. 
 
 formed in early life, 52. 
 
 inculcated by school discipline, 
 167. 
 
 of industry, 231. 
 
 necessary in fixing will power, 295, 
 Hall, G. Stanley, on bodily hea>h. 
 199. 
 
 on memorizing, 250. 
 Hamilton, Sir W., definition of 
 
 science, 25. 
 Harris, Dr., on attention, 224. 
 
 on the average schooling of the 
 child, 261. 
 
 on the adaptation of material, 103. 
 
 on conscience, 302. 
 
 on course of study, 272. 
 
 on criticism of the schools, 187. 
 
 on departments of knowledge, 20. 
 
 on different virtues, 297. 
 
 on forming habits, 148. 
 
 on the professionally taught, 265. 
 
 on the social code, 293. 
 
 on the value of education, 176. 
 Health, exercises for, 213. 
 Herbart, Culture Epochs Theory of, 
 
 175- 
 made education a science, 31. 
 on self-activity, 164. 
 Herbartian School, lays stress on 
 character building, 301. 
 theory of as to material, 75. 
 Hervey, on religious instruction, 322. 
 
 on self-activity, 216. 
 High School, election in, 55. 
 
INDEX 
 
 !3I 
 
 Histon' of Education, character of, 
 
 2. 
 
 Home, part of in instruction, 281. 
 
 present duty of, 183. 
 
 relation to playthings, 133. 
 
 should train to freedom, 300. 
 
 under early conditions, 180. 
 Hopkins, Mark, influence of, 54. 
 Home, on self-activity, 217. 
 Hughes, comparing Froebel and 
 Herbart, 164. 
 
 concerning self-acti\ity, 219. 
 
 Illustration, care in using of, 87, 
 
 104. 
 Illustrations, increased employment 
 
 of, 245. 
 Imagination, 6, 38. 
 
 cultivation of, 244. 
 
 definition of, 241. 
 Incapacity vs. dulness, 161. 
 India, education of, 8. 
 Inductive method, 112. 
 Industry, to be utilized, 228. 
 Insanity, law regarding, 202. 
 Instinct, of animals, 37. 
 Instruction, agencies of, 281. 
 
 a process of cancellation, 259. 
 
 as to foods, 203. 
 
 elements of, 109. 
 
 errors in, 81. 
 
 in the family, 292. 
 
 in morals, 303. 
 
 in religion, 317. 
 
 in social usages, 292. 
 
 method of, 226. 
 
 oral, 277. 
 
 principal work of the school, 261. 
 
 process of, 81. 
 
 what is presupposed in, 102. 
 
 Intellectual, development, 216. 
 
 habits, 138. 
 
 must have the chief attention, 14. 
 
 not alone to be considered, 12. 
 Interest, essential to attention, 225. 
 Isolation, the first step in attention, 
 220. 
 
 James, Prof., on attention, 219. 
 
 on psychology, 4. 
 Jena, gymnastic exercises at, 128. 
 
 field-trip to battle ground of, 80. 
 Jesuits, ideas of education of, 30. 
 
 Ratio Studiorum of, 75, 267. 
 Jews, education of, 8. 
 Johnson, Dr., on interest, 225. 
 Journeymanship, the second stage 
 in education, 261. 
 
 Kant, definition of method of, 2. 
 Keller, Helen, acuteness of, 63. 
 
 capacity of, 163. 
 Kern, on logical summaries, 91. 
 Kindergarten, dangers in to be 
 
 avoided, 117. 
 Knowledge, acquirement of a slow 
 process, 259. 
 
 gained through the senses, 63. 
 
 to be practically used, 97. 
 
 the first essential, 100. 
 
 work of teacher in gaining, 72. 
 
 Lange, on apperception, 69, 74. 
 
 on method, 10 1. 
 
 on need of formal instruction, 84. 
 
 on summarizing, 92. 
 
 on the child and his experience, 78. 
 
 on what the teacher can do, 80. 
 Languages, should be begun early, 
 283. 
 
