Book Xll 
 
I 
 
 THE RACES -^f^ 
 
 O If "^ 
 
 THE OLD WORLD: 
 
 A MANUAL OF ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 BY 
 
 CHAKLES lI^^BEACE, 
 
 AUTHOR OF 
 
 'HUNGARY m 'Ol," "HOME-LIFE IN GBRMANT," " NOESB-FOLK,' 
 
 ETC. 
 
 NEW YORK : 
 
 CHARLES SORIBNER, 124 GRAND STREET. 
 
 1863. 
 
 /Vj. /, 
 
3/0 
 
 Entered, according to Act of CongreBB, in the year 1863, by 
 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER,. 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 
 
 Southern District of New York. 
 
 JOHN P. TROW, 
 
 PBIXTER. STEREOTYPER, AND ELECTROTYPEK, 
 
 50 Greene St., New York. 
 
PEEFAOE. 
 
 The subject of Human Races has exceedingly inter- 
 ested the public mind both in England and America, for 
 a number of years, and yet it has been very difficult to 
 obtain trustworthy information upon it in any compact 
 form. The facts in the science are scattered through 
 such a number of varied works, such, as the descriptions 
 of travellers, the journals of missionaries, the contribu- 
 tions of army-officers to foreign magazines, the papers on 
 particular tribes written by students of races, or the 
 examination of single languages made by students of 
 ■language, that it is impossible to take ai thorough sur- 
 vey of the subject without a vast deal of Ikbor. 
 
 The vice of the science, too, has been the substitution 
 of theory and hypothesis for facts, and the little distinc- 
 tion made to the student's mind between the careful re- 
 sults of investigation, and the fancies, whether in physiol- 
 ogy or philology, of the author. It seems to be so diffi- 
 cult for any writer upon the subject of Human Races to 
 
IV PEEFACE. 
 
 confess anytliiiig uncertain, or to admit any want of 
 classification. 
 
 There has appeared to be a need for a compact and 
 careful work upon Ethnology. It is true, Pbichaed still 
 remains the master of the science, and a patient study of 
 his works wiU give a comprehensive view of the subject. 
 But his various treatises are too voluminous for the com- 
 mon reader, and beside, do not contain the latest results 
 attained by scholars bearing on the subject. 
 
 The present Manual of the Ethnology of the Old 
 World is designed not so much for the learned, as for 
 the large number of persons who are interested in the 
 study of History, whether in academies and colleges, or 
 among the people of business and professions. Such often 
 desire to ascertain readily the position of a certain people 
 or tribe among the races of men, or, at least, to know 
 the latest conclusions of scholars in regard to them. 
 
 To them History is usually a mere diary of facts, 
 and they want some link of connection, something which 
 wiU unravel the confused web of human events. This 
 Treatise is intended to fill these wants — ^to present in 
 brief and clear form the latest and most trustworthy re- 
 sults of scholarship and scientific investigation bearing on 
 the question of races, and to furnish a Guide — imperfect 
 though it may be — ^to the study of History. History is 
 not merely a journal of battles and the reigns of kings : it 
 is a description of the Life of Man, and in no way can this 
 be made so clear as by following down the different lines 
 of descent among the various tribes of the human family. 
 
PBEFACE. V 
 
 Events, institutions, forms of government, revolutions and 
 changes which before appeared isolated and arbitrary, 
 become under this investigation the natural and normal 
 developments of the qualities of certain races, and His- 
 tory is made a clear and philosophical record. Many of 
 our narrow prejudices and false theories in regard to Race 
 — ideas which have been at the base of ancient abuses 
 and long-established institutions of oppression — are re- 
 moved by this study. 
 
 The aim in this Treatise has been as much as possible 
 to separate the theoretical and the fanciful from the scien- 
 tifically true ; accordingly the reader must not be sur- 
 prised that we are often obliged to say " We do not 
 know." The scholar, in examioing this work, will meet 
 with many seeming deficiencies. He will naturally expect 
 to find fuller accounts of certain favorite races or nations ; 
 much win be omitted which he would wish to see, and 
 sometimes more will be given than he thinks necessary. 
 His own theory or opinion on a particular question may 
 not be adopted, or doubt may be expresse*^ wnere he 
 would see certainty. But we bespeak nis kind judgment, 
 from the consideration of the nature of the work : that it 
 is an attempt to make popular a difficult science, and to 
 present a vast subject in a duodecimo. Many things 
 must be omitted which ought to be said, and the degree 
 of prominence given to each race must be governed by 
 the general scale of the work. 
 
 The Manual is divided into eight Divisions : the First 
 treats of the leading Races in the earliest historical 
 
Vi PEEFACE. 
 
 period ; the Second, of the primitive Races in Europe ; the 
 Third, of the leading Races of Asia in the middle ages ; 
 the Fourth, of the modem Ethnology of Asia ; the Fifth, 
 of Oceanic Ethnography ; the Sixth of the Ethnology of 
 Africa ; the Seventh of the Races of modern Eui-ope ; and 
 the Eighth of the Antiquity of Man, and the question of 
 Unity or Diversity of origin. 
 
 It will be observed that we have not touched upon 
 the history of mankind immediately succeeding creation, 
 the subject leading into such an endless chain of fancies 
 and theories. The book is confined to races as they ap- 
 pear in history. 
 
 If the present Treatise shall be favorably received, we 
 trust to follow it by another upon the " Races of the New 
 World." 
 
 We must beg leave to express especial obligations to 
 the New York libraries for many courtesies shown in the 
 progress of this work. The librarians and assistants of 
 the " Astor Library " have been especially kind and hos. 
 pitabit,. The " Mercantile Library," too, is stored with 
 valuable works b2 History and Ethnology, which are 
 liberally loaned. The " Society Library," of this city, and 
 the " Oriental Society Library," of New Haven, have 
 supplied indispensable assistance. 
 
 Charles LoErNG Brace. 
 
 Hastinos-on-the-Hudson, April, 1863. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTBODirOTOBT. 
 
 Ethnology defined— Races as a po-wer in History — Language the basis of classi- 
 fication — Why better than physical divisions — Answer to Agasslz's objection 
 — The evidence of common descent in roots and grammatical structure — 
 Table of Numerals — Examples of roots ; of grammatical separation — The 
 Basques ; the Lithuanians ; the Turks ; the Persians — An advantage that 
 historical evidence is required — Some apparent exceptions to this classifica- 
 tion — Explanations — Objection that Ethnology is an incomplete science; 
 answer pp. 13—25. 
 
 PAET HRST. 
 
 PISST SISTOBICAL RACES. 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 THE TTTKANIANS AND HAMITEB. 
 
 The great divisions : Aryan, Semitic, Turanian, Hamitic ; explanation of the 
 names— Characteristics of the Turanian languages : agglutination ; integrity 
 of roots; facility in producing new forms, &c. — The first supposed migra- 
 tions of Turanians in Asia •, their remains in Europe — First historical ap- 
 pearance in Scythian Empire of Babylonia ; its date — China — Present ex- 
 tent of the Turanian family— Their ancient religion— Uncertainty of Tura- 
 nian classification — Hamitic tribes ; relation to Semitic — Probable origin in 
 Asia— Hamitic traces in Asia pp. 26—37. 
 
 CHAPTER IIL 
 
 THE CHEOKOLOGT OF EGYPT. 
 
 Necessity of the investigation — Doubts of the received Chronology ; reasons- 
 Sources of evidence on Egyptian Chronology : (1) The ancient writings — (2) 
 The monuments of contemporaneous events — (3) The records of Egyptian 
 historians — Value of this evidence ; its weak points — The two schools on 
 this Chronology— The dates under the difibrent systemB- The conclusion 
 
Vm CX>NTENT8. 
 
 uncertain, but in favor of the presumption of great antiquity— Physical type 
 of Egyptians ; three types — The Hamitic Chaldees — Supposed Hamitic in- 
 vasions of Asia ; Hamitic Empire in Asia ; its date — Second Chaldeean Em- 
 pire ; date —The language ; uncertainty— The Kabathseans— Characteristics 
 of Hamitic civilization pp. 38—61. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SBUITES. 
 
 Their contributions to mankind- Characteristics of their langniages — First his- 
 torical appearance — Early emigrations— The Semitic area— The three great 
 branches : Aramaians, Arabians, and Hebrews — Their territories — Sinaitio 
 inscriptions — African colonies — The Jews, Canaanites, Phoenicians, and 
 the Hyksos — The Semitic physical tjrpe— Mental characteristics — The three 
 great Religions, Semitic pp. 52 — 59. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE AEYANS. 
 
 Indo-European classification— The primitive condition of Aryans shown by 
 language — Their historical centre — Persian traditions — Indian — Supposed 
 early migrations — The Vedic hymns — Zend Avesta— Descendants of Indian 
 Aryans — of Persic Aryans— Dates of early migration — Aryan contribntiona 
 to History — Meeting of two branches in modern India pp. 60 — 65. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE ETJLING BACKS- 1300— 500 B. O. 
 
 The Phcenicians- Their commerce and manufacture — The Arabian djTiasty of 
 Babylonia — The Assyrian Empire — Its extent and culminating point — Its 
 art, Hamitic— The fall of Nineveh — Second Empire of Babylon— Its end, 
 the end of Semitic greatness— The Median and Lydian Kingdoms — Opening 
 of a new Aryan period in the Persian Empire — Cyrus — The taking of Baby- 
 lon and the extent of the Empire— Cambyses — Darius — The Minor tribes of 
 j4«ia— The Turanians : Parthians, Moschi, Tibareni, and others — The Sem- 
 ites : Canaanites, Ishmaelites, Cyprians, Solymi, and others — The Aryans : 
 Carians, Mysians, Hyrcanians, and others — The Cimmerians, Treves, and 
 Scythians ; the race of the latter ; probable explanation— The Graeco- 
 Italian race ; two streams ; the Pelasgians, origin and characteristics ; en- 
 tiro uncertainty — Geographical considerations in regard to the earliest coun- 
 tries inhabited pp. 66 — 77. 
 
 PAET SECOND. 
 
 THE PSIMITIVE RACES OF EUROPE. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE TCEANIANS. 
 
 Turanians— Archffiological evidences ; the probable migrations ; the physical 
 type ; the legends— The Finnish hypothesis— The Basques— Territory and 
 traits— The Finnish race— The « Ages" of antiquaries ; value as a classili- 
 cation pp 78_gi. 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE AEYAN EACE8 OF BXTKOPB. 
 
 2'Ae Kelts — First historical appearance — Their area and possible migrationB— 
 Their appearance in Spain, France, and Italy ; exploits— Greece • Galatia— 
 The"Cimbri— The ancient Gaels ; the Cymric Belgians— Keltic characteris- 
 tics—Physical traits— Remains and arts— The Britons— Keltic Religions-, 
 language — The Cymric and Gaelic branches — The Etruscans — probable mi- 
 grations — Original abodes ; history ; race — The Japygians ; abodes and race 
 — The Italicans ; the Latins and Umbrians — Aryan origin — Latin influences 
 on the world pp. 85—94. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 KABLT TBTJTONIO TKIBES. 
 
 Teutonic wanderings— Causes of migrations — Earliest probable date — Eirst his- 
 torical appearance— Goths— East Goths— Gepidas— Vandals— Alemanns— 
 Franks — Saxons — Burgundians — Longobards — Thuringians- Bavarians— 
 Saxons— Teutons after the destruction of Roman Empire— European races in 
 Charlemagne's era— Teutonic traits— Influence on the world — ^Language- 
 Three divisions pp. 95—108. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE EAKLY SLAVONIANS. 
 
 Their tenacity— Antes and Sclavens— First historical accounts— West Slaves- 
 Divisions of dialects — A peaceful race- -Holding no slaves— Traits — The 
 Lithuanians — uEstui and Venedi — Resistance to Christianity — Three 
 branches — Language pp. 109—116. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 TURANIAN EACE8 IN EITKOPE. 
 
 The Huns — Uncertain origin— Invasions — Attila — Khazars — Pechenegs— Ko- 
 manes — Avars — Bulgarians — Magyars — Absorption of other tribes— Their 
 vigor pp. 117 — 122. 
 
 PAET THIED. 
 
 LBADINO SAGES OF ASIA IN TBE MIDDLE AOES. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE SEMITES. 
 
 Semitic uprising under Mohammed— Vast conquests — ^Arabian Empire— Art 
 and science — Lack of tempered imagination — The Turanians — Tatar only 
 applied to Mongolians — Origin of Turks in the Hiungnu — The Tukiu — Oig- 
 hours — Osmanlis — Their conquests- Mongol Empire — Turkish language — 
 The Mongols — Confusion of Tatar and Turkish— Mongolian tjrpe be- 
 longing to many peoples — Mongol Empire — Tamerlane — Poverty of lan- 
 guage pp. 123—134. 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 PART FOURTH. 
 
 ilODERN ETHNOLOGY OF ASIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 THB EACE8 OF INDIA. 
 
 Hill-tribes— Turanian type— Mode of life— Customs and institutions— Diflfer- 
 ence from Brahmans— Evidences of Turanian origin— Vindhya and Dekkan 
 tribes— Aryan boundaries— The Bhills— The Miua— Kolas— Munda-Paharia 
 — Khonds— Tamulian type— The Gonds— Tuluva— Malabars- Tamuls— Te- 
 linga — Todar — Tamul— Language— BhotIta races — Differ from Tamulic 
 races— Physique— Other related tribes— Swamp Tribes— Tibetic language 
 — Miris, Karens, and others— Tai tribes— Physique — Aryan type — Black 
 Aryans— Five Divisions — The Eastern, the Middle Hindus, the South- 
 ern, 'Western, and Orissa- Color not decisive of origin— Effects of cli- 
 mate pp. 135 — 153. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 EA0E8 OF CHINA AND COCHIN CHINA. 
 
 Uncertain connection of Chinese with other races— Physique— Language — No 
 grammar — Defects in the language — The Mandchus — Aboriginal tribes — 
 Anamese — Japan— The Ainos — Probably Tungusian — Japanese physique 
 — Turanian peculiarities of language — Prof. Pott's objections. ..pp. 154 — 163. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE TIBETANS, TUNGUSIANS, MONGOLS, AND SAM0IED8. 
 
 The Tibetans— Polyandry— Language— Tungusiaus — Area— Mandchus— Phy- 
 sique— Different tribes— Tungus of the Amour — The Mongols — Territory — 
 Physique of Kalkas— Mongol-tribes— Buriats, Songarians, Kalmucks, and oth- 
 ers — Hue's description— Growth of Mongol language — The Samoieds — Mode 
 of life — Divisions of tribes — Physique — Relation to the Einns-.pp. 164—174. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 TTJEKIBH EACE8. 
 
 Yakuts — Turks of Siberia — Kazan Turks— Kirgis— Turkomans— TJsbecks—No- 
 gais — Turkic tribes— Osmanlis — Turkish dialects — Change of physique prob- 
 ably due to intermarriage pp. 175—181. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIL 
 
 EACE8 OF PEK6IA, AFGHANISTAN, AND BILT7CHISTAN. 
 
 Two divisions of Persian tribes— Tdjiks— Persian type— Language— Iliydha — 
 Not always a name of race — Gipsies— The Br.ihui— The Afghans — Lan- 
 guage— Physique— Tribes— Conquest of India— KnRDS-Territory-Featurea 
 —Language Iranian— Tezidis— Dr. Grant's theory— Resemblances to ancient 
 Assyrians— Probably Persian— Divisions of tribes— Gradual extinction— Nks- 
 TORiANS— Semitic— Probably Aramsean- Nestorian territory— Dr. Grant's 
 theory pp. 182— 194. 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 BACKS OF eEOBQIA, THE GATJCASirS, AND ABMBNIA. 
 
 Mixtures of languages in the Caucasus— Ossetians— Aryan in race — Turanian 
 tribes— Beauty of Georgians and Circassians — Caucasian Races- Lesghlans 
 — TBetsh-CircasBians—Abassians— Doubtful race— Population of Caucasian 
 tribes— Political relations— ReUgions-Costximes- Armenians — Dispersion 
 — Boundaries of Armenia— Of Aryan race— The physique pp. 195—205. 
 
 PAET FIPTH. 
 
 OCEANIC ETBNOGRAPBT. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 EAOES or OOEANIOA. 
 
 Uncertainty of race— Two theories— General divisions-Malaisia— Melanesia, 
 Australia — Micronesia— Polynesia— Determining causes of race— Principal 
 migration eastward- Links between Tai and Malay languages— Malays — 
 Area — Physique— Polynesians — History obtained from language — Craw- 
 furd's theory— MiCKONESiANS— Physique, art, remarkable ruins — Mela- 
 NESiANS — Andaman blacks — Condition and physique- Negritos — One race 
 of oriental negroes — Character of black tribes — Probable connection with 
 Asia — Papuas — Feejees a mixture of Papuans and Polynesians — Physique — 
 Gabelentz's views — Melanesians of one race— Australians — Different ac- 
 counts of physique — Capacities — Favorable accounts— Tendency to new 
 dialects— Effects of climate— Asiatic origin pp. 206—224. 
 
 PAET SIXTH. 
 
 ETHNOLOGY OF AFRICA. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 THE SEMITIC TEIBES. 
 
 The tenacity and antiquity of the Berbers— Libyans— Zouaves— TawSrek—Ka- 
 byls— Supposed descent from Vandals— Varying physique— Black Tawdrek 
 — Intermarriage with blacks — Kanuri — Language — The Tibboo — The Haus- 
 SA— Semitic negroes— The Semites of Eastern Africa— Semitic JEthi- 
 opians — The Gheez — Color of Abyssinians varying with altitude — Geography 
 — Physique of Amharas — Color dependent on diet — Darkening of skin — 
 Characteristics of Abyssinians— Ealashas not Hebrew — Somauli — Steatopyge 
 — Semitic origin— Pagan tribes— Arabs— Three divisions— Arabian mix- 
 tures—Moors—Arabs in Egypt— No permanent settlements— Change of 
 physique— Population of Berbers and Arabs— The Jews— Black Jews— Two 
 Jewish types— Eound in all climates— The Moors— Semitic origin— Mixed 
 blood pp. 225—245. 
 
Xil CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEK XXI. 
 
 IIAMITIO TRIBES OF AFRICA. 
 
 Definition of Hamitic— Probable future identifying with Semitic— The Kopts 
 — Roeemblancea in features to old Egyptians— Creed— The Fellahs— Physi- 
 cal traits— Only race adapted to climate— Antiquity of— Process of accli- 
 mation by natural selection— Return to original type— Eastern Nubians— 
 Probably Hamitic— Very ancient— Gallas— Different tribes — The heathen 
 tribes — People of Sbnnaar- Probably Hamitic— Black races of uncertain 
 origin — Berbbeins— Physical type— Character— Ancient Christian nations 
 now become Pagan or Mohammedan — Causes — Origin of Berberins doubtful 
 —People of Whitq Nile — Proportion of different races in Egypt. pp. 246—257. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 BA0B8 OF W B 8 T E B N AFBIOA. 
 
 Geographical divisions—" Pure Negro type " — Senegambia—Fellatah— Brown 
 — Contrast with other Africans — Their empire— Benefits of Mohammedan- 
 ism— Tor6de — Origin of Fellatah — Never engaged in slave-trade — Language 
 — Mandinooes — African belief of a Deity — Civilization of Mandingoes — The 
 Bambarras — Jolofs — Color affected by climate — Northern Guinea — Tribes 
 of— Low type— Veys — Invention of an alphabet— Krus-Progress of^ 
 Fanti or Ashanti races- Progress— Otshi language — Avekwoms — Yebus 
 — Ibos — Dahomey — Abeokuta — Jewish customs — Singular African cus- 
 tom pp. 25S— 273. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 BA0E8 OP S O IT T n E B N AFBIOA. 
 
 Great South African race— Alliterative languages— Physical type not character- 
 istic of race— Kaffir Family— Southern Guinea- Traits of people— 
 Mpongwes— Pangwes- Congos formerly Christian— Physique of inland tribes 
 Bonda— Nations— Congo— Languages— Black Jews pp. 274—282. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 DAMAKAS AND OVAMPOS. 
 
 Religion— Condition of Ovampos— Remarkable custom— Bechuanas— Geograph- 
 ical position— Character— Livingstone's classification— Grant on the Bech- 
 Uana language — Kaffirs — Amazulus — Fingoes — Language — Dialects — 
 Remarkable migrations in Africa — Recently Explored Districts — The 
 Balonda— Various tribes— Three classes on eastern coast-The Wanika— 
 Spiritual condition-Grant on the other tribes of the coast- Sawdhili— Wa- 
 kamba— Spiritual ideas— Other tribes pp. 283—299. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 HOTTENTOTS. 
 
 Most ancient people-Evidence of-Power of race-" Bastards "—Their migra- 
 tions-Bushmen-A nation of Hottentot race-Artistic talent-Egyptian 
 origin of Hottentots probable-Physique-Causes of degradation-" Clicks" 
 -Namaqua-Language— High position of Hottentots-Five physical divi- 
 
CONTENTS. XUl 
 
 sions— Negro-type exceptional— Minglings of types— No fixed line between 
 brown and black — No evidence in language of radical difference in negro 
 from white — Semitic negro — Hamitio negro— Progress of black races — Causes 
 of degradation — Not lower than Aryan races formerly — Future development 
 of Africa pp. 300—313. 
 
 PAET SEVENTH. 
 
 ETBNOLOGT OF HODMSN EUROPE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 TTTEANIAN9. 
 
 Finnic Races— Effect of circumstances on physique— Contrast between Einns 
 and Magyars— Tchudic tribes — Russian Einns— Quaens — Traits— Language 
 — Agglutination — Lapps — European nomads — Territory — Esthonians — Livo- 
 nians — Bulgaric branch — Permic branch and Ugric — Magyars, their achieve- 
 ments — Kossuth — A table of Numerals — Hungarian language much developed 
 — TuKKS — European Turk— Physique— Changed type of Osmanli— Selection 
 of best type — Mixture of Turks with Negroes, prolific — Governing power of 
 Turks— Basques — Antiquity of— Language probably Finnic — Description 
 of— Provinces— Singular traits— Iberian love of mining— Resemblances to 
 Finns pp. 314— 333. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIL 
 
 ARYANS OP ETTBOPE. 
 
 Slavonians — Pan-Slavonism — Russian influence on Europe — Tenacity — Lan- 
 guage — Southeastern division and Western — Great Russians — Number — 
 No dialect — Little Russians — White Russians — Cossacks — Bulgarians— Illy- 
 rian branch — Servians— Slovens— Krgats — Western Slavonians — Poles — Bo- 
 hemians — Tchechs — Wends— Pkysical traits — Tables of Slavonic races ac. 
 cording to religion and states pp. 334—345. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIIL 
 
 THE ALBANIANS. 
 
 Probably descendants of ancient Illyrians — Leake's account of the Albanian — 
 Slavonian mixture — Character — Physique— Greeks — Degeneracy — Change 
 of climate— The modern Greek — Albanian settlers — Physique — Ancient 
 types — Phanariotes — Pallicares — Slavonic influences — Maniotes — Geog- 
 raphy pp. 346—357. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 THE ROMANIC OK LATIN KACE8. 
 
 The Wallaohs : Direct descendants of the ancient Romans — Divisions — Daco- 
 Romanic — Macedo-Romanio — Wallachian language — Italians — Teutonic 
 mixture— Genoese — Venetians — Etruscan traits — Greek blood in Naples — 
 Sicily — Sardinia — Corsica — Mingling of races — Gajani's theory — Objections 
 to it — Spaniards — Latin elements — Formation of modern languages from 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 Latin— Moorish mixtures— Spanieh traits traced to race— Dialects— Modern 
 evidences of race — French — Keltic the principal race — Evidences of race — 
 French race— New dialects- Different physical types— French physique — 
 Race in the provinces pp. 358—376. 
 
 CHAPTEK XXX. 
 
 THE KELTS. 
 
 Two branches of Kelts— Keltic mixtures with Teutonic— The Tkutonio Family 
 -Scandinavian Branch— Germans— High and Low German— Great names 
 —Early German area — Bohemians — Saxons — Thuringians — Hessians — 
 Austrians— Slavonians in Germany— AJemanns—Burgundians— Physique— 
 Dutch, Teutonic and Keltic— Three dialects— The English Kace— Great 
 mixtures of blood— Ethnological history— Keltic elements— Geographical 
 names in Keltic— Teutonic names of places- Scandinavian names— Evidence 
 from dialects— South-Saxon and Anglian words— Historical names — Norse 
 words— Norse resemblances— Norse customs- Scandinavian phrases— Norse 
 slang words— Norse words in Scotland— Physical race-marks— Slight Roman 
 influence pp. 377— 40O. 
 
 CHAPTEK XXXI. 
 
 WANDERING RACES. 
 
 The Gypsies— Hindu in race— Low morality— Tenacity of race— Physique- 
 Language pp. 401—404. 
 
 PAET EIGHTH. 
 
 GENERAL QUESTIONS IN ETHNOLOGY. 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 THE ANTIQUITY OP MAN. 
 
 Uncertain evidence as to Time in all historical records— Hebrew and Inspired — 
 Egyptian— Assyrian— Chinese— Hindu— Earliest indications In Europe— 
 Peat-deposits in Denmark— AniSqwij at least of 4,000 years— Changes in 
 physical geography of 'BaWic— Kitchen-leavings— ArticXea found in them — 
 Probable age — Lake-dwellings of Switzerland — Picture — Population — 
 Remains- Stone Age — Troyon's method of determining their age — Age of 
 pile-village at Pont de Thi61e — Evidence from fauna and flora— Few human 
 bones— Probably near 4,000 years old— Previous improbability of the fossil 
 man — Negative evidence open to doubts — Description of Drift-Period- Man 
 probably escaping— Boucher de Perthes' discoveries — Drift near Abbeville 
 — Long period necessary for the physical changes — Lyell's views— Evidence 
 from the peat — Flint implements — Lyell's hypothesis — Objections to their 
 antiquity— Answer— Absence of human bones— Causes — Scarcity of animal 
 bones— Lake of Haarlem — Want of human bones in Pile-villages — Lartet's 
 discovery in Pyrenees — Human bones — Animal remains — Conclusions on 
 palaeontology and chronology — Lyell's description — Flint implements at St. 
 Acheul— In Suffolk— The cave evidence— Bones of men and extinct quad- 
 
COKTEjSTTS, XV 
 
 rupeds at Arcy sur Yonne — Long Hole — LiSge Cavern— Neanderthal 
 skull — Brixham Cave— General conclusion in favor of the existence of the 
 Fossil Man pp. 405—440. 
 
 CHAPTEK XXXIII. 
 
 ■p N I T Y OK DITBRSITT OF OEIGIN. 
 
 Irrelevant topics in the discussion— Language not proving unity though pointing 
 toward it— Gaps between languages— Gradual process of change in language 
 going on now — Borrowing of words — Links of connection — Traces of agglu- 
 tination in Chinese— Growth in Mongol — Change in Turkish from aggluti- 
 nation toward Inflectional — Also in language of Samoieds — Roots of Semitic 
 and Aryan probably of one origin— Miiller's statement— Principles of in- 
 heritance and variation — Two forces acting on each life-germ — Natural 
 selection — Phenomenon of sporting — Formation of a new variety — State- 
 ment of the physiological argument in favor of unity — A priori probability 
 of human variation — Animals vary as much as men — Variations in swine 
 transported to South America and forming of new breeds — In hogs — In sheep 
 — goats — cattle — Change from wild to tame breeds — Variation from food in 
 cats and dogs according to St. HUaire — In greyhounds in Mexico— In fowls 
 in South America — In tame geese and ducks — Origin of all these known — 
 Gradations in human varieties — Variation in color— No difference in struc- 
 ture of skin of the negro and the white — Bachman's explanation of color — 
 Draper's — Change of color in Abyssinia — in Western Africa and other places 
 — Variation in hair— Negro's hair not wool — Variation in size and structure 
 —In skulls — Tiedemann's views of the negro skull — Other negro features 
 not peculiar — Flexible toes — Human and animal variations compared — 
 Steatopyge — Variations in Indo-Europeans — In the same race — Instances — 
 Afghans— Guebres— Magyars and Finns — No race-mark in the skull — Dr. 
 Meig's conclusion — Prof. Huxley's comparison — Physical degeneration — 
 Mayhew's remark — Dr. Tvans' description of Portuguese degeneracy — 
 Degeneracy of Europeans — Of Arabians — Of Irish — Change of type — Differ- 
 ences in the same race — Not to be accounted for by Diversity of Origin — 
 Acclimation — Acclimation dependent on moral causes — Endurance of Teu- 
 tonic race — Vigor of American physique — Hybridity — Question of sterility 
 of mulattoes — Statistics of mulattoes in Cuba — Mulattoes in Mexico — 
 In Brazil— Crosses of various races — Vocabulary of mixtures in Mex- 
 ico — Probability of mulattoes being weaker — Explanation of weak races 
 dying out — No mystery — Causes of extinction — Two races in contact — Vigor 
 of mixed races — Objection to unity from Egyptian monuments— More time 
 needed — Formation of a black race by natural selection — Correlating fea- 
 tures — Climate not sole cause of variation — Exceptions to climatic influence 
 — Formation of permanent types — Ke-statement of argument for unity — 
 Dr. Smyth's statement— Descent from one pair more philosophical— Uni- 
 ty a cause of defects of classification — Language best test of race — Appa- 
 rent exceptions — Pott's objections — Conclusion — Races not permanent 
 .—Moral destiny of man — A perfect race possible — Inheritance of good- 
 ness pp. 441— 513. 
 
 Notes p. 514. 
 
 List op Aitthorities p. 523. 
 
 Index p. 633. 
 
THE 
 
 EACES OF THE OLD WORLD; 
 
 A MANUAL OF ETENOLOGT. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 INTEODUCTORT. 
 
 Ethnology, according to its literal derivation, 
 means the Science of IsTations ; but in tlie more com- 
 prehensive modem classification, nations have been 
 divided according to descent or race, and Definition of 
 the word has come to mean the Science of '^^^^^^°^- 
 Maces. Perhaps for a treatise like the present, if the 
 word were not strange to common usage, Ethnog- 
 raphy, or a Description of Eaces, wonid be a more 
 appropriate title. The term " Eace " has been chosen 
 by writers on this subject, because it leaves unsettled 
 the great question at the basis of the Science — ^the 
 Unity or Diversity of Origin of Mankind ; the word 
 designating, groups of individuals who are united by 
 
14: THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 the bond of Conmmnity of Descent, but not deter- 
 mining whetlier the races themselves are Varieties, 
 that is, branches from one stock, or Species, which 
 are distinct in origin. 
 
 The mysterious and far-reaching property of blood 
 — of Race, is becoming more and more recognized in 
 modern Science. That power, whereby the most dis- 
 
 Eace. tant ancestor shall influence his remotest 
 descendant, and — still more wonderful — that accumu- 
 lated effect of a line of ancestors on the final progeny, 
 so that a clear stream of inherited physical and mental 
 peculiarities can flow unmingled through human his- 
 tory in every variety of external circumstances and 
 internal influences — is something not to be lightly 
 weighed in the philosophy of man or in the history of 
 his actions. 
 
 "Whether races have always been distinct from one 
 another, or whether they are to remain distinct and 
 permanent, is not here in question. In the existence 
 of mankind, so far as it is known to us, Human Races 
 evidently play separate and powerful parts, disen- 
 tangling for us something of the confusion of historic 
 annals, and (each contributing its share toward the 
 progress and the final perfection of humanity. ; In con- 
 templating them, the mind rises above the arbitrary 
 divisions of name and locality and forms of govern- 
 ment to the truer classification of common descent and 
 mutual brotherhood ; and each group becomes in this 
 
mTKODUCTOKY. 15 
 
 aspect, like each, individual, an expression of tlie 
 wonderful variety in the Divine works, and a separate 
 manifestation of moral powers or qualities, and of the 
 ever-acting Spirit of God. 
 
 "We do not propose, however, in this treatise so 
 much to examine the philosophy of Race — its influ- 
 ence upon the world and human development — as to 
 describe briefly the prominent races classifled in 
 some cases on a new basis. Modern scholarship has 
 been gradually approaching the conclusion that among 
 all the tests of community of descent in a ^^^^ ^^ 
 given group of human beings, the best is ''i^^'^*'^****"- 
 the evidence of Xcmguage, connecting with it also the 
 testimony of history. 
 
 Physical resemblances or diversities are not found 
 to present so ultimate a ground of classification as 
 those of the human speech. The "Word is the highest 
 outward expression for the soul ; and the properties of 
 the immaterial part of man — ^his unconscious instincts, 
 his hopes, his passions, his imaginings, his tendency 
 of thought, his general habit of nature, appearing in 
 language and its forms — are transmitted more entirely 
 from generation to generation, and are Language the 
 
 ® ° ' ^ best mark of 
 
 less liable to be changed by external in- '^^<=^- 
 fluences than any features of the face or the body. 
 It is well known that time and external circumstances 
 and the mingling with other stocks, can change to a 
 considerable degree (how far, is not here in considera- 
 
16 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 tion) the color, the hair, the shape of the skull, and 
 the size of the body. Yet, after many generations, 
 when the physicist could scarcely, by external signs, 
 recognize the bonds of common blood binding different 
 peoples together, the student of language discerns the 
 clearest and most irrefutable proofs of their common 
 descent. "What scholar doubts now the brotherhood 
 of descent, at a remote period, between the Hindoo 
 and the Englishman ? and yet how few physical ethnol- 
 ogists could discover it by any bodily features ! It is 
 as if the more intangible properties of man's nature 
 were those most acted on by the principle of inherit- 
 ance, and the last to be changed or destroyed by ex- 
 ternal physical influences. 
 
 A distinguished naturalist, Professor Agassiz, has 
 A assiz's *^^® remarked on the evidence from lan- 
 objections. guago, ui a preface to the work of Messrs. 
 Gliddon and Nott, upon " Indigenous Races : " 
 
 "Let any one follow upon a map exhibiting the 
 geographical distribution of the bears, the cats, the 
 hollow-horned ruminants, the gallinaceous birds, the 
 ducks, or of any other families, and he may trace, as 
 satisfactorily as any philological evidence can prove 
 it for the human language, and upon a much larger 
 scale, that the brumming of the bears of Kamtchatka 
 is akin to that of the bears of Thibet, of the East 
 Indies, of the Sunda Islands, of Kepaul, of Syria, of 
 Europe, of Siberia, of the United States, of the 
 
mTEODtrCTORY. 17 
 
 Bocky Mountains, and of tlie Andes, thougli all tliese 
 bears are considered as distinct species, wlio have not 
 any more inherited their voice one from the other 
 than the different races of men. The same may be 
 said of the roaring and miawing of the cats of 
 Europe, Asia, Africa, and America ; or of the lowing 
 of the bulls, the species of which are so widely dis- 
 tributed nearly over the whole globe. The same is 
 true of the gackeling of the gallinaceous birds, and 
 of the quacking of the ducks, as well as of the song 
 of the thrushes, all of which pour forth their gay and 
 harmonious notes in a distinct and independent dia- 
 lect, neither derived nor inherited one from the other, 
 even though all sing thrushish. Let any philologist 
 study these facts, and learn at the same time how 
 independent the animals are one from the other, 
 which utter such closely allied systems of intonations, 
 and, if he be not altogether blind to the significance 
 of analogies in nature, he must begin himself to ques- 
 tion the reliability of philological evidence as proving 
 genetic derivation." (p. 15.) 
 
 These criticisms — and we quote them as best em- 
 bodying the popular objections to this source of evi- 
 dence — show such an extraordinary want of appre- 
 ciation of the very nature of the evidence on this 
 subject, that we could hardly reply to them seriously 
 but for their source. If the students of language 
 derived their conclusions of the common bonds of 
 
18 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 different forms of speech from the similar articulate 
 Answer. soTinds uttcrcd hj different nations, if they 
 classed together all those, for instance, who gave a like 
 soimd to their vowels or their consonants, there might 
 be some force in these objections ; but so far is this 
 from being the case, that even the like words in dif- 
 ferent tongues, caught from the sounds of nature, or 
 which are the natural and almost necessary expres- 
 sions of human feeling, are not considered at all in 
 the evidence of a common descent. It is first the 
 Primitive Words and Roots of a language ; and sec- 
 ondly, and of more importance, the Grammatical 
 Sources of Structure, which are the especial proofs 
 Evidence. ^^ ^^^ relation of two tongues. Take the 
 numerals, for instance. How immense the chances 
 are — ^millions to one — with a score of different tribes, 
 such as the Indo-European, that they would not acci- 
 dentally hit upon even one numeral which should be 
 alike in all their different tongues ; but if it was dis- 
 covered that most of their numerals were alike, and 
 if it were remembered that, of all words, numerals 
 are the least likely to be lost by an ignorant people, 
 or borrowed by a cultivated one, how great the proba- 
 bility would be of a common origin to these various 
 peoples ! 
 
 "We append as an illustration the following tables 
 of numerals, taken from Max Miiller's excellent work, 
 " Languages at the Seat of "War : " 
 
INTKODUCTOKY. 
 
 19 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 SPANISH. 
 
 POETTJGTTESE. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 WALLACHIAW. 
 
 FBENOH. 
 
 1 Unu3 
 
 uno 
 
 hum 
 
 uno 
 
 unu 
 
 un 
 
 2 Duo 
 
 d03 
 
 dois 
 
 due 
 
 doi 
 
 deux 
 
 3 Trea 
 
 tres 
 
 tres 
 
 tre 
 
 trei 
 
 troia 
 
 4 Quatuor 
 
 quatro 
 
 quatro 
 
 quattro 
 
 patru 
 
 quatre 
 
 5 Quinque 
 
 cinco 
 
 cinco 
 
 cinque 
 
 quinqu6 
 
 cinq 
 
 6 Sex 
 
 seia 
 
 seis 
 
 sei 
 
 sese 
 
 i 
 
 six 
 
 Y Septem 
 
 siete 
 
 sete 
 
 sette 
 
 septe 
 
 sept 
 
 8 Octo 
 
 ocho 
 
 oito 
 
 otto 
 
 optu 
 
 huit 
 
 9 Novem 
 
 nueve 
 
 nove 
 
 nove 
 
 > 
 noTe 
 
 neuf 
 
 10 Decern 
 
 diez 
 
 dez 
 
 dieci 
 
 dece 
 
 dix 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 SANSKRIT. 
 
 PERSIAN. 
 
 OLD SLATONIO 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 WELSH. 
 
 1 IJnus 
 
 eka 
 
 yek 
 
 yedino 
 
 an 
 
 un 
 
 2 Duo 
 
 dyau 
 
 du 
 
 dova 
 
 tva 
 
 dau 
 
 3 Tres 
 
 tri 
 
 sih 
 
 tri 
 
 >ri 
 
 tri 
 
 4 Quatuor 
 
 Aratvar 
 
 Arehar 
 
 Aetoiriye 
 
 feover 
 
 pedwar 
 
 6 Quinque 
 
 panian 
 
 pen^r 
 
 pamte 
 
 fif 
 
 pump 
 
 6 Sex 
 
 shash 
 
 ses 
 
 seste 
 
 six 
 
 chwech 
 
 1 Septem 
 
 saptan 
 
 heft 
 
 sedme 
 
 seofon 
 
 saitb 
 
 8 Octo 
 
 ashman 
 
 hest 
 
 osm§ 
 
 eahta 
 
 wyth 
 
 9 IToTem 
 
 navan 
 
 nuh 
 
 devamtS 
 
 nigon 
 
 naw 
 
 10 Decern 
 
 dasan 
 
 deh 
 
 desamte 
 
 tyn 
 
 deg 
 
20 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 But when, still farther, we find such primitive 
 words as Father^ Fadar (Germ.), Pater (Lat.), 
 Pita/r (Sansk.); or Widow^ Viduvo (Germ.), Vidua 
 (Lat.), Yidha/vd (Sansk.), as well as many others, so 
 similar ; or when we see the names of animals, such 
 as Sow, 8u (Germ.), Sua (Lat.), Su-Tcaras (Sansk.), 
 or Mouse, Mas (Germ.), Mus (Lat.), Mush (Sansk.), 
 Common indo- with innumerable similar, so nearly alike, 
 
 European 
 
 words. the probability of a common source to 
 
 these tribes is still farther strengthened. This evi- 
 dence is stiU more increased by the similarity of roots, 
 underlying many words, apparently different; and 
 it may be raised as nearly to complete demonstration 
 as the case will admit, by the more refined resem- 
 blances in grammatical structure. 
 
 I do not propose at this point to give illustrations 
 of the latter, or full examples of the former, as my ob- 
 ject is merely to show the nature of the evidence on 
 which classification of races is based in this treatise. 
 
 Grammar is no doubt the most subtile and endur- 
 ing token of race. We cannot, at this point, of 
 Grammar as a coursc, prcscut full illustratious of this ; 
 
 token of Kace. . ,-i • , n i i» i 
 
 yet the existence, tor example, oi such a 
 people as the Basques, in Spain, preserving themselves 
 separate in habits, institutions, and costume, for so 
 many centuries, on a soil where innumerable tribes of 
 Kelts and Eomans and Teutons have become mingled 
 in almost inextricable confusion, and marking their ex- 
 
INTRODUCTOEY. 21 
 
 temal separation by a language and grammar whicli 
 are world-wide in their form from almost any Euro- 
 pean tongue, is too striking a case in point to be 
 passed over. 
 
 Or again, such a fact as the Lithuanian peasant in 
 Prussia, after a separation of unknown centuries from 
 the ancestors of the Hindoos, still declining illustrations. 
 his verb like the Sanskrit and the Greek, and almost 
 able now to understand a simple Sanskrit expression. 
 "What external physical peculiarity is transmitted like 
 this ? These grammatical forms seem more enduring 
 even than words. The Osmanlee Turk can hardly 
 speak a sentence without words from the Arabic and 
 the Persian, and his conversation may scarcely contain 
 a pure Turkish word ; yet the grammatical structure is 
 as entirely different from that of all the tribes in con- 
 tact with or subjection to him, as the Turkish charac- 
 ter and habits are different. And so permanent is this 
 indication of race, that, says M. Maury, " a coarse Si- 
 berian Yakut can even now, after ages of ancestral 
 separation, communicate his simple ideas to the in- 
 telligence of a Constantinopolitan Turko-Sybarite." 
 
 So the Persian, though conveying his thought in a 
 whole sentence of Arabic words, never loses his ances- 
 tral grammar. 
 
 It is, perhaps, an advantage of the Science of 
 Ethnology, as based on Language, that it requires 
 historical evidence for its completeness. No doubt, 
 
22 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 in many of our natural sciences, the classifications 
 Historical wouM bc much sounder, if it were possible 
 
 evidence ^ ^ , 
 
 needed. to go back to tiie cxact History of the ma- 
 terial world. 
 
 There are certain facts which apparently weaken 
 the evidence of language in regard to race, such as 
 history alone can explain. With human races, as 
 distinguished by language, we find that certain peo- 
 ples, related to each other, have the power of absorbing 
 Objections, one another, until the language disappears 
 — as, for instance, the Romans, in Italy, owing to their 
 greater culture, absorbed the conqueriag Teutons and 
 merged their tongue in their own, or the Teutons and 
 Kormans of England swallowed up the Kelts. 
 
 Here, it should be remembered, that with men, as 
 with the world of animal and vegetable life, related 
 varieties may run into one another, until it becomes 
 difficult to classify them. But, even in these unions, 
 there will always remain tokens of the different 
 tongues, fused together ; as, for instance, in all the 
 Answers to modcm Romanic languages, such as French, 
 ejections. gpanish, and Italian, analysis shows the 
 various languages which have contributed their pro- 
 portions. Ko tongue is utterly obliterated by another : 
 and history teaches us the conditions on which one 
 language is merged into a second. "We find that very 
 divergent languages, such as those of the three great 
 families we shall hereafter describe, do not fuse with 
 
mTKODTJCTOBY. 
 
 23 
 
 one another, and tliat when they meet, as they did 
 (2400 B. c.) on the plains of the Euphrates, they are 
 ahnost as distinct and separate as they are now in the 
 same regions. The Persian, the Arab, and the Tatar, 
 are as diverse in language as they are in habits, char- 
 acter and physique. One tongue may drive another 
 out of use, by the one race wholly exterminating the 
 other ; but even then, as with the Indians on this con- 
 tinent or the Kelts in England, the conquered will 
 have left its monuments, never to be destroyed, in the 
 names of innumerable mountains and rivers and 
 lakes. 
 
 If two related tongues meet, the one of the higher 
 cultivation and containing the greater treasures of 
 literature, will usually prevail, and history must teach 
 us which blood predominates in the imion. In some 
 cases, the greater power of one race may give even 
 the lower language the victory, as the Koman over the 
 Greek in the colonies of Italy. Small bodies of men 
 may be indeed transported, or forcibly expelled to 
 other countries, until they or their descendants lose 
 their language — as the African slaves in this country 
 or the negroes of the "West Indies — and thus this mark 
 of race disappear. But such occurrences are compara- 
 tively rare in the great movements of mankind; 
 while voluntary emigration, in mass, seldom obliterates 
 language. And even with these, History must aid us 
 in the classification ; and no doubt careful investigation 
 
24 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. . 
 
 would disclose in such instances many definite race- 
 marks in words of popular usage. 
 
 This then is the basis of our divisions of mankind 
 Basis of ^^*^ Races — that is — Lomguage interjpreted 
 
 classification. 7 tt' x 
 
 by History. 
 To the objection, so frequently made to this method 
 of classification, that Ethnology is thus an incomplete 
 Science, we reply, first, that it is even more so under 
 any physical system of division. And, secondly, that 
 very many natural sciences labor under this reproach. 
 Objection of Who supposcs that the theories or systems 
 incomp e eness. ^^ Qeology are at all settled ; or the classi- 
 fication of Mineralogy and Chemistry complete; or 
 the divisions and classes of iN^atural History unchange- 
 able ? Study is yearly changing classification in almost 
 every Science, founded on observation. But the ad- 
 vantages of system and division are none the less. 
 They enable us to analyze and group, and to reach 
 general principles. So with Ethnology. Our divi- 
 sions of Races may be hereafter somewhat enlarged. 
 This, for instance, which we shall hereafter call the 
 Turanian Family, may be re-divided and sub-classified. 
 The African Races may, by more thorough investiga- 
 Possibie tion, be grouped in larger families. The 
 
 changes in the rs. . -t .■..-. 
 
 Science. Occanican may be united with more cer- 
 tainty to Asiatic and continental races. Still there is 
 now classification, well-based enough, to assist much 
 the student of history and of human nature. Even 
 
INTKODUCTORT. 25 
 
 the few threads, wMcli we can now with confidence 
 offer, of the connections qf races through human annals, 
 may serve to disentangle to many an earnest student 
 the confused web of human actions, and to clear up to 
 his mind the progress of humanity, and the Divine 
 ideas expressed therein. 
 
PART FIRST. 
 
 THE EARLIEST HISTORICAL RACES. 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 THE TUEANIANS AND HAMITES. 
 
 As we grope far back in tlie past, we discover 
 three prominent Families of nations, appearing on the 
 field of history. The farther we penetrate, the more 
 Three great ^^J Seem to mingle with one another, and 
 families. ^^^ ^q^q distinguishable they become. Still 
 from the earliest records which describe the human 
 race in its divisions as peoples, and under the earliest 
 evidences of language they stand forth as separate 
 families. From them have flown down through his- 
 tory, three broad streams of Language and Family, 
 covering most of the ancient continents and possibly 
 embracing all the various rivulets of speech and race 
 which interlace with one another in such apparent 
 confusion along the whole com'se of human progress. 
 They are the Turanian, the Semitic, and the Aryan 
 Turanian. Families. The Turanian receives its name 
 from Turan, the barbarous countries, "outside" or 
 
EAKLIEST HISTOEICAI. EACES. 27 
 
 beyond Iran and tlie Aryans; tlie Semitic^ from 
 Sliem or Sena, the eldest son of ]S"oah. ; and tlie Aryan 
 from the most ancient name which the ancestors of 
 this family gave themselves, Arya."^ This latter is also 
 sometimes called Jajohetic, from the third son of 
 ISToah, and Indo-European, from the languages which 
 it embraces. 
 
 To these three families may be added a fourth, 
 which, though probably only the earliest appearance 
 of crystallization of the Semitic, cannot, with the 
 evidence yet obtained, be thoroughly identified with 
 either of the others, the Hamitic, so called from Ham, 
 the second son of JSToah, a name referring in its deri- 
 vation to the darJc color of these tribes. It only plays 
 an important part in ancient history. 
 
 The most ancient of these great families is the 
 Turanian, while at the same time, it is the one the 
 least distinctly defined. It embraces what are called 
 the ISTomadic languages, that is, languages T„r^„;„^ 
 
 1 ,,T J • i , J T T_i characteristics. 
 
 less settled into a system and more hable 
 to changes than those of other branches of the human 
 race, and, at the same time, marked by certain simi- 
 larities of form, which are common to them and to no 
 other. 
 
 One of the most characteristic features of these 
 languages is agglutination. This means, strictly, the 
 glueing of the pronoun to the verb, to form Agglutination. 
 a conjugation, or of the pronoun to the noun for a 
 
28 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 declension, as if, in English, " I strike thee " were all 
 one word, " Istrikethou ; " or " thy son " were written 
 '■'• Sonthou^'' or "my, thy, and his father" were 
 ^^fatheri, fatherthou, fatherheP This, however, alone 
 would not distinguish the Tui-anian languages, but 
 the great peculiarity is that this syllable, thus glued 
 on, is not identified with the main word, but is felt 
 and contemplated as a distinct word. Another great 
 peculiarity is the integrity of the roots, so that 
 by simply adding terminations, we can, in Turkish, 
 for instance, from a single root, love, form twenty- 
 four different modifications of the idea to love, the 
 last of which shall be as cumbrous a word as this: 
 " nottobebroughttoloveoneanother " (not to be brought 
 to love one another), and yet every one of these shall 
 show the root love distinctly. 
 
 The Turanian languages are also marked by their 
 facility in producing Tiew forms • their want of i/rreg- 
 ular forms, and the rapid divergence of their dialects. 
 
 Further, the root-mea,ning of words is so free and 
 general, that many words can be used as nouns, 
 adjectives, or verhs, almost indiscriminately. 
 
 Other minor features can be adduced, which 
 characterize the common origin of these tongues, such 
 as the commwnity of words and roots, though naturally 
 in the languages of such barbarous and roving races, 
 this is not true to so great an extent as in the two 
 other great Families ; the identity of pronominal roots. 
 
EABLIEST HISTOKICAL RACES. - 29 
 
 and tlie peculiar phonetic character or "harmony of 
 vowels," of the speech of Turanian tribes. 
 
 On the continent of Asia, the Turanians were, 
 probably, the first who figured as nations in the ante- 
 historical period. Their emigrations began long be- 
 fore the wanderings of the Aryans and Semites who, 
 wherever they went, always discovered a previous 
 population, apparently of Turanian origin, which they 
 either expelled or subdued. 
 
 Probably from one of the first of these migrations, 
 arose the Chinese people, whose language may be 
 called the infantile language among na- Turanian 
 tions, which, though it cannot be classed ™ig'^'*i°°^- 
 distinctly with the Turanian, seems yet the prepara- 
 tion and first formation of it. 
 
 According to Miiller's hypothesis,^ which is based 
 solely on the evidence of grammatical structure and 
 gradation, and which may be accepted merely as a 
 supposition, there were two directions for the Turanian 
 migrations, one northern and one southern ; that in 
 the latter settling on the rivers Meikong, Meinam, 
 Irrawaddy, and Brahmapootra, and forming the Tdi 
 tribes ; the other following the courses of the rivers 
 Amoor and Lena, and founding the Ttmgusic tribes. 
 
 A second one to the south, finding the country 
 occupied, pushes on to the islands and the sea, and 
 lays the foundation for the Malay tribes. 
 
 A second to the north is supposed to have 
 
30 THE EACE8 OP THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 originated the numerous Mongol tribes, and to have 
 pressed westward along the chain of the Altai moun- 
 tains. 
 
 Still a third to the north produces the Turkish 
 peoples, and proceeds even as far west as Ural, and 
 the frontier of Europe. 
 
 A third to the south is believed to tend toward 
 Thibet and India, and in later times pours its hordes 
 through the Himalaya, and forms the original native 
 population of India. The last Turanian wanderers to 
 Supposed the south, are, in this theory, the forefathers 
 
 currents of 
 
 population, of the Tamuls, afterward crushed by the 
 Aryans ; and the last to the north are ancestors of the 
 Finns, and probably of the Basques in Spain, and the 
 Samoieds in Siberia. All these ever-moving streams 
 of people, it should be remembered, flowed from the 
 mountain ]3lateaus of Central Asia, long before the 
 historical period. The only evidence of them lies in 
 the structure and terms of their languages. ^Neither 
 tradition, nor song, nor monument, nor historical 
 record, has preserved any mention of these primeval 
 No historical 'W'anderings of the first races of Turanian 
 evidence. ^^^ ^^^ womcu. When they left their 
 
 hills and mountains, they had no sacred songs, or pop- 
 ular poetry, or system of laws, or common possession 
 of thought.' Their intellectual and moral position 
 was probably lower than that of the lowest American 
 Indians. All that we can probably conclude is, that 
 
BAELIEST HISTOBICAL KACES. 31 
 
 in tliose dim, ante-liistoric times, the successive emi- 
 grations of Turanian tribes, spread abroad over Asia 
 and Europe, wliat is believed to be tlie underlying 
 stratum of primeval population — a population nearly 
 always crushed or eradicated by the advancing Aryans/ 
 The traditions of the latter represent these original 
 inhabitants as giants, or dwarfs, or evil spirits, and as 
 speaking an unintelligible language. In ITorthern 
 Europe, the most distinct remains of these early races 
 are preserved in the names of their heroes, and the 
 traditional songs which celebrated their deeds — the 
 Finnish poems of Kalewala and Wainamoinen/ 
 
 The first historical appearance of the Turanians, is 
 probably to be found in the Scythian Empire of 
 Babylonia, of which mention only was made by the 
 earliest Greek historians,^ but whose exist- scythian 
 
 Empire of 
 
 ence has been rendered probable- through Babylonia. 
 the laborious researches of Eawlinson' in the ruined 
 cities of the Euphrates. There, on the site of the 
 great city of Lower Chaldaea, was the capital of an 
 Empire — called the " Median Empire " — which flour- 
 ished and fell before Nineveh became known to the 
 world as a great city. Its duration is supposed to have 
 been from 2458 b. c, to 2234 b. c." JSTot its date. 
 enough, however, is known of it, to attach much im- 
 portance to its history. Its Turanian character is de- 
 rived from the inscriptions, which are in Turanian 
 grammar, though with Hamitic vocabulary, indicating 
 
32 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 a great mixture with Hamitic population. (Rawlin- 
 son's Anct. Mon., 1 — 69.) 
 
 At tlie same period, a great Tm-anian Empire — 
 admitting the Chinese to be the earliest crystallization 
 of this family — was flom^shing in China, for we have 
 one date in a Chinese inscription, showing a settled 
 government and society 2000 years before Christ. 
 
 In later times, when Aryan and Semitic races also 
 held dominion over Central Asia, the antiquary dis- 
 covers that every monumental cuneiform inscription 
 must have its three languages, of v/hich one must be of 
 the Turanian family ; and it is known that the Persian 
 kings, in the historical period, when giving forth an 
 order to the people, were obliged then, as now, to 
 publish it in each of the three great branches of human 
 language.' 
 
 The Turanian family still embraces the greater 
 proportion of the Asiatic peoples, and of some in 
 Extent of Europc. Its languages include those of the 
 
 Turanian 
 
 family. Fiuus and Laps, the Magyars and Turks, 
 
 the Tartars, Mongols, Thibetians, Tamulians, and 
 aboriginal Indian peoples, as well as numerous other 
 tribes and nations. It is possible that the dialects of 
 the Eastern Archipelago may come within its limits. 
 
 What was the religion of this great family of na- 
 tions at this early period, is not sufficiently known. 
 They were generally wandering tribes, who depended 
 much on hunting for subsistence, and it is probable 
 that the most of them worshipped only the lowest 
 
EAKLIEST HI8T0EICAL KACES. 33 
 
 powers of the elements. Whether the adoration of 
 one God was preserved among them from early tra- 
 ditions, is not certain. The supposition of j,^ , 
 Rawlinson'" that the magism of the ancient ^®^'^'°°- 
 Persians, or their worship of the elements, was derived 
 from the Scythians — a generic name, including many 
 Turanian tribes — does not seem sufficiently supported 
 by evidence. 
 
 The Turanian physical type, so far as it is distinc- 
 tive, will be described hereafter. 
 
 It should be remembered by the younger scholar 
 that the Turanian classification is more general and 
 more uncertain than any of our other group- uncertainty 
 
 *' o J. of Turanian 
 
 ings of races. It includes a vast number classification. 
 of peoples, whose languages show the resemblances, 
 detailed above, which similarities seem sufficient 
 foundation for classing them as one immense group. 
 In this view, practical scholars in Asiatic tongues, 
 such as Caldwell (author of a Comparative Grammar 
 of the Dravidian Languages), and B. H. Hodgson, 
 who has investigated with such success the non- 
 Aryan dialects of India, seem to agree. Max Miiller 
 and Bunsen are its great advocates. 
 
 It is fair to state, however, that on the other side 
 are the eminent linguist. Professor Pott, of Germany, 
 as well as several distinguished scholars of this coun- 
 try. The most, however, that these latter would 
 2* 
 
34: THE KACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 claim, we suppose, would be that the Mongol, Turkic, 
 and Finnic languages make a separate group from the 
 Tamulian and non-Aryan dialects of India and the 
 Himalaya, as well as from the Malay. 
 
 THE HAMITIC TRIBES. » 
 
 Even before the historical appearance of the Tu- 
 ranians (though probably the result of a later emigra- 
 tion from Central Asia), was the existence of the most 
 mysterious, the most ancient organized State of an- 
 tiquity — the Egyptian — founded by tribes who are as 
 yet classed as Hamitic or Khamitic (from KhamA — 
 " the Black " — the ancient name of Egypt). 
 
 They are, in the opinion of the best ethnologists, 
 to be considered as the source or rather the earliest 
 The Hamites. crystallization of the Semitic races ; still the 
 evidence thus far obtained is not sufficient to estab- 
 
 * Both in regard to these and the Semitic Assyrian tribes, we would 
 remind the reader that almost the only authority for the new historical re- 
 sults is Col. Rawlinson. His interpretations of the inscriptions have been 
 subjected as yet to but little strict criticism : he apparently confuses at 
 times the Hamitic and Turanian families ; and it is very evident that his 
 mind is not in historical investigation of a close, scientific cast, so that 
 the conclusions as yet are not perfectly satisfactory. Still no one has 
 thus far ventured to oppose them, and Hincks is said to have arrived 
 independently at similar results, while Dr. Brandis confirms, to a certain 
 extent, even the historical conclusions. Oppert, too, attempts in 
 elaborate arguments to prove the connection of the second class of the 
 cuneiform (or the Turanian) both in structure and vocabulary with the 
 modern Turanian, as, for instance, the Finno-Magyar tongues. See his 
 "Expedition Scientif au Mesop. etc. — Paris, 1858-59." 
 
EARLIEST HI8T0KICAL EACE8. 35 
 
 lish this, and they may accordingly, at present, be 
 classed as a separate family.'' 
 
 It should be understood by the reader that by the 
 term Hmnite, we do not necessarily mean people of 
 black complexion, but those tribes whose language is 
 represented by the ancient Egyptian, a people un- 
 doubtedly of brown and swarthy, and sometimes 
 black color, with European or Aryan features. 
 
 The roots of the Hamitic language are pronounced 
 by Bunsen''' to be mostly of one syllable, and to 
 correspond with the roots of both the two great classes 
 of language. 
 
 Others again describe it as a much less developed 
 language than either the Semitic or Aryan „ .,. 
 
 o r> J Hamitic _ 
 
 languages ; and yet admitting certain prin- characteristics. 
 ciples of inflexion and formation from roots which 
 are exhibited by each of those. 
 
 The following are its resemblances, according to Eenan, 
 with the Semitic. The identity of the pronouns, as well as 
 the similar manner of treating them; the agglutination of 
 accessory words; the assimilation of consonants; the second- 
 ary part played by the vowel, and its instability which makes 
 it omitted in writing ; certain resemblances of conjugation and 
 of the theory of particles and the analogy of numerals. 
 
 Its dissemblances are in the conjugation or formation of noun 
 and verb, and in its older form approaching more the mono- 
 syllabic, with little grammar, for which picture-writing was 
 naturally a more appropriate expression than the alphabet. 
 Each word is looked at separately and is not glued to the root. 
 
36 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 The absence of the tri-literal character to the roots, is also a 
 marked difference from the Semitic. 
 
 The most received opinion at present in regard to 
 tte ancient Egyptian is that it probably represents the 
 ancient Asiatic stock, from which the Aryan and 
 Semitic tongues proceeded. But whether the Hamitic 
 peoples be considered a separate family, or as repre- 
 Asiatic ori-in renting Only the original stock, of which the 
 ofHamites. gemitic family was a branch, there is little 
 doubt that they are all derived from Asia, The con- 
 densed Biblical narrative which represents Egypt as 
 inhabited by the grandsons (or the tribes following 
 them) of l^osih. ; the shape of many of the skulls found 
 in the tombs ; the traditions reported by Pliny,'^ and 
 above all the evidence of language, point to an Asiatic 
 origin of the venerable Egyptian State. 
 
 There has been much discussion as to the existence 
 of Asiatic Hamites, but there are many arguments in 
 favor of it. The Greek traditions clearly imply their 
 belief in two divisions of the Hamites or ^tliiopians — 
 Asiatic and African. The allusion by Homer (Od. 1 
 — 23, 24); the traditions which connected Memnon, 
 Eang of Ethiopia, with Susa, and the region of the 
 Persian Grulf ; the ordinary genealogies of Belus; the 
 expressions of Herodotus ; the traditions of the Arme- 
 nians — all point to the existence of Asiatic Kushites, or 
 Hamites. (See Rawlinson's Anct. Mon., vol. 1, — 60, 
 61, etc.) The account in the Bible (Gen, x. 8), would 
 
EAULIEST HISTOEICAL EACE8. 37 
 
 indicate that a primitive Babylonian Empire was 
 erected by a great Cusbite (Hamitic) cbieftain (Nim- 
 rod), wbose people were related to tbose of Egypt, 
 Africa, and Palestine. 
 
 This is rendered more probable by tbe investiga- 
 tions of Eawlinson among the monumental inscriptions 
 of Central Asia, and by linguistic discoveries. It is 
 believed now, that Hamitic or Cusbite tribes, of dark 
 complexion, extended along tbe whole southern coast 
 of Asia." They settled in Arabia, and Beloochistan, 
 and Kerman ; the cities on the northern shore of the 
 Persian Gulf are proved by the inscriptions to have 
 belonged to them ; they ruled for a time in Babylonia 
 and Susiana, and relics of their language ^j^^j^ 
 exist yet in Abyssinia, N"ubia, and among ^^"i«°^^°t^- 
 various'^ African tribes.'® Even as late as the century 
 of ]^ebuchadnezzar (600 b. c), the Hamitic popula- 
 tion, says the same authority, is shown by the monu- 
 ments to have been a powerful element in the popula- 
 tion of Babylonia. 
 
 In what direction or at what date the Hamitic 
 emigration flowed from Asia into Africa, cannot be 
 determined. If it came from Lower Babylonia, as 
 seems most probable, it would have entered through 
 Arabia and by the Isthmus of Suez, and thence spread 
 over the valley of the Mle as far as Syene.'^ 
 
CHAPTEE III. 
 
 THE CHKONOLOGY OF EGYPT.' 
 
 In a work of tliis nature, we had, at first, thought 
 it undesirable to enter upon a subject so difiieult and 
 so much discussed as the duration of mankind upon 
 the earth. But following our original plan, we must 
 treat of each race in its first historical appearance, and 
 accordingly are forced to the question, ""When did 
 each family first stand forth as an organized nation on 
 the earth?" This question, as regards the Hamitic 
 races, has become of deep interest to the world, from 
 the light their records throw on the duration of the 
 whole life of man. It is not well that this great and 
 interesting problem, so long in the hands of the 
 learned, should be hidden from the common student 
 of history. The apparent mystery of the subject may 
 do more injury than the most extreme publicity, and 
 faith may be shaken by ignorance, which would never 
 be by competent knowledge. 
 
 For a number of years, there has been a growing 
 opinion among candid scholars, that more iArne was 
 
THE CHEONOLO&T OF EGYPT. 39 
 
 needed for human history than the received Chronol- 
 ogy allowed. Empires are seen at a remote date in the 
 past, in full power and brilliancy ; nations of Need of a 
 the same family, and in different stages of chronology. 
 civilization, are beheld scattered over the most widely 
 separated districts ; the most marked physical charac- 
 teristics of race — such as the color and facial outline 
 of the -Ethiopian and the Mongol — in tribes believed 
 by the majority of scholars to have emigrated from 
 the Asiatic centre, are discovered on monuments of 
 the most remote and unquestioned antiquity ; and the 
 conclusion inevitably forced on the mind, has been, 
 that to prepare all this, to organize men in civilized 
 societies, to found empires, to create Art, to scatter 
 similar tribes over such vast extents of territory, and 
 to create and perpetuate accidental peculiarities or 
 climatic effects on such a great scale, an immense Past 
 is needed, of which human records say little. This 
 conviction has been strengthened in many minds by a 
 pecuKar class of investigations during the last quarter 
 of a century, namely, the investigations into the na- 
 ture of Language. In the earliest periods of history, 
 philologists discover languages of completed (j^owth of 
 and mature growth, bearing, to the eye of ^"S"^^^®- 
 the student, tokens of a long and gradual development, 
 through patient ages of the growth of the human 
 mind. They claim to detect in the structure, the 
 forms, and the processes of a speech, marks of time as 
 
40 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 plain and in'efiitable as those which the naturalist 
 sees in the inner structure of a tree.* 
 
 In regard to all such presumptions or evidences of 
 antiquity, though taken together they are undoubt- 
 edly calculated to influence reflecting minds, still 
 every one must feel that they are in their very nature 
 somewhat vague and uncertain. No one can presume 
 to say, how long it shall take a body of nomadic fami- 
 lies to form a settled government and a state ; the 
 growth necessary for the maturity of art or of litera- 
 ture is equally indefinite ; and as for the duration need- 
 weakness ful for the ripening of human speech — for 
 
 of the 
 
 arguments, tlio growtli of richcr forms, or more compli- 
 cated constructions in language — who that considers 
 the wonderful creative power of a single human 
 genius, can ever venture to affirm or deny. The sub- 
 ject, at least, in the present state of our knowledge, 
 would, if this were all the evidence, have remained in 
 doubt. 
 
 But to these many vague indications of a greater 
 antiquity of mankind than had been previously sup- 
 posed, were gradually added important scientific and 
 
 * So strongly have these evidences affected the mind of an ingenious 
 though theoretic scholar, Chevalier Bunsen, that he computes' the time 
 necessary for the formation of the Chinese language as 5,000 years, 
 and places this supposed event at 20,000 b. c. The growth of the Tu- 
 ranian languages he dates at probably from 15,000 to 12,000 b. c, and 
 our own family of languages, the Indo-European, he supposes gradually 
 forming from 7,250 to 4,000 b. c. 
 
THE CHEONOLOGY OF EGYPT. 41 
 
 practical discoveries in Egypt. These discoveries are 
 destined to have a permanent effect on the received 
 views of chronology, and it becomes important to know 
 the sources of the evidence upon this question. These 
 are principally three. I. The ancient Egyptian 
 writings. II. The monuments of contemporaneous 
 events. III. The records of Egyptian his- „ 
 
 '-''' ••■ Sources of 
 
 torians. Each of these witnesses gives us E^iyptial^"' 
 without collusion, a record of the reigning '^'"^'^ °°^' 
 princes of Egypt, and the durations, both of individual 
 reigns, and of the collective reigns of a dynasty. They 
 testify at different periods of Egyptian history, and 
 with different objects, so that the judgment which 
 shall be formed on their evidence (when well sifted), 
 must be of some value. 
 
 It is the sum of these successive reigns, which gives 
 us the age of Egyptian civilization. 
 
 To make the subject still clearer, we will restate 
 the points of evidence in an abridged form, from Bun- 
 sen's and Lepsius' statement. 
 
 1. "Writing is found from the earliest period on the Egyptian 
 monuments. 
 
 2. The Sacred Books are the earliest hooks, and contain his- 
 torical lists of the kings in succession. 
 
 3. Ballads also existed in regard to these kings. 
 
 4. There were three periods in Egyptian history which may 
 be called— («) The Old Empii-e; (b) The Middle 
 
 or Hyksos Empire ; and (e) The New from the 18th 
 Dynasty. 
 
42 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 5. From the times of the New Empire, we have three great 
 records of Egyptian history, namely : two monumental tablets 
 and one written list of the kings of the two Empires, the tablet 
 of Tuthmosis, and the tablet of Eamesses, and the Turin Papy- 
 rus. The tablet of Tuthmosis gives us lists of thirty kings of 
 the Middle Empire, and thirty-one of the Old ; that of Eamesses 
 gives the 18th Dynasty, and thirty-nine kings of the Old Empire. 
 The Turin Papyrus contained more than 250 names of kings, of 
 which 139 are preserved. 
 
 "T. Some of the kings are reigning princes, and some are col- 
 lateral princes who never reigned. 
 
 8. Besides these lists, we have the imperfect but generally 
 trustworthy lists of two historians. One, Manetho, an Egyptian 
 priest, who lived in the 3d century before Christ, under Ptolemy 
 I, and who wrote a history of Egypt, which has perished, though 
 extracts survive in Josephus. His lists of kings, in an abridged 
 form, we undoubtedly possess. The other, Eeatosthenes, was 
 a celebrated historian and director of the Alexandrian Library — 
 born about 276 b. c. — who carried on researches in this very 
 subject under the royal patronage, and who has transmitted the 
 lists which he has discovered, of the princes and their reigns, in 
 early Egyptian history. 
 
 It will be observed that the evidence in regard to 
 tbe antiquity of tlie nation, is nnusually varied in 
 source, sucb as probably no otlier country has pos- 
 sessed of its primeval chronology. 
 
 The weak points in the evidence, and those which 
 The weak have divided the opinions of scholars upon 
 pom s. ^i|^^ subject, are : (1) the imperfections and 
 
 corruptions of the lists of Manetho, and the possibility 
 
THE CHEONOLOGY OF EGYPT. 43 
 
 that this Chronology may have had an artificial 
 character ; (2) the want of agreement between Man- 
 etho and Eratosthenes; (3) the possihility that the 
 monuments themselves may merely contain the in- 
 scriptions by the priests of the popular, mythical his- 
 tory of Egypt, and so Manetho's and Eratosthenes' 
 lists be but the copy of a myth ; and (4) the doubt 
 how far certain of the kings were contemporaneous or 
 successive. 
 
 On this subject two schools may be said to exist at 
 this time. One represented by Seyffarth, Uhlemann, 
 Poole, de Eouge, l^olan and others, giving more 
 modern dates to Egyptian History; and two schools, 
 the other, containing by far the most eminent names 
 in science, such as Bunsen, Lepsius, and Brugsch, 
 claiming for that History at least a duration of 3,500 
 years before the time of Alexander. The earliest his- 
 torical date, according to Lepsius (in a work issued in 
 1858, the result of twenty years of laborious ^^ ^j^^, 
 effort and research), is that of Menes^ the ^^'^^^' 
 supposed founder of the united Egyptian Kingdoms, 
 3892 B. c, or 112 years after the Creation in Usher's 
 system. Bunsen puts the date of Menes at 3623 b. c. 
 TJlilemann and Seyffarth place it at 2781-2 b. c, and 
 Poole as low as 2Y17 b. c. 
 
 Lepsius, a most careful investigator, dates the 
 marvellous invasion of the Hyksos or "Shepherd- 
 Kings" — probably some of the Semitic wandering 
 
44 
 
 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 tribes, wlio conquered and held Egypt in subjection at 
 least 511 years — at about 2167 b. o. 
 
 The following then are the dates of Egyptian 
 Chronology EQstory, accordiug to these various sys- 
 
 by different 
 
 authors. tCUlS : 
 
 BISTOEICAL EVENTS. 
 
 LIPSIUS. 
 
 BRUGSCH. 
 
 BUNSEN. 
 
 SEYFFARTH. 
 
 POOLE. 
 
 Menes, . . 
 
 3892 B.C. 
 
 4455 B. c. 
 
 3623 B. c. 
 
 2781 B. C. 
 
 2717 B.C. 
 
 Invasion of ) 
 Hyksos, . ) 
 
 Expulsion of [ 
 Hyksos, . ) 
 
 ab't2167 " 
 
 2115 
 
 2547 " 
 
 2296 " 
 
 ab't 2082 " 
 
 1591 " 
 
 1604 " 
 
 1626 " 
 
 1866 " 
 
 ab'tl525 " 
 
 Entrance of ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Abram into >■ 
 
 15H " 
 
 
 2877 " 
 
 2297 " 
 
 2081 " 
 
 Egypt, . ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Exodus, . . 
 
 1314 " 
 
 1327-'21 " 
 
 1320 " 
 
 1866 " 
 
 
 It should be observed that the latest of the above 
 dates for Menes falls before the Flood, as given in 
 Usher's system, and only some 438 years after the 
 Flood, in Hale's system, while the most carefully 
 attained and reliable date — that of Lepsius — takes us 
 back within 112 years of the Creation, in Usher's sys- 
 tem, and more than TOO years before the Flood, in 
 Hale's system. 
 
 In the present state of our knowledge of the 
 Egyptian records of their kings — the uncertainty 
 whether more names may not yet be discovered to be 
 contemporaneous, and in a work of this scope and 
 Eesuits not P^^^j uotliing moTC is necessary than thus 
 fully settled. ^^ prescut the results, hitherto attained by 
 scholars, leaving the final settling of our Chronology 
 to fature investigation. Enough is given to show 
 
THE CHRONOLOGY OF EGYPT. 45 
 
 that in a very remote antiquity — ^possibly nearly 4,000 
 years before Christ, certainly not less than 2,600 or 
 2,700 years — the Hamitic tribes had consolidated two 
 kingdoms into one in Egypt, and under a king whose 
 name may or may not be historical, Menes, had built 
 up a civilization and art whose ruins even yet astonish 
 the world. When these tribes first penetrated into 
 the region of the Kile from Asia, and how long was 
 the preparation which formed the massive . ,. ., 
 
 ■•- •*• Antiquity 
 
 and matured system of Egyptian art and uncertain. 
 science and mythology, who shall measure? Our 
 province is alone with the historical appearance of 
 these races. 
 
 Their language is transmitted in its descendant — 
 the Coptic — a living language till after the 17th 
 century. 
 
 It is to be observed, that even in the remote 
 period to which the history of this family dates back, 
 the language, according to the opinion of scholars, 
 shows traces of African influences, while the face and 
 features of the negro are as distinctly pictured on the 
 earliest monuments as they could be in any work on 
 physical Ethnology at the present day. 
 
 In physique, there seem to have been tliree distinct 
 types among the Egyptians. One, probably JEthio- 
 pian, with prominent cheek bones, swelling r^^^^^ 
 lips, broad flat nose, protruding eye balls, ^ ^^^"^ ^^^" 
 and frizzly hair, and, it is supposed, of dark color. 
 
46 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 Another, with long narrow nose, receding forehead, 
 long thin eye-lids, short and thin body, long legs and 
 flowing hair : the color probably red. This may have 
 arisen from the Asiatic mixture. Still another type, 
 the most common, is characterized by short chin, full 
 voluptuous lips, large prominent eyes, slightly curved 
 nose, with thick nostrils, and full cheeks; the hair 
 usually thick and braided. This may have come from 
 the mingling of the Asiatic and African blood. 
 
 THE HAMITIC CHALDEES, 
 
 The most diverse authorities now recognize the 
 intimate connection, at a very early date, between 
 the Chaldees and the African Hamitic tribes. It 
 Hamitic ^^ supposed that, previous to the historic 
 period, the Hamites from Africa invaded 
 the region of the Southern Euphrates, drove out the 
 Turanian rulers from Babylonia, and took possession 
 of the government. The system of writing, the lan- 
 guage, and the traditions of Babylonia and Assyria, 
 as well as the Scripture allusions to the ancestors of 
 these tribes, all indicate this Hamitic influence. Kaw- 
 linson' supposes that the Hamites founded an Empire, 
 of which the capitals were at Mugheir, "Warka, Sen- 
 kereli and Wiffer, and that they introduced the worship 
 of the heavenly bodies, in place of the elemental wor- 
 ship of the Turanians. In his opinion, they brought 
 
THE HAMITIO CHALDEES. 47 
 
 with them a system of pictm-e writing from Egypt, 
 which at that time had not ripened into an alphabet. 
 The first historical date of this Hamite (or Cushite) 
 Empire may be put at 2234 b. c. ;* and in Hamite 
 
 Empire, 
 
 the recent investigations in the ruined cities 2234 b. o. 
 of Babylonia and Assyria, a line of Hamite kings is 
 supposed to have been discovered down to 1976 b, c, 
 in substantial agreement with the dates fi'om Greek 
 historians. 
 
 One in this line of kings, Kudur-Laga/mer (or 
 Chedor-Laomer), a Hamitic prince of Elam, is believed 
 to have built up a vast empire of conquest like those 
 established later by Semitic and Aryan despots. He 
 marched an army 1,200 miles from the Per- ^ Hamitic 
 sian Gulf to the Dead Sea, and held Pales- ^'^^''^■ 
 tine and Syria in subjection for twelve years.f This 
 at a period, as Prof. Eawlinson remarks, when the 
 kings of Egypt had never ventured beyond their bor- 
 ders, and when no monarch in Asia held dominion 
 over more than a few petty tribes, and a few hundred 
 miles of territory. His dominions are supposed to 
 have extended for nearly a thousand miles from east 
 to west, and from north to south, almost five hundred. 
 
 In 1976, another Hamite tribe from Susiana is 
 
 * Viv. de St. Martin obtains this date (2234 b. c.) from still another 
 calculation. — See Rev. Germ. V^ Janv. 1 862. ' 
 
 f Gen. xiv, 1. Five Anct. Mon., I, p. 219. 
 
48 THE KA0E8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 supposed to have invaded Babylonia, and to liave 
 Second established tlie second great Chaldrean Em- 
 
 Hamite 
 
 Empire. pire, wliicb lasted till 1518 b. c. 
 
 The theory that the Chaldseans emigrated from 
 the mountains of Armenia to the Lower Euphrates, 
 seems now generally abandoned by the best authori- 
 ties.* The tribe of that name in the former country 
 were probably either an offshoot of the great Hamitic 
 stock, or emigrants from the Babylonian Chaldees. 
 
 The peculiar language on which these ethnic dif- 
 ferences are based — the Hamitic — is found with the 
 arrow-headed (cuneiform) alphabet, on vast numbers 
 of bricks and monuments through all the region of the 
 Euphrates. As before observed, it seems to form 
 almost the connecting link, on one side, between the 
 Aryan and Semitic, which developed themselves later, 
 and on the other, the bond between these languages 
 and the Turanian and Nomadic languages of Upper 
 Asia. 
 
 Still, the whole subject must be received with 
 great caution, until further and more careful investi- 
 gation shall make certain the nature of the Hamitic 
 languages, and the early history of Lower Babylonia. 
 ITor is it time, as yet, to accept the newly published 
 remains of old Babylonian Literature, which Dr. 
 Chowlson is bringing forth ; writings which claim an 
 
 * Oppert, however, takes this view. 
 
THE CHKONOLOGY OF EGYPT» 49 
 
 antiquity of TOO years before the era of Kebucliad- 
 nezzar. If tliese should ever be established as histor- 
 ically true, then it would appear that a Semitic popu- 
 lation, since called the Ndbathcecms, fiUed 
 
 Nabathseana. 
 
 the country of the Lower Euphrates from 
 an early date, and carried the pursuits of agriculture 
 to a high degree of perfection. They would indicate, 
 also, an early foreign dynasty, which may correspond 
 to the first Hamitic dynasty mentioned above, and 
 they describe a Canaanitish line of kings in the 16th 
 century, which would correspond with the Arab dy- 
 nasty to be hereafter mentioned. The Chaldees — ^if 
 these records be proved authentic — would then be 
 E"abath8eans or Semitic. The probable truth, how- 
 ever, is much more with Eawlinson's conclusions. 
 
 After the Hamitic Chaldsean dynasty, there fol- 
 lowed, according to Berosus, a dynasty of nine Arab 
 kings, who reigned for 245 years. That is, the Ham- 
 ites were apparently overwhelmed by a Semitic inva- 
 sion from Arabia. " The ancient Chaldgeans sank," 
 says G. Eawlinson, " about b. c. 1500, into compara- 
 tive obscurity." They became gradually absorbed 
 into the Semitic stock. 
 
50 
 
 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 The following is the Babylonian Chronology, as restored by 
 
 GUTSCHMID AND KaWLINSON. 
 
 & 
 
 CQ 
 O 
 
 « 
 
 w 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
 O 
 
 d 
 
 W 
 
 H 
 
 1" 
 
 a 
 
 I. 
 
 86. Chaldaeana. 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 34,080 
 
 B. C. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 »4 
 «) 
 o 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 11. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII 
 
 8. Medes. 
 
 11. (Chaldseans.) 
 49. Chaldseans. 
 
 9. Arabians. 
 45. (Assyrians.) 
 
 8. (Assyrians.) 
 6. Chaldseans. 
 
 224 
 (258) 
 458 
 245 
 526 
 (122) 
 87 
 
 2458 
 2284 
 1976 
 1518 
 1273 
 747 
 625 
 
 2234 
 
 1976 
 
 1518 
 
 1773 
 
 747 
 
 625 
 
 538 
 
 
 
 36,000 
 
 
 
 This language — ^the Hamitic — tkrougli tlie two 
 Chaldee dynasties, and for seven centuries after under 
 the Semitic rule, was the sacred and scientific lan- 
 guage of these great Empires. All the mythological, 
 astronomical, and scientific tablets found in the ruins 
 of Mneveh, are in this tongue/ Its alphabet was em- 
 ployed both by the Semitic and Aryan races, who 
 succeeded this ancient family in the government of the 
 countries on the Euphrates/ 
 
 The Hamitic race has disappeared from human 
 families, and has only left the ruins of two mighty 
 Hamitic civilizations to tell of its former grandeur. 
 
 contributions rn • i t 
 
 to History. To it bclong the colossal and gloomy art 
 of Egypt, her severe and materialistic mythology, 
 her elaborate society and her system of picture-writ- 
 ing, the precursor and suggestive of European alpha- 
 
THE HAMTTIC CHALDEES. 51 
 
 bets, as well as those teachings of immortality and 
 divine justice which afterward so deeply influenced 
 the Greek mind ; to it also belong the art of writing, 
 the science, the star-worship, and the early sculpture 
 of Chaldsea and Assyria. 
 
 During the succeeding ages, the Semitic and 
 Aryan races have led the progress of mankind, but in 
 the earliest times, when Turanian, Semite and Aryan 
 were nomadic tribes, the Hamitic race was the in- 
 structor and leader of the human family. "Alpha- 
 betic writing, astronomy," says Professor JRawlinson, 
 " history, chronology, architecture, plastic art, sculp- 
 ture, navigation, agriculture, and textile industry 
 seem, all of them, to have had their origin from Egypt 
 and Babylon, Mizraim and Mmrod, both descendants 
 of Ham." (Anct. Mom, I, T5.) 
 
CHAPTER lY. 
 
 THE SEMITES. 
 
 The great family of nations wliicli appears next on 
 the theatre of history is the Semitic. Though occu- 
 pying a narrower space and numbering fewer mem- 
 bers than either of the two other leading classes of 
 peoples, the Aryan and Turanian, it has been the 
 vehicle of grander ideas and more permanent results, 
 for good and for evil, upon the world, than have been 
 Semitic produced by all the other families of man. 
 
 achievements, j^ originated commerco ; it produced that 
 great invention, which more than any other one 
 intellectual cause has tended to elevate the mind of 
 man — the formation of the alphabet. Through it have 
 come forth the most sensual and debased conceptions 
 in mythology, which have ever cursed mankind; 
 while from its deep sense of Divinity have sprung all 
 the religions of the civilized world ; from one 
 branch, Mohammedanism with its later train of evils, 
 and from another, under the Divine guidance which 
 acts through the whole course of history, the spiritual 
 and inspired conceptions of Judaism and the Divine 
 Revelation in Christianity. 
 
THE SEMITES. 53 
 
 This family of the human race is distinguished by 
 the peculiar character of the language which it spoke. 
 Those languages, in fact, constitute a group semuic 
 clearly separated from the other leading lai'snages. 
 forms of human speech. The great peculiarity of the 
 group lies in the very structure of its roots, which 
 consist mostly of three consonants, while those of the 
 Aryan and Turanian groups have only one or two.' 
 Out of these tri-literal roots, the mass of their words 
 were coined by merely varying the vowels, and in 
 some cases by adding a syllable ; on the other hand, 
 words formed by composition are almost unknown. 
 The verb has but two tenses, the noun but two gen- 
 ders, and the relations of case are not, in general, ex- 
 pressed by inflected forms." In the structure of the 
 sentence, the Semitic dialects present little more than 
 a process of addition; words and propositions are 
 placed side by side, and are not subject to the involu- 
 tion and subordination of clauses, so striking in many 
 of the Indo-European tongues. 
 
 In short, these languages have a kind of poetic 
 power, and express passion and feeling with great 
 intensity ; but they are lacking in logical precision, 
 deficient in analytical terms, and imperfectly adapted 
 to imbody the grandest results of human thought. 
 
 The first migrations of the Semites from Central 
 Asia reach beyond the historical period, though evi- 
 dences of language, of traditions, and the Bible 
 
54 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 Mstorj indicate two central points from which their 
 tribes spread forth ; one in the mountains of Armenia, 
 and the other from the region of the Lower Euphrates. 
 The first historical appearance of the Semitic forms of 
 language in the Babylonian records, is placed at about 
 the 20th century before Christ.^ 
 
 From the Lower Euphrates the streams of popula- 
 tion would naturally tend toward the Persian Gulf and 
 First Arabia, and the Sinaitic peninsula; while 
 
 historical ^ 
 
 appearance. ffQjjj Armenia they easily flowed into Asia 
 Minor, Syria, and Palestine, and from either centre 
 would readily reach the shores of Africa or cross the 
 isthmus to Egypt. 
 
 "When Abraham, about 2000 b. c. (according to 
 Poole), went forth from TJr of the Hamitic Chaldees 
 into Canaan, he found Semitic tribes already there. 
 It is probable that long before this period the tribes 
 which ultimately formed the Phoenicians had wan- 
 dered from the shores of the Persian Gulf to the 
 coasts of the Mediterranean, and the Joktanian Arabs 
 had spread over the Arabian peninsula. 
 
 The proper Semitic territory in antiquity was 
 Semitic Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, Mesopotamia, 
 
 erntory. Chaldasa, Assyria, Susiana, and the immense 
 deserts of Arabia. 
 
 Some of the most ancient names of localities in 
 Assyria and Babylonia are Semitic, as well as the 
 names of the Assyrian and Babylonian divinities. 
 
THE SEMITES. 55 
 
 The Semitic family may be divided into three 
 great branches : the Aramcecms^ the Arabians^ and 
 the Hebrews. 
 
 The Aramaeans held possession of Babylonia after 
 the Hamite dynasties, while a colony had at Aramaeans. 
 a very ancient date occupied Syria. Their language 
 is continued ia the modern Chaldee. In the times of 
 the l^ew Testament, their dialect was the language 
 of common life over all the vast country, from 
 the Mediterranean to the Tigris, and perhaps far- 
 ther. 
 
 The Arabians, supposed by some philologists to be 
 older in language than the Hebrews, occu- Arabians. 
 pied the great peninsula of Arabia. The ancient in- 
 scriptions, the Himyaritic, show how early their lan- 
 guage was spoken there, though we may well believe, 
 with Eenan, that there was a Hamitic population 
 there still earlier. To the AmaleMtes, an Arabian 
 pagan tribe, may be traced, with much probability 
 the most of the Sinaitic inscriptions which so long 
 have puzzled scholars. 
 
 One colony, at an unknown date, was sent forth by 
 the Arabians to the coast south of Egypt and !Nubia, 
 opposite Yemen, and has maintained itself ^^^^^^^ 
 there to the present day.* Their language, ^^™'*®®' 
 the Abyssinian or Gees language, is still preserved in 
 purity in the sacred writings of the nation. Proba- 
 bly from Arabia came the Semitic colonies which 
 
56 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 have everywhere either mingled with the tribes of 
 Northern Africa, or have themselves laid the founda- 
 tion of Ethiopian states. To such a degree is this the 
 fact, that philologists claim that the ground- work of 
 all the African dialects from Egypt and -Ethiopia to 
 the Atlantic Ocean — the Berber, the Haussa and 
 numerous others, even southward as far as Mozam- 
 bique — is Semitic. 
 
 The Hebrew branch of this family embraces the 
 Jews, and their kindred, the Canaanites and Phoeni- 
 cians.* It is probably from the Canaanites, 
 
 Hebrews. 
 
 that the wandering Semitic tribes (the Hyk- 
 Bos, or " Shepherd-kings,") came, who, long before the 
 entrance of the Jews (about 2167 b. c, according to 
 Lepsius), conquered Egypt, and held it in possession 
 for at least 500 years. 
 
 With these various branches, the Semitic family 
 subsequently penetrated to Cyprus, Cilicia, Pisidia, 
 Lycia, and to Carthage, Spain, Sicily, and Western 
 
 * The theory of M. Renan — all whose judgments on Semitic matters 
 must be received with the greatest respect — that the Phoenicians and , 
 Assyrians could not be pure Semites, the former, because of their re- 
 markable enterprise and mechanical skill, the latter, from their powerful 
 and centralized government, and both, from their impure mythology — 
 seems too much an a 'priori conception of the Semitic character. The 
 modern Jew is equal to the Phoenician in commercial enterprise, and the 
 ancient was fully as sensuous, though his imagination was tempered by 
 his monotheism. The modern empires of the followers of Mohammed, 
 were as centralized and powerful as the Assyrian. 
 
THE SEMITES. 57 
 
 Africa. The Carthaginian State — ^rival of Rome — 
 was a Semitic colony. 
 
 The Semitic physical type is very distinctly pre- 
 sented, both on the Egyptian and Assyrian monu- 
 ments, and corresponds in a wonderful manner to its 
 general features, as shown among the Jews of the 
 present day. 
 
 Prof. Rawlinson has thus described the Semitic 
 type on the Assyrian monuments: "The forehead 
 straight but not high, the full brow, the eye large and 
 almond-shaped, the aquiline nose, a little coarse at 
 the end and unduly depressed, the strong, firm mouth, 
 with lips somewhat over thick, the well-formed chin, 
 the abundant hair and ample beard, both colored and 
 black — all these recall the chief peculiarities of the 
 Jew, more especially as he appears in Southern coun- 
 tries." (Five Anct. Mon., I, p. 297.) 
 
 Of all the families of man, the Semitic has pre- 
 served the most distinct and homogeneous mental 
 characteristics. 
 
 Always, in all its branches, tenacious of the past, 
 conservative, not inclined to change or reform, sen- 
 sual and strong of passion, yet deeply reverent and 
 religious in temperament, capable of the most sublime 
 acts, either of heroism or fanaticism, it was, from the 
 first, a fit medium for some of the grandest truths and 
 principles which can inspire the human soul. Its 
 
 very peculiarities — its tenacity and sensuousness and 
 3* 
 
58 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 reverence — adapted it to feel and retain and convey 
 Divine inspirations. The Semitic mind 
 
 Semitic traits. . . y« , , 
 
 was never capaDle oi artistic enort, but has 
 made its great contributions to human knowledge in 
 the invention of the alphabet, and in the exact 
 sciences. In poetry, it has given to the world the 
 most sublime lyrics which human language can pre- 
 sent ; though in the drama, it has produced only as it 
 were the type or introduction, and in the epic, it 
 has contributed nothing. The Semitic races have 
 never shown themselves skilled in colonization — even 
 the PhcBnician colonies formed no permanent states — 
 and they seemed almost as little capable of organizing 
 enduring governments. Individuality has been too 
 strong with them for permanent associated effort. 
 
 In one of their earliest branches — ^^the Phoenicians 
 — and in the modern Jew, they have manifested a 
 wonderful capacity for traffic and commerce. In the 
 primeval ages, probably no one influence tended so 
 much to unite and civilize mankind, as the Semitic 
 commerce and ingenuity, under the Phoenicians. The 
 sensuousness and the religious reverence of the race — 
 so vividly shown in the Bible history — united in the 
 heathen Semites, the tribes of Syria and Asia Minor, 
 to produce a mythology, debasing and corrupt beyond 
 what the human imagination has anywhere else 
 brought forth; a mythology which, transplanted to 
 Greece and refined by the Grecian sense of beauty, has 
 
THE SEMITES. 59 
 
 poured tlirougli all ages a flood of sensual and licentious 
 imaginations, corrupting art and literature almost to 
 tlie present day. 
 
 Three of the great Religions of history — ^Moham- 
 medanism, Judaism, and Cheistianitt — ^have come 
 forth from the Semitic races, and through Three 
 
 ' *^ Semitic 
 
 future time it wiU be their glory that with religions. 
 all their former vices, and their subsequent degrada- 
 tion, one of their humblest tribes was fitted to receive 
 and was appointed to convey,the purest oracles of God 
 to all succeeding generations. 
 
CHAPTEK Y. 
 
 THE AEYAN FAMILY. 
 
 One of the greatest discoveries of modem time, as 
 ajffecting tlie question of races, is tliat conclusion from 
 comparison of languages which, has defined what is 
 called the Aryan or Indo-European family of IS^ations. 
 
 By a simple examination of the roots and structure 
 of various languages, and their comparison especially 
 . ^ „ with those of the Sanskrit, it has been 
 
 Inao-EuTopean ' 
 
 classification, ascertained, on evidence clear and unassail- 
 able, that certain nations, the most widely separated 
 and the most diverse in physical characteristics, have 
 a common origin. The blonde ^Norwegian and the 
 dark-eyed Spaniard, the mercurial Kelt and the steady 
 Anglo-Saxon, the Slavonic Eussian and the French- 
 man, the practical Anglo-American and the dreamy 
 Hindoo, the German and the Persian, the Greek and 
 the Roman, are proved to be all emigrants from one 
 home and to have spoken once a common tongue. 
 
 We can see also in the words they have all pre- 
 History traced servcd, how far their common forefathers 
 by language, -j^^j progrcsscd in thought and in civili- 
 zation, before the remarkable causes arose which 
 
THE AEYAlf FAMILT, 61 
 
 scattered them in various tribes over the face of the 
 earth. 
 
 The words which all, or nearly all, their descend- 
 ants have in common are those which convey the 
 simplest ideas of existence and action ; those which 
 describe the nearest family relations, such as father 
 and mother^ son and daughter ; those for domestic 
 animals, such as dog, pig, sow, hoar, goose, and duck y 
 those for the simplest articles of food, for certain 
 metals, for the great luminaries of the sky, and " the 
 objects of religious worship, derived from these great 
 phenomena," * and words of feeling, like heart and 
 tea/rs. 
 
 Language shows conclusively that the Aryan 
 tribes had passed beyond the lowest barbaric stage be- 
 fore they separated. There is no certain ^ariy Aryan 
 evidence that they were agricultural, but p"""""^®^^- 
 they were probably nomadic or occupied with the care 
 of flocks; they had built houses and worked in 
 metals ; they had constructed boats and had fastened 
 animals to vehicles for domestic labor, and were ac- 
 quainted with the art of sewing if not of weaving. 
 "Words present to us as clearly as a historical record 
 that even in that distant antiquity, certain great 
 features common to Indo-European nations, whether 
 for good or evil, still existed. 
 
 The relation of husband and wife, the position of 
 the sexes, the absence of caste, and the priestly au- 
 
62 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 thority of the Father were characteristics of our 
 earliest ancestors/ It is an additional evidence of 
 their early, peaceful life, that the words which are 
 different in the many branches of their descendants 
 are, with a few exceptions, the names of wild animals 
 and those for the instruments of war. The common 
 parent tongue of our ancestors has perished, and in all 
 the various languages of their descendants — whether 
 Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, Keltic, or English — we only 
 see traces of the primeval tongue. 
 
 The centre from which these various races first 
 migrated is hid in the mists of a distant antiquity; 
 but both language and the traditions of two races 
 designate the high plateau of Asia lying east of the 
 Caspian, as their common home. 
 
 The Persian tradition, in the most ancient sacred 
 writings, the Yendidad^ places the original habita- 
 Eastern Asia tion of the Aryan fathers near the Belur- 
 
 original home 
 
 of Aryans. tag and Samarkand, on the plateau of 
 Pamer, in what is now Eastern Toorkestan, at the 
 sources of the Oxus and the Jaxartes. The Indian 
 Aryans have no definite traditions as to origin, though 
 their earliest songs and many indications, point 
 toward the northwest from India, as their starting- 
 point. 
 
 We may suppose, with Lassen, that the vast table- 
 land, stretching from the mountains of Armenia to 
 the Hindoo Kush, was the original centre for both the 
 
THE AKYAJSr FAMILY. 63 
 
 Semitic and Aryan races. From this elevated region, 
 successive tribes poured forth, toward the north, and 
 the west, and the east. 
 
 Through the Caucasus, spreading over Upper Asia, 
 and driving out from JSTorthern Europe the original 
 Turanian population, poured the tribes which became 
 afterward Kelts, Teutonians, Slavonians, Lithua- 
 nians, and others.* Toward the west, reaching finally 
 Greece and Italy, wandered the Pelasgi, the Phrygians, 
 the Lydians and numerous other tribes, who subse- 
 quently occupied Asia Minor. ^ 
 
 Of all these mighty floods of emigration, we have 
 scarcely a historical trace. We only conclude, as 
 probable fi'om language, that the Eastern j^^^^^^ 
 Aryans, the Hindoos, must have left the '"'s'^^«°°«- 
 common fatherland at a later period than most of the 
 other tribes. 
 
 The earliest Yedic hymns show the Indian Aryans 
 on the upper branches of the Indus, contending with 
 the native tribes (of Turanian affinity), whom they suc- 
 cessively vanquish and enslave, or drive to the moun- 
 tains, until within the historical period they reach the 
 Ganges. The earliest traditions of their brethren, the 
 Iran or Persic Aryans, contained in the Zend-Avesta, 
 and fully interpreted within a few years, describe 
 what were probably the countries neighboring on their 
 own districts in Eastern Turkestan, and through which 
 they may have wandered, namely : the south of Tur- 
 
64: THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 kestan, the north of Persia, Afghanistan, and Cabul, 
 India, and the region of the " Seven Rivers " (the In- 
 zend ^^^j *^® ^^® streams of the Penjab, and the 
 
 Sarasvati). Even to this day, the ruling lan- 
 guage of those countries is Aryan, while from their 
 settlements near the Caspian, arose subsequently the 
 great Aryan Empire of Media. 
 
 From the Indian Aryans have come the great 
 people of the Brahmanic Hindoos ; and from the Iran 
 or Persic Aryans, have descended the Persians, the 
 Modes, the Carmanians, the Bactrians, the Sogdians, 
 the Hyrcanians, the Sagartians, and others of minor 
 importance. 
 
 In regard to the dates of these migrations, every 
 thing is obscure. Bunsen supposes that the Aryans 
 were in the land of the Indus, from 4000 to 3000 b. c. 
 Duncker dates the probable formation of the Yedas, 
 in the earliest ages of the Aryan life in India, from 
 1800 to 1500 B. c. Rawlinson places the emigrations 
 Supposed from the Aryan settlements south of the 
 Caspian, which founded the Empire of 
 the Modes, somewhere between 1160 and 640 b. c. 
 However early may have been the original dispersion 
 of the Aryan tribes, the historical appearance of this 
 powerful family is comparatively late. The Tu- 
 ranian, the Hamitic, and the Semitic peoples, had 
 successively erected powerftil empires, ere the vigor- 
 ous Aryan family came forward upon the field of 
 
THE AETAJSr FAMILY. 65 
 
 history. Since that period, with the exception of 
 the Assyrian Empire, and the Semitic conquests 
 mider Mohammed, and occasional Turanian invasions, 
 the Aryan races have held dominion of the world; 
 bearmg with them Art and Law and ^^^30^5^3 to 
 Science and Civilization; exercising the *^^ '''"'■^<^- 
 singular philosophic and intellectual power of this 
 family ; manifesting especially to the world, the prin- 
 ciple of public spirit (or individual sacrifice for the 
 good of a community) ; and becoming the universal 
 instruments through which the Semitic conceptions of 
 Deity, and the Semitic inspirations of Christianity, 
 have been spread through all nations. 
 
