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Send for Circulars. ♦Jones's Va ^^feJ Sturm claimed that teaching was a high art that needed most careful study for i t s successful practice, the religious and political strifes of the Protestants worked the death of good inBtruction and tended to foster the spirit and modes of the Scholastic Philosophy, and to dwarf the powers by a discussion of the most minute and barren technicalities. The school was a place of dread and gloom to the pupils — the veriest '''vale of tears " to the youth of this unfortunate period. STURM. 16 HISTOKY OF PEDAGOGICS III. A HOPEFUL REVOLT It was to be expected that there would come a serious revolt against a system so unnatural and barren of results. It came from several sources, and worked a new a^d hopeful condition of things. The sources of this opposition may be summed thus : 1. Inside the Romish Church, Jesuitism represented reformation of educational methods as well as opposition to Protestant- ism. 2. Jansenism represented a still more rad- ical reformation in education, as in religion, within the Catholic Church. 3. Pietism represented the protest in the Protestant Church against the dead, dry, educational methods, as well as against a drear religious formalism. 4. More powerful than all, perhaps, was the revolt of Philosophy in the Empiricism of Locke, and the Inductive system of Bacon. 1. Jesuitism opposed the freedom of the Reformation with its own freedom, which consists in the denial of all freedom to the man ; hence in the denial of human nature, in the denial JESUITISM 17 of moralit}^, and of Christianity itself. It appealed to the ambition and avarice of men. With a sharp and vigorous mind, it followed out its policy. It used men of gifted natures to inculcate its doctrine that mankind, like a wild beast, must be tamed, in order to be ruled. But its outward methods were almost the opposite of the Protestant. It substituted mildness, ease and grace of manner, and pol- ish for harshness, severity and solidity of attainments. Latin and poetry were the chief studies. To speak Latin and not the vernacular was peremptory. Classical stu- dies were only useful, however, to improve the style, and not, as in Protestantism, a mere servant of theology. Mathematics, geography, the vernacular, and even music, were neglected. Ohedience to suinriors, was the central idea of the system. Emulation was among the chief motives. Prizes, rewards, dis- tinctions, all appealing to this principle, were a large part of the machinery of this order. CorjDoral punishment was discoun- tenanced, and seldom practised. The high- est duty of the teacher was thoroughly to 18 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS hnow his pupils. To change natural affec- tion into affection for the order, was a con- stant aim of effort. The instruction of the Jesuits was very mechanical — leaving small and meager op- portunity for the exercise of the powers of reason. They cared little for primary schools except so far as they might find among the masses those who might give rich promise of aid and honor to the Order. 2, Jansenism Not less strong, and vastly more salutary, was the opposition to the dead scholastic orthodoxy of Protestantism and the preten- sions of the Romish Hierarchy that came from Pietism and Jansenism. In many things they were closely related. They rep- resent a true spiritual and religious feeling that desired to break through the constraints of form, and reach the central essence of Christianity. The Jansenists in Holland and France, the Puritans and Methodists in England and Scotland, and the Pietists in Grermany and Switzerland, were powerful in breaking through the dead methods of abstract theologic, as well as the hierarchic JANSENISM 19 systems of education, and infusing a new vigor into this most important department of labor. With its errors, Jansenism, nevertheless, manifested a most glowing love for the young — an unselfish surrender of itself to the interests of education and the race. In matters of instruction it developed a method simple, rational, and adapted to nature. It inculcated the union of a more funda- mental study of religion with thorough mas- tery of language and philosophy. Port Eoyal furnished the most thoroughly pre- pared and philosophical text-books of that age. Even after the suppression of Port Eoyal and the scattering of the Jansenists, its spirit was perpetuated in Fenelon and Rollin, and reached into high places through the matchless eloquence of the Court Preacher. [See his ^' de V Education des filles," dedicated to the Duchess of Beau- villiers.] In England we hear the earnest protest of the Puritans in the 17th, and of the Meth- odists in the 18th century, against the formalism in religion and the pedagogical methods of the established church. Milton ^0 