332 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Lanning, on religion in the schools, 
 
 320. 
 Law, growing disregard for, 151. 
 
 respect for a part of education, 191. 
 Laziness, relative rather than abso- 
 lute, 229. 
 Learning, act of, 259. 
 
 means of, 277. 
 Leipsic, lesson as to food at, 203. 
 Leonardo, "Last Supper" of, 242. 
 Limitations, educational, 159. 
 Limits, of education, 175. 
 Lincoln, character of, 17. 
 
 self-control of, 171. 
 Literature, in teaching morals, 304. 
 
 in training the imagination, 245. 
 Locke, definition of education of, 9. 
 
 on keeping the attention, 228. 
 
 student of education, 182. 
 
 sound mind in a sound body, 198. 
 Logical power, training of, 254. 
 London, efforts of for poor children, 
 
 201. 
 Lukens, on fatigue, 210. 
 Luther, a student of education, 182. 
 Lyon, Mary, influence of, 54. 
 
 Maclaren, relation of mind to body, 
 200. 
 
 Management of school, belongs to 
 the teachers, 285. 
 
 Mann, Horace, concerning health, 
 200. 
 
 Marble, Dr., on capacity, 160. 
 
 Marble-playing, control of, 126. 
 
 Marden, on dulness, 162. 
 
 Martin, Geo. H., on Washington, 17. 
 
 Manual training, purpose of, 188. 
 
 Mastership, the final step in edu- 
 cation, 262. 
 
 Material, choice of, 64, 75. 
 
 old to be utilized, 69. 
 
 selection of, 161. 
 McCIure, on character, 18. 
 
 on choice of habits, 143. 
 McKinley, character of, 17. 
 McMurr}', on abstraction, 43. 
 
 on apperception 71 
 
 on appl}^ing the lesson, 97. 
 
 on science of education, 27. 
 Memory, Dr. Johnson on, 225. 
 
 too much neglected, 139 
 
 rules to be committed, 93. 
 
 training of, 251. 
 
 when most retentive, 250. 
 Method, a guide, 103. 
 
 definition of, 2, 106. 
 
 imparting method, 262. 
 
 importance of, 226. 
 
 teacher a factor in, 106. 
 
 the catechetical, 281. 
 
 three elements of, 109. 
 Methods, different kinds of, no. 
 
 in German schools, 11. 
 
 of instruction, 100. 
 Mind, affected by the body, 198, 201. 
 Mohra, incident at, 79. 
 Montaigne, on health, 199. 
 Moral, habits, 139. 
 
 not alone to be trained, 12. 
 
 must not be neglected, 14, 
 Moral training, in the school, 303. 
 Morals, effect of upon a community, 
 190. 
 
 effect of upon health, 199. 
 
 fostered by employment, 167. 
 
 in good literature, 249. 
 
 involve will training, 296. 
 Miiller, on abstraction, 43. 
 I Munger, on a sound body, 199. 
 
INDEX 
 
 333 
 
 Miinsterberg, on the child's apti- 
 tudes, 50. 
 Myths and fairy tales, 247. 
 
 Napoleon, at Jena, 80. 
 
 National Educational Association, ^^. 
 
 Reports of, 268. 
 
 on use of the Bible, 309. 
 New Jersey Council of Education, 55. 
 
 course of study of, 268. 
 Newton, on power of attention, 220. 
 New York, vital statistics in, 214. 
 Normal School, training of, 107. 
 Nourishment, necessary for intel- 
 lectual work, 201. 
 
 Obedience, first essential in will 
 training, 290. 
 j to become a habit, 149. 
 ' to duty, 296. 
 Objects, care in choosing, 105. 
 
 use of, 237. 
 Object teaching, employment of, 236. 
 Objective hmit, of education, 171. 
 Olympian games, 116. 
 Oral instruction, as a means of 
 learning, 277. 
 direct means of instruction, 280. 
 O'Shea, on science of education, 24. 
 Overton, on foods, 205. 
 