 Their two great streams of population — the Euro- 
 pean and the Asiatic Aryans, the practical races and 
 the meditative races — after imknown ages of separa- 
 tion, modified by incomprehensible and countless in- 
 fluences of climate and of nature, as apparently diverse 
 as any two branches of the human family, have, during 
 the past two centuries, met again in the valleys of 
 India, and the last few years have witnessed what is 
 perhaps the final prostration of the Asiatic Aryan 
 beneath the ingenuity and vigor of the European 
 Aryan. 
 
CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 THE EULING RACES-1300 to 500 b. c. 
 
 Even before 1300, the Hamitic kingdom of 
 Egypt liad ceased to be tbe leading power of the 
 world, and the Semitic States of Asia were com- 
 mencing a career of conquest and commerce, such as 
 the world has witnessed but once since among Semitic 
 races — in the Mohammedan conquests of the Arabian 
 tribes. In the 14th century,^ the Phoenician^, pressed 
 Phoenicians, ou ouc sidc by the attacks of the Egyptians, 
 and on the other by the immigration of the Jews, had 
 been driven to the sea — to colonization and commerce. 
 In 1000, though insignificant in a political point of 
 view, they had become the great manufacturing and 
 commercial power of the old world. They had trav- 
 ersed the whole length of the Mediterranean — a 
 journey then of TO or 80 days — and had sprinkled the 
 coasts with colonies and factories and mercantile sta- 
 tions. Their ships were freighted with tin from Eng- 
 
THE RULING EACES OF ASIA. 67 
 
 land, and tropical productions from tlie months of the 
 Indus. Their commercial cities were dotted over the 
 interior of Asia, forming links in the vast exchange 
 and commerce which thej established between points 
 as distant as Babylon and Cadiz, Arabia and Armenia, 
 Sicily and India.* ^ Their own manufactures or those 
 from the countries of the Euphrates, which were called 
 by their name, became famous over the world. 
 
 "Weakened finally by their own inordinate luxury 
 and the system of slavery, and assailed by both the 
 Graecian naval forces and the Assyrians, they lost 
 their high position, until at length the commerce of 
 the world was turned into new channels, and they 
 were overthrown by the power of Alexander. 
 
 During this period of the glory of Tyre and SidoU 
 and the Phoenician colonies, the Semitic * peoples on 
 the Upper Tigris had been establishing one of the 
 great empires of the past, the Assyrian Empire. The 
 Arabian dynasty, which had held temporary posses- 
 sion of the throne of Babylonia (from 1518 ^^^ ^^^ 
 to 12Y3 B. c), fell under the assaults of the ^'^^'''■ 
 kings of Nineveh; and with that great city as a 
 centre, the new conquering kingdom was extended 
 over an immense territory in interior and western 
 Asia. Erom the Persian Gulf and Arabia* on the 
 
 * The Semitic character of the Assyrian language is clearly and 
 briefly shown in the lists of words taken from Oppert, quoted in Rawlin- 
 son's Five Mon., I, p. 342, etc. 
 
68 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 south, the Assyrian rule reached to the northern fron- 
 tier of Armenia, and from the Mediterranean and 
 Cilicia on the west, to the Caspian and the great Per- 
 sian desert on the east. 
 
 During the six and a half centuries in which it 
 existed (from 1273 to 625 b. c), it held subject 
 Susiana, Chaldsea, Babylonia, Media, Armenia, Meso- 
 potamia, parts of Cappadocia and Cilicia, Syria, Phoe- 
 nicia, Palestine, Idumsea, and Lower Egypt/ 
 
 The turning point for Semitic rule on the Asiatic 
 continent was the destruction of Senacherib's host 
 (691 B. c.)* by the pestilence. After this, the As- 
 syrian power gradually declined. 
 
 The architecture and the history of this great 
 empire have been wonderfully restored to the world 
 during the last few years by the researches in the 
 ruins of Nineveh. Like all the Semitic tribes, the 
 Assyrians have shown much more aptitude for archi- 
 Assyrianart. tccture than for painting or sculpture. 
 Their art was probably borrowed mostly from the 
 Hamitic Chaldees of Babylonia, and their literature 
 and science were no doubt cramped by the necessity 
 of using the learned language of the Chaldees ; still 
 the bold Semitic art of Assyria is a grand advance on 
 the conventional and gloomy Hamitic art of Egypt ; 
 while the manufactures show a still more remarkable 
 progress over similar Egyptian products. 
 
 * Lepsius. 
 
THE EULING KACES OF ASIA. 69 
 
 In 625 B. c, the great Semitic city — Kineveh — fell 
 before an Aryan king, Cyaxares, tlie Mede. By this 
 war, Babylon was freed from the Assyrian rule, and 
 the second Babylonian empire began, lasting scarcely 
 a century (625 to 538 b. c), but whose brief history 
 is filled with the last warlike exploits of the Semitic 
 family in antiquity. It reached its height of conquest 
 and splendor under Nebuchadnezzar (604 b. c). 
 
 The Aryan emigration which entered Media from 
 the east, and had driven out or subjected the Turanian 
 population, had now formed a powerful second 
 
 -MT T 1 • T A 1 Babylonian 
 
 Median kmgdom. Another Aryan king- Empire. 
 dom existed in Lydia, and in the latter part of the 6th 
 century these two governments, in unison with the 
 Babylonian Empire, held possession of most of Asia. 
 But the divided rule between the Semitic and Aryan 
 nations, which had so long existed in Asia, was now 
 to be terminated by a new Aryan Empire of unsur- 
 passed power and extent. 
 
 The Persian" Empire is the beginning of a new 
 era in the history of races — ^the end of the Semitic 
 and the opening of the Aryan period ; the transition 
 from Asia to Europe as the ruling power in the world. 
 
 In 558, Astyages, king of Media, was deposed by 
 -Cteus the Persian; in the few following years the 
 alliance of Egypt, Lydia, and Babylonia was broken 
 by him ; in 538, the great city of Babylon was taken, 
 and the Persian Empire extended over the countries 
 
70 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 of the Medes, tlie Lydians and the Babylonians, the 
 lonians, and Lycians, and Phoenicians, reaching on 
 „ . the north to the Kardusians, the Sakians, 
 
 Persian ' ' 
 
 Empire. ^^^ Chorasmians, and even to the Jaxartes, 
 in what is now Kurdestan. 
 
 Cambyses brought Egypt (525 b. c.) within its 
 limits, and Darius (512) could boast, that, from the 
 greatest cold on the north to the greatest heat in the 
 south, and from the Himalaya and Indus on the 
 east to the coasts of Europe on the west, he held an 
 undisputed and well organized empire. 
 
 The only cloud of opposition to this mighty des- 
 potism arose from some petty self-governing states, 
 inhabited by Aryan tribes, descended from the com- 
 mon ancestors of the Pelasgi, on the islands and coasts 
 of the ^gsean. 
 
 THE MINOR TEIBES OF ASIA~1300 to 500 b. o. 
 
 The Turomians. Among these are to be classed 
 the Parthians with an Aryan mixture, the Moschi, 
 the probable ancestors of the Muscovites, the Tibareni, 
 and the early inhabitants of Armenia and of Cilicia, 
 together with numerous other lesser tribes." 
 
 The Semites. To this family, belong, beside the. 
 more important tribes already mentioned, the later 
 Canaanites, the Ishmaelites, the Cyprians, the later 
 Cilicians, the Solymi, and the Carthaginians of Africa. 
 
THE MINOK TEIBES OF ASIA. 71 
 
 The Aryans. Under this great brancti, come tlie 
 Mysians, (probably) the Lycians, and the Caiuiians; 
 the Carmanians, the Bactrians, the Sogdians, the 
 Arians, the Sagartians, the Sarangians, the Ganda- 
 rians/ and others. 
 
 During the latter half of the seventh century before 
 Christ, the more civilized Aryan and Semitic peoples 
 of Southern Asia were overwhelmed by vast hordes 
 of nomadic tribes, from the northern and northeastern 
 districts — ^probably in the main of Tatar or Turanian 
 origin. Among these were the CiTrwrieTians^ the 
 Treves and Scythians.^ The former lived from 800 to 
 600 B. c, between the Danube and Don, on the north 
 of the Black Sea, but were driven by the advancing 
 tribes of the Scythians (650 to 600 b, c.) ^he 
 
 • , 171 fm ' 1 j^ , • Cimmerians. 
 
 into Jiurope. Ihey occupied, lor a time, 
 the Crimea, and are supposed by many writers of both 
 ancient and modern times, to be identical with the 
 Cimbri, probably a Keltic tribe, who lived on the 
 coasts of ]N"orthern Europe, and thus the ancestors of 
 the whole Keltic race. But there is no sufl&cient evi- 
 dence of this, though it is not improbable that they 
 are the same with the Gooner, mentioned by Ezekiel 
 (xxxviii, 6), and a tribe with strong Aryan mixture. 
 
 The /Scythicms, whose marauding expeditions des- 
 olated the whole of JSTorthern Asia, and who, according 
 
 * DiefFenbach, on the contrary, considers the Cimmerians as Iranian. 
 
72 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 to Herodotus, overthrew tlie Empire of the Medes, 
 and threatened the Kingdom of Judah,* and Egypt, 
 have always been considered in their principal tribes, 
 a Turanian (Tatar) people, with all the characteristics 
 of that family. Prof. Rawlinson has endeavored re- 
 cently to prove, from some twenty roots which survive 
 of their language, that they belong to the Indo-Euro- 
 The pean family, but forming a distinct branch, 
 
 Scythians. ^^ Separate from the others as the Kelts, 
 or the Teutons. Dieffenbach concludes from their 
 proper names, that they belonged to the Iranian 
 branch of the Aryans. 
 
 Probably many of the diflficulties about this much- 
 disputed people, would be solved by the simple expla- 
 nation, that the name " Scythian " was geographical 
 rather than ethnological, and embraced tribes of 
 Aryan as well as Turanian origin. 
 
 THE PELASGIANS.» 
 
 In the western extremity of Asia Minor, in 
 Phrygia, near the Mseander and the Hermus, lived, 
 during some part of the period of which we have been 
 treating, a people of whom less is known than of 
 almost any other leading Aryan tribe of Asia and 
 Europe — the common ancestors of the Greeks and 
 Italians. We only know from the Greek and Latin 
 
 * Jeremiah iv, 13 ; v, 12 ; vi, 22, 23 ; iv. 17, 20, 21 ; yi, 1, 2, 9, 26 ; 
 ii, 14, 15; &c. 
 
THE PELASGIAIirS. 73 
 
 languages, that, at a period later than the time in 
 which the European Aryan separated from or^co-itaiian 
 the Indo-Aryan tribes, these two tongues 
 were one, and spoken by a common people — a people 
 who understood the care of animals,' the cultivation of 
 the ground, the culture of the vine and some of the 
 pursuits of the sea. 
 
 The Aryan tribes were undoubtedly before their 
 separation, not an agricultural race, and language 
 proves that they had never beheld the sea. The 
 European Aryans, in distinction from the Indo- 
 Aryans, all possess common words for the sea, and the 
 Grseco-Italians many common names for agricultural 
 pursuits. From this ancestral family — as yet un- 
 named — of the Greeks and Romans, came different 
 emigrations, under the pressure of the Phrygians and 
 Lydians, toward Europe. From various indications, 
 some are believed to have passed the Hellespont and 
 the Eosphorus, and thus to have entered Greece; 
 others to have crossed the islands of the Archipelago, 
 and still others to have approached gradually by 
 Ehodes, Carpathus, Crete and Cythera. 
 
 Two streams are supposed to have entered Italy — 
 one from Greece, flowing into lapygia; the other 
 skirting the Adriatic and passing over the plain of 
 the Po, is thought to have flowed south j,^^. 
 into Italy. One of the earliest currents of ™'srations. 
 this Grseco-Italian race, is believed to have been the 
 
74 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 emigration of that mysterious people, the Pelasgi j a 
 tribe so far remote in history, that they seemed to the 
 Greek imagination the very " children of the black 
 earth." 
 
 All records respecting this early people are ex- 
 ceedingly uncertain and inconsistent, so that scholars 
 Uncertainty are yet much divided in their views in re- 
 
 about the 
 
 Peiasgi. gard to them. There is reason to believe 
 
 that they settled early as a peaceful race in the islands 
 of the Archipelago, in Thessaly, Epirus, and Pelopon- 
 nesus ; in Arcadia and Attica, and Ionia and Mace- 
 donia. The massive structm^es of rude stone, called 
 the Cyclopean, scattered over parts of Asia and Eu- 
 rope, are attributed to them. Whether they ever 
 entered Italy is very doubtful — ^if they did, they were 
 swallowed up afterward by the succeeding conquering 
 tribes. In Greece, they are supposed to have been 
 crushed by their more vigorous brothers, who emi- 
 grated after them — the Hellenes or Greeks — and, per- 
 haps, to have formed, in later times, some portion of 
 the multitude of slaves, which existed in the Hellenic 
 commonwealths. In Asia, they must have been, in 
 like manner, merged into the Phrygians and Lydians. 
 They were, apparently, a weak and peaceful tribe, 
 devoted to agriculture, with a feeling for beauty, 
 shown even in their rude structures. They were 
 nowhere able to resist the more powerful tribes of the 
 same stock, who succeeded them. 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDEEATIONS. 75 
 
 We sliould not do justice to this topic without say- 
 ing that in the view of many scholars the whole people 
 and subject of the Pelasgi, are considered as belonging 
 to the regions of myth. Grote says : " The traditional 
 image of the Pelasgic race, everywhere driven out, no- 
 where settling themselves for good — of the race which 
 is everywhere and nowhere, always reappearing and 
 vanishing again without leaving any trace ; the image 
 of this gypsy nation is to me so strange, that we must 
 entertain doubts as to its historic existence." 
 
 GEOGKAPHICAL CONSIDEKATIONS. 
 
 The early distinctions of Eaces, as well as the 
 formation of the first civilized States, were no doubt 
 determined by geographical and climatic conditions. 
 
 The rich soil and open ground of the river-valleys 
 were probably the first natural causes which tended 
 to change the nomad or hunting tribe to an Kiver-vaiieys 
 
 ^ =• first 
 
 agricultural, and thus laid the foundation habitations. 
 for a future civilization. Accordingly, we find the 
 earliest indications of a settled mode of life in the rich 
 valley of the Mle; then, still later, in the fertile 
 plains between or on the banks of the Euphrates and 
 Tigris ; and, later yet, in the country of the Indus and 
 the " Five Rivers." The mountain tribes or those on 
 the steppes of the interior, were at that period the 
 barbarous and nomadic tribes, doing little for the 
 
76 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 advancement of mankind. As civilization progressed 
 in "Western Asia, the little tribe between the ranges of 
 Lebanon and the sea, their country provided with ex- 
 cellent harbors and inexhaustible stores of the best 
 timber, naturally became the marine and commercial 
 power of the ancient world. 
 
 Though a race will frequently pass over the most 
 
 formidable natural barrier, yet the earliest separation 
 
 of families of peoples will be usually denoted by the 
 
 . . , nature of the surface. Thus in the brief 
 
 Geographical 
 
 influence. dcscription WO have given of the earliest 
 historical races, it will be observed that the Hamitic 
 family hold the valley of the Nile, with branches 
 along the coasts of the Persian Gulf. Its related 
 family — ^the Semitic — occupy the Mesopotamian val- 
 ley, formed by the streams of the Tigris and Eu- 
 phrates, together with a narrow strip of cultivable 
 land between the Euphrates and the desert, and a 
 broad district between the Tigris and the chain of 
 Zagros. Their branches also extend over the Penin- 
 sula of Arabia, and over the Continent to the Mediter- 
 ranean. 
 
 The peculiar home of the Aryan family is the 
 Iranian plateau and the mountains bordering it. This 
 Iranian plateau, platcau is a high tablc-laud of oblong 
 shape, broken by many irregularities, but possessing 
 an average elevation of over 4,000 feet. It is bounded 
 on the north, says Hawlinson, "by the mountain- 
 
GEOGEAPHICAX, CONSEDEKATIONS. 77 
 
 cliain called, sometimes, the EWurz^ whicli runs east- 
 ward from Armenia, and passing south of the Caspian 
 joins the Hindoo Koosh, above Cabul," on the east by 
 the mountain-ranges bordering the valley of the Indus, 
 on the west by Mt. Zagros, and on the south " by a 
 lower line of hills, running nearly parallel with the 
 coast, along the entire length of Persia and Beloochis- 
 tan;" the whole containing about 600,000 square 
 miles. 
 
 Here and in the beautiful mountain-valleys bor- 
 dering the plateau, dwelt the various branches of the 
 great Aryan family — the Medes and Persians, the 
 Sagortians and Sarangians, the Sattagydians and 
 Arachotians, the Arians, the Bactrians and Sogdians — 
 here also were the fathers of the Indians. 
 
 Of the original habitations of the Turanian races, 
 we can speak with less certainty, as they were prob- 
 ably nomadic tribes, and seem to have been covered 
 over or absorbed by the later Semitic and Aryan na- 
 tions in "Western Asia. Their homes were, no doubt, 
 the steppes of Eastern Asia, while they wandered over 
 all I^orthern Asia, and penetrated through the moun- 
 tain defiles into the region south of the Caspian. 
 
PART SECOND. 
 
 THE PRIMITIVE RACES OF EUROPE} 
 
 CHAPTEE YH. 
 
 TUKANIANS. 
 THE BASQUES AND FINNS.i 
 
 All over tlie Continent of Europe, and even on 
 tlie Britisli Islands, are scattered remains and struc- 
 tures, singularly resembling similar relics of a pri- 
 meval people found on the soil of America. Tvr 
 Early TTiuli, vast in size and of incredible number ; 
 
 European 
 
 remains. bolcs dug in tbe grouud for buts ; pottery 
 of rude sbape ; primitive implements for the cbase or 
 for war ; knives of bone, flint arrow-beads, stone ham- 
 mers, necklaces of teeth, and ornaments of amber or 
 of coal of barbaric form ; canoes burnt out of trunks 
 of trees ; — all indicating, as do the American remains, 
 a people ignorant of agriculture, unacquainted with 
 the use of the metals and living upon the products of 
 fishing and hunting. The contents of the European 
 sepulchral mounds give evidence, sometimes, even of 
 
THE PEIMITIVE KACE8 OF ETJEOPE. 79 
 
 peoples who devoured human flesh. They were evi- 
 dently nations constantly pressed and attacked by 
 more powerful tribes, for one of their most original 
 customs is the building huts — like some of the South 
 American Indians — on piles in the water, for defence ;' 
 or, as in one memorable instance in France, upon 
 masses of dried clay, thrown into a morass,' j^^-^^ 
 
 _ T T 1 1 1 J habitations. 
 
 to be approached only by a narrow and dan- 
 gerous entrance.* They appear, judging from their 
 remains, to have entered Europe on the north an(3 
 east, following the courses of rivers and the shores of 
 lakes and oceans, roaming in hordes over Southern 
 Sweden and Denmark, penetrating the vast forests of 
 Germany and France, some tribes settling in the 
 northern portions of Spain, and others, perhaps, pass- 
 ing over the charmels to the British Isles. Whether 
 any of this primeval people ever crossed the Alps to 
 Italy, is uncertain ; though the remains of water-habi- 
 tations found in the Lago Maggiore, and d'Isco, 
 would render it probable. The earthen mounds are 
 
 * Remains of these water-habitations or villages, are found in the 
 lakes and morasses of almost every part of Europe. In some cases, they 
 were probably intended for defence against the wild animals ; in others, 
 they may have been used as sacred places by the priests ; but more often, 
 they were, without doubt, merely houses of security against hostile tribes. 
 Sometimes they seem to have been floating habitations. The implements 
 found in them, belong both to the flint, bronze, and iron "ages," but it 
 is not improbable that various races may have used them in succession. 
 (See an interesting article by M. L. Valliemin, in the Bibliotheque Uni- 
 verselle — Aout, 1861 : " Des Habitations Lacustres en Suisse." 
 
80 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 not their only structures ; thej mark their path every- 
 where with strange monuments of massive stones, 
 placed carefully one on another, but never with any 
 work of masonry upon them. 'No historical records 
 reveal the immense antiquity of these European sav- 
 ages. We only know that some of the mighty animals 
 of the last geologic period — the gigantic ox, the bear, 
 the beaver, the elk, and the tiger — ^had survived the 
 convulsions and the gradual changes which had 
 altered the face of the world, and still roamed the 
 woods, at the same time with these primitive tribes.' * 
 The human remains in their burial mounds are pro- 
 nounced, by physiologists, to be different from those 
 of the races who succeeded them, the skulls being 
 Physical marked especially by their round shape, in 
 ^^' distinction from the long skulls of the Indo- 
 
 European peoples. The type in general of the head 
 is low and barbarous. Who, then, were these early 
 tribes of Europe ? 
 
 Before attempting to answer this difficult question, 
 we must advert to another class of evidence. 
 
 Among all the Teutonic and Keltic races, es- 
 pecially in Northern Europe, there exist certain com- 
 mon superstitions ; beliefs, which, in their origin, may 
 have been historical traditions, but which, gradually 
 colored by imagination and fear, have lost their first 
 character and seem now pure fruits of the fancy. 
 Tliese have for their object a dwarfed race of beings, 
 
THE PRIMITIVE EACES OF EUROPE. 81 
 
 living far in tlie North, much skilled in mining or in 
 works mider ground, powerful in magical arts, cun- 
 ning and malignant, lecherous in the extreme, useful 
 to the husbandman or cattle-tender when well treated 
 — a people ugly, yellow or dark in complexion, who 
 long even by stealth for a union with their superiors, 
 the fair race, and who are always persecuted ^^^. 
 and destroyed when no longer profitable to ^"p^''^*^^**''"^- 
 their masters. As has been ingeniously suggested by 
 various students of European mythology, why may 
 not these universal superstitions in Germany, Scandi- 
 navia, and England, be the faint echoes of early his- 
 torical facts — of the existence of a primeval race in 
 Europe, corresponding somewhat to these superstitious 
 fancies, and afterward extirpated or driven north by 
 the conquering Keltic and Teutonic races ? ^ 
 
 ]^o family of man would so nearly correspond to 
 these pictures of European superstition, as the Finnish 
 family, especially in one of its branches. 
 
 In !N"orthern Europe, the precursor of the Teutons 
 and Kelts, it has been for unknown ages the inferior 
 race; the dwarfed, dark, cunning and supposedly 
 malignant people, the race in all its 
 
 ^ Finnish race. 
 
 branches given to magical arts and in some, 
 skilled in mining, holding a union with the Teuton its 
 greatest honor, and addicted to extreme sexual vices. 
 "Whether any satisfactory historical conclusion can be 
 
 drawn from this, we are not prepared to say. It is at 
 
 4* 
 
82 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 least certain, that the skull found in the ancient tu- 
 muli, is the Finnish skull ; and the Turanian dialects, 
 of which the Finnish is one, are discovered now pro- 
 truding — like primitive cliffs under a wide deposit of 
 succeeding and different strata — from peoples as sep- 
 arated and different as the Spanish and the Swedish. 
 It is now believed by many philologists that the Basque, 
 the Finnish, and the Lap dialects all belong to a great 
 family, which extended in historical times from the 
 Baltic to the Obi, and which in all probability covered 
 the continent of Europe. 
 
 The ancient Basques, or Iherians* occupied the 
 northern provinces of Spain, near the Pyrenees, and 
 Southern France, or Aquitaine, from the Rhone on 
 Basques. oue sidc to the Garonne on the other. 
 They even colonized in Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily. 
 They were a people, especially known to the ancients, 
 as miners. The description of them given by classical 
 historians, shows how much the modern Spaniard has 
 derived from his Turanian ancestors.^ They are 
 spoken of as singularly grave in dress, and temperate 
 and sober in habits ; a people of unyielding spirit ; 
 not distinguished in open warfare, but unconquerable 
 in guerilla combats and famed for their defence of 
 walled cities ; fond of brigandage ; cunning and sub- 
 tle; remarkable for their great respect for women 
 and for their courteous and gallant manners. 
 
 The Finnish race,'' of which we shall speak more 
 
THE PKIMrnVE EACES OF EUROPE. 83 
 
 particularly hereafter, includes a great num- ^^^^^^^ 
 ber of tribes and nations, of which the best °'*''°°^- 
 known are the Magyars, the Finns, and Lajps, and 
 Samoieds. 
 
 Their language belongs to that great division or 
 family at present distinguished as the Turanian. So 
 that language may prove to us that in Europe as in 
 India and on the Euphrates, the first tribes who 
 struggled with the wilderness and the savage beasts 
 were of a similar stage in progress and belonged to 
 the same vast brotherhood of nations. 
 
 Students of antiquity '^ have made a very valuable 
 classification of the most ancient European history, 
 according to the material of the instruments and 
 ornaments found in the primeval tumuli, or scattered 
 at various points beneath the soil. • They have con- 
 structed from these relics — what they have called — 
 the Bone or Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron 
 Aqe. The first, in the evidences of its _,, ^, 
 
 •^ ' The three 
 
 mode of life, and in its physical peculiar- ^^^' 
 ities, corresponds to the period in which we have sup- 
 posed the Finnish or Turanian races to have roamed 
 through the forests of Europe. The second belongs 
 more to the Keltic period, and the third to the Teu- 
 tonic. Though interesting as an archaeological divi- 
 sion, the classification has but little value for Eth- 
 nology. 
 
84 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 The correspondence of bone and flint implements 
 at a certain low stage of hmnan development, is true 
 of all parts of the world,* and proves nothing but 
 common wants, and a like degree of barbarism. The 
 similarity of design and the like tastes manifested in 
 higher works of beautj, such as are made in bronze, 
 might be more distinctive of race, but here it is found 
 that, at least in Great Britain, the works of bone and 
 of bronze mingle at the same period, and there is no 
 evidence that the aboriginal Turanian inhabitants of 
 The division Europe might not have advanced sufficient- 
 ethnoiogicai. jy {^i intelligence to copy designs in bronze 
 from other races. iN^either can we say that the earliest 
 Kelts might not have used bone or flint materials, or 
 the later Kelts, iron implements, even as much as the 
 Teutons. 
 
 To the archaeological division above described, the 
 recent discoveries, which we shall describe in a future 
 chapter, of a still more primeval race, must add yet 
 another era — ^the Flint Age. 
 
 * See Wilson's " Pre-Historic Man," where the remarkable resem- 
 blances in primitire arts, between the earliest inhabitants of America 
 and Europe, are clearly exhibited. 
 
CHAPTER YIII. 
 
 THE AETAN KACES OF BUKOPE. 
 I. THE KELTS. 1 » 
 
 The second great stream of population wMcli 
 flowed over Europe from Central Asia, was probably 
 the Keltic. The entrance of this people — the oldest 
 of the Aryan races — on the soil of Europe, dates back 
 far beyond historical records, to an unknown antiquity. 
 The first information which history gives rirst 
 
 appearance 
 
 of them, shows them firmly settled in the of Kelts. 
 centre and west of Europe, and even sending out 
 streams of emigration toward the east. There is 
 scarcely a tradition even, of their eastern origin, and 
 they are commonly considered by the earliest histori- 
 ans, as natives of the soil. But language — which is 
 the most unerring record — proves them a member of 
 the great Indo-European family, and that they, too, 
 must have wandered in far remote ages from the great 
 mountain-plateau east- of the Caspian. The language 
 is considered by many scholars, to be earlier in its de- 
 velopment and formation, even than the Sanskrit.' 
 Scarcely any Aryan race has spread itself so widely 
 over Europe, or has so distinguished itself by conquest, 
 
86 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 as the Keltic. From the Danube, and Asia Minor, 
 Distinguished ^^^r Swoden, Germany, France, Italy, 
 for conquests, gpg^jjj^ ^q ^]jg westem coasts of Ireland and 
 
 the higlilands of Scotland, traces of their residence 
 and their conquests are preserved. If we follow the 
 hypothesis of Dr. C. Meyer, we may suppose that their 
 tribe? entered Europe in two streams ; one proceeding 
 in a southwestern direction, through Syria and Egypt, 
 and along the northern coast of Africa, reached Eu- 
 rope at the Straits of Gibraltar. After passing 
 through Spain to France, it divided itself into three 
 branches; one of which crossed to Great Britain, 
 another entered Italy, and still another, following the 
 Alps and the Danube, ended near the Black Sea. 
 
 The second great emigration he supposes to have 
 Supposed passed over the north of Europe — Sweden, 
 migrations. ^^^ Prussia— Until it finally (about 600 
 B. c.) reached Scotland and tlie neighboring islands 
 through the German Ocean. To the first migration, 
 he ascribes the Kelts and the Gauls of classic histo- 
 rians ; to the second, the Picts and Scots. 
 
 Whatever exact value may attach — and certainly 
 there is very little historical basis — to this hypo- 
 thesis, the first authentic history shows the Kelts in 
 struggle with the Iberians in Spain. They are sup- 
 posed, before this period, to have lived between the 
 Seine and the Garonne, and the geographical names 
 of the Peninsula of Italy, as well as the Keltic element 
 
THE KELTS. 87 
 
 of the Latin, show that they were among the earliest 
 inhabitants there. At a remote period — when, is un- 
 certain — they are believed to have crossed the Alps, 
 and occupied the plain of the Po. There are indica- 
 tions of their early presence, even in the extreme south 
 of Italy. In the north, at least in the fourth century 
 before Christ, they had wrested both banks of the Po 
 from the Etruscans, and founded the State, known 
 afterward as Cisalpine Gaul; in 390, they captured 
 Pome. In 280, vast hordes of Kelts passed over the 
 centre of Europe, and arousing the Kelts of lUyria 
 who had been settled there at least a century before, 
 they attacked Greece, Macedonia, and Thessaly : others 
 crossed the Dardanelles, and ravaged Asia j,^^, 
 Minor for a long time. Even the Scythians ^°"'^^^°^^- 
 were assaulted on their own plains. A Keltic State, 
 Galatia, was founded in Asia. Switzerland was main- 
 ly Keltic, as was the southwestern part of Hungary. 
 
 Whether the Cimbri, who, in 113 b. c, from some 
 unknown cause, emigrated in mass from the north of 
 Europe and poured themselves on Italy, were Kelts, 
 cannot be determined with certainty. The proba- 
 bility seems to be that they were Keltic tribes, living 
 in close proximity to Teutonic. 
 
 The ancient Kelts are divided into two great 
 classes, the Gaelic and the Kymric. The rp^g,.^ ,g 
 Gaels, according to M. Thierry's supposi- '''''^s'^'^'''^"'"- 
 tion, entered France first, and settled in the south 
 
88 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 and east of that country, up to the line of the Marne. 
 The Kymric Belgians, who came from the countries 
 on the ISTorth Sea, occupied, on this theory, the prov- 
 inces north and west as far as the Seine or the Loire. 
 The Gaels extended over parts of Spain, Italy, and 
 Illyria ; the Kymri over the British Isles, and in the 
 opposite direction, to Asia, founding the Empire of 
 Galatia. There is great reason, however, to doubt 
 whether the Belgians were Kelts, and if they were, 
 they were probably much mingled with German tribes. 
 Whether this classification corresponds with the divi- 
 sions of the modern Keltic tongue is also doubtful, as 
 so little is known of the ancient Keltic. The exact 
 ethnological position and the authentic history of the 
 ^ , . , supposed Keltic tribes is — like that of the 
 
 Uncertainty -r-t 
 
 about Kelts. PeJasgiaus — one of the knottiest questions 
 for the ethnologist. We are only certain that a nu- 
 merous and warlike people, the undoubted ancestors 
 of some portion of the modern Kelts, spread them- 
 selves over every part of Europe in the earliest his- 
 torical times, enslaving the original inhabitants (prob- 
 ably of Finnish origin), and carrying terror to all 
 organized governments. We see that in many of their 
 moral traits they corresponded well with the modern 
 Kelts. A race — according to the oldest authorities — 
 brave, quick to quarrel, vain and fond of display, with 
 little pertinacity, but capable of extraordinary efibrts, 
 liable to excessive discouragement and unreasonable 
 
THE KELTS. 89 
 
 elation, never attached, like the Teuton, to the soil, but 
 preferring the associated life of large towns, intelligent 
 and apt, but seeking wealth by plunder rather than 
 by slow gains, a people who fill the history of the past 
 with the glory of their conquests, but who found no 
 permanent state and who are never willing to submit 
 long to their own constituted authorities. 
 
 They seem in the earliest periods to excel in valor 
 and individual genius, but never possess the deep 
 moral qualities which are needed for the 
 
 . Keltic traits. 
 
 foundation of enduring governments. 
 
 From the first they are represented as credulous 
 and easily ruled by their priesthood. 
 
 They were the freebooters and mercenary soldiers 
 of antiquity, until, at length, their undisciplined valor 
 sank under the steady organized military power of 
 Home, and their tribes became absorbed first into the 
 Koman people, and then into the Teutonic conquerors. 
 
 Though the moral traits of the Kelt have so little 
 changed to our day, liis physical have been exceeding- 
 ly modified by the influences of climate and of nourish- 
 ment. In the times of Caesar, the Kelt 
 
 PlivsioiiG 
 
 is described as tall, with ruddy complexion, 
 blonde temperament, light hair, and blue eyes — a 
 picture to which the Highlander alone of modern 
 Kelts would correspond. His dress was a garment 
 like the modern tartans ; he wore little armor, and for 
 ornament usually a gold ring round his neck. 
 
90 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 The Keltic remains, scattered over Europe, show 
 that this people early understood the art of working 
 in metals. Bronze, iron, and gold ; ivory, glass, and 
 wood were all turned by them into articles of use or 
 beauty. They possessed an endless quantity of vases 
 and glass vessels. Coins also were in use by them ; 
 and garments of the most costly materials. They 
 constructed ships and houses of a peculiar shape, and 
 bridges and well-laid roads. Their round brick towers 
 are well known in various parts of Europe. In the 
 tumuli and sejJulchres of the Kelts, their remains show 
 that they burned their dead, in distinction from the 
 Einns, who buried them. 
 
 The Kelts possessed the art of writing, and are 
 supposed to have had an alphabet, related to the 
 Greek. All the evidence from these sources 
 shows that though a roving and warlike 
 people, the continental Kelts manifested thus early 
 much of the ingenuity and sense of beauty and order 
 of their descendants. 
 
 The British Kelts, if one may trust the accounts 
 of the Latin historians, were in the lowest state of 
 barbarism — scarcely beyond the present condition of 
 the South Sea Islanders. 
 
 Of the Keltic religions, little is known. It is 
 probable that they worshipped the personification of 
 the powers of ligature, and according to Koman au- 
 thority, they believed in a future life and in the re- 
 
THE ETEUSCANS. 91 
 
 moval of the sonl after deatli into other bodies or 
 animals. They are known to have followed the re- 
 volting custom of human sacrifice. The whole race 
 seems, even in the earhest times, to have been under 
 the rule of a powerful and privileged Hierarchy — ^the 
 Druids. 
 
 The modern Keltic language is divided into two 
 great branches : the Kymric and Gaelic (or Gadhelic). 
 The Kymric embraces the Welsh, the ex- ^^^^^ 
 tinct Cornish, and the Armorican, of Brit- ^^°^^^^- 
 tany {Bos Breton), in Trance. The Gaelic, or Erse, 
 comprises the Irish, the Gaelic of the Scotch High- 
 lands, and the dialect of the Isle of Man,* 
 
 The leading characteristics of the Keltic language 
 are given as flexibility, elasticity, and analytical dis- 
 tinctness. Its structure proves a great antiquity to it. 
 
 THE ETETJSCANS.5 
 
 Among the fragments of Aryan tribes may prob- 
 ably be reckoned the ancient people of the Etruscans, 
 or Rasena, as they called themselves — Tyrrhenians, 
 as they were called by the Greeks. There is reason 
 to suppose that they emigrated into Italy through the 
 passes of the Tyrolean Alps, where relics of their lan- 
 guage still survive, and first established themselves on 
 the north of the Po, until their power was 
 
 . . ^ Early abodes. 
 
 overthrown by the mvadmg Keltic tribes. 
 
 Their peculiar abodes were on the western coast of 
 
92 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 Italy, between tlie Arno and the Tiber, and west of 
 the Apennines. Here they founded a State which was 
 one of the leading naval powers of antiquity, and 
 which reached its height of greatness in the sixth and 
 seventh centuries before Christ. Their population, 
 even under Roman rule, remained somewhat distinct 
 till the time of the Emperors. 
 
 Though the Etruscans are now considered by the 
 best ethnologists to belong to the Indo-European 
 Probabi family, the evidence for it is very slight 
 
 indo-Eu'^opean. ^^^^^^ rpho fow words kuowu of their 
 language are mostly found in sepulchral inscriptions 
 and consist in great part of proper names. These 
 show an element of ancient Latin (or Umbrian) ; of 
 ancient Greek, and a third mixture not known, which, 
 if it has any affinities distinguishable, has them with 
 the Indo-European tongues. One theory, accordingly, 
 is that the Etruscans are a mixed people ; the basis 
 being some portion of that ancient and unknown 
 Grseco-Italian race, the fathers of the Greeks and 
 Romans, and the other portions made up of conquer- 
 ing barbarous tribes from the north of Italy, probably 
 of the great Aryan family. Still another theory is that 
 they are a foreign tribe, probably of Aryan descent, 
 who conquered the ancient Latin tribes and assimi- 
 lated to a degree their language. 
 
 The most prominent influence in history of the 
 Etruscans was exercised upon the Romans, in the di- 
 
OTHEK PKIMITrVE ITALIAN PEOPLES. 93 
 
 rection of their mythology and superstitions, to which 
 this ancient people had so peculiar a tendency, as to lead 
 one to suspect a Turanian or Finnish element in their 
 race, while their remarkable skill in mining may re- 
 mind us of the Ibero-Finnic tribes, who colonized so 
 near them, on the islands of the Mediterranean. 
 Their custom, too, of employing women as diviners, 
 was peculiarly Finnish. The Etruscan civilization 
 was essentially practical and useful — even material- 
 istic — and no doubt affected the Koman civilization 
 also, in this direction. At present the question of 
 their ethnological position must be considered at best 
 as only probably settled. 
 
 OTHER PRIMITIVE ITALIAN PEOPLES. 
 
 The other primeval races of Italy may be divided 
 into two great branches, which are probably older in 
 Italy than the Etruscans — ^the lajpygians and the 
 Italica/as.^ The former, moving probably from the 
 north, occupied the southeast of Italy, and 
 
 lapygians. 
 
 were a barbarous tribe. Their language, 
 though different jfrom the other Italian languages, is 
 thought to belong to the Pelasgic, or Grseco-Italian 
 family, while other historical indications make this 
 conclusion the more probable. 
 
 The Italicans may be subdivided into two im- 
 portant branches : the Latins and the Urribricms y the 
 
94: THE KACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 latter embracing tlie Yolskians, Marsians, and Sam- 
 nites. 
 
 Of the " Italiean " peoples, there is no doubt of 
 
 their being members of the Aryan family, and closely 
 
 related to the Greek, much more nearly 
 
 Italicans. 
 
 connected than, for instance, the Teutonic 
 to the Keltic. From these Latin tribes in the centre 
 of Italy — removed fortunately from the overpowering 
 influence of Greek civilization — ^have come forth the 
 original influences in law and language and civiliza- 
 tion, which acting on the more uncultivated Teutonic 
 and Keltic tribes, have tended to form the character 
 of all the leading nations of Europe, and which will 
 8haj)e and direct the advance of mankind for many 
 centuries to come. 
 
CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 II. THE EAKLT TEUTONIC TRIBES.' 
 
 In attempting to penetrate the early ethnological 
 relations of Europe, one is at first utterly confused by 
 the appearance of the Teutonic tribes. To an ob- 
 server, who could have overlooked the continent dur- 
 ing the few centuries immediately preceding the in- 
 troduction of Christianity, there would have seemed 
 an almost indistinguishable medley of marches and 
 emigrations of warlike peoples : here, a nation slowly 
 advancing with women and children and „ ^ . 
 
 ~ Teutonic 
 
 property, to take possession of forests and '^''*'^<^®"°ss. 
 rivers abandoned; there, multitudes of armed men 
 ravaging and plundering peaceful territories ; here, 
 a people entering the Roman Empire as mercenaries, 
 or, in another place, transplanted as agriculturists and 
 tributaries — ^waves on waves of population — currents 
 interminghng with currents of peoples, all at first 
 fiowing from the east, all composed of half-barbarous 
 tribes of a common stock, and all surging and beating 
 against the outworks of the great civilized State of 
 antiquity — the Roman Empire. The world has never 
 
96 THE BACE8 OF THE OLD WOULD. 
 
 witnessed such a movement of nations as convulsed 
 Europe for seven hundred years — beginning at least in 
 the second century before Christ. From north to 
 south, and from south to north, from east to west, and 
 again toward the northwest, are constant migrations of 
 German tribes during all these centuries, so that the 
 same names appear in the most opposite quarters, and 
 every conceivable mingling of race would seem the re- 
 sult. Some of these nations utterly disappear, others 
 become partly absorbed into the older and more civil- 
 ized Latin populations, and others are blended with 
 the Keltic and Slavonic tribes whom they subdue. 
 
 The great family, of whom these various nations 
 are tribes, is even then the most powerful race 
 which has appeared. The old Roman Empire goes 
 down under their shock ; the corrupted civilization of 
 Europe is in many quarters trampled under foot ; and 
 the effete and worn out Grsecian or Italian Aryans, 
 are vivified with the fresh, vigorous blood of the 
 Teutonic Aryans. From this family has come most 
 of the energy and civilization of modern Europe, and 
 the Teutonic tribes have formed the most powerful 
 element in the leading nations of Europe and America. 
 
 What cause originally impelled this movement of 
 population from Asia into Europe, is hid in ob- 
 scurity. There are, indeed, certain coinci- 
 
 Cftuses of «/ ' ' 
 
 migrations. (Jenccs in Asiatic annals and names, with 
 the migrations and familiar words of European his- 
 
THE EAKLY TEUTONIC TKIBES. 97 
 
 tory, which might fix a date and cause of the Teutonic 
 wanderings — such as the contests of the Chinese with 
 the fair-haired Scyths, the Sakas, who are supposed 
 to be the Sakas of the Hindoos, the Sacce of Bactria, 
 the Sakasonnas of Armenia, a name corresponding to 
 the Khetas, or Khouti (Gothi), of both Asia and Eu- 
 rope, which is thought to have given its origin to the 
 name of the supposed cradle of the Teutonic race, 
 Scanzia (Scandinavia), and their most vigorous tribe, 
 Sakasunas or Saxons. But all this, though present- 
 ing data for future interesting investigation, cannot be 
 regarded as historical evidence. 
 
 We may only suppose as probable, that about 1200 
 B. c.,^ some great internal popular movement, or some 
 change in the physical conditions in Asia, jj^^^jj^.^ 
 pressed the neighboring tribes upon the p '""^'"^^'^ ^^t«- 
 Teutonic races, and drove them to the country on the 
 north of the Black Sea. From these provinces, three 
 great currents are believed to have flowed, in the 4th 
 century b. c, into Europe; one up the Dnieper or 
 Dniester, to the countries on the Baltic, and to Scan- 
 dinavia, another to the Lower Danube, and still 
 another up the Danube to the valley of the Ehine. 
 From Scandinavia, it is believed by some, ■ that in the 
 3d century b. c, two streams flowed toward the 
 south, one of which, minghng with the Kelts, formed 
 the nation of BelgoB, and the other, near 113, forced 
 
98 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 out the wliole nation of the Cimbri from Northern 
 Europe, upon the Roman Empire. 
 
 This, however, is again only probable theory. 
 History begins for the Teutons, with their appearance 
 First in Eastern Europe, in the 3d and 4th centu- 
 
 historical , , 
 
 appearauce. ries after Christ, though some tribes are 
 mentioned, even before the Christian Era ; the imme- 
 diate pressure for their migrations being the en- 
 croachments and attacks of a warlike Finnic (or 
 Tschudic) people of Asia, the Huns. 
 
 An ancient division of these tribes can be made 
 into the pure Germans, or Saxons, and the Sueves, who 
 were somewhat tinctured with Slavonic blood. The 
 latter included fifty-four peoples, as the Goths, Longo- 
 bards, Yandals, Burgundians, Rugians, Heruhans, and 
 others. They are distinguished, in general, from the 
 other great branch of the German family, as being 
 more nomadic and warlike, less inclined to agriculture, 
 and with constitutions of government of a more mon- 
 archical nature. The Saxons are more democratic, 
 and with less unity of national feeling. 
 
 In general, it may be said, that there were Jbur 
 conspicuous and leading nations, or confederations of 
 tribes, among them — ^the Goths, who tended mostly 
 to the east of Europe ; the FranTcs, who wandered to 
 the west; the Saxons, toward the north; and the 
 Alemanns, to the south. 
 
 Under the Goths, may be included the Gepidse, 
 
THE EABLY TEUTONIC TRIBES, 99 
 
 Danes, Swedes, and Heruliiins ; under the Franks, the 
 Chatti ; under the Saxons, the Angles, Jutes, and the 
 Frisians ; with the Alemanns, the Suevians. Besides 
 these, there were the Yandals, Burgundians, Longo- 
 bards, and many other tribes, more or less important. 
 
 Goths. Of these we hear, in very ancient times, as occu- 
 pying the southern part of Sweden. In 375 a. d., they appear 
 as West Goths, on the Lower Danube, and penetrate 
 to Thrace; pressing on, they finally reach Gaul, 
 where, in the 5th century, they found the "West Gothic Kingdom. 
 Eemains of this branch are found in the Crimea, even up to the 
 present day. 
 
 As East Goths, in the latter part of the 4th century, they 
 pass over the Lower Danube, to Bulgaria; forced from these 
 provinces, they finally (480) reach Italy, where they rule for 
 nearly one hundred years, until their kingdom is overthrown by 
 the Byzantine army. Another division have possession of East- 
 ern and ISTorthern Germany. 
 
 The GepidcB^ probably of Gothic origin, appear in Hungary 
 about 400, and are conquered by the Longobards in the latter 
 half of the 6th century. The Vandals* are spoken of in Hun- 
 gary, as early as 166 a. b., and (406 to 409), in company with 
 
 other peoples, they march through Gaul to Spain, 
 
 Vandals. 
 and thence their invasions reach Africa (429 a. d.), 
 
 conquering the Eoman armies, and one division returning, burns 
 
 * The Vandals are supposed by Latham to be Slavonian, partly from 
 their name, and partly from their localities. He divides them into two 
 branches, one living on the Daco-Pannonian frontier, in confederation 
 with the Goths ; and the other, on the southwestern frontier, were the 
 Sorabians of Saxony and Silesia, the ancestors of the present Sorbs of 
 those countries. 
 
100 THE KACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 Rome (455 a. ».)• ^^ ^34, they are overpowered, and finally 
 disappear. 
 
 Alemanns. These are seen about 214, in Central Germany, 
 
 between the Danube and the Maine, in the land of the Sueves. 
 
 They wage constant wars with the Romans, with 
 
 much success. Their progress is finally checked by 
 
 the advancing Franks (496). The German Swiss and Suabians 
 
 are their descendants. 
 
 Franks. In the 3d century, we hear of this people, or con- 
 federation of peoples, on the Lower Rhine ; they advance slowly 
 through Germany, toward the Rhine. In 355, they 
 are in Gaul, and have formed several small king- 
 doms ; in 487, Olodwig has destroyed the last vestige of Roman 
 power in what is now France, and overpowers the Alemanns, 
 the West Goths, the Thuringians and Burgundians, preparing 
 for the great Empire of Charlemagne, and the final division of 
 Europe into many of its present States. 
 
 Saxons. This name first appears in the middle of the 2d 
 century. The Saxons are then neighbors of the Frisians, and 
 their territory extends from the "Weser, over the Elbe to Hol- 
 stein and Denmark. They were the pirates and marine free- 
 booters of those early ages. They conquered most of England, 
 in union with the Angles, in 450, and their relatives, 
 the Norwegian and Danish Normans, after plunder- 
 ing and laying waste most of the countries of Europe, subdued 
 and settled Normandy (911), and furnished the martial popula- 
 tion which again (1066) conquered England under "William the 
 Conqueror, 
 
 From the 6th century on, they are in uninterrupted struggle 
 with the Franks, which only ends with their incorporation into 
 the Prankish monarchy, in 803. From this time, the name 
 describes all North Germany, Besides these, the Burgundians 
 
THE EAELY TEUTONIC TKIBES. 101 
 
 founded on the Ehone (414) a Burgundian kingdom, which was 
 
 subdued by the Franks (523 to 534). Their prominent cities 
 
 were Geneva. Besangon, Chalons, Vienne (on the 
 
 Burgundians. 
 Ehone), and Avignon. 
 
 In Upper Italy the Longobards laid the foundation (574) of a 
 
 Lombard State, which was destroyed in 774 by the Franks. 
 
 It included Piedmont, Tuscany, Milan, Genoa, and 
 
 Lombards, 
 other provinces. 
 
 Tlmringians. This tribe is supposed to be the same as the 
 
 Hermunduri, mentioned by Tacitus. From the 5th century, they 
 
 occupy the lands on the left bank of the Danube, northward of 
 
 the Alemanns and Svabians, as far as the Elbe and the Harz, 
 
 which separates them from the Saxons. In the 6th 
 
 . Thuringians. 
 
 century, they lost great districts on the east, through 
 
 the attacks of the Slavonians, at the same time that they were 
 exposed to the assaults of the Franks, by whom they were finally 
 subjected. After this period, their name disappears as one of 
 the leading German nations. 
 
 The Bavarians (Baiovarii) are first mentioned in the early 
 part of the 6th century. They held, then, the eastern part of 
 that great South German territory, known as Suevia. Their 
 country stretched over the Khsetian plain to the Alps, and north- 
 ward to the Danube, between the Sueves on the west, and the 
 
 sources of the Drave and the Enns on the east, 
 
 Bavarians. 
 They were probably made up of small Suevic tribes, 
 
 and were especially related to the Thuringians, Alemanns, and 
 
 Longobards. Various other German tribes, without doubt, 
 
 united themselves to the Bavarian confederation. They became 
 
 subject to the Frankish monarchy under Charlemagne. 
 
 To sum up these brief sketches of the early Teutonic races, 
 
 it may be said that the following was their position in Germany 
 
 in the 3d century. In the north, from the Khine to the Elbe, 
 
102 THE EACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 and even reaching to Schleswig, was the Saxon Confederation. 
 
 "West of this, all the tribes related to the Franks had 
 Teutonic 
 races in 3d settled, and, pushed further westward, they had 
 
 century. 
 
 occupied Northern Gaul. The Alemanns held the 
 southwest of Germany — the districts on the Upper Rhine. To 
 the north of them were the Burgundians, to the east the Sca- 
 bians. All the east of Germany, was held by the many tribes 
 who ranked under the Goths. 
 
 Tte first of the Teutonic tribes in antiquity was 
 undoubtedly the Gothic people. All the various 
 branches were proud of their descent from or alliance 
 with this nation ; and even yet in Spaiu, the mingling 
 of the "blue blood" — the Gothic — ^is considered a 
 mark of nobility. Their power was greatly weakened 
 Goths. by the overwhelming attacks of the Huns, 
 
 and from their position in the Eoman Empire, they 
 received much more of the weakeniag and corrupting 
 influences of the more civilized races, so that they 
 finally utterly disappeared as a distinct nation. 
 
 The Ycmdals are supposed* to have received much 
 mixture of Slavonic blood. In Africa, they accepted 
 the old Semitic civilization and perished under its in- 
 fluences. The Longobards, originally from Jutland, 
 who were nearer the source of the race, preserved 
 their purity of blood much longer than the other 
 tribes. In the Middle Ehine and on the Upper 
 Danube, they were thought to have been much min- 
 gled with Kelts. 
 
THE EAULT TEUTONIC TEIBES. 103 
 
 The Burgundicms preserved their original stock 
 even longer than the Longobards, though finally 
 taking into themselves many Keltic and Slavonic 
 elements. The Franks — the purest in Teutonic 
 blood of nearly all the tribes — survived most of them, 
 and for a long time, ruling over kindred tribes, es- 
 caped the enervating influences of the corrupt Latin 
 races. Of all the Teutonic peoples, the one which was 
 least exposed to the effects of Roman civilization, and 
 which did least to regenerate the world by its in- 
 fusion of new blood, were the fierce and warlike 
 Saxons. Living at the extreme north of Europe, their 
 attacks were not much directed against the 
 Roman Empire, but fell more upon the east 
 of Germany or the British Isles ; they experienced in 
 consequence little of the influence which a semi-bar- 
 barous people feel, in contact with a highly civilized. 
 The Saxons preserve the pure Teutonic force, and 
 finally develop a race which, of all others, has most 
 deeply impressed modem civilization. 
 
 In the middle of the 3d century, the Teutonic ele- 
 ment first enters into public affairs in the Roman Em- 
 pire ; in 476, the "Western Empire is overthrown by 
 this power, and in 800, a new Teutonic empire under 
 a Frank King (Charlemagne) is erected, which ex- 
 tended over most of Spaio, Germany, Erance, and 
 Italy. 
 
 In regard to the geographical position of the 
 
104 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 Teutonic tribes, it may be said, in general, that the 
 fierce assaults of the Huns in Eastern Europe crushed 
 _ ... many of these in that quarter and tended 
 
 Geogrraphical *' ^ 
 
 position. ^^ mass the others in tlie west and north- 
 west of Europe, leaving the east to Slavonic and 
 Finnic populations — a condition which has endui*ed to 
 the present day. 
 
 After the destruction of the Roman Empire (476), 
 the Teutonic tribes were distributed somewhat as fol- 
 lows : In lUyria and Italy were a mixture of Heru- 
 lians, Kugians, and afterward of East Goths ; in Spain, 
 remains of Sueves and Yandals, and "West Goths in 
 „ . . the north : in Southern France, "West 
 
 Teutons in " ' 
 
 5tii century. Q-Q^j^g^ jj^ Eastcm Francc, Burgundians 
 and Alemanns, and in the north, in Belgium and on 
 the Lower Ehine, Franks. In Holland, were the 
 Frisians; in Westphalia, the Saxons, and south ot 
 these, the Thuringians. On the left bank of the 
 Danube, near Yienna, the Longobards ; in Bohemia 
 and Suabia, the Sueves and the Bavarians, and Marko- 
 manns ; in Hungary and Moldavia, the Gepidse. 
 
 The Teutons had thus lost all the provinces to the 
 east of the Elbe, which were occupied by Slavonians. 
 
 Many of the Teutonic nations were in no way 
 affected by that great event — the overthrow of the 
 Roman Empire. But the East and West Goths were 
 delivered up through it, to the influences of a corrupt 
 civilization, and the Franks finally felt its effect in the 
 
THE EAKLY TEUTONIC TRIBES. 105 
 
 merging of their German population into the Keltic 
 and Latin elements, wMch were in contact with them, 
 till in the 10th century a new people, the French, 
 were the result. 
 
 At the time of Charlemagne, the ethnic relations 
 of Europe were somewhat as follows:*^ In South 
 Italy there were great minglings and 
 
 European 
 
 crossings of races — Semites from Saracenic cTarie^aa ne's 
 conquests, ancient tribes of Aryan or possi- ^''^' 
 bly Turanian origin, and Greek or ancient Grasco- 
 Italian remains. In l!^orth Italy, the Teutonic Lom- 
 bards were preponderant and not yet much assimilated 
 to the Eoman and Keltic populations. In Spain, the 
 south and centre were under the Semitic conquests of 
 the Arabs, while in the northwest were descendants 
 of Sueves and Yisigoths, with minglings of the Iberian 
 race. In the south of France, were ancient deposits 
 of Keltic and Eoman population with Gothic mix- 
 tures. From Provence and Languedoc, the West-Goths 
 had mostly disappeared while the Eoman influences 
 were very strong, with some Semitic remains from the 
 Saracenic invasions. In the east of France, the Franks 
 are the leading race over a Burgundian population. 
 In Burgundy, West Smtzerland, Savoy, and Piedmont 
 are many traces of the Keltic and Slavonic races. In 
 central France, the Franks predominate over a GaUo- 
 
 * De Gobineau. 
 
106 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 Roman population, and Brittany shows a decidedly 
 Keltic population. 
 
 From the Seine to the Rhine, and on the other 
 side to the Maine and the Danube, the Teutons or 
 Germans are the leading race, though mingled much 
 with Keltic and Slavonic races. 
 
 Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, and the northern 
 coasts of Europe, are covered with unmixed Teutonic 
 peoples. Even Russia soon received from this power- 
 ful race her ruling family, who, in 862, laid the found- 
 ation of the Russian Empire, and held possession of 
 the government for more than TOO years. England, 
 with a Keltic population, had received continual mix- 
 tures of German blood, until, at length, the Teutons 
 in the Saxon conquest, and again in that of the l^orth- 
 men, held undisputed rule, and infused the masses of 
 the people with their vigorous blood. 
 
 The description of the German races, from the 
 classical historians, and in their own Sagas, gives us a 
 consistent impression of their characteristics, both 
 physical and moral. 
 
 They are pictured as a tall powerful race, with 
 light hair, and blue eyes, and clear blonde complexion. 
 Teutonic Their hands and feet were small. The es- 
 pecial mark of high rank was the brightness 
 of the eye, and long hair was considered a beauty. 
 
 They were a race remarkable for personal dignity, 
 which became easily corrupted into excessive pride, 
 
THE EAKLY TEUTONIC TKEBES. lOT 
 
 and for a boundless spirit of individual enterprise. 
 Witli these traits, they united a simplicity and trust- 
 fulness, which, were observed by strangers. They 
 were notoriously reckless of their own lives, and cruel 
 to enemies ; fond of adventure, especially on the sea ; 
 preferring whatever involved peril and hardship; 
 greedy for booty and given to the pleasures of the 
 table and to gaming. In regard to sexual virtue, and 
 the respect paid to woman, they stand forth far above 
 all other races of the past. It is an evidence of Teu- 
 tonic virtue in this direction, that the ancient Teutonic 
 dialects have no word to express the idea of p^^j^ ^j 
 prostitute — Slavic and Keltic words being '^'''^■*^^- 
 applied for this purpose. To the old German in- 
 fluence, even before the introduction of Christianity, 
 and still more to that influence reflned by it — woman, 
 in all modern society, owes something of her high 
 position. 
 
 The Teutonic character was arbitrary, and there- 
 fore delighted in slavery and difference of classes, but 
 it always supported self-government in the ruling race. 
 In distinction from the Kelt's love for cities, the Teu- 
 ton preferred the life on "farms;" each landholder 
 calling his farm his " court," and even carrying his 
 independence so far as often to fortify his property ; 
 yet with all this, he is seldom found with any very 
 deep attachment for his native soil, changing it readily 
 where ambition or profit would tempt. 
 
108 THE BACES OF THE OLD WOULD. 
 
 The old German nature was not preeminently 
 religious, though not deficient in reverence. It shows 
 much fire of imagination in its semi-barbarous days, 
 yet even then, its predominant mental tendency was 
 either toward the subtleties of law and government, 
 or to a mythology which seems more scientific than 
 religious. The Teutonic mind, however, was always 
 peculiarly moral in its directions. 
 
 The Teutons' respect for woman, their morality, 
 and their belief in one God, as well as their associated 
 Influence on self-govcmments, prepared them for the re- 
 the world, ception of Christianity, and gave them great 
 power in spreading its truths. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Max Mliller's division is probably the most scien- 
 tific, into: (1) The Low-German^ including Gothic, 
 Old Saxon, Saxon, Friesic, Dutch, Flemish, 
 
 Language. 
 
 and Platt-Deutsch. (2) The High-German^ 
 including Old High-German, from the Tth to the 12th 
 century, Middle High-German, from the 12th cen- 
 tury to Luther, and the ISTew High-German, the pres- 
 ent literary language of Germany. (3) The Scandi- 
 noA^ian, represented by the Old Korse and its three 
 dialects, Danish, ITorwegian, and Swedish, and em- 
 bracing two branches, the East and West Scandi- 
 navian. 
 
CHAPTEE X. 
 
 III. THH EAKLY SLAVONIANS.* 
 
 It cannot be certainly decided whether this im- 
 portant family settled in its European possessions be- 
 fore or after the migration of the Teutonic nations 
 from Asia. The most probable conclusion is, that 
 pressed by the Turkish hordes who were devastating 
 Asia, the Slavonians moved on toward the west, in 
 the track of the Teutons, and settled on the lands 
 which these had abandoned. They seem seldom to 
 have been a conquering and purely military race ; 
 and their possessions were mostly gained by them, as 
 colonists and tillers of the ground. The ^^^^.^ 
 great peculiarity of their early history is *^"^^'*^^- 
 the tenacity, with which they retained both their 
 national character and their own habitations under 
 wave after wave of successive conquests. 
 
 They had the misfortune to be settled near the 
 outworks of European civilization, where the first 
 attacks of the fiery and cruel Asiatic tribes always fell. 
 Forced on the west upon the rear tribes of the ad- 
 
110 THE BACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 vancing Teutons, and in continual struggle with them, 
 on the east they were submerged by the irresistible 
 onsets of Huns, Avars, Bulgars, Chazars, and Turks, 
 and yet they seem never to be exterminated as were 
 certain Teutonic tribes, but they appear again after 
 the storm is over as peaceful cultivators of the soil, 
 and in many cases, as with the Teutonic Rossi and 
 the Bulgarians, they denationalize their conquerors 
 and merge them into the Slavonic family. The origin 
 of the Slavonians, even within the historic period, is 
 unknown. 
 
 The connection of the early Slaves with the tribes 
 of ancient Sarmatia, is not sufficiently certain for his- 
 toric statement, yet admitting of much probable con- 
 jecture. 
 
 Ancient writers divide the Slavonians, or Wendes^ 
 into two great classes, which correspond with modem 
 Ancient divisious — the Antes and the Bclavens^ ^ or 
 division. ^"i^^ jg^g^ Russians and the "West Russians. 
 The Sclavens lived between the Danube and the 
 Dniester, and extended northward to the Yistula ; the 
 Antes inhabited the vast countries east of the Dnies- 
 ter. The European home of the whole family, is un- 
 doubtedly the country on the Upper Yolga, and around 
 the Yaldai mountains. 
 
 It is believed that for four centuries before Christ, 
 and for two hundred years after, the movements of 
 the Slavonians were mostly toward the north and 
 
THE EAKLT SLAVONIANS. Ill 
 
 east; the vast steppes of Eastern Europe being es- 
 pecially attractive to their agricultural habits. From 
 the 3d century to the Yth, the overcrowded popula- 
 tion in the eastern provinces, and the constant attacks 
 of the Asiatic nomad tribes, pressed them toward the 
 south and west. 
 
 The destruction of the Huns (about 469), and the 
 overthrow of the Roman Empire (476), undoubtedly 
 first laid open Western Europe to them. 
 
 In the 6th century, we have some of the first his- 
 torical accounts of their tribes. The Longobards have 
 abandoned Pannonia, or Hungary, and the First 
 
 historical 
 
 Avars, a Turkish tribe, have taken posses- accounts. 
 sion of this fertile country, and assigned lands to their 
 allies, the Slavonic tribes. The Antes are spoken of 
 as ravaging Thrace, in 646. The Sclavens have oc- 
 cupied the country beyond the Danube, and their mil- 
 itary expeditions, or their migrations, cover Illyria, 
 Thrace, and Dalmatia, and reach even to the walls of 
 Constantinople (552). After the invasion 
 of the Avars, they begin to make settle- 
 ments in these countries. In the 6th and 7th cen- 
 turies, great internal revolutions occur among the 
 Slavonic peoples, and the WeTides spread from the 
 Dniester and the Danube, to the shores of the Ger- 
 man Ocean and the banks of the Elbe, occupying the 
 districts which the Burgundians, Herulians, Suevians, 
 and other Teutonic tribes had abandoned. 
 
112 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 Of the Eastern Slaves, some are designated as 
 allies of the Komans in Bulgaria, in 594. Servia and 
 Dalmatia are gained by the Servians and Croats of 
 this branch, in the first part of the Yth century, and 
 Illyrian Slaves of this division are spoken of in the 
 Tth century, and heavy masses of Eastern Slaves have 
 settled on the southeastern declivity of the Alps, 
 toward the Adriatic, in the 6th and 7th centuries. 
 The Russians, or Muscovites, belong to this branch of 
 the Slavonic family, though their name is derived from 
 a Scandinavian tribe — ^Rossi — ^who gave them their 
 governing family for some centuries. 
 
 The Western Slaves are heard of as invading 
 
 Greece in 582, which, together with the neighboring 
 
 districts of Thessaly, Epirus, and Asia 
 
 Minor, they plundered and occupied for 
 
 several centuries, until, in the 8th century, Greece 
 
 seemed about to become Slavonic. 
 
 They appear first in Germany, on the Elbe, in 
 623 ; they settle Moravia ; as Tchechs, they furnish 
 the population to Bohemia which has endured to the 
 present day; they colonize and build cities on the 
 Northern Sea, between the Yistula and the Elbe. 
 From them come the Dalmatians, the Frankic Slaves, 
 the Slaves between the Elbe and the Oder, the Saxoii 
 Slavonic population, the Poles or Laechs, the Pomera. 
 nians, and the Slovaks of Hungary. 
 
 The divisions of the language at the present day, 
 
THE EAELY SLAVONIA]S^S, 113 
 
 correspond to these ancient divisions of the people. 
 The Eastern'' (or South-Eastern) comprises Divisions 
 the Russian, the Bulgarian, and the II- "^''^*''"''®- 
 lyrian ; the latter including the Servian, Croatian, and 
 Slovenian. The Western^ includes the Polish, the Bo- 
 hemian, the Wendian, and the Polabian. Of these, 
 we shall speak more particularly in treating of the 
 modern Slavonians. 
 
 The ancient Slavonic tribes do not equal the Teu- 
 tons in the spirit of bold adventure, nor are they as 
 conspicuous for purity of morals. They show, how- 
 ever, even greater tenacity of character and a tough- 
 ness of nature, which causes them to survive all the 
 conquests of which they were the victims. Their in- 
 stinct of race, or of nationality, was as strong in the 
 earliest times as it is now. In the peaceful arts, they 
 were undoubtedly in advance of the Teutons, and 
 there is reason to believe that the -wovdi jplough, as well 
 as the knowledge of some portions of agriculture, came 
 to the Germans from the Slavonians. From the 5th 
 to the 9th centuries, while the Teutons held Western 
 Germany, and the Slaves Eastern, it was observed that 
 the latter country was by far the more peaceful and 
 prosperous. The Slavonians showed no ^ peaceful 
 lack of courage and patient endurance, 
 when called on to fight, or to suffer for their rights, 
 but their inclinations were always toward commerce 
 and agriculture. It is their high honor,^ that, in an 
 
114 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 age of servitude, they possessed no slaves, and devel- 
 oped, even in that early time, an instructive example 
 of cormnunal self-government. 
 
 They were always a populous family, and ap- 
 parently in ancient times more remarkable for the 
 general well-being of the people, than for any con- 
 spicuous individuals. The Slavonic family showed in 
 antiquity the rare faculty of submission, without the 
 tendency to degeneracy or slavishness. Their reli- 
 gion, with many superstitions and poetic 
 
 Traits. . 
 
 pagan accompaniments, which only several 
 centuries of Christianity could eradicate, contained a 
 pure monotheism. 
 
 In general, the Slavonic family of ancient times, 
 may be characterized as one of the most tough and 
 enduring races that ever appeared; with qualities, 
 whose vigor and solid worth only the slow progress 
 of many ages could fairly develop. 
 
 THE LITHUANIANS. 
 
 On the eastern coast of the Baltic, from the Yistula 
 to the Memel, and reaching south as far as the Bug 
 and the Karew, a branch of the Slavonic race lived 
 from the most ancient times, whose language still in- 
 terests the scholar from its remarkable approach to 
 the Sanskrit — the ancient Lithuanians. 
 
 They are described by classical historians even as 
 
THE LrrHUAJJTIANS. 115 
 
 early as the 4t]i century before Clarist, as a peaceful 
 agricultural race, with different habits from ^^^^^j ^j,^ 
 those of the Sarmatians, who adjoined 
 them, as trafficking much in amber, collected on 
 their coasts. They were divided into the Aestui and 
 the Yenedi. Schaffarik supposes that the attacks of the 
 Gothic nations separated the two tribes, and that the 
 Yenedi retreated to Russia, while the Aestuans re- 
 mained as serfs or subjects to the Teutonic conquerors. 
 They were subdued again by Ermanrich (332 to 360 
 A. D.). ]!^o tribe in Europe showed such desperate 
 opposition to the approaches of Christianity, as did the 
 ancient Lithuanians and Prussians. This may have 
 been in part owing to a remarkable system Eesistanceto 
 of hierarchy, established among them by "^^^'"'^y- 
 their own priests. They were only finally conquered 
 by the Teutonic Knights, in the 13th century. 
 
 There were three distinct branches of this family : 
 the West Aestuans or the ancient Prussians ; the East 
 Aestuans, near Memel, or the Lithuanians; and the 
 Lettic tribes, the inhabitants of Kurland and Li- 
 vonia. 
 
 The language of all these branches was formerly 
 supposed to be a distinct and original tongue — that of 
 another race in the Aryan family, who had survived 
 between the Einns and Slavonians on one 
 
 t 1 rr\ 11 T • Language. 
 
 side, and the Teutons on the other. It is 
 
 now, however, classed as a sister-tongue with the 
 
116 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 Slavonic, under the same family, distinguished by 
 some as the Wmdio. Of its three divisions, the 
 Lithuanian, the Old Prussian, and the Lettish — only 
 the first and last have survived. The Lithuanian has 
 transmitted but little literature ; yet is deeply interest- 
 ing to the student of language, from having preserved 
 the most primitive features of the original Aryan 
 tongue.* 
 
CHAPTEE XI. 
 
 TUKANIAN KACES IN EUROPE. 
 
 The last of the waves of tlie Indo-European emi- 
 gration is supposed to have been the movement of the 
 Alans — a tribe probably of Medo-Persian 
 
 . . -, 1. . 1 Alans. 
 
 origm, yet resembung m many respects the 
 Finnish and Turkish nations that followed it, and 
 which finally utterly disappeared. From the 3d 
 century to the 9th, a new movement of peoples 
 began — stirred up probably by wars and struggles 
 as far away as on the borders of China — a rapid 
 inroad of nomad tribes, carrying desolation and terror 
 over Asia and Europe, destroying kingdoms, over- 
 throwing the most valiant Aryan nations, bearing the 
 wild Asiatic horseman as far within the limits of 
 civilization as the territory of France, yet leaving 
 scarce any permanent fruits behind, except works of 
 destruction, and founding but one permanent govern- 
 ment — the Hungarian. 
 
 The cradle of these races seemed to be the cold 
 region between the Yolga and the Obi, on both sides 
 of the Ural, and even as far away as in the midst of 
 
118 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 the Altai Mountains. The Finnish or the mingled 
 Einno-Turkic tribes settled after the 3d century on 
 the plains of Southern Eussia, between the Yolga and 
 the Lower Danube. In the 9th century the more 
 Turanian uudoubted Turkic races inundated all the 
 
 invasions o( , i t* i /^ • it -m i 
 
 Europe. plams uorth oi the Caspian and the Jslack 
 Sea, while other tribes of the same family passed 
 south of the Caspian and the Caucasus, invaded Persia 
 and the valley of the Euphrates, and Asia Minor, un- 
 dermined the Byzantine Empire, and finally erected 
 the powerful empire of the Ottoman Turks. The 
 first of these invaders, so terrible to Europe, were the 
 Huns and the last of the Einnish tribes — the Kha- 
 zars ; the last of the early Turkic tribes — the Cuma- 
 nians. 
 
 "We shall treat of them but briefly, as they do not 
 bear with importance on the course of history. 
 
 THE HUNS. 
 
 It is still a matter of dispute to what branch of the 
 Uncertain Turanian family the Huns belonged — 
 °"^"^ whether they were Mongol, Turkic, or 
 
 Finnish, though the best authorities incline to the 
 belief that they were Turkic. 
 
 The description of them — no doubt exaggerated by 
 the imagination of the Teutonic tribes whom they 
 conquered — is as of the most hideous and cruel no- 
 
THE HUNS. 119 
 
 madic tribe — desolating and plundering all the coun- 
 tries over wMcli they pass. Tke allusions to them in 
 early Asiatic annals are not sufficiently authentic for 
 history. It seems probable that they left their steppes 
 near the Ural Mountains, somewhere near 350 a. d. ; 
 in 3T5, they had passed the Yolga and Don, and were 
 attacking the Gothic trites. The kingdom of the 
 East-Goths was destroyed in a single battle; the 
 Alans were overthrown, and the Teutonic tribes, even 
 as they had been driven from the regions jj^unjc 
 of the Black Sea, are again forced from the 
 country of the Lower Danube, into the interior prov- 
 inces of Europe. The Huns held possession of the 
 immense country from the Theiss far into the wilds of 
 Siberia. 
 
 The reign of Attila, their terrible chief, lasted from 
 433 A. D. to 453, and extended over Pannonia and 
 Dacia, as far west as the eastern frontier of Bohemia, 
 including certain provinces south of the Danube : "^ his 
 expeditions reaching even to France. His kingdom 
 dissolved at his death, almost as soon as it had risen, 
 under the attacks of the Teutonic tribes, whom he had 
 subjected ; and after the middle of the 6th century no 
 mention is any more made of the Huns as a distinct 
 nation. 
 
 Another Turanian tribe are the KJiaza/rs^ probably 
 Finnic,' though with Turkic mixtures. They appear 
 in Europe between the 7th and 10th century, and rule 
 
120 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 over the country between the Caspian and the Dnie- 
 per. They are followed by the Pechenegs^ a Turkic 
 tribe, who occupy Bessarabia, Cherson, and 
 
 Turkic tribes. /. m • i • i 
 
 part 01 Taurida, in the 10th and 11th cen- 
 turies. The Komcmes (or Cumcmi), another Turkic 
 tribe of Europe, gained a foothold in Hungary in the 
 11th century, and have transmitted descendants. 
 
 The Avars. The first historical notice of this na- 
 tion, which, for two centuries, desolated Eastern Eu- 
 rope, is in the middle of the 5th century. They are 
 probably also a Turkic nomad tribe. In 558 a. d., 
 they come in contact with the Alans, in the districts 
 near the Caucasus. In 560, they appear on the 
 Danube. Slavia, Eastern Germany, and Bavaria, 
 Saxony, and Lausitz were overrun and plundered by 
 them. They finally occupied Hungary, and founded 
 an empire which lasted till 803. Theu' conqiiering 
 expeditions extended over Dalmatia, Croatia, Tliurin- 
 gia, and parts of Gaul, and their rule reached fi'om 
 the Yolga to the Elbe. Their power was broken by 
 the Frankic nations and the Slavonians of Bohemia, 
 and they were at length overthrown and destroyed 
 by Charlemagne (803 a. d.). 
 
 On the ruins of the Empire of the Avars, was 
 founded the great Bulgarian Emjpire. The Bulga- 
 rians were a Finnic tribe, from the Ural 
 
 Bulgarians. 
 
 Mountains, who had invaded the country 
 near the Don, the Dniester, and Pruth, and were sub- 
 
THE MAGYAJBS. 121 
 
 dued by tlie Avars. Tliey recovered their independ- 
 ence (634 to 641), and after the overthrow of the Avars 
 by Charlemagne, established an empire which extend- 
 ed from the Theiss to the frontiers of Greece, and 
 lasted till the beginning of the 10th century. The 
 Bulgarians became eventually absorbed by the Slav- 
 onic tribes whom they had conquered, even adopting 
 the Slavonic language. They were all brought under 
 Turkish sway in 1392. 
 
 The Magyars. This is the only Turanian tribe, 
 except the Ottoman Turks, which has retained a foot- 
 hold in Europe as a nation. It is a Finnish people, 
 probably originating from the regions near the Ural 
 Mountains, and is called JJgri or JSungri by ancient 
 historians. In the 9th century, they are heard of as a 
 fierce nomad race, in alliance with the Khazars, on 
 the wide plains between the Dnieper and the mouth 
 of the Danube. They enter Hungary through Tran- 
 sylvania, in 889 ; and after plundering and overrun- 
 ning Europe for at least a century, threat- jnyasions of 
 ening Constantinople, and invading France, •'^^^^''®- 
 Germany and Italy, they settle down in the country 
 which has taken their name. Their sense of national- 
 ity was so strong, that various tribes who were probably 
 remaining on the soil of Hungary, of Turkish origin — 
 Cumanians, Pechenegs, and Bulgars — ^were absorbed 
 into their race, and only the Slavic tribes could resist] 
 their influence. Their force and vigor are shown in 
 6 
 
122 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 the proud sense of their nationality, and the self-gover- 
 ning institutions which they have preserved for a thou- 
 sand years, under every variety of disaster 
 
 Their vigor. 
 
 and success. The Finns of Sweden are 
 their only near relatives in Europe, and the Turks of 
 Europe form another branch of the same family. 
 
 It remains to be seen, whether the Turanian family 
 is to be entirely expelled from the Continent of Eu- 
 rope, or whether here is a branch which shall equal 
 the glories of the Asiatic Turanians. 
 
 ^■^^JB?^- 
 
PAET THIED. 
 
 LEADING RACES OF ASIA IN THE MIDDLE 
 
 A GES. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 I. THE SEMITES.' 
 
 Since the ancient Semitic Empire of the Assyr- 
 ians, under the Aryan Empires of the Persians, and of 
 Alexander, and under the rule of the Aryan Romans 
 and Byzantines, the Semites had been mostly subject 
 or inferior tribes. 
 
 With the tenacity peculiar to the race, they had 
 still retained, under all the conquests, their national 
 characteristics, and after centuries of submission and 
 quiet, they rose again at the call of religious fanati- 
 cism, with the same fire and passion which they had 
 shown as Jews, under the Maccabees or against Titus. 
 The foundations for their remarkable conquests were 
 laid by the constant emigration of Arab tribes to 
 Persia and various countries of Asia, whose popula- 
 tion became thus gradually much mingled with Se- 
 mitic elements. 
 
124 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 Ill 622, Mohammed proclaimed the Semitic doc- 
 trine of the miity of God and the pecuKar 3^^,,^^ 
 tenets of the Islam faith. Within twenty "P"''°^- 
 years vast, countries of Europe and Asia were overrun ^ 
 and conquered by his fiery disciples. Syria was sub- 
 dued from 632 to 638 ; Persia from 632 to 640 ; Egypt 
 in 638 ; Cyprus and Khodes in 649. 
 
 Within a century, the Semitic Moslems had con- 
 quered Asia from Mt. Taurus to the Himalaya and 
 the Indus, and from the Indian Ocean to 
 
 Conquests. 
 
 Mt. Caucasus and the laxartes on the 
 north ; they held the north of Africa, and after de- 
 feating the Teutonic Goths in Spain, took possession 
 of most of that country. They had even invaded 
 France, and seemed about overrunning all Europe, 
 when they were defeated at Tours, in 732, by Charles 
 the Hammer. 
 
 Certain tribes of them in the 9th century ravaged 
 North Italy, and held possession of passes in the Alps. 
 
 At the time of the division of the empire, by the 
 formation of the Emirate of Cordova (756), the 
 Arabian rule extended from the coasts of Spain to the 
 Arabian couutry bcyoud the Indus, and from Middle 
 Empire. Africa and the Indian Ocean to Mount 
 Caucasus, the Caspian, the deserts beyond the laxartes 
 and the borders of China — an empire greater than 
 that of Alexander. It reached its height of civiliza- 
 tion, power, and commerce, under Haroun-al-Raschid 
 (786 to 809). 
 
THE SEMITES. 125 
 
 Since this brilliant period of conquest, the Semitic 
 family of nations has never again attained to a leading 
 place among the races of men. 
 
 Even as in the ancient days of Semitic glory in 
 Assyria, this race again distinguished itself in the 
 exact sciences and in architecture. Geometry, as- 
 tronomy, anatomy, and chemistry, all wit- Q^^^^^^ art 
 nessed a revival under the new Arabian "°*^ s«ence. 
 civilization ; and the Moorish architecture, a product 
 of the sensuous Semitic mind, under the more grace- 
 ful influences of Byzantine taste, covered Spain with 
 its gorgeous and fantastic structures. 
 
 Many nations felt a new infusion of life from the 
 Arabian energy, and the Aryan Persia, after frightful 
 disasters, received from the Semites an impulse to a 
 fresh career in intellectual activity. 
 
 During this modern period of civilization the 
 Semitic mind showed, as of old, the lack of tempered 
 imagination, and produced in all this time no orator 
 or dramatist. Even its lyrics, without the grand ideas 
 of the Jewish faith, became tame and spiritless, or 
 mere plays of luxuriant fancy. 
 
 II. THE TUBAOTANS." 
 
 Of the five prominent branches of the Turanian 
 family — the Tungusic, Mongolio, Turkic^ Samoiedic, 
 and Fvnnic, we find only the Turks and the Mongols 
 
126 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 among the leading races of Asia in the middle ages. 
 Turks and "^^^ name To/rta/if or Tatar, which is some- 
 °°^° ^' times applied erroneously to Tm-kic tribes, 
 and which is also used by German scholars somewhat 
 as Turanian is used in this treatise, we shall limit 
 solely to Mongolic tribes. 
 
 If we consider Eastern Asia geographically, we 
 shall find that the desert of Gobi, was the separating 
 coimtry of the different races of Turanian origin. On 
 the north and east, were the Mongol or Tatar tribes, 
 as well as the Tungusian; on the southwest the 
 Tibetians of the Bhotiya class, and on the north and 
 northwest, from Lake Baikal to the sources of the 
 Irtish on the whole northwestern declivity of the 
 great plateau, the Turks. 
 
 The Turks can now, from evidence of language 
 Origin of ^^^ tradition, be distinctly traced to a 
 tribe living on the northern borders of 
 China, near the northern bend of the Hoang-ho, men- 
 tioned in the Chinese annals — the Hiung-nu. 
 
 This tribe was known as early as the middle of the 
 3d century before Christ. There were two important 
 migrations from them — one in the first or second cen- 
 tury after Christ, caused by one portion of the nation, 
 which had been subdued by the Chinese, attacking 
 the other part and forcing them toward the west; 
 and the second, in the beginning of the 3d century, of 
 the remaining portion of the tribe, forced out them- 
 
THE TUEKS. 12T 
 
 selves by tlie attacks of Mongolic and Tungusic hordes. 
 The second great home of the Turkish tribes was thus 
 near the sources of the Irtish. 
 
 One tribe of this family, called by the Chinese, 
 Tukiu, succeeded in founding a State in the 6th cen- 
 tury, between the Altai Mountains and the Caspian 
 Sea, which was finally destroyed by another Turkish 
 Turkic tribe. In 568, Turks were settled " ^^' 
 even as far west as the Yolga, and the Sea of Azof. 
 
 Still another tribe, the Oighours, descended from 
 their mountains and gained possessions in Chinese 
 Turkestan, and at length founded a kingdom. From 
 their descendants come the West Tm-ks. A related 
 tribe, the Seljuks, first obtained a foothold in Eastern 
 Turkestan ; then they are found on the northern banks 
 of the laxartes, then on the plains of Bokhara, and 
 they appear at length on the vast pastures of 
 Khorasan. There they master another Turkic tribe, 
 the Ghazneoides (1034 to 1037), and push their in- 
 cursions into all Iran, Armenia, Georgia, and even 
 to the Euphrates. The chief of this tribe soon ob- 
 tained supreme power in Persia. In the 11th century, 
 there were five branches of Seljuks, one of which held 
 the sovereignty of Iconium. In 1067, they had passed 
 the Euphrates, and before the end of the 11th century, 
 nearly all Asia Minor was in possession of the Turks. 
 
 The Osmanlis, who are the ruling portion of the 
 modern Turks, and the tribe best known to history, 
 
128 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 left their homes in East Persia, forced out by the 
 attacks of the Mongols in 1224 a. d., and 
 
 Osmanlis . /.t/-sti.». 
 
 entered the territory oi the Seljiiks m Asia 
 Minor. Their chief, Ertoghrul, received as reward for 
 warlike services, done for the Seljuk Sultan of Ico- 
 nium, a part of Phrygia. The tribe became finally 
 independent, and their chief, Othman, from whom the 
 nation has received its name, attained to the sover- 
 eignty of Iconium. In 1327, his descendant, Soliman, 
 became master of the Dardanelles ; in 1362, Murad I 
 took Adrianople, and defeated the Bulgarians and 
 their allies, in a great battle (1389). Bayazeth, his 
 Turkish successor, overran Thessaly, the Pelopon- 
 conques . j^^sus, and Bosuia, defeating the Emperor 
 of Germany, and would, without doubt, have erected 
 a Turkish Empire equal to the more modern one, with 
 Constantinople for its capital, but for a new attack of 
 its old enemies, the Mongols. These fierce hordes, 
 under Tschingis-khan, were sweeping irresistibly over 
 Asia. Even the higher discipline, and the more com- 
 plete armament of the Othman or Osman Turks, could 
 not withstand the fiery assaults of the nomad Tatars, 
 and in the battle of Angora (1402), the Turkish Em~ 
 Mongol P^^^ ^^ overturned. The Mongol Empire 
 
 conquess. ^.^ ^^^ j^^^ endurc, and within twenty 
 
 years, the Turks had regained their power. In 1453, 
 Constantinople itself was taken by Mohammed II, and 
 became henceforth the capital of the Turkish Empire. 
 
THE TURKS. 129 
 
 The Turkish blood, wherever it became inter- 
 mingled with the worn-out Greek population, was no 
 doubt of much present benefit, and gave a new vigor 
 to "Western Asia. The weakness of the original Greek 
 population in Asia Minor, is measured by one geo- 
 graphical wi-iter (De St. Martin), by the feeble life 
 preserved in the ancient names of mountains, rivers, 
 and localities. Through other European countries, 
 the earlier races, if possessed of any power of imagina- 
 tion or feeling, have retained their own geographical 
 names under foreign conquerors ; in Western Asia, to 
 a vast extent, these have entirely disappeared. 
 
 The Turkish physical type in those countries 
 became soon much mingled, and the prominent result 
 has been the cross between the Turk and the Greek, 
 or Circassian. 
 
 Of the Turkish language, it has been remarked by 
 an eminent scholar, " We might imagine it to be the 
 result of the deliberations of some distin- 
 guished society of learned men." The in- 
 genuity and transparency and perfect regularity of the 
 structure, are much commented on by scholars. In 
 a work of this design, we cannot go into detail on this 
 subject, and we will merely illustrate the nature of 
 the language by quoting Max Miiller's description of 
 the formation of new roots in the Turkish verb. 
 (Lang, at Seat of War, p. 111.) 
 
 6* 
 
130 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 Sev-mek, for instance, as a simple root, means, to love. By 
 adding w, we obtain a reHexive verb, sev-in-melc, which means, 
 to love one's self, or rather, to rejoice, to be happy. This may 
 now be conjugated through all moods and tenses, sev-in, being 
 in every respect equal to a new root. By adding ish, we form a 
 reciprocal verb, sev-ish-mek, to love one another. 
 
 To each of these three forms, a causative sense may be im- 
 parted by the addition of the syllable dir. Thus, 
 
 1. Sev-meJc, to love, becomes iv, Sev-dir-meh, to cause to love. 
 
 2. Sev-in-meh^ to rejoice, becomes v, Sev-in-dir-meJi;, to cause 
 to rejoice. 
 
 3. Sev-ish-mek, to love one another, becomes vi, Sevish-dir- 
 mek, to cause ourselves to love one another. 
 
 Each of these six forms may again be turned into a passive, 
 by the addition of il. Thus, 
 
 1. Sev-mek, to love, becomes vii, Sev-il-mek, to be loved. 
 
 2. Sev-in-mek, to rejoice, becomes viii, Sev-in-il-meTc, to be 
 rejoiced at. 
 
 3. Sev-ish-mek, to love one another, becomes ix, Sev-ish-il- 
 meJe, not translatable. 
 
 4. Sev-dir-meTc, to cause one to love, becomes x, Sev-dir-il- 
 meJc, to be brought to love. 
 
 5. Sev-in-dir-meJs, to cause to rejoice, becomes xi, Sev-in-dir- 
 il-meh, to be made to rejoice. 
 
 6. Sev-ish-dir-mek, to cause to love one another, becomes 
 xii, Sev-ish-dir-il-meTc, to be brought to love one another. 
 
 This, however, is by no means the whole verbal contingent 
 at the command of a Turkish grammarian. Every one of these 
 twelve secondary or tertiary roots, may again be turned into a 
 negative, by the mere addition of me. Thus, sev-mek, to love, 
 becomes sev-me-mek^ not to love. And if it is necessary to ex- 
 press the impossibility of loving, the Turk has a lesser root at 
 
THE TURKS. 131 
 
 hand, to convey even tliat idea. Thus, vrhile sev-me-meh denies 
 only the fact of loving, sev-eme-meh denies its possibility, and 
 means, not to be able to love. By the addition of these two 
 modificatory syllables, the number of derivative roots is at once 
 raised to thirty-six. Thus, 
 
 1. Sev-mek, to love, becomes xiii, Sev-me-meJs, not to love. 
 
 2. Sev-in-meh, to rejoice, becomes xiv, JSev-in-me-meIc, not to 
 rejoice. 
 
 3. Se'o-ish-meh, to love one another, becomes xv, Sev-ish-me- 
 meJc, not to love one another. 
 
 4. Sev-dir-meTcy to cause to love, becomes xvi, Sev-dir-me-mek, 
 not to cause to love. 
 
 5. Sev-in-dir-meJc, to cause to rejoice, becomes xvii, Sev-in- 
 dir-me-meJc, not to cause one to rejoice. 
 
 6. Sev-ish-dir-mek, to cause ourselves to love one another, 
 becomes xviii, Sev-ish-dir-me-meJs, not to cause ourselves to love 
 one another. 
 
 7. Sev-il-meJc, to be loved, becomes xix, Sev-il-me-meky not to 
 be loved ; and so on to twenty-four forms. 
 
 Some of these forms ai'e, of course, of rare occurrence, and 
 with many verbs, these derivative roots, though possible gram- 
 matically, would be logically impossible. Even a verb like " to 
 love," perhaps the most pliant of all, resists some of the modifi- 
 cations to which a Turkish grammarian is fain to subject it. It 
 is clear, however, that wherever a negation can be formed, the 
 idea of impossibility also can be superadded, so that by substi- 
 tuting erne for we, we should raise the number of derivative 
 roots to thirty-six. The very last of these, xxxvi, Sev-ish-dir-il- 
 eme-meTc, would be perfectly intelligible, and might be used, for 
 instance, if, in speaking of the Sultan and the Czar, we wished 
 to say, that it was impossible that they should be brought to 
 love one another. 
 
132 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOBLD. 
 
 II. THE MONGOLS. 1 
 
 Of all the nomad tribes from Eastern Asia, who 
 have carried desolation over the world, the Mongols 
 are probably those who have done the most evil with 
 the smallest number of men. They are comparatively 
 ,, , . a modern tribe in history. From intima- 
 
 Mongols in J 
 
 9th century, ^j^j^g ^^ ^]jg Chincsc annals, it is believed 
 that they are vaguely alluded to in the 9th century, 
 as occupying the country near the sources of the 
 Amur. 
 
 Their first liistorical appearance is in the 13th 
 century, when the different tribes were united by 
 their great leader, Tschingis-khan, into one nation. 
 Their country then was to the southeast of Lake Bai- 
 kal, near the Onon and Kerlon ; and Karakorum, 
 their central point, was in Mongolistan, on the southern 
 slope of the Altai, about 600 miles northwest of Pekin. 
 The nation included many Tungusic as well as Mon- 
 golic tribes, and afterward, as the Mongol conquests 
 spread, great numbers of Turkish hordes were em- 
 braced in the conquering army. To this fact and to 
 the natural pride of each race, as it became dominant 
 in Asia, is to be ascribed the confusion respecting the 
 Confusion of uamcs Tatar or Mongol, and Turkish, as 
 
 Tiitar.-ind 
 
 Turkish. applied to certain tribes. It is possible 
 also that the chiefs of a tribe may have been some- 
 times of different race from the people. 
 
THE MONGOLS. 133 
 
 The term " Mongolian type," describing the pyra- 
 midal skull, projecting cheek-bones, oblique eye- 
 brows, and flat nose, with other features peculiar to 
 many peoples in Eastern and I^orthern Asia, has been 
 a source of wide-spread error, as will be hereafter 
 shown, since this type is by no means confined to the 
 Mongols. 
 
 Tschingis-khan and his descendants conquered one 
 of the greatest empires the world has ever seen. 
 China was subdued on the east, and the Mongol dy- 
 nasty of Yuan placed on the throne. On the west, 
 Tangut, Tibet, Persia, and even Eussia were overrun 
 and subdued. In 1240-'41 the Tatar hordes invaded 
 Poland and Silesia. At the close of the ,, 
 
 Mongol 
 
 13th century, the Mongol Empire embraced ^™p''®- 
 all the independent States and vast populations from 
 China to Poland, from India to Siberia. It broke up 
 speedily from its very extent; and new and inde- 
 pendent Mongol Kingdoms arose in China, Turkestan, 
 Siberia, Southern Russia, and Persia. 
 
 It arose again in the 14th century under another 
 mighty Mongol conqueror, Tamerlane, whose con- 
 quests desolated every country from the Ganges to 
 the Mediterranean. The hitherto invincible 
 
 Tamerlane. 
 
 Turkish power fell before these fierce no- 
 mad hordes, and on the death of Tamerlane (1405) his 
 empire extended from Smyrna on one side, to Delhi 
 on the other, and from the Don to the ]^ile. It grad- 
 
134 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 ually fell to pieces, as did the first, wHle the Turkish 
 Empire, which it had crushed, rose again to new 
 power, A descendant of Tamerlane founded a dy- 
 nasty in India, which endured to our own times as 
 the great Moguls of Delhi," The last of his line — for 
 a long time a titled pensioner of England — was cap- 
 tured after the Kebellion of 1857, and in 1858, ban- 
 ished to the Cape of Good Hope, 
 
 The Mongol language is pronounced the poorest, 
 next to the Tungusic, of the Turanian family, " and 
 Lan ua-'e *^® scantiucss of grammatical terminations 
 ^''*"'" accounts for the fact that as a language it 
 
 has remained very much unchanged " (M. Miiller), 
 
PAET FOURTH. 
 
 MODERN ETHNOLOGY OF ASIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE RACES OF INDIA. 
 TURANIANS— THE HILL TEIBES.i 
 
 The leading race of India, tlie Hindus, as is well 
 known, is Aryan. But, beside this powerful and nu- 
 merous people, tribes of a different stock and language 
 had earlier settled in various parts of the country, and 
 had finally been driven by their invaders to the 
 mountains and to the southern portion of 
 
 . Earliest races. 
 
 the Peninsula — the Dekkan. Here, m re- 
 gions defended by impenetrable swamps and forests, 
 traversed by wild beasts, and subject to the most 
 deadly diseases, these earliest settlers of India still 
 survive. In some districts, their language and na- 
 tionality have been swallowed up by the more vigor- 
 ous Aryan race ; in others, the language exists either 
 pure or mingled with Hindu words and forms. 
 
156 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 In all, both language and physical structure prove 
 them entirely different races from the Aryan tribes, 
 who subdued them. Their physical type is pro- 
 nounced generally to be Turanian (Mongolian), and 
 their language places them with this same family. 
 From early ages, they are described as re. 
 sembling negroes in color, though unlike 
 them in other features. According to their climatic 
 position, they are more or less black, with straight hair. 
 
 The Turanian type which they present, and which 
 prevails over a large part of Asia, the Pacific and 
 South Sea Islands, and portions of America, is thus 
 distinguished.' ^ The skull is pyramidal or conoidal; 
 the oval of basis cranii is laterally expanded and com- 
 pressed at the ends, especially in front ; the lower jaw 
 Turanian ^^ ^^ug, and the chcek bones prominent and 
 ^^^^' angular, so that the outer extension of both 
 
 produces a great breadth of face across the cheek 
 bones, and a narrowness of forehead, giving the con- 
 tour a lozenge shape. The nasal bones are flat and 
 broad, so that the cheek bones, and the space between 
 the eyes, are nearly on the same plane ; the lower part 
 of the nose is rounded and not flat, as in the negro ; 
 the nostrils are open and broad. The eyes are small, 
 deep-set, and wide apart, with the line of the eyelids 
 inclined upward; the eyebrows are thin, beard 
 scanty, hair dark and thick. The complexion is 
 usually yellow, lightest in the Chinese, and blackest 
 
THE HILL TRIBES OF INDIA.. 137 
 
 in the Indian tribes, but varying much ; the height is 
 below the middle size, and the limbs are thick. 
 
 The mass of the Indo-Turanian tribes live in a 
 poor condition, and are little developed ; some jungle 
 tribes being unable even to protect themselves from 
 the tigers. 
 
 Wherever the traveller proceeds in India, he meets 
 with or hears of these aborigines — the " Hill tribes," 
 as they are often called. He finds them, when dwell- 
 ing in the low-lands, despised and outlawed by the 
 Hindus, living outside of their villages in little 
 thatched cottages, owning no property but asses and 
 dogs, occupying land tax free, which they seldom cul- 
 tivate, but underlet, and receiving a minimum portion 
 of produce from each field through the Hin- ^^^^ jj.jj 
 du municipality. They are everywhere ^^^^^^' 
 proverbially honest, and with their experience as 
 hunters, become the best police detectives. They are 
 employed to convey revenue from one province to 
 another, and to protect and serve travellers. 
 
 Their customs and institutions are utterly different 
 from those of the Hindus. They have no castes; 
 their widows are allowed to marry again, even with 
 the younger brother of the deceased husband ; they 
 have no objection to any kind of flesh, and do not care 
 by whom it has been prepared ; they feel no horror at 
 the spilling of blood, even in their sacrifices. In 
 entire opposition to the rules and habits of the Aryan 
 
138 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 Indians, tliey indulge freely in intoxicating drinks; 
 they do not venerate tlie Brahmans ; they bury, with- 
 Differ out buming their dead; their institutions 
 
 entirely from 
 
 HinUoos. are patriarchal, not municipal; and their 
 courts of justice are made up of heads of tribes, and 
 not equals. Their religion is often fetishism, and they 
 occasionally practice cannibalism. 
 
 If language were not decisive, these customs alone 
 would establish the different origin of these races from 
 the Hindus. 
 
 That they belong to the Turanian family in their 
 languages, has been rendered probable by B. H. 
 Hodgson, R. Caldwell, and various other scholars. 
 
 The points of evidence, showing the relationship between 
 the non-Aryan races of India and the Turanian, are thus 
 grouped by Mr. Webb. 1. The agreement between their lan- 
 guages and the Turanian (Scythic) portion of the 
 
 Evidences of 
 
 Turanian ancient tablets at Behistun. 2. The analogy m 
 
 origin. 
 
 laws of sound, with the modern Turanian lan- 
 guages, such as " the harmonic sequence of vowels," and " the 
 convertibility of words and consonants," and "the dialectic 
 interchange of consonants." 3. The method of treating roots, 
 which has already been mentioned as a leading peculiarity of 
 the Turanian. 4. The want of gender in all nouns, and the in- 
 definiteness of number — this being determined by the connec- 
 tion. 5. The separate existence of the auxiliary words, denoting 
 case-endings, and their identity, both in the singular and plural. 
 6. The analogy of the numerals with the TJgrian and Finnish, 
 while there is not the smallest resemblance to be found to those 
 
TUEANIAITS — THE DRAVIDIAIirS. 139 
 
 of the Aryan family. 7. Analogies of pronouns, of structure of 
 the verb, and the use of the " relative participle." 8. Eesem- 
 blance of words, especially with those of the Finnish family. 
 