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS had ronsecl the kingdom by his trumpet tones, sounding a better method in educa- tion ; the Methodists had shamed the sloth- fulness of the establishment by furnishing religious instruction to the masses, and gathering the neglected children into Sun- day schools. In his work on education Mil- ton had advocated an equal attention to language and to the sciences. He gave a plan of instruction far richer in spirit and extent than had hitherto been known — ar- guing for a general culture to the exclu- sion oi 2)TofessionaJ studies. S. Pietism Even more powerful for reform in religion and in educational methods were the Piet- ists of Germany. Philip Jacob Spener, of whom it has been said ^^the world was not worthy," Count Zinzendorf, and, most of all, Augustus Hermann Franke, in Halle, brought in a better day for the science of Pedagogics. Pietism sent a new vigor through the entire school life of Europe. It gave rise to better methods ; it created normal schools ; it furnished for Germany vastly improved text-books ; it brought the PIETlSZil 21 schools back from the cloister to every-day life ; it was the first to conceive of the schools as an organic whole, resting at last upon primary education. The ground principle of Pietism was, — without genuine piety all knowledge, all worldly wisdom, all culture are more hurt- ful than useful. Piety comports with every lawful position and calling in life. Firsts and foremost, therefore, must education strive after and guard itself by a radical improvement of the heart. The law of the educational method of Pietism was a continuous co7iversation with the pupils. Catechism is the very soul of instruction. Thus is learning made lighter, the intercourse of teacher and pupil becomes intimate. Yet this catechetical instruction must be conducted so carefully and skilfully as to strengthen and not to weaken the in- tellectual powers. The education of the memory was careful, the understanding was vigorously exercised, and the pe?i was freely used, with a view to exactness of expression. We cannot too highly estimate the bene- ficial work of Pietism in the pedagogical 23 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS methods of Continental Europe. The effects reach to our own day. ^. The Realistic- Pliilosopllic Oppositio7i to Scholasticism and to the Fo7n- ish Hierarchy It is time to turn to another source of opposition to Scholasticism in Pedagogics and to the methods of the Roman Hierachy. It came from the side of Philosophy. The instruction had become dead and formal — it yielded no rich and generous fruit. Books, mere books, words, terms — with no breath of life in them. Terms and not things, — ivords about things, — not the things them- selves. Princi- ples were scarce- ly thought of. Mont dig n e (1533-1592), in France, and ^«- co?i (1561-1626,) in England, suc- ceeded by Locke (1632-17 4), were the great revolutionists to overturn the scholastic MONTAIGNE. REALISTIC-PHILOSOPHIC OPPOSITIONS' 23 methods. Montaigne, so early as the middle of the 16th century, had become disgusted with the fruitlessness of the prevailing sys- tems. He said — ^^We may take meat into the stomach as long as we please, and it will be all in vain unless it is digested and become a part of ourselves — incorporated into our system. ^^ Pedagogues and reformers should not speak as from a looh, but from their own thoiiglit — from an ojnnion intelligently formed by their own investigation. This that now seems a truism in pedagogical science, was with Montaigne's contempo- raries scarcely thought of. He regarded the vernacular of more importance than the dead languages, or any foreign language. This was a revolution, indeed. Bacon, the reviver, illustrator, and de- fender of Realism, in his ''Inductive Phil- osophy," by inviting the mind to leave the dead past, to contemplate the living present, and to look into living nature with open eyes, lays the very foundation of realistic educa- tional methods. He thus became the real father of all Trade-Schools, of Polytechnic Schools, etc., etc. 24 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS Locke, by lookiDg into mind itself — by studying anew its nature, its laws and its processes, bases afterwards inhis^^Thoughts on the education of Children," his entire pedagogi- cal views upon his philosophy. "A LOCKE. ^ "■ / ^ . sound mind m a sound body," is the foundation axiom of his whole system. Keep the body sound — treat childven SiS 7^easo?iaNe beings, not as things — preserve their individuality — check their selfishness — inculcate self-government — let the restraint come from within, through a cultivation of the conscience and will — 7iof from withoiit, by means of rods and fear. Praise and blame are healthful motives — corporal punishment is an extreme measure. Let praise be given in the