 Parents, criticisms of, 185. 
 
 must teach obedience, 290. 
 
 part of in education, 281. 
 Parker, Col., on attention, 219. 
 
 on a lazy child, 228. 
 
 on his own limitations, 162. 
 
 on laws of health, 199. 
 
 on the purpose of the school, 119. 
 Paris, care for indigent children in, 
 201. 
 
 Patriotism, how fostered, 193. 
 Paulsen, on playthings, 131. 
 Payne, Joseph, on psychology, 3. 
 Payne, W. H., on science of educa- 
 tion, 27. 
 Pedagogy, according to Rosenkranz, 
 
 5- 
 
 definition of, 7. 
 
 field of, 6. 
 
 knowledge of necessary, i. 
 
 relation to psychology, 3. 
 Perception, upon what dependent, 
 
 234- 
 Persia, education of, 8. 
 
 toys of, 116. 
 Personality, of the teacher, 107, 227. 
 Pestalozzi, definition of education 
 of, 10. 
 
 influence of upon Froebel, 117. 
 
 on harmonious development, 31. 
 
 on method, loi. 
 
 service of, 72. 
 
 student of education, 182. 
 Phases of education, in summary,2i. 
 Philosophy of education, 3. 
 Physical, habits, 136. 
 
 not alone to be trained, 12, 198. 
 
 rules of physical exercise, 213. 
 
 signs of fatigue, 208. 
 Picture books, value of, 79. 
 Pictures, use of, 238. 
 Pisa, lesson from tower of, 136. 
 Plato, ideas of education of, 182. 
 Play, as an educational factor, 116. 
 
 definition of, 122. 
 
 does not cease with childhood, 130. 
 
 meaning of, 121. 
 
 purpose of, 124. 
 
 teacher's influence in, 53. 
 
 to lead to self-employment, 167. 
 
334 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Playthings, educational value of, 
 
 131- 
 Politeness, nature of, 293. 
 Prayer, to be taught in the home , 
 
 315- 
 Preparation, the first step in instruc- 
 tion, 84. 
 Presentation, the second step in 
 
 instruction, 88. 
 Prizes, in school at Jena, 128. 
 Professionally taught, advantages of, 
 
 265. 
 Program, arrangement of, 275. 
 Psychology, limitations of, 4. 
 i,n relation to pedagogy, 2. 
 in relation to the will, 288. 
 Public school, may not teach relig- 
 ious creeds, 15, 319, 320. 
 Punishment, definition of, 158. 
 principles governing, 152. 
 sometimes necessary, 152. 
 
 Quintilian, concerning education, 9, 
 30- 
 
 Rabelais, anticipated Spencer, 30. 
 Raphael, "Sistine Madonna" of, 
 
 242. 
 Ratke, anticipated Rousseau, 30. 
 Reason, discussion of, 6, 253. 
 
 of animals, 39. 
 
 must not be cultivated too early, 
 
 ISO- 
 Recapitulation, the fourth step in 
 
 instruction, 91. 
 Recess, necessity of, 276. 
 Recitation, length of, 226. 
 Recreation, essential also for adults, 
 
 131- 
 Rein, on Froebel and Herbart, 31. 
 
 Religion, a part of education, 15. 
 
 a universal principle, 307, 
 
 conception of, 315. 
 
 definition of, 322. 
 
 in the state school, 184, 323. 
 Religious education, what it em- 
 braces, 312. 
 Religious habits, 140. 
 Religious instruction, agencies of, 
 
 317- 
 
 Repetition, essential in memory, 252. 
 
 Report of Committee of Ten, 267. 
 
 Republic, education essential to 
 perpetuity of, 191. 
 
 Rest, necessity of, 207. 
 
 Reverence, essential to good breed- 
 ing, 312. 
 