 These conclusions, it is but fair to say, are doubted by an 
 eminent scholar of this country, Prof. W. D. Whitney, who, in 
 his note on Mr. Webb's article in the Journal of the Amer. 
 Oriental Soc, vol. 7 — 1862, suggests that the terms of the com- 
 parison are not sufficiently known, to justify a scientific result, 
 and that the analogies established, may he the eflTects of a similar 
 grade of culture and capacity. 
 
 With reference to this great class — the Turanian — so much 
 questioned by scholars, B. H. Hodgson, a high authority, says, 
 " The ampler stock of Caucasian and Mongolian vocables thus 
 placed within my reach, has needed only to be compared with 
 my own larger stores from the Himalaya, Tibet, Sifan, Indo- 
 China, and Tamulian India, to satisfy me that the widest as- 
 sumed scope of Allophylian (Turanian) affinities, might be plaeed 
 on a reasonable basis." (Mongol. Affi of Caucas., p. 62.) 
 
 Whether all these tribes belong to one branch of 
 the Turanian family, is not certain. They are called 
 " Dravidians," from Dravida, the name of the comitry 
 of their principal tribe, the Tamils. Thus The vindiiya 
 
 and Dekkan 
 
 far they may be distinguished into two '"I'es- 
 great divisions,"'' from the regions which they occupy, 
 (1) the tribes of the Yindhya Mountains, and (2) the 
 tribes of the Dekkcm. 
 
 The proper boundaries of the Aryans in India are 
 the Indus on the west, the Ganges or the Brahma- 
 putra on the east, the Himalaya on the north, and 
 the Yindhya on the south. It is the latter moun- 
 
140 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 tains which, Irom ancient times, have been the barrier 
 
 to Aryan civilization. On either coast, especially 
 
 on the west, the Aryan tribes have advanced 
 
 Aryan ' •' 
 
 boundaries. ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ g^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ 
 
 may say that all the vast comitry, south of the I^er- 
 budda, and all the inaccessible regions of the Yindhya 
 are occupied by the Turanians — the Dekkan, and the 
 Yindhya tribes. 
 
 Still another large division of this family exists in 
 the northeast of India, on the Himalaya and the 
 Ganges — the Bhotiya tribes.' 
 
 (1) THE VINDHTA RACES. 
 
 (a) The Bhilla or Bhills. This wild tribe live on 
 
 the Yindhya, near the rivers Tapti and IsTerbudda, 
 
 and on the northern extremity of the 
 
 The Bhills. '' 
 
 Eastern Ghats. They are found least 
 mingled with other tribes on the left bank of the 
 IS'erbudda, from Nemar to Guzerat, and in the west- 
 ern Ghats up to Puna. They are described as of 
 short stature, with curly hair, thick lips, very dark 
 complexion, and more masculine in form than the 
 Hindus. They must have been one of the earliest 
 peoples who entered India. Their original dialects 
 have been much superseded by the Hindu forms of 
 speech, yet enough remains to identify them as of the 
 Turanian family, (b) The Mina and Mera are tribes 
 resembling the Bhills, living in the mountains of 
 
THE VnroHTA KACES. 141 
 
 Kaliklio, from Agmir to the Jumna, (c) The Kola or 
 Koles. The name .of these nations is liable to con- 
 fusion, from its being applied promiscuously 
 in India to uncivilized peoples, and also to 
 porters (Coolies) by the English. There are two great 
 branches of Koles, one of the Dekkan or Tamulic 
 races, and the other an aboriginal people of the 
 Yindhya races. 
 
 The latter is sometimes called Munda. The 
 Hos^ in Singbhtim, are closely allied with these. The 
 Sontal, near Chuta l!^agpur, are Koles. The Kole 
 language, Max Miiller supposes to have been spoken 
 in India, before the Tamulic conquest. 
 
 The Koles live on the western side of the West 
 Ghats, to the northward of Bombay ; others dwell in 
 the mountains of Guzerat, and still others further in 
 the east, near Singbhum and Gangpur. They are de- 
 scribed as a bold, manly-looking people, and the 
 Mundas of Holesun are said to be men preeminent 
 for physical beauty. This people is on the whole 
 in advance of the Bhills, and has been much influ- 
 enced by Brahmanic civilization. 
 
 (d) The Paharia. This Yindhya tribe have 
 kept their habitations in the Rajmahal Mountains, 
 through all the Aryan and Tamulic inva- 
 
 ^ '' , , Paharia. 
 
 sions from the earliest times. Their lan- 
 guage shows the strong influence of the Tamulic 
 tribes. 
 
142 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 They were formerly very troublesome and danger- 
 ous as robbers and mm-derers to tbe subjects of the 
 India Company, but have been civilized by the kind- 
 ness and patience especially of one English official. 
 In appearance, they are of dark complexion, small 
 eyes, broad face, and lips thicker than those of the 
 men of the plains. 
 
 (e) The Ka/nda or Khonds occupy a district about 
 200 miles long, by 170 broad, in Eanapur, in the dis- 
 trict of Ganjam to the east of Lake Chilka, and touch- 
 ing on the Bay of Bengal. They are succeeded in the 
 south by the Saura, who hold the country up to the 
 Godavery. 
 
 (2) THE DEKKAN OE TAMULIO EACES. 
 
 The Tamulian type is thus described by Mr. 
 Hodgson : * 
 
 " In the Tamulian form, there is less height, less 
 symmetry, more dumpiness and flesh than in the 
 Aryan; in the Tamulian face, a somewhat lozenge 
 contour, caused by the large cheek bones ; less perpen- 
 dicularity in the features to the front, occasioned not 
 so much by defect of forehead or chin, as by excess of 
 Tamulian J^^^ ^^^ mouth ; a larger proportion of 
 *^^®' face to head, and less roundness in the 
 
 latter ; a broader, flatter face, with features less sym- 
 metrical but, perhaps, more expressive at least of indi- 
 viduality ; a shorter, wider nose, often clubbed at the 
 
THE dekkjln ok tamijlic baces. 143 
 
 end and furnislied witli round nostrils ; eyes less, and 
 less fully opened, and less evenly crossing the face by 
 their line of aperture; ears larger; lips thicker; 
 beard deficient; color brunette, as in the last, but 
 darker on the whole, and, as in it, very various." 
 
 Nearly all the tribes of the Dekkan are superior 
 to the Yindhya peoples, though often closely resem- 
 bling them. The principal exception to this, the 
 Gonds, were formerly classed with the non-Tamulic 
 races ; but late investigations in language bring them 
 within the Dekkan races, (a) The Gonds occupy the 
 immense district, covered with forests, con- 
 
 The Gonds. 
 
 tained within the Yindhya on the north, 
 the Eastern Ghats, and a line connecting these, drawn 
 from the mouth of the Godavery to the centre of the 
 valley of the Kerbudda. 
 
 They are in a condition of the lowest barbarism. 
 In appearance, they are of black skin, forehead low 
 and broad, eyes small, deep set and reddish, with 
 thick Kps, dirty black teeth, and long black hair — 
 though the latter is sometimes red and woolly. 
 
 (b) The Tuluva (or Tulava) inhabit the thick 
 forests which skirt the "West Ghats in Conara. Their 
 language has a close affinity with the Malabar. 
 
 (c) The Maldbars, who, like the Tuluvas, are a 
 black tribe, dwell in the dense hot forests, between 
 the Kandragiri and Cape Comorin. Some who live 
 higher upon the hills, are of fairer color. 
 
144 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD, 
 
 (d) The people from whom these races are often 
 
 called, the Tamuls^ are found on the east 
 
 Tamuls. 
 
 coast, from Palikat to Bangalor, and thence 
 in Ragakotta, and Palghat. 
 
 (e) Still other tribes, the Telinga (or Telugu), the 
 Karnata, and the Malabars of Ceylon, belong to this 
 family. The former hold the country to the eastward 
 of the Mahrattas, and west of the Bay of Bengal. 
 The Karnata table-land was anciently all the high 
 land north of the Ghats, but the name Camatic and 
 Carnara has been transferred to a province below the 
 Ghats. The language of this people, the Kamataka, 
 is spoken by the natives of all the countries, from 
 Coimbatore, north, to Bider, and between the Western 
 and Eastern Ghats. 
 
 Beside these, are the Toda in the Nilghiri hills, 
 who are remarkable both for having been untouched 
 by Sanskrit influences, and for their fine personal ap- 
 pearance. Some of them are said to present strikingly 
 the Eoman cast of features ; their figures are tall and 
 athletic ; complexion brown, and beards bushy. The 
 women have long black hair, and beautiful teeth, and 
 are fairer than the men. 
 
 The Brahui, on the mountains of Sindh, are related 
 to the Toda. The people of Ceylon belong also to 
 the Dekkan tribes. 
 
 The Ta/muliwm are considered by M. Miiller, 
 
THE BHOTITA KACES. 145 
 
 judging from their language, to be the last tribe who 
 separated from the Turanian centre to migrate south- 
 ward, just as the Finns are thought to be the last who 
 wandered toward the north. The Ian- ^^^^^j 
 guage has reached a certain degree of gram- *°^'^*^®- 
 matical growth, and is much in advance of some other 
 Turanian languages, such as the Tungusic, or the 
 Bhotiya, or the Chinese. The people had evidently 
 reached a considerable degree of unity and civilization, 
 before they were exposed to Aryan influences, so that 
 their language has been able to resist the Sanskrit, 
 though adopting many of its words and expressions. 
 
 (3) THE BHOTtYA EACES. 
 
 In the northeastern countries of India, on the 
 Himalaya, and in the valleys of the Brahmaputra and 
 the Ganges, is still another race of Turanian stock, 
 allied with the Tamulians of India, and with the in- 
 habitants of Tibet. A line from north to south, cut- 
 ting across the Brahmaputra, and following along the 
 Dhansri, is the line which separates these monosyllabic 
 people from the Tamulic. They are on a much lower 
 stage of social condition than these latter ; Differ from 
 
 T 1 t, ^ . . t% Tamulic 
 
 they have not so many oi the restrictions oi races. 
 religious customs, especially in eating, and are more 
 fierce, and depend more on the chase. Their religion 
 
 is a worship of natural objects, without any use of 
 
 7 
 
146 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 temples or idols. Many resemblances are discovered 
 between them and the Polynesian tribes; among 
 others, the custom of exposing the dead for four days 
 on a scaffold, before finally burning them. These 
 tribes on the northeast of India, have preserved their 
 independence much longer than those on the north- 
 west, who met the tide of Aryan and Tamulic emigra- 
 tion earlier ; one of their States, that of the Kocchs, 
 having existed even down to the 18th century. They 
 are probably among the oldest and first settlers of 
 India. 
 
 Their physique is not materially different from 
 that of the Tamuls. They are of pale brown com- 
 plexion, and Turanian type of features. Some indi- 
 viduals show a high degree of personal beauty, almost 
 Aryan in type ; others, again, are excessively degraded 
 in features. The upper region of the Himalaya, a 
 plateau, some 10,000 feet above the level of the sea, 
 bordering on Tibet, is especially inhabited by the 
 Bhotiyas.' 
 
 Other tribes of similar stock, dwell in the tem- 
 perate region on the declivity of these mountains, in 
 the basins of the large rivers — the Brahmaputra, the 
 Tista, Gandaki, and others — ^which flow into India. 
 These are the Mishmis, Lepcha, JButanese, Kircmtms, 
 and numerous others. 
 
 The lowest region at the foot of these mountains, 
 is occupied by peoples of this family, who live in pes- 
 
THE BHOTIYA KACES. 147 
 
 tilential swamps, and breathe tlie most deadly mias- 
 mata, without any apparent injury to their g^^^^^ 
 health. Among these are the Kocchs, *"^^^' 
 Chepangs, Bodos, Tharus, and many others. This 
 capacity for breathing malaria, is a remarkable phys- 
 iological fact and, Hodgson states, characterizes all 
 the TamuHan inhabitants of India. They are gen- 
 erally fine, healthy races of men, though dwelling 
 where no other human beings can exist. It is one of 
 the strongest evidences, as Mr. Hodgson observes, of 
 the great antiquity of these tribes on Indian soil. 
 
 Though most probably descended from the inhab- 
 itants of Tibet, these various tribes show much more 
 physical resemblance to their neighbors, the Tamuls, 
 than to the Tibetians — climate in this, as in innumer- 
 able other cases, having modified or changed the 
 bodily type of a race. 
 
 The Tibetic language is much less advanced 
 grammatically, than the Tamulic. Miiller observes 
 that in the Tibetic (or Bhotiyan), there are rpj^gtic 
 no verbal terminations to express the dif- ^*°s"^®- 
 ferent persons of the verb, while many of the Tamul 
 dialects have a regular system of verbal affixes. 
 
 Beyond the regions of which we have been speak- 
 ing, the Bhotiya emigration spread toward the east 
 into Burmdh. In the mountainous district adjoining 
 the Bramaputra, and from the Tista, the boundary of 
 Bhutan to the Irawady (Iravati), are found a vast 
 
148 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 number of wild tribes belonging to tbe Bbotiyan 
 races — tbe Miris, the JVagas, Khyengs^ 
 Ka/rens^ and many others. According to 
 the testimony of Mr. Kincaid and Mr. Cross, the 
 Karens possess well-defined traditions of their origin 
 from Tibet. 
 
 Mr. Cross' states that they are scattered over a 
 territory between 28° and 10° K. latitude, and 99° 
 — 93° E. longitude. The Kakhyens and Karens seem 
 to be identical, and taking all the tribes coming under 
 their names, sprinkled over various territories, they 
 are supposed to number about five millions. 
 
 The Karens are remarkable for preserving reli- 
 gious traditions, which bear a great analogy to the 
 Biblical history, and for the simple and faithful spirit 
 with which they have received Christianity. 
 
 THE TAl TRIBES. 
 
 Still another branch of the Tibetic races exists 
 farther toward the east, between Eastern India and 
 "Western China — ^the Tdi tribes. They occupy the 
 Geographical country extending over 14 degrees of lati- 
 position. ^^^g along the Menam, Salwen, Irawady, 
 and Kyendwen rivers, up to the sources of the Ira- 
 wady.' They are the Siamese^ Ahom (Shyan), Laos, 
 KhamU, and Kassia (Khyi) peoples. The country 
 which they inhabit, in fertility, salubrity of climate. 
 
THE TAI TKIBES. 149 
 
 advantages for mining, agriculture, and commerce, is 
 imsurpassed in Asia, yet, held by these tribes, it has 
 almost run to waste. The Ahoms — ^who are nearly 
 identical with the Siamese — ^no longer speak their 
 own language, but have adopted both the language 
 and faith of the Hindus. 
 
 In physical traits, these nations present the same 
 Turanian type, except that bad nourishment has 
 caused, with some of the Karens, a tendency to protu- 
 berant bellies and thin Kmbs: their com- 
 
 Physique. 
 
 plexion is yellow ; the skull ovoid, with a 
 great expansion of forehead, so that they show more 
 "Mongolian" traits than the Mongols themselves. 
 The Anamese head presents the most delicate Tura- 
 nian type — a perfect ovoid and globular form. Though 
 pressed on every side by various races : on the east by 
 the Chinese people; on the north by the Tibetans; 
 on the west by their related tribes, as well as the 
 Aryan races, they have preserved their individuality, 
 while receiving influences in rehgion and civilization 
 from every source. The language of the Tai tribes 
 belongs, like the Chinese, to the monosyllabic, and is 
 marked by a somewhat similar system of musical ac- 
 cents or intonations. 
 
 There seems no doubt that -one family inhabit 
 Indo-China, the Himalayas and Thibet. 
 
150 THE EA0E8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 THE ARYANS OF INDIA 
 
 The modem Indo- Aryan is thus vividly described 
 by a careful observer.* 
 
 "In the Aryan form, there is height, symmetry, 
 
 lightness, and flexibility ; in the Aryan face, an oval 
 
 contour with ample forehead and moderate 
 
 Aryan type. 
 
 jaws and mouth, around chin, perpendicu- 
 lar with the forehead, a regular set of distinct and 
 fine features ; a well-raised and unexpanded nose with 
 elliptic nares; a well-sized and freely opened eye, 
 running directly across the face; no want of eye- 
 brows, eye-lash, or beard ; and, lastly, a clear brunette 
 complexion, often not darker than that of the most 
 southern Europeans." 
 
 The only exception to be taken to this description, 
 is in regard to the complexion of the Hindus. It is 
 true that the original word for caste in India, means 
 GoloT^ and that the Aryans are usually lighter in com- 
 plexion than the Turanians. Tet aU this depends on 
 geographical position, climate, and circumstances of 
 „, ^ birth. There are tribes of Brahmans in the 
 
 '^^°'' Himalaya, who have the blonde color and 
 blue eyes ; ^ and there are pure Brahmans in Southern 
 India who are as black as many tribes of negroes. 
 j,j^^ The Aryans of India may be dividefd 
 
 divisions, jj^|.^ j^^ great divisions according to lan- 
 guage: 
 
THE AKTAITS OP INDIA. 151 
 
 (1) The Eastern or Bengals. These are found north and 
 south of the Ganges, in the province of Bengal, east of Mahan- 
 anda ; they have invaded the valley of Assam, and mingled in 
 the south with the people of the Odra. They number at least 
 30 millions. (2) The Middle Hindus, who speak Hindi. These 
 inhabit mostly the districts of Middle India ; their language is 
 spoken by the Rajputs in Udajapur and Haravati. They also 
 hold the country north of the Yindhya, and on both sides of the 
 Jumna and Ganges up to the Himalaya, and all the vast prov- 
 inces of Sinde and the Penjab. 
 
 The Hindi is not to be looked upon as one language, like 
 Latin or French, but as a general name for various dialects. 
 One of these dialects which has been much enriched with Per- 
 sian and Arabic words, and is the speech of the Mohammedans 
 in North India, is the Hindustani or Urdu. 
 
 , (3) The Southern or Mahrattas. Of all the Aryan tribes, 
 these have penetrated farthest to the south, and are the only 
 tribe which has passed the West-Ghats. Their northern limits 
 are the Kolwan hills near Daman and the Saptura chain. Their 
 eastern boundaries are not strictly defined. The Mahratti is 
 spoken in all Berar and in a part of the district of Nagpur. In 
 the valley of the Tapti, it is mingled with the Gudjerati. It 
 extends southwesterly to the neighborhood of Bider, and 
 mingled with Tulu and Oanara dialects, reaches nearly to 
 TJdapu on the western coast. (4) The Western or Gudjerats. 
 These occupy the province of Gudjerat and Guicowar, and a 
 portion of the valleys of the Nerbudda and Tapti, and the coast 
 of the Gulf of Cambay as far as Daman. They are an agricul- 
 tural people and press on the Mahrattas, who are rather a 
 mountaineer and pastoral tribe, wherever the nature of the soil 
 favors their pursuit. (5) The Orissa tribes speaking Urija, 
 holding the eastern coast, south of Bengal, from Hoogly to 45 
 
152 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 miles south of Gandjam. Here the Telinga begins to be spoken, 
 and at Yizagapatam, this is the ruling language. (6) The 
 Northern in Kamaon, Sirmor, and in Kashmir. 
 
 The locality of the Aryan dialects and tribes 
 shows — even if other proof were wanting — that the 
 direction in which the Aryans entered India, was from 
 west to east. 
 
 In the Penjab and the vaUey of the Ganges, these 
 dialects are spoken even to the tops of the mountains ; 
 in West Kepal, Turanian dialects appear ; in Bhutan 
 we find an Aryan religion (Buddhism), but the lan- 
 guage of another family ; and stUl farther east, on the 
 west entrance of Assam, and to the south of the 
 mountains, the Aryan languages entirely disappear. 
 
 One thing must be evident in this condensed ac- 
 count of the prominent races of India, that color and 
 Color not phvsical traits are not, in that country, dis- 
 
 decisiveof "^ "^ ' /' 
 
 origin. tinctive marks of race. !N"owhere in the 
 
 world has blood been preserved so pure, and yet com- 
 plexion and a high physical type are found to vary 
 endlessly, according to position and cHmate and food. 
 
 The Turahians, though generally Mongol in fea- 
 tures, are sometimes found closely resembling -negroes, 
 and at others almost Aryan in physical beauty. In 
 general the mountain tribes, of whatever race, are 
 fairer than those of the jungles. 
 
 The Brahmans differ equally in color, and some- 
 times in physical development. 
 
THE AEYAN8 OF IKDIA. 153 
 
 It is climate more than any other one cause which 
 has tended to make the Aryan of India so j,^^^^^ ^^ 
 different from the Aryan of Persia, both in *'"™**®- 
 appearance and in his moral and spiritual develop- 
 ment. 
 
 7* 
 
CHAPTEE Xiy. 
 
 RACES OF CHIKA AND COCHIN CHINA.* 
 
 It is remarkable that tlie largest family of man- 
 kind, the Chinese, numbering nearly fom* hmidred 
 millions of human beings, cannot be certaialy con- 
 nected with the other great families of races. The 
 physical type is decidedly Turanian ; but this, on the 
 principles which lie at the basis of this ethnology, is 
 not decisive of race. Of the language, we can only 
 „ , . say that it most probably is the inorqanic 
 
 Uncertain •' jr ,/ v 
 
 ^itS^othe? condition of human speech, from which we 
 should naturally expect other growths, such 
 as the Turanian, to spring. Some scholars claim to 
 discover clear links of connection between the Chinese 
 and the Turanian. Enough is not known, however, 
 as yet, to prove the certain unity of origin of these 
 two great bodies of language ; it is only most probable 
 that the former represented that early condition of 
 speech from which the latter grew. 
 
 The Chinese physical traits belong exactly to the 
 Turanian type, stamped on so many nations of 
 Asia and America.' The complexion is the lightest 
 
RACES OF CHINA AND COCHIN CHINA. 
 
 shown by any of tlie Turanians ; the cheek bone^ 
 less prominent than those of the Mongols : 
 
 . . . . Physique. 
 
 and the prominence in the head is anterior, 
 rather than lateral, as in the American Indians and 
 the Tungusic tribes. The peculiar distinguishing 
 characteristics are the smaUness of the eyes, and the 
 obliquity of the eye-lids. The nose is usually small 
 and depressed, though sometimes, in favorable physi- 
 cal conditions, natives are found with a slightly aqui. 
 line nose, giving the face a close resemblance to that 
 of the American Indians, or New Zealanders. 
 
 The Chinese differ from the Tibetans or Indo- 
 Tibetans, in the strength of these pecuKarities, and 
 in the oblong form of the skull. The Cochin-Chinese 
 are distinguished from their relatives, by a more deli- 
 cately oval type of skull. The Mandchus, who form 
 the governing race in China, are said to show quite 
 a superior type of feature to the Chinese. Some of 
 them have blue eyes, florid complexion, aquiline nose, 
 and brown beard ; in general, they are heavier than 
 the Chinese, with more beard, and a more intelligent 
 face, and sometimes a lighter complexion. 
 
 But it is language, which, more than anything else, 
 distinguishes the Chinese from the rest of mankind, 
 and which has, perhaps, most of all, checked their 
 progress. If our readers will call to mind the first 
 utterances of children, or the expressions of people of 
 reserved and sententious habits, and long intimacy. 
 
THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOULD. 
 
 . e each word or each syllable is a sentence ; where 
 Chinese *^® *o^® ^^^ gestiire indicate whether the 
 ngiage. gingie sound emitted is a noun or adjective 
 or verb, or all three together ; where grammar and 
 copula, cases and inflexions, are all dropped as unne- 
 cessary, so perfect is the understanding by the subtile 
 tone and manner ; and if he will suppose this, through 
 some unexplainable cause, petrified and transmitted 
 as an enduring mode of speech, he will have an appre- 
 ciation of the nature of the Chinese language. 
 
 Its distinction is, not merely that it is monosyl- 
 labic, but that each syllable is a substantial thing ; a 
 sentence in itself; as if the minds who used it, never 
 grew to the idea of a sentence — of making various 
 words, in their modifications, subservient to one logical 
 expression. The Chinese has substantially no gram- 
 mar ; the arrangement of the words, and the musical 
 tone, indicating whether a syllable is noun, verb, ad- 
 iective or particle. There is an average of 
 
 No grammar. •^ ■•■ '^ 
 
 eight words spelt and pronounced exactly 
 alike, for every sound which they possess. 
 
 "We are told ' that there are 212 characters, each 
 of which is pronounced che / 113 pronounced chin^ / 
 138 pronounced foo / and 1165 which are all read e. 
 The difficulty of distinguishing these, is obviated in 
 part, by placing synonyms together which differ in 
 sound, to explain one another, and by arbitrary con- 
 nections of words. Picture writing, and a phonetic 
 
.^ EACES OF CHINA AKD COCHIN CHINA. 157 
 
 system, have also been employed to a limited degree ; 
 but in practice, the Chinese know nothing of any pho- 
 netic system or alphabet. They may be said to have 
 as many letters in their alphabet, as words in their 
 language. Morrison's Dictionary gives 12,674 char- 
 acters, with forms and meanings distinct from each 
 other.* 
 
 "Writing, as M. Maury well observes, has not 
 emerged with the Chinese language from the ideo- 
 graphic period; that is, ideas are represented by 
 images, or by signs which are the abridged form of 
 images. These twelve thousand signs or letters above 
 spoken of, were in early times, the material pictures 
 of objects, and are now the altered or abridged or 
 compounded forms of these pictures. Out of these 
 sensible representations of metaphysical ideas, would 
 naturally arise figurative signs. !Next, the sound 
 given to the ear by the word representing the sign, 
 has become attached to the sign itself, and the sign 
 has finally become the written expression of the sound, 
 or a jphonetic sign ^ so that, as before intimated, the 
 Chinese will employ two signs side by side, one to in- 
 dicate the pronunciation, and the other to determine 
 the sense. 
 
 It will be seen what a fearfiil barrier to advance 
 in learning, or science, or general know- Defects in 
 ledge, such a language must be. Oratory t^^** ^^°s"^=«- 
 could scarcely exist with it, or poetry, or any popular 
 
158 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 literature. For Iminor and wit, and the most abstract 
 reflection, we might suppose such sententious, alge- 
 braic speech peculiarly adapted. 
 
 Some scholars believe that they discover in all 
 Aryan and Turanian language, traces of just such an 
 early condition through which these have passed. Of 
 the Chinese, we can only say, with the evidence thus , 
 far obtained, that it is most probable, but not certain, 
 that it connects with the early Turanian. 
 
 There are but slight distinctions in the great family 
 which inhabits China. A Tungusic tribe — ^the Mand- 
 chus — one of the most vigorous races of the Turanian 
 family, have given for some two centuries its rulers. 
 There are beside, what are called aboriginal tribes, 
 especially in the west and southwestern districts, 
 which are supposed to have been conquered by the 
 Chinese, and driven to the mountains, but which seem 
 to be of the same, or a related race. The Chinese 
 authorities describe them often as " black," or dark, 
 but it is uncertain whether they refer to their com- 
 plexion, or character. They are pictured as very low 
 and brutal in habits, living often in caves, or holes in 
 the ground, or-working as slaves and servants.* Their 
 religion and language are said to be different from 
 those of the Chinese ; but with regard to their speech, 
 this may mean only that it is a dialect of the Chinese 
 language. In physique, they are said to be smaller 
 
JAPAN AND ITS DEPENDENCIES. 159 
 
 JR size, with shorter necks, and more angular features 
 than the Chinese. The northern and western of these 
 tribes resemble the Tibetans, while the southern bear 
 a strong likeness to Malays and Birmese.' Little, 
 however, is known of them. They are the Bi-fan^ a 
 mountainous Tibetan tribe, to the west of ^^originai 
 the provinces Shensi and Su-chuan, near *"^®^' 
 the sources of the YeUow and Blue rivers ; ^ the 
 Miau Tsz ^ scattered through the provinces of Hirk- 
 wang, Sz^-chuen, Yunnan, Kweichan, and Kwangse ; 
 the Lolos, in the southeastern part of the empire ; and 
 the Khicmg, or Tibetans. There is, beside, a class 
 of people, treated by the Chinese as a separate race, 
 who are employed on the sea-coast, and who closely 
 resemble Esquimaux. They are called Tankia. 
 
 Of the Mandchu, Mongol, and Turkish races, who 
 come under the Chinese rule, we shall speak hereafter. 
 
 The Midu Tsz (or " children of the soil ") are 
 said to show many points of resemblance with the 
 Ka/rens. They are a mountain tribe, very brave, and 
 mostly independent of the Chinese. 
 
 The inhabitants of Cochin China — ^the Anamese — 
 are nearly related to the Chinese, speaking a dialect 
 of the same language. 
 
 IL JAPAN AND ITS DEPENDENCIES. 
 
 Though independent of China, the Empire of 
 Japan shows the wide-reaching effect of Chinese cul- 
 
160 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 ture, and, without doubt, emigration from China has 
 much modified the original Japanese race. It is diffi- 
 cult as yet to obtain trustworthy accounts of the races, 
 in the various islands which make up this empire, 
 and no sufficient comparison of dialects has been made 
 to pronounca with certainty on the position of these 
 peoples in the Turanian family. The opinion now 
 prevails among historical scholars,* that from the Lew- 
 Chew islands over the whole Japanese kingdom to 
 Jesso, and thence opposite to the coasts of 
 
 The Ainoa. 
 
 the Asiatic continent, and on the other 
 side, through the Kuriles, Aleutians, and Kamschatka, 
 one barbarous race originally held possession — ^the 
 Amos. The evidence of this is derived from remains 
 found in tombs, and from customs and fragments of 
 language still existing. 
 
 The Ainos on the Kurile islands are described in 
 the narrative of the American Expedition (1852-'54:) 
 as a tribe of fishermen, with short figures, not ill-fa- 
 vored, and with well-proportioned features. Their 
 color is dark and their hair coarse, falling in clusters 
 over their face till it mingles with their beards ; their 
 legs were covered with a rather remarkable growth of 
 coarse hair. 
 
 Their language proves them to be of the E'orth 
 p^^^^^^, Turanian fanuly, but does not precisely de- 
 Tungusian. terminc the race to which they belong — 
 though it is not improbably the Tungusian. 
 
JAPAN AND 1X8 DEPENDENCIES. 161 
 
 The Lew-Chew islanders and the Japanese speak a 
 somewhat different language from one another, but 
 are without doubt of one origin.' What was the graft 
 on the Ainos, which produced the modern Japanese, 
 we are not certain. It seems most probable that 
 it was a mixture with Chinese, as this nation is 
 known to have colonized these neighboring islands, 
 and many words of its language are found in the 
 Japanese tongue. The physical type prevaihng in 
 the Japanese islands, is thus described by j^ ^^^^^ 
 the latest scientific observers.'" The head ^^^'"^'''• 
 is oval and like the European — ^the frontal bones 
 rounded and the forehead high. The face is oval 
 with a mild expression ; the eyes large, with heavy 
 arched eyebrows ; the nose handsome, and the root 
 not depressed nor the nostrils dilated as in the Chi- 
 nese. The cheek-bones are not prominent, but the 
 mouth is large, with teeth broad and white ; the chin 
 is covered with a strong black beard. The women of 
 the higher classes are fair and pretty. There appear 
 to be great varieties in color, from a dark copper- 
 color to almost a pure white. 
 
 The language is entirely different from the Chi- 
 nese, though using the letters and many words of that 
 tongue, and is polysyllabic. 
 
 The following are its grammatical peculiarities, 
 which make certain its classification as a Turanian 
 language. 
 
162 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 (1) There is no radical difference between the words for 
 substances, qualitj and action ; no declination, no conjugation 
 or grammar ; every grammatical form is a complex term formed 
 
 by the juxta-position of two substantives. Given a 
 
 Turanian 
 
 peculiarities radical, YOU Can make of it, verb, adjective, adverb 
 
 of language. ' i i j i 
 
 or noun. In Hungarian, there are 20 cases; in 
 Japanese, as many cases as there are prepositions. 
 
 (2) The radical is often separated from its termination, by 
 several words ; so that a long sentence may be given in a single 
 word. (3) The formation ly hreakage — that is, the leaving out 
 all but a syllable or letter of the primitive radical. (4) The 
 faculty of marking by numerous and particular endings, the 
 relations of inferiority or superiority to the persons addressed. 
 This peculiarity is also found in some of the American lan- 
 guages. (5) The adjective, as in so many of the Turanian lan- 
 guages, is unchangeable, and does not follow the gender and 
 number of the noun. (6) The degree of comparison is expressed 
 by adding particles. (7) The numeral adjectives can be em- 
 ployed as nouns or adjectives, according as the termination 
 is annexed. (8) The pronouns are identical with those of the 
 Turanian languages, in form. (9) The auxiliary verb is formed 
 from the pronoun of the third person. (10) The verb, as in 
 Finnish, never takes a personal termination. (11) The formation 
 of tenses is similar to that in the Turanian. (12) Post-positions 
 are declined by means of other post-positions. (13) The syntax, 
 the phonetic harmony, and many words, are Turanian. (De 
 Oharencey.) 
 
 Of what particular brancli this language is a mem- 
 ber, camiot, as yet, be satisfactorily determined. 
 Pott" says tbat its structure would make it allied to 
 
JAPAN AND ITS DEPENDENCIES. 163 
 
 both the Mongol and Mandchu, but would not prove 
 a community of descent with those tongues. 
 
 Of course, the question is stiU in dispute and per- 
 haps may long be, how far the similarities — such as 
 are sketched above — are the effects of a common 
 origin, and how far they are merely the re- ^^^^,^ 
 suits of a like stage of intellectual progress. ''bj«<=«°'^- 
 It is certainly no solid objection to the Turanian 
 classification, to urge that languages in the interior of 
 Africa — such as the Yey and the Bornii — show some 
 similar features ; or that the American dialects pre- 
 sent many. The objector must prove the impossibility 
 of migration by any of the Turanian branches to 
 distant regions. 
 
CHAPTER XY. 
 
 THE TIBETANS,' TUNGUSIAN8, MONGOLS, 
 AND BAMOIEDES. 
 
 It will be remembered, according to Max Miiller's 
 classification,^ that tbe Turanian family is divided 
 Two great into two great divisions — the Northern and 
 
 Turanian 
 
 divisions. Southem — tbe Nortbern comprehending 
 the Tungusic, Mongolic, Tataric, and Finnic branches, 
 and the Southern including the Ta'ic, Malaic, Bhotiya, 
 and Tamulic races. 
 
 In this latter branch we have considered the Ta- 
 mulic, Taic, and Indo-Bhotiyan tribes. We wiU now 
 take a brief view of the original Bhotiyans (or Tibe- 
 tans), as well as of the Mongolic, Tungusic, and Sa- 
 moiedic peoples. 
 
 I. THE TIBETANS. 
 
 The language of the Bhotiyans — ^not considering 
 its relatives the Indo-Tibetan dialects — ^is confined to 
 the valleys of Tsangpo and the Indus, the upper 
 Sutlej, and Sarpi, and Chenab.' In Kanawar, the 
 
 I 
 
THE TIBETANS. 165 
 
 Hindu and Tibetan meet. The country of Tibet 
 is remarkable as being now the centre of Buddhism. 
 The singular custom of polyand/ry also 
 
 , Polyandry. 
 
 exists among the people — that is, one 
 woman can have several brothers for husbands. In 
 general, however, Hindu customs, ideas and literature 
 prevail among the people, having been introduced by 
 the Bhuddist missionaries in the 7th century. 
 
 The people are nomadic cultivators, and only a 
 few tribes have become stationary. The barrier of 
 caste is unknown, and on the other hand, says Hodg- 
 son, " there exists not in any tribe or race, any notion 
 of a common human progenitor, or of a Deity " by 
 name. 
 
 In appearance, the Tibetans resemble the Chinese 
 and the Mongols, but are more athletic and powerful. 
 
 Many of the mountaineers, according to Hodgson, 
 differ entirely from the Turanian type, and approach 
 the highest Aryan. Ko absolutely white skins are 
 seen, but often a very pale brown complexion, with 
 red hair and gray eyes, and a good deal of bloom on 
 the faces of children. 
 
 Their language has many strong resemblances to 
 the Chinese. The simple nouns are generally mono- 
 syllabic, whether substantives or adjectives." Ti,,gtan 
 The words are mostly indeclinable, and ^°^^®- 
 their relations are expressed by their position in the 
 sentence, and by suffixes which indicate declension, or 
 
166 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 conjugation, or the relation expressed by prepositions. 
 There are no genders to the nouns, and the sex, as 
 well as plurality, is distinguished by an additional or 
 separate word. 
 
 Besides the native Tibetans, great numbers of 
 Mongols are found in Tibet, supposed to have been 
 settled there since the time of Tschingis-Khan. 
 
 IL THE TUNGUSIAN8. 
 
 The Tungusic language is considered the lowest in 
 the Turanian family; its grammar not being richer 
 than the Chinese, and not having the advantage 
 which that language possesses, of an "architectonic 
 order." * In Mandchu, the dialect of the most power- 
 ful tribe of this race, there are . a number of words 
 with no distinctive terminations, and the same words 
 can be used as nouns, verbs, adverbs, and particles.' 
 The Tungusic dialects of Siberia are said to be richer, 
 however, than the Mandchu. 
 
 The area occupied by this race is very extensive. 
 One tribe, a people of remarkable intelligence and 
 energy, and the only Tungusians who are not nomadic 
 — the Mandchus — hold the government of 
 the immense Empire of China, which they 
 conquered in 1644. They fill many of the offices, and 
 form the military power of the kingdom — the Mand- 
 chus occupying the garrisons and being the soldiers 
 of China. 
 
THE TUNGUSIAJSrS. 167 
 
 They possess a literature of their own, and an 
 alphabet was invented for them from the Mongolian 
 language, at the command of an intelligent emperor in 
 1599. They are described as iq appearance, of lighter 
 complexion than the Chiaese, and heavier form, with 
 more beard and a more iatelligent face. 
 
 Mandchtis. 
 
 Their expression is said to indicate more 
 haughtiuess than that of the Mongols, and more " de- 
 termination and largeness of plan " than that of the 
 Chinese.'^ Many are found with blonde complexion, 
 brown beard, aqmliae nose, and blue eyes. 
 
 The other tribes of this race extend over Chinese 
 Mandchuria, and above into the Eussian provinces of 
 • Asia — ^roving over the immense steppes, or through 
 the wild mountaiDL-defiles of the almost unexplored 
 country from the Yenesey to the Pacific, and from. 
 the frontiers of China to the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 They present, in general, the extreme Turanian 
 type of features, though modified by climate and 
 habits of life. Their religion in China is mostly 
 Buddhism; in Siberia, either Christianity (of the 
 Greek Church) or Paganism. 
 
 The different divisions are the Tungusians of 
 Dauria, to the north and northwest of Mandchuria 
 and east of Lake Baikal ; the Zamuts, or those be- 
 tween the Aldan and the Pacific ; those at Ochotsk 
 and near Yakutsk; and those on the Yenesey, be- 
 tween the two Tonngouska rivers. The latter tribes 
 
168 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 depend on the bow and arrow for subsistence, and re- 
 semble in their habits and their religious ideas the 
 !North American Indians. 
 
 One tribe ot Tungus — the TshapodzTivr — tattoo 
 themselves. The whole number of the Russian Tun- 
 gus is only between 35,000' and 40,000. 
 
 In the late explorations of the Amour river much 
 interesting information is given of the nomadic and 
 *xT. pagan Tunsrusian tribes on its banks. The 
 ■^mour. Orotchones, Mcmegrians, Daourimis, and 
 
 Birars occupy the territory on the Upper Amour ; 
 the Gholdes and Ssamghers on the middle, and the 
 Mmigounes and Ghiliaks on the lower. The Maneg- 
 rians are described as the superior tribe in physique, 
 wearing often the Mandchu costume. (See Bull, de 
 Geog. Avril-Janvier, 1861.) 
 
 III. THE M0NG0LS.8 
 
 The type of features and head, which we have 
 called the Turanian, has been usually named the 
 Mongolian, but for no good apparent reason, as the 
 Mongols do not show these peculiar traits as purely as 
 several other races of this family. 
 
 The MongoKans are, with a few exceptions, a no- 
 madic people, and inhabit especially the great deserts 
 Mon oi ^^^ steppes lying in the north of the Chi- 
 
 territory. ^^^^ Empire, caUcd Mongolia. Scattered 
 tribes, however, of this race are found in various parts 
 
THE MONGOLS. 169 
 
 of Asia and Eastern Europe ; in Siberia, on the Don 
 and the Yolga, and even in Persia. The prominent 
 tribes are the KalJcas, the Sunid, the Burials, the 
 Hazara, Olot, and Kalmucks. 
 
 The Kalkas are described'" as short, squat, with 
 high and broad shoulders ; their nose short and broad, 
 and chin prominent and pointed ; the teeth large and 
 distant from one another; eyes black, elliptical and 
 unsteady ; the neck short and thick, with the extremi- 
 ties bony and nervous. Their legs are short, with 
 muscular thighs, and their stature is nearly equal to 
 the average European. 
 
 They inhabit Mongolia, and have spread into the 
 Russian Empire, where they are found, especially in 
 the province of Irkutsk, and on the banks of the rivers 
 which empty into Lake Baikal. 
 
 The Sunid, or Souniats, Kve to the east and south 
 of the Kalkas, ranging over the desert country. They 
 were formerly a very numerous tribe. 
 
 l!Torth of the Great Wall, and to the west of the 
 Mandchu country, " between the 120th and -^^^^^-^ 
 116th degrees of east longitude, are a num- 
 ber of Mongol tribes, the Tumet, who are in part agri- 
 cultural, the Orat (or TJrad), the Ortu, and various 
 others. 
 
 The Buriats, numbering according to Castren, 
 about 190,000, Kve in Siberia, from the borders of 
 8 
 
lYO THE KACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 China to the Upper Lena, and are more civilized than 
 the other Siberians. 
 
 The Songarians, formerly a powerful Mongol na- 
 tion but conquered and dispersed by the Chinese, are 
 found in various parts of Asiatic Russia, or among the 
 Turks of Bokharia, or on the banks of the Kho- 
 kho-nor. 
 
 The Olot, and Kalmucks^ are considered as sub- 
 stantially the same. Their centre is the mountainous 
 country on the frontier of Turkestan and China, south 
 of Lake Balkash, Colonies of these tribes, especially 
 from the clans Diirbet and Torgod, have settled since 
 the lYth century on the Don and the Yolga. 
 
 Kalmucks. _ 
 
 In the valley of the Ei, they have been 
 much mingled with the Turkish hordes. Other Kal- 
 muck tribes have penetrated into Siberia, where they 
 formed in 1832 nearly 4 per cent, of the Cossack 
 army, and have scattered themselves over many of 
 the countries of Asia. 
 
 The Mongols of Cabul and Persia, are called 
 Aimdk (or Eimauks*) and Hasara (Hazaureh). They 
 live mostly in the Paropamisan mountains, between 
 Cabul and Herat." 
 
 The Mongols are now everywhere the subjects of 
 the powers which they once overthrew — ^the Russian, 
 Turkish, and Chinese governments. 
 
 * Strangford states that only one tribe of the Eimauks axe Mongol ; 
 the rest being probably Iranian. 
 
THE MONGOLS. lYl 
 
 Of the Mongol, M. Hue says : 
 
 He is full of gentleness and lonTiommie ; he passes suddenly 
 from the wildest and most extravagant gaiety, to a melancholy 
 that has nothing repulsive. Timid to excess in general, when 
 excited by fanaticism, or the desire for vengeance, he displays 
 an impetuous courage that nothing can arrest ; he is simple and 
 credulous as a child, and is passionately fond of stories and mar- 
 vellous recitals. 
 
 The vices generally attributed to the Mongol-Tartars, are, 
 aversion to labor, love of pillage, and rapine, cruelty and de- 
 bauchery. * * * "^e have always found them -g^^^,^ 
 generous, frank, hospitable ; inclined, it is true, like <iescription. 
 ill-brought-up children, to appropriate little objects of curiosity, 
 but in no manner addicted to what may be called robbery. As 
 for their aversion to labor and a sedentary life, they are 
 much the same as they always were ; it must also be admitted, 
 that their morals, in some points, are very lax ; but their con- 
 duct, in this respect, proceeds more from thoughtlessness than 
 corruption, and we rarely find among them the hideous and 
 brutal excesses to which the Chinese are so violently addicted. 
 * * * The Mongols are strangers to every species of indus- 
 try ; their felt carpets, skins coarsely tanned, and some few arti- 
 cles of sewing and embroidery, are not worth mentioning ; but, 
 on the other hand, they possess in high perfection, the qualities 
 of a pastoral and nomadic people, in the prodigious development 
 of the senses of sight, hearing, and smell. Many attempts have 
 been made to convert the Mongols to Christianity, but hitherto 
 they have all proved fruitless. 
 
 The Mongol language is interesting to the scholar, 
 as instancing growth in language, even at the present 
 
172 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 day. Castren states that while the Kterary language 
 Growth of shows HO pponominal affixes,* whether sub- 
 language, jective or predicative, this feature has just 
 begun to appear in the spoken dialect of the Buriats, 
 and in the Tungusic idiom spoken near Nyertshinsk, 
 in Siberia. 
 
 IV. iTHE SAMOIEDES, 
 
 Among the detached branches of the northern 
 division of the Turanian family, is a small and bar- 
 barous people, widely scattered over the most north- 
 ern provinces of Asia — the Samoiedes,\ or " Swamp- 
 dwellers." 
 
 Their especial habitations are on the bleak, mossy 
 swamps or plains, beyond the line within which trees 
 will grow, near the borders of the Icy Sea. Here 
 
 * To illustrate this roughly in the English tongue, suppose our lan- 
 guage only so far developed that we could express / love, or have loved, 
 or will love, or thou lovest, &c., but by one word, loving, and the pro- 
 noun must be expressed by gesture or accent, and the time by some 
 word like day placed near it ; or suppose that having attained the pro- 
 noun, we could only say loving-I, and the position would indicate 
 whether we meant my love, or I love, or lovely me ; and so my father, 
 must be father-I. This would correspond in a general way to the low 
 grammatical condition of the Mongolian language. The Buriats would 
 be so far advanced as to say love-did-I (I loved), or as in French, 
 "j'aimer-ai," / have to love (I will love), keeping the affixes separate, 
 and not melted into the word as in English. They could also say, 
 " Fatheri," that is, " my father." 
 
 \ The derivation of this word from the root of the Finnic, Suome- 
 laiset (men of a swamp), seems, on the whole, the most probable. See 
 Latham. 
 
THE SAMOIEDES. 173 
 
 they pasture their reindeer and wander about during 
 the summer. They are Russian subjects, and before 
 they were conquered, some of their tribes 
 
 r» 1 T Ti rrn Samoiedes. 
 
 were poweriul and warlike, ihey are now 
 weak and savage nomads, living in the bleakest and 
 most inhospitable regions of the earth. A few of the 
 Samoiedes are nominally Christian, but the most are 
 pagan. In race, as has been said, they are of the Tu- 
 ranian family, especially allied with the Finns, the 
 Tungus, Mongols and Turks. 
 
 The extent of territory on wliich they live, is very 
 considerable; their tribes reaching from the Ubsa 
 !Nor in Chinese Mongolia, to the I^orth Cape of Asia, 
 and for 80 degrees from the river Mesene and the 
 White Sea, to the Lena. They are divided into the 
 N^orth and South Samoiedes. The Northern, embrace 
 (1) the Yurah^ (2) the Tawgi and (3) the Ostiah. 
 
 The Yurak dwell near the Mesene, and the White 
 Sea, and between the latter and the Yenesey; the 
 Tawgi, from the Yenesey to the Chatunga ; 
 
 T • Divisions. 
 
 and the Ostiaks, who are to be distm- 
 guished from the Ugro-Ostiaks of the Obi, on the 
 heights between the Obi and the Yenesey, near their 
 sources. The southernmost point of these tribes, is 
 Tomsk. The Southern Samoiedes include the Soiot^ 
 and Kamas, and Koibal, with other tribes on the high 
 land of the East Altai range, near the sources of the 
 Yenesey, and among the Sayan Mountains. The 
 
174 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 Soiot occupy in part Chinese territory, while some are 
 found in Siberia near Lake Baikal. The Koibal are 
 a nominally Christian tribe. 
 
 The Samoiedes have been forced from the country 
 on the Middle Yenesey, and the Tinnic Ostiaks hold 
 their place ; but they are found again on the Icy Sea, 
 and in West Siberia, on the Obi. 
 
 "There is less known of this miserable people than 
 of almost any other in Asia. 
 
 Prof. Miiller's division of these tribes is somewhat 
 different. He divides the ISTorthern Samoiedes into 
 the Yurazes, the Tawgi, and the Yenisei ^ and the 
 Southern, into tha Ostiako-Samoiedes and Kamas. 
 
 The physical characteristics of the Samoiedes, 
 are the broad face and pyramidal skull of 
 ysique. ^^^ Turauiau family. They exceed the 
 Lap in average height. 
 
 There has been much question as to where the Sa- 
 moiedes should be placed in the ethnological classifi- 
 cation, but Castren's investigations have put beyond a 
 doubt their near relation to the Finns. The lan- 
 Eeiatedto guagcs of both pcoples, he says, are distin- 
 ^'°°'' guished from the Tungusian and Turkish, 
 
 by the far greater development of the principle of ag- 
 glutination; so much so, that it approaches to the 
 flexion of the Aryan languages, and may almost form 
 the means by which the one family of languages can 
 be connected to the other. 
 
CHAPTER XYI. 
 
 TURKISH EACES. 
 
 The Turkisli race is a very extensive and widely- 
 scattered family ; its members being found from tbe 
 banks of tbe Lena and the shores of tbe Arctic Ocean 
 to the frontiers of Hungary and the northern and 
 eastern provinces of Africa. 
 
 The Yakuts. This tribe are the most remote of 
 any of this family, and at the same time, they pre- 
 serve in language the Turkic type the most purely. 
 They live on both sides of the river Lena, in its lower 
 part, and they have scattered themselves 
 
 •^ "^ . Yakuts. 
 
 over one of the most desolate and inclement 
 countries in the world — the north of Siberia. Their 
 pasturages in summer are the beds of dried-up lakes 
 iaTbuty)^ which at that season yield a rich vegetation, 
 though the mean temperature of Yakutsk is 6°, 
 Reamur, below freezing-point, and quicksilver is a 
 solid body there during one sixth of the year. The 
 original habitations of this tribe were northwest of 
 Lake Baikal. 
 
176 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 In religion, they were till recently pagan, holding 
 fetisse superstitions, though recognizing a Great Spirit. 
 Christianity, through the Greek Church, is gradually 
 gaining an influence on them. Their male population 
 is given by Miiller as 100,000. Their language can 
 be used as a key to the grammatical forms of the 
 Osmanli and other Turkic dialects.^ The Yakuts 
 present the pure Turanian physical type. 
 
 The Turks of Siberia. After the dismemberment 
 of the Empire of Tschingis-Khan, several Tartar (or 
 Turkic) Khanates were formed in Siberia. They 
 were conquered by the Russians in the 16th century. 
 The principal towns are Tobolsk, Yeniseisk, and 
 Tomsk. The Barabas, between the Irtish and the 
 Obi, and the Uran hat, on the Chulym, are separate 
 tribes." 
 
 The Kazan Turks (called Tartars). These are 
 distributed over Permia, Yiatka, Simbirsk, 
 
 Kazan Turks. 
 
 and Orenburg, in European Russia. They 
 are in greatest numbers in Kazan, and their whole 
 population amounts to more than Y00,000. 
 
 They are interesting to the student as being now 
 in process of change from the nomadic to a settled 
 agricultural life, and are described as an honest, in- 
 dustrious, frank, peaceable people, who are fast pro- 
 gressing in the arts of civilized life. Their faith is a 
 zealous Mohammedanism. Two very different physi- 
 cal types are said to exist among them — one, that of 
 
THE KIKGI8. 177 
 
 the European Turk, with oval contour of face, promi- 
 nent features, arched nose, not inexpressive eyes, and 
 full beard ; the other, of the extreme Turanian, with 
 broad flattened nose, prominent cheek-bones and 
 glabrous skin/ 
 
 There seems to be no doubt that a portion of the 
 population, by favorable circumstances, have become 
 changed from the type of the Chinese Mongolian, or 
 Turkic Yakuts, to something near that of the Euro- 
 pean. 
 
 The Kirgis. The country between the Tenisey 
 and the Tom, in Southern Siberia, was the mother- 
 country of this tribe. In the beginning of 
 the 18th century, they were forced out of 
 Siberia by the Songurian Mongols, and they now 
 occupy the northern and eastern portions of Turkes- 
 tan, whence they rove over a vast extent of country. 
 They are divided into the Great Horde and the Little 
 and Middle Hordes. The Great Horde is not the 
 most numerous, but is pronounced the most dangerous 
 and savage of the Kirgis. Their district lies to the 
 east, near the frontiers of Chinese Turkestan and 
 Mongolia, though their chiefs were met by Mr. Atkin- 
 son far to the north and east in Siberia and Mongoha. 
 The tribe is subject to Eussia. 
 
 The Little Horde is found between the rivers 
 Yemba and Ural, and in Oremburg, wandering from 
 the Aral to the Caspian ; and the most powerful — the 
 
178 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 Middle Horde (or Kirgis-Kasak) — ^holds tlie country 
 between the Sarasu and Yemba, and since 1854 occu- 
 pies the district of Ssemipalatinsk. This Horde is 
 partly independent and partly tributary to Kussia and 
 China. The whole number of these Hordes, with 
 other Kirgis tribes, is estimated at 1,251,000. 
 
 They are generally described by travellers as an 
 idle, roving, uncertain and dishonest people, but with 
 one virtue of a nomadic race — ^hospitality. They are 
 in constant border warfare with China and Tibet, and 
 are only kept in control by the strong hand of Rus- 
 sia. The type of head and feature is decidedly Tura- 
 nian. 
 
 The Turkomans (or Turkmans), This tribe of 
 
 nomadic robbers occupies the country in the north of 
 
 Persia, in the west of Armenia, and south 
 
 Turkomans. 
 
 of Georgia, and in Shirwan and Dagestan. 
 East of the Caspian, they are under the command of 
 the Usbeks, and still more to the east, they are under 
 the Chinese sway. In Khorasan, there are Turkoman 
 tribes subject to the Persians.* 
 
 The independent Turkomans boast that they nei- 
 ther rest under the shadow of a tree nor the authority 
 of a king. They are a race of roving plunderers. 
 The type of feature again is the extreme Turanian. 
 They are more wiry and lithe in form than the Os- 
 manli Turks, with less tendency to fulness ; their 
 complexion is more copperish and swart. 
 
THE NOGAIS. 179 
 
 A closely related tribe, the Usheks, differ fi'om 
 the Turkomans, in being in part agricultural and 
 dweUinff id towns. They possess Bukhara, 
 
 * '^ ^ ' Usbecks. 
 
 a large city, and the provinces of Balkh, 
 Khokan, Khiva, and Ferganah. The Usbeks are de- 
 scendants of the 'Huy-'he and Uigurs, and live side 
 by side with the ancient Aryan inhabitants, whom 
 they have subdued — the Persians. Their religion is 
 the most bigoted Mohammedanism. 
 
 The Wogais, another tribe of this family, live to 
 the west of the Caspian and north of the Black Sea. 
 One tribe, which are remarkable as being 
 
 Nogais. 
 
 excellent agriculturists, have settled in the 
 Crimea. The main body rove about with their herds 
 near the Kuban and Kuma. One horde on the Volga 
 — the Kundur — is subject to the Kalmucks. 
 
 Russia is now removing the I^Togais in great num- 
 bers, and substituting the Bulgarians. They are a 
 brave race, and many have volunteered under the 
 Circassians. In physique, they are tall and athletic, 
 with the oblique Turanian eye-lids. 
 
 Still other Turkic tribes are the Bazianes^ near 
 the sources of the Kuban ; the KuTniiks, on the river 
 Sunga (or Zundzha), Aksai, and Koisu, sub- 
 
 ^ ^ , ^ ' Turkic tribes. 
 
 jects of Russia ; the Karakaljpaks near the 
 sea of Aral, subject partly to Russia and partly to the 
 Khans of Khiva ; and the Baskirs^ in Orenburg and 
 the adjacent proviuces. These latter are somewhat 
 
180 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 mingled with Mongolic blood and are Mohammedan 
 in faith ; they are subject to Kussia, Their number is 
 about 392,000. 
 
 The Osmcmlis or Ottoman Turks. This, the 
 leading Turkish tribe, has held Constantinople since 
 1453. Though possessing large provinces 
 in Europe, at the south of the Danube, the 
 number of pure Turks in Europe is said by Shafarik 
 to be not more than Y00,000, though it is probably 
 nearer 1,000,000. In Asia Minor, the Turkish race 
 has been much mingled with Grsecian and Armenian 
 blood. 
 
 The Osmanlis are the ruling class through all the 
 Turkish possessions in Europe, Asia, and Africa. 
 They number between eleven and twelve millions; 
 and form the nobility and gentry of Turkey. Their 
 language is the speech of persons of rank and educa- 
 tion, and is the official language in Syria, Egypt, 
 Tunis and Tripoli. It is spoken in the southern 
 provinces of Asiatic Russia, on the borders of the 
 Caspian, and through the whole of Turkestan.^ 
 
 The language of the whole Turkish race can be un- 
 derstood by any of its members, provided no foreign 
 Turkish words bc used. The speech of the upper 
 dialects. classcs has a large infusion of Persian and 
 Arabic words, so that a well-educated Turk, says M. 
 Miiller, can speak a whole sentence without a word 
 of Turkish origin. The three great dialects of the 
 
THE OSMAlfLIS. 181 
 
 Turkish are : (1) the Chagatai, spoken in Turkestan ; 
 (2) the Tataric, spoken in the Kipchak and Siberia ; 
 and (3) the Osmanli. 
 
 It will be gathered from these brief notices of the 
 Turkic tribes that the general type of feature is what 
 is called Mongolian or Turanian. This 
 
 Physique. 
 
 type, however, changes when the Turk be- 
 comes mingled with foreign blood, and when he as- 
 sumes a more stationary and civilized life in the low 
 lands or the cities, as, for instance, in European Tur- 
 key, or the Crimea, or the Kussian provinces of Kazan, 
 Oremburg, Oufa, and the districts on the Yolga.' * 
 
 * "We were at first inclined to accept Prichard's view, that this was 
 a manifest instance of the change of a race-type under new physical in- 
 fluences. But closer investigations — especially in Dr. Eigler's excellent 
 medical statistics of Turkey — show the great extent to which inter- 
 marriage is carried by the Turks, and leave the question still in doubt. 
 
CHAPTEE XYH. 
 
 EACES* OF PEKSIA, AFGHANISTAN, AND 
 BILUCHISTAN. 
 
 Persia, the ancient home of one important branch 
 of the Aryan family, the Iranian Aryans, who sepa- 
 rated at some remote period from the Hindu Aryans, 
 has been subject for ages to the inroads of invading 
 tribes. Its steppes and mountains show remnants of 
 nations from all the three great families of man which 
 have been described in this Treatise, and the physical 
 type varies from the extreme Turanian, and that of 
 the black Hindu-gipsy, to the most noble, classic type 
 of the pure Aryan. Out of the various tribes, two 
 Two divisions distiuct and broad divisions present them- 
 
 of Persian , , - , />,.-!-»• 
 
 tribes. sclves — the population oi native Persian 
 
 descent, the Tajiks, who are Aryan, and the wander- 
 ing hordes who are usually either Semitic or Turanian, 
 called Iliydhs. 
 
 The Tajiks are agricultural, as opposed to nomadic ; 
 they are the inhabitants of the towns, and they hold 
 usually the low lands, while the Iliyahs occupy espe- 
 
THE KACES OF PERSIA. 183 
 
 cially the mountains. They form the principal popu- 
 lation near the cities Kabul, Kandahar, 
 
 Tdjiks. 
 
 Ghazna, Herat, and Balkh.* Their traders 
 wander over great part of Central Asia, and their tribes 
 furnish the language, and a large portion of the popu- 
 lation of Bokhara, where they are mingled with the 
 Uzbeks. In Afghanistan, Biluchistan, Turkestan, and 
 Eastern Bokhara, and in districts still farther to the 
 east, these native Persians, or Tajiks, are the agricul- 
 tural and the commercial classes. Their creed is Mo- 
 hammedan, of the Shiite sect, in opposition to the 
 Iliyahs who are Sunnites. 
 
 The native Persian, in his purest type, is very 
 handsome, with a long oval face, regular features, 
 long black eyebrows, and large black eyes; his 
 stature is not tall ; the complexion is usually brown, 
 though in the southern provinces, as in Seistaun, it 
 becomes entirely black under the influence of climate,^ 
 and other physical causes. The Parsees, of India, 
 who are of Persian descent, are much darker than 
 the native Persians, though still very handsome 
 men. 
 
 The native Persian tongue has passed through 
 various stages in the history of the past. It was the 
 language of the Zendavesta, the sacred books of the 
 Persians; it was preserved in the inscrip- persian 
 tions of Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes ; in the '''"="*s®- 
 Pehlevi (226 a. d.) ; in the Parsi, the language of the 
 
184 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 epic poem of Firdusi (1000 a. d.) ; and it appears in 
 the present much mingled tongue * of modern Persia. 
 
 The Hiyahs (or Iliats). This term, it should be 
 remembered, is not so much the designation of a race, 
 as of a large division of tribes, whose habits are en- 
 tirely different from those of the Tajiks. Some of the 
 Iliyahs are of Persian descent, though nomadic. Of 
 these, the Biluchs (or Baluchs) are the most impor- 
 tant. They occupy a district of some 600 miles in 
 extent, to the south of Afghanistan, near the borders 
 of India, called Biluchistan. They are a tribe of no- 
 madic robbers, under the nominal leadership of the 
 Khan of Kelaut. The Baluchs were originally from 
 the mountains, east of Kerman. They occupy espe- 
 cially the lower districts of the west and east of Bilu- 
 chistan, from which they appear to have dispossessed 
 the Brahui, whom they drove to the mountains. A 
 portion of them have made conquests and settlements 
 in Sindh, where they are in constant hostility with the 
 English. They are described, by one writer, as so 
 unfortunately placed, as to receive the vices of both 
 barbarism and civilization, without the virtues of 
 either. This nation is said to resemble the Jews 
 strongly in features, as well as in certain institutions, 
 and for that reason has been called Semitic, or Ara- 
 bian, by some, but there seems little doubt of its 
 Aryan (Iranian) origin. Capt. Postans estimates the 
 
THE PEK8IAN ILITAH8. 185 
 
 number of fighting men of this people, on the Indus, 
 as about 40,000. 
 
 The FeiVi are another nomadic tribe, of the old 
 Persian stock, inhabiting the western side of the 
 mountains of Luristan. Besides these, are the Bdkh- 
 tiydri, in the neighborhood of Liir, and on the southern 
 border of the plateau of Iran ; and the Laks, scattered 
 over Persia, but chiefly found in the regions of Kaz- 
 win, and Pars, and Mazanderan/ 
 
 The great body, however, of the Iliyahs are not 
 Aryan, but Semitic and Turanian ; that is, 
 
 Iliydhs. 
 
 they are Arab, or Turkish, or Mongol. 
 Among those of the Turkish race, are the Kajars, in 
 the northern part of the country, and the Afshars. 
 The Aimak (Eimauks), and Hazara (Hazaureh), have 
 been already mentioned * under the Mongol tribes. 
 
 The Arabian Iliydhs are said to have emigrated 
 from IS'ejd, in Arabia. 
 
 There are beside nomadic Kurdish Tliydhs^ who 
 are of race allied to the native Persians. 
 
 The contrast between the two classes of inhabitants 
 in Persia is said to be the most striking in Khorasan — 
 the Iliyahs usually showing the broad face and flat 
 nose of the Turanians, and the Tajiks presenting the 
 handsome Persian type. There are, however, certain 
 of the Turkish Iliyahs who possess a very noble type 
 of features. 
 
 * Page lYO. 
 
186 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 Beside these various races, the Indian peoples 
 have several off-shoots in the Persian Empire : the 
 Ka/raschi (Keredji) or Gipsies, the same 
 Hindu tribe who have wandered over Eu- 
 rope, and the Brahui, in Biluchistan, a dark people 
 of Tamul origin. 
 
 The name Keredji is a term of contempt froni 
 their color, and might be translated " niggers." This 
 tribe is much despised by the native Persians, and 
 seems even more worthless and unprincipled than in 
 most countries. Like all the Iliats, they have a rep- 
 resentative in every city, who collects their taxes for 
 the Persian government. 
 
 The Brahui form a very marked contrast to the 
 Baluchs by whom they are surrounded. Instead of 
 the lank form, long face and prominent features 
 which characterize these latter, they present a round 
 face, flat features and short thick bones, and often 
 have brown hair and beard. They are a much more 
 peaceful, industrious and honest race than the robbing 
 Baluchs, from whom they secure themselves in the 
 heights of the mountains. Large numbers of these 
 also are found near Kelat, and in Sakavaran and 
 Glialavan. 
 
 The interesting circumstance in regard to them, is 
 that a relic of the early Tamul immigration into India 
 should be found so far from the present habitations of 
 the race. 
 
THE AFGHANS. 187 
 
 THE AFGHANS. 
 
 Tliis people are directly descended from an ancient 
 Aryan race, and are allied to the Iranians or Persians. 
 They call themselves Pushtun, which has been cor- 
 rupted into Patcm. Their language — the Pushtu — is 
 spoken from the valley of Pishin, south of ^^^^^^ 
 Kandahar to Kaffaristan 'on the north ; and ^^"snage. 
 from the banks of the Helmand on the west to the 
 Indus on the east, in a district, says Capt. Raverty, as 
 large as the Spanish peninsula. 
 
 In physical development, the Afghans are an in- 
 stance of an unmixed race, presenting nearly all gra- 
 dations of color according to the position they occupy 
 and the climate of their respective districts. The 
 Western Afghans on the high table-land are said by 
 Prichard to be fair as Europeans, while those on the 
 Indus are nearly black. 
 
 Of the many wild hordes of this people, the Du- 
 ranis or Western Afghans, are the most civilized and 
 honest. Their creed is Sunnite. The higher classes 
 are somewhat educated in Persian literature. They 
 are very much attached to their native country, and 
 especially to their sacred city, Kandahar. Herat is 
 another of their cities. 
 
188 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 To the eastward of the Duranis, is the country of 
 the Ghilsyes^ another leading Afghan tribe. It 
 stretches to the northwest of the Paropamisan Moun- 
 tains, and eastward to the mountains of Soliman." 
 The Ghilzyes hold Cabul. They differ 
 
 Afghan tribes. 
 
 from the Duranis in having a less arbitrary 
 government. The Berduromis are still another im- 
 portant division in Eastern Afghanistan. Beside 
 these are various independent fierce tribes, the KTiy- 
 heris^ a black people, of the famous Khyber Pass ; the 
 Afridis, on the borders of India, and the Ensof-ze, or 
 "children of Joseph," who touch the Indus on the 
 east. 
 
 It is this Afghan people, it should be remem- 
 bered, who, in the 12th century, conquered India and 
 inflicted unknown evils upon that unhappy land, until 
 the fierce tide of Mongolian conquest under Tamer- 
 lane and his descendants, swept away the last of the 
 Afghan dynasties. 
 
 THE KURDS. 
 
 The country, whence the many roving tribes of 
 this people come, is on the western frontier of Persia. 
 It is bounded on the north by Armenia ; on the east 
 rdi h ^y Aserbeijan and the Persian Irak ; on the 
 territory. ^^^^^ ^^ Khusistau and the district of Bag- 
 dad ; and on the west by the Tigris. The Kurds are 
 
THE KUEDS. 189 
 
 found, however, in Loristan on the Persian Gulf, in 
 the pashaliks of Haleb and Damascus in Asia Minor, 
 in the Russian Empire and the southern parts of 
 Georgia. Their province is divided into two parts bj 
 the Zagros Mountains, the portion west being under 
 the Turkish rule and that on the east under Persian, 
 The whole number of Kurds is estimated at from two 
 to three millions, and, perhaps, will reach four. They 
 are considered to be direct descendants from the an- 
 cient Karduchians mentioned by Xenophon. 
 
 The nation is divided into two great classes of 
 peasants and nobles, who are even to be distinguished 
 in features — ^the former having a softer and j^^^^jjgij 
 more regular countenance, with almost a ^^*^'^'^®*- 
 Grascian type, and the latter being more hard- 
 featured, with eyes deep-sunk and abrupt lines of 
 face. The peasant-class is in a state of great misery 
 and oppression. 
 
 The Kurds are a high-spirited people, much given 
 to plunder and war, and are exceedingly rude in man- 
 ner ; they profess, with the exception of the Yezidis, 
 the Moslem creed. The Kurdish language is Iranian, 
 though having a strong mixture of Arabic and Turk- 
 ish elements, and being without literary cultivation. 
 The upper classes speak, beside their own language, 
 Persian and Turkish. The Kurdish is never taught 
 in their schools, and has no written form. 
 
190 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 The Yezidis.^^ It lias been a long time donbtftil 
 whether this remarkable people were a religious sect 
 or a separate race. They are widely scattered 
 throughout Assyria, Mesopotamia, Korth Syria, Kur- 
 distan, Asia Minor and Armenia. Their principal 
 habitation is in Mesopotamia, within a circuit of two 
 days' journey around Mosul. Their number is about 
 50,000. 
 
 Dr. Grant, in his work on the Kestorians, supposes 
 them to be Semitic, from their Jewish customs of cir- 
 Dr. Grant's cumcisiou and the passover-feast. Mr. "W. 
 ''°^^' F. Ainsworth argues with much ingenuity, 
 
 that they are the direct descendants of the ancient 
 Semitic Assyrians. 
 
 The points of resemblance are the following : In 
 physique, they are described by Haxthausen, as well- 
 formed, large and muscular, with finely arched eye^ 
 brows, black eyes, aquiline nose and a rather broad 
 countenance; features which correspond almost ex- 
 actly to those seen on the Assyrian monuments. 
 Other analogies are, their place of residence on the 
 Eesembiance plains near Kineveh, the architecture of 
 
 to ancient . . 
 
 Assyrians. their tombs, preserving the pecuuar ter- 
 raced form of Assyrian architecture, the use of the 
 
 * This name may be derived from Yezed, meaning the good God, 
 as the Guebres still use it for the good Principle ; or it may be derived 
 from Yezd^ which is now the headquarters, and always has been the 
 chief holy city, of the Fire-worshippers ; or it may come from the ancient 
 name of an Arabic tribe, Azd. (Rev. H. Homes, Bib. Repos., 1842.) 
 
THE TEZmiS. 191 
 
 cylinders and other relics of the ancient Assyrians; 
 the worship of the cock, the adoration of the sun, the 
 traces of fire-worship in their annual festival, and the 
 dedication of a bull to the sun. 
 
 The more received conclusion is that the Tezidis 
 are a Kurdish tribe, of Persian stock, not converted 
 to Mohammedanism, who retained their probably 
 ancient worship of the Sun, and of the 
 Evil Principle, or Shaitan. Others assert that they 
 do not worship Shaitan, but only seek to conciliate 
 him, because of his power, and that they offer sacrifices 
 to him much more than to the Good Spirit, because 
 they are less certain of his kind wishes. The sacred 
 bird, whose image they worship, presents another 
 analogy to the ancient Magian adoration of the sacred 
 birds representing evil spirits. 
 
 It is held by some scholars — and there are strong 
 reasons for this opinion — that the Tezidis were orig- 
 inally Christians, and afterward converted to Man- 
 ichaeism.* 
 
 The important divisions of the Kurds, are the 
 Dschelali, numbering 5,000 tents; the Mela, 2,500 
 tents ; the SchakaM, 50,000 ; the Haideranly, of 
 whom the eastern branch has 4,000 tents, and the 
 western, which wanders from Lake Yan to the Eu- 
 phrates, about 2,000 ; and the Sel ^aly. 
 
 * Haxthausen maintains that their doctrine of Satan, is the Gnostic 
 doctrine of Demiurgus. 
 
192 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 Kearlj all these tribes live by plundering caravans, 
 and then escape either the Persian or Turkish govern- 
 ment, by fleeing from the territory of the one to that 
 of the other, or by retiring to their inaccessible moun- 
 tains. Some are said to be tribes of settled habita- 
 tions; but even these change their whole residence 
 twice or thrice in the year. 
 
 The vices of the two first divisions of tribes we 
 have mentioned, seem gradually destroying them; 
 Gradual ^^^ ^^^ others, the Turkish government is 
 seeking dehberately to denationalize, by 
 transplanting large bodies of them. It is thought by 
 investigators,* that the Kurdish nation will soon 
 utterly disappear. 
 
 The numerous division of the SchaJcaki have been 
 greatly improved in condition and morals, through 
 the efforts of the American Missionaries. ^ 
 
 NESTOEIANS.J" 
 
 Amid the mountains of Kurdistan, and in the 
 northwest province of Persia, Aserbeijan, are the 
 relics of a branch of the great Semitic family, and of 
 the oldest Christian sect — the ISTestorians. 
 
 As a sect, they date from the 5 th century, and 
 they are without doubt a branch of the Aramaeans, 
 early converted to Christianity, and retaining many 
 Jewish customs. Their ancient laneiuage and litera- 
 
THE NESTORIANS. 193 
 
 ture were Syriac, probably the same tongue as that 
 which Christ used in Judsea. The modern probably 
 tongue is a version of Syriac, with Kurdish, 
 Persian, and Turkish words intermingled. The mis- 
 sionaries of this devoted sect once traversed Asia from 
 Palestine to China, and it is supposed that many of 
 the Christians now known to be living in the interior 
 of China, are the descendants of their converts. 
 
 Beside the mountains, the IS'estorians hold the 
 broad plain of Oroomiah, and the Roman Catholic di- 
 vision of the people, called Chaldees, occupy a portion 
 of Mesopotamia. The range of the tribe is from 36° 
 to 39° north latitude, and from 43° to 46'' east lon- 
 gitude. Their least populous districts are jjestorian 
 subject to the Kurds, while others, as the *'^'"'°^y^- 
 valley of the Zab, occupied by the Tiaree, numbering 
 some 50,000, are quite independent. This latter tribe 
 choose their own rulers, and are as brave or ferocious 
 as the Kurds themselves. 
 
 It is probable that ultimately the whole people 
 will come under Turkish authority. The TTestorians 
 are a pastoral people, rarely proprietors of the soil, 
 and sometimes suffering much from poverty. Many 
 in the plains live as serfs under their Mohammedan 
 masters; these latter E'estorians are said to show 
 much more of the Persian urbanity than those in the 
 mountains. 
 
 In appearance, the Kestorians are represented as 
 9 
 
194 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 generally handsome, with regular features, blonde 
 complexion, and light beard. Dr. Grant thinks they 
 bear a strong resemblance to the Jews. 
 
 Much interest has been excited in this people, by 
 the efforts of Dr. Grant to prove their descent from 
 Dr. Grant's *^® *®^ ^^^^ tribcs of Isracl. It is generally 
 t eory. thought by scholars, however, that his argu- 
 
 ment proves too much; and only establishes the 
 Oriental, or at most, Semitic character of the race, not 
 their connection with those particular tribes. 
 
 The whole number of Kestorians was estimated, in 
 1843, at about 140,000. 
 
CHAPTEE XYIII. 
 
 THE EACES OE GEOEGIA, THE CATTCASUS, 
 AND AEMENIA.' 
 
 The Caucasus, Miiller tells us, has been called by 
 tbe Persians the " mountain of languages," such is the 
 mixture of races and tongues that prevails among its 
 valleys. 
 
 Even in the times of Herodotus, each caravan of 
 Greek merchants passing through this region was 
 accompanied by seven interpreters, speak- Mixture of 
 
 , languages in 
 
 mg seven different languages. Through ^^^ Caucasus. 
 the Caucasian isthmus flowed one of the three great 
 streams of early Aryan and Turanian migration from 
 Asia into Europe ; and among these mountains there 
 may be supposed to have been eddies or deposits from 
 all the various streams of race which poured into 
 Europe. Georgia, for instance, presents an Aryan 
 language and race, entirely different from any others 
 surrounding it, and puzzling to the ethnologist from' 
 its position — the Ossetian: Os being the name by 
 which this people is known to its neighbors, and 
 Iron the name they call themselves. They occupy 
 
196 THE EAOES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 the country to tlie north of Tiflis, near the sources of 
 
 the Rion, and in the valley of the Terek. They are 
 
 nominally under Bussian rule. According 
 
 The Ossetians. 
 
 to Georgian traditions, they extended for- 
 merly from the Caucasus to the Don ; and are sup- 
 posed by Klaproth to have been the descendants of 
 a Median colony, transplanted by the Scythians into 
 Sarmatia in the 7th century b, c, and related to the 
 Alans and Eoxolans of the Middle Ages. This theory 
 of their origin is not held to be proved. 
 
 A marked resemblance is observed between many 
 of the customs and practices of the Ossetes and those 
 of the German peasantry ; so much so, as to lead to 
 the theory that they are connected in race with the 
 ancient Teutons. Their language, however, proves 
 . . them to belong to the Persian side of the 
 
 Aryan in O ^ 
 
 race. Aryan family. In physique, the men are 
 
 short, thick-set, with broad, haggard features, blue 
 eyes, red or light brown hair. The women are short, 
 stout, with flat noses, but having small and well- 
 shaped feet. 
 
 The Turanian tribes in this region are much the 
 more numerous. Among these are the Georgicms, the 
 Turanian boundaries of whose country are the river 
 tribes. Alazan on the east ; the Black Sea on the 
 
 west ; the Caucasian Mountains on the north, and the 
 Kur on the south, with some adjacent mountains. 
 They are divided into: (1) the Georgians or GrK>- 
 
THE CIRCASSIANS. 197 
 
 sians ; (2) the inhabitants of Mingrelia and Guria ; 
 (3) the Suans (or Swan) ; and (4) the Lazi. 
 
 The Suans are in part independent and in part 
 subject to Mongolian princes; the Lazi are under 
 Turkish rule and are Mohammedans. Of the Suan 
 language, Berger says that only one third of its roots 
 are Georgian, and the others have no connection with 
 the other Caucasian dialects. Though the language 
 of these tribes is probably Turanian, it is not distinctly 
 connected with that of any of the great Turanian 
 races, and the physical type is like the purest Aryan 
 development. The Georgian women, according to 
 some authorities, are more beautiful than the Cir- 
 cassian. 
 
 The testimony of travellers, however, does not 
 confirm the general impression in regard to the re- 
 markable persona] beauty of the Georgians Beauty of 
 
 . rn-\ 1 1 Georgians and 
 
 and Circassians. They state that the slaves Circassians. 
 sold to the Turks are the best samples of the popula- 
 tion, but that the mass of the people, though well- 
 looking, are by no means conspicuous for beauty. 
 Eeinegg says rather spitefully : " A short leg, a small 
 foot, and glaring red hair constitute a Circassian 
 beauty." Haxthausen, on the other hand, describes 
 the Georgians as tall, slender, of noble bearing, with 
 regular features, aquiline nose, finely-fonned mouth, 
 dark complexion, dark eyes and hair. 
 
198 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 THE CAUCASIAN KACES 
 
 May be divided into three brandies. (1) The East- 
 ern, or Lesghi ; (2) tbe Middle, or Mizjeghi ^ (3) the 
 Western, or Circassicm and Ahasicm. 
 
 In Lesghistan, the country of the Lesghi, there are 
 
 four different languages spoken : the Avarian, that of 
 
 the Kasikunauks, of Akuska, and Kura. 
 
 Lesghians. _^ 
 
 With the Lesghi are mingled many Turkic 
 tribes, who have in some degree caused this variety 
 of tongues. The Lesghians are Mohammedans, and 
 their faith has during late years been stimulated 
 by the Porte for the sake of opposing Eussian in- 
 fluence. 
 
 The Lesghic language is thought to show affinities 
 with both African and American dialects, but cannot 
 be certainly classified. 
 
 Of the Mizjeghi (or TshetsTi), without going into 
 a minute classification of the tribes, it is only necessary 
 to say, that with the exception of the Ingush, they 
 are aU Mohammedans, and bitterly opposed to Russia. 
 Their language has many Turanian features, and was 
 supposed to have belonged to the Samoiedic class ; but 
 doubts are thrown on this, and its position is yet un- 
 certain. 
 
 The CirGassians, who occupy the coast of the 
 Black Sea, to the northwest of the Caucasian Moun- 
 
 1 
 
THE CAUCASIAN KACE8. 199 
 
 tains, have become known to the world, especially 
 through their heroic resistance of the E.us- 
 
 Circassians. 
 
 sians. These call themselves Adighe, while 
 
 those of the interior, in the Kabardah, are called 
 
 " Cherkessian." They formerly extended even to the 
 
 Crimea. A portion, only, have been subjected by 
 
 Kussia. 
 
 The Ahassicms, says MiiUer, have held their pres- 
 ent districts on the Black Sea, since the Christian era. 
 A part of them on the coast have been 
 conquered by the Russians, but those in the 
 interior are still independent. The ethnological posi- 
 tion of these tribes is still doubtful, though probably 
 Turanian. Their physical traits are black hair, blue 
 eyes, a finely shaped nose, sallow complexion and 
 small thin forms. The princes and nobles have much 
 larger and more powerful frames than the peasantry. 
 
 The population of the Caucasian tribes is thus 
 given by M. Miiller, from whom, as well as from 
 Klaproth, these condensed statements are taken : 
 
 Cherkessians, 280,000 
 
 Abassians, 140,000, 
 
 Ossetes, 60,000 
 
 Georgians, 50,000 
 
 Mizjeghians, 110,000 
 
 Lesghians, 400,000 
 
 Tatars (Turkic), 80,000 
 
 120,000 
 
200 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 Berger gives a somewhat different estimate, as 
 well as ethnological division. (Peter. Mitt. Y, 1860.) 
 
 Abassian (or Abchasian) stock, . . 144,346 
 
 Suan (or Swanethian), 1639 houses, or about 10,000 
 
 Circassian (or Adige), .... 290,549 
 
 Ubicbian, . 25^00 
 
 Turkish (Tatar), 44,989 
 
 Tsbetsb, 117,080 
 
 Tuscbinian, Pscbawians, and Ohewssurien, 11,456 
 
 Lesgbian, 399,761 
 
 Ossetian, . 27,339 
 
 "With respect to the political position of these 
 various tribes, the American Missionaries, Messrs. 
 Dwight and Smith, state, that the limits of Eussian 
 Political sway among them do not at all correspond 
 relations. ^^ ^-j^^ pretended boundaries on Russian 
 maps. "^Nearly half of the country of the Abas- 
 sians," they say, "is marked as subject to Russia, but 
 in fact, their authority is acknowledged no farther 
 than the guns of their garrison reach. Swaneti, too, 
 has the same mark of subjection, though it is well 
 known that the Swani (Soanes) confine themselves to 
 the neighborhood of the perpetual snows of Elburz, in 
 order not to compromise their liberty. Two passes 
 through the mountains, also, are marked as Russian 
 soil ; but not even the weekly mail is sent through 
 that of Dariel without an escort, amounting, some- 
 times, to a hundred soldiers, two field pieces, and 
 
THE CAUCASIAN KACES. 201 
 
 several Cossacks. * * * To the territory of the 
 Lesghies, Russia has a more plausible claim." 
 
 Of the religions of these tribes, the same writers 
 state, that " with the exception of about 200 families 
 of Armenians among the Cherkes, a considerable 
 body of Jews around Andi-era, on the borders of 
 Daghistan, and the Lesgies, who are known as bigoted 
 Siinny Moslems, the religion of the mountains is a 
 nondescript mixture of Mohammedanism, Christianity, 
 and Paganism. In the superstitions of some of the 
 tribes, as the Abkhaz and Cherkes, the features of the 
 Moslem faith are predominant; in others, as the 
 Swani, Christianity forms the largest ingredient ; and 
 in others still, as the Ossetians and Ingoosh, we find 
 little but Paganism, associated with a strong 
 predilection for Christianity over Moham- 
 medanism. History, tradition, and monuments, in 
 their country, unite with various parts of their super- 
 stitions, to testify that nearly all of them once pro- 
 fessed the faith of Christ." The following vivid de- 
 scription of the costumes in Tiflis, by the same author- 
 ities, will give an idea of the mingling of nationalities 
 in those provinces. 
 
 The Russian soldier stands sentry at the corners of the 
 streets, in a coarse great-coat, concealing the want 
 
 ^ ' ° Costumes. 
 
 of a better uniform, and even of decent clothing. 
 The Russian subaltern jostles carelessly along in a little cloth 
 cap, narrow-skirted coat, and tight pantaloons, with epaulettes 
 9* 
 
202 THE KACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 dangling in front of naturally round shoulders. In perfect con- 
 trast to him stands the stately Turk, if not in person, yet repre- 
 sented by some emigrant Armenian, with turbanned head, and 
 bagging shalwdr. The Georgian priest appears, cane in hand, 
 with a green gown, long hair, and broad-brimmed hat, while 
 black, flowing robes, and a cylindrical lambskin cap, mark his 
 clerical brother of the Armenian Church. The dark Lesgy, with 
 the two-edged Tcama (short-sword), the most deadly of all instru- 
 ments of death, dangling at his side, seems prowling for his vic- 
 tim as an avenger of blood. The city-bred Armenian merchant 
 waits upon his customers, snugly dressed, in an embroidered 
 frock coat, gay calico frock, red silk shirt, and ample green 
 trousers, also of silk. The tall lank Georgian peasant, with an 
 upright, conical, sheepskin cap, and scantUy clothed, looks as 
 independent in his cloak of felt, as Diogenes in his tub. His old 
 oppressor, the Persian, is known by more flowing robes, 
 smoothly combed beard, and nicely dinted cap. In the midst 
 of his swine, appears the half-clad Mingrelian, with bonnet like 
 a tortoise-shell, tied loosely upon his head. And in a drove of 
 spirited horses, is a hardy mountaineer, whose round cap, with 
 a shaggy flounce of sheepskin dangling over his eyes, and the 
 breast of his coat wrought into a cartridge-box, show him to 
 be a Circassian. 
 
 THE ARMENIANS, 
 
 This people, though inhabiting a territory which 
 has been the battle-ground of the world, always op- 
 pressed and conquered, even by far inferior races, has 
 yet through many ages preserved its rich physical and 
 mental endowments, and has retained its language, 
 customs, ritual and religion. 
 
THE ABMENIAJSrS. 203 
 
 From various causes, by conquest, forcible removal 
 and voluntary emigration, the Armenians have been 
 remarkably scattered over Eastern Europe and Asia. 
 They are found in Anatolia, the north of Syria, Meso- 
 potamia, Georgia, Circassia, Persia, and in 
 
 r ■) o J 5 5 ^ Dispersion. 
 
 Russia and European Turkey. Systematic 
 and successful efforts have been made by the Russian 
 Government to induce them to emigrate from their 
 own provinces to the Russian territory. They are a 
 people especially devoted to mercantile pursuits, and 
 Armenian merchants may be met with in St. Peters- 
 burgh, Yienna, Yenice, Constantinople, Cairo, Bom- 
 bay, Calcutta, and many other cities. Yet in all 
 countries, they look back with unchanging affection 
 to the Patriarchate, and their native land. 
 
 Armenia Proper consists of the valley of the Aras, 
 the country between the Kur and the Aj-as, the valley 
 of Murad-chai, or Eastern Euphrates, and the basins 
 of Lake Yan and Lake Oroomiah. The 
 boundaries on the side of Kurdistan and 
 Aserbeijan, are more uncertain. Its extent is 430 
 miles in longitude, and 300 miles in latitude. It con- 
 tains politically the Russian governments of Erivan, 
 Shoosha and Tiflis; the chieftainships of various 
 Kurdish chiefs; the Persian government of Tabriz, 
 and the Ottoman pashaliks of Kars, Erzroom, and 
 others. Armenia Minor embraces the pashalik of 
 Cesarea, with other minor Turkish pashaliks. 
 
 Boundaries 
 of Armenia. 
 
204: THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 The people are spoken of with commendation by 
 travellers, as showing far more honesty and intelli- 
 gence than their Turkish masters or neighbors. They 
 are far superior to any Oriental race in agriculture. 
 Their religion is Christian, though often much cor- 
 rupted, and they have held to it with great faithful- 
 ness in persecution and exile. Their nature seems 
 more open to spiritual ideas, than that of any other 
 Eastern people. 
 
 The Armenians are a member of the great Aryan 
 family, though their language differs, both from the 
 Indian and Iranian type. It has preserved a rich 
 ^^ ^^ literature, dating from the 4:th century a. d. 
 
 in race. ijij^^ ancieut tongue is a dead language ; the 
 
 modern, according to Dwight and Smith, is divided 
 into two dialects : one, that of Constantinople, which 
 has spread through Asia Minor and Erzroom, and has 
 borrowed many forms* from the Turkish ; the other, 
 the dialect of Mount Ararat, or Armenia, which has 
 a greater resemblance to the ancient tongue, and is 
 spoken in the other parts of Armenia. 
 
 Prof. Keumann claims the Armenian as belonging 
 to the old Medo-Persian family, " so that most of the 
 
 * This fact is adduced by Mr. Marsh, as an evidence that even the 
 grammar of one race may become mingled with that of another (Orig. 
 and Hist, of Eng. Lang., p. 46) ; but it seems true, here, only to a 
 limited extent in the cities. Dr. W. H. Thompson, who has spent his 
 life among these races, assures the author, that the Armenians only 
 speak Turkish where they are a small minority in the midst of Turks. 
 
THE AKMENIAJSrS. 205 
 
 Median words preserved by Herodotus, can be ex- 
 plained by means of the Armenian." Tliis is ques- 
 tioned, however. 
 
 In physique, the Armenians are handsome and 
 well made, with dark complexions. They are a sober, 
 industrious, frugal and hospitable people. 
 
PART FIFTH. 
 
 OCEANIC ETHNOGRAPEY. 
 
 CHAPTEE XIX. 
 
 THE K A C E S OF OCEANICA. 
 
 We shall use the term Oceai^ica, in the sense in 
 which it is applied by many writers on ethnography, 
 as describing all the land comprised between the 
 coasts of Asia and America, including the East Indian 
 Archipelago, the many smaller clusters of the Pacific, 
 and the continent of l!^ew Holland. 
 
 The whole subject, of the distinctions in race 
 uncertaint amoug the wild inhabitants who have set- 
 ofrace, ^|^^ ^^ tlicse couutless islauds — the "no- 
 
 mads of the sea," as Prof. Miiller calls them, is even 
 more intricate and involved than the differences among 
 the nomads of the land. The languages of many of 
 the tribes have never even been compared, and some 
 of them are scarcely known at all, so that all conclu- 
 sions must necessarily, as yet, be very doubtful and 
 liable to much change hereafter. 
 
 I 
 
THE KACES OF OCEAOTCA. 207 
 
 There are at least two very different schools on 
 this subject, each represented by high authority. 
 One, led by the celebrated "William von Humboldt, 
 assigns but two, or at most three, races of „ ^ „, , 
 
 d ' 5 HnniDoldt and 
 
 men to this immense range of inhabitable ^''^^^'^'■<^- 
 land, namely the Malay, the Polynesian and a race 
 of Oriental negroes. 
 
 The other, represented by a scholar of great ability, 
 Mr. J. Crawfurd, divides the inhabitants of Oceanica 
 into five brown races, with lank hair, distinguished by 
 varieties of language ; and eight races of Oriental ne- 
 groes. The tendency, however, of all late investiga- 
 tion is toward the unity of these varieties, and modern 
 conclusions approach those of Humboldt much more 
 than those of Crawfiird. 
 
 OcEAincA may be divided into five great divisions : 
 (1) Malaisia, or the East Indian islands, Gg^erai 
 together with the peninsula of Malacca, 
 inhabited by the Malay race. Of these islands, the 
 most prominent are Sumatra, Java, Borneo, 
 
 Malaisia. 
 
 Celebes, Molucca, Sooloo, and the Philip- 
 pines. (2) Melanesia, or the islands inhabited by a 
 dark race, with woolly or frizzled hair, 
 comprising l!f ew Guinea, Arroo, Mysol, and 
 others, together with Kew Britain, IS'ew Ireland, the 
 Solomon isles, and ITew Hebrides. (3) 
 
 Australia. 
 
 Australia, or Ifew Holland, a vast island 
 
 sparsely peopled by a black race, with straight, smooth 
 
208 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 hair. (4) Micronesia, a long range of little groups of 
 
 islands and strips of coral rock in tlie ISTorth Pacific, 
 
 east of tlie PMlippines, including the 
 
 Pelew, Ladrone, Banabe, and numerous 
 
 other islands from 132° E. longitude to 178° W. ; and 
 
 from 21° K. latitude to 5° S. (5) Polynesia, or the 
 
 islands in the East Pacific, occupied by a 
 
 race kindred to the Malay, of which the 
 
 best known are the Navigators, the Friendly, Society, 
 
 and Sandwich islands, together with New Zealand. 
 
 The great natural peculiarities of this quarter of 
 the globe which have determined the divisions of 
 race and family, have been its insular character, the 
 T, , . . periodicity of its winds and the malar- 
 
 Determimng -t J 
 
 causes of race, j^^^ climate of somc of the islands; while 
 the existence of a people on its western border, with 
 a highly flexible and euphonious language, and gifted 
 with much enterprise — the Malay race — has affected 
 the ruling stock through all this wide region. These 
 nomads of the sea, whenever desiring adventure, or 
 seeking commerce or plunder, or driven forth by de- 
 feat or by hunger, had only to put themselves and 
 their wives, with their few utensils into their light 
 canoes, and trust themselves to the prevailing trade 
 winds, and they were certain, finally, to land on some 
 new island, where they could either intermingle with 
 the old inhabitants, or form a new community. It is 
 thus that the almost countless islands, from the Phil- 
 
THE KACES OF OCEANICA. 209 
 
 ippines to Easter Island, through. 8,000 miles of ocean, 
 were peopled by a similar race. 
 
 There were certain of the islands, which only ad- 
 mitted of the habitation of the black tribes, owing to 
 the highly malarious character of the climate, and 
 upon them, especially these tribes are found. 
 
 The climate has probably protected them against 
 the assaults of the more organized nations. Whether 
 they were the original settlers, is impossible to deter- 
 mine. Their usual position on the mountains, in the 
 interior of an island, would indicate an earlier habita- 
 tion. Possibly, as is supposed by some ethnologists, 
 their appearance here may date back to an immense 
 antiquity, before all the islands were separated from 
 one another or from the Asiatic Continent;* while 
 their color and their power of resisting malarious in- 
 fluences may be due to the gradual accumulation and 
 transmission of advantageous changes, adapting them 
 to their circumstances, through vastly extended pe- 
 riods of time. 
 
 Judging from the gradual change in language and 
 customs as well as from other indications, the great 
 movement of the Oceanican peoples must Principal 
 
 migration 
 
 have been from west to east, against the eastward. 
 prevailing trade wind ; and investigations show that 
 
 * Both Dana and Hale notice evidences of a gradual subsidence of 
 the land, even in the historic period ; the ruins of temples on Banabe, 
 for instance, being found partly submerged by the sea. 
 
210 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 even now, at peculiar seasons of the year, there are 
 regular winds blowing from the west, which drift 
 the natives hundreds and thousands of miles. 
 
 One great link has, perhaps, been discovered by 
 Prof. Miiller and others, showing the connection be- 
 tween the nomads of the sea and the no- 
 
 LlDKS 
 
 andMa?ay^^ mads of tho land, in their investigations 
 " ' into the Tai and Malay languages. It ap- 
 pears from these, that these two bodies of language 
 resemble each other in the following particulars : 
 
 (1) In the want of inflections. (2) In the fact that particles 
 expressing grammatical inflections, which, in certain languages, 
 must always he placed after the root, in these languages can he 
 either pre- or post-positions. (3) The genitive is expressed hy 
 juxtaposition, and the governed word is last — the reverse of the 
 Chinese. (4) The accusative takes no preposition. (5) Other 
 cases are formed hy prepositions. (6) The plural is expressed 
 by an adjective, and the singular often hy the addition of the 
 numeral one. (7) Gender is not expressed except hy the addi- 
 tion of a word. (8) The adjective follows the noun. (9) Com- 
 parison is expressed by a preposition. (10) Malay numerals 
 resemble the Tai and the Turanian method, in forming the num- 
 ber 8 by writing 10-2, and 9 by 10 -I, (11) These lan- 
 guages, together with the Burmese and the Chinese, have a 
 common pecuHarity in the use of a word, corresponding to our 
 word, head or sail. As, for instance, they describe beasts, 
 birds, fish, or reptiles, as so many " tail; " or trees, logs, spars, 
 or javelins, as so many " stems ;^^ or cannon, guns, candles, 
 torches, and letters, as so many " tops." 
 
THE MALAYS. 211 
 
 These generic exponents or numerical afiixes are 
 entirely peculiar to those languages. Many other 
 evidences are adduced of the relation between the 
 languages of the islands and the Asiatic continent, so 
 that if this connection be fairly established, the lan- 
 guage of a vast portion of Oceanica may be included 
 in the great Turanian family. 
 
 THE MALAYS. 
 
 Besides the large islands, which have already been 
 spoken of as occupied by this family, they hold also 
 the small islands south of the Philippines up 
 
 n ~KT r-t • T ^ Malay area. 
 
 to the west coast oi JN ew (iumea, and those 
 on the east point of Java, as well as those between 
 Java and Sumatra, up to the straits of Malacca. 
 Their language, which is found purest on the Philip- 
 pines, is one of the most widely extended of Asia, 
 traces of it being discovered from Madagascar to 
 Easter Island, and from Formosa to l^ew Zealand, 
 over YO degrees of latitude and 200 of longitude. 
 This race has for ages possessed the knowledge of let- 
 ters, worked metals and domesticated useful animals, 
 and has led the commerce and enterprise of the Pacific 
 Ocean. The flexibility of its tongue has made it 
 everywhere the medium of communication, and even 
 in Madagascar, at 3,000 miles distance, Malay words 
 form one fifty-seventh of the vocabulary of the island- 
 ers. The Malay conquests and settlements, after the 
 
212 THE KACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 remote emigration from the continent, are supposed 
 by Crawfiird to have begmi from the centre of Suma- 
 tra, and to have first extended to the Malay Peninsula 
 and the coasts of Borneo. Their influence was only 
 excluded from two quarters by different causes — from 
 the Asiatic shores by the superior Chinese civilization 
 already prevailing there, and from Australia by the 
 great degradation of the inhabitants. Physical obsta- 
 cles alone prevented their reaching the coasts of 
 America. The Malay language shows that it has 
 been acted upon by both Indian and Chinese in- 
 fluences. 
 
 The Malay bodily type is described by Prichard as 
 
 Indo-Chinese. The nose is short, but not flat, the 
 
 mouth large and lips thin, cheek bones 
 
 Physique. 
 
 high, and face broadest at that point; the 
 complexion yellowish. The form is squat, and height 
 only about five feet three or four inches. 
 
 THE POLYNESIANS. 
 
 The second great race, of similar physical structure 
 and language with the Malays and undoubtedly of 
 the same origin, are the Polynesians. The islands 
 especially occupied by this people, are those lying be- 
 tween ^N'ew Zealand and Easter Isle, north up to the 
 Sandwich Islands, and west as far as the Feejee and 
 New Hebrides. Mixtures of this with other races, 
 
THE POLYNESIANS. 213 
 
 are found all over the islands of the Pacific. They 
 were for centuries a half-civilized people, and have 
 possessed a well established government, History 
 
 obtained from 
 
 together with religious doctrines and usages, language. 
 and a sacred language unintelligible to the people, as 
 well as a system of ecclesiastical authority. They ex- 
 hibited skill in various arts, and were bold and expe- 
 rienced as sailors. They had no writing, but possessed 
 many legends and traditional poetry. Yet they and 
 their kindred, the Malay race, have the infamy of 
 being the principal and almost the only race indulging 
 habitually in cannibalism. 
 