presence of others, that it may not only stimulate the recipient, but his fellows as well — administer reproof and blame to the child alone, lest he may lose his self-respect, as well as become a mark REALISTIC-PHILOSOPHIC OPPOSITION 2o- for the ridicule of his associates. A ground or reason for his discipline must ever exist in the mind of the teacher, and this should, as far as possible, be made known to the pupil — specially by means of examples drawn from history or from analagous cases sup- posed. Through the entire course of the chikVs training the desire for knowledge must be fostered. Incpiiring children must be en- couraged, not chilled by rebuke or neglect. Play must be allowed — work must be made to- seem a recreation, not a task. Mere assigned tasks are not recommended. No hel'p should be furnished by the teacher when there is self-help. The child should learn to read as soon as he learns to talk, and a foreign language must be learned as we learn our mother tongue. Latin is early recommend- ed. Yet the vernacular was far better than all other languages. Locke's theory of education is strictly util- itarian. A well-trained, well-appointed man of the world was the product. In Germany the anti-scholastic methods, from a philosophical stand-point, received marked attention, and were wonderfully ■26 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS forwarded by such masters of pedagogics as Wolf gang' Raticliius (1571-1635), John Amos Comenius, and others. Rafichius exclaims, " K\\i\(imij \^ jAayed out — reason is now victorious." His princi- ples were clearly conceived and thoroughly wrought out. They were reduced to a few heads as follows : 1. Everything according to the order and -course of nature. 2. One thing at a time, one study at a time, one author only from which to learn a language. 3. One thing oft repeated and deeply im- pressed. 4. The vernacular first and foremost. 5. No constraint, since this is unnatural. 6. No more memorizing, — since anything repeated to the understanding will neces- sarily be seized and retained by the memory. Hence lectures were repeated often, and no questions were asked during the progress of the lecture, lest the impression might be im- paired by this interruption. 7. Uniformity in everything, — ever pur- .-suing the same method in all stages of edu- KEALISTIC-rHILOSOPHIC OPPOSITION" 27 •cation^ and in all things pertaining to the ■same stage. 8. First the thing — then the mode of the thing, — first the materials and piinmples, then the rules. 9. Everthing through experience, there- fore no authority without a reason. Eatichius's system resulted in practical failure, since it degenerated into foolish ex- tremes, that defeated the very end he him- self had proposed. Comenius had great preference for the Sciences. H i s plan was to yq])- resent every- thing possible to the senses. See- ing is demonstra- tion and believ- ing — what we know must be learned. What is learned must be treated as present, and estimated accord- ing to its uses. What is learned must be learned directly, not in a round-about-way, — it must be learned as it is — i. e., according COMENIUS. 28 HISTORY OP PEDAGOGICS to its causes or origin ; — the ^oarts of a sub- ject must be understood according to their order, position and connection. Everything, therefore, by a natural suc- cession, — studying one thing at a time. A subject must be continued until thoroughly mastered. Differences in pupils must be noted in order that modes may be adapted to each. All knowledge should go towards- the elevation of the man : indeed, morality is vastly more than erudition, A school without discipline is like a mill without water. This discipline, however, should have more reference to the charac- ters of the pupils than to the studies them- selves. Yet discipline should not prostrate and discourage, but elevate and advance the pupil. A high sense of honor and duty must be awakened, that will lead to a free-will service. With some curious and untenable notions, Comenius^s system was complete, very thoroughly thought out, — expressing sound views of human nature and of the duties and methods of education, and its in- fluence was very widely extended, and very lasting in its effects. HUMANISM 29 IV. HUMANISM Bat it was not to be expected that the realistic school would proceed unquestioned and unchallenged as to its methods. Indeed, this extreme would provoke the opposite, — as has ever been true in the history of human development. So that during the 18th cen- tury there is noticed a growing spirit of criticism of the pedagogical theories of real- ism, as well as of the partial and excessive re- ligious discipline of the Pietists. It gave rise to the humanistic scJwoJ, that taught that the goal and purpose of all education is to cultivate a ^^urely human sentiment, and to awaken in the