 Reynolds, Sir J., idleness of, 230. 
 
 Roark, on methods, 100. 
 on science of education, 24. 
 
 Rogers, on the kindergarten, 119. 
 
 Rome, education of, 9. 
 
 Rosenkranz, definition of education 
 of, II. 
 definition of sense-perception of, 
 
 233- 
 on absolute limit, 174. 
 on adaptation of material, 103. 
 on attention, 228. 
 on conception of religion, 315. 
 on cleanliness, 206. 
 on daily program, 276. 
 on freedom, 299. 
 on gymnastics, 212. 
 on habits, 135. 
 on ideals of duty, 292, 296. 
 on imagination, 241. 
 on instruction, 259. 
 on industry, 230. 
 on kinds of punishment, 152, 156. 
 
INDEX 
 
 335 
 
 Rosenkranz. — Contintted. 
 
 on literature, 246. 
 
 on mastership, 263. 
 
 on mind and body, 202. 
 
 on pedagogy, 5. 
 
 orf personality of the teacher, 106. 
 
 on self-activity, 216. 
 
 on the self-taught, 266. 
 
 on the objective limit, 171. 
 
 on the three stages of development, 
 261. 
 
 on training the memory, 252. 
 
 on the use of pictures, 238. 
 
 on the value of text -books, 279. 
 
 on what is presupposed in instruc- 
 tion, 102. 
 
 on "Who can be educated?" 35. 
 Rosmini, on attention, 219. 
 
 on culture epochs, 76. 
 
 on errors in instruction, 81. 
 
 on material to be given, 73. 
 
 on religious instruction, 316. 
 
 on training the perceptions, 72. 
 Rousseau, as student of education, 
 182. 
 
 false ideas of religious instruction 
 of, 316. 
 
 on physical exercise, 199. 
 
 on punishment, 154. 
 Rules, should be learned, 93. 
 
 use of, 256. 
 Ruskin, influence of mother upon, 
 
 317- 
 
 Schmidt, Karl, on educational pro- 
 gress, 29. 
 School, as agency of instruction, 282. 
 
 chief work of, 261. 
 
 may teach religion, 319. 
 
 must not teach creed, 308. 
 
 School. — Continued. 
 
 must be aided by other factors, 
 197. 
 
 purpose of, 83. 
 
 shapes future of a people, 133. 
 
 teaches conventionalities of edu- 
 cation, 186. 
 
 theory of punishment of, 54. 
 
 what it must accomplish, 274. 
 
 who shall manage, 285. 
 School management, 2. 
 Schools, different kinds of, 283. 
 School boards, function of, 285. 
 Schurz, Karl, reminiscences of, 235. 
 Science, definition of, 25. 
 
 of education, 22, 28. 
 Scott, Sir W., limitations of, 162. 
 Self-activity, discussion of, 6, 164. 
 
 essential to success, 216. 
 
 illustrated in play, 130. 
 
 taught by Froebel, 217. 
 Self-control, on evidence of educa- 
 tion, 169. 
 
 of American people, 170. 
 
 to be taught, 157. 
 Self-employment, educational value 
 
 of, 166. 
 Self-government, children to be led 
 to, 157. 
 
 prepares for freedom, 300. 
 
 the ultimate aim of wiU training, 
 298. 
 Self-improvement, essential to 
 
 method, 107. 
 Self-taught, advantages of, 265. 
 Seneca, definition of education of, 9. 
 
 on character of the teacher, 29. 
 Sense perception, discussions of, 
 
 233- 
 of animals and man, 38. 
 