 Physically, the Polynesians are placed among the 
 class of light brown complexion, verging to white. 
 They are described by Hale, as above the middle 
 height, well formed, with thick strong black hair, 
 slightly curled, and scanty beard ; the head short and 
 broad, and higher than most races in their stage of 
 development, with a remarkably flat posterior head, 
 like that of the American Indians. In disposition, 
 they are represented as good humored and fickle, and 
 very ready to adopt new usages. 
 
 The Polynesian language, Hale supposes to have 
 spread especially from Bouro, the easternmost of the 
 Malay islands. 
 
 The whole number of the Polynesians proper, is 
 less than 600,000. 
 
 From the evidence of language, Mr. Crawfurd con- 
 
214 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 eludes that there was, in the ante-historic times, a 
 great Polynesian nation, whose speech lies at the basis 
 of all the various Malay and Polynesian languages at 
 crawfard'3 ^^^ prescut day. This people— judging 
 theory. from the rccords preserved in the words 
 
 they have transmitted — had made some progress in 
 agriculture and understood the use of gold and iron ; 
 were clothed " with a fabric made of the fibrous bark 
 of plants, which they wove in the loom," while know- 
 ing nothing of the manufacture of cotton, which they 
 acquired afterward from India. They had tamed the 
 cow and the buffalo, and possessed and fed upon the 
 hog, the domestic fowl and the duck. 
 
 The massive ruins and remains of pyramidal struc- 
 tures and terraced buildings on the Pacific islands, 
 are probably from this primeval race. 
 
 THE MICRONESIANS. 
 
 MicEONESiA, as was before stated, embraces a long 
 range of small islands iii the Korth Pacific, east of the 
 Philippines, including the Pelew, Ladrone, Banabe, 
 and others, from 132° east longitude to 178° west; 
 and from 21° north latitude to 5° south. 
 
 Owing to the peculiar position of these islands, 
 they are exposed to winds blowing from various quar- 
 ters, so that the emigration which settled them, would 
 naturally be from many different sources. In physical 
 
THE MICKONESIANS. 215 
 
 type, the people are of reddisli brown complexioii, 
 rouffli sMn and high bold features: the 
 
 ^' ^ ' Physique. 
 
 head is high, compared with its breadth, 
 hair black and curled. They show skill in various 
 arts, and in Hale's view, give indications of having 
 descended from a higher to a lower civilization. In 
 advance of the Polynesians, they possess the art of var- 
 nishing and of weaving ; they also understand steer- 
 ing by the stars. The practice of tattooing is observed, 
 not only for decency or ornament, as with 
 
 Arts. 
 
 other tribes, but for the purpose of distin- 
 guishing clans and memorizing events. Their gov- 
 ernment is more intricate than that of the Polynesians, 
 and their religion is different, resembling more that 
 of Eastern Asia, and recognizing the worship of 
 parents. Taboo is not in use. On some of the islands, 
 as Banabe and others, architectural ruins ^enjarkabie 
 of a remarkable appearance are found. The ^'^^' 
 language of Tarawa contains a mixture of Polynesian 
 and Melanesian or Papuan, but on the whole, it is 
 uncertain if there is a distiuct Micronesian race. 
 
 THE MELANESIANS. 
 
 The black tribes of Oceanica present a difficult 
 subject to the student of races. I^ot enough is known 
 of their languages, to affirm either as to their origin 
 or their divisions. 
 
216 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 They are found first in the west, on the Andaman 
 Islands, between 10° and 14° north latitude. These 
 Melanesians, or l^egrillos, are considered by Prof. ^ 
 Owen, as the lowest of mankind. They have no tradi- 
 tion or history ; no inventions, except door-mats, and 
 bows and arrows ; no agriculture, and their habitations 
 are the rudest and most primitive. Both sexes go 
 naked without shame, and families and wives are in 
 common. According to the same authority, the An- 
 Andaman damaus havo no notion of Deity, or spir- 
 itual beings, or a future state ; an assertion 
 which does not seem easily proved. They are not 
 cannibals, but show a great hostility to strangers. 
 Neither skull nor teeth present the characteristics of 
 the lowest African tribes. Prognathism is no more 
 common than in most of the South Asiatic peoples ; 
 the hair resembles that of the Papuans and Austra- 
 lians, as well as of the lower African negroes. They 
 approach the orangs and chimpanzees in their dimin- 
 utive stature, but show the well-balanced human pro- 
 portion of trunk to Kmbs. Latham states that there 
 is a very evident link of connection between the lan- 
 guage of the Andamans and the monosyllabic Bur- 
 mese. 
 
 The black tribes next appear in the l^icobar 
 Islands ; then upon the mountains of Malacca, where 
 they are called " Semangs," and in the Philippines, 
 
THE MELAJfESIANS. 217 
 
 where, under the name of Negritos* they number 
 about 25,000. On Lugon, there are three thousand 
 of them under the Spanish rule. On Ceram, a tribe 
 of them is found so low, as to live in trees 
 
 Black tribes. 
 
 instead of huts. A wild race of blacks is 
 supposed also to occupy the interior of Borneo, though 
 there is not full evidence of it. 
 
 Crawfurd supposes that there is but one race of 
 Oriental negroes, as these blacks are called, north of 
 the equator, and two races south in the Malay Archi- 
 pelago and on New Guinea. Of these latter, one has 
 the negro features, but not in the extreme. The hair 
 is frizzled, long and bushy, skin of lighter color, fore- 
 head higher, and the posterior head not " cut off," as 
 it were. The nose projects, the upper lip is longer, 
 and prominent, and the lower very projecting. The 
 other race, he distinguishes by its lank hair. 
 
 The more general conclusion now is, that there is 
 but one race of Oriental negroes, even in- ^^^ ^^^^ 
 eluding the black Australians and the in- ''^'^^sroes. 
 habitants of Yan Diemen's Land. Latham doubts 
 
 * The Negritos are said by Bowring to possess a remarkable facility 
 in the use of their toes, aud their feet are marked by a greater sepa- 
 ration of the toes than is usual. They can descend the rigging of a ship, 
 head downward, clinging with their feet. 
 
 They are slight in form, agile, small" and thin, with handsome face 
 and dark copper complexion. The hair is black and curly ; head small 
 and round ; forehead narrow ; eyes large and penetrating, and veiled by 
 very long eyelids ; the nose of medium size, slightly depressed ; mouth 
 and lips medium ; teeth long. (Sir J. Bowring's Visit to Phil. Islands.) 
 10 
 
218 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 even the existence of the negro tribes on the smaller 
 islands of Melanesia. 
 
 " The Australian languages are more like the Mar 
 lay and the Polynesian, than they are like anything 
 else." There are often, he allows, greater approaches 
 of the black to the brown tribes in language, than the 
 received physical divisions would justify. 
 
 The black tribes are not considered, by travellers, 
 as inferior in capacity to the brown, but they are pe- 
 culiarly wild and impatient of control, and thus not 
 easily organized, so that they readily fall under the 
 power of the Malays. It is not found to be true that 
 the blacks disappear before the advance of civilization 
 in the Eastern Ocean. On the contrary, in some 
 islands, even the most civilized, they have increased ; 
 but the great cause of their decrease, is to be found in 
 the bitter hostility and superior organization of the 
 Malays and Polynesians. 
 
 Without the knowledge of their languages, these 
 physical divisions are not sufficient to determine origin 
 Probable or the divisious of race. The probability 
 
 connection , . fv» 
 
 with Asia. ig^ that thcsc black tribes are off-shoots from 
 the ancient black races of India and Asia, scattered 
 widely by the conquest of others or their own pursuit 
 of plunder, over the Pacific Islands. A black tribe is 
 known still to exist on the mountains between Cochin 
 China and Cambodia, called the Moys^ which may be 
 a portion of their ancestral people. On some of the 
 
THE MELAIfESIANS. 219 
 
 many islands wluch the black nations settled, they 
 were extirpated, or were driven to the mountains, 
 where they are still found ; on others, the malarious 
 climate defended them from foreign encroachment, 
 and on others, they became mingled with a different 
 race. Many of the Melanesian tribes present great 
 mixtures of blood. 
 
 The Papuas, who are distinguished by spirally 
 twisted hair, frizzled and dressed by them in a huge 
 mass above the head, are a cross of the dark races 
 with the Malays. The Eastern Islands — as Tanna 
 and others — show Polynesian blood. Timor 
 
 ... . Papuas. 
 
 contams within its limits every variety of 
 color and hair. The Peejees* are probably a 
 mixture of Papuans and Polynesians. In their 
 mould, they are said by Mr. Williams to be de- 
 cidedly European, with very large and powerful 
 frames. The face is oval, profile vertical, nose well- 
 shaped, but the hair frizzled and bushy. The com- 
 plexion is between the black and brown— sometimes 
 almost "purple." The nearest approach to the negro 
 is on the island of Kandavu. The Feejees resemble 
 the blacks in their use of the bow, and the manufac- 
 
 * The Feejee Islands, Mr. Williams supposes to be the point, where 
 the Asiatic and African elements among the Polynesians unite. (Fiji, 
 &c., p. 12.) 
 
 H. C. von der Gabelentz finds evidence of the mixture of Polynesian 
 and Melanesian in the Feejee language. (Die Melan. Spr., Leipzig, 
 1860.) 
 
220 THE BACE8 OF THE OLD WOBLD, 
 
 ture of their pottery, and tlie Polynesians in tlie mak- 
 ing of their paper-cloth, the preparation of 
 
 X 66J665. 
 
 Ka/va, and the practice of tattooing. The 
 language contains one-fifth of Polynesian words and 
 four-fifths unlike any other tongue. The aborigines 
 of Van Diemen's Land are classed by some among the 
 Papuans. The Melanesians are notoriously sullen of 
 disposition and deficient in enterprise, and manifest a 
 different temperament from either that of the Poly- 
 nesians or Africans. 
 
 The prominent distinction between the languages 
 of the negro and the brown races, Crawfurd states to 
 be, that the first contain more consonants in proportion 
 to vowels and more harsh combinations of consonants 
 than the latter. 
 
 H. C. von der Gabelentz has made a careful in- 
 vestigation of the dialects of many of the Melanesian 
 tribes. Those, for instance, of the inhabitants of the 
 Feejee Islands, of Annatom, Erroma/ngo, Tcma, 
 MalUholo, Mare, Lifu, JBaladea, Bauro, and Quad- 
 alcanar. 
 
 His deliberate and carefully-formed conclusion is 
 that all the Melanesian languages, though disinteg- 
 Meianesians ''^ted and apparently separated from one 
 another, owing to the barbarism and isola- 
 tion of each of the tribes, do yet belong to one stock. 
 He is also of opinion that both in roots and in many 
 grammatical peculiarities, there are numerous re- 
 
THE AUSTEALIAN8. 221 
 
 markable resemblances between the Polynesian and 
 Melanesian, so that the hypothesis of their common 
 origin is a highly probable one. 
 
 If this be hereafter more fully demonstrated, the 
 whole vast population of brown and black peoples, the 
 Malays, Polynesians and Melanesians, may be referred 
 to one source, and in all probability be joined with the 
 Turanian races of Asia. 
 
 Latham makes a separate division of the Oceanican langua- 
 ges, into the " Papua class," comprising those of N. Britannia, 
 N. Hanover, N. Ireland, Solomon Islands, &c., MalicoUo, Erro- 
 mango, Annatom, &c., &c. 
 
 THE AUSTEAXIA2fS. 
 
 The inhabitants of Australia and Yan Diemen's 
 Land, belonging to the black races, are pronounced to 
 be almost the lowest of mankind. They have no gov- 
 ernment, and their religion consists only of the most 
 childish or debased superstitions. Their Different 
 
 accounts of 
 
 physical type seems a cross of the Malay their physique. 
 and the African, the most distinguishing feature being 
 the long, fine wavy hair, like the hair of a European. 
 The evidence with reference to their physique is 
 quite conflicting. Many of them are said to show a 
 deficiency of l)one in their structure ; and some tribes 
 are represented as so degenerated, physically, as to 
 resemble cretins, and to be in process of extinction. 
 On the other hand, Pickering states that one of the 
 
222 THE EACE8 OP THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 finest types of muscular frame and tlie most classic 
 mould of head lie has ever beheld, he saw among 
 the Australian natives. He speaks of them as active, 
 strongly-formed and stately. Yarious physical types 
 probably exist among them. In general, the features 
 are as follows : The forehead is narrow, mouth large 
 with thick lips ; the nose depressed and widened at 
 the base, but often aquiline; the beard thick, the 
 form slight, though well-proportioned, and color black. 
 The number of these blacks in Australia is said to be 
 about 200,000. They are supposed to be all of the 
 same stock, though this conclusion is derived more 
 from a resemblance discovered in a few words than a 
 close comparison of grammar. I^ot a Malay word is 
 found in their language. Of their character, a com- 
 petent witness (Rev. "Wm. Ridley) says that they are 
 deficient in forethought and concentrativeness, but 
 that in mental acumen and in quickness of sight and 
 hearing, they are superior to the whites. They are 
 generous, honest to one another, and often attentive to 
 the weak and the aged, though cruel to women. 
 iPfotwithstanding their barbarous condition, there ex- 
 ists among them a very strict division of castes, and 
 a certain kind of priesthood. 
 
 It is interesting to know, what capacities the lowest 
 tribe or race of the human family may show. "We 
 learn from quotations of a recent report to the English 
 Government on this subject, that the Australian ne- 
 
THE AUSTRALIANS. 223 
 
 groes show minds quick and keen — "rather like a 
 treasure sealed up than a vacuum." Their ^j^^.^. 
 perceptive faculties are remarkable — far '^^p'**''*^- 
 superior to those of Europeans, while as might be 
 expected, they are deficient in the reflective powers. 
 As a consequence, the children are found to learn an 
 external study, as geography, with great readiness,' 
 though showing much inaptitude for an abstract study, 
 like arithmetic. Mr. Parker, a Yisiting Magistrate of 
 the School in Mt. Franklin, says that the p^vorabie 
 native children manifest just as great ^*"=°"^'^*^- 
 capacities for improvement as do English children, 
 and that the main obstacle to their elevation is from 
 moral rather than physical causes. 
 
 The numerals of the Australian languages rarely 
 reach ^e, and generally stop at three. Some aflSnities 
 have been discovered between them and the Tamul. 
 
 We have classed the Tasmanian tribes (of Yan 
 Diemen's Land) with them, but the basis for classifi- 
 cation is, as yet, extremely uncertain. 
 
 The great difficulty in determining the races of 
 Oceanica, is, that the tendency of a nomad- rpg^^g^^ ^^ 
 ic people to continually form new words ''^^ ^'''i^*'^- 
 and new languages as they found new colonies, is 
 here intensified by the separation which the sea natur- 
 ally causes. There is something too in the disposition 
 of the black races which has doubtless increased this 
 
224 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 tendency to disintegration. Crawfurd, who may have 
 exaggerated in this particular, states that there are 
 forty languages on the little island of Timor, and 
 many hundreds in Borneo. 
 
 JSTearly all writers allow that climate and circum- 
 stances have produced the most marked effects here 
 Effects of ^^ persons of the same race. Among the 
 climate. Tahitiaus and Maorians, for instance, the 
 lowest castes are found nearly as black as negToes, and 
 with crisp woolly hair, while the higher — the chiefs 
 and others — ^less exposed to the sun and to the in- 
 fluences of the weather, resemble Europeans both in 
 features and complexion, though both, there is every 
 reason to believe, belong to the Polynesian race. 
 Similar differences are observed on New Zealand 
 among the blacks. 
 
 The Semangs — ^the blacks of Malacca — are brown 
 where not exposed to the sun, and in language and 
 character have so strong a resemblance to the Malays, 
 as to be considered by many a tribe of that race. 
 
 The points of resemblance between the Poly- 
 nesians and the Central American Indians are so 
 striking, as to induce many writers to assign the same 
 origin to both peoples. 
 
 The Asiatic origin of the Malayo-Polynesian races 
 Asiatic seems to us clearly indicated, so that these 
 
 origin. resemblances cannot be considered in this 
 
 connection. 
 
PART SIXTH. 
 
 ETHNOLOGY OF AFRICA. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 I. THE SEMITIC TEIBES. 
 (a) THE BEEBEK3. 
 
 Long before recorded history, perhaps even before 
 the fidl formation of their distinctive language, that 
 family of mankind from which the Semitic tribes have 
 come, poured forth its hordes from Asia over the 
 northern portion of Africa. Of these, one vigorous 
 tribe, with the tenacity of the Semitic stock, have held 
 possession of the valleys of the Atlas, under all the 
 successive waves of conquest which have passed over 
 iSrorthem Africa. The colonies and con- Tenacity 
 
 f t -r->T • • 1 -T-k 1 ^^^ antiquity 
 
 quests of the Phoemcians, the Romans, the of Berbers. 
 Byzantines, the Yandals, and the Arabs, have not 
 destroyed or absorbed this tough and warlike people. 
 Pressed farther to the south by the fierce attacks of 
 10* 
 
226 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 the Arabs/in the first half of the 11th century, they 
 could not be driven from the desert ; and they hold, 
 now, a larger extent of territory than is occupied by 
 any other race on African soil. From the Atlantic 
 Ocean on the west, their tribes extend to the borders 
 of Egypt on the east, and from the Atlas chain on the 
 north, over the oases of the Great Desert to the region 
 of the I^iger and Sudan on the south. 
 
 Their traders form the great media of commerce 
 between Central Africa and the Mediterranean coast, 
 while their wild and nomad hordes are the especial 
 obstacle and danger to the traveller. They are known 
 under the name of Libyans, in the most ancient his- 
 tory; their distinguishing features are be- 
 
 Libyans. tit t • n -m 
 
 held even on the pictures oi ii,gyptian mon- 
 imients,* and, on the other hand, the most warlike 
 and distinguished of modern military corps is formed 
 originally of their soldiers, the Zouaves, f 
 
 The name by which this race is best known, is 
 Bekbek, a word much disputed, but whose origin may 
 be naturally traced to the Eoman name of these 
 people, Barbari. The name which they most habit- 
 ually give themselves, is Mazigh, or Imoshagh (Free- 
 
 * Dr. Barth says that they are clearly to be recognized as the T'amJiu 
 of the Egyptian monuments, a people of very light color, with a peculiar 
 curl on the right side of the head, and ear-rings similar to those worn 
 at the present day. 
 
 ■)■ The Berbers are called Shawi or " Nomads," in Algeria, corrupted 
 in Tunis into Suav, (French) Zouave. (Prof. Miiller.) 
 
THE BEKBEKS. 227 
 
 men), but that wMcLl modem travellers usually apply, 
 is Tawdreh. This latter, Dr. Barth supposes derived 
 from an Arabic expression, implying that they had 
 " changed " their religion, having all, in his 
 
 /-H . . rn Tawarek. 
 
 opinion, been at one time Christians. The 
 Berber language is a direct descendant from the an- 
 cient Libyan, and the antique bi-lingual rock-inscrip- 
 tions in itforthern Africa, show that not only the 
 idioms, but many of the letters used by the Kumidians, 
 are still employed by the modern Berbers. 
 
 The Berbers, like most of the Semites, have in- 
 clined to monotheism, and but few have been pagans ; 
 the great majority now professing Mohammedanism. 
 This race, beside the names already mentioned, re- 
 ceives various titles, according to the countries which 
 it occupies. Those in the northern part of Morocco, 
 are called Shulu^ and those in the hill-country of 
 Tunis and Algeria, Kabyls, or " mountaineers." 
 
 The Kabyls have been interesting to the student 
 of history, from the vigorous resistance 
 which they have offered to the French 
 arms, and from their supposed descent from the an- 
 cient Teutonic tribe of Yandals. Their long fair 
 hair and blonde appearance, the traditions current 
 among them of their Christian origin, the rpg^tonic 
 
 , i» J. J.J. • J.1 ii. • i? peculiarities. 
 
 custom ot tattoomg the cross on tneir tore- 
 heads, and the high position which woman holds, com- 
 pared with the little respect paid her among other 
 
228 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 tribes, all favor this view ; but their language shows 
 no trace of Teutonic origin, and the opinion has be- 
 come general, that they belong alone to the Berbers. 
 They were, no doubt, exposed for a considerable time 
 to Yandal influences. 
 
 They are described as a savage, liberty-loving, 
 warlike people, inhospitable and faithless. It has been 
 extremely difficult for the French to subdue them, but 
 their want of cavalry and their more settled habita- 
 tions, have exposed them to assaults, from which the 
 nomadic Arabs are delivered. They are not entirely 
 barbarous, but are good agriculturists, and are well 
 versed in some mechanical arts, such as the manu- 
 facture of arms and gunpowder, and the building of 
 Varying stone houses. They vary in appearance; 
 p ysique. j^ ^^^ plaius, being more often dark, and 
 short in stature, while those on the mountains are of 
 light complexion and tall form. 
 
 The Tawdrek, or Berbers of the desert, are de- 
 scribed by traders as the tribe of the most beautiful 
 type among all the African races. They are fair, tall, 
 and well-made, with full beard, and of a warlike and 
 even quarrelsome disposition. A servile part of the 
 g^^^^ same race, the Imghdd, are almost black, 
 
 Tawarek. though presenting no other negro features, 
 an effect, perhaps, of inferior comfort and additional 
 exposure to the weather. A distinguishing mark in 
 costume, of the Tawarek, is the custom of wearing a 
 
THE tawIkek. 229 
 
 covering over the mouth. In general, they axe a no- 
 madic people, though some tribes possess villages and 
 settled dwelling places. Their women are freer than 
 among the Arabs, and take more part in public affairs. 
 Precisely the same language is spoken by them over a 
 great extent of territory — the same in Agades as ' in 
 Ghat or Timbuctoo. 
 
 The Temght — the dialect of the Southwestern 
 Tawarek — differs from the Shilluh, the Kabyl, or the 
 Grhadami, as the Portuguese differs, for instance, from 
 the Spanish or Italian. 
 
 In many cases, this people have intermarried with 
 negro races, and the offspring are looked on with 
 contempt by the purer Berber tribes. The ^ * 
 
 -t «' -t InteTmamage 
 
 inhabitants of the oasis Air or Asben— the ^"'^^i^^^*- 
 Kelowi — are a cross of the Berbers and negroes, and 
 unite, says Dr. Barth, "the severe, austere manner 
 and fine figure of the Berber, with the playful and 
 cheerful character and darker color of the African." 
 
 The Kelowi are distinguished also by their living 
 in settled habitations. 
 
 The Tawarek are divided into numerous tribes 
 who are usually hostile to one another ; of these, the 
 purest are the Hogar and AzTcar, between Ghat and 
 Tawat, and the Awelimmiden and TademekTcet on the 
 Niger. The Tinylkum, in Tezzan, and the Busaiie^ 
 between Asben and Haussa, are much more mingled 
 with other races. 
 
230 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD, 
 
 The ruling tribe of the important kingdom of Bor- 
 nu, lying between Lake Tsad on tbe east, and Lake 
 Yeon on the west, is Berber ; and many Berber tribes 
 have formerly mingled with the people, though the 
 language spoken there — that of the Kcmuri — is rather 
 of the Turanian. 
 
 Of the Kanuri, Mr. Norris says : " Its nouns are 
 fully declined by post-fixed syllables ; its roots are not 
 subject to any modifications; it forms its plural by 
 adding a syllable ; it has an accusative case ; it uses 
 possessive pronominal affixes ; it has negative verbs, 
 and its verbs have distinct personal endings, which are 
 however unconnected with existing pronouns. There 
 appear also some traces of the Tartar vocalic harmony. 
 Arabic words are found in the language, though not 
 many." 
 
 The Kanuri people have the usual physical charac- 
 teristics of what is called, the negro. Their religion 
 is Mohammedan. 
 
 The Tihhoo or Tebu, a black people inhabiting the 
 
 eastern part of the Great Desert, remarkable for their 
 
 handsome European features, are probably a mixture 
 
 of African with Semitic races. Their lan- 
 
 Tibboo. 
 
 guage. Dr. Barth states, is closely related 
 to that of the ruling tribe of Bornu. They are 
 divided into a number of tribes. The principal region 
 of the Tebu is Bilma, some hundred miles north of 
 Lake Tsad. 
 
THE HAUSSA. 231 
 
 (b) THE HAUSSA. 
 
 In the centre of the continent, in the finest prov- 
 inces of ISTegro-land, a black nation has been met with 
 by travellers, whose origin is traced with g^^^^^^ 
 great probability, through its language, to "^s""**®^- 
 the Semitic family. They are the Goher or Saussa, 
 speaking the Haussa language, and till this century, 
 they possessed an important empire in Kdtsena, Kano, 
 and other neighboring provinces. Remains -g^^^^^^ 
 of the nation are found as far north as ^^p^""®- 
 Asben. The fierce Mohammedan invasion by the 
 Fellatah, of which we shall speak hereafter, overthrew 
 their empire. Their central province, Katsena, is 
 situated on the water-shed between the basin of the 
 Tsad and that of the Kwara, and is one of the most 
 salubrious and productive districts of central Africa. 
 Dr. Barth thus describes the contrast between the 
 Haussa and the Kanuri of Bornu : " The former are 
 lively, spirited, and cheerful, the latter melancholic, 
 dejected, and brutal. * * The same difference is 
 visible in their physiognomies, the former having in 
 general very pleasing and regular features and more 
 graceful forms, while the Kanuri, with his broad face, 
 his wide nostrils and his large bones, makes a far less 
 agreeable impression." (Yol. I, p. 536.) 
 
 Others speak of them as having peculiarly open 
 
232 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 and noble countenances, with prominent nose and ex- 
 pressive black eyes. The Haussa, if not entirely 
 Semitic, are at least tbe connecting link between the 
 tribes of Central Africa and tbe Nortbem 
 
 Hamitic 
 
 toTome"^ Semitic nations. When declared Hamitic, 
 
 authorities. ,, , ', l ■\ i i 
 
 as they are by some, it must be remembered 
 that this view does not differ widely from that which 
 makes them Semitic, as those two families are con- 
 sidered by many to be different stages of growth of 
 the same stock. 
 
 THE SEMITES OF EASTERN AFRICA, 
 (c) THE ABTSSINIANS.i 
 
 This people contain, without doubt, some of the 
 tribes called by the ancients, ^Ethiopians, who, though 
 black, or dark in color, were conspicuous for the 
 beauty of their type. They are not, however, to be 
 classed with what are named Hamitic tribes. Their 
 Semitic language proves them to be distinctly Sem- 
 
 t wpians. .^j^^ ^^^ probably a colony from Southern 
 Arabia. The Ghees — ^the ancient Abyssinian lan- 
 guage, handed down in the ^thiopic version of the 
 Scriptures — ^is a dialect of the Arabian' and is the 
 same as the Himyaritic of Southern Arabia. 
 
 The modern language of the upper classes — the 
 Amharic — which has taken the place of the Gheez, is 
 a Semitic language. 
 
 1 
 
THE ABYSSmiANS. 233 
 
 As Prof. Eitter has shown, Abyssinia is marked 
 by three great natural divisions, which form bases 
 for the divisions of population. There are three table- 
 lands, rising one above another, in lines nearly parallel 
 with the coast. The tribes in these various divisions, 
 though undoubtedly of the same origin, vary in 
 complexion, according to the height of the district 
 they occupy. The Dcmdkil, a barbarous ooior varying 
 
 T 1 •iT'i.TT 1 with altitude. 
 
 people who inhabit the low grounds near 
 the coast, are black and usually with long crisped 
 hair. Their expression is lively and pleasant, their 
 features are regular and even fine, and their forms 
 show remarkable vigor. Those in the neighborhood 
 of Angote, have smooth hair. Their language is 
 Semitic, and their own traditions indicate Arabia as 
 the original source of their tribes. 
 
 The first table-land is the country ruled by the 
 Bahamegash or Emperor. In Dixan of this region, 
 the inhabitants are spoken of as still dark — the copper 
 hue not appearing to the traveller until he reaches 
 the people of the highest tracts. 
 
 The second table-land is the Kingdom of Tigre, or 
 that part of Abyssinia near the Tacazze. It occupies 
 nearly the site of the ancient Kingdom of Axum. 
 Tigre has been a powerful State till within a late 
 period, and independent of the Emperor of Abyssinia, 
 but during the recent civil wars, it has been subdued. 
 
 The third mountain district is the Kingdom of the 
 
234 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 AmLara, tlie ruling people of the whole country. It 
 embraces the upper course of the Nile, the high region 
 of Gojam, and the provinces of Begunder, Menna, 
 Belassen, and others. 
 
 Both the Tigrani and the Amharas speak Semitic 
 dialects, and are of one origin, though the latter are 
 more civilized now than the former. In complexion, 
 thej vary, says Rev. Mr. Gobat, a missionary, 
 through all hues, from black to copper color, ac- 
 cording to their locality. Their features are generally 
 regular and well-formed, and their bodies exceedingly 
 well-proportioned ; the hair is sometimes straight, but 
 Physique of o^^n crispcd or curled. The Amhara are 
 Amharas. described by a French savant (Lefebvre), as 
 having very large heads, eyes of remarkable beauty, 
 bodies well-proportioned, hair crisped (though to this 
 there are exceptions), and color of a brown olive. On 
 the whole, physiologically speaking, the Abyssinians 
 are considered to belong to the black races. 
 
 M. d'Abbadie, who spent eleven years in Abys- 
 sinia and the adjacent countries, has come to the con- 
 clusion that the differences in color of the people, are 
 due not merely to elevation, but to diet. The tribes 
 Color that feeS on cereals, he states, are generally 
 
 on diet. dark or black, and those that live mostly on 
 
 animal food, are red or of lighter complexion. Thus 
 the " Hazzo^"* who do not like cereals, and live mostly 
 on milk and meat, are very red. The Tigray, though 
 
THE ABTSSmiANS. 235 
 
 under the same burmng climate, and of undoubted 
 Semitic blood, are dark and black ; tbey seldom eat 
 flesb. Tbe Saho, again living on cereals, are darker, 
 and often black ; tbe Gurage, on tbe otber band, wbo 
 eat mucb flesb, are nearly always red. 
 
 Tbat tbis cannot be tbe result of mixture witb 
 negro blood or a ligbter blood, is sbown by tbe exact 
 names wbicb are given to tbe slightest crossing of tbe 
 blood of different races, whereas these tribes are 
 called perfectly pure. The process also of DarkeniDg 
 the darkening of the shin, is observed to 
 go on here to such a degree that the Ambara have 
 given it a distinct, name — madyat. Even foreigners 
 suffer from it. 
 
 Among the tribes conspicuous for personal beauty, 
 but of jet black color, are mentioned by M. Lefebvre, 
 the Sabdbdes, some of the Chotos, the Taltals, and the 
 Da/nakils / yet with all these, be holds it impossible 
 there could have been any mixture with native African 
 races. 
 
 In disposition, the Abyssinians are described as 
 lively and inconstant^ witb much vanity characteristics 
 and self-love; they are also gifted with a "^^^y^^^'^*"^- 
 considerable talent for eloquence. They are best 
 known to the world now, as the most degraded and 
 superstitious of Christian nations. Though notoriously 
 debased by superstition and shamefully lax in common 
 morality, no people has ever shown such continuing 
 
236 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD, 
 
 interest in pure doctrine ; and the theological dogma 
 of the exact nature of the person of Christ has torn 
 and rent the nation for centuries, with the most bloody 
 and venomous disputes. 
 
 They have also suffered severely in late years, from 
 the fierce invasions of the Gallas, a Hamitic nation 
 on the south, of which we shall speak hereafter. 
 
 Abyssinia offers, in its religious customs, many 
 traces of Jewish influence. It is remarkable as con- 
 taining a native tribe — ^the Falashas — who are Jews 
 Faiashas ^^ rcligiou and habits, though their lan- 
 guage shows that they are not at all of 
 Hebrew stock. Their conversion must date from a 
 period before the conversion of the other tribes to 
 Christianity — that is, previous to the fourth century. 
 They are a quiet peaceful people, more industrious 
 than the Amharas, and living among the highest 
 mountains of the country, in Samen. They are as 
 ignorant and superstitious as the Christians. 
 
 Other tribes of Abyssinia are the Agows, the 
 Gafats, the Gongas, and Enareans, whose origin is not 
 yet distinctly known. The Saho and the Adaiel are 
 Semitic. 
 
 The existence of this Arabian colony and this 
 Semitic Christian people in the heart of Africa, pre- 
 serving its language and its religious customs pure, 
 though modified in physical traits by unknown cli- 
 matic influences, until the type approaches in many 
 
THE ABTSSmiANS. 237 
 
 particulars the African, is one of the most interesting 
 that can be presented to the ethnologist and the histo- 
 rian, and deserves more investigation from scholars 
 than it has yet received. 
 
 Besides these Semitic races, are others to the 
 southward — the people of Harar and Hurrur — and the 
 numerous pastoral tribes of Somauli, occupying a 
 large territory to the south of the Arabian 
 
 ° '' ^ The Somauli. 
 
 Gulf as far as the river Juba, and on the 
 coast to Magadoxo. The latter are remarkable for 
 their fine regular features, and long flowing hair, 
 colored of an artificial flaxen. 
 
 Many show the influences of the African climate 
 and circumstances, in approximation to negro features 
 — a protruding jaw and broad turned-out lips. The 
 beard also is usually thin. The skin, especially of 
 those living in the hot regions, is smooth, black and 
 glossy, but, says Burton, " as the altitude increases, it 
 becomes lighter, and about Havar it is generally of a 
 cafe au lait color." There is an approach with many 
 to the steatojpyge.^ 
 
 Their language distinctly proves them to be Se- 
 mitic, and there is no doubt of their origin g^^.^.^ 
 from Arabia. It is possible, however, that ""^'°" 
 they may have mingled with native black tribes, 
 though there is no suflacient evidence of this. 
 
 * A remarkable hump or accretion of fat on a portion of the body, 
 
238 THE BACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 The language of the people of Harar, according to 
 Burton, is a Semitic dialect grafted on a native stock. 
 
 Some branches of the Somauli are no doubt inti- 
 mately related to the Gallas, hereafter to be described. 
 
 The Wakuafi and Masai, inhabiting a great dis- 
 trict west of Chaga, stretching between two degrees 
 north and four degrees south of the equator, are 
 thought to be of Arabian or at least Semitic origin. 
 They are nomad and robber tribes, accustomed to acts 
 of horrible barbarism. In physique, they are remark- 
 able for their beauty of feature and form ; their color 
 is dark brown. 
 
 They are pagan in religion, but with an idea of a 
 Supreme Being. Circumcision is practised among 
 them. 
 
 (d) THE AEABS. 
 
 A Semitic immigration, subsequent to that which 
 laid the foundation of all the African tribes thus far 
 described, was the Arabian. This poured itself over 
 all northern and central Africa, founding powerful 
 states and carrying a degree of civilization and litera- 
 ture, and a higher religious belief among the pagan 
 tribes of Kegro-land. 
 
 The three prominent divisions of the Arabs of the 
 north, are called Cachin, Hillel, and Ma- 
 
 Three ' j j 
 
 divisions. ^j^^^ rjij^ggg ^^^^ occupy the Barbary 
 States and wander over the Great Desert. On the 
 
THE ARABS. 239 
 
 borders of Negro-land, thej are often mingled with 
 tlie native black tribes or tlie Berbers. 
 
 The mixed tribes in Senegambia are the Trm'zas, 
 Darmcmkours^ Braknas, and Dowiches. 
 
 The Arabs of Northern Africa are mostly de- 
 scendants of the invading tribes who overran Africa 
 in the Yth century, conquering the Berbers and 
 Moors. Though generally pure, they are occa- 
 sionally, according to Pulszky, crossed with other 
 tribes. Several tribes of Kabyls in. the province of 
 Constantine, speak Arabic; the Kabyls in ^^^^^^^ 
 the neighborhood of Ghelma, bear a strong ™^*"'"®^- 
 resemblance to the Arabs in dress and language and 
 physique. The tribe of the Amrauahs is half Arabic, 
 half Berber ; and large numbers of Moors are known 
 to have intermarried with the Arabians. 
 
 The great natural division of the Arabs, is into 
 settled Arabs and roving Arabs, or Bedouins. The 
 Arab country-population of Algeria resemble the 
 original Bedouin, but the pure Bedouins are found 
 only in the Land of Dates and on the confines of the 
 Desert. The Arabic of Barbary is a dialect, and is 
 understood with difficulty, says the authority above 
 quoted, by the Arab Egyptians, and scarcely at all by 
 the pure Arabs. 
 
 In North Africa, the inhabitants of the plains are 
 Arabs ; of the mountains, Kabyls, and of the cities. 
 Moors. The Arabs are the shepherds and nomad 
 
240 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 warriors ; tlie Moors the peaceful farmers and towns- 
 Arabs and people ; the Kabjls ferocious and plunder- 
 ^''°"- ing tribes who till the soil. The latter, 
 
 though Semitic in race, differing much in physical 
 appearance from the Arabs and often resembling the 
 northern European. 
 
 The only tie which unites these various nations is 
 that of religion — ^Mohammedanism ; and though nomi- 
 nally under the rule of France, the mountain tribes 
 of Kabyls and the Arabs of the Land of Dates, are as 
 free as they ever were. 
 
 !N^umerous Arab tribes have settled in Egypt. 
 Impelled by the two prominent impulses of the 
 Semitic family — ^the love of gain and religious fanati- 
 cism — they penetrated to the most interior portions 
 of Kubia, and subdued the Hamitic or native races. 
 . But despite their conquests, the Arabs have 
 
 No permanent ^ u 5 
 
 settlements, j^^ver morc than pitched their camps in a 
 hostile country, uniting but little in blood with the 
 neighboring population. Those on the west of the 
 Mle, are the Magdyeh and Ellahonyeh • those on the 
 east of the White Mle, the Hetsenat and the Moham- 
 medyeh ^ those in ISTubia, the CTionkryeh, with many 
 others, whose names it is useless to mention. 
 
 In Egypt, it may be said generally that those on 
 . , . the left bank of the Nile - come from the 
 
 Arabs m 
 
 ^^yp'- Barbary States, and those on the right 
 
 bank from Arabia. , The spoken language of the 
 
THE AKABS. 241 
 
 Egyptians is generally Arabian. Arabian colonies 
 and influence bave likewise extended over Kordofan, 
 Darfur, "Wadaj and Bornn ; and even as far soutb as 
 Zanzibar, a royal dynasty of pure Arabian blood sits 
 on tbe tbrone. Madagascar itself sbows traces of this 
 Semitic race- 
 Many of the Arabs, it appears from various testi- 
 mony, have been greatly modified in physical type by 
 their residence in Africa. " Those of North ^^^^^^ ^^ 
 Africa are described as a strongly-built, p^^^'^''^- 
 handsome race, as tall as the Scotch Highlanders. 
 Their face is usually sun-burnt, with white and hand- 
 some teeth, and black eyes " of a proud and fearless 
 expression," a short beard and moustache, and head 
 shaved with the exception of a single lock. " Their 
 deportment is daring and commanding," but when 
 riding, they habitually bend the head forward. Many 
 travellers consider them the handsomest race in the 
 world. Some tribes of unmixed blood are described 
 as jet black, though presenting, in other respects, Ara- 
 bian features. 
 
 Through all their migrations in Africa, the Arabs 
 have preserved much of their old independence and 
 isolation ; they have disdained to borrow idioms from 
 the African languages ; in the midst often of sedentary 
 nations, they have followed their old nomadic habits, 
 and in the Sudan, for instance, they have never em- 
 11 
 
242 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOULD. 
 
 braced the absurd customs, characteristic of the negro 
 peoples, of the breaking out of teeth, tattooing and 
 mjibulation. 
 
 The following is a table of the Berber and Arab 
 population in the Barbary States : ' 
 
 
 Arabs. 
 
 Berbers. 
 
 Morocco, 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 Algiers, . 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 Tunis, . 
 
 500,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 Tripoli, . 
 
 300,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 4,800,000 12,300,000 
 
 (e) THE JEWS. 
 
 This people is to be found in all the cities of 
 Northern Africa, and even extending into the oases 
 of the Great Desert. Everywhere it is a despised 
 and oppressed race. The Jews of Algeria are said to 
 be superior in bodily strength to those of Europe; 
 their physiognomy has more of the Oriental type 
 than that of the Turks or Moors ; and the women are 
 remarkably beautiful. The great majority of the 
 people, as usual, are traders. 
 
 A tribe of Jews is described by Mr. Tristram 
 
 (quoted by Dr. Beddoe, Ethnol. Trans., 1861), living 
 
 in the oasis Waregla, about 32° north lati- 
 
 Black Jews. 
 
 tude, who are " almost as black as negroes, 
 without the slightest trace of negro features ; " their 
 
THE JEWS, 243 
 
 lineaments were as distinctly Jewish, as in any clothes- 
 dealer in Houndsditch." " They were as dark as the 
 black Jews of Abyssinia ; " the hair was " grizzled, 
 without being woolly." He considers the color an 
 effect of climate. 
 
 Careful investigation seems to show two physical 
 types among the Jews ; one dark, with black hair and 
 eyes, and the well-known hooked nose, another with 
 very regular profile and beautiful features, ^^^ j^^j^^ 
 but blonde, with light hair and blue eyes.* *^^^^' 
 This latter type is seen a great deal in the east, espe- 
 cially in Constantinople and Africa; even red hair 
 being often met with. The blonde type is the one 
 from which the traditional representations of the 
 Saviour are made, and is not improbably very an- 
 cient among the Jews. The relation of the Jewish 
 type to climate, of which so much is made by Prich- 
 ard, does not seem to bear the test of closer inves- 
 tigation. (See Dr. Beddoe, Ethnol. Trans., London, 
 1861.) t A peculiar physiological fact in regard to 
 this people should be noticed here, that they are able 
 to live and multiply in almost all latitudes. Their in- 
 crease in Sweden is said to be greater than that of the 
 
 * This type has been seen by the learned travellers of this city, Dr, 
 E. S. Smith and Dr. W, H. Thompson. 
 
 f It has been claimed that the complexion and hair of the Jew vary 
 according to climate, being blonde and light in the northern countries 
 and dark in the southern ; but later researches show that the two types 
 above described are found under all cUmates. 
 
244 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 Christian population; in the towns of Algeria they 
 are, according to Boudin, the only race able to main- 
 tain its numbers, and " in Cochin China and Aden, the 
 latter, one of the hottest places in the world, they suc- 
 ceed in rearing children and in forming permanent 
 communities." (Beddoe.) 
 
 (f) THE M00E8. 
 
 Of the ancient populations of ITorth Africa, the 
 Moors are distinguished by their milder manners 
 and their superior education. From an early pe- 
 riod, they have dwelt in cities and seaports. They 
 are described by "Wagner, as well-built, but not so tall 
 as the Arabs, and inclined to corpulence. Their fea- 
 tures are noble, but not so energetic as those of the 
 Arabs ; the complexion of the children is clear, white, 
 and rosy; the men are more brown. Their hair, 
 which is usually shaved, except a single lock, is jet 
 black ; their eyes are also black. The expression of 
 their faces indicates mildness and melancholy. Their 
 bearing is remarkably imposing and dignified. 
 
 Of their origin, very exact information cannot be 
 given, but there seems little doabt that they are Se- 
 semitic mitic tribes, perhaps an early offshoot from 
 
 ongin. Arabia, with whose people they are closely 
 
 united in language and customs. After their entire 
 subjugation by the Arabs, in the Tth and 8th centuries. 
 
THE MOOKS. 245 
 
 and the deportation of large numbers of them into 
 Arabia, the two peoples began to unite in marriage 
 and social life, until at last they formed but one 
 nation. 
 
 The present Moors are supposed to show traces 
 of the blood of the ancient Semitic Maure- 
 
 .1 1 Mixed blood. 
 
 tamans, as well as ot the modern Arabs and 
 the Spanish Arabs 
 
CHAPTEE XXI. 
 
 THE HAMITIC (OR CHAMITIc) TRIBES OF 
 AFRICA. 
 
 It should be remembered that by the term Hor 
 mitic races in this treatise, are not meant necessarily 
 either the black races of men, or the supposed de- 
 scendants of Ham. The name is used as identical 
 Definition "^^^ ChamiUo (Egyptian), or Kushitic 
 ofHamitic. (Ethiopian), to designate that family of 
 mankind whose more especial representative in an- 
 tiquity were the Egyptian people, and whose mod- 
 ern descendants are the Kopts, l!«[ubians and other 
 nations of dark complexion, but with European fea- 
 tures. The distinguishing marks of the race are to be 
 found in the language, though it should be borne in 
 mind, that this presents so many analogies and resem- 
 blances with the peculiar features of the Semitic 
 family of language, that farther investigations may 
 demonstrate a unity of origin of these two families. 
 At present, the presumption is, that the Hamitic na- 
 
THE Z0PT8. 247 
 
 tions broke off from the commoii stock before the Se- 
 mitic tribes bad been developed into distinct races. 
 
 For this reason, the opinions of scholars differ in 
 regard to certain African nations — such as Different 
 the Berber, the Ghiiber (or Haussa), the 
 Gallas, Danakil and Somauli, and others — whether 
 they are Hamitic or Semitic. 
 
 We have endeavored to give what seemed the 
 most trustworthy conclusion in regard to each, under 
 the present aspect of the evidence. Future research, 
 no doubt, will bring the Hamitic and Semitic races 
 into one great Family. 
 
 (a) THE KOPTS.i 
 
 It is remarkable that the only Christian tribe of 
 any importance in Egypt should be direct descendants 
 of the ancient Egyptians, Their language — the mod- 
 em Koptic — is the representative and offspring of 
 the ancient Koptic. Their faces are said to corre- 
 spond wonderfully with the faces painted on ^,^^^^^^^3 
 the monuments or represented in the an- wTtToM"^ 
 cient sculpture, the same high cheek bones, 
 large hps, light beard, broad nose, brownish com- 
 plexion, and ears placed high in the head ; presenting 
 the same — as a French writer expresses it — " air de 
 majeste et de puissance,'"' which so impresses the 
 traveller, on those calm and grand faces of Egyptian 
 
248 THE BACES OF THE OLD WORLD, 
 
 Bculptnre.* Tlie Kopts, like their ancestors, are of a 
 grave and melancholic temperament, and like them, 
 possess much talent for administration and calculation. 
 Thej are prudent and industrious, and often very- 
 shrewd and cunning. They are employed chiefly as 
 accountants and interpreters.' In language they make 
 great use of the Arabic. Their creed resembles in 
 many points that of the Koman Catholic 
 
 Creed. *' ^ 
 
 Church, except that they believe that the 
 Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone. Their 
 priests are ignorant, rigid and prejudiced, but harmless. 
 
 The Kopts are met with principally in Upper and 
 Middle Egypt, and but few comparatively in the Delta. 
 
 The agricultural Kopts do not differ in appearance 
 from the Fellahs. 
 
 The language in its two dialects — ^the Sahid and 
 Memphite — still shows the ancient division into Upper 
 and Lower Egypt. 
 
 (b) THE FELLAHS 1 (OE LABOEEES). 
 
 The unfortunate industrious class of Egypt, that 
 which has produced the wealth, and borne all the bur- 
 dens for its Turanian masters — the Turks — are the 
 Fellahs. They are described as a heavy, coarse- 
 featured people, with an habitual expression of jchild- 
 ish simplicity and sometimes of clownish cunning on 
 
 * A close examination shows that there were varieties of physical 
 type in ancient Egypt as there are in the modem. 
 
THE FELLAHS. 249 
 
 their faces. One prominent peculiarity, corresponding 
 to a -well-known feature in the faces of the pj, jg^j 
 ancient sculpture, is a heavy eye-lid, pro- *'^*'*' 
 tecting and half closing a very keen eye. The com- 
 plexion is grayish brown, "as of unburnt brick,"" 
 warming sometimes into a dark red flush, not unlike 
 that portrayed in antique Egyptian wall-painting. 
 The mouth has the old Egyptian placidity of expres- 
 sion ; the beard is thin. Besides the resemblance of 
 physical traits, many customs and religious ceremonies 
 are discovered among them bearing a strong similarity 
 to those of the ancient Egyptians. The Fellahs with 
 the Kopts are the only race in Egypt which have 
 had time sufficient to become adapted to the climate, 
 and which have thus gained the power of perpetuating 
 themselves. All other races — the ]^egro and ^Nubian 
 on the one side, and the Turk, or Arab, or European 
 on the other, though bearing the climate of the iN^ile 
 in proportion to the quality and grade of mental and 
 physical organization peculiar to each race, equally 
 fail to transmit descendants beyond the second or 
 third generation.* It seems probable, pj.Q^^^j 
 therefore, that — though sometimes mingled ^^"^^ ancient, 
 with Arab blood — this degraded, ignorant, filthy and 
 sorely, oppressed class of Mohammedan Fellahs are 
 among the most direct descendants of the ancient 
 
 * Of eighty-three children of Mehemet Ali only five have survived, 
 and similar facts are found true of others. 
 11* 
 
250 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 Hamitic people, who conquered ^Ethiopia and over- 
 ran Asia and wliose learning was a light even to Gre- 
 cian philosophers. 
 
 The physical history of the Egyptians — if the 
 statements on this subject by Gliddon and Pulszky 
 and others be correct — is an instance of the power of 
 the principle of Inheritance in a given race to pre- 
 serve the type pure, despite certain mixtures with 
 other races, as well as of the process by which a given 
 tribe becomes adapted to its circumstances.* 
 
 The first settlers in Egypt — ^perhaps Asiatics — af- 
 ter a long course of time became acclimated j that 
 is, certain variations in organs, physical habits and 
 temperament, adapted to resist the destruc- 
 
 Accllmation. 
 
 tive agencies of the climate and soil, were 
 perpetuated, — the offspring born with fewer of these 
 advantages, perishing, and those endowed with a 
 greater degree of them, surviving; until by trans- 
 mission and this process of "selection," the line is 
 reached in which the physique is adapted to its place, 
 and a new variety or race is formed. These powers 
 of resistance, or, in other words, this new physical or- 
 ganism is attended — we know not why — ^by certain 
 features and bodily peculiarities, which form the ex- 
 ternal Egyptian type. 
 
 * The philosophy of Acclimation and the Formation of Varieties 
 will be explained more fully in the chapter on "Unity or Diversity of 
 OrigLo." 
 
THE EASTERN NUBIANS. 251 
 
 During many centuries, this type was constantly 
 modified, in the higher classes, by crossings with other 
 races: first with the Semitic, under the Phoenician 
 and Canaanite immigrations and conquests; then 
 with the Aryan, under Macedonian, Greek and So- 
 man invasions, until at length the country fell under 
 Mohammedan rule and the Fellahs embraced the 
 faith of the Prophet.' Under this new religion, they 
 were forbidden to intermarry with strangers, so that 
 since the 7th century the population of Egypt — with 
 the exception, as before mentioned, of some slight 
 Arabic mixture — ^has recruited itself by intermarriage 
 within its own limits, and the process has again gone 
 on undisturbed, of adapting the physique to its situa- 
 tion and circumstances, and of bringing back the 
 original type. And now, after great variations of 
 type during past centuries, we have, re- jjet^^nto 
 stored, the pure antique Egyptian type, °"s*°^i*yp«- 
 closely corresponding to one prominent type repre- 
 sented in the oldest sculpture and painting: — and 
 characterizing a variety of men, which, as was be- 
 fore said, is the only human race out of the many that 
 have temporarily occupied Egyptian soil, that has had 
 time sufficient to perpetuate itself. 
 
 (c) THE EASTEEN NUBIANS. 
 
 In the eastern part of Nubia, in the desert be- 
 tween the Kile and the Eed Sea, and among the 
 
252 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 mountains running parallel with the coast, are three 
 tribes of a very ancient race, probably of Hamitic 
 Probabi origin — ^the Hadharebe, the Ahahdeh, and 
 Hamitic. ^^ Bisha/ri, the modem representatives of 
 the old ^Ethiopians. Kenan classes their language 
 as probably of the Hamitic family, which other writers 
 confirm, while their physical type is neither that of 
 the full-blooded negro, nor Semitic like the Arab. 
 They are usually of a very dark color — sometimes 
 black* — with regular European features. The Bis- 
 hari are the most powerful of these tribes, and their 
 country extends northward from the frontier of 
 Abyssinia^ to the latitude of Derr, and from Sennaar 
 on the Mle to Dar Berber and the Bed Sea. They 
 are a shrewd, active nomad people, not of large 
 stature and with pleasant features. 
 
 The Ababdeh, who inhabit a wild country from 
 Kosseir to ISTubia, are small and badly-made, but full 
 of vigor. Their eyes are large and their teeth fine. 
 They have the black skin, but regular features, with 
 curled hair. 
 
 The Eastern Kubian or Bisharine race, is thought 
 to be descended from the ancient Blemies, and like 
 the Kopts and the Eellahs, is without doubt one of the 
 oldest of existing peoples. 
 
 * Dr. E. S. Smith, of New York, who has spent three years among 
 the Arabs, speaks of these Nubians as truly remarkable for blackness. 
 The color is a kind of deep coal-black, quite different from the usual 
 lighter black which we see in the African of the coasts. 
 
THE GALLAS. 253 
 
 (d) THE GALLAS. > 
 
 To the soutli of tlie Hamitic tribes on the !N'ile 
 and encircling ' Abyssinia, is a warlike, barbarous 
 people, who are ranked among the Hamitic races from 
 the evidence of their language, though this, also, shows 
 more than the usual affinities to the Semitic. This 
 people — the Gallas — have been the terror for more 
 than three centuries of the Abyssinians, upon whose 
 territory they are constantly encroaching. They are 
 divided into more than twenty tribes, but 
 
 Gallas tribes. 
 
 the prominent divisions are the Bertuma, 
 or East-Gallas, and the Boran, or "West-Gallas. They 
 are described by D'Hericourt as a tall handsome race, 
 with large forehead, aquiline nose and well-cut mouth. 
 Their color is coppery, and the hair curled. 
 
 A few profess to be Christians, but the most are 
 pagans or Mohammedans. Those in the Kingdom of 
 Choa, number about a million and a half. They are 
 especially infamous as slave-dealers. 
 
 The heathen Gallas extend from the equator to 
 about 4° south latitude. Their number is from eight 
 to ten millions. They are an exceedingly savage and 
 cruel people, and are said to delight in drinking blood 
 from animals still living. The Uhuafi, south of the 
 Gallas, are in such a barbarous condition that they do 
 not even bury their dead, but leave them to the wild 
 animals. 
 
254 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 (e) THE PEOPLE OF BENNAAK (PROBABLY HAMITIC). 
 
 To the south of Il^iibia lies the high mountain- 
 plateau of Sennaar, inhabited by a dark brown tribe, 
 which Renan classes as probably Hamitic. ]S^othing 
 certain, however, can as yet be concluded about the 
 origin of this nation. In general, they present frizzled 
 hair and dark complexion, but regular and agreeable 
 features. A considerable variety in color is seen 
 among them; even the red tint, with reddish hair 
 and eyes. 
 
 BLACK EACES OF TNCEETAIN OEIGIN IN 
 EASTEEN AFEICA. 
 
 THE BAPvABEA OK BEEBEEIN8 OF NUBIA. » 
 
 The reader may see in any book of plates, or in 
 stereoscopic views of Nubia, the representation of the 
 Egyptian Kings carved in the rock at Abu-Simbal. 
 The type there presented, the long oval face, the 
 Physical finely curved nose, broad at the top, with 
 *^^^' fall nostrils, the voluptuous lips and high 
 
 cheek-bones and rich bronze color, are the character- 
 istics of the modern I^ubian, the descendant of the 
 ancient race of Ethiopians — the Nubse — who crowded 
 the banks of the Nile with their gigantic works of art. 
 
THE BEEBEEINS OF NUBIA. 255 
 
 Many of the modern Nubians, or Berberins, are 
 black, especially" as they approach the south, but with 
 fine and even noble features, and hair, though frizzled, 
 never woolly. In character, they are distinguished for 
 their independence, their honesty and faithfulness ; so 
 much so, as to hold in Egypt something of the position 
 which the Swiss do in Europe, of guards and trusty 
 servants and porters. Like that nation, they are 
 greatly attached to their native soil. They are not 
 remarkable for cleanliness, and live nearly naked in 
 l!Tubia. There are scarcely any upper classes among 
 them, and the masses are much better educated than 
 those of Egypt. Great jealousy and dislike exist be- 
 tween them and the Arabs. 
 
 The African nations are remarkable as being 
 almost the only peoples, with whom Christianity has 
 entirely died out and been replaced by another belief. 
 
 We have already seen that the Tawareks of the 
 Berber race are supposed to have been formerly Chris- 
 tians, though now bigoted Mohammedans Ancient 
 
 • 1 T T 1 Cliristian 
 
 or pagans. iSome writers have concluded nations. 
 tliat the pagan and Mohammedan Gallas were once a 
 Christian people ; whether this be the truth regarding 
 those tribes or not, it is well known that the l!^ubian 
 Berberins were once Christians, and that Christianity 
 began to decline about 151T a. d., after the Moham- 
 medan invasion of Sultan Selim. In the year 16Y3, 
 the Nubian churches were entire, but closed. There 
 
256 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 are now only a few superstitious relics remaining of 
 tlie early faith. 
 
 Possibly the fire of the Mohammedan conquest 
 and the physical power of the early Arab invasion, 
 may be the causes of this defection among African 
 nations ; or possibly there may be something in the 
 Semitic temperament, which inclines it to a reveren- 
 tial monotheism and a system of arbitrary law, rather 
 than to the free spiritual life and affectional relations 
 of the Christian system. 
 
 The Berberins, notwithstanding their name, have 
 no connection with the Berbers, and though their 
 physical type is almost precisely what may be called 
 the Hamitic type, they are not found to be connected 
 ori-in either with the Hamitic or Semitic races. 
 
 Their language is distinct. It is remarka- 
 ble as containing no genders, except in personal pro- 
 nouns, and no numerals above twenty." Arabic words 
 are in constant use by the people. From the evidence 
 of language, Prichard derives the ]tTubians from a 
 negro tribe, called ISToubas, of Kordofan, and supposes 
 that the negro type has changed in the process of cen- 
 turies, to the present type. Farther investigation will 
 be needed for the settlement of this question. 
 
 The present limits of the ^Nubians are from 
 Assuan on the north, to Sennaar on the south ; and 
 their principal divisions are the Kenoos in the north, 
 and the ll^ouba farther up the ISTile. 
 
THE WHITE NILE. 257 
 
 Peojple of the White Nile. The inhabitants, from 
 the Chillouks to the Baris, are negroes ; but with the 
 Keks^ Bohrs and Tschers, and others, a new element 
 appears — the European type of feature with the black 
 skin; resulting, as M. de St. Martin supposes, from 
 a cross of the Gallas with the negroes. The figure is 
 full and handsome, and the face often beau- 
 
 WUd tribes. 
 
 tiftil in outline, but the spirit is degraded. 
 Il^o belief in a God is discovered among them ; they 
 do not even understand agriculture, and they are 
 generally unclothed. 
 
 The following table will show the proportion of 
 different races in Egypt, in 1844 : 
 
 Mohammedan Fellahs, . . ... 1,600,000 
 
 Christian Kopts, 150,000 
 
 (Osmanlis) Turks, 12,000 
 
 (Bedouin) Arabs, . . . . * . . V0,000 
 
 Negroes (slaves), ..... 10,000 
 
 Circassians, Georgians, &c. (slaves), . . 5,000 
 
 Jews, 7,000 
 
 Syrians, 5,000 
 
 Greeks and Eomans, . . . . . 7,000 
 
 Europeans, 9,500 
 
 Berberins, 5,000 
 
CHAPTEE XXII. 
 
 THE RACES OF WESTERN AFRICA, NORTH OF 
 THE MOUNTAINS OF THE MOON. 
 
 A NATURAL division of the continent of Africa is 
 
 formed by the two great spurs of the Mountains of the 
 
 Moon, which are thrown off parallel to the western 
 
 , . , coast, the one north and the other south. 
 
 Geographical ' 
 
 divisions. These mountains, known as the Kong 
 Mountains,, extend along the coast for 2,000 miles, and 
 at a distance of only from 100 to 350 miles from the 
 ocean. The narrow strip of country shut up between 
 these high lands and the Atlantic, and reaching from 
 the southern borders of the Great Desert to nearly 
 16° south latitude, is generally known as Western 
 Africa. 
 
 Its prominent physical peculiarities, which in 
 part determine the character of its peoples, are the 
 want of good bays and harbors, thus cutting it off 
 from foreign commerce; the wide belt of malarious 
 jungle, which for a hundred miles within, guards its] 
 
 i 
 
THE KACES OF WBSTEKN AFKICA. 269 
 
 coast from invasion or settlement, especially by whites, 
 and the mountains on the east which separate the 
 country from the whole interior. 
 
 All these obstacles have indeed been overcome, 
 but all have more or less aided in forming the race- 
 characteristics of each family of tribes. 
 
 "Western Africa is interesting to the student of 
 races, as containing that exceptional type in Africa — 
 the so-called "pure negro t}^e." Its natural divi- 
 sions, which are at once separations of country and 
 of race, are (1) Seneganibia ; (2) North Guinea,' 
 (3) South Guinea. 
 
 I. Senegambia — the flat country extending from 
 the Great Desert to 10° north latitude, and watered 
 by the Senegal and the Gambia, contains three prom- 
 inent races, who have by no means confined them- 
 selves to the limits of the country — ^the Fellatah^ the 
 lolofs (or Wolofs\ and the McmdingoesJ^ 
 
 THE FELL^TAH OR FtTLBE.i 
 
 For some time the existence of an important peo- 
 ple in the west of Africa has been known, who differed 
 both from the Berbers on the north and the negro 
 tribes immediately surrounding them. They were 
 bearing, their fine and Aryan features, and for the 
 
 * Wilson's statement that these three are of one stock, is contra- 
 dicted by KoUe on apparently good evidence. 
 
260 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 represented by travellers as conspicuous for tlieir noble 
 intelligence and poetic feeling whicb they displayed. 
 A brown Tlieir color was a rich brown, often no 
 *"^^" darker than that of Spaniards or Portu- 
 
 guese : certain portions of the nation were black, with 
 smooth hair, and others of the lowest class were gray- 
 ish black. Their disposition contrasted with that of 
 the Africans in being grave and reserved, with the 
 capacity for the most fanatical enthusiasm ; their pur- 
 suits were pastoral and their mode of life nomadic, in 
 the midst of settled black tribes engaged in agricul- 
 ture and commerce. Their language, too, had no re- 
 lation with the dialects of the neighboring tribes, and 
 if connected at all with the languages of Africa, must 
 be traced to those of the Southern provinces. This 
 people — ^the Fulbe (sing. Pullo), or Fellatah, or Ful- 
 lan, or Fellani, are interesting to the student of pres- 
 ent history, as having enacted, within this century, on 
 the plains of Africa, something of the part played so 
 formidably by the Arabians in Asia under Mohammed. 
 A nomadic people, scattered in various tribes over the 
 vast basin of the Niger and through the valleys of 
 Senegambia, they have united under the fanatical 
 An African leadership of a religious reformer, and have 
 empire. conqucred a Mohammedan empire, the 
 
 most powerful in interior Africa. These tribes and 
 their rule extend noW from the Atlantic Ocean and 
 Senegambia on the west, to the kingdoms of Bomu 
 
THE FELLATAH. 261 
 
 and Adamawa on the east, and from the Great Desert 
 on the north to the Mountains of Kong, and even to 
 the Bight of Benin on the south — embracing a terri- 
 tory equal in extent to one-tenth of the whole conti- 
 nent of Africa, and as large as one quarter of Europe. 
 Many of these tribes are tributary to the nations 
 among whom they reside, and others are purely no- 
 madic and independent, connected with no govern- 
 ment or settled society. 
 
 The countries held by the Fellatah in Central 
 Africa are the kingdom of Sokoto, the province of 
 Adamawa, the lands in the south of the Lower Benue, 
 the kingdom of Gando, the lands on the west and 
 south of the Mger, and the kingdom of Massina. 
 
 The districts occupied by them in Western Africa 
 are Futa-Torro, near the Senegal, Futa-Bondu, and 
 Futa-Jallou, whose capital is Timbu. 
 
 As the preachers of Islamism, the Fellatahs have 
 undoubtedly advanced the progress of civilization 
 among the pagan tribes of Africa ; for Mohammedan- 
 ism, to a certain degree, restrains brutal 
 
 . ~ .n Benefits of 
 
 passions, does away with human sacrmces, Mohammedan- 
 cultivates learning and substitutes the sense 
 of personal dignity, and the belief in an immovable 
 and beneficent Providence, with the feeling of a mem- 
 bership in a vast community of believers, for the low 
 habits, the superstitious behefs and isolated selfish- 
 ness of pagan tribes." It has aided too, to a certain 
 
262 THE EACEB OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 extent, in cliecking slavery and the slave trade, for the 
 civil code of the Koran forbids the enslaving of a man 
 born of free parents and professing the Mohammedan 
 faith ; and in no case can a Mohammedan be reduced 
 to slavery. The Fellatahs have made use of this 
 proclamation of liberty to the slave in their wars with 
 the other African States, with great effect.' The 
 Fellatah Empire, though holding loosely together at 
 the present time, is still very formidable, and must be 
 the great instrument to the Europeans for improving 
 Central Africa. 
 
 The physical traits of the Fellatah have been a 
 great puzzle to ethnologists. They are found in cer- 
 tain tribes, presenting the darkest color of the negro 
 with perfect European features. These people, called 
 Torode, are said by Dr. Barth to be a cross 
 
 Torode. 
 
 of the lolof — the handsomest black race of 
 Africa — with the Fiilbe. D'Eichthal states that the 
 Torode have shown more power than the Fiilbe, and 
 have even driven out the pure race, and that the Tou- 
 colors, or cross with the black slaves of Fouta Djallon, 
 have become masters of the Fulbe. But it is not yet 
 certain whether the black color of this portion of the 
 Fiilbe, is not due to their circumstances and mode of 
 Kfe. The inferior class of Fellatah — the herdsmen 
 of Adamawa^ — whose color is "grayish black," Dr. 
 Barth allows to be pure, and probably colored by 
 their habits of life. 
 
THE FELLATAH. 263 
 
 The Fellatali have made some progress in domestic 
 manufactures, but thej are, in general, pastoral, and 
 skilful in the care of cattle. Though considered the 
 most intelligent of all the African tribes, they have 
 as yet no native alphabet and make use of the 
 Arabic for writing. The pagan tribes of this race are 
 distinguished from the Mohammedan by their lower 
 morality, and more barbarous habits of life and dress. 
 
 Of the origin and position of this people among 
 the races of men, nothing can as yet be said with any 
 certainty. The theory of their Malay origin* does 
 not seem sufficiently sustained; and we Theories 
 can only at present wait for farther evi- °^°"s*°- 
 dence. Dr. Earth, and other travellers, are of opinion 
 that they were derived originally from the east, per- 
 haps from Egypt. He adopts the theory of a second 
 migration from the west, back to some of their original 
 seats toward the east. 
 
 It is remarkable, and perhaps shows the effect of 
 Mohammedanism, that this warlike race have never 
 participated in the foreign slave-trade, unless in the 
 few instances in which criminals have thus been dis- 
 posed of, instead of being killed. But few Fulbe, also, 
 have fallen into the hands of Europeans as slaves, and 
 in some of these cases ^ they have been thought worthy 
 of education, from their remarkable intelligence.* 
 
 * One instance was that of a Fellatah brought to Maryland as a slave, 
 
264 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 The mimerals of the Fellatah language only reach 
 five ; their nouns have no gender and form their plu- 
 rals by changes in the beginning, the middle or at 
 the end of the word. Sex is often marked by a differ- 
 ent word. There are three forms of the personal pro- 
 noims, and there is discovered a euphonic 
 
 Language. 
 
 harmony in some of the changes of the 
 words, which bears a resemblance to the alliteral con- 
 cord of the Kafiir languages. On the whole, this lan- 
 guage has much resemblance, in grammatical struc- 
 ture, to the Yoruba, Ashanti, and Timmanee, though 
 differing in vocabulary. 
 
 THE MANDINGOES AND THE lOLOFS. 
 
 These tribes, together with the Nones and Sereres, 
 are said to be scarcely distinguishable from each other 
 in personal appearance. They have the same general 
 physiognomy, the same deep black color, woolly hair, 
 thick lips, broad flat nose, and tall powerful frame, 
 and a similar force of temperament and character. 
 
 All these tribes, even when professing Moham- 
 medanism, retain the ancient superstition of i]iB fetish, 
 
 and ransomed by Oglethorpe, and then sent back to his own country, 
 after receiving a good education in England. 
 
 There is yet living a Fellatah in the United States (Wilmington, 
 Del.), expelled from his comitry for crime, and now held as a slave. 
 (Wilson's Africa, p. 80.) 
 
THE MANDINGOES AND lOLOFS. 265 
 
 and somewliat of the general African belief in a Deity, 
 namely, the fear of a powerful Being who has become 
 indifferent to the affairs of his creatures and lets the 
 world go on under evil influences. The rite of cir- 
 cumcision is practised by most of them. In the social 
 institutions, caste is found to exist among them, and 
 something approaching to a feudal relation of chieftain 
 and retainer. 
 
 The Mandingoes have their principal settlement 
 in Handing, in the high land about 600 miles from 
 the seacoast, and they are found in small communities 
 around all the European settlements, on the Gambia, 
 near Sierra Leone and Cape Mesurado, and on the 
 upper waters of the Senegal. 
 
 This tribe are thought by some to show more 
 capacity for improvement, than any other negro na- 
 tion. They possess well-ordered govern- s„periorityof 
 ments and good public schools ; their lead- ^^ '°^°''^' 
 ing men can all read and write (the Arabic) ; agricul- 
 ture has been carefully pursued by them ; and in man- 
 ufactures, they are very skilful in weaving and dyeing 
 cloth, and tanning leather, and working up iron into 
 various instruments. Their merchants are very enter- 
 prising and industrious, and exercise great influence 
 through Northern Africa. 
 
 In religion, the Mandingoes are zealous Moham- 
 medans, though a few hold to the old pagan belief. 
 
 In character and temperament, they are described as 
 12 
 
266 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 cheerful, inquisitive, credulous and fond of flattery. 
 With respect to their origin, they have a tradition 
 that they are derived from Egypt, and M. D'Eichthal 
 has presented many analogies between their language 
 and the Coptic, but there is as yet no certain evidence 
 of their Hamitic origin. 
 
 The Bamharras are a warHke tribe of the Mandin- 
 goes, who emigrated to the Senegal from the banks of 
 the DhioKba. Many of the slaves sent to Europe, 
 were formerly taken from this tribe. They are poly- 
 gamists, and sell their wives as slaves. 
 
 The lolofs live principally in the delta of the 
 Gambia and Senegal. Their four principal provinces 
 are Sin, Salem, Cajor, and Brenk. They are mild, 
 hospitable and trustworthy in character, and of the 
 Mohammedan faith. The population is about one 
 million. Many of the lolof States have been absorbed 
 by the great FeUatah Empire. 
 
 Owing to the dense jungles and swamps lining the 
 "West African coast, for a hundred miles in width, the 
 climate under which these nations reside is excessively 
 malarious, and to Europeans very dangerous. The 
 Color affected ^®®P ^l^^k color of the raccs of Senegambia, 
 by climate. geems to have more connection with this 
 peculiarity of the physical geography, than the degree 
 of heat alone. The mountain tribes, as usual, are the 
 more fair, though this does not appear to be an abso- 
 lute rule. 
 
THE MANDINGOES AND lOLOFS. 267 
 
 II. l!^OKTHEKN GuiNBA extends from Cape Yerga, 
 10° nortli latitude, to the Kameruns Mountains in the 
 Gulf of Benin, and lies between the Kong chain and 
 the Atlantic. Its length is some 1,500 miles, and ac- 
 cording to "Wilson, it contains a population of between 
 eight and twelve millions. 
 
 The inhabitants are inferior races in civilization to 
 the Fellatah and lolofs, and are distinguished from 
 them by their professing paganism instead of Moham- 
 medanism, and by the low physical type of the negro 
 which they present. 
 
 Among the nations inhabiting this territory there 
 are important general differences in their habits and 
 mode of life. From Sierra Leone to Cape „ ,, „ . 
 
 ■t North Guinea 
 
 Lahu— says Kev. Mr. Wilson, from whom *"*'^'- 
 the most of this information is derived — a distance of 
 seven or eight hundred miles, there is a similar grade 
 of condition. The people live in strongly-built circu- 
 lar huts, with peaked roofs, but poorly lighted and 
 ventilated. Their only clothing is a loose cloth around 
 their bodies. They are active and industrious, and 
 becoming every year more engaged in agriculture and 
 commerce. 
 
 On the Gold and Slave Coasts, on the other hand, 
 a higher grade of civilization prevails. The people 
 live in square houses, two or three stories high ; they 
 wear more clothing and cultivate the soil more skil- 
 
268 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 fully, and have made a greater proficiency in the me- 
 chanic arts. 
 
 The numerous tribes gathered on these coasts 
 have not been able to organize themselves into any 
 important governments, the largest being the small 
 military despotisms of Dahomi and Ashanti, and the 
 .others embracing communities of from one to twenty 
 thousand inhabitants. 
 
 The important ethnographical divisions of the in- 
 habitants are the Grebo races, the Avekwom, the 
 Ashanti or Isanti, and the ^k and Yebu. E"ear 
 Sierra Leone we find the Timanis and Susus, both 
 probably related to the Mandingoes. These are, in 
 general, pagan tribes (though the Susus have become 
 in part Mohammedans), and are in a low condition, 
 morally and physically. They present the degraded 
 negro type, with which foreign countries are 
 
 Low type. 
 
 familiar through the slave trade. Yet they 
 are not among the lowest of mankind, as both agricul- 
 ture and commerce are pursued to some extent by 
 them. 
 
 The Greho races include the Krumen, the inhabi- 
 tants of Cape Mesurado, and other tribes between 
 Grand Cape Mount on the north and St. Andrews on 
 the south. 
 
 One of the neighboring tribes allied to the Man- 
 dingoes — the Yeys — ^has the high intellectual glory of 
 having attained within a few years, xmassisted, that 
 
THE KKUS. 269 
 
 which few of the most gifted races have reached — the 
 invention of an alphabet. Books have even been 
 printed by the missionaries in the Yey language. The 
 Yeys are a more highly developed tribe, physically, 
 than the neighboring peoples, possessing large, weU- 
 formed heads and graceful, slender frames, though all 
 are jet-black in complexion. 
 
 The Yey language is remarkable, says Mr. !N^orris, 
 for the total absence of declension in the noun ; for 
 particles affixed to the verb, simulating inflexion with- 
 out constituting true inflexion, and for the peculiar 
 use of certain pronouns. There are in it, as in many 
 African languages, a number of imported Arabic 
 words. The alphabet contains 200 signs, and shows 
 the originality of its invention by its being an alphabet 
 of sylla])les, not letters. 
 
 The Krus. This people occupy the coast from 
 Cape Mesurado to St. Andrews, including a number 
 of smaller tribes. They are said to possess less gen- 
 eral intelligence than the Fellatahs and Mandingoes, 
 and less wealth and fewer arts than the inhabitants of 
 the Gold Coast, but to be superior to both rn. physique 
 and force of temperament.* They are conspicuous for 
 their open frank bearing and their fine figures, 
 though presenting the usual negro characteristics. 
 Every shade of color, however, from light mulatto 
 to black is seen among them. The Krus are com- 
 paratively an intelligent and industrious race, furnish- 
 
270 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 ing tlie most of the "coolies" of Western Africa. 
 
 They follow commerce and are skilled in the culture 
 
 of the ground, and have organized governments of 
 
 , a peculiar and democratic form. Land is 
 
 Advancement -^ 
 
 ofKrus. jjg2^ ^^ common by their communities. 
 Slavery has never existed among this people, nor 
 have they carried on the slave trade. 
 
 The Krus are classed by Dr. Bleek under the 
 Mandingoes ; but they show even a greater resem- 
 blance in language to the Ashantis and Fantis. 
 
 The Fcmti or Ashcmti races. The Fantis on the 
 Gold Coast differ from their neighbors, the Krumen, 
 in being more uniformly black, and in an inferior mus- 
 cular development, as well as in presenting a less 
 open and manly expression of countenance. They 
 are superior, however, in mental attainment, and 
 show what progress in civilization even low African 
 races can make. A large proportion of the pop- 
 ulation have learned to read and write in Eng- 
 proffress ^^^ ^^^ many are employed by Euro- 
 antis. peans as teachers, or clerks in business 
 houses. They manufacture also, and are skilled in the 
 construction of musical instruments, iron tools, and 
 gold ornaments,'' and even in the making of cotton 
 cloth, which they have prepared with a loom of their 
 own invention. They are also good blacksmiths and 
 carpenters and gardeners. 
 
 This nation has had the misfortune to be exposed 
 
THE ASHAJ^TIS. 271 
 
 to two influences from America, wliicli have done 
 more to corrupt it than any other causes — one, the 
 demand for slaves from the Southern States, and the 
 other, the supply of rum from 'New England. 
 
 No doubt, however, their contrast with the Kru- 
 men and Fellatahs in the matter of slavery, is due, 
 primarily, to a lack of native independence of char- 
 acter. 
 
 The Ashantis. Though the Fantis are of the 
 same race with this people, the African coast has been 
 ravaged for years by wars between them. 
 
 Ashantis. 
 
 The Ashantis are the only people of W est- 
 em Africa, with the exception of the Fellatahs, who 
 have had a history; and this reaching but to the 
 beginning of the 18th century. Their government is 
 the most absolute military despotism, and included at 
 one time an area of some 300 miles square, lying 
 between the country of the Fantis and the Kong 
 Mountains. The population is supposed to be not less 
 than 3,000,000. 
 
 The Ashantis are inferior to the Fantis in their 
 general cultivation, yet have made some progress in 
 the mechanic arts. 
 
 The common language of this race, including the 
 Denkyira and Yasa populations, and the inhabitants 
 of Akim and Akwam, as well as other minor districts, 
 is called the OtsKi. 
 
272 THE EACEB OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 The Avekwoms reside between St, Andrews and 
 Dick's Cove, on the Ivory Coast. Their principal 
 tribe is at Cape Lahu. 
 
 The Yebus occupy the country about the river 
 Lagos, and the Efiks or Callabars live about 50 miles 
 from a river of that name, not far from the island of 
 Fernando Po. Both peoples are notorious as having 
 engaged much in the foreign slave-trade. 
 
 The Ihos or Ehoes are interesting as being a tribe 
 of lighter complexion than the other tribes near the 
 coast, though with full negro features. They live on 
 the higher land near the mouth of the Niger. They 
 are supposed to be connected with nations in the 
 interior. 
 
 Farther down the coast, are the peoples of Benim, 
 Dahomey, and Yoruba, of whom but little can be said 
 as to their ethnographical relation. The effect of 
 slavery and the slave-trade, has been to disorganize all 
 the governments on this coast. Dahomey may, per- 
 haps, claim the evil fame of being the most 
 
 Dahomey. , 
 
 savage and cruel organized government on 
 the face of the earth. The tribes of Yoruba seem to 
 present more favorable indications. Of their lan- 
 guage, Bowen states that it is rich in abstract terms, 
 and peculiarly favorable for spreading the ideas of 
 Christianity. The people are said to possess a consti- 
 tutional government, and to profess a pure monotheis- 
 
THE TEIBES OF YOKUBA. 273 
 
 tic religion, though many idolatrous practices are still 
 upheld by them. They are industrious, and peculiarly 
 free from the vice of licentiousness. A considerable 
 progress has been made by them in manufactures, and 
 various mechanic arts. A missionary station among 
 this people — Abeokuta — ^has presented a most striking 
 instance of the capacity of improvement which exists 
 in the African races. 
 
 Throughout N'orthem and Southern Guinea, va- 
 rious religious and national customs exist, which may 
 hereafter throw some light on the origin of the differ- 
 ent tribes — customs which bear a wonderful analogy 
 to many practised among the Jews — such ^^^-^^-^ 
 as circumcision; division of tribes into *'°^'^°™^- 
 families, and often into the number twelve ; the inter- 
 diction of marriage between families too nearly re- 
 lated ; bloody sacrifices and the sprinkhng of blood 
 upon the altars and door-posts ; the observance of new 
 moons and weekly festivals ; the division of time into 
 seven days; the shaving the head and wearing tat- 
 tered clothes in sign of mourning ; the rites of purifi- 
 cation and the belief in demoniacal possession. 
 
 The legal custom of transmitting inheritance 
 through the female, and through the sister singular 
 
 African 
 
 of the deceased, rather than his sons, seems custom. 
 peculiarly African, and prevails also on the eastern 
 coast. 
 
 12* 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 RACES OF SOUTHEKN AFEIOA. 
 
 The Mountains of the Moon form a natural and 
 entire division of tlie inhabitants of Africa. Leaving 
 the Semitic and Hamitic races and the innumerable 
 smaller tribes, whom the disorganizing process of bar- 
 barism has separated into petty communities, until all 
 trace of their class or origin is lost, we come forth in 
 „ . a ^v the southern half of Africa on a clear field 
 
 Great South 
 
 African race. ^^ roscarch. Here we find that one great 
 family of men, from very remote times, has settled 
 itself on the coasts and penetrated the difficult jungles 
 which guard the interior, until every known portion 
 of the southern continent, with the exception of the 
 areas occupied by the Hottentot and Bushmen, has 
 been traversed or occupied by them. 
 
 From the very fact of their unity, still clearly to 
 be recognized, they are not supposed to be as old in- 
 habitants of the soil as the black populations of Korth 
 Africa, whom a longer time has disintegrated into so 
 many apparently separate races. Of their origin or 
 
EACES OF SOUTHKRN AFEICA. 275 
 
 classification among the great families of the human 
 race, nothing can as yet be confidently said. They 
 are only known thus far to be united among them- 
 selves, and to be utterly different from the races of 
 IS'orth Africa. 
 
 The class of languages, on which this broad gener- 
 alization is confidently based, has been called the 
 " Alliterative Class." Their distinguishing feature is 
 the alliteration or euphonic concord, defined ^uj^g^ative 
 by Bryant as "a peculiar assimilation of ^*°s"^s^®- 
 initial sounds, produced by prefixing the same letter or 
 letters to several words in the same proposition, re- 
 lated to or connected with one another." The initial 
 letter of the leading noun reappears in the beginning 
 of all the dependent or related words in the sentence. 
 This principle is said to be so strong as to control the 
 distinction of number and to quite subordinate that of 
 gender, and to mould the pronoun after the likeness 
 of the initial letter.* The peculiar mental tendency 
 which could produce this euphonious structure of lan- 
 guage, shows a community of origin in these widely- 
 scattered peoples, which no similarity of color or 
 physique, or likeness of institutions could ever prove. 
 
 * An instance given by Bryant, is " izinfo zetu zonhe ezilungileyo zi 
 vela ku "Tixo'''' (all our good things come from God). Perhaps the fol- 
 lowing will illustrate the principle. Suppose in English, instead of " Na- 
 tions arise against nations," we were obliged to say " Nations narise 
 nagainst nations," or instead of " Man's life is brief," " Lan's life lia 
 Ibrief," and we have an analogy to the African alliteration. 
 
276 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 As usual, the lines of language cut right across the 
 differences of physical characteristics, and this great 
 Physical South African family includes all shades of 
 chamcteristic coloT, froui light coffcc and copper-color to 
 jet black, and hair both straight and woolly 
 and the facial traits of the negro, as well as of the 
 European. The prominent tribes embraced by it are 
 the Pongo and Congo peoples, or Bunda race, of the 
 western coast ; the Kaffirs, Zulus, and Bechuanas of 
 the south ; and the Swahere and other tribes of the 
 east coast, as well as numerous tribes in the interior, 
 recently explored. "We shall denominate this great 
 family from one of its leading tribes — the Kaffir 
 Family. 
 
 It is supposed that even the aboriginal inhabitants 
 of Madagascar are of the same race. 
 
 The only other important division of the races of 
 Southern Africa, is the Hottentot family, a popula- 
 tion more ancient in that continent than the Kaffirs. 
 They include the Hottentots, Namaquas, 
 
 Hottentots. 
 
 Corannas, and Bushmen, on the north of 
 the "Cape Colony and near the Orange River. Their 
 language is described as belonging to the " Click 
 Class." "We shall examine them hereafter in detail. 
 
 SOUTHERN 6UINEA.1 
 
 The contrast between the dialects of !N"orth and 
 South Guinea, is an illustration of the differences ex- 
 
SOUTHERN GUINEA. 277 
 
 isting between tlie ]^orth African races and the great 
 South African family. Those of the former are usu- 
 ally harsh and abrupt, but energetic and direct. 
 Their vocabulary is small : the words have but few 
 inflections, and express only bold outlines of thought. 
 The dialects of the latter are soft, pliable and flexibls ; 
 their grammatical principles, says "Wilson, are founded 
 on the most philosophical basis and their words may 
 be multiplied almost indefinitely. "There are, per- 
 haps, no languages of the world capable of more 
 definiteness and precision of expression." 
 
 Of their external characteristics Wilson says : 
 
 If the native of Southern Guinea has not the tall and com- 
 manding figure of the Mandingo or the Jolof, the athletic frame 
 of the Kruman, the manly and independent gait of the Av§k worn 
 or the mechanical ingenuity of the Fanti, he has External 
 an intelligent and inquisitive countenance, a well- *''*''^^- 
 formed head, a graceful figure, and is, beyond doubt, superior 
 to them all in the gentleness and urbanity of his manners, and 
 the inimitable ease and readiness with which he accommodates 
 himself to any circumstances in which he may be placed. If he 
 has not the means of making so imposing a show of wealth as 
 the natives of the Gold Coast, he has a much clearer apprecia- 
 tion of what constitutes true civilization, and can much more 
 readily conform himself to the views and feelings of civilized 
 men. 
 
 There are two prominent divisions of the tribes of 
 Southern Guinea — the maritime, and the interior, or 
 
278 THE EACBS OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 buslimeii. The former feel tlie influences of inter- 
 course with civilization and are gentle, peaceable and 
 even polite ; cleanlj and decent in appearance, and 
 living in comfortable bamboo houses. The latter are 
 often almost in a state of complete barbarism. Those 
 on the high lands are invariably lighter in complexion 
 than those in the low country. 
 
 On the Pongo coast, between 4° north latitude and 
 3° south, there are great mmibers of tribes — the Ka- 
 merun, Banaka, Corisco, Mpongwe, Kama, and others 
 on the seaboard, and the Shekanis, Bakeles, and 
 Pangwes, in the interior. 
 
 The Mpongwes, who live on the banks of the 
 Gabun Eiver, are interesting as having shown unusual 
 capacity for improvement. Their language 
 is remarkable for its smoothness and me- 
 thodical arrangement, the great flexibility of its verbs, 
 and its capability of almost unlimited expansion, as it 
 is required to express new ideas. The Mpongwes are 
 the most imaginative of the negro races of Western 
 Africa, possessing an inexhaustible store of traditions 
 and poetic fables. In disposition they are said to cor- 
 respond to their language, being wonderfully facile 
 and mild and flexible. 
 
 Of the interior barbarous peoples, the Pangwes 
 are the most numerous, numbering nearly a million, 
 and the most remarkable. They are independent and 
 warlike, and are rapidly encroaching on the maritime 
 
 1 
 
THE BinSTDA TKIBES. 279 
 
 nations. They are the only people of Western Africa 
 that have a circulating medium. Of their appear- 
 ance, Wilson says, that of all men he has ever met, 
 they are those of the most noble and imposing bearing. 
 Their complexion is lighter than that of the tribes on 
 the seacoast, and their features, though African, are 
 regular. 
 
 The Pangwes have now taken possession of the 
 head waters of the Gabun. 
 
 The peoples of Loango, Congo, Angola, and Ben- 
 guela, are all of the same race, the Bunda race, so 
 called because their language belongs to the same 
 branch with that of the Ambonda, an independent 
 people southeast of Angola. They belong, as has 
 been said, to the great South African, or Kaffir 
 family. 
 
 There are various minor tribes among these na- 
 tions; of those in Loango, bordering on the moun- 
 tains, the Dongos, Azinkos, and I^Ttekas are the prin- 
 cipal. 
 
 The condition of the Kongo nation is another Af- 
 rican instance of Christianity almost dying out, and 
 becoming replaced by barbarism and hea- Kongoa 
 
 formerly 
 
 thenism ; though, in this instance, the com- christian 
 plicity of the Romish Church with the slave-trade, 
 may be the cause of its decreasing moral influence. 
 
 The Quisamas, in Angola, are quite independent 
 of the Portuguese, who have conquered so many of 
 
280 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 the native tribes. In appearance, they have a strong 
 resemblance to the Hottentots, though probably be- 
 longing to the Kaffir family. 
 
 Of the inland tribes east of Angola — the Basongs 
 and others — Livingston says : 
 
 All the inhabitants of this region, as well as those of Londa, 
 may he called true negroes, if the limitations formerly made be 
 borne in mind. The dark color, thick lips, heads elongated 
 backward and upward and covered with wool, flat noses, with 
 other negro peculiarities, are general ; but while these charac- 
 teristics place them in the true negro family, the reader would 
 imbibe a wrong idea, if he supposed that all these features com- 
 bined are often met with in one individual. All have a certain 
 thickness and prominence of lip, but many are met with in every 
 village, in whom thickness and projection are not more marked 
 than in Europeans. All are dark, but the color is shaded off in 
 different individuals, from deep black to light yellow. As we 
 go westward, we observe the light color predominating over the 
 dark, and then again, when we come within the influence of 
 damp from the sea air, we find the shade deepen into the general 
 blackness of the coast population. The shape of the head, with 
 its woolly crop, though general, is not universal. The tribes on 
 the eastern side of the continent, as the Oaffres, have heads finely 
 developed and strongly European. Instances of this kind are 
 frequently seen, and after I became so familiar with the dark 
 color as to forget it in viewing the countenance, I was struck by 
 the strong resemblance some natives bore to certain of our own 
 notabilities. The Bushmen and Hottentots are exceptions to 
 these remarks, for both the shape of their heads and growth of 
 wool are peculiar; the latter, for instance, springs from the 
 scalp in tufts, with bare spaces between, and when the crop is 
 
THE BA80NG8. 281 
 
 short, resembles a number of black pepper corns stuck on the 
 skin, and very unlike the black frizzly masses which cover the 
 heads of the Balonda and Maravi. With every disposition to 
 pay due deference to the opinions of those who have made eth- 
 nology their special study, I have felt myself unable to believe 
 that the exaggerated features usually put forth as those of the 
 typical negro, characterize the majority of any nation of South 
 Central Africa. The monuments of the ancient Egyptians seem 
 to me to embody the ideal of the inhabitants of Londa, better 
 than the figures of any work of ethnology I have met with. 
 
 The Bunda nations extend even into the heart of 
 Africa, as the Makalala, including the £a- g^^^^^ 
 rotse^ BoRjeye and others, according to the 
 same authority, are of this race. The Maschona, as 
 far east as 31° east longitude, are supposed also to be 
 of the same family. 
 
 Among the Congo tribes, two, remarkable for 
 their intelligence are mentioned by Ladislaus Magyar, 
 a recent Hungarian traveller — the Kdbundas and Mu- 
 sso-rongo. They live on the lower part of the Zaire 
 or Congo River, and are skilful mariners and ship- 
 builders, having even built ships which they have sent 
 as far as Brazil, laden with slaves. 
 
 Both tribes are conspicuous for their fine physique. 
 They speak a dialect of the Bunda language. 
 
 M. Maury says of the Congo languages, that like 
 most African tongues, they are poor in dis- ^^^^^^ 
 tinct verbs, but remarkably rich in the '""»'"'ses. 
 modes of the individual verb. Thus the verb sola 
 
282 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 means, to labor ; salila, to facilitate labor ; salisia, to 
 labor witb somebody ; salam,ga, to be in the babit of 
 laboring ; salisionia, to labor one for another ; salcm- 
 gcma, to be sldlful in labor. Yet they have no one 
 word for living, but must say " conduct one's soul," or 
 " being in one's heart." They have often no gender, 
 only the division into animate and inanimate ; and in 
 animate things the gender is simply man (or iatelli- 
 gent creature), and omte (or animal). 
 
 Alhinoes are frequently met with through all these 
 
 countries. l!^o mention is made by late writers of the 
 
 black Jews in Loango, of whom Prichard 
 
 speaks, and the rumor is probably derived 
 
 from the numerous customs and rites practised by the 
 
 people, singularly analogous to those of the Jews. 
 
 The black tribes under Portuguese rule are said 
 to have greatly deteriorated. 
 
 The Bashinje, on the river Quango, just east of 
 Angola, show a very low negro type, according to 
 Livingston. 
 
CHAPTEK XXIV. 
 
 THE DAMAEAS AND OVAMPOB.' 
 
 From near the 17th degree of south latitude to 
 about the 25th on. the west coast, these two nations, re- 
 lated branches of the great Kaffir family, wander over 
 a vast extent of territory. The Damaras or Ovahere- 
 ros, who are supposed to have emigrated, withiu the 
 last hundred years, from the interior of Africa and in- 
 vaded the country which they occupy, extend as far east 
 from the Atlantic as Lake !N"gami ; on the west, they 
 border on the Aunin or Coast Namaquas ; in the north 
 they touch the Ovampo and a desert mountain-land, 
 inhabited by the HiU-Damaras and Bushmen. They 
 are a pastoral people, and live principally on their 
 flocks and herds. Their iron utensils are procured 
 from the Ovampos and the European colony on the 
 coast. The whole people only numbers about 40,000, 
 but is divided into a great number of small tribes, 
 governed by chiefs, dependent on chiefs above them. 
 In religious belief they are said to have no clear idea 
 
284 THE KACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 of a Supreme Being : of the being wliom they wor- 
 ship, it is uncertain whether it is to be considered a 
 ffod or one of their ancestors. They prac- 
 
 Eeligion. ° ^ ^ '' ^ 
 
 tise circumcision — as do so many of the 
 African tribes — offer sacrifices of animals and pray to 
 the spirits of the dead.'' They suppose a tree to have 
 been their ancestor. The Damaras are in constant 
 warfare with a Hottentot tribe — the Hill-Damaras — 
 and with the IS^amaqua-Hottentots on the south, and 
 it is probable, will eventually be entirely exterminated 
 by these more powerful nations.' The OvuTnbcmtieru^ 
 on the east, belong to the same race. 
 
 The Ovampos (or Ovambos), who speak a kindred 
 dialect, live to the north of the Damara people, and 
 
 are much more settled and civilized in 
 
 Ovambos. 
 
 mode of life. They are agricultural, and 
 possess well laid out farms ; many are skilled in work- 
 ing metals, and others carry on the trade between the 
 former nation and the Portuguese. The honesty of 
 dealing and hospitality of the Ovampos are much 
 praised by travellers. Their love of country is said to 
 be so great that the Ovampos are not considered by 
 the traders to be profitable slaves, as they sicken and 
 die of home-sickness. 
 
 Both nations are black, with handsomely-shaped 
 limbs and body, comparatively regular features, and a 
 facial angle of about 70 degrees. The Ovambos have 
 short, crisped hair. 
 
THE OVAMPOS. 285 
 
 Their religion, customs, habits, appearance, and 
 especially their language, prove their membership of 
 the South African or Kaffir family. 
 
 To the northeast of the Ovampos, between 16° and 
 17° south latitude, and 18° and 19° east longitude, is 
 the kingdom of Kamba, near the River Kunene : 
 the inhabitants belong to the considerable race of the 
 Mio-nyanika, which includes a number of separate 
 communities. The Hungarian traveller — Ladislaus — 
 who has given almost the only information about these 
 tribes, says but little in regard to their language. 
 They are negroes, and probably belong to the Kaffir 
 family. A remarkable custom existing among them — 
 which is also found among the Batokas, in Central 
 Africa — is the breaking out of three teeth from the 
 lower jaw. Their occupation is mostly robbery, and 
 they are on a very low grade of social condition. 
 Their religious belief is a faith in a good and evil 
 spirit, of whom they regard the latter as the more 
 powerful. 
 
 The Bechuanas.* The Becliuanas (or Bitshuan- 
 as), a name meaning " Equals," or " Fellows," are 
 the most powerful and intelligent of the Kaffir races. 
 They are scattered over a wide extent of country, from 
 28° south latitude to the region of Lake I^^gami, and 
 even as far as 18° south latitude, while one of their 
 tribes — the Makololo — have extended to 14° south 
 
286 THE EACEB OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 latitude. They are bounded on tlie east by the Kaffirs 
 Geofrrapucai P^oper, and on the south by the Hottentot 
 position. Bushmen and Griquas. On the west, they 
 extend into the Kalahari Desert, where they are 
 found to degenerate in physique. 
 
 This people is divided into a great number of 
 tribes, the Batoanas, Bakwains, and others, named 
 each after a certain animal ; a custom probably origi- 
 nating from the animal worship, which, as with the 
 Egyptians, formerly prevailed among them. Their 
 customs — such as circumcision, polygamy, the practice 
 of rain-making by the sorcerers, with others of the 
 kind — are the same which we discover among all the 
 Kaffir races. The Bechuanas are an eloquent, quick- 
 witted people, but given to theft, and vindictive in 
 disposition. Gardening and agriculture are much 
 practised by their women, while the men usually oc- 
 cupy themselves in war and the chase. Some of their 
 tribes show a great readiness and capacity for com- 
 merce. 
 
 Like many of their related tribes, they are said to 
 have no belief in a Supreme Being, but it is not im- 
 probable that this impression about them, results from 
 ignorance of their language and customs. 
 
 The Bechuanas are not a fully black tribe — the 
 Makalolo, of whom Livingston speaks so much, having 
 a lightish yellow complexion. 
 
THE BECHUANAS. 287 
 
 Livingston gives a classification of tlie Bechuanas, 
 which he obtained from one of the Makalolos. 1st. 
 The Bakoni (or Basuto), embracing in the Livingston's 
 south, the Batan, Baputi, and others — 
 wild tribes, some of them even addicted to canni- 
 balism — and including in the north, numerous tribes, 
 such as the Ballon^ Bapo, &c., who are agricultu- 
 ral, and raise large quantities of grain. On their 
 labor, the distant Boers live. 2d. The Bakalahari, 
 the western branch, including many communities and 
 hordes, among them the Baflwpi, who have felt espe- 
 cially the influences of Christianity. They were filthy 
 and degraded tribes when first known, but have been 
 gradually raised in condition by the influences of civ- 
 ilization and religion. 
 
 The following description of the Bechuana lan- 
 guage, or the Sechuana, is from Eev. L. Grout, the 
 missionary. 
 
 The Sechuana language is rich in names for external objects, 
 but very deficient in metaphysical terms. It has no words sig- 
 nifying "conscience," "spirit," &c., and none to Bechuana 
 express the abstractions of mind. Harmony and i'*°S'i^«- 
 clearness are its chief qualities. Its words generally have from 
 two to four syllables, each syllable being composed of one con- 
 sonant and one vowel following it. The noun is composed of a 
 variable prefix and a radical. The plural number is formed 
 from the singular, by changing the prefix le into wa, as, legebay 
 plural mageba ; mo into 5a, as, motu, man, plural hatu, men ; se 
 into li^ and to into ma; or else the plural is marked by the pre- 
 
288 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKUD. 
 
 fix IL The article is nothing but the prefix of the noun repeat- 
 ed, and is used to bind the adjective to the substantive, as, sefate 
 se segolu^ great tree, literally, tree the great. The adjectives are 
 few, because of the frequent employment of nouns to express 
 attributes, as, motu oa musa, " man of amiability," i. e., amiable 
 man. The adjective takes the prefix of the substantive to which 
 it belongs, and is always placed after the noun, as selomo se 
 segolu, "precipice the great." The place of the comparative 
 degree is often supplied by employing the yerhfeta, to surpass; 
 yet comparison is regularly expressed by the use of the preposi- 
 tion go, to, towards. The pronoun of the third person accom- 
 modates itself to the prefix of the substantive to which it relates. 
 Thus the prefix se, gives the pronoun so7ia, or sea, before the 
 verb; le, gives Zona, or lea; io, — iona, or ioa; li, — chona, or 
 lia. The verb has three forms, the Efficient, Causative, and 
 Eelative ; and each form has three voices, the active, the passive, 
 and the middle. (Or. Soc'y Journ., vol. i, p. 426.) 
 