individual, the idea of linmanity. The sole means necessary to this end, ac- cording to this school, was a thorough study of classical antiquity, its language, its laws, its antiquities. The ancient languages were the sole foundation of all true culture. Greek and Latin literature are the sources of all true and genuine erudition, — and contain accounts of all religions. The Eoman juris- prudence embodies the spirit and essence of all that is truly valuable in laAV. The fun- ■dameutals of medicine are here found, — and 30 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS philosophy, rhetoric, logic, poetry and his- tory, — all that is valuable or necessary — are discussed in these ancient classical writings. Therefore, this theory of education con- fined, the student in all the preparatory schools to the study of language, — leaving what are technically called sciences exclu- sively to the University. It found its most zealous advocates in Germany, though it. was widespread in its influence, and has largely affected the college curriculum of England and America. It gave Germany the leadership in Classical Erudition — a leadership that she has maintained to the present hour. Such men as Cellarius, Gesner, Ernesti, Heyne, Boeckh, etc., etc., are the direct product of this school, or its most successful advocates. V. DEISM It is high time that we turn our thoughts to a most remarkable educational phenom- enon that appeared in England, France and Germany. It was the other extreme of a perverted Pietism, and the artificial, stilted, social forms that had been imposed on France by Louis XIV., and had found their way into England through the Restoration.. DEISM 31 This is usually known under the term Deism. The kernel thought of this system is that nothing can be certain to man that is- not in accordance with the laws of his un- derstanding, — that self-consciousness is the acme and ultimate for man, — that revelation,, as it is called, may be useful to educate the crude masses, but is .not necessary to Phil- osophy. It, therefore, rejects all that is supernatural in the Christian religion, and retains only what is common to all religions. The principles that are claimed to be thus- common to all religions are as follows : 1. There is one Supreme God. 2. This Supreme God ought to be wor- shiped. 3. Virtue and Piety are the most essential requisites to this Divine reverence and wor- ship. 4. Man is under obligations to repent of and forsake his sins. 5. Good and Evil will be rewarded in this- life and the life to come. All beyond these five principles was re- garded superfluous, and the invention of an ambitious priesthood. The work that most completely embodies these principles in a system of education, is- 32 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS Defoe's ^'Eobinson Crusoe." It really in- corporates into itself the ground principles of Deism : unfolding under its pleasing nar- rative a theory of human development by mere natural processes. It is the picture of a child of nature overcoming obstacles, and being educated by these struggles with nature independently of the artificial helps of so- ciety. We all know what a marvellous pop- ularity this w^ork immediately enjoyed. Its translation into all the languages of Europe disseminated its doctrines throughout the entire continent, and awakened an intense enthusiasm in many of the master thinkers of the 18th century. The man who embraced its principles most completely, and pushed them to a last extreme, was Rousseau, in his celebrated work — ^^Emile.''This work reveals the thought of this wonderful m a n wdth regard to ROUSSEAU. Til 1 what he regards DEISM 33 the true theory of education. The whole theory is — Society is a cu7'se — a state of ab- ject hondage, that must be broken. He would have the child put forth its activities under no constraint, — let the child strive to gain something because it needs it, — let its instincts guide it to just what its nature craves. Obedience is not a motive or an end — necessity of the nature is the law. The words ^^ obedience " and ^'^ command " he would blot out of the lexicons. He would not have a child see a book be- fore he is twelve years of age. The earliest education needs only to be negative — it does not consist in distinguishing virtue from vice, but in guarding the heart from mis- takes, and the intellect from errors. His dogma is that all evil is the result of circum- stances ; these circumstances being largely products and concomitants of society and government. Hence the correction for these evils is a return to a state of nature, — break- ing through all artificial shackles that now bind us. We see at a glance that Eousseau had by no means solved the deep problem of educa- tion, — since he had recognized man neither 34 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS as a