336 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Senses, knowledge gained through, 
 
 60. 
 Shaw, course of study of, 268. 
 Smell, cultivation of, 61. 
 Smith, on creative imagination, 
 
 243- 
 
 on habits, 148. 
 
 on methods, iii. 
 
 on power of the will, 289. 
 Social usages, in will training, 291. 
 Society, part of in education, 188. 
 Socrates, ideas of education of, 
 
 182. 
 Soldan, on science of education, 22. 
 Sparta, education of, 8. 
 
 toys of, 116. 
 Special schools, 285. 
 Speciahst, purpose of, 51. 
 Spencer, anticipated by Seneca, 9. 
 
 definition of education of, 10. 
 
 on capacity of the child, 264. 
 
 on educational problems, 182. 
 
 on punishment, 154. 
 Springfield, examination in schools 
 
 of, 186. 
 State, must enforce law, 193. 
 
 not separate from religion, 319. 
 
 part of in education, 191. 
 
 separate from church, 308. 
 
 theory of punishment of, 153. 
 Statistics, of fatigue, 207. 
 
 of health, 214. 
 Story, school garden of, 168. 
 
 school of at Jena, 128. 
 Sturm, course of study of, 267. 
 Subject-matter, 3. 
 
 Sunday school, fosters religious edu- 
 cation, 184. 
 
 hmitations of, 317. 
 Synthetic method, iii. 
 
 Taste, for literature acquired, 248. 
 
 training of, 61. 
 Tate, on science of education, 26. 
 Teacher, The Great, Golden Rule 
 of, 293. 
 
 teachings of, 30. 
 Teacher, a fountain of knowledge, 
 II. 
 
 great work of, 178. 
 
 influence of in forming char- 
 acter, 51. 
 
 is not the method, lor. 
 
 must arouse self-activity, 218. 
 
 must seek two ends, 175. 
 
 must employ tact, 230. 
 
 part of in games, 127. 
 
 personality of, 106, 227. 
 
 relation to plajlhings, 133. 
 
 self-improvement of, 108. 
 
 should watch the reading, 249. 
 
 work of in gaining knowledge, 72. 
 
 work of in teaching religion, 322. 
 
 work of in training the will, 289. 
 Teaching, of morals, 183, 304. 
 
 the process of, 81. 
 Temptation, child to be guarded 
 
 against, 295. 
 Text-books, means of learning, 279. 
 Thackeray, on dulness, 162. 
 Theory, importance of, 107. 
 Thinking, what power it employs, 
 
 253- 
 
 Tompkins, on education and reli- 
 gion, 310. 
 on self -activity, 217. 
 
 Trade unions, arrogance of, 299. 
 
 Training, compared with educating, 
 
 35- 
 of the will, 288. 
 Trenton, battle of, 223. 
 
INDEX 
 
 337 
 
 Trollope, Anthony, limitations of, 
 
 162. 
 Tutorial method, advantages of, 281. 
 
 Unions, must not tyrannize over 
 
 others, 299. 
 University, definition of, 284. 
 
 Value, of higher education, 175. 
 Virtues, must all be taught, 298. 
 Vocation, a part of education, 189. 
 
 Wagner, on fatigue, 207. 
 
 Waitz, conception of education of, 1 1 . 
 
 on pedagogy, 10. 
 Wallace, on evolution, 46. 
 Ward, on the reasoning of animals, 
 
 39- 
 Wasliington, character of, 17. 
 
 stories from life of, 226. 
 Washington, Booker T., 109. 
 Waste,from not associating material, 
 91. 
 
 Watt, limitations of, 162. 
 Wellington, limitations of, 162. 
 White, on training the ^\^ll, 296. 
 "Who's Who in America," lessons 
 
 from, 175. 
 Will, definition of, 288. 
 
 steps in training of, 290. 
 Williams, on course of study, 267. 
 Wilson, Mrs., on choice of material, 
 
 161. 
 Wishart, on religious education, 323. 
 Withers, Prof., on work, 129. 
 Work, definition of, 122. 
 
 vs. play, 129. 
 Written page, as a means of learn- 
 ing, 277. 
 
 Yale, courses in, 269. 
 " Young America," false idea of, 194. 
 Young Men's Christian Association, 
 influence of, 184. 
 
 Ziller, on culture epochs, 75. 
 
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