 THE KAFFIES.i 
 
 This people, from whom the extended family of 
 nations in South Africa have been named, occupies 
 the comitry on the south-east coast, extending from the 
 Cape Colony nearly to Delagoa Bay. They 
 are divided into three branches — the Kaf- 
 jirs^ Zulus, and Fingoes, each speaking a separate 
 dialect of the Kaffir language. The Kaffirs include 
 the Amaxosas, Ahatemnbu^, and Amarrvpondos. 
 
 The first tribe are especially the Kaffirs of British 
 Kafifraria. 
 
 The Zulus include the inhabitants of Natal : the 
 
THE KAITIRS. 289 
 
 Amazulus, whose country extends from the Utugala 
 River nearly to Delagoa Bay, and inland to the 
 Quathambla Mountains ; and the subjects of UmoseU- 
 katsi, who have been driven out from their former 
 habitations, and are supposed now to be somewhere 
 inland from Inhambane. 
 
 The Fingoes include wandering Kaffirs, Such as 
 the Matabele Amafengu and others, either bordering 
 on ISTatal, or who have migrated to a distance in the 
 interior. The former tribe have afready founded an 
 important kingdom in the centre of Southern Africa. 
 
 In person, the Kaffirs are remarkable for symmetry 
 and beauty ; their height is usually over five feet eight 
 inches, and their carriage is stately and upright. 
 Their heads are large, the forehead being high and 
 well-developed. The hair is woolly, the features are 
 fine, and the eyes remarkable for their keen piercing 
 expression ; the nose varying in form, but sometimes 
 of the perfect classic shape. The skin is dark brown, 
 growing more black in the more northerly tribes. 
 The people are conspicuous for their regular and 
 pearly white teeth. 
 
 In pursuits, the Kaffirs are mostly a pastoral peo- 
 ple, living under a patriarchal government. Their 
 superstitions and customs correspond to those abeady 
 mentioned of the other branches of this family. 
 
 The whole number of Kaffirs and Zulus, according 
 to Fleming, in 1852, was only 445,000. 
 13 
 
290 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOBLD. 
 
 The Kaffir language is the representative of the 
 great alliterative family. Its principle of " euphonic 
 concord " leads to a remarkably soft, fluent and har- 
 monious enunciation, and aids in giving precision and 
 clearness to the expression of ideas. A foreign el- 
 ement in the language is the use of clicks , probably 
 derived from the Hottentots, as the Zulus who are 
 farther from that people, are much more free from 
 them than the Kafiirs proper. ' 
 
 The divergence of the dialects of the South Afri- 
 can family, corresponds with the geographical situa- 
 Kaffir *^^^ ^^ *^® tribes ; that of the Kaffirs proper 
 
 passing gradually into the Zulu dialect, and 
 this again into the Bechuana, and this changing into 
 that of the remotest Bechuana peoples. The great 
 distinction between them is that the eastern dialects 
 are softer than the western. ^' 
 
 As we review the positior of the Kaffir races in 
 Southern Africa, we find 9 - remarkable movement 
 among the nations similar to that which we observed in 
 Central Africa. The black peoples are the farthest 
 from being stationary or sluggish. Emigration in mass- 
 es, invasion and conquest are proceeding all the while. 
 Eemarkabie Empircs are being erected, and nations Qvib- 
 
 migrations o ? 
 
 in Africa. jugatcd or absorbcd continually. On the 
 east there is the grand movement of the Matebele^ 
 under Moselekatse, who have finally founded a great 
 
THE KATFIES. 291 
 
 Hngdom, reacliing from the Schaschi River to the 
 Zambesi. Mingled with the Matebele, are fragments 
 of numerous smaller tribes, such as the Makalaka, 
 Badonga, Bakurutse, Maschana, and others. A part 
 of the Maschona have preserved their independence in 
 the mountains, eastward of this country.^ 
 
 In the district of the Tschobe and Liambye, the 
 Makololo, after leaving their old habitations on the 
 Orange River, have erected, under Sebituane, a pow- 
 erful community, conquering all the nations from the 
 Tschobe to 14° south latitude. Among the Bechuana 
 tribes incorporated into this nation are the £akwain, 
 Batauana, and others. The Makololo have been 
 much diminished by the African fevers, so that negro 
 tribes, such as the Barotse^ Bayeye, Batoka^ now form 
 the majority of the subjects of their empire.* 
 
 Between thes . two kingdoms, a number of frag- 
 ments of different nations are found, united in the 
 common desire of preserving their independence. 
 
 In the west, we havt already spoken of the king- 
 dom of the Damaras, a comparatively modern govern- 
 ment, as the people is supposed within one hundred 
 years to have emigrated from the highlands of Cen- 
 tral Africa ; and yet, already overpowered and nearly 
 destroyed by the attacks of the fierce Hottentot na- 
 tions. 
 
292 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 THE EECENTLT EXPLOEED DISTKICTS OF SOUTH AFRICA.* 
 
 The most important commmiity in this country, so 
 lately brought into public view by Livingston, is the 
 empire of Matiamvo. Its capital is situated about 8° 
 20' south latitude, and 22° 32' east longitude. The 
 most southern village under his rule is that of Manen- 
 ko, about 13° south latitude ; many petty chieftains 
 are subject to him, and his command stretches as far 
 west as the Loange, and northward to the upper 
 branches of the Liambai, and the country governed 
 by Cazembe. The great race who occupy most of this 
 territory are the Balonda. In physique, Livingston 
 says they are full-blooded nearroes, but sel- 
 
 The Balonda. J J . 
 
 dom with the low negro type, which from 
 acquaintance with degraded blacks, who have been 
 exported as slaves, we have come to consider the usual 
 type. Their heads are usually very well shaped, 
 though some have long skulls, with thick lips and 
 flat noses. The government of Matiamvo is described 
 as a mild and absolute despotism. He alone possesses 
 all the flocks and herds of the country. 
 
 The soil cultivated by his subjects is generally 
 fruitful and well-watered. As the Bechuana lan- 
 guage is understood everywhere, they are probably 
 also of the Ka& family. 
 
EXPLORED DISTRICTS OF SOUTHEEN AFRICA. 293 
 
 Between Londa and Angola are several tribes, 
 such as the Kasahi^ Kasan, Baschinje^ and others, in 
 alliance with Matiamvo. The Bangala are the east- 
 ernmost under Portuguese rule ; but on the left bank 
 of the Coanza, the Kissamas, Libolo^ and KiTnhonda, 
 are independent. In the northeast, the first independ- 
 ent people is that of the Jinga. 
 
 On the eastern coast, the Portuguese rule extends 
 inland only as far as Tete. North of this point, a 
 number of tribes are met with, known as Mara/vi. 
 Northwesterly again from this people, are the Bahisa 
 or Aiza^ who hold mostly in their own hands the 
 trade in ivory and slaves with the peoples of the Zam- 
 besi. "West of Zete, on the right bank of the Zambesi, 
 are the numerous villages of the Bamhiri or Banyai. 
 
 Of the race immediately south of the Zambesi — 
 the Landiens — Livingston is uncertain whether they 
 are Zulu or Bonda, but they are without doubt mem- 
 bers of the great Southern family, speaking the allit- 
 erative languages. 
 
 Of the tribes south of the Zambesi, on the coast, 
 nothing certain as to their race is known, but there is 
 reason to believe that the Inhamhane, Sofala, and 
 Quilimane belong to the Kaffirs proper, and that the 
 dense population north and northeast of this river are 
 members of the Bechuana division of the South 
 African family. 
 
 In general, the population of this eastern coast may 
 
294 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOULD. 
 
 be divided from its occupations into three classes. 
 Three classes The first are wild nomadic herdsmen, who 
 
 on eastern ^ ' 
 
 coast. liye on the plunder of war or the produce 
 
 of the hunt : these include the Galla, the Masai, the 
 Somal, and the Kaffir. The second are the tribes, 
 which like the Wakaniba — a people belonging to the 
 great Kaffir family — are in part herdsmen and in part 
 cultivators of the soil. They have no settled dwelling- 
 places, and let the tilling of the soil be done by their 
 women. The Wahemhe — living on the northwestern 
 shore of the Tanganyika Lake — are described by Bur- 
 ton as having " abandoned to wild growth a land of 
 the richest, most prolific soil ; too lazy and unenergetic 
 to fish or hunt, they devour all kinds of carrion, grubs, 
 and insects, and, like the Fans, are not disgusted with 
 the worst form of cannibalism — eating the bodies of 
 persons who have died of sickness." (Ethnol. Soc. 
 Trans., 1861, p. 320.) The third class, which have 
 already begun on the first step of improvement — the 
 regular cultivation of the ground — are the tribes, such 
 as the Wa/nikas, Wasurribaras, and others dwelling 
 between the coast and the interior lakes.' 
 
 The Wanika are supposed by Burton to be a peo- 
 ple who have degenerated from a more civilized condi- 
 tion ; he considers them as in stock, negro (probably 
 Bechuana), but mingled with Semitic blood. 
 
 "Wanika. 
 
 Their heads are pyramidal and longish 
 round, low in front, and pressed together on the sides. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
THE WANEKA. 295 
 
 The face is moderately broad and flat ; the forehead 
 broad and prominent ; the nose and chin of low negro 
 type ; color chocolate. 
 
 In their spiritual condition, the same authorities 
 already quoted, cannot discover that they have any 
 distinct religion, but merely a religious instinct. The 
 Being whom they regard as highest, is at once good 
 and bad. They sacrifice on the graves of their ances- 
 tors, but without any idea of a future life. Circumci- 
 sion and polygamy are common to them with all their 
 related tribes, and like others of the African races, they 
 delight in the forming of secret associations. They 
 have no organized government. 
 
 The following slender information is from the Rev. 
 Mr. L. Grout, missionary, and is probably the best that 
 can yet be obtained in regard to the remaining tribes 
 oh the coast : 
 
 At some distance from the coast, and about due nortli from 
 the mouths of the rivers Zambesi and Quilimane, lie the Makoas, 
 to which nation many of the emancipated slaves of the colony 
 belong. They are supposed to extend from about 17° to 9°, or 
 10° south latitude. Still farther in the interior and to the 
 northwest of Mozambique, from which place they are thought to 
 be two or three months' journey, dwell the Monjous. From 
 Mozambique to as far as ITombasa and Nelinda, along the coast 
 lie the Sowauli, or, as they are termed by Dr. Krapf, the 
 Sooahelees. Some of these people are also found in the interior 
 of the island of Zanzibar, where they are called Nookhaden. 
 From a statement of Dr. Krapf, in the Missionary Register, it 
 
296 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 would appear that the Sooahelee language is spoken a consider- 
 able distance beyond Nelinda. On his visiting Barawa, about 
 2° north latitude, he thus writes : " The language of Barawa is 
 Somalee, but most of the inhabitants understand the Sooahelee 
 language, which is spoken from Nukdeesha to Mozambique, but 
 only on the coast, not in the interior. The tribes inland, from 
 Nombasa, are called Wonicas and Wakambas, the former inhabit- 
 ing the plains, and the latter dwelling in the hills and forests. 
 The language of the Wakambas seems to be similar to that of 
 the Wonicas ; and those Wakambas who have much intercourse 
 with the Wonicas, understand and speak the Wonica language 
 perfectly well." 
 
 With reference to these diflferent tribes Mr. Boyce observes, 
 in his introduction to Mr. Archbell's Sechuana grammar, that 
 they speak languages only slightly different from the Sechuana 
 spoken near the Cape Colony. An Arab, he adds, who had 
 travelled for commercial purposes, from Nombasa to Mozam- 
 bique, at some distance from the sea-coast, gave the writer some 
 specimens of the language spoken among the tribes through 
 which he had passed, in which KaflBr and Sechuana words were 
 easily recognizable. Natives conveyed from the interior to 
 Mozambique, and from thence taken to the Bechuana country, 
 have found no difficulty in making themselves understood ; suffi- 
 cient proof, this, of a radical identity of language. 
 
 This opinion is supported by that of Dr. Adamson, of Cape 
 Town, who has had the opportunity of inspecting two manu- 
 script grammars, prepared by Dr. Krapf, one of which appears 
 to be that of the Sooahelee tongue referred to in the preceding 
 paragraph, which he found to be a slightly modified form of the 
 Sechuana. 
 
 Some additional light has been thrown upon the language of 
 the interior by a visit of Rev. T. Arbousseh, of the Paris Mis- 
 
THE SOOAHELEEB. 297 
 
 sionary Society, to some captured negroes near Cape Town, in 
 1845. He says: "I found the number of captured negroes to 
 amount to two hundred and sixty-two, belonging to three prin- 
 cipal tribes, namely, the Makoas, Mazenas, and Koniunkues. 
 The Koniunkues seem to be the farthest removed in the interior. 
 One of them assured me, he had been three or four months in 
 one Arab gang before they reached the channel of Mozambique. 
 The Mazenas live nearer the coast, probably between the former 
 and the Makoas. The language of the Koniunkues is soft and 
 musical ; the words simple and liquid, the vowels distinct and 
 almost always one to every consonant, as in Kaffir and Sechuana, 
 which it much resembles ; but it has not the disagreeable click 
 
 of the former, from what I know of it." (Or. Soc'y Journ., vol. 
 i, p. 431.) 
 
 The Sooahelees (or Sawdhili) are subjects of tlie 
 Sultan of Muscat. They extend certainly along the 
 coast from the river Juba to Zanzibar, and are scatter- 
 ed, it is believed, as far south as Delagoa Bay. The 
 language, though mingled with many Arabian words, 
 proves this nation to belong to the Kaffir stock, with 
 much crossing of Arabian blood. 
 
 The people are marked by a great variety of phys- 
 ical type, and their color ranges from olive to black. 
 Their form is moderately high, and shows good 
 muscular power. Some resemble Arabs, and others 
 the pure negro tribes. The costumes and modes of 
 life are equally varied with the physical appearance. 
 The religion of this people is the Mohammedan, 
 though not a fanatical form of it. 
 13* 
 
298 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 The WaTcamha — to whom we have already re- 
 ferred — dwell in the neighborhood of Mombas, in Zan- 
 guebar. They only number some Y0,000. 
 
 Wakamba. 
 
 Though situated almost under the equator, 
 they are a remarkably powerful race, with nothing of 
 the low negro type and only blackish in color. Their 
 features are thus described by Dr. Ejrapf : " Their lips 
 are somewhat large, their eyes tolerably large, the 
 chin rather pointed, the beard scanty or altogether 
 wanting, the teeth white and artificially pointed, the 
 skin smooth and blackish ; the forms both of men and 
 women slender, and their hair is either shaved or 
 curled with a wire." (E. Africa, p. 286.) 
 
 Like most of the East African tribes, they are in- 
 ferior to the "West African in their religious concep- 
 tions. Their idea of a Supreme Being is very weak ; 
 they have no idols and have not even attained to 
 fetichism, and it is supposed that their belief in any 
 Deity has been kept awake by Mohammedan influence. 
 Like all the Kaffir races, they have great faith in 
 witchcraft and rain-making, and practise the rite of 
 circumcision. One great cause of the degradation of 
 all these East African races, is the slavery and slave 
 trade practised by them. 
 
 Of the Waka/rima — a black people — on the east- 
 em coast and the Wahonga, Mukamango, and other 
 „ ., tribes in the interior, little is ascertained as 
 
 Tribes on ' 
 
 eastern coast. ^^ ^^^^ ^^^j^ j^ .^ ^^^^ j^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ 
 
TRIBES WEST OF ZAJSTZIBAIi. 299 
 
 most fearftil battles are waged among them, resulting 
 in a horrible increase of the supply of slaves for 
 dealers. 
 
 The description which Burton gives of the interior 
 tribes west of Zanzibar — the Wajiji, Wurundi, Warori, 
 and many others — ^is of the most degraded, licentious 
 and barbarous peoples. 
 
CHAPTEE XXV. 
 
 THE HOTTENTOT KACE.* 
 
 A EEMAEKABLE ethnological problem is presented 
 by the appearance of a single race in tbe soutbem 
 portion of Africa, entirely different from the South 
 African family, both in physique and in language — 
 a race of copper color and low development amid 
 dark races of noble physical structure, and separated 
 from them both by mental peculiarities and by a lan- 
 guage presenting features exhibited in no other 
 tongue. 
 
 This people — ^the Hottentots — are supposed to be 
 the oldest people on the South African Continent, 
 Hottentots ^^^ amoug the evidences of this, is the fact 
 very ancien . ^^^ ^^ rivcrs, evoH iQ the Bcchuana terri- 
 tory, bear Hottentot names. Though found princi- 
 pally on the southern point of the promontory of Af- 
 rica, various fragments of their tribes are met with far 
 in the interior, even north of Lake I^gami, as if the 
 race had been gradually pressed down from the north, 
 by more powerful tribes. It is an instance of the 
 
THE HOTTEirrOT KACE. 301 
 
 vitality of race, that the Bakalahari, the poorest of the 
 Bechuana tribes, living side by side in the desert with 
 the Bushmen, the most degraded of the power ot 
 Hottentots, mider precisely the same cir- "'*'^' 
 cumstances, are as different from them as they ever 
 were ; the former gladly raising, wherever possible, a 
 few pumpkins, or keeping a few goats, and the lat- 
 ter scorning any culture of the ground or care of cat- 
 tle, and preferring the wild life and the poor game or 
 vermin which the desert furnishes.' 
 
 The Hottentot peoples have been gradually disap- 
 pearing before the attacks of civilization. In the 
 beginning of the last century, a number of tribes were 
 settled on the southeast coast, between the Cape and 
 the river Kai. Some of these have been entirely ex- 
 terminated ; others have become scattered servants of 
 the colonists, or have entered the Hottentot regiment 
 in the colonial army ; while a considerable body of 
 emigrants have settled themselves on the Winter 
 Mountain, near the Kat River. The whole number 
 IS not thought to exceed 20,000." 
 
 On the southwestern coast, some of their nations 
 have also disappeared and others have 
 become intermingled with Europeans, pro- 
 ducing a race called Griquas, or Bastards. The 
 Griquas are a restless race, constantly changing their 
 habitations ; they formed two stationary communities 
 for a time at Amandelboom, on the west declivity of 
 
302 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 the Karree mountaiiis, and at Schietfontyn, on the 
 eastern. From this point, their migrations have ex- 
 tended over Lake Kgami, up the Teoge, even to Li- 
 bebe, the city of the Bawicko. Others of the Griqua 
 wandered toward the north, nnder the name of 
 Orlam, and conquered the country between the 'Aub, 
 the lower 'Garib, the coast, and the Zwachaub. These 
 tribes have retained their independence; they are 
 very wild and rough, and preserve much of the Hot- 
 tentot type, as well as the ancient customs. They 
 speak the I^ama dialect of the Hottentot, while the 
 Griquas speak the Cape-HoUandish. The Orlam are 
 also joining in the great national emigrations, which 
 are so characteristic of interior Africa. A famous 
 chief — Jonker Africaner — ^has led some of these expe- 
 ditions, usually directed toward the country in the 
 north, thus far unexplored by Europeans. 
 
 The districts on the lower 'Garib are occupied by 
 another Hottentot tribe — ^the !N"amaquas — as well as 
 the Griquas. The upper provinces on this river are 
 held by the 'Korannas, who are rapidly disappearing. 
 
 The l!famaquas are said, in 1859, to have reached 
 as far north as 19° 24' south latitude, and to have oc- 
 cupied, along with the Hill Damaras, or Haukoin^ 
 the mountainous country between the upper course of 
 the Omuramba, and the land of the Ovampos. 
 
 The most remarkable of the Hottentot tribes, are 
 the Saan or Bushmen. They have been sometimes 
 
THE BUSHMEN. 303 
 
 supposed to be merely the lowest of the Cape Hotten- 
 tots, reduced by a life in the desert to their present 
 degraded condition. But their activity, far 
 
 It- Bushmen. 
 
 surpassing that oi the lormer people, their 
 independent dialect and the wide distribution of their 
 numbers, make it probable that they are a distinct 
 nation of the Hottentot race — perhaps the first of 
 these peoples who entered Southern Africa from the 
 north, and who afterward were conquered and beaten 
 down by succeeding hordes of the same family.* This 
 latter supposition would account for the hatred still 
 existing between the Bushmen and the Hottentots 
 proper, and agrees with the traditions among the 
 l^amaquas. The central habitation of the Bushmen, 
 as is well known, is in the Cape Colony. They ex- 
 tend from the borders of CafEraria to the northwest 
 of the colony, generally in the condition of the most 
 savage barbarism, sometimes living in holes in the 
 ground or in the bushes, and yet having resisted for 
 centuries the most incessant persecutions and hostili- 
 ties, and still reckoned the best herdsmen, hunts- 
 men and warriors of the native population. Of aU 
 the South African races, they are the only one 
 that has exhibited any degree of artistic ^^istic 
 talent ; their drawings on their caves in the 
 mountains and the decorations of their calabashes, 
 showing considerable beauty and taste. They are, 
 in their wild habits, the Indians of Africa, and 
 
304 THE KACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 the only settled community ever formed of them, is 
 the one at Freemanton, on the southeastern bounda- 
 ries of the colony. 
 
 Beside these proviaces, the JiTamaqua territory 
 has occasional hordes of Bushmen. Recent investi- 
 gations have disclosed also their existence in the dis- 
 tricts east and north of Lake Ngami, and there is no 
 doubt of their extension as far as 1Y° south latitude. 
 It is not improbable that farther researches will show 
 that Bushmen are scattered over a great part of in- 
 terior Africa. Galton concludes that they are settled 
 in the latitude of Caconda, or about 13° 30' south 
 latitude. 
 
 From various evidence, it appears that some of their 
 tribes are black. Moffat states that negro slaves have 
 been in the Cairo market from the interior of Africa, 
 who spoke a dialect resembling the Hottentot. There 
 is reason to think that some of the dark tribes on the 
 coast of Aden and Habesh, have a click in their lan- 
 guage, so that the theory which linguistic research is 
 ori-nn of favoriug, of the Egyptian origin of the Hot- 
 Hottentots. tcntots, is rendered more probable by these 
 scattered traces of the Hottentot race through the in- 
 terior of the continent. l^Tothing definite, however, 
 can as yet be concluded on this difficult question. 
 
 The moral condition of the Bushmen is exceed- 
 ingly low; all family ties are disregarded; they 
 
THE BUSHMEN. 305 
 
 have no personal names, and their language recognizes 
 no difference between maiden and wife. In disposi- 
 tion, however, they are cheerful and friendly, good- 
 natured and generous, true to their promise, and quick 
 to feel gratitude. 
 
 The notion of the physical type of the Hottentot, 
 is, as is common, derived from the most exaggerated 
 cases. Livingston and Anderson inform us that in 
 many instances, even the Bushmen exhibit good fea- 
 tures and a fair bodily type. They are, however, 
 usually badly-fed, sometimes living on small ground- 
 animals or mice and rats, wandering around in most 
 barren and desolate countries, as in the Great l^ama- 
 qua land, where there are orAj four inhabitants to the 
 square mile, in 148,000 square miles, and the natural 
 result is a low physical type. They are often under- 
 sized, hardly more than four feet high ; the p^ysiq^e of 
 limbs are thin, body slight, and abdomen ^"®^™®"- 
 projecting. The eyes are small, black and oblique — 
 giving the face a Mongol expression — ^but keen and 
 suspicious ; the nose is very broad and flat, the skin 
 yellow, the cheek-bones prominent, and the hair grows 
 in small twisted knots, like the hair of a brush, leaving 
 bare spaces of the skull between. The skull is small, 
 but long from front to back. On some of the females, 
 the steat&pyge is found — a pecidiarity, however, seen 
 on some other African peoples. 
 
306 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 The cliief external characteristics of the Hottentot 
 ^ languages, are "deep aspirated gutturals, 
 
 harsh consonants, and a multitude of ugly, 
 inimitable clicks^''^ 
 
 "The Namaqua language," says Mr. E. Forris, "is an inter- 
 esting study of itself, on account of its remarkably simple and 
 yet comprehensive and expressive structure, and from its pos- 
 sessing features, such as the grammatical gender and accusative 
 case, usually considered as peculiar to the most highly organized 
 •Namaqaa languages." Its few affinities are with Coptic and 
 language. Semitic. The vocabulary is limited, and, as in Chi- 
 nese, many words appear to have the same sound. 
 
 The nouns have two real, grammatical genders, distinguished 
 by their terminations. There are plural forms, and two dual 
 forms : one appropriated to a pair, like the Semitic, the other to 
 two individuals, as in Greek — advantages of form, which even 
 our own language does not possess. There is also a copious de- 
 clension, formed, as in the Finnish language, by terminations, 
 which may be called post-positions. 
 
 The pronouns are very numerous, and have " distinct forms 
 for every conceivable modification of meaning ; " the second per- 
 son as well as the third, distinguish the genders. All are com- 
 pletely and regularly declined. The verb is conjugated by the 
 addition of certain syllables. The Namaqua is provided with a 
 
 * Of the clicks in the Zulu, probably derived from the Hottentot 
 dialects, Rev. Mr. Grout says that there are three general classes — the 
 dental^ the palatal, and the lateral. The dental is made by placing the 
 tongue firmly upon the front teeth, and withdrawing it suddenly with a 
 suction. The palatal is so called from its being made by pressing the 
 tongue closely upon the roof of the mouth, and withdrawing it suddenly, 
 so as to produce a sharp, quick noise. The lateral is so called from its 
 being made by the tongue, in conjunction with the side (double) teeth. 
 
HOTTENTOT LANGUAGES. 307 
 
 considerable number of conjunctions, " a part of speech," says 
 the same authority, " generally very deficient in uncultivated 
 
 The Hottentot languages are said by M. Maury, to exhibit 
 one peculiarity, which assimilates them to the Polynesian — a 
 double plural (one common and one particular), and a double 
 form of the first person plural, indicating if the person addressed 
 be comprised in the " we," or not. This form is also found in 
 some of the Forth American Indian tongues. 
 
 Enougli has thus been briefly stated, to show that 
 this language — an implement of wonderful precision 
 and beauty, yet the dialect of perhaps the lowest hu- 
 man race on the earth — places this degraded people 
 at an infinite distance above the brute, and even ranks 
 it in capacity and origin with the most highly devel- 
 oped races of men. 
 
 With reference to the general physical divisions 
 of South AMca, Livingstone gives it as ^. ^ . , 
 
 ' o ^ Five physical 
 
 his opinion that there are fA)e longitu- ^^^i^*""^- 
 dinal bands of color running up the southern conti- 
 nent. 
 
 Those on the seaboard, both east and west, are very 
 black ; " then two bands of lighter color lie about 300 
 miles from each coast, of which the westerly one, bend- 
 ing round, embraces the Kalahari desert and the 
 Bechuana countries; and then the central basin is 
 very dark again." 
 
308 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD, 
 
 This can be only a very general appearance, as 
 numerous exceptions are found to it ; the Bushmen 
 of lighter color, being scattered around in the centre 
 of the continent, and the Makololo, who are of light- 
 yellow complexion, having migrated to the central re- 
 gions. All travellers agree that the color of the Afri- 
 cans, to a certain degree, changes according to heat 
 and dampness, the same tribe (as the Batoka for in- 
 stance) being black or lighter-colored, as they are ex- 
 posed in a greater or less degree to these two in- 
 fluences. The lines of language — as, for instance, 
 those of the Kaffir family — cut across the distinctions 
 of color, and one undoubted race may embrace persons 
 jet black, and others with unmixed blood of ft Hght 
 copper-color. 
 
 The Semitic races — as the Arab and Berber and 
 Abyssinian — vary endlessly in complexion. Some 
 Arabs are reported to be jet black ; and the Berbers, 
 as shown by Dr. Barth, are sometimes ahnost black, 
 and at others fair as N'orth Europeans. The Abyssin- 
 ians range from black to copper-color, according to 
 locality. 
 
 "What is called the "negro type" — that is, the low 
 type of the coast of Guinea — ^is comparatively the ex- 
 ception — ^perhaps as much so as the low Irish type in 
 the Keltic race. The negro features are combined in 
 Africa in every possible variety. As Prichard has 
 shown, and as may be seen by referring to descriptions 
 
AFEICAN KACE-TYPE8. 309 
 
 already given of the particular nations in this treatise, 
 there are jet black negroes with woolly jfi„g,inga 
 hair but noble Aryan features — such as the "^'^p^- 
 lolofs, Mandingoes, Guberi, and others ; or black peo- 
 ple with frizzled and even straight hair and regular 
 features, such as the Bishari and Danakil, and some 
 of the Fellatah ; or blacks with flowing hair in ring- 
 lets, as the Somauli and the tribes near the Zambesi ; 
 or light-brown people with woolly hair and European 
 forms and face, as some of the Kaffirs ; or light-brown 
 with negro features, as many east of Angola; or 
 brown with the lowest negro type and hair in tufts, 
 as the Hottentots. 
 
 M. d'Abbadie^— an eminent savcmt — who has had 
 eleven years of experience among the races of Eastern 
 Africa, states as his conclusion — the more trustworthy 
 as opposed to his previous opinion — that color is in 
 the main the result of food and climate. ^,,,,;,., 
 
 D Abbadie'8 
 
 Our usual classification and entire separa- ^'*''^" 
 tion of the negro from the white, he thinks, are due to 
 our commonly seeing the extremes of the two types — 
 the Guinea negro and European white — in contrast. 
 This scaffolding of classification, he says, fell when he 
 first saw certain tribes — the Doqqo and others — in 
 Eastern Africa, and now, witli all his experience, if he 
 were to choose among individuals in Ethiopia (ex- 
 cluding all mixture of races), it would be impossible 
 
310 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 for him to say where the negro begins and the red 
 man ends. 
 
 There is nothing in the great source from which 
 evidence of difference and of unity among different 
 peoples, has been sought in this treatise — namely, 
 Language — ^to prove the negro radically different from 
 the other families of man or even mentally inferior to 
 them. 
 
 A large portion of the brown and black tribes of 
 
 Northern Africa, as has been shown, belong to the 
 
 same family as that which first originated 
 
 Semitic negro. "^ 
 
 conunerce, which invented the alphabet, 
 produced the sublime Hebrew poetry and Arabian 
 science, and which was through many ages in one of 
 its branches, the especial medium fitted by Provi- 
 dence for transmitting the most elevated religious 
 inspirations to mankind, and in which the Divine 
 manifestation of Jesus Cheist was made. The Se- 
 mitic negro can certainly never be considered by the 
 worshippers under a Semitic religion, as inferior in 
 blood to themselves. 
 
 Still another group of peoples, both brown and 
 black, many fully black, are descendants of that 
 family, which erected the ancient empires on the Eu- 
 phrates and which, unknown centuries ago, built the 
 pyramid-tombs on the Nile, and founded the gloomy 
 art, the artificial civilization and the science of 
 Egypt. Surely the Hamitic black is not by necessity 
 
ATEICAN CAPACITIES. 311 
 
 of race, a being inferior to those races who first learned 
 science of his forefathers. And if it be g^j^jy^ 
 shown in the investigations of the next few °^^'^''" 
 years — as many philologists predict — that the lowest 
 African race — the Hottentot — is a descendant of the 
 highest, the Egyptian, then wiU be demonstrated that 
 no degradation of physical type or mental condition is 
 a necessary proof of diversity of origin. 
 
 The families of Central Africa have not, indeed, 
 all been classified, and no absolute proof can be 
 presented of their identity of origin with the rest of 
 the human race, but their languages show no radically 
 different features. The laws of human speech ap- 
 ply to them as to all other tongues : they are founded 
 on the same principles : they are sometimes conspicu- 
 ous for their richness and flexibility, and a great 
 scholar of Germany (Pott) has ranked many of them 
 among the noble tongues of more cultivated races. 
 
 These races have manifested no want of capacity 
 for commerce or agriculture or government. Some 
 have erected in this century great empires : 
 
 "^ " r 7 Achievements 
 
 some are the traders through wide deserts; ''^^^''''^^^• 
 some have organized governments, opened schools 
 and even accomplished the wonderful feat of inventing 
 a phonetic alphabet. 
 
 Many are distinguished for the highest physical 
 type; and others in force and energy, and even in- 
 genuity, are not behind more favored races. 
 
312 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 The great Southern or Kaffir family, including so 
 many nations, presents no inferiority in that highest 
 expression of the human soul — Language — ^but has a 
 tongue which is remarkable for its melody, richness 
 and precision of expression. 
 
 It is true that owing to its isolation, caused by the 
 malaria of its coasts, the want of navigable waters 
 Their present ^^^ *^® difficulties of laud-trausit, the con- 
 position, tinent of Africa has been almost untouched 
 by the great currents of commerce and by the grand 
 movements of Christianity, so that its races stand at 
 this day lower than those of any part of the globe, ex- 
 cept Oceanica. 
 
 The African peoples — with the exception of the 
 Semitic and Hamitic races— have no literature or his- 
 tory : they are beclouded with the shadow of ignorant 
 minds — the superstitious dread of unseen powers : they 
 are cursed with the vices and wrongs of Slavery ; and 
 they have not yet produced a man with intellect or 
 moral power sufficient to mould and lead nations. 
 Yet with all this, they are no lower than probably 
 were many of the Aryan races on their first entrance 
 into Europe ; they are to be looked upon as young in 
 the immense period necessary for the historical devel- 
 opment of races, and there is nothing to show that 
 they may not yet grow in their own direction to the 
 fidl stature of the other families of man, 
 
 Mohammedanism has already begun in- a partial 
 
FUTUEE OF AFRICAN RACES. 313 
 
 way the improving process, by solidifying separate 
 tribes and spreading the idea of a community of be- 
 lievers. Still more has Christianity proved 
 
 The future. 
 
 on the western coast, what order and intelli- 
 gence and good morals might spring up under its 
 genial reign. The African disposition is said to show 
 a certain openness to pure religious influences ; so that 
 if the Divine working in history shall produce some 
 great African prophet or reformer, inspired by the 
 system which is more congenial to the African nature 
 than either Mohammedanism or Judaeism — Christian- 
 ity — what may we not yet hope for African develop- 
 ment and civilization ! 
 
 14: 
 
PAET SEVENTH. 
 
 ETHNOLOGY OF MODERN EUROPE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXYI. 
 
 TUBANIANS. 
 I. THE FINNIC KACES. 
 
 This family is remarkably scattered over various 
 parts of Europe, extending to tlie utmost limit in the 
 north, of Sweden and llTorway, which will admit of 
 human life ; forming the under-stratum of population 
 in various provinces of Russia; appearing on the 
 bleak declivities of the Ural, and cropping forth again 
 on the rich plains of Hungary. They are a remark- 
 Effect of able and undisputed instance of the effect 
 
 circumstances n -t. /» i t 
 
 on physique, of climato, food and occupation, upon the 
 physical t}^e of a race. We have had the good for- 
 tune to see both extremes of this family — the Lapps 
 and the Magyars — and two more utterly different 
 peoples in appearance, size, complexion and bodily 
 
) 
 
 THE FINinC RACES. 315 
 
 development, could hardly anywhere be found among 
 the white races. The Magyars, though not a taU 
 people, show almost the perfection of muscular form ; 
 the features are regular, and their faces are often re- 
 markably handsome ; the hair and eyes are dark, with 
 usually a harsh complexion, though occasionally light, 
 and a beard generally full and dark. There is no 
 finer race, physically, in Europe. The only peculiar- 
 ly Turanian feature that we have observed in them, 
 is an occasional obliquity of the eyelids, such as marks 
 some of the Mongols. The Lapps, on the other hand, 
 are often short, poorly formed, with thin 
 
 , ■ Contrast 
 
 legs, and prominent abdomen, having com- ^^^l^^ 
 
 ■\ p , Tij. 1' and Lapps. 
 
 mon or ugly leatures, light complexion, 
 high cheek-bones, scanty beard and protruding chia. 
 Their complexion is sometimes dark. They are in 
 physique, the meanest race in Europe. Their head 
 and appearance, are decidedly those of the great num- 
 ber of Turanian tribes. The contrast between the 
 Magyars and the Ostiaks, from whom the former are 
 descended, is almost equally great ; the latter being of 
 middle stature, with yellowish hair, their faces and 
 noses disagreeably broad, their body weak and habits 
 disgusting. 
 
 These differences between the branches of one 
 family, are due to the long influence of a genial cli- 
 mate and the pursuits of civilization, upon one side, 
 
316 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD, 
 
 and the want of proper nourishment, together with 
 the severity of the cold, on the other. 
 
 The Finnic family is divided into four branches — 
 the Tchudic, Bulga/rio, Permic and JJgric. 
 
 The Tchudio includes the Finns, La^s, Estho- 
 nians and Livonians. 
 
 The Kussian Finns, who call themselves Suoma- 
 Idinen, or Inhabitants of fens, are settled in Russian 
 Tchudio Finnland, and in the provinces of Arch- 
 *"'^''^' angel and Olonetz. They number over a 
 
 million and a half. Their language is the most ad- 
 vanced of the whole family, and except the Magyars, 
 they are the only Finnic people which possess a lit- 
 erature. They have the glory of originating and 
 transmitting one of the great Epic poems of the world 
 ' — the Kalewala. The country shows at this day, in 
 its schools and universities, a considerable develop- 
 ment in civilization. 
 
 The Russian Finns are not inferior in physical de- 
 velopment to most European peoples. Their com- 
 plexion is often dusky, and they have a serious, 
 gloomy aspect, but their bodies are strong and well 
 made. Those who are called Finns in N^orway, are 
 not Finns, but Lapps. The Quaens are the Finns of 
 the northwest part of Finnland, along the coast of the 
 Gulf of Bothnia. 
 
 One of the most peculiar characteristics of the 
 Finnic races, is their tendency to superstition; and 
 
THE FINNIC EACES. 317 
 
 thoiigli Finnland is Christian, many of the quaint old 
 pagan superstitions still survive among the people, and 
 few even of the cultivated classes are entirely free 
 from them. The Finns are wilful in disposition, often 
 morose, and do not easily change their old 
 
 . ■ t 1 - /. Finnic traits. 
 
 ways, or learn the habits oi strangers. 
 They are steady and industrious, and show considera- 
 ble mechanical skill. Labor in the mines, from the 
 earliest times, seems to have suited the Finnic dispo- 
 sition. 
 
 The language presents the agglutinative type of 
 tlie Turanian, and its grammar is said by M. Miiller, 
 to show a luxuriance of grammatical combination, 
 second only to Turkish and Hungarian. Kellgren 
 says, that of all the languages of this family, the Fin- 
 nish has been preserved the most pure and harmoni- 
 ous; that while the Hungarian and Turkish, in the 
 constant conflict of their peoples with various nations, 
 have admitted into themselves many foreign elements, 
 the Finnish, protected by the deep forests and the 
 savage climate, and transmitted in the songs of the 
 national heroes, has maintained itself rich and consis- 
 tent in its forms throughout. 
 
 The Finnish has the same agglutination, says M. 
 Maury, and the same post-position, as the Basque ; 
 this post-position being an adjunctive particle, placed 
 at the end of a word to distinguish cases — a structure 
 of language which antecedes the use of cases. 
 
318 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 THE LAPPS. 
 
 Tills branch of the Finnic family is the only 
 nomad population in Europe, and probably the only 
 one attached to heathenish behefs. 
 
 The principal animals employed respectively by 
 the Finns, and their relatives, the Lapps — the cow and 
 European ^^^ reindeer — are types of their respective 
 
 nomads. • i j'j.* j."l t • 'j 
 
 social conditions ; the one bemg an evidence 
 of stationary and agricultural life, and the other of 
 wandering and barbarous life. The habitation of the 
 Lapp is determined by the pasture for his deer, on 
 which he almost entirely depends for subsistence. His 
 range is as far north as 71° or Y2° north latitude, 
 and, owing in part to the greater mildness of the Eu- 
 ropean-Arctic climate, he is in a far better physical 
 condition than the Arctic tribes of America. His in- 
 feriority to his relative, the Einn, is due. Yon Buch 
 thinks, to external agencies. The Einns are well-fed 
 and warmly clad, and have warm houses. The Lapp, 
 on the contrary, he says, "never keeps himself in a 
 degree of temperature sufficient for physical develop- 
 ment." 
 
 The language of the Lapps differs from that of the 
 Einns, as much as German from Danish; and the 
 people do not understand one another. It should be 
 remembered by travellers, to avoid confusion, that in 
 
THE LAPPS. 319 
 
 Norway, the Lapps are called Finns^ and tlie Finns 
 of Finnland, Quaens. 
 
 Though the most degraded European race, and 
 not so far advanced as the majority of African races, 
 they have already felt the improving influences of 
 Christianity and have manifested some remarkable 
 moral results. The whole number of Lapps under 
 Sweden and Kussia is said to be only about 28,000. 
 
 The proper territory of the Finns and Lapps, says 
 Prof. Munck, is bordered toward the east by a semi- 
 circle or third of a circle, from the Gulf of Livonia to 
 the western part of the White Sea, and toward the 
 west, by a similar curved line from Malanger in Fin- 
 mark, to IJmala on the Gulf of Bothnia. 
 
 The Estlionicms live on the upper part of the river 
 Salis, and border on the Finns. Their language is 
 closely allied to the Finnish. The people 
 
 . no Esthonians. 
 
 are mostly a miserable race of serfs, under 
 Slavonian masters. They number over 633,000. Es- 
 thonia, with Livonia and Kurland, form the three 
 Baltic provinces of Eussia. The islands in the Gulf 
 of Finnland are mostly Esthonian. 
 
 The Livonians of pure blood do not number much 
 more than 2,000, according to Latham. 
 
 The Bulgaric branch. This includes the Tshere- 
 missians and Mordvinians in Yiatka, Kazan, Orenburg, 
 and other Russian provinces near the Yolga — the 
 former numbering about 165,000 and the latter some 
 
320 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOBLD. j 
 
 480,000. The Tsheremissians are mostly pagan, 
 while the others of this branch are Christian. 
 
 The Pevmic branch comprises the Permians^ Si- 
 rianes, and Yotiaks. The Permians occupy the Rus- 
 sian province of Perm, and the Sirianes that of Yo- 
 logda. The Yotiaks are mostly found in the govern- 
 ment of Yiatka. 
 
 The two former tribes are nominally Christian, 
 and though descended from a nation famed for its 
 commerce and enterprise in the early Scandinavian 
 history — the Beormas — ^they preserve no recollection 
 or tradition of their ancestors, or explanation of their 
 monuments. 
 
 The Yotiaks resemble the Finns: they are con- 
 spicuous physically as a red-haired people. 
 
 Votiaks. 
 
 The chase is their principal occupation. 
 Many of their pagan superstitions still survive. 
 
 The Ugric branch is made up of the Yoguls, Os- 
 tiaks and Hungarians. 
 
 The Yoguls are a wild hunting tribe living along 
 the ridge of the Northern Ural. In religion they are 
 mostly pagan. 
 
 The Ostiaks are found mostly on the river Obi. 
 They are a pagan tribe, living principally by hunting 
 and fishing, and of such filthy habits, that they are 
 subject to many cutaneous and scorbutic disorders. 
 Their physical type is quite degraded. The women 
 
THE MAGYAK8. 321 
 
 tattoo themselves. They are the undoubted source 
 of the Magyars. 
 
 The Magyars have "diiQ glory of being the only 
 Turanian race which has conferred any permanent 
 benefit on Europe. ITot merely in literature and 
 science, wherein they have made no contemptible 
 progress ; but in what is more distinctively their own, 
 and indeed is a higher gift to civilization, an organized 
 constitutional government, leaving many liberties to 
 the subject, and lasting for many centuries, 
 
 11 1 1 T m . '^^^ Magyars. 
 
 they have proved that the Turanian can 
 take a worthy part in the development of mankind. 
 Differing in blood from nearly all the rest of Europe, 
 they show in their mental characteristics and their 
 modes of life, their Asiatic and Turanian origin. 
 Their dignified courtesy of manners, their lavish hos- 
 pitality, their fire of feeling and richness of imagina- 
 tion, are not Aryan or European. So too, their con- 
 stant use of the saddle and their low houses, built like 
 tents, and their fondness for animals, point to a no- 
 madic origin. 
 
 The practical talent which they have manifested, 
 and their political skill during so many centuries, to- 
 gether with the sound morality and unshaken patriot- 
 ism displayed in their individual and national mis- , 
 fortunes, is an evidence that the high qualities of the 
 Aryan races are shared by some of the other families 
 of man. The Turanian genius has the fame of having 
 14* 
 
322 THE BACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 produced one of the greatest orators of modem times 
 
 ^KOSSTJTH. 
 
 The Magyars, as has been said, are descended 
 from the Ugric tribe of the Ostiaks, and not from the 
 Huns, as has often been claimed. 
 
 The affinity of the Hungarian and Ugro-Finnic 
 dialects, says Miiller, was first proved philologically in 
 1799. 
 
 We give a comparative table of numerals in the 
 dialects of this family, drawn up by M. Miiller (Lang, 
 of the Seat of War, p. 121): 
 
COMPABATTVE TAELE. 
 
 323 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 >. 
 
 .s 
 
 _s 
 
 •a 
 
 a 
 
 g 
 
 _N 
 
 
 M 
 
 ,!<1 
 
 M 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cd 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q> 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 IS 
 IS 
 
 ■a 
 n 
 
 
 >. 
 1 
 
 § 
 
 a 
 
 
 >» 
 
 iS 
 
 (S 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 M 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 g. 
 
 
 
 
 .S 
 
 cj 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 
 ■■a 
 
 ta 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 <u 
 
 « 
 
 f 
 
 S" 
 
 cs 
 
 "o 
 
 
 a 
 
 "S 
 
 
 a 
 
 :0 
 
 
 
 
 .M 
 
 M 
 
 i< 
 
 M 
 
 ,M 
 
 a 
 
 " 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ta 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t- 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 ■ffl 
 
 
 
 *i 
 
 
 _a 
 
 m 
 
 *N 
 
 ,a 
 
 -tJ 
 
 
 <D 
 
 m 
 
 
 •s 
 
 
 i5 
 
 ^ 
 
 to 
 
 § 
 
 § 
 
 4J 
 
 o 
 
 ■3 
 
 ■4J 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 -o 
 
 t* 
 
 ja 
 
 rt 
 
 
 ,^ 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 
 M 
 
 13 
 
 ,q 
 
 lO 
 
 ■3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 «l 
 
 ■M 
 
 
 ■p 
 
 T- 
 
 >■ 
 
 '> 
 
 P^ 
 
 lO 
 
 •* 
 
 :oS 
 
 •fM 
 
 
 a 
 
 'o 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 » 
 
 PI 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 n 
 
 P 
 
 M 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 
 "o 
 
 "o 
 
 3 
 
 "3 
 
 "5" 
 
 ja 
 
 a 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -P 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 !S 
 
 ,3 
 
 ^ 
 
 •a 
 
 ■P 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 C3 
 
 C3 
 
 o 
 
 03 
 
 >t 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 .iO 
 
 M 
 
 ,i4 
 
 M 
 
 ,« 
 
 M 
 
 .14 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 tH 
 
 
 ii 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 !0 
 
 - 
 
 
 <S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !!; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~-i- 
 
 1 
 
 —*— 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~L^ 
 
 n 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 en 
 
 ■ § 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 •a .a 
 S o 
 -§9 
 
 ^'1 
 
 .sa 
 
 3 S> 
 
 a§ 
 
 tl 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 i| 
 
 Hf 
 
 ^ 
 
 K 
 
 -1 
 
 K 
 
 g 
 
 PiC 
 
 c 
 
 t=> 
 
 D 
 
 t=» 
 
 a 1 
 
324 
 
 THE BACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 Pulszky, in his able articles on the Hungarian 
 language, shows that it differs from the Aryan 
 tongues, much less than many allied Asiatic langua- 
 ges. 
 
 Thus the " affixes " are not mechanically glued to 
 Hungarian *^^ roots, but influence them and are in- 
 anguage. flucnced by them; though their influence 
 does not usually extend beyond the final syllable. 
 Many of the elements of the pronoun are the same 
 with those of the Aryan pronouns ; some of the forms 
 and affixes are identical with those of our family of 
 languages, while the most are altogether different.1 
 It is, in many respects, a language far more developed^ 
 than the most of the Turanian. 
 
 II. THE TURKS. 
 
 Another race of the Turanian family settled in] 
 Europe, are the Turks. 
 
 Their tribes in Russia — the " TStSrs " of KazanJ 
 of Astrakan, Siberia and the Crimea; the Bashkir8,1 
 the Eorgliiz and the !Nogays have abeady been spokenj 
 of. 
 
 There are, besides these, great numbers of minor] 
 Turkish tribes in Russia, some extending even beyond^ 
 the Arctic circle. 
 
 "The Asiatic Turk, with his well-formed head,"- 
 says M. Boue, " his lengthened countenance, his regular 
 features, his black or brown hair, and his handsome ^ 
 
THE TUKKS. 325 
 
 figure, becomes by mixture of blood in Europe, almost 
 too colossal, when he is the issue of mar- _ 
 
 ' JBiuropean 
 
 ria^es with Servians : or he takes on an '^^^^' 
 ignoble physiognomy when he is half Bulgarian." 
 The Greek blood produces Mussulmans with aquiline 
 nose, lively and piercing eyes, in whose expression de- 
 fiance has replaced the nonchalant confidence to 
 which the true Asiatic Turk willingly abandons him- 
 self. The eyes, he farther remarks, of the genuine 
 Turk have something savage or foreign in them, to 
 which the European cannot at once accustom him- 
 self. In the cities, his color is almost lifeless; and 
 his limbs are meagre in the extreme, when accident- 
 ally exposed from their voluminous garments. 
 
 The women have usually a very pale complexion, 
 with poor figures.* 
 
 Dr. W. H. Thompson, on the other hand, describes 
 the Turk as singularly resembling the ancient picture 
 of the Scythian — ^bow-legged, with heavy, squat figure, 
 in which the trunk is very large but the legs short, 
 arms long, shoulders rounded, face very broad and 
 heavy, eyes small and very piercing. 
 
 The Turks are scattered over all Turkey, holding 
 all the prominent offices and professions.^ They are 
 divided into (1) the true Turks or Osmanli ; (2) the 
 Mandgiouk, and (3) into Bulgarians, Greeks, Alban- 
 
 * Dr. Hamlin. 
 
326 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 ians, and others, who are of mixed Turkish blood. 
 The Osmanli are at once to be distinguished by their 
 superior type of feature. It is still a matter of ques- 
 ^^ ^ ^ tion — as has before been intimated — with 
 
 Changed type 
 
 of Osmanli. gthnologists, how far the changed type of 
 the Osmanli from the original Asiatic type is due to 
 mixture with Greek and Circassian blood, and how far 
 to new circumstances and occupations. We are in- 
 clined to the opinion that the same causes which now 
 tend to the rapid and inevitable diminution and de- 
 struction of the Turkish race in Europe — a fact well 
 known — also favor the " selection" of the best physical 
 type. Polygamy, of course, diminishes population on 
 the broad scale, and limits the reproduction of a race to 
 the most favored classes, as it is they who get posses- 
 sion of the women, and are able to marry. Fatalism 
 — a rooted peculiarity of the Turk — acts destructively 
 on all classes during the spread of pestilence, or under 
 the usual destructive agencies of human society, espe- 
 seiection of ^ially in the cities, inasmuch as it prevents 
 best type. proper care and foresight, but it of course 
 acts most fatally on the poorest and most degraded. 
 The recruiting system, which draws principally on the 
 Mussulmans of all the races in the Empire, must na- 
 turally cut off the lowest of the race first. AH these 
 influences, while they certainly diminish the popula- 
 tion, are, as it were, "selecting" the best physical 
 types for perpetuation. To these, may no doubt be 
 
THE TUKK8. 327 
 
 added the crossing witli Greek, Georgian, and Cir- 
 cassian blood. 
 
 The European Turks have illustrated many prob- 
 lems with regard to the mixtures of races. The off- 
 spring of the white Turk and the negro mother,* we 
 are told by Dr. Eigler, an experienced medical writer 
 of long residence in Constantinople, are a vigorous 
 and intelligent race, which need the crossing of sev- 
 eral generations with whites, to render them like their 
 white ancestors. 
 
 The mixture of the Turks with other races in Eu- 
 rope, is pronounced by the same authority to be gen- 
 erally beneficial. The most common inter- Turkish 
 marriage is with the Slaves; besides this, *^"'^^'°^^' 
 with the Greeks, with the Ethiopians, Arabs, Abys- 
 sinians and Berbers; with the Albanians, and occa- 
 sionally with the Kurds ; with Georgians and Circas- 
 sians ; with Grseco-Slaves ; and sometimes with "Wal- 
 lach and Servian women. A natural result is every 
 variety of physical type. 
 
 The greatest number of Turks have always been 
 concentrated in the eastern part of the empire; at 
 Constantinople, Adrianople, and in some of the towns 
 of Thrace.' In eastern Bulgaria, a very compact pop- 
 ulation of Mussulmans is found in Belgrade, Shumla 
 
 * These marriages are so prolific, that Dr. R. says the Turks choose 
 negro wives for the sake of the large families. (Rigler's Die Tiirkei, 
 etcet. Wien, 1852.) 
 
328 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 and other cities, as well as in most of the towns along 
 the Danube. In the southeast of Macedonia, and the 
 northeast of Thessaly, there are also Turkish villages. 
 
 In the rest of European Turkey, there are few ex- 
 clusively Turkish towns, but Turks are found sprinkled 
 through all the provinces, especially in Western Bul- 
 garia, and in Upper and Lower Moesia. In Bosnia, 
 the principal employes of government are of this race. 
 
 The relations of the mixed Tm^ks, are by no means 
 amicable toward the Osmanli. 
 
 This race shows the wonderful power of governing, 
 which once characterized it, by the small proportion 
 Governing which Still, both in EuTopc and Africa, form 
 
 power of 
 
 Turks. the ruling class over vast multitudes. In 
 
 European Turkey, their number is only estimated to 
 be from T00,000 to 1,000,000, though holding in check 
 a population of about 10,000,000. 
 
 The unnatural vices prevalent among the Turks, 
 and their political weakness, are signs of the absolute 
 decay of the race, and it is probable that before many 
 decades have passed, the Turkish nation will cease to 
 be known in Europe, except in past history.* 
 
 * Dr. Hamlin remarks on a common phrase of the Turks in Europe, 
 as if they felt themselves intruders, " We are only guests ! " and yet they 
 have occupied their European possessions, twice as long as the Anglo- 
 Americans have been in America. The great cause of this feeling, is, 
 no doubt, their being in a minority in the European possessions. 
 
THE BASQUES. 329 
 
 III. THE BASQUES! (OK EUSCALDUNAC). 
 
 This people present the remarkable phenomenon 
 of a race of utterly foreign origin and language, in- 
 serted or left behind from previous populations, among 
 the Aryan races of Europe. The theories of their 
 origin have been countless ; one of the most modest 
 of these, by Erro and others, urging that the Basque 
 was once the universal language, and spoken by Noah 
 in the ark ! 
 
 It is certain, at least, that this vigorous and orig- 
 inal people occupied substantially the provinces which 
 they now hold in the north of Spain and the south of 
 France, during the Keltic invasions which Antiquity of 
 threatened youthful Rome, through the wars ^i"^®^- 
 of Carthage and the Roman Republic, under the Em- 
 pire of the Caesars, amid the attacks of Yandals and 
 Goths, tlirough the fiery contests with Mussulmans and 
 Arabs, and in the uprising of Spain against Napoleon. 
 There seems no doubt, after the investigations of "Wm. 
 von Humboldt, of the connection of the Basques with 
 the ancient Iberians, and of their having once been 
 scattered over Spain. In France, they never reached 
 farther than the left bank of the A dour. 
 
 The Basque language is Turanian,* and is thought 
 
 * The points of evidence for its Turanian affinities, are thus stated by 
 De Charencey. (1) A list of many similar words in Basque, and the 
 
330 THE BACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 by many pliilologists to belong to the Finnic family.* 
 It is wonderfully ricb in grammatical forms, sonorous 
 in tone and clear in expression. It contains double 
 the number of cases wbicb the Latin possesses for each 
 decKnation. The article is placed at the end of the 
 word ; thus egun (day), eguna (day-the). Terminations 
 wiU change a noun into a verb, or adverb, or other 
 parts of speech. 
 
 The conjugation is very difficult and very rich, 
 there being not only active and passive forms, but 
 many shades, which, in other languages, must be ex- 
 pressed by combining several verbs or phrases. Thus, 
 expressions like "a little too great," "a little too 
 
 Turanian languages, is given. (2) Its peculiarity of agglutination. (3) 
 Its incorporating faculty : — a word is divided, in order to put between 
 its two parts another word — as aldet (I can), alhadet (if I can). (4) 
 The dative endings in en, and i, are found in Finnish, Lap, and Tcher- 
 emisse. (5) La, or va, indicating the end or direction, is found in Fin- 
 nish. (6) The sign of plural is k, as in Magyar, and one dialect of the 
 Lap. (7) Nouns possess, as in Finnish, an active and passive termina- 
 tion. (8) Gavren, an ending for ordinal adjectives, is found in gar of 
 the Oelets. (9) The pronoun of 2d and 3d pers. sing, indie, is the same 
 as in Turkish. Thus, Basque s'era (thou art), d'a (he is); Turkish 
 sHgnis (thou art), d'our (he is). (10) The conjugation formed of the 
 reunion of the participle and the verb to he, is like those of the Turkish. 
 (11) The great number of voices — negative, causative, potential — in the 
 verbs, is like the idioms of the Oural peoples ; also the combination of 
 voices resembles the Hungarian. (12) Other similar features are to be 
 found in the inverse structure of the phrase, the frequent use of the ab- 
 solute participle, also the confusion of the conjunction with the post- 
 position. (Ann. de la Phil. Chr6t., 1860, t. 60, p. 104.) 
 
 * All the words for domestic animals are Finnish ; the word for iron, 
 is similar to that in Ostyak and Vogul. (Charencey.) 
 
THE BASQUES. 331 
 
 good," are given by one word; "good and great," 
 is ontnoa, and "good and small," onttoa^ "one 
 who falls easily," is erorcorra ', so "one 
 
 Language. 
 
 who strikes with blows of a stick," is 
 distinguished by a slight difference of termination, 
 from " one who strikes with blows of a stone ; " and 
 ideas like the "reason of friendship," the "reason 
 of enmity," and the like, are expressed in a single 
 word. 
 
 The different voices of the verb express either an 
 active or passive state, or repose, or negation, or 
 doubt, or increase, or diminution, as well as many 
 other shades of meaning. Each voice has eleven 
 moods, and many of the moods six tenses. 
 
 The Basque declines almost everything — preposi- 
 tions, adverbs, interjections and even alphabetic letters. 
 In its power of expressing a combination of ideas in 
 one word, it resembles some of the l!^orth American 
 Indian dialects, as well as in other features. 
 
 The numeration is from 20 to 20. 
 
 There are three dialects of the language, which 
 are not easily understood in the different provinces. 
 In some villages in Alava, the -Basque tongue is en- 
 tirely obliterated, and in several of the French com- 
 munes, the old Basques no longer consider themselves 
 as belonging to that people. 
 
 The genius of the Euscara is best seen in the pop- 
 ular poetry transmitted in the mouths of the people, 
 
332 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 from the most ancient times, and in the extemporized 
 tragedies and comedies exhibited by the peasants. 
 
 The provinces occupied by the Basques in Spain, 
 are Upper ^Navarre, Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Alava; 
 Basque ^^ Franco, Labourde and Soule. In phy- 
 
 piovinces. gjque, the people are tall, straight, muscular 
 and agile, with black hair and brown complexion ; the 
 women are remarkably beautiful, but very large and 
 powerful in frame. In disposition, the Basques cor- 
 respond to the ancient Iberians — ^proud, impetuous, 
 and irritable, but frank and sincere ; faithful friends, 
 but implacable enemies; excellent gueriUa-skirmish- 
 ers, but poor soldiers. 
 
 Among the Spanish Basques there is much equal- 
 ity of condition ; the peasants usually living on their 
 own freeholds or " courts," and only a few castles still 
 belonging to the "elders" of the tribes. Scarcely 
 any Basque towns are to be found. Their municipal 
 institutions, which they preserved for so many centu- 
 ries, are in part hereditary, and in part popular. The 
 people were governed by free assemblies, controlled by 
 written charters, which assemblies always preserved 
 a remarkable independence toward the Spanish kings. 
 
 Among their peculiar traits, is a singular respect 
 
 for the dead ; and so strong, at some periods, have 
 
 Singular bceu the tokens of sorrow they have shown 
 
 for the deceased, that the government has 
 
 been obliged to control them by legislation. 
 
THE BASQUES. 333 
 
 They display the old Iberian* love for mining, and 
 are skilled in iron-work ; they are good agriculturists, 
 though the soil is poor. Urquhart relates that they 
 still use an ancient instrument like a prong, for turn- 
 ing up the soil, instead of the spade or the plough. 
 Their costume, amusements and dances are all ex- 
 tremely ancient. The Basques are also brave sailors. 
 
 Though it is always unsafe to judge of the con- 
 nections of race, alone Irom isolated mental peculiari- 
 ties, yet we may fairly say that the propensity shown 
 by the Basques to superstition, and their fondness for 
 mining, give a certain weight to the evidence of lan- 
 guage in establishing their relations to the Finnic 
 races. 
 
 The whole population numbers over Y84,000, of 
 whom 130,000 are in France. 
 
 * A very singular custom prevails among them, which is directly de- 
 rived from the ancient Iberians, and which, according to Michel, has 
 been observed among the Tatars. When a child is born, the mother, as 
 soon as she is able, proceeds to the usual work of the household, while 
 the husband is installed in bed with the infant, to receive the compli- 
 ments of the neighbors ! This custom existed also in Corsica. 
 
CHAPTEE XXYII. 
 
 AEYAN RACES OF ETJEOPE. 
 I, THE SLAVONIC EACE.i 
 
 "With one great family of Eastern Europe, the 
 question of race is no longer a purely scientific or 
 philosophic question, but becomes real and practical. 
 Ethnology to the Slavonian, is not a matter of phil- 
 ology or scholastic research, but belongs to the most 
 stirring questions of politics and is associated with the 
 deepest national aspirations. Those mysterious ties 
 of blood and common organization and common lan- 
 guage, which elsewhere are only an interesting sub- 
 ject for the scholar, here agitate the heart of the 
 people and direct the revolutions of nations. Pan- 
 p^j^^ Sla/oonism is the expression of Kace across 
 
 siavonism. ^-j^^ barriers of creeds, the diversities of 
 dialects and the separations of governments. 
 
 Like the similar Anglo-American sentiment, it is 
 a manifestation of a powerful national instinct, which 
 alone is a pledge of the fature of the race. 
 
THE SLAVONIC KACE. 335 
 
 From the Adriatic to tlie mouth, of the Amoor on 
 the Pacific, from Poland to the borders of Persia, 
 mider countless varieties of climate and situation, this 
 deep sentiment upholds a race, whose grand part is 
 only beginning to be played in the drama of history. 
 Seventy or eighty millions of human beings are weld- 
 ed together by this mysterious instinct into an almost 
 homogeneous mass, to act directly on surrounding 
 peoples. 
 
 The Slavonian is the civilizer and governor of 
 Asia, he protects commerce, he restrains the barba- 
 rous and roving Mongol and Turkish tribes from their 
 bloody rapacities, he civilizes or extirpates jj^g^j^^ 
 the savage nomads of JSTorthern Asia and "'^''^"'=®- 
 his vigorous blood is poured into the worn-out races 
 of Central Asia. 
 
 On the side of Europe, his influence is not felt, 
 except in the vague dread which Russian barbaric 
 power has caused ; but without doubt, the effete Turk- 
 ish race — intruded into Europe and conferring few 
 benefits on European civilization — ^is yet to give place 
 to this race, which, though not young, has the tenacious 
 vigor of a powerful and long-continuing manhood. 
 
 The Slavonian has thus far represented in Europe, 
 the principle of Despotism; this, however, seems a 
 result rather of accidental circumstances and of the 
 semi-civilized condition of the people. History shows 
 that slavery never existed under his race in so oppres- 
 
336 THE EACB8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 sive a form, as under tlie Teutonic ; and nowhere now 
 does the unjust prejudice against race or color, which 
 disgraces the Anglo-German peoples, appear among 
 the Russian. 
 
 The communal organization which, with charac- 
 teristic toughness, the race has upheld for centuries 
 Slavonic agaiust the oppression of their rulers, and 
 tenacity. ^^ grand efforts which both people and 
 government are making for the emancipation of the 
 serfs, promise a better future. The Slavonian is natu- 
 rally peaceful and inclined to agricultural pursuits. 
 To him, the Teuton probably owed the knowledge 
 of the plough; and in the language of GurowsM 
 (Russia, p. 248) : " Agriculture — that aboriginal prop- 
 erty of the Slavic race, now neglected and generally 
 in the state of coarse empiricism — ^that inexhaustible 
 source of wealth, that basis of national existence — agri- 
 culture will become an art and science, when the soil 
 and the bondman tilling it, yoked together by oppres- 
 sion but united in fraternal love — when both, in Rus- 
 sia as well as in the other Slavic regions, shall become 
 disenthralled. This soil, ploughed by a freeman, 
 sowed by a free hand, will yield more and better har- 
 vests than when scratched by the serf, than when the 
 seeds thrown in, reach the furrow wrapped in the 
 curse of a bent-down, oppressed creature." 
 
 The language, according to M. Miiller, is charac- 
 teristic of the civilization of the race, containing 
 
THE SLAVONIC KACE. 337 
 
 " powerful resources and flexible as Greek and Latin, 
 yet all, as it were, without self-respect and self-de- 
 pendence, always looking abroad and vainly decking 
 itself with the tinsel of foreign countries, instead of 
 gathering strength from within, and putting forth 
 without shame the genuine fruits of its own not barren 
 soil." 
 
 The Slavonic race divides itself into two great 
 branches, distinguished by their dialects : I, the South- 
 eastern ^ II, the Western. 
 
 I. The Southeastern is again divided into (1) the 
 Russian — including Great Russian^ Little southeastern 
 
 _^ ^ ^ and Western 
 
 Hussiam,, and White Russia/n', (2) Bulga- Slavonians. 
 rian ; (3) the IlVyrian (or Serl)) — comprising the 
 Serviam^, Kroats and Slovens. 
 
 II. The Western includes (1) the Poles; (2) the 
 Bohe7nia/ns or Tchechs, comprising the Slovaks^ and 
 (3) the Wendians or Sorbians. 
 
 All these various tribes, scattered over vast dis- 
 tricts, are to a certain extent, mutually intelligible in 
 language to one another: the Russians and Poles, 
 for instance, conversing as easily as Italians and 
 Spaniards. 
 
 The dialects of the minor tribes, however, are not 
 so familiar to the others that they can be used by 
 them in public proceedings, so that the great Slavonic 
 Congress of 1848, in Prague, of Servians, Poles and 
 lUyrians, were obliged to employ the hated German 
 15 
 
338 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD, 
 
 language for their common tongue. The key of all 
 the Slavonic languages is said to be the Russian, so 
 that a Russian can make himself understood anywhere 
 from the Elbe and the Adriatic to Siberia and the 
 Pacific, wherever the Slavonic race is found. 
 
 The leading branch of this race is the Great Bus- 
 ^^^^ sicm, numbering, according to Schafarik, 
 
 Eussian. 35^000,000, but according to more recent 
 enumerations, by no means so great a population. It 
 forms the heart of Russia, and inhabits some twenty- 
 five governments, extending from the government of 
 St, Petersburg, along the Yolga, to the Ural and the 
 Don.* A line drawn from Lake Peipus to the mouth 
 of the Don would mark the frontier of the Great Rus- 
 sians toward the Little and White Russians,^ Their 
 colonists extend over Siberia, Kamchatka, and the 
 northwest of America. They form the centre of the 
 intellectual activity and industry of the country ; and 
 their artisans and traders make up the great floating 
 population in Russian cities of merchants, builders 
 and manufacturers. 
 
 The language spoken by them — ^like the English 
 in America — ^has no dialect, but is the same with the 
 peasant as the scholar ; the same in books as in com- 
 mon life ; it is the official and literary language of 
 Russia. The people are said to be grave in exterior, 
 but with much gaiety and wit under the surface, and 
 very fond of the song and the dance. They are very 
 
THE SLAVONIC KACE. 339 
 
 hospitable and polite to strangers, and shrewd and 
 crafty in business. Their most prominent trait is 
 their power of patient endm-ance — a quality which 
 their race has always shown. 
 
 There are settlements of the Great Kussians in 
 various parts of Poland, and a few in the Turkish 
 Empire, beyond the Danube. 
 
 The Little Mussians, numbering 13,000,000, ac- 
 cording to Schaffarik, are scattered over the south of 
 Russia, from Galicia to the Don ; holding j^.^^jg 
 the governments of Poltava, Kiev, Yolhy- '^^^'^' 
 nia, Podolia, and others, as well as parts of Bessarabia, 
 Taurida, Kherson, knd other provinces, the country 
 of the Cossacks of the Black Sea, and portions of 
 Poland and Galicia and Hungary. The Eusniaks 
 in these latter countries, belong to this branch. 
 Among the Little Russians, the original national char- 
 acter has maintained itself pnre.^ Their dialect is 
 softer, and more poetic in expression, than that of the 
 Great Russians, and the people have even a greater 
 imaginative and musical feeling. The songs and bal- 
 lads which they have produced, are remarkable for 
 their poetic beauty. 
 
 The White Hussia/ns inhabit the governments of 
 Mohilev and Minsk, and the greatest part of those of 
 Yitepsk and Grodno. Their language is full of Polish 
 expressions, as for several centuries they were under 
 Polish dominion. The long-continued oppression is 
 
'f^ 
 
 340 THE BACEB OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 said to have degraded the WMte Kussian, and to have 
 extinguished much of his vitality and originality ; ' he 
 is the poorest and most dejected of the Russian peas- 
 ants, and lives on the most unproductive soil in the 
 country. 
 
 The numbers of the White Russians are given aa 
 2,700,000, by Schafarik, though the census of 185Y 
 would make them reach 8,000,000. 
 
 The Cossacks are considered now by the best au- 
 thorities, to be Great Russian in race, 
 though considerably mixed with Little 
 Russian. 
 
 The Bulgarians are found almost entirely under 
 the Turkish dominions, in the provinces south of the 
 Danube — Bulgaria, Rumelia, and portions of Servia 
 and Macedonia — a small number, only, on 
 the north of the Danube, being under Rus- 
 sia. Their name is derived from the Bulgars, a Fin- 
 nic tribe from the Ural, who conquered them in the 
 latter part of the Tth century, and whom they after- 
 ward absorbed into themselves. 
 
 Their ancient language (of the 9th century), pre- 
 served in the translation of the Bible by Cyrillus, was 
 the literary language of Russia till the 14:th century, 
 and is now the ecclesiastical language of the Greek 
 Church in Russia, Servia, and Bulgaria. 
 
 The Bulgarians show the effects of the long-con- 
 tinued Turkish oppression, and are a weak and almost 
 
THE ILLTEIAiTS AND 8EKVIAN8. 341 
 
 servile people, compared with most other Slavonic 
 races. In physique, they differ from the Servians, in 
 having a smaller head, and one less square, and a 
 longer face, with an aquiline nose. Their Turanian 
 type has almost entirely yielded to the Slavonic. 
 
 The Ulyrian (Servian) branch is interesting as 
 having been the especial object of the Slavonic aspira- 
 tions for unity. And so far have these sympathies of 
 race been carried out into practical reality, that within 
 twenty years, the Slavonic Illyrians have 
 
 lUyrians. 
 
 united their twenty different dialects in 
 
 Styria, Dalmatia, Kroatia, Slavonia and Servia, into 
 
 one national and cultivated language. 
 
 This branch, it will be remembered, includes the 
 Servians, the Kroatians and Slovenians. The word 
 " Illyrian," has been used especially to denote the Ro- 
 man Catholic portion of these Slavonic countries, and 
 " Servian," the Greek — two parties bitterly opposed — 
 so that the political unity of Slavonism is by no means 
 accomphshed. 
 
 The Servians hold the territory comprising the 
 southern counties of Hungary, the whole of Slavonia, 
 parts of Kroatia, Carniola, Istria, Dalmatia, the mil- 
 itary frontier, and the principalities of Servia, Bosnia, 
 Herzegovina and Montenegro. There are colonies, 
 also, in Hungary and Russia. 
 
 The Servians are a high-spirited and heroic people, 
 and one of the most vigorous of the Slavonic branches. 
 
342 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 They are more sober and grave than their neighbors, 
 the Bulgarians. 
 
 The Slavonians of Turkey are said by an intelli- 
 gent authority (M. Boue), to show something of the 
 perseverance of the German, and the Jmeness of the 
 Italian. " They possess more native genius than the 
 Russians, and particularly than the Slovaks and Bohe- 
 mians, and less penchant for pleasure and want of re- 
 flection than the Poles," 
 
 The Slovens are found in the district bounded by 
 the Adriatic, the Upper Drave and Kroatia; they 
 are also met with in Hungary. 
 
 The Kroats occupy the Comitats of Agram, Kreuz 
 and "Warasdin, and portions of the western provinces 
 of Hungary. 
 
 The Western Slavonians. (1) The Poles or 
 
 LeTdis. This people occupy provinces on the western 
 
 Western frouticr of Russia, extending from the Bal- 
 
 avonians. ^.^ ^^ ^^ Carpathians, embracing a portion 
 
 of Galicia and the ancient kingdom of Prussia. 
 
 The southern frontier runs past the towns of San- 
 dec, Krosno, and Brozozow; the northwestern is 
 formed by the Memen. They number 9,300,000. 
 
 (2) The Bohemians or Tchechs — ^the inhabitants of 
 Bohemia and Moravia. 
 
 "Within a few years, a great impulse has been 
 given to the Slavonic feeling of race in Bohemia, and 
 to the cultivation of the Bohemian literature. 
 
WESTERN SLAVONIANS. 343 
 
 The Slavonians of Bohemia and Moravia are di- 
 vided into fiv^e small groups : (a) the Horaks^ or High- 
 landers, who occupy the mountain plateau from Schild- 
 berg to Dacic: (b) the Hcmaks, inhabiting the rich 
 territory included between the cities "Wischau, 01- 
 miitz, Leipnik, and Kremsier : (c) the Slovaks, hold- 
 ing the whole southeastern part of Moravia, and ex- 
 tending over fifteen Comitats in Hungary, a degraded 
 and depressed people : (d) the Wallachs (to be distin- 
 guished from the Hungarian tribe of that name) : and 
 (e) the Water-Poles. 
 
 The Tchechs are reckoned by Schafarik, at 
 7,200,000, though in this estimate must be 
 
 / ' . . Tchechs. 
 
 included their colonies, and those who have 
 emigrated from them. 
 
 (3) The Wends of Lusatia, numbering only about 
 150,000, occupy a small district around the towns 
 Lobau, ]N"eusalz, Spremberg, Liibben, and others. 
 They are the remains of an ancient Sla- 
 
 "Wends. 
 
 vonic population, left in the midst of the 
 German, and which formerly extended beyond the 
 Elbe to the Saale. Their language is also called the 
 Sorbian, and possesses several written works. 
 
 The whole number of the Slavic populations is es- 
 timated by Gurowski at about eighty millions, of 
 which Russia has fifty-seven or fifty-eight millions. 
 The total population of Eussia is given by the census 
 of 1851, as 66,000,000. 
 
844 
 
 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 Physical cha/raeterisUcs. The Slavonians vary 
 greatly in physical type. The northern Russians are 
 fair, with light hair ; the southern, or southeastern, as 
 the Kroats and Servians, are dark, with black eyes 
 and hair. The Slovaks, as the writer has observed, 
 Physical ^^® powcrful men, of moderate size, with 
 
 characteristics, -i n -l • i • j^i • j» 
 
 long, flaxen hair hanging over their faces, 
 and coarse, strong features. The Poles, many of 
 them, are of dark eyes and hair, and with tall, well- 
 made figures. The race belongs physically to the 
 hrachy-h&pJiaUc, or short-headed ; that is, to the class 
 whose skulls are proportionally shorter from front to 
 back, than with most other European peoples. 
 
 The Slavonic Races arranged according to their religion, 
 (schafarik.) 
 
 Greek or 
 Eastern 
 Church. 
 
 Greek 
 
 united with 
 
 Rome. 
 
 Roman 
 Catholics. 
 
 Moham- 
 medanB. 
 
 Great Eussians, or I 
 
 Muscovites, ) 
 
 Little Eussians, or ( 
 
 Malorusses, j 
 
 White Eussians, 
 
 Bulgarians, 
 
 Servians, or Illyrians, . . . 
 
 Kroats, 
 
 Carynthians, 
 
 Poles, 
 
 Bohemians and Mo- ) 
 
 ravians ( 
 
 Slovaks in the north of i 
 
 Hungary, j 
 
 Lusatians, or Wends, I 
 
 Upper, i ( 
 
 Lusatians, or Wends, ) 
 
 Lower, \ 
 
 Total 
 
 85,814,000 
 
 10,154,000 
 
 2,376,000 
 .5.287,000 
 2,880,000 
 
 2,990,000 
 
 350,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 1,864,000 
 
 801,000 
 1,138,000 
 8,923,000 
 
 4,270,000 
 
 1,953,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 13,000 
 442,000 
 
 144,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 88,000 
 
 44,000 
 
 250.000 
 550,000 
 
 54,011,000 2,990,000 19,359,000 1,531,000 800,000 
 
THE SLAVONIC KACE8. 
 
 345 
 
 The Slavonic Races arranged according to their States, 
 (schafarik.) 
 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 Rep. of 
 Cracow. 
 
 Saiony. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Groat Bus- / 
 sians, . . . . ^ 
 
 35,814,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 36,814,000 
 
 Little Eus- [ 
 sians, j 
 
 10,3TO,000 
 
 2,774,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 13,144,000 
 
 White Eus- j 
 sians, j 
 
 2,726,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,726,000 
 
 Bulgarians, . . . 
 
 80,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 
 3,500,000 
 
 
 
 3,587,000 
 
 Servians and ( 
 lUyrians,.. ( 
 
 100,000 
 
 2,594,000 
 
 
 2,600,000 
 
 
 
 5,294,000 
 
 Kroats, 
 
 
 801,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 801,000 
 
 Carynthians,.. 
 
 
 1,151,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,151,000 
 
 Poles, 
 
 4,912,000 
 
 2,841,000 
 
 1,982,000 
 
 
 130,000 
 
 
 9,365,000 
 
 Bohemians | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Mora- V 
 
 
 4,370,000 
 
 44,000 
 
 
 
 
 4,414,000 
 
 ylans, ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Slovaks (N. ) 
 Hungary), ( 
 
 
 2,753,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,753,000 
 
 Lusatians, or ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wends, V 
 
 
 
 88,000 
 
 
 
 60,000 
 
 98,000 
 
 Upper, — j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Lusatians, or | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W e n d s, > 
 
 
 
 44,000 
 
 
 
 44,000 
 
 Lower,.... ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total, 
 
 53,502,000 
 
 16,791,000 
 
 2.108,000 1 6,100,000 |l80,000 60,000 
 
 78,691,000 
 
 15* 
 
CHAPTER XXYIII. 
 
 II. THE ALBANIANS. 
 
 Albania, according to Mr. Leake, occupies almost 
 tlie entire line of seacoast on tlie east side of tlie 
 Ionian and Adriatic seas, included between the 39tli 
 and 43d degrees of latitude. Its extent inland is 
 never more than one hundred miles, and sometimes 
 not more than thirty. The northern boundaries are 
 Montenegro and " the ridges which unite that moun- 
 tainous province with Mount Scardus, and bound the 
 plains of Scodra on the north." To the south, Albania 
 reaches as far as Suli on the coast. 
 
 Yery interesting questions in Ethnology have at- 
 tached themselves to this comparatively insignificant 
 people, as their language contains words from various 
 tongues, though the grammar is undoubted- 
 of andent*^ ly Aryan. After much discussion and in- 
 vestigation, the conclusion has been reached 
 that this half-civilized people, now subject to the 
 Turkish Empire, are the direct descendants of the 
 
THE ALBiLPTLOrS. 34T 
 
 ancient Illyrian race — ^the predecessors probably even 
 of the Greeks in their peninsula — and a distinct branch 
 of the great Aryan family. They are accordingly to 
 be ranked, like the Kelts, Teutons and Slavonians, as 
 a separate member of this important family. 
 
 "We quote from Leake's interesting remarks in his 
 Researches in Greece, page 23Y : 
 
 "The Albanian must be considered as holding a distinct 
 character in the midst of the languages by which it is sur- 
 rounded, being in aU probability the ancient lUyric, with 
 some alterations of the same kind as Latin and Greek have 
 undergone, from the Teutonic and Slavonian conquerors of 
 Southern Europe. 
 
 "Through the whole course of Grecian History, from its 
 earliest records to the faU of the Constantinopolitan Empire, we 
 find a people distinct from the Greeks in race and language, in- 
 habiting the northwestern side of the country, and extending 
 along the ridges which border the seacoast, or run parallel to it. 
 They appear to have reached as far south as the Bay of Ambra- 
 cia, for Scylax deems this gulf the northern boundary of Greece 
 upon the west side, and Thucydides calls the Amphilochi, who 
 inhabited the hills at the head of it, Barbarians ; by this word 
 implying that they spoke a language different from the Greek. 
 The same historian also applies the word Barbarians to the peo- 
 ple on the coast of Epirus, opposite to the island of Sybota, and 
 Strabo informs us that the Epirotic tribes were mixed with the 
 Illyrian and spoke two languages ; meaning either that, like the 
 greater part of the present Albanians, they used both the Greek 
 and their own vernacular language, or that the Epirotic was dis- 
 tinct from the lUyrian tongue, and perhaps another dialect of 
 
34:8 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 the language, which was spoken throughout Macedonia and the 
 neighboring countries, before the letters and civilization of Greece 
 had spread over these provinces. It would appear that in Epirus 
 and that part of lUyricum, afterward called New Epirus, this 
 change never took effect to so great a degree as it did in Thes- 
 saly and Macedonia ; and that the lofty mountains and extreme 
 ruggedness of this part of the country have in all ages afforded 
 to the remains of the Aborigines a security against intruders. 
 This supposition is in a great measure confirmed by those rem- 
 nants of a distinct language which forms the basis of the modern 
 Albanian dialect, and it is observable that all the words which 
 resemble those of the same import in other modern languages, 
 may be accounted for by the revolutions which brought so many 
 foreign nations into Albania or its vicinity ; and that these ex- 
 traneous words will be found to exist in the same proportion, 
 as the impression made upon the country by several races of 
 foreigners. 
 
 " Of the Greek words which occur in Albania, a few have 
 internal marks, as having been adopted before the corruption 
 Elements of ^f the language ; a larger proportion afford the 
 language. ^^^^ evidence of having been taken from the Ro- 
 maic Greek, and there are many also whose forms, being the 
 same both in the ancient and modern Greek dialect, are of un- 
 certain date. 
 
 " Latin words are two or three times as numerous as Greek, 
 but still much below the proportion in which they are found in 
 the other modern languages of Europe. This may partly be ac- 
 counted for, by the secluded position and warlike habits of the 
 mountaineers of Albania which, defending them from being ever 
 completely subjugated by the Romans, preserved their language, 
 like that of the Pyrenean and Oantabrian mountains, from ever 
 receiving so large an admixture of Latin ; and partly by the study 
 
THE ALBAlflANS. 349 
 
 of the Latin language, which has prevailed to so great an extent 
 in civilized Europe, since the revival of letters. 
 
 The few words of Gothic origin which exist in Albanian must 
 have come into use in the fifth century, when the Goths of 
 Alaric became complete masters of the greater part of the two 
 Epirus provinces, especially the northern, where we afterward 
 find some of their descendants settled in quiet possession of a 
 part of the country. 
 
 About the same period, another tribe of strangers, who 
 proved to be the most numerous and the most formidable of any 
 to the Greek emperors, began to make their appearance in the 
 same part of the country. The Sclavonians, chiefly under the 
 name of Bulgarians, continued their irruptions into the European 
 provinces of the empire, during the seventh, eighth, and ninth 
 centuries. In the tenth century, the same race was settled at 
 Nicopolis, the chief place of a Theme, which comprehended all 
 old Epirus, and it appears that about this time all the more ac- 
 cessible parts of Epirus were occupied by strangers of Sclavo- 
 nian origin. UntU the last periods of the Greek Empire, the 
 Kings of Bulgaria and Servia continued to make occasional con- 
 quests and settlements in Greece, and even in the Morea ; and 
 they have to this day left traces of their long residence by the 
 numerous names of places of Sclavonian derivation to be found 
 in every part of the country. It was in these ages of Bulgarian 
 prowess, that the remains of the Illyrian and Epirotic nations 
 became finally included within the boundaries which they have 
 ever since held. Many Sclavonian words then found their way 
 into the Albanian language, and have been increased sclavonian 
 in number by the intercourse between Albania and ™^ "®" 
 the extensive regions of Servia and Bulgaria, which surround it 
 on the north and east, and throughout which, the Bulgarian dia- 
 lect of Sclavonic is spoken. It may be thought surprising per- 
 
350 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 haps, that under these circumstances the proportion of the Scla- 
 vonic words is not larger, and it may be considered as a proof 
 that the strength of the Epirotic and Illyrian mountains, and 
 the spirit of their inhabitants were still equal, as in the time of 
 the Komans, to protect them from being completely subdued. 
 
 The Albanians or Shvpeta/rs (rock-dwellers), as 
 they call themselves, or Arnauts^ as the Turks call 
 them, are divided into four tribes, of which the most 
 important are the Northern or Geghian, and the 
 Southern or Toskian. 
 
 The country of the l^orthern tribe is level and 
 suited for cavalry, and has produced, says Leake, 
 " a race combining the cruelty of the Albanian with 
 the dulness of the Bulgarian." 
 
 The true character of the Albanian is to be sought 
 in the barren mountainous southern districts. Here 
 is to be found one of the poorest but most hardy and 
 active peoples in the world ; a race, quarrelsome, self- 
 ish, eager and avaricious, but with more honesty and 
 fidelity than their neighbors, the Greeks. 
 
 The Albanian is a native soldier, and is the great 
 mercenary of the East, serving with equal zest in Bag- 
 dad, Morocco, Il^aples, or Rome. 
 
 In physical structure he is thin, nervous, and mus- 
 cular, with bony neck and very full breast ; his eyes 
 are liffht and small, eyebrows weak, fore- 
 
 Physique. ° ' "^ ' 
 
 head low, nose sharply-cut, and head of a 
 longish shape. There are Albanian colonies in Greece : 
 
THE GREEKS. 351 
 
 they preserve their national dress, but are gradually 
 losing their language. There are also descendants of 
 Albanian colonies in Southern Italy and Sicily, who 
 stiU speak their language. 
 
 III. THE GEEEK8. 
 
 One of the saddest spectacles which the earth af- 
 fords, of the weakening and gradual extinction of the 
 power of a race, is presented by the modem Greeks. 
 It is more painful, even, than the degrada- Degeneracy 
 tion of the Romans; for the Greek stock, '^^^'"'^^• 
 is, on the whole, purer and more directly descended 
 from the ancient race. Amid the countless grafts of 
 population from every nation of the earth, introduced 
 by slavery into Italy, under all the successive layers 
 of race deposited by so many conquests, who can say 
 with confidence, that anywhere the old stock of heroic 
 Home buds forth among the people of modern Italy ? 
 But in Greece, no doubt, there are mountain-valleys 
 and rural homes, where men till the ground and pas- 
 ture sheep, with the same blood in their veins as those 
 who fell at Thermopylae ; and it is not improbable 
 that there may be petty politicians or traders now in 
 Athens or Sparta, whose own ancestors were among 
 those very men, who, in art or imagination or pure 
 intellect, have been the leaders and instructors of 
 mankind. 
 
352 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 What singular influences those were in soil or air 
 or sea, in the combination and natural selection of 
 rare qualities of race, which produced that wonderful 
 people of artists and poets and thinkers and states- 
 men — who can say ? And who, still more, can ex- 
 plain the mysterious causes which gradually broke the 
 power and dwindled the genius, and changed the 
 type of this gifted race ? We know, indeed, that fatal 
 political dissensions weakened the Gr£ecian communi- 
 ties within, and that successive hordes of conquerors 
 plundered and wasted the country, and expelled the 
 inhabitants. We know that Eoman, Slavonian, Teu- 
 ton, Arab, and Turk, have either desolated Greece, or 
 mingled their blood with that of its ancient race. We 
 find still further, that these successive devastations 
 have at length affected the climate and productions, 
 Climate of and the Greece of modern days is not at all 
 
 Greece 
 
 changed. the woody, salubrious, well-watered, genial 
 country, pictured as the Greece of old. The forests 
 have been burned, or turned into sheep-pastures, and 
 the encroaching desert-climate continually drives the 
 woods higher up the mountains. On Parnassus, the 
 forest begins only at 2,000 feet with the silver fir. 
 These conditions, says Hettner, will be impossible to 
 be changed, for the geographical limits of the elements 
 which control the regular Flora, have been changed 
 by the destruction of the luxuriant natural vegetation. 
 " The want of wood on the arid and calcareous soil, 
 
THE ALBAiaAJTS IN GREECE. 353 
 
 has increased the heat and dryness of the air; the 
 springs have become scanty, and the parched earth 
 draws no precipitation from the atmosphere." The 
 deficiency in wood and water has obstructed most 
 kinds of manufacture and tillage, and this again has 
 reacted on the people. Still, with all these obvious 
 causes of the degeneracy of the Greeks, the astonish- 
 ing change in the intellectual capacity of the race is 
 not sufficiently accounted for, and perhaps from the 
 subtile nature of the causes at work, never can be. 
 
 The modern Greek is most of all remarkable for 
 his shrewdness and sharpness in business, and has 
 anything but an enviable reputation for ^^^^^ 
 honesty ; his especial direction seems to be 
 toward commerce and trade. In general, there is 
 much equality of condition, and personal independ- 
 ence among the Greeks, but a great want of discipline, 
 and a tendency to jealousy and dissension — all charac- 
 teristics of the masses of the old race. 
 
 There are two prominent races now ap- rj,^^ ^^^ 
 parent in modern Greece — the Albanian "^ "^^"^"^ 
 and the Greek. 
 
 Of the Albanians, Mr. Finlay says : 
 
 Albanian colonists now occupy all Attica and Megarig, 
 with the exception of the towns of Athens and Megara, where 
 they form only a portion of the population. They possess the 
 greatest part of Boeotia, and a small portion of Locris, near 
 Talanta. The southern part of Euboea, and the northern part 
 
354 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 of Andros, the whole of Salamis, and a part of Egina, are peo- 
 pled by Albanians. In the Peloponnesus they are still more 
 numerous. They occupy the whole of Corinthia and Argolis, 
 extending themselves into the northern part of Arcadia and the 
 eastern part of Achaia. In Laconia, they inhabit the slopes of 
 Taygetus, called Bardhunia, which extend to the plains of Helos, 
 and ■ crossing the Eurotas, they occupy a large district around 
 Monemvasia to the south of the Tzakonians, and to the north of 
 a small Greek population which dwells near Cape Malia, in the 
 district called Yatika. In the western part of the peninsula 
 they occupied a considerable part of the mountains, which extend 
 from Lalla to the northeastern corner of Messenia, south of the 
 Neda. Besides these large settlements, there are some smaller 
 clusters of Albanian villages to the north of Karitena, and in 
 the mountains between the Bay of Navarin and the Gulf of 
 Coron. The islands of Hydra and Spezzia were entirely peopled 
 by Albanians. 
 
 The extent of country occupied by the Albanian race is 
 more clearly displayed in a colored map, than by the most 
 minute description. Marathon, Platsea, Leuctra, Salamis, Man- 
 tinea, Ira, and Olympia are now inhabited by Albanians, and 
 not by Greeks. Even in the streets of Athens, though it has 
 been for more than a quarter of a century the capital of a Greek 
 kingdom, the Albanian language is still heard among the chil- 
 dren playing in the streets, near the temple of Theseus and the 
 arch of Hadrian. 
 
 They can be distingiiisHed by their thick body, 
 round head, heavy face and badly-formed forehead, 
 and by eyes rather quick than intelligent, while the 
 pnre Greeks in the rural districts are conspicuous for 
 a fine oval face, well-arched forehead, intelligent eyes, 
 
THE GREEKS. 355 
 
 straight nose and finely-cut features, and a form tall, 
 supple and graceful. Their organization is dry, ner- 
 vous and fine, like the climate. The Greeks of the 
 cities, who are of a mixed race, do not show this 
 fine type. M. de Pouqueville asserts that the models 
 which inspired Apelles, can be found now in the 
 rural districts — especially among the women. Ac- 
 cording to him, the people are generally tall and 
 well-made, their eyes are full of fire, their mouths are 
 admirably formed and are furnished with the whitest 
 teeth. 
 
 The Laconians are difierent from the Arcadians, 
 both in appearance and temperament — ^the former 
 showing their Spartan blood by their irritability and 
 tendency to quarrel, while the latter are a quiet and 
 pastoral people. 
 
 The national custom is to shave the beard, leaving 
 only the moustache ; those in mourning let the beard 
 grow; another conspicuous fashion, even among the 
 men, is to compress the waist to the utmost extent. 
 
 In Athens, there are two marked divisions — rather 
 of society than of race — the Phanariotes and Palli- 
 cares. 
 
 The former were distinguished Greek families, 
 who lived in the quarter Phcmar of Constantinople, 
 and occupied prominent official positions under the 
 Turkish government. After the establishment of 
 Greek independence, many of them returned to 
 
356 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOSLD. 
 
 Greece and now form tlie leading families of the 
 
 capital. 
 
 The Pallicares, or hra/oes, are mountain-chiefs, who 
 
 took a prominent part in the revolution, and now con- 
 stitute the most original portion of the na- 
 tive population. They are very hospitable, 
 
 and have many Turkish customs. Their language is 
 largely sown with Turkish words. 
 
 There is, without doubt, a considerable Slavonic 
 element in the modern Greek race, but in what exact 
 proportion, it is difficult to say. 
 
 The Slavonians settled for a length of time in the 
 interior districts and were, as is usual with their race, 
 devoted to agriculture, while the Greeks retired to 
 Slavonic the cities. For six centuries, from the 
 
 influences on 
 
 Greece. ninth to the fifteenth, successive waves of 
 
 Slavonic population swept over the peninsula, and yet 
 they have by no means left the traces which might 
 have been expected. The names of mountain-villages 
 in Arcadia and of mountains, are the principal evi- 
 dences of their ancient possession of the land. The 
 Bulgarian language is still found in Southern Greece 
 and on the western side of Macedonia, and in the 
 eastern borders of the plains of Thessaly. 
 
 Beside the Slavonians, the Wallachs hold small 
 districts in Greece — in the central parts of Mount 
 Pindus. They are mostly migratory shepherds, but 
 
THE GEEEKS. 357 
 
 many of them have become merchants and artisans 
 in the towns. 
 
 The modern Greek tongue is called the Romaic^ 
 and differs from the old Greek less than Italian from 
 Latin, or as some assert, less than many of the dialects 
 of ancient Greece differed from one another. It is 
 spoken most purely, according to some authorities, in 
 Constantinople, near Mount Athos, and on the islands 
 of Paros and Nicaria. In Cyprus, much of the old 
 Greek is preserved, though the accent is 
 
 . TheManiotes. 
 
 corrupted. The Mamotes from Sparta 
 speak a very peculiar corruption of Greek. 
 
 The Greek inclines to Turkish idioms wherever 
 Mussulmans are numerous, as in Macedonia, Egripo, 
 Tripolitza and the towns of Southern Albania. 
 
 The Greeks number about 950,000 ; they occupy 
 the new kingdom of Greece, and the whole northern 
 coast of the ^gean, that is, the southern districts of 
 Thrace and Macedonia, as well as all Thessaly and 
 Epirus. They are bounded on the north, says Berg- 
 haus, by the Slavic Bulgarians and the Albanians. 
 The islands of the ^gean are occupied by them, to- 
 gether with Cyprus and Candia. In Asia Minor, 
 which they once possessed, they are to be met with 
 principally in the towns and villages; the sea-coast 
 is uniformly preferred by them to the interior. They 
 live in Russia on the Sea of Azof, and in the Crimea, 
 and a small settlement of them is found in Corsica. 
 
CHAPTEK XXIX. 
 
 IV. THE KOMANIC OK LATIN EACES. 
 (1) THE WALLACES. 
 
 This people are direct descendants of the Latin 
 stock, being in all probability the modern 
 ofandfnt** rcmains of the ancient Eoman colonies in 
 omans. Dacia and Moesia. Even a superficial ac- 
 quaintance with their language, shows to the student 
 its intimate connection with the Latin and Italian, and 
 the nation are proud to call themselves Romdni. 
 
 The classic sketches of the Dacians correspond 
 wonderfully with the physical type now seen some- 
 times among the Hungarian Wallachs, as we have 
 had, personally, the opportunity of observing. Their 
 race is crossed no doubt — as is their language — with 
 Slavonic elements, and perhaps has something of the 
 old lUyrian blood in it. Ages of iaferiority and often 
 of oppression, have depressed the people so that they 
 now show little of the old vigor. 
 
 They are settled in "Wallachia, Moldavia, and in 
 
THE WALLACHS. 369 
 
 parts of Hungary, Transylvania and Bessarabia. 
 They are also found in parts of old Thrace, Mace- 
 donia and Thessaly. 
 
 They are divided by language into two branches — 
 the Northern, or DaGO-Romcmic, and the Southern, 
 or Macedo-Bomanic. The dialect of the former, says 
 M. Miiller, " is less mixed and has received a certain 
 literary culture; the latter has borrowed a larger 
 number of Albanian and Greek words and has never 
 been fixed grammatically." 
 
 The extent of the "Wallach territory has diminished 
 on the west since ancient times, under the encroach- 
 ments of the Hungarians, while on the east it has 
 increased and reaches as far as the Dneister. The 
 condition of the mass of the people outside of Transyl- 
 vania, is usually a miserable one. In "Wallachia, they 
 are divided into masters and serfs, and both morals 
 and industry are at the lowest point. 
 
 "Wallachia, according to Miiller, has 2,056,000 in- 
 habitants, of whom only 900,000 are Wallachs. Hun- 
 gary contains about 3,000,000 "Wallachs. 
 
 The Wallachian language derives about half its 
 words direct from the Latin, while the rest are Gothic, 
 Slavonic, Albanian, &c. It differs from ^„ ,. 
 
 ■' wallacnian 
 
 the other modern languages of the Latin ^^°s;uage. 
 family, in preserving one oblique case of the article so 
 as to dispense with the preposition. Thus, says Miil- 
 ler, in this expression: "i(> am vendut vecinului 
 
360 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 mien gradina''^ — "I have sold the garden to my 
 neighbor," the article lui indicates the dative of the 
 noun. 
 
 This language also puts the article after the noun 
 — as, in Latin, homo ille was often used : it has beside 
 employed auxiliaries, like most modern languages, to 
 replace the old Latin tenses. The pronunciation is 
 much softened. 
 
 (2) THE ITALIANS. 
 
 Though Italy would seem to offer a field of ex- 
 traordinary interest to the ethnologist, very few trust- 
 worthy observations have been made on the modem 
 evidences of ancient race. The subject is yet open 
 for some observing traveller. 
 
 The Teutonic blood — ^the Lombard — according to 
 Teutonic Mariotti, can be observed in the population 
 mixure. ^^ Piedmout, Lombardy, Parma, Modena, 
 Bologna, Komagna, even as far as Eavenna and 
 Rimini. 
 
 The physique is distinguished by light hair and 
 fair complexion, elongated skull, large eyes, and by 
 tall and portly, but seldom elegant forms. The tem- 
 perament is sanguine, and in old age, lymphatic. 
 
 This race has always displayed especial talent in 
 agriculture, commerce and manufactures. They pos- 
 sess the German truth and constancy, as well as some- 
 
THE rrALiAJsrs. 361 
 
 thing of tlie German slowness and phlegm. Travel- 
 lers describe them as a generous and hospitable people, 
 with much simplicity and credulity. They send forth 
 the best soldiers of Italy. 
 