member of society nor in the enjoyment of all his powers. So that his so-called natural development becomes, in fact, the most iinnaturaL Yet the effect of his treat- ise was powerful and far-reaching. It con- tinued its influe- ence for nearly a half century in France and Ger- |many. It was the immediate fore- runner and induc- ing cause of the efforts of Basedow in Germany, that resulted in the founding of his celebrated ^'- Philanthrop- inum,'^ and in the wide diffusion of a theory of Pedagogy that worked most disastrous results on German social life and patriotism. The energies of this noble people had been completely sapped by the sickly sentimental- ism that sprung from Pliilantliropinism, so that w*hen the proud and victorious Napoleon marched on Berlin, he made the Prussian capital an easy prey. We have not the time to trace the wonder- BASEDOW. FREEDOM OF ACTIVITY 35 fill transition in the Educational method of Germany effected through the noble labors of Fichte and Schleiermacher, by which the moral element was reinstated and patriotism reinvigorated, so that from the plains of Leipzig the prond invader was hnrled across the Rhine and sent a prisoner to Elba. It is a chapter in the History of the Philosophy of Pedagogics full of instruction and full of solemn warning to our own land. VI. FREEDOM OF ACTIVITY We have only time to mention the last stage of this History, viz., that in which the free, untrammeled, activity of the human intellect in every department of research and discovery has been associated with a more p-rofound sense of religious need ; in which the enterprise of commerce, the facility of national intercourse, the conquests over nature, the sacredness of individual rights, have all united to realize a better, purer type of civilization than the world has before seen. 36 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS The great genius of this last era of Educa- tional Philoso- phy is emphati- cally Pestalozzi. His personal his- tory and his methods have been made so familiar to us through Mr. Bar- nard ' s work PESTALOZZI. ^ , . ^ '^ Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism/' that we need spend little time on this sketch. Dr. Karl Schmidt has said of him : '^ Unattractive in outer appearance, poor- ly clad, often unwashed, with matted hair, with shoes run down at the heels, and with stockings often half covering them, — lacking in calm discretion, — with little tact in busi- ness, — without social shrewdness, — through his all-embracing love, through his readiness to sacrifice in helping the distressed and down-trodden, and which could send him to cut off his silver shoe-buckles for a beggar and then bind on his shoes with straw, he has, through his humility, his modesty, his unself- PREEDOM OF ACTIVITY 37 ishness, wherein none of his contemporaries approached him, — harmless, and yielding as a child, — mild and teachable, tender and full of feeling, — inspired the world with the duty of ennobling the race, and in the long- continued contest against the coarse or more refined Materialism of his age, against the narrow Egoism and the trivial and painful Utilitarianism of the period, has lifted high the abiding ideal of human life, and labored for the good of the race and for the natural development of the mind of the child/' The ground philosophical principle of this whole system is — '^ Proceed from intuition to notion/' This does not imply however, a mere j^assive receptivity, but a spontaneous, active receiving. As soon as the senses re- ceive their first impressions, begins the de- velopment of the powers of the man. The means used by him are to place the education of the people under the mother's care, and erect the home into a school. This idea he actualized by giving to mothers a Book on Education — '' The Book for Mothers,'' the first of the kind, it is be- lieved, that had ever appeared. If the home is not a holy temple of God, if the mother 38 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS fails to vivify and inspire the heart and mind of the child then all thorongh reform of the social condition is impossible. This is the fundamental note that rings through all his works. Already at the cradle of the unreasoning child, must we begin to snatch the race from blinding deceiving in- fluences, and place it in the hands of a better power which the experience of the centuries has enabled us to deduce in relation to mental and moral laws. This need of ele- mentary work is general. The mother in her processes must follow the course agreeable to the nature of the child, — so also must the school. All school cultivation that does not thus accord must lead astray. Humanity is like in its nature, its needs and its goal ; hence a like discipline is demanded for all and evermore. Such in imperfect outline is the Philoso- phy of Education of