 The Genoese show their descent from the ancient 
 Ligurians, in their proud independent characters, and 
 hardy habits ; they are an extremely endur- 
 ing and indefatigable people, and produce 
 the best sailors among the Italians. They are distin- 
 guished by their sharp but keen features, their small 
 black eyes, and their short agile stature. 
 
 Above Genoa, along the whole chain of the Apen- 
 nines, down to Abruzzo and Calabria, lives a primitive 
 race, always hardy and independent, says the author- 
 ity quoted above, too poor for taxation and too in- 
 dependent for conscription. From them, come the 
 smugglers and banditti of Italy. They may be direct 
 descendants of the ancient Italian tribes. 
 
 The physical type in Yenice, is a square, heavy 
 frame, bulky and fleshy ; head short and Slavonian in 
 form ; face rather oblong than oval, with full cheeks 
 and heavy jaws ; the nose is rarely arched. 
 
 In Tu80(jmy, observers believe that many Etruscan 
 features may be clearly beheld, such as small eye, 
 thick under-lip, pointed chin, and a long and narrow 
 head with large forehead, and a sharp-pointed and 
 arched nose, though no doubt Keltic elements, as well 
 as Teutonic, are mingled in the people. The art and 
 16 
 
362 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 poetry of Italy have found their greatest impulse from 
 the genius of this population. The ancient Etruscan 
 valor is still shown by the inhabitants of the moun- 
 Etruscan taius, though thoso of the cities are much de-* 
 generated. The physical type is refined — 
 the form being slender and graceful, and the features 
 elegant and effeminate. 
 
 The Transtevermi, in Rome, are thought to have 
 preserved the pure classic type. The common Roman 
 type, still seen among the peasantry, according to Dr. 
 "Wiseman, is a large, flat head, a low wide forehead, 
 a face broad and square, short thick neck, and a short 
 broad figure, such as is found in many of the antique 
 representations of the Roman soldier. The Sabinian 
 shepherds are a model, now, for sculptors, when they 
 would represent the ancient Romans. After a thous- 
 and years of priestly rule, says Gajani, the Romans 
 are still the most warlike of Italian peoples. 
 
 The Neofpolitoms still manifest their early Greek 
 origin in their levity and playfulness, their taste for 
 Greek blood sophisms and specious argument and their 
 in Naples. (jaucos and festivals. A very intelligent 
 observer, Signor Gajani, has informed us that he has 
 -s^sited districts in the llTeapolitan States, where the 
 peasants have preserved, in their costume, almost 
 the exact ancient classic style. In both these and 
 the Roman States, the mountaineers and the lower 
 class of the cities are a purer race, as weU as a 
 
THE ITALIAKS. 363 
 
 superior one, in courage and capacity, to tlie upper 
 class. 
 
 The Neapolitan population has no doubt also re- 
 ceived large Semitic mixtures from early Phoenician 
 and modern Arabian colonization and conquest. The 
 Norman element seems to have been very slight. 
 
 Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica show traces of the 
 Moor, in the dark olive complexion, the pale bilious 
 countenance and guttural accent of the people. Al- 
 most all the races which in ancient times have passed 
 over Europe, mingle in the inhabitants of Mingling 
 these islands. They are described as show- °^''^'^^- 
 ing the Semitic fanaticism and vindictiveness, with 
 the Teutonic ambition ; they are generally more given 
 to mental than bodily exercise, and are fond of medi- 
 tation and solitude. 
 
 On the whole, but little that is definite and satis- 
 factory, can be said of the ethnology of modern Italy. 
 With the vast introduction of slaves by the Eomans, 
 and the successive waves of races that have passed 
 over it, the mingling of blood and language has been 
 complicated beyond all analysis. 
 
 Gajani's theory on this subject is deserving of 
 mention and of more illustration than our space 
 affords. According to this view, the great ^^^^^^s 
 peculiarity of the Italian races from the *'^*°'^' 
 most ancient times, is the attachment of the people 
 to their cities and their municipal institutions. The 
 
364 THE EACE9 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 earliest that we hear of the Etruscans is of their cities 
 and of the civilization and art which distinguished 
 them. These municipal institutions have been handed 
 down from an immense antiquity in many parts of 
 Italy, and still exist. Along with them, the popula- 
 tions have preserved their old race unmingled. The 
 Teutonic invasions were raids or military occupations, 
 rather than permanent settlements. The Teutons, 
 from their differences of language and civilization, 
 could not amalgamate with the Italians. The natives 
 retreated to the mountains or remained isolated in 
 their towns. The Germans brought feudal institutions 
 with them, while the Italians retained their municipal. 
 Even the Longobards did not mingle much with the 
 iNTorth Italians, and one evidence is the comparatively 
 little appearance now of their peculiar feature — ^the 
 red beard. Out of the fifty different dialects in Italy, 
 says this authority, not one is derived from the Ger- 
 man, while many are older than the Latin. The 
 Teutons, weakened by their intemperance and the 
 luxuries of a more civilized race, gradually disap- 
 peared. Since Charlemagne, Italy has received no 
 new accessions of race. 
 
 Yenice, he considers inhabited by the pure, original 
 race. The vast introduction of slaves did not affect 
 the blood of Italy, inasmuch as they were carried off 
 again by the foreign invaders of the country. 
 
 Of this theory — ^which we have set forth very im- 
 
The sPAJiTiAEDS. 365 
 
 perfectly from conversational notes — it is impossible 
 to judge correctly without knowing more of the data 
 on wMcli it is formed. It is certainly possible that 
 Italy may have retained her ancient race obections 
 much more purely than is commonly sup- *°''' 
 posed ; but this view seems to us to make too little of 
 the early Keltic conquests in Korth Italy, of the Teu- 
 tonic invasions and the immense introduction of for- 
 _eign slaves. 
 
 The subject is stiU open for the investigator. 
 
 (8) THE SPANIAEDS, 
 
 Among aU the nations who have been derived 
 from a mixture of the Romans with the barbarian 
 tribes, the Spanish, both in language and race, has 
 probably the largest Latin element. StiU with this, 
 as with other E-omanic peoples, various other races 
 have mingled their blood. The Roman population, 
 which was strongest in the cities and towns, combined 
 at first with the Kelto-Iberian tribes, driving back the 
 pure Iberians — ^the Basques — to their mountains and 
 inaccessible retreats, and gradually usurping with their 
 language — a rural dialect of the Latin — the native dia- 
 lects. When the Teutonic invasion swept over Spain, 
 the Roman language, though the tongue of ^^^^^ 
 the conquered, prevailed early over the ®^™®°*^' 
 Gothic — and the present Spanish nation, with its Teu- 
 
366 THE liACES OP THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 tonic, Keltic, Iberian, and Eoman mixtures of blood, 
 may date back even to the 6tli century. 
 
 As the Spanish were the earliest Romanized na- 
 tion, so their language contains the greatest number 
 of Latin words and probably the purest Latin sounds. 
 
 The changes of the various rural dialects of Latin 
 into our modern European languages, lay in germ in 
 these dialects, and were probably brought about by 
 the natural tendency of the Teutonic and Keltic tribes 
 to make their new language simpler and easier than 
 the somewhat cumbrous and stiff classic or 
 
 Formation 
 
 ilSaleT written Latin. "Without dwelling on the 
 details of the alterations, we may say that 
 they consisted principally in dropping the declinations 
 of nouns, using prepositions instead of case-endings, 
 and substituting a more musical vocal termination for 
 many of the terminations in rough consonants. 
 
 But before the present Spanish race was to be 
 fully formed, there was to be mingled with it a slender 
 current of Semitic blood, from the far east, in the 
 Arabian conquest. From the earliest ages, there had 
 been, through Phoenician and Carthagiman colonies, 
 slight mixtures of Semitic tribes with the Spanish. 
 Though the Arabian empire in Spain lasted fo 
 centuries, it is doubtful if there was any deep anc 
 permanent union between the two families, so opposed'' 
 in mental habits and religious faith. A certain de- 
 gree of Moorish blood is still recognized in portions 'm 
 
 es, 
 sh.ji 
 
 nd^l 
 
THE SPAJSriAKDS. 367 
 
 of tlie Spanisli nation, and tlie influence of that race 
 on the architecture and poetry and Ian- ^^^^-^ 
 guage of their enemies, will be forever °^*'^'^^*- 
 apparent; but that any melting together of the Se- 
 mite and the Aryan took place here, such as history 
 so often shows of the Roman and the Teuton, is not 
 to be believed. 
 
 The very opposition to this hated race served to 
 weld more completely together the Gothic and Keltic 
 population, and to iutensify the national and clan- 
 feeling of a portion of the people. The Asturian, 
 which was the dialect of the mountains whither the 
 Gothic leaders took refiige from the Moor, is still dis- 
 tinguished from the Castilian, its descendant, by its 
 freedom from Arabic words ; and the " blue blood" — 
 the designation of the blonde temperament of the 
 Goth — is still used to describe the blood of the no- 
 bility, in distiuction from the dark temperament of 
 the classes more mingled with the Arabs. 
 
 The peculiar characteristics of the Spaniard can, 
 with much apparent directness, be traced to his va- 
 rious ancestors. In his gallantry and courtesy, his 
 stiffness of pride, his iadomitable spirit of nationality, 
 and his skill as a guerilla-warrior, we behold gp^nish traits 
 the precise image of the ancient Iberian. *''^*"^*^*'>"^^- 
 In his fatal intolerance and bigotry — ^intensified, it 
 is true, by centuries of warfare with the Moham- 
 
368 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 medan Arab — we see the West-Goth,^ a race conspic- 
 uous beyond all otlier Teutonic branches, for its bloody 
 and bitter persecutions of those of a different faith. 
 In his attachment to religious externalism and kingly 
 power, he is Roman ; in his tough individualism and 
 the high respect always paid to woman, German; 
 in his love of martial display and costume, Keltic. 
 Yet with all these, and other elements of race, the 
 Spanish race is one, and a new race among modern 
 peoples. 
 
 There are three dialects of the language : — (1) The 
 CasUlia/n, which was perfected after the conquest of 
 the Moors, and which contains many Arabic words. 
 (2) The Gallician, in the northwest corner of the 
 country, dating back before the Moorish invasion, and 
 supposed to be derived from the Suevian language. 
 The Portuguese are considered as the de- 
 scendants of the people originally speaking 
 this dialect. (3) The Catalcm, in the eastern prov- 
 inces, a dialect of the Provengal, and derived from 
 the language of the Prankish tribes. 
 
 The Spanish language is said by Clarus to contain 
 tVo words from the Latin, xVV froiii the Greek, yW 
 from the German, rVV from the Semitic, and the re- 
 mainder from Italian and other modern tongues. 
 
 * Montesquieu says that we owe all the principles and views of the 
 present Inquisition to the West-Gothic Kingdom, and that the monks 
 only copied the laws of the West-Gothic bishops against the Jews. 
 
THE SPANIAED8. 369 
 
 The terms for agricTiltnre and science are Latin ; for 
 the church, Latin or Greek; for arms, riding and 
 war, Teutonic; for arts and plants in Southern 
 Spain, Arabic. The geographical names in North- 
 ern Spain are Gothic or Suevic, 
 
 Of the modern evidences of race in the different 
 provinces, travellers tell us that in Valencia, the peo- 
 ple resemble both their Keltiberian and Modem 
 
 _ ^ . . evidences 
 
 Carthaginian ancestors, bemg cunning, per- of race, 
 fidious, vindictive and sullen. The burning sun has 
 tanned their skin dark and aided to form in them an 
 excitable and nervous temperament ; they have, too, 
 the superstitious tendencies that characterize the peo- 
 ple of a hot climate. The costume is both Asiatic and 
 antique. The men wear sandals, and leave their legs 
 naked, or cover them with leggings, such as were worn 
 by the ancient Greeks. A many-colored plaid is worn 
 over the shoulders, and on the long red hair, a silken 
 band like a turban. The Yalencian women are of 
 fairer complexion than the men, and are conspicuous 
 for their beauty of form. They wear the hair and 
 the ornaments of the head after the old Eoman style. 
 
 The AThdalusian, with his lively and sparkling 
 semi-Moorish temper, is a great contrast to the grav- 
 ity and decorum of the Roman Castilian. 
 
 The CatdLom is rude, active and industrious, a 
 good soldier, and fond of independence, resembling 
 both Kelts and Iberians in his covetous, bold, cruel 
 16* 
 
370 THE KACEB OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 and warlike character. The Aragonese are true child- 
 ren of the Goths in their force of will, their 
 
 Catalan. 
 
 attachment to constitutional liberties and 
 their opposition to arbitrary power. 
 
 Mr. Borrow speaks of a cross of the Moors and the 
 Goths, who are well known as the merchants of the 
 country — ^the Ma/ragatos. Their dress and customs 
 are peculiar, and they never intermarry with the 
 Spaniards. Their figures and faces are essentially 
 Gothic; they are strong, athletic, heavy men, slow 
 and plain of speech, using a much coarser pronuncia- 
 tion than do the other Spaniards. Like their Teutonic 
 ancestors, they are very fond of spirituous liquors and 
 rich meats. 
 
 As an instance also, of the permanency of old op- 
 positions of race, the same author relates that there 
 are two villages now in Spain — ^Yilla Seca and Yar- 
 gas — the former of which is inhabited by a dark-com- 
 plexioned people, of Moorish origin, and the latter by 
 a fair race of Gothic blood, which are always in hos- 
 tility with each other; the inhabitants refasiag to 
 intermarry, or e^en to speak to one another. 
 
 (4) THE FEENCH. 
 
 The difficulty which we have found in Italy, in 
 analyzing the modern remains of ancient races, is 
 almost equally great in France. The French are a 
 
THE FRENCH. 371 
 
 new race, formed out of different tribes and races; 
 and thoiigli presenting many of the peculiarities which 
 belonged to each of the peoples that covered their soil, 
 the several component parts of the nation are only 
 with difficulty discovered. 
 
 The stock of the French people is probably 
 Keltic, while on this have been grafted Eoman and 
 Teutonic growths, until it is impossible to Celtic the 
 say which race prevails. One of the rural p""'''^* '^"'®* 
 dialects of the Eoman Empire was the idiom of 
 France in the 8th century, conquering the less culti- 
 vated Keltic and Teutonic languages ; and the modern 
 language of France, though showing all the various 
 influences of race which entered into its formation, 
 places the people especially among the modem Ro- 
 manic or Neo-Latin races. 
 
 The ruins and ancient edifices on the soil of 
 France, point distinctly to the various races who have 
 formed its people: (1) the Keltic and Druidical re- 
 mains, especially in Brittany; (2) the Roman ruins 
 found in the southern provinces and cities, as Kismes, 
 Aries, and Yienne ; and (3) the Gothic or Mediaeval 
 cathedrals and edifices. 
 
 In character and genius, the French show the evi- 
 dences of the three powerful races who have consti- 
 tuted the nation — traits which sometimes seem con- 
 tradictory, and which only those closely familiar with 
 the French people can understand. 
 
372 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 In their brilliant martial character, their love of 
 
 display and eff^ect^ their sudden enthusiasm and as 
 
 easy discouragement, their readiness to be 
 
 Evidences «' O 7 
 
 of race. rulcd \>j military leaders, their fondness for 
 
 ornament and art, their gaiety, fickleness and amor- 
 ousness, they are thorough Kelts, such as their ances- 
 tors have been in all ages : but in the sober devout- 
 ness of a large mass of the people, in their serious- 
 ness, in their personal sensitiveness and personal inde- 
 pendence, in their spirit of sceptical inquiry and the 
 thoroughness of their scientific research, they are 
 Teutons, while their wonderful talent for organization 
 and their tendency to centralization are Roman. Still 
 with all this, and much more which might ingeniously 
 be worked out of inherited qualities, one feels we no 
 more describe the great French nation, than a man of 
 genius is described by picturing his forefathers. The 
 French race, with its genius, its science, its grandeur, 
 _ , its faults which are the scorn of mankind, 
 
 French race ' 
 
 °®^' its misfortunes which afflict the world, its 
 
 magnificent past, its uncertain present and mysterious 
 future — is a unity — a new and living force entering 
 into the life of mankind and henceforth as distinct as 
 any of the great races of antiquity. 
 
 The provincial dialects in France give an evidence 
 of the races, that have mingled in the formation of the 
 people. In Lorraine, says M. Maury, we see incon- 
 testable traces of both the Germanic and Latin ele- 
 
THE FKENOH. 3^3 
 
 ments : as Alsacia and tlie countries near the Rldne 
 are approaclied, the Germanic element becomes more 
 po"werful, until in German Lorraine, it jfinishes by pre- 
 vailing entirely. As we go toward the 
 
 . Dialects. 
 
 north simuar phenomena meet us ; on one 
 side the Flemish dialect, spoken near Dunkerque and 
 Hazebrouck, and on the other, the Picard and Wallon 
 dialects ; the latter being a compound of German and 
 Latin. Li Artois, an intermediate patois of the two 
 languages is found. The termination Jienn in the 
 names of places, in some French provinces shows the 
 ancient Flemish influence ; ange in Lorraine, is a cor- 
 ruption of the German ingen ^ while the endings j'^ew 
 heCj totj in ]N'ormandy, speak of the ancient occupation 
 by the Northmen. 
 
 Ethnologists attempt to assign the physical traits 
 of modern Frenchmen to their different origins. In 
 the north of France, where Teutonic blood prevails, 
 are to be found men of tall stature, blue eyes and light 
 complexion. Like the Germans, they are somewhat 
 phlegmatic, less communicative than other French- 
 men, but frank in disposition and very hospitable. 
 They furnish the best soldiers of the French army and 
 the most vigorous workmen. 
 
 In the south, where the Eoman and Keltic blood 
 is predominant, the men are smaller, with Diflferent 
 
 physical 
 
 brown complexion and dark hair, and, at *yp«s- 
 the same time, are more agile and active than the 
 
374 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 Teutonic Frencli. They are remarkable for their 
 promptness, gaiety, wit and passion. 
 
 The west, which still contains the pure Keltic 
 blood, has men of short and stocky frame, with dark 
 complexion,* both these peculiarities showing the 
 effects of climate, or of natural selection transmitted. 
 The hair of the Bretons is dark and smooth. 
 
 The two branches of the Kelts — ^the Cymric and 
 Gaelic — are said to be represented by two physical 
 types in France. The one — the Cymric — foimd ia the 
 north, is distiQguished by a long oval head, a high 
 Two Keltic i^^^'O"^ forchcad, nose curved downward 
 *^^^^" and pointed, chin small, figure tall and 
 
 spare. The other — ^the Gaelic— found in the centre 
 and east, has a flat head, forehead low and broad, face 
 round and nearly square, chin prominent, nose small 
 and short or turning up, stature short and figure thick. 
 
 The descendants of the old Normoms have thin 
 and curly hair. The Bea/rnese are of middle or smaU 
 stature with clear complexion, and remarkable for 
 their spirited movements. The French Basque has a 
 marked, brown face, and a most elastic supple body. 
 
 Between the two extremes of north and south lie 
 the great masses of the French peasantry, probably of 
 Gallic and Roman origin, the most ignorant and 
 
 * To this, however, there are many exceptions. (See Arndt.) 
 Many Saxon colonies were settled on the coast of Brittany, which may 
 have aided sometimes in preserving the blonde traits among the people. 
 
THE FRENCH. 375 
 
 apathetic of the people, the portion which has always 
 opposed any movements of progress. Their distinc- 
 tions of race cannot be certainly analyzed. 
 
 The Frenchman is usually described as small in 
 stature (the tallest men being foimd in Nor- 5,^^^^^ 
 mandy and Upper Burgundy), robust but P'^y'^'i"^' 
 not possessing great strength ; with no inclination to 
 fat and of great suppleness of body. 
 
 In picturing the different provinces, Brittany is 
 spoken of ' as containing a Keltic population, hard 
 and unyielding as the soil ; its character being that of 
 blind, untamable resistance, producing such men as 
 Descartes, Pelagius, Moreau, and Lamennais. 
 
 The old Keltic spirit of submission to priests and 
 nobles, is still a trait of the Keltic French of Brittany 
 and La Yendee. Druidical remains are found in 
 various parts of these provinces ; but the Keltic lan- 
 guage and the ancient customs are fast dying away. 
 
 Gascony and Aquitaine contain the descendants of 
 Iberians and Goths. Languedoc is a province re- 
 markable for its strong and hard character, and a cer- 
 tain Teutonic earnestness — it is filled with „ . .. 
 
 Kace in the 
 
 the remains of Roman architecture and of p™^'''*®^- 
 Roman law, though the kernel of the population is 
 Teutonic ; Guyenne for its quick wit, and Provence 
 for hot-headed petulance. This province contains 
 many Gothic and Burgundian elements, with probably 
 some remains of the ancient Roman. 
 
376 THE EACEB OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 Daupliiny, Franclie Comte and Lorraine have a 
 vigorous race, often of Teutonic blood, and have pro- 
 duced many distinguished analytic minds. 
 
 The population of such cities as Ma9on, Auxerre, 
 Dijon, BesanQon, Lyons, and of the surrounding coun- 
 try, is said by Arndt to be Burgundian by descent, 
 and to show now many German characteristics. In 
 Champagne, Picardy and Artois, says the same au- 
 thority, are plainly seen, in the dull forms and blue 
 eyes of the people, the remains of the ancient Bel- 
 gians. 
 
 Burgundy is the land of orators, ^"ormandy, 
 with the characteristic Scandinavian love of the sea 
 of its Northmen, has laid the foundation for and sus- 
 tained the French marine. The pure modern Kelts 
 in France are said to number about 900,000; the 
 Germans in Elsass, Lothringen and in the department 
 of Ardennes, 1,300,000 ; the Dutch about 178,000. 
 
CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 THE KELTS.' 
 
 This great people Lave in general become ab- 
 sorbed into other nations tbrougbout Europe, and 
 have left but few distinct remains. 
 
 As has been previously mentioned, there are two 
 great classes of the modern Kelts, separated according 
 to dialects: the Cymric embracing (1) the Welsh, 
 some of the inhabitants of Cornwall, and ^^^,,^^0^^,23 
 the Bretons of France; and (2) the Gaelic, of Kelts. 
 including the inhabitants of the Isle of Man, the 
 Highlanders of Scotland and the Irish. The latter, 
 however, are much mingled with lowland Scotch in 
 the north and with Spanish colonists in the west. 
 
 The Keltic element in England, except in Wales 
 and Cornwall, has become merged in the Teutonic, 
 and only leaves here and there the traces of itself in 
 the names of places — as in those words ending in 
 ford^ or comle, or way and wye. 
 
378 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 The purest Kelts, says Latham, are the Gaels in 
 Ireland. Scotland is Gaelic, but not so pure ; there 
 being much Scandinavian blood in the population of 
 the Highlands and the Western Isles. Orkney and 
 Shetland are ^Norse. The Isle of Man is GaeKc, but 
 in part E"orse. The distinct Keltic branch inhabit- 
 ing Wales, speak a dialect unintelligible to the 
 Gaels ; while the Scotch and Irish Gaels can under- 
 stand each other. The Kelts of Cumberland are 
 Cymric. Enough has been said of the characteristics 
 of this race in the early part of this Treatise. Their 
 prominent faults and virtues are as distinct in the 
 most ancient European history, as at the present 
 day. The vices and defects charged upon the Kelts 
 (the Irish) in America, are no doubt the effects, in 
 a considerable degree, of the degraded condition of 
 the race under English rule. It is highly probable 
 that a new destiny will be opened to this people in 
 their crossings with the Teutonic race — whether An- 
 Keitic glo- American or pure German— on Ameri- 
 
 mixtures with . . 
 
 Teutonic, can soil. There is something m the Kelts 
 love of enjoyment, their light-heartedness and warmth 
 of temperament, peculiarly fitting them for a union 
 with the more grave, reserved and cold Teutonic race. 
 There can be no doubt that a great change has 
 taken place in the Keltic physique. In the time of 
 the classical historians, the Kelts were described as 
 taU, large-boned, fair with red hair and blue eyes. 
 
THE SOAIJDINAVIANS. 3T9 
 
 The type now is a small frame, with dark hair, 
 swarthy complexion and darMsli or black eyes; in 
 some portions of the Keltic area, as "Western L-eland, 
 it is mnch degraded by unfavorable circumstances. A 
 portion of the Highlanders of Scotland alone corre- 
 spond to the ancient type. 
 
 This variation has undoubtedly been caused by the 
 great changes which have arisen during many centu- 
 ries in the climate and temperature of Europe and 
 the mode of life of the people. 
 
 THE TEUTONIC FAMILY. 
 (1) SCANDINAVIANS. (2) GEE^^S. (3) DUTCH. (4) ENGLISH. 
 
 (1) The Sccmdina/oian branch of the Teutons con- 
 taius three different peoples — the Dcmes, Swedes and 
 NoTwegicms. Of these, the latter preserve more of 
 the ancient Teutonic vigor. 
 
 Their languages are three dialects of the ancient 
 Norse, and the Danish and Swedish are gcanaina^an 
 now alone literary tongues. The Scandi- ^'^'"^'^^• 
 navians are divided into two branches — ^the East and 
 "West Scandinavians — the former including the ancient 
 !N"orwegians and Icelanders with their descendants, 
 and the latter, the Swedes and Danes. 
 
 This people, at one period of their history, were 
 the most vigorous race of Europe, and suppMed the 
 
380 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 ruling class or family to Russia and England, as well 
 as the maritime population of France. To them may 
 be traced the most vigorous qualities of the English 
 race, whether in Great Britain or America, and to 
 them also some of the most unscrupulous and oppres- 
 sive habits which have characterized both branches of 
 this powerful family. 
 
 The Scandinavian physique is thoroughly Teu- 
 tonic — frame large and sinewy, complexion fair, hair 
 usually light, with blue eyes, nose large or aquiline, 
 and temperament sanguine. The forehead is not bo 
 square and ftdl as with the modem German. 
 
 (2) The Germans. The languages of Germany 
 belong mostly to the High German class.* To the 
 Low German languages belong the Friesic, spoken on 
 the Elbe and along the northern coast of Germany ; 
 the Dutch of Holland, and the Flemish. The Platt- 
 deutsch is a Low German language. Low German 
 has ceased to be a literary language since Luther. 
 
 * The line which divides the High German from the Low German 
 dialects, is thus minutely drawn by Strieker. It leaves the French ter- 
 ritory near Aix, and follows the Prussian frontier to the neighborhood 
 of Koermonde on the Maas, then turns to the west, and crosses the Rhine 
 north of Diissseldorf, runs along its right bank near the stream to its 
 mouth, then turns north of the river, and passes parallel to it on the 
 mountains, and then north of the Edder to between Miinden and Kassel. 
 Here it passes to the Habicht forest, the old frontier between the Franks 
 and the Saxons, and meets the confluence of the Fulda and the Werra, 
 passing then toward Hesse and Prussia, to the Lower Harz, and then 
 north to the Elbe, between Barby and Magdeburg. In the Harz, is an 
 island of High German dialects. From Barby, the line goes to Wittem- 
 berg and the northern frontier of the Slavic Lausitz. 
 
THE GEKMAITS. 381 
 
 Among the great names of the Low German 
 branch, are Luther, Flemming, Klopstock, Tieck, Han- 
 del, Beethoven, Leibnitz, Leasing, Kant, Fichte and 
 the Humboldts. 
 
 In the High German division, may be mentioned 
 among others, Gothe, Schiller, Hegel, Kep- Hi^h German 
 ler, Schelling, Durer, Holbein, Gluck, and ^^''^ "'^«»*«- 
 Mozart. 
 
 When Charlemagne began his wars with the 
 Saxons, the boundary between the Saxons and Slavo- 
 nians ran from the mouth of the Traave to ^^, 
 the Elbe. After 804, it extended from Kiel ^'''^^'^ "*"• 
 to the Elbe, between Lauenburg and Hamburg. The 
 Elbe and then the Saab became the separating line. 
 Under the later emperors, this frontier was continually 
 forced toward the east, and preserved by the forma- 
 tion of new bishoprics and earldoms, such as Branden- 
 burg, Meissen, Austria, and others. 
 
 On the other side, the Slavic tongues had pressed 
 into what is now Bohemia, Moravia and Upper Si- 
 lesia. The higher classes there are still German. 
 
 Among the Bohemian peasantry, the ancient Mar- 
 komanns are said to have retained their Teutonic 
 purity, even as the Basques their nationality in Spain, 
 and to be still clearly recognized in their Teutonic 
 customs and traits. They seldom internjarry with 
 Slavonians. 
 
 Among the descendants of the ancient Germjm 
 
382 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 tribes, it is believed that the purest Saxons are 
 foimd in Quedlenburg, Aschersleben, Magdeburg, and 
 Soltwedel, down to the country of the Friesen and 
 the Ehine; — a long-bodied, long-armed, blue-eyed 
 race, with fair hair, quiet in temperament, 
 
 Saxons. 
 
 of firm staunch and genial character, hold- 
 ing inflexibly to old customs. They are thought to 
 be less poetic and ideal than the descendants of the 
 Alemanns and Goths. They spread originally to the 
 west toward England, and on the east reconquered a 
 portion of Germany, settling a portion of Eastern 
 Holstein, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Brandenburg and 
 Lausitz. Many of the Friesians, Hollanders and 
 Franks, have mingled with them. 
 
 Around the Thuringian forest are grouped the 
 most joyful, pleasure-loving and musical people of 
 Germany — the descendants of the Thuringians and 
 East Fra/nks. On the Elbe and in the Bohemian for- 
 est, they are much mingled with Bohemians. They 
 are a handsome race, more smooth in manner and less 
 staunch than the Saxon. 
 
 The Hessia/ns are considered to be the descendants 
 of the ancient Katti, and of the purest German blood. 
 They are of a firm rough indomitable character, little 
 subject to changes — ^the most reserved and earnest 
 people of Germany. 
 
 The Ausf/fians in their mountains preserve many 
 remains of ancient Keltic tribes and Roman colonists. 
 
THE GEKMANB. 383 
 
 wliich all the invasions of Roman, Chazar, Hunn, 
 Magyar, and Turk, have not wholly oblit- 
 erated. The masses of the population in 
 Austria, Upper Bavaria and the Tyrol, are the de- 
 scendants of the East Goths and the Rugians ; and on 
 the Danube and north of the Danube, probably the 
 remains of the Burgundians, Hermunduri, and others. 
 
 Many Slavonians are scattered about among the 
 German populations of Austria, and are at Slavonians 
 once to be recognized by their dress and ^ ^^^^y- 
 manners. In temperament, they are much more 
 lively and uncontrolled than the Germans, 
 
 The Alemcmns are believed to be found on the 
 Moselle, the Upper Rhine, in Schwabia and Swit- 
 zerland. 
 
 The Burgundians make up also a portion of the 
 Swiss people. 
 
 Two Slavonian islands are to be recognized in the 
 German territory — one, the Upper Lausitz, where 
 Bohemian is still spoken, and the other, the Prussian 
 Lower Lausitz, where Polish is the popular language. 
 
 The population of pure Germans in the German 
 States, is reckoned at 17,600,000 ; of pure Germans 
 over the world in seventy different countries, over 
 53,000,000. 
 
 Two very distinct types of physique can be seen 
 now through Germany: one in the north — the old 
 Teutonic type, marked by fair hair, blue or gray eyes. 
 
384 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 light complexion and large bones and frame; the 
 other, more frequently found in the south, though 
 scattered through Germany, with dark hair and eyes, 
 harsh or dark complexion and smaller limbs and 
 figures — ^the latter type in the lower classes being 
 also frequently accompanied with defective physique. 
 Whether the change from the old type is altogether 
 due to the change of climate and modes of life, or 
 somewhat to mixture with Keltic and Slavonic blood, 
 is difficult to determine. We incline to the latter 
 cause, from the remarkable purity of the Teutonic 
 type in Scandinavia, where climate and habits of life 
 must have also changed considerably, but where little 
 foreign blood has been mingled with the people. 
 
 The old Teutonic character, as seen in the early 
 German tribes and the Scandinavian peoples, is now 
 best preserved, it seems to us, in the peculiarities, both 
 bad and good, of their Anglican descendants on both 
 sides of the ocean. 
 
 (3) Another branch of the Teutonic race, are the 
 Dutch, belonging to the Low German division. The 
 northern provinces — those of Holland — are more 
 purely Teutonic; while the southern — those of Bel- 
 Teutonic ginm — ^have been mingled in blood with 
 the Keltic and Roman populations. Dutch 
 history presents the characteristics of each family as 
 influencing the fortunes of their respective provinces. 
 Mr. Motley well remarks, that in both of the great 
 
THE ENGLISH, 385 
 
 straggles between the inliabitaiits of the Dutch prov- 
 inces and the Imperial power — in classic times against 
 the Roman, and in modern agaiast the Spaniard — 
 the Keltic populations, inflammable, quarrelsome and 
 bold, were the first to assault and defy the royal 
 authority; while the Teutonic inhabitants of the 
 northern provinces were less ardent in the beginning, 
 but were more enduring and steadfast. In both, he 
 adds, the Southern Kelts fell away from the league, 
 their courageous chiefs having been purchased by Im- 
 perial gold, but the Germans fought out the contest 
 to the last. The northern provinces, with Batavian 
 and Frisian blood, became one of the most celebrated 
 Republics in history, while the southern, with Roman- 
 ized Kelts, became the property of Roman, Spanish, 
 and Austrian. 
 
 There are three dialects of the Low German stiU 
 spoken in the Netherlands ; the Dutch^ be- ^^^^ 
 tween the Zuyderzee and the Meuse ; the *'**^*'**- 
 Flemish, at the south of the Meuse ; and the Frisic, 
 at the east of the Zuyderzee, whence it prolongs itself 
 to Jutland. 
 
 (4) THE ENGLISH RACE. 
 
 Like the other modern races of Europe, made up 
 of many different elements, the English people is very 
 difficult to analyze into its component parts. 
 
 Two thousand years and more of history passed 
 17 
 
386 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 on small islands, witli successive inroads of various 
 conquest and immigration, with incessant mixture and 
 amalgamation of all the peoples that had settled or 
 Great Struggled on the soil, have finally, with 
 
 mixtures 
 
 ofbiood. slight exceptions, welded the English popu- 
 lation into one compact and homogeneous whole — a 
 Race in many respects as distinct as any other in the 
 world. We know, indeed, what families and nations 
 have contributed their blood to this new variety of 
 man ; we are certain that the Kelts were its earliest 
 historic progenitors ; and that with these, were united 
 in very slight degree the Romans, and in much greater 
 degree different tribes of Teutons, until the new 
 people became almost entirely a Teutonic people. 
 "We have reason to believe, also, that a certain small 
 proportion of Slavonic and Moorish blood mingles in 
 the veins of this race, both from colonists of the north 
 of Europe and from Roman legionaries. But, at the 
 present time, to point out the exact traces of each of 
 these various tribes and races; to say that here we 
 have a Roman or Keltic feature, there a Teutonic; 
 some trait or relic of Saxon, or Erisian, or Angle, or 
 Dane, or IN^orwegian, or Romanized N^orthman, is 
 very difficult to attempt. Still, without doubt, each 
 of these peoples has left its peculiar stamp and its 
 ineffaceable effect on the mind and the physique, the 
 institutions, laws and language of the English nation. 
 What prominent peculiarities distinctive of race 
 
THE ENGLISH. 387 
 
 can be observed now in England, we propose to men- 
 tion in the brief mode necessary for this Treatise. 
 
 Before detailing these, the reader must recall 
 rapidly the ethnological history of England. Whether 
 there were a primeval family on British j-^hnoio cai 
 soil, perhaps of Finnic origin, anterior to ^^^°^- 
 the Kelts, it is not necessary for our present purpose 
 to inquire, nor farther, whether the ancient Picts were 
 certainly Kelts or not. Historically, the Kelts were 
 the earliest inhabitants of Britain, though without 
 question there was a very early immigration of Teu- 
 tonic tribes from the continent. The Roman conquest 
 and settlement followed. During several centuries 
 succeeding — especially from the middle of the 5th to 
 the middle of the 6th — there was a constant stream 
 of German tribes from the western coasts of Germany 
 between Holstein and the Hhine, to this fertile island 
 — tribes known as Anglians, Jutes, Frisians, and 
 Saxons, and representing two great branches of the 
 Saxon family — the Friso-Saxon and the Anglo-Saxon. 
 These were succeeded by another and more warlike 
 branch of the Teutonic race — ^the Scandinavian North- 
 men, consisting of Danes and Norwegians. After 
 these came yet other Northmen or Normans from 
 France, who had been Eomanized in language, and 
 were no doubt intermingled with much Keltic and 
 Frankic blood. 
 
 The main current in this mingling of so many 
 
388 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 Btreams of race, is evidently Teutonic, and of it, tlie 
 Anglian and the Korse seem tlie most important ele- 
 ments. The Roman blood has had little influence on 
 the English race, and though the Keltic has had vastly 
 more power and has mingled to a much greater extent 
 than many warm "Anglo-Saxons" would have us 
 believe, still the two races and languages seem never 
 g.g,^.^ to have united closely on British soil. The 
 
 elements. ^^^^j Kelts wcTc either exterminated by 
 the Teutonic invaders, or driven to the mountains, 
 where a portion of them still survive, immixed in 
 blood and with their native dialect. 
 
 Of the Keltic element in our language, says Mr. 
 Donaldson : 
 
 The stoutest asserter of a pure Anglo-Saxon or Norman de- 
 scent, is convicted by tlie language of his daily life, of belonging 
 to a race that partakes largely of Zeltic blood. If he calls for 
 his coat* (Irish cota), or tells of the baslset of fish he has caught 
 (W. iasged), or the cart he employs on his land (W. cartj; from 
 cdr, a dray or sledge), or of the pranks of his youth or the 
 prancing of his horse (W. pranc, a trick, prancie, to frolick), or 
 declares that he is happy (W. hap, future, chance), or that his 
 servant is pert (W. pert, spruce, dapper, insolent), or he affirms 
 that such assertions are balderdash and a sham ("W. ialdorddm, 
 idle prating, or baldorz, to prattle : siom from shorn, a deceit or 
 sham), he is using the ancient language of our Keltic forefathers. 
 
 * It is curious that Stanihurst, some 300 years ago, should have men- 
 tioned this word — coat — as having been borrowed by the Irish from the 
 English. See Marsh. Hist, and Origin, &c., p. 542. 
 
 f Cart may be of Gothic origin. 
 
 1 
 
THE ENGLISH. 389 
 
 The Lancashire words tackle^ "to set right," and 
 ^^ griddle,^'' the last of which has passed to America, 
 are Keltic — the one being from the Welsh " taclu^'* 
 and the other from " greidyl " (bake-stone). 
 
 Still, with all this, a distinguished scholar, Mr. 
 Marsh, has said : 
 
 "We ma7 safely say that, though the primitive language of 
 Britain has contributed to the English a few names of places, 
 and of familiar material objects, yet it has, upon the whole, 
 affected our vocabulary and our syntax far less than any other 
 tongue, with which the Anglo-Saxon race has ever been brought 
 widely into contact. I might go too far in saying that we have 
 borrowed, numerically, more words from the followers of Mo- 
 hammed, than from the aborigines of Britain ; but it is very cer- 
 tain that the few we have derived from the distant Arabic are 
 infinitely more closely connected with us than the somewhat 
 greater number which we have taken from the contiguous 
 Keltic. 
 
 One of the most enduring traces of a race, is in the 
 names it gives to places ; so that an ancient stream of 
 population, flowing over a country, may utterly pass 
 away, and yet leave relics more permanent than mon- 
 uments and more distinct than sculptured inscrip- 
 tions, in the names it deposits of mountains, rivers 
 and towns. 
 
 The Keltic endings of conibe (valley), woa/ or wye 
 (water), and ford (where it denotes a road or passage, 
 and not an arm of the sea), are especially found in the 
 
390 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 western counties, thougli scattered here and there over 
 
 Geographical various parts of England. The rivers bear- 
 names in 
 Keltic. ing names in exe, axe, and ouse, are thought 
 
 to show the Gaelic branch of the Kelts. The words 
 dber and inver, used in compounds (as Aberdeen and 
 Inverary), and meaning something like "confluence 
 of waters," are Keltic. Numerous other Keltic end- 
 ings and words are scattered over England and Scot- 
 land. In general, of the Teutonic tribes it may be 
 said, that the evidences of names show the occupancy 
 of the northern and eastern counties of England by 
 Angles, and of the southern and western by Saxons. 
 In the south, the endings in ton, ham, hury, forth 
 Teutonic and worth, are Saxon ; but even near the 
 
 names 
 
 of places. Thames, become mingled with Scandina- 
 vian, in hy, thorpe, thwaite, naes and cy. In the 
 north, the endings in toft, heck, with, tarn, dale, fell, 
 force and haugh, are Scandinavian. These latter are 
 found more often on the coasts and along the rivers. 
 
 The Danish ending hy ("place" or "town"), is 
 especially found in Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Der- 
 byshire, the East and JSTorth Ridings of Yorkshire, 
 in Durham, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Lancashire, 
 Cheshire and Caernarvon. 
 
 It has been estimated by the curious, that Norfolk, 
 Northamptonshire, and Lancashire, have each about 
 60 places with names of Scandinavian origin; Leices- 
 tershire, about 90 ; Lincolnshire, about 300 ; York- 
 
THE ENGLISH. 391 
 
 sliire, nearly 400; and Westmoreland and Cumber- 
 land, some 150. There are few Danisli endings in 
 the south ; toward the north, they cease in Northum- 
 berland, and in the southwest part of Scotland and 
 the Isle of Man. In this latter island, the Danish 
 and Norwegian seem to meet, while the Norwegian 
 element predominates over the Danish in the Ork- 
 neys, Shetland, the Hebrides and Ireland. 
 
 In the Lowlands of Scotland, there are compara- 
 tively very few Scandinavian names, and g^andinavian 
 these are found in the old border-land be- "^™^^' 
 tween the Cheviots and the Firths of Clyde and Forth, 
 and in counties nearest to England. 
 
 To the evidence from names of places, it may be 
 objected that they rather show the past history of a 
 race, than the present ethnological analysis of a peo- 
 ple. But they at least render it probable, that the 
 ancient elements of race which were once prominent 
 in a certain locality, still form a part of the mixture 
 of blood in the modern race. Perhaps a more con- 
 vincing evidence of race, is to be found in the familiar 
 words, customs and superstitions of a population. 
 
 Jadging from these, it seems probable that the 
 Norman element is less strong in the north than in 
 the south of England. Of Lancashire, Mr. Evidence 
 Davies says, that one-sixth of the dialectic """^ 
 words in use by the people, are Saxon ; and that there 
 is hardly the lea'st trace of the Norman in the local 
 
392 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 names of the county, and only faint evidence of his 
 race in the dialect. 
 
 In Suffolk, there is a Frisian relic in the Anglian 
 usage of the vowel o for a — as lond^ for land ; mow, 
 for man ; stond^ for stand. 
 
 An ancient difference in the use of vowels, sup- 
 posed to have been noticed by Tacitus, between the 
 Anglian and the Saxon, is still observed in England ; 
 the South-Saxon saying, I geez, and the East- Anglian, 
 I guiss. The South-Saxon gives the full force to the 
 r, while the East- Anglian drops it before a consonant ; 
 South-Saxon the formor saying ^^ jparri/ridges,^'' and the 
 
 and Auglian 
 
 words. latter, ^^ pattridges,^'' — an Anglian pronun- 
 
 ciation which has reached even to America. The 
 South-Saxon retains the hard g, while the Angle gives 
 us palatal sounds, as a/itchorn for acorn, and coTcsedge 
 for cocks' heads ; and often like the Low German, the 
 latter substitute y for g, or A, as yowl for howl, and 
 yate for gate. 
 
 Yeou for you, and tyeu for two, which has been 
 thought a pure Yankee pronunciation, is discovered 
 to be North- Anglian. In the East Riding of York- 
 shire, are also found strong traces of the Frisian blood. 
 
 Of the glorious historic names in English history, 
 the Anglians, it is claimed, have a stronger proportion 
 „. ^ . , than the Saxons : such men as "Wycliff of 
 
 Histoncal «' 
 
 names. Yorkshirc, Isaac Kewton of Lincolnshire, 
 
 Cromwell, Lord Bacon's family, Jeremy Taylor, Bent- 
 
THE ENGLISH. 393 
 
 ly, Arkwright and Stephenson and even Shakespeare, 
 are asserted bj one able investigator (Donaldson) to 
 belong to this branch. 
 
 Scandinavian relics are scattered over various parts 
 of England. The nix or fairies, still feared by the 
 North-of-England peasant boy, are the Norse spirits : 
 the legends are the same : the superstitions the same ; 
 the festivals are similar, such as the Yule festival and 
 the burning of the Yule log. The Westmoreland 
 boor still says at think and at do^ for " to 
 
 Norse words. 
 
 think " and " to do," as the Scandinavian 
 pirates did; and the Yorkshireman speaks of a son 
 ^^ 'braiding on his father" {i. e., resembhng, Swed. 
 Iraeas, resembles), even as his Norse ancestors were 
 in the habit of saying. The old English word hust- 
 ings, is a Scandinavian legacy. 
 
 Westmoreland, Cumberland and the north of Eng- 
 land contain a vast number of Scandinavian relics, 
 both in language and customs. The bond which con- 
 nects the north-of-England dialects and the Scotch is 
 supposed to be the Scandinavian element in both. 
 
 In Westmoreland, the practice of combining sev- 
 eral words into one, which is so common in the Norse 
 languages, still exists ; thus the " Scalthwaiterigggate," 
 is " the road to the log-house on the cleared -^^^^^ 
 ground upon the ridge," as in Norway, 
 Yiknesholmer means " the islands in the bay beside 
 the promontory." 
 
394 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 The names of berries and trees and plants — as 
 Mr. Ferguson has so well shown — ^have a marked re- 
 semblance in this county and in ISTorway. 
 
 In Cumberland, where a large ]Srorwegian popula- 
 tion settled, land is still held in the same manner as in 
 Korway, by a large number of small independent pro- 
 prietors, which has had its natural effect in perpetua- 
 ting the JN"orse sense of personal independence. 
 
 The coldness of manner and the caution and 
 shrewdness of the people, both in these counties and 
 in Yorkshire, as well as their peculiar fondness for 
 law-disputes, are genuine Scandinavian traits. It has 
 always been observed that the northern counties of 
 England, where the I^orse invaders especially settled, 
 are the most marked for their resolute spirit of inde- 
 pendence and their hatred of oppression. 
 
 Among the Scandinavian customs transmitted, is a 
 dance at Christmas time, which has a strong resem- 
 Norse blance to the ancient sword-dance ; the old 
 
 cusoms. J^orse wrestling-matches are still kept up 
 and bear the ancient name — a word which has passed 
 over to America, russle (K. rusld). The Il^Torse oat- 
 meal porridge and the broad flat cakes of barley, so 
 familiar to the traveller in l^Torway as ^^Jlad h'od,^'' 
 and called scons in England (K. sMn, crust), are still 
 in use among the people. 
 
 Mr. Ferguson has given a great number of words 
 and dialectic expressions in the north of England, 
 
THE ENGLISH. 395 
 
 wliicli are Scandinavian, though many are also Saxon. 
 Thus the change of ih into d — as fodder for father, 
 smiddy for smithy ; and of ch and sh into h — as hum 
 for churn, shift for shift, Jcirk for church. (The same 
 habit is noticed in Kormandy, as Men for chien.) The 
 change also of /to p, as Jwosejp for Joseph Scandinavian 
 (N". lopt for loft) : all these are N'orse prac- p'"''^^^*- 
 tices ; so the use of drucken (K. druckerin) for drunk- 
 en, and of timmer for timber — i. 6., forest — which last, 
 in its application, has become an Americanism. A 
 certain lengthening of the vowels — as gy-ate for gate, 
 and ny-ame for name, is both Anglo-Saxon and 
 Scandinavian. The fondness for w — as worchit for 
 orchard, cwuman for come, cworn for corn, is especially 
 Anglo-Saxon (as Wodin (S.) for Odin (K.),) ; the use of 
 thee and thou for you, in "Westmoreland, Cumberland, 
 Torkshire and the Orkneys, is Korse. The preposi- 
 tions /ra and till are probably from the same source, as 
 well as the verb rmrn for must ; the at for that, as 
 "its time at he were here," is probably from the 
 Danish conjunction at. 
 
 It is characteristic of the vigorous I^Torthmen, that a 
 great number of almost slang words in the northern 
 counties — many of which have crossed the ocean — 
 meaning heat^ are Norse ; thus out of many, j^^^^^ ^^^^^ 
 the words l)aist, 'ba/ng^ lam, leather or ^*"^ ^' 
 lather, hide, dust, &c., &c. To chaff — a Cumberland 
 expression, is from the Scandinavian hafa, to banter ; 
 
396 THE BACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 and trass (impudence) is no modern expression, but as 
 old as the Yikings (brasta, to live in a dissolute man- 
 ner). Even the luxurious sofa came in name from old 
 Iceland or JS'orway (N. sofa, a sleeping-place) ; and 
 the Americanisms, humUe-hee for humble-bee, loft for 
 an upper room, and muggy (damp and foggy), and to 
 nab, are all Scandinavian relics, left in the northern 
 counties of England centuries ago. 
 
 Grimsby was almost the central Danish town, and 
 a vestige of the famous Danish hero — ^Havelok — is still 
 seen in the name of a street — Ha/veloh Street ; and it 
 may be, appears in the name of the modern hero of 
 India. 
 
 In Scotland, the fishermen in the Mth use Korse 
 Norse words "^ords to this day — diB^ohnet (Icelandic, jpo- 
 Tcamjef), lister (I. IJoster), haa/oing (Nor. 
 Jiacme), or drawing small nets through the water. 
 
 Yet with all these tokens of Scandinavian mixture, 
 the Danish language never seems to have exerted any 
 profound influence on the English or Anglo-Saxon. 
 Its greatest peculiarity — ^the post-fix — its negative ikhe 
 and its plural form of the substantive verb, as well as 
 its numerals, have never been transferred to our lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Of this evidence from the names of places, which 
 can be gathered from the map of England, Mr. Fer- 
 guson beautifully says : 
 
THE ENGLISH. 397 
 
 The land is dotted over with little individual histories — rude 
 and simple, it is true — yet such as was their life. Here, eight 
 centuries ago, an Ulf or an Orrae shouldered his axe, and strode 
 into the forest, and hewed himself a home, nor deemed that his 
 stalwart arm was marking the map of England. Here a wan- 
 dering settler saw a blue lake gleaming among the trees, thought 
 of his native land, and said " this shall be my home." Here, in 
 the name of some mountain-dwelling, we have the story of him 
 who, first in his Teutonic self-reliance, planted himself as an 
 outpost in the solitude. Here he settled, and toiled, and lived, 
 and died — it is all there is to tell. Here a Northman, faithful 
 to Odin's command, set up the rude tauta to his departed friend. 
 The stone is gone and there is a busy town, but the memo- 
 rial has borne his name far into an age which has outlived his 
 life. 
 
 Of the Englisli physical traits as distinctive of race, 
 but little can be said with confidence. The various 
 tribes have become so mingled, that but few bodily 
 peculiarities can be discovered in their descendants, 
 indicating their ancient origin. Mr. "Worsaae, how- 
 ever, observes that the English of London pj, ^j^^j 
 and the south of England are distinguished ^^■'^"^■ 
 by black hair, dark eyes, fine hooked nose, and long 
 oval face ; as if the Keltic and the Roman features 
 predominated. As we proceed north, in Northumber- 
 land, he says, the form becomes broader, the cheek- 
 bones project, the nose is flatter, the eyes and hair are 
 lighter and deep red hair is more often seen. People 
 are not very tall in stature, but are usually more com- 
 
398 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 pact and strongly built, tlian in the sontli of England ; 
 perhaps indicating the Frisian and Scandinavian 
 blood. The faces in Middle and North England, he 
 remarks, are decidedly Norse. 
 
 Bulwer also observes, that " the descendants of the 
 Anglo-Danes in Cumberland and Yorkshire, are taller 
 and bonier than those of the Anglo-Saxons in Surrey 
 and Sussex ; " but the people of Cumberland, though 
 compactly built, are less burly in form than those of 
 Yorkshire, and in this respect, the former correspond 
 to the Norwegians and the latter to the Danes, as they 
 do also in many other particulars. 
 
 It is a work of ingenuity, rather than of solid, 
 scientific or historic value, to speculate on the moral 
 qualities transmitted by race, in such a composite peo- 
 ple as the English. Yet one can see many character- 
 istic qualities of their forefathers in both the English 
 and American progeny. 
 
 The boundless spirit of individual enterprise ; the 
 personal pride ; the love of the perils of the sea (which 
 the Saxons never showed) ; the recklessness of life ; 
 English the shrewdness and skill in technical law ; 
 
 qualities 
 
 of blood. the fondness for wassail and wine; the 
 respect for woman, and above all, the tendency to 
 associated self-government, are Norse peculiarities. 
 From the Friso-Anglian, have come especially the pa- 
 tient industry, the sound practical sense, the solid 
 courage, the love of constitutional freedom and the 
 
THE ENGLISH. 399 
 
 spirit of industrial enterprise, whicli form tlie other 
 side of the English character, and which equally dis- 
 tinguished the Frisian of Holland. 
 
 The immeasurable contempt and prejudice against 
 the inferior race, which characterize all branches of 
 the English race, whether the British masters ruling 
 Hindoo servants, or English landlords with Irish Kelts, 
 or Anglo-Americans among Indian tribes, or South- 
 ern slaveholders toward slaves, or " Yankees " toward 
 negroes, is an unfortunate but legitimate inheritance 
 from Teutonic ancestors. 
 
 Even the most ancient traditions of the Teutons — 
 the Norse-sagas — show the deep prejudice of the 
 blonde race against dark color, and the ancient Ger- 
 mans were exceedingly oppressive to the inferior races. 
 
 One of the most natural feelings in surveying 
 the ethnological condition of England, is of won- 
 der at the little impress which the great conquering 
 race of antiquity — the Roman — made upon the lan- 
 guage, the geographical names, or the physique of 
 the British races with which they were thrown in 
 contact. 
 
 They ploughed the island with lines of defence, 
 with military works and roads, but the evidence of 
 language and of history agrees that their gu^ijtEoman 
 blood and that of our forefathers scarce ever 
 mingled ; and Providence seems to have designed that 
 the new and powerful Race of modern times, was to 
 
400 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 have in its composition hardly a drop of the worn- 
 out blood from that haughty Italian people who had 
 once ruled the world. And with the exclusion 
 of the Koman race, is linked a long chain of exclu- 
 sions of priestcraft and tyranny and centraHzed gov- 
 ernment, whose good effect has not yet ceased to be 
 felt. 
 
CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 WANDEBIKG EACE8. 
 THE GYPSIES. 
 
 Excepting the Jews, no people have ever shown 
 such tenacity of race as the Gypsies. A Hindu tribe 
 of Aryan race originally, perhaps of nomadic and 
 plundering habits in their provinces on the ^^^^^^^ 
 Indus, and forced out into Europe and Asia *° ""*' 
 in the early part of the 15th century, they have en- 
 camped or settled in almost every country of Europe, 
 without scarcely ever changing the pure current of 
 their Hindu blood. Whether in the mountain-vil- 
 lages of Norway, or on the pusztas of Hungary, or in 
 rural England, or among the wild mountains of Spain, 
 whether under the burning heat of Africa, or on the 
 plateaus of Asia, in Egypt, Persia, or India, the 
 Gypsy is substantially the same ; with a similar phy- 
 sique, with the same language only dialectically diflfer- 
 ent and with the ineradicable habits of the plundering 
 nomad in him. Sometimes enslaved, always scorned, 
 
402 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 the victim of legislation tlirough. more than tliree 
 hmidred years, driven from country to country, inces- 
 santly urged by the influences of civilization and by 
 the ministers of religion — yet always in all countries 
 and for four centuries the same — a vagrant, a jockey, 
 a cheat, and a heathen and stranger to each people 
 j^^^ and country. The civilization, the science 
 
 moraiy. ^^^ ^-^^ Christianity of modern times, have 
 done almost nothing for him, A few exceptions to 
 this general character of the race are found in Eussia, 
 where individual Gypsies have become wealthy ; but 
 in most countries, they seldom engage in any pursuit 
 of mechanics or agriculture. The only mechanical 
 branch in which they are ever proficient, is the 
 smith's ; and in Persia, they have become celebrated 
 as workers in gold and silver. 
 
 While other races become absorbed in the power- 
 ful races, or mingle in endless variety with the peoples 
 in contact with them, or die out and pass away — ^this 
 Indian tribe keeps itself unmingled and preserves its 
 Tenacity savago vitality. Such a tenacity, both of 
 of race. ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ barbarian habits, seems hardly 
 
 characteristic of the Aryan family, and would remind 
 more of the peculiar traits of the Semites. In many 
 countries they have been supposed to be Egyptians, 
 and their name in English, French, Spanish, and 
 Hungarian, points to this belief. Most other nations 
 have given them a name in some way connected with 
 
 1 
 
THE GYPSIES. 403 
 
 that of a Hindu robber-tribe on the Indus, from 
 wbom tliey are supposed to be descended — Tschin- 
 gcmi.^ 
 
 M. de Gobineau, who bas examined the condition 
 of the Gypsies of Persia, concludes that the whole 
 race are the descendants of the ancient peoples of 
 Bactriana and Aria, and that at length driven out 
 from their territories, they have settled in Persia, 
 among the numerous nomad races of that country. 
 
 These and all the other theories in regard to them, 
 do not seem, however, sufficiently well based to over- 
 balance the evidence of language, which places them 
 among the Aryan tribes of India, and their dialect 
 among the modern Sanskrit dialects. 
 
 In physique, the Gypsies are almost universally 
 alike — tawny in complexion, with black hair, quick 
 black eyes, high cheek-bones, slightly pro- 
 
 1 . T T ^ Physique. 
 
 jectmg lower jaw, narrow mouth, with fine 
 white teeth, and a figure remarkably lithe and agile. 
 In general, they are decidedly ugly in appearance, but 
 the writer has seen faces in Hungary which were very 
 pretty, and in Spain, they are said to show female 
 countenances and figures of wonderful beauty. In all 
 countries and climates, they have a peculiar prefer- 
 ence for red as a color of costume. 
 
 * The name Zincali, Zingari, or Zigeuner, is also derived by some 
 from Zingdneh, a Kurdish tribe of Gypsies. (See Zeit. f. Alg. Erd., p. 
 82, 1857.) 
 
404 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 The Gypsies, from their constant change of resi- 
 dence and their close intermarriage, show little effect 
 of climate on bodily traits. They present, however, 
 in the mountains of Antiochia, the blue eyes, which 
 for some unknown reason seem usually a feature of 
 the inhabitants of mountainous regions. 
 
 In mental and moral characteristics, this tribe are 
 notorious for almost every vice and meanness : the ex- 
 ceptions in their favor being their faithfulness to one 
 another, and in some countries, their personal chas- 
 tity, even while acting as panders for others. They 
 accept with indifference the religion of every country 
 in which they happen to be, where its profession will 
 bring them profit. Their language is said to contain 
 no words for God or Immortality — ^though for the 
 former a word has been adopted. 
 
 The Gypsy tongue shows phonetic elements identi- 
 cal with those of the Devanagari^ it has no neuter 
 gender nor dual number. There is no alpha- 
 bet to the language ; and the only literature 
 are some wild songs, repeated from mouth to mouth. 
 
 The number of Gypsies in Europe was estimated 
 in 1830, as about 700,000. The whole number of the 
 tribe has been supposed to be 5,000,000. It is be- 
 lieved that one small party only of this singular peo- 
 ple has ever reached America. 
 
PART EIGHTH. 
 
 GENERAL QUESTIONS IN ETHNOLOGT. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXH. 
 
 THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN.' 
 
 The object of tHs Treatise, it should be remem- 
 bered, has not been so much to investigate the origin 
 of races as to trace them as they appear in human 
 history. Still, in considering the subjects of the Unity 
 or Diversity of races, of the Formation of Yarieties, 
 and of the historical course of the different families of 
 man, the question of Time comes necessarily in view. 
 
 How long has the human family been upon this 
 earth ? — ^is the inquiry tliat constantly forces itself on 
 every student of Ethnology. And yet the search for 
 human origins, or the earliest historic and scientific 
 evidences of man on the earth, is but a groping in the 
 dark. 
 
 We turn to the Hebrew and the inspired records ; 
 
4:06 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 but we soon discover, that, thongli containing a pic- 
 ture unequalled for simplicity and dignity, of the 
 earliest experiences of the present family of man, they 
 are by no means a monument or relic of the most re- 
 mote period, but belong to a comparatively modern 
 date, and that the question of Time is not at all di- 
 rectly treated in them. 
 
 "We visit the region where poetry, and myth, and 
 tradition have placed a most ancient civilization — 
 Egypt, the Black-Land, the Land of the Nile: we 
 search its royal sepulchres, its manifold history written 
 in fiinereal records, in kingly genealogies, in inscrip- 
 tions and in the thousand relics preserved of domestic 
 life, whether in picture, sculpture or the embalmed 
 remains of the dead ; and we find ourselves thrown 
 back to a date far beyond any received date of history, 
 and still we have before us a ripened Civilization, an 
 Art which could not belong to the childhood of a race, 
 a language which (so far as we can judge) must have 
 needed centuries for its development, and the divisions 
 of human races, all as distinct as they are at the pres- 
 ent day. 
 
 "We traverse the regions to which both the com- 
 parison of languages and the Biblical records assign 
 the original birthplace of the leading races of men — 
 the country of the Euphrates and the plateau of East- 
 ern Asia. Buried kingdoms are revealed to us ; the 
 shadowy outliaes of magnificent cities appear which 
 
THE ANTIQUTTT OF MAN. 407 
 
 flourished and fell before recorded human liistory and 
 of which even Herodotus never heard; Art and 
 Science are unfolded, reaching far back into the past ; 
 the signs of luxury and splendor are uncovered from 
 the ruin of ages : but, remote as is the date of these 
 Hamitic and Semitic empires, almost equalling that 
 of the Flood in the ordinary system of chronology, 
 they cannot be near the origin of things, and a long 
 process of development must have passed ere they 
 reached the maturity in which they are revealed to us. 
 
 The Chinese records give us an antiquity and an 
 acknowledged date before the time of Abraham (if we 
 follow the received chronology), and even then their 
 language must have been, as it is now, distinct and 
 solidified, betraying to the scholar no certain affinity 
 with any other family of language. The Indian his- 
 tory, so long boasted of for its immense antiquity, is 
 without doubt the most modern of the ancient records, 
 and offers no certain date beyond 1800 b. c. 
 
 In Europe, the earliest evidences of man disclosed 
 by our investigations are even more vague and shad- 
 owy. Without, probably, antedating in time these 
 historical records of Asia, they reach back to a more 
 primitive and barbarous era. The earliest history of 
 Europe is not studied from inscription or manuscript, 
 or even monument ; it is not, like the Asiatic, a con- 
 scious work of a people leaving a memorial of itself to 
 a future age. It is rather, like the geological history, 
 
408 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 an unconscious gradual deposit left by the remains of 
 extinct and unknown races in the soil of the fields or 
 under the sediment of the waters. The earliest Euro- 
 pean barbarian, as he burned his canoe from a log, or 
 fabricated his necklace from a bone, or worked out his 
 knife from a flint, was in reality writing a history of 
 his race for distant days. 
 
 In tracing the various indications of man at an 
 early age in Europe, we find one of the first to be in 
 the Peat Deposits in Denmark. These deposits, 
 formed in hollows in the northern drift, are from ten 
 to thirty feet in thickness. From the remains of trees 
 found around them, and at various depths in them, as 
 well as from the human implements preserved by 
 the bog, Danish antiquaries and naturalists have dis- 
 covered that there were three periods of vegetation, 
 which in part corresponded with the human eras, pre- 
 viously mentioned. The early vegetation, long before 
 the historical period, was that of the Scotch fir ; this 
 was followed by the oak, and this by the forests of 
 beech which covered the Danish islands ia.the classical 
 period. The " Age of Stone " corresponded with that 
 of the fir, and in part, of the oak ; the " Age of 
 Bronze," mostly with the oak ; and that of Iron, with 
 the beech. Eighteen centuries have made but little 
 change in the beech-woods. How much time was 
 needed for the destruction and growth of each of these 
 new kinds of vegetation, cannot be certainly estima- 
 
PEAT-DEPOSITS. 409 
 
 ted ; but tlie miniinum of time required for the forma- 
 tion of the peat, say some authorities, is 4,000 years, 
 and "there is nothing," says Sir Charles Lyell, "in 
 the observed rate of the growth of peat, opposed to the 
 conclusion that the number of centuries may not have 
 been four times as great." (Antiquity of Man, p. 17.) 
 
 Another indication of their antiquity is found in 
 the changes which must have occurred during the 
 Stone-period in the physical geography of the Baltic. 
 The shells found in the heaps to be presently de- 
 scribed show that the oyster existed then in its full 
 size, in places where now it is excluded, owing to the 
 want of saltness of the water, and that various marine 
 univalves and bivalves were of their ordinary dimen- 
 sions, when in the ocean — the same shells being now 
 dwarfed by the quantity of fresh water poured by 
 rivers into the Baltic. The inference, of course, is 
 that the ocean had at that day more free access into 
 this inland sea than at present — ^perhaps communica- 
 ting through the Peninsula of Jutland. (Ant. of Man, 
 p. 13.) StilL here again, the time necessary for these 
 physical changes, as well as for those of the forest- 
 growths of the country, is entirely uncertain. 
 
 Still another evidence for human antiquity, is fur- 
 nished by the Kjoeekken moedding (Kitchen-leav- 
 ings). 
 
 For a long time, great heaps of sea-shells had been 
 observed on the Danish shores, which were thought to 
 18 
 
 ft 
 
410 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 sliow an ancient sea-level ; but on closer examination, 
 it was perceived that they bore marks of artificial 
 stratification. "With farther research, the bones of 
 various wild animals were discovered in them, some of 
 extinct species ; then flint implements were found, with 
 rough pottery, charcoal and cinders. There was never, 
 even in the largest heaps, the slightest trace of metal, 
 whether iron or bronze, nor were bones seen of any 
 domestic animal, except the dog. It finally became 
 clear that these were the "leavings" (or '■'"mid- 
 dmgSy^^ as the Yorkshiremen yet say) of primeval 
 oyster-suppers on the fiords and bays of the Baltic 
 and ifforth Sea, where some ancient people, living by 
 fishing and hunting, had held their feasts and left 
 their implements, and during the course of ages, had 
 deposited these immense heaps of refuse. 
 
 They evidently dated back to that remote period 
 when even bronze was nnknown in ^Northern Europe, 
 and their interest lay in the fact that they had re- 
 mained undisturbed for so many centuries, and thus 
 furnished true museums of antiquity, containing speci- 
 mens of the most ancient human irhplements, and of 
 an early fauna and flora. 
 
 These heaps, or Kitchen-middingSj were found 
 principally in Seeland, along the Isefiord, the islands 
 of Fyen, Moen, and Samsoe, and in Jutland. Similar 
 remains, no doubt from the same people, have been 
 discovered in Scania, Sweden, and now are beginning 
 
LAXE-DWELLINGS OF BWITZEELAND. 411 
 
 to be met with in Kortli Italy, especially on the bor- 
 ders of the Gulf of Genoa. 
 
 !No human bones have been discovered in these 
 mounds. The pottery is of the coarsest nature, made 
 by hand ; the flint implements are very rude, and dif- 
 ferent from those ordinarily foxmd in ancient Euro- 
 pean mounds, more like, says Mr. Worsaae, the imple- 
 ments which have been found in Abbeville, and near 
 Amiens, France. Bones, carved and worked, are fre- 
 quently picked up, and bones broken for marrow, for 
 which savage tribes have so remarkable a fondness. 
 
 The only clue to the date of these refuse-heaps, is 
 furnished by the remains of vegetation discovered in 
 them, which places them contemporaneously with the 
 fir-epoch, and the older part of the peat-deposit de- 
 scribed above — or probably at least 4,000 years since. 
 
 THE LAKE-DWELLINGS OP SWITZEELAND. 
 
 Some eight years ago, a remarkable dryness of 
 the waters in the Lake of Zurich, laid bare a portion 
 of its bottom, which was speedily secured for agricul- 
 tural purposes by means of dykes, and by mud thrown 
 up in dredging. In building the embankments and 
 dredging the shallow water, various remains were 
 found, which plainly indicated the exist- 
 
 ' ^ '' Pile-villages. 
 
 ence of a village in the lake, at some an- 
 cient date. It was discovered that some early tribes 
 
412 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOULD. 
 
 had constructed their village on piles in the water, 
 as, according to Herodotus, did the Paeonians of 
 Thrace, or as the Papuas of Kew Guinea and other 
 barbarous tribes do now. These discoveries aroused 
 the eager attention of learned men, and the lakes of 
 Italy, the French Jura, Savoy and Switzerland, were 
 carefully searched for similar relics. 
 
 In Switzerland alone, the remains of over 150 vil- 
 lages were discovered beneath the waters. These 
 early Europeans seem to have resorted to this very 
 natural method to escape the wild beasts or hostile 
 tribes, securing a safe refuge in these artificial islands, 
 whose only communication with the land must have 
 been by boat or bridge. 
 
 A mere glance of the eye, says an interesting -writer in the 
 Rev. des deux Mondes (transl. in Smithson. Eep., 1861), through 
 the transparent water, enables us to perceive piles in parallel 
 rows, or planted, it may be, without order. The charred beams 
 which are seen between the posts, recall the platform once 
 solidly constructed at a height of some feet above the waves. 
 The interlaced boughs, the fragments of clay hardened by fire, 
 evidently belonged to circular walls, and the conic roofs are 
 represented by some layers or beds of reeds, straw, and bark. 
 The stones of the fireplace have fallen just below the place which 
 they formerly occupied. The vessels of clay, the heaps of leaves 
 and of moss which served as beds for repose, the arms, the 
 trophies of the chase, the large stag-horns and skulls of wild 
 bulls which adorned the walls — all these different objects, min- 
 gled together in the mind, are nothing else but the ancient fur- 
 
LAKE-HABITATIONS. 413 
 
 niture of the habitations. B7 the side of the piles, we can still 
 distinguish remains of the hollowed trunks of trees which served 
 for canoes, and a range of posts indicates the pristine existence 
 of a bridge, which led from the threshold of the lacustrian dwell- 
 ing to the neighboring shore. Not only are we enabled to de- 
 termine from the number of piles, what were the dimensions of 
 the largest aquatic villages, composed generally of two or three 
 hundred cabins ; we can even measure, in some cases, the diam- 
 eter of the huts constructed so many ages ago. The fragments 
 of the coat of clay which lined them on the inside, show on their 
 convex face the marks of the interlaced boughs of the wall, 
 while their concave side is rounded into the arc of a circle ; by 
 calculating the radius of this arc, we find that the size of the 
 habitations varied from three to five metres (10 to 16 or 17 feet), 
 dimensions quite sufficient for a family which seeks in its dwell- 
 ing a simple shelter. 
 
 Athwart an interval of thirty or forty centuries, we can con- 
 ceive how picturesque an effect must have been produced by 
 this agglomeration of small huts, closely compacted together in 
 the midst of the waters. The shore was uninhabited ; a few 
 domestic animals alone fed in the grassy clearings ; great trees 
 spread their masses of verdure over all the slopes ; a deep silence 
 brooded in the forest. Upon the waters, on the contrary, all 
 was movement and clamor ; the smoke curled above the roofs ; 
 the populace bustled upon the platforms ; the canoes passed and 
 repassed from one group of dwellings to another, and from the 
 village to the shore; in the distance floated the boats which 
 served for fishing or for war. The water seemed then the real 
 domain of man. 
 
 It is in German Switzerland, that the oldest of 
 these lake-dweUings are found. Western and northern 
 
414 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 Switzerland shows populous villages in Lakes Keu- 
 chatel, Zurich, and Constance. M. Troyon, by meas- 
 uring the dimensions of each hut, and calculating the 
 number which could probably be sheltered in it, has 
 estimated the population of 51 of the oldest 
 
 Population. ^ n i » /^ 
 
 Villages — those of the Age of Stone — at 
 31,875 persons. In a single village, "Wangen, 40,000 
 piles are used. 
 
 These Swiss savages, simply using flint stones, 
 stone hatchets, bone implements and the firebrand, 
 felled the largest oaks, split them into flooring and 
 stakes, which were driven deep within the mud ; con- 
 structed canoes; trenched the main land to protect 
 their domestic animals ; ■ reared tumuli and monu- 
 ments ; hunted, fished, and carried on war ; and even 
 cultivated the ground. Among the relics discovered, 
 are immense numbers of stone hatchets, flint arrow- 
 heads, blades of silex, edged or toothed, serving as 
 knives and saws, stone hammers and anvils, bows of 
 yew, awls and needles of bone and fragments of pot- 
 tery, made by hand. Beside these, mats of hemp and 
 flax, and real cloth, with cords and cables made of 
 fibres and bark, fishing-nets, as well as small baskets. 
 Ornaments, too, are found hair pins of bone, bone 
 rings and bracelets, toys and quoits of stone. 
 
 They were a hunting people, as is shown by the 
 partly-devoured bones of the urus, the bison, the deer, 
 the elk, the roe, the chamois, ^nd wild birds. They 
 
LAKE-PEOPLES. 415 
 
 ate, also, tlie nuts of the pine and tlie beech, the wal- 
 nut and the raspberry. They were pastoral and agri- 
 cultural, rearing cattle, sheep, goats and swine, and 
 using the dog ; manufacturing cheese, cultivating the 
 apple, the pear and the plum, and storing their fruit 
 for the winter ; sowing barley and wheat, and making 
 bread. They either carried on a certain kind of com- 
 merce, or they obtained foreign articles by plunder, 
 such as silex from Gaul and Germany, yellow amber 
 from the Baltic, and nephrite from Asia. 
 
 In a large number of these villages, no trace of 
 metal has been met with, and they are accordingly 
 assigned to the "Stone Age." From the uometais 
 evidences furnished by the remains, it is *'^'"^' 
 supposed that a succeeding tribe or collection of tribes, 
 using implements of bronze, attacked these Lake- 
 dwellers, and in some cases burned their huts and 
 occupied their dwellings. 
 
 "With regard to the date of the earliest Swiss Lake- 
 peoples, all is dark. M. Troyon has resorted to the 
 following method of determining it : 
 
 Under the alluvial strata deposited by the torrents which, 
 discharge themselves into the Lakes of Geneva and Neuchatel, 
 there have been discovered numerous groups of piles, dating 
 evidently from the age of stone. An ancient Lacustrian site of 
 this epoch, is found near Villeneuve, at more than 450 metres 
 from the present shore of Lake Leman. There have been, also, 
 recognized traces of villages of the same age, on different points 
 
416 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 of the alluvial dieposits of tlie Neuchatel basin ; at the mouths 
 of the Mantua and the Reuse; in the midst of the marsh 
 of the Thiele ; and chiefly in the marshy valley of the Orbe, 
 which stretches to the south of the town of Yverdun. In order 
 to know the age of these piles buried under the deposits of allu- 
 vium, it suflSces to measure the distance which separates the 
 present bank from the ancient one, and to find between these 
 two concentric lines a given point, of which the age is known, 
 and which may furnish an approximate estimate of the rate of 
 progress of the aUuvium. This point exists in the valley of the 
 Orbe ; it is the site of the ruins of the ancient Gallo-Roman city 
 of Eburodunum. Between the down on which they rest, and 
 the lake, on the space partly occupied by the town of Yverdun, 
 there is found no vestige of Roman antiquities ; and we may 
 thence conclude that at the commencement of our era, the shore 
 of the lake approached much more nearly to the foot of the 
 down. Admitting that its waters bathed the walls of the cas- 
 trum Uburodunense, it would have required at least fifteen cen- 
 turies for the formation of the zone of 800 metres in extent, 
 which lies between the ruins and the shore ; but it is highly 
 probable that the retreat of the waters has not been so rapid, 
 for the Celtic name of Eburodunum testifies in favor of a more 
 ancient establishment than that of the Romans. However, if 
 we accept as a point of compaiison this datum of fifteen centu- 
 ries (evidently too little), we perceive that another period of 
 eighteen centuries must have been necessary for the fiUing up 
 of the space of 1,000 metres, which separates the down from the 
 ancient piles situated to the south, at the base of the hiUock of 
 Chamblon; thus we are carried back to the fifteenth century 
 before our era. At the latest, it was at this epoch, and, per- 
 haps, long before, that the lacustrian village of Chamblon, in- 
 vaded by the turf and the alluvium of the Orbe, must have been 
 
THE AIJTIQUITY OF MAN. 417 
 
 abandoned by its inhabitants. In order to arrive at the epoch 
 of the foundation, it is still necessary to ascend the course of 
 ages, and to add some centuries for the filling up of the strait 
 which separated the vUlage from the ancient shore, stUl easily 
 recognizable at ths foot of the isolated little hill. "While ac- 
 knowledging that these figures establish nothing absolutely, M. 
 Troyon is led to fix the construction of the lacustrian habitations 
 of Chamblon, by the primitive colonists of Helvetia, at two 
 thousand years before the Christian era. It might, perhaps, 
 be objected that the level of the lake may have sunk considera- 
 bly during the historic ages, and have left dry the marshy plain 
 of Yverdun; but the ancient shore is situated at exactly the 
 same height with the present shore. The level of the lake has, 
 therefore, remained the same during the last forty centuries of 
 history. (Des habitations Lacustres. M.. Troyon.) 
 
 Of anotter lake-village and its antiquity, Sir 
 Charles Lyell says : 
 
 The piles in question occur at the Pont de Thi61e, between 
 the Lakes of Bienne and Neufchatel. The old convent of St. 
 Jean, founded 750 years ago, and built originally on the margin 
 of the Lake of Bienne, is now at a considerable distance from the 
 shore, and affords a measure of the rate of the gain of land in 
 seven centuries and a half Assuming that a similar rate of the 
 conversion of water into marshy land prevailed antecedently, we 
 should require an addition of sixty centuries for the growth of 
 the morass intervening between the convent and the aquatic 
 dwelling of Pont de Thiele, in aU 6,750 years. (Ant. of Man, p. 
 29.) 
 
 Still another method of ascertaining the antiquity 
 of these early Swiss lake-tribes, is through an exami- 
 18* 
 
418 THE EACES OF THE OLD WORLD, 
 
 nation of the fauna and flora discovered under the 
 " palisade-buildings." Two species of cattle, belong- 
 Faunaand ^^S *^ *^® diluvial or drift era, are found 
 flora, — ^-^^ ^^^ jpriTrdgenius and B. trochoceros, 
 
 both tamed. Bones of eight species of our domestic 
 animals are met with : the dog, the hog, the horse, ass, 
 goat, sheep, and two bovine species ; of ten of fishes, 
 three of reptiles, seventeen of birds, and thirty-six of 
 mammals, l^o bones of chickens or cats are seen. 
 The dog, the horse and the donkey seem to have been 
 but little used. The same wild animals, which inhabit 
 Switzerland now, furnished game to the hunter then ; 
 the bear, the badger, the stone-marten, the tree-mar- 
 ten, the polecat, the ermine, the otter, the wolf, the 
 wildcat, the hedgehog, the squirrel, and the wood- 
 mouse ; besides these, the auerochs, the bison, the elk, 
 the chamois and the ibex. The fox was one-third 
 smaller then than he is now; the rat had not then 
 infested Europe. Three races of swine existed at that 
 day: the wild hog {Sus scrofa ferus) being much 
 larger than the present wild breeds. The gigantic 
 stag {Cervus elwphus) was the favorite food and game 
 of those early hunters. This animal, with the auer- 
 ochs {Bos primigenius\ had been contemporaries with 
 the rhinoceros of Europe, and the latter with the 
 gigantic mammoth {Elejphas antiquus) who wandered 
 through the forests of Germany and France. Both 
 the rhinoceros and the mammoth had disappeared 
 
THE AJ^TTIQUrrY OF MAN. 419 
 
 jfrom the neighborhood of the Swiss lakes, before 
 these palisade-builders laid their piles and founded 
 their huts. 
 
 The Jlora of those remote ages is not materially 
 different fi-om that of our own time. Wheat was evi- 
 dently their oldest cereal, and the grains are smaller 
 than those of the modem. Oats and rye have not 
 been discovered. The dwarf pine {P. maghus) grew 
 then in the lowlands, though it is found now alone in 
 elevated alpine regions. A few aquatic plants have, 
 since that age, retreated to the mountains. 
 
 The few human bones and skulls found, throw but 
 little light on the race or antiquity of the 
 
 M 1 •! 1 rrn /> t /» -I Human bones. 
 
 pile-bmlders. The fauna shows most oi the 
 species which belonged to the post-tertiary epoch, 
 which commenced with the mammoth, the rhinoceros, 
 the cave bear, and the fossil hyena. 
 
 Some of the larger ones, says Mr. Lubbock, have since fallen 
 away in the struggle for existence, and others are becoming 
 rarer and rarer every year, while some maintain themselves even 
 now, thanks only to the inaccessibility and inclemency of the 
 mountainous regions which they inhabit. The gradual process 
 of extermination, which has continued ever since, had, however, 
 even then begun. (Nat. Hist. Rev., p. 43. Jan., 1862.) 
 
 This fauna is distinguished then from the present 
 " by the possession of the urus, the bison, the elk, the 
 stag, and the wild boar, as well as by the more wide 
 distribution of the beaver, the bear, the wolf, the ibex, 
 
420 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 tte roe, &c.," and differs from that of the drift era, 
 " by the absence of the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the 
 cave bear, and the cave hyena." 
 
 The pile-builders must have arrived in Europe 
 since the glacier era, which probably gradually forced 
 Era of ^^® elephant and the rhinoceros into warmer 
 
 pi e-bui ers. ^jj^^^gg . qj^^ ii (j^Qve the marmot and the 
 
 reindeer into the Swiss lowlands " (Rutimeyer). They 
 are later too than the long period of inundations 
 which will be hereafter described — the diluvial age. 
 They belong to the received eras in human history, 
 and very probably, as Troyon supposes, may date 
 back at least 2,000 years before the birth of Christ. 
 
 Such, until recently, were the historic and scientific 
 evidences with regard to the antiquity of man. His 
 most venerable records, his most ancient dates of his- 
 toric chronology, were but of yesterday, when com- 
 improbabiiity pared with the age of existing species of 
 ™^°- plants and animals, or with the opening of 
 
 the present geologic era. Every new scientific in- 
 vestigation seemed, from its negative evidence, to 
 render more improbable the existence of the " Fossil 
 Man." It is true that in various parts of the world, 
 during the past few years, human bones have been 
 discovered in connection with the bones of the fossil 
 mammalia ; but they were generally found in caves or 
 in lime-deposits, where they might have been dropped 
 or swept in by currents of water, or inserted in more 
 
THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 421 
 
 modern periods, and yet covered with tlie same de- 
 posit as the more ancient relics. Geologists have 
 uniformly reasoned on the a priori improbability of 
 these being fossil bones, and have somewhat strained 
 the evidence — as some distinguished savcms * now be- 
 lieve — against the theory of a great human antiquity. 
 And yet the "negative evidence" against the exist- 
 ence of the Fossil Man was open to many doubts. The 
 records of geology are notoriously imperfect. We 
 probably read but a few leaves of a mighty library of 
 volumes. Moreover, the last ages preceding the pres- 
 ent period were witnesses of a series of changes and 
 slowly-acting agencies of destruction, from which man 
 may have in general escaped. We have reason to be- 
 lieve that during long periods of time, the land was 
 gradually elevated and subject to oscillations, so that 
 the courses of rivers and the beds of lakes were dis- 
 turbed and even the bottom of the ocean 
 
 Drift period. 
 
 was raised. The results were the inunda- 
 tion of some countries, and the pouring of great cur- 
 rents of water over others, wearing down the hills and 
 depositing in the course of ages the regular layers of 
 gravel, sand, and marl, which now cover so large a 
 part of Europe, f This was still further followed by 
 a period in which the temperature of the earth was 
 
 * Pictet and Lyell. 
 
 \ The following is, in a condensed form, the succession of the 
 changes (according to Lyell) in physical geography, just preceding the 
 
422 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD, 
 
 lowered, and ice and glaciers had perhaps a part in 
 forming the present surface of the northern hemi- 
 sphere. During this period, the "Post-Pliocene or 
 Diluvian Period," * the mighty animals lived whose 
 bones are now found in caverns, or under the slowly- 
 deposited sediment of the waters, or preserved in bog 
 — the mammoth, and rhinoceros, and elk, and bear, 
 and elephant, as well as many others of extinct species. 
 We may suppose, that, if man did exist during 
 these convulsions and inundations, his superior intelli- 
 V VI eence would enable him to escape the fate 
 
 Man probably D -t 
 
 escaping. ^^ ^j^^ auimals that were submerged ; or 
 that, if his few burial-places were invaded by the wa- 
 
 present order of things, in England and the adjacent areas. (1) A Con- 
 tinental Period, when the land was at least 500 feet above its present 
 level, perhaps much higher, filhng up the English channels and much of 
 the ocean near by. (2) A Period of submergence and of floating ice, 
 by which the land north of the Thames and the Bristol Channel and that 
 of Ireland was gradually reduced to an archipelago. (3) A second Con- 
 tinental Period, when the bed of the glacial sea, with its marine shells 
 and erratic blocks, was laid dry, and when the quantity of land equalled 
 that of the first period. During this period, glaciers in some parts of 
 Europe were in action. Near the close of this period was probably the 
 first appearance of man, who ranged from all parts of the continent into 
 the British area, at the same time with the woolly rhinoceros and the 
 mammoth. (4) The last change comprised the breaking up of the 
 land of the British area into numerous islands, ending in the present 
 order of things. 
 
 * We should bear in mind that the Quaternary or Diluvian Period, 
 however ancient in point of time, has no clearly distinguishing line of 
 separation from the present period. The great difference lies in the ex- 
 tinction of certain species of animals, which lived then, whose destruction 
 may be due both to gradual changes of climate and to man. — Pictet. 
 
THE ANTIQTJITT OF MAN. 4:23 
 
 ters, liis remains are now completely covered by ma- 
 rine deposits imder the ocean. If, however, in his 
 barbarian condition, he had fashioned implements of 
 any hard material, and especially if, as do the savages 
 of the present family of man, he had accidentally de- 
 posited them, or had buried them with the dead in 
 mighty mounds, the invading waters might well sweep 
 them together from their place and deposit them 
 almost in mass, in situations where the eddies should 
 leave their gravel and sand.* 
 
 Such seems in reality to have been the case; 
 though in regard to so important a fact in the history 
 of the world much caution must be exercised in ac- 
 cepting the evidence. We will state briefly the 
 proofs, as they now appear, of the existence of a race 
 of human beings on this earth in an immense anti- 
 quity. 
 
 A French gentleman, M. Boucher de Perthes, has 
 for thirty-four years been devoting his time and his 
 fortune, with rare perseverance, to the investigation 
 
 * Sir C. Lyell, in his remarks before the British Association in 1859, 
 said upon the discovery alluded to here: "I am reminded of a large 
 Indian mound which I saw in St. Simon's Island in Georgia, a mound ten 
 acres in area, and having an average height of five feet, chiefly com- 
 posed of cast-away oyster-shells, throughout which arrow-heads, stone 
 axes, and Indian pottery were dispersed. If the neighboring river, the 
 Altamaha, or the sea which is at hand, should invade, sweep away, and 
 stratify the contents of this mound, it might produce a very analogous 
 accumulation of human implements, unmixed, perhaps, with human 
 bones." — Athenaum, September 24, 1859. 
 
424: THE BACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 of certain antiquities in the later geological deposits 
 ^,. , . in tlie north of France. His first work, 
 
 France. « j^^g Antiquites Celtiques et Antedilu- 
 
 viennes," published iu 1847, was received with much 
 incredulity and opposition ; a second, under the same 
 title, in 1857, met with a scarce better reception, and 
 it was with the greatest difficulty that he could induce 
 even the savcms of his own country to look at the 
 mass of evidence he had collected on this subject. 
 
 He made the extraordinary claim to have discov- 
 ered a great quantity of rough implements of flint, 
 fashioned by art, in the undisturbed beds of clay, 
 gravel, and sand, known as drift, near Abbeville and 
 Amiens. These beds vary in thickness from ten to 
 twenty feet, and cover the chalk hills in the vicinity : 
 Geoiocricai ^ portious of them, upon the hills, often in 
 description, company with the flints, are discovered nu- 
 merous bones of the extinct mammalia, such as the 
 mammoth, the fossil rhinoceros, tiger, bear, hysena, 
 stag, ox, horse, and others. 
 
 The flint implements are found in the lowest beds 
 of gravel, just above the chalk, while above them are 
 sands with delicate fresh-water shells and beds of 
 brick-earth — all this, be it remembered, on table-lands 
 two hundred feet above the level of the sea, in a coun- 
 try whose level and face have remained unaltered 
 during any historical period with which we are ac- 
 quainted. 
 
THE AJSmQUITY OF MAN. 425 
 
 It must have required, says Sir Charles Lyell, a long period 
 for the wearing down of the chalk which supplied the broken 
 flints (stones) for the formation of so much gravel at various 
 heights, sometimes one hundred feet above the level of the 
 Somme, for the deposition of fine sediment, including entire 
 shells, both terrestrial and aquatic, and also for the denudation 
 which the entire mass of stratified drift has undergone, portions 
 having been swept away, so that what remains of it often ter- 
 minates abruptly in old river-cliffs, besides being covered by a 
 newer unstratified drift. To explain these changes, I should 
 infer considerable oscillations in the level of the land in that 
 part of France, slow movements of, upheaval and subsidence, 
 deranging, but not wholly displacing the course of ancient 
 rivers. 
 
 The President of the British Association, in his 
 opening speech at the meeting of 1860, affirms the 
 immense antiquity of these flint implements, and 
 remarks : 
 
 At Menchecourt, in the suburbs of Abbeville, a nearly entire 
 skeleton of the Siberian rhinoceros is said to have been taken 
 out about forty years ago — a fact affording an answer to the 
 question often raised, as to whether the bones of the extinct 
 mammalia could have been washed out of an older alluvium into 
 a newer one, and so redeposited and mingled with the relics of 
 human workmanship. Far-fetched as was this hypothesis, I am 
 informed that it would not, if granted, have seriously shaken 
 the proof of the high antiquity of human productions ; for that 
 proof is independent of organic evidence or fossil remains, and 
 is based on physical data. As was stated to us last year by Sir 
 Charles Lyell, we should still have to allow time for great de- 
 
426 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 nudation of the chalk, and the removal from place to place, and 
 the spreading out over the length and breadth of a large valley, 
 of heaps of chalk-flints in beds from ten to fifteen feet in thick- 
 ness, covered by loam and sands of equal thickness, these last 
 often tranquilly deposited — all of which operations would re- 
 quire the supposition of a great lapse of time. 
 
 Or in Lyell's own words : 
 
 Yet we by no means need the evidence of the ancient fossil 
 fauna to establish the antiquity of man in this part of France. 
 The mere volume of the drift at various heights, would alone 
 suffice to demonstrate a vast lapse of time during which such 
 heaps of shingle, derived both from the Eocene and the creta- 
 ceous rocks, were thrown down in a succession of river chan- 
 nels. We observe thousands of rounded and half-rounded flints, 
 and a vast number of angular ones, with rounded pieces of whit© 
 chalk of various sizes, testifying to a prodigious amount of me- 
 chanical action accompanying the repeated widening and deep- 
 ening of the valley, before it became the receptacle of peat; 
 and the position of many of the flint tools, leaves no doubt on 
 the mind of the geologist, that their fabrication preceded all this 
 reiterated denudation, (p. 144.) 
 
 An independent proof of tlie age of these gravel- 
 beds and the associated loam, containing fossil re- 
 mains, is derived by the same authority from the large 
 deposits of peat in the valley of the Somme, which 
 contain not only monuments of the Roman, 
 
 Peat deposits. -i -, c^ - -, -i 
 
 but also those oi an older, btone period, the 
 Finnic period; yet, says Lord "Wrottesley, "distin- 
 guished geologists are of opinion that the growth of 
 
THE ANTIQiriTY OF MAN. 427 
 
 all the vegetable matter, and even the original scoop- 
 ing out of the hollows containing it, are events long 
 posterior in date to the gravel with flint implements — 
 nay, posterior even to the formation of the uppermost 
 of the layers of loam with fresh-water shells overlaying 
 the gravel." 
 
 The number of the flint implements is computed 
 at above fourteen hundred, in an area of fourteen 
 miles in length and half a mile in breadth. They are 
 of the rudest nature, as if formed by a people in the 
 most degraded state of barbarism. Some are mere 
 flakes of flint, apparently used for knives or ^^^^^ 
 
 1 1 • I -I -1 • 1^1 implements. 
 
 arrow-heads; some are pomted and with 
 hollowed bases, as if for spear-heads, varying from four 
 to nine inches in length; some are almond-shaped, 
 with a cutting edge, from two to nine inches in length. 
 Others, again, are fashioned into coarse representations 
 of animals, such as the whale, saurian, boar, eagle, 
 fish, and even the human profile ; others have repre- 
 sentations of foliage upon them; others are either 
 drilled with holes or are cut with reference to natural 
 holes, so as to serve as stones for slings, or for amulets, 
 or for ornaments. The edges, in many cases, seem 
 formed by a great number of small artificial tij}s or 
 blows, and do not at all resemble edges made by a 
 great natural fracture. Yery few are found with pol- 
 ished surfaces like the modern remains in flint ; and 
 the whole workmanship differs from that of flint 
 
428 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 arrow-heads in other parts of Europe, as well as from 
 the later Finnish (or so called Keltic) remains, discov- 
 ered in such quantities in France.* The only relics 
 that have been found resembling them, are, according 
 to Mr. Worsaae, some flint arrow-heads and spear- 
 points discovered at great depths in the bogs of Den- 
 mark. A few bone knives and necklaces of bone have 
 been met with in these deposits, but thus far no 
 human bones. The people who fabricated these in- 
 struments, seemed to be a hunting and fishing people, 
 living in some such condition as the present savages 
 of Australia. 
 
 An hypothesis is advanced by Sir Charles Lyell 
 (page 141) that the flints were used by a succession of 
 savage tribes for centuries in cutting holes in the ice 
 of the river and fishing, and falling into these holes, 
 they were swept away with the gravel on the break- 
 ing up of the ice in the spring. 
 
 These discoveries of M. de Perthes at length 
 aroused the attention of English men of science, and 
 during 1859 a number of eminent gentlemen — among 
 them Sir Charles Lyell, Mr. Prestwich, Dr. Falconer, 
 
 * " It is a remarkable fact," says Wilson, "that the stone axe of the 
 South Sea Islander of the eighteenth century, presents a closer resem- 
 blance to that of the British or Gaulish fabrication of the first or earliest 
 centuries, and the modern flint lance or arrow-head of the red Indian 
 can scarcely be distinguished from that found in the most ancient British 
 graves, while no such correspondence is traceable between the latter and 
 the still older manufactured weapons in the underlying drift." (Pre-Hia- 
 toric Man, vol. 1, p. 265.) 
 
THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 429 
 
 and others — visited M. Perthes' collection, and saw 
 the flints in situ. They have avowed their conviction 
 of the genuineness and antiquity of these relics. 
 
 The objections that would naturally be made to 
 this evidence are, that the flints are purely natural 
 .formations, and not works of man, — that 
 
 ' Objections. 
 
 the deposit is alluvial and modern, rather 
 than of the ancient drift, — or that these implements 
 had been dropped into crevices, or simk from above, 
 in later periods. 
 
 The testimony of disinterested observers seems to 
 be sufficient as to the human contrivance manifest in 
 these flints ; and the concurrence of various scientific 
 men hardly leaves room for doubt that these deposits 
 are of great antiquity, preceding the time in which 
 the surface of France took its present form, and dating 
 back to the Post-Pliocene Period. Their horizontal 
 position, and the great depth at which the hatchets are 
 found, together with their number, and the peculiar 
 incrustation and discoloration of each one, as well as 
 their being in company with the bones of the extinct 
 mammalia, make it certain that they could not have 
 been dropped into fissures or sunk there in modern 
 times. In regard to the absence of human bones, it 
 should be remembered that no bones are Absence of 
 easily preserved, unless they are buried in "™'"^ 
 sediment or in bog ; and furthermore, that the extent 
 ' of the researches in these formations is very small 
 
430 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 indeed. Besides, the country where above all we 
 should expect the most of human remains in the drift- 
 deposits, as being probably the most ancient abode of 
 man — Asia — has been the least explored for such 
 purposes. 
 
 "We must also remember, in the words of Lyell, 
 that 
 
 Instead of its being part of the plan of nature to store up 
 enduring records of a large number of the individual plants and 
 animals which have lived on the surface, it seems to be her 
 chief care to provide the means of disencumbering the habitable 
 areas lying above and below the waters, of those myriads of solid 
 skeletons of animals, and those massive trunks of trees, which 
 would otherwise soon choke up every river, and fill every 
 valley. To prevent this inconvenience, she employs the heat 
 and moisture of the sun and atmosphere, the dissolving power 
 of carbonic and other acids, the grinding teeth and gastric juices 
 of quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and fish, and the agency of many 
 of the invertebrata. "We are all familiar with the efficacy of 
 these and other causes on the land ; and as to the bottoms of 
 seas, we have only to read the published reports of Mr. McAn- 
 drew, the late Edward Forbes, and other experienced dredgers, 
 who, while they failed utterly in drawing up from the deep a 
 single human bone, declared that they scarcely ever met with a 
 work of art even after counting tens of thousands of shells and 
 zoophytes, collected on a coast line of several hundred miles in 
 extent, where they often approached within less than half a 
 mile of a land peopled by millions of human beings, p. 146. 
 
 It should be borne in mind also, that it was not 
 
THE ANTIQUIXy OF MAN. 431 
 
 till 1855 tliat the bones of one animal, which must 
 have been very widely dispersed, the musk oniy few 
 buffalo, were found in the fossiliferous animals found. 
 gravel of the Thames, and not till 1860 that it 
 was proved to have coexisted in France with the 
 mammoth. 
 
 So (as is mentioned by Lyell) on the old bottom 
 of the Lake of Haarlem, now dry land — a tract con- 
 taining over 45,000 square acres — ^in the innumerable 
 trenches dug there, as well as in the great canal, some 
 thirty miles long, not a single human bone was found. 
 Yet hundreds of Dutch and Spanish sailors had been 
 drowned in the old lake, and a population of 30,000 or 
 40,000 had lived on its borders. 
 
 On this topic, Mr. Lubbock calls attention (iJ^at. 
 Hist. Hev., July, 1862) to the small number of 
 human bones found in the Danish "Eefiise heaps," 
 where a thousand times more worked flints are dis- 
 covered than in the French gravel deposits. In the 
 water-villages of the Swiss Lakes, M. Troyon esti- 
 mates the population in the " Stone Age " at 32,000 ; 
 in the " Bronze Age " at 42,000. In four lakes, the 
 remains of seventy villages were discovered, yet, ex- 
 cept a few bones of children, only jwe skeletons have 
 been found. At Concise, Lake iN'eufchatel, 24,000 
 flints were found, and not one skeleton. 
 
 It is also to be noticed, says Mr. Lubbock, that in 
 the drift at St. Acheul, no trace has ever been found 
 
432 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 of amy cmimal as small as ma/n : even tlie small bones 
 of large animals having all disappeared. 
 
 The chain of evidence in regard to this important 
 question seems to be filled out by a recent discovery* 
 of M. Edouard Lartet in Aurignac, in the south of 
 France, on the head-waters of the Garonne. The 
 weak point in M. de Perthes' discoveries was the 
 absence of human bones in the deposits investigated, 
 though this might have been accounted for by the 
 withdrawal of human beings from the floods of the 
 period. M. Lartet's investigations have fortunately 
 M Lartet'3 hccu couductcd in a spot which was above 
 discoveries. ^^ rcach of the ordinary inundations of the 
 Drift Period, and whither human beings might have 
 fled for refuge, or where they might have lived se- 
 curely during long spaces of time. 
 
 Some ten years since, in Aurignac (Haute Ga- 
 ronne), in the Arrondissement of St. Gaudens, near 
 the P}Tenees, a cavern was discovered in the nummu- 
 litic rock. It had been concealed by a heap of frag- 
 ments of rock and vegetable soil, gradually detached 
 and accumulated, probably l)y atmospheric agency. 
 In it were found the human remains, it was estima- 
 ted, of seventeen individuals, which were afterward bu- 
 ried formally by the order of the mayor of Aurignac, 
 though, unfortmiately, they were not examined by 
 
 * Ann. des Sc. Nat. 4me Serie, tome 15. Nat. Hist. Rev.* Jan. 
 
 1862, 
 
THE ANTIQTJTTY OP MAN. 433 
 
 any scientific person, and no conclusions could be de- 
 rived from them as to their race or development. 
 Along with the bones were discovered the teeth of 
 mammals, both carnivora and herbivora ; also certain 
 small perforated corals, such as were used by many 
 ancient peoples as beads, and similar to those gathered 
 in the deposits of Abbeville. The cave had appar- 
 ently served as a place of sacrifice and of burial. In 
 1860, M. Lartet visited the spot. In the layer of loose 
 earth at the bottom of the cave he found flint imple- 
 ments, worked portions of a reindeer's horn, mammal 
 bones, and human bones in a remarkable state of pres- 
 ervation. In a lower layer of charcoal and ashes, 
 indicating the presence of man and some ancient fire- 
 place or hearth, the bones of the animals were 
 scratched and indented as though by implements em- 
 ployed to remove the flesh; almost every bone was 
 broken, as if to extract the marrow, as is done by 
 many modern tribes of savages. 
 
 In this deposit, M. Lartet picked up many human 
 implements, such as bone knives, flattened circular 
 stones, supposed to have been used for sharpening flint 
 knives, perforated sling-stones, many arrow-heads and 
 spear-heads, flint knives, a bodkin made of a roebuck's 
 horn, various implements of reindeer's horn, and teeth 
 beads, from the teeth of the great fossil bear ^„jn,a, 
 ( TJr8U8 spelcBus). Remains were also found '■®™"°^- 
 of nine diflferent species of carnivora, such as tlie 
 19 
 
434 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 fossil bear, the hyaena, cat, wolf, fox, and others, and 
 of twelve of herbivora, such as the fossil elephant, the 
 rhinoceros, the great stag {Cervus elephas), the Eu- 
 ropean bison (aurochs), horse, and others. The most 
 common were the aurochs, the reindeer, and the fox. 
 How savages, armed only with flint implements, could 
 have captured these gigantic animals, is somewhat 
 mysterious; but, as M. Lartet suggests, they may 
 have snared many of them, or have overwhelmed sin- 
 gle monsters with innumerable arrows and spears, as 
 Livingstone describes the slaying of the elephant by 
 the negroes at the present day. 
 
 With reference to the mode in which these re- 
 mains were brought to this place, M. Lartet remarks : 
 
 The fragmentary condition of the bones of certain animals, 
 the mode in which, they are broken, the marks of the teeth of 
 the hyaena on bones, necessarily broken in their recent condition, 
 even the distribution of the bones and their significant conse- 
 cration, lead to the conclusion that the presence of these animals 
 and the deposit of all these remains are due solely to human 
 agency. Neither the inclination of the ground nor the sur- 
 rounding hydrographical conditions allow us to suppose that the 
 remains could have been brought where they are found by 
 natural causes. 
 
 The conclusion, then, in palaeontology, which 
 would be drawn from these facts, is, that man must 
 have existed in Europe at the same time with the 
 fossil elephant and rhinoceros, the gigantic hyaena, 
 
THE ANTIQUITY OF MAIf. 435 
 
 the auroclis, and the elk, and even the cave-bear. 
 This latter animal is thought by many to ., . ,^ 
 
 G J J Man in the 
 
 have disappeared in the very opening of the ^'^'•p^"*'^- 
 Post-Pliocene Period ; so that this cave would — judg- 
 ing from the remains of that animal — ^have been prior 
 to the long period of inundations in which the drift- 
 deposits of Abbeville and Amiens were made. The 
 drift which fills the valleys of the Pyrenees has not, it 
 is evident, touched this elevated spot in Aurignac. 
 
 In chronology, all that is proved by these discov- 
 eries of M. Lartet, is, that the fossil animals mentioned 
 above and man were contemporaries on the earth. 
 The age of each must be determined inferentially by 
 comparing the age of strata in which these animals 
 are usually found, with the age in which the most 
 ancient traces of man are discovered — such as the de- 
 posits already described in the North of France. 
 
 Of the moral conclusions to be derived from these 
 facts, Lyell beautifully says : 
 
 If the fossil memorials have been correctly interpreted — if 
 ■we have here before ns at the northern base of the Pyrenees, a 
 sepulchral vault with skeletons of human beings, consigned by 
 friends and relatives to their last resting-place — if we have also 
 at the portal of the tomb the relics of funeral feasts, and within 
 it, indications of viands destined for the use of the departed on 
 their way to a land of spirits ; while among the funeral gifts are 
 weapons wherewith in other fields to chase the gigantic deer, 
 the cave-lion, the cave-bear, and woolly rhinoceros— we have 
 
436 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 at last succeeded in tracing back the sacred rites of burial, and, 
 more interesting still, a belief in a future state, to times long 
 anterior to those of history and tradition, (p. 192.) 
 
 M. Delanoue, in a pampHet addressed to the Min- 
 ister of Public Instruction (Feb. 1862), describes mi- 
 nutely the geological deposits at St. Acheul (near 
 Amiens), in which large numbers of these flint imple- 
 ments have been found along with the bones of fossil 
 animals. They are evidently, even more than those 
 of Abbeville, removed beyond the suspicion of mod- 
 Acheui ^^^ deposit or the possibility of disturbance 
 
 eposits. 1^^ interference. The objects found are in 
 the very bottom of the drift, beneath at least three 
 separate deposits, the fresh-water gravel {gravier la- 
 custre), with delicate shells, the reddish drift {dilu- 
 mum rougedtre), with fragments of rounded silex, and 
 the loess or brick earth, with the modern vegetable 
 soil above.* 
 
 Similar discoveries on a smaller scale are recorded 
 by Mr. Prestwich in Suffolk, England, and in Devon- 
 shire. Professor Pictet, the celebrated geologist, who 
 also gives his adhesion to the discoveries of M. de 
 Perthes, states that the cave-evidence has by no means 
 been sufficiently valued by geologists. Under the im- 
 
 * M. Delanoue mentions that in 1860, M. Alb. Gaudry found nine of 
 these flint weapons in situ. M. Elie Petit discovered an elephant's tooth 
 and a flint hatchet in the drift deposit at Precy sur Oise. M. Buvignier 
 has made a similar discovery at Giory, M. Gosse at Grenelle, and MM. 
 Lartet and CoUomb at Chichy. 
 
THE A2TnQmTY OF MAN. 437 
 
 pulse of the new discoveries, the caves have been more 
 closely searched in different countries, and the follow- 
 ing are some of the most important results as detailed 
 by Lyell. 
 
 In a cavern at Arcy sur Yonne, a series of deposits 
 have been discovered by the Marquis de ^ave 
 Yibraye, with human bones and remains of ®'^''^®°°®- 
 quadrupeds of extinct and recent species, such as the 
 mammoth, the rhinoceros, the cave-bear, and others. 
 
 In Zong Sole, South "Wales, in 1861, the remains 
 of two species of fossil rhinoceros were found in an 
 undisturbed deposit, in the lower part of which were 
 well-shaped ffint knives, showing clearly that man 
 must have been coeval with these animals. 
 
 In a Zi^ge ccmern near the Meuse, Sir Charles 
 Lyell and Prof. Malone found the bones and teeth of 
 the cave-bear, and afterward the latter gentleman 
 excavated from a depth of two feet below a crust of 
 stalagmite, three fragments of a human skull, and two 
 perfect lower jaws with the teeth, all associated with 
 bones of fossil mammalia, in such a manner as to leave 
 no doubt that man was contemporaneous with them. 
 
 Neanderthal skull. A very remarkable skull with 
 a portion of the skeleton has been found in a cave in 
 Neanderthal, near Diisseldorf. Though it is probably 
 of very great antiquity, yet the evidence is not de- 
 cisive. It is the most ape-like skull ever discovered, 
 and belongs to a man of very low brain-development 
 
438 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 and immense strength of bodily frame. As but a 
 single skull of tbis extraordinary type has been found 
 it may have been an abnormal instance — ^tbe skull of 
 a cretin or an idiot. To disturb any confident conclu- 
 sions as to "progressive development," during tbe 
 vast period since these deposits, another skuU discov- 
 ered by Dr. Schmerliug, ia a Liege cavern, imbedded 
 with the remains of the elephant, rhinoceros, bear, 
 hyaena and other extinct quadrupeds, and probably 
 more ancient still, is of a high Aryan type. 
 
 Brixha/m cave. The following were the deposits : 
 (1) At the top a layer of stalagmite, varying in thick- 
 ness from one to fifteen inches, and which sometimes 
 contained bones, such as reindeer's horns, and an 
 entire humerus of the cave-bear. (2) Loam or bone- 
 earth, of an ochreous or red color, from one to fifteen 
 feet thick. (3) At the bottom, gravel, with many 
 rounded pebbles, probed as far as twenty feet. The 
 bones at the top were those of the mammoth, rhino- 
 ceros, hysena, cave-lion, reindeer, and others. I^o 
 human bones were found there, but many flint knives, 
 chiefly from the lowest part of the bone-earth — in one 
 instance with a bone of the cave-bear in the overlying 
 stalagmite, and another entire left hind-leg in close 
 proximity to a perfect flint tool. It is clear, says Sir 
 C. Lyell (page 101), that the bear lived after the flint 
 tools were manufactured ; or in other words that man 
 in this district preceded the cave-bear. 
 
THE AJSTTIQUTrY OF UAS. 439 
 
 Other instances might be given of human bones 
 and implements found in ancient deposits, but these 
 are the strongest and are sufficient for the purpose. 
 For a more full and scientific statement of the subject, 
 we refer the reader to the recent valuable work of that 
 most careful and philosophical geologist, Sir Chables 
 Lyell. 
 
 The conclusion from all these discoveries — ^the 
 most important scientific discoveries relating to human 
 history, of modern times — ^is, that ages ago, in the 
 period of the extinct mammoth and the fossil bear, 
 perhaps before the Channel separated England from 
 France, a race of barbarian human beings lived on the 
 soil of Europe, capable of fabricating rough 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 implements. The evidence has been care- 
 fully weighed by impartial and experienced men, and 
 thus far it seems complete. 
 
 The mind is lost in astonishment, in looking back 
 at such a vast antiquity of human beings. A tribe of 
 men in existence hundreds of thousands of years before 
 any of the received dates of Creation ! savages who 
 hunted, with their flint-headed arrows, the gigantic 
 elk of Ireland and the bufialo of Germany, or who 
 fled from the fierce tiger of France, or who trapped 
 the immense clumsy mammoth of JSTorthern Europe. 
 Who were they ? we ask ourselves in wonder. Was 
 there with man, as with other forms of animal life, a 
 long and gradual progression from the lowest condi- 
 
440 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 tion to a liiglier, till at lengtli the world was made 
 ready for a more developed human being, and the 
 Creator placed the first of the present family of man 
 upon the earth ? Were those European barbarians of 
 the Drift Period a primeval race, destroyed before the 
 creation of our own race, and lower and more barba- 
 rian than the lowest of the present inhabitants of the 
 world? or, as seems more probable, were these mys- 
 terious beings — ^the hunters of the mammoth and the 
 aurochs — the earliest progenitors of our own family, 
 the childish fathers of the human race ? 
 
 The subject hardly yet admits of an exact and 
 scientific answer. We can merely here state the 
 probability of a vast antiquity to human beings, and 
 of the existence of the Fossil or PRE-ADAMrnc Man.* 
 
 As says Sir Thomas Browne : 
 
 The greater part must be content to be as though they had 
 not been : to be found in the register of God, not in the records 
 of men. The number of the dead long exceedeth all that shall 
 live. The Night of Time far surpasseth the Day, and who 
 kno"weth the Equinox ? 
 
 * A portion of the above Chapter was published by the author in the 
 December "Atlantic," 1862. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 UNITY OK DIVEKSITT OF ORIGIN. 
 
 In considering the great question of a Treatise of 
 Ethnology — that of the Unity of Origin of the dif- 
 ferent races of men — it is important to disentangle 
 from it any irrelevant matters. The inferiority or 
 superiority of a given race, the questions of i„eievant 
 justice to the weak, and of Human Brother- *°^^*'*' 
 hood, have no connection whatever with the scientific 
 problem of Origin. The strong are equally bound to 
 be merciful to the weak: men are equally under 
 obligations to follow the Law of Love, and Slavery is 
 equally wicked and damnable, whether mankind have 
 one parent or twenty parents. The moral Brother- 
 hood of man does not depend on community of de- 
 scent, but on a common nature, a similar destiny, and 
 a like relation to their common Father — God. The 
 subject is purely scientific. 
 
 N'or is it well, in discussing it, to dispute on the 
 term. Species. Whatever be the idea attached to this 
 19* 
 
442 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 mucli-debated word, wo can still consider separately 
 the fact or the presumption, of many origins or of one 
 origin to mankind. 
 
 It must he remembered also, that this question 
 cannot he settled by absolute demonstration on one 
 side or the other. Like all similar subjects, it must 
 be determined by a nice balancing or a gradual accu- 
 mulation of probabilities. So far forth as the peculiar 
 source of evidence is concerned, which has been ex- 
 amined in this Treatise — Language — ^there is no doubt 
 Language not that it has uot vvoved Unity of Origin, 
 
 proving 
 
 i°"y- though pointing toward it.^ Classification 
 
 by language, though the best that can be made, is still 
 far from perfect. Many tribes of men speak tongues 
 that are scarcely known ; many languages have never 
 been thoroughly and scholastically investigated ; and 
 
 * The great advocate of diversity of origin in languages, M. Renan, 
 admits (L'origine des Langues, p. 212) that " the soft and impressionable 
 constitution of the infant-man permitted combinations become impossible 
 since human nature has contracted, in growing old, a sort of stiffness. 
 
 "The question of the original independence of different groups of 
 languages is not then as simple as it appeared at first. It admits de- 
 grees : families of language, apparently isolated, have been able to have 
 fruitful contacts at an epoch when they were yet susceptible of re-form- 
 ing themselves. One cannot too carefully distinguish, when there is a 
 question of languages, the embryonic state, during which accidents, in- 
 different to the mature age, could have had a capital importance, from 
 the perfect state where they are fixed, so to speak, into a definite mould. 
 The embryonic state of languages could have lasted very little time, but 
 it has existed, and at that moment, in which was formed the individuality 
 of races, human nature still flexible, ought to have received for eternity, 
 profound traces." 
 
UNITY OK DIVEKSITY OF OEIGIN. 443 
 
 study and experience are yearly improving the meth- 
 ods of investigation for those that are known. 
 
 As to the gaps between languages, Lyell has well 
 remarked : 
 
 We must remember tliat it is not part of the plan of any 
 people to preserve memorials of their forms of speech expressly 
 for the edification of posterity. Their MSS. and inscriptions 
 serve some present purpose, are occasional and imperfect from 
 the first, and are rendered more fragmentary in the course of 
 time, some being intentionally destroyed, others lost by the de- 
 cay of the perishable materials on which they are -written ; so 
 that to question the theory of all known languages being deriva- 
 tive on the ground that we can rarely trace a passage from the 
 ancient to the modern through all the dialects which must have 
 flourished, one after the other, in the intermediate ages, implies 
 a want of reflection on the laws which govern the recording as 
 well as the obliterating processes, (p. 461.) 
 
 Still farther he remarks : 
 
 But another important question still remains to be con- 
 sidered, namely, whether the trifling changes that can alone be 
 witnessed by a single generation, can possibly represent the 
 working of that machinery which, in the course of many centu- 
 ries, has given rise to such mighty revolutions in the forms of 
 speech throughout the world. Every one may have noticed in 
 his own lifetime the stealing in of some slight alterations of 
 accent, pronunciation, or spelling, or the introduction of some 
 words borrowed from a foreign language to express ideas of 
 which no native term precisely conveyed the import. He may 
 also remember hearing for the first time some cant terms or 
 
4:4:4: THE KACES OF THE OLD "WOKLD. 
 
 slang phrases, which have since forced their way into common 
 use, in spite of the efforts of the purist. But he may still con- 
 tend that, " within the range of his experience," his language 
 has continued unchanged, and he may believe in its immutability 
 in spite of minor variations. The real question, however, at 
 issue is, whether there are any limits to this variability. He 
 will find on further investigation, that new technical terms are 
 coined almost daily in various arts, sciences, professions, and 
 trades, that new names must be found for new inventions, that 
 many of these acquire a metaphorical sense, and then make their 
 way into general circulation, as "stereotyped," for instance, 
 which would have been as meaningless to the men of the seven- 
 teenth century as would the new terms and images derived from 
 steamboat and railway travelling to the men of the eighteenth. 
 (Ant. of Man, p. 462.) 
 
 Witli regard to the borrowing of words, he adds : 
 
 Proofs also of borrowing are discernible, letters being re- 
 tained in the spelling of some words which have no longer any 
 meaning as they are now pronounced, no connection with any 
 corresponding sounds. Such redundant or silent letters, once 
 useful in the parent speech, have been aptly compared, by Mr. 
 Darwin, to rudimentary organs in living beings, which, as he 
 interprets them, have at some former period been more fully 
 developed, having had their proper functions to perform in the 
 organization of a remote progenitor, (p. 465.) 
 
 In the two great families of language, the Semitic 
 and Indo-European, and in the more comprehensive 
 group, the Turanian, as well as in the Chinese and 
 monosyllabic family, there is no absolute proof es- 
 
tTNITT OR DIVEK8ITT OF OKIGIIf. M5 
 
 tablished, as yet, of their common source ; yet there 
 are indications — gradations and links of connection 
 which would make the hypothesis of one origin for 
 all, not improbable, provided there were more of these 
 gradations hereafter discovered. Adopting ^.^^^ ^^ 
 the theory that languages gradually develop bXf "**° 
 from the monosyllabic condition to the 
 agglutinative, and then to the inflectional, there are 
 links of connection believed to be discovered between 
 the families representing these various stages of 
 growth. 
 
 In Chinese, says Mtiller (Sc. of Lang.), and particularly in 
 Chinese dialects, we find rudimentary traces of agglutination. 
 The li which I mentioned before as the sign of the locative, has 
 dwindled down to a mere post-position, and a modern Chinese 
 is no more aware that li meant, originally, interior, than the 
 Turanian is of the origin of his case-terminations. In the 
 spoken dialects of Cliinese, agglutinative forms are of more fre- 
 quent occurrence. * * * M. Stanislas Julian remarks that 
 the numerous compounds which occur in Chinese prove the 
 widespread influence of the principle of agglutination in that 
 language.* (p. 329, Amer. Edit.) 
 
 One agglutinative language — the Mandchu — ^has 
 
 * If Lepsius's theory should be verified that Chinese was originally a 
 polysyllabic language, since degraded to a monosyllabic, this instance 
 adduced by Muller would be undoubtedly weakened in its force. Lep- 
 eius, however, admits the probability of a growth from monosyllabism to 
 the agglutinative stage in human language. (See Abhand. d. Kon. 
 Akad., Berlin, 1860.) Lepsius, etcet. 
 
446 THE EA0E8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 scarcely a richer grammar than the Chinese, and pre- 
 sents many words without distinctive termination 
 which can be used as various parts of speech. The 
 Instance of conditioH of the Mongol language may be 
 
 growth in 
 
 Mongol. looked upon as a living evidence of the 
 growth of a tongue from a low condition, approaching 
 monosyllabism, to one of agglutination. 
 
 Castren states — as we have mentioned before — 
 that while the literary language shows no pronom- 
 inal affixes, whether subjective or predicative, that 
 feature has just begun to appear in the spoken dia- 
 lects. 
 
 The hypothesis that Chinese was arrested by some 
 unknown influence and fixed in a primitive state, from 
 which its sister tongues escaped, is not an incredible 
 one. 
 
 The change or gradation from the agglutinative to 
 the inflectional, is believed to be seen in various lan- 
 changefrom g^agcs. Thus, says Miillcr, "Such has 
 agg utinative. ^^^^^ ^|^g advauco that the Turkish has 
 
 made toward inflectional forms, that Professor Ewald 
 claims for it the title of a synthetic language, a title 
 which he gives to the Aryan and Semitic dialects, 
 after they have left the agglutinative stage and en- 
 tered into a process of phonetic corruption and disso- 
 lution. 'Many of the compouent parts,' he says, 
 ' though they were originally, no doubt, as in every 
 language, independent words, have been reduced to 
 
UNITY OE DIVEKSITT OF OKIGIN, 447 
 
 mere vowels or have been lost altogether.' * * * 
 Kaj, he goes so far as to admit some formal elements 
 which Turkish shares in common with the Aryan 
 family, and which could therefore only date from a 
 period when both were in their agglutinative in- 
 fancy." 
 
 Castren states that the language of the Samoieds, 
 shows such a great development of the principle of 
 agglutination, as to approach the flexion of the Aryan 
 tongues, and possibly to form the link of connection 
 between the one family and the other. 
 
 There is every reason to believe that eventually 
 the roots of the Semitic and the Aryan languages will 
 be demonstrated to be from one source, while there 
 are abeady discovered many remarkable coincidences 
 between the Turanian roots and those of these two 
 families. 
 
 The question is thus carefully summed up by 
 Miiller. 
 
 (I) Nothing necessitates the admission of diflferent independ- 
 ent beginnings for the material elements of the Turanian, Se- 
 mitic, and Aryan branches ;— nay, it is possible even now to 
 point out radicals, which under various changes and disguises, 
 have been current in these three branches, ever Mailer's 
 since their first separation. (II) Nothing necessi- s"™™»ns'^P- 
 tates the admission of diflferent beginnings for the formal 
 elements of the Turanian, Semitic, and Aryan branches of 
 speech ; and though it is impossible to derive the Aryan system 
 of grammar from the Semitic, or the Semitic from the Aryan, 
 
448 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 ■we can perfectly understand how, either through individual in- 
 fluences or by the wear and tear of speech in its own continuous 
 working, the different systems of grammar of Asia and Europe 
 may have been produced. (Sc. of Lang., p. 34:0.) 
 
 Indirectly, Language, as running its line of evi- 
 dence for community of descent right across tlie Unes 
 of physiological divisions, has done very much to 
 render unity of origin probable. 
 
 "We believe that under the new lights furnished by 
 Science during the last few years, this question can be 
 investigated to far better advantage and with more 
 probability of a conclusion than ever before. 
 
 There are two great facts or laws applying to all 
 organic nature, which must be thoughtfiilly consid- 
 ered in the very outset of this investigation — one, the 
 Lam of Inheritance^ or the principle that the offspring 
 shall inherit the characteristics of the parent, which 
 Principles of Hcs at the basis of the permanence of type 
 
 Inheritance 
 
 and Variation, and of many other important facts in na- 
 ture; and the other, the Law of Variation, or the 
 tendency in the offspring to differ from the parents 
 and from one another, whether as an effect of external 
 influences or from some power in the organism itself.* 
 
 * Compare Isidore St. Hilaire, Hist, des r^gnes organiques, vol. 2, 
 p. 431. 
 
 " Dans 06 dernier cas (i. e., a change of surrounding circumstances,) 
 les caracteres nouveaux de I'espece, eont, pour ainsi dire, la resultante 
 de deux forces contraires : I'une, modificatrice, est I'influence des nou- 
 velles circonstances ambiantes; I'autre, conservairice du type, est la 
 
UNITY OB DIVEESITY OF OEIGIN. 449 
 
 The latter secures idiosyncrasy and variety in nature, 
 as the former gives stability and order. It should be 
 remembered, that though we cannot give an explana- 
 tion of Yariation in every particular instance, it is 
 none the less an effect of laws, and is far removed 
 fi-om accident or chance. 
 
 Thus far, at least, we can see, that the offspring, 
 combining to a degree the qualities of both its parents, 
 must present a result different from either ; if we add 
 to this the influence of external circumstances which 
 must, for every newly organized being, be somewhat 
 different than for its parent, we shall see some cause 
 for each generation presenting a slightly new combina- 
 tion of characteristics. When Yariation has once be- 
 gun, and the offspring is produced with a slightly differ- 
 ent peculiarity (why, we may not be able to tell), its 
 offspring again is acted upon through the principle of 
 Inheritance, by what we may figuratively describe as 
 two forces — one, the tendency to resemble its own par- 
 ent, and the other, that to resemble all its Two forces 
 
 ■»«- -r-TM -IT 11 • n 1 acting on each 
 
 ancestors. JML. ViLmorm has well caUed life-germ. 
 this latter, " an aggregation of forces, composed of the 
 individual attraction of a series of ancestors," which is 
 the attraction of the type of the species, and generally 
 determines the result. But the attraction to its own 
 immediate parent, though less powerful than that to 
 
 tendance hereditaire a reproduire des memes caractferes de generation 
 en generation." 
 
450 THE KACE3 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 its ancestry, is more close, and tends to give the off- 
 spring all the parental characteristics. So, says Dr. 
 A. Gray, " when the parent has no salient individual 
 characteristics, both the longer and shorter lines of 
 force are parallel and combine to produce the same 
 result. But whenever the immediate parent deviates 
 from the type, its influence upon its offspring is no 
 longer parallel with that of the ancestry ; so the ten- 
 dency of the offspring to vary no longer radiates 
 around the type of the species, as its centre, but 
 around some point upon the line, which represents the 
 amount of its deviation from the type." "" 
 
 The variations — though we may not be able to ex- 
 plain their origin, whether from external influences 
 on the germ-cell, on the foetus, or the growing organ- 
 Naturai ^^"^ — ^^® pcrpctuated according as they are 
 se ection. ^^ advantage to the possessor, enabling it to 
 gain more nourishment or to resist better destruc- 
 tive influences, while those destitute of these advan- 
 tages, perish. 
 
 It will be seen from these brief statements, why, 
 at a certain period, there may be numerous variations 
 in a given stock, and afterward, these varieties 
 become (historically) permanent. 
 
 It is well known that with plants, a new variety 
 Phenomenon ^^uds to sport, or as it Were to play off into 
 of sporting. ^^^ deviations. It is "loosed as it were 
 from the ancestral influence, which no longer acts 
 
UNITY OE DIVERSITY OF OEIGm. 451 
 
 upon a straight and continuous line, but upon one 
 broken and interrupted by the opposing action of the 
 immediate parents and grandparents." ' 
 
 I^ow in nature, suppose a family of animals re- 
 moved by some accident to a different climate and 
 feeding-ground than those to which they are accus- 
 tomed : as for instance, a flock of sheep from Europe 
 to South America. Some of the lambs are born, we 
 know not why, with a little hair instead of wool. In 
 other countries, this variety would have had no more 
 chance for surviving than any other variety ; perhaps 
 less, as it would be more exposed to the cold. But 
 here, the slight advantage of the hair may give the 
 lamb a better power of enduring the heat, and so this 
 variety be perpetuated, and its descendants, being 
 "loosed from the attraction" toward its ancestors, 
 may show various singular deviations, until formation of 
 at last a new type is formed — still a sheep, ^^^'^'^^^^^y- 
 according to the Law of Inheritance, but a new variety 
 of sheep — fitted the best to procure food and to resist 
 destructive agencies in its new circumstances. 
 
 So, again, suppose swine introduced from Europe 
 to South America. If turned out to become wild, the 
 pigs, which from some chance are born with a slight 
 peculiarity — as longer teeth or more erect ear or 
 more solid hoof or blacker color — which peculiarity 
 may be an advantage in escaping the hunters, or in 
 rooting for food, or destroying their enemies, will 
 
452 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 naturally have the best chance of living and propa- 
 gating, and their offspring again, so far as they possess 
 these advantages, will be perpetuated, and these sin- 
 gularly marked hogs, with tusks or erect ears or solid 
 hoofs or black color, may become varieties (or even 
 species). They may deviate even more singularly, 
 having once begun to vary from their ancestors, and 
 the only limits may be in the force of the Law of In- 
 heritance, and in the adaptation of the new varieties 
 to their new circumstances. 
 
 It will be possible also that these wild hogs, if after 
 a long course of time re-transplanted to other coun- 
 tries and climates, may still show their acquired prop- 
 erties as permanent characteristics, for the Law of In- 
 heritance will then be in favor of their preserving 
 their new type, as all their more recent ancestors have 
 belonged to this type. But then again, in the still 
 new circumstances (if sufficient time be given), yet 
 another new type may be formed. 
 
 We need not say that these instances are in the 
 main, not supposed cases, but facts. 
 
 Our argument then, as applied to man, will be : 
 (I) that a priori we should expect man to vary ; (II) 
 that he presents no greater varieties than do animals 
 who are known to be of one origin; (III) that the 
 statement of J^^mbers of a well marked race of men 
 the argument, ^j^g-gj. amoug themsclves as much as some of 
 
 the various races differ from one another ; (lY) that 
 
UNTTT OK DIVERSITY OF OKIGIN. 453 
 
 the phenomena of acclimation and of crossing of races 
 are in favor of the presumption of unity, and (V) that 
 under the principles abeady stated, of Inheritance and 
 Variation, with the element of sufficient Time added, 
 we can more satisfactorily account for the present 
 varieties of man, on the hypothesis of a common 
 origin than on any other hypothesis. 
 
 I. Without being able to account for the fact that 
 the offspring differs from its parent, we can have no 
 doubt that external influences act upon the living 
 principle of the germ, and this again reacts upon its 
 circumstances. If farther, we suppose this Probability 
 
 of human 
 
 germ when developed, to be inspired with variation. 
 a living power exceedingly sensitive to every kind of 
 influence and able again to work back upon the struc- 
 ture and organs which it employs, we might well ex- 
 pect the developed organism to be wonderfully modi- 
 fied. 
 
 Man is such a being, not merely exposed to the 
 usual unexplained variations of all animals, but possess- 
 ing a Soul, which is affected by everything surround- 
 ing it and which is constantly moulding or influencing 
 its bodily structure. 
 
 We should expect man to show more varied off- 
 spring than any other creature, and the only wonder 
 is that he does not present more varieties or races. 
 In mental peculiarities, we may at least claim for him 
 
454 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOULD. 
 
 greater variation, or, in other words, greater individ- 
 uality — than for any other animal. 
 
 II. In point of fact, however, animals show as 
 great variation, even when of one common stock, as 
 Animals vary do the dificrent races of men. The facts 
 
 as much as 
 
 men. coUccted in support of this point by Isidore 
 
 St. Hilaire, Roulin, Prichard, De Salles and others, 
 are so numerous that it wiU be difficult to condense 
 them within the space required. 
 
 The principal seat of variation in animals is the 
 epidermic or horny tissue, showing the variety in 
 horns, hoofs, and skin, and it corresponds to the extra- 
 cutaneous texture in man which manifests the changes 
 
 in color and hair, 
 
 » 
 
 Of the change in swine, when transported to South 
 America, we have already spoken. Some have ac- 
 quired erect ears, vaulted foreheads and heads much 
 larger than were found on the original breed. "With 
 some, the color becomes black, and with others the 
 skin acquires a thick fur beneath which is a species 
 of wool ; some again are red ; others have solid hoofs.* 
 One breed is found in Quebaya, with toes half a span 
 in length, long white ears, pendent belly and long 
 tusks, crooked like the horns of oxen.^ 
 
 The hogs* in the "West Indies, when left out wild, 
 
 * "It is perfectly demonstrated," says Dr. Hollard, "that all our 
 races of domestic pigs, with their difference of size, form, skin, color, 
 proceed from the wild animal, thick and short, low upon the legs, with 
 
tTNITT OK DIVERSITY OF OEIGIN. 455 
 
 become in time the wild boars. It is an evidence that 
 variations in animals are not confined to superficial 
 changes, but are sometimes, to a degree, structural, 
 that the number of the caudal, sacral, lumbar and 
 dorsal vertebrae vary in the hog ; and that the wild 
 hog has six incisor teeth in his upper jaw and six in 
 the lower, wliile the tame animal is reduced to three." 
 She&p,^ under different circumstances, have pro- 
 duced great varieties. Among those introduced into 
 South America, a hairy breed has arrown , , 
 
 ' "Z O Instances of 
 
 up. A breed has been formed with mon- ^''"^"°''^- 
 strous tails; others are found with projecting lips 
 and pendent ears. Sheep, says De Salles, have been 
 seen among the Kirghis with mere masses of hairless 
 fat for tails, and these same sheep when transported 
 to another country lose their fatty appendages. The 
 sheep of Yemen, introduced into Egypt, have acquired 
 a straight rude hair, with a fine down at the roots. 
 Some of the merino sheep are covered with wool and 
 
 large head, stiff ears, armed with triangular defences, which project from 
 the mouth, covered with hard bristles, longer upon the back, and under 
 ■which is hidden a little hair, and in a word, whose natural color is a 
 blackish gray. Kestored to liberty the domestic pig retakes, after a few 
 generations, the characteristics of the wild type; the bristles become 
 stiff, a sort of woolly skin develops itself under them, the natural color 
 reappears, the defences lengthen and increase ; the skull itself, which, in 
 the domestic state, is remarkably straight, retakes this lower line of pro- 
 file, and the more massive jaws which distinguish the head of the wild 
 boar. Nothing is more variable, on the contrary, than the races of this 
 species submitted to the influence of man; their disposition to be 
 modified is most marked," (De I'Homme, p. 242.) 
 
456 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 others witli liair, quite differing in structure, and 
 sometimes the same individual under new circumstan- 
 ces shows the changes from wool to hair/ 
 
 Our readers are abundantly familiar with the 
 short-legged breed of " Otter sheep," originated by 
 accident in Massachusetts, and transmitted by inter- 
 breeding. 
 
 The Ooat^ since its introduction into South Amer^ 
 ica, has formed a variety more agile and slender, with 
 better formed heads, smaller horns and smaller teats, 
 than the original stock.® 
 
 Cattle^ exported from Europe to the Antilles and 
 to South America, have formed a hairy breed : others 
 are hornless and still others become hairless, and 
 transmit this property to their descendants. When 
 wild, the cow loses her large dugs.'" 
 
 "With increased food in domestication, the ox and 
 sheep have their abdominal viscera enlarged ; to suit 
 the increased size of the stomach and the intestinal 
 canal, the trunk becomes larger in all its dimensions ; 
 the respiratory organs change and with them the form 
 of the chest ; the limbs are shorter and farther apart, 
 and the body being nearer the ground, the neck be- 
 comes shorter. Yarious muscles from disuse, dimin- 
 ish, and the tendency to obesity increases. Thus a 
 new form and new habits are acquired and are trans- 
 mitted." 
 
 M. de Filippi reports the existence of a race of cat- 
 
UNITY OR DIVERSITY OF ORIGIN. 457 
 
 tie in Piacentino, which have fourteen pairs of ribs 
 instead of thirteen. (Quatrefages, p. 128.) 
 
 The horses, according to M. Roulin, transported to 
 South America, have formed a race with fur, instead 
 of hair, and have changed to an almost uniform bay 
 color. 
 
 Of two colts of the same race, says Carpenter, born 
 in Lorraine, for instance, and transported one to Flan- 
 ders, and the other to ITormandy — after three years, 
 the one will be the light elegant carriage-horse, 
 and the other an enormous animal, fitted only for 
 the heaviest work, and almost incapable of a trot. 
 Here, food is probably the especial cause of variation. 
 Horses, when transported to l^orth India, are said to 
 acquire wool instead of hair. 
 
 De Salles relates that the asses on the Cordilleras 
 become hairy as bears ; and the wild ass is well known 
 to change its rough tubercular skin into a smooth skin, 
 under domestication. 
 
 Of cats and dogs, St. Hilaire says that the former 
 have their alimentary canal lengthened, and the latter, 
 their front brain enlarged by domestication. Both 
 mewing and barking seem to be lost by these animals 
 in their wild state. Dogs carried to I^orth India ac- 
 quire wool instead of hair, while others in Africa be- 
 come hairless. The European dog, if left vsdld on the 
 coast of Africa, gradually comes to look like a jackal ; 
 his hair becomes red, tail branchy, ears stiff and his 
 20 
 
458 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 voice changes to a howl.'" The Dingo dog, in Aus- 
 tralia, has the appearance of a wolf.'* 
 
 It is related," as an instance of the change which 
 may be brought about in a breed, that English grey- 
 hounds exported to the mountain-plateaus of Mexico 
 ^ — some 9,000 feet above the level of the sea — and em- 
 ployed to hunt hares, could never catch them, but fell 
 down gasping for breath, so unaccustomed were they 
 to the rarity of the atmosphere. They produced pups, 
 however, that became adapted in their lungs to the 
 atmosphere and caught the hares easily. 
 
 In exporting fowls to South America, the first ex- 
 perience with the geese, for instance, was that half of 
 the young died, but gradually some survived who were 
 a little more adapted to the climate, until a permanent 
 variety was formed, suited to its new circumstances. 
 A breed of hens has been originated by the influence 
 of climate, in South America, which are nearly naked ; 
 another in Mcaragua, which are black." 
 
 All are aware that the Dorking breed was pre- 
 served by fanciers, from an (apparently) accidental 
 variety, with five toes and some other peculiarities. 
 "With geese and ducks, when the eggs of the wild birds 
 are obtained and the young are supplied with abun- 
 variations ^^^^ food, the intcstincs and abdomen be- 
 from food. come enlarged, so that the bird nearly loses 
 the power of flight and her wings become imservice- 
 able, and she produces young as helpless as herself.'* 
 
UNITY OB DIVEKSITY OF OEIGIN. 459 
 
 Among birds, the bullfincli, according to St. 
 Hilaire, becomes Maxik wben fed on exciting food, es- 
 pecially hemp seed. 
 
 The great importance of these facts, which might 
 be multiplied indefinitely, is that they all relate to 
 animals, whose origin we know. 
 
 It cannot be replied in regard to the phenomena 
 of variation observed, for instance, in sheep and swine 
 in South America, that each well-marked breed had 
 its own separate parent there, who was variations in 
 
 , . 1 .TUT. animals of 
 
 created m that country, with all his pecu- "^e origin, 
 liarities. We know that all these various races — 
 woolly and hairy — short-legged and long-legged — 
 black and white — with all their other peculiarities 
 came from one common stock. It must be remem- 
 bered that the changes from the original breed, which 
 these animals manifest, are not merely external and 
 superficial, but often deviations in structure and fimc- 
 tions. 
 
 Similar instances might be increased to an indefi- 
 nite extent, from animals who are generally supposed 
 by naturalists to belong to the same species and to be 
 of one origin, but who have now deviated widely. 
 But as the case seems sufficiently strong with these 
 facts in regard to animals whose common origin is 
 certain, we refrain from treadiag on ground in any 
 way disputed. 
 
460 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 If, without a knowledge of the variations in ani- 
 mals, we were to see for the first time a Guinea 
 negro of low type and a Circassian of high type, 
 placed side by side, we might naturally doubt whether 
 they could have originated from the same ancestor. 
 But when we discovered on the one side a succession of 
 types, rising by almost imperceptible gradations from 
 the low Congo type to the highest black JS'ubian type 
 and to the brown Tawarek or Berber, so that an expe- 
 Gradations rieuccd obscrvcr in Africa — M. d'Abbadie* 
 
 in human i i t i ^ i • 
 
 varieties. — could dcclarc that, after thirteen years 
 observation, it was impossible for him to say where 
 the black type ended and the brown began ; on the 
 other side, when we found the highest Circassian type 
 descending by a series of slight changes to the brown, 
 so that from physical evidence, it was impossible to 
 decide where one race terminated and the other com- 
 menced, we may well imagine ourselves hesitating in 
 our objections as to their community of descent. But, 
 if still farther, we examined the different varieties of 
 animals, confessedly of one stock, and found that their 
 differences were greater, both in kind and degree, 
 than those between these various human races, we 
 might still farther hesitate. 
 
 In human variation, perhaps the greatest apparent 
 change is in the color. This was formerly supposed 
 
 * The same remark is made by D'Escayrac (1866). 
 
UNITY OR DIVEKSITT OF ORIGIN. 461 
 
 to arise in the dark races from the presence of a mem- 
 brane, which is wanting in the white races, 
 
 Color. 
 
 while the occasional change of hue in the 
 
 latter, was supposed to depend merely on causes which 
 
 worked upon the scarf-skin or cuticle. 
 
 But more minute microscopic investigations have 
 shown that there is no organic difference in this re- 
 spect between the skin of the negro and the white ; 
 that the color in both is contained in pigment-cells, 
 not membranes; and that the discolorations in the 
 white, such as the o/reola Tncmrnia/rum of women, the 
 summer freckles and moles, and the brown spots 
 which occasionally appear on the skin, all depend on 
 the presence of cells filled with pigment, similar to 
 those which produce the color of the negro. 
 
 These discolorations correspond also to the black- 
 ening of the skin produced by the disease called mel- 
 cmosis." 
 
 Dr. Bachman's views of this subject are worth 
 quoting in full. He says : 
 
 Microscopic anatomy, has recently very satisfactorily proved 
 tliat the color of the skin exists in the epidermis only, and 
 that it is the result of the admixture of pigment Explanation 
 cells with the ordinary epidermic cells. The office *'^''°1*""- 
 of these pigment cells appears to be the withdrawing from the 
 blood and elaborating in their own cavities, coloring matters of 
 various shades ; and all the different hues which are exhibited 
 by the eleven races of men, depend on the relative quantity of 
 
462 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 those cells, and the color of the pigment deposited in them. The 
 rete mucosum, which was once described as a separate coloring 
 layer underneath the epidermis, is simply the new soft layer of 
 epidermis. If we examine the skin of the negro anatomically, 
 we shall find no structure peculiar to it, for the very same dark 
 cells are found in the fairest of mankind. (Quoted in Smyth's 
 Unity etcet. p. 257.) 
 
 The following are the views of a distinguished 
 physiologist, Dr. Draper, on this subject : 
 
 If I am not mistaken, darkness of the skin and a prognathous 
 form of skull may be dependent in the dark tribes on the same 
 circumstance. Functionally, the liver is in connection with the 
 calorifacient apparatus; its secretion, the bile, coinciding in hab- 
 itudes with a hydrocarbon. Much of it is therefore reabsorbed, 
 and eventually devoted for the support of a high temperature. 
 But besides this combustible material, the bile likewise contains 
 a coloring matter, which is in all respects an effete body, and use- 
 less to the system. This pigment is derived from the blood- 
 discs, or rather from their hsematin, as is proved by the fact that 
 it occurs in the meconium of the new-born infant, and likewise, 
 like hismatin, it is rich in iron. Its source is, therefore, not 
 immediately from the food. To remove this useless material, is 
 thus one of the primary functions of the liver. 
 
 Now there is no organ which is more quickly disturbed in its 
 duty by a high temperature, than the liver. Whether such a 
 high temperature produces its effect through a disturbance of 
 the action of the lungs, or through an impression on the skin, is 
 quite immaterial. If the organ be in any manner enfeebled in 
 its duty, and no other avenue is open through which the degen- 
 erating hsematin may escape, it must accumulate in the circula- 
 
UNITY OB DIVEE8ITY OF ORIGIN. 463 
 
 tion, and be deposited here and there in suitable places. Under 
 such circumstances, there arises a tendency for its accumulation 
 in a temporary manner in the lower and more spherical cells of 
 the cuticle, from which it is removed by their gradual exuviation 
 and destruction as they become superficial. The temporary de- 
 posit of the coloring matter in this situation, imparts to the 
 skin a shade more or less deep. It may amount to a perfect 
 blackness ; for the origin of the black pigment of the negro 
 is the same as that of the black pigment of the eye in all races, 
 and the predominating percentage of iron it presents, plainly 
 betrays that it arises from a degenerating haematin, in which the 
 same metal abounds. 
 
 I believe, therefore, that the coloration of the skin, whatever 
 the particular tint may be, tawny-yellow, olive-red, or black, is 
 connected with the manner in which the liver is discharging its 
 function. That deposits of black pigment can normally arise in 
 the way of a true secretion by ceU action, is satisfactorily proved 
 by their occurrence in angular and ramified patches in the skin 
 of such animals as the frog ; and that haamatin, in its degenera- 
 tion, may give rise to many different tints, is substantiated by 
 the colors exhibited by ecchymoses. 
 
 Having thus traced the coloration of the skin to existing pe- 
 culiarities of hepatic action, I may repeat the remark already 
 made, that it is not improbable, that, in the most degraded negro 
 type, the prognathous form of the skull may be attributed to 
 the same cause. (Draper's Physiology, p. 588.) 
 
 The process of a decided change of color is wit- 
 nessed even at the present day. M. d'Ab- chanpu 
 badie states that the Abyssinians have a 
 word to express "the growing black," which is a 
 
1 
 
 464 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 change greater than the mere tanning of the ekin. 
 M. Lefebvre (according to Hollard) also notices a 
 change of color and skin in men and animals in Abys- 
 sinia, according to the seasons — the olive-brown com- 
 plexion of the natives becoming pale, and like the 
 European in the rainy season, while a removal of hab- 
 itation from the mountains to the seashore, and ex- 
 posure to greater heat, produces a dark-brown color, 
 almost black. 
 
 Similar changes are noticed with animals, espe- 
 cially in sheep. 
 
 Portuguese colonists in Cachaux, West Africa, ac- 
 cording to Durand, have become very black mulat- 
 toes ; and, according to other authorities, on the Cape 
 Yerd Islands, the coast of Guinea, in Batavia and 
 Bombay, and in Flores and Timor, they are almost 
 black, though of pure blood."* 
 
 The lower classes of Spain and Portugal are so 
 much like Indians in color, that St. Hilaire felt it 
 necessary to account for the color of Indians solely by 
 climate and uncleanness ! 
 
 The variation in hmr^ in a scientific view, is a 
 more marked distinction, even, than that of color. 
 The hair of the negro was formerly con- 
 sidered to be wool, but the late investiga- 
 tions, as recorded by Prichard, show that it is not at 
 all wool, and does not differ from the hair of the 
 white races, except in being more crisped, and more 
 
UNITY OK DIVERSITY OF OKIGIN. 465 
 
 filled with coloring matter ; the two latter peculiari- 
 ties perhaps depending on one another. 
 
 From the facts before presented in regard to an- 
 imals, it will be seen that those of similar origin 
 present even greater varieties in color and skin than 
 the races of men. 
 
 The changes from the tubercular skin of the wild 
 ass to the smooth skin of the tame ; from the woolly 
 sheep of England to the hairy sheep of South America ; 
 from the light swine of Europe to the black variety 
 of the same when exported ; from the hairy dog of 
 France to the naked dog of Africa; from the tame 
 hog to the wild boar, are certainly quite equal to any 
 supposed changes in the human races. 
 
 In size and structure, the differences between the 
 races of men are very shght indeed : two feet is prob- 
 ably the average difference between the height of the 
 tallest and shortest races; though if the "Doko" 
 tribe, of whom Krapf heard reports in Eastern Africa, 
 are the pigmies they are described, this difference 
 would be slightly increased. This, of course, is no 
 greater than can be seen often in animals of the same 
 stock. The differences in the human skull of different 
 races are also comparatively small. 
 
 Dr. Bachman concludes from the measurements 
 
 of Dr, Tiedemann and Dr, Morton, that the negro 
 
 skull, though less than the European, is within one 
 
 inch as large as the Persian and the Armenian, and 
 
 20* 
 
466 THE BACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 three square inches larger than the Hindoo and Egyp- 
 variations tian.* The difference between the average 
 in skull. English and Irish skull is nine cubic inches, 
 and only four between the average African and the 
 Irish. The largest African skull in his collection 
 measured ninety-nine inches, and the largest Irish, 
 ninety-seven inches. "Were we to give," he says, 
 " white color and straight hair to some negro skulls, 
 the most practised anatomist would be deceived." 
 Still other observations by Huschki, make the average 
 capacity of the skull of Europeans, 40.88 oz. ; of 
 Americans, 39.13 ; of Mongols, 38.39 ; of Negroes, 
 3r.5T; of Malays, 36.41. 
 
 There is nothing in the structure, either of the 
 brain or the skeleton, in the different races, which 
 would indicate a separate origin. Of the brain of the 
 negro, Tiedemann says : (1) Its weight is equal to the 
 average European. (2) In the capacity of its cavity, 
 it is not smaller than the average of European races. 
 (3) The form and structure of the spinal cord do not 
 differ from those of other races, except as resulting 
 from the different size of the body. (4) The cerebel- 
 lum in outward form, fissures, and lobes, is exactly 
 similar to the European. (5) The cerebrum has for 
 
 * The scale is thus given by Dr. Morton : European skull, 8Y cubic 
 inches; Malay, 85; Negro, 83; Mongol, 82; Ancient Egyptian, 80; 
 American, 79. The ancient Peruvians and Mexicans, who constructed 
 so elaborate a civilization, show a capacity only of from 15 to 79 inches. 
 
nNITT OE DIVEKSITY OF ORIGIN. 467 
 
 the most part the same form as in ot^,/ races. 
 (6) The internal structure of the brain shows the 
 same substance; and (7) The brain is equal to the 
 average European in size, and the nerves are not 
 thicker than those of other races. It is true that the 
 skull of the negro is usually somewhat ^jji^j^^g^g 
 thicker than the European skull, but this *'^*'''^"- 
 peculiarity is not distinctive of the African. The 
 New Hollanders have the same ; and the natives of 
 Yan Diemen's Land are said to break wood over their 
 own heads without injury. The Indians of South 
 America, and those of Cuba and Haiti, were reported 
 by the Spanish authorities to present the same feature 
 — even the Kelts of Brittany are marked by it, as 
 were the ancient inhabitants of France, judging fi'om 
 the skulls which have been discovered. 
 
 In a similar manner, negro features such as the 
 projecting teeth, the deficient calf of the leg, and the 
 length of the fore-arm, are shared by other races. Of 
 the latter, Jarrold has proved that the fore-arm of the 
 Scot is the medium between that of the negro and 
 the Englishman, and that his hand is lengthened pro- 
 portionally. 
 
 The peculiarly flexible use of the toes by the ne- 
 groes was once thought to separate them from other 
 races, but it is found that the New Hollanders have a 
 similar power, as well as the Malays and many tribes 
 
4:68 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 of Soiitli American Indians, some of tlie latter using 
 their toes to pick up pieces of money. 
 
 The pelvis of the female negro, differing in form 
 slightly from that of the European, the heavier skele- 
 Human *^^ ^^ *^® male, the somewhat different 
 
 curvature of the legs and the heels, the 
 thicker skull, and the less development of the fingers 
 in some of the black tribes, are differences by no means 
 so great as are seen in many animals of the same 
 stock. 
 
 The solid hoof of one variety of hogs ; the five toes 
 
 of the Dorking fowl ; the contrast between 
 
 Animal. 
 
 the wild boar and the tame hog, between 
 the tailless breeds of poultry and sheep and those with 
 tails, are more suggestive of difference of origin, than 
 any human peculiarities. 
 
 The fatty appendages {steatopyge) upon some of the 
 female Bushmen, Caffi*es, and Somaulis, as well as on 
 the Asiatic Kurds,* are only an addition of what is 
 found normally in other races, while the changes in 
 animals of the same breed involve often an absolute 
 change in structure.f 
 
 * Dr. Rigler. 
 
 •{• Of the changes wrought by man in the vegetable world, says Sir 
 Charles Lyell: "The crab has been transposed into the apple; the sloe 
 into the plum; flowers have changed their color and become double; 
 and these new characters can be perpetuated by seed. A bitter plant with 
 wavy sea-green leaves has been taken from the seaside, where it grew 
 like wild charlock, has been transplanted into the garden, lost its salt- 
 
UNITY OK DIVERSITY OF ORIGIN. 469 
 
 m. Our third point is, that the members of a race 
 often differ among themselves, as much as the various 
 races differ from one another. 
 
 It is almost universally admitted now, by scholars, 
 that the Aryan or Indo-European family of nations is 
 of one origin; yet they include physical variations 
 
 in Indo- 
 
 types as diverse as the dark Hindoo, the Europeans, 
 blonde Il^orwegian, the classic Greek, and the de- 
 pressed Irish. Color, size, features, and shape of the 
 head, are all exceedingly different in these various 
 types. We see not what the supporters of the Diver- 
 sity of Origin can do with such extreme variations in 
 a family acknowledgedly from one source. 
 
 This Treatise has been full of instances of corre- 
 sponding variations in recognized races. Thus what 
 greater apparent contrast could there be than be- 
 tween the blonde Jew of Eastern Germany, and the 
 black Arab of the banks of the Jordan — ^both now 
 reckoned of one origin ; or between the brown Jew 
 of Abyssinia and the black Jew of Cochin China or 
 the Great Desert ? 
 
 In a single small race, we often find marked differ- 
 ences, as between the brown Afghans of East Afghan- 
 istan and the light Afghans of the west with blue 
 eyes and red hair ; between the dark Hindoos of the 
 
 ness, and has been metamorphosed into two distinct regetables as unlike 
 each other as is each to the parent plant — the red cabbage and the cauli- 
 flower." (Prin. of Geo!., vol. 2, p. 32.) 
 
4r70 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 Dekkan, Malabar and Ceylon, and the blonde Hin- 
 doos of the Himalaya ; the olive and blonde Arabs of 
 Armenia and Syria, and the brown of Yemen and the 
 black of the Jordan ; the ohve Tuariks of the southern 
 slope of the Atlas and the black of interior Africa ; 
 the white Chinese of the north, with rosy complexion, 
 and the brown of the south. 
 
 The Guebres, or descendants of the ancient Per- 
 sians, are said by De Salles to be badly made and ugly 
 in person, with brown complexions, while depressed 
 under the Persian government ; while with those in 
 Bombay, who are favored by the English government 
 and have become wealthy, the physique is noble and 
 beautiful; the men are large and strong, and the 
 women are elegant, with large eyes and arched brows 
 and a white complexion, just gilded in tint.'* 
 
 The Magyars present, perhaps, the most beautiful 
 physical type of any people of Europe, and yet their 
 nearest relatives, undoubtedly of the same origin, are 
 the Finns and Laps, the most ugly and ill-formed race 
 in Europe. 
 
 Of the shape of the skull, as distinctive of different 
 origin. Prof. M. J. "Weber has said, "there is no 
 proper mark of a definite race-form of the cranium, so 
 firmly attached that it may not be found in some other 
 race." The same measures of skull, the same types, 
 whether of classic purity and beauty or of savage 
 degradation, appear in individuals of all races. Tiede- 
 
UNTTT OK DrVEESITT OF 0RIGI2T. 471 
 
 mann has met with Germans, whose skulls bore all 
 the characters of the negro races ; and an inhabitant 
 of ISTukahiwa, according to SUesius and Blumenbach, 
 agreed exactly in his proportions with the Apollo Bel- 
 videre. 
 
 Am ong Chinese, Japanese, and Siamese, persons 
 are sometimes seen, says Perthes, of mmaixed native 
 blood, who precisely resemble Europeans in featm-es 
 and complexion. 
 
 Many of the Xew Zealanders hare skulls like 
 Em-opeans, while their faces resemble !N"orth American 
 Indians. The Hottentots, in complexion, shape of 
 the sk«ll and form of the face, are like the Mongols, 
 though there is not the least evidence that they are 
 related to them. The Georgians and Circassians show 
 a perfect Greek type of feature, though they belong 
 to an entirely distinct family. 
 
 Travellers tell us that blue or brown eyes, and 
 light hair and complexion, are occasionally seen in all 
 races, even among the blacks, where there could be 
 no suspicion of mixture of blood, (See Waiz.) 
 
 Dr. Meigs is quoted by "Wilson (Pre-Historic Man, 
 p. 245), as giving his conclusion in the observations 
 of 1,125 different human crania, "that there is a 
 marked tendency of these forms to graduate into one 
 another, more or less insensibly. !N^one of ^.^ g^^^ 
 these forms can be said to belong exclusive- *^^'^" 
 ly to any race or tribe. Xone of them, therefore. 
 
472 THE BACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 can be regarded as strictly typical; for a character 
 of form to be typical, should be exclusive and con- 
 stant." "Wilson himself (p. 285) gives it as his con- 
 clusion from a great variety of data, in regard to an 
 American type of skull, that " it seems scarcely pos- 
 sible to evade the conclusion that the ideal American 
 typical head has no existence in nature." * * * 
 " The form of the human skull is just as little constant 
 among the different tribes or races of the l!f ew "World 
 as of the Old." 
 
 Prof Huxley, in a note to Lyell's recent work on 
 Antiquity (p. 8Y), gives the various measurements of 
 two fossil skulls (the " Engis " and the " ]N"eandeiit;hal ") 
 and a number of Australian, and then compares them 
 with an English skull, which is described in the Hun- 
 terian museum as "typically Caucasian." The differ- 
 ences are incredibly small, and justify Huxley's con- 
 clusion that "cranial measurements alone afford no 
 safe indication of race." 
 
 Physical Degeneration produces types in small 
 
 numbers from a given nation, which correspond to the 
 
 types of degraded races elsewhere. The cretin differs 
 
 more from the European, favored by phys- 
 
 Degeneration. . , . , i « f fo 
 
 ical circumstances, than the Australian dii- 
 fers from him.'' He recalls under various stages of 
 his degeneration, some of the race-types ; as the brown 
 races in his brown complexion; the Kalmucks and 
 Oceanicans in his large ears ; the Congo-negroes in 
 
UNITY OK DrVEKSITY OF OKIGIN. 4:73 
 
 his tliick lips, large moutli and flat nose ; the Austra- 
 lians in his slender limbs. 
 
 Mayhew in his " London Labor, &c.," speaking of 
 the vagabond poor, says (vol. i, p. 2), " According as 
 they partake more or less of the purely vagabond na- 
 ture, doing nothing for their living, but moving from 
 place to place, preying on the earnings of the more 
 industrious portion of the community, so will the 
 attributes of the nomadic races be found more or less 
 marked on them ; and they are all more or less dis- 
 tinguished for their high cheek-bones and protruding 
 jaws." 
 
 The following is the description of physical degen- 
 eracy among the Portuguese, quoted by Morel in his 
 Traits des DegenSrescences, p. 413. It is a terrible 
 picture of human degradation, and the effect can be 
 traced in great degree to moral causes. 
 
 Malacca, says Dr. Tvan, has about 30,000 inhabitants. This 
 population is composed of Portuguese, Dutch, English, Malays, 
 and Chinese. Among the inhabitants of European origin, the 
 Portuguese are the most numerous. They nre for the most part 
 descendants of the ancient conquerors of Malaisia. Their fathers 
 were the companions of Vasco di Gama and Albuquerque, but 
 like the monuments that their ancestors raised, and which cover 
 the soil of their ruins, they also have been injured by degrada- 
 tion and age. In the midst of the Malayan population with 
 which they have been for a very long time allied, the 3,000 de- 
 scendants of the ancient Portuguese are physically the ugliest, 
 and morally the most degraded. They must not be confounded 
 
4:T4 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 with the Malays of pure origin. They have not in appearance, 
 or in attitude, the wild energy of these men. One would say, 
 rather, that they have borrowed the character which distin- 
 guishes them from the Ethiopian races. Their features have 
 something of the animal ; in a word, they bear upon their con- 
 tracted and oily brow the sign of a moral fall. The poor peo- 
 ple have no idea of their glorious ancestors. Tradition, that 
 consolatory remembrance of fallen races, is eflfaced from the 
 memory of the people. The majority bear illustrious names, 
 and they are ignorant who were their fathers, and what ray of 
 the past pierces their obscurity.* 
 
 * " It is truly dreadful," says Dr. Yvaii, " to adjust the balance of 
 the losses that these men have made. In the space of half a century,' 
 perhaps, religion, morals, tradition, written transmission of thought, are 
 efiaced from their remembrance. The most hideous idleness and ab- 
 sence of all wants, are substituted for enjoyments acquired by labor. 
 This degradation presents itself under its characteristic forms : stunted ' 
 growth, physical ugliness, want of life among children, obtuse intelli- 
 gence, perverted instincts, progressive successions of sickly transforma- 
 tions, reaching, as a final result, to the extreme limits of imbecility." 
 This last degenerative form appears strikingly in the descriptions of Dr. 
 Yvan, and we cite his own words. " There exists," says Dr. Y., "in 
 the environs of Malacca, in the direction of Mount Ophir, a little 
 hamlet situated in the midst of the jungles. The inhabitants of this 
 hamlet are in a frightful state of destitution; they do not cultivate, they 
 live outside of all social laws, having neither priest to marry them, nor 
 cadi, nor judge, nor mayor, to regulate their differences. Their dwell- 
 ings are a kind of cabins made of reeds covered with leaves of the palm 
 tree, and their only industry consists in going into the woods to search 
 for the wax produced by wild bees, in washing sand, and in gathering 
 the resin which runs down the trees. 
 
 "I had often heard of this population ; during one of our suspensions 
 at Malacca, a priest of the foreign missions proposed to me to go to visit 
 them. "We set out on horseback, and after a march of five hours through 
 rice fields, rushes, and vast lands covered with sacchariferous plants, we 
 arrived at the foot of a little elevation, upon which the village is estab- 
 
UNITY OR DIVEKSITY OF OKIGIN. 4:75 
 
 In the plains of tlie Argentine Republic, near Cor- 
 dova and San Luis, the Spaniards are as inactive and 
 backward as the natives themselves, while the German 
 and Scottish colonies south of Buenos Ayres, present 
 a most blooming condition. 
 
 In Sertajo and Goyaz, according to "Waiz, the Por- 
 tuguese have become almost savages. 
 
 On one of the Fernando Islands, says "Webster 
 (Narr. of Yoy. to S. Sea, 1834), is a Portuguese penal 
 colony. The men have become so degen- Degeneracy 
 erated that they have abandoned agricul- ° uropeans. 
 ture, and do not even possess a boat — a depth of 
 misery which the lowest South Sea Islanders have not 
 reached. 
 
 lished. Nothing announced the neighborhood of an inhabited place; 
 none of the accustomed sounds interrupted the silence of the solitudes ; 
 one neither heard the joyous cries of children, nor the crow of the cock. 
 
 " Even the signs by which one is aware of the presence of man, did 
 not exist in this wild place. No trace of cultivation was seen. Not 
 even were those spiral lines of smoke perceived among the trees, which 
 point out ordinarily the humblest dwelling. The beaten paths which 
 wound through the forest, resembled rather the prints left upon the soil 
 by fallow beasts than paths frequented by men. For the rest, what I 
 caU pompously a village, was a collection of dilapidated huts of the most 
 miserable aspect ; these were all open to the first arrival ; it was seen 
 that the inhabitants concealed nothing from their neighbors, but it was 
 easily understood that if they had all in common, they enjoyed little but 
 common misery. When we arrived, the women were squatted down 
 around the huts, some chewing betel without doing anything, others 
 holding suspended to their sinking breasts some feeble abortions. 
 
 "The three or four men that we found in the hamlet, were lying 
 down aside, smoking coarse maize cigarettes, and chewing the siri like 
 the women. Every one was naked or wore very little clothing. The 
 
476 THE BACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 The same is true of the Portuguese on the coasts 
 of Eastern Africa ; they have become as lazy and bar- 
 barous there as the lowest native negroes, and yet 
 they were once one of the leading maritime peoples 
 of Europe. 
 
 It is said, also, that in Equador, in the province of 
 Loxa, there are wild, barbarous Spaniards, of entirely 
 unmixed blood, who have lost every trace of historic 
 tradition (Tschudi). 
 
 The Arabians were once the most powerful of the 
 Semitic races, and stamped their influence on the civ- 
 ilization of the globe ; yet in Socotra, they are said to 
 ' have become so degraded and inactive, as not even to 
 
 complexion of the cWldren was almost white; that of the men and 
 women, soot color. They had thick lips, large black eyes, straight 
 projecting nose and rough long hair. They were all small and thin. 
 One would have said that this population passed without transition from 
 infancy to the decline of manhood ; youth seemed not to exist for these 
 unhappy people ; their eyes were hollow and their skin withered. 
 
 " Our guides, who were Malays, addressed some of the women, ask- 
 ing them how they named their village, where were their husbands, &c. 
 But after having heard their replies, they declared to us that they could 
 not comprehend perfectly what they said, on account of a great many 
 words that were not Malayan. The priest who accompanied me, de- 
 scended from his horse, approached them, and discovered that the lan- 
 guage they spoke was a simple mixture of Malay and Portuguese. 
 
 " This language itself was the most real expression of the sad mental 
 state of these unhappy people. They knew neither who they were nor 
 whence they came. The names by which they were called, represented 
 no family recollection, for they Uved rather promiscuously. The idea 
 of time was above their weak conception, and most of them made them- 
 selves remarked by such brutishness that their visitors could obtain no 
 reasonable reply even to the most simple questions." 
 
UNITY OR DIVEKSITY OF ORIGIN. 477 
 
 possess a boat. In Nubia, tbey are thought to be 
 more lazy, and less capable of invention and enter- 
 prise than negroes (Waiz), and they live in the greatest 
 misery. 
 
 In Ireland, in Sligo and !N"orthem Mayo, two cen- 
 turies of degradation and hardship are said to have 
 produced physical effects on a population once vigor- 
 ous and well-formed, which would Hken them to the 
 appearance of some of the lowest African and Ocean- 
 ican tribes. " They are remarkable for open, project- 
 ing mouths, with prominent teeth and exposed gums, 
 and their advancing cheek-bones and depressed noses, 
 bear barbarism on their very front." Others are de- 
 scribed as " five feet two inches on an average, pot- 
 bellied, bow-legged, and abortively featured." " 
 
 It cannot be questioned that the degree of civiliza- 
 tion or barbarism, affects all the features of the body 
 and face. Thus among a thousand instan- Features 
 
 ^ affected by 
 
 ces which might be selected, Mrs. Norton civilization, 
 observes that the free-bom negro children in Sierra 
 Leone, have more intelligent eyes, freer bearing, and 
 a more agreeable form, than their emancipated par- 
 ents. Day says that the higher is the position of a 
 negro in the "West Indies, the more his type is found 
 different from the low (Congo) negro type, and ap- 
 proaching the European, or at least the Jewish fea- 
 tures. It is generally admitted that the low, barba- 
 rous type of one tribe of negroes found in the North- 
 
478 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 ern United States and tlie "West Indies — ^that of the 
 coast negro of Guinea — lias been much improved, 
 merely by contact with whites and by a state of free- 
 chaiK'eof ^*^"^' ^^^ testimony from missions in 
 *^^^' South Africa (according to Philip) and 
 
 from the Philippines (see Mallat), is, that in the third 
 generation the shape of head of the children begins 
 to change. 
 
 Hezius — the great advocate of the theory that the 
 shape of the skull is the only distinctive mark of race 
 — admits that the skulls of town and country people 
 in Sweden, differ in size, owing to their different 
 mode of life ; and Wilson states that the skulls of the 
 ancient barbarian Scots are smaller than those of the 
 modern civilized people. 
 
 So again the Bushmen, living in the districts 
 northeast of Lake N^gami, have much better forms 
 than those in the extreme south, owing to their better 
 nourishment. In New Holland, the appearance of 
 the natives varies according to their position and their 
 Differences in Opportunities for acquiring food; and in 
 same lace. j^g-^ South "Walcs, cvcn the hair varies to 
 a great degree among people apparently of the same 
 origin, some having it smooth, some curly, and some 
 crisped. (See Waiz) Hale notices very great con- 
 trasts in the inhabitants of South and J^Torth Kings- 
 mill Islands (Micronesia), though of the same race — 
 differences to be traced entirely to external causes. 
 
UNITT OK DIVEKSITY OF ORIGIN. 479 
 
 These examples could be multiplied to any extent. 
 
 "We are not contesting iu these statements the ex- 
 istence of physical types, which are distinct, and are 
 transmitted among men ; but we would only urge that 
 this diversity among races confessedly of the same 
 origin, and this likeness among races who are by many 
 classified as distinct, cannot be accounted for on the 
 theory that the present physical differences of man- 
 kind spring from a Diversity of Origin. 
 
 lY. It is well known in regard to animals, that 
 a process of Acclimation occurs. A certain race, for 
 instance, changes its climate and soil and physical 
 circumstances ; the first offspring are in part, weakly, 
 or they in part, die out ; at length, a slight variation 
 occurs in the internal or external structure 
 
 Acclimation. 
 
 which enables its possessors better to resist 
 the destructive agencies around it and finally to sur- 
 vive. These peculiarities are transmitted and in- 
 creased, inasmuch as they are beneficial to those who 
 possess them, until finally the race becomes accustomed 
 to its new circumstances. 
 
 The same thing takes place with men. All races 
 of men, so far as we know, are capable in time of be- 
 coming acclimated to any new country or climate ; as 
 witness the Jews living from the heats of tropical 
 Asia and Africa to the cold of Russia, or the Aryan 
 descendants, surviving and transmitting vigorous off- 
 spring, whether in India or Iceland. It is true that 
 
4:80 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD, 
 
 after centuries or ages of residence on a given soil and 
 under a given climate, a new physical type is formed, 
 fitted for its circumstances, which may not be easily 
 and at once transplanted; any more, for instance, 
 than the tame duck or goose with his changed oro-ans, 
 would be fitted to live at once in the wild state. A 
 habit of climate has sprung up, which may need long 
 spaces of time and new circumstances to change. 
 Thus Dr. Clark reports that in Dominique, in 1793- 
 '96, the epidemic struck all the negroes just imported 
 fi-om Africa, while those long on the island, escaped. 
 In some cases, this acclimation may occur rapidly ; as, 
 for instance, it is said the pure negroes in this country, 
 of the third generation from African parents, cannot 
 return with impunity to the malarious coasts of Africa, 
 though their fathers lived there in complete health. 
 In general, too, acclimation is in part dependent 
 on moral causes : the power in any given race intelli- 
 gently to adapt its habits to new circumstances, and 
 Acclimation abovc all, the capacity of self-Gontrol, so that 
 
 dependent on 
 
 moral causes, the viccs and indulgences of a strange coun- 
 try and climate may be resisted.'"' Yery much of the 
 effects attributed to climate, is due to human vices ; 
 and it will generally be found that the races most 
 gifted vdth self-control — those of most moral principle 
 — are those which endure foreign climates best. Who 
 can doubt that the lamentable picture given above, of 
 Portuguese degeneracy in the East Indies, is due in 
 
tTNITT OR DIVEESITY OF ORIGIN. 481 
 
 great measure to moral causes ; as is the like degener- 
 acy in our own southern continent. 
 
 The lower, the more ignorant and degraded a peo- 
 ple is, the less fitted is it to change its climate, and 
 the more sure to perish under the change. 
 
 Probably no race endures diversities of climate so 
 well as the great Teutonic race, and it wiU be found 
 that their various branches, transplanted to tropical or 
 warm countries — as the Dutch in Africa Endurance 
 
 of Teatonio 
 
 and East India, the English in India and '^• 
 the Americans in the Southern States of North Amer- 
 ica — owe their vigor and their health more to moral 
 causes than physical : for of all great families of men, 
 we may assert that this in the highest degree is gifted 
 with self-control. "We may sometimes see a people 
 under process of acclimation : as, for instance, the An- 
 glo-Americans and Germans in North America, whose 
 physical type is gradually changing from the original 
 German or English type and adapting itself to its new 
 circumstances — though it is impossible to say how far 
 intermarriage may have part in this change of type. 
 The first effects of this process will no doubt appear 
 unfavorable ; the weaker and those unsuited to our cli- 
 mate must perish, while the stronger will gradually 
 survive and transmit their descendants, until a new 
 type is formed, adapted to the country and climate.* 
 The grand fact, that various races can thus accus- 
 
 * It is a great error of many writers on Ethnology, to suppose that 
 
 21 
 
482 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 torn themselves to all climates, seems to us a pre- 
 smnption in favor of their common origin. 
 
 Mybridity^'' The strongest evidence to the minds 
 All races of men of scicnce in favor of Unitv of 
 
 fruitful '' 
 
 together. Origin, has been usually held to be the fact, 
 that all races are fruitfal with one another. 
 
 There is no exception to this: and the few in- 
 stances, looking in the other direction, have all yielded 
 before more minute investigations.*" 
 
 the American physique has degenerated from the English type. If it 
 were within the field of this Treatise, the contrary could be easily proved 
 from innumerable data. We would only call attention to some notorious 
 evidences in favor of our vitaUty and power. It is well known by manu- 
 facturers and employers in this country, that for labors requiring the 
 utmost physical endurance and muscular power, such as " iron-pud- 
 dling," "lumbering," in the forests and on the streams, and pioneer- 
 work, foreigners are never so suitable as the native Americans. 
 
 The reports of the examining surgeons for volunteers — such as that 
 of Dr. W. H. Thompson to the Surgeon-General, in 1862, who examined 
 9,000 men — show a far higher average of physique in the Americans 
 examined, than in the English, Germans, or Irish. 
 
 The immense physical achievements of the Anglo-American race in 
 clearing and improving the surface of this Continent, are alone proofs of 
 great vitality and physical power. 
 
 It is a fact well known to our life-insurance companies that the aver- 
 age length of life here is greater than that of the English tables. 
 
 The efifect of the climate is indeed to produce a somewhat spare, ner- 
 vous and muscular type — quite different from the English — though to 
 this there are vast numbers of exceptions ; but the average of health, of 
 muscular strength, and power of sustained endurance, we believe to be 
 greater here than in England or in any civilized country. 
 
 * The statement at one time urged, that the native females or 
 "gins" of New Holland, after producing children with the English, be- 
 came barren with their own males, is found to be incorrect. This state- 
 
TJNITT OE DIVEKSITY OF ORIGIN, 483 
 
 All races of men, of all countries, are fertile witli 
 one another. Still, it is claimed that even if this be 
 the case, the offspring of very different races — as, for 
 instance, the Congo negro and the white Em-opean — 
 are weakly and sterile, and finally die out. 
 
 Facts in regard to this important subject are ex- 
 tremely difficult to obtain. The general impression 
 in our Southern States is, that mulattoes do 34^^]^ ^f 
 not perpetuate themselves for many gener- ""^*"*''^- 
 ations. But, on the other hand, in the Middle States, 
 every one knows mulatto families, who are appar- 
 ently vigorous and healthy for several generations. 
 As it is generally understood that a considerable part 
 of the slaves at the South are of mixed blood, and as 
 the rate of increase of the slaves is known to be large, 
 the conclusion would seem probable that mulattoes do 
 perpetuate themselves freely, even in America. StiU 
 we have, as yet, no trustworthy statistics on this very 
 interesting question. The author has been able, after 
 much investigation, only to collect a few facts bearing 
 upon it. It is to be hoped that scientific men and 
 statisticians will keep in mind this disputed point, in 
 reporting statistics of population. 
 
 Fortunately, thorough reports since 1774, are pre- 
 
 ment was originally made by Count Strzlecki, and has been repeated 
 over and over, till the world has believed it. It is contradicted most 
 clearly and carefully by the best authority — Dr. Thompson — a gentleman 
 personally familiar with the Island. See his article in Journ. of Ethnol. 
 Soc, vol. 3, p. 243. 
 
484 
 
 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 served of the numbers of tlie mulatto population in 
 Cuba. The following are the tables given by M. de 
 la Sagra. We have purposely left out of view the stat- 
 istics relating to the mulattoes in slavery, inasmuch as 
 the severities of that system might modify the natural 
 increase of the population. 
 
 Men. 
 
 
 Women. 
 
 X, 
 
 Yeor. 
 
 j^ 
 
 White. 
 
 Free Mulattoea. 
 
 White. 
 
 Free Mulattoes. 
 
 55,576 
 
 10,201 
 
 1774 
 
 40,864 
 
 9,006 
 
 ^2,299 
 
 15,845 
 
 1792 
 
 61,260 
 
 18,041 
 
 130,519 
 
 30,512 
 
 1817 
 
 109,311 
 
 29,170 
 
 168,653 
 
 28,058 
 
 1827 
 
 142,398 
 
 29,456 
 
 227,144 
 
 43,658 
 
 1841 
 
 191,147 
 
 44,396 
 
 From these, it appears that during the sixty-seven 
 years before 1841, the white males of Cuba increased 
 4.08+ times, while the mulatto males increased 
 4.28 -f times; and the white females 4. 67+ times, 
 but the mulattoes of the same sex, 4.92+ times. 
 This certainly looks very Kttle like a want of power 
 in the cross of perpetuating itself. 
 
 Still farther, according to the same author, the 
 excess of births over deaths in the island, in 
 1827, was for free negroes, 11.5 in every 
 100; for slave negroes, 45.3; for slave mulattoes, 
 44.3 ; for whites, 48.7; and for free mulattoes, 57.7. 
 
 This plainly indicates no inferiority in vital power 
 in the mulatto. 
 
 Facts from 
 Cuba. 
 
•UNITY OR DIVEKSITY OF ORIGIN. 485 
 
 Humboldt gives for 1793, the relative nmnbers of 
 diflferent races in the City of Mexico, over 50 years of 
 age. 
 
 The proportion of mixed races over 50 years, was 
 6 in every hundred ; of the Indian, 6 j per cent. ; 
 of the Spaniard, 8; and the Mulatto, Y Muiattoes 
 per cent. ; a fact showing that the cross '° ^®"•'"• 
 between the negro and the white there is more 
 long-lived than the cross between the Indian and 
 the white, and even more than the native stock it- 
 self. 
 
 In St. Miguel, Brazil, the following was the state 
 of the popxdation in 1816. Out of 1,942 whites, there 
 were 21 over 70 years, and 3 over 85, and none over 
 95 ; while from 3,010 jQ-ee mulattoes, there were 107 
 over 70 years, and 32 over 85, and 1 over 100 years ; 
 of 1,112 free negroes, there were only 5 over 70 years, 
 and of Indians, none. 
 
 The results among the Pitcaim Islanders are 
 equally convincing, that the Polynesian and Teutonic 
 races can unite with the same results as in kindred 
 races. 
 
 In 1790, the population of the island consisted of 
 only 30 persons, namely : 4 European sailors, 10 Poly- 
 nesian women and their children. In 1825, they 
 numbered 66 ; in 1856, 187, without any foreign im- 
 migration. 
 
 The children of the New Zealanders and the Eng- 
 
486 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 L'sli (according to Waiz) are a healthy and muscular 
 race ; those of the Philippine Islanders and the Euro- 
 peans are more beautiful than the Europeans them- 
 selves. 
 
 That the offspring of the same grade of mixture in 
 different races are fruitful with one another, is proved 
 by the careful names which are given in South Amer- 
 ica to the various crosses.* 
 
 There are some apparent exceptions found, it is 
 true, to the permanent fruitfulness of different races, 
 but they are usually to be accounted for by local 
 
 * The following vocabulary is from M. de Larenandifere's History of 
 Mexico (quoted by Quatrefages), indicating the different degrees of the 
 mixture effected between the three races, white, black, and red : 
 
 Mestisa, product of a Spaniard and an Indian woman. 
 Castisa — of a Mongrel woman and a Spaniard. 
 Espagnola — of a Castiso and a Spanish woman. 
 Mul^tre — of a Spanish woman and a Negro, 
 Morisque — of a Mulatto woman and a Spaniard. 
 Albino — of a Morisque and a Spanish woman. 
 Tornatras — of an Albino and a Spanish woman. 
 Tentinelaire — of a Tornatras and a Spanish woman. 
 Lovo — of an Indian woman and a Negro. 
 Caribujo — of an Indian woman and a Loto. 
 Barsino — of a Coyote and an Indian woman. 
 Grifo — of a Negress and a Lovo. 
 Canisa — of a Mongrel woman and an Indian. 
 Albarazado — of a Coyote and an Indian woman. 
 Mechino — of a Lovo and a Coyote. 
 
 Some of these terms have, in other places besides Mexico, a different 
 signification ; several are replaced by other expressions. 
 
 Fitzroy states (Journ. of Ethnol. Soc, 1862) that 23 human varieties 
 are enumerated by savans, in Lima, from the mingling of the Peruvian, 
 the Negro, and the Spaniard. 
 
TINITT OE DIVEBSITT OF ORIGIN. 487 
 
 causes. Thus tlie offspring of the Hollanders and 
 Malays on the island of Java, are said not Apparent 
 to survive beyond the third generation ; but ^^'^^p"""*- 
 on the other side, those of pure whites die out in the 
 second, so that this result seems fairly attributable to 
 climate. 
 
 The immense increase, and the physical beauty 
 (in many instances) of the various mixtures of colors 
 and races in South America, favor the view that 
 all races can transmit permanent and healthy off- 
 spring. 
 
 We quote from Quatrefages, p, 322 : 
 
 Daring the four years that I passed in Brazil, Chili, and 
 Peru, says M. Hombron, I was amused to observe the singular 
 mixture of negroes with the aborigines ; I even made an exact 
 note of the number of children that resulted in a great number 
 of households, from the alliance of a white man with a negro 
 woman ; of a white with an American woman ; of a negro with 
 a woman of Chili or Peru ; of an American with his countrywo- 
 man ; and finally, of a negro woman with a negro. 
 
 I can affirm that the unions of whites with Americans have 
 presented me with the most elevated average ; then come the 
 negro and negro woman ; and lastly the negro and American. 
 In our colonies, the negro women and the whites offer a mid- 
 dling fruitfulness ; the mulatto women and the whites are ex- 
 tremely prolific, as well as the mulattoes and mulatto women. 
 
 The offspring of the white Turk and the negro 
 woman, according to Dr. Rigler, is a vigorous and 
 
488 THE RACES OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 intelligeiit race; and such marriages are peculiarly 
 prolific. 
 
 Prof. Wilson, in his " Pre-Historic Man," has col- 
 lected some very valuable facts in regard to the ex- 
 tensive population of half-breeds on the Red River 
 „„, , and the Canadian frontier. "In the Red 
 
 Hali-breeas 
 
 in Anvrica. jj-^^j. settlement," he states (vol. 2, p. 348), 
 " where there are about 6,500 with Indian blood, the 
 families descended from mixed parentage are larger 
 than those from white parents." Archdeacon Hun- 
 ter, a Catholic clergyman, famiKar for a long time 
 with the Indian population of British America, in 
 reply to the question, " In what respects do the half- 
 breed Indians differ from the pure Indians as to 
 habits of life, courage, increase, &c., &c. ? " says, 
 " They are superior in every respect, both mentally 
 and physically." The mixed offspring, says Wilson, 
 does not fail, but generally by intermarriages, it 
 becomes very difficult to determine whether they 
 are pure whites or half-breeds. Mr. J. S. Dawson, 
 of the Red River exploring expedition, describes the 
 half-breeds as a hardy, vigorous race of men, and 
 frequently with large and healthy families. "I 
 know," says Wilson, " from my own observation, that 
 the French half-breeds at Red River are a gigantic 
 race, as compared with the French Canadians of 
 Lower Canada." 
 
 "There are many independent tribes of half- 
 
TrNTTY OE DIVEB8ITY OF ORIGIN. 489 
 
 breeds," lie states, " partaking of the characteristics of 
 both their parents." 
 
 Rev. J. Maranlt speaks highly of the physical and 
 mental qualities of the Ahenakis (mostly half-breeds), 
 and says that they are " superior in intelligence to the 
 Canadians." 
 
 The Hurons, on the St. Charles River, have been 
 mingKng with the whites for nearly two centuries, so 
 that they have nearly lost their language. They are 
 the most advanced in civilization of all the Canadian 
 tribes. It is ascertained by the Indian census of 
 1844 that their numbers have very considerably in- 
 creased. 
 
 "Statistics show," says Dr. Wilson farther (p. 
 390), " that in Upper and Lower Canada, the inter- 
 mixture of red and white blood, though there carried 
 out under unfavorable circumstances, does not lead to 
 degeneracy, sterility, or extiuction, but has created an 
 extensive population of half-bloods, totally apart from 
 those of mixed blood who are reabsorbed into the 
 native tribes." 
 
 In South Africa, a cross between the Hottentots 
 and the Dutch — ^the Basta/rds — ^have per- ^^.j^.^^ 
 petuated themselves, and a portion of them 
 — the Griquas — become a permanent tribe, quite as 
 vigorous as either of their parents. Still there are not 
 yet facts suflficient, from which to obtain an absolute 
 scientific conclusion on the matter. 
 21* 
 
490 THE EACES OP THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 And we would say, a jpriori^ we should expect on 
 the theory which we shall soon state, that there would 
 be a diflSculty in two very diverse types crossing at 
 first with permanent fertility. Their mutual differ- 
 ences and varying constitutions would naturally ren- 
 der the surviving of the first offspring somewhat 
 doubtful. Take the matter of acclimation alone. 
 Each parent is adapted to a different and peculiar 
 condition of temperature, soil, and climate. The off- 
 spring, if it shares these adaptations equally, must be 
 in so far unadapted to its climate and circumstances. 
 Probability of That is, a half-blood mulatto in our Korth- 
 
 mulattoes 
 
 being weakly, em Statcs, iu SO far as he has a negro con- 
 stitution, is unfitted for our climate ; in the Southern, 
 he is equally unadapted, from his white blood, to the 
 climate there, and it may be several centuries before 
 he becomes suited to either. 
 
 "We may suppose, too, that the different tendencies 
 to disease in such different races, might make the con- 
 stitution weaker ; and farther, in this country there 
 may be moral causes of which we are not sufficiently 
 aware. In every mulatto, there is something of the 
 pride and the sensitiveness of the ruling race, while 
 Explanation his mixturc with black blood exposes him 
 
 of weak races • n t t • t 
 
 dying out. contmually to the vulgar prejudice and base 
 insult which our populace heap on this oppiessed race. 
 He may die out, as the Indian dies out, from the wear 
 
UOTTY OE DIVEBSITY OF ORIGIN. 491 
 
 and contact with a different and grasping race.* 
 There may be, too, a physical cause, in the fact that 
 mnlattoes, who are naturally a small population, inter- 
 marry much with one another, and thus, jfrom the 
 accumulation of like tendencies to disease, their chil- 
 dren are weakly and do not survive.f 
 
 There is nothing in the gradual diminution and 
 destruction of a savage or inferior race in contact with 
 a more civilized and powerful, which is " mysterious " 
 — as is frequently said — or which has anything to do 
 with the subject of hybridity. The first 
 
 No mystery. 
 
 gifts of civilization are naturally fatal to a 
 barbarous people, from the fact that their constitutions 
 and habits have been formed under entirely different 
 circumstances, and it requires time to adapt them to 
 the new conditions. Thus it is related that the Sand- 
 
 * Thia must not be understood to be a poetic or sentimental state- 
 ment. It is a scientific consideration now, in explaining the diminution 
 of any barbarous or inferior race in presence of a more powerful one — 
 the effect on the spirits or temperament which the contrast of a different 
 and more fortunate people causes. No doubt with the North American 
 Indian, melancholy is to be set down in the driest statistical list of the 
 causes of his decline. 
 
 ■f- " We suspect that this {i. e., the lessening of vigor and fertility by 
 close interbreeding) is not an ultimate fact, but a natural consequence 
 of inheritance — the inheritance of disease or tendency to disease, which 
 close interbreeding perpetuates and accumulates, but wide breeding may 
 neutralize or eliminate." (Dr. A. Gray, Rev. of Darwin's Theory, &c., 
 p. 15.) This most ingenious suggestion, we believe, is original with Dr. 
 Gray, to whose investigations and clear reasonings on the subject of the 
 formation of varieties, every student of races is under such great obli- 
 gations. 
 
4:92 THE KACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 wich Islanders first began to take cold after wearing 
 clothes ! Then a savage race are always inclined to 
 the destructive stimulants of civilized races — as alco- 
 hol, tobacco, and opium — without having the intelli- 
 gence to guard against their ill-effects. So with the 
 diseases of civilization : and even the food of a house- 
 dwelling people is sometimes entirely unsuited to an 
 outdoor and active people. Morbid appetites for new 
 food arise, as it is said that the Maori of Kew Zealand 
 have been diminishing since 1830, principally from 
 the disorders brought on by eating jput/rid corn, im- 
 ported by Europeans. 
 
 A barbarous people in contact with a higher peo- 
 ple, is frequently diminished or exterminated from the 
 destruction of game caused by the superior skill of the 
 Causes of Other. Thus the Indian Commission, ac- 
 extinction. cording to Wilson, reported in 1858 of the 
 Montfignars, on the Lower St. Lawrence, that " they 
 were diminishing rapidly, upwards of 300 have died 
 within ten years, one half of whom have fallen victims 
 to starvation," — owing to the fish and game having 
 been so much diminished by the whites. 
 
 One of the greatest causes, however, is often ne- 
 glected by investigators, that is, intermarriage. It is 
 evident from Dr. "Wilson's statistics, that large num- 
 bers of the Indians in British America and the United 
 States have intermarried with whites, and have be- 
 come gradually absorbed in the superior race, and are 
 
 K 
 
TJinTY OR DIVEKSITY OF OKIGIN. 493 
 
 no longer distinguishable from it : each new marriage 
 of the mixed progeny being naturally with the ruling 
 race.* 
 
 It does not necessarily follow that the civilized 
 race exterminates the savage. Sometimes the inferior 
 has the most vigor, and the cultivated people becomes 
 degraded and dwindles away, as the Portuguese 
 already described, in contact with the Malays ; or the 
 Spaniards in South America, where the mixed races 
 seem destined to have the preponderance. Sometimes 
 two races of very different origin can live ,j,^„ ^^^^^ 
 side by side for centuries, each falfilling its 
 separate office, as the brown and light Brahmanic 
 Aryans of India with the Turanian blacks ; or they 
 can intermarry, as the uncivilized Kelts and Teutons 
 with the cultured Romans, or the Turks with the 
 Greeks. There is every reason to believe that in this 
 country, in the warm districts, the negro and white 
 can live side by side without the former diminishing, 
 as do the American Indians in contact with the 
 whites. It is only in the cold latitudes here, that the 
 negro race dwindles away.f 
 
 Nor is it necessarily true, that mixed races are in- 
 
 * Of the famous Mohawks, says Wilson, only tioo are found on the 
 Bay of Quinte, unmixed with white blood. 
 
 f The increase of the total black population, both free and slave, of 
 the Southern States from 1840-50, was 27.40 per ct., while that of the 
 whites from 1830-40, was only 26.54 per ct. 
 
 In the Northern States, New York is about the northern limit for the 
 free black popiilation — beyond this, the climate acting fatally. 
 
494: THE RACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 ferior physically ; thus, the offspring of the Turks and 
 the Moors are more beautiful than either of their par- 
 ents. The Arabs and Abyssinians produce a healthy 
 and handsome race. The much-mingled Indian pop- 
 vigorof ulation in Paraguay and Cochabamba, are 
 mixe races. jj^qj.q })eautiful after some generations than 
 the pure Spaniards. In Peru, the Chotos, a cross of 
 the Mestizo and Indian, exceed in bodily activity and 
 capacities all other races on the soil. The Feejees, 
 which are supposed to be a mixture of the Polynesians 
 with the " Oriental negroes," are a remarkably power- 
 ful race. The facts already mentioned in regard to 
 the American half-breeds are to the same effect. 
 
 Y. The most favorite objections made to Unity of 
 origin, are, that in the remotest human antiquity — at 
 least 2,500 years before Christ and near the received 
 date of the Plood — we find the different human types 
 as distinctly pictured on the monuments of Egypt, as 
 they exist now. The low negro-type, the brown Tu- 
 ranian, the Semitic, and the white Aryan, 
 
 Objections to ' ' ^ ' 
 
 Egyptian'" ^^® perfectly represented there. If human 
 
 monuments. i • i ■ 1 1 i i i ^ 
 
 physical types are utterly unchanged lor a 
 period of 4,000 or 4,500 years, they ask, is there any 
 reason to suppose that they changed during the 2,000 
 or 4,000 years preceding ? The negro had his black 
 skin, his thick lips, protruding jaw and curved legs ; 
 the Semite his bent nose; the Egyptian his bronze 
 complexion and voluptuous lips ; the Aryan, his white 
 
UNITY OB DIVEKSITT OF ORIGIN. 495 
 
 Bkin and noble features before the time of the Pha^ 
 raohs; — why is it to be thought that in the few 
 thousand years preceding, they had any different 
 traits ? 
 
 Who ever sees, they triumphantly inquire, a race- 
 type changing? When has the Ethiopian changed 
 his skin? When did a European ever become a 
 negro? Where has man seen an American Indian 
 pass into a white ? Where, even, has a Jew, without 
 crossing with other races, acquired a Greek or 
 English form of features ? Who ever hears of Eng- 
 lishmen or Frenchmen becoming black under the 
 Tropics ? Where does straight hair change into friz- 
 zled, or thin lips to negro-lips ? Where is the process 
 going on which shall convert one race to another ? 
 
 These we conceive to be the strongest objections 
 that can be made against the Unity of Origin, and we 
 have stated them fiiUy. 
 
 We are ready to admit that, under the received 
 Chronology, it is very difficult to account for such a 
 variety as the negro. But before reconsidering the 
 subject of the Formation of Yarieties and our expla- 
 nation, the reader must familiarize his mind with the 
 possibility of a very extended duration of the human 
 race. The Egyptian discoveries render probable a 
 greater human antiquity ; many indications over the 
 world point toward it, and now these recent geologi- 
 cal discoveries which we have described above, as 
 
496 THE EACE8 OF THE OLD WORLD. 
 
 carefully interpreted by impartial men of thorough 
 science, may be said to present a very strong proof 
 of it. "We cannot say what the duration of man has 
 been on this earth ; we do not attempt even a theory 
 Antiquity of *^^ estimate of the number of centuries or 
 ™*"' chiliads that must be added to human an- 
 
 nals. "We only rest on the probability of a much longer 
 Ume for the existence of man on this earth, than is 
 commonly supposed. 
 
 Referring back, now, to the principles already laid 
 down, of Yariation and Inheritance, we find that 
 plants and animals, when once they have begun to 
 vary, may for a time vary exceedingly, or "sport," 
 until a permanent variety or type is formed. The 
 same thing is undoubtedly true of man. 
 
 Suppose in some very remote age of the past, long 
 before the received commencement of human annals, 
 an Asiatic tribe of some intermediate type between 
 all the present races of men, had emigrated to an 
 entirely new country and climate — say to the east of 
 Formation of -^fr^ca. All the extcmal influences on the 
 a black race, pjjygjq^g Qf ^]^ tribe are changed ; the soil 
 
 (for soil is found to have an important effect on 
 human constitutions*), the water, the temperature, 
 the scenery, the miasmatic influence, the electrical, 
 the moral influences, in their different pursuits and 
 
 * See Morel's discussion of cretinism in his Traite sur lea Degeneres- 
 cenees. 
 
UNITT OR DIVEKSITY OF ORIGIN. 497 
 
 means of livelihood — all are different from wliat thej 
 have been. From these, or from some cause with 
 which we are unacquainted, a slight variety appears 
 in the offspring; it may possibly be some change 
 of internal structure, fitting the possessors to resist 
 better the destructive influences of the new climate 
 and soil ; this change may be accompanied as " a cor- 
 relating feature," with a slightly darker shade of color, 
 or a minute change in the hair, or the outward struc- 
 ture of the body. Those children, who, from un- 
 known causes, have acquired this almost imperceptible 
 advantage, are of course more likely to survive. Their 
 children, again, on the principle of Inheritance, will 
 in the first place tend to be like their im- j^^turai 
 mediate parents, but they will also tend in *® ^*^*'°°' 
 a less degree to be like all their parents ; so that the 
 " attractions " of resemblance, will, in some cases, be 
 compounded of the closer and stronger attraction 
 toward the variety, and that toward all the ancestors, 
 or the type of the species. The resultant will natu- 
 rally be some new variety of color or structure. In 
 this way, we can understand how, for a given time, 
 there might be started many varieties of man, after 
 once the variation had begun. This would go on for 
 a certain period — perhaps during many centuries — 
 and there would be only two limits to the new varie- 
 ties ; one would be the Principle of Inheritance, which 
 would always make the children like their long line 
 
498 THE BACE8 OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 of ancestors, and thus keep the type of the species, 
 Principle of ^^^ preserve the child from changing into 
 anything but a Maw ; and the other, the 
 advantage of the variations to their possessors. 
 
 In the case supposed, we have imagined a slightly 
 darker shade of color, the correlating feature to some 
 imperceptible advantage of structure or function. 
 This is not an improbable supposition. There are 
 many correlating features which accompany changes 
 Correlating ^^ structuro and function — why, we cannot 
 tell. We know not why blue eyes and 
 light color should be connected with a sanguine tem- 
 perament ; why the feathered feet and skin between 
 the toes of young pigeons should have anything to do 
 with their future color; why a female cat is more 
 likely to have the tortoise-shell fur ; why a cock with 
 a large " top-knot " has usually a smaller comb ; why 
 a deformity in one part of the human frame has often 
 a corresponding deformity in another part." 
 
 We do see certain cases where the internal func- 
 tions have a direct effect on the complexion — as the 
 condition of the liver. Without, then, explaining it, 
 we merely suppose that slight variations have arisen, 
 which are of benefit to those who possess them. Their 
 offspring, again, in so far as these variations are 
 adapted to their new circumstances, will be more 
 likely to live and transmit descendants; and these 
 variations will increase according as they are of profit. 
 
tTNTTY OR DIVEKSITY OF ORIGIN. 499 
 
 and continue to increase and deviate from the parent 
 stock, until they have reached the utmost point in 
 which these peculiar features are beneficial. Those 
 destitute of these advantages, will be more likely on a 
 broad scale to perish, and in the process of ages only 
 those will remain who have them; and with them, 
 when the time comes that the extreme va- -^^^^^^^i 
 
 ... , n, 11 i? 'j.' selection. 
 
 nations are not profitable or are oi positive 
 loss, those having them will be less likely to live than 
 those with less extreme variations, and so the last 
 profitable variation will continue and become perma- 
 nent, because adapted to its circumstances. 
 
 If the supposed tribe were — like most of the early 
 tribes of men — ^nomadic, the variations we have 
 imagined would be the more likely to occur; each 
 variety either arising or perpetuating itself, according 
 as it was adapted to the new climates and countries 
 which the tribe visited. 
 
 We see no difficulty on this supposition — on the 
 Darwinian tlieory of an imperceptible accumulation 
 of profitable changes through long periods Darwinian 
 of time, which few wiU question in regard ^^^°^^- 
 to man — of accounting for the origin of the negro 
 from the white man, or from the brown, or from some 
 other race.* 
 
 * " So long as physiologists continued to believe that man had not ex- 
 isted on the earth above six thousand years, they might, with good 
 reason, withhold their assent from the doctrine of a unity of origin of so 
 
500 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 It may be thought that on this view we do not 
 make enough of the direct effect of climate in forming 
 a race. We are quite ready to admit the immense in- 
 fluence of climate on the physique of man. The facts 
 in this Treatise — especially those presented in the ac- 
 count of the African races — ^go to show that elevation 
 and coolness of temperature are usually associated 
 either with a race of lighter complexion, or with a 
 lighter branch of the same race. Still there are many 
 exceptions to this in Africa, and especially in Austra- 
 ciimate not lasia ; and though it is ungracious to pick a 
 
 sole cause n • -i i • i> -i * n 
 
 of vaiiation. Haw m the teachmgs oi the great master of 
 the science of Ethnology — Pkichakd — we conceive 
 that the weakness of his argument for Unity, was -in 
 laying too exclusive stress on the effects of climate. 
 Such is the power of Eace, or of the Principle of 
 Inheritance, that we are not surprised at finding the 
 probable descendants of the ancient Yandals in l^orth 
 Africa still blonde with blue eyes, and the !N"orth 
 American negro as black as his Congo ancestor 200 
 years ago. 
 
 So again, we find the Mexicans in their compara- 
 tively cool districts, darker than the native races of 
 the hottest countries of South America; and the 
 
 many distinct races ; but the diflSculty becomes less and less, exactly in 
 proportion as we enlarge our ideas of the lapse of time, during which 
 different communities may have spread slowly and become isolated, each 
 exposed for ages to a pecuhar set of conditions, whether of temperature, 
 or food, or danger, or ways of living." (Lyell, Ant. of Man, p. 386.) 
 