Pestalozzi. In this connection one more man must be mentioned, whose zeal and success in pi'imary instruction entitle him to a high place among FREEDOM OF ACTIVITY 39 original workers ^'^ ^ in the Philosophy of Education. I refer of course to Froebel — the real founder of the 1^^ Kindergarten in Germany. He agreed entirely with Pestalozzi in FRCEBEL j^.g j^.g^^ estimate of family training — going so far as to assert that so long as the mother neglects to train her child according to the laws of its nature, all attempted reforms in the schools will be in vain. His observation that the first dawnings of child-life were accompanied with desires for activity and motion led him to the determin- ation of the laws of this activity, and to the devising of means of conserving this restless- ness to useful and educating ends. Since activity is the very condition of development, to guide this activity into right channels he regarded all important. Noticing what was universal — that is, the law of the action of the child — he reached this result — '^ that the 40 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS nature of the child manifests itself univer- sally in play. No more true is it that birds build nests, or foxes dig holes, or bees form cells, than that children play ; — it is their nature.'' Therefore, to develop and educate the young mind by means of play, is the central idea of Frcebel's system. We cannot pursue the system farther. Suffice it to say that these two, — Pestalozzi and rra?bel — are the coryphei of modern primary instruction, — exerting an influence this hour on modern civilization that is en- tirely inconceivable. The fulness of this sketch might lead me to touch upon the more modern developments in the science of Pedagogy — and speak of the modifying force of certain dogmas of modern philosophic thought — such as Comte and his school — Herbert Spencer, J. Stuart Mill, Hamilton, etc., etc. I deem it best not to trespass upon the territory of these essayists. CONCLUSIOi^- The History of the Philosophy of Peda- gogics has proved to me a most interesting and instructive study. It seems to me that CONCLUSION 41 no one who makes any considerable preten^ sion to thoroughness as an Educator, can afford to neglect it. It certainly shows ns that Pedagogics is no chance work that every dalller or 2^ed(mt is well able to under- take, but rather the most serious, difficult and far-reaching in its consequences to the individual, the family, and the State. It teaches us that those great thinkers that tower like Alps above their fellows, have re- garded its study with the profoundest in- terest, and have brought to the solution of its hard problems their choicest powers. It likewise teaches us that there is a deep Philosophy of Pedagogics — a Philosophy that has to do with subjects of no less interest than the nature of man, the destiny of man,.. and the means by which this nature can realize this destiny. At a glance we see that the Philosophy of Pedagogics is only a branch or corollary of General Philosophy ; that it ever has shifted, and ever will shift, with a shifting Psychology, with a shifting Theol- ogy, with a shifting Philosophy of History, and with the shifting views of the doctrine of final causes. If man is of the Earth,. earthy— after a few days of struggling and 42 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS of tears to return to dust to rise no more ; — if History at best is only yrnir incoming on the stage to mount on the shoulders of your ^predecessors, and my incoming to mount on yours ; — 3^ou and I alike serving our brief ■purpose, yet to have no share in some final triumph, — then the Philosophy of Pedagog- ics is one thing, — it may have its motives ; we may, possibly, find our inspiration to work. But if the History of Education is like Universal History — a History of Mankind '^ ly God through God, to Clod," — if Christ is the middle point of Universal History, also of the History of Pedagogics, if my sacrifice is to contribute to the elevation not of my immediate successor alone, but to the final triumph, which I, too, am to share ; — if my destiny is bound up intimately with the destinies of the race, and the destinies •of the race are affected by my conduct ; if, in short, this historic drama is the necessary medium of moral development to the race, which shall clearly appear in the grand de- nouement ; — then this work of ours has \t^ motives, — it has its inspiration, — / know it, • — you feel it, — and we are willing, fellow CONCLUSION 43 workers, to toil on in obscurity, if needs be, — little appreciated it may be, — poorly re- quited often, — but still proud, and satisfied, because co-workers with the G-reat Teacher in lifting the race from bondage to freedom, and from darkness to the light of life. 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