UNITY OK DrVEKSITY OF ORIGIN. 501 
 
 Guiacas at the sources of the Orinoco, whiter than 
 the Indians in precisely the same latitude Exceptions 
 
 • J 7 .to climatic 
 
 and circumstances. ( w aiz, Anthropologte.) influence. 
 Neither does height — as has been intimated — always 
 necessarily cause a lighter complexion, as witness 
 some tribes on the mountains around the Gulf of 
 Guinea, and the inhabitants of the mountains of New 
 Guinea and the Philippines, as well as of many other 
 islands in Oceanica, who are as black as the blackest 
 negroes that dwell on the plains. The Malayan race 
 has the same complexion, stature, and features on the 
 equator and twenty degrees away from it ; in moun- 
 tainous islands as in level islands. The color of the 
 Malays under the equator is nearly the same with that 
 of the Esquimaux of the arctic circle. " At the same 
 distance from the equator," says Crawfiird, " we find 
 fair Europeans, yellow Chinese, red Americans, and 
 black Australians." 
 
 "We do not call in climate alone, but all external 
 influences and internal mental powers re- yariation 
 acting on the bodily, as an explanation of '^°^^p^*'°* 
 variation ; and, taking all the analogies of the animal 
 world, we say that we cannot fairly explain the laws 
 by which Nature forms varieties : nor are we forced 
 to by our argument. 
 
 On the theory we have stated, there would be a 
 period in human history — just as there is in the history 
 of plants — when numerous varieties of man would 
 
502 THE KA0E8 OF THE OLD WOKLD, 
 
 appear. After a long course of time, each variety be- 
 comes adapted to its country, and climate, and pur- 
 suits : and all the spaces for human varieties are filled 
 up. Tlien the principle of Inheritance comes in to 
 make the variety permanent, inasmuch as the at- 
 traction of resemblance would be toward a long line 
 of ancestors who had already varied from the original 
 stock; and as time passed on, this attraction would 
 become the stronger, and it would be the more diffi- 
 cult to break away from the line; thus at length 
 the varieties, after long courses of time, would become 
 Permanent PeTm(Mhent Tyj^BS. In this view, the fact of 
 varieties. ^^ ncgro presenting his pure type 4,000 
 years ago, unchanged, is what we should expect. 
 Neither in these few centuries or chiliads, should we 
 expect to see liis type changing into that of the white. 
 We should be prepared to see Permcment Human 
 Yarieties ', unchanged in the historic period, each 
 with its own features, its habits, its peculiar diseases, 
 and its separate exposure to disease, even each with 
 its own parasites and its own odors.* 
 
 * In regard to this, M. Hue says that though the Chinese did not 
 penetrate their disguise, the dogs always smelt them and barked at 
 them. He states that he learned to distinguish the different odors of 
 Negroes, Tartars, Thibetans, Hindoos, Arab, and Chinese. The North 
 American Indians are said by Galton to have an entirely peculiar odor, 
 as probably do many tribes of negroes. Humboldt states similar facts 
 of Mexicans and negroes. Reugger observes (according to Waiz) that 
 acclimatized Europeans in Paraguay acquire an unpleasant odor to their 
 skin, and in consequence, are less troubled with musquitoes and insects. 
 
tTNITY OK DIVEESITY OF ORIGIN. 503 
 
 Then a degree of correspondence of tlie man witli 
 the faima and flora of given latitudes," * would be 
 the natural effect of a variety grown up after ages of 
 trial, in adaptation to its circumstances ; and precisely 
 what we should expect. 
 
 "We should also on this theory, count upon an 
 Imperceptible Gradation of the varieties of men, every 
 shade of color and physical type running jje-statement 
 into one another ; we should expect that all "^''"'s^^"*- 
 varieties would hreed fruitfully with one another ; we 
 should he prepared for given groups of a remote 
 common origin, emhracing very diverse physical types ^ 
 we should sometimes, though rarely, expect to see 
 Cha/nges of Type / and we should expect to find an 
 utter Community of Constitution and Nature among 
 men. 
 
 Of parasites, Dr. Bachman, according to Smyth, states tliat there are 
 twenty-one species, infesting different parts of the human system, and 
 that they trouble equally the white and black races. There is a species of 
 lice, infesting the negro, darker than that found on the white, while the 
 mulatto has one of an intermediate shade — the coloring matter probably 
 being supplied from beneath the human skin. It passes, however, from 
 the black nurse to the white child indifferently. (Smyth, p. 162.) The 
 tape-worms of human beings are said by Owen to be different in the 
 different nations of Europe. The tame swine has a different species of 
 parasite from that found on the wild. 
 
 * Prof. Agassiz's view, as set forth in Gliddon and Nott's " Types." 
 We need not say that the whole course of ethnological investigation haa 
 been against his classification of "realms of men," as indicating separate 
 origin or local creation. This Treatise itself has been a continual state- 
 ment on the other side. Still we would not doubt that there is a certain 
 correspondence, in certain cases, between the human beings and the 
 animal and vegetable kingdoms. 
 
504 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOBLD. 
 
 All these things are discovered as facts, and of the 
 last Dr. Smyth has thus well summed up : 
 
 Men are essentially the same, he says, in their location, food, 
 employments, and character ; in their embryonic condition and 
 transformations; in the number, variety, and composition of 
 their tissues ; in the number, character, and purpose of those 
 large and distinctly limited cavities, destined for the lodgment 
 „ .^ . of certain organs, such as the brains, lungs, &c, : in 
 
 the well-defined and compact form of the organs 
 lodged in these cavities ; in the process by which the food is 
 elaborated and digested ; in the peculiar organs which give the 
 sensation of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch ; in the struc- 
 ture and position of the eye, ear, and nose ; in that perception, 
 memory, and reasoning, which constitute intelligence ; * in the 
 entire skeleton, which is an essential test of species; in the 
 functions of digestion, circulation, secretion, and respiration ; in 
 their teeth, their hearts, their skin, their glands ; in all the pecu- 
 liarities of the two sexes ; in ovulation ; in the gradation of 
 more and more complicated adaptation by which they are dis- 
 tinguished ; in the same general appearance ; and in all those 
 transformations which precede or which succeed birth. 
 
 !N"ow if these are facts, on what hypothesis can 
 they be explained so naturally and philosophically, as 
 Descent from ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ commuuity of dcsccnt, of all 
 one pair. ^-^^ tribcs of mankind, from one pair ? It is 
 Tinphilosophical to suppose more causes than are suffi- 
 
 * The alleged incapacity for rapid progress in learning of negro 
 children, after they have reached fourteen or fifteen years, is not peculiar 
 to them, but is manifested by Sandwich Island, Nubian and Egyptian 
 children. (Waiz.) 
 
UNITY OR DIVEESITY OF ORIGrN". 605 
 
 cient to explain the facts. One pair, one source, will 
 account for all these results : why need we suppose 
 several pairs ? 
 
 Still farther, the supposition of a separate creation 
 of each human variety will not meet all the conditions 
 of the case. Under that theory, we could not account 
 for all the facts stated above. 
 
 The conclusion to which we have thus come on 
 philosophical grounds — of the greatly over-balancing 
 probabilities in favor of the descent of mankind from 
 one pair — will explaiil some of the apparent defects in 
 the Science of Ethnology, and the causes which have 
 led to this Treatise. Man being of but one causes of 
 
 defects of 
 
 species and one origin, it is to be expected classification. 
 that the varieties which spring from the original 
 stock, would be distinguished from one another with 
 great difficulty, and that a definite race-mark would be 
 a thing not easily found. Accordingly, we may un- 
 derstand why almost every new writer on Human 
 Races has a classification of his own. Scarcely any 
 marks of a human variety are permanent. They con- 
 tinually shade into one another, or are changed or 
 pass away. Whether the distinctive feature be the 
 shape of the skull, or the nature of the hair, or the 
 color, or the facial outline, or any other physical 
 peculiarity, we find that it does not belong exclusively 
 22 
 
506 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 to any one nation or race, or to all its individuals. 
 This is what we should expect on the hypothesis of 
 Unity of Origin (for which we have been arguing) ; 
 and one natural effect is, that little agreement can be 
 reached among investigators in their classification of 
 races. One divides the human family into three 
 races, another into five, another into eleven, and 
 another into sixty-three. 
 
 The same objection may equally be urged against 
 the classification followed in this Treatise — ^that by 
 Language. Its superiority to the division by physical 
 Superiority of traits lics iu the facts that the distinctions 
 
 classification 
 
 by language, on which it rcsts are 'more permanent and 
 less affected by outward circumstances than the physi- 
 ological marks of race, and that the groups which it 
 unites by similar characteristics, indicative of commu- 
 nity of descent, and the groups which it separates 
 from others by these same features, include every 
 variety of physical peculiarities usually thought dis- 
 tinctive of human races. "When once an objector to 
 this classification has admitted the Aryan or Indo- 
 European class of peoples, as a group of races con- 
 nected by the bonds of a common descent, he has ad- 
 mitted a new principle of arrangement of human 
 varieties, and has tacitly allowed that a very extreme 
 divergence of physical features is consistent with a 
 community of origin. 
 
 "We would not by this deny the existence of dis- 
 
TTNTTY OE DIVEKSITY OF OEIGDT. 507 
 
 tinct physical types among men, transmitted and long 
 preserved. We only urge that these are not so per- 
 manent or distinctive, or so characteristic of the 
 common origin of given groups, as types of language. 
 "We trust that this has been fairly proved by the facts 
 brought forward in this work. 
 
 If aturally, as was before said, against this principle 
 of arrangement, there lie similar objections to those 
 urged against the physiological division. Eelated 
 languages absorb one another, or fuse together; in 
 some cases, a language entirely disappears in contact 
 with another of very different character; objecHonsto 
 
 . , n 1 classification 
 
 sumlar peculiarities of structure are found by language. 
 in tongues, separated by immense spaces. "With 
 regard to a portion of the Turanian races, it is still a 
 matter of dispute whether their linguistic resemblances 
 are a mark of comm^anity of descent, or only of a like 
 stage of progress and development. 
 
 These also are what we should expect from a 
 universal community of descent of mankind. Even 
 the clearest test of a human variety would be exposed 
 to doubt. Still, these apparent objections can be 
 fairly answered. We have only claimed and attempt- 
 ed by facts to support that Languages are the hest 
 Evidence of Mace * — not a perfect and exclusive test. 
 
 * We quote from a note in Lewis's " Romance Languages : " 
 The pertinacious adherence of mankind to their mother tongue (says 
 Mr. Anderson, in his work on the Irish language), might be verified by a 
 
508 THE EACES OF THE OLD WOKLD. 
 
 We have attempted to show that when related lan- 
 eruaffes fuse, the different elements are still 
 
 Language o o > 
 
 race^ol^the manifest to the eye of the scholar. We 
 on y one. \^q^^q resorted to history, to popular dialects, 
 and to the nomenclature of local objects, for the pur- 
 pose of filling out the defective evidence in the spoken 
 or written languages. !No proof has been afforded us 
 of the absolute disappearance of a tongue of any one 
 of the three great Families, in contact with another, 
 while a sufficient number of the race sur- 
 
 Apparent 
 
 exceptions, y^yed to form a community. Apparent 
 exceptions to this may indeed occur, where small 
 numbers of individuals are gradually transported to a 
 foreign country, their language becoming absorbed 
 
 number of remarkable proofs. "It is a curious fact," says a writer in 
 the Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. xx, p. 490, " that the hills of 
 King's Seal and Craigy Barns, which form the lower boundary of Dowally 
 (parish in Perthshire), have been for centuries the separatory barrier of 
 the English and Gaelic. In the first house below them, the English is 
 and has been spoken, and the Gaelic in the first house, not above a mile 
 distant, above them." In different parts of Ireland something similar to 
 this will be found. It is said, that on crossing the river Barrow, a very 
 striking difference is observable ; on the eastern bank, English is spoken 
 and Irish scarcely known ; a little way interior it is quite the reverse. 
 (p. 48.) 
 
 Lyell also remarks : 
 
 " We may compare the persistency of languages, or the tendency of 
 each generation to adopt without change the vocabulary of its prede- 
 cessor, to the force of inheritance in the organic world, which causes the 
 oflFspring to resemble its parents. The inventive power which coins new 
 words or modifies old ones, and adapts them to new wants and conditions 
 as often as these arise, answers to the variety-making power in the 
 animate creation." (Ant. of Man, p. 467.) 
 
UNITY OK DIVEKSITT OF ORIGIN. 509 
 
 into that of the superior race — as with the Africans in 
 the West Indies and the United States. 
 
 Such instances are happily rare. But even with 
 them, History on the one side, and a close Knguistic 
 study on the other, could easily demonstrate the mix- 
 ture of tongues, and the foreign origin of the inferior 
 race and speech.* 
 
 * Creole French, says a writer in the March "Atlantic," 1863, was 
 created by the negroes (of San Domingo), who put into it very few words 
 of their native dialects, but something of the native construction and 
 certain euphonic peculiarities. It is interesting to trace their love of 
 alliteration and a concord of sounds in this mongrel French, which be- 
 came a neiv colonial language. The bright and sparkling French ap- 
 pears as if submitted to great heat, and just on the point of running 
 together. There is a great family of African dialects, in which a princi- 
 pal sound, or the chief sound of a leading word, appears in all the words 
 of a sentence, from no grammatical reason at all, but to satisfy a sweetish 
 ear. It is like the charming gabble of children, who love to follow the 
 first key that the tongue strikes. * * * These characteristics appear 
 in the formation of the Creole French, in connection with another child- 
 like habit of the negro, who loves to put himself in the objective case, 
 and to say me instead of /, as if he knew that he had to be a chattel. 
 
 The article ««, une, could not have been pronounced by a negro ; it 
 became in his mouth nion. The personal pronouns _;e, tu^ il, were con- 
 verted into mo, to, ly, and the possessive mon, ton, son, into d, moue, d, 
 toue, d ly, and were placed after the noun, wluch negro dialects generally 
 start their sentences with. Possessive pronouns had the unmeaning 
 syllable quien before them, as JVous gagne quien ct, nous, for Nous avons 
 les notres ; and demonstrative pronouns were changed in this way : Mo 
 voir z'animaux Id, 'yo, for J''ai vu ces anim,aux, and Ci la yo qui te vivre, 
 for Ceux qui out vecu. A few more examples will suffice to make other 
 changes clear. A negro was asked to lend his horse ; he replied, Mou- 
 chie (Monsieur) mo pas gagne choual, mais mo connais qui gagne ly, si 
 ly pas gagne ly, lyfaut mo gagne ly, pour vous gagne : " Massa me not 
 got horse, but me know who got um ; if him not got um, him get me um 
 for you." Quelquechose becomes quichou ; zozo = oiseau ; gournee = 
 
510 THE KACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 The migrations of whole tribes or nations, seldom 
 cause an entire or immediate change of language. 
 With respect to the similar features of language in 
 nations at a vast distance — of which so much is made 
 by the learned Prof. Pott, in his arguments against 
 p^^^,g this theory — though they may in some cases 
 
 objections. -^^ merely marks of a similar stage of devel- 
 opment, it may in many others be more philosophical 
 to regard them as the effects of very distant migra- 
 
 comhattre ; guete =. voir; zombi ■=■ revenant; bouge = demeurer ; hele '■ 
 = appeler ; et cet. Here is a verse of Creole song, written in imitation 
 of the negro dialect : 
 
 Dipi mo perdi Lissette 
 Mo pas souchie Calinda, 
 Mo quitte bram-bram sonette 
 Mo pas batte bamboula 
 Quand mo centre Taut negresse, 
 Mo pas gagne z'yeu pour ly, 
 Mo pas souchie travail pifece, 
 Ton qui chose a moue mouri. 
 
 The French of which is as follows : 
 
 Mes pas, loin de ma Lissette, 
 S'eloignent du Calinda ; 
 Et ma ceinture a sonnette 
 Languit sur mon bamboula. 
 Mon ceil de toute autre belle 
 N'aper§oit plus le souris ; 
 Le travail en vain m'appelle, 
 Mes sens sent aneantis. 
 
 We quote again from a note in Lewis's " Romance Languages : " 
 Ainsi nous voyons encore aujourd'hui des gens du peuple transportes 
 dans un pays etranger, se faire avec ceux dont ils ont besoin, un patois 
 de convention qui n'est le leur, ni celui de leurs botes, mais que tons 
 
CONCLUSION. 511 
 
 tions of certain tribes, and thus evidences of commu- 
 nity of origin. And even if sustained, these objections 
 only hold against the Turanian class, not against this 
 general classification by language. 
 
 CONCXUSION, 
 
 It win be seen from the views presented in this 
 Treatise, that we do not regard the Races of men now 
 existing as permanent. Their lines con- ^acesnot 
 verge into one another in the past, and they p^™*°®°*- 
 may meet again in the future or they may cease 
 altogether. They are long successions of human 
 
 deux comprennent, et qui empeche tous deux d'arrirer, k la langue de 
 I'ua ou de I'autre. Ainsi dans les bagnes de I'Afrique et de Constantino- 
 ple des esclaves Chretiens de toutes les parties de I'Europe meles avec 
 les Maures, n'ont point enseigne a ceux-ci leur langage, et n'ont point 
 appris, celui des Maures ; mais ils se reneontrent avec eux dans un jargon 
 barbare qu'on nomme langue franque ; il est compose des mots romans 
 les plus necessaires k la vie commune depouilles des terminaisons qui 
 marquent les temps et les cas, et unis ensemble sans syntaxe. Ainsi dans 
 des colonies d'Amerique, les planteurs s'entendaient avec les negres dans 
 la langue Creole, qui est de meme le Frangais mis k la portee d'un peu- 
 ple barbare, en le depouillant de tout ce qui donne de la precision, de 
 la force, ou de la souplesse. (Litterature du Midi, vol. i, p. 19, and 
 compare p. 33.) " The Moravians have translated the Bible and a book 
 of hymns into the Talkee-talkee or negro language, of which they have 
 also composed a grammar. It is curious that this patois of the blacks, 
 though it includes many African words, should have for its basis the 
 English language, pared of inflexions, and softened by a multitude of 
 vowel terminations. (Bolingbroke, Voyage to Demarari/, cited in the 
 Quarterly Review, vol. xliii, p. 553, where specimens are given of a 
 similar negro corruption of the Dutch language, in which the inflexions 
 are also obscured." p. 22.) 
 
512 THE RACES OF THE OLD WOELD. 
 
 beings, bound to one another by tbe tie of blood, 
 whose similar qualities and povv^ers enable us to con- 
 sider each race as an individual. Like individuals, 
 each group has* its pecuKar office and duty in the 
 world's developmpnt, and manifests on a broad scale 
 the Divine ideas which it is the province of human 
 history to unfold. Like them too, a Eace may die 
 young, or it may live a weakly life, or it may grow to 
 a vigorous maturity, or it may wear out from luxury 
 and vicious indulgence. The same grand retributive 
 laws, whether physical or moral, that govern individ- 
 uals, govern races. 
 
 In a work upon Man, it is not inappropriate to 
 The destiny spcak, in couclusion, of his moral destiny, 
 o man. especially as connected with the question 
 
 of Race. 
 
 The great design of the Creator, in the world, we 
 reverently believe to be, the development of each 
 human being into " the perfect man in Christ Jesus," 
 and the building up of an organic ^^ Kingdom of 
 GodP And as God hath been once especially mani- 
 fested in Humanity that He might draw all things 
 to Himself, and as all human history is henceforth 
 only the course of the slow working of this Divine 
 Life among men, may we not hope that, after the 
 long lapse of ages, the Spirit of Christ shall so fill the 
 individual men that at length a Kace shall be born, 
 who shall embody and transmit Divine ideas and 
 
CONCLUSION. 513 
 
 inspirations, and thus an organic " Kingdom of God " 
 be formed among nations, and so the goal of Hu- 
 manity be reached ? 
 
 Then shall the mysterious property of Inheritance 
 — ^the centre of so many theological problems — which 
 had transmitted the effects of the first violation of 
 conscience and the first indulgence of a selfish wiU, 
 through innumerable generations with constantly in- 
 creasing power, at last be turned to the side of good- 
 ness and purity, and Truth and Holiness be equally 
 inherited and embodied among men. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 22* 
 
l^TOTE S. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 (') Arya in later Sanskrit means "a Lord" or "of good family." 
 The Zend-avesta, the Yedic hymns, the kuneiform inscriptions and the 
 traditions reported by Herodotus show that this name was applied by 
 the Hindoos, the Persians and Medes to their own race. Some connect 
 it with the root AR (to plough) ; Aryans then meaning the agricultural 
 tribes. See M. Miiller's Sc. of Lang. (=') {^) (^) (^) Max Miiller. 
 
 Bunsen, p. 23T. Turanians. The Hindoos called the heretical coun- 
 tries outside of AryS, (the Honorable Land), " Turyd " or " outside of 
 Arya," or " the dishonorable." The Persians also called the misbeliev- 
 ing lands to the north and east, inhabited by those who did not worship 
 the sun, " ?Kraw," or " beyond Iran." Touran indicates perhaps geo- 
 graphically Turkistan, and the Turks, as the type of the class of nations, 
 included under the term Turanians, which as a name, is certainly equally 
 appropriate with the name " Indo-European " given to the Aryan races. 
 See Gliddon and Nott's Indig. Races. Quotation from Bergmann. Miiller 
 makes the essential meaning of Turanians {Tura) refer to the " swiftness 
 of the horse," thus describing the nomadic races, in distinction from the 
 agricultural. (Sc. of Lang., p. 238). (") Herodotus alludes to the 
 
 Scythian element everywhere in Western Asia. Berosus, a priest of Bel 
 in Babylon, who wrote down the Babylonian traditions in Greek about 
 280 B. c, and Justin plainly speak of this empire. Q) (') Rawlin- 
 
 son's Herodotus, vol. i, p. 434, p. 648. (') In modern times, in 
 
 Persian, Arabic and Turkish. See Oppert's Exped. Scien. Q") Raw- 
 
 linson's Herodotus, vol. i, p. 426. (") Renan, Knobel, and Max 
 
 Miiller. Lang, at the Seat of War, p. 23. (") Hansen's Philos. of 
 
NOTES. 515 
 
 Hist., vol. i, p. 185. (") Pliny states that the inhabitants of the 
 
 banks of the Nile were not ^Ethiopians but Arabs. According to He- 
 rodotus, the current opinion did not place Egypt as a geographical 
 part of Africa. (") Rawl. Herod., i, p. 650. Knobel's Volkertafel. 
 
 (") Pliny (3 Proem) speaks of the Nile as the boundary of Asia. Strabo, 
 i, pp. 48-51. ('") The Somauli language, the language of the Dana- 
 
 kil, Adaiel, and Ashantis show Hamitic or Cushite traces (Renan. Les 
 Langues Semitiques). 
 
 CHAPTER m. 
 
 (') Authorities consulted, — Brugsch. Boeckh. Bunsen, Lepsius' Kon- 
 igsbuch der alten Egypter. 1858. Nolan. Poole. Seyffarth. TThlemann. 
 {") Bunsen's Egypt, v, 336. (') Herod, i, 443. {*) Herod, i, 319. Op- 
 pert. Dr. Brandis. Herzog's Real Encyclopsedie (Ninive). Knobel's Volk- 
 ertafel. Renan (Les Lang. Sem.). C. Niebuhr, Gesch. Assurs. Gut- 
 schmidt. Chowlson's Ueberreste d. Alt. Bab. Lit. Oppert's Exped. 
 Sc. (') The arrow-headed writing is divided into three classes : 
 
 (a) The old Persian (or Aryan), employed in monumental inscriptions by 
 the Persian kings from Cyrus to Artaxerxes HI, as an alphabet of an 
 Aryan language. It closes with the Achsemenides. This is the simplest 
 class ; the figures representing letters, and there being only 60 signs. 
 
 (b) The Turanian (or Scythic), used to express Turanian dialects. 
 
 (c) Tlie Semitic. This last is the most difficult and confused — each figure 
 representing a syllable. The Assyrian arrow-headed inscriptions are 
 nearly the same with the last, and even more difficult. Most common 
 words are interpreted in them, but proper names are exceedingly doubt- 
 ful. They contain more than 500 signs, the figures represent syllables. 
 The arrow-head reaches as far west as Cyprus and Beirut, and east to 
 Bactria. The Susian, Armenian and Chaldee inscriptions are classed 
 by Oppert under the Turanian or 2d class, but not so intimately con- 
 nected with it, as Rawlinson intimates. 
 
 CHAPTER TV. 
 
 Q) Max Miiller, Lang, at Seat of "War. (') Gesenius and H. Hadley. 
 (') Rawlinson. (*) Max Miiller. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 (') Bunsen. M. Miiller. Lassen. (') Mommsen. (') Dr. Haug's 
 Vendidad. Bunsen. (*) (') Rawlinson's Herod. 
 
516 NOTES. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 (') (') Duncker, Gesch. d. Alth. Movers. (') Ezekiel, 27, 10, 
 
 20. Isaiah, 60, 5, 9. (") (^) Rawlinson. Duncker. Kruger. 
 
 (') (') Rawlinson. (") Eawlinson's Herod. Diet, of Gr. and Rom. 
 
 Geog. Niebuhr. (") Curtius' Grec. Gesch. Merivale. Thirl wall. 
 
 Niebuhr. Grote. Rawlinson. Duncker. Mommsen. Prichard. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 (') Gobineau. Weinhold. Schafarik. Leonzon le Due. Riihs. 
 Rezius, et alii. C^) M. de Troyon. Gobineau. Rawlinson. See 
 
 Owen's Brit. Foss. Mamm., and Wilson's Pre-Historic Annals. (^) In 
 
 Lorraine (v. Gobineau). They are also found in Denmark, according 
 toWorsaae. {*) Diet. Gr. and Rom. Geog. Niebuhr, et alii. (*) Ar- 
 nold. (*) Prichard. Latham. Bunsen. Aufrecht. M. Miiller. 
 {') Worsaae. Wilson, et alii. 
 
 CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 THE KELTS. 
 
 (') Kelts rather than Celts is in harmony with Greek analogy, and is 
 coming now into general use, even by English writers. (^) Authori- 
 
 ties consulted : Prichard's East. Orig. of Keltic Nat. Latham's Ethnol. 
 Thierry's Hist, des Gaul. Dr. C. Meyer (Bunsen). M. Miiller. Nie- 
 buhr. Mommsen's Rom. Gesch. Diet, of Greek and Rom. Geog. 
 Encyc. Brit. Gobineau. Parke Godwin. Mone. (') Dr. 0. 
 
 Meyer and others. (*) M. Miiller. Dr. Meyer. (*) Mommsen. 
 
 Niebuhr. Arnold. Bunsen. Steubb. (^) Mommsen. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 (') Keferstein. Dr. Wirth. Prichard. Zeuss. Ersch und Gruber. 
 Tacitus (Latham's). (^) Wirth. Gesch. d. D. Staaten. Diet, of 
 
 Gr. and Rom. Geog. (^) {*) (^) De Gobineau. Staats Lexikon (D. 
 
 Stamme). Dr. Wittmann. Link. Zoepfl. Scherr. Parke Godwin, 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 (^) Schafarik. Zeuss. Keferstein. De Gobineau. Prichard. Gu- 
 rowski. Talvi, et alii. (' *) Many writers make the Wendes a third 
 
 division, but Jornandes' classification seems the more probable. He 
 
NOTES. 517 
 
 says: "Winidorum natio populosa consedit. Quorum nomina, licet 
 nunc per rarias familias et loca mutentur, principaliter tamen Sclaveni 
 et Antes nominantur (c. 5). (^) Max Miiller. (') Schafarik. 
 
 (*) M. MiiUer. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 (^) Diet, of Gr. and Rom. Geog. Zeuss. Koeppen. Vivien De St. 
 Martin. (') Latham. (') Prichard claims them as Turkic, but 
 
 the evidence produced by Viv. de St. Martin in his monogram on the 
 Khazars, seems to establish their Fiimic origin. 
 
 CHAPTER Xn. 
 
 SEMITES. 
 
 (*) Koeppen. Gibbon. Dr. W. H. Thompson on Pre-Islamitic 
 Arabs. 
 
 THE TURANIANS. 
 
 {^) Stritter, Memor. pop. e script. Byzant. Ritter. Prichard. De 
 Guignes. Viv. de St. Martin. M. Miiller. Koeppen. 
 
 THE MONGOLS. 
 
 (') Prichard. Koeppen. Gibbon. M. Miiller. D'Ohsson fils. De 
 Guignes. Plath. Ritter. Von Hammer — Purgstall. (") M. Miiller. 
 
 CHAPTER Xm. 
 
 (') Lassen. Max Miiller. Prichard. Joum. Asiat. Soc., 1852. 
 (Capt. S. C. Macpherson. L. Gen. Briggs.) Amer. Orient. Soc. Journ., 
 1854. J. R. Logan. E. Behm. (Peterman's Geo. Mitt. (185*7).) 
 (>») J.R.Logan. O Lassen. f) M. Miiller. (*) Mr. Hodg- 
 
 son. Journ. As. Soc. of Bengal, 1849. (^) Prichard. (°) Amer. 
 
 Or. Soc. Joum. Brit. Assoc, 1850. Abor. Tribes of India. J, 
 Briggs. R. Caldwell. E. Webb, (') M. Miiller in Bunsen's Phil, 
 
 of Univers. Hist. Prichard. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 CHINESE. 
 
 (') Prichard. M. Miiller. (Amer. Or. Soc. Joum.), W. Whitney. 
 E. Biot (Journ. Asiat.). Williams. Hue. Chinese Repertory. 
 Kaeuffer, Gesch. Ost Asien. Maury. (La Terre, et cet) Humboldt. Kawi- 
 
518 NOTES. 
 
 sprach. Klaproth. (") J. R. Logan. (') {*) Rev. S. R. Brown. 
 
 (*) Chinese Repertory, 1845. («) Kaeuffer. (') Prichard. 
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 (^) Ersch. u. Gruber. Kaeuffer, et alii. (») (") Amer. Expedit. 
 
 Ethnog. of Lew Chew Islands. (") Prichard. Encyc. Brit. Klap- 
 
 roth. Pott. D. M. Z. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 TIBETANS. 
 
 C) Cunningham's Ladak. Prichard. Miiller. Hue. (') Bun- 
 
 sen's Phil, of Hist. (=) Cunningham. {*) Prichard. 
 
 TUNGUSIANS. 
 
 C) (^) M. MuUer. C) Williams' China. (s) Gastrin and 
 
 Castren's Tung. Spr. (1856). 
 
 MONGOLS. 
 
 (') Hue's Tartary. Atkinson's Siberia. Prichard. Latham. El- 
 phinstone's Cabul. Remusat's Lang. Tart. Castren, Buriat. Spr. 
 (1866). (") Williams' China. (") R6musat. (") Elphin- 
 
 stone. 
 
 SAMOIEDES. 
 
 (') Castren. Latham, Prichard. 
 
 CHAPTER XVL 
 
 TURKS. 
 
 (') M. Miiller, Latham. Prichard. Atkinson. Petermann's Geog. 
 &c., Dec, 1858. C) Prichard. C) {*) Lang, at Seat of War. 
 
 C) (^) Latham. C) M. MuUer. («) Prichard. 
 
 CHAPTER XVn. 
 
 (*) Prichard. Latham. Miiller. Elphinstone. Vigne. Capt. 
 Postans in Eth. Soc. Journ. Amer, Or. Soc. Journ., vol. 1. Kund. d. 
 Morg. Ges. (") {") Prichard. (=) («) Latham. {*) M. Miiller. 
 
 Capt. Raverty. (^) Amer. Or. Journ. For. Miss. Journ. Miiller. 
 
 Gobineau. Pott. Rodiger. Zeit. f. Morg. Ges. v. 12, 185*7. (*) Dr. 
 Blau. (^) Layard. Badger. Dr. Grant. W. F. Ainsworth. Trans, 
 of Ethnol. Soc, 1861. (") Perkins. Badger. Grant. Rich. Bib. 
 Repos., 1841-42. (Dr. Robinson and Rev, Mr. Homes.) 
 
NOTES. 619 
 
 CHAPTER XVm, 
 
 (') Prichard. Latham. Dwight and Smith. Haithausen. Muller. 
 Klaproth. De St. Martin. Ad. Berger (Die Berg-Volker des Cau- 
 casus. T, 1860. Peterm. Mitth.). 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 POLTNESIA. 
 
 William von Humboldt, Die Kawi Sprache. Crawfurd's History 
 of Ind. Archip. Essays of Crawfurd. G. W. Earl (Ind. Archip.). 
 Ethnol. Library (1853). Journ. of Ethnol. Soc. Swainson's N. Zealand. 
 Lang. Rey. R. Taylor. Wilkes' Ex. Expedit., and Hale's Ethnog. 
 Strzelecki. Miiller. Prichard. Ellis' Polyn. Research. Philolog. Rev, 
 vol. i. Tasmanian Rev. Rev. Wm. Ridley (Journ. Ethnol. Soc). Dr. 
 T. R. Thomson. Fiji and Fijians, by Williams and Calvert. Gust. 
 d'Eichthal. North Brit. Rev., May, 1861, (Austr. Ethnol.) Prof. 
 Owen on the Osteology and Dentition of the Andaman Islands. (Athe- 
 neimi, Sept. 21, 1861.) Die Melanesischen Sprachen, et cet. H. C. von 
 der Gabelentz, Leipzig, 1860. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 THE BERBEKS AND HAtlSSA. 
 
 (') Dr. Barth. Renan, Les Lang. Sem. Exploration Sclent, de I'Al- 
 gerie. Movers, Die Phoenizer. Knobel, Voelkertafel. F. W. Newman. 
 Prichard. E. Norris. Koelle. (^) Exped. Scient. de I'Algerie. 
 
 ABTSSINIANS AND SOMAULI. 
 
 (') Renan. Parkyn's Life, &c. Voy. en Abys., M. Lefebvre. Voy. 
 dans le Roy. de Choa, d'Hericourt. Rev. S. Gobat's Abys. Docum. sur 
 I'Afr. Or. par ordre du Govt., Guillain. Burton's E. Africa. Bulletin 
 de Geog. (M. d'Abbadie). De Lauture. M. Peney, Viv. de St. Martin. 
 Waiz. Krapf. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 KOPTS, FELLAHS, AND EASTERN NUBIANS. 
 
 (') Lepsius' Discoveries. L'Univers, Egypte Mod. Bayle St. John. 
 Wm. H. Yates. Lane. {^) M. Gisquet. Gliddon's Indig. Races. 
 
 (^) Prichard. 
 
520 NOTES. 
 
 THE GALLAS. 
 
 (') D'Hericourt, Voyage, &c. (=) Kev. S. Gobat, Renan. 
 
 Johnston. Von Kloden, Ewald. Krapf. Burton. 
 
 THE NUBIANS. 
 
 (') Wilkinson. Lepsius. L'Univers, Nubie. Combe. Yates. 
 (") Lepsius. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 FELLATAH AND MANDINGOES. 
 
 (') D'Eichthal. Raffenel. Dr. Barth. Esquisses Senegalaises, 
 Boilat. Dr. Wilson. F. Carriere. Prichard. Wm. B. Hodgson. 
 
 C) (*) (') D'Eichthal. (=) Idem and Hodgson. {') (') Wil- 
 
 son. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 SOUTH GUINEA. 
 
 (') Wilson. Bowen. W. F. DanielL Forbes. Poole. Zeit. d. 
 mor. Ges., vol. 8. Livingstone. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 THE DAMAEAS AND OVAMPOS. 
 
 (>) Anderson. Rev. F. N. Kolbe (Ethnol. Soc. 1854). Latham. 
 Petermann's Mitth. (") Kolbe. (^) Latham. Ladislaus Magyar. 
 
 (*) THE BECHUANAS. 
 
 Or. Soc. Journ. Anderson. Petermaim. Livingstone. 
 
 (') Rev. F. Fleming. Petermann's Mitth. Ethnol. Soc'y Journ. 
 Or. Soc. Journ. (^) (^) (^) Petermann's Mitth. (^) Petermann's 
 
 Mitth. and L. Grout. Krapf. W. W. Greenough (Or. Soc. Journ. , vol. 1). 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 HOTTENTOTS. 
 
 (*) Petermann's Mitth. E. Norris. Waiz. {^) Livingstone. 
 
 Anderson. Moffatt. (=) (*) (') Petermann's Mitth. (") Bulletin 
 
 de Geog., 1859. 
 
NOTES. 521 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 THE FINNIC AND T0RKIC RACES. 
 
 (') M. Miiller. Latham. Prof. Munck. MuUer's Ugrischer Volkstamm. 
 Brace's Hungary and Norse-Folk. Leonzon le Due. Norst Maened- 
 skrift, 1st Hefte. H. D. Seymour. Ubicini. (^) (') Bout's Turquie 
 
 d'Europe. 
 
 THE BASQUES. 
 
 Q) Balbi. Berghaus. Diet, de la Conversation, Stephens. Michel. 
 Wm. Von Humboldt. Graslin. Amer. Encyc. Erro. Labastide. 
 Encyc. des Gens du Monde. Arndt. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVn. 
 
 THE SLAVONIANS. 
 
 (^) Schafarik. Latham. Gurowski. Kubalski. Mickiewicz. 
 Geog. Mitt., 1855. Miiller. Q {*) {^) Gurowski. (') M. Miiller. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVin. 
 
 THE ALBANIANS AND GREEKS. 
 
 Wm. M. Leake. Curzon. Finlay. About. Arndt's Europ. Spr. 
 Buchon. M. Miiller. E. Curtius. Hettner. Henry Skeene (Ethnol. 
 Journ., 1850). F. Thiersch. Hahn's Alban. Studien. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 WALLACES. 
 
 Paget. Von Czoernig. 
 
 ITALIANS. 
 
 L. Mariotti. Edwards and Dr. Wiseman (quoted by Gliddon). 
 Gajani. 
 
 SPANIARDS. 
 
 L. Lemcke. Ticknor. L. Claras. De Jonnfes. Murray's Hand 
 Book. Borrow. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 Michelet. De Courzon. J. Janin. Maury. 
 
522 NOTES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 KELTS. 
 
 (*) Miiller. (") Vaughan and Prichard. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 Kemble'a Saxong. Worsaae's Danes in England. Ferguson's North- 
 men in Cumberland, &c. Donaldson's English Ethnology. Cambridge 
 Essays, 1850. Proceed, of Philog. Soc'y (Eng). Latham's Ethnol. of 
 British Islands. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 GYPSIES. 
 
 Pott's Zigeuner. Spengler. Borrow. Zeit. f. D. Morg. G., 3d, 8th 
 and 11th toIs. Casca. Paspati. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXn. 
 
 ANTIQUITY OP MAN. 
 
 . (') Boucher de Perthes, Les Antiquites Celtiques. Evans' Report 
 (Atheneum, June 11, 1859). Sir C. Lyell (Atheneum, Sept. 24, 1859). 
 J. J. A. Worsaae. Athen., 'No. 16*79. "Wilson's Archaeology, &c. 
 Poole's Genesis of Earth and Man. Les Comptes Rendus, 1859, t. 49, 
 pp. 463, 465, 581, 634, &c., and t. 23, 24, 25, and 46. Pictet, 
 L'Homme Fossile, Bib. Univ. de Geneve. Lord Wrottesley, British As- 
 soc, in Atheneum, June 30, 1860. Blackwood, Oct., 1860. Lartet, 
 Ann. des Sc. J. D. Dana. Prof. Owen. Delanoue. Lyell's Antiq. 
 of Man. J. Lubbock, Nat. Hist. Rev. M. Troyon, Des Habitations 
 Lacustres. Smithson. Reports, 1861. Riitimeyer. Wilson's Pre-His- 
 toric Man. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIIL 
 
 UNITY OR DIVERSITY OF ORIGIN. 
 
 (') (*) (') Silliman'3 Journal, 1859, p. 441, cited by Dr. A. Gray. 
 C) (')(') on (")(") Prichard. Roulin, d. Sc. Nat, t. 16, 1829. 
 («) Smyth. (8) I") ('3) ('^) C") De Salles. (") (") Carpenter. 
 
 (''•) Waiz. ('^) Dr. Draper. Tiedemann. Prichard. Hollard. 
 
 Smyth. De Salles. Waiz, et alii. (") ('") Morel. Hist de Dege- 
 
 nerescences. ('*) See Dana on Species, in Sill. Journ., Nov., 1857. 
 
 Darwin's Origin of Species. ('^) Ethnol. Journ., vol. 3. (*^) See 
 
 Darwin, St. Hilaire, and Quatrefages. (j'*) Agassiz. 
 
LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 Abbadie d'. — Bulletin de la Soc. de Geographie. 
 
 About E. — La Grece Coatemporaine. Paris, 1855. 
 
 Agassiz, L. — Essay on Classification. London, 1859. 
 
 Ains worth, F. W.—Tezidis. Trans, of Ethnol. Soc. London, 1861, vol. i. 
 
 American Cyclopaedia. 
 
 American Oriental Society Journal. 
 
 Anderson, C. J. — Lake Ngami. London, 1856. 
 
 Annuaire de la Soc. Impcriale des Antiquaires, etc. 
 
 Archives fiir Wissenschaftliche Kunde von Kussland. Berlin, 1841. 
 
 Arndt, C. G. von. — Frankfurt, 1818. Ueber den Ursprung und die ver- 
 
 schiedenartige Verwandtschaft der Europ. Sprachen. 
 Arndt, C. W. — Leipzig, 1843. Versuch in vergleichender Volker- 
 
 geschichte. 
 Atkinson, T. W. — London, 1858. Oriental and Western Siberia. 
 
 Balbi, A. — Atlas Ethnographique du Globe. Paris, 1826. 
 
 Baudrimont, A.— Histoire des Basques, &c. 
 
 Bartlett, J. R.— Progress of Ethnology. New York, 1848. 
 
 Barth, Dr. H. — Reisen und Endeckungen in Nord und Central Afrika. 
 
 Gotha, 1857. 
 Berger, A. — Die Berg Volker des Kaukasus. 1860. 
 Berghaus, Dr. H. — Die Volker des Erdballs. Leipzig, 1847. 
 Berghaus, Dr. H. — 8te Abtheilung Atlas. 
 Berteiul, A. — L'Algerie Fran^aise. Paris, 1856. 
 Biblical Repository — 1841-42 (Dr. Robinson and Rev. Mr. Homes). 
 Biot, E. — Journal Asiatic Society. 
 
 Boeckh, A. — Manetho und die Hundstern Periode. Berlin, 1845. 
 Bode, Baron de (Bokhara.) London, 1845. 
 Bodenstedt, F.— Die Volker des Kaukasus. Frankfurt, 1849. 
 
624 LIST OF AUTHOEnXES. 
 
 Burton, R. F. — The Lake Regions of Central Africa. New York, 1860. 
 
 Burton, R. F. — ^First Footsteps in East Africa. London, 1856. 
 
 Bunsen, C. C. J. — Outlines of the Philos. of UniF. Hist. London, 1854. 
 
 Bunsen, C. C. J. — ^Egypt's place in Universal Historj. London, 184:8-'58. 
 
 Boilat, Abbe — Esquisses Senegalaises. 1853. 
 
 Bulletin de la Societe de Geographic. Paris. 
 
 Boudin, M. J. C. — Traite de Geographic et des Statisques Medicales. 
 
 Paris, 1757. 
 Borrow, George — The Zincali. New York, 1842. 
 Borrow, George — Bible in Spain. Philadelphia, 1843. 
 Bowen, T. J. — Central Africa. New York, 1857. 
 Bowring, Sir J. — A Visit to the Philippine Islands. London, 1859. 
 Bouchon, J. A. — La Grece Continentale. Paris, 1843. 
 Brace, C. L. — Hungary in 1851. 
 Brace, C. L. — Norse-Folk. 
 Brandis, Dr. J. — Ueber den Historischen Gewinn, aus der Entzifferung 
 
 der Assyrischen Inschriften. Berlin, 1856. 
 Briggs, J. — British Ass., 1850. Aborig. Tribes of India. 
 Brugsch, H. — Uebersichtliche Erklarung der Egyptischen Derkmaler. 
 
 Berlin, 1850. 
 Boue Ami — ^La Turquie d'Europe. Paris, 1840. 
 
 Catnbridge Essays — Donaldson on English Ethnology. London, 1856. 
 
 Carpenter, "W. B. — Zoology. London, 1857. 
 
 Carrere, Fred. — De la Senegambie Franqaise. 
 
 Curzon, R. — Monasteries of the Levant. New York, 1849. 
 
 Casca, Fr. von — Skizze Einer Geschichte der Zigeuner. Stuttgart, 1840. 
 
 Castren, M. A. — ^Ethnol. Vorlesungen uber die altaischen Volker. St. 
 Petersburg, 1857. 
 
 Castren, M. A. — Buriat. Spr. 
 
 Charencey, M. de — 1858. Langue Japanaise. Annales de la Philosophic 
 Chretienne, Tome 18. 
 
 Charencey, M. de — Recherches sur les Origines de la Langue Basque. An- 
 nales de la Philosophic, et cet. Juillet, 1859. 
 
 Chinese Repertory — 1845. 
 
 Chowlson's Uebereste der Alt. Bab. Literatur. 
 
 Churchill H. — Mt. Lebanon, &c. London, 1853. 
 
 Clarus, L. — Darstellung der Spanischen Literatur. Mainz, 1846. 
 
 Combe, E. — Voyage en Egypte, et Nubie. Paris, 1846. 
 
 Cooley, W. D. — Negroland of the Arabs, et cet. London, 1841. 
 
 Crawfurd, J. — History of Indian Archipelago. Edinboro', 1820. 
 
 Crawford's Essays. 
 
 Cunningham, A. — Ladak, et cet. London, 1824. 
 
 Curtius, E. — Peloponnesus, et cet. Gotha, 1851. 
 
 Czoernig, K. von — EthnoL der Oestereichischen Monarchic. Wien, 1857. 
 
LIST OF AUTHOKITIES. 525 
 
 Dana J. D. on Species, American Journal of Science, Nov., 1847. 
 
 Daniells, W. F.— Journal of Ethnographical Society, 1856, vol, 4. Eth- 
 nography of Gold Coast. 
 
 Darwin, C— Origin of Species. London, 1859. 
 
 De Courzon, A.— Histoire des Peuples Bretons. Paris, 1846. 
 
 De Gobineau, A.— Essai sur I'Inegalite des Kaces Humaines. Paris, 1853. 
 
 De Guignes, J.— Histoire generale des Huns, Turcs, Mongols, et autres 
 Tartares Occidentaux. Paris, 1756-58. 
 
 Delanoue, M. J.— De I'Anciennete de I'Espece Humaine. Valenciennes, 
 1862. 
 
 De Salles, E. Fr.— Histoire Generale des Races Humaines. Paris, 1849. 
 
 D'Hallcy, J. J. D.— Des Races Humaines. Paris, 1859. 
 
 Dictionnaire de la Conversation. (Basques.) 
 
 Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. 
 
 Diefenbach, L. von— Origines Europseae. Frankrart am M. 1861. 
 
 Draper, Dr. J. W.— Human Physiology. New York, 1856. 
 
 Duncker, M. — Geschichte des Alterthums. Berlin, 1855. 
 
 Dwight and Smith — ^Missionary Researches in Armenia. London, 1834. 
 
 Earl, G. W. — Native Races of the Indian Archipelago. London, 1853. 
 
 Eichthal, d' Gustave — Memoires de la Societe Ethnologique. Vol. I. 
 
 Ellis, W. — Polynesian Researches. London, 1852. 
 
 Elphinestone, M. — ^An account of the Kingdom of Cabul and its Dependen- 
 cies. London, 1842. 
 
 Encyclopedie des Gens du Monde. 
 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica. 
 
 Erro, Don Juan de — El Mundo Primitivo, t. 10. Madrid, 1815. 
 
 Ersch und Gruber— Encyklopadie Allgemeine. Leipzig, 1818. 
 
 Ethnological Library. 1853. 
 
 Ethnological Journal. 
 
 Evans, J. W. — (Flints.) Report to Society of Antiquarians. (Athenaum, 
 June 11, 1859.) 
 
 Exploration Scientifique de I'Algerie. Paris, 1848 et 1853. 
 
 Ferguson, Robert — The Northmen in Cumberland and Westmoreland. 
 
 London, 1856. 
 Ferrier, S. P. — Voyages en Perse, et cet. Paris, 1860. 
 Finlay, 6. — Greece under the Romans. Edinburgh, 1844. 
 Fleming, Rev. F. — Caflfraria and its Inhabitants. London, 1853. 
 Forbes, Fred. E. — Dahomey and the Dahomans. London, 1851. 
 Forbiger, A. — Handbuch der Alten Geographie, aus den Quellen bear- 
 
 beitet. Leipzig, 1842-48. 
 
 Gabelentz, H. C. von der — Die Melanesischen Sprachen, et cet. Leipzig, 
 
 1860. 
 
526 LIST OF AUTHOKniES. 
 
 Gerard, P. A. F. — Histoire des Baces Humaines d'Europe. Bruxelles, 
 
 1849. 
 Gibbon, E. — The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 
 
 London, 1806. 
 GiuUain — Documents sur I'Afrique Orientale, publics par I'ordre du Gou- 
 
 Ternement. 
 Gisquet, M. — L'Egypte, lea Turcs et les Arabes. Paris. 
 Gobat, Rev. S. — Three years' Residence in Abyssinia. New York, 1850. 
 Godwin, Parke— The History of France. New York, 1860. 
 Grant, Dr. A. — The Nestorians or Lost Tribes. New York, 1853. 
 Graslin, L. H. — De I'lberie ou Essai critique sur I'Origine des premieres 
 
 Populations de I'Espagne. Paris, 1838. 
 Greenough, "W. W. — Journal of Oriental Society. Vol. 1st (KafiBrs). 
 Grout, L. — Journal of Oriental Society (Kaffirs). 
 Gutschmid, A. von — Beitrage zur Ges. d. Alt. Orient. Leipzig, 1858. 
 Gurowski, A. — ^Russia as it is. New York, 1854. 
 
 Hahn, T. G. von — ^Alban. Studien. Jenae, 1854. 
 
 Hammer, Purgstall J. von — Histoire de I'Empire Ottoman. Pai'is, 1836. 
 Haxthausen, Baron de — i^tudes sur la Situation, &c., de la Russie. 1847. 
 Haxthausen, Baron de — Transcaucasia, &c. London, 1854. 
 Haxthausen, Baron de — Tribes of the Caucasus. London, 1855. 
 Herodotus, History of— Rawlinson, G. — London, 1858-60. 
 Hettner, H. — Athens and the Peloponnese. Edinburgh, 1854. 
 Herzog's Real Encyclopaedic. 
 Hodgson, W. B. — Notes on North Africa. 
 
 Hodgson, B. H. — Selections from the Records of the Government of Ben- 
 gal. Papers relative to the Himalaya Mountains and Nepal. 
 Hodgson, B. H. — 1860. Continuation of the Grammatical Analysis, et cet. 
 Hodgson, B. H. — 1857. Comparative Vocabulary of the Languages of the 
 
 Broken Tribes of Nepal. 
 Hodgson, B. H. — Aborigines of the Nilgiris, and of Eastern Ghat. 
 Hodgson, B. H. — Aborigines of the Nilgiris, with Remarks on their 
 
 Affinities. 
 Hodgson, B. H. — On the Aborigines of the Eastern Frontier. 
 HoSgson, B. H. — On the Chepang and Busunda Tribes of Nepal. 
 
 Hodgson, B. H. — 1850. Aborigines of the Northeast Frontier. 
 
 Hodgson, B. H. — Aborigines of Ceylon. 
 
 Hodgson, B. H. — Calcutta, 1849. Aborigines of Southern India. 
 
 Hodgson, B. H. — Route from Bathmandu, the Capital of Nepal, et cet. 
 interspersed with Remarks on the People and Country. 
 
 Hodgson, B. H. — 1853. On the Indo-Chinese Borderers. 
 
 Hodgson, B. H. — Calcutta, 1847. On the Aborigines of India. 
 
 Hoffman— Die Iberer. 1838. 
 
 HoUard, H.— De I'Homme, &c. Paris, 1853. 
 
LIST OF AUTHOEITIES. 527 
 
 Hue, M.— Journey through the Chinese Empire. New York, 1856. 
 
 Hue, M.— Journey through Tartary, Thibet, and China. New York, 1852. 
 
 Humboldt, Wm. von — Prufung, &c., iiber die UrbeWohner Hispaniens, 
 
 Ac. Berlin, 1821. 
 Humboldt, Wm. von — Ueber die Eawi Sprache auf der Insel Java, &c. 
 
 Berlin, 1836. 
 
 Janin, Jules — La Normandie. Paris, . 
 
 Johnston, C. — Travels in Southern Abyssinia, through the Country of 
 
 Adel to the Kingdom of Shoa. London, 1844. 
 Jornandes. — De Getarum sive Gothorum origine. 1597. 
 Journal Oriental Society. 
 Journal Royal Asiatic Society. 
 
 Journal Asiatic Society, 1852. (Capt. S. C. Macpherson, L. Gen. Briggs.) 
 Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal. 
 
 Kseuffer, J. G. R. — Geschichte von Ost-Asien. Leipzig, 1858. 
 
 KaflBrS' — Proceedings of the Committee to inquire into the State of. Parts 
 
 4 and 5. Natal, 1853. 
 Kemble, A. M. — Die Sachsen in England. 1853. 
 Klaproth, J. von — Vocabulaire et Grammaire da la Langue G^orgienne. 
 
 Paris, 1827. 
 Klaproth, J. von — Memoires relatifs a I'Asie, et cet. Paris, 1824. 
 Knobel, A. — Die Volkertafel, et cet. Giessen, 1850. 
 Koeppen, A. L. — The World in the Middle Ages. New York, 1854. 
 Kolbe, Rev. F. N.— Journal of Ethnological Society. 1854. 
 Kolbe, Rev. F. N. — An account of Damara Country. 
 Krapf, J. L. — Vocabulary of the Galla Language. 1842. 
 Kubalski, N. A. — Recherches Slavoniques et Historiques, et cet. Tours, 
 
 1852. 
 Kurd de Schloezer — Les premiers Inhabitants de la Russie. Paris, 1846. 
 
 Labastide, C. de — Dissertation sur les Basques. Paris, 1786. 
 
 Lane, E. W. — Account of the Manners and Customs of the modern Egyp- 
 tians. London, 1842. 
 
 Lang, J. D. — View of the Origin and Migration of the Polynesian Nation. 
 London, 1834. 
 
 Lartet, M. — Sur I'Anciennete Geologique de I'Espece humaine dans 
 I'Europe Occidentale. 
 
 Layard — Nineveh and its Remains. London, 1849. 
 
 Leake, Wm. M. — Researches in Greece. London, 1814. 
 
 Lemcke, von L. — Haudbuch der Spanischen Literatur. Leipzig, 1855. 
 
 Lefebure, T. — Voyage en Abyssinie executee pendant les Annees 1839-43. 
 Relation historique et cet. Paris, 1845. 
 
 Leo, Yorlesungen liber die Geschichte des Dcutschen Volkes. 1854. 
 
528 LIST OF AUTHOKniES. 
 
 Leouzon le Due — La Finlande. Paris, 1845. 
 
 Lewis, Sir G. C. — Origin and Formation of the Romance Languages. Lon- 
 don, 1S62. 
 
 Livingstone's Travels in Africa. New York, 1858. 
 
 Logan, J. B. 
 
 Lottner, Dr. C. — Transactions of Philog. Society. 1860-61. Sister Fami- 
 lies of Language. 
 
 Lucken, H. — Die Einheit des Mensch. Geschlechts. Hanover, 1845. 
 
 L'Univers (Egypte Moderne). 
 
 L'Univers (Nubie). 
 
 Lepsius — Konigsbuch der alten Egypter. 1858. 
 
 Lepsius, R. — Das Todtenbuch der Egypter, nach dem Papyrus in Turin. 
 Leipzig, 1842. 
 
 Lepsius, R. — Die Chronologie der Egypter. Einleitung und Erster Theil. 
 Kritik der Quellen. Berlin, 1849. 
 
 Lepsius, R. — Discoveries in Egypt, Ethiopia, and the Peninsula of Sinai, 
 in the years 1842-45. Edited by K. R. H. McKeuzie. London, 1853. 
 
 Link, H. F.— Die Urwelt und das Alterthum. Erster Theil. Berlin, 1834. 
 
 Lubbock, J. — Natural History Review. 
 
 Les Comptes Rendus. 
 
 Lyell, Sir C. — Reports of British Association. 
 
 Lyell, Sir C. — Flint Implements in Drift. Athenseum (1665), 1859. 
 
 Lyell, Sir C. — Antiquity of Man. London, 1863. 
 
 Latham R. G. — The Ethnology of the British Islands. London, 1852. 
 
 Latham, R. G. — Ethnology of the British Colonies and Dependencies. 
 London, 1851. 
 
 Latham, R. Gr. — Man and his Migrations. London, 1851. 
 
 Latham, R. G. — Native Races of the Russian Empire. London, 1854. 
 
 Latham, R. G. — Descriptive Ethnology. London, 1859. 
 
 Magyar, Ladislaus — Reisen in Siid-Afrika. 
 
 Mariotti, L. — Italy, Past and Present. London, 1849. 
 
 Marsh, G. P. — Origin of the English Language, &c. New York, 1862. 
 
 Maury, A. — Questions relatives a I'ancienne ethnologie de la France. 
 
 Maury, A. — La Terre et I'Homme. Paris, 1857. 
 
 Maury, A. — Bulletin de la Soc. de Geographic. Lei Populations Primi- 
 tives du Nord de I'Hindoustan. Avril, 1854. 
 
 Mazure, M. — Beam et le Pays Basque. 
 
 Michel, F. — Histoire des Races Maudites de la France, et de I'Espagne. 
 Paris, 1847. 
 
 Michel, F. — Le Pays Basque. Paris, 1857. 
 
 Michelet J. — Histoire de France. Bruxelles, 1834. 
 
 Mickiewicz, A. — Les Pays Slaves et la Pologne. Paris, 1849. 
 
 Moul, B. A. — Traite des Degenerescences, et cet., de I'Espece Humaine, <ic. 
 Paris, 1857. 
 
LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 529 
 
 Motley, J. L.— Bise, Ac, of Dutch Republic. New York, 1856. 
 Movers, F. C— Das Phoenizische Alterthum, Erster Theil. Politischa 
 Geschichte und Staatsverfassung ; Zweiter Theil, Geschichte der Co- 
 lonien. Berlin, 1849. 
 Moreau de Jonnes, Alex.— Statistique de I'Espagne. Paris, 1834. 
 Moreau de Jonnes, Alex.— Ethnogenie Caucasienne. Paris, 1861. 
 Mommsen, T.— Romische Geschichte. Berlin, 1856-59. 
 Moflfat, R.— Missionary Labors and Scenes in South Africa. New York, 
 
 1843. 
 MuUer, F. H. Dr.— Ugrischer Volkstamm. Berlin, 1837. 
 MuUer, M.— (Bunsen's Phil, of Universal History.) 
 MuUer, M.— Science of Language. New York, 1862. 
 Muller, M. — Languages at the Seat of War. London, 1855. 
 Munch. Nord. German. Volk. (1853.) 
 Munch, Prof. — Norst Mainidskrift. 1st Hefte. 
 Murray's Handbook for Spain. London, 1847. 
 
 Nestemont, M. A. — Histoire de la Conquete d'Algerie. Paris, 1856. 
 
 Niebuhr, M. — Geschichte Assur's und Babel's. Berlin, 1857. 
 
 North British Review, May, 1859. — Australasian Ethnology. 
 
 Nott, E. and Gliddon J. R. — Types of Mankind, et cet. Philadelphia, 1854. 
 
 Nott, E. and Gliddon J. R. — Indigenous Races, et cet. Philadelphia, 1857. 
 
 Oppert, J.— Zeit der Morgenl. Ges. 10, 288-802. 
 
 Oppert, Jules. — Expedit. Scientif. ep Mesopotamie, et cet. Paris, 1858-59. 
 
 Owen, Prof — Athenaeum, Sept. 21st, 1861. Osteology and Dentition of the 
 
 Natives of the Andaman Islands. 
 Owen, R. — Palaeontology. Edinburgh, 1860. 
 Ohsson fils d' M. C. — Histoire des Mongols. Paris, 1824. 
 
 Pott, A. P.— Zigeuner, Zeit. d. M. Ges. Vol. 3, 8, 11. 
 Pott, A. F. — Zigeuner in Europa und Asien. Halle, 1844. 
 Pott, A. F. — Ungleichheit Menschlicher Racen. Lemgo, 1856. 
 Parkyn, — Life in Abyssinia. 1853. 
 
 Paget J. — Hungary and Transylvania. Philadelphia, 1850. 
 Proceedings of Philological Society. 
 Postans, Capt. — In Ethnol. Soc. Jour. Vol. 1. 
 
 Prichard, J. C. — Eastern Origin of Celtic Nations, et cet. London, 1831. 
 Prichard, J. C — Researches into the Physical History of Mankind. Lon- 
 don, 1841. 
 Prichard, J. C. — Natural History of Man. London, 1848. 
 Poole, T. E. — Life, et cet., in Sierra Leone, &c. London, 1850. 
 Philological Review. 
 
 Plath, J. H. — Geschichte des ostlichen Asiens. Gottingen, 1830. 
 Perthes, Boucher de. — Les Antiquitea Celtiques, et cet, Paris, 1847. 
 23 
 
530 LIST OF AUTHOKITIES. 
 
 Pictet, F. G.— Biblioth^que Universelle. De la question de rHomme Fos- 
 
 sile. Geneve, 1860. 
 Pulszky, F. — The Tricolor on the Atlas. London, 1855. 
 Poole, R. S. — The Genesis of Earth and of Man. Edinburgh, 1856. 
 Petermann, Dr. — Geographische Mittheilungen, 1857. No. 9, 1859. Die 
 
 Englische Expedition unter Burton und Speke nach Inner- Africa. 
 Petermann, Dr. — No. 5. Sud-Africa in 1858. E. Behm. 
 Petermann, Dr. — Die Hottentotten Stamme, 2, 1858. 
 Petermann, Dr. — Die Volker in Ost Africa, 10, 1858. 
 Peney's Soudan. 
 
 Quatrefages, A. de. — Unite de I'Espece Humaine. Paris, 1861. 
 
 Bitter. — Die Erdkunde von Asien. 1832. 
 
 Bich, A. — ^Narration of a Joumej to the Site of Babylon, et cet. London, 
 1839. 
 
 Benan, E. — ^Histoire Generale des Langues Semitiques. Paris, 1855. 
 
 Bidley, Eev. Wm. — Polynesia. (Journal Ethnological Society.) 
 
 Remusat, J. P. A. — Recherches sur les langues Tartares. Paris, 1820. 
 
 Riitimeyer, Prof. 
 
 Revue de I'OrienU 1858. Place de I'Armenien. 
 
 Revue Archeologique. November, 1845. 
 
 Raverty, Capt. H. G. — A Grammar of the Pushtu, or Language of the Af- 
 ghans. London, 1859. 
 
 Renan, E. — La Literature Nabath. Rev. Germanique, 1860. 
 
 Ridley, Rev. Wm. — Journal Ethnological Society. 
 
 Rafenel, A. — ^Nouveaux Voyages dans le Pays des Negres. 1806. 
 
 Eafenel, A. — ^Voyage dans I'Afrique Occidentale. 1842. 
 
 Rigler von, Dr. L. — Die Tvirkei und deren Bewohner. Wien, 1852. 
 
 Roulin — Des Sciences Naturelles. Tome 16, 1829. 
 
 Robinson, Mrs. — Language and Lit. of Slavic Nations. New York, 1850. 
 
 Rochet d'Hericourt, C. E. — Voyage, et cet., dans le royaume de Choa. 
 Paris, 1852. 
 
 St. Hilaire, J. G. — Histoire Generale et Particulifere des Anomalies. Brux- 
 
 elles, 1837. 
 St. Hilaire, J. G. — Histoire Naturelle des Rfegnes Organiques. Vol. 2. 
 
 Paris, 1859. 
 Schafarik, P. J. Slavische Alterthiimer. Leipzig, 1843. 
 Seymour, H. D., M. P. — Russia on the Black Sea. London, 1855. 
 Spengler, Fr. R. — Dissertatio de Cinganis. Lugd. Bat., 1839. 
 Scudder, Rev. D. C— Bib. Sac. Vol. 17. No. 68. Aborigines of India, 
 
 1860. 
 Strieker "W. — Die Verbreitung des Deutschen Volkes, et cet. Leipzig, 
 
 1845. 
 
LIST OF AUTHOEITIES. 531 
 
 Stephens, E. B. — The Basque Provinces. London, 1837. 
 
 Strzelecki, P. E. de. — Physical Description of N. S. Wales and Van Die- 
 men's Land. London, 1845. 
 
 St. Martin, Viv. de. — Bulletin de la Soc. de Geographic (White Nile), 
 
 Schlatter, G. F. — Die Unwahrscheinlichkeit der Abstammung des Men- 
 schengeschlechts von einem gemeinschaftlichen Urpaare. Manheim, 
 1861. 
 
 Seyffarth, Gust. — Chronologia Sacra, Leipzig, 1864 
 
 Silliman's Journal. 1859. 
 
 Smyth, Thomas— The Unity of the Human Races, Edinburgh, 1851. 
 
 Smithsonian Reports. 1861. 
 
 Silliman's Journal, vol. 39. African Languages, 
 
 St. John Bayle— Village Life in Egypt. 1853, 
 
 Stritter — Memor. pop. e. Script. Byzant, Petropoli, 1771. 
 
 Schleicher, Alg. Monatsch. fur Wissen, Sept. 1853, Staats Lexikon. 
 
 Troyon, M, F, — Habitations Lacustres de Concise dans le Canton de Vaud, 
 
 Rev, Arch. 1861. Ditto en Suisse. 
 Thiersch, F. — De I'^tat actuel de la Grece, Leipzig, 1833. 
 Tiedemann, Dr. F. — Das Hirn des Negers. Heidelberg, 1837, 
 Ticknor, G. — History of Spanish Literature. New York, 1849- 
 Tacitus. — Notes by Latham. London, 1851. 
 Tasmanian Review. 
 
 Urquhart, D, — The Pillars of Hercules, &c. London, 1850. 
 Ubicini, M. F. — Lettres sur la Turquie. Paris, 1853. 
 Uhlemann, Fr. — Die Israeliten und Hyksos in Aegypten. Leipzig, 1856. 
 United States Exploring Expedition. Ethnography of Lew Chew Islands, 
 Philadelphia, 1846. 
 
 Von Koppen Peter — Petermann's Geographische Mittheilungen, 1855. 
 Von Kloden, G. A. — Das Stromsystem des Oberen Niles, Berlin, 1856, 
 VuUiemin, L. — Bib, Univ, Aug, 1861. Des Habitations Lacustres en 
 Suisse. 
 
 Wagner, Dr. A. — Geschichte der Urwelt. Leipsic, 1857. 
 
 Weber, A.— Ind. Studien. Berlin, 1849. 
 
 Wilson, Rev. J. L.— West Africa, 1856. 
 
 Webb, Rev. E.— Jour. Amer. Or. Soc. vol. 7, 1862. Evidences of the 
 
 Scythian aflSnities of the Dravidian Language, from Rev. R. Caldwell's 
 
 Dravidian Grammar. 
 Wilson, D. — The Archaeology and Pre-Annals of Scotland. Edinburgh, 
 
 1857. 
 Wilson, D.— Pre- Historic Man. Edinburgh, 1863. 
 Worsaae's, J. J. A. — Letter in Athenaeum. No. 1679, 1859. (Lake Maribo.) 
 
532 LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 Weber, Dr. M. J. — Die Lehre von den Ur u. Racenformen, et cet. Dussel- 
 
 dorf, 1830. 
 Wales, N. A. — The Picturesque Antiquities of Spain. London, 1846. 
 Wilkinson, J. G. — Modern Egypt and Thebes. London, 1843. 
 Williams and Calvert — Fiji and the Fijians. 1859. 
 Wirth, J. G. A. — Geschichte der Deutsch. Staaten in der Drzeit, Emmia- 
 
 hoflfen, 1840. 
 Whitney W. — American Oriental Society Journal and New Englander. 
 Wittmann, Dr. — Abhandlungen der Baier. Acad. 1853. 
 Waiz, Dr. T. — Anthropologie der JSTaturvolker. 1 Leipzig, 1859 ; 2 
 
 Leipzig, 1860. 
 Worsaae, J. J. A. — Account of Danes, et cet. in England. London, 1852. 
 Worsaae, J. J. A. — Athenaeum. Dan. Antiquities- 1679. 
 Wrottesley, Lord — ^British Association. Athenaeum, June SO, 1860. 
 Wilkes's Exploring Expedition and Hale's Ethnography. Phil. 1848. 
 Williams, S. W. — Middle Kingdom, Survey of Chinese Empire. New 
 
 York, 1848. 
 
 Yates, William H. — ^Modern History and Condition of Egypt. 1843. 
 Zimmermann, Dr. F. A. — Le Monde avant la Creation de I'Homme. Paris, 
 
 i85r. 
 
 Zoepfl, Dr. H. — Alth. des Deutschen Beichs und Bechts. Leipzig, 1860. 
 
 Zeuss, K. — Die Deutschen, &c. Miinchen, 1837. 
 
 Zeitscrift fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes. 
 
 Zeitscrift fiir die vergleichende Sprachforschung. 
 
 Zeitscrift fiir die Wissenchaft d. Sprache. 
 
 Zeitscrift fiir d. Deutsche Morg. Gesellschaft. 
 
 Zeitscrift fiir allg. Erdkunde. 
 
I]S"DEX. 
 
 Agaesiz, Objections to Evidence, 16. 
 
 Realm-theory, 
 Agglutination, 27. 
 Anglo-Saxon, NmneralB, 19. 
 Arj'ana, 27, 60, 70, 135. 
 Arabians, 50, 55. 
 Assyrians, 50. 
 Aramceans, 55. 
 Aryans, Early Progress, 61. 
 
 original home, 62. 
 
 supposed dates of migration, 64. 
 
 Asiatic, 65. 
 
 earliest races, 135. 
 Asia, Races Ruling, 66. 
 
 races in Middle Ages, 123. 
 Assyrian Empire, 67. 
 Asia Minor, Tribes of, 71. 
 Aryan Races of Europe, Modem, 85. 
 Allemanns, 98, 100. 
 Aestui, 115. 
 Alans, 117. 
 Avars, 120. 
 Arabian Empire, 124. 
 Ahoms (Shyan), 148. 
 Aryans of India, 150. 
 
 black, 150. 
 
 five divisions of, 150. 
 Ainos, 160. 
 
 probably Tungusian, 160. 
 Afghans, 187, 188 
 
 language of the, 187. 
 Armenia, Races of, 195, 200. 
 Abassians, Population of, 199, 200. 
 Armenia, Races of, 202. 
 
 boundaries of, 202. 
 
 Ars'an in race, 204. 
 Australians. 221. 
 
 different accounts of physique of, 
 221. 
 
 capacity, 223. 
 
 favorable accounts of, 223. 
 Azkar Tribe, 229. 
 Awelimmiden, 229. 
 Abvseinians, 232. 
 
 "color of, 233. 
 
 Amhario Tribe, 232. 
 
 physique of. 233. 
 Abyssinians, Charaoteristics of, 235. 
 Arabs, 238. 
 
 three divisions of, 238. 
 
 mixtures of, 239. 
 Arabs in Egypt, 240. 
 
 and Moors, 240. 
 
 no permanent settlements, 240. 
 
 change of physique, 241. 
 
 population of, 242. 
 African Races, 246. 
 
 different theories of, 246. 
 Ashanti Tribe (or Fanti), 268, 271. 
 Avekwom Tribe, 268, 272. 
 African Races, Southern, 274. 
 
 race, Southern Great, 274. 
 
 alliterative language of, 275. 
 
 physical type, 276. 
 Albinoes, 282. 
 Amaxosas, ) 
 
 Abatembus, VKafSr TribeB, 288. 
 Amampondos, ) 
 Albanians, Modern, 346. 
 
 origin of, 346. 
 
 language of, 348. 
 
 Slavonian mixture of, 349. 
 
 tribes of, 350. 
 
 physique, 350. 
 Aragonese, 370. 
 Austrians, 383. 
 Antiquity of man, 405, 496. 
 Animal remains, 433. 
 Acheul deposits, 436. 
 Acclimation, 479. 
 
 dependent on moral causes, 480. 
 American physique, vigor of, 482. 
 
 Babylonian Empire, Second, 69. 
 Basques, 78, 82, 329. 
 
 antiquity of, 329. 
 
 language, 33L 
 
 traits, 332. 
 Bavarians, 101. 
 BorgundianB, 103. 
 
534 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bulgarians, 120. 
 Bulgarian Empire, 120. 
 Bhilla or Bhilis Tribes, 140. 
 Bhotiya Races, 145. 
 
 differ from Tamulic races, 145. 
 Butunese, 146. 
 Brahman s, 152. 
 Birars, 168. 
 Buriats, 169. 
 Bazianes, 179. 
 Baskirs, 179. 
 
 Biluchs (or Baluchs), 184. 
 Brahui, 186. 
 Berduranis, 188. 
 Black Tribes, 217. 
 
 achievements of, 311, 
 Berber Tribes, 225. 
 
 population of, 242. 
 Barbarl Tribes, 226. 
 Busane Tribe, 229. 
 Braknas, 239. 
 Boran Tribe, 253. 
 Bertuma Tribe, 253. 
 Black Races of Uncertain Origin in 
 
 Eastern Africa, 254. 
 Barbara or Berberins of Nubia, 254. 
 
 physical type of, 254. 
 
 ancient Christian nations, 254. 
 
 origin doubtful, 256. 
 Bohrs, 257. 
 Bambarras, 266. 
 Bushmen, 276. 
 Bunda Tribe, 279, 281. 
 Barotse Tribe, 281. 
 Bayeye Tribe, 281. 
 Bashinjeh, 282. 
 Batokas, 285. 
 Bechuanas (or Bitshuanas), 285, 291. 
 
 Livingston's classification, 287. 
 
 tribes of, 287. 
 
 language of, 287. 
 Bolonda Tribe, 292. 
 Bashinj6 Tribe, 293. 
 Bangala Tribe, 293. 
 Babisa, 293, 
 Bambiri, 293. 
 Banyai, 293. 
 Bushmen, 302. 
 Black Races, 311. 
 
 achievement of, 311. 
 
 present position of, 312, 
 
 the future of, 313. 
 Bnlgarlo branch of Finnic races, 316, 349. 
 Bohemians or Tchechs, 342. 
 Bearnese, 374. 
 
 Bachman, Dr., Views of, 461. 
 Boucher de Perthes' Discoveries, 423. 
 Bones, Human, 429. 
 
 Chaldaeans, 50. 
 Cimmerians, 71. 
 China, Races of, 154. 
 China, Cochin, Races of, 154. 
 China, Races of. Uncertain Connection 
 •with other races, 154. 
 
 language of, 156. 
 
 no grammar, 156. 
 
 China, defects in the language of, 157. 
 
 aboriginal tribes, 158. 
 Caucasian Races, 195-198. 
 
 mixtures of languages of, 195. 
 Circassians, Beauty of, 196. 
 Caucasian Races, Divisions of, 198. 
 Circassians or Cberkessians, 198. 
 
 population of, 199, 200. 
 Chotos, 235. 
 Cachin Tribe, 238. 
 Chonkryeh Tribe, 240. 
 Chamitic Races, 246. 
 Corannas, 276. 
 Congo Language, 281. 
 Cossacks, 340. 
 Catalans, 370. 
 
 Cymric branch of Kelts, 374. 
 Cave Evidence (Antiquity of Man), 437. 
 Color, 461. 
 Change of Color, 463. 
 
 of type, 478. 
 Civilization, Effect on Features, 477. 
 Classification, Basis of, 24. 
 
 objection to, 24. 
 Correlating Features, 498. 
 Climate, not Sole Cause of Variation 
 
 500. 
 Climatic Influence, Exceptions to, 501. 
 Classification, Causes of Defects in, 505. 
 
 by language— superiority, 504. 
 
 objections, 507. 
 
 Dekkan Tribes, 139-142. 
 Dravidians, 139. 
 Daourians, 168. 
 Duranis, 187. 
 Dschelaly Race, 191. 
 Danakil Tribe, 233-235. 
 Darmankours, 239. 
 Dowiches, 239. 
 Dahomey Tribe, 272. 
 
 Jewish customs of, 273. 
 
 singular African custom, 273. 
 Damarcas Tribe, 283. 
 Doqqo Tribe, 309. 
 Danes, 379. 
 
 Dr. Draper, Views of, 462. 
 Degeneration, 472. 
 
 of London poor, 473. 
 
 of Portuguese, 474. 
 
 of Spaniards, 474. 
 
 of Arabians, 476. 
 
 of Irish, 477. 
 Drift-Period, 421. 
 
 man escaping from, 422. 
 Darwinian Theory, 499. 
 
 Egypt, Chronology of, 38. 
 
 growth of language, 39. 
 
 sources of evidence for Egyptian 
 chronology, 41. 
 
 chronology by ditt'erent authors, 44. 
 
 antiquity uncertain, 45. 
 European Races— primitive, 78. 
 
 physical type of, 80. 
 
 early superstitione of, 81. 
 Etruscans, 91. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 535 
 
 Etruscans, early abodes of, 91. 
 
 probably Indo-European, 92. 
 
 traits of, 362. 
 European Races in Charlemagne's era, 
 
 105. 
 Eastern Hindus or Bengals, 151. 
 Ensof-Ze, 188. 
 Ellahonyeh Tribe, 240. 
 Egyptian Races, Population of, 257. 
 Efik Tribe, 268. 
 Ebos (or Ibos) Tribe, 272. 
 English Race, 385. 
 
 mixtures of, 386. 
 
 Keltic elements of, 388. 
 
 Keltic names, 390. 
 
 Teutonic names, 390. 
 
 Scandinavian names, 391. 
 
 historical names, 392. 
 
 Norse worda, 393. 
 
 Norse resemblances, 393. 
 
 Norse customs, 394. 
 
 Scandinavian phrases, 395. 
 
 Norse slang words, 395. 
 
 Norse words in Scotland, 396. 
 
 physical race marks, 397. 
 
 qualities of blood, 398. 
 
 Blight Roman influence, 399. 
 Explanation of Color, 461. 
 Ethnology— Detinition of, 13. 
 
 French Numerals, 19. 
 Finns, 78, 83, 125. 
 
 modern, 314. 
 
 contrast of, 315. 
 Finnish Nations, 83. 
 Franks, 100. 
 Feili Tribe, 185. 
 Feejees, 219, 220. 
 Falashas, 236. 
 
 not Jews, 236. 
 Fellahs, 248. 
 
 probably very ancient, 249. 
 
 acclimation of, 250. 
 
 return to original type, 251. 
 Fellatah Tribe or Fulbe, 259. 
 
 a brown tribe, 260. 
 Fanti (or Ashanti) Tribe, 268, 270. 
 
 advancements of, 270. 
 Fingoes, 288. 
 
 Finnic Race, Division of, 816. 
 Finns, 316. 
 
 traits of, 817. 
 French, 371. 
 
 Keltic the principal race of, 371. 
 
 evidences of race, 372. 
 
 dififerent physical type, 373. 
 
 in the provinces, 375. 
 Flemish Races, 380. 
 Friesic Races, 380. 
 Fossil Man, Improbability of, 420. 
 Flint Implements of, 424, 
 
 geological position of, 424. 
 
 Lyell's account of, 425, 426. 
 
 Graeco- Italian Race, 73. 
 early migration, 73. 
 Goths, 98, 99. 
 
 Gonds, 143. 
 Gholdes, 168. 
 Ghiliaks, 168. 
 Georgian Races, 195. 
 
 beauty of, 19T. 
 
 population of, 199. 
 Guria, Tribes of, 197. 
 Grusians, 196. 
 Gurage Tribes, 235. 
 Gallas, 236, 238, 253. 
 Grebo Tribe, 268. 
 Griquas, 300. 
 Geghians, 350. 
 Greeks, 351. 
 
 degeneracy of, 351. 
 
 climate changed, 353. 
 
 modern, 353. 
 
 two races, 353. 
 
 Albanian, 353. 
 
 Slavonic influences on the, 358. 
 Genoese, 361. 
 Gaelic, 374. 
 German Races, 380. 
 
 low, 880. 
 
 early area, 381. 
 Gypsies, 186, 401. 
 
 Hindoo in race, 401. 
 
 low morality, 402. 
 
 tenacity of race, 402. 
 
 physique, 403. 
 
 language of, 404. 
 Guebres, Change of Type, 470. 
 
 Hamitio Race, 26, 27, 34, 246. 
 
 Asiatic origin of, 35. 
 
 their settlements, 37. 
 
 Chaldees, 46, 50, 61. 
 
 second empire, 47. 
 
 contributions to history, 50. 
 Hamite, Deflnition of, 246. 
 Hebrews, 55. 
 Hakas, 97. 
 Huns, 118. 
 
 uncertain origin, 118. 
 
 invasions of the, 119. 
 Hungri, 121. 
 Hiung-nu, 126. 
 Hill Tribes of India, 135, 137. 
 
 physique of, 136. 
 
 Turanian type of, 136. 
 
 diflfer entirely from Hindoos, 138. 
 
 evidences of Turanian origin, 138. 
 Hazaras, 169. 
 Haussa Tribes, 231. 
 
 empire of, 231. 
 
 probable Hamitic oi-igin, 232. 
 Hazzo Tribe, 233. 
 Hababd§8, 235. 
 Hillel Tribe, 238. 
 Hetsenat Tribe, 240. 
 Hottentots, 276, 300. 
 
 very ancient, 300. 
 
 origin of, 304. 
 Hamitic Negroes, 311., 
 Hordks, 343. 
 Hanaks, 343. 
 Hessians, 382. 
 
536 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Hair, 464. 
 Hybridity, 482. 
 
 Italian Numerals, 19. 
 Indo-European Baces, 27. 
 
 clasBifications, 60. 
 Indian, Migrations, 63. 
 Iranians, 63. 
 Iberians, 82. 
 
 Italian Peoples, Primitive, 93. 
 lapygians, 93, 
 Italicaiis, 93. 
 India, Races of, 135. 
 
 color not decisive of origin of, 152. 
 Iliyahs, 182, 184. 
 
 Arabian, 185. 
 
 Kurdish, 185. 
 Im6shagh Race, 226. 
 lolofs (or Wolofs), 259, 264. 
 Ibos (or Ebos) Tribes, 272. 
 Inhambane Tribes, 293. 
 Italians, 360. 
 
 Teutonic mixtures of, 360. 
 
 physique of, 360. 
 Irrelevant Topics (Unity or Diversity, 
 
 &c.), 441. 
 Inheritance, Principle of, 498. 
 
 Japan Races, 159. 
 
 physique of, 162. 
 
 Turanian peculiarities of 
 of, 162. 
 Jews, black, 242, 282. 
 Jews, 242. 
 Jinga Tribe, 293. 
 
 Kelts, 80, 85, 377. 
 
 first appearance of, 85. 
 
 distinguished for conquests, 8( 
 
 supposed migration of, 86. 
 
 early invasions of, 87. 
 
 Thierry's classification of, 87. 
 
 uncertainty about, 88. 
 
 physique of, 89. 
 
 arts of, 90. 
 Keltic Language, 91. 
 Khetas, 97. 
 Khazars, 119. 
 Komanes, 120. 
 Koles, 144. 
 
 Kanda (or Khonds), 14a 
 Karnata tribe, 144. 
 Kirantins, 146. 
 Khyengs, 148. 
 Karens, 148, 159. 
 Khamti, 148. 
 Kassia (Khyi), 148. 
 Khiang Tribe, 159. 
 Kalkas, 168. 
 Kalmucks, 169, 170. 
 Kamas, 173, 174. 
 Koibal, 173. 
 
 Kazan (Turks, Tartars), 176. 
 Kirgis, 177. 
 Kumiicks, 179. 
 Karakalpaks, 179. 
 Karashi (or (Jypsies), 186. 
 
 Keredji, 186. 
 Khyberis, 188. 
 Kurds, 188. 
 
 territory of the, 188, 
 
 features of the, 190. 
 Kabyls, 227, 239, 
 
 Teutonic peculiarities of the, 227. 
 
 varying physique of, 228, 
 Kelowi Tribe, 229. 
 Kanuri Tribe, 230. 
 Kushitic Races, 246. 
 Kopts, 247. 
 
 features correspond vrith old Egyp- 
 tians, 247. 
 
 creed of, 248. 
 Keks, 257. 
 Krus, 269. 
 
 advancement of, 270. 
 KoDgos, 279. 
 
 formerly Christian, 277. 
 Kaffirs, 288-294. 
 
 dialects of, 290. 
 
 remarkable migrations in Africa, 
 290. 
 Kasabi Tribe, 293. 
 Kasan Tribe, 293. 
 Kissamas Tribe, 293. 
 Kimbonda Tribe, 293. 
 Kroats, 342. 
 Kelts, 377. 
 
 two branches of, 377. 
 
 mixtures with Teutonic races, 378. 
 Kitchen Middings, 409. 
 
 Latin Numerals, 19. 
 
 Lithuanians, 63-114. 
 
 Laps, 83. 
 
 Latins, 93. 
 
 Lombards, 101. 
 
 Longobards, 102. 
 
 Low German, 108. 
 
 Lithuanians, Resistance to Christian- 
 ity of, 115. 
 language of, 116, 
 
 Lepcha, 146. 
 
 Laos, 148. 
 
 Lolos, 159. 
 
 Lamuts, 167. 
 
 Lazi Tribe, 197. 
 
 Lesghians, 198. 
 
 population of, 199, 200, 
 
 Libolo Tribe, 293. 
 
 Landiens, 293. 
 
 Lapps, 318. 
 
 European nomads, 318. 
 
 Language not proving Unity of Origin, 
 442. 
 
 Links of Connection between Lan- 
 guages, 445. 
 
 Law of Variation (Unity of Origin), 
 448. 
 
 Language, the best Mark of Race, 15, 
 508. 
 evidence from, 18. 
 ob.iections, 22, 508, 509. 
 
 Lake Dwellings, 411. 
 
 Lartet's Discoveries, 432. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 537 
 
 Magyars (modern), 321. 
 
 language of, 324. 
 
 type of, 470. 
 Mandgiouk (Turks), 325. 
 Maniotes (Greeks), 357. 
 Maragatos, 370. 
 
 Mongol — Instance of Growth in Lan- 
 guage (Unity of Origin), 446. 
 Mulattoes— Sterility of, 483. 
 
 BtatisticBof in Cuba, 484. 
 " in Mexico, 485. 
 
 " in Brazil, 485. 
 
 •weakness of — causes, 490. 
 Mixtures of Polynesians and Europeans, 
 485. 
 
 Philippines and Europeans, 486. 
 
 in Mexico — vocabulary of, 486. 
 Man ill tlie Drift-Period, 435. 
 
 fossil, 439, 440. 
 " cave evidence for, 437. 
 
 skulls of, 437. 
 
 Brixham, cave evidence for, 438. 
 
 destiny of, 512. 
 Medes, 50. 
 Magyars, 83-121. 
 Marsians, 94. 
 Magyars (ancient). Invasions of, 121. 
 
 tbeir vigor, 122. 
 Mongolians, 125, 126-132. 
 
 modern, 164-168. 
 
 conquests, 128. 
 
 in ninth century, 132. 
 
 empire, 233, 
 
 language, 134. 
 Mina or Mera Tribes, 140. 
 Malabars, 143. 
 Mishmis, 146. 
 Miris, 148. 
 Mandchus, 158. 
 Miiu Tsz, 159. 
 Manegrians, 168. 
 Mangounes, 168. 
 Mongols, Territory of, 268. 
 
 description of, 170. 
 
 growth of language of the, 172. 
 Mela Tribe, 191. 
 Mingrelia Tribe, 197. 
 Mizjeghi Tribe, 198. 
 
 population of, 199. 
 Malaisia Races, 207-211. 
 
 physique of, 212. 
 Melanesian Races, 207-216. 
 
 of one race, 220. 
 Micronesian Race, 208-214 
 
 physique of, 216. 
 
 arts of, 215. 
 Moys, 218. 
 Mazighs, 226. 
 Masai Tribe, 238. 
 Machil Tribe, 238. 
 Magdyeh Tribe, 240. 
 Mohiinimedeh Tribe, 240. 
 Moors, 244. 
 
 Semitic origin, 244. 
 
 mixed blood, 245. 
 Mandingoes, 259-264. 
 
 superiority, 265. 
 
 23* 
 
 Mpongwes Tribe, 278. 
 Makalala Tribe, 281. 
 Maschona Tribe, 281. 
 Musso-rongo Tribe, 281. 
 Munvanika Tribe, 265. 
 Makololo Tribe, 285. 
 Matabele Tribes, 290. 
 
 Nabathaeans, 49. 
 Nagas, 148. 
 Nogais, 179. 
 Nestorians, 192. 
 
 probably Aramaean, 193. 
 
 territory of, 193. 
 
 Dr. Grant's Theory 194. 
 Negritos, 217. 
 Negroes, Oriental, One Race of, 217. 
 
 probable connection with Asia, 
 218. 
 Nubians, Eastern, 251. 
 
 probably Hamitic, 252. 
 North Guinea, Tribes of, 258-267. 
 Namaquas, 276. 
 
 language of, 306. 
 Normans, 375. 
 Norwegians, 379. 
 Natural Selection, 450, 497, 499. 
 Old Slavonic, Numerals, 19. 
 Osmanlis, 127, 128. 
 Orotchones, 168. 
 Olot, 169. 
 Ostinks, 173. 
 Ostiako-Samoiedes, 174. 
 j Osmanlis, 180. 
 ( Ottoman Turks, 180, 
 Ossetians, 195, 196. 
 
 belonging to Aryan race, 196. 
 
 population of, 199. 
 Oceanic Ethnography, 206. 
 Oceanica, Races of, 206. 
 
 uncertainty of, 206. 
 
 general division of, 207. 
 
 tendency to new dialects, 223. 
 
 eflect of climate on, 224. 
 
 Asiatic origin, 224. 
 Ovampos, 283. 
 
 religion of, 284. 
 Ovumbantieru Tribe, 284. 
 Osmanli-Turks, 325. 
 
 changed type of, 326. 
 
 Portuguese Numerals, 19. 
 Persian, 19. 
 
 empire, 70. 
 Phoenicians, 70. 
 Parthians, 70. 
 Pclasgians, 72, 73, 74. 
 
 uncertainty about the, 73. 
 Pechenegs, 120. 
 Paharia, 141. 
 Persian R.^ce8, 182. 
 
 two divisions of, 182. 
 
 language, 183. 
 Polynesian Race, 207, 212. 
 
 history obtained from language of, 
 218. 
 Papuas, 219. 
 
538 
 
 rCTOEX. 
 
 Pangwes, 278. 
 
 Permio Branch of Finns, 316, 320. 
 
 Poles, or Lekhs, 342. 
 
 Palicares, 356. 
 
 Peat Deposits in Denmark, 408. 
 
 Pile Villages, 411. 
 
 population of, 414. 
 
 fauna and flora of, 418. 
 
 builders, era of, 420. 
 
 Quisamas Tribe, 279. 
 Quilimane Tribe, 293. 
 Quaens, 319. 
 
 Romanic or Latin Races, 358. 
 Race, the mysterious Power of, 14. 
 
 . grammar a token of, 20. 
 Race, Formation of a Black, 496. 
 Races, not permanent, 516. 
 
 mixed, in South America, 487. 
 " " Canada, 488. 
 " " Africa, 489. 
 " jigor of, 494. 
 " dying out, causes of, 490, 
 491, 492. 
 contact of, 493. 
 
 Spanish Numerals, 19. 
 Sanskrit " 19. 
 
 Scythian Empire of Babylonia, 31. 
 Bomitio Race, 27, 52, 70, 123. 
 
 achievements, 52, 56. 
 
 languages, 53. 
 Semites, first Historical Appearance, 
 54. 
 
 territory, 54. 
 
 African, 55. 
 
 traits, 58. 
 
 three religions, 59. 
 Scythians, 71, 72. 
 Samoieds, 83, 125. 
 
 modern, 164, 172. 
 Samnites, 94. 
 Sakas, 97. 
 
 Sakasonnas of Armenia, 97. 
 Sakasunas (Saxons), 97, 98, 100, 103. 
 Sueves, 98. 
 Scandinavian, 108. 
 Slavonians, 109. 
 
 their tenacity, 109. 
 
 ancient division of, 110. 
 Solavens, 110. 
 Slavonians, first historical account, 
 
 111. 
 Sclavens, 111. 
 Slaves, Western, 112. 
 Sclavens, Division of Dialects. 
 
 a peaceful race, 113. 
 
 traits of, 114. 
 Semites, Conquests of, 124. 
 
 uprising of the, 124. 
 
 art and science of, 125. 
 
 modern, 225. 
 Baura, 142. 
 Swamp Tribes, 147. 
 Siamese, 148. 
 Si-fan Tribe, 159. 
 
 Ssamghers, 168. 
 Sunid Tribe, 169. 
 Samoiedes, 172. 
 
 division of the, 173. 
 
 physique of, 174. 
 
 related to Finns, 174. 
 Schakaki Tribe, 191. 
 Selaly Tribe, 191. 
 Suans, 197. 
 Shulus, 227. 
 Semitic Negroes, 231. 
 
 races of Eastern Africa, 232. 
 
 Ethiopians, 232. 
 Saho Tribe, 235. 
 Somauli Tribe, 237. 
 
 tribe of, Semitic, 237. 
 Sennaar Tribes (probably Hamitic), 
 
 254. 
 Senegambia, races of, 259. 
 South Guinea, races of, 259, 276. 
 Susus, 268. 
 
 a low tribe, 268. 
 Sofala Tribe, 273. 
 Sooahelees, 297- 
 Saan Tribe, or Bushmen, 302. 
 
 artistic talents of, 303. 
 
 physique of, 305. 
 Semitic Negro, 311. 
 Sirianes, 320. 
 Slavonic Races, 334. 
 
 physical characteristics of, 344. 
 
 Pan Slavonism, 334. 
 
 Russian influences on, 335. 
 
 tenacity of, 336. 
 
 division of, 337. 
 
 South Eastern and Western, 337. 
 
 Great Russian, 338. 
 
 Little Russian, 339. 
 
 religion of, 344. 
 Servians, or Illyrians, 341. 
 Slovens, 342. 
 Slovaks, 343. 
 Spaniards, 365. 
 
 Latin elements of, 365. 
 Scandinavians, 379. 
 Swedes, 379. 
 Saxons, 382. 
 
 Slavonians in Germany, 383, 
 Skull, negro, 466. 
 
 " thickness of, 467. 
 " shape of, 470. 
 '* no fixed type, 471. 
 '♦ Prof. Huxley's views of, 
 472. 
 
 Turanian Races, Two Great Divisions, 
 26, 70, 78, 117, 125, 135. 164. 
 characteristics, 27. 
 migrations, 29. 
 supposed currents of population, 
 
 30. 
 no historical evidence, 30. 
 extent of family, 32. 
 uncertainty of classification of, 
 33. 
 Turanian tribes, modern, 196. 
 Teutonic Tribes, Early, 95. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 539 
 
 Teutonic Tribes, wanderings of, 95. 
 
 causes of migration of, 96. 
 Teutonic, earliest probable date of, 
 97. 
 
 first historical appearance, 98. 
 
 races in 3d century, 102. 
 ThuringiauB, 101. 
 Teutons in 5th Century, 104. 
 
 traits of, 105. 
 
 purity of morals of, 106. 
 
 influence on the world of, 108. 
 Turanian Race in Europe, 117. 
 
 invasions of in Europe, 118. 
 
 modern, 314. 
 Turkic Tribes, 120, 125, 126, 127. 
 Tungusians, 125, 164-166. 
 Turks, Origin of, 126. 
 Turkish Races, Modern, 175-179. 
 Turks of Siberia, 176. 
 Turkish Conquests, 128. 
 
 language, 129. 
 
 and Tartar, confusion of, 132. 
 
 dialects, 180. 
 Tamulic Races, 142. 
 
 tjTie, 142. 
 Tuluva Race, 142. 
 
 C Tamuls, 144. 
 Telinga / or Telugu Tribe, 144. 
 ( Tamulians, 144. 
 
 language, 145. 
 Tibetic Language, 147. 
 Tai Tribes, 148. 
 
 geographical position of, 148. 
 Tibetans, 164. 
 
 language of, 165. 
 Tungusic Area, 166. 
 Tungus of the Amour, 168. 
 Tshapodzhir, 168. 
 Tawgi Tribe, 173. 
 Turkomans, 178. 
 Tdjiks, 183. 
 
 Tartar Race, Population of, 199. 
 Tawareks, 227, 228. 
 
 black, 228. 
 
 division of, 229. 
 Tademekket Tribe, 229. 
 Tinylkum Tribe, 229. 
 Tibboo or Tebu Tribe, 233 
 Tigray Tribe, 233. 
 Taltals, 235. 
 Trarzas, 239. 
 Tschere, 257. 
 Torode Tribe, 262. 
 
 theories of origin of the, 263. 
 
 language of, 264-266. 
 Timanis Tribe, 268. 
 Tchudic Branch, 316. 
 Turks (Modern), 324. 
 
 European, 325. 
 
 governing power of, 328. 
 Tchechs, 343. 
 Toskian Tribes, 350. 
 Tuscanj', Races of, 361. 
 Teutonic Family, 379. 
 Thuringians, 382. 
 
 Teutonic and Keltic Races (Modem) 
 384. 
 
 Tschingani Race, 403. 
 
 Teutonic Race, Endurance of Climate. 
 
 481. 
 Umbrians, 93. 
 Ugrians, 121. 
 Ukuafi, 253. 
 Ugric iJranch, 316. 
 Ugrians, Branches of, 320. 
 Unity of Origin, 441. 
 
 irrelevant topics, 441. 
 
 language not proving, 442. 
 
 natural selection, 449. 
 
 phenomenon of sporting, 450. 
 
 formation of new varieties, 451. 
 Unity of Origin, Statement of the Ar- 
 gument for, 462. 
 
 probability of human variation, 
 453. 
 
 variation of animals, 454. 
 
 variation, instances of, 455. 
 
 variation from food, 458. 
 
 variation in animals of ona origin, 
 459. 
 
 gradations in human varieties, 
 460. 
 Unity, Argument for, 503. 
 
 L)r. Smyth's statement of, 504. 
 
 objections to, 494-5. 
 
 Volskians, 94. 
 
 Venedi, 115. 
 
 Vindhya Tribes, 139, 140. 
 
 Votiaks, 320. 
 
 Variation and Inheritance, 448 
 
 Variations in Skull, 466. 
 
 human, 453, 468. 
 
 in animals, 453. 
 
 in Indo-Europeans, 469. 
 
 of same race, 478. 
 
 in size and structure, 465. 
 
 in swine, 454. 
 
 In sheep, 455. 
 
 in goats and cattle, 456. 
 
 in horses, cats and dogs, 457. 
 
 from food in fowls, 458. 
 
 of animals of one origin, 459. 
 Variety, Formation of a New, 451. 
 Variation, Unexplainable, 50L 
 Varieties, Permanent, 502. 
 
 "Wallaohian Numerals, 19. 
 "Welsh, 19. 
 
 Wakamba Tribe, 294-298. 
 Wabembe Tribe, 294. 
 Wanikas Tribe, 294. 
 Wasumbar.is Tribe, 294. 
 Wakarima Tribe, 298. 
 "Wajiii Tribe, 299. 
 Wurundi Tribe, 299. 
 "Warori, 299. 
 Water-Poles, 343. 
 "Wends, 343. 
 "Wallachs, 343-358. 
 
 direct descendants of Romans, 
 358. 
 
 language of, 359. 
 "Wandering Races, 401. 
 
540 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Yuraks, 173. 
 Yenisei, 174. 
 Yakuts, 175. 
 Yezidis, 189, 190. 
 
 Dr. Grant's theory of the, 190. 
 . resemblance to ancient Assyriana, 
 190. 
 probably Persian, 191. 
 
 Tebu Tribe, 268-272. 
 
 Zouaves, 228. 
 
 Zulus, 288. 
 
 Zambesi, Tribes of, 293. 
 
 Zincali, f 
 
 Zingarl, i (Gypsies), 403. 
 
 Zigeuner, J 
 
 V 
 
I R.fo"^Q